,,the                                   
,,source ,,and ,,mode                   
,,of                                    
,,solar ,,energy                        
,,throughout ,,the ,,universe4          
,,by                        ,i4 ,w4     
,,heysinger1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d4             
,,illustrated4                          
,,philadelphia3                         
,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company4         
#ahie4                  ,,contents4     
,,page        ,introduction             
#g        ,,chapter ,i4                 
,statement of the ,problem of ,solar    
,energy                  #ag            
,,chapter ,,ii4        ,the             
,constitution and ,phenomena of the ,sun
                 #ci        ,,chapter   
,,iii4        ,the ,mode of ,solar      
,energy                                 
#gj        ,,chapter ,,iv4        ,the  
,source of ,solar ,energy               
#if        ,,chapter ,v4        ,the    
,distribution and ,conservation of      
,solar ,energy        #aci              

,,chapter ,,vi4        ,the ,phenomena  
of the ,stars                           
#afb        ,,chapter ,,vii4            
,temporary ,stars1 ,meteors1 and ,comets
                     #ahg               
,,chapter ,,viii4        ,the ,phenomena
 of ,comets                             
#baj        ,,chapter ,,ix4             
,interpretation of ,cometic ,phenomena  
#bbe        ,,chapter ,x4        ,the   
,resolvable ,nebul1 ,star-,clusters and 
,galaxies        #bcg        ,,chapter  
,,xi4        ,the ,gaseous ,nebul       
#bec        ,,chapter ,,xii4        ,the
 ,nebular ,hypothesis3 its ,basis and   
its ,difficulties   #bfh                
,,chapter ,,xiii4        ,the ,genesis  
of ,solar ,systems and ,galaxies        
#bhb        ,,chapter ,,xiv4        ,the
 ,mosaic ,cosmogony                     
#cjh        ,,chapter ,,xv4             
,conclusion4 ,the ,harmony of ,nature's 
,laws and      ,operations              
#cda        ,reference ,index of        
,authorities ,cited                     

#cdi        ,classified ,index of       
,subject-,matter                        
#cec                  ,,list ,,of       
,,illustrations4                        
,,page        ,figs4 #a to #h4 ,types   
from nature1 illustrating development   
of a solar system from the attenuated   
matter of               space           
,frontispiece4      ,fig4  #i4 ,a       
typical sun-spot                        
#eg      ,fig4 #aj4 ,structure of the   
sun1 analytical illustration of         
#fj      ,fig4 #aa4 ,electrical         
polarities of sun and planets           
#hb      ,fig4 #ab4 ,ideal view of the  
generation and transmission of          
planetary electricity                   
#hi      ,fig4 #ac4 ,the aurora         
borealis1 view of                       
#ia      ,fig4 #ad4 ,diffused brush     
discharge of an electrical machine      
#ia      ,fig4 #ae4 ,planetary          
generation and transmission of          
electrical               energy to the  
sun1 analytical illustration of         

#aja      ,fig4 #af4 ,gradual discharge 
of electricity from one conductor       
to another in a partial vacuum          
#ajc      ,fig4 #ag4 ,sudden electrical 
discharge through the atmosphere    #ajc
      ,fig4 #ah4 ,position of planets   
with reference to the generation        
of sun-spots2 maximum and minimum of    
electrical               action         
#ajh      ,fig4 #ai4 ,analysis of a     
typical sun-spot                        
#aab      ,fig4 #bj4 ,retardation of    
sun-spots in their travel across the    
solar face2 development to the rear and 
recession in               front        
#aad      ,figs4 #ba and #bb4 ,complex  
lines of planetary electrical action    
upon the sun produced by the inclination
 of the solar               axis to the 
plane of the ecliptic                   
#abj      ,figs4 #bc to #bi4 ,examples  
of electrical repulsion3 ,fig4 #a1      
similarly electrified pith-balls2 ,fig4 
#b1 the               electrical        
windmill2 ,fig4 #c1 repulsion of a      

flame2               ,fig4 #d1          
self-repulsion around a conductor2 ,fig4
 #e1               attraction between   
opposite and repulsion between          
similar electricities2 ,fig4 #f1 mutual 
repulsion               between similar 
electrospheres of the earth and         
the moon2 ,fig4 #g1 mutual repulsion    
between the                             
similar--electrospheres of sun and comet
              #abd      ,figs4 #cj to   
#cd4 ,spectra of solar light1           
incandescent sodium               and   
calcium1 and the absorption and         
bright-line               spectra of    
hydrogen gas                            
#aee      ,figs4 #ce to #cg4 ,reversal  
and neutralization of spectroscopic     
lines of hydrogen in the light of a     
variable star               like        
,betelgeuse                             
#afj      ,fig4 #ch4 ,a double-sun      
nebula in process of development into   
a solar system                          
#afd      ,fig4 #ci4 ,double stars with 

complementary colors1                   
interpretation of the phenomena of      
#afg      ,fig4 #dj4 ,a solar system    
which would explain the regular         
variability of the star ,mira           
#agh      ,fig4 #da4 ,lineal nebula in  
,sobieski's ,crown which has been       
affected by currents in the ocean of    
space            #ahi      ,figs4 #db to
 #de4 ,four stages in the phenomena of a
 new or               temporary star1 a 
star in flames2 reversal of the         
hydrogen lines in its spectrum          
#aif      ,figs4 #df and #dg4           
,illustration of repulsion of the tail  
of a               comet by the         
similarly electrified solar             
electrosphere2 comparison with similar  
repulsion in               a            
vacuum-chamber experiment               
#baa      ,figs4 #dh and #di4 ,the      
electroscope1 and mutual electrical     
repulsion in a bundle of dry straws     
#bbe      ,fig4 #ej4 ,experiment with a 
candle and currents of air from         

between two disks1 illustrating the     
radial               semi-rotation of a 
comet's tail during perihelion     #bcj 
,figs4 #ea to #ed4 ,four non-systemic   
gaseous nebul3 ,fig4 #a1                
crab nebula2 ,fig4 #b1 dumb-bell nebula2
 ,fig4 #c1 lineal               nebula  
in ,sobieski's ,crown2 ,fig4 #d1        
,catherine-wheel               nebula4  
,the latter illustrates the formation of
 a               planetary nebula with a
 hollow center1 or else                 
dispersion into the elements of space   
again           #bfc      ,fig4 #ee4    
,great spiral nebula in ,canes ,venatici
 and a small               adjacent     
nebula affected thereby                 
#bgc      ,figs4 #ef to #ei4 ,four      
gaseous nebul in process of development 
into solar systems3 ,fig4 #a1 divergent 
spiral2 ,fig4 #b1               later   
stage of a similar spiral2 ,fig4 #c1    
subsequent               stage of       
rupture of the nearly circular          
convolutions               of a similar 

nebula2 ,fig4 #d1 the same stage in the 
development of a solar system with a    
double sun        #bgi      ,fig4 #fj4  
,nucleated planetary nebula1 showing its
 external ring               split and  
held apart1 in part of its              
circumference1               by         
electrical repulsion                    
#bhh      ,fig4 #fa4 ,divergent spiral  
nebula on cover of book4                
,,introduction4      ,this work is not  
presented to the reader as a treatise on
 astronomy1  although the different     
phenomena pertaining to that splendid   
science  are reviewed with some detail1 
and the established facts bearing  upon 
the subjects discussed are briefly cited
 in the very words of  the great writers
 upon whose authority they rest4 ,a     
considerable  experience in chemistry1  
electricity1 and the other allied       
physical  sciences long since convinced 
the author of this work that some       
simple and uniform principle must       
control the production of the  physical 

phenomena of astronomy1--some general   
law capable of being  extended in its   
application to the widest1 as well as   
applied to the  narrowest1 limits of    
that science4 ,knowing the absolute     
certainty of  a magnetic and electrical 
connection between the sun and the      
earth1  as evidenced by the reflected   
energy of sun-spots1 auroras1 etc41  and
 that no known cause except electricity 
could account for some1  at least1 of   
the cometic phenomena1 it seemed that   
any comprehensive  law must at all      
events include this mode of energy as an
 effective  cause1 and that if the law  
be uniform in its application1 it must  
equally exclude all others which may be 
either antagonistic or not  necessary4  
,a careful investigation was therefore  
made of those  less generally known     
principles concerned in the generation  
and  transformations of electrical      
energy1 in order to determine the       
sufficiency or insufficiency of this    
agency in the grander operations  of    

nature 7for1 of course1 mere currents of
 electricity could play no  part in     
these phenomena71 with the result that  
every line of research  led irresistibly
 to the conclusions presented in this   
work4 ,these  investigations1           
specifically directed1 at first1 to the 
source and mode  of the solar energy of 
our own system alone1 were found to be  
equally  applicable to others1 and were 
successively extended to the whole      
sidereal1 nebular1 and cometic field1   
and finally to space itself1  for all   
the phenomena of which it seemed to     
furnish an adequate  and harmonious     
interpretation4 ,the fact1 when once    
demonstrated1  that the true source of  
solar energy is not to be found in the  
sun  itself1 but in the potential energy
 of space1 served as a guiding          
principle1 and1 by its continuously     
extended application1 was found  to     
cover perfectly the source and mode of  
all solar energy4 ,every  step of the   
investigation has been based on the     

established facts  of science and the   
observations of eminent astronomers as  
laid down  by the best authorities2 and 
the quotations herein made from their   
works are full and fair1 and are        
properly credited in every case1  and   
taken from books easily accessible to   
the general reader4 ,it is  hoped that  
further attention may be directed to    
this field of research  by far more     
capable investigators than the author of
 this work1 so  that systematic         
astronomy may no longer bear the        
reproach that it is  largely an         
empirical science1 but that it may      
henceforth be based  upon rational and  
comprehensive principles1 capable of    
universal  extension and of general     
scientific application4    ,the         
authorities cited in this work include  
many illustrious names3  ,proctor1      
,tyndall1 ,helmholtz1 ,langley1         
,huggins1 ,newcomb1 ,young1             
,flammarion1 ,balfour ,stewart1 ,r4     
,kalley ,miller1 ,herschel1 ,nichol1    

,lord ,rosse1 ,urbanitsky1 ,crookes1    
,fraunhofer1 ,ball1 and many others1    
all of whom are known throughout the    
world as among the master minds  of     
science4 ,from them we have drawn the   
rich stores of knowledge  of the        
phenomena with which this work deals1   
and which we have so  fully and freely  
cited1 as the basis of the splendid     
superstructure  which astronomy to-day  
reveals4 ,no one will venture to        
controvert the  statements of fact made 
by these eminent men1 and1 where        
conflict of  opinion has arisen among   
them1 we have quoted all parties1 so    
that  the reader can form his own       
conclusion1 in each case1 for himself4  
,so  diverse1 apparently1 are the       
phenomena reviewed that they present    
the aspect of a great picture-gallery1  
in which the paintings totally  differ  
from each other in subject1 in          
treatment1 and in origin1 their  only   
common qualities being those of grandeur
 and fidelity to truth  and to the      

principles of art4 ,but they are not    
merely paintings1 they  are the moving  
panorama of creation1 and1 diverse as   
they may appear1  they will be found to 
show the same handling1 which reveals   
the same  universal artist2 they have1  
in truth1 a common mode of development  
and  a common principle of construction1
 obscure as these may seem to be4       
,for thousands of years ,natural        
,history1 so called1 was studied and    
taught2 zology was a well-known science 
far back in old historic  times4 ,but it
 was left for modern biological research
 to turn  from these fixed and          
fully-developed forms of life1 and go   
back to  trace their primal development 
through what is now the science of      
embryology1 and thus we have learned    
that nature traverses the same  paths in
 forming a man as in producing a frog or
 a bird4 ,the process  is carried       
further along in one case than in       
another1 but the lines  of development  
are almost identical2 and the tracing   

out of these  common lines and their    
subsequent divergencies has shed a flood
 of new  light upon these dark and      
hitherto unknown places1 so that we are 
now  fairly on the true highway of      
physical life at last4 ,when adult forms
  were alone compared1 animal with      
animal1 no common ground of origin  or  
development could be discerned2 nature  
was believed to work by  special        
creations1 and vast cataclysms were     
devised to utterly  destroy the organic 
life of one terrestrial epoch after     
another1  leaving a few hardy accidental
 survivors1 or types1 perchance1  to    
trace back their lines of descent beyond
 such periods of cyclical  destruction4 
,all this is now changed1 and these     
views1 so recently held  and taught1    
have been abandoned forever1 and        
continuously operative  natural         
processes of development1 modified by   
environment and heredity1  have taken   
their place1 and biology now has a      
future as well as a  past4 ,and so it   

must be with the less complex1 but far  
more extended1  creations and           
transformations in the vast fields of   
astronomical  science with which this   
book is concerned4 ,hitherto we have    
here1  too1 dealt with special creations
 and cataclysms2 henceforth we  must    
follow the uniform and eternal laws of  
progressive development4    ,among the  
multitude of hitherto unsolved problems 
of astronomy we may  enumerate the      
following3 ,why sun-spots travel faster 
around the sun  when near his equator   
than when more distant from it4 ,the    
physical  causes of sun-spots1 facul1   
and solar prominences4 ,why the number  
and  size of sun-spots seem to affect   
terrestrial magnetism4 ,the rational    
interpretation of the eleven-year and   
the long sun-spot cycles4 ,the  origin  
of the aurora borealis4 ,the causes of  
the periodicity of  regularly variable  
stars4 ,how to explain1 in accordance   
with the  nebular hypothesis1 why ,algol
 and its companion1 which are not       

greatly different in mass and volume1   
and both obviously gaseous1  should so  
differ in character1 one being a bright 
sun and the other  a dark planet4       
,whether there are great1 compact1 but  
dark bodies1  comparable to suns and    
planets in magnitude1 and unconnected   
with  any solar system1 floating about  
in space4 ,why double and multiple      
stars are so frequently of contrasted or
 complementary colors4 ,why  regularly  
variable stars are longer in decline    
than in growth of  brilliancy1 since    
such decline is no criterion of loss of 
heat1  but rather the reverse4 ,why the 
sun and fixed stars have atmospheres    
largely composed of free hydrogen1 and  
the planets have atmospheres  of free   
oxygen and nitrogen4 ,why a small and   
sometimes even scarcely  visible star   
occasionally is seen to suddenly blaze  
up1 in a few  hours1 to hundreds of     
times its normal brilliancy1 and then   
far more  gradually fade1 through months
 and years1 back to its former state1   

in which thenceforth it continues to    
maintain its original lustre4 ,why      
comets1 when they have tails1 always    
project these appendages radially  from 
the direction of the sun4 ,how to       
account for the presence of  cyanogen1  
and how for the absence of oxygen and   
the constant presence  of hydrocarbon   
vapors around the nuclei of comets4 ,why
 some comets  split up into separate    
comets and others sometimes show        
multiple  tails4 ,why comets1 when they 
pass around and behind the sun1 in  some
 cases reappear shorn of their splendor 
and in other cases with  their splendor 
greatly enhanced4 ,whence comets are    
derived1 where  is their permanent      
abiding-place1 and how did they         
originally reach  those distant regions 
which they occupy before entering our   
system1  if merely the dbris left behind
 from contraction of the mass of plasma 
out of which our solar system is        
supposed to have been formed4 ,why so   
many of the irresolvable nebul present  

the appearance of divergent  spirals of 
many different forms4 ,how to account   
for the annular nebul  with hollow      
centers and for those                   
partially-completed planetary nebul1  so
 called1 which afterwards appear to     
retrograde into diffused gaseous  nebul 
again or gradually disappear4 ,what is  
the ultimate constitution  of           
interstellar space8 ,have the fixed     
stars planetary systems like  our own1  
or not8 ,must they have such1 or merely 
may they have8 ,what  principle of      
conservation of energy is it possible to
 apply to the  vast quantities of light 
and heat which constantly disappear in  
the interstellar realms of space8 ,how  
to account for this enormous  emission  
of solar energy during the long period  
of time requisite for  the development  
of the earth during its past geological 
ages4 ,how to  explain why the moon     
always presents the same face to the    
earth4 ,why1  if the law of gravity     
prevails there1 there are no visible    

traces of  atmosphere or moisture in the
 moon4 ,what is the basic principle on  
which depends the ratio of mean         
planetary distances1 #j1 #c1 #f1 #ab1   
#bd1  etc41 always plus #d8 ,what is the
 origin of the planetary satellites  and
 the cause of their irregular           
distribution1 and what the origin  of   
,saturn's rings8 ,how was the belt of   
asteroids formed between  ,mars and     
,jupiter8 ,why is the orbit of ,neptune 
relatively compressed  against that of  
,uranus8 ,why is the mass of ,neptune   
out of its proper  proportion compared  
with those of ,jupiter1 ,saturn1        
,uranus1 and ,neptune  in a diminishing 
series8 ,what is the rational           
interpretation and what  the origin of  
the sun's corona and the cause of the   
coronal streamers8    ,there are many   
other problems equally difficult which  
are  encountered in the study of this   
noble science1 but the above are  surely
 sufficiently striking4 ,any complete   
interpretation of these  various        

phenomena1 even singly1 would seem to be
 an important step in  advance2 then how
 much more so if the explanation of one 
and all of  these is to be found in a   
single1 all-embracing cause1 a few      
simple  and uniformly operative         
principles1 as unquestionably operative 
here  as in the other fields of science 
to which they pertain1 and which1  once 
thoroughly comprehended and rigidly     
applied1 will be found to  elucidate all
 the multifarious phenomena of sidereal 
space so clearly  and precisely that any
 intelligent observer and reasoner can  
determine  each question finally for    
himself1 and solve not only these1 but  
all  the other astronomical problems and
 paradoxes which have from time to  time
 arisen8 ,it is not to be understood    
that this sublime science and  these    
illimitable realms are to be laid off   
with the metes and bounds  of a farmer's
 meadow1 for all the lines of the       
different sciences are  linked together 
at a thousand points1 but that the      

operative principles  which nature      
constantly employs once firmly grasped1 
the intricacy of  each series of        
phenomena encountered will become       
gradually lessened1  link by link1 as   
observations and deductions are more    
closely and  rationally made along these
 well-established lines of research1    
instead of here and there1 empirically1 
and at hap-hazard1 as has been  the only
 method hitherto possible to pursue4    
,when the relatively few  fixed         
principles which control the operations 
of nature in the field  of astronomy are
 thoroughly comprehended1 for on this   
vast panorama  she lays her colors with 
a heavy brush1 we can study her         
phenomena  and interpret her processes  
even more readily than the kindred      
sciences have enabled us to do in the   
adjacent fields of biology1  wherein the
 splendid achievements of less than a   
quarter of a century  past have not only
 aroused the interest and enthusiasm of 
the world1  but already point the way to

 still grander triumphs yet to come4    
,,the ,,source ,,and ,,mode ,,of ,,solar
 ,,energy4      ,,chapter ,i4           
,,statement ,,of ,,the ,,problem ,,of   
,,solar ,,energy4      ,in endeavoring  
to present a new and rational           
interpretation of  the source and mode  
of solar energy1 based upon the         
established  principles of recent       
science1 it becomes necessary to briefly
 cite  the facts bearing upon the       
problem to be solved and the authorities
  for their support1 as well as to      
describe concisely the different        
hypotheses at present in vogue1 and to  
point out the well-established          
insufficiency of these theories1 one and
 all1 to account for or explain  the    
difficulties encountered1 and which so  
far have remained as an  unsolved       
enigma4 ,and this problem of solar      
energy is the grandest and  most        
important question of all physics1 for  
upon the light and heat  of the sun     
depend all physical life and its        

consequences1 animal  and vegetable1    
past1 present1 and future4 ,if within   
finite time1  and relatively1 compared  
with the enormous vistas of the past1 a 
very  brief time1 this source of energy 
is to cease1 and our whole system  be   
involved in darkness and death1 such    
darkness and death must be  eternal2 for
 the dead sun in his final stage of     
condensation will be  as fixed and      
unchangeable as the operation of eternal
 laws can make  it1 and henceforth there
 can be no revival or reversals1 no     
turning  back of the hand upon the dial1
 while the laws of nature continue2  and
 outside the uniform operation of the   
laws of nature there is no  source1 or  
mode1 or continuance of solar energy    
conceivable4 ,it is true  that when our 
system shall have ran down to its       
culmination in death1  other present    
systems may continue for a time to exist
 and new ones  spring into being2 but   
these1 too1 must inevitably follow the  
same  course1 and likewise end in       

eternal darkness1 until finally the     
great  experiment of creation shall have
 ended in eternal failure4 ,the changes 
we see in progress around us1 however1  
are not of this nature4 ,the  individual
 dies1 but the forces which gave life   
and strength to the  race persist1 and  
others will take his place1 and the same
 forces will  continue to operate with  
constant renewals1 since we draw our    
light  and heat and life from without2  
but in the death of suns and their      
attendant planets there is no analogous 
process1 for such suns are  constantly  
expending their enormous energies in the
 support of life  external to           
themselves1 and only the smallest part  
of this energy1  even1 can ever be      
utilized by themselves or by other suns 
or planets  under any mode of           
interpretation now in vogue1 the        
boundless realms  of so-called inert and
 empty space receiving the same         
proportionate  quota of light and heat  
as the almost microscopic points in the 

sky  which constitute the suns and      
systems we see1 and practically all1  or
 nearly all1 of this enormous energy is 
an absolute dead waste2 so  that whether
 receiving new supplies from a constant 
rain of adjacent  meteor streams1 or    
from the gradual contraction of the     
solar volume1  the vast realms of space 
are the useless recipients of what can  
never  return to the sun again1 and1 of 
course1 in such case the inevitable  end
 can be predicted2 for contraction of   
volume1 with a given mass1  must have an
 effective limit1 and meteoric          
aggregation must also find  an effective
 limit1 if the planets are not to be    
thrown out of place  as they continue to
 revolve around the sun4    ,all        
accepted theories begin with a          
primordial impulse1 the energies  of    
which are of necessity constantly       
frittered away and wasted1  until       
finally all light and heat and life must
 cease to exist1  and that at a stage in
 which no further impulse can ever be   

given1  since the whole universe will   
have passed through every possible      
stage of degradation down to the final  
one of universal and eternal  death4    
,and yet this is the best that science  
has to suggest2 the only  comfort       
offered us is that it will not happen in
 our time1 and so1  after us the deluge4
 ,the nebular hypothesis1 so called1 of 
,laplace1  has required much            
modification1 in the light of more      
recent science1  but the essential      
principles of this theory are still     
generally  accepted1 for they fairly    
well account for the primal connection  
of  the sun and planets1 and the        
position of the central sun within1     
with the orbital and rotational         
planetary movements1 as no other  theory
 has yet done4 ,by this theory the      
limits of our solar system  were once   
occupied by an attenuated gaseous nebula
 containing within  itself all the      
matter which now forms our solar system4
 ,this great  nebular mass1 primordially

 assumed1 was given by gravity a slow   
but  gradually increasing rotation upon 
its center2 the force of gravity  acted 
more strongly upon this rotating body as
 it contracted1 so  that rings of       
nebulous matter were successively thrown
 off1 which  coalesced into single      
masses and these finally into planets4  
,these  planetary globes themselves1 as 
they coalesced and contracted1 left     
behind or threw off rings of their outer
 matter1 which1 in turn1  became moons1 
and finally our solar system with its   
central sun was  evolved as we now see  
it2 development continued1 the planets  
cooled  and condensed1 life appeared    
when the conditions became suitable1    
and the original progressive            
condensation of the central mass--the   
sun--still continuing1 the evolution of 
light and heat continues1  and will     
continue in a correlative degree4 ,as   
our moon has passed1  apparently1 beyond
 the stage of life1 and is cold1        
airless1 waterless1  and dead1 so will  

the earth pass2 and the larger planets1 
such as  ,jupiter and ,saturn1 which    
have not yet reached the life stage of  
condensation1 are still hot1 but they1  
too1 will pass through the  present     
stage of the earth1 then through that in
 which the moon now  is2 and the central
 sun1 still glowing1 but more and more  
dimly1 will  itself pass through the    
stages in which ,jupiter and ,saturn now
 are1  then through that of our present 
earth1 and finally into that of the     
moon1 long before which time the        
emission of all light and heat will     
have ceased from the sun to its         
encircling planets1 and finally the  sun
 itself will sink into eternal          
frigidity1 and all its store of  light  
and heat will have been dissipated into 
boundless space1 and  the possibility of
 anything resembling what we know as    
life will have  been forever            
extinguished4 ,in considering the       
question of the sun's  energy1 the      
author of the article ,sun1 in          

,appleton's ,cyclopdia1  says1 ,how to  
account for the supply of the prodigious
 amount of heat  constantly radiated    
from the solar surface has offered a    
boundless  field of hypothesis4 ,one    
conjecture is that the sun is now giving
  off the heat imparted to it at its    
creation1 and that it is gradually      
cooling down 7#a74 ,another ascribed it 
to combustion 7#b71 and a third  to     
currents of electricity 7#c74 ,newton   
and ,buffon conjectured that  comets    
might be the aliment of the sun 7#d72   
and of late years a  somewhat similar   
theory 7first broached by ,mr4          
,waterston in #ahec7  has been in       
vogue1--viz41 that a stream of meteoric 
matter constantly  pouring into the sun 
from the regions of space supplies its  
heat1  by the conversion into it of the 
arrested motion 7#e74 ,as the sun may1  
indeed1 derive a small amount of heat   
from this cause1 it deserves more       
attention than previous conjectures4    
,but conjecture and hypothesis  may be  

said to have given place to views which 
claim a higher title1  as it is now     
becoming generally recognized1 in       
accordance with modern  physical        
theories of heat1 that in the           
gravitation of the sun's mass  toward   
its center1 and in its consequent       
condensation1 sufficient  heat must be  
evolved to supply the present radiation1
 enormous as this  undoubtedly is4 ,it  
appears to be susceptible of full       
demonstration that  a contraction of the
 sun's volume of a given definite       
amount1 which  is yet so slight as to be
 invisible to the most powerful         
telescope1  is competent to furnish a   
heat-supply equal to all that can have  
been  emitted during historical periods4
 ,according to this theory1 then  7which
 is largely due to the development by   
,helmholtz of ,mayer's  great           
generalization71 the sun's mass remains 
unaltered1 and its  temperature nearly  
constant1 while its size is slowly      
diminishing as  it contracts2 so slowly1

 however1 that the supply may be        
reckoned on  through periods almost     
infinite as measured by the known past  
of our  race1 and which are in any case 
to be counted by millions of years      
7#f74 ,to these must be added the       
hypothesis of ,dr4 ,siemens1 fully      
described in ,professor ,proctor's      
,mysteries of ,time and ,space4 ,this   
ingenious theory1 in brief1 is that the 
rotation of the sun on its axis  causes 
a suction in the manner of a fan1 at the
 poles1 and a tangential  projection1 at
 the equator1 of a disk-like stream of  
gaseous matter  into space4 ,the light  
and heat of the sun1 dispersed through  
space1  slowly but continuously act upon
 the compound gases with which space  is
 universally pervaded to disassociate   
them into their elements4 ,the          
disassociated gases thus sucked in at   
the solar poles at an extremely  low    
temperature are brought into a state of 
combustion by friction  and             
condensation1 thus generating new       

supplies of light and heat1 and  the    
gases thus reunited by combustion are   
again projected into space1  to be again
 slowly disassociated by the operation  
of the sun's light  and heat4 ,the      
result of this combustion is to form    
aqueous vapor and  carbonic acid and    
carbonic oxide1 and these gases1 when   
disassociated  in space1 are resolved   
into carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen1 which
 again  and again are thus recombined   
and again and again decomposed as they  
pass over the sun's surface 7#g74       
,the seven hypotheses above described   
are the only ones now in vogue1  and a  
brief analysis will show that no single 
one of them1 nor all  combined1 will    
give sufficient results to account for  
the essential  difficulties or known    
conditions of the problem4 ,the first   
and second  hypotheses are answered by  
the fact set forth by ,helmholtz        
7,popular  ,scientific ,lectures1       
article ,on the ,origin of the          
,planetary ,system71  that1 if the mass 

of the sun were composed of the two     
elements capable  by combination of     
producing the greatest possible light   
and heat1--to  wit1 hydrogen and oxygen 
in the proportions in which they unite  
to  form water1--calculation shows that 
under the above supposition the  heat   
resulting from their combustion would be
 sufficient to keep up  the radiation of
 heat from the sun three thousand and   
twenty-one  years4 ,that1 it is true1 is
 a long time1 but even profane history  
teaches that the sun has lighted and    
warmed us for three thousand  years1 and
 geology puts it beyond doubt that this 
period must be  extended to millions of 
years4    ,the third hypothesis relates 
to currents of electricity4 ,we have no 
knowledge of currents of electricity    
which could produce1 however  multiplied
 or intensified1 such light and heat as 
are constantly  poured forth from the   
sun into all space4 ,that electricity is
 the  intermediate cause of our sun's   
energy1 and of all solar energy1 it  is 

the purpose of this work to demonstrate1
 but not electric currents1  which find 
their attractiveness to theorists in the
 vague suggestion of  which ,professor  
,proctor speaks1 referring to comets1 in
 his article on  ,cometic ,mysteries1   
that perhaps this is an electrical      
phenomenon2  perhaps that other feature 
is electrical1 too2 perhaps all or most 
of the phenomena of comets depend on    
electricity4 ,but he adds1 ,it  is so   
easy to make such suggestions1 so       
difficult to obtain evidence  in their  
favor having the slightest scientific   
value4 ,still1 ,i hold  the electrical  
idea to be well worth careful study4    
,whatever credit  may hereafter be given
 to any electrical theory of comets will
 be  solely and entirely due to those   
who may help to establish it upon  a    
basis of sound evidence1--none whatever 
to the mere suggestion1  which has been 
made time and again since it was first  
advanced by  ,fontanelle4 ,it will be   
seen that the present work1 in          

demonstrating  the true source and mode 
of solar energy1 in itself presents a   
full  and sufficient explanation of all 
the cometic mysteries referred to1  as  
well as all those pertaining to other   
solar systems in space1 and  the        
multifarious phenomena which they       
present4 ,indeed1 the philosophic  mind 
will not be satisfied with the          
sufficiency of any hypothesis  which    
will not unlock the mysteries and       
clearly explain the phenomena  of other 
systems1--of comets1 variable and       
temporary stars1 double  stars1 and all 
the complicated celestial economy which 
to the eye  of the mere observer        
presents a bewildering scene of the     
operation  of independent and           
inscrutable forces4 ,the fifth          
hypothesis cited1  that of meteoric     
impact1 doubtless plays a part1 as we   
know from the  generation of light and  
heat by the constant passage of similar 
bodies  through our own atmosphere4 ,and
 we know1 of course1 that the sun1 by   

its vastly-increased attraction1 must be
 subjected to the constant  impact of   
such meteoric bodies in enormous        
numbers4 ,but the fatal  defect in the  
theory is that such impacts1 to produce 
the radiant  energy of the sun1 must    
constantly add to its mass in like      
proportion1  and as the motions and     
distances of the planets in their orbits
 are  regulated and preserved by virtue 
of the substantially constant mass  of  
the sun1 any progressive and            
considerable increase in its mass must  
constantly bring the planets nearer and 
nearer1 and thus increase  their orbital
 velocity4 ,helmholtz quotes from ,sir  
,william ,thomson's  investigation1     
that1 assuming it to hold1 the mass of  
the sun should  increase so rapidly that
 the consequences would have shown      
themselves  in the accelerated motion of
 the planets4 ,the entire loss of heat  
from  the sun cannot1 at all events1 be 
produced in this way2 at the most a     
portion1 which1 however1 may not be     

inconsiderable4 ,r4 ,kalley ,miller1  in
 ,the ,romance of ,astronomy1 says1 ,but
 more recent observations  have led ,sir
 ,william ,thomson to a modification of 
his theory4 ,he  has calculated that if 
the meteoric shower were sufficiently   
heavy  to make up for the sun's whole   
expenditure of heat1 the matter  of the 
corona must be so dense as seriously to 
perturb the orbits  of certain comets   
which pass very close to his surface1--a
 result  which is found not to be the   
case4 ,but the meteoric theory is only  
thrown back a step4 ,if the sun's mass  
were originally formed1 as is  not at   
all improbable1 by the agglomeration of 
these particles1 ,sir  ,william ,thomson
 has calculated that the heat generated 
by their thus  falling together would be
 sufficient to account for a supply of  
twenty  million years of solar heat at  
the present rate of emission4 ,and thus1
  though the meteors are not sufficient 
to maintain the energy of our  system   
unimpaired1 they may yet have been the  

original storehouse  from which all that
 energy was derived4444 ,but if the     
economy of our  system be spared long   
enough1 the day must come when the sun  
with age  has become wan2 when the      
matter of the corona has all been drawn 
in  and used up without avail2 when the 
lavish luxuriance with which he  has    
showered abroad his light and heat has  
finally exhausted all his  stores4 ,he  
has still power1 aided by the resisting 
medium1 to drag his  satellites one by  
one down upon his surface2 and the shock
 of each  successive impact will1 for a 
brief period1 give him a fresh tenure   
of life4 ,when the earth crashes into   
the sun it will supply him with  a store
 of heat for nearly a century1 while    
,jupiter's large mass will  extend the  
period by nearly thirty thousand years4 
,but when the last  of the planets is   
swallowed up1 the sun's energies will   
rapidly die  out and a deep and deathly 
gloom gather about nature's grave4      
,looking  into the ages of a future     

eternity1 we can see nothing but a cold 
and burnt-out mass remaining of that    
glorious orb which went forth  in the   
morning of time1 joyful as a bridegroom 
from his chamber1  and rejoicing as a   
strong man to run a race4    ,the sixth 
hypothesis is that to which most        
credence is now given4 ,it  is that of  
evolution of energy by condensation of  
volume4 ,professor  ,proctor 7,the ,sun 
as a ,perpetual ,machine7 says1 ,in     
company with this  great mystery of     
seeming waste comes the yet more        
difficult problem1  how to explain the  
apparent continuance of solar light and 
heat during  millions of years4 ,we know
 from the results of geological research
  that the earth has been exposed to the
 action of the solar rays with  their   
present activity during at least a      
hundred million years4 ,yet it  is      
difficult to see how1 on any hypothesis 
of the generation of solar  heat1 or by 
combining together all possible modes of
 heat generation1  a supply for more    

than twenty millions of years in the    
past and a  possible supply for as long 
a period in the future can be accounted 
for4 ,of these vast periods of          
terrestrial existence in the past we    
quote the following from a recent       
publication3    ,professor ,c4 ,d4      
,wolcott expresses the opinion that     
geologic time  is not to be measured by 
hundreds of years1 but simply by tens of
  millions4 ,this is widely different   
from the conclusion arrived at  by ,sir 
,charles ,lyell1 who1 basing his        
estimate on modifications of  certain   
specimens of marine life1 assigned      
#bdj1jjj1jjj years as the  required     
geological period2 ,darwin claimed      
#bjj1jjj1jjj years2 ,crowell1  about    
#gb1jjj1jjj2 ,geike1 from #gc1jjj1jjj   
upward2 ,mc,gee1 ,upham1 and  other     
recent authorities claim from           
#ajj1jjj1jjj up to #fhj1jjj1jjj4        
,helmholtz 7,on the ,origin of the      
,planetary ,system7 says1 ,it is        
probable rather that a great part of    

this heat1 which was produced by        
condensation1 began to radiate into     
space before this condensation  was     
complete4 ,but the heat which the sun   
could have previously  developed by its 
condensation would have been sufficient 
to cover  its present expenditure for   
not less than #bb1jjj1jjj of years of   
the  past4444 ,we may therefore assume  
with great probability that the sun     
will still continue in its condensation1
 even if it only attained the  density  
of the earth1 though it will probably   
become far denser in  its interior1     
owing to its far greater pressure2 this 
would develop  fresh quantities of heat1
 which would be sufficient to maintain  
for  an additional #ag1jjj1jjj of years 
the same intensity of sunshine  as that 
which is now the source of all          
terrestrial life4 ,of this  process of  
condensation ,professor ,ball1 in his   
recent work1 ,in  the ,high ,heavens1   
says1 ,it goes without saying that the  
welfare  of the human race is           

necessarily connected with the          
continuance  of the sun's beneficent    
action4 ,we have indeed shown that the  
few  other direct or indirect sources of
 heat which might conceivably  be relied
 upon are in the very nature of things  
devoid of necessary  permanence4 ,it    
becomes1 therefore1 of the utmost       
interest to inquire  whether the sun's  
heat can be calculated on indefinitely4 
,here is  indeed a subject which is     
literally of the most vital importance1 
so far as organic life is concerned4 ,if
 the sun shall ever cease  to shine1    
then it must be certain that there is a 
term beyond which  human existence1 or  
indeed organic existence of any type    
whatever1  cannot any longer endure on  
the earth4 ,we may say once for all that
  the sun contains just a certain number
 of units of heat1 actual or  potential1
 and that he is at the present moment   
shedding that heat  around with the most
 appalling extravagance4 ,quoting from  
,professor  ,langley1 he says1 ,we feel 

certain that the incessant radiation    
from the sun must be producing a        
profound effect on its stores of        
energy4 ,the only way of reconciling    
this with the total absence of  evidence
 of the expected changes is to be found 
in the supposition  that such is the    
mighty mass of the sun1 such the        
prodigious supply  of heat or what is   
the equivalent of heat which it         
contains1 that  the grand transformation
 through which it is passing proceeds at
 a  rate so slow that1 during the ages  
accessible to our observations1  the    
results achieved have been              
imperceptible4444 ,we cannot1 however1  
attribute to the sun any miraculous     
power of generating heat4 ,that  great  
body cannot disobey those laws which we 
have learned from  experiments in our   
laboratories4 ,of course no one now     
doubts that the  great law of the       
conservation of energy holds good4 ,we  
do not in the  least believe that       
because the sun's heat is radiated away 

in such  profusion it is therefore      
entirely lost4 ,it travels off1 no      
doubt1  to the depths of space1 and as  
to what may become of it there we have  
no information4 ,everything we know     
points to the law that energy is  as    
indestructible as matter itself4 ,the   
heat scattered from the sun  exists at  
least as ethereal vibration1 if in no   
other form4 ,but it  is most assuredly  
true that this energy1 so copiously     
dispensed1 is  lost to our solar system4
 ,there is no form in which it is       
returned1  or in which it can be        
returned4 ,the energy of the system is  
as surely  declining as the store of    
energy of the clock declines according  
as  the weight runs down4 ,in the clock1
 however1 the energy is restored  by    
winding up the weight1 but there is no  
analogous process known in  our system4 
,the purpose of the present work1       
however1 is to clearly  demonstrate that
 just such a process is actually being  
carried on1 and  has been so carried on 

from the beginning1 and will be forever4
 ,this  writer continues reviewing the  
suppositions formerly entertained1  that
 the sun was a heated body gradually    
cooling down1 or that it  was undergoing
 absolute combustion1 and shows that    
they were utterly  insufficient4 ,he    
then refers to the theory of meteoric   
supply1 of  which he says1 ,it can1     
however1 be shown that there are not    
enough  meteors in existence to supply a
 sufficient quantity of heat to the  sun
 to compensate the loss by radiation4   
,the indraught of meteoric  matter may1 
indeed1 certainly tend in some small    
degree to retard the  ultimate cooling  
of the great luminary1 but its effect is
 so small  that we can quite afford to  
overlook it from the point of view that 
we  are taking in these pages4 ,it is to
 ,helmholtz we are indebted for the     
true solution of the long-vexed problem4
 ,he has demonstrated in the  clearest  
manner where the source of the sun's    
heat lies4444 ,a gaseous  globe like the

 sun1 when it parts with its heat1      
observes laws of a  very different type 
from those which a cooling solid        
follows4 ,as the  heat disappears by    
radiation the body contracts2 the       
gaseous object1  however1 decreases in  
general much more than a solid body     
would do for  the same loss of heat4444 
,the globe of gas unquestionably        
radiates heat  and loses it1 and the    
globe1 in consequence of that loss1     
shrinks to  a smaller size4444 ,in the  
facts just mentioned we have an         
explanation  of the sustained heat of   
the sun4 ,of course we cannot assume    
that  in our calculations the sun is to 
be treated as if it were gaseous        
throughout its entire mass1 but it      
approximates so largely to the  gaseous 
state in the greater part of its bulk   
that we can feel no  hesitation in      
adopting the belief that the true cause 
has been found4    ,regarding the       
constitution of the sun1 it may be      
stated1 however1  that we only see its  

photosphere1 which is the visible sun1  
and  the whole volume has a density     
about that of water2 but no man  has    
ever seen the body of the sun itself4   
,in this respect it is  like the planet 
,jupiter3 we only know that its density 
cannot be  less than one-fourth the     
density of the earth's solid globe4 ,if 
the photosphere extend to a depth of one
 thousand1 ten thousand1  or a hundred  
thousand miles1 the density of the sun's
 body or core  will be correspondingly  
increased4 ,even computing the whole    
visible  volume1 the density is far     
greater than that of any gas we know1   
even  with the solar pressure of        
gravity2 with the sun's metallic vapors1
  if the whole core were already        
vaporized1 we would not1 to say the     
least1 be likely to observe the         
sun-spots and other solar phenomena  as 
we find them actually to occur2 this1   
however1 will be more fully  considered 
later on4 ,the author continues1 ,but   
there is a boundary  to the prospect of 

the continuance of the sun's radiation4 
,of course1  as the loss of heat goes on
 the gaseous parts will turn into       
liquids1  and as the process is still   
further protracted the liquids will     
transform into solids4 ,thus1 we look   
forward to a time when the  radiation of
 the sun can be no longer carried on in 
conformity with  the laws which dictate 
the loss of heat from a gaseous body4   
,when this  state is reached the sun    
may1 no doubt1 be an incandescent solid 
with  a brilliance as great as is       
compatible with that condition1 but the 
further loss of heat will then involve  
loss of temperature4444 ,there  seems no
 escape from the conclusion that the    
continuous loss of solar  heat must     
still go on1 so that the sun will pass  
through the various  stages of brilliant
 incandescence1 of glowing redness1 of  
dull redness1  until it ultimately      
becomes a dark and non-luminous star4444
 ,there  is thus a distinct limit to    
man's existence on the earth1 dictated  

by the ultimate exhaustion of the       
sun4444 ,the utmost amount of heat  that
 it would ever have been possible for   
the sun to contain would1  according to 
this authority 7,professor ,langley71   
supply its radiation  for eighteen      
million years at the present rate4444   
,it seems that the  sun has already     
dissipated about four-fifths of the     
energy with which  it may have          
originally been endowed4 ,at all events1
 it seems that1  radiating energy at its
 present rate1 the sun may hold out for 
four  million years or for five million 
years1 but not for ten million          
years4444 ,we have seen that it does not
 seem possible for any other  source of 
heat to be available for replenishing   
the waning stores of  the luminary4 ,he 
concludes by saying that the original   
heat may have  been imparted as the     
result of some great collision1 the     
solar body  having itself been dark     
before the collision occurred1 and that 
it  may be reinvigorated by a repetition

 of a similar startling process1  but   
indicates in general terms that such an 
operation would be bad  for the round   
world and all contained therein4 ,it    
would1 in fact1  be rough treatment for 
even a hopeless case4    ,condensation  
of the solar volume is unquestionably a 
source of heat1  for we know that the   
solid or liquid interior of the earth   
increases  in temperature at a definite 
ratio as we descend through its crust2  
but long before the sun shall have      
become contracted to the density of  the
 earth all its heat will have become    
substantially internal heat1  and it can
 then supply no more by radiation to its
 surrounding planets4    ,it will be    
seen that the radiant energy of the sun 
on any of the above  hypotheses is not  
sufficient to account even for the life 
period of the  earth in the past1 and   
that its future period of energy must be
 still  more brief4 ,professor ,ball    
7,in the ,high ,heavens71 basing his    
views  on ,laplace's ,nebular           

,hypothesis1 says1 ,looking back into   
the remote  ages1 we thus see that the  
sun was larger and larger the further   
back  we project our view4 ,if we go    
sufficiently far back1 we seem to come  
to a time when the sun1 in a more or    
less completely gaseous state1  filled  
up the surrounding space out to the     
orbit of ,mercury1 or1  earlier still1  
out to the orbit of the remotest planet4
 ,according  to this hypothesis1 all    
these brilliant suns1 the author says1  
will  settle down into dark bodies like 
the earth1 and that every analogy  would
 teach us that the dark and non-luminous
 bodies in the universe  are far more   
numerous than the brilliant suns4 ,we   
can never see the  dark objects2 we can 
discern their presence only indirectly4 
,all the  stars that we can see are     
merely those bodies which at this epoch 
of their career happen for the time to  
be so highly heated as to be            
luminous4444 ,it may happen that there  
are dark bodies in the vicinity  of some

 of the bright stars to which these     
stars act as illuminants1  just in the  
same way as the sun disperses light to  
the planets4 ,one  would naturally      
suppose1 however1 that there must be    
some sort of  laws to govern such       
stupendous operations1 and that nature  
is not  merely engaged in blowing       
bubbles4 ,to quote ,professor ,newcomb3 
,at the  present time we can only say   
that the nebular hypothesis is indicated
  by the general tendencies of the laws 
of nature2 that it has not been  proved 
to be inconsistent with any fact2 that  
it is almost a necessary  consequence of
 the only theory by which we can account
 for the origin  and conservation of the
 sun's heat2 but that it rests on the   
assumption  that this conservation is to
 be explained by the laws of nature as  
we now see them in operation4 ,should   
any one be sceptical as to the          
sufficiency of these laws to account for
 the present state of things1  science  
can furnish no evidence strong enough to

 overthrow his doubts  until the sun    
shall be found growing smaller by actual
 measurement1  or the nebul be actually 
seen to condense into stars and systems4
    ,while the validity of the views set
 forth in the present volume  does not  
depend on the sufficiency or            
insufficiency of the nebular            
hypothesis1 and in fact requires the    
condensation as well as the  expansion  
of the solar volume under the influence 
of heat to be  recognized and its       
extreme importance pointed out1 yet it  
must not  be supposed that this great   
generalization of ,kant and ,laplace1   
based on the views presented originally 
by ,sir ,william ,herschel1 is          
established1 or that the difficulties in
 its way are not so enormous  as to be  
almost insuperable4 ,professor ,ball    
points out that thousands  of bodies    
occupy our solar system1 and together   
compose it as a whole2  that these have 
orbits of every sort of eccentricity and
 direction1  and occupying all possible 

planes which can pass through the sun2  
that  the bodies circle around the sun1 
some backward and others forward1  and  
that only the planets seem to conform to
 some common order2 and  without this   
order1 which may be accidental1 so far  
as our knowledge  goes1 the system would
 have been disrupted long since1 if it  
ever  could have begun its operations2  
and that in this view the heavens  may  
be strewn with wrecks of systems which  
failed to survive from  inherent want of
 harmony1--that is to say1 as based on  
observation  only4 ,whether the nebular 
hypothesis be a universal or a partial  
law  of development1 or whether the real
 processes be quite different1  cannot1 
however1 depend on the continued        
maintenance and evolution  of the sun's 
energy1 as this source must in truth be 
sought for in  quite a different        
direction4    ,the remaining hypothesis 
7the seventh7 is considered in detail in
  ,professor ,proctor's work1 ,mysteries
 of ,time and ,space4 ,the fatal  defect

 in ,dr4 ,siemens's theory is1 that his 
gases will not be projected  from the   
sun's equator4 ,professor ,proctor says1
 ,thus the centripetal  tendency of     
matter at the sun's equator is very much
 greater 7many  hundreds of times       
greater7 than its centrifugal tendency1 
and there  is not the slightest         
possibility of matter being projected   
into space  from the sun's surface by   
centrifugal tendency4 ,nor is there any 
part  of the sun's mass where the       
centrifugal tendency is greater than at 
the surface near the equator4 ,so that1 
whatever else the sun may be  doing to  
utilize his mighty energies1 he is      
certainly not throwing  off matter      
constantly from his equatorial regions1 
as ,dr4 ,siemens's  theory requires4    
,there are other difficulties which     
,professor ,proctor  considers1 such as 
the doubt as to the power of the sun's  
rays to  disassociate combined gases in 
space1 and also that1 since both light  
and heat must be utilized in this work1 

if the sun's energies are to  be        
perpetually renewed1 these forces would 
sensibly disappear in work1  and the    
result would be that the fixed stars    
would be invisible beyond  their        
domains1 and their light1 when not      
totally cut off1 would be  greatly      
diminished1 in any event1 as distances  
increased1 which is  not the case4      
,besides1 these gases thus disassociated
 could never be  entirely used by the   
sun1 and the remainder would be wasted1 
and the  part wasted would vastly exceed
 that utilized1 probably in as great    
proportion of waste as that of the sun's
 light not utilized by the  planets1    
which gather but one                    
two-hundred-and-thirty-two-millionths   
of the whole4 ,it may be further added  
that these gases would be  mechanically 
mixed1 the combined and the             
disassociated1 and this  would be mostly
 the case in those parts nearest the    
sun1 so that large  volumes of spent and
 useless gases would have to be carried 

in to no  purpose whatever4 ,in fact1   
these gases would gradually form a      
closed  circuit of supply and discharge1
 and surrounding space would be but     
slightly affected4 ,professor ,proctor  
concludes1 ,we have1 in fact1  the      
fallacy of perpetual motion in a        
modified form4    ,it will be apparent  
that under any single one1 or all1 of   
these  hypotheses1 the future prospect  
for created forms and continued         
existence is hopeless1 and that the     
inevitable result must do  violence to  
every conception of either an           
intelligent creative  power or the      
operations of universal law4 ,the mind  
revolts from  the continued degradation 
and destruction of all organic creation1
  while the malevolent and iconoclastic 
forces of nature hold high  revel over  
final ruin and eternal destruction1     
brought about by their  own incessant   
efforts1 striking out blindly to make or
 mar1 and they  alone the deathless     
survivors1 the half-blind fates and     

furies of the  eternal future4 ,it      
betokens1 not the processes of orderly  
government1  but the reign of anarchy4  
,note4--,since this work has been in    
press1 at the annual meeting of the     
,british ,association1 ,august #h1      
#ahid1 ,lord ,salisbury1 the ,president1
  delivered a powerful and lucid address
 on the present status of  scientific   
knowledge and its limitations4 ,with    
reference to the  antiquity of the earth
 we quote the following3 ,it is evident1
  from the increase of heat as we       
descend into the earth1 that the  earth 
is cooling1 and we know1 by experiment  
within certain wide  limits1 the rate at
 which its substances--the matters of   
which it is  constituted--are found to  
cool4 ,it follows that we can           
approximately  calculate how hot it was 
so many million years ago2 but if at any
  time it was hotter at the surface by  
fifty degrees ,fahrenheit than it  is   
now1 life would then have been          
impossible upon the planet1 and1        

therefore1 we can without much          
difficulty fix a date before which      
organic life on earth cannot have       
existed4 ,basing himself on these       
considerations1 ,lord ,kelvin limited   
the period of organic life upon  the    
earth to a hundred million years1 and   
,professor ,tait1 in a still  more      
penurious spirit1 cut that hundred down 
to ten4 ,if a period of  anything like  
ten million years1 even1 has been       
requisite to cool the  earth's surface  
only fifty degrees in temperature1 what 
time must have  elapsed since the       
terrestrial globe had a temperature high
 enough to  effect the difficult        
chemical combinations of many of the    
elements  which compose its structure8  
,and even this must have been far less  
than the vast cycles of time during     
which original consolidation was        
effected4 ,through all these ages the   
sun must have been pouring out  his     
radiant energy at at least his present  
rate4 ,radiation of heat  from the earth

 may have been relatively less rapid    
from a denser  carbon-laden atmosphere  
in times past than at present1 but it   
never  could have been more so4 ,the    
whole address cited is1 indeed1 strongly
  corroborative of the facts upon which 
the present work is based4              
,,chapter ,,ii4    ,,the ,,constitution 
,,and ,,phenomena ,,of ,,the ,,sun4     
,the various theories thus reviewed1    
while not sufficient in themselves  to  
account for the facts of our own solar  
system1 are fatally defective  in       
another respect4 ,while they aim to     
account for the sun's light  and heat1  
they all fail to consider the active    
medium of the solar  light and heat in  
the sun itself4 ,it is not simply a     
highly-heated  central mass glowing in  
space4 ,it is a vast orb surrounded by  
different envelopes of incandescent     
vapors or gases1 and by far  the most   
vast in volume1 as well as in light and 
heat-radiating  power1 are the          
photosphere and its superincumbent      

chromosphere1  composed almost entirely 
of free hydrogen gas in a state of      
intense  incandescence4 ,whence comes   
this enormous mass of hydrogen8 ,and    
how explain the entire absence of free  
hydrogen gas from our own  atmosphere   
and its replacement by oxygen8 ,there is
 a recent theory  propounded by ,mr4 ,a4
 ,mott1 which is set forth in detail in 
,professor  ,ball's ,in the ,high       
,heavens1 and which endeavors to account
 for the  remarkable absence of free    
hydrogen gas from the earth's           
atmosphere1  for1 as the author states1 
,it is a singular fact that hydrogen in 
the free state is absent from our       
atmosphere4 ,the theory1 in brief1  is  
that the molecules of hydrogen gas have 
an average speed of about a  mile a     
second1--which1 however1 is only        
one-seventh that required to  shoot them
 off into space1--but that these        
molecules are continually  changing     
their velocity1 and may sometimes attain
 a speed of seven  miles a second2 the  

result is that every now and then a     
molecule  of hydrogen succeeds in       
bolting away from the earth altogether  
and escaping into open space4 ,during   
past ages the molecules of  hydrogen    
would thus have gradually wiggled up    
through the air1 and  finally           
disappeared into outer darkness for good
 and all2 and thus  the fact that there 
is at present no free hydrogen in the   
air over  our heads may be accounted    
for4 ,since the molecules of oxygen have
  only a velocity of a quarter mile a   
second1 that unfortunate gas  remains   
behind and is consumed4    ,the first   
difficulty with this theory is to       
explain how1 if the  hydrogen wiggled   
off in this unceremonious manner1 it    
ever wiggled  on4 ,there is no objection
 to a gait of this rapidity1 however2 it
  is highly creditable1 in fact2 but we 
have a right to expect some  degree of  
consistency in even so light-headed a   
body as hydrogen  gas4 ,the article     
quoted thus continues3 ,if the mass of  

the earth  were very much larger than it
 is1 then the velocities with which  the
 molecules of hydrogen wend their way   
would never be sufficiently  high to    
enable them to quit the earth           
altogether1 and consequently we  might  
in such a case expect to find our       
atmosphere largely charged with         
hydrogen4 ,it will be seen that1        
according to this theory1 hydrogen is   
able to achieve a speed of seven miles  
per second under exceptional            
excitement1 and that this molecular     
velocity is just enough1 and no  more   
than enough1 to give it egress4 ,we know
 that ,jupiter's mass is  three hundred 
times as great as that of the earth1 and
 the attraction  of gravity is so       
powerful on the surface of that planet  
that1 as the  writer just quoted says1  
,walking1 or even standing1 would       
involve the  most fearful exertion1     
while rising from bed in the morning    
would be a  difficult1 indeed1 probably1
 an impossible1 process4 ,we also know  

that  the atmosphere of this planet is  
laden with enormous clouds floating  at 
various altitudes and with incessant    
movements4 ,we are told that  the       
molecular speed of aqueous vapor        
averages only one-third of that         
attained by the molecules of hydrogen4  
,of course1 on the planet  ,jupiter1    
hydrogen would have no chance of escape 
at all3 it would  just have to stay and 
take it1 like the rest of us4 ,jupiter  
must thus  have an atmosphere like our  
own1 except that it is largely charged  
with hydrogen4 ,of the clouds upon this 
planet1 ,professor ,ball says1  ,in     
fact1 the longer we look at ,jupiter the
 more we become convinced  that the     
surface of the planet is swathed with a 
mighty volume of  clouds so dense and so
 impenetrable that our most powerful    
telescopes  have never yet been able to 
pierce through them down to the solid   
surface of the planet4 ,with the        
densities1 molecular velocities1  and   
specific gravity of the oxygen1         

nitrogen1 and the hydrogen1 with  which 
latter the atmosphere of ,jupiter must  
be largely charged1 as  it is said1 it  
is difficult to understand how such     
enormous clouds  of aqueous vapors1     
themselves composed of oxygen1 which is 
a very  slow-footed gas1 and hydrogen1  
could travel about with such facility2  
we ought to find them packed down like  
,london fog1 to say the least1  upon the
 surface of that planet1 with the       
supernatant gases all  adrift overhead4 
,jupiter is a hot body2 it has not yet  
cooled down2  and if it is provided with
 volcanoes1 such as its great red spot  
and  the analogies of the earth and moon
 would suggest1 we can tell pretty      
nearly what would have happened long ago
 with a ,jovian atmosphere like  ours2  
but largely charged with hydrogen1 if we
 compare it with1  say1 an equal mass of
 dynamite touched off by a volcanic     
explosion2  there would not have been   
enough of old ,jupiter left to swear by1
 and  what was left would not have had  

any atmosphere at all4 ,on ,mars1 the   
same writer thinks the oxygen would     
still cling1 like the fragrance of  the 
rose1 but that all the molecules of the 
fleet-footed and excitable  hydrogen    
would long since have taken ,french     
leave1 as it did from the  earth2 but at
 the moon1 on account of its small size 
and mass1 both  gases would have gone   
off incontinently together4 ,it is now  
easy1  the author says1 to account for  
the absence of atmosphere from the      
moon4444 ,neither of the gases1 oxygen  
or nitrogen1 to say nothing of          
hydrogen1 could possibly exist in the   
free state on a globe of the  mass and  
dimensions of our satellite4444 ,indeed1
 the weight of every  object on the moon
 would be reduced to the sixth part of  
that which  the same object has on      
earth4 ,nevertheless1 it may be said    
that  the moon has considerable weight1 
as weights go1 but with a comet  it is  
quite a different matter4 ,these bodies1
 the author says1  demonstrate          

conclusively that the quantity of matter
 even in a  comet is extremely small    
when compared with its bulk4 ,the       
conclusion  thus arrived at is confirmed
 by the fact that our efforts to obtain 
the weight of a comet have hitherto     
proved unsuccessful4444 ,it has  thus   
been demonstrated that1 notwithstanding 
the stupendous bulk of  a great comet1  
its mass must have been so              
inconsiderable as to have  been         
insufficient to disturb even such       
unimportant members of the  solar system
 as the satellites of ,jupiter4 ,now1   
here is a state of  things2 for the     
spectroscope shows that comets are fully
 provided with  a large supply of       
hydrogen1 enough and to spare for       
ornament1 even1  and of nitrogen also1  
while it is the abnormally fugacious    
oxygen  which has1 apparently1 taken its
 departure4 ,of course1 such facts      
demonstrate the untenability of the     
theory1 which is1 besides1 in  direct   
contradiction with the laws governing   

gaseous diffusion4 ,gases  pass into    
each other with the same velocity as    
into a vacuum1 and  it is not to be     
imagined that the molecules of hydrogen 
could thus  move individually off1      
unless forced upward by the pressure of 
some  other gas1 which the law of       
gaseous diffusion makes impossible4 ,we 
should as readily expect to see a       
tumbler full of iron balls1 into  the   
interstices of which loose sand has been
 poured1 manifest a  similar phenomenon 
by the wiggling out of the less dense   
sand at the  top of the glass4 ,one     
might also ask whence1 if this theory   
had any  substantial basis1 could come  
the enormous volumes of hydrogen gas  in
 the atmosphere of a new or temporary   
star1 in a few hours1 or the  changes   
manifested in the atmospheres of the    
variable stars4 ,so1 also1  the nebular 
or any other hypothesis of creation     
would be impossible  under this theory1 
as the heavier and less mobile gaseous  
elements  would remain behind1 or be    

condensed nearest the center of gravity 
of  the aggregating nebula1 while the   
more rapid gases would disappear        
outwardly1 and in consequence the sun   
would be found to be composed  of the   
heavier elements exclusively1 and each  
of the planets1 in  turn1 would consist 
of only one or two elements1 in         
accordance with  the more and more      
mobile character of their molecular     
movements1 and  the uniformity of       
chemical constitution between the sun   
and planets1  as well as the fixed      
stars1 would not be found to exist4 ,the
 theory1  in fact1 is an example of the 
endeavor to explain an easily understood
  difficulty by a less easily understood
 impossibility4    ,none of the         
different theories even attempt to      
account for the  prodigious volumes of  
hydrogen in the solar atmosphere1 and   
without its  presence the sun1 so far as
 we know1 would be almost an inert mass1
  considered as a source of energy for  
the supply of our planetary  system4 ,we

 know1 of course1 that meteors contain  
sometimes as much  as six volumes of    
gases1 largely composed of hydrogen1 at 
our own  atmospheric pressure4 ,but the 
pressure at the sun's surface is more   
than twenty-seven times that at the     
surface of the earth1 and yet the       
volume of hydrogen there existing       
visibly is vaster beyond computation    
than any possible mass of meteoric      
material could supply4 ,so1 also1  while
 it may be granted that condensation of 
volume must vastly raise  the solar     
temperature1 how could it produce the   
enormous masses of  hydrogen1 the       
lightest of all the elements1 unless    
they have been  temporarily occluded and
 finally thrown out from within1 which  
is  impossible8 ,these vast volumes of  
hydrogen are to be considered first  of 
all in any attempt whatever to solve the
 problem of the source  and mode of     
solar energy4    ,considering the       
phenomena presented within the limits of
 our own solar  system alone1 we find   

that the earth is one of a single family
 of  planets1 each of which very closely
 resembles it1 and all of which  circle1
 in slightly elliptical orbits1 at      
various distances around  the sun1 their
 orbits occupying substantially the same
 plane1  thus making our solar system a 
flat disk of space occupied by  the sun 
as a center1 with the planets and their 
satellites moving  harmoniously around  
it4 ,the planets differ from each other 
in size1  mass1 and temperature1 but    
each is surrounded by an envelope of    
aqueous vapor1 suspended in an          
atmosphere substantially like our  own4 
,professor ,proctor1 in his ,light      
,science for ,leisure ,hours1  says of  
the planet ,jupiter1 ,his real surface  
is always veiled by  his dense and      
vapor-laden atmosphere4 ,saturn1 ,venus1
 and ,mercury  are similarly            
circumstanced4 ,of ,mars he says that it
 is distinctly  marked 7in telescopes of
 sufficient power7 with continents and  
oceans  which are rarely concealed by   

vapors4 ,now1 whence comes this aqueous 
vapor surrounding all the planets8      
,whether received originally from  the  
diffused nebular mass from which our    
solar system is supposed  to have been  
condensed1 or attracted by the force of 
gravity from  interplanetary space1 like
 the meteors which fall upon the earth's
  surface1 it is evident that           
interplanetary space must once have been
  pervaded with aqueous vapor1 since the
 nebular mass from which our  solar     
system was constituted must have        
occupied at least the space  embraced   
within its largest planetary orbit1 and 
doubtless much more2  and if so1 such   
aqueous vapor1 and other vapors also1   
must still  persist in space1 just as   
the meteoric particles which so         
constantly  manifest themselves in our  
atmosphere4 ,if the planets had no      
common  origin1 the evidence is equally 
conclusive1 since then this identical   
substance could only have been derived  
from a common source1 which  can only be

 interplanetary space4 ,this also is in 
accordance with  the laws of attraction1
 which would operate to gather and      
condense  the rarefied aqueous vapor of 
space around the planetary masses in    
definite proportions4 ,in his ,familiar 
,essays on ,scientific ,subjects1       
,professor ,proctor says1 ,in fact1 we  
do thus recognize in the spectra  of    
,mars1 ,venus1 and other planets the    
presence of aqueous vapor in  their     
atmosphere2 and in his ,mysteries of    
,time and ,space he says1  ,we may admit
 the possibility that the aqueous vapor 
and carbon  compounds are present in    
stellar or interplanetary space4 ,but   
in addition to this aqueous vapor which 
surrounds the planetary  bodies1 we find
 free oxygen in vast quantities1 and1   
with this1 free  nitrogen in mechanical 
admixture1 and these together constitute
 the  atmosphere we breathe1 and which  
sustains organic life by a process  of  
slow combustion4 ,but we find no free   
hydrogen either in our own  atmosphere  

or in that of other planets4 ,turning   
now to the sun1 we  find that it is     
surrounded by an atmosphere as well as  
the planets1  but that this atmosphere  
is composed not of free oxygen1 but of  
free  hydrogen4 ,in his article1 ,oxygen
 in the ,sun1 ,professor ,proctor says1 
,fourteen only of the elements known to 
us1 or less than a quarter  of the total
 number1 were thus found to be present  
in the sun's  constitution2 and of these
 all were metals1 if we regard hydrogen 
as  metallic4444 ,but most remarkable of
 all1 and most perplexing1 was the      
absence of all trace of oxygen and      
nitrogen1 two gases which could  not be 
supposed wanting in the substance of the
 great ruling center  of the planetary  
system4 ,the researches of ,dr4 ,draper 
indicated1  however1 that oxygen could  
be found in the sun2 not in his external
  atmosphere but far down within his    
surface4 ,professor ,proctor says1  ,dr4
 ,draper mentions that he has found no  
traces of oxygen above the  photosphere4

 ,such free oxygen cannot be associated 
with the hydrogen1  however1 even if its
 presence be finally determined1 but it 
may be  due to the deoxidation of solid 
compounds precipitated upon the sun     
from space1 and held at a temperature   
above that of disassociation1  as       
hydrogen is sometimes generated at the  
surface of the earth4    ,the vast mass 
of the solar atmosphere is composed of  
hydrogen gas1 with  which are found     
commingled vapors of the various        
elements which enter  into the sun's    
constitution1 and this solar atmosphere 
corresponds  in proportion1 speaking    
generally1 with our own atmosphere1     
except  that the volume of solar        
hydrogen is vastly greater than that of 
terrestrial oxygen1 for the reason1 as  
will be explained1 that water  contains 
two volumes of the former to one of the 
latter4    ,in ,appleton's ,cyclopdia   
the sun is thus described1 7article by  
,professors ,langley and ,proctor73 ,to 
sum up briefly the received  hypotheses 

of the physical constitution of the sun3
 of its internal  structure we know     
nothing1 but we can infer1 from the low 
density of  the solar globe as a whole1 
that no considerable portion is solid or
  liquid4 ,the regions we examine appear
 to consist of cloud layers at  several 
levels floating in a complex atmosphere1
 in which probably  most of the elements
 are known to us1 and certainly many of 
them  exist in the form of vapor4       
,outside this complex atmosphere extend 
envelopes of simpler constitution1      
though into them occasionally  arise the
 vapors which ordinarily lie lower down4
 ,the sierra1 for  instance1 consists in
 the main of glowing hydrogen gas and   
that gas1  whatever it may be1 which    
produces the line near the orange-yellow
  sodium lines4 ,the prominence region  
may be regarded as simply the  extension
 of the sierra4 ,of these prominences1  
,professor ,ball says1  ,the memorable  
discovery made by ,janssen and ,lockyer1
 independently1 in  #ahfh1 showed that  

the prominences could be observed       
without the help of  an eclipse1 by the 
happy employment of the peculiar        
refrangibility of  the rosy light which 
these prominences emit4444 ,we can now  
obtain1 not1  as heretofore1 merely     
isolated views of special prominences   
through  the widely opened slit of the  
spectroscope1 but we are furnished1     
after a couple of minutes' exposure1    
with a complete photograph of  the      
prominences surrounding the sun4444 ,the
 incandescent region of  the            
chromosphere from which these           
prominences arise is also recorded  with
 accuracy4 ,resuming our quotation from 
,appleton's ,cyclopdia3  ,the inner     
corona is still simpler than the sierra1
 so far as its  gaseous constitution is 
concerned2 but here meteoric and cometic
 matter  appears1 extending to the outer
 corona and to great distances beyond   
even the visible limits of the zodiacal4
 ,returning to the photosphere1  we find
 it subject to continual fluctuations1  

both from local causes  of agitation and
 from the subjacent vapor acting by its 
elasticity to  burst through it2 the    
facul1 which are found to be above the  
general  level of the photosphere1 are  
taken to be heapings up of the luminous 
matter like the crested surges of the   
sea4 ,all the strata are subject  to    
great movements1 which sometimes have   
the character of uniform  progression   
analogous to our trade-winds1 and       
sometimes are violent1  and resemble in 
their effects our tornadoes and         
whirlwinds4 ,eruptive  action appears to
 operate from time to time with         
exceeding violence1  but whether the    
enormous velocities of outrush are due  
to true  explosive action 7which would  
compel us to believe that the sun is    
enclosed by a liquid shell1 so as to    
resemble a gigantic bubble7 or to  the  
uprising of lighter vapors from enormous
 depths1 as heated currents  rise in our
 own atmosphere1 is not as yet certainly
 known4 ,the  sierra1 or chromosphere1  

is thus described in the same article3  
,the sierra presents four aspects3 #a1  
smooth with defined outline2  #b1 smooth
 but with no defined outline2 #c1       
fringed with filaments2  and1 #d1       
irregularly fringed with small flames4  
,the prominences may  be divided into   
three orders1--heaps1 jets1 and plumes4 
,the heaped  prominences need no special
 description4 ,the jets 444 originate   
generally in rectilinear jets either    
vertical or oblique1 very bright  and   
very well defined4 ,they rise to a great
 height1 often to a height  of at least 
eighty thousand miles1 and occasionally 
to more than twice  that2 then bending  
back1 fall again upon the sun like the  
jets of our  fountains4 ,then they      
spread into figures resembling gigantic 
trees  more or less rich in branches4   
,their luminosity is intense1 insomuch  
that they can be seen through the light 
clouds into which the sierra  breaks up4
 ,their spectrum indicates the presence 
of many elements  besides hydrogen4     

,when they have reached a certain height
 they cease  to grow1 and become        
transformed into exceedingly bright     
masses1 which  eventually separate into 
fleecy clouds4 ,the jet prominences last
 but  a short time--rarely an hour1     
frequently but a few minutes1--and they 
are only to be seen in the neighborhood 
of the spots4 ,wherever there  are jet  
prominences there also are facul4 ,the  
plume prominences are  distinguished    
from the jets in not being characterized
 by any signs of  an eruptive origin4   
,they often extend to an enormous       
height2 they last  longer than the jets1
 though subject to rapid changes of     
figure2 and1  lastly1 they are          
distributed indifferently over the sun's
 surface4 ,it  would seem that in the   
jets a part of the photosphere is lifted
 up1  whereas in the case of plumes only
 the sierra is disturbed4 ,of these     
eruptions ,professor ,ball says1 ,vast  
masses of vapors are frequently         
expelled from the interior of the sun by

 convulsive throes with a  speed of     
three hundred1 four hundred1 and        
sometimes nearly a thousand  miles a    
second4444 ,the spectroscope enables the
 observer actually to  witness the      
ascent of these solar prominences4      
,the corona1 which extends beyond the   
chromosphere1 has been determined  by   
its continuous spectrum to be a vast    
envelope extending at  least a million  
miles from the sun's surface4 ,it cannot
 be a solar  atmosphere1 ,professor     
,proctor observes in his article on this
 subject1  in his ,mysteries of ,time   
and ,space4444 ,it will be seen1 then1  
how inconceivably great the pressure    
exerted by a solar atmosphere  some     
eight thousand times as deep as ours    
would necessarily be1  let the nature of
 the gases composing it be what it      
may4444 ,if a  man could be placed on   
the solar surface1 his own weight would 
crush  him as effectually as though     
while on earth a weight of a couple of  
tons were heaped upon him4444 ,now1 it  

happens that we know quite well  that   
the pressure exerted by the real solar  
atmosphere1 even close  by the bright   
surface which forms the visible globe of
 the sun1 is  nothing like so great as  
it would be if the corona formed part of
  that atmosphere4 ,in the article ,sun1
 in ,appleton's ,cyclopdia1  it is      
stated that ,mr4 ,arthur ,w4 ,wright1 of
 ,yale ,college1 has  succeeded in      
showing that this light 7the zodiacal7  
is not emitted  from incandescent gas1  
but reflected from particles or small   
bodies1  and hence derived from the     
sun4444 ,there is reason to believe that
  the true solar corona extends much    
farther 7than a million miles71  and    
that1 in reality1 the zodiacal light    
forms the outer part of the  solar      
corona4 ,proctor1 again1 in his article 
on the corona1 says1  ,it would seem to 
follow that the corona is due to bodies 
of some sort  travelling around the sun1
 and by their motion preserved either   
from  falling towards him 7in which case

 the corona would quickly disappear7  or
 from producing any pressure upon his   
surface1 as an atmosphere  would4 ,in   
his article on ,the ,sun as a ,perpetual
 ,machine1 he says1  ,there is every    
reason for regarding the zodiacal as    
consisting in  the main of meteorolithic
 masses1 a sort of cosmical dust1       
rushing  through interplanetary space   
with planetary velocities4 ,to such     
matter1 assuming1 as we well may1 that  
space really is occupied  by attenuated 
vapors1 444 the luminosity of the       
zodiacal would be  attributable to      
particles of dust emitting light        
reflected by the sun  or by             
phosphorescence 7this last may be       
seriously questioned74 ,but  there is   
another cause for luminosity of these   
particles which may  deserve a passing  
consideration4 ,each particle would be  
electrified  by gaseous friction in its 
acceleration1 and its electric tension  
would be vastly increased in its        
forcible removal1 in the same way  as   

the fine dust of the desert has been    
observed by ,werner ,siemens  to be in a
 state of high electrification on the   
apex of the ,cheops  ,pyramid4 ,would   
not the zodiacal light also find        
explanation by slow  electric discharges
 backward from the dust towards the sun8
 ,it may be  observed in passing that   
such electrical glow is much more       
prominently1  and more likely to be1 the
 result of induction than of friction4  
,in  the article ,sun1 previously       
quoted1 ,professor ,young says1 ,there  
is  surrounding the sun1 beyond any     
further reasonable doubt1 a mass of     
self-luminous gaseous matter1 whose     
spectrum is characterized by the  green 
line #adgd ,kirchhoff4 ,the precise     
extent of this it is hardly  possible to
 consider as determined1 but it must be 
many times the  thickness of the red    
hydrogen portion of the sierra1 perhaps1
 on an  average1 #h' or #aj'1 with      
occasional horns of twice that height4  
,it  is not at all unlikely that it may 

even turn out to have no upper  limit1  
but to extend from the sun indefinitely 
into space4 ,in the  same article the   
sun's apparent diameter is placed at    
about #cb'1  so that the thickness of   
the above gaseous envelope would be not 
less than one-fourth the sun's diameter1
 or more than two hundred  thousand     
miles4 ,this coronal envelope1 extending
 out from the solar  body until         
gradually merged into the attenuated    
matter of space1 has  a light so feeble 
that it can only be clearly observed    
during total  eclipse4 ,professor ,ball 
7,in the ,high ,heavens7 says1 ,the     
sunlight  is so intense that if it be   
reduced sufficiently by any artifice1   
the coronal light also suffers so much  
abatement that1 owing to its  initial   
feebleness1 it ceases altogether to be  
visible4 ,during the  great eclipse of  
#ahic it was photographed1 and of these 
photographs  the same author says1 ,one 
of the most remarkable features in the  
structure of the corona is the presence 

of streamers or luminous  rays extending
 from the north and south poles of the  
sun4 ,these  rays are generally more or 
less curved1 and it is doubtful whether 
the phenomena they exhibit are not in   
some way a consequence of the  rotation 
of the sun4 ,this consideration is      
connected with the question  as to how  
far the corona itself shares in that    
rotation of the sun  with which         
astronomers are familiar4 ,i should     
perhaps rather have  said that rotation 
of the sun's photosphere which1 as the  
sun-spots  prove1 is accomplished once  
every twenty-five days4 ,even this shell
  of luminous matter does not revolve as
 a rigid mass would do4 ,by some        
mysterious law the equatorial portions  
accomplish their revolution in  a       
shorter period than is required by those
 zones of the photosphere  which lie    
nearer the north and south poles of the 
luminary4 ,as to how  the parts of the  
sun which are interior to the           
photosphere may revolve1  we are quite  

ignorant4444 ,we have no means of       
knowing to what extent  the corona      
shares in the rotation4 ,it would seem  
certain that the  lower parts which lie 
comparatively near the surface must be  
affected  by the rapid rotation of the  
photosphere2 but it is very far from    
certain that this rotation can be shared
 to any great extent by those  parts of 
the corona which lie at a distance from 
the sun's surface  as great as the solar
 radius or diameter4444 ,the corona     
presents a  curious green line that     
seems to denote some invariable         
constituent  of the sun's outer         
atmosphere1 but the element to which    
this green  line owes its origin is     
wholly unknown4 ,the same author quotes 
from  ,dr4 ,huggins as follows3 ,it is  
interesting to read what ,dr4 ,huggins  
has to tell us about the solar corona4  
,the nature of this marvellous          
appendage to the sun is still a matter  
of uncertainty4 ,there can1  however1 be
 no doubt that the corona consists of   

highly-attenuated  matter driven outward
 from the sun by some repulsive force1  
and it is  also clear that if this force
 be not electric1 it must at least be   
something of a very kindred             
character4444 ,so far as the spectrum of
  the corona is concerned1 we may       
summarize what is known in the words  of
 ,dr4 ,huggins3 ',the green coronal line
 has no known representative  in        
terrestrial substances1 nor has         
,schuster been able to recognize any  of
 our elements in the other lines of the 
corona4' ,the account given  by ,general
 ,myer--quoted in ,professor ,proctor's 
article1 ,the ,sun's  ,corona--of the   
great eclipse of #ahfi1 as viewed from  
an altitude  of five thousand five      
hundred feet above sea-level1 is as     
follows3  ,as a centre stood the full   
and intensely black disk of the moon1   
surrounded by an aureola of soft bright 
light1 through which shot out1  as if   
from the circumference of the moon1     
straight1 massive silvery  rays1 seeming

 distinct and separate from each other1 
to a distance  of two or three diameters
 of the lunar disk2 the whole spectacle 
showing as upon a background of diffused
 rose-colored light4 ,the  silvery rays 
were longest and most prominent at four 
points of the  circumference1 444       
apparently equidistant from each other4 
,there was  no motion of the rays3 they 
seemed concentric4 ,three diameters     
would  make these rays extend two and a 
half million miles at least from the    
sun's photosphere1 or even its          
chromosphere4 ,the coincidence between  
these rays and those observed 7see      
above7 in the eclipse of #ahic must  be 
noted1 since these latter were conceived
 at one time to be meteor  streams4 ,as 
those seen in #ahic radiated from the   
poles1 and were curved  in form1 while  
those last noted radiated at four       
equidistant points1  none polar1 and    
were straight1 it will be seen that1 if 
both phenomena  were of the same class1 
they could not have been due to meteor  

streams4    ,the sun's spots1 which we  
will next refer to1 are deep1           
relatively dark1 but in fact extremely  
bright depressions in the  photosphere4 
,many spots are of enormous size 7see   
article1 ,sun72  one had a diameter     
exceeding fifty thousand miles1 and many
 far larger  than this have been seen4  
,the spots are not scattered over the   
whole  surface of the sun1 but are for  
the most part confined to two belts     
between latitude five degrees and thirty
 degrees1 on either side of the  solar  
equator4 ,an equatorial zone six degrees
 wide is almost entirely  free from     
spots4444 ,the inclination of the solar 
equator is about  seven degrees4444 ,the
 spots on the sun usually have a dark   
central  region called the umbra1 within
 which is a still darker part called    
the nucleus1 while around this there is 
a fringe of fainter shade than  the     
umbra1 called the penumbra4 ,although   
the umbra and nucleus appear  dark1     
however1 it is not to be supposed that  

they are really dark2  444 though the   
nucleus looks perfectly black by        
contrast with the  general surface1 it  
shines in reality with a light          
unbearably brilliant  when viewed alone1
 while his thermal measurements show    
that the heat  from the nucleus is even 
greater proportionately than the light1 
and  not very greatly below the heat of 
the surrounding surface4444 ,the        
recognition of a nucleus within the     
umbra would seem to indicate that  a    
third cloud layer 7besides the outer or 
photosphere and a darker  cloud layer   
beneath7 exists within the second or    
internal layer of  ,herschel's theory4  
,but the observations of ,professor     
,langley show that  most probably all   
the features of the solar photosphere   
yet observed  are phenomena of cloud    
envelopes1 since he has been able to    
recognize  cloud forms at one level     
floating over cloud forms at a lower    
level1  while even in the 7relatively7  
darkest depths of the nucleus clouds    

are still to be perceived1 though so    
deep down that their outlines  can be   
barely discerned4 ,professor ,ball says 
of the heat-wave of  #ahib1 ,as to the  
activity of the sun during the past     
summer1 a very  striking communication  
has recently been made by one of the    
most  rising ,american astronomers1 ,mr4
 ,george ,e4 ,hale1 of ,chicago4 ,he has
  invented an ingenious apparatus for   
photographing on the same plate  at one 
exposure both the bright spots and the  
protuberances of the  sun4444 ,on the   
#aeth of ,july a photograph of the sun  
showed a large  spot4 ,another          
photograph taken in a few minutes       
exhibited a bright  band2 twenty-seven  
minutes later a further exposure        
displayed an  outburst of brilliant     
facul all over the spot4 ,at the end of 
an  hour the facul had all vanished and 
the spot was restored to its  original  
condition4 ,it was not a mere           
coincidence that our magnetic           
observatories exhibited considerable    

disturbances the next day1 and  that    
brilliant auroras were noted4           
,carrington's observations have  shown  
that spots in different solar latitudes 
travel at different  rates4 ,taking two 
parts of the visible solar surface in   
the same  longitude1 but one in latitude
 forty-five degrees 7say71 the other on 
the equator1 the latter will advance    
farther and farther in longitude  from  
the former1 gaining daily about two     
degrees1 so that in the  course of about
 one hundred and eighty days it will    
have gained a  complete revolution4     
,that is to say1 the sun's equator makes
 about two  revolutions more per annum  
than regions in forty-five degrees north
  and south solar latitude4 ,the sun is 
about #hej1jjj miles in diameter2  its  
density is one-fourth that of the earth2
 its mass is #caf1jjj times  greater1   
and its volume #a1bec1jjj4 ,gravity at  
its surface is #bg4a times  that of the 
earth2 its distance is approximately    
#ib1jjj1jjj miles2  it rotates upon its 

axis1 which is inclined to the planetary
 plane at  an angle of seven degrees1   
once in twenty-five and one-third days1 
apparently increased to thirty days by  
the earth's orbital advance  in the same
 direction around the sun2 and it has a 
motion around its  center1--a true      
orbital motion1--due to displacement by 
gravity of  the planetary masses1 which1
 however1 is always within its own mass4
    ,the above1 in brief1 is1 so far as 
we know1 the constitution of  the sun   
and its appendages4 ,its internal globe 
is surrounded by  a glowing gaseous     
envelope1 the photosphere1 which is the 
visible  orb1 composed of cloud masses  
of glowing hydrogen gas intermingled    
with vapors of many of our terrestrial  
elements1 all in a state  of apparent   
disassociation4 ,of the constitution of 
the sun's mass1  ,professor ,ball says1 
,professor ,rowland has shown that      
thirty-six  terrestrial elements are    
certainly indicated in the solar        
spectrum1  while eight others are       

doubtful4 ,fifteen elements have not    
been  found1 though sought for1 and ten 
elements have not yet been compared     
with the sun's spectrum4 ,reasons are   
also given for showing that1  though    
fifteen elements had no lines           
corresponding to those shown in  the    
solar spectrum1 yet there is but little 
evidence to show that  they are really  
absent from the sun4 ,dr4 ,huggins      
epitomizes these  very interesting      
results in the striking remark1 ',it    
follows that  if the whole earth were   
heated to the temperature of the sun1   
its  spectrum would resemble very       
closely the solar spectrum4' ,outside   
the photosphere is the simpler          
chromosphere1 composed largely of       
hydrogen1 and merging into the corona at
 a distance of hundreds of  thousands of
 miles from the sun's apparent surface1 
and this corona  extends outward to a   
vast distance1 and is itself largely    
composed  of self-luminous matter1 the  
action of gravity being counterbalanced 

by the centrifugal force of orbital     
rotation1 or more probably by           
electrical repulsion4 ,the metallic     
vapors in the sun's photosphere  are    
suspended in glowing hydrogen1 which    
vastly preponderates over  all the      
others in mass and volume1 the          
incandescence of which is  the principal
 source of solar light and heat4 ,the   
planets revolve  in elliptical orbits   
around this central sun1 and crossing   
these  orbits at various angles rush    
streams of cometic matter and comets    
and meteoric bodies1 in streams and     
clouds1 which1 swiftly sweeping  around 
at various distances1 are again thrown  
off into space4 ,meteors  constantly    
fall into the sun's mass1 as they do    
upon the earth2 but the  grand key-note 
of all his life and energy1 so far as we
 can perceive1  is the vast envelope of 
glowing hydrogen gas4    ,conversely1   
the planetary envelopes are of          
relatively cool oxygen  mixed with      
nitrogen gas1 which hold in suspension  

diffused aqueous  vapors4 ,if our own   
aqueous vapors are derived by the       
attraction of  gravity from the         
interplanetary space1 as they must have 
been1 we can  be sure that1 were the sun
 at a sufficiently low temperature1 he1 
too1  would gather to himself a         
surrounding envelope of aqueous vapor1  
larger  than our own in proportion to   
his mass1 and larger than that of all   
the planets together1 the combined mass 
of which he exceeds by seven  hundred   
and fifty times4 ,we should also expect 
similar aggregations  of aqueous vapors 
to surround all the fixed stars in      
proportion to  their various masses1 yet
 we do not find aqueous vapor there1 but
  hydrogen instead4 ,and in the distant 
telescopic nebul we still find  hydrogen
 and nitrogen2 even in the comets we    
find free hydrogen in  vast             
predominance1 but not free oxygen2 so   
that we may roughly divide  the bodies  
of stellar space into two grand         
categories1--those with  atmospheres of 

hydrogen and those with atmospheres of  
oxygen4 ,it is  true that the latter are
 limited to the planets of our own      
system1 so  far as direct observation   
goes1 for we cannot see such dark       
planets  as exist beyond our own solar  
system2 but if such planets exist1  as  
they must1 for reasons stated later on1 
and revolve around their  own central   
suns1 we may infer1 with the strength of
 demonstration  almost1 that if their   
suns correspond to our sun in this      
respect1 their  planets will correspond 
to our planets in a similar respect4    
,but the  bodies with atmospheres of    
oxygen are those which rotate around the
  sun substantially as a center1 while  
with reference to themselves the  sun is
 more or less a fixed body in space4 ,it
 is true that our whole  system is      
drifting through space1 at present in   
the direction of the  constellation     
,lyra1 and directly away from that      
portion of space  occupied by ,sirius   
and ,canopus1 with an annual motion of  

probably  hundreds of millions of miles4
 ,professor ,ball 7,in the ,high        
,heavens7  says1 ,in conclusion1 it     
would seem that the sun and the whole   
solar  system are bound on a voyage to  
that part of the sky which is marked  by
 the star ,delta ,lyr4 ,it also appears 
that the speed with which  this motion  
is urged is such as to bring us every   
day about #gjj1jjj  miles nearer to this
 part of the sky4 ,in one year the solar
 system  accomplishes a journey of no   
less than #bej1jjj1jjj miles4 ,a speed  
of  eight miles per second gives an     
annual rate of #beb1bhh1jjj miles4 ,this
  speed1 however1 is greatly exceeded by
 many stars 7as determined  by          
displacement of the lines of the        
spectrum72 the star ,no4 #ahcj1  of     
,groombridge's catalogue 7see ,in the   
,high ,heavens71 has a rate  of two     
hundred miles per second4 ,the author   
says1 ,indeed1 in some  cases stellar   
velocities are attained which appear to 
be even greater  than that just         

mentioned4 ,we do not1 therefore1 make  
any extravagant  supposition in adopting
 a speed of twenty miles per second1    
which  he takes as the average4 ,i have 
adopted this particular velocity as     
fairly typical of sidereal motions      
generally4 ,it is rather larger than    
the speed with which the earth moves in 
its orbit4 ,the distances1  of course1  
are equally enormous4 ,this author says1
 ,the nearest star1  as far as we yet   
know1 in the northern hemisphere is #fa 
,cygni4444 ,i  think we cannot be far   
wrong in adopting a value of fifty      
millions  of millions of miles4444 ,in  
the course of a million years a star    
with  the average speed of twenty miles 
a second would move over a distance     
which was about a dozen times as great  
as the distance between #fa  ,cygni and 
the solar system4 ,this assuming that   
the solar system is  at rest1 which is  
not the case1 as the author says1       
,unless binary1  stars do not remain in 
proximity1 so far as we know2 the       

general rule  appears to be that of     
universal movement through space4 ,this 
drift  through space1 however1 no more  
affects the terms of the problem than   
the rotation of the earth upon its axis 
or its orbital motion affects  the      
operations of an electric machine as the
 handle may be rotated to  or from the  
direction of these motions4 ,both       
machine and reservoir  of energy        
occupying a fixed relation with         
reference to each other1  the positions 
of each are the same as though          
absolutely fixed4 ,this  is true of     
gravitation1 likewise1 as well as of all
 other natural  and universal forces4   
,the fact established1 then1 that       
attenuated aqueous vapor is  diffused   
throughout the interplanetary space     
occupied by our own  solar system1 and  
that it tends to surround our sun and   
planetary  bodies with aqueous envelopes
 of increased density1 proportionate to 
the action of gravity1 the question     
arises1 ,is there any known force  which

 will act through such interplanetary   
space to decompose such  aqueous vapor  
into its constituent elements and       
deposit hydrogen gas  around the sun and
 oxygen gas around the planets1 and     
which1 while  maintaining a planetary   
temperature such as we find on the      
planets1  will at the same time raise   
the hydrogen envelope of the sun to such
 a  temperature of incandescence that it
 will become a glowing sphere of  heated
 hydrogen1 in which other constituents  
of the sun's mass will  be raised to    
incandescence and partially volatilized 
in the intense  heat of that            
incandescent gas2 in which1 in fact1 the
 phenomena of  the sun will become      
manifest8 ,if so1 two vastly important  
corollaries  are inevitable3 first1 that
 the fixed stars1 which also shine with 
the light of their own glowing hydrogen1
 are themselves surrounded by  a similar
 aqueous vapor1 diffused through their  
own adjacent space1  and that1 in       
consequence1 not only our own planetary 

distances1 but all  interstellar space1 
as far as the utmost distance of the    
faintest fixed  stars1 is likewise      
pervaded by the same attenuated aqueous 
vapor1 and  that this is the grand      
source from which is derived all solar  
energy1  not only of our own sun1 but of
 all the other flaming orbs of space2   
and1 second1 which is still more        
important to us as citizens of the      
universe1 that each flaming hydrogen sun
 must have surrounding it a  correlative
 dark planetary system of its own1 and  
that the complement  of glowing         
hydrogen1 as an incandescent envelope of
 the central  orb1 necessitates the     
corresponding supplement of cool oxygen 
as  an envelope for each of such        
planetary bodies2 in other words1 that  
without such planets as our system      
possesses1 there can be no suns such  as
 our own and the other suns we see4     
,vast orbs might be conceived  of as    
rotating in eternal darkness without    
associated satellites1  but the         

incandescent atmosphere of hydrogen must
 have--not may have1  but must          
have--subordinate planets substantially 
similar to ours1  surrounded by         
atmospheres substantially similar to our
 own 7for we  find free nitrogen in     
comets1 in meteorites1 and in the       
faintest  nebul71 and these planets are 
thus fitted1 so far as we can know1  for
 the support of organic life and for the
 same orderly courses  of nature as we  
see manifest around us4 ,they must be   
cool1 for at  the planetary poles there 
must be a moderate temperature in       
contrast  with the solar pole1 which    
becomes1 of necessity1 highly heated2   
they  must have an atmosphere of oxygen 
in order that the solar center may  have
 an atmosphere of hydrogen2 these       
planetary atmospheres must be  supplied 
with nitrogen1 because nitrogen is      
universally available1  and similar     
causes operating under similar          
circumstances will produce  like        
effects2 these atmospheres must be      

charged with condensed aqueous  vapors1 
and1 if cool enough1 must have deposited
 water in liquid form1  for aqueous     
vapors when condensed by gravity are the
 correlated sources  of supply of their 
respective gaseous components at both   
solar and  planetary poles2 and these   
planets must rotate in orderly periods  
around their central suns1 or the       
aqueous vapors cannot be regularly  and 
continuously disassociated into their   
elemental gases4 ,these  planets may be 
few or many--perhaps even a single one  
sometimes--for  each sun1 but they must 
be large enough or numerous enough to   
operate  by their aggregate mass1 so as 
to disassociate around the planets  as  
much oxygen as their central sun        
disassociates of hydrogen in  their     
combining proportions1--that is1 two    
volumes of hydrogen for  each one of    
oxygen4 ,we will therefore find in such 
planets all the  potentialities of      
life--we can see and study these        
planets1 though  physically invisible1  

as easily and as thoroughly as we do our
 own1  for having the relationship of   
constitution between our own planets    
and our sun1 we may thereby learn the   
essential relationship between  any     
fixed star and its planets by directly  
studying the constitution  of such star 
alone4 ,among the planets of our own    
system ,neptune and  ,mercury1 and those
 which exist adjacent to their          
boundaries1 can be  studied with        
difficulty and uncertainty2 but what    
astronomer doubts  that they are        
constituted much like the other planets1
 and have passed1  or will pass1 through
 such stages of progress as we find     
apparent among  those more directly     
under our observation8 ,while we shall  
thus find  universality and harmony     
among all the starry systems1 we shall  
not  find identity2 but with the guiding
 light of demonstrated scientific       
principles1 we may apply our knowledge  
as a key to unlock the mysteries  of the
 most distant stars4 ,the ,milky ,way   

will gleam with new meaning1  ,sirius1  
,aldebaran1 the ,pleiades1 will send us 
messages of fellowship1  and the        
established sphere of creative energy   
will have expanded1  with all its       
wondrous mechanism1 to fill the         
universe4 ,when we see  at night a vast 
factory building with every window      
lighted1 one  who understands the       
operation and mechanism essential to the
 work  of a mill sees not alone the     
illuminated windows1 but the looms  in  
motion1 the flying shuttles1 the        
spindles humming1 the wheels  turning1  
and all the complicated machinery in    
active operation4 ,and  he can even     
picture operatives at work in their     
various avocations1  and the flashing   
windows1 though themselves silent1 are  
the visible  index of the light within  
which illuminates and makes possible the
 work  there performed4 ,and so1 when   
thus comprehended1 the flaming stars1   
but points of light in the archways of  
the sky1 themselves will reveal  to us  

the wondrous workings within the realm  
which they illuminate  and warm and     
vivify4 ,we may also reasonably infer1  
as will be more  fully explained further
 on1 that there can be no actual basis  
for the  opinion sometimes expressed1   
that great1 dark1 solid                 
orbs--independent  worlds1 in fact--are 
drifting about through space at random1 
as it  were1 like homeless vagabonds4   
,in these sparsely-occupied domains  the
 head of each household1 as in every    
well-regulated family1 has  all its     
different members gathered around in    
strict subordination1  to aid in the    
support of the establishment4 ,no sun no
 planets2 no  planets no sun1 is the    
general statement of the sidereal       
formula4 ,like  a sexual duality1 the   
mutually correlated parts constitute a  
single1  composite1 and interdependent  
whole3 one generates1 concentrates1  and
 transmits2 the other receives1         
transforms1 and delivers4               
,note4--,regarding the absence of oxygen

 from the sun's atmosphere      we quote
 the following from ,lord ,salisbury's  
very recent address      7see note at   
end of ,chapter ,i473 ,it is a great    
aggravation of      the mystery which   
surrounds the question of the elements1 
that1      among the lines which are    
absent from the spectrum of the sun1    
those of nitrogen and oxygen stand      
first4 ,oxygen constitutes the          
largest portion of the solid and liquid 
substances of our planet1      so far as
 we know it2 and nitrogen is very far   
the predominant      constituent of our 
atmosphere4 ,if the earth is a detached 
bit      whirled off the mass of the    
sun1 as cosmogonists love to tell       
us1 how comes it that in leaving the sun
 we cleaned him out so      completely  
of his nitrogen and oxygen that not a   
trace of these      gases remains behind
 to be discovered even by the sensitive 
vision of the spectroscope8 ,we shall   
find that the absence of      oxygen in 
the solar envelope is a necessary       

corollary of its      presence in those 
of the planets4 ,the same is true1      
possibly1 of      nitrogen4 ,ammoniacal 
vapors are decomposable into hydrogen   
and      nitrogen1 and hydrocarbon gases
 into hydrogen and carbon1 just      as 
aqueous vapors are resolvable into      
hydrogen and oxygen4 ,in the            
earlier stages of the earth's           
development we have abundant evidence   
of an atmosphere heavily laden with     
carbonic vapors1 which have             
disappeared1 to remain stored as fixed  
carbon1 and the oxygen      has also    
largely disappeared1 to constitute the  
enormous mass of      oxides in the     
earth's mass1 while the nitrogen remains
 to dilute      the remaining oxygen and
 constitute the air we breathe4 ,their  
common correlative1 hydrogen1           
intermingled with metallic vapors1      
composes the vast atmosphere of the sun4
                  ,,chapter ,,iii4      
,,the ,,mode ,,of ,,solar ,,energy4     
,but is there such an available force8  

,there is one1 and only                 
one1--electricity1 when properly        
generated and suitably applied4 ,it  is 
an axiom of electrical science that any 
fluid which will at all  conduct a      
current of electricity can be decomposed
 by a current of  electricity4 7,see    
,urbanitsky's work1 ,electricity in the 
,service of  ,man1 ,cassell's edition1  
page #aed47 ,it is there stated 7page   
#aeb71  ,we have frequently had occasion
 to mention certain chemical effects  of
 electricity1--namely1 the decomposition
 of gaseous compounds  into simple      
gases4 ,page #aeg1 ,whatever the        
substances we expose  to the action of  
the galvanic current1 decomposition     
takes place  proportional to the        
strength of the current4 ,page #aeb1    
,hydrogen is  always evolved at the     
negative pole of the battery and oxygen 
at the  positive pole4 ,the gases can   
then be collected in different tubes1   
the hydrogen tube receiving twice as    
much gas as the oxygen tube2  since     

water consists of two volumes of        
hydrogen and one volume  of oxygen1 it  
follows that the galvanic current       
decomposes water  into its constituents4
 ,as chemically pure water has so great 
a  resistance as almost to force us to  
consider it a non-conductor1  it is     
generally acidulated with sulphuric     
acid4 ,the smallest amount  of acid     
diminishes the resistance considerably4 
,the silent discharge  is far more      
effective in bringing about this        
transformation than the  spark          
discharge4 ,page #cg1 ,gases are bad    
conductors of electricity2  if it had   
been otherwise1 we should never have    
become acquainted with  electricity1 as 
it would have been conducted away by the
 air as fast  as it was generated4 ,the 
vacuum also does not conduct            
electricity1  but moist air becomes a   
partial conductor4 ,moist air also will 
spoil  the insulation of non-conducting 
supports4 ,all bodies are more or  less 
hygroscopic1 and the moisture condensed 

on their surfaces thus  turns the best  
insulators into conductors4 ,change of  
temperature also  influences            
conductivity4 ,page #fc1 ,when using    
induction machines1 the  moisture of the
 air often causes experiments to fail1  
especially before  large audiences4 ,the
 atmosphere becomes saturated with      
moisture1 and  it is often impossible to
 get the machine in working order4      
,several  desiccating devices are       
mentioned by the authors of this work1  
as  used with such machines1 to prevent 
such dissipation or conduction  of      
electricity from the machine into space 
by the aqueous vapor of  the atmosphere4
 ,in describing the aurora borealis     
7page #ic71 these  authors say1 ,the    
rarefied air is nearer the earth at the 
poles than  the equator1 in consequence 
of the earth's centrifugal motion1 and1 
the earth being negatively electrified1 
negative electricity will flow  from    
this point1 directed against the        
positively electrified upper  layers of 

rarefied air4 ,same work1 pages #abg1   
#abh1 ,the resistance  7in liquids7     
diminishes as the temperature increases1
 a result which  is exactly opposite to 
what occurs with metals4 ,conductivity  
for  carbon increases with the          
temperature1 thus agreeing with the     
action  of liquids4 ,page #acc1 ,to     
determine the resistance in liquids1    
the above methods cannot be employed1   
liquids being decomposed by  the        
electrical current4 ,referring to the   
voltaic arc and the spark  of the       
induction apparatus 7page #bjj71 it is  
said1 ,dry air under  great pressure    
offers a high resistance1 but a perfect 
vacuum is a  perfect insulator1 and     
between these extremes there are degrees
 of  rarification which admit of a flow 
of electricity4 ,in general1 it  is said
 that electrical decomposition requires 
that the electrolyte  be in liquid form1
 but this is not universally true1 and  
throughout  interplanetary space may not
 be true at all4 ,in ,ferguson's work on

  ,electricity1 it is stated that1 ,the 
passage of electricity through  compound
 gases in a state of great rarity1 as in
 the so-called vacuum  tubes1 frequently
 separates them up into their           
constituents4 ,so1 also1  the opinion   
that electricity cannot be readily      
conducted through  dry gases is refuted 
by the play of the auroral streamers4   
,the  distance from the surface of the  
earth of these electrical waves  and the
 auroral arch is variously estimated at 
from seventy to two  hundred and        
sixty-five miles1 and in one instance at
 a height of  from four thousand to six 
thousand miles2 see article in          
,appleton's  ,cyclopdia4 ,certainly     
there could be no sensible moisture at  
the  temperatures there prevalent1 and  
especially at night and during the  fall
 and winter months when these displays  
are very frequent4 ,whether  the        
currents be due to induction1 as between
 neighboring bodies one of  which is    
electrified1 or from direct emission1 as

 in brush discharges1  there must       
obviously be some medium of contact and 
continuity for  the free transference of
 electrical energy through space4       
,regarding  the rationale of            
electrolysis 7,electricity in the       
,service of  ,man71 after discussing    
certain other theories1 the authors say1
  ,clausius1 too1 assumes an electrified
 condition of the molecules  of each    
electrode1 but he neither attributes to 
the galvanic current  the force of      
direction nor power of decomposing4 ,he 
points out that  both the molecules of  
fluids and also their atoms are in      
continual  motion4 ,the atoms in        
molecules of fluids are held together   
but by a  moderate force1 and the       
molecules themselves constantly undergo 
changes  both of synthesis and analysis4
 ,the galvanic current merely effects a 
regulated motion of the atoms2 the      
positive ions are attracted by the      
negative electrode1 and the negative    
ions by the positive electrode1  and by 

this means are separated out from the   
liquid4 ,page #ia1 ,the  upper layers of
 air are more or less electrified1 so as
 to have a  potential differing from    
that of the earth1 but how their        
electrical  condition has been produced 
is not at present known4 ,condensation  
of  water-vapor is supposed to produce  
electricity4 ,close to the earth  the   
air has little or no electricity2 the   
farther from the earth  the greater the 
amount of electricity in the air4       
,referring to the  sparking discharge1  
it is said1 page #ge1 ,the density of   
the air1  however1 has to be taken into 
account2 the sparking distance is       
lessened in denser air1 and becomes     
greater when the atmospheric  pressure  
is diminished4 ,not only the density1   
but also the chemical  composition of   
the medium influences the sparking      
distance4 ,faraday  found the distances 
considerably less in chlorine gas1 but  
twice  as long in hydrogen gas as in    
air4 ,page #gd1 ,the sparking distance  

increases at a somewhat greater rate    
than the difference of potential  of the
 discharging bodies4444 ,when the       
sparking distance becomes very  great   
444 it is proportional to the difference
 of potential4 ,page #ia1  ,there is a  
difference of potential between the     
earth and points in the  air above4 ,in 
fine weather the potential is higher the
 higher we go1  increasing usually at   
the rate of twenty to forty volts for   
each foot4    ,it will be seen that1    
continued upward at this rate1 the      
increased  electrical pressure for each 
mile of elevation would be between      
#ajj1jjj  and #bjj1jjj volts1 or for    
each one hundred miles more than        
#aj1jjj1jjj  volts2 and at an altitude  
of one thousand miles1 if carried so    
far1  the potential would be between one
 and two hundred million volts1  an     
electrical pressure quite inconceivable 
to us4 ,such a potential  in currents of
 enormous quantity continually flowing  
from the earth  to the sun would        

certainly decompose any aqueous vapors  
condensed  around these bodies4 ,but the
 question at once arises1 ,what reason  
is there to suppose that such currents  
could possibly flow between  the earth  
and the sun1 across that vast           
intervening region of space1  a distance
 of more than #ij1jjj1jjj miles8 ,and   
would not the resistance  to such       
currents in transit be so enormous that 
the entire potential1  however great1   
would have been practically lost long   
before reaching  the sun8 ,to this there
 is a complete and irrefutable answer1  
not  based upon any abstract theory1 but
 upon established fact4 ,it is an       
absolute certainty that electrical      
currents of enormous quantity and  high 
potential are constantly passing between
 the earth and the sun1  and that these 
currents have so free a passage--far    
more free than  through any metallic    
circuits that we know of--that they pass
 over  this enormous distance absolutely
 without appreciable resistance4 ,we    

may note in this connection the         
well-known facts1 now being largely     
utilized1 though the art is still in its
 infancy1 of telegraphing and           
transmitting all sorts of electrical    
currents over large distances  without  
wires or any conductors1 except those   
furnished by nature4    ,of the currents
 between the earth and the sun1         
,professor ,proctor1  in his ,light     
,science for ,leisure ,hours1 says1     
,remembering the  influence which the   
sun has been found to exercise upon the 
magnetic  needle1 the question will     
naturally arise1 ,has the sun anything  
to do  with magnetic storms8 ,we have   
clear evidence that he has4 ,on the #ast
 of  ,september1 #ahei1 ,messrs4        
,carrington and ,hodgson were observing 
the sun1  one at ,oxford and the other  
in ,london4 ,their scrutiny was directed
 to  certain large spots which at that  
time marked the sun's face4 ,suddenly  a
 bright light was seen by each observer 
to break out on the sun's  surface and  

to travel1 slowly in appearance1 but in 
reality at the rate  of about seven     
thousand miles in a minute1 across a    
part of the solar  disk4 ,now1 it was   
found afterwards that the               
self-registering magnetic  instruments  
at ,kew had made at that very instant a 
strongly-marked  jerk4 ,it was learned  
that at that moment a magnetic storm    
prevailed  in the ,west ,indies1 in     
,south ,america1 and in ,australia4 ,the
 signal  men in the telegraph stations  
at ,washington and ,philadelphia        
received  strong electric shocks2 the   
pen of ,bain's telegraph was followed by
  a flame of fire2 and in ,norway the   
telegraphic machinery was set on  fire4 
,at night great auroras were seen in    
both hemispheres4 ,it is  impossible not
 to connect these startling magnetic    
indications with  the remarkable        
appearance observed upon the sun's disk4
 ,but there is  other evidence4         
,magnetic storms prevail more commonly  
in some years  than in others4 ,in those

 years in which they occur most         
frequently  it is found that the        
ordinary oscillations of the magnetic   
needle  are more extensive than usual4  
,now1 when these peculiarities had been 
noticed for many years1 it was found    
that there was an alternate and         
systematic increase and diminution in   
intensity of magnetic action1  and that 
the period of the variation was about   
eleven years4 ,but at  the same time a  
diligent observer had been recording the
 appearance  of the sun's face from day 
to day and from year to year4 ,he had   
found that the solar spots are in some  
years more freely displayed  than in    
others1 and he had determined the period
 in which the spots  had successively   
presented with maximum frequency to be  
about eleven  years4 ,on a comparison of
 the two sets of observations it was    
found  7and has now been placed beyond a
 doubt by many years of continual       
observation7 that magnetic perturbations
 are most energetic when the  sun is    

most spotted1 and vice versa4 ,for so   
remarkable a phenomenon  as this none   
but a cosmical cause can suffice4 ,we   
can neither say  that the spots cause   
the magnetic storms nor that the        
magnetic storms  cause the spots4 ,we   
must seek for a cause producing at once 
both sets  of phenomena4 ,it will be    
observed that the phenomena seen in the 
sun  were marked at the same instant by 
violent electric perturbations on       
earth4 ,hence something must have passed
 with the velocity of light1  which we  
know to be at the rate of #ahh1jjj miles
 per second1 or in  about eight minutes 
from the sun to the earth4 ,but it is   
stated in  ,electricity in the ,service 
of ,man1 page #hb1 that1 ,according to  
the  theoretical calculations of        
,kirchhoff1 as well as of ,ayrton and   
,perry1  the velocity of electricity in 
a wire without resistance would be      
equal to the velocity of light4 ,hence  
we perceive that the apparent           
difficulty has vanished in the light of 

observed fact1 and that  currents of    
electricity do pass and are constantly  
passing between  the earth and the sun  
without the slightest loss of           
speed1--that  is to say1 without        
resistance4 ,we shall find in the sequel
 that the  above phenomena were caused  
most probably by a partial interruption 
of a constant direct current from the   
earth to the sun1 instead of  by an     
opposite return current from the sun to 
the earth4 ,in further  illustration of 
the above facts we quote the following1 
page #agb1  ,electricity in the ,service
 of ,man3 ,many attempts have been made 
to find a connection between the spots  
and prominences in the sun and  the     
electrical phenomena on the earth4      
,professor ,forster says that by        
numerous magnetic observations of the   
last thirty or forty years it  has been 
proved that the formation of black spots
 on the surface of  the sun1 and the    
generation of pillars and clouds of     
glowing gases  in the immediate         

neighborhood of the sun1 stand in close 
connection  with certain deviations in  
direction and intensity of the earth's  
magnetic forces4 ,professor ,proctor1 in
 his ,light ,science for ,leisure       
,hours1 says1 ,from all this it appears1
 incontestably1 that there  is an       
intimate connection between the causes  
of auroras and those  of terrestrial    
magnetism4444 ,the magnetic needle not  
only swayed  responsively to auroras    
observable in the immediate             
neighborhood1  but to auroras in        
progress hundreds and thousands of miles
 away4 ,nay1  as inquiry progressed1 it 
was discovered that the needles in our  
northern observatories are swayed by    
influences associated even with  the    
occurrence of auroras around the        
southern polar regions4444 ,could  we   
only associate auroras with terrestrial 
magnetism1 we should  still have done   
much to enhance the interest which the  
beautiful  phenomenon is calculated to  
excite4 ,but when once this association 

has been established1 others of even    
greater interest are brought  into      
recognition2 for terrestrial magnetism  
has been clearly shown  to be influenced
 directly by the action of the sun4444  
,we already  begin to see1 then1 that   
auroras are associated in some          
mysterious  way with the action of the  
solar rays4 ,the phenomenon which had   
been  looked on for so many ages as a   
mere spectacle1 caused perhaps by some  
process in the upper regions of the air 
of a simple local character1  has been  
brought into the range of planetary     
phenomena4 ,as surely as  the brilliant 
planets which deck the nocturnal skies  
are illuminated  by the same orb which  
gives us our days and seasons1 so are   
they  subject to the same mysterious    
influence which causes the northern     
banners to wave respondently over the   
starlit depths of heaven4 ,nay1  it is  
even probable that every flicker and    
coruscation of our auroral  displays    
correspond with similar manifestations  

upon every planet  which travels round  
the sun4 ,in ,professor ,ball's late    
work1 ,in the  ,high ,heavens1 the      
author says1 ,dr4 ,schuster suggests    
that there may  be an electric          
connection between the sun and the      
planets4 ,in fact1  with some           
limitations1 we might even assert that  
there must be such a  connection4 ,it is
 well known that great outbreaks on the 
sun have been  immediately followed1 ,i 
might almost say accompanied1 by        
remarkable  magnetic disturbances on the
 earth4 ,the instances that are recorded
  of this connection are altogether too 
remarkable to be set aside as  mere     
coincidences4 ,dr4 ,huggins has not     
referred in this connection  to ,hertz's
 astonishing discoveries2 but it seems  
quite possible that  research along this
 line may throw light on the subject1 at
 present so  obscure1 of the electric   
relation between the sun and the earth4 
,of  this common electrical relationship
 between our sun and the different      

planets1 and of these with each other1  
,professor ,proctor says1 in  his       
article1 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1       
,interesting as are the bonds  of union 
which ,copernicus and ,kepler and       
,newton have traced in the  relations of
 our system1 it would seem as though we 
were approaching  the traces of a yet   
more wonderful law of association4 ,we  
see the  earth's magnetism responding to
 the solar influences1 not merely  in   
those rhythmic motions which belong to  
the periodic variations1  but in sudden 
thrills affecting the whole framework of
 our globe4 ,the  magnetic storms which 
are called into action by such solar    
disturbances  as the one of ,september1 
#ahei1 are1 we may feel sure1 not       
peculiar  to our own earth4 ,the other  
planets feel the same influence1--not1  
perhaps1 in exactly the same way1 but   
according to the constitution  and      
physical habitudes which respectively   
belong to them4 ,so that one  can scarce
 conceive a subject of study at once    

more promising and more  interesting4   
,of these prophetic shadows which       
science often seems to  cast before1    
,professor ,nichol1 in his ,architecture
 of the ,heavens  7referring to ,sir    
,william ,herschel71 says1 ,without     
difficulty or  pretence he there casts  
aside an idea which had not been        
questioned  before1 unless in a few of  
those obscure1 indefinite speculations  
which1 strangely enough1 often prelude  
important discoveries4 ,these  facts are
 thus incontestably established3 that   
electric currents of  enormous energy   
and vast quantity are constantly passing
 without  appreciable resistance and    
with the speed of light between the     
earth and the sun2 that such currents   
cannot be conducted through  vacua1 or  
through dry gases1 or through a dense   
medium2 and that1  whatever other matter
 may exist in the intervening space1    
such space  is pervaded throughout by an
 attenuated vapor of such constitution  
and density that it will transmit such  

electrical currents with the  highest   
conceivable efficiency4 ,we know that   
such passage of these  currents cannot  
depend upon the ether of space which is 
acted upon by  the sun to produce the   
ethereal undulatory vibrations of light 
and  heat1 for1 after we have produced  
the most perfect vacuum possible1  we   
find that the rays of light continue to 
pass through it as freely  as they pass 
through space1 while currents of        
electricity cannot be  made to pass at  
all4 ,hence we know to a certainty that 
the medium  which transmits these       
enormous currents of electricity must be
 a vapor  capable of conducting         
electricity1 that it must hence be      
decomposable  by the electric current1  
and that when decomposed one of its     
elements  must consist of hydrogen gas  
and the other of oxygen2 in other words1
  that this conducting medium must      
consist of attenuated aqueous vapor1    
commingled doubtless with other vapors  
which themselves1 like the acid  of the 

acidulated water used in electrolysis1  
aid in the conduction  of these enormous
 currents4 ,we also know that such      
vapors in space  will be necessarily    
attracted1 by gravitation1 around the   
solar and  planetary bodies immersed    
therein1 and must form condensed        
vaporous  atmospheres or cloud masses1  
and if these are decomposed by the      
passage  of such currents of            
electricity1 that hydrogen gas will be  
liberated  at the solar galvanic pole   
and oxygen at the terrestrial or other  
planetary pole1 precisely as we find to 
be the case in nature4 ,will  such      
gaseous envelopes1 then1 have the same  
temperature for each  gas when thus     
liberated1 or will the hydrogen envelope
 of the sun be  heated to incandescence1
 due to the passage of the electrical   
current8    ,the temperature of         
interplanetary space is probably very   
low4 ,of this  ,professor ,ball says1   
,what this may be is a matter of some   
uncertainty1  but from all the evidence 

available it seems plain that we may put
 it  at not less than three hundred     
degrees below zero2 and the same author 
adds1 ,the temperature is taken to be   
sixty-four degrees below zero1  being   
presumably that at the confines of the  
atmosphere4 ,whatever  the temperature  
of space1 or its variations1 may be1 the
 passage of  the planetary electricity  
through the condensed hydrogen envelope 
of  the sun will produce great changes  
in the heat of that body and of  the    
solar core within4 ,while with a small  
electrolytic apparatus we  find no      
special differences of temperature in   
the gases1 with large  quantities of    
electricity1 driven at a high potential1
 we find that  a new and startling      
result ensues4 ,something of this sort  
is seen  in the operation of electric   
arc-light lamps1 now in common use1  in 
which two slightly separated carbon     
points are traversed by a  current of   
considerable potential4 ,the current is 
driven across the  intervening space    

between the points1 carrying with it an 
atmosphere  of disintegrated carbon1    
through which the electricity is carried
  at its highest speed1 and a most      
brilliant light is produced4 ,in        
,electricity in the ,service of ,man1   
page #aea1 it is said1 ,we may  conclude
 from this that the current does not    
cease when the arc  of light is formed4 
,the resistance of the arc seems to be  
only very  slight2 in fact1 the current 
must be conducted by it4 ,of the        
structure  and constitution of the      
luminous electrosphere1 or arc1 produced
 in  these lamps1 ,professor ,j4 ,a4    
,fleming1 says the ,scientific          
,american1  has shown that the          
well-known color of the light of the    
electric  arc from carbon points is due 
to the incandescence of the carbon      
filling the space between the positive  
and the negative rods4 ,the true  arc is
 here1 and exists in a space filled with
 the vapor of carbon1  which has a      
brilliant violet color4 ,examined by the

 spectroscope1 the  central axis of the 
carbon arc gives a spectrum marked by   
two bright  violet bands4 ,outside this 
is an aureole of carbon vapor of yellow 
or  golden color4 ,the electrical strain
 of the arc occurs chiefly at the       
surface of the crater which forms at the
 end of the positive rod1  where1 in    
fact1 the principal work of generating  
light is done2  for eighty per cent4 of 
the total light of the arc comes from   
the  incandescent carbon at this place4 
,thus1 in a sense1 the arc light is     
mainly an incandescent light1 the effect
 being produced by the layer of  carbon 
which is being constantly evaporated at 
an extremely elevated  temperature4     
,hence the light of the carbon arc is   
not1 and can never  be1 white1 as it is 
sometimes described as being1 but must  
always be  tinted violet by the carbon  
vapor normally present between the rods4
    ,the significance of the            
above-quoted extract will be readily    
perceived  when we come to consider the 

action of the direct planetary          
electrical  currents upon the solar     
envelope1 the effects in both cases     
being  substantially identical4 ,the    
quantity and intensity of the electric  
current1 as it passes through the       
incandescent arc to the negative  pole1 
and thence back to the dynamo1 are      
diminished exactly in  proportion to the
 energy expended in the generation of   
the light  and heat of the arc4 ,it is  
precisely the same as in the operation  
of a turbine water-wheel2 if working at 
its highest efficiency1 the  discharged 
water is almost deprived of force3 its  
gravity has been  converted into work4  
,in the electric light this conversion  
is only  partial1 owing to atmospheric  
and other conditions2 but in the case   
of the solar envelope and its core1 it  
is nearly1 if not altogether1  perfect1 
so that the currents of electricity are 
almost entirely  converted into light   
and heat1 or expended in the            
electrolytic  decomposition of the      

surrounding aqueous vapors1 and do not  
reappear  as electricity1 but as        
converted solar energy4 ,brilliant1     
however1  as the light rays are in a    
powerful arc lamp1--perhaps the nearest 
to solar light we can produce1--the     
obscure heat rays are far more  numerous
 and powerful4 ,on page #dgf of the work
 just cited a table is  given1 showing  
the proportion of visible and invisible 
rays emitted  by different illuminants1 
and with the electric lamp1 even1 ninety
 per  cent4 of all the rays emitted by  
the voltaic arc are heat rays1 which    
are obscure and invisible4 ,but the     
startling effects of electricity  of    
large quantity and high potential1 in   
the decomposition of water1  are far    
more strikingly exhibited by an         
apparatus shown in #ahic at the         
,chicago ,exhibition by a firm from     
,brussels1 and which is described  in   
the ,electrical ,review as follows3 ,an 
ordinary wooden pail is  three-quarters 
filled with water slightly acidulated2 a

 lead plate  about nine inches broad by 
sixteen inches long dips to the bottom  
of  the pail and is connected to an     
incandescent dynamo machine capable of  
giving over one hundred and fifty       
ampres4 ,the iron rod1 or article to  be
 heated1 is connected to the pole of the
 dynamo and simply dipped  into the     
water2 it immediately becomes heated and
 rapidly rises to a  melting            
temperature2 only that portion of the   
metal completely immersed  becomes      
heated1 and the heating is so rapid that
 neither the water nor  that portion of 
the metal out of the water becomes very 
warm4 ,wrought  iron and steel actually 
melt if long enough held under water4 ,a
 carbon  rod subjected to this process  
becomes amorphous carbon1 proving that  
a temperature of at least four thousand 
degrees ,centigrade has been  reached1  
and it is stated that with two hundred  
and twenty volts'  pressure a           
temperature of eight thousand degrees   
,centigrade has been  reached4 ,there   

are various theories to account for this
 phenomenon1  but from close observation
 it appears to be a case of arc heating4
 ,the  moment the metal is plunged into 
the water it is enveloped in hydrogen   
gas decomposed from the water4 ,this    
envelope of gas parts the water and     
metal1 forming an arc1 which raises the 
surrounding gaseous envelope  to an     
enormous temperature2 the metal         
surrounded by this arc is almost        
immediately raised to the same          
temperature4 ,a flame of burning        
hydrogen  appears around the metal on   
the surface of the water4 ,the principle
 of  the method is the same as that on  
which the burning of an arc light       
between two carbon points under water   
depends4 ,an arc lamp will burn  quite  
steadily under water if the connections 
are made water-proof2  the arc itself   
requires no protection4    ,it will be  
seen that the process above described is
 precisely  analogous to that involved  
in the problem of the sun's energy4 ,the

  planets correspond with the leaden    
plates1 upon which oxygen is  disengaged
 from the water1 while at the same      
moment the liberated  hydrogen          
necessarily appears at the opposite     
pole4 ,the generation  of hydrogen gas  
forms an envelope or atmosphere of      
hydrogen around  the sun which forces   
back the aqueous vapor4 ,the current1 in
 passing  through this gaseous envelope 
to the metal core within1 intensely     
heats the hydrogen1 which rapidly       
communicates its rising heat to the     
central core4 ,if this core is composed 
of metals1 and the temperature  be      
raised sufficiently high1 which only    
depends upon the quantity and  working  
pressure of the electricity employed1   
the metal core will be  volatilized in  
whole or in part1 and1 if of mixed      
metals1 we will  find the presence of   
these elements revealed in the          
spectroscopic  lines corresponding      
thereto1 and the flames and flashes of  
hydrogen  at the surfaces beyond the    

envelope1 at the surface of contact with
  the matter of space1 will be also     
seen4 ,in fact1 such an experiment1     
properly prepared1 could be made to show
 roughly most of the phenomena  of solar
 light and heat as they actually appear1
 such as sun-spots1  prominences1 jets1 
plumes1 facul1 the photosphere1         
chromosphere1  absorption bands1        
vortical disturbances1 metallic vapors1 
and the  complete solar spectrum1 with  
the different ,fraunhofer lines4 ,in    
the case of the sun1 these currents must
 be measured by millions of  ampres1 and
 possibly by hundreds of millions of    
volts1 instead of by  mere hundreds1    
while the hydrogen envelope extends     
outward from the  sun's surface hundreds
 of thousands of miles until1 perhaps1  
finally  merged into the corona4 ,as the
 currents pass from the planets and     
planetoids 7for not only the larger     
planets1 but all the planetary  bodies  
of our system must contribute1 if any of
 them contribute7 to  the sun1 or rather

 to the sphere of its electrical action1
 without  resistance1 so long as these  
planets generate constant currents of   
the  same1 or nearly the same1          
potential1 so long will the sun maintain
  his constant light and heat2 if these 
are increased or diminished1  the sun's 
light and heat will be temporarily1 but 
only temporarily1  increased or         
diminished2 and this process must       
continue1 without  further loss or      
change1 indefinitely into the future4   
,whatever the  sun may gain by increment
 of meteoric masses may pass for what it
  is worth1 but the gradual contraction 
of his volume cannot proceed  while his 
present temperature is maintained by the
 passage of such  currents1--that is to 
say1 his light and heat will remain     
constant1  and also his mass and volume1
 so long as the electric currents which 
pass from the planets to the sun and the
 constitution of space which  surrounds 
the sun and planets themselves remain   
constant4    ,it now remains to consider

 how such enormous currents of          
electricity  can be generated and       
maintained4 ,we know1 of course1 that   
chemical  changes cannot operate to     
produce them4 ,they must be derived from
  something contained in or diffused    
through interplanetary space1  and the  
planets themselves must be the means by 
which such currents  of electricity are 
brought into effective operation4 ,on   
our own  earth we have many kinds of    
mechanically-constructed electrical     
apparatus which generate electricity1 to
 use a popular expression1  or which1   
more properly1 separate the opposite    
potentials from  an unstable electrical 
tension or equilibrium of the matter of 
space4 ,these machines practically take 
positive electricity from  the          
mutually-balanced electric potentials of
 which the earth and  its surrounding   
gaseous envelope are the vast common    
storehouse1  in such manner that the    
positive electricity thus drawn out from
 and  again passing into the common     

storehouse shall1 during such transit1  
be compelled to pass through channels   
which will cause it to do work1  at the 
expense of its potential or pressure1   
during its passage1  or in which        
electricity is raised in its            
electro-motive force from  a lower to a 
higher potential or pressure1 just as   
the pressure of  water is increased when
 delivered from a greater or a still    
greater  height1 or steam1 when confined
 in space under higher and still higher 
temperatures4 ,but none of these        
machines actually generate electricity  
ab initio2 they merely put into         
effective operation the pre-existing    
force4 ,the mass of the earth is of     
irregularly negative polarity1 the  air 
above is positive1 and as we ascend1 the
 potential1 or voltage1  or pressure    
increases at a nearly uniform rate of   
from twenty to forty  volts for each    
foot4 ,the earth is thus surrounded by  
an electrosphere  as well as an         
atmosphere1 and the two are not         

coincident1 for while  the pressure of  
the atmosphere diminishes as we ascend1 
that of the  electrosphere increases4   
,the moon1 too1 and each planet must    
have  its electrosphere1 and around the 
sun's core we can see the solar         
electrosphere in its visible glory4     
,thus1 all our planets rotate upon      
their axes and revolve around the sun1  
each surrounded by an enormous          
electrosphere1 just as an electrical    
induction machine is surrounded1  when  
in operation1 with an electrosphere of  
its own1 and which1  by breaking        
connection with the conductor which     
carries away its  current1 becomes1 when
 shown in a darkened room1 clearly      
visible4 ,in  ,electricity in the       
,service of ,man it is said1 page #fc1  
,the inductive  action of the machine is
 quite as rapid and as powerful when    
both  collectors are removed and nothing
 is left but the two rotating  disks and
 their respective contact or            
neutralizing brushes4 ,the whole        

apparatus then bristles with            
electricity1 and if viewed in the dark  
presents a most beautiful appearance1   
being literally bathed with  luminous   
brush discharges4 ,this is a true       
aurora4    ,let us now examine some of  
these more recent electric              
machines1--the  later induction1 not the
 older frictional machines1 for it is   
obvious that the rotation of the        
planets1 if they operate as  electric   
generators1 or separators1 must act by  
induction and not by  friction4 ,the    
frictional machines are of the old type 
and are well  known from the books2 in  
these a glass disk or cylinder is rubbed
  upon in its rotation by an amalgamated
 7so called7 friction pad fixed         
securely to the bed of the machine4 ,but
 more recently these have  been replaced
 by far more powerful and simple        
machines which operate  entirely by     
induction1 like approaching             
thunderclouds1 for instance1  and in    
which one or more glass disks are merely

 rotated rapidly and  freely in the air1
 these disks having a number of light   
metallic  sectors1 such as bits of      
tin-foil1 pasted on their outer sides at
  equal radial intervals1 and with      
metallic collecting brushes which1      
however1 barely graze the surfaces of   
the rotating disk4 ,there is  no        
pressure and no friction1 except that of
 the disks as they freely  revolve in   
the atmosphere4    ,in the above-quoted 
work1 page #fa1 is a description of     
,wimshurst's  influence machine1 one of 
the most recent and most powerful1 which
 we  condense as follows3 ,this machine 
was produced about #ahhc4 ,it consists  
of two circular disks of thin glass     
fourteen and one-half inches in         
diameter in the sample described1       
attached at their centers to loose      
bosses1 so as to be rotated by cords and
 pulleys operated by a handle1  in      
opposite directions4 ,the disks rotate  
parallel with each other and  are not   
more than one-eighth of an inch apart1  

and have their surfaces  well varnished2
 and attached by cement to their outer  
surfaces are  twelve or more radial1    
sector-shaped plates of thin brass- or  
tin-foil1  disposed around the disks at 
equal distances apart4 ,these sectors   
take the place of the inductors of      
,holtz's instrument1 and appear  to act 
also as carriers1 though the exact      
nature of their action is  somewhat     
mysterious4 ,it appears1 however1       
probable that those acting  for the time
 as carriers on the one disk act at the 
same time as  inductors on the other4   
,the two sectors on the same diameter of
 each  disk1 at opposite sides of the   
center1 are twice in each revolution    
momentarily placed in metallic          
connection with one another by means of 
a pair of fine wire brushes attached to 
the ends of a bent metal rod  loosely   
pivoted at the center of each disk1 the 
metal sectors just  grazing the tips of 
the wire brushes as they pass4 ,there is
 one of  these bent rods on the outside 

of each disk1 and their position as     
pivoted on their center can be varied at
 will1 both with reference  to the one  
on the opposite side and to the position
 of the fixed  collecting combs4 ,the   
efficiency of the machine varies with   
their  position1 and the maximum appears
 to be generally when the brushes  touch
 the disks on diameters crossing the    
position of the collecting  combs at    
about forty-five degrees1 and with the  
bent rods on opposite  sides at right   
angles to each other4 ,the collecting   
combs are simple  forks with collecting 
points turned inward1 which forks       
embrace the  opposite sides of the disks
 outside1 which freely rotate between   
them1  and they are supported on        
insulated posts4 ,these supports may be 
small  ,leyden jars or condensers1 with 
discharging knobs1 or may be connected  
with similar condensers at a distance1  
or arranged in batteries or  otherwise4 
,the presence of the collecting combs is
 not necessary to  the operation of the 

machine1 their sole function being to   
carry away  the positive electricity as 
generated4 ,the machine is              
self-exciting1  and it is believed that 
the initial action must be due to       
friction in  the layer of air contained 
between the plates1 which1 as above     
stated1  are only about one-eighth of an
 inch apart4 ,it is nearly independent  
of atmospheric conditions1 and not      
liable to reverse its polarity1  as are 
the ,voss machines4 ,the ,voss machine  
uses a larger glass disk  which does not
 rotate1 but is fixed1 and which has a  
central opening  three inches wide1 with
 a different arrangement of tin-foil    
disks or  sectors1 and a smaller glass  
disk rotates parallel with it4 ,the     
,holtz  machine is somewhat similar1    
using a single rotating1 well-varnished 
glass disk revolving opposite a         
well-varnished larger disk1 the latter  
provided with three sector-shaped       
openings or windows1 with varnished     
paper inductors or flaps passing through

 these windows so as to touch  the      
revolving disk4 ,there are also two     
series of fine metal points held  by    
brass bars provided with insulated      
handles and discharging knobs4    ,it is
 only necessary to give a general idea  
of the construction and  operation of   
such machines1 as their specific        
construction can be  readily learned    
from the books4 ,of the mode of         
operation1 however1  it is said1 ,what  
takes place when the machine is in      
action is of  a very complicated nature1
 and can hardly be said to be perfectly 
understood4 ,with a ,wimshurst machine  
having disks of a diameter  of fourteen 
and one-half inches there is produced   
under ordinary  atmospheric conditions a
 powerful spark discharge between the   
knobs  when they are separated by a     
distance of four and one-half inches1  a
 pint size ,leyden jar being in         
connection with each knob 7one on each  
opposite diameter of the two disks71 and
 these four-and-one-half-inch           

discharges take place in regular        
succession at every two and a half      
turns of the handle4 ,it is usual to    
construct the machine with small        
,leyden jars or condensers attached to  
conductors1 by which the spark  is      
materially increased4 ,a machine has    
been constructed with plates  seven feet
 in diameter1 which1 it was believed1   
would give sparks  thirty inches long2  
but no ,leyden jars have been found to  
withstand  its discharge1 all being     
pierced by the enormous tension4 ,three 
of ,toepler's induction machines 7see   
page #ei1 ,electricity in the  ,service 
of ,man71 connected together1 gave a    
current which maintained  a platinum    
wire one-fifth of a millimeter thick    
continually at a red  heat1 and was also
 capable of decomposing water4          
,,chapter ,,iv4    ,,the ,,source ,,of  
,,solar ,,energy4      ,the remarkable  
resemblance between the mode of         
operation and effects of  these         
electrical induction machines and the   

vast rotating electrosphere  of the     
earth must be at once apparent4 ,the    
operation is precisely  the same1 and   
the results must1 pari passu1 be        
substantially  similar4 ,we need not    
seek for precise parallelism of         
structure1  because these machines      
themselves1 it has been shown1 widely   
differ  in structure among themselves4  
,but the almost infinitely more vast    
terrestrial electrosphere1 which cannot 
be less than ten thousand  miles in     
diameter1 and perhaps much more 7if we  
may form an opinion  from the relative  
magnitude of the field of action of the 
hydrogen  envelope which constitutes the
 solar electrosphere71 rotating in the  
attenuated vapors of space1 among which 
vapors that of water plays a  most      
important part1 and which vapors        
constantly impinge with various         
disturbances of contact against the more
 and more attenuated layers of  the     
terrestrial atmosphere1 and which       
gradually1 from within outward1  less   

and less partakes of the earth's        
rotation until1 finally1 its  rotatory  
movement is lost in the vast ocean of   
space1 establishes  the certainty that  
enormous quantities of electricity must 
there be  disengaged1 precisely as in   
the machines which we have described1   
and to learn the potential or active    
pressure of this electricity  we have   
only to consider the fact that we find a
 rise so rapid1  as we ascend through   
our atmosphere1 that the potential      
increases  by from twenty to forty volts
 for each foot4 ,that these currents    
are transmitted to the sun without      
appreciable resistance we already  know1
 and that they are there transformed    
into light and heat we can1  from the   
previously cited experiments1 see4      
,but it may be urged that the resistance
 of such attenuated vapors in  space1   
and the generation of electricity in    
such quantities1 would  inevitably      
retard and finally destroy planetary    
motion4 ,the sufficient  answer to this 

is found in the consideration that the  
same facts must  exist under any        
possible mode of organization of our    
solar system1  and that such            
interference1 besides1 must have        
absolutely prevented  its formation at  
all1 if such were the case4 ,all the    
matter of our  planetary system together
 is only one seven-hundred-and-fiftieth 
that of the sun2 if this were added to  
the sun's bulk it would but  slightly   
enlarge it4 ,but all this solar and     
planetary matter together1  if          
distributed over the space occupied by  
our planetary system1--and1  by the     
nebular hypothesis of the organization  
of our solar system1  this is           
requisite1--and having an axial diameter
 one-half that  of its equatorial 7see  
,proctor's ,familiar ,essays on         
,scientific  ,subjects1--,oxygen in the 
,sun71 would have had a density of only 
about one four-hundred-thousandth that  
of hydrogen gas at atmospheric          
pressure4 ,this nebular mass must have  

had a diameter at least sixty  times    
that of the distance of the earth from  
the sun and a depth  of thirty times its
 distance4 ,that this enormous mass of  
attenuated  matter should ever have been
 made to rotate as a whole by any force 
of  attraction1 repulsion1 or rotation1 
with a tenuity so great that1 if        
measured by an equal volume of hydrogen 
gas1--the lightest substance  known to  
us1--it would have furnished material   
for four hundred  thousand such systems 
as ours1 presupposes a resistance so    
slight  that the planets themselves1    
when coagulated out of such a mass1     
could never in any conceivable time     
exhibit retardation from such  a source2
 and we know to a certainty that such   
attenuated vapors do  exist in space1   
for electricity cannot be transmitted   
through a vacuum1  and it is transmitted
 with perfect freedom between the earth 
and the  sun4 ,but it may be said that  
the laws were then different4 ,if they  
were different then1 they are doubtless 

different now4 ,if1 on the  other hand1 
we assume that the bodies of which our  
solar system is  composed were simply   
aggregated into concrete masses from    
meteoric  dust1 the difficulty is not   
lessened2 for if the resistances to     
their  operation now are such as to     
perceptibly retard their motions1 they  
must have operated still more powerfully
 to originally prevent them2  while1 if 
hurled forth by an almighty fiat1       
complete from the hand  of creative     
energy1 the same force which impelled   
them forward must  have also established
 the laws under which they now move4    
,it is calculated that our earth must be
 losing time1 by tidal  retardation1 at 
the rate of one-half the moon's diameter
 in each twelve  hundred years 7see     
,proctor1 ,light ,science for ,leisure  
,hours1--,our  ,chief ,timepiece ,losing
 ,time71 and that the length of a day is
 now  more by about one eighty-fourth   
part of a second than it was two        
thousand years ago4 ,perhaps1 however1  

we may discover that these  changes are 
themselves periodic and increase in     
cycles to a maximum1  and then diminish1
 as is the case with magnetic1          
planetary1 and stellar  variations1 and 
other similar changes1 when sufficiently
 long observed2  for while such changes 
may very well accompany a theory under  
which  our system and all other systems 
are slowly running down to decay and    
death1 it is entirely incompatible with 
the primal forces under which  they must
 have been originally formed4 ,in other 
words1 if the tides  are dragging back  
our earth without compensation1 this    
dragging back  can only come from the   
oceanic deposit of water on the earth   
from  the aqueous vapors of space which 
do not partake of the planetary         
rotation and orbital movement of the    
earth4 ,but if these can now  retard the
 earth's motion1 they must have         
originally prevented it in  the         
beginning4 ,this loss of time is1       
moreover1 merely inferential from       

mathematical computations1 and its basis
 is found in the belief that  all the   
operations of nature are in a slow      
process of degradation1  and the        
calculated loss itself may be merely    
theoretical1 and not true  in fact4     
,professor ,proctor himself concedes the
 uncertainty of this  alleged           
retardation when he says in the same    
article1 ,at this rate  of change our   
day would merge into a lunar month in   
the course of  thirty-six thousand      
millions of years4 ,but after a while   
the change  will take place more slowly1
 and some trillion or so of years will  
elapse before the full change is        
effected4    ,while the processes of    
nature are generally believed to be     
running  down1 everything is bent to    
that belief2 but the forces of nature   
must1 nevertheless1 be uniform and      
supreme1 for it is by these forces  that
 the expected results are to be         
achieved4 ,that changes occur           
constantly is inevitable1 but the source

 of these must be looked for  in the    
interaction of original forces1 and not 
in the degradation  of systems4 ,there  
is reason to believe1 in fact1 that the 
repulsion  of the terrestrial           
electrosphere by that of the moon may   
itself  be sufficient to counteract such
 retarding force of lunar gravity1  for 
the tides upon earth are not merely     
oceanic1 but atmospheric1  and on the   
latter the electrical repulsion of the  
moon must act very  powerfully and with 
directly counteractive effect4    ,let  
us now apply the preceding principles to
 the problem under  review4 ,all        
planetary space is pervaded with        
attenuated vapors or  gases1 among which
 aqueous vapor occupies a leading place4
 ,the planets  and all planetary bodies1
 having opposite electrical polarity    
from  the central and relatively fixed  
sun1 by their orbital motions around    
and constant subjection thereto act as  
enormous induction machines1  which     
generate electricity from the ocean of  

attenuated aqueous vapor1  each planet  
being surrounded by an enormous         
electrosphere1 carried  with the planet 
in its axial and orbital movements1 the 
successive  atmospheric envelopes       
gradually diminishing in rotational     
velocity  until merged into the outer   
ocean of space4 ,as the planets advance 
in  their orbits they plunge into new   
and fresh fields1 and1 as the whole     
solar system gradually moves onward     
through space1 these fields are  never  
re-occupied4 ,these electrospheres1 by  
their rotation1 generate  enormous      
quantities of electricity at an         
extremely high potential1--so  high that
 we can scarcely even conceive it1--and 
this electricity flows  in a constant   
current to the sun1 where it disappears 
as electricity1  to reappear in the form
 of solar light and heat4 ,these        
planetary  currents also flow towards   
such other negatively electrified bodies
  as may exist in space--the comets and 
fixed stars1 for example--in  proportion

 to their distance2 for1 since          
resistance is not appreciable  between  
ourselves and the sun1 as is also the   
case with light1 so1 like  light1 our   
electricity must pass outward as well as
 inward to take part  in the harmonious 
operations of the whole universe4 ,but  
it should be  noted that the            
distribution of electric energy in the  
form of currents  is quite different    
from that of light or other radiant     
energy2 for  while light is diffused    
from a center outward through space1    
electric  currents1 on the contrary1 are
 concentrated and directed along lines  
of force to concrete centers of opposite
 polarity4 ,as a consequence1  the      
intensity of light decreases according  
to the squares of the  distances        
traversed plus the resistance to the    
passage of the light  itself1 while the 
electric current is only diminished by  
the resistance  of the medium through   
which it passes4 ,as the light of the   
sun has a  velocity of one hundred and  

eighty-eight thousand miles per second1 
and the electric current between the    
earth and the sun the same1  it will be 
seen that the resistance is practically 
alike for these  two forms of energy4   
,indeed1 the striking resemblance       
between the  ethereal vibrations which  
constitute light and heat and           
exceedingly  rapid alternating currents 
of electricity through molecular media  
may  suggest that the transformation of 
one force into the other is some  sort  
of a step-up or step-down process1 much 
higher in degree1  but of the same      
character as the well-known analogous   
electrical  transformations used in the 
arts4 ,it should also be borne in mind  
that1 while the intensity of light      
diminishes according to the above  law1 
the quantity remains the same1 less     
resistance1 as the area  covered        
increases precisely in the same         
proportion as the intensity             
diminishes1--that is1 in the ratio of   
squares4    ,around the earth and other 

planets gravity attracts the aqueous    
vapors  in increased density1 the same  
as around the sun2 but the electric     
currents passing between the planets and
 the sun decompose this aqueous  vapor  
into its constituent gases1 hydrogen and
 oxygen4 ,the oxygen is  deposited      
within the positive electrospheres of   
the planetary bodies1  where it mingles 
with nitrogen to form our atmosphere and
 those of  the other planets4 ,in this  
float the aqueous vapors condensed from 
space1 which are lighter than air4 7,see
 ,tyndall1 ,the ,forms of ,water3  ,it  
also sends up a quantity of aqueous     
vapor which1 being far lighter  than    
air1 helps the latter to rise47 ,these  
aqueous vapors1 condensed  into clouds  
and precipitated upon the earth1 form   
our oceans and their  affluents4 ,the   
hydrogen gas disengaged upon the sun's  
surface forms  a similar envelope1 which
 is penetrated by the planetary electric
  currents1 and is thus highly heated   
and rendered incandescent2 the  glowing 

hydrogen transmits its heat to the sun's
 mass within1 which  is thus raised to1 
and permanently maintained in1 a liquid 
or densely  gaseous state1 its metallic 
constituents being volatilized in part1 
and these metallic vapors mingle with   
the lower strata of hydrogen  to form   
the sun's photosphere1 while1 above1 the
 glowing hydrogen  grows more pure1 and 
finally1 at a distance of hundreds of   
thousands  of miles1 is merged into the 
corona1 which is composed1 in part at   
least1 of cosmical dust rotating around 
and repelled by the sun1  and which     
shines partly by reflected light1 partly
 by that of the  relatively cooler      
hydrogen1 and partly1 perhaps1 by       
electrification  of its constituents by 
the powerful currents passing through   
it4 ,each  of the planetary bodies1     
large or small1 takes its proportionate 
part  in the generation and transmission
 of electricity1 according to its       
volume1 mass1 and motion4 ,as an adjunct
 to this electrical sequence  we have   

learned that any interruption of such   
currents between the  generator and the 
receiver will cause the generating      
apparatus to glow  with diffused        
electrical light1 as is the case with   
the ,wimshurst  machine already         
described4 ,when such connection is     
removed1 it is  said1 the whole         
apparatus bristles with electricity1 and
 if viewed  in the dark presents a most 
beautiful appearance1 being literally   
bathed with luminous brush discharges4  
,such a phenomenon recalls at  once the 
aurora borealis2 and when we find this  
as a sequence of the  electrical storm  
of the first of ,september1 #ahei1      
before described  7at night great       
auroras were seen in both hemispheres71 
and connect  with this the persistence  
of electricity upon insulated surfaces  
7see  ,electricity in the ,service of   
,man1 page #ec3 ,glass being a bad      
conductor1 the electricity does not     
spread all over the plate1 but  remains 
where it is produced71 we shall         

inevitably conclude that there  was some
 partial interruption in the current    
flowing from the earth  to the sun at   
that moment2 and if we recall that at   
that very instant  suddenly a bright    
light was seen by each observer to break
 out on the  sun's surface and to travel
 across a part of the solar disk1 we    
shall  learn that the processes         
connected with the production of such a 
bright  light will interrupt in part the
 terrestrial current4 ,we can readily   
understand that if this bright light    
exceeded in electrical intensity  that  
due to the earth's current1 it might    
temporarily reverse the  polarity of the
 afferent current or retard its flow1   
like the so-called  backwater of a mill4
 ,it would be like attempting to        
discharge steam  at sixty pounds'       
pressure into a vessel filled with other
 steam at  sixty-one pounds4 ,whence1   
then1 came this bright light8 ,perhaps  
from  the conjoint action of some other 
planet1 perhaps from sudden chemical    

disassociation beneath the surface1     
perhaps by the abnormal piling up  of   
depths of transparent glowing hydrogen  
or other local disturbance4    ,and this
 leads to the consideration of the      
uniformity of solar  action4 ,the       
planetary electrospheres will be        
constant in their  operation if the     
constitution of surrounding space       
remains uniform2  but we shall find     
reason to believe that there are        
currents in  the ocean of space1 as     
there are currents in our own seas1 and 
electrical generation will necessarily  
vary when such currents are             
encountered4 ,the sun itself in such    
case1 however1 will become an  automatic
 regulator1 for his density being but   
one-fourth that of the  earth1 and the  
spectroscope having shown his chemical  
composition  to a large extent1 we know 
that his mass must be either liquid or  
vaporous1 and perhaps in part both4     
,such masses readily respond to         
variations of temperature1 expanding as 

it rises and contracting as  it falls4  
,hence1 if a portion of space were      
reached where the action  of the        
planetary electrospheres was increased  
by relative increase of  temperature in 
some interstellar ,gulf ,stream1 the    
sun's volume would  expand and          
compensation be at once established1    
while1 conversely1  with diminution of  
such planetary action1 the solar volume 
would  contract and an increased supply 
from his reserve store be given out     
thereby4 ,in this way the condensation  
relied upon to give us heat for  seven  
or seventeen million years becomes a    
compensating mechanism1  self-operative 
through the most distant cycles of time4
 ,we shall  also find in such electric  
currents an explanation of sun-spots4   
,it  is not meant that a full knowledge 
can be obtained of their minute         
constitution1 nor is it necessary2 but  
the equatorial belt of six  degrees1    
nearly free from sun-spots1 we can      
readily understand to be  caused--since 

sun-spots are depressions in the        
photosphere down to  the deeper and     
denser cloud strata beneath--by the     
equatorial piling  up of the sun's      
atmosphere by its rotation4 ,any point  
on the sun's  equator travels at four   
times the rotational velocity of one on 
the  earth's equator1 but the sun's     
attraction of gravity is twenty-seven   
and one-tenth times that of the earth1  
so that the piling up of an  atmosphere 
of hydrogen would be considerable1 and  
such depressions  would not ordinarily  
exist there4 ,similarly1 near the sun's 
poles we  should find a gradual         
darkening1 as is the case2 but from five
 degrees  to thirty degrees latitude1   
the sun1 in its rotation1 by reason of  
the inclination of its axis1 passes at  
every point directly beneath  the       
planets1 or within their area of        
control1 and here we find the  solar    
spots in their greatest number1 size1   
and intensity4 ,these  sun-spots cross  
the face of the sun in about fifteen    

days1 and vary  in development from year
 to year1 having a cycle of #aa4aa years
 from  maximum to maximum4 ,they also   
have a long cycle of about fifty-six    
years4 7,see article ,the ,sun1 in      
,appleton's ,cyclopdia47 ,wolf1 in      
#ahei1 presented a formula by which the 
frequency of spots is connected  with   
the motions of the four bodies1 ,venus1 
the earth1 ,jupiter1 and  ,saturn4      
,professor ,loomis1 of ,yale ,college1  
has since advocated a theory  7suggested
 by the present writer ,proctor in      
#ahfe1 in ',saturn and  his ,system1'   
page #afh1 note7 that the long cycle of 
fifty-six years  is related to the      
successive conjunctions of ,saturn and  
,jupiter4 ,but  the association is as   
yet very far from being demonstrated1 to
 say the  least4 ,should such fact be   
established1 an explanation for it will 
be found in the direct impact of the    
condensed electric currents from        
several planets approaching conjunction1
 and raising a portion of the  sun's    

atmosphere suddenly to a higher         
temperature and volatilizing an         
abnormal proportion of the semi-vaporous
 metallic core beneath4 ,this  would    
form an upburst piling the intensely    
heated facul up on the  sides and       
revealing the relatively darker masses  
of cloud beneath1 the  cooler           
supernatant hydrogen pouring in from the
 upper layers to fill  the returning    
void4 ,this is precisely what is seen in
 such spots and  their surrounding      
disturbances4 ,in the article ,the ,sun1
 above quoted1  we read1 ,mr4 ,huggins  
has found that several of the absorption
 bands  belonging to the solar spectrum 
are wider in the spectrum of a spot1  a 
circumstance indicative of increased    
absorption so far as the vapors         
corresponding to such lines are         
concerned4444 ,near the great spots or  
groups of spots there are often seen    
streaks more luminous than the          
neighboring surface1 called facul4 ,they
 are oftenest seen towards the  borders 

of the disk4 ,this writer also describes
 luminous bridges  across spots which   
sink into the vortex and are replaced by
 others  of the numberless cloud-like   
forms from one hundred to one thousand  
miles in diameter1 the brilliancy of    
which so greatly exceeds that of  the   
intervening spaces that they must be    
recognized as the principal  radiators  
of the solar light and heat4 ,the       
apparent retardation of  the spots most 
distant from the sun's equator may also 
be partially1  at least1 explained by   
planetary currents of electricity1 as   
the  equatorial atmosphere is deeper and
 more likely to carry forward  such     
vortices when formed1 while the planets 
act more directly on  the sun's mass    
beneath their direct influence4    ,let 
us consider this retardation of         
sun-spots somewhat more in  detail4     
,take1 for example1 the case of a large 
planet at such orbital  position that   
its direct line of electrical impact    
will penetrate  the photosphere at 7say7

 seven degrees north solar latitude1    
which  is about fifty-two thousand miles
 from his equator4 ,during its annual   
revolution this planet will traverse1   
with its line of energy1 every  point of
 the sun's surface down to seven degrees
 south latitude and  back again to its  
initial point1 thus tracing a close     
spiral around  the sun for fourteen     
degrees1 or about one hundred and four  
thousand  miles in width4 ,the          
centrifugal force of the solar rotation 
piles  up the photosphere and the       
chromosphere around the sun's equator1  
precisely as our atmosphere is piled up 
around our own equator4 ,if  the planet 
be a large one 7for distance has but    
little to do with  these electrical     
currents at planetary distances1 in     
which they  differ entirely from light1 
heat1 and gravity71 or if there be two  
planets nearly in conjunction1 the body 
of the chromosphere and  the surface of 
the photosphere will gradually become   
highly heated1  for currents of         

electricity1 of themselves1 do not      
directly heat the  solar core any more  
than a like current heats the under     
carbon of an  arc lamp1 the high        
temperature in both cases being         
altogether due  to the incandescent heat
 of the interposed arc or envelope4     
,facul  of intense brightness will then 
appear upon the photosphere1 and  these 
will be driven forward and also outward 
in the direction of  the higher         
latitudes1 producing an oblique forward 
movement from  difference of rotational 
speed at different portions of the sun's
  surface4 ,similar phenomena are       
constantly observed on the surface  of  
the earth in the generation and behavior
 of cyclones and other  atmospheric     
disturbances4 ,they may be compared to  
the wake of a vessel  anchored in a     
strong tide-way4 ,these facul will      
slowly raise the  temperature of the    
surface of the sun's core beneath to the
 point  of eruptive volatilization1 and 
particularly so if the planet is        

receding from1 instead of advancing     
towards1 the solar equator4 ,at  some   
point in advance of the line of         
planetary energy an eruption of         
volatilized metals will suddenly occur1 
first thrusting up a vast  area of the  
photosphere and then bursting it        
asunder1 which will  drive these        
ruptured masses with enormous speed     
forward and obliquely  outward from the 
equator4 ,such facul 7see ,proctor's    
,light ,science7  sometimes reach a     
velocity of seven thousand miles per    
minute1 while  the sun's rotational     
movement at the equator is less than    
seventy  miles per minute4 ,this sudden 
eruption will be almost immediately     
succeeded by great expansion and        
consequent fall of temperature1 so  that
 within a few hours the heavy volatile  
metals begin to condense  and rapidly   
recede into their crater1 and the facul 
in front and at  the sides will now     
stream inward to occupy this vacuum with
 constantly  accelerated velocity1      

pouring over the edges like the rush of 
waters  at the ,falls of ,niagara4 ,as  
they sweep downward over the inner rim  
of  the funnel1 these streams of facul  
will glow with increased whiteness1  and
 appear to be sharply cut off at their  
inner ends2 but this is only  apparently
 so1 and is due to the position of the  
observer1 who looks  almost directly    
downward upon these descending streams4 
,it is for  the same reason that the    
facul appear more brilliant when near   
the  borders of the solar disk 7see page
 #aji74 ,any good view of a sun-spot    
when analyzed will show the streams of  
facul thus pouring inward1  and they are
 among the most peculiar and conspicuous
 phenomena  to be observed4 ,the        
drawings of ,professor ,langley1        
reproduced in  the ,popular ,science    
,monthly for ,september1 #ahgd1 and     
,july1 #ahhe1  are particularly striking
 in their illustration of these effects1
  though their significance and         
interpretation were not then at hand4   

,but while these heavy metallic vapors  
so rapidly condense and subside  in the 
forward or initial portion of the       
sun-spot under observation1  new depths 
of intensely-heated facul are generated 
behind1 and these  operate with renewed 
energy upon the fresh surface of the    
solar core  in rear of the original seat
 of eruption2 so that each sun-spot1    
while in an active state1 will exhibit  
two entirely distinct aspects1  the     
forward portion of the crater in a state
 of rapid condensation  and subsidence  
of the recently erupted metallic vapors1
 and with  inflowing streams of         
incandescent hydrogen from the front and
 sides1  and the rear portion of the    
crater up to its rearward wall1 and even
  streaming forth from beneath it1 in a 
state of violent eruption4 ,the  large  
volcanic craters of the ,hawaiian       
,islands exhibit similar  partial       
eruptions and subsidences progressing   
simultaneously in the  same depths4 ,the
 sudden formation of the great          

incandescent loops and  plumes to which 
,professor ,langley calls especial      
attention1 and which  have hitherto been
 so perplexing1 can now be readily      
understood and  explained4 ,if one of   
these inflowing streams be carried      
partially  down into and across the     
crater1 and then caught1 in its advance1
  by the uprush in the central or rear  
portions of the cavity1 it will  be at  
once swept upward alongside the         
ascending eruption1 and either          
scattered at its forward extremity into 
sprays and plumes1 or else  thrown      
forward bodily in the form of a more or 
less complete loop4 ,in  a sun-spot     
fifty thousand miles in diameter1 such a
 loop1 having a  long diameter of twenty
 thousand miles1 if we give a speed to  
the  facul of seven thousand miles per  
minute1 would be formed in about  seven 
minutes1 during which the sun-spot would
 itself have advanced  less than five   
hundred miles across the face of the    
sun4 ,the luminous  bridges which form  

so suddenly across portions of the      
crater may be  explained in a similar   
manner3 they are streams of facul       
floated on  the nearly balanced uprush  
of metallic vapors from beneath4    ,it 
will thus be seen that a sun-spot is not
 merely a fixed eruption1  like a       
volcano1 but rather a continuous series 
of eruptions1 like  a line of activity  
following1 for example1 the great       
terrestrial  volcanic curve which       
extends up the western coast of         
,america1 across  the ,pacific ,ocean   
and ,asia1 and into ,central and        
,southern ,europe1  for during its      
progression its scene of action is      
constantly being  shifted to the rear2  
it is like a furrow cut by a plough1 in 
which  the upturned sod is constantly   
falling in at one end of the furrow     
while the plough is cutting a new furrow
 at the other1 except that  in this case
 the plough is relatively fixed         
overhead1 and the field  itself passes  
along beneath it4 ,consequently1 the    

center of activity  of a sun-spot is    
only in its rear portions1 generally    
considered1 and  the whole sun-spot is  
gradually retreating1 by successive     
filling up in  front and opening out    
behind1 farther and farther to the      
rear1--that is  to say1 to the east1--so
 that retardation relatively to the     
rotational  advance of the photosphere  
necessarily ensues4    ,but when the    
sun-spot is developed upon or near the  
equatorial  line this retardation is not
 so considerable1 for the deeper layers 
of the photosphere in those regions are 
slower to act and require  greater      
energy to affect them1 so that all      
except deep and violent  eruptions fail 
to show themselves at the surface at    
all1 and the  heated facul are carried  
directly forward along the surface of   
the  equatorial swell1 so that the      
center of activity is driven forward    
more rapidly than in the higher         
latitudes1 and the rate of progression  
is more nearly coincident with that of  

the photosphere4 ,but if these  facts   
are correctly stated and explained1 we  
may have to revise our  calculations of 
the sun's rotational period1 for        
retardation to some  extent must occur  
in all cases1 if in any4    ,a sun-spot1
 we thus perceive1 is an elongated wave 
or ridge of eruption  along the         
rotational direction of the sun's body4 
,why1 then1 it may  be asked1 is not    
this line of eruption continuous        
entirely around the  sun8 ,for the same 
reason1 it may be answered1 that our own
 cyclones  are not continuous1 though   
caused substantially in the same manner1
  and that volcanic eruptions only occur
 at long intervals1 though  the forces  
at work are continuous4 ,lowering of    
temperature follows  swiftly after      
eruption1 and as the deeper structures  
of the solar  nucleus become gradually  
affected1 instead of volatilization of  
the  outer layers of the surface1 we    
will have diffused gaseous expansion  of
 large portions1 and finally of the     

entire solar mass1 which cannot  as a   
whole be volatilized by any conceivable 
planetary energy4 ,we see  these        
operations exemplified in heating a bar 
of copper in a ,bunsen  flame2 the      
latter first turns green from surface   
volatilization of  the copper1 but as   
the heat is communicated to the deeper  
structures  the green flame disappears1 
and the whole additional heat goes to   
raise the temperature of the mass4      
,these processes in the sun are thus    
seen to be self-compensatory in  their  
nature4 ,they are the means provided to 
distribute the restricted  areas of     
abnormally heated photosphere over the  
solar surface1 and  finally to cause the
 absorption of the whole excess of heat 
in the  sun's central mass4 ,the balance
 is so evenly maintained1 however1 that1
  were all the planets equally          
distributed with reference to the sun's 
surface1 such sun-spots would be the    
exception and not the rule1 and  their  
distribution would be equal and         

constant2 but1 as the planets           
continually change their positions with 
reference to the sun and to  each other1
 only by some such provision of nature  
could the internal  structure of the sun
 be maintained without serious          
derangement1 or1  indeed1 final         
disruption4 ,so nature distributes her  
stores of heat  upon the earth4 ,these  
beautiful self-compensations we shall   
find  suddenly appearing1 as we advance1
 in all parts of the field of           
astronomical research4    ,it may seem  
like temerity to advance statements so  
positive and  specific as to the cause1 
constitution1 and progression of        
sun-spots1  in the absence of any       
considerable accumulation of            
observations  to sustain them1 but the  
few examples which we have noted are in 
accordance with these views1 and when   
attention is once called to the  basic  
principles on which they depend1        
observations will doubtless be  made in 
abundance to prove or disprove what has 

been here stated4 ,the  mere fact of a  
differential rate of advance among      
sun-spots1 as they  pass across the     
solar face1 of itself demonstrates that 
the active  causes of these phenomena   
must be extra-solar1 and if so1 their   
only  possible dynamic source must be   
looked for in the planets1 and the      
remaining conclusions will of necessity 
follow as a corollary4 ,we may  even1 by
 merely examining an accurate drawing of
 a sun-spot1 determine  its position and
 direction upon the solar sphere from   
which it was  delineated by its lines of
 active eruption and influx of facul1   
and also whether it be a new spot or one
 which has passed entirely  beyond its  
active stage and is about to finally    
disappear4    ,as for the facul which   
striate the photosphere1 the mottlings  
and  so-called willow-leaves1 any one   
who will quietly gaze downward  upon the
 turbid surface of the ,mississippi or  
other similar river1  in mid-channel1   
will see plenty of such facul3 the river

 is full of  them4 ,the heavier1        
intermingled clay1 slowly subsiding1 is 
caught up in  the turmoil beneath the   
surface and swept upward in elongated   
ovals and  eddies1 the larger swells    
nearly colorless1 and others of all     
shades  of ochre and yellow1 and the    
whole as richly mottled1 sometimes1 as  
the variegated pattern of a ,persian    
carpet4 ,if we substitute for the       
subsiding clay the rapidly sinking heavy
 metallic vapors1 and enlarge  the scale
 from the dimensions of the river to    
those of the sun1 we  will have the     
mottled solar surface with its          
kaleidoscopic changes1  the so-called   
willow-leaves1 and the facul in all     
their glory4 ,a  careful study of the   
sun will show most clearly that only in 
some  such explanation as the present   
view affords can a rational basis  for  
its varied phenomena be found4    ,if   
the sun's equator were coincident with  
the plane of the planetary  orbits1 it  
is obvious that all the planetary       

energies would be  directed1 whatever   
the position of the planets around the  
sun1  immediately upon this equatorial  
great circle1 and that1 at each         
revolution upon his axis1 corresponding 
nearly to our calendar month1  the same 
part of his sphere would be exposed to  
these direct currents1  so that the     
intensity would be1 in its aggregate1   
nearly a constant  quantity4 ,but1 by   
reason of the sun's axial inclination of
 seven  degrees to the plane of the     
planetary orbits1 a far more complex and
  important condition of affairs ensues4
 ,it will be seen at once that  the     
plane of the planetary orbits intersects
 the sun's equator at  opposite sides1  
and that1 from a minimum of nothing1    
this line reaches  a maximum1 twice in  
each circumference1 of seven degrees1   
one north  and the other south of the   
equator1 and that this arc of fourteen  
degrees1 thus traversed by every planet 
in its orbital rotation  around the sun1
 measures more than one hundred thousand

 miles from  north to south upon the    
solar surface1 nearly one-half the      
distance  which separates the earth from
 the moon4 ,if all the planets were in  
conjunction or nearly so1 on one side of
 the sun1 for example1 and in  the      
vertical plane of the sun's axis1 they  
would continue to deliver  their        
electrical currents with their greatest 
intensity upon a single  point of his   
surface fifty-two thousand miles north  
of his equator1  while the opposite     
point1 one hundred and four thousand    
miles distant1  would be unaffected by  
any direct currents at all4 ,conversely1
 if  in conjunction on the opposite side
 of the sun1 they would continue  to    
deliver these currents upon a           
corresponding point fifty-two  thousand 
miles south of the equator2 but if in   
conjunction in the  vertical plane      
transverse to the sun's axial           
inclination1 these  currents on either  
side of the sun would be delivered      
directly upon  the solar equator4 ,the  

importance of this will be understood   
when  it is considered that for many of 
our years such planets as ,jupiter  and 
,saturn must continue to direct their   
currents upon a very slowly  changing   
point of the sun's surface1 by reason of
 their vast annual  rotational period1  
while with the earth and the interior   
planets these  various points are struck
 with ever-increasing rapidity as the   
year  decreases in length with the      
different planets1 the earth1 ,venus1   
and ,mercury4 ,there is a solar         
equinoctial1 so to speak1 just as there 
is a terrestrial equinoctial in which   
the sun crosses the line twice  each    
year1 and the meteorological            
disturbances faintly shown on the  earth
 at such times are vastly increased on  
the sun1 and rendered  far more complex 
by the interaction of many planets upon 
the sun1  instead of a single sun upon  
each planet4 ,while our equinoctial has 
to do with gravity and light and heat1  
and probably magnetism1 the  solar      

equinoctial deals with the vast         
electrical streams which feed  its fires
 and set it boiling with furious energy1
 first at one point1  then at another1  
until the increment has been absorbed   
and adjusted1  and thus equalized       
throughout his mass4 ,what a new        
interest this must  arouse in our study 
of sun-spots1 facul1 prominences1       
sun-storms1  and the vast panorama of   
solar action hung up before our         
astonished  eyes6 ,a new world here     
awaits its ,columbus4    ,but not only  
the planets thus gather1 so to speak1   
electricity for  the sun's support from 
space2 the moon also must do its part1  
as it  rotates in the same manner1      
subject to the sun1 and has its own     
motion  through space4 ,but an          
examination of the moon shows no        
atmosphere  and no aqueous matter       
visible to us1 and also the singular    
fact  that it constantly presents one   
side only to the earth4 ,r4 ,kalley     
,miller1 in his ,romance of ,astronomy1 

article ,the ,moon1 says1  ,after an    
elaborate analysis1 ,professor ,hausen1 
of ,gotha1 found that  it could be      
accounted for only by supposing that the
 side of the moon  nearest us was       
lighter than the other1 and hence that  
its center of  gravity was not at its   
center of figure1 but considerably      
nearer  the side of it which is always  
turned away from us4 ,he calculates  the
 distance between these centers to be   
nearly thirty-five miles1  evidently a  
most important eccentricity1 when we    
remember that the  radius of the moon is
 little over a thousand miles4 ,it must 
have been  produced by some great       
internal convulsion after the moon      
assumed its  solid state2 but the forces
 required to produce this disruption are
  less than might at first sight appear 
necessary1 owing to the fact  that the  
force of gravitation and the weight of  
matter are six times  less at the moon  
than with us4 ,those who are fond of the
 so-called  ,argument of ,design will be

 gratified to learn that1 if the moon   
had a rotation upon its own axis similar
 to that of the earth1  all life--past1 
present or future--would have been      
impossible on  that satellite or planet2
 and that1 on the contrary1--provided   
she  always turns the same side of her  
surface to the earth1--it is quite      
possible that air1 water1 and life may  
exist1 or may have existed1  on the     
opposite side of the moon1 but not      
otherwise4 ,in fact1 air and  water must
 now exist on the opposite side2 and1   
since her whole supply  will thus be    
condensed upon half her surface or less1
 even with her  small force of gravity1 
it may be quite sufficient in quantity  
and  density for the support of animal1 
vegetable1 or even human life4 ,by      
reason of this difference in the lunar  
center of gravity1 the side  presented  
to the earth in physical position is    
similar to the summit  of a mountain    
upon the earth's surface two hundred    
miles high1 and  surely we would not    

expect to find much air or water or life
 at that  altitude4 ,but the opposite   
side would resemble a champagne country 
at the foot of this enormous mountain1  
and might be well fitted for  human     
existence4 ,now1 we know that similar   
electricities repel each  other1 and air
 or gases charged with similar          
electricities are equally               
self-repellent4 ,professor ,tyndall1 in 
his ,lessons in ,electricity1  says1    
,the electricity escaping from a point  
or flame into the air  renders the air  
self-repulsive4 ,the consequence is1    
that when the  hand is placed over a    
point mounted on the prime conductor of 
a good  machine1 a cold blast is        
distinctly felt4444 ,the blast is called
 the  'electric wind4' ,wilson moved    
bodies by its action2 ,faraday caused   
it to depress the surface of a liquid2  
,hamilton employed the reaction  of the 
electric wind to make pointed wires     
rotate4 ,the wind was also  found to    
promote evaporation4    ,while          

electrical repulsion is doubtless       
analogous to1 and correlative  with1 the
 attraction of gravitation1 this force1 
and even gravity  itself1 has been      
sometimes interpreted as derived from   
the mutually  interacting molecules of  
space itself4 ,we may even learn        
somewhat  of how such repulsions of     
similar and attractions of opposite     
electrospheres might occur4 ,we         
constantly speak of positive  and       
negative electricity as though these    
were different fluids1  but such        
expressions are employed only in the    
same manner as the  analogous terms1    
heat and cold4 ,we know1 of course1 that
 cold is the  relative absence of heat1 
the dividing line being not a fixed1 but
 a  constantly changing one1 so that one
 body is cold to another by reason  of  
relative1 and not absolute1 deprivation 
of heat4 ,it is well known1  however1   
that cold1 which is purely a negative   
state1 manifests the  same apparent     
radiant energy as heat4 ,a vessel near  

an iceberg is  exposed to a wave of     
cold1 precisely as of heat from a heated
 body at  the same distance4 ,this1 of  
course1 is due to abstraction and not to
  increment4 ,all space being occupied  
by attenuated matter in a state  of     
unstable electrical equilibrium1 as we  
say1 which simply means  a condition    
ready to be raised or lowered in tension
 by absorption  from or into outside    
media1 all concrete bodies floating in  
that  space must have an electrical     
potential either equal to1 or higher1   
or else lower than that of their        
surrounding space4 ,a solitary body in  
space1 if we can conceive of such1 in   
either a higher or lower state  of      
electrical tension1 would be drawn upon 
from all sides to equalize  the         
distribution and restore the general    
average4 ,but if two bodies  occupy the 
same field1 and are widely different    
from each other in  electrical          
potential1 one higher and the other     
lower than that of  space1 this         

distribution will be towards each other1
 and must be  manifested by mutual      
attraction4 ,but if1 on the contrary1   
these two  bodies are both equally      
higher or lower than the spatial        
average1  they have nothing to give to  
each other1 but have this difference  to
 give to or receive only from outer     
space1 and hence they will be  drawn    
apart or1 as we say1 mutually repelled4 
,the case is similar to  what we see in 
the case of bodies of water at various  
levels4 ,suppose  there be a lake of a  
fixed level1 and communicating with it  
and with  each other1 by open channels1 
two ponds of water occupying an island  
in the middle of the lake4 ,if one of   
these ponds be higher in level  and the 
other lower than the lake1 their waters 
will rapidly converge1  the higher      
flowing into the lower2 but if both are 
at the same level1  and higher than the 
lake1 they will flow apart into the     
lake4 ,or1 if  both are at the same     
level1 and lower than the lake1 the     

water of the  latter will equally flow  
from outside into both ponds1 and their 
waters  will still be held separate from
 each other4 ,the analogies of these    
various levels may be pursued to any    
desired extent1 as electrical  tensions 
find their most exact analogies in the  
pressures of bodies  of water at        
different levels and of different       
quantities1 and these  analogies are    
those most constantly used in the       
interpretation of  such electrical      
phenomena4    ,the great electrical     
activity of the electrospheres of the   
earth and  moon1 while they discharge   
their tremendous currents directly into 
the sun1 at the same time must cause    
their similarly electrified  atmospheres
 to mutually repel each other1 while    
gravity continues  to operate to        
maintain the earth and moon at their    
fixed distances  from each other1 and to
 retain their gaseous envelopes around  
their  own bodies4 ,the result must be  
that these similarly electrified        

atmospheres repel each other with a     
force proportioned to their masses  of  
atmosphere and the intensity of the     
electricities of each4 ,the  moon's     
axial rotation being completed but once 
in twenty-eight days1  and that of the  
earth once in each day1 and the moon's  
mass and volume  being so much less than
 those of the earth1 whatever of        
electrified air  or moisture she may    
have 7and she must have both1           
proportionate to her  attributes7 would 
have been driven as by a cyclone to the 
opposite side  of the moon and there    
retained4 ,now1 with an atmosphere and  
water only  on one side of the moon1 and
 that the side opposite the earth1 it is
  obvious that a rotation on her axis at
 all resembling that of the earth  would
 carry every part of her surface1 at    
each complete rotation1 from  a region  
of air and moisture into one deprived of
 both1 and in such  a condition she     
would of necessity be deprived of both  
life and its  possibility2 hence1 as the

 laws of nature compel the lunar        
atmosphere  and moisture to reside      
permanently on the side always opposite 
the  earth1 a co-ordinate arrest of the 
moon's axial motion with reference  to  
the earth could alone compensate for    
such a state of things1  and1 curiously 
enough1 we find as a solitary exception1
 compared  with the planets1 that such  
is the case4 ,the moon unquestionably   
has  both atmosphere and water on its   
opposite side4 ,in his recent work1  ,in
 the ,high ,heavens1 ,professor ,ball   
reviews the physical conditions  of the 
other planets as possible abodes of     
life4 ,he pronounces against  the moon  
because night and day would each be a   
fortnight in length2  but this is surely
 no objection1 for even in ,norway and  
,greenland such  nights and days are not
 uncommon at different seasons1 and     
thousands  of human beings1 even as at  
present constituted on earth1 spend     
their  lives there in content and       
happiness4 ,that the moon also would be 

terribly scorched by the long day and   
frozen by the long night does  not      
necessarily follow1 for the atmosphere  
of ,mars1 that author says1  to a large 
extent mitigates the fierceness with    
which the sun's rays  would beat down on
 the globe if it were devoid of such    
protection4 ,as  the moon's opposite    
face must have a double quota both of   
atmosphere  and clouds1 the difficulty  
will be correspondingly less than on    
,mars2  and as for the lightness of     
bodies on the moon1 they would probably 
get along quite as well as mosquitoes   
and like birds of prey in the  marshes  
along our coasts4 ,the author refers    
constantly to our bodies2  for example1 
,could we live on a planet like         
,neptune8 ,no1 we could  not2 we would  
be dead before we got there4 ,nor could 
we live in the  bark of a tree1 or at   
the bottom of the ocean1 or in a globule
 of  serum2 but living beings are found 
there nevertheless4 ,the principle  is  
that wherever life is possible there we 

may expect to find life2  and surely    
life is1 or has been1 or will be        
possible1 not only on  the moon1 so far 
as our knowledge of physical conditions 
can go1 but  also on some of the other  
planets4 ,of course each planet has its 
life  stage1 but this applies not only  
to the earth1 but to all the other      
planets as well1 and not only to the    
planets of our own system1 but  to those
 of all other solar systems4 ,each has  
had1 or will have1 its  stage in which  
life is possible1 and these planets may 
be like human  habitations1 in which    
whole races at times migrate from one   
home to  another4 ,there is no          
conceivable reason why this may not be  
the general  law of creation1 and every 
analogy leads us to believe that it is  
so4    ,it has been recently announced  
that1 from telescopic observations1  the
 atmosphere of ,mars must be at least as
 attenuated as that among  the highest  
mountainous regions of the earth1 if    
this planet has any  atmosphere at all4 

,that it must be far less dense than    
that of the  earth at sea-level is      
obvious1 for the mass and volume of     
,mars are  very much less than those of 
our own planet2 but that ,mars is devoid
  of a gaseous envelope or atmosphere is
 contrary to what we know of all        
sidereal physics4 ,the sun1 the fixed   
stars1 the comets1 the nebul1  and even 
the meteorolithic fragments which fall  
upon the earth1 all  show the same      
elementary chemical constitution as the 
earth itself1  and we cannot believe    
that ,mars alone is differently         
constituted from  every other body we   
have been able to examine4 ,we have     
direct evidence1  on this planet1 of    
polar snows and their melting away under
 the sun's  heat2 we see the apparent   
areas of sea and land2 it has its moons 
as  the earth has hers1 and exhibits all
 the characteristic phenomena of  the   
earth and other planets4 ,all sidereal  
bodies that we know of1  except1        
perhaps1 our moon1 which exception we   

have fully accounted  for1 are found to 
be surrounded by gaseous envelopes or   
atmospheres  of some sort4 ,the sun1 the
 fixed stars1 the nuclei of comets1 the 
condensing nebul1 the planets ,jupiter  
and the earth1 which are  those under   
our most direct observation1 and even   
the meteorites1  when examined1 reveal  
the presence of many times their own    
volumes of  independent atmospheric     
gases2 and whatever may be the theory of
 the  origin or development of ,mars1 it
 must have been subjected to the same   
influences1 the same environment1 and   
the same processes of creation as  those
 of our solar system generally2 and that
 this body alone should  possess no     
gaseous envelope--for the denial of     
atmosphere denies1  at the same time1   
the presence of any or all surrounding  
gases--is  quite incredible4 ,only the  
most positive1 direct1 and              
long-continued  proofs of such fact     
could be accepted1 and even then the    
history of all  scientific progress     

shows that what are believed to be facts
 themselves  fluctuate like fancies     
till1 by their accumulated force1 they  
solidify  into universally accepted     
demonstration4 ,the fact1 moreover1 that
  the atmospheres of the smaller planets
 are more attenuated than our  own and  
those of the larger ones denser has no  
bearing1 in itself1  on the probability 
of the existence of life on these other 
planets1  for in our own atmosphere     
oxygen1 which is the efficient element1 
is diluted with four times its quantity 
of inert nitrogen4 ,these  proportions  
doubtless vary largely in other         
atmospheres1 so that  the oxygen may be 
much richer in some and far poorer1     
relatively1  in others4 ,the mere fact  
that the presence of nitrogen1 probably1
 and  aqueous vapor1 certainly1 depends 
on the gravity of the mass of each      
planet1 while the oxygen is due to      
electrolytic decomposition induced  by  
the combined volume1 mass1 and rotation1
 and other causes1--such  as the axial  

inclination of such planets1 for        
example1--renders  these variations in  
the constitution of planetary           
atmospheres a  certainty4 ,as ,mars has 
a diameter much more than one-half that 
of  the earth1 and a diurnal rotational 
period nearly the same1 while his  mass1
 which controls the action of gravity1  
is only about one-ninth  that of the    
earth 7see ,appleton's ,cyclopdia71 it  
is obvious that his  oxygen-gathering   
power1 compared with that for           
accumulating nitrogen  and aqueous      
vapor1 is much higher than that of the  
earth1 and we should  expect to find    
there an attenuated atmosphere very rich
 in oxygen1  and with a relatively      
smaller proportion of aqueous vapor1 or 
even  water1 on his surface4 ,such seem 
to be the facts as far as observed4     
,in operating an electric machine the   
strength of the current is  directly    
proportionate to the speed of           
rotation1--that is to say1  to the      
velocity of the generating surface2 for 

example1 of the  ,wimshurst induction   
machine it is stated 7page #fc1         
,electricity  in the ,service of ,man71 
,these four-and-one-half inch discharges
  take place in regular succession at   
every two and a half turns of  the      
handle4 ,it is also a well-established  
law of electrolysis that  ,the amount of
 decomposition effected by the current  
is in proportion  to the current        
strength4 ,professor ,ferguson          
7,electricity1 page  #bbe7 says of the  
voltameter1 an instrument devised by    
,faraday1  and used for testing the     
strength of currents by the             
proportionate  decomposition of         
acidulated water1 ,mixed gases rise into
 the tube1  and the quantity of gas     
given off in a given time measures the  
strength of the current4 ,roughly       
estimating the diameter of ,mars at     
five-eighths1 the surface velocity at   
three-fifths1 and the mass at  one-ninth
 those of the earth1 this planet should 
have an atmosphere  containing about    

sixty per cent4 of oxygen and forty of  
nitrogen1 with  a barometric pressure at
 sea-level of about six and one-half    
inches of  mercury4 ,this would be an   
excellent atmosphere1--about equal in   
its  quota of oxygen for each           
respiration to that of the higher areas 
of  ,persia1 a great country for roses4 
,the aqueous vapors lying low and  near 
the surface would serve as a vaporous   
screen to concentrate and  retain the   
sun's heat and retard radiation from    
that planet4 ,nothing  in particular    
seems to be the matter with ,mars4      
,on the contrary1 the mass of ,jupiter  
is so great1 and his attraction  of     
gravity so powerful1 that it is only by 
his exceedingly rapid  diurnal rotation 
7once in less than ten hours7 that it is
 possible  for him to accumulate any    
effective percentage of oxygen at all4  
,but  there is certainly plenty of water
 there4    ,we may approximately        
compute1 in general terms1 the          
proportion  of oxygen in the atmospheres

 of the other planets in the same  way4 
,neptune1 it is true1 is so far distant 
from the sun that the  solar orb only   
appears about the same magnitude as     
,venus when at  its greatest brilliancy1
 as viewed from the earth1 but we must  
not  forget that the intensity of the   
sun's light would be more than ten      
thousand times greater than that of     
,venus 7,professor ,dunkin1 in ,the     
,midnight ,sky74 ,unless the moon       
gathers a portion of the earth's oxygen 
7the planetary satellites1 like         
,saturn's rings1 thus constituting  in  
their rotations a constituent part of   
the planets themselves71  the percentage
 of this gas in her atmosphere must be  
exceedingly  small1 for her axial       
rotation has a period of a whole lunar  
month1  being the same as that of her   
revolution around the earth as a center4
    ,the absence of apparent atmosphere 
and moisture from the visible lunar     
surface has already been mentioned and  
explained4 ,the means by which  this    

fact has been approximately determined  
are described by ,professor  ,dunkin1 in
 ,the ,midnight ,sky1 as follows3 ,among
 the many proofs of  the non-existence  
of a lunar atmosphere1 it may be        
mentioned that  no water can be seen2 at
 least there is not a sufficient        
quantity  in any one spot so as to be   
visible from the earth4 ,again1 there   
are  no clouds2 for if there were1 we   
should immediately discover them by  the
 variable light and shade which they    
would produce4 ,but one great  proof of 
the absence of any large amount of vapor
 being suspended over  the lunar surface
 is the sudden extinction of a star when
 occulted by  the moon4 ,the author has 
been a constant observer of these       
phenomena1  and1 though his experience  
is of long standing1 he has never       
observed  an occultation of a star or   
planet1 especially at the unilluminated 
edge of a young moon1 without having his
 conviction confirmed that  there is no 
appreciable lunar atmosphere4444        

,professor ,challis has  subjected the  
results of a large number of these      
observations to a  severe mathematical  
test1 but he has not been able to       
discover the  slightest trace of any    
effect produced by a lunar atmosphere4  
,in ,appleton's ,cyclopdia1 article ,the
 ,moon1 it is stated that  ,schrter     
7about #ahjj7 claimed to have discovered
 indications of  vegetation on the      
surface of the moon4 ,these consist of  
certain traces  of a greenish tint which
 appear and reappear periodically2 much 
as  the white spots covering the polar  
regions of ,mars4444 ,as we are able1   
under the most favorable conditions1 to 
use upon the moon telescopic  powers    
which have the effect of bringing the   
satellite to within one  hundred and    
fifty to one hundred and twenty miles of
 us1 we should  doubtless notice any    
such marked changes on her surface as   
the passage  of the seasons produces1   
for example1 on our own globe4 ,very    
recently  7,august #ab1 #ahid71 it has  

been stated1 ,professor ,gathmann has   
observed  a peculiar green spot about   
forty by seventy miles in area near the 
crater of ,tycho ,brahe1 on the         
northwestern edge of the satellite's    
upper limb1 which had disappeared       
twenty-two hours afterwards4    ,we     
understand1 of course1 that the moon's  
librations1 by the variation  of        
position of the lunar body1 enable us to
 see1 at times1 around  the edge of this
 satellite somewhat1 so that1 instead of
 observing  only one-half1 we can in    
this way see nearly six-tenths of her   
surface1 but not at the same time1 of   
course4 ,when the moon is dark  it      
occupies a position between the earth   
and the sun1 and only its  opposite face
 is illuminated4 ,in this position the  
attraction of  solar gravity and the    
attraction of the electrically opposite 
solar  electrosphere both accumulate    
their forces upon the moon's atmosphere 
in the same line as the repulsion of the
 earth's similar electricity1  so that  

the lunar moisture and atmosphere are1  
at this part of her  subordinate orbit1 
most powerfully forced away from the    
direction  of the earth4 ,as the moon   
now proceeds towards her first quarter1 
the terrestrial repulsion drives her    
atmosphere radially outward1  while     
solar gravity and electrical attraction 
tend to hold it in the  direction of the
 sun4 ,the result will be an            
electrospheric libration1  so to speak1 
and the moon's atmosphere and moisture  
will be carried  around towards its     
illuminated face and1 to some extent1   
will overlap  the area of terrestrial   
repulsion4 ,but as the moon advances    
this will  gradually diminish1 soon     
cease1 and finally be reversed as it    
again  approaches darkness4 ,we can now 
understand why the green surface1 if  it
 really was due to vegetation1 appeared 
along the lunar margin at  the time     
described above1 and also that the      
observation of planetary  occultations  
at the unilluminated edge of the young  

moon was the  very worst part of the    
moon and its orbit in which to look for 
air  or moisture2 as the sun's influence
 is then directly away from the         
unilluminated surface of the moon1 and  
his pull would have1 in fact1  still    
further denuded the very portion most   
persistently examined1  and where this  
absence of atmosphere was especially    
noted4    ,when considering the         
transference of energy from the         
peripheral  regions of the solar system 
to the center1 its conversion there into
  a new form of molecular force1 and its
 subsequent distribution1 we  find a    
curious and instructive parallel in the 
action of the reflex  nervous system of 
animal life4 ,this system is one in     
which the brain  or other conscious     
center of nerve-energy takes no part4   
,tickle  the foot of a child1 for       
example1 and its whole muscular system  
is  thrown into uncontrollable          
convulsions of laughter4 ,here an       
exciting  contact with the terminal     

filaments of the afferent or sensory    
nerves  is rapidly carried into the     
local nerve-center of this part of the  
system1--that is1 the sensory column of 
the spinal cord4 ,this center  of       
ganglionic nerve-matter lies directly   
against the corresponding  motor mass1  
both freely communicating with each     
other4 ,the sensory  current passing    
into its central ganglion undergoes some
 peculiar  change of character1 probably
 one of intensification1 such as is     
observed in the action of the condenser 
of an electrical machine1  through which
 sensory ganglion1 thus raised in       
potential1 it passes to  the motor      
ganglion adjacent1 where it is instantly
 transformed into  an entirely different
 form of energy4 ,the sensory character 
has now  entirely disappeared1 and it   
has been converted into and is flashed  
forth as motor energy to the different  
muscles of the body1 which are          
immediately contracted1 the violent     
molecular motion of the fibres  being at

 once converted into muscular motion in 
mass4 ,the changes are  entirely        
analogous to those we see in the        
different conversions of  energy in our 
solar system4 ,considering the surface  
of the body as a  planetary             
electrosphere1 it is acted upon by      
excitation from without2  currents of   
energy are engendered1 which are at once
 transmitted to  the sensory ganglion1  
corresponding to the hydrogen atmosphere
 or  electrosphere of the sun2          
intensification of action here ensues1  
the  current passing through this       
ganglion or atmosphere into the solar   
body  itself1 which corresponds to the  
motor ganglion2 both ganglia are now    
highly excited2 the electrical force is 
converted into the radiant  molecular   
motor energy of heat and light in the   
sun and muscular  excitement in the     
body1 and these are flashed forth and   
find scope  for their action within the 
body of the subject or upon the surface 
of the planets1 which lie1 like the     

muscular structure of the body1  within 
the genetic electrosphere where1 acted  
upon from without and  by agencies      
entirely external1 moving contact has   
induced the primary  molecular action1  
which was then instantaneously          
transferred to the  center1 there       
converted into another form1 that of    
motor energy1  and thence sent forth to 
produce action in the muscles of the    
body  in the one case1 and in the other 
upon the planetary bodies and their     
satellites and other structures which   
occupy surrounding space4               
,,chapter ,v4    ,,the ,,distribution   
,,and ,,conservation ,,of ,,solar       
,,energy4      ,what1 then1 becomes of  
the light and heat flashed forth with   
eternal energy from the fiery waves of  
the sun's incandescent  atmosphere8     
,professor ,ball 7,in the ,high         
,heavens7 says1 ,much  of what has been 
said with regard to light may be        
repeated with  regard to heat4 ,we know 
that radiant heat consists of ethereal  

undulations of the same character as the
 waves of light4 ,hence we  see that the
 heat or the light radiated from a      
glowing gas is mainly  provided at the  
expense of the energy possessed by the  
molecules  in virtue of their internal  
oscillations4 ,conversely1 of course1   
the ethereal undulations thus induced by
 high molecular motion in  the heated   
gas or vapor must disappear in so-called
 absorption or  transference by contact 
with other molecules1 themselves devoid 
of  such specific internal oscillations4
 ,the heat motion then disappears  as   
heat by its conversion into work1 just  
as the motion of a belt  in a mill      
disappears in the work of the machine   
which it drives4 ,one                   
two-hundred-and-thirty-two-millionth    
part of the radiant solar energy1  we   
know1 is caught by the flying planets of
 our system in the forms of  heat and   
light1 adapted to sustain life and its  
continued potentiality1  and we know    
that this solar energy is the sole      

source of all the  development and      
maintenance of the planets as the       
possible abodes of  organic life1 past1 
present or future4    ,but what of the  
vast total1 of which we consume so      
minute a  fraction8 ,it is true that1 in
 addition to the planets1 space is      
occupied by many small meteoric bodies1 
which manifest themselves to us  as     
shooting stars and meteorites1 but the  
mass of these is too trifling  to be    
estimated4 ,professor ,helmholtz1 in his
 ,popular ,scientific  ,lectures1 says1 
,according to ,alexander ,herschel's    
estimates1 each  stone is1 on an        
average1 at a distance of four hundred  
and fifty miles  from its neighbors4    
,when these bodies enter our atmosphere 
by force of  the earth's attraction they
 are heated by its atmospheric friction 
to  incandescence1 and in most cases are
 even volatilized before reaching  the  
earth's surface4 ,the vast volumes of   
solar heat and light1 however1  are     
poured forth from the sun               

indiscriminately in all directions into 
illimitable space1 wherein all the      
masses of concrete matter1 including    
the stars1 are relatively far less in   
volume than the flying motes of  the    
purest morning air which sparkle in the 
flood of light sent forth  by the rising
 sun4 ,is all the rest wasted8          
,professor ,balfour ,stewart1  in his   
work ,the ,conservation of ,energy1     
says1 ,if this be the fate of  the      
high-temperature energy of the universe1
 let us think for a moment  what will   
happen to its visible energy4 ,we have  
spoken already about  a medium pervading
 space1 the office of which appears to  
be to degrade  and ultimately extinguish
 all differential motion1 just as it    
tends to  reduce and ultimately equalize
 all difference in temperature4 ,thus1  
the universe would ultimately become an 
equally heated mass1 utterly  worthless 
as far as the production of work is     
concerned1 since such  production       
depends upon difference of temperature4 

,it is obvious that the starting-point  
taken by the author last  quoted1 but   
which1 nevertheless1 is in accordance   
with the views  now generally prevalent1
 is diametrically opposed to that sought
  to be established in this work4       
,professor ,stewart takes the sun's     
inherent energy as the initial point of 
departure1 and reasons from  that as to 
the final consequence when all its light
 and heat shall  have been distributed  
or dissipated into the attenuated medium
 which  occupies space1 and which will  
be thus slowly heated until all space   
has been raised in temperature to that  
of the last dying sun1 when  all will   
thenceforth remain unchanged and        
unchangeable1 silent1 dark1  and dead1  
to all eternity4 ,on the contrary1 the  
purpose of the present  work is to      
establish a directly opposite principle1
 based1 however1 on  demonstrated       
scientific facts and not on theory1 that
 the medium which  pervades all space   
was originally in the same equally and  

universally  potential state 7with its  
molecules raised to a tension           
constituting  an unstable equilibrium7  
in which1 practically1 ,professor       
,stewart's  argument leaves it finally1 
and that this universal molecular energy
  of position was permanently maintained
 by the employment of the forces  which 
afterwards1 transformed into light and  
heat1 were shed abroad  by the sun in   
the work of again overcoming the        
intermolecular tension  of cohesion1 and
 that the light and heat of the sun are 
merely caught  up again by these same or
 other molecules and successively       
employed in  the same manner1 while the 
planetary electrospheres utilize these  
same  forces of internal tension in the 
generation of electricity1 which1  sent 
to the sun1 is converted into light and 
heat1 and these are again  transferred  
to their original source4 ,the rotation 
of the planets is  the grand exciting   
cause1 and the process1 in its complete 
cycle of  development1 has live stages3 

first1 planetary generation2 second1    
transference by currents of electricity 
to the sun2 third1 conversion  into     
light and heat2 fourth1 emission2 and1  
fifth1 reabsorption and  conversion     
again into molecular energy of position4
 ,all space is thus  found to be        
pervaded by extremely attenuated vapors1
 which contain  the elemental           
constituents out of which suns and      
planets are evolved  under favorable    
circumstances of development1 and1 among
 other vapors1  aqueous vapor1 and that 
these are the agency upon which the     
planetary  electrospheres operate in    
their generation of electrical currents1
 and  which vapors1 in turn1 by         
absorption of the solar energy of       
radiation1  again transform this energy 
into mutually balanced electric         
potential1  until it is once more       
disengaged as electricity by the        
rotating  planetary electrospheres1 and 
so on in a constant circuit forever     
repeated4 ,it differs from perpetual    

motion1 however1 in that the  planetary 
rotation is the external and not the    
internal generative  cause1 since the   
electrical forces neither cause nor     
control these  motions2 they belong to  
the realm of gravity4 ,the              
disassociation1  moreover1 is electrical
 and not chemical disassociation4 ,the  
tensions  are against cohesion and not  
against chemical affinity2 are1 in fact1
  similar to those which constitute our 
atmosphere a vast electrical  reservoir2
 and the aqueous vapors1 through all    
their changes1  permanently remain as   
aqueous vapors1 except those condensed  
portions  disassociated by electrolytic 
action at the electrospheric poles1 and 
which have no relation to the attenuated
 vapors of space1 except in  that the   
latter are their sources of supply4 ,the
 process is analogous  to what we see   
around us at all times in the           
atmosphere4 ,while the  process         
described by ,professor ,stewart        
resembles the emptying of the  inherent 

water of a cloud1 in the form of rain1  
into an ocean which  never yields up its
 water again1 so that1 when the cloud   
has rained  itself out1 it is gone      
forever1 the processes here sketched are
 like  the vapors which are caught up by
 the heated air1 carried over the       
thirsty lands1 distributed in rain to   
fertilize and vivify them1  then        
gathered in a thousand tiny rills from  
countless fountains1  again descending  
to the sea and again carried up in      
vapor1 and so on  over and over in      
unceasing round4 ,it is the difference  
between an  old-fashioned flintlock     
musket and a modern magazine rifle1     
except  that the magazine is always     
full4    ,this great ocean of space was 
primordially charged with these         
potential vapors2 it is the constitution
 of space itself4 ,we are so  accustomed
 to consider space as empty1 and that it
 is nothingness1  the antithesis of     
something or anything1 that it is a     
negation or  a blank1 that it requires  

an effort to even think of it as a fully
  stocked establishment with all the    
goods necessary for use or ornament1  in
 the latest styles and of prime quality1
 only not made up1 and that  all our    
suns and worlds are merely tailoring    
establishments where  the operatives cut
 and fit and make them up to order4     
,when more goods  are wanted they have  
to go to the store4    ,is space1 then1 
eternal1 and is this constant round of  
energies to  be eternal8 ,if one is     
eternal1 so is the other1 and surely    
nothing  can be more eternal than space1
 and we cannot conceive of any  other   
space than this space4 ,out of it came  
all created things1  and so long as the 
orbs rotate without retardation1 so long
 will  these interchanges go on without 
impairment1 and that they do so  rotate 
is the necessary corollary of the fact  
that they ever began  to rotate4 ,if    
rotation1 on the contrary1 was imparted 
by special  creative power1 then the    
same power established the laws by which

  they rotate1 and took cognizance of   
resistance as well4 ,whatever the       
impulse was1 it still remains2 whatever 
caused the rotation to begin  maintains 
it2 if the cause is eternal the rotation
 may be eternal2  and1 in any case1 its 
period must be measured by cycles of    
ons1  to which the allotted lifetime of 
a dying sun--a few million years1       
perhaps--is but as the sunburst of a    
morning-glory flower to the  hoary age  
of a mighty planet4 ,compared with the  
popular view of the  sun's life-period1 
we may formulate the terms of an        
equation in which  the sun's mass1      
compared with the realms of infinite    
space1 is as  the sun's lifetime--on a  
basis of contraction of his volume--to  
the  lifetime which actually is to be4  
,as one of the terms is practically     
infinite1 so must be the answer to the  
problem4 ,professor ,stewart says1  ,we 
cannot help believing that there is a   
material medium of some  kind between   
the sun and the earth2 indeed1 the      

undulatory theory  of light requires    
this belief4 ,it has already been shown 
that the  transmission of electricity   
also requires it1 but that there must be
  a medium quite different from the     
undulatory ether4 ,professor ,proctor   
7,mysteries of ,time and ,space7 says1  
,we may admit the possibility  that the 
aqueous vapor and carbon compounds are  
present in stellar  or interplanetary   
space4 ,again he says1 ,assuming1 as we 
well may1  that space is really occupied
 by attenuated vapors4 ,the same writer 
says further1 ,to this end all          
thoughtful study of the mechanism  seems
 to tend 7associating1 perhaps1 our     
visible universe with others1           
permeating it as the ether of space     
permeates the densest solids1 and  in   
turn with others so permeated by it72   
there may be that constant  interchange1
 that perpetual harmony1 of which       
,goethe sung3             ',balanced    
worlds from change defending1           
,while everywhere diffused is harmony   

unending4'      ,the light and heat     
poured forth from the sun are1 as       
stated1 in  the form of radiated energy4
 ,they penetrate the attenuated vapors  
as far as vision extends1 and doubtless 
farther1 but they cannot  reach the     
boundaries of space1 for even the mind  
of man cannot reach  those limits4      
,aqueous vapor absorbs heat2 we know    
this without any  demonstration1 for the
 radiated heat of the earth is arrested 
by  a veil of clouds1 so that on cloudy 
nights frost will not form4 ,so  also   
the sun shining into water will raise   
its temperature1 as in  a glass globe1  
and such absorption of heat by aqueous  
vapors or  water would be much more     
manifest were not a large part employed 
in  loosening the tension of the        
constituent molecules1 since1 when thus 
employed1 it is not manifest as sensible
 heat4 ,professor ,tyndall1 in  ,the    
,forms of ,water1 states that ,the      
quantity of heat which would  raise the 
temperature of a pound of water one     

degree would raise the  temperature of a
 pound of iron ten degrees4 ,professor  
,stewart1 in  ,the ,conservation of     
,energy1 says1 ,that peculiar motion    
which is  imparted by heat when absorbed
 into a body is1 therefore1 one variety 
of molecular energy4444 ,part of the    
energy of absorbed heat is spent in     
pulling asunder the molecules of the    
body under the attractive force  which  
binds them together1 and thus a store of
 energy of position is  laid up1 which  
disappears again after the body is      
cooled4    ,heat will only be changed   
into work while it passes from a body of
  high temperature to one of low4444 ,at
 very high temperatures it is  possible 
that most compounds are decomposed1 and 
the temperature  at which this takes    
place1 for any compound1 has been termed
 its  temperature of disassociation4    
,heat energy is changed into electrical 
separation when tourmalines and certain 
other crystals are heated4 ,it  may be  
added that it is also changed into      

electrical energy by the  operation of  
all electrical machines1 as molecular   
motions are all  mutually               
interconvertible1 and heat itself is    
only a mode of such  motion4 ,of radiant
 energy1 the same writer says1 ,this    
form of energy  radiant heat is         
converted into absorbed heat whenever it
 falls upon  an opaque substance 444 and
 heats it4 ,it is a curious question to 
ask  what becomes of the radiant light  
from the sun that is not absorbed       
either by the planets of our system or  
by any of the stars4 ,we can  only reply
 to such a question that1 as far as we  
can judge from  our present knowledge1  
the radiant energy that is not absorbed 
must  be conceived to be traversing     
space at the rate of one hundred and    
eighty-eight thousand miles a second4   
,we know1 of course1 that aqueous vapors
 are partially opaque to heat  rays1 as 
the radiated heat of the earth is       
partially arrested by  such vapors in   
the atmosphere1 but they are apparently 

transparent to  the rays of light4 ,but 
we know that this cannot be entirely    
true in  fact1 for light rays only      
differ from heat rays in the comparative
  length of their waves or impulses1    
while rays of light are always          
accompanied--when emitted by a thermally
 incandescent body--by a much  larger   
number of those of heat4 ,as a body is  
raised in temperature  radiant dark rays
 first appear2 these being raised       
higher1 become  visible as light1 and   
new dark rays are radiated behind them1 
and this  continues till after the state
 of highest incandescence is reached    
and the invisible chemical rays beyond  
the spectrum appear4 ,it is  like a     
crowd surging forth in flight from the  
doors of a building2  as the speed of   
those in front increases to a run1      
others follow more  slowly in the mass1 
and as these gain speed others continue 
to follow1  while the great mass of     
laggards still trails along in a        
lengthening  line to the rear4 ,the     

perception of light is itself merely due
 to the  constitution of the optic      
apparatus of the observer1 which only   
takes  cognizance of vibrations radiated
 from the middle portion of the scale1  
just as the ear does with sounds1 and   
not to any actual difference in  their  
mode of production4 ,that heat rays and 
light rays are identical  in            
constitution can be readily shown by the
 experiment described by  ,professor    
,tyndall in his ,forms of ,water1 in    
which an opaque screen  of iodine       
solution in bisulphide of carbon was    
employed to arrest1 in  a beam of light1
 all the light waves 7to which it is    
entirely opaque71  while transmitting   
the dark rays4 ,these non-luminous rays 
are then  converged by a lens3 ,let us1 
then1 by means of our opaque solution1  
isolate our dark waves and converge them
 on the cotton4 ,it explodes  as        
before4444 ,at the same dark focus      
sheets of platinum are raised  to vivid 
redness2 444 a diamond is caused to glow

 like a star1 being  afterwards         
gradually dissipated4 ,sir ,william     
,herschel 7see article  ,spectrum1      
,appleton's ,cyclopdia7 says1 ,if we    
call light those rays  which illuminate 
objects1 and radiant heat those which   
heat bodies1  it may be inquired whether
 light be essentially different from    
radiant  heat4 ,in answer to which ,i   
would suggest that we are not allowed by
 the  rules of philosophizing to admit  
of two different causes to explain      
certain effects1 if they may be         
accounted for by one4444 ,tyndall1  by  
similar experiments1 found that the     
thermal energy of the invisible         
radiation of a very powerful electric   
light is eight times that of  the       
visible4444 ,seebeck showed that the    
position of maximum heat  in the        
spectrum changes with the nature of the 
prism and sometimes  occurs in the red4 
,melconi1 with prisms of alcohol and    
water1 found  it in the yellow4         
,athermic bands are also found in the   

heat-spectrum1  corresponding to the    
,fraunhofer lines seen in the visible   
spectrum4    ,we may illustrate this    
successive development of more and more 
rapid  light-waves by conceiving of a   
harp having musical strings of various  
length and thickness1 but not strung up1
 so that1 when swept by the  hand1 the  
vibrations are felt1 but no musical     
tones are produced4 ,if1  now1 all the  
strings are simultaneously and gradually
 stretched  while under continuous      
vibration1 we will first hear the hum of
  the lighter strings1 but deep down in 
the scale2 and as the tension  gradually
 increases the pitch of these will rise 
higher and higher  and be succeeded by  
other new tones below1 until the whole  
register  is simultaneously sounded4    
,and if the tension be further          
increased1  the vibrations of the upper 
strings will gradually grow so rapid    
that the ear can take no cognizance of  
them1 corresponding to the  invisible   
chemical rays of the spectrum1 while the

 middle strings  will be sounding       
loudly1 and others will be slowly       
vibrating below the  musical scale1 but 
without sound1 corresponding to the     
invisible heat  rays4 ,in addition to   
this gradual ascent of pitch along the  
scale1  however1 there is reason to     
believe that sympathetic vibrations are 
induced in the spectrum of thermal and  
chemical light corresponding to  the    
over-tones in music and to those hidden 
rhythms which differentiate  the timbre 
of one kind of musical instrument from  
that of another1  so that a definite    
wave-length will not only repeat itself 
among  adjacent molecules1 but will give
 rise to harmonious vibrations  quite   
different in amplitude and velocity4 ,an
 example of this is  found in some of   
the phenomena of phosphorescence and    
fluorescence1  in which chemical rays   
totally invisible are able1 under       
suitable  conditions1 to excite         
molecular movements corresponding to    
parts  of the visible spectrum1 and     

quite different in wave-lengths and  in 
rapidity4 ,this process is precisely the
 converse of what we  perceive in       
thermal light2 in the latter case the   
colors ascend1  loaded with invisible   
heat rays2 in the former they descend1  
loaded  with invisible chemical rays1   
only noted1 perhaps1 by their actinic   
action on the photographic plate4       
,others1 as the sulphide of calcium     
paints and the like1 repeat their own   
vibrations for many hours1 and  we find 
in certain chemical salts of some rare  
metals1 as lanthanum  and cerium1 the   
curious property of suddenly raising the
 whole scale1  as in a recently         
introduced gas-lamp1 in which a skeleton
 mantle of  these oxides glows with a   
wondrously beautiful white light under  
the  relatively low temperature of a    
small ,bunsen burner2 similar phenomena 
are manifested in the behavior of       
electric discharges in attenuated       
gases1 as well as in what is known to   
children as fox-fire1 wood  undergoing  

slow decomposition in damp places1 or in
 the self-luminous  secretions          
7corresponding1 perhaps1 to ptomaines or
 like products7  of glow-worms and other
 animals4 ,if we ever--as we probably   
soon  shall--reach that point where we  
can illuminate our dwellings with  cold 
candles1 as the inhabitants of tropical 
countries carry about a  few fire-flies 
in a paper box for a lantern on dark    
nights1 it must be  by the study of     
these phenomena4 ,but meantime ,old ,sol
 will continue  to discharge his        
accumulating stores of both heat and    
light1 for both  these are essential1   
not only for use upon the planets1 but  
throughout  all the realms of space4 ,in
 the transformation into and emission of
  his radiant energy the sun is not a   
chemical engine1 but a mill1--one  of   
those which grind slowly1 but they grind
 exceeding small4    ,the difference    
between radiated thermal light and heat 
is obviously  one of degree only and not
 of kind4 ,the undulations of light may 

be compared to the thrust of a rapier1  
and the more massive waves  of radiant  
heat to the blow of a bludgeon1 but the 
same resistance  which arrests the      
advance of the one must retard and      
finally arrest  that of the other1 if   
sufficiently extended4 ,within the      
limits of  a space in which ,professor  
,stewart conceives that the first rays  
of  light which ever flashed forth at   
the dawn of creation1 in the primal  ons
 of the universe1 are still to this day1
 along their original  lines of         
radiation1 traversing space at the rate 
of one hundred  and eighty-eight        
thousand miles per second1 there must   
certainly  be room enough and absorption
 enough 7which even a few yards of mist 
will supply7 to curb these runaway      
steeds somewhere along their lines  of  
flaming passage4 ,at that very point    
they are at work acting upon  the       
molecules of the attenuated vapors of   
space1 and assisting to  re-establish   
the potential energy which has there    

been converted1 into  another form of   
force by the planetary rotations of the 
solar systems  of those distant regions4
 ,by the law of the diffusion of gases1 
and  that of the diffusion or           
transference of heat-energy from        
molecule  to molecule1 the vast realms  
of interstellar space must tend to be   
all brought into approximate uniformity 
of tensions1 and the force  abstracted  
at those points of space occupied by the
 relatively few  and insignificant solar
 systems will be returned1 not directly 
at  the identical places where such     
solar systems may exist1 but at every   
part of space to which their radiant    
energy extends4 ,as we give from  our   
own supplies to other systems for their 
support1 so they1 in turn1  give back   
again to us4 ,it is said that in the    
earliest days of creation  the stars    
sang together2 they still sing together1
 planets and suns1 as             ,jura 
answers from her misty shroud           
,back to the joyous ,alps1 who call to  

her aloud4      ,when old ,earth lifts  
his brimming beaker from the great      
crystal sea  and drains it to the good  
health of all the stars of heaven1 they 
each  respond with fiery energy1 and by 
their merry twinkle we may know  how    
highly they appreciate the toast4 ,we   
are all one family1--but  what a family6
 ,comets1 planets1 double stars1        
variable stars1 stars  of complementary 
colors1 blue1 yellow1 orange1 and red   
stars1 stars  which blaze up in sudden  
conflagration1 apparently new stars1    
nebul  half star and half vapor1 nebul  
all vapor and others all stars1 the     
vast milky-way like a wondrous river of 
hundreds of millions of solar  systems1 
the insulated stars scattered through   
space like watchmen  on the distant     
hills beyond the city walls1 streams of 
stars1 stars  which are parting from    
each other in space like scattering     
families1  and those which travel       
together in groups like pioneers in a   
strange  country1--all these and        

doubtless other unknown types and forms 
compose this sidereal family4 ,will they
 fall into their categories as  lawful  
subjects1 so as to be properly          
classified in a single scheme  of the   
visible order of creation1 or shall we  
fail to interpret their  apparent       
mysteries when we apply the same        
principles which have been  successfully
 applied to the phenomena of our own    
solar system8 ,let  us see4    ,in      
examining the sun1 we find that a beam  
of its light passed  through a prism is 
thrown upon the wall in a wedge-shaped  
streak of  rainbow-tinted colors4       
,fraunhofer1 many years ago1 found that 
this  spectrum was crossed at irregular 
intervals by a series of dark lines1  of
 variable width and distance apart1 of  
which he catalogued more  than five     
hundred4 ,these lines were subsequently 
found to correspond  in the aggregate1  
in their position in the spectrum1 with 
a series of  bright lines of different  
colors which formed the separate spectra

  of various metals when burned1 in     
vapor or powder1 in the flame of  an    
alcohol lamp4 ,each of these transverse 
lines was found to have a  fixed and    
invariable position in the extended     
scale of the spectrum1  and scarcely any
 lines of the different elements are    
alike2 so that1  when the spectrum is   
properly magnified under telescopic     
observation  and the lines identified1  
we have the means of determining the    
presence or absence of such elements in 
the vaporous constitution  of any       
incandescent body by examination of its 
spectrum4 ,in this way  many of our     
terrestrial elements are found to exist 
in the sun1--so  many1 in fact1 that we 
know that the sun's nucleus1 or core1   
must  be composed substantially of the  
same elements1 the same sort of  matter1
 as exists on earth1--that we are1 in   
fact1 a chip of the  old block4 ,but it 
was found--and this is the real basis of
 spectrum  analysis--that if a certain  
metal or other element be burned in the 

flame of an alcohol lamp1 and a more    
brilliant flame of the same metal  or   
element burned in another lamp be       
observed through the first flame1  it   
will be seen that1 while the general    
illumination of the spectrum  is        
increased1 the previous bright lines    
characterizing the element  are now     
replaced by dark lines or lines         
relatively very faint2 in  a word1 the  
spectrum characteristic of the given    
element is exactly  reversed            
7,appleton's ,cyclopdia1 article        
,spectrum ,analysis74 ,we have  referred
 to this fact above in considering the  
origin of sun-spots1  showing that they 
are due to increased heat acting upon   
the core of  the sun so as to volatilize
 an abnormally large proportion of the  
elements usually in a more condensed    
state upon the surface of the  solar    
body beneath its hydrogen envelope4     
,these vapors1 thus raised  in          
temperature1 are driven upward by their 
volatilization into the  incandescent   

atmosphere of hydrogen1 and the vaporous
 matters in the  higher strata thus     
produce the characteristic absorption   
bands of  these elements1 while the     
overheated vapors1 by a vast uprush from
  beneath1 hurl aside the more highly   
heated hydrogen above to appear  as     
facul around the sun-spot1 the cooler   
upper layers of hydrogen  following     
downward the subsiding vaporous metallic
 uprush as it sinks  back beneath the   
photospheric level4    ,it is obvious   
that by similar spectrum analysis we may
 determine  to a large extent the       
constitution of the fixed stars and     
other  self-luminous bodies of space and
 interpret the phenomena which they     
exhibit4 ,we quote the following from   
the previously cited article  in        
,appleton's ,cyclopdia1 by ,professor   
,proctor3 ,spectroscopic  analysis      
applied to the stars has shown that they
 resemble the sun in  general           
constitution and condition4 ,but        
characteristic differences  exist1      

insomuch that the stars have been       
divided into four orders  distinguished 
by their spectra4 ,these are thus       
presented by ,secchi1  who examined more
 than five hundred star spectra3 ,the   
first type is  represented by ,alpha    
,lyr1 ,sirius1 etc41 and includes most  
of the  stars shining with a white      
light1 as ,altair1 ,regulus1 ,rigel1 the
  stars ,beta1 ,gamma1 ,epsilon1 ,zeta1 
and ,eta of ,ursa ,major1 etc4 ,these   
give a spectrum showing all the seven   
colors1 and crossed usually  by many    
lines1 but always by the four lines of  
hydrogen1 very dark  and strong4 ,the   
breadth of these four lines indicates a 
very deep1  absorptive stratum at a high
 temperature and at great pressure4     
,nearly  half the stars observed by     
,secchi more than two hundred out of    
five  hundred showed this spectrum4 ,the
 second type includes most of the       
yellow stars1 as ,capella1 ,pollux1     
,arcturus1 ,aldebaran1 ,alpha of ,ursa  
,major1 ,procyon1 etc4 ,the ,fraunhofer 

lines are well seen in the red  and     
blue1 but not so well in the yellow4    
,the resemblance of this  spectrum to   
the sun suggests that stars of this type
 resemble the  sun closely in physical  
constitution and condition4 ,about      
one-third  of the stars observed by     
,secchi more than one hundred and fifty 
out of five hundred showed this         
spectrum4 ,the third type includes      
,antares1 ,alpha of ,orion1 and ,alpha  
of ,hercules1 ,beta of ,pegasus1  ,mira1
 and most of the stars shining with a   
red light4 ,the spectra  show bands of  
lines2 according to ,secchi1 there are  
shaded bands1  but a more powerful      
spectroscope shows multitudes of fine   
lines4 ,the  spectra resemble somewhat  
the spectrum of a sun-spot1 and ,secchi 
has  advanced the theory that these     
stars are covered in great part by      
spots like those of the sun4 ,about one 
hundred out of five hundred  of the     
observed stars belong to this type4 7,it
 should be noted that  the presence of  

sun-spots is no evidence of diminished  
heat in a sun2  see ,professor ,proctor 
in his ,myths and ,marvels of           
,astronomy1 article  ,suns in ,flames3  
,it may be noticed1 in passing1 that it 
is by no  means certain that the time   
when the sun is most spotted is the time
  when he gives out least light4444 ,all
 the evidence we have tends to  show    
that when the sun is most spotted his   
energies are most active4 ,it  is then  
that the colored flames leap to their   
greatest height and show  their greatest
 brilliancy1 then also that they show   
the most rapid and  remarkable changes  
of shape47 444 ,the fourth type differs 
from the  preceding in the arrangement  
and appearance of the bands4 ,it        
includes  only faint stars4 ,a few      
stars1 as ,gamma of ,cassiopeia1 ,eta of
 ,argus1  ,beta of ,lyra1 etc41 show the
 lines of hydrogen bright instead of    
dark1  as though surrounded by hydrogen 
glowing with a heat more intense  than  
that of the central orb itself around   

which the hydrogen exists4    ,all the  
above five hundred stars reveal the     
presence of hydrogen under  precisely   
such conditions as conform to the       
general principle involved  in the      
source and mode of solar energy as      
herein stated4 ,but a single  star      
7,betelgeuse7 was observed by ,huggins  
and ,miller in ,england which  showed   
the lines of sodium1 magnesium1 iron1   
bismuth1 and calcium1  but found those  
of hydrogen wanting4 ,of the spectrum of
 this gas1  ,professor ,ball says1 ,the 
hydrogen spectrum appears to present a  
simplicity not found in the spectrum of 
any other gas1 and therefore  it is with
 great interest that we examine the     
spectra of the white  stars1 in which   
the dark lines of hydrogen are unusually
 strong and  broad4 ,referring to the   
new star in the ,northern ,crown1 which 
burst  forth in #ahff1 the same writer  
says1 ,the feature which made the       
spectrum of the new star essentially    
distinct from that of any other  star   

that had been previously observed was   
the presence of certain  bright lines   
superposed on a spectrum with dark lines
 of one of the  ordinary types4 ,the    
position of certain of these lines      
showed that  one of the luminous gases  
must be hydrogen4 ,of this particular   
star  7,betelgeuse7 it is said          
7,proctor's ,familiar ,essays71 ,red    
stars  and variable stars affect the    
neighborhood of the ,milky ,way or of   
well-marked star-streams4 ,the          
constellation ,orion is singularly rich 
in objects of this class4 ,it is here   
that the strange 'variable'  ,betelgeuse
 lies4 ,at present this star shows no   
sign of variation1  but a few years ago 
it exhibited remarkable changes4 ,we    
thus see  that ,betelgeuse is a variable
 star1 and it must have passed in its   
different variations between the limits 
of extreme brilliancy1 in which  the    
lines of hydrogen appear bright1 and    
that of a less brilliant  stage1 in     
which they appear dark1--that is1 as    

absorption bands4 ,it  has thus1 in     
fact1 run the gamut1 so to speak1 of    
color changes1 and  now occupies an     
intermediate position in the scale4 ,in 
his article  ,star unto ,star1 the same 
writer says1 ,on this view we may fairly
  assume that the darkness of the       
hydrogen lines is a characteristic  of  
stars at a much higher temperature than 
our sun and suns of the  same class4 ,we
 have already seen that the spectra of  
stars of the  fourth type--,appleton's  
,cyclopdia1 ,spectrum ,analysis--show   
the  lines of hydrogen bright instead of
 dark1 as though surrounded by  hydrogen
 glowing with a heat more intense than  
that of the central  orb itself4        
,professor ,dunkin says1 in his work    
,the ,midnight ,sky1  ,one of the       
conclusions drawn by ,kirchhoff from    
these experiments  is that each         
incandescent gas weakens1 by absorption1
 rays of the  same degree of            
refrangibility as those it emits2 or1 in
 other words1  that the spectrum of each

 incandescent gas is reversed when this 
gas  is traversed by rays of the same   
refrangibility emanating from an        
intensely luminous source which gives of
 itself a continuous spectrum  like that
 of the sun4 444 ,the third division1   
including ,betelgeuse1  ,antares1 ,alpha
 ,herculis1 and others of like color1   
seems to be  affected by something      
peculiar in their physical composition1 
as if  their photospheres contained a   
quantity of gas at a lower temperature  
than usual4 ,the stars in this class    
have generally a ruddy tint1  probably  
owing to their light having undergone   
some modification  while passing through
 an absorbing atmosphere4444 ,a great   
number of  the stars in the third       
division are variable in their lustre4  
,we may  therefore readily conclude that
 midway between the inverted lines which
  constitute the dark absorption bands  
and the faint spectra which show  the   
bright lines of hydrogen direct there   
must be an atmosphere of  glowing       

hydrogen superposed upon a deeper one in
 such proportion that  it will not      
reveal its presence in the spectroscope 
at all2 for when  the dark and light    
bands1 which occupy precisely the same  
position in  the spectrum1 are of       
approximately equal intensity the result
 will  obviously be the neutralization  
of both4 ,that among a myriad suns1     
some with dark hydrogen lines and some  
with bright1 there should occur         
occasionally an example corresponding to
 this point of divergence1  and         
especially among variable stars1 is not 
only to be expected1 but  is1 in fact1  
confirmatory of the general hypothesis  
itself4 ,it is an  exception which      
emphatically proves the rule1 when we   
can trace the  operative cause which has
 produced it4                  ,,chapter
 ,,vi4    ,,the ,,phenomena ,,of ,,the  
,,stars4      ,let us now consider the  
phenomena of the double stars4 ,these   
were formerly believed to be single     
orbs1 but the more powerful  telescopes 

of recent years have shown them to      
consist of two suns1  each substantially
 similar to our own sun1 revolving      
around each  other at a relatively small
 distance apart4 ,in ,appleton's        
,cyclopdia1  article ,star1 we read1 ,it
 is noteworthy that few simple stars    
show such colors as blue1 green1 violet1
 or indigo2 but among double  and       
multiple star systems not only are these
 colors recognized1 but  such colors as 
lilac1 olive1 gray1 russet1 and so on4  
,a beautiful  feature in many double    
stars remains to be noticed3 it is often
 found  that the components exhibit     
complementary colors4 ,this is oftener  
seen among unequal doubles1 and then the
 larger component shows a  color from   
the red end of the spectrum1 as red1    
orange1 or yellow1  while the smaller   
shows the corresponding color from the  
blue end1  as green1 blue1 or purple4   
,the colors are real1 not merely the    
result  of contrast1 for when the larger
 star is concealed the color of the     

smaller remains 7in most cases7         
unchanged4 ,spectrum analysis shows     
that the colors of many double stars are
 due to the absorptive vapors  cutting  
off certain portions of the light4444   
,the components are  circling around    
each other1 or rather around their      
common center of  gravity4 ,professor   
,ball1 in his work ,in the ,high        
,heavens1 says1  ,there is no more      
pleasing phenomenon in sidereal         
astronomy than  that presented by the   
contrasted hues often exhibited by      
double  stars4444 ,it seemed not at all 
impossible that there might be some     
optical explanation of colors so vividly
 contrasted emanating from  points so   
contiguous4 ,it was also remembered that
 blue stars were  generally only present
 as one member of an associated pair4444
 ,when1  however1 ,dr4 ,huggins showed  
that the actual spectrum of the object  
demonstrated that the cause of the color
 in each star arose from  absorption by 
its peculiar atmosphere1 it became      

impossible to doubt  the reality of the 
phenomena4 ,since then it has been for  
physicists  to explain why two closely  
neighboring stars should differ so      
widely  in their atmospheric            
constituents1 for it can be no longer   
contended  that their beautiful hues    
arise from an optical illusion4    ,of  
these double stars with complementary   
colors we quote the following  from     
,professor ,dunkin 7who1 in turn1 quotes
 from ,admiral ,smyth1 the  author of   
,sidereal ,chromatics73 ,in ,eta        
,cassiopei the large star  is a dull    
white and the smaller one lilac2 in     
,gamma ,andromed1 a deep  yellow and    
sea-green2 in ,iota ,cancri1 a dusky    
orange and a sapphire  blue2 in ,delta  
,corvi1 a bright yellow and purple2 and 
in ,albiero1  or ,beta ,cygni1 yellow   
and blue4 ,in most of the remaining     
stars of  the list the contrasting      
colors are equally marked1 and also in  
many  others which are not included in  
it4 ,some of these double stars are     

variable in their colors1 as are the    
ordinary single variables1 and1  of     
course1 for a similar reason1--to wit1  
the varying intensity of  more or less  
cumulative planetary impacts4    ,the   
interpretation1 of course1 as explained 
below1 is that these suns1  each one of 
different mass and consequently of      
different electrical  resistance1 are   
arranged in parallel circuit along a    
single line of  electric current2 a pair
 of different-sized arc or incandescent 
lamps1  similarly arranged1 would       
exhibit precisely the same phenomena4 ,a
  compound solar system of this sort1   
apparently1 with double sun and  single 
planetary system in process of          
formation1 nearly completed  from a     
spiral nebula1 is shown in a gaseous    
nebula within the  constellation ,ursa  
,minor1 illustrated in ,lord ,rosse's   
drawing 7see  ,nichols ,architecture of 
the ,heavens1 ,plate ,x41 lower figure74
    ,more than three thousand of these  
binary stars have been catalogued1  and 

some of them make a complete revolution 
about their common  centers of          
gravity--so distant are they from each  
other--in periods  of not less than     
sixty1 or even eighty1 years4 ,of the   
double star  ,mizar1--the middle one of 
the three which form the tail of the    
,great  ,bear1--,professor ,ball states 
that1 by new methods of spectroscopic   
analysis1 the component stars which form
 this double have been found  to be one 
hundred and fifty millions of miles     
apart1 while ,alcor1 a  smaller star1   
visible to the naked eye1 and enormously
 farther from  ,mizar than are the      
components of the latter from each      
other1 moves  through space in a        
parallel direction and with the same    
velocity as  its double companion4 ,what
 the connection may be1 if any1 we do   
not  know1 but their identical course is
 obviously related to some common       
circumstance of origin1 as is the       
probable case with those other  groups  
of stars which drift through space      

together4 ,they show that  solar systems
 are not necessarily individual         
creations1 but may be  formed in groups 
at the same period of time1 and by the  
operation of  natural laws              
simultaneously directed upon or into the
 creative matter  from which solar      
systems are built up and sent along     
their way4 ,it  has been already shown  
that our sun has a motion around the    
center  of gravity of our own solar     
system1 as a whole1 similar to that of  
the binary stars around each other1 but 
that1 by reason of his vast  relative   
mass 7seven hundred and fifty to one for
 all the planets71  this center is      
always within the confines of his own   
volume4 ,if1  however1 our sun were     
divided into two suns one1 two1 or five 
million  miles apart1 each revolving    
around a common center of gravity       
situated  between the two1 and the      
planets revolving around the same center
  of gravity1 but relatively more       
distant1 the planets would thus  rotate 

around both suns as a common center1 and
 with the electric  polarity of both    
suns the same1 as must necessarily be   
the case1  they would present phenomena 
precisely similar to those exhibited by 
the double stars4 ,and such might very  
easily be the case in even a  system so 
small as our own1 for the planet        
,mercury has so elliptical  an orbit    
that its distance from the sun varies in
 different parts  of its annual movement
 from twenty-eight to forty-five        
millions  of miles4 ,there would then be
 mutual electric repulsion of the two   
solar electrospheres1 such as we see in 
the case of comets and in  the sun's    
corona and long streamers4 ,professor   
,proctor1 article  ,the ,sun's ,long    
,streamers1 says1 ,these singular       
appendages1 like  the streamers seen by 
,professor ,abbe1 extend directly from  
the sun1  as if he exerted some         
repellent action4444 ,i cannot but think
 that  the true explanation of these    
streamers1 whatever it may be 7,i am not

  in the least prepared to say what it  
is71 will be found whensoever           
astronomers have found an explanation of
 comets' tails4444 ,whether  the        
repulsive force is electrical1 magnetic1
 or otherwise1 does not  at present     
concern us1 or rather does concern us1  
but at present we  are quite unable to  
answer the question4 ,a similar example 
is to  be found in the self-repellent   
positive electrospheres of the earth    
and moon1 illustrated on a previous     
page1 which1 in fact1 are types  among  
planets of precisely what we find in    
double stars4 ,now1 if  these double    
central suns1 with a common system of   
planets revolving  around them both1    
differ one from the other in size1 they 
will differ  also in the depth and      
density of their hydrogen atmospheres1  
and the  electric forces directed       
against them will produce different     
results  in each4 ,in one we will have  
high temperature1 great volatilization1 
and wide absorption bands2 in the other1

 a shallow atmosphere1  a temperature   
below that of an extensive              
volatilization of its  metallic         
components1 and a spectrum rich in light
 at the blue end1  while the former one 
will be correspondingly richer in the   
yellow  and red rays at the opposite and
 lower end of the spectrum4 ,one1  in   
fact1 will manifest the phenomena of    
blue-white stars1 the other1  those of  
orange-red1 but variously modified in a 
chromatic series4 ,the  case may be     
extended to multiple stars1 and         
complementary colors1  more or less     
perfect1 may be almost predicated as the
 law of compound  solar bodies having   
cores like that of our sun1 but each of 
different  mass1 and surrounded by      
hydrogen atmospheres of different depths
 and  densities1 both acted upon by the 
same exterior planetary electrical      
currents4 ,it is certainly true of      
double stars1 and probably so of all    
the others4 ,of course such enormously  
massive double suns presuppose  enormous

 planets1 rotating around them at       
enormous distances2 but  when we compare
 the distance of our own satellite1 the 
moon1 from  the earth with the distance 
of ,neptune from the sun1 and consider  
that the light of the sun will reach    
,neptune in about four hours1 and  then 
compare this distance with the          
inconceivable distances of space        
requisite to retard and merge all       
radiant energy into the diffused        
molecular energy of position1 our wonder
 will cease4    ,we have also to        
consider those single stars which 7see  
,appleton's  ,cyclopdia1 article ,star7 
are variable in their brilliancy4 ,these
  stars may be divided into periodic    
variables1 irregular variables1  and    
temporary stars4 ,periodic variable     
stars are those which undergo  increase 
and diminution of light at regular      
intervals4 ,thus1 the  star ,mira1 or   
,omicron of ,cetus1 varies in lustre1 in
 a period of  three hundred and         
thirty-one and one-third days1 from the 

second  magnitude to a faintness such   
that the star can only be seen with  a  
powerful telescope1 and thence to the   
second magnitude again4 ,it  shines for 
about a fortnight as a star of the      
second magnitude1  and then remains     
invisible for five months1 the decrease 
of lustre  occupying about three months1
 the increase about seven weeks4 ,such  
is the general course of its phases4 ,it
 does not always1 however1  return to   
the same degree of brightness1 nor      
increase and diminish  by the same      
gradations2 neither are the successive  
intervals of its  maxima equal4 ,from   
recent observations and inquiries into  
its history1  the mean period would     
appear to be subject to a cyclical      
fluctuation  embracing eighty-eight such
 periods1 and having the effect of      
gradually  lengthening and shortening   
alternately those intervals to the      
extent  of twenty-five days one way and 
the other4 ,the irregularities in  the  
degree of brightness attained at the    

maximum are probably also               
periodical4444 ,it suggests a probable  
explanation of these changes of         
brightness1 that when the star is near  
its minimum1 its color changes  from    
white to a full red1 which1 from what we
 know of the spectra of  colored stars1 
seems to indicate that the loss of      
brightness is due  to the formation of  
many spots over the surface of this     
distant sun4    ,algol is another       
remarkable variable1 passing1 however1  
much more  rapidly through all its      
changes4 ,it is ordinarily a            
second-magnitude  star1 but during about
 seven hours in each period of          
sixty-nine hours  its lustre first      
diminishes until the star is reduced to 
a fourth  magnitude1 and after it has   
remained twenty minutes at its minimum  
its  lustre is gradually restored4 ,it  
remains a second-magnitude star for     
about sixty-two hours in each period of 
sixty-nine hours4 ,these changes  seem  
to correspond to what might be expected 

if a large opaque orb  is circling      
around this distant sun in a period of  
sixty-nine hours1  transiting its disk  
at regular intervals4    ,of this star1 
,professor ,ball says1 ,applying the    
improved spectroscopic  process to      
,algol1 he ,vogel determined on one     
night that ,algol  was retreating from  
the earth at a speed of twenty-six miles
 per  second4444 ,when ,vogel came to   
repeat his observations1 he found that  
,algol was again moving with the same   
velocity1 but this time towards  the    
earth instead of from it4444 ,it        
appeared that the movements were        
strictly periodic2 that is to say1 for  
one day and ten hours the star  is      
moving towards us1 and then for a like  
time it moves from us1 the  maximum     
speed being 444 twenty-six miles a      
second4444 ,it is invariably  found that
 every time the movement of retreat is  
concluded the star  loses its           
brilliance1 and regains it again at the 
commencement of the  return movement4444

 ,the spectroscopic evidence admits of  
no other  interpretation save that there
 must be another mighty body in the     
immediate vicinity of ,algol4444 ,algol 
must be attended by a companion  star   
which1 if not absolutely as devoid of   
intrinsic light as the  earth or the    
moon1 is nevertheless dark relatively to
 ,algol4 ,once in  each period of       
revolution this obscure body intrudes   
itself between  the earth and ,algol1   
cutting off a portion of the direct     
light from  the star and thus producing 
the well-known effect4 ,this is1 in     
fact1  a periodic transit or eclipse of 
,algol by a planet1 such as we see in   
eclipses of our own sun by the moon and 
the inner planets1 except that  ,algol's
 planet is apparently single like our   
moon with reference to  the earth1 and  
that it is relatively much larger than  
any of our own  planets1 as we would    
necessarily suppose it to be1 if        
solitary4 ,its  mass has been computed  
by the effects which it produces1 and we

 learn  that it is not a dark sun with a
 brilliant planet1 but a brilliant  sun 
with a dark planet1 just as our solar   
system presents4 ,algol1  at the moment 
of its greatest eclipse1 has lost about 
three-fifths  of its light2 it therefore
 follows that the dark satellite must   
have  covered three-fifths of the bright
 surface4444 ,the period of maximum     
obscuration is about twenty minutes1 and
 we know the velocity of the  bright    
star1 which1 along with the period of   
revolution1 gives the  magnitude of the 
orbit4 ,from these data it has been     
computed that  the globe of ,algol      
itself is about one-fourth larger than  
that of  our visible sun1 but its mass  
is so much less that its weight is only 
one-half that of our sun1 so that its   
body is probably gaseous4 ,the  author  
concludes1 ,no one1 however1 will be    
likely to doubt that it  is the law of  
gravitation1 pure and simple1 which     
prevails in the  celestial spaces1 and  
consequently we are able to make use of 

it to  explain the circumstances        
attending the movements of ,algol's dark
  companion4 ,this body is the smaller  
of the two1 and the speed with  which it
 moves is double as great as that of    
,algol1 so that it travels  over as many
 miles in a second as an express train  
can get over in an  hour4 ,the companion
 of ,algol is about the same size as our
 sun1 but  has a mass only one-fourth as
 great4 ,this indicates a globe of      
matter  which must be largely in the    
gaseous state1 but which1 nevertheless1 
seems to be devoid of intrinsic         
luminosity4 ,their distance apart  is   
always some three million miles4 ,this  
is1 however1 an unusually  short        
distance when compared with the         
dimensions of the two globes            
themselves4 ,with this exception1 the   
author says1 the movements of  ,algol   
and its companion are not very          
dissimilar to movements in the  solar   
system with which we are already        
familiar4 ,it will be seen that  the    

want of luminosity in the dark companion
 of ,algol finds a ready  explanation in
 the fact that it is a planet1 acting   
precisely as our  own planets do1 and   
that the luminosity of ,algol itself is 
directly  attributable to the           
electricity developed by the presence of
 this  planet rotating axially and      
orbitally around it1 and the darkness of
  the planet itself is the necessary    
correlative of the heat and light  of   
its sun4 ,the planet has about one-half 
the density of ,saturn1 while  ,algol   
has one-half the density of the sun1 and
 hence we should expect  to find on     
,algol an atmosphere largely composed of
 glowing hydrogen1  and on its planet an
 atmosphere largely composed of oxygen1 
in which1  doubtless1 float enormous    
clouds of aqueous vapor4 ,the           
interpretation  is direct and           
conclusive1 and upon no other hypothesis
 can the facts  be explained1 for their 
close connection with each other        
demonstrates  their common origin1 and  

their masses are not so different one   
from the  other as to permit1 on any    
theory of their coequal origin as suns1 
one  to glow with the fires of youth and
 energy and the other to have grown     
dark and dead from old age and          
exhaustion1 and especially so if still  
in its gaseous stage1 which is that     
which must characterize its highest     
state of incandescent energy from the   
most active condensation of its  volume1
 if the nebular hypothesis has any      
validity whatever4 ,in fact1  this      
example alone1 if the constitution of   
,algol's dark satellite is  really      
gaseous1 must go very far to throw the  
gravest doubt1 in itself1  on the       
validity of this hypothesis4    ,the    
star ,beta1 of the constellation ,lyra1 
has a full period of twelve  days and   
twenty-two hours1 divided into two      
periods of six days and  eleven hours1  
in each of which the star has a maximum 
brightness of  about the three and      
one-half magnitude1 but in one period   

the minimum  is about the four and      
one-third magnitude1 while in the other 
it  is about the four and one-half      
magnitude4 ,this peculiarity points1  it
 is said1 to an opaque orb with a       
satellite1 the satellite being  occulted
 by the primary in the alternative      
transits1 and therefore  the loss of    
light is less4    ,the star ,delta of   
,cepheus is quite different1 however1   
for1 while it  takes only one1 day and  
fourteen hours in passing from its      
minimum  to maximum of brightness1 it   
occupies three days and nineteen hours1 
or somewhat more than double this time1 
in passing from maximum to  minimum4    
,two or three hundred of these variable 
stars are already  known4 ,the above    
examples are cited in detail because    
they furnish  the strongest possible    
proof of the truth of the hypothesis    
which we  are endeavoring to present4   
,while the movements of the stars ,algol
  and ,beta ,lyr may find an adequate   
interpretation in the one case  in a    

large occulting planet1 and in the other
 in an occulting planet  with a         
satellite1 it is obvious that ,mira and 
,delta ,cephei cannot be  explained     
except by the presence of planetary     
bodies or satellites  which do not      
mechanically occult the light of their  
suns4 ,in these  regularly variable     
stars it is the light which varies1 but 
of course  the solar heat must vary     
also1--that is to say1 the solar energy 
varies  regularly1 but with unequal     
periods of growth and decline and with  
larger periods of cyclical variation in 
addition4 ,such variations can  only be 
produced by the action of permanently   
connected and orbitally  rotating       
planetary bodies1 acting dynamically    
through space1 to  regularly increase   
and diminish the solar energy1 and such 
bodies can  only do this by their       
orbital positions with reference to each
 other  and to the central sun itself4  
,in this case1 since the activity of    
solar energy is most unquestionably     

varied by the planetary energies1  by   
their position and movements1 at least a
 portion of solar energy  must be due to
 planetary action1 and if this be so1 it
 may be affirmed  with certainty that   
substantially all solar energy may be   
produced in  the same way2 for1         
otherwise1 we seek for two diverse      
causes to produce  a single effect1     
which may be produced by one4 ,we have  
no knowledge1  however1 of any planetary
 energy which could operate to increase 
or  diminish the energy of the central  
sun in its emission of light1 except    
that which we have already presented1   
and no theory of our own sun's  energy  
hitherto advanced has ever taken        
cognizance of the planetary  energies of
 our system as an effective cause for   
those of the sun4 ,but  while the sun's 
energy is--as it must be in this        
case--the outcome of  that of the       
planets1 it is equally obvious that the 
planets themselves  can have no         
permanent1 inherent energy of their own 

to generate or  modify such energy of   
the sun1 since they are in fact supplied
 by  the solar energy1 and their motions
 are controlled and regulated by  the   
sun itself4 ,hence the inference is     
irresistible that the planets  must     
derive their primary force from an      
external source not solar1  and this    
they can only do by means of their      
rotation in space1 and  the only force  
derivable from space of which we have   
any knowledge  is electricity1 so that  
the circle thus becomes complete4 ,how  
now  shall we explain these periodical  
aberrations of energy8 ,the color  of a 
star1 as we know1 is no criterion of its
 age or size4 ,the color  is due to     
atmospheric absorption of the radiant   
light4 ,the double  stars1 for example1 
revolve around each other at regular    
periods1  and they are necessarily of   
nearly the same age1 as sidereal ages   
are computed1 but they frequently differ
 one from the other in color1  and      
multiple stars may be all different each

 from the others2 and the  color1 as    
before stated1 is no criterion of size1 
for a small sun1  with its glowing      
hydrogen in a state of high             
incandescence1 and with  few absorption 
bands in its spectrum1 will appear      
bluish-white1 or of  that specific type 
of stars1 without reference to size1    
while a much  larger sun1 with its light
 darkened by broad absorption bands and 
sun-spots1 will appear orange or red2   
and1 consequently1 difference  of color 
can be no criterion of distance1 since a
 blue-white star of  small size will    
outshine a red orb of much greater      
magnitude1 whether  it be more or less  
distant4 ,the variable stars1 for these 
reasons1  belong to the order of red    
stars mostly1 if not altogether4 ,we    
must  also bear in mind that sun-spots  
do not diminish the solar heat1 as  they
 are the result of increased and not of 
diminished energy4 ,electric  currents  
of high potential pass directly1 as we  
know1 along the lines  of least         

resistance to their opposite center of  
polarity1 so that two  planets nearly in
 conjunction with each other transmit   
their currents  almost directly towards 
the sun's center1 and upon the same     
point  of solar latitude1 while1 if at  
right angles with the sun1 they must    
deliver their electricity along         
converging lines and thus strike the    
solar surface at different points4      
,currents of electricity of high        
potential also 7see ,electricity in the 
,service of ,man1 page #ge71  by their  
own passage1 facilitate the passage of  
succeeding currents1  so that generators
 discharging along the same lines find  
less and  less resistance4 ,it is true  
that we find no appreciable resistance  
in the passage of these currents between
 the earth and the sun1 as  their       
velocity is that of light1 but both     
light and electricity may  be equally   
retarded by resistance in a small       
degree4 ,we know also  that in the      
condensed hydrogen atmosphere of the sun

 there must be  resistance1 and also    
that the resistance in fluids diminishes
 as the  temperature rises4 ,considering
 now the variable star ,mira1 as above  
described1 we observe1 as is the case   
with ,delta ,cephei1 also cited1  that  
the period between its greatest light1  
in a descending scale1  and its least is
 about twice as long as its rise from   
minimum to  maximum4 ,during a period of
 four years 7#afgb to #afgf7 it is said 
that  it was not visible at all4    ,if 
,mira be considered a relatively small  
sun1 with its axis strongly  inclined to
 the planetary plane1 and having three  
planets only1 two of  them constituting 
a double planet1 like the earth and     
moon1 but nearly  equal in size1 and    
having a rotation about the sun in      
nearly eleven  months and a rotation    
about each other in the same period1    
and1 besides  these1 a much more distant
 large planet1 something like our       
,jupiter1  with an orbital period of    
many years1 so that the cycle of        

relative  positions is complete in about
 eighty-eight of the shorter periods of 
variation1 we would have such results as
 we see in ,mira4 ,twice in each        
revolution of the double planet its two 
members and their sun would be  in      
conjunction1 and we would have great    
brilliancy and whiteness until  the     
metallic elements began to volatilize in
 increased proportions2  then an era of 
wide absorption bands and redness1      
gradually increasing  to a maximum after
 its periods of greatest light1 and then
 slowly  diminishing as the double      
planet advanced in its rotation2 and1   
finally1 as it again approached         
conjunction1 the brilliant hydrogen     
illumination1 subsequently followed by  
the gradually darkened spectrum1  and so
 on1 while the large outer planet by its
 various positions  would first         
relatively retard and then accelerate   
the variation  until its grand cycle was
 complete4 ,the permanent disappearance 
for  years1 if true1 may be due to other

 causes1 which will be referred  to in  
considering the phenomena of new and    
temporary stars4 ,many of  the irregular
 variables may doubtless be similarly   
explained1--our  own sun1 in fact1 being
 a variable with a period of about      
eleven  years1--and doubtless the       
apparent irregularity in most cases is  
due to lack of sufficient time for      
observation4 ,those stars which  are in 
fact really irregular in their variation
 owe their changes1  doubtless1 to the  
same causes which produce new stars1 so 
called1  and suns in flames1 which will 
be next considered4    ,among the       
countless stars of heaven a great       
catastrophe seems  occasionally to      
occur4 ,a star bursts out into sudden   
flame1 to all  appearance1 or a great   
fixed star appears where no star had    
ever been  seen before4 ,in ,professor  
,proctor's article1 ,suns in ,flames    
7,myths  and ,marvels of ,astronomy71 we
 will find an extended discussion of    
these wonderful phenomena4 ,the         

astronomer ,tycho ,brahe described the  
one which appeared in #aegb as follows3 
,it suddenly shone forth in  the        
constellation ,cassiopeia with a        
splendor exceeding that of stars  of the
 first magnitude1 or even ,jupiter or   
,venus at their brightest1  and could be
 seen by the naked eye on the meridian  
at full day4 ,its  brilliancy gradually 
diminished from the time of its first   
appearance1  and at the end of sixteen  
months it entirely disappeared1 and has 
never  been seen since4 ,during the     
whole time of its apparition its place  
in  the heavens remained unaltered1 and 
it had no annual parallax1 so that  its 
distance was of the same order as that  
of the fixed stars4 ,tycho  described   
its changes of color as follows3 first1 
as having been of a  bright white2      
afterwards of a reddish-yellow1 like    
,mars or ,aldebaran2  and1 lastly1 of a 
leaden white1 like ,saturn4 ,in #afjd a 
first-magnitude  star suddenly appeared 
in the right foot of ,ophiucus4 ,it     

presented  appearances resembling those 
shown by the former1 and disappeared    
after a few months4 ,many other cases   
are cited by astronomers1 and  in #ahff 
a star appeared in the ,northern ,crown1
 the observations of  which threw great 
light on the subject of so-called new   
stars4 ,in  the first place1 it was     
found that where this new star appeared 
there  had been a tenth-magnitude star2 
the new star1 then1 was in reality  a   
star long known1 which had acquired new 
brilliancy4 ,when first  observed with  
this abnormal lustre1 it was shining as 
a star of the  second magnitude4        
,examined with the spectroscope1 its    
light revealed a  startling state of    
things in those remote depths of space4 
,the usual  stellar spectrum1           
rainbow-tinted and crossed by dark      
lines1 was seen  to be crossed also by  
four exceedingly bright lines1 the      
spectrum of  glowing hydrogen4444 ,the  
greater part of the star's light        
manifestly  came from this glowing      

hydrogen1 though it can scarcely be     
doubted  that the rest of the spectrum  
was brighter than before the outburst1  
the materials of the star being raised  
to an intense heat4 ,the maximum        
brightness exceeded that of a           
tenth-magnitude star nearly eight       
hundred  times4 ,after shining for a    
short time as a second-magnitude star1  
it diminished rapidly in lustre1 and it 
is now between the ninth  and tenth     
magnitudes 7,appleton's ,cyclopdia74 ,of
 this new star1  ,professor ,ball says1 
,another memorable achievement in the   
early part  of ,dr4 ,huggins's career is
 connected with the celebrated new star 
that  burst forth in the ,crown in      
#ahff4 ,it seemed a fortunate           
coincidence  that just at the moment    
when the spectroscope was beginning to  
be  applied to the sidereal heavens a   
star of such marvellous character       
should have presented itself4444 ,the   
feature which made the spectrum  of the 
new star essentially distinct from that 

of any other star  that had been        
previously observed was the presence of 
certain bright  lines superposed on a   
spectrum with dark lines of one of the  
ordinary  types4 ,the position of       
certain of these lines showed that one  
of the  luminous gases must be          
hydrogen4444 ,the spectroscope showed   
that there  must have been something    
which we may describe as a conflagration
  of hydrogen on a stupendous scale1 and
 this outburst would account  for the   
sudden increase in luminosity of the    
star1 and also to some  extent explain  
how so stupendous an illumination1 once 
kindled1 could  dwindle away in so short
 a time as a few days4 ,it will be seen 
that  these new stars leap suddenly into
 great brilliancy3 it is a matter  of a 
few hours only4 ,after remaining a very 
short time in this stage  of abnormal   
incandescence1 they gradually die out   
again in lustre and  revert to their    
original condition2 they are not        
consumed either in  body or atmosphere4 

,several theories have been advanced to 
account for these remarkable  phenomena2
 see ,suns in ,flames1 by ,professor    
,proctor4 ,one is1 in  effect1 that by  
some sudden internal convulsion a large 
volume of  hydrogen and other gases was 
evolved from it1 the hydrogen by its    
combination with some other element     
giving out the lines represented  by the
 bright lines1 and at the same time     
heating to a point of  vivid            
incandescence the solid matter of the   
star's surface4444 ,as the  liberated   
hydrogen gas became exhausted the flame 
gradually abated1  and with the         
consequent cooling the star's surface   
became less vivid  and the star returned
 to its original condition2 which1 by   
the way1  it never could have done if   
its atmosphere had been exposed to such 
a  disintegration1 without the          
construction of an entirely new         
atmosphere  precisely similar to the one
 just destroyed4 ,the process would be  
one  of simple combustion4 ,it requires 

the evolution of enormous volumes  of   
hydrogen from within the planet1 and of 
other enormous volumes of  something    
else1 by which to burn it up and yet not
 burn up the original  hydrogen         
envelope4 ,this other element could not 
have previously  existed outside the    
solar body and contiguous thereto1 or it
 would  have burned up the ordinary     
hydrogen envelope of the sun long       
before1  as well as the metallic vapors 
floating therein4 ,both these mutually  
hostile gases must have come from       
within1 and this is manifestly          
impossible1 as we should thus have      
explosion and solar destruction1  but   
not combustion4 ,there is no reason to  
believe that hydrogen1  the lightest of 
elements1 could have remained occluded  
within the  solar mass1 to the exclusion
 of the heavier metals1 if              
disassociated1  and if held combined no 
such sudden liberation could occur4     
,besides1  such convulsion would be     
impossible in any sun at all resembling 

ours1  as any further liberation of     
gases from internal condensation must be
  due to solar contraction1 hence       
gradual1 and not sudden4 ,moreover1     
such liberation of hydrogen gas from    
within would show its spectrum  loaded1 
at its earliest eruption1 with          
absorption bands2 and1 finally1  the    
convulsion presupposes as great an      
activity1 and consequently as  great a  
difficulty1 before the phenomenon as the
 phenomenon itself  presents2 for such  
vast disturbance of mass would be more  
difficult  to account for1 and require  
more energy to produce1 than the results
  themselves4 ,moreover1 the whole mass 
of the star appeared to increase        
equally in temperature1 as shown by the 
spectrum1 and1 if produced by  an       
internal convulsion1 this must have     
extended to1 if not proceeded  from1 its
 core2 so that while the combustion of  
hydrogen might have  ceased in a very   
brief time1 the intense heat of the     
solar mass could  not have been         

dissipated for thousands of years4 ,it  
would1 in fact1  have disrupted the     
whole orb4    ,another theory is that   
this vast incandescence was caused by   
the  violent precipitation of some      
mighty mass--perhaps a planet--upon  the
 globe of that remote sun1 by which the 
momentum of the falling  mass would be  
changed into molecular motion2 in other 
words1 into  heat and light4 ,this      
theory is no more plausible than the    
other1  since it fails to account for   
the enormous volume of hydrogen1 with   
bright lines1 as a result of such       
contact2 while ,professor ,proctor  very
 clearly shows that such contact would  
have been preceded1  necessarily1 by    
repeated partial grazings1 as the       
outside body  repeatedly passed in      
swifter and closer passage by the sun in
 its  gradually approaching orbital     
revolutions1 and that the increase  of  
light and heat must have been measured  
by years instead of by  hours4 ,the same
 difficulties exist in the supposed     

passage of the star  through nebul or   
star clouds1 of which ,professor        
,proctor says1 ,as  for the rush of a   
star through a nebulous mass1 that is a 
theory which  would scarcely be         
entertained by any one acquainted with  
the enormous  distances separating      
them4444 ,all we certainly know suggests
 that the  distances separating them    
from each other are comparable with     
those  which separate star from star4   
,in fact1 no tenable theory has been    
advanced which will cover the phenomena4
 ,professor ,proctor describes  a star  
which flamed out in #ahgf4 ,at midnight1
 ,november #bd1 a star  of the third    
magnitude was noticed in the            
constellation of the ,swan2  its light  
was very yellow2 its brilliancy rapidly 
faded4 ,on ,december  #b it was equal to
 a star of the fifth magnitude only1 and
 the color1  which had been yellow1 was 
now greenish-blue4 ,the star's spectrum 
at this time consisted almost entirely  
of bright lines4 ,december #e he  found 

three bright lines of hydrogen1 the     
strong double line of sodium1  the      
triple line of magnesium1 and two other 
lines4 ,one of these last  seemed to    
agree exactly in position with a bright 
line belonging  to the corona seen      
around the sun during total eclipse4    
,the star  afterwards faded away        
gradually until quite invisible to the  
naked  eye4 ,it will be noticed that    
none of the above elements--sodium1     
potassium1 or magnesium--are such as    
would combine with hydrogen  to produce 
the phenomena in question4 ,professor   
,proctor concludes1  ,this evidence     
seems to me to suggest that the intense 
heat which  suddenly affected this star 
had its origin from without4 ,he        
suggests  possible meteoric flights2 but
 meteoric stones themselves are         
separated  in space by enormous         
distances1 and these1 if converged in   
orbital  flight1 would present the same 
phenomena of successive grazings as  a  
small planet approaching under like     

circumstances1 and by their  gradually  
increasing incandescence we should      
certainly have other  elements visible  
in the spectroscope besides those       
observed4 ,and these  meteoric bodies1  
if projected into the sun1 would pass in
 a very brief  time through the hydrogen
 envelope1 producing only local         
phenomena1  so that their first blow    
would be manifested in volatilization of
 the  outer portions of the mass and    
broad absorption bands1 and consequent  
redness of the planet1 exhibiting great 
heat1 but not great light4 ,in  such    
case the bright lines of hydrogen1 if   
they appeared at all1 would  only be    
visible as an after-consequence1 and not
 at the earliest moment  of             
conflagration1--that is1 the star might 
grow from red to white1  but by no      
possibility the reverse4 ,it is1        
however1 characteristic  of these new   
stars that their first flash1 as it     
were1 is into the  incandescence of     
directly glowing hydrogen1 with its     

bright lines1  then through a series of 
gradually increasing sun-spots1 and     
finally  a slow return to their original
 condition and apparent magnitude4 ,it  
is obviously a surface phenomenon of the
 solar atmosphere1 primarily1  then     
followed by consequences involving only 
the outer surface of the  solar core1   
but with no observable permanent change 
in the character  or constitution of the
 mass of the sun itself4 ,these         
characteristics  are invariable1 and the
 sequence of phenomena is the same in   
all the  cases observed4                
,,chapter ,,vii4    ,,temporary ,,stars1
 ,,meteors1 ,,and ,,comets4      ,what1 
then1 is the probable cause of these    
terrific conflagrations1  as they appear
 to us8 ,take an ordinary electric      
induction machine1--a  ,holtz or a      
,wimshurst1--and1 if the surrounding air
 is moist1 as we  operate it we will    
find that the results are poor1 the     
sparks short  and relatively few2 but   
let us take the machine into another    

room  in which the atmosphere is dry and
 crisp4 ,a wondrous change will  occur1 
and instead of a current which could    
scarcely flash across  a few inches of  
space1 we will now have so great an     
increase of  energy that its tension    
will even cause the spark to perforate  
and  destroy the glass walls of the     
heavy ,leyden jars in which it is       
condensed4 ,the vast realms of space1   
with their attenuated vapors1  are the  
field in which the planetary electric   
generators operate1  and into which1    
likewise1 myriads of suns constantly    
pour their  light and heat4 ,we may     
consider this space1 according to the   
popular  view1 to be uniform in         
constitution and density throughout all 
its  parts1--that it is1 in fact1 like a
 vast1 silent1 and motionless dead  sea4
 ,but this cannot possibly be true1 any 
more than throughout the  vast compass  
of our own atmosphere2 for while some   
parts of space are  peopled by millions 
of solar systems1 others1 as we can     

plainly see1  so far as telescopic      
vision extends1 are comparatively       
vacant4 ,far  more electricity is being 
abstracted 7so to speak7 in some parts  
of  space than in others1 and far more  
heat and light are being poured  back to
 restore the equilibrium in some than in
 others4 ,we have  already seen that the
 temperature at the exterior surface of 
the  terrestrial atmosphere is estimated
 to be more than two hundred  degrees   
higher than in the realms of open       
interplanetary space2  hence there must 
be currents1--currents of rotation like 
cyclones1  vortical currents like       
whirlwinds1 currents of transmission    
like our  land- and sea-breezes and the 
trade-winds1--and1 in fact1 all space   
must be in a state of constant          
displacement and replacement1 and1 if   
visible1 we should see it like a vast   
room filled with smoke1 in which        
currents of every shape and direction   
and of all velocities would be          
manifest4 ,such currents could throw    

nebul during their condensation  into   
rotation which could never rotate of    
their own motion1 or gather  to centers 
of aggregation vast whirling clouds of  
spatial matter1  and in the spiral nebul
 we may see many such movements of      
rotation in  apparent active progress4  
,of these we read in ,appleton's        
,cyclopdia1  ,they have the appearance  
of a maelstrom of stellar matter1 and   
are  among the most interesting objects 
in the heavens4 ,in ,professor          
,nichol's splendid work 7,the           
,architecture of the ,heavens1 #ahej7   
we may see magnificent engravings of    
these wonderful phenomena1  from the    
drawings by ,lord ,rosse1 and no one can
 study these figures  without realizing 
the presence of vast currents in space4 
,in the great spiral nebula in the      
constellation ,canes ,venatici 7see     
illustration in ,chapter ,,xii47 we     
perceive that the tail of the smaller   
nebula has been drawn into the outer    
convolution of the great spiral1        

against the radial repulsion of the     
latter nebula1 as we can see by  its    
curvature4 ,this can only be due to a   
tremendous inflowing current  in space4 
,were the deflection due to gravity the 
trend would be to the  center and not to
 the outer convolution of the larger    
nebula4 ,professor  ,nichol says1 ,the  
spiral figure is characteristic of an   
extensive  class of galaxies4 ,not only 
in the spiral1 but in other forms of    
nebul we may observe these currents of  
space1 so that we cannot fail  to       
perceive that they exist1 and we should 
even conclude1 a priori1  that these    
must exist4    ,in the elongated linear 
nebula in ,sobieski's ,crown1           
illustrated  above1 its length is       
deflected into irregular curves         
apparently due  to counter-currents of  
space4 ,these gaseous nebul1 ,flammarion
 says1  appear like immense vaporous    
clouds tossed about by some rough winds1
  pierced with deep rents1 and broken in
 jagged portions4 ,it may be  said      

generally that every sun1 as it drifts  
through space1 must leave  a wake of    
increased electric potential among the  
molecules which  line its pathway4      
,beyond the limits of every vortex      
extend radial  or tangential1 polar or  
equatorial1 streams of space1 and these 
must extend without limit until         
deflected or neutralized by other       
conditions4 ,throughout all space1 just 
as in our own atmosphere1  but vastly   
more slowly1 there must be an infinitude
 of movements in  every                 
direction1--movements in lines1 circles1
 vortices1 ellipses and  irregular      
curvatures1 and of all possible         
varieties of mass and volume4           
,suppose1 now1 a sailing vessel lighted 
with incandescent lamps1  the electrical
 currents for the support of which are  
derived from  the chemical action of    
sea-water on multiple pairs of suitable 
metallic plates arranged to extend      
downward as a galvanic battery  into the
 ocean as the ship sails along1 and that

 these plates1  by the chemical action  
of the sea-water at ordinary1           
temperatures1  should furnish a         
sufficient current to properly light the
 vessel4 ,if  the constancy of such     
current depended on the average         
temperature  of the sea-water1 at1 say1 
sixty degrees ,fahrenheit1 we should    
find  that1 on suddenly crossing into   
the ,gulf ,stream1 with a temperature   
twenty degrees higher1 the energy of the
 battery would be rapidly  increased and
 the lights would glow with increased   
brilliancy until1  on emerging from the 
,gulf ,stream at its opposite side1 the 
original  status would be gradually     
restored4 ,if these distant solar       
systems1  in their drift through space1 
should encounter a corresponding stream 
under an increased molecular tension1   
more highly heated1 for example1  or    
charged with electrical potential by the
 surrounding solar systems1  or         
otherwise1 we should expect a similar   
result to ensue1--that the  currents    

would be increased suddenly1 both in    
quantity and intensity1  and all the    
phenomena of blazing stars be revealed  
in the precise  order in which we see   
them4 ,professor ,proctor seems to have 
had  some such idea of space vaguely in 
his mind when he says1 in his  ,familiar
 ,essays1 ,one is invited to believe    
that the star may have  been carried by 
its proper motions into regions where   
there is a more  uniform distribution of
 the material whence this orb recruits  
its  fires4 ,it may be that1 in the     
consideration of such causes of         
variation  affecting our sun in         
long-past ages1 a more satisfactory     
explanation  than any yet obtained may  
be found of the problem geologists found
  so perplexing1--the former existence  
of a tropical climate in places  within 
the temperate zone1 or even near the    
arctic regions4 ,sir ,john  ,herschel   
long since pointed to the variation of  
the sun as a possible  cause of such    
changes of climate4 ,in confirmation of 

the view that  such changes may be due  
to the passage of a solar system into or
  through such a ,gulf ,stream of space1
 we quote the following from  ,professor
 ,proctor's ,suns in ,flames3 ,it is    
noteworthy that all the  stars which    
have blazed out suddenly1 except one1   
have appeared in  a particular region of
 the heavens1--the zone of the ,milky   
,way 7all1  too1 in one-half of that    
zone74 ,the single exception is the star
 in  the ,northern ,crown1 and that star
 appeared in a region which ,i have     
found to be connected with the ,milky   
,way by a well-marked stream  of stars2 
not a stream of a few stars scattered   
here and there1 but  a stream where     
thousands of stars are closely          
aggregated together1  though not quite  
so closely as to form a visible         
extension of the ,milky  ,way4444 ,now1 
the ,milky ,way and the outlying streams
 of stars connected  with it seem to    
form a region of the stellar universe   
where fashioning  processes are still at

 work4 ,in just such regions of         
potential energy  should we look for    
such currents in space1 as1 on our own  
earth1  the ,gulf ,stream and the       
trade-winds1 as well as cyclones and    
other  atmospheric movements1 find their
 origin under precisely parallel        
circumstances1--to wit1 the outpour upon
 and direct precipitation of  increased 
quantities of heat at the tropics or    
other local centers  of such            
development4 ,the effects of such an    
increase of quantity and  potential in  
an electrical current are clearly       
illustrated in the  device previously   
referred to1 in which electrolytic      
decomposition  was effected in a pail of
 water2 we find it also in the burning  
out  of the brushes and commutators in  
dynamo-electric machines and in         
telegraphic apparatus during            
thunder-storms and the like4 ,allowing a
  solar system a drift through space    
only equal to that of our own1 which    
has a relatively slow movement1 it would

 traverse such a ,gulf ,stream  of space
 seven hundred thousand miles wide in a 
single day4 ,but it may  not even have  
passed through2 it may merely have      
grazed the margin of  such a current2   
for the motions of solar systems are not
 controlled by  the same forces as those
 upon which their electrical energies   
depend4    ,professor ,ball1 in his     
chapter on the great heat-wave of #ahib1
 says1  ,towards the end of ,july an    
extraordinarily high temperature1 even  
for that period of the year1 prevailed  
over a very large part of the  ,north   
,american continent4 ,the so-called     
heat-wave then seems to have  travelled 
eastward and crossed the ,atlantic      
,ocean2 444 a fortnight  after the      
occurrence of unusually great heat in   
the ,new ,world there  was a similar    
experience in the ,old ,world4444 ,this 
discussion will at  all events enable us
 to make some reply to the question     
which has often  been asked1 as to what 
was the cause of the great heat-wave4444

 ,it is1  however1 quite possible that  
certain changes in progress on the sun  
may act in a specific manner on our     
climate4444 ,it cannot be denied  that  
local1 if not general1 changes in the   
sun's temperature must be  the          
accompaniment of the violent            
disturbances by which our luminary  is  
now and then agitated4 ,it is1 indeed1  
well known that there are  occasional   
outbreaks of solar activity1 and that   
these recur in a  periodic manner2 it is
 accordingly not without interest to    
notice that  the present year has been  
one of the periods of this activity4 ,we
  are certainly not going so far as to  
say that any connection has  been       
definitely established between a season 
of exuberant sun-spots  and a season    
remarkable for excessive warmth2 but1 as
 we know that  there is a connection    
between the magnetic condition of the   
earth  and the state of solar activity1 
it is by no means impossible that       
climate and sun-spots may also stand in 

some relationship to each  other4 ,these
 local deviations are doubtless due to  
planetary positions  with reference to  
the sun1 but more general variations    
must depend upon  the constitution of   
such parts of space as the solar system 
may occupy2  but even then they will be 
but temporary1 since the sun's volume   
will  rapidly expand or contract so as  
finally to restore the normal emission  
of solar heat1 as will be further       
explained later on in this work4        
,there are other causes also1 readily   
conceivable1 for such increased         
electrical action2 for instance1 in that
 thickly-peopled region of  space1 two  
solar systems adjacent might easily have
 their exterior  planets so related to  
each other as suddenly1 at their points 
of  nearest approach1 to cause one or   
more to direct an abnormally large      
electrical current into the sun of the  
adjacent system2 this would  correspond 
in electric energy1 in fact1 to a       
violent perturbation  in its orbit by   

the action of gravity produced by a     
neighboring  planet or system4 ,no      
reversal of polarity could take place   
between  these planets under these      
circumstances1 any more than between the
  earth and the moon4 ,in some portions 
of the ,milky ,way1 doubtless1  suns    
blaze by dozens across the sky at night1
 and by day as well1  to which1 in our  
more solitary skies1 we are strangers4  
,revolving  in perfect harmony1         
perturbations must nevertheless be      
frequent1 and  to what limits they may  
there be confined we shall never know   
until  we realize the extent of these   
galaxies and the relative contiguity  of
 their solar systems to each other4 ,it 
is enough to show how such  variations  
may occur2 in what particular way they  
do occur does not  affect the question  
of their origin4 ,even if such increased
 energy  were to continue by permanently
 increased planetary action1 it is not  
necessary to suppose that a             
corresponding permanent increase of     

light  and heat would result on the part
 of the sun1 for its density is such    
7only one-fourth that of the earth7     
that1 under the tremendous force  of its
 gravity 7twenty-seven and one-tenth    
times that of the earth71  its          
constituents cannot be maintained in    
solid form1 but must be1  as before     
stated1 either liquid or gaseous1 and   
perhaps in part  both4 ,now1 as it has  
been computed that the sun1 by          
contraction to  its present density1    
would have evolved its present light and
 heat  for a period of millions of      
years1 it is obvious that any increase  
in  its present volume1 without increase
 of mass1 would produce precisely       
opposite and compensated results1 so    
that the sun could receive from  outside
 sources as much heat as would expand   
its present volume  to that at the      
initial point of such assumed           
condensation without  increased emission
 of light and heat4 ,the sun is thus1 in
 effect1  a self-compensating machine1  

and its passage through a region of     
increased electrical generation would   
first manifest itself in  a vast        
increase of brilliancy1 due to higher   
incandescence of its  hydrogen envelope2
 this1 in turn1 would be communicated to
 the deeper  structures of the sun1     
producing increased volatilization and  
dark  absorption bands1 and finally to  
the whole solar mass1 expanding  its    
volume in proportion to the heat        
absorbed4 ,hence we should see          
precisely the phenomena that we do see  
in flaming stars or so-called  new      
stars4 ,we find such compensations all  
through nature1 and it is  simply in    
accordance with her universal laws that 
they occur4 ,it is a  singular          
circumstance that the catastrophe which 
is foretold in the  biblical record as  
the termination of all human life on    
earth1 for  the present cycle1 at least1
 should be almost literally in          
accordance  with the phenomena          
characteristic of such an increase of   

solar energy1  and one produced in some 
such manner4 ,if the temperature of the 
solar  atmosphere were rapidly raised by
 increased planetary action to a  point 
which would reverse the lines of        
hydrogen from dark to bright1  say to a 
brightness eight hundred times that of  
the normal1 as in  the case of the      
temporary star cited1 though the heat   
would not1 of  course1 be increased in  
any such proportion1 yet the heavens    
would be  indeed rolled up as a scroll1 
and all life would be extinguished in a 
very brief period4 ,but the planets     
would continue to roll along their      
orbits1 the integrity of the earth's    
mass would still be intact1 and  after a
 few days or weeks the sun would begin  
to decline in brightness1  the          
volatilized vapors would slowly recede  
within the solar atmosphere1  and the   
temperature would gradually fall again  
to its normal1 leaving1  however1 a     
lifeless world to roll on its way       
henceforth1 but as bright  and cheerful 

in all its possibilities1 when the      
former conditions had  gradually become 
restored1 as before4 ,perhaps some      
distant astronomer  in the neighborhood 
of ,sirius--if we shall have travelled  
so far away  by that time--might send a 
note to the morning papers to announce  
that the temporary star near ,alpha     
,centauri had again receded to the      
tenth magnitude4 ,in due time--perhaps a
 thousand years--all would be  ready for
 a new development of life1 and the     
cycle would continue as  before4        
,perchance1 too1 in some deep abyss1 or 
buried far beneath  the surface1 some   
germs of life might still continue to   
exist2  and from these1 like the seeds  
resurrected from buried mummies1  a new 
life might again begin1 guided along    
once more through vast  ages in a       
progressive ascent from development to  
development until1  in some new and     
strange forms1 the higher types of life 
might again  appear4 ,to these there    
would indeed be revealed a new heaven   

and a  new earth4 ,who knows how many   
such cycles of life may have come and   
gone on earth1 in which1 like the       
dwellers of ,jerusalem1 new peoples     
have built new cities1 one above        
another1 upon the unknown graves of  the
 past8 ,in the words of ,tennyson1--    
,a wondrous eft was of old the ,lord and
 ,master of earth1      ,for him did his
 high sun flame1 and his river billowing
 ran1      ,and he felt himself in his  
force to be ,nature's crowning race4    
,as nine months go to the shaping an    
infant ripe for his birth1      ,so many
 a million of ages have gone to the     
making man3      ,he now is first1 but  
is he the last8      ,whatever the      
coming1 the progress1 or the going of   
life on earth1  the course of our solar 
system will go on the same1 the         
processes of  creation unchanged and her
 mechanism unimpaired4 ,it is obvious   
that  no such conditions could prevail  
in the return to unorganizable chaos    
which must be the consequence of any    

possible planetary collisions  in space4
 ,no conceivable process of creation    
could return a system  disrupted into   
meteorites to an operative solar system 
again4 ,even  the nebular hypothesis    
contemplates nothing of that sort as1 by
 the  wildest conjecture1 ever possible4
 ,but with us the danger is far         
distant4 ,professor ,proctor says1 in   
his article ,suns in ,flames1  ,as ,sir 
,william ,herschel long since pointed   
out1 we can recognize in  various parts 
of the heavens various stages of        
development1 and chief  among the       
regions where as yet nature's work seems
 incomplete is the  ,galactic           
zone1--especially that half of it where 
the ,milky ,way consists  of irregular  
streams and clouds of stellar light4 ,as
 there is no reason  for believing that 
our sun belongs to this part of the     
galaxy1 but1  on the contrary1 good     
ground for considering that he belongs  
to the  class of insulated stars1 few of
 which have shown signs of irregular    

variation1 while none have ever blazed  
suddenly out with many hundred  times   
their former lustre1 we may fairly infer
 a very high degree of  probability in  
favor of the belief that1 for many ages 
still to come1  the sun will continue   
steadily to discharge his duties as     
fire1 light1  and life of the solar     
system4 ,the passage of our system      
through  gradually changing regions of  
space1 as contrasted with streams  or   
vortices1 could not affect our sun's    
light even temporarily1 as  the         
contraction and expansion of its volume 
would fully compensate  for any such    
gradual or partial variation1 and1 by   
position1 he is  far from likely to pass
 into any of those whirlpools or        
torrents of  space which seem to mark at
 irregular intervals the region of the  
irregularly variable stars4    ,allied  
in appearance to such stars which       
suddenly flame out in space1  but       
totally different in reality1 are       
comets4 ,these strangers to our  own    

system have excited the wonder and      
astonishment of mankind from  the       
earliest ages4 ,they seem to defy all   
rules and all explanation2  but1 when   
properly examined1 they will fall       
inevitably into the  general scheme of  
the source and mode of solar energy     
which we  have endeavored to present4   
,these bodies enter our solar system    
from without4 ,appleton's ,cyclopdia    
says1 ,schiaparelli1 to whom  the       
discovery is in part due1 considers the 
meteors to be dispersed  portions of the
 comet's original substance1--that is1  
of the substance  with which the comet  
entered the solar domain4 ,professor    
,proctor1  ,meteoric ,astronomy1 says1  
,a word or two may be permitted on the  
question of the condition of comets     
freshly arriving on the scene of  the   
solar system4 ,it is assumed sometimes  
that the train of meteors  already      
exists when the comet first comes within
 the solar domain4 ,in  the ,romance of 
,astronomy 7,r4 ,kalley ,miller1 ,m4,a47

 it is said1  ,in a sort of debatable   
territory between our own solar system  
and  the infinite stellar universe      
around we come upon these erratic  and  
anomalous bodies--the comets2 some of   
which have accidentally  become         
permanent attendants upon our sun2      
others have only paid it a  single      
casual visit in the course of their     
wanderings through space1  and are not  
likely again to come within the range of
 its attracting  influence2 while       
countless millions are doubtless        
scattered throughout  the realms of the 
infinite1 whose existence will never be 
revealed  to human ken at all4          
,professor ,helmholtz1 in fact 7see     
addendum  to his lecture on the origin  
of the planetary system71 advanced the  
idea in a speculative way1 that our     
terrestrial life might have had  its    
origin in one of these meteoric bodies  
by the transmission of  organisms       
through space4 ,in ,professor ,proctor's
 article on comets  7,mysteries of ,time

 and ,space7 he says1 ,the paths        
followed by  comets show no resemblance 
either to the planetary orbits or to    
each  other4 ,here we see a comet       
travelling in a path of moderate extent 
and not very eccentric2 then another    
which rushes from a distance  of two or 
three thousand millions of miles1       
approaches the sun with  ever-increasing
 velocity until nearer to him than parts
 of his own  corona 7as seen in         
eclipses71 sweeps around him with       
inconceivable  rapidity1 and makes off  
again to where the aphelion of its orbit
 lies  far out in space beyond the most 
distant known planet1--,neptune4 ,some  
comets travel in a direct1 some in a    
retrograde path2 a few near the  plane  
of the earth's orbit1 many in planes    
showing every variety of  inclination4  
,some comets regularly return after     
intervals of a few  years2 some after   
hundreds of years2 others are only seen 
once or  twice1 and then unaccountably  
vanish2 and not a few show by the paths 

they follow that they have come from    
interstellar space to pay our  system   
but a single visit1 passing out again to
 traverse we know not  what other       
systems or regions4444 ,when we have    
said that these objects  obey the law of
 gravity1 we have mentioned the only    
circumstance--as  it would appear--in   
which they conform to the relations     
observed in  terrestrial and planetary  
arrangements4 ,and even this law--the   
widest  yet revealed to man--they seem  
to obey half unwillingly4 ,we see the   
head of a comet tracing out             
systematically enough its proper orbit1 
while the comet's tail is all unruly and
 disobedient4444 ,the fact1  then1 is   
demonstrated that two of the meteor     
streams encountered by the  earth are so
 far associated with two comets as to   
travel on the same  orbits4 ,we may not 
unsafely infer that all the meteor      
systems are in  like manner associated  
with other comets4 ,nor is it very rash 
to assume  that all comets are in like  

manner associated with meteor systems4  
,concerning the influence of gravitation
 of the planets1 the same  author says  
7,meteoric ,astronomy71 ,now1 the       
circumstances under  which a comet      
approaching the sun on a parabolic or   
hyperbolic orbit  can be thus affected  
must be regarded as exceptional4 ,the   
planet's  influence must1 in the first  
place1 be very energetically exercised2 
in other words1 the arriving comet must 
pass very close to the planet1  for     
under any other circumstances the sun's 
influence so enormously  outvies the    
planet's that the figure of the cometic 
orbit would be  very little affected4   
,moreover1 the planet's attraction must 
produce an  important balance of        
retardation4 ,the planet will inevitably
 accelerate  the comet up to a certain  
point1 and afterwards will retard it2   
the  latter influence must greatly      
exceed the former4 ,to show how greatly 
the comet must be retarded1 it is only  
necessary to mention that the  actual   

velocity of the ,november meteors when  
they cross the orbit  of ,uranus is less
 than one-third of the velocity with    
which ,uranus  himself travels1 but     
their velocity at the same distance from
 the  sun1 when they were approaching   
him from some distant stellar domain1   
exceeded the velocity of ,uranus in his 
orbit in the proportion of about  seven 
to five4444 ,it follows1 not merely as a
 probable inference1 but1  ,i think1 as 
a demonstrated conclusion1 that if the  
,november meteors  came originally into 
our system as a comet travelling sunward
 from  infinity1 then either that comet 
was very compact or else ,uranus        
captured only a small portion of the    
comet1 the remaining portions  moving   
thenceforth on orbits wholly different  
from the path of the  ,november         
meteors4444 ,no other planet than       
,uranus can have brought  about the     
subjection of this comet to solar rule4 
,in his article on  comets he says1 ,it 
may be well here to consider a case in  

which some  active force 7other than    
gravity7 exerted by the sun seems to    
have  brought the destruction of a      
comet1 or at least to have broken up    
the comet into unrecognizable fragments4
 ,he refers to ,biela's comet1  with an 
orbital period of six and two-thirds    
years1 and a path which  was found to   
approach very near to the path of the   
earth4 ,in #ahcb the  comet crossed the 
earth's track several weeks before the  
arrival of  the earth at the same point 
without appreciable interference4 ,on   
its  second return1 in #ahde-df1 it was 
found to be divided into two comets     
travelling side by side2 in #aheb they  
reappeared1 still divided1  and         
gradually diverging from each other4    
,since then they have never  reappeared1
 though diligently sought for at every  
period4 ,professor  ,proctor adds1 ,it  
has been seen again1 though not as a    
comet2 nay1 the  occasion on which it   
was seen in the way referred to was     
predicted1  and the prediction          

fulfilled1 even in details4 ,for a full 
account of  its reappearance--as a      
meteor stream--,i refer the reader to my
 essay  on ,biela's comet in ',familiar 
,science ,studies4'    ,in ,miller's    
,romance of ,astronomy we read1 ,encke's
 comet1 which  possesses the smallest   
orbit of any connected with our system1 
is  sensibly drawing nearer and nearer  
to the sun at every revolution4 ,in     
,professor ,proctor's ,cometic          
,mysteries1 the author says1 ,we hear   
it stated that the nucleus of a comet is
 made up of meteoric stones  7,professor
 ,p4 ,g4 ,tait says--for unknown        
reasons--that they resemble  'paving    
stones or even bricks'7 as confidently  
as though the earth had  at some time   
passed through the nucleus of a comet1  
and some of our  streets were now paved 
with stones which had fallen to the     
earth on  such an occasion4 ,as a matter
 of fact1 all that has yet been proved  
is that meteoric bodies follow in the   
track 7which is very different  from the

 tail7 of some known comets1 and that   
probably all comets  are followed by    
trains of meteors4 ,these may have come 
out of the  head or nucleus in some way 
as yet unexplained2 but it is by no     
means  certain that they have done so1  
and it is by many astronomers regarded  
as more than doubtful4 ,the most        
important point to be noticed in the    
behavior of large comets as they        
approach the sun is1 that usually the   
side of the coma which lies towards the 
sun is the scene of intense             
disturbance4 ,streams of luminous matter
 seem to rise continually  towards the  
sun1 attaining a certain distance from  
the head1 when1  assuming a cloud-like  
appearance1 they seem to form an        
envelope  around the nucleus4 ,this     
envelope gradually increases its        
distance  from the sun1 growing fainter 
and larger1 while within it the process 
is repeated and a new envelope is       
formed4 ,this1 in turn1 ascends  from   
the nucleus1 expanding as it does so1   

while within it a new  envelope is      
formed4 ,meanwhile the first one formed 
has grown fainter1  perhaps has         
disappeared4 ,but sometimes the process 
goes on so rapidly  7a day or two       
sufficing for the formation of a        
complete new envelope7  that several    
envelopes will be seen at the same      
time1--the outermost  faintest1 the     
innermost most irregular in shape and   
most varied in  brightness1 while the   
envelope or envelopes between are the   
best  developed and most regular4 ,the  
matter raised up in these envelopes     
seems to have undergone a certain change
 of character1 causing it no  longer to 
obey the sun's attractive influence1 but
 to experience a  strong repulsive      
action from him1 whereby it is          
apparently swept away  with great       
rapidity to form the tail4 ',it flows   
past the nucleus1'  says ,dr4 ,huggins1 
'on all sides1 still ever expanding and 
shooting  backward until a tail is      
formed in the direction opposite to the 

sun4 ,this tail is usually curved1      
though sometimes rays or extra  tails   
sensibly straight are also seen4'    ,in
 ,the ,sun as a ,perpetual ,machine1    
,professor ,proctor says1  ,take1 again1
 the phenomena of comets1 which still   
remain among the  greatest of nature's  
mysteries4 ,we have reason to believe   
444 that  the nucleus of a comet        
consists of an aggregation of stones    
similar  to meteorites4 ,adopting this  
view1 and assuming that these stones    
have absorbed somewhere gases to the    
amount of six times their volume  7taken
 at atmospheric pressure71 we may ask1  
,what will be the effect  of such a mass
 of stones advancing towards the sun at 
a velocity  reaching in perihelion the  
prodigious rate of three hundred and    
sixty-six miles per second 7as observed 
in the comet of #ahdc71 being           
twenty-three times our orbital rate of  
motion8 ,professor ,ball says1  ,one of 
the most important results of the great 
shower of #ahff was the  demonstration  

that the swarm of little bodies to which
 that shower  owed its origin was       
connected with a comet4 ,the swarm was  
found1 in  fact1 to follow the exact    
track which the comet pursued around the
  sun4444 ,of this connection between   
the cometary orbits and revolving       
swarms of meteors many other instances  
could be cited4 ,i may refer to  the    
remarkable lists published by the       
,british ,association1 in which1  beside
 the name of the comet or the           
designation which astronomers had       
affixed to it1 the meteoric swarm with  
which the comet is associated  is also  
given4444 ,on these grounds it appears  
to be perfectly certain  that the origin
 of the shooting stars which appear in  
swarms cannot  be disassociated from the
 origin of the comets by which those    
swarms  are accompanied4 ,the author    
makes a distinction between such        
ordinary  shooting stars and meteorites1
 and attributes the appearance of the   
latter on earth to masses thrown forth  

from some volcano somewhere1 but  this  
has nothing to do with the special      
phenomena to be interpreted4 ,it  may be
 said1 however1 that the presence of    
olefiant gas as one of  the occluded    
gases in a meteorite 7four and          
fifty-five-hundredths per  cent41 as    
stated by ,professor ,proctor1 in his   
article ,the ,sun as a  ,perpetual      
,machine71 and the remarkable fact1     
stated in the article  ,spectrum        
,analysis in ,appleton's ,cyclopdia1    
that1 in ,winnecke's  comet of #ahfh1   
the bands agree in position with those  
obtained as  the spectrum of carbon1 by 
passing the electric spark through      
olefiant  gas1 would lead one to        
consider a cometic origin1 for this     
particular  meteorite at least1 to be   
highly probable4 ,professor ,ball       
further says1  ,there have been several 
instances in which a comet has          
approached  so close to a planet that   
the attraction between the two bodies   
must  have had significant influence on 

the planet1 if the cometary mass  had   
been at all comparable with that of the 
more robust body4 ,the  most celebrated 
instance is presented in the case of    
,lexell's comet1  which happened to     
cross the track of ,jupiter4 ,the effect
 upon this  body was so overwhelming    
that it was wrenched from its original  
path  and started afresh along a wholly 
different track4 ,the same writer1      
speaking of the tails of comets1 says1  
,i have no intention to discuss  here   
the vexed question of the tails of      
comets4 ,i do not now inquire  whether  
the repulsion by which the tail is      
produced be due to the  intense         
radiation from the sun1 or to           
electricity1 or to some other  agent4   
,it is sufficient for our present       
purpose to note that1 even if  the tails
 of comets do gravitate towards the sun1
 the attraction is  obscured by a more  
powerful repulsive force4444 ,nor do the
 directions  in which the comets move   
exhibit any conformity2 some move round 

the  sun in one direction1 some move in 
the opposite direction4 ,even the       
planes which contain the orbits of the  
comets are totally different  from each 
other4 ,instead of being inclined at    
only a very few degrees  to their mean  
position1 the planes of the comets      
hardly follow any  common law2 they are 
inclined at all sorts of directions4 ,in
 no respect  do the comets obey those   
principles which are necessary to       
prevent  constitutional disorder in the 
planetary system4444 ,now1 all we have  
hitherto seen with regard to comets     
tends to show that the masses of  comets
 are extremely small4 ,attempts have    
been made to measure them1  but have    
always failed1 because the scales in    
which we have attempted  to weigh them  
have been too coarse to weigh anything  
of the almost  spiritual texture of a   
comet4 ,it is unnecessary to go as far  
as some  have done1 and to say that the 
weight of a large comet may be only  a  
few pounds or a few ounces4 ,it might be

 more reasonable to suppose  that the   
weight of a large comet was thousands of
 tons1 though even  thousands of tons   
would be far too small a weight to admit
 of being  measured by the very coarse  
balance which is at our disposal4 ,in   
the chapter ,visitors from the ,sky1 the
 same author says1 ,as such  a comet in 
its progress across the heavens passes  
between us and  the stars1 those stars  
are often seen twinkling brilliantly    
right  through the many thousand miles  
of cometary matter which their rays     
have to traverse4 ,the lightest haze in 
our atmosphere would suffice  to        
extinguish the faint gleam of these     
small stars2 indeed1 a few  feet of mist
 would have more power of obstructing   
the stellar light  than cometary        
material scores of thousands of miles   
thick4 ,it is  true that the central    
portions of many of these comets often  
exhibit  much greater density than is   
found in the exterior regions2 still1   
in the great majority of such objects   

there is no opacity1 even in  the       
densest part1 sufficient to put out a   
star4 ,in the case of the  more splendid
 bodies of this description1 it may be  
supposed that the  matter is somewhat   
more densely aggregated as well as more 
voluminous2  still1 however1 it will be 
remembered that the great comet of #aheh
  passed over ,arcturus1 and that the   
star was seen shining brilliantly1      
notwithstanding the interposition of a  
cometary curtain millions of  miles in  
thickness4 ,so far as ,i know1 no case  
is known in which the  nucleus of a     
really bright and great comet has been  
witnessed in the  act of passage over a 
considerable star4 ,it would indeed be  
extremely  interesting to ascertain     
whether in such case the star           
experienced  any considerable diminution
 in its lustre4                         
,,chapter ,,viii4    ,,the ,,phenomena  
,,of ,,comets4      ,from the extracts  
thus cited we may form a fairly clear   
idea of the  phenomena which comets     

present1 and these facts represent about
 all  that we know of these mysterious  
objects4 ,they approach the sun  in a   
nearly radial direction1 thus cutting   
the planetary orbits  transversely4     
,they approach the sun from all         
directions and at  all angles1 without  
reference to the common plane in which  
all the  planetary orbits lie4 ,they    
have no rotation on their own axes1 as  
the  planets have1 but1 like an         
aggregated mass of meteorites or        
cosmical  dust1 rush inward from the    
exterior realms of space1 so that their 
course is diametrically opposite that of
 the planets and the other  cosmical    
bodies which constitute our solar       
system4 ,such a body as a  comet1 in    
fact1 would present in its approach to  
our solar system very  much the         
phenomena of an approaching exterior    
sun1 corresponding far  more closely in 
appearance and behavior to our own sun  
than to any  of the planets4 ,such a    
body could not generate positive        

electricity1  as the planets do1 but1 on
 the contrary1 must have an             
electrosphere  of negative1 or at least 
neutral1 polarity4 ,on its approach to  
our  planetary system the batteries of  
all the planets would be at once  turned
 upon the intruder1 and it would be     
rapidly thrown into the  same state of  
active electrical polarity as the sun4  
,the aqueous  vapor condensed around its
 nucleus by gravity in its approach     
through  space1 or buried among the     
meteoric particles constituting the     
comet1 would be necessarily decomposed  
into its constituent gases1  just as in 
the case of the sun1 by the positive    
electrical currents  from the planetary 
electrospheres1 and the disassociated   
hydrogen  would form the negative       
electrosphere of the comet1 glowing with
 its  own luminosity1 by gaseous        
incandescence4 ,we should then observe1 
during its continued approach to the    
sun1 phenomena similar to those  which  
we might expect to manifest themselves  

during the approach  of a minute solar  
body towards the sun1 characterized by a
 rapid  increase of velocity1 due to    
attraction of gravity1 and tremendous   
mutual repulsion between the solar and  
cometic electrospheres4 ,we  should see 
the luminous hydrogen and associated    
gases boiling upward1  and thence drawn 
forward from the nucleus by the combined
 gravity  of the sun's mass1 that of the
 planetary masses1 and the opposite     
polarity of the planetary               
electrospheres1 while they would be1 at 
the same time1 repelled backward by the 
enormous repulsive force of  the        
negative electrosphere of the sun4 ,as a
 result1 we should find  these gases in 
a state of ebullition1 forced forward   
under great  excitement and disturbance1
 boiling1 eddying about1 driven to and  
fro  in all directions until the sun's  
repulsive force had overcome the        
different attractions1 when these       
luminous clouds or envelopes would  be  
swept swiftly off to the rear1 as by a  

powerful current of wind1  around the   
margins of the nucleus1 and they would  
be seen to stream  backward from the sun
 as an elongated envelope or tail4 ,new 
volumes of  gas would pour to the front1
 attracted from deeper depths1 and      
these1  on reaching the cometary        
electrosphere1 would be again repelled  
by  the solar activity and driven to the
 rear1 while the gases thus driven      
backward1 themselves similarly          
electrified1 would mutually repel each  
other as they streamed backward around  
the margins of the nucleus4    ,let us  
now see what these gases are3 if they   
are such as appear  in the sun's        
electrosphere1 we will know that such   
must be their  action2 if1 on the       
contrary1 they are such as appear in    
planetary  electrospheres1 we will find 
any such attempted explanation to be  a 
failure4 ,quoting largely from ,dr4     
,huggins1 ,professor ,proctor1 in  his  
,cometic ,mysteries1 says1 ,the spectrum
 of the brightest comet  of that year   

was partly continuous1 and on this      
continuous spectrum  many of the        
well-known ,fraunhofer lines could be   
traced4 ,this made it  certain that part
 of the comet's light was reflected     
sunlight1 though  ,dr4 ,huggins         
considers also that a part of the       
continuous spectrum of  every comet is  
due to inherent light4 ,on this point   
some doubt may  be permitted4 ,it is one
 thing for special bands to show        
themselves1  for some substances may    
become self-luminous under special      
conditions  at very moderate            
temperatures2 it is quite another thing 
that the  solid parts of a comet's      
substance should become incandescent4 ,i
  venture to express my opinion that    
this can scarcely happen1 except  in the
 case of comets which approach very near
 to the sun4 ,besides  the continuous   
spectrum with dark lines1 the photograph
 showed  also a spectrum of bright      
lines4 ',these lines1' says ,dr4        
,huggins1  'possessed extreme interest1 

for there was certainly contained within
  this hieroglyphic writing some new    
information4 ,a discussion of  the      
position of these new lines showed them 
to be undoubtedly the  same lines which 
appear in certain compounds of carbon4  
,not long  before ,professors ,liveing  
and ,dewar had found from their         
laboratory  experiments that these lines
 are only present when nitrogen is also 
present1 and that they indicate a       
nitrogen compound of carbon1--namely1   
cyanogen4 ,two other bright groups were 
also seen in the photograph1  confirming
 the presence of hydrogen1--carbon and  
nitrogen4' ,it is  worthy of notice that
 only a few days later ,dr4 ,h4 ,draper 
succeeded  in obtaining a photograph of 
the same comet's spectrum4 ,it appeared 
to him to confirm ,dr4 ,huggins's       
statements1 except only that the dark   
,fraunhofer lines were not visible1 the 
photograph having probably  been taken  
under less favorable conditions4444 ,but
 the latest comet  has brought with it  

fresh news4 ,its spectrum is not like   
that given  by the comets we are        
considering4 ,the bright lines of sodium
 are  seen in it1 and also other bright 
lines and groups of lines which  have   
not yet been shown to be identical with 
any belonging to the  hydrocarbon       
groups1 but probably are so4444 ,the    
cyanogen groups are  not seen4444 ,but  
it is manifest that this comet underwent
 important  changes4444 ,in ,april was  
found simply a faint continuous         
spectrum2 in  ,may the three bands      
associated with carbon were present1    
though faint1  while there was no trace 
whatever of the sodium band4 ,on the    
contrary1  in ,june the nucleus of the  
comet gave a very strong and extended   
continuous spectrum with an excessively 
strong bright line in the  orange-yellow
 identical with the well-known double   
sodium line of the  solar spectrum4 ,on 
this 444 it is necessary to conclude    
that during  the last fortnight of ,may 
the spectrum of ,wells's comet had      

changed  in a manner of which the       
history of science furnishes no         
precedent4    ,it should be observed    
that the elements carbon and hydrogen   
closely  resemble each other1 not only  
in their multifarious chemical          
affinities and reactions1 but in their  
electric polarities1 and the            
hydrocarbon compounds1 like their       
constituents1 carbon and hydrogen1  are 
electrically similar to each other1 an  
example of this similarity  of the      
elements being found in the identical   
action of the carbon  arc and hydrogen  
envelope in the heating and lighting    
experiments  with electrical currents   
hereinbefore described4    ,we have     
already seen that carbon follows quite a
 different law from the  other concrete 
elements1 in the fact that its          
electrical resistance  diminishes as the
 temperature rises2 it also differs     
widely from  the other solid elements in
 its atomic heat1 which has a value much
  less than one-half the mean constant1 

which is #f4d4 ,of this matter of       
specific heat1 ,professor ,fownes1 in   
his work on chemistry 7,bridges'        
edition71 says1 ,dulong and ,petit      
observed in the course of their         
investigation a most remarkable         
circumstance4 ,if the specific heats  of
 bodies be computed upon equal weights1 
numbers are obtained all  different and 
exhibiting no simple relations among    
themselves2 but if1  instead of equal   
weights1 quantities be taken in the     
proportion of the  atomic weights1 an   
almost perfect coincidence in the       
numbers will be  observed1 showing that 
some exceedingly intimate connection    
must exist  between the relations of    
bodies to heat and their chemical       
nature2 and  when the circumstance is   
taken into view that relations of even a
 still  closer kind link together       
chemical and electrical phenomena1 it is
 not  too much to expect that ere long  
some law may be discovered far more     
general than any with which we are yet  

acquainted4444 ,nevertheless1  this law 
must not be understood as perfectly     
general1 for there are  three           
elements--namely1 carbon1 boron1 and    
silicon these form a  single group of   
elements in chemical                    
classification--which exhibit  decided  
exceptions to it4    ,organic chemistry 
is substantially based upon the almost  
infinitely  interchanging relations     
among carbon-hydrogen radicals1         
supplemented  by a few other elements4  
,according to ,professor ,fownes1       
,organic  chemistry is in fact the      
chemistry of carbon compounds4 ,the     
position  of carbon among the elements  
is something like that of camphor among 
the oils1 the latter being a volatile   
oil1 but concrete in form4 ,with  a     
concrete element having the peculiar    
character of carbon we can  well        
understand its universal chemical and   
electrical relationship  with gaseous   
hydrogen in the grandest operations of  
nature4    ,cyanogen is an electrically 

similar compound of carbon with the     
addition of nitrogen4 ,of these elements
 it will be seen that nitrogen  and     
hydrogen are found to exist also in the 
gaseous nebul1 and with  the probable   
addition there of oxygen2 but in comets 
the quota of  active oxygen must be     
sought for in the correlated planetary1 
and  not in the cometic1 atmospheres1 as
 is the case with the sun4 ,of  the     
presence of the vapor of carbon in      
comets ,professor ,ball says1  ,this is 
a very singular fact1 when it is        
remembered that carbon is  one of the   
substances essentially associated with  
life in the forms in  which we know it4 
,professor ,huggins says1 ,since that   
time the light  from some twenty comets 
has been examined by different          
observers4 ,the  general close agreement
 in all cases1 notwithstanding some     
small  divergencies1 of the bright bands
 in the cometary light with those  seen 
in the spectrum of hydrocarbons         
justifies us fully in ascribing  the    

original light of these comets to matter
 which contains carbon  in combination  
with hydrogen4    ,we may learn         
something further of the constitution of
 comets1  perhaps1 by considering the   
chemical reactions which their spectra  
seem to indicate4 ,the following extract
 is from a recent article on  the       
manufacture of illuminating gas3        
,ammonia contains #hb4ce parts  of      
nitrogen and #ag4fe of hydrogen4 ,it is 
not produced by a direct  combination1  
for nitrogen can be caught and wedded   
only by a hot and  skilful wooing4 ,in  
the gas retort1 at a temperature of     
#bbjj degrees  and in the presence of   
lime1 soda1 or potash1 it will combine  
with  carbon and form cyanogen1 and then
 further combine with the alkali  to    
form a cyanide4 ,there is steam in the  
retort1 and1 as nearly  as the gas      
chemists can make out1 the nitrogen     
promptly divorces  itself1 gives up the 
carbon to the oxygen of the steam1 and1 
taking  the hydrogen to itself1 becomes1

 for the time at least1 a fixed1 if     
volatile1 substance1 but ever ready to  
enter into new alliances4 ,it  will be  
remembered that in the comets examined  
by ,professors ,huggins  and ,draper the
 spectroscope revealed both cyanogen and
 the double  line of sodium4 ,the       
function of the sodium is readily       
understood1  as by its presence it      
enables the nitrogen in the cometic     
atmosphere  to combine with a part of   
the carbon of the gaseous hydrocarbons  
which constitute this atmosphere1 and   
thus produce the cyanogen4 ,but  to     
effect this combination requires in the 
retort a temperature of  #bbjj degrees4 
,if the combining temperature around the
 nucleus of a  comet is the same1 it    
will show that the temperature of this  
comet's  nucleus must be very high1 and1
 while many times less than that of  the
 sun's photosphere1 it still clearly    
illustrates the powerful  character of  
the impact of the planetary electrical  
currents upon  the comet1 and its       

tremendous repulsion by the similarly   
electrified  solar electrosphere4 ,the  
second one of the above reactions1 that 
from cyanogen to ammonia1 is due to the 
steam or aqueous vapor in  the retort4  
,but in the case of the comet all the   
aqueous vapor and  its constituent      
oxygen have disappeared by electrolytic 
decomposition  long before the combining
 temperature of cyanogen has been       
reached2  so that the sodium1 the       
hydrocarbons1 and the cyanogen alone    
appear1  and the oxygen compounds are   
missing4 ,but on the reversal of        
polarity  of this comet by contact with 
a planetary electrosphere1 should such  
ever occur1 and its consequent          
assumption of positive electricity1  the
 oxygen would again appear1 and1 if the 
temperature had not yet  receded below  
that of the reaction which produces     
ammoniacal vapors1  we might expect1    
should a fragment of this comet enter   
our atmosphere  as a meteorite1 to find 
ammonia as well as sodium as a          

constituent  thereof2 otherwise the     
ammonia would be replaced by carbonic   
oxide  and carbonic acid1 by the action 
of oxygen upon the hydrocarbons1  and   
water by the action of oxygen upon the  
hydrogen of the same1  at much lower    
temperatures than would suffice for the 
generation of  ammonia4 ,the cyanogen   
would then perhaps remain as cyanide of 
sodium1  unless decomposed by contact   
with the meteoric metallic iron at a    
high temperature1 as occurs in the      
operation known in the arts as          
case-hardening4 ,the presence of        
microscopic diamonds in meteorites  may 
be accounted for by a somewhat similar  
reducing reaction under  heat and the   
active force of the planetary and solar 
voltaic arc4    ,in the popular view    
comets are always associated with tails1
 but1  in fact1 comets without tails are
 far more numerous than those to  which 
these appendages pertain2 the tails1    
when such exist1 are the  direct result 
of the repulsive energy of the solar    

electrosphere1  and are only manifested 
when their proximity to the sun has     
aroused  sufficient activity to swiftly 
sweep backward from the sun with        
inconceivable velocity the gaseous      
matter concentrated in and around  the  
nucleus4 ,as these tails owe their      
formation to the sun's repulsive        
energy1 they must always extend radially
 outward from the sun1 and by  the      
self-repulsive energy of the diverse    
constituents of the tails  themselves   
these will be broken occasionally into  
two1 four1 or six  lateral strands1 and 
7possibly by the attraction of the      
different  planetary electrospheres7    
curvatures may be apparent along the    
sweep  of the comets' tails             
corresponding1 in effect1 with          
perturbations  produced by gravity in   
the orbit of the nucleus4 ,of these     
various  phenomena1 ,professor ,proctor1
 in his article on comets1 says1 ,a very
  large number of comets have no visible
 tails4 ,when first seen in the         

telescope a comet usually presents a    
small1 round disk of hazy light1        
somewhat brighter near the center4 ,as  
the comet approaches the sun the  disk  
lengthens1 and1 if the comet is to be a 
tailed one1 traces begin  to be observed
 of a streakiness in the comet's light4 
,gradually a tail  is formed1 which is  
turned always from the sun4 ,the tail   
grows brighter  and larger1 and the head
 becomes developed into a coma          
surrounding  a distinctly marked        
nucleus4 ,presently the comet is lost to
 view  through its near approach to the 
sun2 but after a while it is again      
seen1 sometimes wonderfully changed in  
aspect through the effects of  solar    
heat4 ,some comets are brighter and more
 striking after passing  their point of 
nearest approach to the sun than before2
 others are  quite shorn of their       
splendor when they reappear4 ,this      
change of  aspect is not due to solar   
heat1 but to the energetic repulsion of 
the solar electrosphere4 ,the force of  

gravity irresistibly impels  the comet  
forward to the sun's electrical vortex1 
and the change of  aspect is due to the 
repulsion of its entire stock of free   
gaseous  matter into space in case its  
supply is small1 or to its increased    
development and pouring forth in case   
the supply is large4 ,it is  like the   
volatilization by a heated atmosphere of
 ammoniacal gas1  for instance1 absorbed
 in water4 ,the ebullition is vastly    
increased  by the heat1 but if the      
entire stock of ammonia has been driven 
off  in its passage through the heated  
medium1 it will emerge with the         
residual water quiescent2 otherwise1 in 
a state of increased agitation4    ,the 
same author1 in ,cometic ,mysteries1    
says1 ,repulsion of the  cometary matter
 could only take place if this matter1  
after it has  been driven off from the  
nucleus1 and the sun have both high     
electric  potentials of the same kind4  
,his further guess1 however1 that it is 
analogous to the aurora1 is wide of the 

mark2 it is due1 in fact1  to the mutual
 repulsion of their similar negative    
electrospheres1  the cometic            
electrosphere1 however1 being so much   
smaller than that  of the sun that the  
latter shows no appreciable disturbance1
 as  is the case1 under similar         
circumstances1 with the electrospheres  
of the earth and moon4 ,in the article  
last quoted it is said1  ,there is a    
dark space immediately behind the       
nucleus1--that is1  where the nucleus1  
if solid1 would throw its shadow if     
there were  matter to receive the light 
all round so that the shadow could be   
seen4 ,this presents1 it is stated1 a   
great difficulty4 ,the author1  by a    
happy guess1--almost an inspiration1 in 
fact1 of which this  splendid writer and
 observer was so full1--suggests in a   
foot-note a  possible explanation1      
which1 while not in itself correct1     
suggests an  analogous process very like
 what we actually see4 ,if the particles
  forming the envelopes are minute flat 

bodies1 and if anything in the          
circumstances under which these         
particles are driven off into the  tail 
causes them to always so arrange        
themselves that the planes in  which    
they severally lie pass through the axis
 of the tail 7which1  if the tail is an 
electrical phenomenon1 might very well  
happen71  then we should find the region
 behind the nucleus very dark or almost 
black1 for the particles in the         
direction of the line of sight there    
would be turned edgewise towards us1    
whereas those on either side or  in the 
prolongation of the envelopes would turn
 their faces towards  the observer4 ,as 
a matter of fact1 the envelope streaming
 backward  from the nucleus forms a     
hollow tube1 the opposite sides of which
  exhibit the same mutual repulsion as  
both exhibit towards the sun2  hence the
 phenomenon would be similar to that    
exhibited by blowing  into a closed bag 
of porous material covered with wisps of
 cotton1 for  example1 and the gases1 in

 addition to their rush backward from   
the  sun1 would also exhibit a radial   
rush outward from the longitudinal  axis
 of the tail4 ,this is what we actually 
observe1 and sufficiently  accounts for 
the phenomenon1 be it altogether or only
 partially real1  and not merely1 as    
that author thinks it may be1 apparent4 
,it is said1  in the same article1 that 
,bredichen has shown that where there   
are  three tails to a comet their forms 
correspond with the theory that  the    
envelopes raised from the head are      
principally formed of hydrogen1  carbon1
 and iron2 but this 444 seems open at   
present to considerable  doubt4 ,at all 
events1 these separate tails are        
self-repulsive1 or  they would be merged
 into each other by the sun's repulsive 
energy2  in fact1 they occupy the       
resultant of the direction produced by  
the  line of the sun's repulsion and    
those of their own mutually repellent   
force1--that is to say1 radial or       
divergent4    ,it must not be supposed  

that these tails are of insignificant   
proportions4 ,when we see the tail of a 
comet occupying a volume  thousands of  
times greater than that of the sun      
itself1 the question  naturally suggests
 itself1 ',how does it happen that so   
vast a body  can sweep through the solar
 system without deranging the motion of 
every planet8' ,conceding even an       
extreme tenuity to the substance        
composing so vast a volume1 one would   
still expect its mass to be  tremendous4
 ,for instance1 if we supposed the whole
 mass of the tail of  the comet of #ahdc
 to consist of hydrogen gas 7the        
lightest substance  known to us71 yet   
even then the mass of the tail would    
have largely  exceeded that of the sun4 
,every planet would have been dragged   
from  its orbit by so vast a mass       
passing so near4 ,we know1 on the       
contrary1  that no such effects were    
produced4 ,the length of our year did   
not  change by a single second4444 ,thus
 we are forced to admit that the  actual

 substance of the comet was             
inconceivably rare4444 ,from what we    
have already seen1 it will be manifest  
that the formation of comets'  tails is 
a process of a very marvellous nature1  
apparently involving  forces other than 
those with which we are acquainted4 ,the
 tail1 ninety  million miles in length1 
which was seen stretching from the head 
of  ,newton's comet nearly along the    
path which the retreating comet had  to 
traverse1 must1 it would seem1 have been
 formed by some force  far more active  
than the force of gravity4 ,the distance
 traversed  by the comet in the last    
four weeks of its approach to the sun   
under  gravity was no greater than that 
over which the matter of the tail1  seen
 after the comet had circled around the 
sun1 had been carried in a  few hours4  
,yet we have no other evidence of any   
repulsive force at all  being exerted by
 the sun1--at least no evidence which   
can be regarded  as demonstrative1--and 
still less have we any evidence of a    

repulsive  force exceeding in energy the
 sun's attracting power4 7,proctor47    
,,chapter ,,ix4    ,,interpretation ,,of
 ,,cometic ,,phenomena4      ,now1      
curiously enough1 we have in constant   
use in our laboratories a  little       
instrument called the electroscope1 in  
which we have manifested  very clearly a
 repulsive force exceeding in energy the
 earth's  attracting power1 and very    
greatly exceeding it4 ,it is described  
in  ,electricity in the ,service of ,man
 as follows3 ,if we rub a large  glass  
rod with a silk pad1 we observe that it 
will attract light  bodies1 then1 after 
contact1 repel them4 ,during the process
 we may  notice a peculiar noise1 and if
 the experiment be carried out in  the  
dark we may further notice sparks       
passing between the rod and  the rubber1
 and also that the rod becomes luminous4
 ,if we suspend  a pith-ball by means of
 a silk thread1 on bringing the rubbed  
rod  near the pith-ball it will move    
towards the rod1 touch it1 and then  be 

repelled4 ,if the glass rod be again    
brought near the pith-ball1 it  will    
move away from the glass rod1 and       
continue to be repelled until it  has   
been touched by some other body4444 ,in 
order to ascertain whether  electricity 
is communicated by electrified bodies to
 non-electrified  bodies when brought   
into contact1 let us suspend two        
pith-balls from  the same point of      
support by threads of uniform silk1 and 
touch the  pith-balls with the rubbed   
glass rod4 ,the balls fly from the rod  
and  also from one another4 ,on bringing
 near them a third pith-ball or  any    
other light body1 we find that1 though  
they repel one another1  they are       
attracted by the light body1 showing    
that they have become  electrified by   
contact with the rubbed glass rod4 ,from
 this we  conclude that an unelectrified
 body may be electrified by contact     
with an electrified body1 and also that 
there is repulsion after  contact4      
,there is mutual repulsion between two  

electrified bodies1  but there is       
attraction between a single electrified 
body and one  that is unelectrified4    
,the mutual repulsion of these          
pith-balls  is the exact measure of the 
strength of electrification4 ,hung  side
 by side to the knob of a prime         
conductor of an electrical  machine1 the
 mutual repulsion of the similar        
electrospheres of  these pith-balls     
drives them apart against the earth's   
gravity  and holds them extended1 if the
 electrical tension be sufficient1  to  
their widest limit of divergence4 ,it   
is1 in effect1 precisely  similar to the
 action of the solar and cometic        
electrospheres 7see  illustration in a  
previous chapter1 page #abd71 each being
 similarly  electrified and             
communicating with the other across a   
space which1  as before stated1 is      
freely traversable by electric currents 
without  appreciable resistance4 ,that  
such electrospheres are flaming with    
heat does not interfere with such       

self-repellent action2 in fact1  it     
intensifies it4 ,in ,professor          
,tyndall's ,lessons in ,electricity  we 
read1 ,flames and glowing embers act    
like points2 they also rapidly          
discharge electricity4 ,the electricity 
escaping from a point or flame  renders 
the air self-repulsive4 ,the consequence
 is that when the hand  is placed over a
 point mounted on the prime conductor of
 a machine in  good action a cold blast 
is distinctly felt4444 ,wilson moved    
bodies  by its action1 ,faraday caused  
it to depress the surface of a liquid1  
,hamilton employed the reaction of the  
electric wind to make pointed  wires    
rotate4 ,the 'wind' was also found to   
promote evaporation4    ,let us now     
apply these principles to the tails of  
comets4 ,if  we conceive the sun and    
comet to be analogous to our pith-balls1
  one enormously larger than the other1 
however1 and hung by vaporous           
conducting cords from the combined      
generating planetary electrospheres1    

both sun and cometic nucleus surrounded 
each by a vaporous envelope1  and       
suspended so that they will hang from   
parallel cords1 say a  dozen million    
miles apart1 and with no currents of    
electricity as  yet in operation1 we    
will find that the sun and comet will be
 simply  attracted towards each other by
 the force of gravity1 so that their    
suspending cords will converge4 ,if the 
planetary electrical machines  now      
commence their rotations1 and currents  
of electricity begin to pass  in        
quantity and intensity like those which 
pass between the earth and  the sun1    
both the solar and cometic pith-balls   
will become similarly  electrified1 and 
their gaseous atmospheres1 instead of   
drawing  towards each other1 will become
 luminous and self-repulsive4 ,the      
atmosphere which surrounds the cometic  
pith-ball1 by reason of  its great      
tenuity1 will be driven backward with   
extreme velocity1  while the solar      
pith-ball electrosphere will be so      

little affected  that its repulsion will
 be imperceptible4 ,all the gaseous     
matter1  however1 of the smaller        
pith-ball will be forced off in a       
direction  opposite that of the larger  
one1 and this repulsive energy will even
  carry the pith-balls apart1 causing   
the suspending cords to widely  diverge 
from each other1 while the force of     
gravity of the earth  tends to bring    
them nearer together4 ,if the gravity of
 the larger  pith-ball1 however1 was    
equal1 relatively1 to that of the sun1  
the  result would be that the solid     
pith-balls would be mutually attracted  
by gravitation and only the electrified 
atmospheres1 would be mutually          
repelled4 ,this experiment would present
 phenomena similar to those  we are now 
considering4 7,see illustration1 page   
#baa47    ,in describing ,newton's      
comet1 with a tail ninety million miles 
long  projected backward both from the  
sun and the comet1 when it disappeared  
in the light of the sun1 and exhibiting 

a similar tail1 also ninety  million    
miles long1 when1 less than four days   
afterwards1 it reappeared  from behind  
the sun1 but with the tail now directed 
forward from the  comet1 but in both    
cases extended radially outward from the
 sun1 it  is obvious that this whole    
tail must have made a sweeping change of
  direction of nearly one hundred and   
eighty degrees upon the nucleus  as its 
center4 ,professor ,proctor says1 ,as   
,sir ,john ,herschel remarks1  we cannot
 look on the tail of a comet as         
something whirled round  like a stick as
 the comet circles around its perihelion
 sweep4 ,the  tail with which the comet 
reappeared must have been an entirely   
new  formation4 ,it is true that a      
comet's tail cannot be conceived of as  
being whirled round like a stick1 but we
 can very readily conceive  of it as    
something like a flame composed of      
incandescent gases1  and it may very    
easily be blown round a stick2 and this 
is precisely  what must happen in the   

case of a comet4 ,construct1 for        
experiment1  a little apparatus         
consisting of a blow-pipe adapted to    
deliver a  current of air between two   
horizontal metal disks1 say an eighth of
  an inch apart1 one perforated at the  
center to admit the nozzle of  the      
blow-pipe4 ,by directing a constant     
current of air through the  latter1 it  
will be deflected so as to blow radially
 outward in all  directions and in the  
same plane4 ,now take a stick with a    
flame on  the end of it1 or a lighted   
candle1 and with it approach this center
  of repellent energy in the plane of   
the space between the disks and  along  
an ellipse representing the orbit of a  
comet4 ,as the flame  approaches the    
improvised solar center it will be      
driven backward  from the wick of the   
candle almost along the line of its     
approach1  and as it passes around the  
center it will be constantly blown      
outward  in a radial direction until1   
when it recedes after perihelion1 the   

flame will be seen pointed almost       
directly ahead4 ,at all times the       
direction of the flame will lie along   
the radial lines prolonged  outward from
 the center through the wick of the     
candle1 and it will  not be a new flame 
generated at every change of its        
direction1 but  the same flame          
constantly forced outward by the        
repulsive force of  the central         
atmosphere in this case or the solar    
electrosphere in  the case of the sun4  
,this experiment is an accurate and     
conclusive  exhibit of the phenomena of 
solar repulsion in its action upon the  
tail of a comet4 ,it is analogous in    
principle to the repulsion of  the      
pith-balls and the electric wind and 7in
 application7 to the  phenomena         
presented by comets in their movements  
to1 around1 and  from the sun4 ,this    
repulsion is not operative in effect    
against the  wick of the candle1--that  
is to say1 it is not the repulsion of   
the  nucleus which determines the       

direction of the tail1 but the repulsion
  by direct outblow of the sun1 so to   
speak1 upon the incandescent  gases of  
the tail itself4 ,this fact clearly     
demonstrates that the  repulsion of like
 electrospheres is the cause of the     
phenomenon1 and1  when once understood1 
the process is quite as simple as that  
of the  original formation of the tail  
itself1 which no one disputes4    ,there
 is to be further considered the        
theoretical resistance of  space to the 
projection and deflection of such       
enormous volumes  of attenuated matter  
as appear in comets' tails4 ,while it   
may not  be absolutely necessary to     
offer an explanation of this apparent   
difficulty1 in view of the fact that    
such projection and deflection  do      
actually occur1 still1 the well-known   
laws of the diffusion of  gases1 in     
accordance with which any gaseous matter
 will traverse  any other gaseous matter
 with the same velocity as1 and with no 
more  resistance than1 in a vacuum1 will

 show that this difficulty has been     
much overrated1 while for the twin      
difficulty1 how to account for the      
persistence of luminosity at such vast  
distances from its source1 we  may quote
 from ,professor ,proctor1 ,cometic     
,mysteries1 who1 in turn1  quotes as    
follows3 ,comets travel in what must be 
regarded as to  all intents and purposes
 a vacuum4 ,from ,dr4 ,crookes'         
experiments on  very high vacua we may  
infer that there is very little loss of 
heat1  except by radiation4 ,by intents 
and purposes we understand1 of  course1 
as a cause of resistance1 and certainly 
there is no reason to  believe that the 
attenuated vapors of space are          
sufficient in density  to cause any     
rapid diffusion of heat by convection1  
as contrasted  with that of radiation4  
,we have seen that comets of short      
period sometimes disappear1 and  that   
their disappearance is frequently       
followed by the appearance  of trains of
 meteors4 ,in other words1 they have    

apparently lost  their cometic          
properties and become permanent adjuncts
 to our solar  system4 ,a curious       
confirmation of this fact is to be found
 in the  character of the occluded gases
 which are contained in such meteorites 
as sometimes fall upon the earth's      
surface4 ,of this ,professor ,proctor   
says1 ,we have reason to believe that   
the nucleus of a comet consists  of an  
aggregation of stones similar to        
meteorites4 ,speaking of  the condition 
in which meteorites reach the earth1 he 
says1 ,they  are known to contain as    
much as six times their own volume of   
gases  7taken at atmospheric pressure74 
,in one of these meteorites recently    
examined by ,dr4 ,flight1 the following 
percentages of various gases  were      
noted3 ,of carbonic oxide1 #ca4hh2 of   
carbonic acid gas1 #j4ab2 of  hydrogen1 
#de4gi2 of olefiant gas1 #d4ee2 and of  
nitrogen1 #ag4ff4 ,the  presence of     
olefiant gas at once suggests the       
hydrocarbons of the  cometic nucleus4   

,the presence of this gas cannot be     
accounted for by  the passage of the    
meteorite through our atmosphere1 nor   
can that of  hydrogen1 and these are two
 characteristic gases1 together with the
  vapor of carbon1 constantly found to  
exist in comets4    ,as before          
explained1 the advent of a comet into   
our solar system  is that of a stranger1
 with electric polarity the opposite of 
that of the planetary electrospheres and
 identical with that of  the sun4 ,under
 the combined influence of the solar    
gravity and  perturbation by the gravity
 of the planets these foreign bodies    
tend to shorten their periods1 and      
finally fall into the ordinary  array of
 the bodies which compose our own solar 
system4 ,but when  this occurs they     
will1 in turn1 become contributors to1  
instead of  antagonists of1 the energy  
of the sun2 in other words1 they must   
then  conform electrically to the       
condition of the family into which they 
have married1--that is to say1 the      

planets1--and a reversal of their       
electrical polarity will take place4    
,this reversal of polarity is no        
novelty in the operation of electrical  
apparatus4 ,in ,electricity in  the     
,service of ,man we read as follows of  
the ,voss induction machine3  ,this     
machine is exceedingly powerful in      
favorable weather1 but has  an important
 defect in a tendency to self-reversal1 
which is apt to  occur at a stoppage4   
,this defect can be produced in a ,voss 
machine1  when desired1 by holding a    
metal point to the positive brush ,k4   
,the  two derived inductive circuits are
 beautifully manifested when this       
machine is worked in the dark4 ,a       
luminous stream is seen pouring  towards
 the collecting comb ,l on whichever    
side of the machine the comb  is        
positive4 ,it will thus be seen that    
simple contact of a neutral  7or        
negatively opposite7 body will reverse  
the electrical polarity  of this        
machine1 or even the interruption of its

 motion will do so  at times4 ,possibly 
a similar reversal may be produced in a 
comet  by the contact in whole or in    
part of its nucleus with a planetary    
electrosphere1 since the action of      
gravity is entirely independent  of that
 of the attraction or repulsion of the  
electrospheres of both  planetary and   
cometic bodies4 ,such reversal of       
polarity in a comet  would at once      
extinguish its luminosity1 and the      
generation of oxygen  would at once     
replace the prior generation of         
hydrogen1 and herein  we may find       
explained the presence of carbonic oxide
 in large volume  and carbonic acid in  
small volume in the meteorite above     
referred to1  and of which gases        
,professor ,proctor says1 ,it is quite  
certain these  gases were not taken up  
by the meteorolite during its flight    
through  the air4 ,these aggregations of
 discrete meteoric bodies1 loosely      
adherent by mutual gravity alone1 would 
be gradually torn apart by  planetary   

interference and dragged into streams of
 small bodies1  thenceforth traversing  
space in elliptical orbits around the   
sun1  just as do the planets and        
planetoids4 ,cyanogen1 also1 the deadly 
gas  so frequently found to exist in    
enormous quantities in the nuclei of    
comets1 would at once disappear1 by     
double conversion into carbonic  acid1  
or oxide1 and ammonia1 or nitrogen1 so  
that this danger1 as  the result of a   
comet's possible approach to the earth's
 atmosphere1  may be dismissed from     
apprehension4    ,it will be seen that  
all the enormous difficulties in the    
phenomena  of comets find an explanation
 in the operation of the same universal 
laws which we have endeavored to apply  
to the other sidereal bodies4 ,in       
conclusion1 we may cite the following   
from ,dr4 ,huggins3 ,broadly1 the       
different applications of principles of 
electricity which have been  suggested  
group themselves about the common idea  
that great electrical  disturbances are 

set up by the sun's action in connection
 with the  vaporization of some of the  
matter of the nucleus1 and that the tail
  is probably matter carried away1      
possibly in connection with electric    
discharges1 under an electrical         
influence of repulsion exerted by the   
sun4 ,this view necessitates the        
supposition that the sun is strongly    
electrified1 either negatively or       
positively1 and1 further1 that in  the  
processes taking place in the comet1    
either of vaporization or  of some other
 kind1 the matter thrown out by the     
nucleus has become  strongly electrified
 in the same way as the sun1--that is1  
negatively  if the sun's electricity is 
negative1 or positively if the sun's is 
positive4 ,the enormous disturbances    
which the spectroscope shows  to be     
always at work in the sun must be       
accompanied by electrical  changes of   
equal magnitude1 but we know nothing as 
to how far these  are all1 or the great 
majority of them1 in one direction1 so  

as  to cause the sun to maintain        
permanently a high electrical state1    
whether positive or negative4 ,the above
 speculations will have thus  become    
demonstrated facts 7though not in the   
mode suggested by the  above writer7 as 
soon as we clearly understand that1     
instead of the  sun's enormous          
disturbances producing electrical       
changes of equal  magnitude1 it is the  
electrical changes of equal magnitude   
which  themselves cause the sun's       
disturbances1 and that the sun's        
negative  electrical polarity is        
permanently fixed by the opposite and   
positive  polarity of the planetary     
electrospheres1 and that all these      
various  phenomena are but the normal   
expression of a single universal law1   
and are all due to the constant         
interaction of planetary1 solar1  and   
cometic electrospheres1 in accordance   
with the well-established  principles of
 electrical science4 ,if1 however1 we   
consider1 as is  generally believed to  

be the case1 the sun itself to be the   
sole  prime source of its visible       
energy1 nothing but difficulty and vague
  speculation can be looked for on every
 hand2 but by relegating the  solar orb 
to its proper place1 and taking as the  
starting-point the  true source of all  
energy1--to wit1 the hidden forces      
embodied in the  vapors or gases of     
interstellar space1--the whole process  
and mode of  action will logically      
follow1 and obscurity and difficulty    
together  disappear4 ,this principle1   
properly understood1 is a master-key    
which  will unlock every problem and    
interpret every enigma which the realms 
of interstellar space can present4      
,,chapter ,x4    ,,the ,,resolvable     
,,nebul1 ,,star-,,clusters ,,and        
,,galaxies4      ,when we come to       
consider the nebul1 and endeavor to     
learn what part  electricity has to play
 in the phenomena presented by these    
singular  objects1 we must recollect1 in
 order to give them their due           

importance1  that they are neither few  
in number nor uniform in constitution4  
,of  the nebul1 ,professor ,proctor     
7,star-,clouds and ,star-,mist7 says1   
,when the depths of the heavens are     
explored with a powerful  telescope a   
number of strange cloud-like objects are
 brought into  view4 ,it is startling to
 consider that if the eye of man        
suddenly  acquired the light-gathering  
power of a large telescope1 and if at   
the same time all the single stars      
disappeared1 we should see on the       
celestial vault a display of the        
mysterious objects called nebul or      
star-clouds exceeding in number all the 
stars which can now be seen  on the     
darkest night in winter4 ,the whole sky 
would seem mottled  with these singular 
objects4 ,as telescopes1 with the       
advances of  constructive art1 increased
 in power1 these luminous clouds became 
more and more clearly defined1 and many 
of them became resolved into  clusters  
of stars1 galaxies of suns like the     

,milky ,way1 of which latter  our solar 
system is a constituent part1 but more  
distant from us than  the separately    
visible stars of that galaxy1 and each  
separated from  the relatively adjacent 
clusters by intervals of space          
comparable only  with those which       
separate them from our own system4 ,of  
these glorious  star-clusters1 says     
,flammarion1 in ,the ,wonders of the    
,heavens1  ,in the bosom of infinite    
space1 the unfathomable depth of which  
we  have tried to comprehend1 float rich
 clusters of stars1 each separated  by  
immense intervals4 ,we shall soon show  
that all the stars are suns  like ours1 
shining with their own light1 and foci  
of as many systems  of worlds4 ,now1 the
 stars are not scattered in all parts of
 space  at hazard2 they are grouped as  
the members of many families4 ,if  we   
compared the ocean of the heavens with  
the ocean of the earth1  we should say  
that the isles which sprinkle this ocean
 do not rise  separately in all parts of

 the sea1 but that they are united here 
and  there in archipelagoes more or less
 rich4444 ,they are all collected in    
tribes1 most of which count their       
members by millions4 ,says ,professor   
,nichol1 ,system on system of majesty   
unspeakable float through the           
fathomless ocean of space4 ,our galaxy1 
with splendors that seem  illimitable1  
is only a unit among unnumbered throngs2
 we can think  of it1 in comparison with
 creation1 but as we were wont to think 
of  one of its own stars4 ,of these     
glorious star-clusters the same writer  
says1 ,that no one has ever seen them in
 a telescope of adequate power  without 
uttering a shout of wonder4 ,these      
mist-like star-clouds were  successively
 resolved1 nebula by nebula1 until      
science settled into  the belief that   
with telescopes of adequate power all   
nebul might be  so resolved1 and the    
capacity of telescopes to thus resolve  
nebul  became a test of their power4    
,but spectrum analysis finally entered  

the lists with new methods of           
investigation1 and the comparatively    
tiny spectroscope at a single leap      
passed far beyond the utmost  limits of 
the highest telescopic vision1 and at   
one blow struck the  whole category of  
nebul into two widely different         
classes1--those  composed of discrete   
stars grouped like the suns of our own  
,milky  ,way1 and exhibiting the        
characteristic spectra of such bodies1  
and  those composed of diffused gaseous 
matter not yet condensed into  suns1 and
 showing the disconnected spectral lines
 of simple elemental  gases4 ,the line  
of division was clear1 direct1 positive1
 and beyond all  dispute4 ,yet beyond   
these two classes further research has  
disclosed  certain vast nebul in which  
some portions exhibit true solar spectra
  more or less modified and others true 
gaseous spectra1 each apparently        
merging into the other by gradations so 
faint and delicate that the  inference  
is irresistible that in these nebul we  

see the processes  of galactic and solar
 creation at various stages of their    
development4    ,of these nebul1        
,professor ,ball says1 ,in one of his   
most remarkable  papers1 ,sir ,w4       
,herschel presents us with a summary of 
his observations  on the nebul1 arranged
 in such a manner as to suggest his     
theory  of the gradual transmutation of 
nebul into stars4 ,he first shows  us   
that there are regions in the heavens   
where a faint diffused  nebulosity is   
all that can be detected by the         
telescope4 ,there are  other nebul in   
which a nucleus can be just discerned1  
others again  in which the nucleus is   
easily seen1 and still others where the 
nucleus is a bright star-like point4    
,the transition from an object  of this 
kind to a nebulous star is very natural1
 while the nebulous  stars pass into the
 ordinary stars by a few graduated      
stages4 ,it  is thus possible to        
enumerate a series of objects1 beginning
 at one  end with the most diffused     

nebulosity and ending at the other with 
an ordinary fixed star or group of      
stars4 ,each object in the series       
differs but slightly from the object    
just before it and just after  it4 ,and 
of these composite nebul1 he adds1 ,the 
great nebula in  ,orion is known to be  
the most glorious body of its class that
 the  heavens display4 ,seen through a  
powerful telescope1 444 the appearance  
of this grand 'light stain' is of       
indescribable glory4 ,it is a vast      
volume of bluish gaseous material with  
hues of infinite softness  and delicacy4
 ,here it presents luminous tracts which
 glow with an  exquisite blue light2    
there it graduates off until it is      
impossible  to say where the nebula     
ceases and the black sky begins4        
,with reference to these distant        
galaxies of apparently complete solar   
systems like our own1 the same          
principles must regulate the conversion 
of this energy of planetary electricity 
into the energy of solar  light and heat

 as we see manifested in our own sun4   
,the light of the  individual stars is  
sufficient evidence of this2 but the    
question may  be asked1 ,is the         
electrical interaction between separate 
galaxies and  between different solar   
systems in the same galaxy universal1 or
 are  these operations merely local8 ,in
 other words1 ,is the source and the    
mode of solar energy in accordance with 
a single universal law of and  between  
all created universes1 or is it limited 
in effective energy  to the members of  
each individual solar system alone8 ,the
 answer  is1 that it is not less        
universal than the law of gravitation   
and  no more so4 ,there is a prevalent  
popular fallacy that the force of       
gravity is such that the movements1 not 
only of solar systems1 but  of whole    
galaxies1 and of all the illimitable    
systems of galaxies1  are under its     
effective control1 and that the whole   
universe of  boundless space            
acknowledges its overwhelming sway4 ,but

 nothing can be  further from the truth4
 ,we know1 of course1 that the law is   
universal1  as expressed in the         
statement of its terms by ,newton1 but  
the mere  statement of the law itself1  
as applied to interstellar distances1   
refutes the idea that solar systems and 
galaxies can rotate around  any common  
center by virtue of the attraction of   
gravitation as a  controlling force4    
,the universality of the law itself has 
even been  doubted4 ,professor ,ball    
says1 ,in the first book about astronomy
 which  ,i read in my boyhood there was 
a glowing description4444 ,i allude to  
the discovery1 or the alleged discovery1
 of a certain 'central sun'  about which
 it was believed or stated that all the 
bodies in the  universe revolved4444 ,it
 was too good to be true4 ,no one ever  
hears  anything about the central sun   
hypothesis nowadays4444 ,it must be1    
then1 admitted that when the law of     
gravitation is spoken of as being       
universal1 we are using language        

infinitely more general than the  facts 
absolutely warrant4 ,at the present     
moment we only know that  gravitation   
exists to a very small extent in a      
certain indefinite  small portion of    
space4 ,our knowledge would have to be  
enormously  increased before we could   
assert that gravitation was in operation
  throughout this very limited region2  
and even when we have proved  this1 we  
should only have made an infinitesimal  
advance to a proof  that gravitation is 
absolutely universal4    ,anyone who    
chooses may prove for himself that the  
force exercised by  gravitation between 
the multitudinous suns of our own       
galaxy1 the ,milky  ,way1 and our earth 
must be quite infinitesimal1 and totally
 unable to  control the motions of our  
own solar system in a definite orbit    
through  universal space4 ,we know that 
the law which regulates the intensity of
  light at various distances is the same
 as the law of gravity1--that  is to    
say1 the proportion is directly as the  

mass and inversely as  the square of the
 distance4 ,we know also that the stars 
which compose  the ,milky ,way are      
similarly constituted1 generally        
considered1 to our  own sun1 and that   
under similar circumstances the emission
 of light1  roughly speaking1 will vary 
according to the magnitude of these     
distant  suns4 ,now1 if any one will    
stand1 at the darkest hour of the night1
  when the moon is absent and the sky   
perfectly cloudless1 when the           
,stars that oversprinkle all the heavens
 seem to twinkle                ,with a 
crystalline delight1      and sweep with
 his gaze all the concave hemisphere of 
the sky1 and  then compare the light    
which is radiated around him with the   
gorgeous  effulgence of the noonday     
summer sun1 he can pretty closely       
compare  the relative attraction of     
gravity which all those distant suns    
together can exercise upon our earth    
with that of our own sun4 ,under        
control of the latter1 the earth sweeps 

around in her orbit at the  rate of     
about twenty miles per second2 all these
 suns could not give  our solar system  
even a minute fraction of that4 ,of this
 starlight  ,professor ,ball says1 ,the 
sun certainly must receive some heat by 
the radiation from the stars2 but this  
is quite infinitesimal in  comparison   
with his own stupendous radiation4 ,any 
such attraction1  of course1 could not  
control the motions of our solar system1
 and  much less that of many of the     
others4         ,the night has a        
thousand eyes1 and the day but one1     
,but the light of the whole world dies  
when the day is done4      ,we can also 
demonstrate the fact mathematically by  
an exceedingly  rough calculation1      
which1 however1 will be sufficient for  
our  purpose4 ,of the ,milky ,way1 which
 comprises only the stars of our own    
sidereal system1 ,professor ,ball says1 
,one hundred million stars are  presumed
 to be disposed in a flat circular layer
 of such dimensions  that a ray of light

 would require thirty thousand years to 
traverse  one diameter4 7,the most      
recent estimates make the number of the 
stars which compose the ,milky ,way     
several times one hundred million1      
occupying a correspondingly greater     
amplitude of space4 ,the number in  any 
case is sufficiently stupendous47 ,our  
solar system is located in  space at the
 apex of a vast transverse cleft1 and   
nearly at the center  of this disk4 ,let
 us leave out of consideration the lower
 half of the  ,milky ,way1 as we look   
upward on a starlit night1 and conceive 
this  galaxy to extend only across the  
midnight sky above us like an archway1  
with fifty million suns1 visible and    
invisible1 exposed in the field  of our 
vision4 ,the nearest of all the fixed   
stars to us is that known  as ,alpha    
,centauri1--not visible1 however1 in our
 northern skies4 ,this  star is about   
two hundred and thirty thousand times as
 far from our  sun as is the earth4 ,if 
of the same mass as our sun1 it must    

exert  upon us an attractive force of   
gravity one fifty-three-billionth  that 
of our own sun4 ,next in distance is the
 star ,no4 #fa of the  constellation    
,cygnus4 ,this may be three times as    
distant1 and is  certainly not less than
 twice4 ,the light of the former will   
reach  the earth in three and           
one-quarter years2 that of the latter in
 not  less than six and one-half years1 
perhaps much more4 ,these are our       
nearest stellar neighbors4 ,while the   
former will attract us with only  one   
fifty-three-thousand-millionth that of  
the sun1 the latter will  attract us    
with less than one                      
two-hundred-thousand-millionth that of  
our sun4 ,conceive1 then1 a square      
pyramid extending radially upward  for  
three thousand times the mean of these  
distances to the upper  probable limits 
of the ,milky ,way1 a light-distance of 
fifteen thousand  years1 and that this  
pyramid expands according to the squares
 of its  distances1 so that it will     

contain within it1 equally distributed1 
all the stars 7fifty million7 of the    
upper half of the disk of the  ,milky   
,way2 the sum total of all these        
attractions could not reach one         
twenty-millionth part of that of our sun
 upon the earth4 ,if we continue  to    
pile galaxies1 in the same perpetual    
recession1 behind each other  to all    
infinity1 we still could not engender   
sufficient attractive  force to control 
the observed movements of the           
multitudinous stars of  space4 ,the very
 statement of the law of gravitation    
itself disproves  it2 for if we multiply
 orbs and systems according to any      
principle  of aggregation that we know  
of in the way of distribution of such   
systems1 or anything possible1 with due 
regard to their own mutually            
interacting movements in space1 we could
 never reach the inside limits  of such 
a sphere of control1 because the piling 
up of orb behind orb  adds but an       
infinitesimal fraction to the force of  

gravity1 for as  the orbs themselves    
multiply in distance progressively by   
hundreds1  their relative attractions   
inversely diminish by ten thousands4 ,no
  possible increase of suns directly in 
mass could compensate for such  an      
inverse ratio of squares1 even if all   
intergalactic space were  peopled with  
suns1 instead of being1 in fact1 like a 
vast ocean1 with  a few small clusters  
of islands scattered here and there     
throughout  its illimitable extent4     
,of these vast realms of space1         
,professor ,ball asks1 ,is our sidereal 
system to be regarded as an oceanic     
island in space1 or is it in  such      
connection with the systems in other    
parts of space as might  lead us to     
infer that the various systems had a    
common character8 ,the  evidence seems  
to show that the stars in our system are
 probably not  permanently associated   
together1 but that in the course of time
 some  stars enter our system and other 
stars leave it1 in such manner  as to   

suggest that the bodies visible to us   
are fairly typical  of the general      
contents of the universe4 ,the strongest
 evidence  that can be presented on this
 subject is met with in the peculiar    
circumstances of one particular star4   
,the star in question is known  as ,no4 
#ahcj of ,groombridge's catalogue4 ,it  
is a small star1 not to be  seen without
 the aid of a telescope4444 ,we shall   
probably be quite  correct in assuming  
that the distance is not less than two  
hundred  billions of miles4444 ,the     
velocity is no less than two hundred    
miles  per second4444 ,the star sweeps  
along through our system with this      
stupendous velocity4444 ,the velocity   
being over twenty-five miles a  second1 
the attraction can never overcome the   
velocity1 so that the  star seems       
destined to escape4 ,of the star        
,alcyone he says1 ,doubtless  that star 
is thousands of billions of miles from  
the earth2 doubtless  the light from it 
requires thousands of years--and some   

astronomers  have said millions of      
years--to span the abyss which          
intervenes  between our globe and those 
distant regions4 ,and yet these stars1  
these galaxies1 and even all the nebul  
we see or ever shall see1 are  merely in
 the vestibule of space2 we have        
scarcely even yet lifted the  outer     
curtain at the entrance of those vast   
realms4 ,that the popular1  but         
pseudo-scientific1 idea of a series of  
ever-widening concentric  orbits1       
increasing at every new expansion by an 
inconceivable ratio1  is incredible we  
can well understand1 and it is a        
satisfaction to  know that such a wild  
hypothesis finds no warrant in the dicta
 or the  demonstrations of science4 ,and
 it is in the failure of gravity to     
control over the intervening space which
 lies between those vastly  distant     
centers that we may hope to find the    
inklings of a more  far-reaching law1 by
 which nebul like that of ,orion        
crystallize out  into separate star     

systems1 just as in the rocks1 whether  
igneous1  metamorphic1 or sedimentary1  
we find the attraction of cohesion yield
  to that of crystallization1 until the 
whole cleft rock blazes with  countless 
garnets in the schist and quartz        
crystals in the gneiss1  or reveals the 
yellow specks of olivine in volcanic    
ejections4    ,we shall find in the     
processes concerned with the development
 of living  things the workings of a    
similar great law1 perhaps the same4    
,wherever  there is the possibility of  
life1 there we find life4 ,there seems  
to  be an all-pervading vital tension1  
so to speak1 an energizing force1  which
 drives the evolution and ascent of life
 forward and upward by  successive      
leaps1 as it were1 from type to type1   
from race to race1  and even from nation
 to nation4 ,in this universal forward  
movement  we may dimly discern the      
primordial creative and developing      
impulse1  constantly acting1 but        
manifesting visible change only at      

intervals  as gathering forces          
accumulate and equilibrium is disturbed4
 ,it  manifests itself in all the fields
 of nature1--vital1 chemical1           
molecular1 molar1 systemic4 ,it is the  
ever-acting1 eternal past1  present1 and
 future1 the macrocosm and the          
microcosm1 the panurgus1  the ,brahma1  
the ,ancient of ,days1 and cannot be    
silenced or evaded3                     
,they reckon ill who leave me out1      
,when me they fly ,i am the wings4      
,r4 ,kalley ,miller1 in his ,romance of 
,astronomy1 says1 ,it would be  hopeless
 to attempt expressing in ordinary      
language the vast distance  at which    
these clusters of stars are situated    
from us4 ,if we were to  reckon it in   
miles1 or even in millions of miles1    
figures would pile  upon figures till in
 their number all definite idea of their
 value  was lost4 ,we must choose       
another unit to measure these           
infinitudes of  space1--a unit compared 
with which the dimensions of our own    

solar  system shrink into absolute      
nothingness4 ,the velocity of light is  
such that it would flash fifteen times  
from pole to pole of our earth  between 
two beats of the pendulum4 ,it bridges  
the huge chasm that  separates us from  
the sun in little more than eight       
minutes4 ,but the  light that shows us  
these faint star-clusters has been      
travelling  with this frightful velocity
 for more than two million years since  
it left its distant source4 ,we see them
 to-day in the fields of our            
telescopes1 not as they are now1 but as 
they were countless ages before  the    
creation of man upon the earth4 ,what   
they are now who can tell8    ,the      
movements of solar systems through space
 are unquestionably  controlled by some 
wider law than that of gravitation1 and 
it still  remains for science to seek   
its hidden principles and discover its  
mode of operation4 ,we know that some   
stars travel alone1 like the  star      
already noted1 ,no4 #ahcj of            

,groombridge's catalogue2 that others   
travel in pairs1 like the double star   
,mizar and its companion ,alcor2  and   
others in groups1 like the stars ,beta1 
,gamma1 ,delta1 ,epsilon and  ,zeta1 of 
the constellation ,ursa ,major2 that we 
are driving towards  the constellation  
,lyra and leaving behind us ,sirius and 
its fellows1  and that many1 if not all1
 of the stars whose motions we can      
measure  have a rapid movement through  
space1 but under what control1 in accord
  with what hidden harmony1 and under   
what general plan they move1  we do not 
know2 but the laws of electrical action 
of the circling  planets upon their     
central suns1 and of these upon space1  
we can  readily account for by the      
similar operation of the same laws      
within  our own solar domain2 and we    
know by the similar terms of the ratio  
of distribution of light that this is   
commensurate in extent with the  law of 
gravity1 and operates in a like         
proportion of energy over all           

intervening distances2 so that wherever 
our sun presents a visible  point of    
light1 there it is pouring its energy   
into space1 and every  sun we can see1  
every galaxy1 every star-cluster1 nay1  
every nebula1  is likewise pouring into 
the interplanetary space of our own     
solar  system its proportionate quota of
 energy4 ,the very fact that we can  see
 the star shine is itself the fullest   
evidence that this is so1  and evidence 
also that the law of gravitation there1 
too1 is still  in force1 operating over 
these same distances1 and with the same 
proportionate energy4    ,knowing all   
this1 we can read with a new light the  
grand vistas  of the skies1 with their  
starry denizens1 and claim them all as  
parts of our own family2 and the mutual 
interchange of attractive  energy and of
 light and heat will not fail between us
 until those  inconceivable distances   
shall have been reached which human     
knowledge  can never span and where     
speculation fails2 and even there1 from 

out  those dark abysses1--dark to our   
human eyes1--the call will still        
faintly reach us1 and our response will 
reach them also1 though we  shall never 
have tangible evidence that such mutual 
ties continue to  exist4 ,industriously 
our planets gather their mighty energies
 from  the surrounding springs of space1
 as one dips water from a crystal       
stream2 we hand it over to our sun1 and 
he1 the royal high-priest1  sprinkles it
 in glittering diamond-sprays over all  
those countless  suns and their subject 
worlds1 and they are baptized with an   
eternal  baptism into our common        
brotherhood and we into theirs4 ,our    
familiar  planets1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1     
,neptune1 the earth1 and even our little
 moon1  seem to raise their voices and  
take actual part in the councils of     
almighty power1 to move about as        
perpetual benefactors1 gathering and    
spreading beneficence abroad1 instead of
 cowering1 a hapless few1  like         
storm-stayed travellers1 around the     

dying embers of our poor  old sun1      
passive recipients of the light and heat
 and life which we  have been taught to 
believe are slowly sinking into ashes   
and fading  away in eternal darkness and
 death4 ,one swift glance into these    
boundless truths is better for the human
 soul than the slow passage  of whole   
hopeless centuries1 which leave as their
 inevitable legacy  on earth a vast and 
final catastrophe1 in which everything  
that gave  us light and heat and being  
must perish forever4 ,has it1 indeed1   
come to this1 that the last word which  
science has to offer is1  ,after us the 
deluge8 ,by no means4 ,we have merely   
been endeavoring  to measure the right  
hand of ,god by weighing and measuring a
 single  isolated one of his countless  
multitude of suns4    ,it is as though  
one standing beside a great water-wheel 
should estimate  its power and rotation 
by measuring the width and depth of the 
buckets  and calculating the weight of  
water which its thirty-two receptacles  

contain1 saying1 at its present rate in 
so many seconds it will cease  to move4 
,but we take him to the water-gate1 and 
show it wide open2  to the great dam    
above it which contains cubic miles of  
water2 and  still beyond that to the    
mighty fountains bursting forth with    
their  rush and roar from the           
rock-ribbed fastnesses of the eternal   
hills1  and pouring their unfailing     
flood-tide down forever and ever4 ,and  
we  do not pause even here3 we show him 
the vapors rising from the spent  water 
again1 condensing into clouds1 pouring  
down in torrents of rain  among the     
hills1 and that these continuously feed 
the sources of the  fountains1 which in 
turn supply the wheel almost to         
bursting4 ,and so  it is with the       
glorious mechanism of the heavens4      
,the source of solar energy is not to be
 found in the sun itself1  but in his   
environment2 and he himself1 in all his 
glory1 is but the  king1 crowned with   
gold1 blazing with rich apparel1 and    

scattering  benefits among his          
satellites1 not from his own private    
treasury1  but who himself is enriched  
by the mighty tribute with which his    
willing subjects continually endow him1 
and to whom alone he owes  all his pride
 and power and wealth and magnificence1 
and which he1 in  turn1 so freely       
expends1 transmuted in form alone1 in   
the perpetual  improvement and welfare  
of his domain4 ,he is the faithful      
ruler1  but not the creator2 the        
beneficent monarch1 but not the god4    
,,chapter ,,xi4    ,,the ,,gaseous      
,,nebul4      ,when we reach the        
irresolvable nebul1 we unquestionably   
have  approached the creative period of 
solar systems and in many cases  of     
whole galaxies4 ,these are multifarious 
in form1 but all can be  reduced to a   
few comprehensive types4 ,in determining
 the question  as to whether these      
irresolvable nebul were composed of     
distinct  stars like the ,milky ,way1   
but too distant to be resolved from     

their  mist-like light into discrete    
stars by the most powerful telescopes1  
or whether they were gaseous in         
constitution1--that is1 composed  of    
diffused gaseous elements not condensed 
into solar bodies1--the  spectroscope   
became the final and infallible test4   
,of this instrument1  thus used1        
,professor ,proctor1 in his             
,star-,clouds and ,star-,mist1 says1  ,a
 very few words will explain the whole  
matter to readers who remember  the     
three fundamental laws of this new mode 
of investigation1--viz41  that1 first1  
light from a burning solid or liquid    
source gives the  rainbow-colored streak
 of light commonly known as the         
prismatic  spectrum2 secondly1 when     
vapors surround such a source of light1 
the  rainbow-colored streak is crossed  
by dark lines2 and1 thirdly1 when the   
source of light is gas1 there is no     
longer a rainbow-colored streak1  but   
merely a finite number of bright lines4 
,dr4 ,huggins selected for              

investigation the small planetary nebula
 in the ,dragon4 ,he says1 ,when  ,i had
 directed the telescope armed with the  
spectrum apparatus to this  nebula1 ,i  
at first suspected that some derangement
 of the instrument  had taken place1 for
 no spectrum was seen1 but only a short 
line of  light4 ,i then found that the  
light of this nebula1 unlike any other  
extra-terrestrial light which had yet   
been subjected by me to prismatic       
analysis1 was of definite colors1 and   
therefore could not form a  spectrum4 ,a
 great part of the light is             
monochromatic1 and so remains           
concentrated in a bright line occupying 
a position in the spectrum              
corresponding to its color4 ,careful    
examination showed a narrower and  much 
fainter line near the one first         
discovered4 ,beyond this point1  about  
three times as far from the first line1 
was a third exceedingly  faint line4    
,from the position of one of the bright 
lines it is inferred  the gas nitrogen  

is one of the constituents of the       
nebula2 another line  indicates the     
existence of the gas hydrogen in that   
far-off system2  the third line has not 
yet been associated with any known      
terrestrial  element1 though it is near 
one belonging to the metal barium1 and  
still nearer one belonging to oxygen2 a 
fourth line occasionally seen  belongs  
to hydrogen4 ,professor ,proctor says1  
,dr4 ,huggins examined  a large number  
of the planetary nebul 7so called71     
obtaining in  each case a spectrum which
 indicates gaseity4 ,in some cases only 
one  line could be seen1 in others two1 
more commonly three1 and in a few       
instances four4 ,when these lines were  
seen they invariably corresponded  in   
position with those already described4  
,the single line sometimes  seen        
corresponded with the brightest line of 
the three2 and when a  second line was  
visible1 this also was no new line1 but 
agreed with  the second brightest line  
in the three-line spectrum4 ,the fourth 

line  was seen only in the spectrum of a
 very bright1 small1 blue planetary     
nebula1 but was later observed in other 
cases1 and especially in the  great     
,orion nebula4 ,at this time the latter 
was not visible1 but when  ,dr4 ,huggins
 had opportunity to examine it1 he says1
 ,the telescopic  observations of this  
nebula seem to show that it is suitable 
to a  crucial test of the usually       
received opinion that the resolution of 
a nebula into bright stellar points is a
 certain indication that the  nebula    
consists of discrete stars4 ,professor  
,proctor says1 ,a simple  glance        
resolved the difficulty4 ,the light from
 the brightest part of  the nebula--the 
very part which under ,lord ,rosse's    
great reflector  blazed with innumerable
 points of light--gave a spectrum       
identical in  all respects with that    
which ,huggins had obtained from the    
planetary  nebul4 ,thus1 what had been  
deemed boldness in ,herschel--namely1   
that he should have associated the      

wildest and most fantastic nebula  in   
the heavens with the circular and 7in   
ordinary telescopes7 almost  uniformly  
luminous planetary nebul--was           
unexpectedly confirmed4 ,the  spectrum  
of this nebula has more recently been   
photographed by a long  exposure in the 
camera of the prepared plate4 ,of the   
result1 ,professor  ,proctor thus       
speaks1 ,the nebula is seen to be in    
great part gaseous1  and1 where gaseous1
 to shine in the main with the tints    
described  above2 but parts of the      
nebula are not gaseous1 and those       
portions  which are so are not all      
constituted in the same manner4444 ,that
  portion which is called the fish's    
mouth gives a continuous spectrum2  in  
other words1 the same spectrum which we 
obtain from a star or a  star-cluster4  
,this is the spectrum arising from a    
glowing solid or  liquid mass1 or if    
from a gaseous body1 then the gaseous   
body must be  in a state of great       
compression4444 ,but the stars thus     

forming must  be immersed in the glowing
 gas forming the general substance of   
the  nebula4444 ,it would be absurd to  
suppose that the nebula is a flat       
surface2 444 nebulous matter lies also1 
in all probability 7certainly  one might
 fairly say71 between us and the stellar
 aggregration as  well as on the farther
 side4 ,further1 the same author says1  
,if1  as is probable1 the luminosity of 
the gaseous portion of the ,orion       
nebula is accompanied by but a          
relatively small proportion of heat1    
then the rays from the violet and       
ultra-violet part of the spectrum  are  
likely to give us much more complete    
information respecting the  constitution
 of these nebulous masses than can be   
derived from the  visible part of the   
spectrum4    ,in the recent work of     
,professor ,ball1 ,in the ,high         
,heavens1 that  author says1 ,there are1
 however1 good grounds for believing    
that  nebul really do undergo some      
changes1 at least as regards brightness2

  but whether these changes are such as 
,herschel's theory would seem  to       
require is quite another question4      
,perhaps the best-authenticated         
instance is that of the variable nebula 
in the constellation of  ,taurus1       
discovered by ,mr4 ,hind in #aheb4 ,at  
the time of its discovery  this object  
was a small nebula about one minute in  
diameter1 with a  central condensation  
of light4 ,d',arrest1 the distinguished 
astronomer  of ,copenhagen1 found in    
#ahfa that this nebula had vanished4 ,on
 the #bith  of ,december1 #ahfa1 the    
nebula was again seen in the powerful   
refractor  at ,pulkova1 but on ,december
 #ab1 #ahfc1 ,mr4 ,hind failed to detect
 it  with the telescope by which it had 
been originally discovered4444 ,in      
#ahfh1 ,o4 ,struve1 observing at        
,pulkova1 detected another nebulous spot
  in the vicinity of the place of the   
missing object1 but this also  has now  
vanished4 ,struve1 however1 does not    
consider that the nebula  of #ahfh is   

distinct from ,hind's nebula1 but he    
says1 ',what ,i see is  certainly the   
variable nebula itself1 only in altered 
brightness and  spread over a larger    
space4 ,some traces of nebulosity are   
still to be  seen exactly on the spot   
where ,hind and ,d',arrest placed the   
variable  nebula4 ,it is a remarkable   
circumstance that this nebula is in the 
vicinity of a variable star which       
changes somewhat irregularly from  the  
ninth to the twelfth magnitude4 ,at the 
time of the discovery in  #ahfa both the
 star and the nebula were brighter than 
they have since  become4'444 ,it must be
 admitted that the changes are such as  
would  not be expected if ,herschel's   
theory were universally true4 ,another  
remarkable occurrence in modern         
astronomy may be cited as having  some  
bearing on the question as to the actual
 evidence for or against  ,herschel's   
theory4 ,on ,november #bd1 #ahgf1 ,dr4  
,schmidt noticed a new star  of the     
third magnitude in the constellation    

,cygnus4444 ,the brilliancy  gradually  
declined until1 on the #acth of         
,december1 ,mr4 ,hind found it to  be of
 the sixth magnitude4 ,the spectrum 444 
exhibited several bright  lines which   
indicated that the star differed from   
other stars by the  possession of vast  
masses of glowing gaseous material4444  
,september #b1  #ahgg1 it was then below
 the tenth magnitude and of a decidedly 
bluish  tint4 ,viewed through the       
spectroscope1 its light was almost      
completely  monochromatic1 and appeared 
to be indistinguishable from that which 
is often found to come from nebul4444   
,it would seem certain that  we have an 
instance before us in which a star has  
changed into a  planetary nebula of     
small angular diameter4444 ,professor   
,pickering1  however1 has since found   
slight traces of a continuous spectrum1 
but  the object has now become so       
extremely faint that such observations  
are very difficult4444 ,for the nebular 
theory we require evidence  of the      

conversion of nebul into stars4 ,and    
not1 it may be added1  of stars into    
nebul4    ,of the irregular nebul1      
,professor ,proctor says1 ,it may well  
chance1 as long since suggested by      
,professor ,clark1 of ,cincinnati1  and 
as more cautiously hinted by ,dr4       
,huggins1 that in the varieties  of     
constitution observed in the irregular  
nebul1 and the evidence  such varieties 
afford of progressive changes1 we may   
find not merely  direct evidence of the 
development of suns and sun-systems from
 the  great masses of nebulous matter1  
but even what would be a far more       
important and impressive result1--actual
 evidence of the development  of        
so-called elements from substances      
really elementary1 or1 at any  rate1 one
 stage nearer the elementary condition  
than are our hydrogen1  nitrogen1       
oxygen1 carbon1 and so forth4 ,the      
peculiarity of the spectral  indications
 of the presence of nitrogen and        
hydrogen in the nebula1  that only one  

line of nitrogen and two or three lines 
of hydrogen are  discernible1 instead of
 a complete spectrum of either element  
as seen  under any known conditions1    
seems suggestive of what may be called  
a more elemental condition of hydrogen  
and nitrogen4 ,whether this  be so1 or  
whether these peculiarities are due to  
self-obscuration1 or  mutual reversal of
 the familiar lines due to the enormous 
disturbances  of the nebular mass which 
must exist1 it is certain that there is 
one  terrestrial substance1 at least1   
which acts invariably1 in combination   
and chemical affinity1 as a simple      
element in inorganic chemistry1  but    
which is1 in fact1 compound1--to wit1   
the hypothetical radical  ammonium1     
which is closely allied with the simple 
alkaline metals  potassium and sodium1  
forming with them a single group2 and   
yet1  while the others have always      
remained as fixed1 primitive elements1  
the hypothetical element ammonium alone 
is a composite substance  consisting of 

hydrogen and nitrogen1 two of the       
invariable gaseous  constituents of all 
these nebul4 ,in comets we find1 vaguely
 expressed1  an occasional strongly     
marked sodium line1 and also the        
spectrum of  carbon2 in these gaseous   
nebul we find1 as yet1 no trace of      
carbon1  and this element is so closely 
allied to hydrogen in its chemical      
affinities and reactions as to suggest  
that it may be the same element  or some
 alloy of it1 or in some allotropic     
form1 as we find to be the  case with   
other simple elements under special     
conditions4 ,in organic  chemistry--the 
chemistry of organic life--we find      
almost innumerable  compound radicals   
which act as simple elements in         
combination1 but  which we can combine  
and separate into their constituents at 
will2  to all intents and purposes1 in  
their various reactions1 they behave  as
 elemental substances1 and were it not  
that our analyses are able to  resolve  
them1 as the spectroscope resolves the  

nebul1 we might well  believe that here 
also we were dealing with simple primary
 elements4 ,it  is almost certain that  
great discoveries in this field of      
chemistry  are not far distant1 which   
will recall with wondering surprise the 
now  universally exploded fallacies of  
the ,philosopher's ,stone and the       
,universal ,solvent4 ,indeed1 we may    
find in the electrical energies  of the 
planets and the self-repulsive force of 
the electrospheres  of the earth and    
moon possible grounds for investigating 
anew some  of the abandoned tenets of   
astrology1 in the hope that the light of
  science may disclose some basis1 at   
least1 for what1 at one time1--and  for 
nearly all time1 in fact1--was the      
universally accepted belief1  not only  
of the ignorant1 but of those the wisest
 and most learned of  their day and     
generation4 ,if the planets by their    
position can cloud  the sun1 nearly a   
million miles in diameter1 with spots1  
or shed the  brilliance of the aurora   

borealis over all our skies1 may they   
not  also cloud the embryonic intellect1
 or charge it with energies for  a      
career of prosperity or of disaster8    
,may not the unseen currents1  or the   
electric storms around us1 or the vast  
electrical phenomena  of the sun as well
 affect the sprouting germs of the      
husbandman or  some abnormally rapid    
development of an insect pest as the    
light1  the warmth1 the moisture1 or the
 cold1 which1 to our coarser vision1    
are alone apparent8 ,fancy and fallacy  
revel luxuriantly where science  fails1 
but truth existed long before science   
was systematized1 and the  supercilious 
condemnation of once generally accepted 
views without  examination is merely    
pseudo-science1 and scarcely a single   
grade  higher in the scale than ignorant
 superstition itself4 ,and every  new   
advance in knowledge requires a new     
overhauling of abandoned  material1 just
 as a new advance in metallurgical      
knowledge enables  us sometimes to work 

over again our once-rejected mining     
dumps  with decided profit4 ,indeed1    
science itself is but a collection of   
observed facts reduced to system1 and   
among the shrewd and practical  miners  
there is a well-known saying1 ,the ore  
is where you find it1  which has        
frequently put scientific assertion to  
the blush4    ,a study of the beautiful 
mezzotint plates1 from the drawings of  
the ,earl of ,rosse1 contained in       
,professor ,nichol's splendid work1     
,the ,architecture of the ,heavens1 will
 clearly disclose the forms1 as         
revealed by a powerful telescope1 of    
many of these gaseous nebul4 ,of  such  
nebul1 ,appleton's ,cyclopdia says1     
nebul proper1 or those  which have not  
been definitely resolved1 are found in  
nearly every  quarter of the firmament1 
though abounding especially near those  
regions which have fewest stars4        
,scarcely any are found near the  ,milky
 ,way1 and the great mass of them lie in
 the two opposite spaces  farthest      

removed from this circle4 ,their forms  
are very various1  and often undergo    
strange and unexpected changes as the   
power of the  telescope with which they 
are viewed is increased1 so as not to be
  recognizable in some cases as the same
 objects4 ,an example of this  is shown 
in ,plate ,x4 7,figs4 #a and #b7 of     
,professor ,nichol's work1  which gives 
a greatly enlarged view of those shown  
in ,figs4 #a and #b  of ,plate ,,ix4    
7,for ,fig4 #b of ,nichol's ,plate ,x41 
see illustration of  nebula with double 
sun1 in previous chapter47 ,professor   
,nichol says1  ,in every instance       
examined1 save one1 the planetary nebul 
are nebul  with hollow centers4 ,the    
inference which this writer makes1 that 
such  a planetary nebula consists of a  
grand annular cluster of stars1  has    
been since disproved by the discoveries 
of the spectroscope1  but the telescopic
 form remains true1 and still awaits    
further  interpretation4 ,while the     
irresolvable nebul seem to seek some    

retired spot in space for their         
processes1 like certain animals  when   
incubating1 this rule is not universal4 
,of this1 ,appleton's  ,cyclopdia says1 
,the density of nebular distribution    
increased with  the distance from the   
galactic zone for the irresolvable      
nebul1  but diminished with that        
distance for the clusters4444 ,there is 
not a  gradual condensation of nebul    
towards two opposite regions1 near the  
poles of the galactic zone1 but the     
nebul are gathered into streams1        
nodules1 and irregular aggregations such
 as we find in the grouping  of         
stars4444 ,between stars and nebul their
 arrangement follows the  law of        
contrast4 ,there are two remarkable     
exceptions to this law1--the            
,magellanic ,clouds4 ,in these1 where   
stars of all orders1 from the ninth     
magnitude to irresolvable stellar       
aggregations1 are as richly gathered  as
 in the galactic zone1 nebul of all     
orders are also gathered richly1  even  

more so than anywhere else over the     
whole heavens4 ,in the same  work1      
article ,nebula1 it is stated of the    
planetary nebul1 ,there  are several    
which have perfectly the appearance of a
 ring1 and are  called annular nebul4444
 ,some appear to be physically connected
 in  pairs like double stars4 ,most of  
the small nebul have the general        
appearance of a bright central nucleus  
enveloped in a nebulous  veil4 ,this    
nucleus is sometimes concentrated as a  
star and sometimes  diffused4 ,the      
enveloping veil is sometimes circular   
and sometimes  elliptical1 with every   
degree of eccentricity between a circle 
and a  straight line4 ,there are some   
which1 with a general disposition to    
symmetry of form1 have great branching  
arms or filaments with more  or less    
precision of outline4 ,an example of    
this is ,lord ,rosse's ,crab  nebula4   
,another remarkable object is the nebula
 in ,andromeda1 which is  visible with  
the naked eye1 and is the only one which

 was discovered  before the invention of
 the telescope4 ,simon ,marius 7#afab7  
describes  its appearance as that of a  
candle shining through horn4 ,besides   
the  above1 which have comparatively    
regular forms1 there are others more    
diffused and devoid of symmetry of      
shape4 ,a remarkable example is the     
great nebula in ,orion1 discovered by   
,huygens in #afef4444 ,the great  nebula
 in ,argo is another example of this    
class4    ,the number of nebul          
recognized in all the heavens is upward 
of five  thousand1 and new ones are     
being constantly discovered4 ,of these  
objects1 ,professor ,nichol says1 ,the  
spiral figure is characteristic  of an  
extensive class of galaxies4 ,majestic  
associations of orbs1  arranged in this 
winding form1 with branches issuing like
 a divergent  geometric curve from a    
globular cluster4 ,these nebul1 however1
 are  not associations of orbs2 they are
 gaseous nebul apparently in process  of
 evolution4 ,this author 7,professor    

,nichol7 presents views of such  spiral 
nebul either foreshortened to the view1 
so as to form a long  ellipse1 or with  
the convolutions of the spiral          
apparently raised from  the horizontal  
plane into a conical form1 and showing  
the black streaks  of space which lie   
between the convolutions1 others seen in
 side view1  others in front1 and1 in   
fact1 presented to the eye in every     
position  for observation4 ,the author  
wrote before the days of the            
spectroscope1  and that he should       
conceive these vast objects to be       
spirals made  up of blazing suns like   
our ,milky ,way--vast galaxies1 in      
fact--was  an inevitable conclusion at  
that time2 but we now know that these   
spiral nebul are gaseous1 are apparently
 in process of manufacture1  and we can 
see them in their different stages of   
evolution1 and  may perhaps learn       
something about the processes by which  
solar  systems and galaxies of suns are 
formed4 ,of one of these strange but    

exceedingly instructive objects1        
,professor ,ball1 in his work ,in the   
,high ,heavens1 says1 ,fig4 #c          
represents one of the famous spiral     
nebul  7that of ,canes ,venatici7       
discovered many years ago by the late   
,earl of  ,rosse4 ,the object is        
invisible to the naked eye4 ,it seems   
like a haze  surrounding the stars1     
which the telescope discloses in        
considerable  numbers1 as shown in the  
picture4 ,when viewed through an        
instrument  of sufficient power1 a      
marvellous spectacle is revealed4 ,there
 are  wisps and patches of glowing      
cloud-like material which shine not  as 
our clouds do1 by reflecting to us the  
sunlight4 ,this celestial  cloud is no  
doubt self-luminous2 it is1 in fact1    
composed of vapors so  intensely heated 
that they glow with fervor4 ,as ,i      
write1 ,i have ,lord  ,rosse's elaborate
 drawing of this nebula before me1 and  
on the margin  of this stupendous object
 the nebula fades away so tenderly that 

it  is almost impossible to say where   
the luminosity terminates4 ,probably    
this nebula will in some remote age     
condense down into more solid           
substances4 ,it contains1 no doubt1     
enough material to make many  globes as 
big as our earth4 ,before1 however1 it  
settles down into dark  bodies like the 
earth1 it will have to pass through     
stages in which  its condensing         
materials will form bright sun-like     
bodies4 ,it seems  as if this process of
 condensation might almost be witnessed 
at the  present time in some parts of   
the great object4 ,there are also some  
very striking nebul which are often     
spoken of as planetary4 ,they  are      
literally balls of bluish-colored gas or
 vapor1 apparently more  dense than that
 which forms the nebula now under       
consideration4 ,such  globes are        
doubtless undergoing condensation1 and  
may be regarded as  incipient worlds4   
,of these spiral nebul it is said1 in   
,appleton's  ,cyclopdia1 ,many of them  

had been long known as nebul1 but their 
characteristic spiral form had never    
been suspected4 ,they have the          
appearance of a maelstrom of stellar    
matter1 and are among the most          
interesting objects in the heavens4 ,of 
their spectra it is said1  ,the         
bright-line spectrum is given by all the
 irregular nebul hitherto  examined and 
by the planetary nebul4 ,that is to say1
 these nebul  are gaseous in            
constitution1 and have not yet reached  
the stage of  solar condensation which  
marks the existence of individual suns4 
,,chapter ,,xii4    ,,the ,,nebular     
,,hypothesis3 ,,its ,,basis ,,and ,,its 
,,difficulties4                         
,there sinks the nebulous star we call  
the ,sun1                      ,if that 
hypothesis of theirs be                 
sound4--,tennyson4      ,while the      
nebular theory of ,laplace is now the   
generally accepted  scientific          
hypothesis of the formation of our solar
 system and of  all solar systems1 it   

finds its strongest support in the mode 
in  which it seeks to account for the   
heat and light of the sun1--that  is1   
that the central orb1 gradually         
condensing down from an original  volume
 as large as the orbit of ,neptune1 at  
least1 after disengaging  the planetary 
rings1 continued to condense to its     
present volume1  and still so continues1
 the molecular motions arrested by      
condensation  under gravity reappearing 
in the form of the energy of light and  
heat1  and that this process of         
degradation will continue until1        
finally1  the sun becomes a solid inert 
mass1 incapable by further condensation 
of exciting the ethereal undulations in 
space which constitute heat and  light1 
when the whole process will finally     
cease1 the sun will die out1  the       
planets continue to rotate in darkness1 
and the whole machinery be  left running
 through an eternal night1 like a vast  
mill in the hands  of a negligent       
watchman 7or rather no watchman at all71

 left to run  itself alone1 dark1 empty1
 lifeless1 and deserted1 through the    
long and  silent watches of the night4  
,while the source and mode of solar     
energy  set forth in this work are to be
 as readily accounted for if we accept  
as valid ,laplace's nebular hypothesis  
as by any other theory1 yet  such basis 
is not essential for its support2 for   
while the planetary  rotations and the  
central sun are the necessary           
consequence1 according  to ,laplace's   
hypothesis1 of their mode of            
formation1--are1 in fact1  just what we 
actually find them to be under any      
hypothesis1--electrical  generation and 
transformation will proceed just the    
same whether the  planets and sun were  
formed originally in one mode or in     
another4 ,but1  since this generally    
accepted hypothesis accounts for the    
light and  heat of the sun1 to a certain
 extent at least1 and for a certain     
relatively brief period1 while no other 
hypothesis has been able to             

sufficiently account for it at all1 and 
while this hypothesis also  finds both  
support and contradiction in many       
observed phenomena of  our solar system1
 it may well occur that this hypothesis 
itself1  based upon the necessity of    
accounting for the sun's light and heat1
  and which latter afford it its        
strongest basis of support1 may1  if the
 basis upon which the theory rests be   
found to be otherwise  explicable1 still
 remain as an end1 while originally     
presented only  as a means1 and thus be 
held as an obstacle to the acceptance of
 the  widely different interpretation of
 known facts herein presented1 in  the  
absence of any other hypothesis capable 
of explaining the same  facts in        
accordance with this presentation of    
planetary electrical  generation and the
 solar transformation of this energy    
into light  and heat4 ,herbert ,spencer 
mentions an instance of such perversion 
of  means into an end as occurring      
during the agitation for the repeal  of 

the corn laws in ,england1 which        
extended over many years1 during  which 
organized efforts were made to influence
 ,parliament4 ,a permanent  commission  
was established1 with official          
head-quarters permanently  located in   
,london1 with clerks1 secretaries1      
higher officers1 and  all the           
paraphernalia of a first-class          
establishment4 ,the purpose of  this    
institution was to act in behalf of the 
popular interests upon  ,parliament by  
every available means to secure this    
great reform4 ,after  years of effort1  
he says1 a clerk one day rushed1        
breathless1 into the  office from the   
,house of ,commons and shouted1 in      
accents of despair1  ,we are ruined2 the
 bill has passed6    ,the nebular       
hypothesis1 while generally accepted in 
lieu of a better  one1 has no actual    
primary basis beyond that of mere       
assumption4 ,of  it ,professor ,ball    
says1 ,the nebular theory 444 seems1    
from the  nature of the case1 to be     

almost incapable of receiving any direct
  testimony4 ,we have already quoted    
from ,professor ,newcomb that it  must  
be accepted1 with all its difficulties1 
until a different and  sufficient       
explanation of solar energy shall be    
presented4 ,as set  forth in ,appleton's
 ,cyclopdia1 the theory is as follows3  
,assuming1  for the sake of the         
argument1 a rare1 homogeneous1 nebulous 
matter1  widely diffused through space1 
the following successive changes will1  
on physical principles1 take place in   
it3 #a1 mutual gravitation of  its      
atoms2 #b1 atomic repulsion2 #c1        
evolution of heat by overcoming  this   
repulsion2 #d1 molecular combination at 
a certain stage of  condensation2       
followed by1 #e1 sudden and great       
disengagement of heat2  #f1 lowering of 
temperature by radiation and consequent 
precipitation  of binary atoms1         
aggregating into irregular flocculi and 
floating in  the rarer medium1 just as  
water when precipitated from air        

collects  into clouds2 #g1 each         
flocculus will move towards the common  
center of  gravity of all2 but1 being an
 irregular mass in a resisting medium1  
this motion will be out of the          
rectilinear1--that is to say1 not       
directly towards the common center of   
gravity1 but towards one or  the other  
side of it1--and thus1 #h1 a spiral     
movement will ensue1  which will be     
communicated to the rarer medium through
 which the  flocculus is moving2 and1   
#i1 a preponderating momentum and       
rotation of  the whole mass in some one 
direction1 converging in spirals towards
  the common center of gravity4 ,certain
 subordinate actions are to  be noticed 
also4 ,mutual attraction will tend to   
produce groups of  flocculi             
concentrating around local centers of   
gravity and acquiring  a subordinate    
vortical movement4 ,these conclusions   
are shown to be in  entire harmony with 
the observed phenomena4 ,in this genetic
 process1  when the precipitated matter 

is aggregating into flocculi1 there will
  be found here and there detached      
portions1 like shreds of cloud in a     
summer sky1 which will not coalesce with
 the larger internal masses1  but will  
slowly follow without overtaking them4  
,these fragments will  assume           
characteristics of motion strikingly    
correspondent to those of  the comets1  
whose physical constitution and         
distribution are seen to  be completely 
accordant with the hypothesis4 ,during  
this process1  it is further stated1    
successive rings of nebulous matter will
 be  thrown off and left behind1 which  
are supposed to have coalesced  into    
planets and their satellites1 and the   
motion of rotation will  become more and
 more rapid as condensation proceeds1   
until1 finally1  the last planet1       
,mercury1 will be left behind in annular
 form1  and the sun will then become the
 central orb of all the planets1  and   
condensation afterwards will proceed    
without further delivery of  planetary  

rings4 ,professor ,ball says1 ,if we go 
sufficiently far back1  we seem to come 
to a time when the sun1 in a more or    
less completely  gaseous state1 filled  
up the surrounding space out to the     
orbit of  ,mercury1 or1 earlier still1  
out to the orbit of the remotest planet4
    ,there is nothing in the actively   
developing nebula illustrated on  the   
following page which shows the slightest
 analogy1 either in  structure or the   
forces at work1 to what is demanded by  
the nebular  hypothesis4 ,on the        
contrary1 these radiating1 spiral       
convolutions1  springing from a center  
and extended1 with interstratified dark 
spaces1  out to the periphery1 are      
entirely incompatible with that theory4 
,there  have not1 so far1 been observed 
in all the heavens any gaseous  nebul   
which lend the slightest support to the 
nebular hypothesis4 ,we  should expect  
to find1 if it were true1 that many of  
the nucleated  planetary nebul show     
exterior concentric rings of luminous   

matter1  clearly defined1 two1 three1 or
 a dozen in number1 left behind by the  
contracting volume of the nebula1 and   
coalescing into planets1 and1  within1  
the glowing disk from which new external
 rings are about to be  left as a       
residuum4 ,on the contrary1 these nebul 
gradually fade away  towards their      
margins1 and imperceptibly disappear in 
the blackness  of space4 ,if they       
terminated abruptly1 we might suppose   
that here1  at least1 was the orbit of a
 newly forming planet1 but the regular  
and delicate gradation of luminosity    
from maximum to zero shows that  no such
 sudden breaking off has occurred4 ,in  
all these nebul we find  every          
definitely marked structure to exhibit  
the operation of combined  forces of    
gravity and internal repulsion nearly   
equally balanced1  but each acting      
independently of the other4 ,these      
phenomena are as  universal as the      
forces of cohesion and repellent        
polarity in the  attraction particles of

 cell-life which determine the          
segmentation1  growth1 and development  
of the living organism4 ,we find here   
the  primal modification and            
differentiation of material structure   
under  the stress of directly opposite  
and interacting primitive forces1  and  
it is doubtless the same whether in a   
cell or a system4 ,it is  not a         
residuum1 but the vis a tergo4    ,it is
 well known that there are many and     
great difficulties involved  in the     
nebular hypothesis4 ,as for the genesis 
of comets1 it will be  at once seen that
 the theory will only account for such  
comets as  never venture much beyond the
 orbit of ,neptune1 as well as those    
which  have an orbital plane nearly     
coincident with that of the planets4    
,but  most comets come from illimitable 
space1 far1 far beyond ,neptune's       
circle and at all angles to the plane of
 the planetary orbits2 and we  have     
already seen that a disk of space of the
 diameter of ,neptune's  orbit and half 

as thick 7see ,proctor's ,familiar      
,essays7 would1  to contain all the     
matter of our solar system equally      
distributed1  have a density of only one
 four-hundred-thousandth that of        
hydrogen  gas at atmospheric            
pressure1--that is to say1 such a volume
 of the  lightest substance we know of  
would make four hundred thousand solar  
systems like our own4 ,this author      
inquires if such a mass could1  under   
any circumstances1 rotate as a whole1   
and adds1 ,has it ever  occurred1 ,i    
often wonder1 to those who glibly quote 
the nebular theory  as originally       
propounded1 to inquire how far some of  
the processes  suggested by ,laplace are
 in accordance with the now well-known  
laws of  physics8 ,but the great primal 
difficulty is in the first assumption   
of the theory1 which is not only        
entirely gratuitous1 but physically     
impossible4 ,it is that this great      
plasma of nebulous material--in  the    
case of our own solar system not less   

than six thousand million  miles in     
diameter--should have in someway become 
aggregated into  a homogeneous mass of  
the requisite tenuity1 complete and     
perfect1  and ready for the succeeding  
stages of the process1 in which1        
however1  the law of gravity has        
hitherto had no active operation        
whatever2 for1  if gravitation existed  
and operated therein1 such homogeneous  
mass  could never have been formed1 nor 
ever existed even if formed4 ,the  very 
forces which alone could have brought   
this vast mass together  must have been 
the identical forces which afterwards   
broke it up into  the sun and planets1  
and the operation of the same force must
 have  prevented its original formation 
at all4 ,according to the theory1 it    
was like a horse-race1 in which all the 
participants stood silent and           
motionless until the judge cried1 ,go6  
,but the judge was the great  creative  
force itself1 and if the fiat reached to
 this extent1 the  same power could just

 as readily--nay1 far more readily--have
 shot the  sun and planets forth into   
rotation1 as children scatter           
dough-balls1  instead of holding in     
abeyance the control of universal law so
 as to  7as a humorous writer speaks of 
the operations of a child in his        
investigation of a watch7 see the wheels
 go round4 ,this is not  nature's plan1 
so far as human knowledge goes4 ,of     
course these masses  gathering to this  
great nebulous center1 if acted upon by 
gravitation1  would have at once        
condensed around the center as a        
nucleus1 and  if rotation ever          
commenced1 it must have commenced then1 
millions  of years1 doubtless1 before   
the outlying masses had even got within 
hailing distance4 ,when masses of people
 assemble at a camp-meeting1  the first 
comers take the best places1 and the    
late arrivals have to  circulate around 
in the woods2 they do not all gather in 
a circle  and then make a grand rush4   
,that would be fair1 perhaps1 but it is 

not nature4 ,and this1 unquestionably1  
is how1 if ever formed at all1  these   
nebul must have formed into systems4    
,the fact that the orbital planes of    
very many of these asteroids are        
greatly inclined to the common planetary
 plane1 and still more greatly  inclined
 to one another1 points almost          
unerringly to the existence  during     
their stage of formation of some        
powerful force either of  internal      
repulsion or external attraction4 ,that 
no sufficiently large  body could have  
been present to exercise such attraction
 so far outside  the general planetary  
plane is self-evident1 and if there had 
been  such source of attraction1 while  
the orbital planes of the asteroids     
might have been deflected from the      
common plane1 they could not have  been 
forced apart so as to differ largely    
among themselves4 ,certainly  nothing   
pertaining to the nebular hypothesis    
could have produced any  such effects   
under any conceivable circumstances1 and

 especially at  so late a period of its 
progress1 after all the principal       
planets had  been completed4 ,the only  
alternative is self-repulsion1 and this 
could  only have been due to the causes 
and their mode of operation already     
described in this work4 ,in a modified  
degree these planes exhibit the  same   
irregular orbital deflections as are so 
conspicuously visible in  the orbits of 
comets1 and they must have been         
unquestionably produced  in the same    
manner4 ,the barren bands or stripes in 
the area occupied by  these asteroids1  
like the dark or vacant rings of the    
planet ,saturn1  may have been largely  
affected by the perturbing attraction of
 the  neighboring planet ,jupiter2 but  
certainly no influence of that great    
planet 7himself in the common planetary 
plane7 could have operated  to cast     
these forming planetoids into planes of 
diverse inclinations  among themselves  
or to that of his own4 ,on the contrary1
 his whole  force must have been exerted

 to bring them into the closest harmony 
with his own orbital movements4         
,omitting discussion of the technical   
difficulties in the application  of the 
nebular theory to demonstrated facts1   
which may be found in  the books1 we may
 again repeat that this theory is not   
essential to  account for the heat of   
the sun1 which finds its real source    
elsewhere1  while1 nevertheless1 the    
theory in itself is not incompatible    
with  the views which we have endeavored
 to present and demonstrate4 ,certain   
phenomena1 however1 have been considered
 in prior quotations in this  work which
 may aid us to roughly indicate the     
successive processes by  which the      
evolution of solar systems and galaxies 
may be explained on  another basis which
 requires no violent assumptions to be  
made and no  suspension of any of       
nature's universal laws4 ,the same      
operations which  we see around us at   
the present time in our own system1 if  
extended to  the dimensions of a nebular

 aggregation1 would probably present the
  same phenomena as those we find       
partially disclosed in the gaseous      
nebul1 particularly the spiral1 and     
these would naturally determine  the    
final production of solar systems such  
as our own4 ,the gaseous  nebul1 not    
spiral1 and the mixed nebul also1 would 
fall into their  appropriate categories 
in the same general plan1 and a         
consistent  mode of formation would be  
presented from the beginning to the end 
of the different processes4    ,it      
should be observed that the spiral      
required by ,laplace's nebular  theory  
is essentially a centripetal spiral4    
,the spiral nebul we see in  the        
heavens1 however1 are centrifugal       
spirals4 ,this is clearly shown  in     
,plates ,,xv41 ,,xii41 and the          
frontispiece of ,nichol's ,architecture 
of the ,heavens1 as well as in ,plates  
,,xiii4 and ,,xiv4 ,plate ,,xv4--the    
open spiral--is directly contradictory  
of any phenomena which  could occur in  

accordance with the nebular theory of   
,laplace4 ,the  frontispiece shows the  
only form which such a nebula could     
assume  at any stage of its             
career1--that is1 a close spiral with   
nearly  circular convolutions4 ,but     
while this particular form is not only  
in  entire accordance with the          
hypothesis which we are about to        
suggest1  being in fact one of the later
 and necessary stages in its progress1  
any such spiral as that shown in ,plate 
,,xv4 is utterly out of the  question in
 the application of the nebular theory  
of ,laplace or in  any of the more      
recent modifications thereof4    ,the   
only hypothesis by which the various    
phenomena can be adequately  explained  
must almost certainly be based upon the 
combined action of  gravitation and     
electrospheric repulsion4 ,we find in   
the corona of  our own sun such         
phenomena manifested in the most        
striking degree1  even in a completed   
system1 and we can well understand that 

during  the early stages of systemic    
development such phenomena would vastly 
transcend anything which we could now   
hope to observe around our  own sun4 ,we
 see this repulsion still more highly   
developed in the  formation of the tails
 of comets4 ,while these coronal rays   
are not  visible to a distance of more1 
perhaps1 than five million miles  from  
the sun's disk1 we have seen that the   
tail of ,newton's comet  was shot forth 
to a distance of ninety million miles in
 a few days1  as it were in a moment1 by
 the tremendous electrical repulsion of 
the  solar electrosphere1 and that this 
enormous tail1 which1 if composed  of   
hydrogen gas alone 7it was1 of course1  
enormously more attenuated71  would have
 contained a mass much more than equal  
to the weight of the  sun1 was swung    
around over an arc of one hundred and   
eighty degrees1  giving a radial sweep  
of the tail over a distance of two      
hundred  and eighty millions of miles in
 less than four days4 ,and the tails  of

 many other comets have largely         
transcended in dimensions that of       
,newton1 above cited4 ,we have learned  
much of the laws which regulate  the    
development of storms1 cyclones1        
whirlwinds1 water-spouts1  and other    
vortical phenomena in the atmosphere of 
our own earth1  and can readily apply   
these principles to phenomena of vastly 
greater  magnitude4 ,we know that the   
matter of comets' tails is              
self-repulsive1  as shown in multiple   
tails1 as well as that it is repelled by
 an  adjacent similarly electrified     
electrosphere1--that of the sun1 for    
example1--as with pith-balls in the     
familiar class-room experiments2  so    
that we can gather a very fair and      
complete idea of the processes  of      
nature when dealing with such phenomena 
on a vastly more extended  scale1 in    
which our moments are measured by       
millions of years and our  miles by the 
almost infinite distances of sidereal   
and nebular space4                      

,,chapter ,,xiii4    ,,the ,,genesis    
,,of ,,solar ,,systems ,,and ,,galaxies4
      ,the processes of development of a
 solar system from the diffused         
elemental matter of space may then be   
roughly sketched as follows1  premising 
that each stage may have possibly       
extended over vast periods  of time1 and
 the whole1 perhaps1 not been completed 
for millions of  years4 ,with the       
processes of creation time is as        
nothing4    ,the area of space in which 
a solar system is about to be developed 
has  hitherto maintained its molecular  
constituents in a state of gradually    
increased unstable equilibrium1 whether 
such augmented instability  may have    
been induced by a gradual rise of       
temperature from emission  of the solar 
energy of other galaxies1 by gradual    
diffusion from  constantly operative    
centers1 from currents or vortices of   
space1  or by some primal inherent      
constitution of space itself1 with      
constantly increasing tensions relieved 

by successive discharges1  of which     
analogous instances are found in various
 other processes  of nature1 as1 for    
example1 ovulation1 fission1 and        
gemmation in the  reproduction of life1 
regularly recurring epileptiform        
convulsions1  regularly repeated spark  
discharges from electrical machines1 or 
the  ebullition of viscous fluids with  
their slowly recurring bursting         
bubbles4 ,at some focal point of this   
area a rupture of tension will  finally 
occur1 induced by some sudden current or
 vortical movement1  as we see sometimes
 in a pool of water gradually reduced in
 temperature  below the freezing-point1 
when its whole surface1 by the passage  
of a  breath of wind even1 will be      
suddenly flashed into crystals of ice4  
,at  this point of space there will be  
instituted a rapid expansion among  the 
molecules and a consequent fall of      
temperature1 followed by an  inrush of  
the vaporous material surrounding this  
center of agitation1  and a vortical    

movement will be established1 with      
currents of spatial  matter attracted to
 this vortex in constantly increasing   
streams4 ,the  molecular tensions will  
be successively unlocked as the circles 
of  agitation continue to widen1 and a  
condensed nucleus will form1  rotating  
upon its axis and exhibiting the        
combined phenomena of  gravity and      
centrifugal force4 ,as the nucleus      
continues to increase  in mass and      
density its temperature will constantly 
rise1 while its  speed of rotation will 
gradually diminish as its volume        
increases1  and the aqueous vapors of   
space1 as they gather around this       
rotating  center of attraction1 will be 
forced outward by centrifugal action    
and the heat of the nucleus1 and form   
vast attenuated clouds1--not            
necessarily visible1 however1 to human  
sight1--and these clouds1 in  their     
various stratifications and             
disturbances1 will gradually come  to   
partake of the rotatory movement of the 

center1 such movements1  however1       
gradually fading away as they recede in 
space and in  density4 ,the cyclonic    
movements of these clouds of aqueous    
vapor  upon themselves1 but principally 
against the surrounding gases of  space 
still under tension1 will generate      
enormous quantities of  electricity1    
which flash like thunder-clouds as they 
approach each  other1 with incessant    
streams of lightning and rolls of       
thunder4 ,the  growing and heating      
central nucleus is thus thrown into a   
state of  high electrical opposite      
polarity1 and its own constituent       
elements  become self-repellent1 just as
 we see in the sun's corona and in the  
phenomena of comets4 ,the electrical    
tension of the central mass will        
gradually grow higher and higher1 until 
a vast stream or streams  of            
incandescent nebulous matter 7for with  
double suns they may be  multiple1 or   
the internal repulsion may even cause   
division of the  nucleus itself7 will be

 suddenly driven outward in a radial    
direction  along the lines of least     
resistance1--that is to say1 in the     
plane of  equatorial rotation1 where    
centrifugal force is most effective4 ,we
  can readily understand the            
self-repellent force of such an enormous
  mass of cosmical matter by considering
 that1 in our own completed  system1 the
 repulsion of the solar electrosphere   
drove forth the tail  of ,newton's      
comet1 as before stated1 to a distance  
of ninety million  miles1 and whirled it
 around a semicircle of this radius in  
less than  four days4 ,our most distant 
planet1 ,neptune1 is only thirty times  
this distance from the sun1 and we see  
during every solar eclipse  the coronal 
structure glowing to a distance of more 
than a million  miles from the sun's    
disk1 and the radial streamers driven   
forth  five million miles1 and even     
farther4 7,see illustrations of solar   
corona in ,guillemin's ,the ,heavens47  
,the vast stream of radiating  nebulous 

matter thus forced out by solar         
repulsion will likewise  be acted upon  
with equal energy by its own internal   
self-repellent  force4 ,if we conceive a
 stream of water thrown vertically      
upward by  a powerful force-pump1 in    
which every drop of the fluid is endowed
  with tremendous self-repulsive energy1
 we should find an analogy  to the      
phenomenon in question4 ,we can see an  
example of this in the  ,crab ,nebula1  
illustrated in a previous chapter4 ,the 
stream1 acted  upon by gravity downward1
 by the force of ejection upward1 and by
 the  internal force of repulsion both  
transversely and upward1 would assume  a
 pyriform shape1 narrower beneath1      
largely swollen about its middle1  and  
thence gradually decreasing in diameter 
to its termination in  a rounded tuft1  
in advance of which would be driven     
forth detached  sprays and wisps1 while 
filaments and outlying parallel strands 
would  mark its entire ascent1 except   
towards its point of ejection1 where    

the primal force which drove it out is  
greatly in excess of those  of gravity  
and self-repulsion4 ,it will be seen at 
a glance that  these phenomena are      
precisely those which we observe in a   
comet's  tail4 7,see illustrations of   
many comets having these characteristics
  in ,guillemin's ,the ,heavens1        
,lockyer's edition47    ,suppose1 now1  
that this stream of water or the tail of
 a large comet  were gradually wrapped  
around its point of emission by the     
rotation of  this nucleus upon its axis4
 ,a spiral would form1 very open or     
flaring  at first1 but gradually growing
 closer and more circular as the force  
of gravity drew its convolutions        
downward upon the interstratified       
clouds of aqueous vapor occupying1 in   
compressed layers1 the spaces  between  
the adjacent coils of the spiral4 ,there
 would be a composite  action of forces 
observed3 gravity would attract the     
convolutions  and their interstratified 
layers of cloud equally1 according to   

their densities1 while the central      
repulsive force would repel the         
convolutions of the spiral along the    
same lines of force1 but would  not act 
at all upon the strata of clouds1 and   
the force of internal  self-repulsion   
would also tend to disrupt the          
convolutions of the  spiral by expanding
 them outwardly4 ,the outer convolution1
 however1  would have no backward thrust
 from any internal repulsion beyond1    
while1 within1 gravity and solar        
repulsion would be more equally         
balanced1 so that the outer coil would  
be relatively compressed in  its        
rotation against the next inner         
convolution1 and its ratio of  distance 
would not be maintained4 ,we find this  
exemplified in the  case of ,neptune's1 
orbit in our own system4 ,the inner     
convolution  would also be abnormal1    
since the primal force of ejection must 
have  been sufficient to carry the      
outward thrust of the whole spiral1  and
 in consequence its flare would offer   

much greater resistance  to the         
deflection of rotation1 and it would    
have a more radial  direction than those
 beyond4 ,we shall find that the planet 
,mercury1  and the inner convolution    
which was eventually reabsorbed into the
  solar mass1 exhibit these phenomena4  
,between the outer and these inner      
convolutions the curve of the spiral    
would be approximately regular1  with a 
fixed ratio of increase4 ,in the planets
 of our solar system  this ratio is that
 produced by constantly doubling the    
preceding  number1 the series being #j1 
#c1 #f1 #ab1 #bd1 etc4 ,in other solar  
systems1  however1 the ratio may be     
quite different4 ,in this abnormal flare
 of  the inner convolution is doubtless 
to be found the rational basis of       
,bode's empirical law of planetary      
distances1 in which the arbitrary       
number #d must be added to each term of 
the above progression1 making  the      
series #d1 #g1 #aj1 #af1 #bh1 etc4 ,the 
inner coil between ,mercury and  the sun

 was drawn into the solar mass on the   
disruption of the spiral1  leaving1 from
 the abnormally radial curvature of the 
inner portions  of the spiral and its   
absence from the series1 a vacant place 
which  must be represented by the       
relatively fixed increment to be added  
to  each term of the series4    ,as the 
convolutions of the spiral become more  
and more compressed  towards each other 
and more and more flattened against the 
interstratified cloud-layers1 the force 
of internal repulsion becomes  more and 
more active in its tendency to disrupt  
the spiral1 since its  forces are more  
direct and concentrated along lines     
nearly at right  angles to the force of 
gravity4 ,during the formation of the   
spiral  we can easily conceive          
that--like a stream of water shooting   
over a  cascade1 or the multiple tails  
of some comets1 or even a whole comet1  
as1 for example1 ,biela's1 which was    
split up into two separate bodies  by   
this force--some convolution1 perhaps a 

single one of the series1  will be      
laterally divided into a large number of
 nearly parallel  strands1 mutually held
 apart by their internal self-repulsion1
 and  with cloud-layers interposed      
between these lateral strands4 ,such a  
series of small planets as these would  
finally produce we find in the  belt of 
our asteroids1 the bulk of the          
convolution1 probably1 for the  most    
part1 however1 scattered in space1 since
 their aggregate mass is  so small1 and 
possibly1 in part1 coalesced into the   
mass of ,jupiter1  to which ,mars1 by   
his position1 may also have contributed4
    ,not only may a whole convolution be
 thus split up1 but along the  spiral at
 many points the outer margins may be   
thrust outward1  forming partially      
detached parallel strands1 which may    
thus coalesce  to form the satellites of
 the completed planets2 while at the    
outer  extremity of all1 where the      
backward thrust of self-repulsion is    
wanting1 enormous wisps1 sprays1 and    

tufts of nebulous matter would  be      
driven entirely forth into the          
illimitable realms of outer space1  but 
not necessarily1 or even probably1 into 
the space of other systems1  which are  
so enormously distant2 and there1 in    
those unoccupied realms1  they will     
remain to gyrate in the solitude of     
their own originality1  in the form of  
comets1 until1 at long intervals1 they  
may chance  to revisit the scenes of    
their earliest youth1 to warm their     
frozen  limbs for a brief period at the 
old and well-remembered parental fire1  
or finally1 worn out with toil and      
travel1 come home at last to die4       
,driven forth from the society of their 
fellows by their own unbalanced         
energies1 these anarchists of the sky   
may form loose aggregations1  granulated
 about multitudes of self-constituted   
minor centers2 but1  cut loose from all 
effective solar control during their    
period of  coalescence1 they must       
forever lack the consolidated form and  

complex  organization of their          
prosperous and rotund brethren1 the     
planets and  their satellites1 or even  
the tiny asteroids1 who stayed home and1
  like the little pig1 had bread and    
butter for breakfast4    ,the disruptive
 energy of internal repulsion1 as above 
stated1  increases in force as the      
convolutions of the spiral become more  
and more compressed and the spiral      
becomes more and more circular in  form4
 ,suddenly the coils of the spiral will 
be burst asunder1 and this  will occur  
along that particular radial line of    
gravitation where the  central nucleus  
acts with its most effective force4 ,the
 disruption will  be simultaneous1 as a 
general rule1 in accordance with the    
principles  which control ruptures of   
tension of bodies in a state of unstable
  equilibrium1 and which we see         
exemplified in multiplied centers of    
crystallization1 the simultaneous       
formation of mud-cracks1 the ,giant's   
,causeway1 and other like phenomena4    

,each convolution will now become  a    
detached open ring1 one of its broken   
extremities1 however1 being  millions of
 miles farther from the central nucleus 
than the other4 ,what  occurs when a    
cometic body1 negatively electrified1   
impinges upon the  positive             
electrosphere of a planet1 or when an   
electrical induction  machine like      
,voss's is touched by an oppositely     
electrified body1  will now necessarily 
occur with these disrupted convolutions4
 ,their  connection with the negatively 
electrified nucleus being broken1  a    
reversal of electrical polarity will    
ensue from contact with the  adjacent   
positively electrified clouds of aqueous
 vapor1 and1 instead  of self-repulsion1
 mutual attraction will now prevail     
along the length  of each of the open   
rings4 ,held apart from the central     
nucleus by  the interstratified         
cloud-layers1 and acted upon by the     
double force  of gravity and internal   
attraction1 the component elements of   

these  open rings will rapidly lose     
their luminosity and heat1 and coalesce 
by a retrograde movement down the lines 
of their direction1 thus  approaching   
the sun along the segment of an ellipse1
 the nucleus1 or  sun1 occupying one of 
the foci1 the eccentricity of the       
ellipse being  measured by the          
differential between the nearest point  
of the open  ring and the part of the   
convolution which lies directly opposite
 and  beyond the sun4 ,in other words1  
the form of the spiral will determine   
the eccentricity of the ellipse1 subject
 to perturbations1 however1  of various 
sorts4 ,during this stage of coalescence
 from an open ring  into a sphere1 these
 bodies will take on1 by cooling and    
condensation1  their planetary forms2   
and as the forming spheres1 by the      
retreat  of their masses down the lines 
of approach to the sun1 advance1  their 
forward and nearer extremities will be  
more powerfully acted  upon by gravity  
than those parts in the rear1 and a     

forward plunge  or axial movement of    
rotation will be set up4 ,viscous       
matter1--pitch1  for example1--molten by
 the sun's heat and flowing down a steep
 roof1  exhibits a similar forward      
movement1 the outer layers tending to   
roll  over the inner ones in convoluted 
folds1 the adhesion to the roof of  the 
under surface corresponding to the      
retarding pull of the sun's  attraction4
 ,in like manner are produced rotating  
eddies in streams  of water having      
crooked channels1 eddies of air under   
water-falls1  and other analogous       
atmospheric disturbances4 ,during the   
stage of  coalescence of the planetary  
spheres the adjacent clouds of aqueous  
vapor will condense around them1 and    
their hitherto diffused electrical      
energies will be concentrated by        
rotation in currents of enormous        
quantity and potential directly upon the
 sun1 and a disassociation  of the      
elements which compose these watery     
vapors will ensue1 the  result of which 

will be the deposit of hydrogen gas as  
an atmospheric  envelope around the     
sun's body1 and of oxygen around and    
through the  bodies which constitute the
 planets4 ,these gases will be          
disassociated  in their combining       
proportions1 two volumes of hydrogen at 
the sun  for one volume of oxygen1      
distributed according to their relative 
electrical energies among the planets4  
,this nascent oxygen will  rapidly      
combine with the consolidating elements 
of the planets and1  interpenetrating   
their solidifying bodies1 form the vast 
mass of  oxides which we find to        
constitute the bulk of our terrestrial  
mass1  the residue1 mechanically        
commingled with the condensed           
ever-present  nitrogen1 forming the     
planetary atmospheres4 ,the condensation
 of volume  of the planets will give    
rise to great elevation of temperature1 
while their currents of electricity1    
poured into the sun1 will1 by  their    
passage through its enormously          

compressed hydrogen atmosphere1  produce
 intense heat1 and this1 rapidly        
communicated to the solar  core within1 
will raise its temperature to that of   
the sun as we now  see it1 and          
permanently maintain it in that state of
 incandescence4    ,during the stage of 
coalescence of the planetary bodies1    
outlying  strands of the spiral will    
follow the course of their adjacent     
masses  in a nearly parallel movement1  
and will gradually coalesce into smaller
  bodies more directly under the        
influence of the gravity of their own   
adjacent planets1 by their proximity1   
than of that of the sun4 ,these  bodies 
will thus rotate as satellites around   
their planets1 and the  forward shift of
 their centers of gravity1 by their     
advance along  their lines of           
coalescence1 may result in a permanent  
displacement1  of which we see an       
example in the moon1 which constantly   
presents the  same face to the earth1   
while having an axial rotation of its   

own with  reference to the sun4 7,in    
this case the action of gravity may have
 been  assisted1 however1 by the mutual 
repulsion of the lunar and terrestrial  
electrospheres forcing the atmosphere   
and moisture of the lunar mass to  its  
opposite side and maintaining it there1 
where it would remain as a  buffer      
against rotation47 ,in some cases we    
might find certain outlying  strands of 
a convolution which1 perturbed by       
external influences1  may have been     
delayed in its conversion into spherical
 form1 and this  subordinate strand1    
pyriform itself1 as it must have been1  
in shape1  would thus form a spiral of  
minute discrete bodies1 probably like   
the  nucleus of a comet1 finally        
assuming the shape of a series of rings1
  and rotating like a satellite around  
the neighboring planet1 the inner  and  
outer strands more attenuated and the   
middle ones more condensed1  as we find 
to be the case with the rings of        
,saturn4    ,in the original spiral we  

have seen that1 as a whole1 it was of   
necessity pyriform in shape4 ,the       
planets formed therefrom would thus be  
found to increase in size from within   
outward to a maximum1 after which  they 
would again decrease1 but not to the    
original minimum1 while the  extreme    
outer planet would also be unduly       
enlarged by increment from  partially   
dissipated terminal filaments1 gradually
 attracted thereto  from surrounding    
space4 ,there is such an undue          
enlargement of the  planet ,neptune1 and
 this1 with its relatively compressed   
orbit1 before  alluded to1 renders it   
almost certain that ,neptune is in      
reality the  outermost member of our    
planetary system4 ,we find this         
gradation of  size to be the case in our
 solar system1 except where the series  
has  been broken by the multitudinous   
separation1 from violent internal       
repulsion1 of one of the convolutions   
into parallel strands showing  all sorts
 of perturbations1 this being the       

convolution which occupied  the region  
between the orbits of ,mars and         
,jupiter1 and which1 by the  coalescence
 of these numerous parallel strands into
 small planetary  bodies1 has filled the
 space with a belt of asteroids hundreds
 and  perhaps thousands or even tens of 
thousands in number4 ,it is probable    
that a law regulating the ellipticity of
 planetary orbits can be  deduced from a
 consideration of the principles which  
have governed  their inception1 and with
 these are doubtless closely related    
those  laws of ,laplace which have      
demonstrated that in any system of      
bodies  travelling in one direction     
around a central attracting orb1 the    
eccentricities and inclinations1 if     
small at any one time1 would always     
continue inconsiderable4 7,appleton's   
,cyclopdia1 article ,planet47    ,we    
have thus traced the genesis of a solar 
system from its earliest  stages forward
 through its various changes until1     
complete and in  working order1 it is   

ready to be sent on its eternal course1 
either  alone or as one of a vast       
congeries of similar systems1 like the  
,milky ,way4 7,see frontispiece for     
illustration of a series of types of    
development from a straight-tailed      
comet1 through different curvatures1    
and spiral nebul of less and less       
divergence1 until nearly circular1  and 
finally terminating in a complete solar 
system47 ,these processes  of creation  
may be isolated1 or they may flash a    
hundred million solar  systems into     
being together1 as crystals flash forth 
in the rock2  but1 when once formed1    
they go forth each as eternal as space  
itself4    ,but can we not go back one  
step farther still in the progressive   
stages of creative energy8 ,whence came 
these powerful agencies by  means of    
which all those distant regions became  
peopled with suns and  worlds8 ,the     
great source of all is to be found alone
 in space1--the  so-called empty space4 
,but it is far from empty2 all through  

it  are diffused the attenuated vapors  
which1 condensed1 constitute our  suns  
and planets1 and all that is1 or ever   
shall be1 gaseous vapors1  which are    
held poised1 with their opposite        
tensions of cohesion and  expansion1    
like the ,prince ,rupert drops which    
glass-blowers make  for toys1--a little 
bulb of glass1 chilled as it falls1     
molten1  in a vessel of water4 ,from one
 extremity projects a long1 crooked     
stem1 scarcely thicker at the end than a
 horse-hair1 spun out from  the molten  
glass as it hung from the glass-blower's
 rod4 ,the bulbous  body is as large1   
perhaps1 as a nut2 you can beat it with 
a hammer and  it will not break2 it is  
the hardest in structure of all glass4  
,now1  wrap this bulb up in a thick     
handkerchief1 or you may be injured2    
hold  it firmly1 and break off the very 
tiniest tip of the long stem three1     
four1 or even six inches from the bulb4 
,there is a sudden shock2 open  your    
handkerchief1 and lo6 instead of the    

solid bulb1 there is only a  loose mass 
of white powder4 ,if you put the bulb in
 a heavy glass vessel  full of water and
 break off the tip of the tail1 it will 
shatter the  vessel into fragments4     
,what is the explanation8--it is1 of    
course1  well known--simply that the    
molecules of glass were instantly       
arrested  in their motion of adjustment 
as the glass was suddenly chilled by the
  water1 and the molecular motion of    
shrinkage was arrested1 leaving  the    
individual molecules under a tremendous 
strain of position in  their endeavor to
 reach their true places4 ,they are     
rigidly fixed  in this position of      
unstable equilibrium1 one balancing the 
other2  but let a single molecule be    
displaced1--a fragment so tiny that  the
 eye can scarcely see it1--and the      
molecules1 thus thrown out of  mutual   
support against each other1 must now    
rearrange themselves from  the ruptured 
rigid mass1 and1 like a row of stood-up 
bricks1 each of  which thrusts the other

 forward1 with a sudden explosive force 
the  molecules assume their true        
position of stable equilibrium1 but it  
is at the cost of the whole structure4  
,to this same cause we owe the          
explosive force of our gunpowder1       
nitroglycerin1 and all explosives2  the 
molecules are held in unstable          
equilibrium1 and the tension once       
relieved at a single point1 be it ever  
so infinitesimal1 the molecules  of the 
whole mass rearrange themselves with    
explosive energy4 ,strange  that so     
harmless a substance as glycerin1 by the
 mere replacement of  an atom of        
nitrogen gas1 should develop the energy 
of dynamite under  a trifling molecular 
shock4    ,so1 also1 the aqueous and    
perhaps other vapors of all space1      
attenuated  though they be1 and perhaps 
by reason of this very tenuity itself1  
as shown by the experiments of          
,professor ,crookes with attenuated     
gases when acted upon by electricity1   
are held in the same state  of unstable 

equilibrium4 ,we know the potency of    
this instability  from the terrific     
explosive combination of the gases which
 combine  to form aqueous vapor4 ,we may
 again refer to one of the well-known   
experiments of ,professor ,crookes with 
simple atmospheric air4 ,enclosed  in a 
cylindrical glass vessel1 the electric  
spark passed freely2 as  it became more 
rarefied under an air-pump1 new         
phenomena appeared1  until1 at a stage  
of high rarefaction1 the molecules of   
these gases  were driven forward by the 
electric current with such energy as    
first to raise the temperature of the   
opposite side of the cylinder  to a red 
heat1 then to melt1 and finally to      
perforate the glass4 ,the  explanation  
is that the movements of closely        
aggregated molecules  mutually interfere
 with each other2 as they gain          
elbow-room by being  reduced in number1 
they act with more directness1 and      
consequently  with more force3 it is the
 difference between men fighting in a   

crowded room and out in an open field4  
,it is possible that these  molecular   
tensions of space1 by the ready         
unlocking of the forces with  which they
 are charged1 may even aid in the       
rotation of the planets  by acting upon 
their electrospheres in their drift     
through space1  as charged              
thunder-clouds react upon each other1 or
 the molecules of  atmospheric air1 in  
moderately high vacua1 under electrical 
excitement1  act upon the walls of the  
containing vessel1 as in the experiments
  of ,professor ,crookes and others4    
,the riddles of nature are like those   
of the sphinx1--they have more than one 
meaning4    ,the tensions of the        
aggregated molecules of space are thus  
counterbalanced only so long as all     
space is equally occupied and  a state  
of perfect quiescence exists in its     
every part4 ,a molecular  disturbance in
 one part is immediately communicated to
 adjacent parts1  and finally to all4   
,with the first movement1 gravity       

asserts itself1  for gravity exists and 
must exist in all parts1 and must       
actively  manifest itself whenever the  
perfect mutual balance of space is      
disturbed and a center of energy        
developed1 and co-ordinately with  the  
action of gravity begins that of        
electricity4 ,movements among  the      
molecules are converted into movement of
 mass2 centripetal motion  begets       
condensation1 this begets sensible heat 
and vortical movement2  then come the   
phenomena of electrical generation by   
moving contact with  the gases of space1
 then repulsion and disassociation of   
the elements  of the aqueous vapors1    
combination of simple into compound     
elements2  and1 the balance once        
disturbed1 the state of unstable        
equilibrium  is forever destroyed1 and  
all space henceforth must exhibit       
constant  change4 ,there are whole      
segments of space absolutely blank1 so  
far as  visible systems are concerned1  
which seem to have been exhausted1 for  

the present ons at least1 to supply     
material for the vast adjacent  galaxies
 which extend along their borders2 see  
illustrations in  ,proctor's ,essays on 
,astronomy1 article ,distribution of the
 ,nebul4    ,it need not be supposed    
that such stage of perfect and universal
  quiescence ever existed in fact2 it is
 like the ,nirvana of the ,buddhist     
philosophers1--a subjective and not an  
objective condition4 ,we can  have no   
knowledge of the existence1 even1 of    
material things1 save  from their       
phenomena1 the manifestation of         
interchanging forces1  upon which rests 
our threefold basis of knowledge1       
perception1  cognition1 and comparison4 
,we know nothing of matter1 except as   
affected by internal or external force1 
nor of force itself1 except  as it acts 
in one mode or another upon matter4 ,all
 beyond this is1  for us1 without form  
and void4    ,progressive change has    
always1 doubtless1 been the universal   
law of  creation1 and the great ocean of

 space is1 and ever has been1 and  ever 
will be the highway through which       
perpetually plough the great  caravels  
which bear the fortunes of creative     
energy1 laden with life  and light and  
heat1 in their eternal progression4 ,the
 creative impulse  once given1 if it1   
too1 was not primeval in the eternal    
past1 must  have gone on from           
development to development1 like the    
transmission  of life1 from age to age  
and from realm to realm4 ,the mills of  
the  gods grind slowly2 in these vast   
areas time is absolutely nothing2  the  
processes we see are but as the dip of a
 swallow's wing compared  with an       
inconceivable futurity2 but all our     
energies1 and all the  energies of      
planets and suns and systems and        
galaxies1 and of whatever  other and    
wider created forms may stretch onward  
to infinity1 came  forth from the ocean 
of space1 and to this ocean all these   
energies  continue to return again in   
ceaseless circuit4    ,can we indicate  

any relationship of periodicity for the 
genesis of  solar systems from space8   
,there is a remarkable example of a     
somewhat  similar periodicity in organic
 life for the rupture of tensions1  so  
common that its analogous character and 
perfect regularity are  scarcely even   
thought of4 ,among the highest species  
of mammalia we  find that1 in a state of
 health1 whether resident of the heights
  of the ,andes1 the deserts of ,africa1
 the jungles of ,india1 or the  most    
densely populated centers of ,london2   
among rich or poor1 high  or low1 idle  
or industrious1 virtuous or vicious1    
ancient or modern1  civilized or        
barbarous1 black1 white1 red1 or yellow1
 the ovum of the  mature female rises to
 the surface of the ovary1 and at       
intervals1  almost uniform1 of          
twenty-eight days1 organic excitement   
ensues1 the  enclosing vesicle is       
ruptured1 and the ovum escapes4 ,the    
remarkable  feature is not that these   
processes continuously succeed each     

other2  but that under such diverse     
conditions and opposite circumstances1  
and  with two separate ovaries operating
 at the same time1 simultaneously or    
successively1 this almost miraculous    
interval of no more and no less  than   
twenty-eight days between the successive
 ruptures of tension and  their         
attendant phenomena1 should constantly  
persist4 ,for its ultimate  cause we    
must look back to the vis a tergo to    
which we have already  alluded2 and     
there may be1 and doubtless is1 a       
similarly acting remote  cause which    
regulates the periodical development of 
solar systems or  of galaxies1 periods  
of intense activity1 followed by        
intervals of  exhaustion and            
recuperation1 and again succeeded by    
another period  of activity1 and so on  
perpetually1 for space is perpetual1    
infinite1  and inexhaustible4    ,it    
will be observed that the processes     
above roughly sketched are  somewhat    
similar to those observed in the        

formation of so-called  water-spouts1   
which usually terminate in dissipation  
in the atmosphere1  or else in terrific 
thunder-storms1 but which occasionally  
reach  a sufficient energy of rotation  
to spin their central nuclei down       
towards1 or even to1 the surface of the 
sea1 or1 in desert regions1  to that of 
the ground4 ,there is no analogy with   
the theoretical and  assumed primal mass
 of attenuated plasma of the nebular    
theory1  or with its slow initial       
rotation1 with the successive casting   
off  of rings of nebulous matter4 ,it   
may sometimes happen1 however1 that  the
 repulsive electrical energy of the     
central nucleus may throw off  its      
external envelopes with sufficient force
 to drive them entirely  beyond the     
effective limit of its attractive       
forces1 as occurs  in the formation of  
embryonic comets as above described2 in 
such  case the nebula will be a variable
 one1 with successively repeated        
aggregations and successive outbursts1  

periodical like the active  stages of   
volcanoes2 and1 even when the nucleus   
has already presented a  continuous     
solar spectrum1 its energies may be thus
 expended1 or more  gradually1 and      
finally dissipated like the electricity 
of a highly  charged ,leyden jar exposed
 to a moist atmosphere4    ,as a bottle 
of strongly effervescing liquid may blow
 itself empty1  when suddenly opened1 by
 the mutually repellent energy of its   
contained molecules1 so if such a       
phenomenon were manifested in  a radial 
direction from a central point1 the     
repelled spray would  show itself as a  
nebulous ring with a hollow center4 ,an 
example of  this sort is shown in the   
multiple-tailed ,catherine-wheel nebula 
7,fig4 #d of a previous illustration74  
,if such an annular nebula  should      
become ruptured into two portions by    
internal repulsion1  the electrical     
polarity of the smaller fragment would  
be reversed1  and the two arcs would    
separately coalesce and consolidate into

 a  sun and a single planet1 forming a  
solar system like that of ,algol1  which
 has been already described4 ,otherwise1
 the nebula would probably  retrograde  
and disappear1 by diffusion1 into space 
again4 ,we may  expect to find abortive 
efforts of nature here1 as we so        
constantly  find them elsewhere1 not    
merely in inorganic matter1 but even    
among  the processes of life4    ,in    
,professor ,proctor's article 7,essays  
on ,astronomy7 on  the square-shouldered
 aspect of ,saturn1 he mentions a       
hitherto  unexplained circumstance of   
the earth's atmosphere--the curious fact
  that the barometrical pressure of the 
earth's atmosphere is somewhat  higher  
between the poles and the equator than  
immediately over the  latter1 as might  
be supposed to be the case4 ,this is a  
phenomenon of  mutual repulsion similar 
to those manifested in the operations   
above  described4 ,the rotation of the  
earth on its axis forces the terrestrial
  atmosphere1 by its centrifugal motion1

 in undue proportion1 around  the       
equatorial belt1 causing the same sort  
of atmospheric thinning at  the poles   
which we see in the solar photosphere at
 its corresponding  parts4 ,at the same 
time the highly electrified atmosphere1 
by its  mutually repellent action1 tends
 to force this swollen equatorial ring  
backward toward the poles4 ,the         
resultant of these two repulsions is an 
area of maximum density part way between
 the poles and the equator4 ,it  is     
probable that this self-repellent       
equatorial swell may play some  part in 
the sun's atmosphere1 in extending1 and 
also in limiting1  the areas of eruptive
 sun-spots outward from his equator4    
,while the nebul are more distant than  
many of the discrete stars  revealed to 
us by the telescope1 there is no reason 
to suppose that  they are more distant  
than the star-clouds into which are     
merged  the separate stars of the ,milky
 ,way1 or the star-clusters seen in     
other portions of the sky4 ,we know1 in 

fact1 that this is not so1  for our     
telescopes show brilliant stars in very 
many cases which are  components of the 
nebul themselves2 and the fact that the 
nebul  can be seen as having visible    
form1 and not as mere points of light1  
is itself conclusive as to their        
relative distances4 ,hence we need  not 
be surprised to learn that these forming
 spirals will result each  in the       
production of a single solar system1 and
 not a galaxy of suns1  as was once     
supposed4 ,were such the case it would  
be impossible for  us to observe the    
structure of the nebul at all1 as their 
distances  would be far too vast4 ,of   
the forms of the gaseous nebul          
,guillemin  asks1 ,is the spiral the    
original form of those gaseous matters1 
the condensation of which may give1 or  
has given1 birth to each  individual of 
this gigantic association8 ,the same    
author says of  these apparently        
regularly formed nebul1 ,it is          
impossible not to  recognize in them so 

many systems4 ,many of the spiral nebul 
were  formerly supposed to be globular  
aggregations of nebulous matter only1   
and their spiral character came as a    
great surprise with the use of  more    
powerful telescopes2 and many--nay1     
most--of these apparently  globular     
nebul have totally changed their        
appearance when viewed  with instruments
 of higher power1 while the spirals have
 become more  and more pronounced in    
character with every increase of        
telescopic  vision4 ,of one of such     
apparently globular nebul ,guillemin    
says1 ,the  center is like a large      
globular nebula with a very marked      
condensation1  whence radiate branches  
arranged in the form of spirals4 ,in    
several  points of these branches other 
centers of condensation are noticed4    
,sir  ,john ,herschel had classed this  
among the nebul of rounded1 globular    
form1 doubtless because the central     
nebulosity was the only one  revealed by
 his telescope4 ,the formation of the   

sub-centers in  this nebula 7which is   
between the ,great ,bear and ,botes7    
should be  particularly noted in        
connection with the coalescence of      
planets as  above described4 ,in a note 
to ,guillemin's work1 ,professor        
,lockyer  says1 ,the proper motion of   
nebul has not yet been inquired into1   
because everybody1 looking upon them as 
irresolvable star-clusters1  thought    
them infinitely remote4 ,now1 however1  
that we know they are  not clusters of  
stars1 properly so called1 it is        
possible that they  may be much nearer  
to us than we imagine4    ,in connection
 with the double-sun spiral nebula shown
 in the preceding  illustration1        
,guillemin says1 ,we have noticed nebul 
accompanied  by systems of double or    
multiple stars1 placed in a manner so   
symmetrical in the midst of the         
nebulosity that it is impossible to     
doubt the existence of a real connection
 between the stars and the  nebul4 ,and 
,flammarion says of these apparently    

globular nebul1  when under the         
observation of more powerful telescopes1
 ,in the place  where pale and whitish  
clouds gave out a calm and uniform      
light1 the  giant eye of the telescope  
has discerned alternately dark and      
luminous  regions1--that is to say1 they
 reveal the operation of the opposite   
forces of attraction and repulsion1 and 
are spiral4 ,while gaseous  nebul may be
 of any conceivable form1 the direction 
and operation  of the forces which will 
determine their character as solar      
systems  must be similar1 just as with  
the forms of organic life1 and the only 
nebul which reveal a distinct systematic
 development in harmony with  a working 
solar system are the spiral4 ,there is  
no difficulty whatever  in tracing such 
a nebula through all its formative      
stages1 as we have  done1 and we can1 in
 fact1 see painted on the background of 
the sky  every step of the shifting     
tableau through which such forms must   
pass4    ,by the nebular hypothesis the 

whole course of development1 of         
necessity1 is rigidly forward to its    
culmination2 but by employing  the      
analogies presented to us in other      
operations of nature1 we  can readily   
account for variations1 haltings1       
ineffectual efforts1  uncompleted       
processes1 and even reversals and       
redistributions into  other secondary   
sources of energy4 ,they equally        
comprise the agencies  for the          
production of a single solar system or  
of a myriad1 just as we  see the        
vortical water-spouts or sand-storms    
either single1 double1  or multiple2    
they are flexible1 as are all the       
processes of nature1  and require no    
violent assumption of a prior physical  
basis known to  us ne'er before on sea  
or shore4 ,they also account for the    
deviation  from the normal of the orbits
 of ,neptune and ,mercury1 for the      
formation  of the asteroids and         
,saturn's rings1 for the different      
eccentricities  and inclinations of the 

orbits1 for the forward axial rotation  
of  the planets and their satellites1   
and even for their perturbations  and   
abnormalities2 they furnish a basis for 
,bode's empirical law1  for the         
distribution of the planets in size1 for
 the origin of comets  and meteor       
streams1 for ,kepler's laws1 for the    
equal and permanent  relation of        
eccentricities and inclinations1 and for
 the fixed axial  position of the moon  
with reference to the earth2 they       
account for the  free oxygen in the     
planetary and free hydrogen in the solar
 atmosphere1  they employ the variation 
of volume of the sun as a regulator     
instead  of an independent generator of 
light and heat1 and they are in entire  
conformity with the established         
principles which govern the electrical  
generation of active forces1 their      
transmission to the sun1 their          
transformation into light and heat1 and 
their return to the regions  of space1  
where they continue to act with         

potential energy to all  eternity1 as   
they must do if space itself is eternal2
 and we surely  know that1 if anything  
whatever is eternal1 space must be so4  
,this  great ocean--the home1 the       
domain1 the workshop of creative        
energy--is  the last retreat of the     
human intellect2 here it may find rest1 
and  here alone4 ,while solar systems   
may afford in their circling planets  a 
possible dominion for finite life1 and  
in their suns their daily  bread2 in the
 infinite and all-embracing realms of   
space1 filled with  the potentialities  
of all created forms1 thrilled with the 
impulses  of all creative force1 is to  
be found the unfailing source of all1   
the dominion of the eternal architect1  
before whom nature bends the  obedient  
knee1 waits to hear his mighty voice1 or
 swiftly runs to do  his royal bidding4 
,,chapter ,,xiv4    ,,the ,,mosaic      
,,cosmogony4              ,one          
generation passeth away1 and another    
generation cometh3             but the  

earth abideth for ever4--,bible4        
,thus1 as we have seen1 through         
countless future ages will the sun1     
with his incandescent envelope of       
hydrogen1 and the planets1 with their   
life-sustaining atmospheres of oxygen1  
fulfil their appointed times  and       
courses4 ,but if we could conceive that 
all atmospheres1 solar  and planetary1  
were suddenly blotted out and forever   
annihilated1  so that these great orbs  
thenceforth rolled along as they do now1
  but only as black globes in an ocean  
of space of ,stygian darkness1  new     
atmospheres would at once begin to be   
formed1 and these would  soon again     
surround the sun and planets1 precisely 
like those which  now exist4            
,sweeping along in darkness1 the force  
of gravity would gather around  each of 
these bodies vast accumulations of      
aqueous vapor and other  gases condensed
 from the attenuated matter of          
surrounding space4 ,the  planets1 by    
their axial rotations1 would again      

generate from these  regions1 newly     
occupied as the system drifted along    
through space1  electrical energy of    
enormous quantity and potential4 ,earth 
would again  hear the mighty mandate1   
,let there be light1 and from her poles 
to  her equator the skies would blaze   
with brush-light auroras4 ,suddenly1    
with a mighty leap1 the pent-up currents
 would flash across to their  opposite  
electric pole1 the auroras would        
gradually die away1 and  instantly the  
molecules of hydrogen would begin to    
sift out at the  solar and those of     
oxygen at the planetary terminals4 ,the 
electrical  currents driving their      
furious pathway through the rapidly     
gathering  hydrogen envelope1 the sun   
would first begin to faintly flicker    
with  hazy1 nebulous light2 the light   
would gather intensity1 and soon  flash 
and glow with energy2 the solar nucleus 
within would become  intensely heated   
and liquefied or partially volatilized1 
and again  the solar streams of         

incandescent heat and light would       
radiate forth  on every side2 the       
commingled gases1 oxygen and nitrogen1  
would once  more surround each planetary
 globe1 and we should have a new solar  
envelope just as we now see it1 and new 
planetary atmospheres like our  own2 and
 then1 and not till then1 would the     
opposing generative forces  permanently 
counterbalance each other and           
electrolytic decomposition  become      
practically stationary1 except to       
compensate for the slight  variations   
constantly liable to occur in the       
complicated running of  the mechanism4  
,so the mutilated crustacean re-grows   
his lost claws1  and so our own gaping  
wounds are healed by the great vis      
medicatrix  natur4 ,the most stable of  
all things is mutually balanced         
instability2  perhaps there is no other 
form of stability4    ,the ,nebular     
,hypothesis of ,laplace concerns itself 
only with the  aggregate matter of which
 our solar system is composed1 and the  

force  of gravity1 including cohesion1  
ignoring the action of the equally      
powerful force of repulsion4 ,but there 
is another nebular hypothesis  much     
older than that of ,laplace and far more
 scientific1 for it  utilizes both the  
force of gravity and cohesion and the   
radiant force  of repulsion in the      
generation of our solar system4 ,we     
refer to what is  known as the ,mosaic  
cosmogony4 ,whatever the origin of this 
magnificent  narrative may have been1   
whether written down by ,moses          
originally1  or by him derived from the 
sacred learning of ,egypt1 with which he
  was fully acquainted1 or by the       
,egyptian scribes drawn from ,ethiopia1 
and still further back from the sacred  
traditions of ,india1 it bears  internal
 evidence1 when properly rendered from  
the ,hebrew record1 of a  knowledge of  
these stupendous phenomena 7which no    
human eye could ever  have beheld7 which
 is most remarkable4 ,the commonly      
accepted versions  do not clearly bring 

out the full meaning of the             
original1--indeed1  it would have been  
impossible for the earlier translators  
to have  done so1--but when critically  
and etymologically rendered1 very       
surprising coincidences with the        
succession of events as they must       
actually have occurred1 and the         
principles involved in the successive   
stages of creation1 will be found in    
nearly every part of the record4        
,this record is embodied in the first   
chapter and first three verses  of the  
second chapter of ,genesis4 ,the ,hebrew
 was long believed to be  an original1  
if not an inspired1 language1 but it is 
now well known to  have been a          
derivative or root language1 made up    
much like the ,english1  and1 like it1  
having the meanings of its words        
primarily determined  by those of the   
root-stems from which they have been    
formed4 ,the  roots of these ,hebrew    
words are to be found among the         
languages of  many older peoples1 and   

nearly all of them have now been traced 
to  their immediate origin4 ,another    
source of error is in the so-called     
,masoretic pointing1 which was not      
introduced for a thousand years  after  
the time of ,moses1 and which has often 
changed the signification  of the older 
words1 and even the form of the words   
themselves2 but  by critical researches 
the roots and their combinations have   
been  isolated1 so that we are now able 
to possess a much mere accurate         
knowledge of the ,mosaic record than was
 possible in former times1  for1 of     
course1 no original copies have come    
down to us4 ,it is not  a reconstruction
 of the record which has been made1 but 
a careful  editing by means of the      
derivation and true signification of the
  words used1 and by careful comparison 
among the most ancient versions         
accessible to modern research4 ,the     
,english version1 while imperfect  in   
its rendering of this ancient narrative1
 is not to be considered  by any means a

 false translation1 but it largely errs 
in failing to  give the full radical    
meaning of the words employed in the    
original4    ,as an illustration of this
 indefiniteness of rendering in the     
ordinary  ,english version let us       
consider the opening sentences of the   
narrative3  ,in the beginning ,god      
created the heaven and the earth4 ,and  
the  earth was without form1 and void2  
and darkness was upon the face of  the  
deep4    ,in the beginning of what8     
,does it mean the beginning of our own  
solar  system8 or of all systems8 or of 
all space8 or of ,jehovah 7for ,he has  
not yet been mentioned or described78 or
 of the ,aleim themselves1--that  is1   
did the work begin as soon as the forces
 began8 and did the latter  originate   
spontaneously1 or otherwise8 ,what ,god 
is meant8 ,is it  ,jehovah1 or ,aleim1  
or some other ,god not yet mentioned or 
described8 ,if  we will take every name 
in the ,bible which is translated ,god  
7and it  may be any of these according  

to the ,english rendering71 we will have
  legion4 ,we shall even find that the  
same word which is translated ,god  was 
applied by ,jehovah on one occasion to  
,moses4 ,created8 ,what is  meant by    
this word8 ,was the creating a creation 
out of nothing8 out  of something       
pre-existing8 or something coexisting   
elsewhere8 ,was  the creation a direct  
or an indirect one8 by the use of the   
forces  of nature1 or by overriding the 
forces of nature8 ,was it a physical    
creation by an inconceivable action of  
mere thought1 or will8 and if  so1 was  
this thought1 or will1 ,god himself1 or 
one of his attributes  or powers only8  
,the heaven8 ,what heaven8 ,was it that 
to which the  virtuous are supposed to  
go after death8 or was it some more     
physical  heaven8 ,was the heaven the   
atmospheric heaven1 the interplanetary  
heaven1 the heaven of interstellar      
space1 or that more extended  heaven    
which lies beyond our knowledge8 ,was   
the heaven one of these  which ,he      

created1 or did ,he create all the      
different heavens of all  the solar     
systems and nebul at the same time8     
,without form8 ,was  the earth without  
any form at all8 or merely without its  
present  form8 or without some          
particular form not mentioned8 ,if the  
earth was  a physical structure it must 
have had some form2 what was it8 ,and   
void8 ,was the earth void like a        
soap-bubble8 or void like a ray of      
light8 or a vacuum8 ,if it was empty1   
what was it that was empty8 ,how  could 
the heaven and earth be void after they 
had been brought into  existence8       
,darkness was upon the face of the deep8
 ,what deep8 ,was  it the sea not yet   
created8 or the earth1 which is anything
 but a  deep8 was it the atmosphere8 or 
all space8 ,if the latter1 did  all     
other systems of space wait for their   
light on ours8 or did we  wait on       
theirs8 are there no new systems now    
forming1 and none to be  formed         
hereafter8 ,if all space is meant1 where

 was its outside1 or  its face8 and what
 occupied the intervening regions8 was  
it a physical  face or the face of a    
vacuum8 ,were these statements to be    
accepted by  faith or reason8 ,if the   
former1 was it a faith which could only 
have  come from the experience of       
after-ages8 or was it based on the ipse 
dixit of ,moses8 ,what was the basis of 
faith when the record was first         
written8 was it from generally accepted 
tradition or by revelation8 ,is  the    
record anonymous or does it reveal the  
name of its author8 ,if to  be endorsed 
by knowledge and reason1 why should not 
the narrative be  strictly and          
accurately translated1 even at the      
expense of conciseness  and elegance of 
diction1 in order that the exact force  
of every word  shall be fully felt and  
recognized8 ,if the record is from      
divine  revelation1 it is still more    
essential to know precisely what was    
revealed2 otherwise we are no better    
than idolaters2 we are worse1  in fact1 

for we have changed and falsified the   
landmarks of religion1  and bear false  
witness against ,god ,himself4 ,we must 
not interpret  ,genesis by records made 
long subsequently2 it must speak for    
itself  or not at all4    ,when         
construed in accordance with the exact  
definition of the words  themselves     
quite a new and strange light is thrown 
upon the history of  the events thus    
recorded4 ,the great importance of a    
strict construction  of the translation 
and fidelity to the original is         
emphasized by  the fact that the same   
word was never used in this record to   
express  a different sense in different 
parts1 nor were two different words     
ever used in different places to express
 the same meaning4 ,it is1  therefore1  
necessary to give every word of the     
original its exact  fulness and force4  
,the basis of the following critical    
translation is  to be found in ,mankind3
 their ,origin and ,destiny 7,longmans  
,co41  ,london1 #ahgb71 but a careful   

comparison has been made with other     
accepted authorities1 and the           
root-meanings of the separate words     
have been carefully traced out1 so that 
many necessary changes will  be found to
 have been made in order to bring out   
the precise sense  of the original4     
,there is no actual literal1 critical1  
etymological1  and scientific rendering 
embraced in a single translation known  
to us1  and which is complete in itself2
 but that which follows will be found1  
it is believed1 to give every word its  
particular etymological shade  of       
meaning1 and to employ the same word in 
the same place1 for the same  purpose1  
and with the same signification as it   
was understood to have1  in its original
 form1 when first recorded4 ,the        
specific root-meanings  of the most     
important words used are further        
explained in detail in  a separate      
section below4    ,the use of ,aleim1   
the powerful ,forces1 in the plural1    
followed by  the verb in the singular1  

is a ,hebraism1 and indicates the       
collective  character of the forces as  
specially energized1 sent forth1 and    
directed by ,jeove 7,jeova or ,jehovah  
is the ,chaldaic form of the word1  the 
original ,hebrew being ,jeove71 who does
 not appear by name in this  narrative1 
though1 as we shall see1 specially      
delegated power from  some higher source
 is that characteristic which is most   
emphasized  throughout the record4      
,these forces are personified1 as is    
usual in  ancient records 7and1 indeed1 
in modern thought71 but they are in     
reality the powers of ,god4 ,the author 
of the work above referred  to says1    
,the idea of ,moses was that there was a
 ,supreme ,god 444 and  that ,he only   
acts by means of his agents called      
,aleim1 the ,gods1  in the plural and   
indefinite number1 or embassadors1 or   
voices4 ,the  ancient belief in the     
unity of all forces in one creative     
individuality  is also most clearly     
shown in some of the oldest ,vedaic     

hymns of ,india  7see ,max ,mller1 ,the 
,veda74 ,self 7,atman7 is the ,lord of  
all things1  ,self is the ,king of all  
things4 ,as all the spokes of a wheel   
are  contained in the nave and the      
circumference1 all things are contained 
in this ,self2 all selves are contained 
in this ,self4 ,brahman 7,force7  itself
 is but ,self4    ,of the religion of   
the ancient ,egyptians 7see ,evolution  
and  ,christianity1 by ,j4 ,f4 ,york7 it
 is said1 ,the chief theological        
characteristic of this first of all     
known civilized religions is  the       
doctrine of the ,divine ,unity4 ,as ,m4 
de ,roug says1 ',one idea  predominates1
 that of a single and primeval ,god2    
everywhere and  always it is one        
substance1 self-existent1 and an        
unapproachable  ,god4' ,the ,egyptian   
cosmogony1 as the fragments have come   
down to us  7see ,professor ,arnold     
,guyot1 ,creation71 is as follows3      
#a4 ,the original gaseous form1 and the 
darkness of matter4    #b4 ,the         

successive transformations4    #c4      
,light1 as the first step in this       
development4    #d4 ,the separation of  
the waters below from the waters above  
the     expanse4    #e4 ,periods of     
development of indefinite length4    #f4
 ,the sun1 moon1 and earth organized    
last4    ,the word ,mlactou1 which      
occurs several times repeated in the    
summing  up of this narrative1 explains 
the character of ,aleim most fully1 as  
specially energized and directed        
agencies or forces4 ,this word never    
has any other meaning4 ,even when       
applied to a king it was not a king  as 
a monarch1 but as the specially directed
 agent of ,god4 ,i4 ,samuel  xxviii4    
#ag1 ,the ,lord hath sent the kingdom   
out of thine hand2  444 because thou    
obeydst not the voice of the ,lord4     
,when1 in ,exodus  xiii4 #ba it is said 
that ,jeove went before them by day in a
 pillar  of a cloud1 this is explained1 
in chapter xiv4 verse #ai1 to mean that 
this pillar of cloud by day and of fire 

by night was ,mlac1 a messenger1  or    
agent4 ,it is translated angel in the   
,english version1 but it  was not a     
personal angel2 it was a specially      
energized and directed  force4 ,in the  
earliest times it was not the ,god of   
fire1 or of force1  or of justice which 
men feared1 but fire1 or force1 or      
justice2  the anthropomorphic conception
 came later with the generalization  of 
all fire1 all force1 or all justice4 ,we
 say now that a malefactor  fears the   
law2 what he really fears1 however1 is  
punishment4 ,in this  record we are     
dealing with the primordial forces of   
,god1--gravity1  electricity1           
attraction1 repulsion1 cohesion1 vital  
force1 etc41 etc41  but acting with     
special energy for a predetermined      
result4 ,of these  forces ,dr4 ,mc,cosh 
says1 in his work on ,christianity and  
,positivism1  ,one ,god1 with his       
infinitely varied perfections1--his     
power1 his  knowledge1 his wisdom1 his  
love1 his mercy2 we should see that one 

,power blowing in the breeze1 smiling in
 the sunshine1 sparkling in  the stars1 
quickening us as we bound along in the  
felt enjoyment of  health1 efflorescing 
in every form and hue of beauty1 and    
showering  down daily gifts upon us4    
,the profoundest minds in our day1 and  
in  every day1 have been fond of        
regarding this force1 not as something  
independent of ,god1 but as the very    
power of ,god acting in all action2  so 
that in him we live1 and move1 and have 
our being4 ,in more rugged  and virile  
form this was precisely the old ,mosaic 
philosophy1 the  philosophy of the      
arcana of the ,egyptian temples1 and of 
the ,vedaic  age of the ,aryans of      
,india4 ,where was the radiant center of
 this  unfailing search-light which has 
poured its broad belt of dazzling       
brightness down to our day from those   
old1 prehistoric ages8    ,so ,de       
,jouvencel1 in his ,genesis according to
 ,science1 says1 ,we  should not place  
the works of nature on one side and     

nature on the  other4 ,nature is a work 
and not a person4    ,the word which in 
the ,english version is translated      
rested1 in the  concluding verses of the
 narrative1 does not mean rested from   
fatigue1  but rested as a pendulum rests
 when it ceases to vibrate4 ,had the    
word been rendered came to a state of   
rest1 it would have been far  more      
accurate and true to the sense of the   
original4 ,what is meant is  that these 
pent-up forces had operated1 under the  
guidance of ,jeove1  to rupture a state 
of unstable equilibrium in the          
attenuated matter of  space1 just as    
similar forces are now said to gather   
energy to produce  a volcanic eruption  
of the earth's crust1 preceded by       
earthquakes and  other vast disturbances
 radiating from the center of rupture of
 these  tensions between the molecules  
of matter1 accompanied by explosive     
expansion and all the phenomena of      
disorganization and repulsion1 and      
succeeded by condensation1 development1 

harmony1 and final quiescence  of these 
specially energized and self-opposing   
forces in a newly  formed state of      
molecular equilibrium4 ,to quote from   
,professor ,guyot1  ,god rests as the   
creator of the visible universe4 ,the   
forces of  nature are now in that       
admirable equilibrium which we now      
behold1  and which is necessary to our  
existence4 ,in ,the ,unity of ,nature   
the ,duke of ,argyle says1 ,we strain   
our imaginations to conceive the        
processes of ,creation1 whilst in       
reality they are around us daily4       
,the words which conclude the third     
verse of chapter ii4 are also           
imperfectly rendered in our ,english    
version1 and this defect has led to  a  
popular misconception almost universal4 
,they are construed to mean             
created--and made1 as though marking a  
broad class distinction  between the    
different processes before described4   
,from this the  inference has been drawn
 that while1 for the more subordinate   

features1  the word rendered made       
indicated that these were stages in the 
process of creation merely involving the
 use of coexisting materials1  in the   
grander features of the work it was     
supposed that there had been  a creation
 ab initio1--that is1 out of nothing4   
,whole libraries have  been written on  
this theme2 but the words used bear no  
such meaning2  on the contrary1 they    
signify the exact opposite4 ,there is1  
however1  a broad distinction between   
the interpretation of the two words2    
but it is that the word which is to be  
rendered fashioned like the  work of a  
sculptor is narrower and not broader in 
significance than  the simple word made2
 so that the former is included in1 but 
is  not generically distinct from1 the  
latter4 ,the word ,bra means that  these
 portions of creation were fashioned    
with the care and artistic  skill of a  
sculptor1 as contradistinguished from   
turning out the  productions in mass2   
this distinction does not relate to the 

origin1  but to the workmanship4        
,however interstellar or primordial     
space  was formed1 or when1 if it ever  
was formed1 there is nothing in this    
record which excludes a pre-existent    
space substantially like that  which now
 is4 ,what we see in the sky1 among the 
nebul1 are later  developments of like  
solar systems1 in like manner1 from the 
midst  of the substance of the same     
illimitable and eternal space4    ,but  
biology has an interest in this account 
of creation equally as  great as has    
cosmology4 ,the word ,bra is first      
applied to the formation  of the        
individualized substance of the heavens 
and the earth4 ,they were  fashioned or 
carved out like a sculpture from        
something on which the  forces could    
operate4 ,there was1 of course1 creation
 involved1 but it  was a mental1 not a  
physical process4 ,when a sculptor has  
completed  his clay figure he has       
brought forth a great creation1 perhaps1
 and  the creation is still his own1    

though the figure be cast in bronze  by 
hired workmen in the foundry1 who       
execute the sculptor's will at  two     
dollars a day1 it may be1 each4 ,beyond 
this mental element there  is no more   
creation1 in its widest sense1 than when
 a boy creates  a new point on his      
pencil by guiding his hand and knife to 
sharpen it4    ,when the diffused light 
came1 it is not said that it was        
fashioned  like the work of a sculptor1 
or that it was even made2 but that it   
came into existence4 ,let there be      
light1 and there was light1  as the     
,english version has it4 ,but when the  
radiant energy of the  sun came to be   
formed1 on the fourth day1 it did not   
come into  existence1 nor was it        
fashioned like the work of a sculptor2  
it was  made4 ,the reason is that it was
 not a development from the preceding   
diffused light1 but a new kind of light1
 made mechanically by the  electrolysis 
of aqueous vapor around the sun's body1 
forming a hydrogen  envelope1 and by    

driving the furious torrents of         
electricity from the  planets through   
this atmosphere1 while the auroral1     
diffused light  of the earth was        
gradually dying away during the process4
 ,hence  there was no room for the word 
,bra1 or for the word ,iei 7came into   
existence7 here2 the word to be used was
 ,osh4 ,and when life was first         
introduced1--vegetable life1 the primal 
life1--the word used is not  ,bra2 this 
life was not fashioned or developed from
 other life4 ,but  when animal life was 
afterwards introduced1 the word used is 
,bra2  it was a refashioning4 ,what was 
this life fashioned out of8 ,it was  not
 made2 it did not begin to exist2 it was
 developed4 ,in this  manner the earth  
was finally filled with animal life4    
,then came  the introduction of the     
human race4 ,here we again have the word
  ,bra1 thrice repeated2 but when this  
introduction of mankind was  first      
projected1 and before it was executed1  
it was in these words1  ,we will make   

the root ,osh mankind2 or1 in the       
,english version1  ,let us make man4    
,there seems here to have been a gradual
 ascent of  living organisms by         
development1 almost precisely in        
accordance with  the most recent        
teachings of science4 ,two essentially  
different kinds  of light were          
successively produced1 independently of 
each other2  the earlier kind came into 
being1 and the later was made4 ,the     
substance or entity of the heavens and  
of the earth1 generically1  was         
fashioned4 ,three successive            
introductions of organic life not       
essentially different from each other   
occurred2 the first is described  thus3 
,let the earth bring forth2 444 and the 
earth brought forth1  in the ,english   
version2 or ,there shall be made to     
grow2 444 and there  was caused to arise
 suddenly out of the ground 444         
vegetation1 as  more accurately         
rendered4 ,the second form of organic   
life1 in order of  time1 the animal1 was

 fashioned4 ,the third form1 mankind1   
was also  fashioned1 and this was done  
long subsequently to the introduction   
of the second4    ,if the word ,bra had 
any signification of original creation  
it would  have been applied to the first
 creation of life1 for it was far more  
wonderful and original that there should
 be vegetable life which  grew and      
developed1 which brought forth flowers  
and then fruit1 which  formed           
germinative seeds1 and from these       
successively and continuously           
reproduced its multifarious species1    
than that animal life should  have been 
introduced long afterwards to repeat    
these same things  which vegetation had 
been1 in all its forms1 from the lowest 
to the  highest1 already doing for      
untold ages1--from the third period of  
the  earth's long history to the fifth2 
and more especially still when we       
consider that vegetable life and animal 
life1 in their lowest forms1  have no   
positive line of division between them4 

,and if ,osh1 which is applied to the   
genesis of solar light1 be capable  of  
the signification of original creation1 
then this word should have  been applied
 to the generation of the diffused light
 of the second  day1 for the genesis of 
light is far more wonderful and original
  than the subsequent production of     
sunlight1 after the forming earth  had  
existed for two whole formative periods1
 from the second to the  fourth1 under  
the constant illumination of this       
universally diffused  auroral light4    
,if1 on the other hand1 the words       
applied to the first  generation of     
light and the first generation of life  
be held to mark  an original creation1  
then these words are never applied in   
this whole  narrative to the genesis of 
the entity of the heavens1 or the earth1
  or the sun and moon1 or to animal     
life1 or the life of man4    ,the       
radiant light and heat of the sun were  
not made until the fourth  day1 while   
the introduction of vegetable life dates

 from the long  antecedent third day of 
creation4 ,prior to the development of  
the  sun's thermal light there could    
have been1 as we have already shown1  no
 free oxygen in the terrestrial         
atmosphere2 and it is a remarkable      
circumstance that vegetation1 which is  
the only form of organic life  which    
could have existed and propagated its   
species in an atmosphere  composed of   
carbonic1 nitrogenous1 and aqueous      
vapors1 devoid of  oxygen1 is that      
particular form of life which has been  
selected for  this purpose1 and its     
advent placed prior to the making of the
 sun4 ,it  would have been far more     
reasonable 7previous to our present     
knowledge  of these things7 to have     
placed the formation of the sun in      
advance  of the introduction of life2 it
 is surprising that this was not done1  
unless we give to these ancients a      
knowledge of the principles of  natural 
science far beyond anything hitherto    
attributed to them4    ,in the same     

connection there is described a stage   
preparatory to and  leading up to the   
simultaneous development of the sun's   
light and  heat1 and the sifting out of 
hydrogen around the solar core1 and of  
oxygen in the terrestrial atmosphere1   
which is equally remarkable4 ,the       
separation of the waters described in   
verses #f and #g has never been  fully  
rendered into ,english1 or even         
understood in the original1 as  the     
words seemed meaningless in their       
literal sense until correctly           
interpreted by the facts set forth in   
the present work4    ,we must first note
 that the separation of the waters of   
space to  two opposite foci1 with an    
intervening space of attenuated matter1 
and their condensation there into two   
entirely different bodies1 was  the work
 of the second day1 while the formation 
of the terrestrial  rain-clouds and     
seas1 as connected together1 was a work 
of the  third day1 and was not          
accomplished until then1 which was long 

afterwards4 ,these entirely different   
operations--different in time1  place1  
character1 and circumstance--have always
 been confounded with  each other2 but  
one is in reality systemic and the other
 merely local4    ,in verse #f there was
 decreed an expanse or thinning 7an     
attenuated  region7 in the center of the
 waters1 and a separation was made by   
the formation of two spots 7verse #g71  
one under the expanse and  the other    
above the expanse2 the expanse was      
space1 interplanetary  space4 ,professor
 ,arnold ,guyot1 in his book on         
,creation1 says1 ,it is  to be regretted
 that the ,english version has          
translated the ,hebrew  word expanse by 
the word firmament4444 ,the difficulties
 they the  commentators have created for
 themselves arose 444 from depriving it 
of its cosmogonic character and         
belittling it by reducing the great     
phenomena there described to a simple   
modification of the terrestrial         
atmosphere4444 ,they forget that this   

thin covering of clouds is but  a       
temporary and ever-changing one1 and    
that the clouds are in that  heaven     
rather than above it4444 ,they forget   
that this is not the true  heavens in   
which are spread the sun and moon and   
stars4444 ,this grand  day1 so dwarfed  
and misunderstood1 is the one in which  
are described  the generations of the   
heavens1 announced by ,moses1 which     
otherwise  find no place in the         
narrative of the creative week4    ,the 
two foci of waters were the solar and   
terrestrial2 around these  bodies were  
gathered by the attraction of gravity1  
and there condensed1  the aqueous vapors
 from the attenuated intervening matter 
of space2 the  earth by its rotation    
generated the enormous electrical       
currents which  still continue2 when    
these made their mighty leap across to  
the sun1  the diffused auroral light    
around the earth gradually disappeared1 
hydrogen and oxygen began to be evolved 
at the opposite poles--the  sun and the 

earth--from the condensed envelopes of  
aqueous vapor  which surrounded them1   
the sun's hydrogen atmosphere was       
pierced1  as in the pail-of-water       
experiment described in an earlier      
chapter  of the present work1 by the    
planetary electric currents1 the sun    
became incandescent1 and pari passu the 
earth became fitted1 by the  development
 of oxygen1 for the abode of animal     
life4 ,as taking part  in this great    
mechanical transformation1 the sun was  
said to have been  made2 it did not come
 into being4    ,just prior to the      
introduction of vegetable life--during  
the same  creative epoch1 in fact1 and  
for the support of which life it was    
necessary--the waters under the expanse 
were condensed into rain-clouds  and    
seas1 and there is a curious reference  
7verse #i7 to the appearance  of the    
earth's dryness as produced by the      
action of an internal fire2  the gradual
 cooling of the earth by the radiation  
of its internal heat  of condensation   

into space would account for this       
appearance1 and1 in  connection with the
 diffused auroral light throughout the  
whole sky1  would doubtless have        
sufficed for the support of vegetable   
life4    ,in verse #af the fixed stars  
7the suns of other systems7 are referred
  to1 but in a parenthetical            
statement--almost deprecatory1 in       
fact--that  the dim and almost extinct  
lights the same forces created also1    
but when they were created is not stated
 in the record4 ,the occasion  for this 
incidental remark is to be found in the 
preceding statement  that the two new   
luminaries1 the sun and moon1 were the  
two superior  bodies in size of the     
starry lights4 ,having mentioned the    
stars in  this comparison1 the author   
feels called upon to add that the latter
  also had been similarly created1--that
 is1 that they were not original        
existences1 and of course they are not1 
but they were not created at  that      
epoch1 and are not said to have been4   

,in chapter ii4 verse #d1 which opens   
the second narrative 7quite a  different
 history1 by the way71 ,jeove appears   
,himself1 joined with  the ,aleim1 and  
henceforth this personal connection is  
maintained2  the ,english version       
translates this composite word ,the     
,lord ,god1  which means the ,master    
,god2 the correct reading is1 however1  
the  ,god of gods1 or what we call the  
,god of the forces of nature1  or the   
,god omnipotent4    ,in the whole       
,mosaic cosmogony there is nothing which
 can even  suggest a gradually closing  
nebulous mass2 the element of rotation  
is  absent 7and it would not have been  
understood by the people even if        
presented72 but1 with this exception1   
the processes of development  are       
substantially in accord with what must  
really have taken place1  and in the    
order described4 ,but it is1 as before  
stated1 absolutely  essential to        
understand the root-meanings of all the 
more important  words used in the       

original4 ,a superficial translation is 
not only  meaningless1 but misleading2  
whereas1 when accurately understood1    
the record is one of the most remarkable
 ever presented to human  intelligence4 
,the words used were selected           
deliberately for their  specific shades 
of meaning1 and1 unless these are       
properly rendered1  to the uninformed   
the narrative will present a simple     
succession  of startling phenomena1     
while to the educated student each of   
these  changes carries within its verbal
 index its origin1 its mode1 and the    
knowledge of the forces at work4 ,to the
 one it is a dramatic spectacle         
performed on the stage in front2 to the 
other it is the same work  as seen      
behind the curtain1 with all the        
intermoving mechanism 7the  author's    
manuscript the sole guide71 the         
interplay of complicated  forces1 the   
triumphant successes1 the rapt          
attention1 and even the  sudden applause
 extorted at each wondrous climax from  

the skilled  actors themselves1 who are 
at the same time unceasingly engaged in 
working out the mighty drama of         
creation4 ,one might readily believe    
that the original author of this record 
was thoroughly acquainted  with the     
processes involved in the development of
 a solar system like  our own from the  
diffused primordial matter of space1    
substantially  as we have endeavored1 in
 the present work1 to deduce them from  
the  most recent investigations and     
discoveries of science4    ,of the      
watery vapors condensed above the       
expanse of space many of  the ancient   
writers had a far more correct knowledge
 than had those  who translated these   
chapters from the original into the     
various  modern languages4 ,in the      
,psalms we read1 ,praise him1 444 ye    
waters  that be above the heavens2 in   
the ,song of the ,three ,holy ,children1
  ,o all ye waters that be above the    
heavens4 ,theophilus speaks of the      
visible sky as having drawn to itself a 

portion of the waters of  chaos at the  
time of the creation4 ,saint ,augustine 
says that the  firmament has been formed
 between the upper and the lower waters1
  and quotes ,genesis i4 #f and #g1 as  
his authority4    ,thousands of years   
ago1 as far back as the days of the     
,pythagoreans1  and even long before1   
mankind was acquainted with the         
mariner's  compass1 telescopic tubes1   
and glass lenses2 they knew that the    
moon  receives her light by reflection  
from the sun1 of the presence of        
mountains and valleys on the lunar      
surface1 that her day and night are     
each a fortnight in length1 that there  
were other planets known to the         
,egyptians besides the seven known to   
the ,greeks 7the ,brahmans reckoned     
fifteen of them71 that the sun is the   
center of our planetary system1  that   
the earth and the other planets revolve 
around it1 that the earth  is round and 
rotates on its own axis daily1 that     
weight is a principal  element in the   

maintenance of these rotations1 that the
 fixed stars  are suns1 and that the    
,milky ,way appears white from the      
number of  stars which it contains4     
,kircher quotes from an ancient ,syrian 
author  the philosophy of the sidereal  
system1 dividing it into many layers  or
 spheres attached to orbits1 each       
presided over by a spirit4 ,in  the     
eighth sphere are placed the fixed      
stars1 still higher two other  layers of
 stars not less luminous1 and of        
different sizes1 the nebul  and the     
small stars of the ,milky ,way1 and the 
whole is surrounded by  the celestial   
waters1 which spread over the whole     
firmament1 and which  compose the great 
sea of light and the boundless ocean4   
,the sources  of all this wondrous      
knowledge can be traced back through    
,chaldea1  ,arabia1 ,egypt1 ,ethiopia1  
and1 through the colony of ,mero1 to    
,india4        ,,root-,,meanings ,,of   
,,the ,,principal ,,words ,,used ,,in   
,,the ,,mosaic ,,narrative  ,,of        

,,creation4    ,aleim 7corruptly called 
,elohim by the modern ,jews1 but always 
,aleim  in the synagogue copies7 means  
the ,strong ,forces 7or1 by subsequent  
impersonation1 subaltern gods71         
operating to carry out the purposes and 
execute the plans of ,jeove4 ,al1 the   
root1 signifies ,strong1 strength1  a   
ram2 ,al-e means ,strong in a personal  
sense2 ,aleim 7plural7 means  the       
,forces1 the ,strong-ones1 the ,powers1 
and in ,egyptian mythology1  the        
subordinate1 or executive1 gods1 the    
demi-urgi4 ,exodus vii4 #a1  ,and the   
,lord ,jeove said unto ,moses1 ,see ,i  
have made thee a god  ,aleim to         
,pharaoh2 thou shalt speak all that ,i  
command thee4    ,bra1 carved1 cut1     
fashioned like the work of a sculptor1  
gave a new  shape to1 formed from       
unformed material4 ,from ,br1 a knife2  
br-i1  to carve1 to cut4    ,brashit1 in
 the commencement or beginning of       
individualized existence  7with the     
initial preposition b-74 ,b signifies   

in2 it 7which is  related to at7        
signifies individualized existence2     
rash1 a principle  or beginning1 or a   
commencement4    ,at1 connected with the
 ,chaldaic1 signifies substance1        
essence1  or individuality1 the thing   
itself 7,latin1 ens72 it is correctly   
translated individualized substance4    
,eshmim1 the combination of the         
preposition e with the substantive      
shmim1 the word signifying of the       
visible heavens1 or the planisphere4    
,artz1 the earth in a state of aridity1 
or as a generalized expression  for the 
earth2 ar signifies the earth1 and the  
termination tz  intensifies the         
signification of drought1 whiteness1    
aridity2 in  contrast with this is adme1
 red earth1 or productive earth or soil4
    ,u- is a conjunction1 signifying and
 or then1 in the sense of succession  of
 time1 something like our phrase and    
then4    ,teou does not mean without    
form1 nor does ubeou mean and void1 as  
rendered in our ,english version1 at    

least not in the ordinary sense  of     
these words4 ,teou refers to extinct    
life1 or to existence shut  up as in a  
tomb and in darkness1 while u-beou      
refers to life which  is about          
reappearing1 but still hidden in the egg
 or the ovary1 and  waiting for the word
 which shall cause the dawn of creation 
to shine  upon it4 ,these words are more
 properly rendered tomb-like darkness   
and undeveloped4    ,eshc means         
darkness2 not merely an intense         
darkness1 but what may be  denominated a
 thick darkness2 it is an enshrouding   
darkness which  compresses and hinders4 
,it is precisely such a darkness as     
would be  produced by the               
interstratified cloud-layers between the
 convolutions  of a forming spiral      
nebula1 or the cloud-strata surrounding 
the  earth before electrolytic          
decomposition of the aqueous vapors had 
ensued4 ,with the advent of the sun1 in 
the narrative1 this darkness  and the   
term which expresses it disappear4      

,teou-m is the word above explained1    
with the termination -m1  expressing the
 idea of arrested1 doubtful1 indefinite1
 as applied to  all existence2 the word 
undifferentiated nature properly        
interprets  its vagueness and general   
character of an abyss of being1 in the  
etymological sense of nature as the     
totality of things at that time  born or
 produced4    ,rove means breath1 in the
 sense of an expanding1 liberating1 or  
developing spirit2 its literal meaning  
is the breath1 the spirit  which dilates
 and frees4    ,mrepht1 brooded with    
incubating love2 reph is composed of re1
 to be  full of good-will1 to be        
agreeable1 and eph1 to cover1 to        
protect1  to incubate1 to brood4        
,mim1 the seeds of all beings1 the      
waters4 ,it is said1 the choice of  this
 letter m1 to signify water the         
alphabetical ,egyptian letter m  is     
represented by the two undulatory lines 
which in the hieroglyphics  represent   
water1 is connected with the ,egyptian  

ideas of the cause  of the generation of
 living beings4 ,numbers xxiv4 #g1 ,he  
shall  pour the waters out of his       
buckets1 and the seed zro in the waters 
b-mim4 ,the latter word is plural in    
form1 but both singular and  plural in  
sense4    ,aour1 diffused light2 a light
 resembling the dawn1 but quite distinct
  from the light of the sun4 ,the latter
 was not established until the  fourth  
day1 and its advent is characterized by 
a new word1 leair1  to cause light to   
move above the earth4    ,joum is day1  
generically1 and lile night4    ,rqi1   
the expanse2 atrqi1 the individualized  
substance of the  expanse4 ,space1 in   
the opinion of the ,egyptians1 not being
 a vacuum1  but a material substance1   
,moses could say1 and was even compelled
 to  say1 'the substance of space1 that 
which constitutes it4'    ,osh1 made4   
,this word first occurs in verse #g1 and
 is there applied to  the making a      
separation between the waters or aqueous
 vapors condensed  around the earth and 

those condensed around some similar spot
 above1  as regards the individuality of
 the expanse1--to wit1 the solar core   
or nucleus1--to which1 attracted by     
gravity from the attenuated vapors  of  
the space between1 is due the subsequent
 establishment of the solar  light and  
heat1 as in an electrical arc light1 and
 the presence of  oxygen in the         
terrestrial atmosphere4 ,these          
processes1 involving  the constitution  
of our atmosphere and of the sun's      
photosphere  and chromosphere1 were not 
completed until two subsequent cosmical 
periods had elapsed1 from the third to  
the fifth4 ,the word osh1 in its        
different combinations and inflections1 
is also used in verse #aa1 where  it    
signifies making1 as applied to fruit2  
yielding fruit1 in verse  #ab2 they     
made1 as applied to the sun and moon1 in
 verse #af2 made1  as applied to the    
entity of quadrupeds and higher animals 
generally1  in verse #be2 we will make1 
as applied to man1 verse #bf2 had made1 

as applied to every entity of creation1 
verse #ca2 had made1 as  applied to the 
specially directed work as mlactou1     
chapter ii4 verse  #b2 and finally1 in  
the general summing up in verse #c of   
the second  chapter1 as an element in a 
compound substantive phrase according   
to the making-act1 or in accordance with
 the making of creation4    ,oshout1 it 
is said1 signifies a manual operation1  
carried on  according to a previously   
conceived idea1 or model4    ,we find a 
similar use of the substantive          
infinitive with a preceding  preposition
 in verse #ba1 chapter iii4 ,ctnout is  
derived from tne1  a consoling word4    
,tnout1 the infinitive of the           
conjugation ,piel1 adds  to the word the
 act of causing to be done1 and of doing
 with care4    ,a similar construction1 
lraout1 is employed in chapter ii4 verse
  #ai1 translated in the ,english       
version1 and brought them unto ,adam  to
 see what 4442 more literally1 as       
regards the act of seeing1  or according

 to a vision1 or show4 ,that is1 they   
were brought and  presented to his      
sight4    ,the object in writing these  
two words1 bra and l-osh-out1 together  
at  the very end of the narrative was to
 conclusively establish the fact1       
beyond all possible doubt1 that the     
whole work of creation was an  orderly  
and harmonious progression4    ,mlactou1
 which word is used twice in verse #b   
and once in verse #c of the  second     
chapter1 and not previously1 is also    
introduced for specific  emphasis4 ,it  
means that the whole preceding work of  
creation was1 in  its nature1 the work  
of ,mlac1 a messenger1 or a specially   
energized  and directed agency1 sent to 
fulfil the appointed work of ,jeove4    
,its  purpose was to forever prevent the
 belief that the work of creation  was  
due to mere natural forces1 on the one  
hand1 operating by chance2  and1 on the 
other1 that these forces were           
independent gods carrying  out their own
 purposes1 and of their own will4 ,it   

was set up as a  double barrier against 
rationalism on the one side and         
polytheism on  the other4    ,it may be 
incidentally added that the popular     
belief that ,adam was  created out of   
the dust of the earth is not in         
accordance with the  original record4   
,in the second narrative1 chapter ii4   
verse #g1 the  word ophr is rendered    
dust in our ,english version1 but it    
does not  signify ordinary terrestrial  
dust at all2 its radical meaning is to  
volatilize a substance1 to sublimate it4
 ,the true signification of  the word   
used is analogous to a material essence4
 ,the same word is  used in ,numbers    
xxiii4 #aj as a synonym for seed2 it is 
said that  the ,septuagint version      
translates ophr by sperma4    ,the      
formation1 described in the third       
chapter1 of the female human  being out 
of one of the ribs of ,adam1 excised for
 that purpose 7which  is a matter of    
almost universal popular belief71 is    
not1 in reality1  what is stated in the 

original4 ,in verse #ba of chapter ii4  
the words  are rendered in our version1 
,and he took one of his ribs4 ,what is  
really said1 however1 is ,and he brought
 out another one from his  sides4 ,so   
the similar expression in verse #bb in  
reality signifies1  caused to be made   
according to womankind the              
individualized substance  of his side4  
,the word translated of his ribs is     
precisely the same as is  subsequently  
used by the same writer 7,exodus xxxvii4
 #bg7 to designate  the location of the 
supporting rings upon an altar of       
incense1 and  is there rendered1 by the 
two corners of it1 upon the two sides4  
,the defective translation is due to    
imperfect knowledge1 at that  time1 of  
the processes of organic development4   
,the true signification  is that given  
in the ,institutes of ,manu3 ,having    
divided his own  sub-sistence1 the      
,mighty ,power became half male and half
 female4    ,the words rendered help    
meet in verses #ah and #bj have a far   

higher meaning2 ,i will make him a help 
meet should be translated1  ,i will     
cause to be made for him an overseeing  
help as a guide1  an instructor1 a      
revealer4 ,and in verse #bj of chapter  
iii41 ,and  ,adam called his wife's name
 ,eve1 the latter word is not           
translated2  the correct rendering is1  
,and ,adam called the symbolic name of  
his  wife the female serpent-wise       
revealer1 she who explains1 points out  
things1 who instructs1 for that is what 
the true root-meaning of ,eve           
signifies4 ,the concluding words of this
 verse1 because she was the  mother of  
all living1 are obviously mistranslated1
 for not only was  she not a mother at  
all1 but she did not even conceive1 as  
stated in  the next chapter1 until she  
had left the garden finally4 ,the true  
signification is1 because she was the   
mother of all spiritual1  see verse #bb1
 as contradistinguished from animal and 
vegetable life4    ,the female human    
being1 the word translated woman1 has   

the generic  root-signification of      
flame1 while1 prior to ,eve1 that of the
  ,adamic man is the red earth4 ,as the 
male was formed from a material  earthly
 essence1 the female was created one    
remove further from the  gross and      
material in the direction of the        
spiritual2 and her powers  were         
distinctively subjective1 those of      
intuition1 while those of  the male were
 objective1 those derived from          
instruction4 ,even in the  final curse  
7so called7 the man turns back to the   
earth to earn his  subsistence1 while   
the woman turns forward to the          
instruction of  the future men and      
women1 the children2 for the words1 ,in 
sorrow  shalt thou bring forth children1
 have left one word of the original     
untranslated1 and by supplying this the 
sense is entirely changed1  and         
conceiving1 and bringing forth1 in      
sorrow shalt thou bring up1  care for1  
and train children4 ,in those countries 
childbirth was  never attended with much

 pain or sorrow4    ,the obvious effect 
of the whole inspired or traditionary   
second  narrative is to clearly         
differentiate the contrasted faculties  
of  the two sexes1 and the root-meanings
 of the words employed1 whether  ,moses 
himself perceived it or not1 are a      
testimonial of the highest  possible    
character for woman1 instead of being1  
as rendered in the  ordinary versions1 a
 mark of inferiority1 or even of        
degradation4 ,in  the garden scene1 when
 she partook of the fruit of the tree of
  knowledge1 she did not do it hastily  
or from mere temptation2 it is  said    
that she considered it attentively2 the 
same word being used  as was employed in
 the first narrative to mark the intense
 interest  and almost superhuman        
character of the consideration by the   
,aleim  of the work1 as its successive  
stages appeared1 which they were        
delegated to perform1 and which ,jeove  
himself directed4 ,the prize1  to her1  
far outweighed the penalty1 and the     

aspiring sibyl dared to  lift the       
innermost veil in the adytum of the     
temple1 and grasp the  lofty truths     
which made her as one of the ,aleim4 ,so
 fell ,prometheus4    ,and then1 no     
sooner had the flame-crowned seer won   
her precious prize1  than1 woman-like1  
she turned and laid it before her       
husband1 and he1  the innocent one1 did 
eat4    ,the serpent was not a mere     
snake1 be it understood2 it was the     
,egyptian  ,typhon1 the dark ,spirit of 
doubt1 the questioner1 the tempter1 the 
eternal if1 the why1 whence1 what1 and  
whither8    ,it was her insatiable      
aspiration to reach the highest possible
  limits of human knowledge which gave  
strength to her daring1 and  not a      
childish fancy for an apple4 ,all this1 
of course1 is lost in  the translation4 
,it is as though the national standard  
of a mighty  people had been disinterred
 from the remains of past ages1 which   
had  been borne aloft at the head of    
mighty armies for centuries1 and for    

which thousands had gloriously died in  
battle in defence of a sacred  cause1   
and which now1 its past history         
untraced1 has been catalogued  as a     
brass bird of some sort mounted on a    
stick4    ,it is to be regretted that   
there is no plain1 popular work by a    
thoroughly capable scholar1 without     
theological or anti-theological  bias1  
which treats of the origin1 form1       
root-derivation1 usage1  accurate       
signification1 and construction of the  
comparatively few  words employed in the
 ancient narratives which compose the   
first  half-dozen chapters of ,genesis1 
and1 we may add1 the book of ,job2      
something like those inestimable works  
which deal with the ancient  cosmogonic 
literature of ,egypt1 ,babylonia1       
,persia1 ,india1 ,china1  ,phoenicia1   
and ,central ,america4 ,nothing of this 
sort is to be found1  at all events in a
 form accessible to the general reader1 
and such a  work1 in small compass1     
would be of the highest importance to   

popular  instructors1 to students1 and  
to the public as well1 for it would     
throw a flood of light on these         
extremely valuable but1 hitherto1  so   
illy-comprehended records4              
,,the ,,mosaic ,,narrative ,,of         
,,creation4        #a4 ,aleim1 the      
,forces1 fashioned like the work of a   
sculptor1 in      the commencement of   
individualized existence1 the           
individualized      substance of the    
heavens and the individualized substance
 of      the earth4        #b4 ,and the 
earth was in tomb-like darkness and     
undeveloped1      and there was         
compressive hindering darkness on the   
surface of      undifferentiated nature4
 ,and the dilating and liberating       
,spirit      of the ,forces hovered with
 incubating love on the surface of the  
seeds of all beings1 the waters4        
#c4 ,then ,aleim said1 ,there shall be a
 diffused light2 and a diffused         
light was4        #d4 ,and ,aleim       
regarded with attention the             

individualized substance      of the    
diffused light1 because good4 ,and      
,aleim caused a separation      to be   
made between the diffused light and     
between the compressive      hindering  
darkness4        #e4 ,then ,aleim       
exclaimed for the diffused light1 ,day6 
and for the      compressive hindering  
darkness exclaimed1 ,night6 ,and there  
was a      transition from light to     
darkness1 and then there was a renewal  
of light2 ,first ,day4        #f4 ,then 
,aleim said1 ,there shall be an         
expansion obtained by a      thinning in
 the center of the waters1 and there was
 that which      caused a separation to 
be made by occupying a spot1 the waters 
according to the waters4        #g4 ,and
 ,aleim made the individualized         
substance of the expanse1      and      
caused a separation to exist by the     
occupation of the spot1      of the     
waters which are under as regards the   
expanse of space1      and by the       
occupation of the spot1 of the waters   

which are above      as regards the     
expanse of space2 and it was so4        
#h4 ,then ,aleim exclaimed for the      
expanse of space1 ,the ,heavens6 and    
there was a transition from light to    
darkness1 and then there      was a     
renewal of light2 ,second ,day4         
#i4 ,and ,aleim said1 ,the waters which 
are underneath the heavens      will    
tend directly1 in order to meet in it1  
towards a single spot      fixed upon   
for their meeting2 and of dryness       
produced by the action      of an       
internal fire the appearance shall be   
made2 and it was so4        #aj4 ,then  
,aleim exclaimed for the dryness1       
,earth6 and for the spot      fixed upon
 for the meeting of the waters          
exclaimed1 ,seas6 ,then      ,aleim     
looked attentively at it1 because good4 
#aa4 ,and ,aleim said1 ,there shall be  
made to grow from the earth      a dwarf
 vegetation which can be trodden under  
foot1 a maturing      plant causing to  
be sowed around it a seed1 the strong   

and woody      substance of fruit making
 fruit after his kind whose seed is in  
itself above the earth2 and it was so4  
#ab4 ,and there was caused to arise     
suddenly and full of strength      a    
dwarf vegetation1 a maturing plant      
sowing around it seed after      his    
kind2 and the woody substance yielding  
fruit whose seed is      in itself after
 his kind4 ,then ,aleim considered it1  
because good4        #ac4 ,and there was
 a transition from light to darkness1   
and then      there was a renewal of    
light2 ,third ,day4        #ad4 ,then   
,aleim said1 ,there shall be            
starry-lights in the expanse      of    
space of the heavens to separate between
 the duration of the      day and       
between the duration of the night2 and  
they shall be for      signs1 and for   
seasons1 and for the days which make the
 year1      and for the repetitions of  
years4        #ae4 ,and they shall be   
for luminous bodies in the expanse of   
space of the heavens to cause light to  

move above the earth2      and it was   
so4        #af4 ,and ,aleim made a      
double individualized substance1 the    
superior      in size and excellence of 
the starry-lights1 the individualized   
substance which was the greater of the  
luminous bodies to represent      the   
rule of the day1 and the lesser luminous
 body to represent      the rule of the 
night4        ,of the dim and almost    
extinct lights the stars they made the  
individualized substance also4          
#ag4 ,and ,aleim established these      
individualized substances in the        
expanse of space of the heavens to make 
light move above the earth4        #ah4 
,and to be representatives of dominion  
during the day and      during the      
night1 and to separate between the      
continuance of      diffused light and  
between the continuance of compressive  
hindering      darkness2 then ,aleim    
looked attentively at it1 because good4 
#ai4 ,and there was a transition from   
light to darkness1 and then      there  

was a renewal of light2 ,fourth ,day4   
#bj4 ,then ,aleim said1 ,the waters     
shall bring forth a swarm of            
swarming creatures having living breath2
 and that which flies1      the birds1  
shall be made to fly with strength and  
fleetness above      the earth in the   
space extended of the heavens4          
#ba4 ,and ,aleim fashioned like the work
 of a sculptor the      individualized  
substance of those which are superior in
 size of      the gigantic reptiles and 
every individualized substance having   
living breath1 that moveth1 which they  
had produced1 swarming      from the    
waters1 according to their kind2 and    
every individualized      substance of  
flying thing with wings1 after his kind4
 ,then ,aleim      looked attentively at
 it1 because good4        #bb4 ,and     
,aleim blessed these individualities by 
saying1 propagate      your species and 
multiply yourselves1 and fill the       
individualized      substance of the    
waters in the seas2 and as for the      

flying thing1      it shall multiply    
itself on the earth4        #bc4 ,and   
there was a transition from light to    
darkness1 and then      there was a     
renewal of light2 ,fifth ,day4          
#bd4 ,then ,aleim said1 ,from the earth 
shall be brought forth the      living  
breath according to its kind1 the       
quadruped1 and the being      which     
moveth about1 and the terrestrial animal
 according to its      kind2 and it was 
so4        #be4 ,and ,aleim made the    
individualized substance of the animal  
of      the earth according to his kind1
 and the individualized substance       
of the quadruped according to his kind1 
and every individualized      substance 
that moveth about of red earth according
 to his      kind4 ,then ,aleim regarded
 it1 because good4        #bf4 ,then    
,aleim said1 ,we will make mankind of a 
like order of      intellect with       
ourselves1 and they shall extend their  
dominion      over the fish of the sea1 
and over the bird of the heavens1 and   

over the quadruped1 and over all of the 
earth1 and over all the      moving     
beings that move about over the earth4  
#bg4 ,and ,aleim fashioned like the work
 of a sculptor the      individualized  
substance of mankind in the exactness of
 a shadow      cast upon a wall2 on this
 shadow ,aleim carved the individuality2
      male and female they fashioned the
 individualized substance4        #bh4  
,then ,aleim blessed the individualized 
substance4 ,and ,aleim      said unto   
them1 ,be fruitful and multiply and     
replenish the      individualized       
substance of the earth1 and subdue it1  
and extend      your dominion over the  
fish of the sea1 and over the birds of  
the heavens1 and over all life of the   
being which moveth about      over the  
earth4        #bi4 ,and ,aleim said1    
,behold ,i have given for you every     
useful      plant-substance yielding    
seed1 yielding seed which there is over 
the surface of all the earth1 and every 
individualized substance      of tree   

which has in it fruit pertaining to a   
tree yielding seed1      yielding seed  
for you1 it shall be for food4          
#cj4 ,and for all animal life of the    
earth1 and for everything      that     
flies in the heavens1 and for every     
being that moveth over      the surface 
of the earth which has in it living     
breath1 every      individualized       
substance which is a green maturing     
plant shall      be for food4 ,and it   
was so4        #ca4 ,then ,aleim looked 
at every individualized substance which 
they had made1 and behold it was as good
 as possible4 ,and there      was a     
transition from light to darkness1 and  
then there was a      renewal of light2 
,sixth ,day4        7,chapter ii47 #a4  
,then the finishing was made of the     
heavens1      and of the earth1 and of  
all the orderly arrangement4        #b4 
,and ,aleim the ,forces finished on the 
seventh day the divinely      appointed 
and directed work which they had        
performed2 and they      came again to a

 state of rest on the seventh day from  
all the      appointed work which they  
had done4        #c4 ,then ,aleim       
blessed the individualized substance of 
the seventh      day and sanctified it1 
because in it they returned to their    
primitive condition from all the        
divinely appointed and directed         
work which the ,forces had fashioned    
like the work of a sculptor1      in    
accordance with the making of creation4 
,,chapter ,,xv4    ,,conclusion4 ,,the  
,,harmony ,,of ,,nature',s ,,laws ,,and 
,,operations4      ,we have passed      
before us the different orders of       
celestial phenomena2  we have called    
down the denizens of the starry skies   
and placed them  on the witness stand1  
and we have interrogated them in the    
light of  the evidence which they have  
given before2 we have compared their    
different statements1 and have found    
that in their testimony they  all       
finally agree4 ,instead of confusion1 we
 find order2 instead of  complexity1    

simplicity2 instead of discord1 harmony2
 and through all  we see the orderly    
progress of nature with uniform step1   
from stage  to stage1 higher and higher1
 until at last she stands triumphant1   
the handmaid of creative power1 in the  
very center of the arch of  the         
universe4 ,we have taken the simplest   
operations which we find  in progress   
around us1 and have extended them to    
larger operations1  constantly keeping  
in view their relevancy and the facts   
which form  their sole support4 ,mere   
speculation has been excluded1 and      
theory  has found its every step based  
on an established fact4 ,in this way  we
 may hope to make place for further     
investigation in this field  by abler   
minds1 and that the conclusions of      
science may then become  so well        
understood and so firmly established    
that to go back to the  dead-and-dying  
theories of solar energies will be like 
going back  to ,ptolemy and ,tycho for  
our astronomy4    ,we have considered   

the hypothesis which bases the energy of
 our  sun upon his inherent heat1 upon  
combustion1 upon the accretion  of      
meteoric streams1 and upon his slow and 
gradual condensation  of volume2 and    
have found that all these hypotheses1   
singly or  combined1 fail to account for
 his energy through the vistas of the   
past1 during which we know he must have 
shone as he now shines1  and fail to    
account for more than a slow but        
inevitable decline1  in the relatively  
near future1 into eternal darkness and  
death4 ,we  have found that all these   
theories are alike1 in that they        
recognize  the sun itself as the only   
source of his energy1 that his enormous 
emission of light and heat is almost    
entirely wasted in empty space1  and    
that this will go on with the same      
frightful waste until he has  squandered
 his whole patrimony and ends his       
melancholy career in the  poor-house or 
the dungeon4 ,we have1 however1 seen    
that even this will  not save the       

wretched client1 for he has already     
spent far more than  he ever could have 
received originally by inheritance1 and 
far more  than he could have gained by  
gifts pitched in in bulk--like the poor 
colored brother's potatoes--through the 
window4    ,we have therefore gone over 
the case anew1 and have learned that    
enormous electrical currents are        
constantly passing between the earth    
and the sun1 with practically no        
resistance1 and this irrespective of    
any hypothesis1 actual or possible2 and 
these facts have solved at the  outset  
one of the greatest conceivable         
difficulties1--to wit1 that of  the     
transmission through space of such      
essential currents4 ,turning  our       
attention to the more recent advances in
 electricity and the  arts of electrical
 construction1 we have found that       
induction  machines1 as                 
contradistinguished from the older      
friction machines1  operate in a manner 
strongly suggestive of the rotation of a

 planet  through space1 and we learn    
that the electrical potential of the air
  overhead increases constantly by an   
enormous multiplying number as we       
ascend1 proving great electrical action 
in the regions immediately  surrounding 
the earth1 and which we have called the 
terrestrial  electrosphere4 ,we have    
also found that sun-spots and solar     
storms  and other disturbances are at   
once reflected in our earth-currents1   
and are followed immediately by great   
electrical disturbances here  and by    
extensive auroral displays at night4    
,experiment shows that  similar auroral 
displays may be produced with an        
electrical machine by  interruption of  
the current leading to its principal    
condenser1 thus  demonstrating that the 
currents are from the earth to the sun1 
and not  the converse4 ,we have also    
found that while the solar atmosphere is
  largely composed of hydrogen gas1 that
 of the earth and other planets  is     
largely composed of oxygen1 and that    

these gases1 the constituents  of water1
 are separately disengaged at the       
opposite electrical  poles by the       
electrolytic action of a powerful       
current of electricity  applied to the  
decomposition of aqueous vapors1 in     
accordance with the  established        
electrical law that any fluid which will
 transmit a current  may be decomposed  
by it2 hence we learn that our          
interplanetary space  contains          
attenuated aqueous vapors1 which we have
 also learned to be  true from other    
sources4 ,as our other planets1 as well 
as the earth1  are found to be          
surrounded with an atmosphere of dilute 
oxygen1 and  with aqueous vapors        
suspended in it1 we know that their     
action upon  the sun must be similar to 
that of the earth1 and that the         
congeries  of planets thus unite in     
their supply of electricity to the sun  
in  constant and enormous currents4     
,examining now the effects of passing   
powerful electrical currents through a  

compressed envelope of hydrogen  gas    
surrounding a conductor1 we find that   
great heat ensues1 that the  hydrogen   
becomes highly incandescent1 and that   
the metallic nucleus  within is raised  
to an extremely high temperature1 and we
 also observe  the same effects when the
 current is transmitted through the     
separated  carbons of an electrical arc 
light4 ,we have thus accounted for the  
constant supply of the energy which1    
transformed into light and heat1  as in 
the last-mentioned experiments1 the sun 
pours forth perpetually  into space4 ,we
 have also learned that electrical      
induction machines  derive their        
electrical currents from the surrounding
 air1 and also  that no electricity can 
be generated in1 or transmitted through1
  a vacuum1 and hence we learn that the 
planets1 by the rotation of  their      
electrospheres in contact with the      
attenuated vapors of space1  generate   
these powerful electrical currents with 
which the sun is  supplied1 and that the

 sun merely restores to the ocean from  
which1  in another form1 it was         
abstracted the light and heat which he  
emits1  and that1 instead of all being  
wasted except that which falls upon the 
planets1 in fact that is the only part  
which actually1 in one sense  at least1 
is wasted3 all the rest is deposited in 
bank1 but that is  spent4 ,the important
 generalization is thus arrived at1 that
 the  true source of solar energy is to 
be found in the attenuated vapors of    
space1 and that the mode is that of the 
generation of electricity by  the       
rotating planetary electrospheres1 its  
transference through the  aqueous vapors
 of interplanetary space to the sun1 its
 passage under  resistance through the  
compressed hydrogen envelope1 its       
transformation  there into light and    
heat1 and its final emission or         
backpouring into  space again4 ,the     
molecular motions which give rise to    
light and heat  in their passage through
 the vast distances of space are finally

  retarded by and disappear as radiated 
energy in the restoration  or increase  
of the intermolecular tension of the    
vapors of space1  and these processes   
continue1 and must continue1 to all     
eternity1  if the sun exists and his    
planets continue to revolve in orderly  
circuit around him4 ,if there be any    
permanent degradation of energy1  it    
must be with reference to the total     
volume of infinite1 or at least         
indefinite1 space1 and not with         
reference to the relatively minute      
spark of fire which we call the sun4 ,we
 have also learned that the  moon's     
electrosphere is repelled by that of its
 neighbor1 the earth1  and that whatever
 vapor and atmosphere it may have can   
exist only on  its opposite side2 and we
 have also learned that1 by reason of   
the  moon's peculiar axial rotation with
 reference to the earth1 any other      
arrangement of the lunar moisture and   
air1 even if such were possible1  would 
have absolutely prohibited all life on  

that subordinate planet  at any stage of
 its existence whatever4 ,we have       
applied the above  principles to the    
fixed stars1 and have learned that1 by  
the same law1  the resplendent star     
itself is proof conclusive that it1 too1
 must  have planets rotating around it1 
and that these planets must have an     
oxygen atmosphere and clouds of aqueous 
vapor like our own4 ,we have            
interpreted the double and multiple     
stars1 and1 by an extension of  the same
 law1 explained their frequently        
contrasted or complementary  colors4    
,the new stars which blaze up in sudden 
conflagration and  then die out have no 
secrets when this new light is turned   
upon them2  they1 too1 are but the      
faithful followers of the law2 and the  
temporary  and variable stars likewise  
fall into their appropriate categories  
and  obediently move on with the        
procession4 ,the comets1--the           
banner-bearers  of the sidereal         
hosts1--which from the earliest ages    

have defied  science to read their      
cabalistic legend1 find it now writ     
large  and in plain ,english4 ,even the 
meteorites1 the cosmical dust1 the      
unorganized dbris of space1 are found to
 be amenable to the same  law4 ,when we 
turn in wider gaze to spy out the       
fantastic nebul on the  very outer      
fringe of visible things1 after we have 
separated out the  star-clusters and    
organized galaxies of suns1 we apply our
 touchstone  to the irresolvable gaseous
 nebul1 and lo6 their mystery dissolves 
at a touch4 ,we have even been able to  
picture the processes of the  creation  
of solar systems and whole galaxies of  
suns in which the  same law finds scope1
 and by its infinite and harmonious     
extension we  learn that nature moves   
with a comprehensive plan1 and is       
uniform in  her infinite variety and    
eternal in her ceaseless activity4 ,we  
have  been told that--                  
,the poem of the universe               
,no rhythm has nor rhyme2               

,some god recites the wondrous song1    
,a stanza at a time4      ,but it is all
 a mistake2 the loftiest strains which  
ever inspired  the soul of ,mozart or of
 ,beethoven had not the ineffable       
harmony1  nor the sweetest songs of the 
greatest poets the perfect rhyme1  ever 
repeated and ever varied1 of the        
universe4 ,its orderly progress  is like
 the onward movement of a mighty army1  
and there is but one  grand commander1  
but one ,god1 and ,nature1 that showeth 
forth his  handiwork1 is his prophet4   
,we have found that the course of       
nature1  the eternally youthful mother1 
is the same1 whether in spinning a      
tendril in the garden1 in weaving a     
whirlwind in the atmosphere1 or  in     
elaborating from the universal vapors of
 primordial space a solar  system or a  
galaxy4 ,and it is not a convulsive1    
spasmodic nature that  we find2 we do   
not love to associate great explosions1 
cataclysms1  the destruction of worlds1 
or the extinction of suns with our ideas

  of nature4 ,these seem not to be of   
nature4 ,the nature we love is  the     
gentle mother1 uniform in her           
operations1 kindly in her ways1         
beneficent in her results2 the nature of
 the rain1 the sunshine1  seed-time and 
harvest and the sprouting seed again2   
ever patient1  ever responsive1 but in  
all as firm and steadfast as the        
foundations  of eternity itself4 ,so we 
have found her4 ,we have assumed        
nothing2 we  have observed and          
endeavored to deduce from observation   
her systematic  plan1 for this is the   
voice of her law1 the same yesterday1   
to-day1  and forever4 ,to quote the     
words of ,matthew ,arnold1 from out the 
darkness of the past we seem to hear her
 say1--                 ,will ye claim  
for your great ones the gift            
,to have rendered the gleam of my skies8
                ,race after race1 man   
after man1              ,have thought   
that my secret was theirs1              
--,they are dust1 they are changed1 they

 are gone6              ,i remain4