,,e>?work ,,slips ,,& ,,subsid5ces ,,^u ,,public ,,works3 ,_! ,causes1 ,prev5tion1 & ,rep>ation4 ,,especially ,,writt5 ,,to ,,assi/ ,,^? ,,engag$ ,,9 ,,! ,,con/ruction ,,or ,,ma9t5ance ,,( ,,railways1 ,,docks1 ,,canals1 ,,roads1 ,,wat]works1 ,,riv]-,,banks1 ,,reclamation ,,embankm5ts1 ,,dra9age ,,works1 c4 ,,by ,,john ,,newman1 ,assoc4 ,m4 ,in/4 ,c4,e4 ,,au?or ,,( 8,,notes ,,on ,,concrete ,,& ,,works ,,9 ,,concrete20 8,,iron ,,cyl9d] ,,bridge ,,pi]s20 8,,que] ,,sc5es ,,( ,,railway ,,life40 ,illu/ration ,,london3 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #abe1 ,,/r&1 ,,new ,,york3 #ab1 ,,cortl&t ,,/reet4 #ahij4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,preface4 ,! abs5ce ( any b fragm5t>y in=mation on ,,e>?-,,slips ,,& ,,subsid5ces ,,^u ,,public ,,works1 "o ( ! mo/ annoy+ & exp5sive occurr5ces 9 eng9e]+ con/ruction1 has prompt$ ! au?or to write ?is book z a vade-mecum = ^? 9 *>ge ( su* und]tak+s z ,railways1 ,docks1 ,canals1 ,roads1 ,wat]works1 ,riv]-banks1 ,reclamation embankm5ts1 ,dra9age works1 c41 & also to fill1 h[ev] imp]fectly1 some:at ( an hiatus 9 eng9e]+ lit]ature4 ,! !ory ( ! lat]al pressure ( e>?work is n exam9$1 z x is well und]/ood2 ! int5tion be+ to concisely describe ! *ief causes ( slips & subsid5ces 9 diff]5t e>?s & _m po9ts requir+ att5tion1 to call to remembrance "s soils especially trea*]\s & un/able1 & to "n v>i\s prev5tive measures & effectual rem$ies4 ,a ref]5ce to ! table ( cont5ts & ! index w demon/rate ! compreh5siv5ess ( ! subject1 = x involves 9 ! v>i\s practical applications ! sci5ce ( geology1 physical geography1 meteorology1 ! laws ( pressure ( e>?1 "s *emical & botanical1 & o!r sci5tific k4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to obs]ve t no exhau/ive treatise is h]e9 attempt$1 = t w\ld inde$ be an ,h]culean task2 b 9 ?is volume ! endeav\r has be5 made to pres5t reliable in=mation1 ! result ( exp]i5ce1 rese>*1 consid]able lab\r1 & l5g!n$ obs]vation4 ,j4 ,n4 ,,london4 ,m>*1 #ahij4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,pages ,,introduction--,,g5]al ,,consid]ations--,,enum]ation ,,( ,,! ,,prim>y ,,causes ,,( ,,slips ,,& ,,subsid5ces ,,9 ,,cutt+s ,,& ,,embankm5ts1 ,,& ,,e>?works ,,con/ruct$ ,,to ,,conta9 ,,or ,,exclude ,,wat]--,,"s ,,dom9ant ,,pr9ciples ,,to ,,be ,,rememb]$ ,,9 ,,det]m9+ ,,! ,,location ,,( ,,e>?works #a-ab ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,probability ,,( ,a ,,slip--,,"t ,,( ,,! ,,mo/ ,,frequ5t ,,occurr5ce--,,"s ,,conditions ,,"u ,,:i* ,,slips ,,& ,,subsid5ces ,,9 ,,cutt+s ,,& ,,embankm5ts ,,may ,,be ,,expect$ ,,9 ,,diff]5t ,,e>?s1 ,,su* ,,z ,,rock1 ,,*alk1 ,,s&1 ,,gravel1 ,,clay1 ,c41 ,c4--,,notes ,,on ,,! ,,slopes ,,( ,,repose #ac-di ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,g5]al ,,effect ,,( ,a ,,slip ,,9 ,a ,,cutt+ ,,or ,,an ,,embankm5t--,,enum]ation ,,& ,,consid]ation ,,( ,,"s ,,protective ,,& ,,rem$ial ,,works--,,treatm5t ,,( ,,! ,,slipp$ ,,e>? #ej-fd ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,notes ,,on ,,! ,,p]colation ,,( ,,wat]--,,sy/ems ,,( ,,dra9age ,,( ,,cutt+s ,,& ,,embankm5ts ,,9 ,,diff]5t ,,k9ds ,,( ,,e>? ,,& ,,"u ,,div]se ,,conditions--,,! ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,culv]ts1 ,,pipe-,,dra9s1 ,,tr5*es1 ,,dit*es1 ,,& ,,cat*wat] ,,dra9s #fe-hf ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,approximate ,,safe ,,maximum ,,load ,,^u ,,diff]5t ,,e>?s--,,normal ,,pressure ,,( ,,! ,,e>?--,,! ,,safe ,,maximum ,,load ,,^u ,,deposit$ ,,e>?--,,approximate ,,safe ,,maximum ,,height ,,( ,,an ,,embankm5t #hg-ig ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,slopes1 ,,g5]al ,,consid]ations--,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,g5]al ,,range ,,( ,,slopes--,,table ,,( ,,coeffici5ts ,,( ,,friction--,,notes ,,on ,,! ,,cohesion ,,( ,,e>?--,,=m ,,( ,a ,,slope--,,"s ,,conditions ,,gov]n+ ,,! ,,necess>y ,,incl9ation--,,wid5+ ,,e>?works ,,)9 ,,! ,,orig9al ,,f5ces #ih-aad ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,notes ,,^u ,,! ,,pres]vation ,,( ,,! ,,foot ,,( ,a ,,slope--,,v>i\s ,,me?ods ,,( ,,cov]+ ,,& ,,support+ ,a ,,slope--,,protection ,,f ,,sn[-,,drifts--,,! ,,=mation ,,wid? ,,( ,,cutt+s ,,& ,,embankm5ts--,,! ,,delet]i\s ,,effects ,,( ,,vibration #aae-ada ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,e>?works ,,9 ,,or ,,^u ,,sidelong ,,gr\nd--,,"s ,,insecure ,,conditions--,,precaution>y ,,measures--,,embankm5ts ,,^u ,,s(t ,,gr\nd--,,embankm5ts ,,compos$ ,,( ,,s(t ,,e>?--,,! ,,promotion ,,( ,,/ability ,,& ,,consolidation #adb-aee ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,deposition ,,( ,,an ,,embankm5t--,,prep>ation ,,( ,,! ,,gr\nd ,,^u ,,:i* ,,an ,,embankm5t ,,has ,,to ,,be ,,deposit$--,,me?ods ,,( ,,proc$ure--,,consid]ation ,,( ,,"s ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,sy/ems--,,! ,,effect ,,( ,,! ,,height ,,( ,a ,,tip ,,& ,,! ,,l5g? ,,( ,a ,,lead--,,! ,,/eam ,,navvy ,,& ,,embankm5ts #aef-agj ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,notes ,,^u ,,! ,,location1 ,,pres]vation1 ,,& ,,protection ,,( ,,sea1 ,,e/u>y1 ,,reclamation1 ,,canal1 ,,& ,,res]voir ,,embankm5ts ,,( ,,e>? ,,con/ruct$ ,,to ,,conta9 ,,or ,,expel ,,wat] #aga-aig ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,notes ,,^u ,,! ,,failure ,,( ,,dock ,,& ,,o!r ,,walls ,,f ,a ,,=w>d ,,movem5t ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,fill+ ,,or ,,back+--,,consid]ation ,,( ,,! ,,causes ,,( ,,su* ,,action ,,& ,,"s ,,prev5tive ,,& ,,rem$ial ,,measures #aih-bae ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,notes ,,^u ,,slips ,,( ,,e>?1 ,,subsid5ces1 ,,& ,,movem5t ,,9 ,,f\ndations ,,caus$ ,,by 8,,boils10 ,,or ,,an ,,upw>d ,,ru% ,,( ,,wat] ,,9 ,,loose ,,e>?s--,,consid]ation ,,( ,,"s ,,precaution>y ,,& ,,rem$ial ,,op]ations #baf-bbe ,,e>?work ,,slips ,,& ,,subsid5ces ,,^u ,,public ,,works4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introduction--,,g5]al ,,consid]ations--,,enum]ation ,,( ,,! ,,prim>y ,,causes ,,( ,,slips ,,& ,,subsid5ces ,,9 ,,cutt+s ,,& ,,embankm5ts1 ,,& ,,e>?works ,,con/ruct$ ,,to ,,conta9 ,,or ,,exclude ,,wat]--,,"s ,,dom9ant ,,pr9ciples ,,to ,,be ,,rememb]$ ,,9 ,,det]m9+ ,,! ,,location ,,( ,,e>?works4 ,e>?slips & subsid5ces may be caus$ by ! t]rible p[] ( an e>?quake or o!r dread$ subt]ranean de/roy+ =ce1 upheav+1 crack+1 & %att]+ ! e>?'s cru/ & deal+ dea? & havoc 9 its awe-inspir+ c\rse4 ,!y may also orig9ate f ! untir+ ef=ts ( ! meane/ rod5ts or ! mo/ m9ute cru/ace\s animals burr[+ passages = aque\s action1 ! *ief ag5t ( ! in/ability ( ! surface soils ( ! e>?4 ,! ceaseless mutability ( ! creat$ elem5ts has be5 ?us magnific5tly describ$3-- 8,= "k1 :atev] 0 creat$ ne$s ,to be su/a9'd & f$2 ( elem5ts ,! gross] fe$s ! pur]1 e>? ! sea1 ,e>? & ! sea fe$ air1 ! air ^? fires ,e!real1 & z l[e/ fir/ ! ,moon2 ,:5ce 9 h] visage r\nd ^? spots1 unpurg'd ,vap\rs n yet into h] sub/ance turn'd4 ,nor do? ! ,moon no n\ri%m5t exhale ,f h] moi/ cont95t to high] orbs4 ,! ,sun1 t light imp>ts to all1 receives ,f all 8 alim5tal recomp5se ,9 humid exhalations1 & at ev5 ,sups ) ! ocean40 ,x is ! con/ant abs5ce ( peace & re/ 9 ! e>? t produces in/ability1 h[ev] great1 h[ev] small1 = ! disa/r\s l&slips t h occurr$ 9 ,switz]l& & o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 9 ,india1 & rec5tly at ,quebec1 & 9 all regions ( ! _w 7 caus$ by ! same dis9tegrat+ op]ations z ^? :i* g5]ate an e>?-slip ( comp>ative insignificance4 ,9 proce$+ to a practical consid]ation ( e>?slips & subsid5ces1 x may be well to call att5tion to ! complexity ( ! subject1 ! "* & conditions ( e>? & ! impair+ elem5ts be+ s v v>iable & num]\s t x is impossible to det]m9e any rules ev5 = a p>ticul> soil2 &1 moreov]1 x is necess>y to sep>ately consid] slips 9 cutt+s & ^? 9 embankm5ts1 z movem5t is some:at diff]5tly creat$1 & x does n necess>ily foll[ because e>? /&s well 9 a cutt+ t x w d s 9 an embankm5t1 or vice v]s4 ,x may be said e k9d ( e>? w slip or wea!r "u c]ta9 conditions1 ev5 ! h>de/ rock if sup]impos$ ^u an un/able /ratum2 !re=e1 "s ( ! ma9 que/ions to be consid]$ are3-- ,i4 ,,! ,,probability ,,( ,,! ,,occurr5ce ,,( ,a ,,slip4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,effect ,,( ,a ,,slip4 ,,iii4 ,,%\ld ,,e ,,precaution ,,be ,,tak5 ,,to ,,prev5t ,a ,,slip ,,:5 ,a ,,cutt+ ,,is ,,be+ ,,excavat$ ,,or ,,an ,,embankm5t ,,be+ ,,deposit$2 ,,or ,,is ,,x ,,bett] ,,to ,,repair ,a ,,slip ,,z ,,x ,,happ5s8 ,x is obvi\s 9 railway cutt+s & embankm5ts a m]e crumbl+ ( ! surface may be disreg>d$1 b 9 dock1 canal1 or any works conta9+ or expell+ wat]1 ! smalle/ movem5t1 crack1 or ap]ture mu/ imm$iately receive due att5tion4 ,9 ord] to effectually rem$y a disease x is necess>y to asc]ta9 its "*4 ,_m ( ! prim>y causes ( slips 9 cutt+s & embankm5ts are1 !re=e1 "h enum]at$2 b1 ( c\rse1 !y are n nam$ 9 _! ord] ( importance1 :i* _c be e/abli%$4 ,,heads ,,( ,,! ,,*ief ,,causes ,,( ,,slips ,,& ,,subsid5ces ,,9 ,,cutt+s4 #a4 ,! want ( uni=mity ( ! e>?1 p>ticul>ly z reg>ds p]colation1 cohesive p[]1 & resi/ance to *ange by ! action ( wat] or meteorological influ5ces4 #b4 ,! tempor>y or p]man5t exposure ( ! e>? to ! effects ( ! atmosph]e1 ra91 fro/1 & sn[4 #c4 ,! op5+ to ! air & wea!r1 c41 ( ?9 seams ( an un/able "*1 :i*1 :5 unsupport$1 gradually crumble away & cease to support sup]impos$ /rata4 #d4 ,! tapp+ ( spr+s4 #e4 ,! l[] portion ( a slope be+ impair$ or und]m9$ ?r\gh an infiltration & fl[ ( wat]4 #f4 ,! erosion ( ! slope4 #g4 ,! e>? hav+ int]m$iate un/able seams4 #h4 ,! unprotect$ surface ( a cutt+ 9 light soil be+ loos5$ & bl[n away by a /orm ( w9d1 especially :5 x is accompani$ by ra94 #i4 ,! slopes be+ honey-comb$ & di/urb$ by rod5ts1 p>ticul>ly 9 clay soils1 clay m>ls1 & clay loams2 & ^u subm]g$ e>?work1 & 9 c]ta9 di/ricts 9 ! tropics by a mollusk :i* w p5etrate & ev5 de/roy rocks4 #aj4 ,f "o portion ( a cutt+ be+ m expos$ ?an ano!r to dis9tegrat+ meteorological influ5ces4 #aa4 ,by ! dis*>ge ( wat] f l& dra9s foll[+ ! old dra9age c\rse1 & by ! localisation ( ! surface or l& wat] fl[4 #ab4 ,! improp] or imp]fect dra9age ( l& outside a railway f5ce1 caus+ l& wat] to accumulate 9 & dis*>ge itself ?r\gh ! slope1 ?us di/urb+ ! e/abli%$ equilibrium4 #ac4 ,by an int]f]5ce ) ! natural fl[ ( any und]gr\nd wat]s4 #ad4 ,by all[+ wat] to accumulate 9 ! gullet1 or ^u ! =mation dur+ ! process ( ! excavation ( a cutt+4 #ae4 ,! local p]colation ( wat] ?r\gh ! slopes ( a cutt+ f ! defective con/ruction1 wrong location1 or p]meability ( ! surface ( a dra9 ^u ! cess4 #af4 ,an accumulation ( wat] caus$ by ! unev5ness ( ! slopes4 #ag4 ,! accel]ation & inducem5t ( a fl[ ?r\gh ! slope ( any wat] conta9$ 9 l& outside a railway f5ce1 & consequ5t incitem5t to ! l&-wat] to exude4 #ah4 ,vibration4 #ai4 ,insuffici5t flatness ( a slope ei!r at ! "t ( excavation or aft] exposure to meteorological influ5ces4 #bj4 ,! /ra9 ^u ! face f lumps ( e>? be+ all[$ to rema9 ^u a slope dur+ ! con/ruction ( ! works1 or ! gullet be+ excavat$ = a consid]able di/ance 9 advance2 ! cohesion ( ! soil be+ !reby unduly & unequally /ra9$4 #ba4 ,by ov]weight+4 #bb4 ,by unequal load+4 #bc4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( spoil banks ^u ! cess1 or ! additional load+ ( ! gr\nd ne> & outside a railway f5ce1 9 s(t soils hav+ practically no cohesion or t5acity4 #bd4 ,! excavation remov$ de/roy+ ! cont9uity ( support1 especially 9 soils p>tak+ ( a semi-fluid "*4 #be4 ,! want ( uni=mity ( ! cov]+ ( a slope caus+ unequal p]colation or exudation ( wat]4 #bf4 ,! neglect to fill up1 or o!rwise rem$y1 cracks or fissures 9 ! slopes or cess4 #bg4 ,by artificial or irregul> consolidation ei!r ( ! =mation or slopes sup]9duc+ movem5t & wea!r+ 9 any portion n s compact$4 #bh4 ,f an accumulation ( wat] beh9d a reta9+ wall at ! foot ( a slope1 result+ 9 ! /ability ( ! wall be+ ov]come by pressure4 #bi4 ,by unequal pressure ^u ! f\ndations ( a reta9+ wall at ! foot ( a slope caus$ by lat]al ov]-pressure tilt+ x1 or by its unequal settlem5t4 #cj4 ,9 sidelong gr\nd1 by ! removal ( support aga9/ ! action ( slid+1 :i*1 )\t artificial aid1 may n be arre/$ until ! slope ( a cutt+ on ! high] side approa*es ! /eepe/ incl9ation ( ! face ( ! hill4 #ca4 ,by bla/+ lam9at$ rock dipp+ at a consid]able angle t[>ds a cutt+ 9 ! side ( a hill2 ! result sometimes be+ t a cavity is made depriv+ ! upp] b$s ( support & caus+ !m to ov]hang1 & a mass ext5d+ to ! top surface ( ! hill to slip along ! unsupport$ /ratum4 ,! fir/ t5 8heads ( ! *ief causes ( slips 9 cutt+s0 might be class$ z ,,natural1 i4e4 produc$ or effect$ by nature &1 !re=e1 beyond ! p[] ( man to entirely prev5t2 ! rema9+ heads z ,,artificial1 & !re=e1 9 "s degree to be prev5t$1 unless obvi\sly ! result ( ! unavoidable exig5cies ( con/ruction4 ,,heads ,,( ,,! ,,*ief ,,causes ,,( ,,slips ,,& ,,subsid5ces ,,9 ,,embankm5ts4 #a4 ,! p]colation ( surface wat] into ! toe & "u an embankm5t ^u ! orig9al surface ( ! gr\nd1 & also d[nw>ds ?r\gh ! =mation4 #b4 ,unequal p]colation ( wat] ?r\gh ! =mation or ! slopes4 #c4 ,! surface ( ! gr\nd ^u :i* an embankm5t is tipp$ incl9+ 9 "o direction1 or fall+ on ea* side f ! c5tre4 #d4 ,! effects ( ra91 fro/1 sn[1 & ! atmosph]e on ! deposit$ e>?4 #e4 ,by a crumbl+ ( ! l[] portion ( a slope4 #f4 ,by a hurricane or extreme w9d =ce1 especially :5 accompani$ by ra9 & ! location is t ( a n>r[1 /eep valley1 bl[+ away or dissipat+ ! top & ! surface ( an uncov]$ embankm5t4 #g4 ,by a slope becom+ honey-comb$ by rod5ts1 & 9 "s few c\ntries by an embankm5t 9 a riv] or ! sea be+ bor$ & di/urb$ by cru/acea4 #h4 ,insuffici5t slope = p]man5t /ability at ! "t ( or aft] deposition4 #i4 ,! want ( adhesion betwe5 ! surface ( ! gr\nd ^u :i* an embankm5t is tipp$ & ! deposit$ mat]ial4 #aj4 ,by ! accumulation at ! foot ( an embankm5t ( b\ld]s or lumps hav+ no cohesion1 & no adhesion to ! surface ( ! gr\nd ^u :i* !y are deposit$4 #aa4 ,! weight be+ too great ^u ! gr\nd ^u :i* an embankm5t re/s4 #ab4 ,by unequal load+4 #ac4 ,an accumulation ( wat]1 caus$ by ! unev5ness ( ! surface ( an embankm5t1 or by ! gr\nd n be+ prep>$ s z to prev5t a lodgm5t ( wat]4 #ad4 ,by ob/ruct+ ! e/abli%$ dis*>ge ( l&-wat] or by attempt+ to div]t ! natural fl[ ( und]gr\nd wat]s4 #ae4 ,! localisation ( ! surface dra9age4 #af4 ,wat] p]colat+ into a b5*+ tr5*1 made to receive ! toe ( a slope1 !reby impair+ ! cohesion ( ! soil & r$uc+ its weight-c>ry+ capacity & /ability4 #ag4 ,vibration4 #ah4 ,! diff]5t nature & /ate ( ! e>? tipp$ into an embankm5t & ! consequ5t localisation ( wat] 9 ! m p]vi\s soil1 caus+ unequal settlem5t1 subsid5ce & movem5t4 #ai4 ,an embankm5t be+ tipp$ ( mat]ial 9 a diff]5t /ate ( dryness1 moi/ness1 h>dness1 s(tness1 or 9 a froz5 condition4 #bj4 ,! size & "* ( ! e>?1 z excavat$ 9 ! cutt+s2 = in/ance1 :e!r pick$ & %ovell$ soil1 or lumps ( excavation simply b>r$ away & deposit$ 9 small masses ) e>? approa*+ a /ate ( dirt or mud4 #ba4 ,ov]pressure ^u ! mat]ial =m+ an embankm5t4 #bb4 ,! diff]5t conditions ( ! wea!r1 :5 an embankm5t is tipp$1 caus+ portions to become dry1 wet1 or froz54 #bc4 ,! lead or di/ance f a cutt+ to ! place ( deposition be+ ( consid]able l5g?4 #bd4 ,! e>? be+ loos5$ f vibration & concussion dur+ transit 9 ! wagons1 & 9 ! process ( deposition1 ?us caus+ x to be non-homog5e\s4 #be4 ,by ! e>? be+ tipp$ ) great] impetus at "o "p ?an at ano!r place4 #bf4 ,an embankm5t n be+ tipp$ to its full wid? z x progresses1 :e!r 9 "o or m wagon roads4 #bg4 ,fir/ tipp+ ! c5tral portion ( an embankm5t1 & complet+ ! wid? & slope by side deposition aft] "s "t has elaps$4 #bh4 ,tipp+ ! cont5ts ( e>? wagons f a consid]able height1 !reby loos5+ & sep>at+ ! soil1 caus+ ! l>g] & heavi] mat]ial to be ne> ! foot ( a slope & 9 lumps1 & an embankm5t to h int]/ices & be tempor>ily or p]man5tly un/able4 #bi4 ,irregul> consolidation1 artificial or o!rwise4 #cj4 ,unequal exposure1 p>ticul>ly 9 embankm5ts ^u sidelong gr\nd4 #ca4 ,insuffici5t wid? ( ! =mation1 especially 9 high & expos$ embankm5ts4 #cb4 ,! junction ( two embankm5ts tipp$ f cutt+s 9 diff]5t k9ds ( e>?4 #cc4 ,no "t be+ all[$ = subsid5ce or consolidation be=e ! deposit$ e>? is subject to v>y+ loads & vibration4 #cd4 ,by all[+ wat] to collect ^u ! =mation & to =m *annels d[n ! slopes4 #ce4 ,! neglect to fill1 or o!rwise rem$y1 cracks or fissures4 #cf4 ,! want ( uni=mity ( ! cov]+ ( ! slopes or top ( an embankm5t caus+ unequal p]colation ( wat]4 #cg4 ,by a reta9+ wall at ! toe ( a slope prev5t+ ! dis*>ge ( wat] t has p]colat$ ?r\gh ! =mation & ! slope4 #ch4 ,by an abnormal increase ( ! load ^u ! f\ndation ( a wall caus$ by lat]al ?ru/ & tilt+ =w>d1 or fracture ( ! foot+s or ! concrete b$4 ,! fir/ sev5 heads ( 8! *ief causes ( slips 9 embankm5ts0 might be class$ z ,,natural1 i4e41 produc$ by nature1 &1 !re=e1 beyond ! p[] ( man to entirely prev5t2 ! rema9d] z ,,artificial1 &1 !re=e1 m or less to be prev5t$4 ,9 ! case ( e>?works made to conta9 or exclude wat] = ! purposes ( docks1 canals1 wat]works1 reclamation ( l&1 irrigation or dra9age1 c41 may be add$1 )\t ref]5ce to _! con/ruction3-- #a4 ,leakage along a dis*>ge culv]t1 sluice1 or tunnel 9 an embankm5t1 or ?r\gh ! e>?work4 #b4 ,erosion ( ! l& slope or back+ ( a reta9+ wall by waves1 or spray fall+ !reon & necess>ily pass+ ov] ! top ( an embankm5t4 #c4 ,f abrasion & damage1 caus$ by vessels or b>ges rubb+ or collid+ aga9/ a slope4 #d4 ,f erosion caus$ by wave action produc$ by ! passage ( boats or %ips propell$ by ma*9]y2 or by w9d waves4 #e4 ,v>iation 9 ! wat] level1 caus+ unequal pressure4 #f4 ,9 ! case ( a reclamation embankm5t1 x be+ clos$ f ! ends1 & n by rais+ 9 lay]s1 f ! gr\nd level4 #g4 ,v>iation ( ! subm]g$ area1 & consequ5t *ange 9 ! degree ( exposure to det]iorat+ influ5ces4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to sum up1 ! pr9cipal causes ( slips 9 e>?work may be /at$ to be air1 wat]1 fro/ & ?aw1 ov]-pressure1 & vibration2 ! *ief ag5t bo? 9 cutt+s & embankm5ts be+ wat]1 :i* =ces =w>d ! surface ( ! slopes & de/roys ! cohesion ( ! soil1 & impairs its frictional resi/ance until ! e>? is unable to su/a9 ! weight ^u x2 vibration aid+ & complet+ ! movem5t1 z x n only t5ds to loos5 ! soil1 b may di/urb ! equilibrium ( e>?work :i* is almo/ mov+1 & only requires a slight %ock to set x 9 motion3 9 fact1 vibration is frequ5tly ! complem5t>y ag5cy t causes a slip1 & is obvi\sly felt mo/ 9 loose soils2 b if !re %\ld be fissures 9 e>? ( a t5aci\s "*1 or b\ld]s 9 clay to disconnect x1 ! effect ( vibration w be m s]i\s 9 ! latt] case1 z :ole masses ( e>? may become deta*$1 in/ead ( an equal settlem5t proce$+ z ) soils1 su* z s& & gravel1 :i* may become consolidat$ by %ak+1 ow+ to w$g+ ( ! p>ticles1 %\ld ! slopes be suffici5tly flat to prev5t lat]al movem5t2 b x may deta* portions ( ! slopes 9 soil hav+ little or no cohesion1 & ?us initiate a slip4 ,9 ! foll[+ *apt]s ! *ief causes ( slips 9 cutt+s & embankm5ts are consid]$1 toge!r ) o!rs be>+ ^u a solution ( ! subject1 :i* is s int]wov5 t x is impracticable to pres]ve a successive ord]1 b an endeav\r has be5 made to sep>ately indicate ! cause & "s rem$ies t may be adopt$3 b be=e proce$+ to p>ticul>ise1 x may be well to "n a few dom9ant pr9ciples ( ! alignm5t ( public works1 :i* if duly reg>d$ may t5d to prev5t slips ( s]i\s importance4 ,consequ5t ^u f9ancial & o!r causes1 an eng9e] is usually requir$ to s quickly prep>e ! necess>y p>liam5t>y plans & sections ( public works1 m p>ticul>ly = railways1 t x is beyond ! p[] ( ! mo/ exp]i5c$ to set out 9 a few h\rs ! be/ l9e ( railway1 c41 across a c\ntry1 giv+ due consid]ation to ! p>liam5t>y1 con/ructional1 economical work+1 di/rict & ?r\gh traffic1 & f9ancial requirem5ts ( ! und]tak+4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 a few po9ts :i* he may be able to reg>d respect+ ! /ability ( e>?works1 "s ( :i* are n[ enum]at$4 #a4 ,avoid cutt+s or embankm5ts 9 drift soil 9 or ^u ! side ( a hill4 #b4 ,avoid all damm+ back or fl[ ( ! natural dra9age wat]s1 or heap+ ( sn[ by ! erection ( an embankm5t1 especially 9 m\nta9\s1 hilly1 or sidelong gr\nd1 & 9 an undra9$ di/rict4 #c4 ,:5 any excavation is 9 ! side ( a hill1 obs]ve ! natural configuration ( ! gr\nd 9 ! wette/ "p1 & rememb] t ! slope ( a cutt+ may n /& unless at ! same incl9ation1 or ! toe ( ! slope is support$ by a massive reta9+ wall & ext5sive dra9+1 & t any di/urbance may cause x to require a flatt] incl9ation4 #d4 ,avoid riv] or /ream div]sions 9 e>? ( a v por\s "*2 & %\ld an embankm5t h to be erect$ ne> to a deep riv] hav+ a /eep bank1 locate ! l9e a suffici5t di/ance f ! edge t ! slope ( ! riv] bank may be flatt5$ :5 requir$1 z an extraord9>y flood may cause x to be un/able & to fall 91 & 9 ord] to re/ore x to a condition ( /ability1 x may be necess>y to wid5 ! riv] & r$uce ! angle ( incl9ation ( its banks4 #e4 ,9 trea*]\s e>? d n locate a railway close to a road1 except at a /ation1 z if ! l9e be plac$ above ! road1 a slip ^u ! railway may result 9 a slip ^u ! road2 & %\ld ! l9e be bel[ a road1 ! extra weight or vibration may cause ! road to foll[ ! railway & act1 z x 71 9 unison ) x4 #f4 ,9 trea*]\s soil1 :]e practicable1 h /ations ne>ly ^u ! surface ( ! natural gr\nd4 #g4 ,rememb] t ^u "o side ( ev5 ! n>r[e/ gorge or valley ! e>? may be mu* m solid ?an ^u ! o!r4 #h4 ,9 expos$ situations 9 a hilly c\ntry asc]ta9 ^u :i* side sn[ rema9s ! long]1 note :i* receives ! great] am\nt ( sun%9e1 & is ! wett] & m cov]$ ) trees & vegetation4 ,9 a hill or m\nta91 ! side to leew>d ( ! prevail+ w9ds almo/ inv>iably receives ! great] ra9fall4 #i4 ,9 m\nta9\s or hilly di/ricts x may be advantage\s to place a railway or road at a high level ^u ! sunny side ( a hill or valley1 z obvi\sly x dries quick]2 sn[ does n accumulate ) ! same facility1 unless x happ5s to be expos$ to ! direction ( ! prevail+ /orms2 ! sunny side may be practically cle> ( sn[1 ! %ady almo/ impassable2 b !re is "o drawback to ! sunny side1 namely--! m frequ5t occurr5ce ( sn[-slips1 :i* may or may n be s]i\s 9 ext5t4 ,on ! :ole1 exp]i5ce seems to %[ t ! wood$ side ( a valley is ! be/ to select--sometimes "o side is b>e & ! o!r wood$--unless !re are special reasons to ! contr>y4 ,9 ! w9t] season 9 c]ta9 di/ricts abroad1 = in/ance1 9 p>ts ( ,afghani/an & ! adjac5t m\nta9 passes1 ! days are sometimes z hot z ! summ] ( ,european c\ntries1 b at night ! !rmomet] may fall bel[ freez+-po9t1 h5ce ! value ( tree-protection4 ,x is obvi\s t 9 su* climates ! soil is peculi>ly liable to dis9tegrat+ =ces1 & likely to slip1 unless ( a solid "*1 & t ^u "o side e>?works may be /able1 & ^u ! o!r trea*]\s4 #aj4 ,9 _m c\ntries x may be advisable to adopt a valley 9 pref]5ce to a hill-side l9e1 especially if ! di/rict is free f floods1 or if ! wat]s fl[+ d[n ! side ( ! hills are consid]able & sudd5ly appe>1 & !re is a riv] & ample means available ( controll+ ! hill-side torr5ts & conduct+ !m to ! riv]4 ,if n1 & ! l9e mu/ be on ! m\nta9 side1 x may be advisable1 9 expos$ places :]e wat] rapidly accumulates & becomes a torr5t1 to adopt ! sy/em ( %ort tunnels r\nd ! hill spurs1 9 pref]5ce to deep cutt+s1 dra9age1 & slope protection works1 & to place ! railway or road at ! highe/ level1 s z to be free f ! influ5ce ( floods4 #aa4 ,be> 9 m9d t 9 high m\nta9\s di/ricts ! drift deposit is g5]ally torr5tial alluvium4 #ab4 ,avoid z mu* z possible high embank$ approa*es to a riv] bridge1 especially :5 a deep riv]1 :i* frequ5tly *anges its c\rse1 is 9 a flat c\ntry4 #ac4 ,consid] if ! simple erection ( an embankm5t may 9 "t cause its de/ruction1 by ! arre/ or attempt$ div]sion ( ! usual fl[ ( ! l& wat]s4 #ad4 ,9 trea*]\s soils1 on ! side ( a cliff fac+ ! sea1 det]m9e :e!r x is pref]able to erect timb] tre/les at its base in/ead ( a solid embankm5t1 or to place ! l9e 9 a tunnel4 ,! tre/les c ei!r be erect$ ^u sills1 re/+ on ! gr\nd & on %ort piles well secur$ f movem5t1 or on piles driv5 "s di/ance into ! gr\nd4 ,! sy/em may also be adopt$ if ! gr\nd be ( a yield+ "*4 #ae4 ,x has be5 notic$ 9 "s m\nta9\s di/ricts t ! cl\ds break aga9/ ! highe/ ma9 ranges1 dis*>ge !mselves on ! small] ranges1 & g5]ally d n rea* ! inn] ranges :i* rise on ! high table-l&s2 !re=e1 consid] :e!r by locat+ a railway or road ne> ! latt]1 !re is mu* less probability ( a slip 9 ! e>?works & less provision requir$ = surface & flood wat]s4 #af4 ,! configuration ( a di/rict ?r\gh :i* a railway or road mu/ be align$1 may be su* t its location becomes "o m bas$ ^u plac+ x on soil :i* is less bad or trea*]\s1 ?an ^u firm or /able gr\nd4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 hilly c\ntries contigu\s to ! sea or l>ge riv]s4 ,x may be optional to con/ruct ! works ^u l[ or valley gr\nd ^u ! side ( a m\nta9 or hill1 or close to ! sea %ore or a riv] bank1 :i* may require cont9u\s def5ce works to protect x f waves & erosion2 or on table-l& :i*1 h[ev]1 if imp]vi\s & ret5tive ( moi/ure may act z a cat*m5t res]voir betwe5 hills1 & cause ! gr\nd to be always 9 a damp /ate4 ,! "* ( ! soil1 ! magnitude1 & especially ! av]age height ( ! embankm5ts1 or ! dep? ( ! cutt+s1 ! easy dra9age & dis*>ge ( ! ra9fall1 & an economically con/ruct$1 ma9ta9$1 & work$ l9e are ! *ief conditions to insep>ably be> 9 m9d 9 det]m9+ ! location4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,probability ,,( ,a ,,slip--,,"t ,,( ,,! ,,mo/ ,,frequ5t ,,occurr5ce--,,"s ,,conditions ,,"u ,,:i* ,,slips ,,& ,,subsid5ces ,,9 ,,cutt+s ,,& ,,embankm5ts ,,may ,,be ,,expect$ ,,9 ,,diff]5t ,,e>?s1 ,,su* ,,z ,,rock1 ,,*alk1 ,,s&1 ,,gravel1 ,,clay1 ,c41 ,c41--,,notes ,,on ,,! ,,slopes ,,( ,,repose4 ,x is ( importance to "k :5 s]i\s slips are mo/ likely to happ5 & "u :at conditions !y are probable1 = ! process ( dis9tegration may comm5ce imm$iately ! e>? is excavat$1 & be v gradual1 al?\gh ! soil may rema9 /able = _m mon?s1 or ev5 a ye> or two1 because ! e>? has n _h "t to be affect$ to ! po9t ( in/ability4 ,! hi/ory ( record$ slips appe>s to indicate t ! mo/ s]i\s movem5ts ( e>? & ^? mo/ difficult to rem$y occur 9 ! foll[+ soils4 ,,drift ,,e>? ^u rock 9 sidelong gr\nd4 ,,*alk ,,soils1 z witness ! slips 9 ! e>ly "p ( #ahgg 9 ! cutt+s ne> ,folke/one1 & ! m rec5t on ! ,calais-,b\logne ,railway1 & t 9 an embankm5t ( *alk at ,b9ham's ,wood1 ne> ,balcombe1 9 ,octob] #ahec1 :5 9 a l5g? ( ab\t #bjj y>ds "s #gj1jjj cubic y>ds ( e>? slipp$ t[>ds a valley4 ,probably ?is is "o ( ! mo/ ext5sive record$ slips ( a railway embankm5t ( *alk2 h[ev]1 9 ?is case ! traffic 0 n /opp$1 b only delay$4 ,,clay ,,soils1 especially ! yell[ clay2 illu/rat$ by ! notable slip at ,new ,cross1 ne> ,london1 :5 "s #ij1jjj cubic y>ds ( yell[ clay mov$ ^u ! smoo? surface ( a %aly clay b$ & cov]$ ! =mation3 also ! br[n1 & b\ld] clay1 & ! lias clays1 z witness ! well-kn[n record$ slips 9 ! ,midl& c\nties ( ,engl&1 9 :i* ei!r alum9\s or calc>e\s mat]ial may prepond]ate4 ,!re are few1 if any1 e>?s 9 :i* ! cohesion1 weight-su/a9+ p[] & ability to resi/ ! action ( wat] & meteorological influ5ces are practically ! same at all dep?s1 ! diff]5t conditions1 arrangem5t1 & "* 9 :i* !y are f\nd be+ almo/ inf9ite1 & !re are e>?s :i* may become consolidat$ & wat]tight if 9 a con/antly moi/ & protect$ /ate1 t :5 dry & expos$ w %r9k1 fissure1 & soon become un/able4 ,consequ5t ^u cohesion1 a cutt+ may /& = "s "t almo/ v]tically2 nev]!less /ability _c be consid]$ z solely regulat$ by ! cohesion ( e>?1 = an embankm5t ( gravel1 s&1 or brok5 rock ) a prop] slope & protect$ f erosion w usually safely be> m load ?an an embankm5t ( clay1 al?\gh ! =m] mat]ial may be said to h no cohesion2 b ! lat]al ?ru/ ( dry1 firm s& is kn[n to be small1 provid$ ! s& is n di/urb$2 also no e>? c be said to be immovable "u e condition1 b consid]ation ( ! soils p>ticul>ly liable to di/urbance or mutation is1 "u ord9>y circum/ances1 ! ma9 "q to be det]m9$4 ,) few exceptions ! ext]ior or faces ( cutt+s & embankm5ts w1 at c]ta9 times1 become impair$ or sodd5$ by ! infiltration ( wat]4 ,9 cutt+s !re is ! additional dang]1 ow+ to ! geological =mation1 ( ! excavation rea*+ ! dep? at :i* wat] is g5]ally f\nd 9 ! locality1 & x is !re=e advisable to asc]ta9 ?is level1 & also to decide :e!r ! gr\nd mu/ be excavat$ bel[ x1 z necess>ily !re w be a d[nw>d fl[1 & ! slopes & =mation w consequ5tly h to su/a9 a pressure due to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! normal level ( ! wat]-be>+ /ratum 9 ! neighb\rhood & t ( any dep? b5ea? x4 ,9 su* a case1 9 addition to ! usual s(t5+ & loos5+ aque\s action1 !re is ! p>ticul> insecurity ( ! =mation & slopes be+ und]m9$ & erod$ by spr+s3 also 9 p]vi\s soil 9 a dra9$ di/rict a cutt+ w be f\nd to be comp>atively dry to ab\t ! level ( ! bottom ( ! exi/+ contigu\s dra9s1 b bel[ t dep? wat] w be pres5t1 probably 9 consid]able quantity4 ,l& dra9s also frequ5tly cause slips1 z !y localise ! fl[ ( ! surface or und]gr\nd wat]s1 & :5 9 excavat+ a cutt+ !y are int]cept$1 ! dis*>ge %\ld be l$ away f ! slopes2 b difficulty may be enc\nt]$ 9 effect+ ?is1 z wat] w usually foll[ its orig9al c\rse1 & x may be impossible to entirely div]t ! direction ( ! fl[1 & ! only ?+ to d may be to g5tly conduct ! wat] d[n ! slope by means ( pipes1 rubble1 burnt brick1 gravel surface dra9s1 or timb] ducts4 ,an important "q to det]m9e is1 :5 are slips 9 e>?work mo/ likely to occur4 ,9 ,europe !y are mo/ frequ5t 9 ! autumn & w9t] mon?s2 b no rule c be e/abli%$1 nor is x reasonable to conclude1 because any e>?work has rema9$ /able dur+ ! usual p]iod :5 slips may be expect$1 t1 !re=e1 none w happ51 = ! heavie/ ra9 may desc5d at an unusual season1 & z moi/ure is ! *ief cause ( ! in/ability ( all e>?s1 x is r to ! quantity ( ! ra9fall at any "t ?an to ! fix$ seasons t att5tion %\ld be direct$4 ,spr+ be+ ! drie/ season 9 ,engl& & autumn ! wette/1 ,octob] & ,novemb] be+ ! mon?s ( heavie/ ra9fall1 slips are m probable 9 ! latt] ?an ! =m] season2 b ! fir/ heavy & cont9u\s ra9fall aft] a p]iod ( e/ival dr\ght is t p>ticul>ly to be fe>$1 or ! fir/ ra9y wea!r aft] a dry p]iod irrespective ( ! season ( ! ye>2 b s]i\s slips may n occur = _m days or until ! expiration ( ev5 a mon? or two aft] su* ra9fall1 z ! gr\nd wat]s require "t be=e !y p]colate to or rea* ! site ( a cutt+1 &1 !re=e1 all dang] may be ?\ght to be pa/ :5 x is /eadily approa*+4 ,! autumnal ra9s h to replace ! moi/ure t has evaporat$ dur+ ! summ]1 & ?is may n1 & usually does n if x sl[ly proce$s1 produce in/ability 9 e>?work2 b imm$iately ! ra9fall approa*es or becomes 9 excess ( ! p[] ( ! natural absorption ( ! soil1 ! ra9 mu/ fl[ away1 = ! e>? be+ fully *>g$ _c conta9 x1 ! surface becomes wet or ! mass soak$1 accord+ to ! degree ( ! p]meability ( ! soil1 & ! quantity ( ra9 necess>y to produce saturation2 !re=e1 ! /ate ( ! e>? t induces a slip is t mo/ desirable to "k2 ?is _c be absolutely e/abli%$ 9 e case1 = x dep5ds ^u s _m influ5ces1 & obvi\sly v>ies accord+ to ! "* ( ! e>?1 ! v>ieties & conditions ( :i* are practically inf9ite4 ,9 c\ntries t h dry & wet seasons1 :i* cause ! e>? to become p>*$ & !n to be rapidly saturat$1 m]e surface wat]s to become /reams1 & riv]s torr5ts1 slips are probable soon aft] ! comm5cem5t ( ! ra9y season4 ,:5 fro/ foll[s ra9 or a fall ( sn[1 & ! latt] has desc5d$ ^u a froz5 surface & a ?aw sets 91 p>ticul>ly if x be accompani$ by a w>m w9d caus+ x to be v rapid 9 action1 ! e>? is sev]ely tri$1 = ! froz5 wat] 9 ! gr\nd becomes sudd5ly lib]at$1 :ile ! surface is 9 a /ate ( saturation4 ,probably ! wor/ ev5t t c occur = caus+ floods is :5 a sudd5 & rapid ?aw foll[s a heavy sn[fall ^u froz5 e>?1 z !n ! sn[ w melt1 & wat] _c g5tly p]colate ! e>?1 z ! surface w be 9 a m or less froz5 & imp]meable condition1 & ! sn[-wat] consequ5tly mu/ fl[ away4 ,%\ld any excessive or viol5t ra9fall succe$ a p]iod dur+ :i* ! heat ( ! sun has caus$ fissures 9 ! surface ( ! e>?1 all[+ wat] to ent]1 ! /ate ( ! soil is fav\rable to movem5t4 ,l& has also become un/able 9 m\nta9\s c\ntries because a di/rict has be5 de=e/$1 or tree-protection mu* r$uc$1 movem5t ( ! e>? usually happ5+ aft] ! fir/ heavy ra9s or ?aw succe$+ fro/ or sn[4 ,x has also be5 notic$ t :5 an e>? has become completely saturat$ or wat]-*>g$1 a sudd5 fall ( ! b>omet] to a l[ pressure w lib]ate ! p5t up wat] :i* ! soil _c conta9 & cause x to bur/ out1 ! equilibrium hav+ be5 s delicate4 ,"u su* circum/ances slips are ne>ly sure to ensue1 & to be s]i\s f _! sudd5 action4 ,ext5sive slips 9 e>?work seldom occur dur+ ! excavation1 or a %ort "t aft] ! completion ( a cutt+2 on ! o!r h&1 movem5t 9 an embankm5t frequ5tly happ5s dur+ deposition4 ,9 ! case ( an embankm5t1 "t may cause ! e>? to become consolidat$1 b 9 a cutt+ ! dis9tegrat+ & di/urb+ =ces1 & ! comb9$ action ( air & wat] p]colat+ until !y =ce =w>d ! e>?1 are usually gradual 9 _! op]ation1 & (t5 require a ye> or two to cause a /ate ( in/ability2 9 fact1 ! hi/ory ( slips1 ) a few exceptions1 9 soils ^: condition is v readily *ang$ by wat]1 indicates t s]i\s movem5t 9 cutt+s does n g5]ally occur until a cycle or two ( ! seasons has elaps$1 dur+ :i* p]iod meteorological influ5ces1 aid$ by vibration & o!r det]iorat+ op]ations1 are sl[ly & regul>ly proce$+1 until at l5g? su* a *ange 9 ! g5]al condition is caus$ t a slip happ5s1 app>5tly f "s sudd5 ag5cy1 :]eas ! /ability ( ! e>? has be5 gradually & surely wa/+ away = a long "t2 h5ce ! importance ( cont9ual c>eful obs]vation 9 cutt+s ev5 ( mod]ate dep? 9 d\btful soil4 ,9 canals & works ( a simil> "* con/ruct$ to conta9 wat]1 if any movem5t or slip ( e>?work takes place1 x usually occurs )9 a %ort "t ( ! wat] be+ admitt$1 & g5]ally )9 a few mon?s & seldom aft] s long a p]iod z a ye>1 ! gr\nd 9 a %ort "t becom+ consolidat$1 be+ exempt f sev]e vibration & _m ( ! di/urb+ ag5cies pres5t 9 railway cutt+s & embankm5ts4 ,9 endeav\r+ to asc]ta9 ! probability ( a slip occurr+1 n only %\ld ! sup]ficial /rata be consid]$1 b also ! orig9al =mation ( ! c\ntry2 = in/ance1 drift-soil1 :i* is g5]ally met ) ^u ! surface ( slop+ rocks1 may consi/ ( v>i\s e>?s int]mix$ 9 endless v>iety1 & 9 e conceivable %ape1 & is n necess>ily produc$ by a wea!r+ ( ! rock ^u :i* x lies1 = x may h be5 br\ght f a di/ance4 ,9 any case1 drift-soil is ! result ( decomposition & dis9tegration1 & f its nature is unreliable & ev] subject to *ange1 to slip1 & to subside1 & s are mo/ ( ! glacial deposits & mora9e f\nd 9 m\nta9\s c\ntries2 & :5ev] ! cont\r ( a di/rict is irregul> & has num]\s clefts1 s(t & m>%y places1 valleys & hills1 e>?works w require to be protect$ aga9/ slips2 also1 %\ld a cutt+ be at ! base ( a cliff or hill1 x w probably h to be excavat$ 9 drift deposit &1 p]haps1 9 silt if bel[ ! wat]-level ( adjac5t sea or riv]1 & ! gr\nd dips t[>ds ! natural outfall ( ! l&-wat]s4 ,su* drift-soil may be alt]nately dry & *>g$ ) wat] f ! rocks above1 especially if !y are mu* fissur$ & wat]-be>+ & p]mit easy p]colation ( wat]1 & mu/ always be 9 a /ate ( mutability4 ,,rock4 ,) reg>d to slips 9 rock1 or e>? g5]ally class$ z rock1 ! un/ratifi$ or igne\s rocks1 al?\gh !y are sometimes trav]s$ by m9]al ve9s & dykes1 are ! less likely to slip2 b rocks liable to surface decomposition & dis9tegration1 su* z "s v>ieties ( basalt & clay-slate1 :i* latt] by atmosph]ic & aque\s action w p>tly return to its orig9al /ate ( be+ f9e mud1 ?r[n d[n f ! metamorphic rocks1 may *ange _! condition & are likely to slip2 & also lime/one rock1 :i* h[ev] resi/s ! erod+ action ( wat] bett] ?an s&/one1 may become sep>at$ by fro/ al?\gh its surface soon dries4 ,simply kn[+ ! g5]al "* ( a rock )\t asc]ta9+ ! proportion1 /ate ( ! diff]5t p>ticles ( :i* x is compos$1 & :e!r any metamorphic action has tak5 place1 is n necess>ily a reliable guide to its /ability4 ,9 di/ricts situat$ at a high level1 rocks are usually less p]meable ?an 9 l[-ly+ l&s1 & ! surface dis*>ge is great] & quick] because ( ! increas$ ra9fall1 & less absorption & ret5tion ( wat]4 ,x %\ld be notic$ :e!r !re are dips 9 ! surface ( rock1 z !y (t5 conta9 unreliable mat]ial1 su* z pockets & pot-holes ( clay1 s&1 mud1 silt & detritus2 & movem5t may be expect$ if x be c>elessly tipp$ ) ! rock into an embankm5t4 ,rocks :i* oppose vegetation are usually h>d & wea!r-resi/+1 & ! faults & fissures local2 b x is n s mu* ! equal wea!r+ ( ! face ( rocks t is to be fe>$1 z ! pres5ce & int]sp]sion ( seams1 breaks & fissures1 & x %\ld always be borne 9 m9d t ! condition ( a rock v>ies consid]ably--x may be s\nd 9 "o place1 & be fissur$1 dis9tegrat$1 & quickly wea!r 9 o!rs--& t all lam9at$ & fissile e>?s are liable to slip because ( ! p]colation ( wat] d[n ve9s & crevices4 ,! durability ( a rock may be approximately kn[n by a c>eful exam9ation1 comm5c+ at ! surface ( ! gr\nd & proce$+ until x is rea*$1 ! ?ickness & "* ( ! diff]5t top soils be+ not$1 & p>ticul>ly :e!r ! degradation is uni=m2 b rock1 su* z "s s&/one1 :i* all[s wat] to ooze1 p]meate1 or =ce a passage1 is ( d\btful /ability4 ,wea!r+ may be possible only ^u ! surface or may gradually ext5d d[nw>ds1 & z x c h>dly be call$ a slip1 ! po9t to asc]ta9 is n s mu* t x is s\nd & wea!r-resi/+1 z to "k t !re is no *ance ( any portion becom+ deta*$ or slid+1 ?r\gh ! cohesion ( ! jo9ts be+ impair$ or de/roy$ by wat]1 fro/1 or o!r ag5cies2 = 9 ! case ( rocks :i* %[ irregul>ities ( /ratification1 mu* cleavage1 or are sep>at$ by upheaval1 or h syncl9al & anticl9al folds1 masses become deta*$ along ! l9e ( cleavage & indep5d5tly ( ! normal /ratification1 !re=e fissures or faults1 weak ve9s betwe5 masses ( rock & crevices1 or incl9$ b$s ?r\gh :i* wat] may fl[ & always be pres5t2 ! direction & incl9ation ( ! dip ( ! /rata1 effects ( wea!r ^u ! ve9s1 & to "k ! weight ^u slop+ gr\nd :i* ! rock w be> )\t slid+ d[n a hill are ! ma9 consid]ations2 = rocks may be di/ort$1 uprais$1 contort$ & tilt$ at e angle1 & ev5 horizontal b$s may repose ^u ! upturn$ edges ( o!r /rata4 ,an incl9$ wat]-be>+ /ratum betwe5 rock loosely b$d$ & incl9$ t[>ds a cutt+1 unless dra9$ & support$1 w probably cause a slip consequ5t ^u ! action ( wat] or fro/2 on ! o!r h&1 ve9s may alone hold ! masses toge!r1 &1 !re=e1 :5 !y are affect$ ! cem5t+ m$ium is de/roy$2 h[ev]1 incl9$ wat] seams are a frequ5t cause ( slips1 = :]e any wat]-be>+ e>? meets a clos] & consequ5tly less p]vi\s /ratum1 damp surfaces are produc$1 & an un/able condition2 consequ5tly1 mixtures ( rock1 clay1 & s&1 are usually tr\blesome4 ,also 9 a cutt+ 9 sidelong gr\nd if a /ratifi$ rock dips p>allel1 or ne>ly s1 to ! slope ( a hill1 slips are probable1 z x may slide t[>ds ! cutt+4 ,simil>ly1 9 a cutt+ 9 drift or alluvial soil1 or any t w quickly wea!r1 re/+ ^u rock1 especially %\ld x h a smoo? b$ incl9+ t[>ds ! =mation1 ! sup]impos$ e>? w usually be un/able1 & ev5 ! act ( p5etrat+ ! top /ratum1 or ! erection ( a reta9+ wall or ! weight ( a small embankm5t ^u x1 may cause x to move2 & :5 motion has comm5c$ x is difficult to arre/ x2 & %\ld wat] trickle ^u ! surface ( ! rock1 x may cause ! upp] /ratum to slide2 also :5 wat] fl[s or rema9s ^u rock hav+ a sup]impos$ b$ ( %ale or clay1 ! top /ratum may n rema9 at re/ ev5 ?\gh ! surface ( ! rock may be ne>ly level & practically wat]pro(1 & :]e rock b$s ov]lie %ale :i* is liable to become s(t5$ by "t & wat] & to p]i%1 p>ticul>ly :5 ! b$s are twi/$ or contort$2 z1 = in/ance1 lime/one or s&/one ^u %ale or m>ly-%ale1 ! latt] becom+ s(t5$ by ! action ( ! atmosph]e1 wat]1 or fro/ w =m a slid+ m$ium ^u :i* ! rock may move1 or %\ld %ale ov]lie rock1 z x frequ5tly does1 x may slide ^u ! h>d surface4 ,all alt]nate b$s ( %ale or any s(t] e>? ?an ! rock1 p>ticul>ly brok5 %ales :5 f\nd mix$ ) s& & clay & ! lias %ales1 & rock %\ld be reg>d$ z trea*]\s & liable to slip4 ,also "s ( ! slate rocks1 z !y frequ5tly h ve9s ( lime/one1 c41 & z ! latt] decomposes x mixes ) ! clay & becomes ( a m>ly "*4 ,d>k blue %ale or indurat$ slaty clay is sometimes difficult to excavate1 b :5 expos$ to atmosph]ic & aque\s action x breaks into pieces & becomes little bett] ?an a trea*]\s clay4 ,! cohesion ( %ale becomes less z x approa*es a greasy clayey condition1 &1 !re=e1 "o readily affect$ by wat] or air1 & x may !n n /& at a /eep] slope ?an #c to #a4 ,rock & %ale1 :i* may /& at a /eep incl9ation provid$ ! b$s are horizontal1 x has be5 f\nd1 d n p]man5tly repose :5 !y dip t[>ds a cutt+ until z flat a slope z #b to #a is giv52 & :]e clay & %ale b$s 9 cutt+s are pres5t1 a slope ( #a to #a has be5 insuffici5t1 & !y h n be5 /able till an incl9ation ( #b to #a has be5 adopt$4 ,z cutt+s 9 rock are frequ5tly 9 ! side ( a hill1 ! dip ( ! /rata %\ld be asc]ta9$1 & 9 ! case ( an un/ratifi$ rock1 x %\ld be kn[n :e!r x is fissur$ or lies ^u a solid & firm b$ consid]ably bel[ ! level ( a cutt+1 s t x may be prev5t$ f movem5t4 ,x %\ld also be asc]ta9$ if ! top /ratum is a m]e cru/1 su* z a capp+ ( conglom]ate re/+ ^u clay-rock1 ?r\gh :i* wat] may bur/ & cause x to sep>ate1 & sometimes ! rock may be m solid 9 ! valleys ?an ^u ! hill-side because ( great] diluvial action1 & induration caus$ by exposure4 ,! cry/all9e rocks are ! lea/ easily de/roy$ & are g5]ally r\gh & jagg$4 ,! sci5ce ( geology %[s t lime/ones1 s&/ones & clays1 7 orig9ally heaps ( mud deposit$1 remov$ or arrang$ by wat]2 & t b\ld]s are transplant$ masses f ! p>5t rock1 & are worn & r\nd$ by me*anical attrition4 ,consid]ation ( ! mann] 9 :i* rocks h be5 =m$ af=ds a fair indication ( _! /ability 9 e>?work2 = in/ance1 _m clay rocks are r$uc$ to a pa/y condition by ! action ( wat] & air1 b ) diff]5t results accord+ to _! nature1 "s requir+ bla/+ to excavate !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are s&/ones :i* al?\gh s(t 9 ! qu>ry become h>d5$ :5 expos$ to ! atmosph]e4 ,a dock cut 9 r$ s&/one :5 expos$ to ! atmosph]e may slip & fail1 b if ! rock be protect$ f ! wea!r or con/antly cov]$ ) wat] x may be reliable4 ,z cutt+s are ne> ! surface & seldom at great] dep?s ?an #ajj feet1 x is h>dly possible to "k ! angle at :i* a rock dips or :e!r !re are faults & fissures 9 x1 unless an exam9ation is made ^u ! site1 & ?is not)/&+ ! geological "* may be ?or\ghly und]/ood4 ,local conditions may cause peculi>ities :i* no law c det]m9e1 & al?\gh at consid]able dep?s1 deep] ?an railway or any works ) ! exception ( well-s9k+ & m9+ are likely to rea*1 ! nature ( ! e>? is accurately asc]ta9$2 ! surface soil may be 9 almo/ e conceivable v>iety1 & also s dislocat$1 d5ud$ & re>rang$1 t usually horizontal /rata may be ne>ly v]tical4 ,its "* may be accurately kn[n1 b ! lie ( ! surface b$s or dip ( ! upp] /rata1 or ! ord] ( supraposition _c be inv>iably absolutely e/abli%$2 = in/ance1 :5 crevasses1 fissures & ve9s are frequ5t 9 e>? upheav$ & dis9tegrat$ by volcanic action1 e>?quakes & o!r di/urb+ causes1 z 9 p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,japan1 & o!r ea/]n c\ntries1 ,italy1 ! ,tyrol1 ,spa91 c41 c41 slips ( e>?work are to be expect$1 & ! soil is likely to be mu* incl9$1 full ( faults & probably wat]-be>+ seams4 ,"u ! compreh5sive "n ( rock is usually includ$ any e>? f ! h>de/ mass to be f\nd to t :i* w crumble 9 ! h&1 z s(t s&/one rock4 ,! *ief absorb5t rocks ) :i* eng9e]s h to d are ! lime/ones1 s&/ones1 *alk1 & clay rocks4 ,rock may also be simple or pres5t ! appe>ance ( be+ homog5e\s1 or x may be a mass ( diff]5t sub/ances1 be flat b$d$1 h op5 or close jo9ts1 & be :at is call$-- ,solid rock4 ,h>d rock4 ,d5se1 or compact1 rock4 ,loose rock4 ,rock 9 loose lay]s4 ,loose rock ) cavities1 cav]ns1 & pot-holes ( v>i\s e>?s4 ,fissur$ rock4 ,friable rock4 ,indurat$ e>? liable to be dis9tegrat$ by atmosph]ic influ5ces4 ,decompos$ rock4 ,rott5 decompos$ rock4 ,or any mass ( e>? cem5t$ toge!r by a sub/ance1 wea!r-resi/+ or n1 requir+ bla/+ or t c be excavat$ by means ( b>s & picks4 ,! slope ( repose requir$ may range f ov]hang+ or v]tical to t ( ! e>? ( :i* x consi/s :5 dis9tegrat$ & dissolv$2 !re=e ! angle ( repose v>ies consid]ably1 b ! foll[+ c>d9al pr9ciples may be foll[$ )\t fe> "u ord9>y circum/ances & conditions4 ,granite4 ,qu>tz1 if n fissur$1 & :5 little mica is pres5t 9 x1 & mo/ ( ! igne\s rocks1 ,ov]hang+1 v]tical1 ,,to to #a4 ,also porphyry1 gneiss1 trap1 b _! /ability v>ies consid]ably4 ,compact h>d s&/one & lime/one & o!r solid s$im5t>y rocks produc+ /one suffici5tly h>d & wea!r-resi/+ t x c be us$ 9 con/ruction1 ,p]p5dicul>1 ,,to to #a4 ,b1 if non-wea!r-resi/+1 to #a ,,to #a to #a1 ,! slope becom+ flatt] z ! rock becomes s(t] & m easily dis9tegrat$4 ,friable rock1 consi/+ ( h>d p>ticles1 to #a ,,to to #a4 ,loose rock1 to #a ,,to #a to #a4 ,s(t %aly lime/one & ! argillace\s rocks may n be p]man5tly /able until ! slope is1 #a to #a ,,to #b to #a4 ,s*i/ose rock is tr\blesome 9 e>?work1 be+ fissile 9 /ructure & delet]i\sly affect$ by ra9 & ! atmosph]e4 ,on ! ,panama canal works 9 ! ,culebra cutt+1 maximum dep? #ccc feet #f in*es1 num]\s slips occurr$1 displac$ ! roads1 & ov]turn$ ! excavators4 ,mica-s*i/ is v>iable & frequ5tly has num]\s wat]-be>+ fissures4 ,its h>dness dep5ds ^u ! quantity ( qu>tz x conta9s2 :5 ! proportion ( mica is great] ?an ! qu>tz x is s(t & v fissur$ & conta9s ve9s1 sometimes ( clay1 (t5 yield+ a consid]able fl[ ( wat]4 ,%\ld ! p]c5tage ( qu>tz be l>ge x becomes h>d1 holds little wat]1 & is ( a gneissose "*4 ,z wat] is ! *ief dis9tegrat+ ag5t & cause ( in/ability1 x may be well to m5tion t ,pr(essor ,pre/wi* has /at$ t 8h>d qu>tzites1 slates & grits 7,silurian71 purple & grey %ales1 s*i/s & fissile s&/ones ) h>d compact lime/ones & dolomites 7,devonian71 r>ely conta9 any levels ( wat]1 & t x is only enc\nt]$ 9 fissures02 h5ce ! importance ( kn[+ ! position ( ! fissures1 & tak+ ! necess>y precautions to promote /ability4 ,:]e rocks1 especially if g5]ally kn[n z wat]-be>+1 crop out at a high angle1 & are 9 well-def9$ b$s1 wat] may be expect$1 z al?\gh x may n p]colate v]tically1 x w along ! incl9$ b$s4 ,s&/one & lime/one b&s 9 rock usually cause small spr+s4 ,! /ability ( a s&/one = e>?work & purposes ( con/ruction is dep5d5t ^u ! mat]ial :i* cem5ts or holds x toge!r1 :e!r iron ru/1 lime1 free silica1 alum9a1 c41 c41 c41 its quantity & condition1 & ! degree ( h>dness imp>t$ :5 x 0 =m$1 & ! nature ( ! agglut9ant2 !re=e ! v>ieties & degrees ( f95ess & h>dness are num]\s4 ,s&/ones are g5]ally f\nd to be lam9at$ :5 h>d2 & b>e ( vegetation if pure & free f m>ls2 !y conta9 & "p ) wat] 9 diff]5t proportions1 & sometimes h wat]tight b&s cross+ !m1 sev]+ wat] communication1 :i* may cause e>?works to be ( unequal /ability4 ,! firme/ & /ronge/ are close-gra9$ & f9e 9 texture1 ! weak] are co>se & gritty1 & h a s&y appe>ance4 ,!y may be :ite1 yell[1 gre51 black1 r$1 grey1 br[n1 or o!r col\r1 & al?\gh ( ! same hue1 _! "* may n be id5tical2 = in/ance1 ! r$ s&/one is h>d & also v s(t4 ,s&/one ( a gre5i% hue is g5]ally h>d1 mu* fissur$ & full ( wat]4 ,:5 firm1 gre5s& may /& at a /eep slope1 ! surface be+ protect$2 b x v>ies consid]ably1 & may at "o place be close & yet be gradually det]iorat$ until x is ( ! "* ( f9e loose s&4 ,%\ld x be f\nd ^u excavat+ s&/one t x is n ^u its natural b$1 b di/ort$1 upheav$1 or v]tical1 x w probably split & become deta*$ "u ! de/ructive action ( air & wat]4 ,9 tropical climates x has be5 f\nd t s&/ones g5]ally dissolve & become dis9tegrat$ :5 us$ 9 damp f\ndations4 ,lime/one also v>ies mu* 9 "*1 & is trea*]\s1 :e!r x is h>d or s(t1 :5 pockets ( clay or s& are pres5t & b$s ( clay are contigu\s4 ,p]colat$ wat] hav+ c>bonic acid 9 x may also s(t5 or dissolve x4 ,! s(t] k9ds if 9 fragm5ts z balla/1 or :5 deposit$ 9 an embankm5t1 (t5 become quickly dis9tegrat$ by fro/ & ! wea!r1 z d s&/ones4 ,%\ld any rock /rata be v]tically incl9$ in/ead ( horizontal1 al?\gh x may be kn[n 9 ! latt] case !y are g5]ally wat]tight1 fissures 9 ! upheav$ b$s may become *annels = ! passage ( ! subsid+ or ris+ wat]s1 & may cause saturation ( ! soil ov] a consid]able area & induce a fl[ ?r\gh ! slopes or ! seat ( an embankm5t4 ,^u su* a site no res]voir1 dock1 canal1 or any e>!n /ructure to hold wat] %\ld be plac$2 b al?\gh ! nature ( ! gr\nd may be fatal to ! /ability ( su* an embankm5t1 s long z ! und]gr\nd wat]s d n rise to ! level ( ! seat ( a railway embankm5t or flood a cutt+ or bur/ ! slopes1 !y may n s]i\sly affect ! /ability2 =1 unless ! head level ( supply is great1 m dang] maybe expect$ f d[nw>d p]colation saturat+ ! gr\nd ^u :i* ! embankm5t is plac$ ?an f an upw>d fl[4 ,! insecurity ( erect+ a res]voir or simil> "w ^u su* a site1 9 :i* wat] is br\ght into a di/rict 9 great] quantity ?an its natural fl[1 is obvi\s1 z ! e>? may gradually become saturat$ f ! con/ant leakage d[n ! upheav$ fissures1 until x becomes 9 an un/able condition & f9ally slips & subsides4 ,,*alk4 ,z 9 mo/ public works1 ) ! except3on ( tunnels1 wells & m9es1 ! *alk ) :i* an eng9e] has to deal is surface *alk1 or ! top lay]s ( t deposit kn[n z ! upp] *alk1 almo/ inv>iably conta9+ mu* m wat] ?an ! l[] *alk1 al?\gh x rises quick] 9 ! l[] b$s1 z x is "u great] pressure1 & :i* v>y 9 h>dness1 purity1 & solidity & may h frequ5t fissures & holes1 ) or )\t fl9ts1 & be any?+ f h>d1 compact *alk rock to m]e m>ly calc>e\s e>?2 consid]able judgm5t is requir$ to successfully det]m9e ! slope ( /ability & ! precaution>y works t may be necess>y to atta9 repose2 = "s ( ! upp] b$s soon wea!r1 & be+ s(t1 friable1 & fissur$ are p]meable & liable to slip2 9 fact1 ! ,oolitic s]ies1 z x consi/s ( alt]nat+ b&s ( lime/ones & clays & occasionally s&/one1 is frequ5tly fissur$ & has loose jo9ts & !re=e requires to be c>efully treat$4 ,! range ( ! slope ( p]man5t /ability obvi\sly dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! *alk1 :e!r x is d5ud$ or cov]$ or m]e loose-jo9t$ /rata1 ! effect gr\nd & surface wat]s may h ^u x1 & also ! position ( ! b$s1 & :e!r a cutt+ or embankm5t is on ! side or ! base ( a hill1 & consequ5tly at ! place :]e x is likely to be 9 a wet condition4 ,! ,ne$le-rocks 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight & ,bea*y ,head may be m5tion$ z famili> examples1 %[+ t firm & comp>atively pure *alk w /& practically p]p5dicul>1 ev5 :5 mu* expos$1 if pure & free f faults & homog5e\s 9 texture2 & 9 blocks ) b$s incl9$ away f a cutt+ x w p]man5tly /& ,almo/ v]tically ,,to to #a1 at a great height1 a sl[ regul> crumbl+ ( ! surface or fall+ d[n ( small fragm5ts1 :i* seldom produce s]i\s movem5t 9 su* mat]ial1 be+ ! only delet]i\s effect ( wea!r influ5ces4 ,z ! *alk becomes brok5 & less ev5ly b$d$1 ab\t #a to #a4 ,loose1 friable *alk 9 surface b$s w (t5 n p]man5tly /& at a less slope ?an f #a to #a ,,to #a to #a1 accord+ to ! dep? & degree ( exposure4 ,! mo/ usual slopes be+ to #a ,,to #a to #a4 ,impure wet *alk & m>ly *alk w require a slope n less ?an #a to #a4 ,mu* dep5ds ^u its fre$om f faults1 crevices1 & pot-holes1 z !y hold wat]1 & ! surr\nd+ soil may fall away1 = wat] quickly passes 9 quantity ?r\gh ! fissures & crevices :i* are g5]ally num]\s 9 ! upp] *alk1 especially at ! bottom ( a b$ ( fl9ts :i* 9 consequ5ce ( _! imp]meability less5 ! upw>d fl[2 b fl9t b$s 9 s(t *alk are an advantage1 z !y act z dra9s4 ,! aff9ity *alk has = wat]1 :i* has be5 consid]$ a reason = ! abs5ce ( important riv]s 9 t =mation1 z wat] does n fl[ away freely ^u x1 causes x to be readily affect$ by ra9 & dis9tegrat$ f ! effects ( ! expansive & contract+ action ( fro/ & ?aw2 h5ce dra9+ & cov]+ ! surface may be important1 b c>e mu/ be tak5 n to int]f]e ) natural spr+s4 ,?is prop]ty ( *alk1 viz41 its aff9ity = wat]1 al?\gh a di/urb+ cause 9 e>?work 9 t =mation is ( value = cov]+ or fill+ 9 op5 tr5*es1 c\nt]=ts1 or dra9s 9 o!r soils1 z ! *alk attracts wat]1 & !re=e dries ! surface ( o!r e>?s4 ,any?+ t localizes ! p]colation or fl[ ( wat]1 or helps to make wat] seams1 ve9s1 fissures1 & holl[s1 :i* are sometimes fill$ ) s&y gravel1 loam1 & detritus readily admitt+ wat]1 w t5d to break ! *alk into sep>ate masses & cause x to become loose & un/able by ! action ( ra91 fro/ & ?aw1 & vibration4 ,%\ld fl9t b$s occur 9 *alk1 & !y frequ5tly d 9 ! upp] b$s if !y are horizontal or ne>ly s1 mu* m wat] may be expect$ to fl[ along _! b$1 z x =ms a wat]-passage1 ?an :5 !y are 9 incl9$ or v]tical seams4 ,z *alk absorbs mu* wat]1 b does n readily exude x1 al?\gh x may soon become dry ^u ! surface aft] ra91 x is advisable to less5 p]colation 9 ord] to prev5t slips4 ,x is kn[n t ! angle ( friction ( wat] 9 *alk w affect ! fl[ & t ! dis*>ge v>ies greatly accord+ to ! "*1 fracture1 & o!r conditions ( ! soil2 = in/ance1 x has be5 prov$ t a hydro/atic pressure due to a gradi5t ( ab\t #a 9 #acb is requir$ to enable wat] to pass ?r\gh ! *alk z f\nd at ,dov]1 :]eas 9 ! ,h]t=d%ire b$s mu* less is requir$1 namely1 t equal to a gradi5t ( ab\t #a 9 #cej to #a 9 #dbj4 ,?is is nam$ z %[+1 ev5 :5 unfissur$1 ! v>y+ p]vi\sness & "* ( *alk1 & t x _c be treat$ z a mat]ial ( ev5 approximate consi/5cy ( texture4 ,! p[] ( capill>y attraction ( *alk has be5 prov$ to be great & ! evaporation f ! surface practically unlimit$4 ,^! prop]ties & its kn[n aff9ity = wat] r5d] x liable to con/ant *ange2 also ! p>ticles ( calc>e\s soils be+ affect$ by moi/ure & to a c]ta9 ext5t soluble1 wat] w take up lime 9 !m1 & !re=e !y are trea*]\s e>?s & liable to slip & subside4 ,pr(essor ,an/$ has %[n t a cubic foot ( ! upp] *alk :5 dri$ w absorb #b gallons or #dj p] c5t4 ( its bulk ( wat]2 ! l[] *alk #b gallons1 or #cc p] c5t4 ( its bulk2 & t ! pores ( a cubic foot ( *alk are equal to #dj p] c5t4 ( ! bulk1 & are !re=e equival5t to ! area ( a pipe ab\t #i in*es 9 diamet]4 ,ord9>y dra9age w n remove ! wat]1 h5ce *alk is a difficult soil to treat successfully1 & slips & subsid5ces may result 9 su* l>ge areas z ! surface ( cutt+s & embankm5ts simply ?r\gh ! difficulty ( prev5t+ x becom+ saturat$4 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic ( *alk1 :i* requires c>eful obs]vation to prev5t slips1 is t wat] does n g5]ally issue ?r\gh a mass1 or equally ov] a consid] able area1 b is dis*>g$ ?r\gh fissures1 & crevices1 & fl9t b$s2 h5ce "o ( ! *ief means ( prev5t+ slips _c be adopt$1 namely1 to disall[ a localization ( ! fl[ ( any wat]2 !re=e1 ! di/urb+ elem5t ( wat] seams is 9 great] or less degree pres5t 9 all *alk-e>? t is n solid & homog5e\s 9 texture4 ,! fl[ f su* wat]-ve9s or seams %\ld n be int]f]$ )1 z any ob/ruction1 & possibly div]sion1 :i* is likely to fail1 w only result 9 ! spr+ saturat+ ! adjac5t soil1 & 9 its bur/+ out at ano!r place4 ,!re is no safe rem$y b to g5tly lead away ! wat]1 = :]e spr+s occur1 ei!r 9 *alk or rock1 !y w f9d ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance2 consequ5tly ! wat]s ( p]colation w t5d to fl[ to "o place1 & cause a spr+4 ,*alk is f\nd 9 regul>ly /ratifi$ & sep>at$ masses1 sometimes caus$ by b$s ( fl9ts1 & al?\gh ! position ( ! lay]s may indicate _! successive ages1 age c h>dly be tak5 z an absolute indication ( ! increas$ /ability ( *alk 9 e>?work4 ,:5 ov]laid ) clay x is usually h>d] ?an :5 b>e1 probably ow+ to pressure1 non-exposure to atmosph]ic influ5ces1 & to ! absorb$ wat] be+ ( a diff]5t "*1 :i* has be5 prov$ by analyses4 ,x is especially advisable 9 *alk soils to "k ! head level ( wat] 9 ! di/rict1 & to note if ! bottom ( a cutt+ is bel[ ! usual wat]-be>+ l9e 9 ! op5 wells1 :i* may n necess>ily be at ! same dep?2 _! av]age level be+ asc]ta9$1 an idea c be =m$ ( ! probability ( spr+s bur/+ out1 & accord+ z ! ra9fall is excessive or n1 s usually w be ! fl[4 ,if *alk b$s incl9e across a valley1 & h an imp]vi\s /ratum ( clay ^u !m1 x has be5 f\nd t ! mo/ wat] issues at or ab\t ! po9t :]e ! imp]vi\s seam fir/ ov]lies ! *alk1 i4e41 at ! edge ( ! bas91 & ! great] its dep?1 ! less ! fl[2 !re=e1 %\ld a cutt+ be locat$ at a place :]e ?is /ratum is ?9ne/1 m wat] f spr+s may be expect$ ?an at any po9t :]e ! imp]vi\s lay] is ?ick]4 ,x is also well to rememb] t ! l9e ( wat]-fl[ is n necess>ily a horizontal plane1 = x frequ5tly foll[s ! cont\r ( ! *alk1 & t ! causes ( surface irregul>ities ( subt]ranean wat] are unkn[n2 b ra9-wat] accumulat+ 9 *alk pr9cipally rises & issues mo/ rapidly along ! b$ l9es2 consequ5tly ! fl[ along ^! mu/ be g5tly dis*>g$1 or slips w occur2 b *alk uni=m 9 "* & ( solid & close texture1 )\t fl9ts & fissures1 usually is n wat]-be>+1 & w /& almo/ v]tically4 ,z a rule ! cohesion ( ! upp] b$s1 if !y are homog5e\s1 is great] ?an ! l[] b$s1 al?\gh ! mass may be s(t]4 ,%\ld ! dra9age or natural outlet ( ! l& wat]s ( a *alk di/rict be ob/ruct$ or damm$ back1 f ! quantity ( wat] be+ 9 excess ( t ! fissures or wat] seams 9 a *alk hill c dis*>ge1 & ! p5t up wat]s be unable to escape1 hydro/atic pressure1 9 addition to a weak5$ condition ( ! *alk ?r\gh excess ( moi/ure1 w be caus$1 & ext5sive slips may be expect$ along ! esc>pm5t1 ! displacem5t be+ gradual1 ! gr\nd sep>at+ & fissur+ until at l5g? x is pu%$ out by hydro/atic pressure4 ,su* a slip usually occurs 9 l>ge masses1 resembl+ a fall5 cliff1 = ! di/urb+ ag5t is all-p[]ful1 & ! area affect$ v consid]able1 & p>ticul>ly s if ! *alk is sup]impos$ ^u diff]5t soil1 or h>d] gr\nd1 z !n ! :ole mass w probably move =w>d4 ,al?\gh "s approximate incl9ations h be5 previ\sly giv51 ! v>ieties ( *alk are s num]\s t no absolute slopes ( repose c be nam$1 = *alk or calc>e\s e>? may be3-- ,m>ble or cry/all9e lime/one4 ,ord9>y lime/one rock4 ,h>d1 compact *alk rock4 ,l[] :ite *alk4 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,h>d grey *alk4 ,ord9>y grey *alk4 ,pure :ite *alk4 ,friable :ite *alk4 ,yell[1 light & d>k blue1 s(t *alk becom+ ( m>ly "*4 ,h>d *alk m>l4 ,grey m>ly *alk4 ,grey clayey *alk4 ,,note4--,! prec$+ *alk m>ls conta9 s l>ge a proportion ( argillace\s matt] z to become almo/ clays s f> z reg>ds treatm5t 9 e>?works4 ,_m s]i\s slips h occurr$ 9 *alk soils1 & _! hi/ory indicates t ! *ief di/urb+ elem5t 0 wat]1 :e!r held back ov] a l>ge surface until ! hydro/atic pressure became too great = ! slopes to )/& x1 or f its bur/+ out 9 spr+s1 & s sep>at+ & dis9tegrat+ masses ( ! e>?4 ,ne> ! entrances to tunnels slips appe> to be mo/ frequ5t 9 cutt+s 9 *alk4 ,?is w\ld seem to lead to ! belief t 9 places :]e x is kn[n ! *alk soil is likely to be tr\blesome f l&-wat] & spr+s1 x w\ld be advantage\s to prolong tunnels beyond ! economic dep? ( a cutt+1 & ev5 to cont9ue !m until su* a dep? z #dj feet is rea*$1 to s arrange ! gradi5ts t !y dra9 ! int]ior1 & to provide a complete sy/em ( pipes & dra9s1 ev5 if side gall]ies h to be driv5 to tap ! wat]1 be=e x rea*es ! l9+1 to relieve ! sides1 cr[n1 & inv]t ( a tunnel s t no wat] c p\r d[n ! ro( or walls unless "u control4 ,9 a tunnel s situat$ & liable to wat]-pressure1 ! ?ru/ ( ! soil w be v v>iable1 & _c be =ese54 ,at "o place dur+ con/ruction1 ! walls & l9+ may be f9i%$ )\t movem5t ( ! e>?1 at ano!r1 ! pressure maybe great & act unequally1 ei!r ^u ! side walls or ! ar*4 ,z a rule1 at ! entrances to tunnels ! pressure is great] ^u ! ar* ?an ! sides1 = !n ! :ole ( ! w$ge-%ap$ mass )9 ! b\nd>y ( ! angle ( repose ( ! soil is di/urb$1 & its cohesion impair$ or de/roy$1 & !re=e x presses ^u ! ar*1 ?is pressure t5d+ to c\nt]act ! lat]al pressure2 b z ! dep? increases1 ! load f ?is w$g$-%ap$ mass becomes less ^u ! ar*1 al?\gh g5]ally great] ?an any lat]al pressure1 because ! e>? above is n di/urb$ or impair$1 consequ5t ^u ! dep? ( ! hill be+ great] & ! cohesion & side-pressure ( ! e>? t5d+ to support x1 b ! lat]al pressure is increas$ because ! normal pressure ( ! soil due to ! dep? is augm5t$4 ,x is ?is di/urbance ( su* friable soil z *alk at tunnel entrances1 caus+ ! p>ticles to be loose & sep>at$1 & 9 a /ate especially dispos$ to p]colation ( wat]1 t probably causes ! e>? to be 9 a condition fav\rable to slips1 & = !m p>ticul>ly to occur at or ab\t ! entrances to tunnels4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! dep? ( op5 cutt+ at ! entrances is r$uc$1 any slip _c be ( ! same magnitude z x w\ld be if x happ5$ at a great] dep?4 ,! circul> or "o closely approa*+ x w\ld appe> to be ! be/ =m = ! l9+1 :]e v>iable or great pressure1 v]tical or lat]al1 is to be expect$2 = ! pressure 9 a tunnel w always be unequal1 & ! surface ( ! e>? mu/ be support$4 ,9 "s exp]im5ts to jo9 sub/ances by pressure x 0 f\nd t ?\gh great pressure =ms *alk into h>d blocks1 ! p>ticles are n firmly unit$1 & t !y sep>ate along ! surfaces ( contact ( ! orig9al p>ticles & n ?r\gh !m2 ^! te/s t5d to %[ t masses ( *alk are usually 9 a /ate n indispos$ to sep>ation4 ,! same result occurr$ 9 simil>ly te/+ pulv]is$ s&/one4 ,,s& ,,& ,,gravel4 ,9 f9e s&-cutt+s spr+s may be expect$1 & ! e>? become 9 a semi-fluid /ate if !re is wat] at a high] level to filt] ?r\gh x2 also 9 ! case ( all por\s & op5 soils4 ,any draw+ away ( ! s& mu/ be prev5t$1 z x w induce a slip1 & cause ! e>? to become runn+ s&1 especially dang]\s ne> build+s1 = its egress mu/ be prev5t$1 or subsid5ce w ensue1 & s]i\s erosion4 ,! excavation 9 su* cases %\ld be 9 z %ort l5g?s z practicable1 s t ! surfaces are n unsupport$1 & walls & /ructures %\ld be quickly erect$4 ,! s&s t are met ) 9 e/u>ies are frequ5tly 9 su* a condition1 t a slight ob/ruction to ! tidal fl[ w cause movem5t1 ! equilibrium be+ easily de/roy$4 ,%\ld !re be a break 9 ! cont9uity ( a clay /ratum1 ov]ly+ light loose soil1 ! latt] w probably boil up1 & 9 det]m9+ ! dep? ( a cutt+1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t ?is imp]vi\s /ratum is n brok5 or injur$4 ,m>l1 clay & s& b$s are likely to slip :5 !y are sup]impos$1 & !re are "s di/ricts 9 :i* s&y soil is s *>g$ ) wat] t1 unless ! dra9age ( ! slopes & =mation suffices to dra9 = "s di/ance ! l& outside a cutt+1 ! s& w become ov]*>g$ ) moi/ure & w act z a fluid & slip1 ! lat]al support be+ remov$ by ! act ( excavation & its normal condition alt]$4 ,be+ s delicately balanc$ ! lea/ additional di/urb+ =ce1 su* z a spoil bank be+ tipp$ ^u ! surface1 or ! inducem5t or accel]ation ( a fl[ ( wat]1 w set x 9 motion & make x a quicks&4 ,= in/ance1 small s& isl&s h be5 remov$ by mak+ cuts 9 !m f #ae to #bj feet 9 wid?1 & by m5 %ak+ b>s1 c41 ins]t$ 9 ! soil2 ! s& along ! edge becomes loose1 falls1 & ! curr5t sweeps x away4 ,z an example ( ! *angeability ( ! condition ( s& may be nam$ t 9 s9k+ pits by congelation 9 loose s& x has be5 f\nd t ! gra9s dur+ ! freez+ ( ! wat]1 by means ( tubes conta9+ a freez+ mixture1 7 additionally sep>at$ ab\t #e to #g p] c5tum4 ,z ! s& met ) 9 public works is seldom 9 v deep b$s1 x has n be5 subject to ! /eady+ =ces :i* _m e>?s h und]gone1 & x may h be5 con/antly mov+ until its f9al deposition1 & !re=e x is easily set 9 motion2 & al?\gh s& w subside less f a load aft] x is saturat$ ) moi/ure1 ! wat] 9 x try+ to escape may cause x to slip ^u an unsupport$ surface su* z a slope4 ,_m exp]im5ts h %[n t ! p[] ( absorption ( s& decreases ) ! f95ess ( ! gra91 & t s& :5 ?or\ghly wet w conta9 wat] equal to ab\t "o-?ird to two-fif?s ( its bulk1 & t almo/ all ?is c be dra9$2 h5ce its v>y+ condition & in/ability4 ,if a well be sunk 9 s&/one & regul>ly pump$ x w dra9 ! rock ar\nd = "s di/ance1 ! dra9age space be+ conical1 its v]tex ! bottom ( ! well1 & its base ! surface1 v>y+ 9 ext5t accord+ to ! nature ( ! soil & dep? ( well1 %[+ ! por\s nature ( s&4 ,! int]/ices ( silici\s sea-s&1 :5 n compress$1 h be5 asc]ta9$ by ,mr4 ,j4 ,watt ,s&eman1 ,m4 ,in/4 ,c4,e41 to am\nt to ab\t #dj p] c5t4 ( ! volume ( s&4 ,= co>se or f9e s&1 or a mixture ( ! two1 ! int]/ices did n v>y mu*4 ,:5 x 0 compress$ by a ramm] 9 wat]1 its bulk c\ld be r$uc$ to ! ext5t ( #ab p] c5t4 ,! int]/ices ( brok5 r$ s&/one1 v>y+ 9 size to t :i* w\ld pass ?r\gh an #h-;in* r+1 7 f\nd to be #cf p] c5t4 ( ! :ole volume1 b z ! /ones 7 9 contact #aj p] c5t1 mu/ be add$1 & if "u wat] #ae p] c5t4 ,p] c5t4 ( ! int]/ices4 ,brok5 ,wel% lime/one to pass a #c-;in* r+ #eji ,gravel1 free ( s&4 ,small pebbles to pieces gaug$ by a #ccf #be-;in* r+ ,wel% lime/one & gravel z above mix$ 9 equal #cdj proportions ,mason's %iv]s ( ,anglesey lime/one1 small gravel to #dhj pieces gaug$ by a #d-;in* r+ ,runcorn r$ s&/one1 l>ge1 v>y+ 9 size f pieces #ejj to pass a #d-;in* r+ to an #h-;in* r+ ,ditto1 small1 v>y+ 9 size f s& to pieces gaug$ #cdj by a #d-;in* r+ ,! two prec$+ :5 mix$ 9 equal proportions #cfj ,! exp]im5ts cle>ly %[ ! kn[n great capability ( subsid5ce 9 s&y & op5 s&y gravel soils1 _! cle> wat] space1 & h[ easily f9e s& may1 by a curr5t ( wat]1 become runn+ s&1 & _! adaptability = ramm+ & consolidation by moi/ure4 ,tipp$ s& :5 ramm$ w subside if saturat$ ) wat] ne>ly z mu* z x c be beat5 d[n1 :i* %[s h[ greatly its bulk is affect$ by wat]1 & al?\gh its rapid consolidation is an advantage 9 embankm5ts1 x is ( importance t p]colation %\ld be equal4 ,! *ief conditions ( a safe f\ndation ^u pure s&1 namely1 t x _c escape lat]ally or be und]m9$1 are obvi\sly n to be atta9$ 9 ei!r cutt+s or embankm5ts1 z ! lat]al support is remov$1 & ! slopes are liable to be und]m9$ & unequally *>g$ ) wat]1 & ! influ5ce ( wat] on s&y soils is ! pr9cipal cause ( _! in/ability1 = 9 excavat+ cutt+s ! face w frequ5tly /& at a v /eep slope if dry1 b ^u its becom+ saturat$ ! s& may fl[1 & 9 ! case ( gravel & s&1 al?\gh ! /ones =m+ gravel d n *ange1 ! :ole subsides4 ,z gravel is f\nd 9 v>i\s conditions1 x may be well to classify x z x is h]e9 reg>d$4 ,clean gravel is consid]$ z t :i* ne>ly approa*es ! condition ( a pebbly bea*4 ,if an appreciable quantity ( s& is pres5t1 x is s&y gravel4 ,if loam1 or m>l1 or clay1 x is loamy1 m>ly1 or clayey gravel4 ,gravel hills are l>ge accumulations ( wat]-worn rocks1 & may h b\ld]s 9 !m int]mix$ ) ! fre%wat] deposits ( s&s & m>ls1 & by means ( natural cem5t+ mat]ial betwe5 ! p>ticles seem to be firmly set & to be s conglom]at$ z to appe> to be 9 a simil> condition to weak concrete2 b !re is always a *ance ( ! matrix becom+ dissolv$1 !re=e x is advisable to te/ a mass by ! application ( wat] & to expose x to ! atmosph]e be=e rely+ ^u its p]man5t /ability1 & ) ! view to det]m9e :e!r x is h>d cem5t$ gravel or n4 ,gravel may be made m compact & w subside if wat] is pump$ ^u x & all[$ to filt] ?r\gh1 & 9 mak+ an artificial f\ndation ( gravel1 x is n reliable )\t wat] p]colation & consolidation by ramm+4 ,all e>? consi/+ ( p>ticles hav+ r\nd$ surfaces is liable to become loose1 & ^u weight be+ plac$ ^u x ! gra9s are incl9$ to roll & become deta*$1 b if !y are angul> fragm5ts1 :i* seldom is ! case1 ?is t5d5cy w be less5$1 & ! angle ( repose w be /eep]4 ,) reg>d to ! slopes necess>y 9 s& & gravel1 ! m angul>1 r\gh1 h>d1 & clean ! p>ticles1 ! /eep] ! incl9ation4 ,e>? t c be prop]ly call$ gravel seldom requires a flatt] slope ?an #a to #a1 & usually a less incl9ation is suffici5t1 b if loose x w n /& v]tically ev5 = a dep? ( a few feet4 ,solid indurat$ masses ( gravel w /& p]p5dicul>ly & z rock4 ,if ! gravel consi/s ( qu>tz or s&/one b\ld]s1 or is v co>se ) /ones ( consid]able size1 or l a clean pebbly bea*1 #a to #a ,,to #a to #a4 ,ord9>y clean gravel ( uni=m size at ab\t #a to #a4 ,?or\ghly compress$1 h>d1 clean s&1 ab\t #a to #a4 ,loos] s& & light gravel1 #a to #a ,,to #a to #a4 ,irregul> b$s ( s&1 gravel1 clay1 & fragm5ts ( rock1 #a to #a ,,to #a to #a4 ,s& mix$ ) vegetable matt]1 argillace\s or loamy s&1 ab\t #a to #a4 ,z ! proportion ( m\ld or clay 9 ! s& becomes great] a flatt] slope is necess>y accord+ to ! nature ( ! e>? ) :i* x is incorporat$1 ! degree ( wetness1 & also ! exposure ( ! surface4 ,clay loams require slopes f #a to #a ,,to #c to #a1 & %ift+ s& :5 a curr5t ( wat] rea*es x w become a quicks&1 & n be /able ev5 :5 horizontal1 b if dra9$ & ! toe is secur$ x w usually /& at an incl9ation ( f #c to #a ,,to #d to #a4 ,on ! o!r h&1 an embankm5t ( h>d1 clean1 angul> s&1 ramm$ b left b>e1 :5 expos$ to tidal action ) little wave di/urbance1 has repos$ at #b to #a ,,to #b to #a slopes4 ,loamy soil & vegetable m\ld w1 = any height n exce$+ ab\t #e feet1 /& ne>ly v]tically = a reasonable "t4 ,,clay4 ,) respect to cutt+s & embankm5ts 9 clay soils1 p]haps no e>? is m affect$ by wat] & air1 or m difficult to treat1 z x w exp& if only expos$ to ! atmosph]e & )\t contact ) wat]1 #f in*es be+ no unusual dim5sion to all[ = expansion 9 tunnel-"w4 ,?is prop]ty & its contraction ^u dry+ alone make x an e>? p>ticul>ly liable to slip & induce fissures & cracks ?r\gh :i* wat] c trickle1 not)/&+ ! surface ( ! clay may be almo/ imp]meable4 ,if clay c\ld always be kept dry or 9 its natural condition x w\ld be /able & free f slips2 b ?is _c be effect$1 = wat] is held 9 susp5sion 9 clay = a consid]able p]iod1 its pla/ic nature prev5t+ gravitation1 & evaporation is kn[n to be a v sl[ process2 & z ! same clay "u diff]5t circum/ances may /& ne>ly v]tically or only at a v flat slope1 its liability to con/ant *ange makes x v trea*]\s1 & x %\ld be class$ z a mo/ deceptive e>? ( a dang]\sly un/able & unsafe description1 = x may be s h>d z to ne>ly turn a pick1 & yet wat] & air w rapidly cause its dis9tegration1 b if wea!r influ5ces c be prev5t$ f rea*+ x :5 9 su* a h>d compact /ate x w af=d a firm f\ndation4 ,london clay 9 its natural condition usually conta9s ab\t #aj p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,! m p]meable ! clay ! m likely are slips to occur & ! face to become s(t1 loose & dis9tegrat$1 slimy b$s be+ ?us produc$ :i* are difficult to prev5t or remove2 !re=e a cov]+ ( close grass turf1 or lay] ( burnt balla/1 a%es1 or *alk1 ^u any damp place or fissure aft] x has be5 fill$ is advantage\s4 ,solid blue clay1 :i* g5]ally requires ! use ( ! pick1 ( ! clays is1 p]haps1 ! mo/ /able1 be+ almo/ imp]meable if free f delac]ation2 b yell[ & mo/ o!r clays are unequal 9 texture1 faults & breaks are frequ5tly num]\s1 & wat] p5etrat+ conv]ts ! surfaces & ! mass into a muddy & semi-fluid condition re/+ only :5 horizontal1 :i* has be5 pa9fully exp]i5c$ 9 ! cru%+ 91 dur+ con/ruction1 ( "s tunnels 9 ! ,london di/rict4 ,! trickl+ ( wat] d[n fissures =ms a slimy & easy-slid+ surface mo/ difficult to treat or prev5t1 & s long z ! natural cont\r ( ! gr\nd does n (f] resi/ance to movem5t1 a slip may ext5d = a long di/ance1 ei!r 9 deep or %all[ cutt+s1 & !re may be consid]able hydro/atic pressure4 ,! disruptions1 v>iabl5ess ( "*1 & exi/5ce ( fissures cause any b ! mo/ homog5e\s clays to be trea*]\s & likely to slip1 p>ticul>ly ! yell[ & any lam9at$ clays1 z !y all[ wat] to ent] by ! ve9s :i* are usually frequ5t 9 ! mass4 ,yell[ clay has a great] t5d5cy to crack ^u dry+ ?an blue clay & does s mu* m quickly1 h5ce its dang]\s nature1 & al?\gh a mass may be only damp1 fissures w enable wat] to p5etrate & r$uce x to a /ate ( in/ability2 x is also n infrequ5tly 9 a pla/ic /ate1 hav+ fissures & cavities full ( wat]4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 n be =gott5 t 9 ! endeav\r to prev5t ! delet]i\s effects ( aque\s action ^u clay soils t !y may be ov]-dra9$1 s t !y become too dry1 z !n ! clay w %r9k1 crack1 & fissure2 ! *ief aim %\ld be to keep x always 9 a suffici5tly moi/ /ate s z to obviate ! =mation ( cracks & fissures1 & at ! same "t cause x to be dry en\gh to be firm1 & nev] 9 a pa/y or pulpy condition2 9 o!r words1 to ma9ta9 its natural /ate if "o ( /ability1 & prev5t any excess ( wat] p5etrat+ x or rea*+ its surface4 ,! lias clays are trea*]\s *iefly ow+ to ! pres5ce ( mu* calc>e\s matt]1 & !re=e approa* a m>ly /ate2 heavy slips h occurr$ 9 ! has =mation 9 ! midl& c\nties ( ,engl&1 not)/&+ t a slope 0 adopt$ :i* exp]i5ce _h %[n produc$ /ability1 namely #c to #a4 ,a slight v>iation 9 ! composition ( ?is soil or an unfav\rable position w cause a slip 9 su* trea*]\s e>?4 ,pure clay %r9ks "s #e p] c5t4 9 dry+1 ! contraction be+ less z s& is pres5t 9 x1 = :5 x is mix$ ) twice its weight ( s& x is r$uc$ to #c p] c5t41 & z impurities increase 9 clays ! less imp]vi\s !y become4 ,mo/ clays h silici\s e>? 9 !m1 b if s& is pres5t ! clay is !n m op51 & wat] w p]meate & dra9 m freely2 b mixtures ( clay & s& may assume a pulpy condition :5 impregnat$ ) wat]1 consequ5tly x is always advisable to te/ su* e>?4 ,! v>ieties ( s&y clay are _m1 & all are usually m or less un/able4 ,among !m may be nam$ r$ clay ) s& & mica1 blue s&y clay1 s&y gre5 clay1 /iff r$ s&y clay1 ! loamy clays ( v>i\s hues1 d>k grey1 r$ s&y1 & black clayey loams4 ,if clay c\ld be kept 9 a moi/ /ate fissures w\ld seldom occur4 ,! con/ant alt]nation ( wetness & dryness creates ! fissures1 & wat] completes ! dis9tegration4 ,!re are a few clays :i* are /able :5 kept 9 solid masses1 z !n only a small surface is affect$ by air & wat]1 b if !y are loos5$ & brok5 up1 z 9 ! process ( excavation & deposition1 !y readily become 9 a muddy condition4 ,any mud or silt :i* may be s(t & readily press$ :5 wet1 b cakes & %r9ks 9 to deta*$ lumps :5 dry or ^u be+ expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 is a trea*]\s soil1 z x w return to its orig9al /ate ^u becom+ wet4 ,clays or any soils t cake %\ld always be reg>d$ ) suspicion1 z al?\gh hav+ ! appe>ance ( solidity & ! possession ( wea!r-resi/+ qualities 9 _! natural position1 :5 di/urb$1 quickly become wor?less = e>?work purposes1 & may /& 9 "o situation almo/ z a s(t clay1 & :5 di/urb$ & wet assume a horizontal surface4 ,su* gr\nd may repose at a #d to #a ,,to #h to #a slope1 because its cru/ has become cak$ or case-h>d5$1 yet :5 x is brok5 x may become1 ^u be+ expos$1 simply fluid mud4 ,to prev5t clay soil wea!r+ ^u ! surface1 a lay] ( gravel #a foot or s 9 ?ickness has be5 plac$ ^u x1 ! idea be+ t x is n only a protection1 b ! weight ( ! cov]+ ^u ! clay w cause ! wat] to be press$ out f ! soil into ! gravel ?r\gh :i* x c p]colate to ! dra9s4 ,a crude te/ to indicate ! probable "* ( a clay z reg>ds its /ability 9 e>?work is to burn a piece ( x & notice ! col\r4 ,if x becomes :ite or ( a :iti% t9t1 ! clay is g5]ally less likely to slip ?an :5 x is ( a r$di% or yell[i% t+e4 ,ano!r r\gh exp]im5t c also be made4 ,get a piece ( clay1 place x 9 wat]1 & note ! "t tak5 & ! dep? to :i* ! surface has become saturat$1 & :e!r x is v slimy & w easily slide d[n a slightly incl9$ plane2 its t5acity may !n be approximately judg$4 ,also by weigh+1 an idea ( ! am\nt ( s& may be imag9$2 ! m s& !re is 9 clay ! light] x w be1 all o!r conditions be+ id5tical4 ,a comp>ison betwe5 two clays w enable "s op9ion to be =m$ ( _! relative /ability 9 e>?work1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 !re are _m o!r features to be consid]$4 ,all impure clays1 su* z %aly clay1 s&y clay1 loamy clay1 & m>ly clay require to be c>efully treat$1 al?\gh !y may be easi] to manage ?an yell[ or br[n clay4 ,:5 two ret5tive clay b$s ov]lap or ov]lie1 & h no int]m$iate p]meable /ratum1 !y mu/ be 9 a humid /ate1 z is ! case 9 ! ,f5 c\ntry1 unless !y are con/antly dra9$2 b s]i\s slips are n s likely to occur 9 !m z :5 two masses ( clay h an int]pos+ seam ( s& or silt liable to be erod$ by wat] fall+ d[n fissures 9 ! clay1 :i* probably ext5d to consid]able dep?s1 ) ! result t two slimy surfaces are =m$ & ! clay slides4 ,clay und]ly+ gravel (t5 conta9s num]\s pockets & seams fill$ ) runn+ s&1 & %\ld !re be a p]man5t head ( wat] ! dis*>ge w be 9 l>ge quantities & at a consid]able velocity4 ,a cutt+ 9 wet s&y clay is g5]ally trea*]\s & difficult to manage4 ,z a clay b$ ne> ! surface ( ! gr\nd is sometimes upheav$1 if a p]meable /ratum su* z gravel or s& ov]lies x1 ! dra9age ( wat] ?r\gh or d[n ! slopes w be arre/$1 & ! e>? at ! back ( ! slope w be con/antly wet & may ultimately become saturat$ ?r\gh ! damm+ back ( ! wat]2 !n a slip may be expect$4 ,all upheav$1 dislocat$1 & twi/$ sup]ficial b$s ( clay1 :i* w g5]ally be ( v>y+ consi/5cy & !re=e settle unequally2 ov] or und]ly+ seams ( s& or gravel1 are likely to slip & subside1 & _! /ability mu* dep5ds ^u :e!r or n ! lie ( ! b$s ob/ructs ! p]meation ( wat]4 ,if ! dip ( ! clay-b$s is t[>ds ! natural outfall1 mo/ probably an adjac5t riv]1 slips are probable because ( ! creation ( slid+ surfaces & ! cont9uity ( ! b$s be+ de/roy$ by a cutt+ & ! consequ5t loss ( support4 ,%\ld p]meable soil lie betwe5 ! top /ratum & a b$ ( clay1 wat] w accumulate ^u ! clay1 make x slimy & cause a fl[ ^u ! b$2 = example1 :5 a ?9 b$ ( vegetable e>? re/s ^u gravel1 s&1 or peat1 & t ^u clay1 wat] w p]colate1 & p]haps air1 ?r\gh ! top soils1 & may cause !m to slip ^u ! clay-b$4 ,also %\ld a lay] ( clay ov]lie p]meable /rata1 z clay ^u s&1 or clay ^u gravel1 unless x is suffici5tly ?ick & solid to prev5t infiltration1 x may slide ^u ! p]meable soil z its l[] surface becomes wet4 ,:5 clay-hills h ve9s1 wat] may accumulate 9 !m & fl[1 & if v d>k yell[ clay ov]lies light yell[ calc>e\s clay1 :i* may re/ ^u h>d blue clay1 x is obvi\s ea* /ratum is some:at diff]5tly affect$ by wea!r & air1 & !re=e movem5t is to be expect$4 ,! edges ( clay-hills are always likely to slip1 especially %\ld !y be 9 ! =m ( spurs4 ,b\ld]-clay is seldom reliable1 because1 al?\gh x may be h>d & /& v]tically 9 dry wea!r1 9 wet x swells1 wea!rs quickly1 becomes s(t & cakes ^u dry+4 ,! /ability ( su* soil is gov]n$ n only by ! nature ( ! clay1 b by t ( ! b\ld]s & _! effect ^u ! e>? 9 :i* !y are emb$d$1 & mu* dep5ds ^u ! degree ( *angeabl5ess ^u exposure to air & moi/ure ( all ! p>ticles ( :i* !y are compos$2 h5ce b\ld]-clay1 al?\gh h>d to excavate1 may quickly dissolve4 ,on ! contr>y1 x may occasionally be s h>d t x seems to be solid rock1 & may ev5 resi/ erosion & wea!r+ z well z if x 7 rock2 b c>e mu/ be tak5 to prev5t indurat$ mud be+ mi/ak5 = solid clay-rock1 & !re=e x is advisable to te/ ! soil ) wat]4 ,seams ( silt1 s(t pa/y soil1 or soapy e>? met ) 9 clay1 :i* h become decompos$ by atmosph]ic & aque\s action1 are to be fe>$1 & ! br[n clay1 especially :5 s(t3 r$1 or d>k yell[ clays t break into lam9 & crumble ^u exposure to ! air1 & al?\gh t5aci\s 9 ! flakes & :5 fre%-cut are loosely held toge!r 9 bulk1 (t5 h ?9 ve9s ( s& 9 !m2 & :5 wat] p]colates x rema9s1 & is v difficult to dra94 ,x has also be5 f\nd t :5 m9ute non-adhesive p>ticles ( mica are pres5t 9 clay t x w become dis9tegrat$ by wat]1 al?\gh x may be h>d to excavate4 ,"s ( ! gault clays1 al?\gh /able :5 dry1 become soapy :5 wet & are n easily manag$1 b ! blui% grey gault is usually t5aci\s & almo/ imp]meable4 ,! gault clays h little s& 9 !m b mu* calc>e\s matt]1 &1 z a rule1 !y d n swell & bulge l ! ,london clays4 ,"s clays1 :5 dry1 appe> to be /able & firm1 ?\gh !y are (t5 drift or dri$-up mud simply requir+ ! influ5ce ( wat] & ! atmosph]e to cause !m to return to _! orig9al /ate2 ! br[n & b\ld]-clays are ( ?is nature & are di/9ctly p]i%+1 & !re=e trea*]\s clays4 ,z 9 clay & all ret5tive soils1 wat] is always pres5t1 & z ! imp]vi\s nature ( clay prev5ts wat] gravitat+ & be+ dra9$1 & z ow+ to wet seasons ! p]meable portion ( ! clay may gradually become ov]*>g$ & be r$uc$ to a muddy condition1 slips may occur ye>s aft] a clay cutt+ has be5 excavat$ or an embankm5t deposit$4 ,9 clay embankm5ts ! great] weight ^u ! c5tre may gradually press wat] t[>ds ! slopes & cause !m to slip2 h5ce ! value ( cov]+ ! =mation 9 ord] to less5 p]colation4 ,cracks & fissures may be s produc$ 9 clay embankm5ts1 & ! dang] is t !y =m slid+ surfaces & cavities f ! pres5ce ( wat]1 & gradually s(t5 ! int]ior until x fails f ! ?ru/ ( ! e>? & want ( uni=m support2 !re=e1 clay e>?s are m difficult to treat ?an granul> soils1 z local weakness is ! cause ( failure1 a mass may be s\nd1 b a crack or fissure may soon become l>ge & pass ?r\gh an embankm5t to ! seat or ! slopes4 ,al?\gh ! filtration ( /ill wat] may n cause an embankm5t to slip z long z ! wat] m]ely re/ores x to its normal absorb+ p[]1 :5 t is exce$$ ! p]colat+ wat] w be damm$-up & cause hydro/atic pressure & a sodd5$ surface1 de/roy cohesion1 & dis9tegrate ! p>ticles4 ,:5 clay is conta9$ )9 ! walls ( a build+1 injuri\s action & unequal settlem5t may arise1 z ! e>? inside & outside may be 9 a diff]5t condition2 consequ5tly 9 soils t exp& & contract !re may be ext]nal or int]nal pressure accord+ to ! /ate ( dampness or dryness1 consequ5t ^u ! gr\nd outside be+ subject to wea!r influ5ces & ! conta9$ e>? be+ comp>atively free f su* op]ation4 ,%ale1 :e!r black or br[n1 may become decompos$ by wat] & be s(t5$ by "t1 & is ei!r loose or firm4 ,if loose1 x requires protection1 & ! surface %\ld n be expos$ to ! wea!r4 ,! pres5ce ( iron pyrites 9 %ale has be5 f\nd to be a cause ( its becom+ trea*]\s :5 wat] has access to x1 z ! mass becomes decompos$4 ,m>ly soils are ( v>i\s hues1 r$1 blue1 grey1 & yell[1 & consi/ pr9cipally ( clay & lime1 & are usually call$ clay-m>ls :5 clay prepond]ates1 & m>l-clays or *alk-m>ls :5 *alk is 9 excess4 ,!y are dry to ! t\* & w eff]vesce ) acids1 ! pres5ce ( lime be+ ?us made evid5t by ! ebullition produc$1 & "s idea ( ! relative quantity may be judg$ by comp>+ results ) diff]5t lumps3 !y v>y 9 "* accord+ z lime or clay pr$om9ates4 ,*alk-m>l may act z an almo/ imp]meable /ratum & arre/ ! p]colation ( wat] f m p]meable soil1 b x is liable to slip because ( fissures be+ pres5t 9 x1 :i* are common to mo/ calc>e\s e>?s2 & :5 ^! crevices are b>$ 9 cutt+s by ! gr\nd be+ excavat$1 ! fl[ f ! previ\sly-conf9$ or div]t$ spr+s is facilitat$1 & p]haps ! h>mless und]gr\nd passage ( wat] is prev5t$1 & consequ5tly ! e>? may become loos5$ & un/able ow+ to ! *ang$ condition4 ,al?\gh m>l may be s h>d t x _c be excavat$ by picks & b>s1 b requires bla/+1 "s v>ieties crumble & become s(t "u wea!r influ5ces1 & ! slopes ne$ protection1 or a con/ant trickl+ & we>+ away ( ! surface w result4 ,grey m>l g5]ally wea!rs quickly1 & if !re is mu* clay 9 x1 x (t5 falls to pieces ^u exposure to ! air1 & becomes brok5 & s split into disjo9t$ pieces z to admit wat]1 & z x sometimes conta9s a consid]able quantity ( s& x is soon r$uc$ to an un/able /ate1 = m>l-clay & s& b$s are always likely to slip4 ,! v>iegat$ m>ls are trea*]\s1 b r$ m>l is usually /able1 /ill x mu/ be l9$ 9 tunnels2 & s are ^? t are imp]meable or closely approa* t condition1 b any m>l 9 :i* ! lime may sep>ate f ! mass is un/able4 ,all clay or m>l soils t soon "w into 8slurry0 may be class$ z trea*]\s1 or any e>? t quickly becomes 9 a liquid /ate2 = in/ance1 "s ( ! h>d 8pan0 soil met ) 9 ,canada melts away by ! action ( air1 ra91 sn[ & fro/1 & becomes unmanageable & l blue pa9t1 & w quickly fill dra9s & run d[n ! slopes & cov] ! =mation ( a cutt+4 ,also ! top black cotton soil f\nd 9 ,india exp&s by aque\s action1 & contracts 9 dry+ z clay1 & is ( d\btful /ability4 ,z might be expect$1 ! m argillace\s or clayey m>ls :5 expos$ to wea!r influ5ces exp&1 contract1 & act almo/ z clays1 becom+ decompos$1 disjo9t$ & sep>at$1 & :5 sup]impos$ ^u rock1 especially if x be incl9$1 are v likely to slip1 & are trea*]\s & un/able soils1 z !y soon become 9 a muddy /ate & h slimy surfaces1 :i*1 :5 re/+ ^u any dipp+ b$1 cause !m to be dispos$ to move ^u ! smalle/ di/urb+ elem5t be+ pres5t or becom+ increas$1 su* z wat] or vibration4 ,:5 a comp>atively p]meable /ratum ov]lies ev5 h>d m>l1 wat] w p5etrate to ! latt] e>? & ! sup]impos$ lay] w re/ ^u an un/able b$1 & !re=e be likely to slip4 ,blue1 or any m>l :5 f\nd mix$ ) lay]s ( small gravel & s&y clay is v trea*]\s1 z air & wat] cause x to swell & crumble1 & x becomes 9 a s(t /ate requir+ a v flat slope4 ,all clay m>ls t swell :5 wet1 & crack & fissure :5 dry1 are un/able1 z wat] p]colates to !m1 & %\ld s& ve9s occur 9 m>l1 wat] may trickle to a consid]able dep? & cause ! gr\nd to be 9 a loose & d\btful condition bel[ ! =mation or bottom ( a cutt+4 ,su* soil :5 tipp$ into an embankm5t is worse to treat ?an 9 a cutt+1 z x w absorb & reta9 wat] s t x is practically impossible to dra9 or extract x4 ,pr(essor ,an/$ has class$ clay soils z "u3-- ,:5 comb9$ ) #cj or #dj p] c5t4 ( s& !y are ,,clay ,,loams4 ,:5 comb9$ ) #dj to #gj p] c5t4 ( s& !y are ,,true ,,loams & ,,loamy ,,soils4 ,b n until !y h #ij p] c5t4 ( s& 9 !m are !y ,,s&y ,,soils4 ,:5 comb9$ ) f #e to #bj p] c5t4 ( lime1 ! soils become ,,m>ly4 ,b n until !y h m ?an #bj p] c5t4 ( lime 9 !m are !y ,,calc>e\s ,,soils4 ,) respect to ! slope ( repose 9 clay e>?s1 x may be any?+ f #a to #a ,,to #ab to #a1 & :5 ! clay is m]e dri$ mud & becomes saturat$ x may n be at re/ until x is horizontal4 ,9 cutt+s1 /rong compact clay1 if n s]i\sly impair$ by air & moi/ure1 w /& at f1 #a to #a ,,to #a to #a4 ,ord9>y clay1 su* z ! blue clay1 ) protect$ slopes & prop] dra9age1 & firm b\ld] clay1 ab\t #a to #a ,pla/ic clay f1 #b to #a ,,to #c to #a4 ,lias clays ( d\btful "*1 #c to #a ,,to #d to #a4 ,sup]ficial b$s ( ,london clay1 #c to #a1 & n less = any weak clay4 ,9 embankm5ts1 mu* dep5ds ^u ! height1 mode ( tipp+1 /ate ( ! soil :5 deposit$1 ! protection af=d$ & uni=m "* ( ! mass1 ! l>g] x is ! m difficult x w be to dra94 ,al?\gh firm clay may = a %ort "t /& at ne>ly a v]tical slope = any height ( face n exce$+ ab\t #aj to #ab feet1 few clays w p]man5tly /& at a less slope ?an1 #a to #a1 = mod]ate heights1 al?\gh !y may = a "t d s at #a to #a 9 unsubm]g$ "w1 b if ! slope is cov]$ ) wat]1 z 9 a canal1 & subject to wa% or wave action1 h[ev] %all[ ! dep?1 x is seldom !y repose at a less incl9ation ?an #a to #a4 ,%\ld an embankm5t be m ?an ab\t #cj feet 9 height #b to #a1 av]age4 ,firm clay f1 #a to #a ,,to #b to #a1 accord+ to ! dep?4 ,pla/ic-clay1 consequ5t ^u ! p]colation & pressure ( wat] 9 cutt+s1 may /& at a /eep] slope 9 a surface protect$ embankm5t1 & if c>efully tipp$1 x w repose at f #a to #a ,,to #b to #a1 b f hydro/atic pressure ! same clay may require f #b to #a ,,to #c to #a slopes 9 cutt+s1 & ev5 an incl9ation ( #e to #a has be5 f\nd to be necess>y4 ,! v>y+ slope-sy/em is ref]r$ to 9 ,*apt] ,,vi41 z also ! range ( slopes4 ,x is always well to be> 9 m9d t 9 ! case ( clay1 loamy or m>ly soils1 or any possess+ soluble p>ticles1 ! quantity ( wat] 9 !m gov]ns ! requir$ flatness ( ! slope1 & z x may be v>iable1 a clay t w repose at a c]ta9 angle may slip ^u receiv+ an additional am\nt ( wat]1 h5ce ! importance ( dra9age & protection4 ,! cohesive /r5g? ( clay also v>ies greatly2 & z x is likely to be impair$1 &1 p]haps1 de/roy$ by wat] & o!r causes1 x %\ld be consid]$ z ( fluctuat+ value1 & !re=e z g5]ally unreliable4 ,! slopes ( repose requir$ 9 riv]-banks h a wide range accord+ to ! degree ( exposure & opposition to ! free fl[ ( wat]1 & ! protection giv5 to ! surface4 ,9 canals1 & dra9age-*annels1 or ord9>y riv]s1 !y range f #a to #a1 :5 protect$1 to #e to #a2 b !re are num]\s small1 %all[1 & sluggi% /reams ) almo/ v]tical banks4 ,z ! e>? ( riv]-banks is frequ5tly ( a clayey nature ! slopes are ref]r$ to "u ! head ( ,clay2 usually x is mix$ 9 "*1 &1 !re=e1 ! slope ( /ability _c be det]m9$ f t ( any p>ticul> & unalloy$ soil4 ,t[>ds ! m\? ! l& (t5 consi/s ( detritus liable to be wa%$ away by a /rong] flood ?an t by :i* x 0 deposit$2 x may also be erod$ by con/ant or increas$ wave action4 ,ord9>y clayey1 loamy1 t5aci\s1 or n easily mov$1 silt & s& riv]-banks1 9 a curr5t t w n erode !m at mod]ate dep?s1 if ! face is protect$1 w /& at an incl9ation ( ab\t #a to #a1 :5 ! *annel is fre%ly cut4 ,if n cov]$ or protect$ at f #b to #a ,,to #c to #a1 b :5 9 clay soil ( a d\btful "* & non-homog5e\s1 or b\ld]-clay1 ab\t #d to #a4 #b to #a ,,to #c to #a is ! mo/ g5]al slope2 b 9 m>% l&1 unless ! surface is protect$1 !y may n p]man5tly /& at #e to #a4 ,fasc9e-"w may be ! easie/ & mo/ conv5i5t protection1 or a gravel or turf-cov]+ may suffice1 & %\ld new *annels h to be creat$1 ! "q to decide is1 w x be *eap] to make ! slopes suffici5tly flat s t !y c be left unprotect$1 or is x pref]able to h a /eep incl9ation1 su* z #a to #a1 & to c>efully cov] & protect ! surfaces1 ! probable co/ ( ma9t5ance ( ! protect+ cov] be+ duly consid]$8 ,z a rule 9 homog5e\s e>?1 su* z clay1 und]gr\nd excavation is ! mo/ free f wat]1 & !re=e f slips2 b ! enorm\s =ce clay possesses ^u swell+--& ?is di/urbance ( ! soil may occur _m times by ! action ( air & moi/ure--& its contraction ^u dry+1 cause tunnels 9 clay to be risky und]tak+s4 ,! *ief precautions aga9/ failure are to all[ pl5ty ( space = ! expansion ( ! clay1 r$uce ! uncov]$ l5g?s to ! lea/ dim5sions1 h dry1 yet h>d & compressible1 fill+ betwe5 ! ar* & ! walls & ! clay1 use ! /ronge/ bricks1 or mat]ial ) great compressive /r5g? = ! l9+1 adopt a =m giv+ z equal support z possible 9 e direction1 i4e41 "o closely approa*+ ! circul>1 leave pl5ty ( weep-holes to prev5t any accumulation ( wat]1 & ?or\ghly dra9 & g5tly conduct to ! prop] dra9age *annels all wat] z x exudes4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,g5]al ,,effect ,,( ,a ,,slip ,,9 ,a ,,cutt+ ,,or ,,an ,,embankm5t4--,,enum]ation ,,& ,,consid]ation ,,( ,,"s ,,protective ,,& ,,rem$ial ,,works4--,,treatm5t ,,( ,,! ,,slipp$ ,,e>?4 ,) reg>d to ! effect ( a slip ! *ief consid]ation is1 w x be dang]\s & prev5t traffic or ! unre/ra9$ use ( ! "w8 ,a problem mo/ difficult to solve4 ,^u railways exp]i5ce seems to %[ t slips ( e>?work 9 cutt+s ( a dep? exce$+ ab\t #aj to #ae feet are m to be fe>$ z likely to int]f]e & /op ! traffic ?an slips 9 embankm5ts1 & p>ticul>ly z1 except on sidelong gr\nd1 slips 9 embankm5ts seldom occur 9 :i* ! :ole ( ! =mation is mov$1 or becomes too un/able = a sl[ tra9 to pass ov]1 & a tempor>y road c usually be ma9ta9$ by timb] tre/les & baulks1 or o!r usual means4 ,:5 a slip happ5s 9 a cutt+ ! fall5 e>? may cov] ! =mation1 & x is c]ta9 t x c move 9 no o!r direction4 ,! p]man5t way may be entirely buri$1 & x may be undesirable to excavate ! slipp$ e>? until o!r rem$ial works h be5 complet$1 & !re=e ! traffic is /opp$ until !y are effect$4 ,9 cutt+s ( little dep? :]e a #c or #d to #a slope assum$ by a cutt+ orig9ally excavat$ to1 say1 #a to #a slopes1 w n t\* ! balla/1 ! s]i\s consequ5ces ( a slip are r$uc$ to a m9imum1 & may n int]f]e ) ! traffic1 & c be rem$i$ by ! road-m5 on ! section2 b n s 9 ! case ( embankm5ts4 ,consequ5tly ! dep? ( a cutt+ or height ( an embankm5t mu/ be reg>d$ z a gov]n+ condition ap>t f o!r consid]ations h]e9aft] nam$4 ,! height or dep? at :i* a slip 9 an embankm5t or cutt+ becomes disa/r\s _c be asc]ta9$ by any rule1 b k ( ! flatte/ slope at :i* any p>ticul> e>? has rema9$ /able 9 ! same /ate z ! embankm5t or cutt+ "u delib]ation1 w enable a close approximation to be det]m9$ ( ! po9t to :i* a slip 9 a cutt+ is likely to rea*1 & t to :i* an embankm5t w subside4 ,= in/ance1 a cutt+ #ae feet 9 dep?1 hav+ orig9ally slopes ( #a to #a1 c assume practically #b to #a slopes )\t cov]+ ! rails1 &1 simil>ly1 a #aj-;feet cutt+1 a slightly flatt] incl9ation ?an #b to #a4 ,tak+ into consid]ation t = "s little dep? f ! surface a cutt+1 except 9 loose or trea*]\s soil1 w /& at a /eep] slope ?an #b to #a1 p]haps1 on ! :ole1 ap>t f ! =mation ( prop] wat]-tables1 an eng9e] is n ju/ifi$ 9 mak+ exp5sive provision 9 cutt+s1 ev5 9 d\btful soil1 unless ^u an incl9$ b$ t[>ds ! cutt+1 ( a less dep? ?an f #aj to #ae feet1 z !y c be m economically rem$i$ aft] !y occur1 & meteorological influ5ces h %[n ! location ( ! un/able portion4 ,nev]!less heavy slips h tak5 place ev5 9 cutt+s ( su* a mod]ate dep? z ab\t #aj feet1 p>ticul>ly 9 clay e>?s1 & x has be5 necess>y to entirely susp5d ! traffic consequ5t ^u a cont9u\s mass ( e>? ( %all[ dep? mov+ =w>d ^u an ungu5t\s /ratum slightly incl9$ t[>ds ! =mation1 & completely block+ up ! cutt+2 b ?is 0 an exceptional case4 ,!re are _m cutt+s 9 all p>ts ( ! _w "u v diff]5t conditions ( wea!r & climate1 & 9 e conceivable v>iety ( e>?1 9 :i* no?+ has be5 done to prev5t movem5t1 ) ! exception1 p]haps1 ( a surface-dra9 inside ! f5ce & a wat]-table1 self-=m$ or o!rwise1 ne> ! foot ( ! slope2 & !re are _m cutt+s & embankm5ts )\t any precaution>y works4 ,nev]!less !y /& or require b little att5tion4 ,?is fact naturally leads to ! "q3 :5 ought any works to be execut$ ) ! view ( prev5t+ movem5t 9 e>?work8 ,exp5diture 9 precaution>y & pres]vative works1 :]e !y are n requir$1 & ! s]i\s consequ5ces ( a slip are r$uc$ to a m9imum1 _c be def5d$2 nor c ! abs5ce ( su* prev5tive measures 9 trea*]\s e>? or soil s plac$ z to induce in/ability1 & :]e ! effect ( a slip may be tempor>ily or p]man5tly disa/r\s1 not)/&+ t economy 9 con/ruction has n[ become ! wat*-^w ( railway-ext5sion2 z !n ! exp5se ( re/oration & ma9t5ance w be v consid]ably increas$ & f> exce$ ! comp>atively small co/ ( initial protection1 = public traffic may be /opp$ & injury caus$ to life & prop]ty4 ,! prec$+ & ! foll[+ pages h be5 writt5 9 ! hope t !y may af=d "s assi/ance 9 arriv+ at a correct decision1 ) reg>d to ! necessity ( precaution>y works1 & ) ! view ( call+ to remembrance _m ( ! pr9cipal po9ts to be consid]$ 9 ord] to rem$y slips1 a matt] usually dem&+ prompt decision4 ,) respect to ! measures t %\ld be adopt$ to prev5t slips1 & ! works requir$ :5 !y h occurr$1 x w\ld be a mi/ake to g5]alize f any successful application ( "o me?od ( rep>ation1 z x is necess>y to consid] ea* soil sep>ately1 & to discov] ! reason ( a slip2 = an attempt to arre/ ! =w>d movem5t ( a l>ge mass w be futile2 ! di/urb+ cause mu/ be asc]ta9$ & remov$1 or s less5$ & controll$ z to obviate fur!r motion or det]ioration2 s& or por\s /rata1 :i* may emit wat] uni=mly1 mu/ be treat$ diff]5tly to e>? :i* sets free wat] 9 a p>ticul> place1 z also ! same soil if x %\ld be 9 a dissimil> condition4 ,! object ( all su* works is to support1 ma9ta91 & dra9 ! e>? & prev5t any accumulation ( wat] 9 ! slopes & =mation1 s t movem5t is improbable2 !re=e1 wat] fl[+ t[>ds ! slopes mu/ be int]cept$ & l$ away be=e x has "t to p]colate2 & ! me?od ( dis*>g+ x mu/ be gov]n$ by ! position & nature ( ! soil1 ! *ief aim ( dra9+ op]ations be+ to cause ! e>? to be always 9 its mo/ consolidat$ condition4 ,)\t ob/ruction to ! dra9age1 a g5]al pres]vative is to cov] ! surface1 & protect x aga9/ ! delet]i\s effects ( ra91 fro/ & ?aw1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( soils :i* dis9tegrate rapidly "u ! influ5ce ( wea!r4 ,"s ( ! means t c be adopt$ to prev5t slips & subsid5ces 9 cutt+s & embankm5ts may be enum]at$ z foll[s4 #a4 ,sy/ematic dra9age ( a cutt+1 & ! natural gr\nd & deposit$ e>? 9 an embankm5t1 s z to augm5t its weight su/a9+ p[] & g5]al /ability4 #b4 ,a side dit* ne> to ! foot ( ea* slope1 & at ! top ( ! slope adjac5t to ! f5ce l9e4 #c4 ,cat*wat] dra9s ^u ! slopes4 #d4 ,wells1 fill$ ) brok5 filt]+ mat]ial1 contigu\s to ! f5ce l9e & connect+ dra9s ) !m4 #e4 ,op5 timb] tr5*es1 /rutt$ at int]vals1 & act+ z dra9s & c\nt]=ts1 at ! toe ( a slope4 #f4 ,a *annel = ! dis*>ge ( any wat] issu+ f an int]cept$ field dra94 #g4 ,tapp+ spr+s 9 ! slopes or =mation ( a cutt+1 or t exi/ 9 ! gr\nd ^u :i* an embankm5t has to be deposit$4 #h4 ,! pr(ile ( ! =mation be+ made high] 9 ! c5tre1 s t wat] w fl[ into ! side dra9s or wat]-table & n rema91 due provision be+ made = its dis*>ge4 #i4 ,side dra9s be+ made be=e ! excavation is comm5c$ or deposit$4 #aj4 ,no accumulation ( wat] be+ all[$ ^u ! gr\nd ^u :i* an embankm5t has to be deposit$4 #aa4 ,cov]+ a slope ) ramm$ e>?1 burnt balla/1 *alk1 gravel1 a%es1 or o!r protective mat]ial4 #ab4 ,turf+ a slope1 or s[+ x ) grass se$4 #ac4 ,deposit+ lay]s ( mat]ial1 consolidat$ by ramm+ or o!rwise1 ^u a slope at "r angles or diagonally to ! l9e ( ! foot ( a slope4 #ad4 ,by b5*+1 or a t]race or cess ^u a slope4 #ae4 ,cov]+ ! toe ( a slope ) /one pit*+4 #af4 ,divid+ a slope by tr5*es fill$ ) /ones or absorb5t mat]ial4 #ag4 ,weight+ a slope to c\nt]act ! pressure ( ! int]nal wat]1 & to re/ore ! equilibrium4 #ah4 ,a brea/-high reta9+ wall at ! toe ( a slope4 #ai4 ,cov]+ "p or ! :ole ( a slope ) fasc9e mattresses or bru%wood1 sy/ematically laid 9 comb9ation ) gravel1 /one1 brok5 bricks1 a%es1 c4 #bj4 ,c\nt]=ts ( gravel1 *alk1 burnt balla/1 a%es1 rubble1 c41 at ! toe & ^u a slope4 #ba4 ,a dry wall at ! toe ( ! slope ( a /ratum ( un/able soil1 f\nd above ! =mation level & sup]impos$ ^u rock or firm e>?4 #bb4 ,v>y+ or increas+ ! flatness ( a slope t[>ds ! bottom ( a cutt+ or embankm5t4 #bc4 ,9 cutt+s1 by reta9+ walls1 ) or )\t ov]head /ruts4 #bd4 ,sy/ematic plant+ ^u ! cess & slopes1 trees1 %rubs1 or bu%es hav+ deep wide-spread+ roots4 #be4 ,! removal ( any spoil bank t may h be5 tipp$ or ca/ out ne> ! top ( ! slope ( a cutt+4 #bf4 ,remov+ ! turf & all loose or decay+ matt] f ! natural gr\nd be=e ! e>? is deposit$4 #bg4 ,cle>+ away all sn[ & froz5 soil be=e tipp+ or excavat+1 & tak+ c>e t no froz5 e>? is deposit$4 #bh4 ,=m+ ! gr\nd ^u :i* an embankm5t has to be tipp$1 at an incl9ation d[nw>d f ! toe ( a slope1 t[>ds ! c5tre1 & ! con/ruction ( a dry dra9 along ! c5tre l9e s z to cause p]colat+ wat] to fl[ away1 or prev5t x rea*+ ! slopes4 #bi4 ,b5*+ ! gr\nd ^u :i* an embankm5t has to be deposit$4 #cj4 ,cov]+ ! gr\nd ^u :i* an embankm5t is to be tipp$ ) a h>d p]meable lay]4 #ca4 ,tr5*es fill$ ) /ones or o!r h>d p]meable mat]ial across ! base ( an embankm5t4 #cb4 ,cov]+ ! toe ( ! slope ( an embankm5t ) sods or mak+ a c\nt]=t ( turf4 #cc4 ,runn+ to spoil all saturat$ e>?1 & susp5d+ op]ations = a day or two aft] heavy & cont9u\s ra9 or a fall ( sn[1 or fro/4 #cd4 ,fill+ any l>ge fissures z !y appe>4 #ce4 ,weight+ ! e>? s z to cond5se x4 #cf4 ,increas+ ! area ( ! base ( an embankm5t accord+ to ! be>+ p[] ( ! soil4 #cg4 ,by ! exclusion ( all b\ld]s1 roots1 turf1 bran*es ( trees1 or bu%es 9 =m+ an embankm5t4 #ch4 ,by aid+ consolidation & prev5t+ sep>ation at ! junction ( two embankm5ts4 #ci4 ,tipp+ an embankm5t 9 su* a way z to promote consolidation4 ,9 subsequ5t *apt]s _m protective & rem$ial measures are specifically nam$4 ,"h ref]5ce is made to ! m g5]al pr9ciples4 ,! purpose = :i* a cutt+ has be5 excavat$1 or an embankm5t deposit$ mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation 9 provid+ protective works1 = ! surfaces may only be tempor>ily b>$1 z 9 tr5*work = walls1 or be p>tly cov]$ ) wat]1 z 9 canals1 & entirely unsubm]g$ ^u "o side z 9 canal1 res]voir1 & reclamation embankm5ts2 or be fully expos$ to meteorological influ5ces z 9 railway & road cutt+s & embankm5ts4 ,!re c be no /]eotyp$ sy/em ( op]ations = treat+ a slip1 b exp]i5ce indicates t a frequ5tly successful initiatory me?od is to divide ! e>? into small portions1 & to proce$ to equally consolidate !m4 ,h[ev]1 9 ! case ( deep cutt+s1 especially :5 excavat$ 9 ! side ( a hill1 x may be necess>y to drive a head+ b5ea? ! =mation & to connect x ) a %aft ^u ! high] side1 s z to tap ! wat]-be>+ soil1 & to convey ! wat] away to prev5t x rea*+ ! slopes2 ?is may be consid]$ z a slip requir+ an exceptional rem$y4 ,%\ld a cutt+ be 9 mov+ gr\nd or p]meable soil ( d\btful /ability1 su* a sy/em ( wells & cov]$ gall]ies1 :i* are g5]ally successful ev5 9 ! wor/ soil1 may be requir$4 ,! wells %\ld1 if possible1 be sunk a few feet into an imp]meable /ratum1 _! diamet] be+ ! lea/ a man c excavate1 to any size requir$1 & _! di/ance ap>t1 say1 f #cj to #fj feet1 accord+ to ! quantity ( wat] to be collect$4 ,!y %\ld be connect$ by drifts4 ,small] int]m$iate wells c be made betwe5 ! ma9 wells4 ,9 ord] to be effectual su* works mu/ be c>efully & uni=mly con/ruct$1 or an accumulation ( wat] w arise4 ,:5 a slip is kn[n to h occurr$1 simply f want ( dra9age1 a suffici5t rem$y may be ! removal ( ! slipp$ e>? & ! ins]tion ( dra9s4 ,an advantage ( ! loose c\nt]=t sy/em ( dra9age z comp>$ ) rigid & fix$ dra9s1 is t op5 dra9s w foll[ a slight subsid5ce ( ! e>?1 & yet ma9ta9 _! effici5cy1 b c>e mu/ be tak5 t !y d n become *ok$4 ,9 %ift+ or d\btful soil all works %\ld be quickly f9i%$1 & 9 sidelong gr\nd x is be/ to comm5ce dra9age op]ations on ! valley side s z to tap ! wat]1 z if !y are begun on ! hill-side !y may1 until ?r\gh dra9age is effect$1 =m *annels = ! accumulation ( wat]1 & cause a slip4 ,! repairs ( a slip c be comm5c$ at sev]al places simultane\sly if at %ort di/ances ap>t1 su* z #bj feet or s1 &1 z a rule1 x is pref]able 9 an embankm5t t ! "w proce$s t[>ds ! c5tre1 & n f ! c5tral portion to ! slopes4 ,x is advisable to make dit*es or gall]ies 9 %ort l5g?s1 n only to di/urb ! gr\nd z little z possible1 b also to ensure p]fect sup]vision1 z if ! "w is n c>efully & uni=mly con/ruct$1 localization ( wat] w ensue4 ,! ext5t ( a slip w to "s ext5t gov]n ! rem$y4 ,simple op5 /one-fill$ dra9s1 #b to #d feet 9 wid?1 & #a foot to #b feet 9 dep?1 ext5d+ f ! base to ! top1 may be suffici5t = %all[ cutt+s or embankm5ts1 su* z #aj to #ae feet1 & l>g] & deep] tr5*es above ^? dep?s or heights1 & complete dra9age ( & ar\nd ! slipp$ e>?1 & division ( x by means ( dra9s & pipes4 ,9 c\ntries :]e !re is an excessive ra9fall 9 a %ort "t1 x has be5 f\nd necess>y to cat* z mu* ( ! surface flood wat]s & torr5tial /reams z possible1 & to r$uce _! velocity be=e pass+ ?r\gh an embankm5t or d[n a cutt+1 & to provide a pond or 8tumbl+ bay0 at ! base ( a wat]fall = su* purpose1 or to erect dams1 :5 ! =ce is n too great1 s z to arre/ & less5 ! velocity ( ! fl[4 ,)\t su* precautions1 flood wat]s w erode ! e>?1 & ! b$s become gradually deep]2 & walls at ! toe1 culv]ts1 & dry /one fill+ across ! :ole wid? ( an embankm5t1 & /one cov]+ ^u ! slopes :]e wat] issues or fl[s may be requir$4 ,cat*m5t res]voirs h also prov$ ( use 9 controll+ ! surface wat]s be=e !y rea* a cutt+ or embankm5t1 & 9 p]mitt+ !m to be controll$4 ,_m ( ! *ief causes ( slips 9 embankm5ts are enum]at$ 9 ,*apt] ,i41 c4 ,"s ( ! mo/ important op]ations to prev5t slips 9 an embankm5t are to ?or\ghly dra9 its seat1 prev5t a fl[ ^u ! surface ( ! orig9al gr\nd1 p]colation ( dra9age wat]s into its l[] "p & filtration ( ra9-wat] at ! cr[n1 & to g5]ally protect ! surface4 ,! /ability ( an embankm5t is n regulat$ by ! cohesiv5ess ( ! soil1 z a s& or gravel embankm5t1 or t =m$ ( any mat]ial ^: p>ticles are n delet]i\sly affect$1 w /& ) a suffici5tly flat slope if protect$ aga9/ erosion1 & be m /able ?an a clay or any embankm5t 9 :i* ! p>ticles are soluble & soon impair$ by wat]1 h[ev] great _! orig9al t5acity4 ,if any "p ( an embankm5t has become saturat$1 ! int]nal wat] mu/ be tapp$ & dra9$2 z ! l[] surface portion is almo/ c]ta9 to be ! wett]1 ! dra9s %\ld be made at ! base1 tr5*es fill$ ) op5 por\s mat]ial ^u ! slopes1 &1 p]haps1 x may be necess>y to s9k a few %all[ wells4 ,! slopes & =mation %\ld be cov]$ s t :5 ! excess ( moi/ure is extract$ f ! mass x _c be replac$4 ,por\s e>? c\nt]=ts c be adopt$1 #f to #aj feet 9 wid?1 plac$ at int]vals dep5d+ ^u ! nature & condition ( ! soil & height ( an embankm5t1 or a cont9u\s bank ( simil> mat]ial at ! toe to support ! embankm5t dur+ ! tempor>y weak5+ f dra9age op]ations4 ,"o ( ! wor/ cases t may h to be treat$ 9 embankm5ts is 9 clay or m>l soils1 :5 ! c5tral portion has be5 fir/ tipp$ 9 a wet /ate 9 ! w9t] mon?s1 & aft] an int]val ! embankm5t complet$ to its requir$ wid? 9 a froz5 condition1 or ne>ly s1 or "o 9 :i* ! e>? becomes froz5 :5 deposit$4 ,9 ,russia x has be5 f\nd t ra9-wat] p]colat+ into su* an embankm5t _c dra9 away1 b accumulates & f9ally bur/s ! slopes1 & t wat] w exude f froz5 soil :5 x ?aws1 a consid]able "t elaps+ be=e all ! froz5 e>? has ?aw$2 wat] is ?us1 z x 71 tak5 into ! mass1 :i* 9 all ret5tive soils w be difficult to dra9 )\t turn+ ov] ! e>?2 & x w cause slimy surfaces & g5]al in/ability4 ,x w always be an exp5sive op]ation to make su* an embankm5t secure1 & x _c be made z firm z "o prop]ly deposit$4 ,aft] subsid5ce has ceas$1 an approv$ rem$y 9 su* a case is to cov] ! =mation ) an imp]meable lay]1 & to raise ! embankm5t to ! rail level ) s&1 :i* is ultimately alone us$ = repairs1 ! slopes be+ c>efully trimm$ & s[n4 ,al?\gh n consid]$ 9 ! usual acceptation ( ! ^w z a slip1 ! trickl+ ( ! surface soil is m5tion$ z x is a movem5t :i* may1 if all[$ to proce$1 cause a slip1 & frequ5tly necessitates att5tion because ( ! soil becom+ 9 a liquid condition & fl[+ ^u l& beyond t acquir$ = any works1 & also because x ob/ructs & *okes dra9s4 ,x may be expect$ :5 a ?aw occurs aft] sev]e fro/1 or heavy ra9 succe$s dr\ght1 or subsequ5t to a rapid *ange ( wea!r 9 any e>? ( a clayey or calc>e\s nature1 z1 = in/ance1 9 clay m>l & argillace\s *alk cutt+s or embankm5ts1 & if ! configuration ( ! gr\nd %\ld be fav\rable to its passage to l& outside t pur*as$1 su* issue mu/ be prev5t$ by protect+ ! slopes by means ( a cov]+1 by dra9+1 or by ! consolidation ( ! surface ( ! e>?1 :i* latt] op]ation may be difficult1 or by ! erection ( a small m\nd ne> ! f5ce l9e4 ,9 gr\nd conta9+ salt or o!r solv5ts 9 appreciable quantity1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t wat] does n rea* x2 if x %\ld1 ! soil imm$iately becomes damag$ & subsides2 also x is f\nd t ! e>? f :i* soda nitrate is manufactur$ 9 ,nor? ,*ili mu/ be kept p]fectly dry to be secure z a f\ndation4 ,all soils ( a salifiable "* %\ld be consid]$ z likely to subside & slip4 ,9 ! salt-produc+ di/ricts 9 ,engl& x is f\nd t :5 ! br9e1 :i* is ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( ! mass1 is pump$ up to ! surface to be made into :ite salt1 ! l& w subside1 z 9 effect x is pump+ up ! und]gr\nd support+ /ratum or rock salt b$2 & :5 a riv] is contigu\s or copi\s spr+s1 ! rock-salt w be suppli$ ) wat] to make x br9e4 ,! exp]i5ce ( ^? :o h _h to ma9ta9 embankm5ts 9 ^! di/ricts indicates t s long z subsid5ce is uni=m embankm5ts c be rais$ & ma9ta9$2 b :5 wat] p5etrates into an old pit previ\sly comp>atively dry1 unequal & dang]\s slips & subsid5ces may be expect$1 & on s l>ge a scale z to require mu* exp5diture = re/oration4 ,if ! settlem5t is uni=m1 ! easie/ way is to simply raise an embankm5t2 ! rate ( s9k+ v>ies consid]ably1 av]ag+1 say1 f #b to #e feet p] annum1 & dep5d+ ^u ! am\nt ( br9e extract$ & ! p]colation ( wat]1 c4 ,x is obvi\s t embankm5ts ^u su* l& require con/ant att5tion to prev5t s]i\s slips4 ,at ! edge ( a cliff or hill :]e loose rock exi/s & is jo9$ by clayey soil1 b is suffici5tly /able n to slip 9 a mass1 x may be necess>y to h a cov] %$ ov] a railway or road to prev5t deta*$ pieces ( rock fall+ ^u ! surface1 ! slopes f be+ injur$1 & l>g] masses slop+ d[n4 ,cov]+ a slope 9 su* a case is useless1 b an op5 deep tr5*1 specially con/ruct$ to cat* pieces ( rock1 may suffice4 ,important que/ions to det]m9e :5 a slip has occurr$ are3-- #a4 ,%\ld ! :ole or "p ( ! e>? t has slipp$ be remov$8 #b4 ,h[ are ! voids to be fill$ t h be5 caus$ by ! slip8 #c4 ,c ! di/urb$ mat]ial be aga9 us$8 #d4 ,:at protective measures %\ld be adopt$8 ,a ?or\gh exam9ation ( ! site ( a slip & ! slipp$ e>? is absolutely necess>y be=e ! mo/ effectual & economical means ( re/oration c be det]m9$1 = weakness or ! pres5ce ( a di/urb+ ag5t 9 ! upp] or l[] portion ( a cutt+ or embankm5t may be ! cause ( movem5t4 ,an embankm5t may be solid 9 ! mass & only portions may slip & subside1 b !n may become un/able & require diff]5t treatm5t1 or local re/oration may alone be necess>y1 & ! slipp$ e>? to be remov$ be small 9 quantity4 ,ext5sive slips ( ! :ole ( an embankm5t usually occur f spr+s 9 its seat or ! exi/5ce ( a fl[ ( wat] ^u ! gr\nd "u ! base1 produc+ a greasy surface4 ,%\ld x happ5 t an embankm5t ( p]vi\s soil is tipp$ ^u imp]vi\s gr\nd hav+ a depression resembl+ a bas91 wat] w accumulate until x rea*es ! level ( dis*>ge1 & a s]i\s slip may result4 ,9 su* a case ! slipp$ e>? mu/ be remov$ & ! wat] tapp$ & p]man5tly dra9$4 ,! upp] portion ( an embankm5t may slip & ! l[] be /able2 if s1 x is n s s]i\s z :5 movem5t comm5ces at ! toe & ! slope bulges outw>ds & ! embankm5t subsides2 9 ! =m] case1 provid$ ! l[] portion is n affect$ or its dra9age ob/ruct$1 x may n be necess>y to remove ! slipp$ e>?1 b x is advisable to dra9 x1 & any localization or lodgm5t ( wat] betwe5 ! slipp$ mass & ! firm "p ( an embankm5t mu/ be prev5t$1 or ! toe ( ! slope w be made 9 an un/able condition4 ,9 cutt+s 9 ord] to keep op5 ! =mation ! :ole ( ! slipp$ e>? may h to be excavat$1 b 9 embankm5ts1 s long z ! soil does n ext5d outside ! f5c+1 its entire removal becomes optional1 & is unnecess>y provid$ fur!r movem5t be prev5t$1 & ! soil dra9$2 b 9 mo/ trea*]\s e>?s1 al?\gh a slip may be arre/$1 x w g5]ally be a place requir+ con/ant wat*+1 & be "o ( d\btful /ability4 ,e>?work slips require to be rem$i$ z soon z possible aft] !y occur1 n only to repair !m & obviate an int]ruption ( traffic1 b 9 ord] t ! unslipp$ portions may n be delet]i\sly affect$ & movem5t be induc$4 ,:5 ! e>? is v s(t1 silty1 & difficult to dra91 ! only c\rse may be to remove ! slipp$ mat]ial1 al?\gh x may n be necess>y to excavate all ( x1 z x may =m a res]voir = ! accumulation ( wat]1 & is c]ta9 to be liable to di/urbance f ! effects ( wea!r2 b 9 firm] soil a portion ( ! slipp$ e>? may be excavat$1 & be ramm$ 9 lay]s incl9+ at "r angles1 or ne>ly s1 to ! surface ( ! slope1 & a dra9 c be ins]t$ at ab\t ! bottom ( ! l9e ( ! slip to prev5t any wat] t may p]colate f ! unslipp$ mass fl[+ into ! ramm$ e>? or any c\nt]=t s con/ruct$2 b c\nt]=ts may af=d insuffici5t support 9 v trea*]\s soil1 & x may be necess>y to remove ei!r ! :ole or a consid]able "p ( a slope & replace x ) ! be/ available mat]ial wat]$ & ramm$3 h[ev]1 ! simple ramm+ ( ! e>? & deposit+ x 9 incl9$ lay]s may n be suffici5t to ensure /ability1 & %\ld x be f\nd t ! slipp$ mat]ial is v s(t & _c be readily dra9$1 x mu/ be excavat$1 & solid & firm e>? put 9 its place4 ,:5 ! base ( a slip is level ) ! bottom ( any side dit* t may h exi/$ be=e movem5t occurr$1 ! dra9 %\ld be bel[ ! level ( ! dit*1 or a fl[ ( wat] may be induc$ at ! seat :i* w probably cause fur!r unsettlem5t2 & if a slip ext5ds bel[ ! bottom ( a cutt+ x is necess>y to remove ! slipp$ e>? z f> z ! solid gr\nd1 & to fill ! void ) dry mat]ial ( suffici5t weight to prev5t ! surface be+ uplift$1 & to cause solidity 9 ord] to avoid any movem5t ( ! toe ( a slope4 ,:5 ! slipp$ soil is clay or %ale x c be burnt 9 situ d[n to ! solid gr\nd1 or ^u an incombu/ible b$1 & be conv]t$ into a k9d ( brick rubbi% & !n be re/or$ to its orig9al place2 b ?is may be an exp5sive me?od1 & x may be *eap] to procure firm e>?1 nev]!less1 %\ld no o!r mat]ial be available x may be ! only economical means ( repair+ a slip4 ,be=e decid+ :e!r clay or %ale %all be burn$ 9 situ x may be advisable to te/ ! am\nt ( balla/ t c be made by1 say1 #a ton or m ( coal1 & ! co/ includ+ e item ( exp5diture3 #aj or #ab cubic y>ds ( balla/ may be obta9$ = e ton ( coal burnt1 b ?is quantity may be s r$uc$ t ! co/ ( burn+ may prohibit ! use ( su* a me?od = replac+ ! slipp$ e>? :5 made into firm soil4 ,x mu* dep5ds ^u ! quantity ( wat] 9 ! mat]ial1 & also ^u ! nature ( ! e>?2 = in/ance1 burn+ becomes m difficult z ! am\nt ( silica 9 ! clay becomes great]1 & ! balla/ is n s good z ! quantity ( lime increases 9 ! clay2 !re=e pure clay makes ! be/ burnt balla/4 ,%\ld x be decid$ to burn ! slipp$ e>?1 x is necess>y t x be plac$ ^u firm gr\nd1 & t x re/s ^u an op5 lay] ( /one or mat]ial t w n k9dle 9 ord] to obta9 ! necess>y draught4 ,! ?ickness ( ! lay]s mu/ be regulat$ by ! degree ( wetness ( ! soil1 f #a to #b feet be+ requir$ = ?or\gh burn+1 & %\ld lay]s ( a less ?ickness ?an #a foot be requir$1 ! process ( mak+ ! slipp$ e>? into burnt balla/ w usually be too exp5sive1 b ( c\rse mu* dep5ds ^u ! price ( ! coal ^u ! site4 ,! burnt balla/ may co/ any?+ f #as4 to #bs4 #f;d4 a cubic y>d2 :5 ! latt] price is rea*$1 x may be *eap] to procure s\nd e>?4 ,if ! slipp$ e>? approa*es ! condition ( c>bonace\s %ale1 black or d>k br[n 9 col\r1 x may k9dle easily2 ! m argillace\s %ales w require a little coal to conv]t !m to burnt balla/1 ! quantity increas+ z !y gradually become ( a clayey "*4 ,blue clay1 :5 ?or\ghly burnt1 g5]ally makes bett] balla/ ?an mo/ o!r clays1 b z a dra9 ! balla/ is n equal to clean gravel4 ,9 consid]+ :e!r x is only necess>y to simply replace ! dri$ e>? 9 its orig9al position1 x %\ld be det]m9$ :e!r ! undi/urb$ portion ( an embankm5t w support ! weight :5 unaid$ by c\nt]=ts ) a f\ndation 9 solid gr\nd at ! toe ( ! slope1 tr5*es & dra9s ^u ! slopes1 & p]haps a r\gh /one b$ bel[ ! seat ( ! slip act+ z an op5 dra9 ov] "p or ! :ole ( x4 ,9 any case provision mu/ be made t !re is no localization ( wat] betwe5 ! orig9al embankm5t & ! fill+ or ! c\nt]=t4 ,9 "s soils1 p>ticul>ly ^? hav+ seams ( s& or silt1 ! slipp$ e>? frequ5tly becomes displac$ 9 lay]s1 & if all[$ to rema91 ea* b$ w =m a wat] seam ^u :i* any /ratum c slide1 & !n ! e>? may n be at re/ until ! slope is v flat4 ,! removal ( ! :ole mass is ! *eape/ rem$y4 ,! surface left b>e by ! slipp$ e>? %\ld be trimm$1 & all fissures 9 x be fill$ s z to prev5t any accumulation or lodgm5t ( wat]1 b ! slipp$ e>? %\ld only be excavat$ 9 %ort l5g?s1 z x may r5d] support & keep "p ( ! face cov]$1 & x %\ld be rememb]$ t al?\gh ! upp] portion ( ! fall5 e>? may be ! dri] x may n be ! mo/ /able4 ,! sy/em ( remov+ ! slipp$ e>?1 erect+ r\gh rubble walls at int]vals ( #bj to #cj feet project+ z f> z ! face ( ! orig9al slope1 & !n fill+ ! int]v5+ space ) ! mat]ial t has slipp$1 :5 turn$ ov] & punn$1 has be5 successfully adopt$4 ,x is advisable to cov] ) turf ! replac$ e>? 9 ! slope1 unless "s o!r protection is suppli$4 ,:5 any signs ( movem5t aft]w>ds take place a few additional c\nt]=ts1 :i*1 may also be made to act z dra9s1 w g5]ally re/ore ! equilibrium4 ,?is sy/em relies ^u prev5t+ movem5t 9 e>? by sep>at+ ! masses ( ! slipp$ soil1 & dra9+ & support+ !m 9 detail4 ,! f\ndations ( ! c\nt]=ts mu/ be 9 ! solid gr\nd & n m]ely bel[ ! seat ( ! slip4 ,x may be impossible to dra9 ! site ( a slip or ! soil t has mov$ )\t divid+ x into portions1 ! *ief object be+ to ?or\ghly dra9 ! site & ! slipp$ e>?1 s t x is practically encircl$ ) dra9s & any wat] prev5t$ f collect+ 9 or ^u x4 ,:5 ! l& is ( little value & a cutt+ is 9 a m\nta9 or hill-side1 x may be advisable to assi/ an ext5sive slip1 provid$ x happ5s be=e any public works are op5$ = traffic2 & to remove ! e>? by loos5+ x by ! action ( a /ream ( wat] until x slides away1 z dra9+ or support+ x may be insuffici5t4 ,"u su* circum/ances x is ! be/ c\rse to adopt1 especially if a /ream ( wat] c be readily div]t$ to x z ! un/able soil is f9ally dis5gag$4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,notes ,,on ,,! ,,p]colation ,,( ,,wat]4--,,sy/ems ,,( ,,dra9age ,,( ,,cutt+s ,,& ,,embankm5ts ,,9 ,,diff]5t ,,k9ds ,,( ,,e>? ,,& ,,"u ,,div]se ,,conditions4--,,! ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,culv]ts1 ,,pipe-,,dra9s1 ,,tr5*es1 ,,dit*es1 ,,& ,,cat*wat] ,,dra9s4 ,) respect to ! p]colation & dra9age ( wat] 9 cutt+s & embankm5ts1 9 cutt+s ! *ief consid]ation is to g5tly extract & conduct ! wat] s z to avoid any accumulation or localis$ fl[ b5ea? ! orig9al surface ( ! gr\nd 9 ord] to prev5t ! surface wat] erod+ ! slopes or collect+ or =m+ a c\rse1 saturat+ ! gr\nd outside !m1 & to ensure t ! e>? is n m *>g$ ) wat] ?an :5 9 its normal condition2 =1 z soon z ! /ate ( absorption has rea*$ t ( dissolv+ or sep>at+ ! p>ticles1 h[ev] f9e1 aque\s action is likely to produce slips1 & a fl[ ( wat] or vibration w supply ! di/urb+ =ce necess>y to comm5ce a movem5t4 ,9 embankm5ts "o ( ! *ief precautions is to obviate any fl[ ( wat] ^u or at a few feet b5ea? ! l& ^u :i* an embankm5t has to be deposit$1 z x w di/urb ! feet ( ! slopes & ! base1 r$uce ! adhesion to & ! friction ( ! tipp$ e>? ^u ! gr\nd & =m a slid+ surface4 ,an accumulation ( wat] ^u ! =mation mu/ be prev5t$1 &1 z 9 ! majority ( cases a railway or road is n level1 any collection ( wat] at ! comm5cem5t ( an incl9e or at a *ange ( gradi5t %\ld be provid$ aga9/1 & especially any localisation ( fl[ d[n ! slopes f ! =mation2 ! ma9 po9t be+ to keep a cutt+ or embankm5t 9 a uni=m /ate s t settlem5t is equable4 ,by c>efully wat*+ ! effect ( heavy ra9 ^u ! slopes & ! =mation1 ! places :]e wat] amasses c be trac$1 & means us$ to re/ore ! surface to ! same condition z ! o!r portions ( a cutt+ or embankm5t4 ,z wat] is ! *ief cause ( slips1 ! friction & cohesion ( e>? be+ impair$ &1 p]haps1 de/roy$ by x1 x is obvi\s t at ! "t p]colation1 :i* v>ies greatly ) ! seasons1 is at its maximum1 i4e4 :5 ! e>? becomes 9 a damp or wet /ate1 slips are to be mo/ expect$1 & p>ticul>ly soon aft] ! comm5cem5t ( ! wet season4 ,x is kn[n t ^u ! ?aw+ ( a heavy fall ( sn[1 & ( quickly succe$+ & sep>ate falls ( sn[1 p]colation is great2 also aft] heavy & cont9u\s ra9s1 especially if ! /rata dip t[>ds a riv]1 & 9 ! case ( spr+s ^: yield dep5ds m ^u p]colation ?an ! am\nt ( ra9fall1 a wet w9t] w cause an increas$ fl[ "s "t aft]1 :5 ! e>? may become saturat$4 ,if x c\ld be det]m9$ at :at dep? 9 any e>? 9 any /ate p]colation1 evaporation1 & meteorological influ5ces w\ld cease1 & also _! effects1 rules c\ld be d$uc$ = guidance 9 dra9+ cutt+s & embankm5ts4 ,! mann] ( ! execution ( ord9>y cutt+s & embankm5ts is s dissimil> to t ( filt]-b$s ( wat]works1 t ! exp]im5ts made = su* purposes are only ( comp>ative value = ! =m] works1 = ! condition z well z ! "* ( ! soil affects its p]meability by wat]4 ,= in/ance1 9 cutt+s1 ) ! exception ( "s surface di/urbance dur+ ! process ( excavation1 ! removal ( vegetation or a cov]+1 & ! exposure ( ! gr\nd to ! atmosph]e1 c41 ! normal /ate ( ! e>? is n mu* alt]$2 b 9 embankm5ts diff]5t soils may be int]m+l$ 9 a mann] almo/ unkn[n 9 nature1 ! v>ieties ( mixtures ( e>? be+ mo/ num]\s1 & !y may be 9 e condition ( compactness1 dryness1 & dampness am\nt+ almo/ to saturation1 & 9 any case1 !re=e1 p]colation is tempor>ily or p]man5tly increas$ consequ5t ^u ! e>? hav+ be5 di/urb$ & loos5$4 ,! g5]al pr9ciples ( ! p]colation ( wat] are "h only briefly ref]r$ to1 z !y p>ticul>ly conc]n slips 9 e>?work3 b obvi\sly ! quantity ( p]colat$ wat] greatly affects ! /ability ( a slope1 = ! surface wat] %\ld n be guidelessly all[$ to soak into or be absorb$ by ! gr\nd at ! top1 & s proce$ ?r\gh & d[n ! slopes1 z !n ! p5t-up wat] t5ds to press out ! face :i* may be tempor>ily sun-dri$4 ,z 9 excavat+ cutt+s ! surface is b>$ & vegetation remov$ f ! soil1 wat] has easi] access1 & unless ! gr\nd :5 excavat$ is imm$iately cov]$ z be=e1 its normal /ate is n pres]v$4 ,"o po9t ( consid]able importance is to asc]ta9 :e!r 9 any cutt+ or embankm5t p]colation is uni=m & regul>2 "s infiltration w necess>ily take place1 z wat] w gravitate f ! top to ! bottom & w f9d ! easie/ c\rse or l9e ( lea/ resi/ance1 :i* may n be at ! l[e/ level4 ,z ! am\nt ( ! annual ra9fall v>ies greatly accord+ to ! c\ntry1 &1 ev5 9 ,engl&1 consid]ably 9 a small area1 ! e>? w be m affect$ 9 "o place ?an ano!r2 = in/ance1 #dh to #ej in*es is approximately ! annual av]age ra9fall ^u ! extreme ,s4,s4,w4 coa/ ( ,engl&1 be+ greate/ at ! highe/ level ne>e/ ! sea & to leew>d2 x dim9i%es gradually f ,w4 to ,e4 to f #bf to #bd in*es1 ! m9imum ( ab\t #bj in*es be+ 9 ,essex4 ,! diff]5ces ( quantity mu/ !re=e be reg>d$2 b su* ra9fall is z no?+ comp>$ ) t ( tropical l&s1 = ! fall (t5 cont9ues _m h\rs1 & yet equals & p]haps exce$s an in* p] h\r4 ,! heavie/ fall & its usual "t ( appe>ance %\ld be asc]ta9$1 z e>?works may h to be con/ruct$ 9 a peculi> di/rict :]e ! ra9fall may be m ?an d\ble t ( ! av]age wette/ di/rict1 & x w (t5 be mu* great] at ! foot or ! top ( neighb\r+ hills ?an on a flat coa/4 ,local in=mation f reliable s\rces is ! be/ guide :5 confirm$ by g5]al k4 ,9 ! tropics #ajj to #bjj in*es 9 dep? ( ra9 in/ead ( #bj to #cj in*es has to be treat$1 & frequ5tly half ! total annual ra9fall 9 ,engl& comes d[n 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,x is almo/ sup]flu\s to "n t ! protective works :i* w\ld be amply suffici5t 9 "o c\ntry may be useless 9 ano!r1 simply because ( ! v>iation 9 ! am\nt ( ! ra9fall & ! capacity ( diff]5t e>?s to resi/ or invite ! p]colation ( wat]4 ,obvi\sly p]colation w v>y consid]ably ) ! seasons1 & a succession ( wet p]iods or a cont9u\s d[np\r w increase ! quantity ( infiltrat+ wat]2 b ! effect ( a fall may n be exp]i5c$ until "s "t aft] x occurs1 z 9 di/ricts or riv]s t are f$ ) wat] f ! ?aw+ ( sn[ ^u surr\nd+ or di/ant hills wat] rea*es ! l[] tracts ( c\ntry 9 hot & sunny1 & !re=e g5]ally dry wea!r1 :5 evaporation is ! greate/1 & n 9 w9t]4 ,aga91 !re is g5]ally v little ra9fall ov] flat des]ts1 b an excess ^u m\nta9 ranges :i* may surr\nd a des]t1 & especially 9 tropical c\ntries exp]i5ce has prov$ t /orms & ra9fall are (t5 local & ext5d ov] a small area1 "o di/rict be+ m liable to su* a visitation ?an ano!r2 !y are also1 z usual1 ( irregul> duration & sev]ity4 ,! position ( a riv] may also affect ! p]colation ( wat] m ^u "o side ( a valley ?an ano!r1 = a riv] seldom has its c\rse 9 ! c5tre ( a vale1 b is g5]ally ne>e/ to ! /eep] & high] side ( a hill4 ,! configuration ( a c\ntry gov]ns to a great ext5t ! fl[ & quantity ( ! ra9fall t s9ks into ! e>?1 z 9 a hilly c\ntry & 9 imp]vi\s soil ! wat] is quickly dis*>g$ into an adjac5t riv]1 tak+ ! easie/ c\rse4 ,9 a flat c\ntry & p]vi\s soil ra9 p]colates ! e>? & saturates ! gr\nd1 or reappe>s 9 spr+s4 ,z by dra9age ! ret5tive p[] ( ! soil is n all[$ free op]ation1 wat] rapidly fl[s into ! dra9s in/ead ( be+ *iefly held by ! e>? & wat]c\rses1 & *annels are sometimes creat$2 & :]e ! ra9fall is heavy or occurs 9 a comp>atively %ort "t floods may be caus$1 al?\gh ! soil :5 dra9$1 & !re=e 9 a dri] /ate1 absorbs m wat] ?an :5 undra9$ & 9 a damp condition1 wat] w pass ?r\gh x quick]1 & ! dis*>ge is ?us increas$ 9 volume & velocity4 ,e>? may be 9 a damp /ate1 ei!r f m]e surface p]colation & accumulation ( wat]1 or f spr+s :i* may nev] cease to fl[2 on ! contr>y1 9 ra9less di/ricts1 f ! almo/ p]petual daily dry+ p[] ( ! sun1 ! e>? is sometimes f\nd to be firme/ & h>de/ ^u ! top1 & = a few feet bel[ x1 ?an at great] dep?s4 ,sep>ate masses ( vegetation usually indicate damp places 9 a b>e c\ntry4 ,z ra9 fl[s m quickly f non-absorb5t soil1 su* z rock1 & sl[ly p]meable e>?1 z ! clays1 ?an f por\s soil1 ! surface dis*>ge is great]2 & unless ! wat] is guid$1 pools are likely to be =m$ & weak places creat$1 especially if ! gr\nd dips t[>ds a cutt+4 ,x is well to rememb] t a cutt+ be+ excavat$ ^u ! side ( a hill or ^u table-l& may *ange ! direction ( ! fl[ ( ! dra9age wat]s1 & an embankm5t may ob/ruct & int]f]e ) !m1 & %\ld ! /rata incl9e t[>ds ! excavation1 x obvi\sly fav\rs a dis*>ge ( wat] into x4 ,if wat] p]meates ! soil or trickles d[n ?r\gh fissures or ve9s1 x w cont9ue to d s until an imp]vi\s lay] is rea*$1 :5 x w be deflect$ & may become a curr5t2 !re=e1 :5ev] a p]meable /ratum ov]lies an imp]meable1 & ! imp]meable e>? incl9es1 an increas$ fl[ may be expect$1 z also ne> ! junction ( tribut>y wat]s ) /reams or riv]s4 ,9 a dra9$ di/rict1 wat] w n usually be enc\nt]$ 9 l>ge quantities until a dep? is rea*$ bel[ ! level ( g5]al dra9age1 i4e41 ab\t ! inv]t ( ! ne>e/ dra9s or sew]s1 especially 9 por\s soils1 b 9 ! case ( a p]vi\s subsoil1 su* z s& or gravel1 or if ! tides rise 9 an adjac5t riv] or ! sea to ! level ( any f\ndations or above x1 m wat] may p]colate ov] ! site or dra9age area ?an has "t to fl[ away betwe5 tides1 ! wat] w !n rise1 & sy/ematic pump+ becomes a necessity1 unless ! volume ( ! +ress+ wat]s c be suffici5tly r$uc$ by ! deposition ( an imp]vi\s lay] ^u or 9 ! riv]-b$ or sea-%ore1 or by %eet-pil+ or o!r means1 or ! fl[ conf9$1 :i* may be a risky op]ation 9 loose soil1 dep5d+ ^u its resi/ance to sc\r4 ,9 clay soils1 s f> z slips are conc]n$1 ! action especially to be fe>$ is ! trickl+ ( wat] d[n fissures :i* may ext5d to dep?s bel[ ! bottom 9 cutt+s & create slimy surfaces1 disconnect+ masses ( e>?1 & f9ally (f]+ a ready means ( movem5t1 :i* swell+ ( ! clay or vibration may complete4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,mr4 ,baldw9 ,la?am1 ,m4 ,in/4 ,c4,e41 on ! absorption & ret5tion ( wat] by clay soils1 gave ! foll[+ results3--,! /iffe/ clays reta9$ ! greate/ quantity ( wat]4 ,clay soils c absorb & reta9 f #dj to #fj p] c5t4 ( wat] by weight4 ,m>ly clays hold less wat] ?an ! pure clays4 ,9 ! case ( loamy soils1 ! p]c5tage ( wat] reta9$ v>i$ f #ce to #fj p] c5t4 by weight1 ! mixture ( s& & clay1 !re=e1 limit$ ! am\nt ( wat] :i* x w\ld naturally hold4 ,z 9 *alk soils fissures occur1 ! p]colation ( wat] & ! effects ( ! atmosph]e ?r\gh ! pores causes movem5t1 & ev5 crevices & breaks 9 rocks are n to be disreg>d$ ) impunity1 z !y are *annels ( dis9tegration4 ,mo/ e>?s :5 dry attract wat]1 b if !y are regul>ly irrigat$1 !y require less moi/ure1 dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ! e>?1 & slope & relative level ( ! l&4 ,all soils :5 brok51 z 9 embankm5ts1 absorb m wat] ?an :5 9 an unbrok5 /ate1 z 9 cutt+s2 = in/ance1 x has be5 f\nd by exp]im5t t clayey & ret5tive e>?s w absorb ab\t #g p] c5t4 m wat]1 & light por\s soils ab\t #f p] c5tum4 ,( c\rse1 ! increm5t v>ies4 ,ev5 wet ret5tive soil1 if h&l$1 becomes consid]ably less imp]vi\s to moi/ure4 ,mr4 ,evans1 ,f4,r4,s41 has prov$ by exp]im5t t p]colation ?r\gh pure *alk is mu* great] ?an ?r\gh ord9>y top soil consi/+ ( gravel1 loam1 & m\ld1 bo? be+ cov]$ ) turf1 & t 9 w9t] ! av]age proportions ( p]colation are z ab\t #a = soil to #ae = *alk2 9 summ] #a = soil to #bf = *alk4 ,! dep? also to :i* *alk w all[ a passage ( wat] is "s #fj p] c5t4 m ?an ord9>y top soil4 ,ra9 w p]colate ?r\gh *alk or any op5 soil until x meets an imp]vi\s /ratum1 or to t place :i* is 9 a /ate ( saturation1 :5 ! wat] mu/ ei!r fl[ away or ! level ( saturation mu/ gradually rise4 ,?is causes rivulets to bur/ out 9 places aft] heavy ra91 :5 ! wat] has _h "t to p]colate1 & ! ra9fall has exce$$ ! av]age1 b su* spr+s w cease :5 ! local excess has t]m9at$4 ,h[ev]1 9 cutt+s x is ! fl[ f fissures t is to be fe>$1 & _! size may indicate ! quantity ( wat] t may be expect$ to issue f !m4 ,x seems to be g5]ally agre$ t ! supply ( wat] f *alk is d]iv$ f ra91 :i* p]colates ?r\gh innum]able fissures1 & t 9 all rocks1 :e!r lime/one1 s&/one1 granite1 s&1 or clay1 x is by means ( ! fissures1 seams1 & ve9s t ! supply ( wat] is obta9$ f ra91 & spr+s creat$4 ,) reg>d to ! p]colation ( wat] ?r\gh s&1 x may always be expect$ to be v consid]able1 & ! soil may "u c]ta9 conditions become wat]-*>g$4 ,mr4 ,greaves1 ,m4 ,in/4 ,c4,e41 has %[n by exp]im5ts t ! av]age p]colation ?r\gh ord9>y top soil is only ab\t "o-?ird ( t ( s&1 b ! evaporation f a surface ( ord9>y soil 0 ab\t f\r times m ?an f a simil> surface ( s&1 & also ! am\nt ( p]colation 9 ord9>y top e>? 0 small on ! :ole1 &1 p]haps1 ! p]colation ?r\gh ord9>y gr\nd w\ld be ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( ! ra9fall1 b #hj p] c5t4 9 av]age s&4 ,exp]im5ts h also %[n t ! absorb5t capacity ( s& decreases regul>ly accord+ to ! f95ess ( ! gra91 & t 8"s s&y soils w n absorb m ?an #bj p] c5t41 b s&y soil conta9+ peat1 z moorl&1 z mu* z #hj p] c5t41 bo? comput$ by weight40 ,! quantity ( wat] absorb$ by loamy soil w v>y consid]ably accord+ z clay or s& prepond]ates 9 ! mass4 ,e>? may become s mix$ ) co>se or f9e s& t1 :5 saturat$1 x approa*es ! condition ( a quicks&4 ,! g5]al effect ( p]colation has be5 briefly describ$ z foll[s4 ,^u wat] ent]+ ! pores ( an e>? x displaces ! air or liquid previ\sly pres5t1 =c+ ! =m] upw>ds into ! atmosph]e1 & ! latt] d[nw>ds4 ,hav+ briefly ref]r$ to ! p]colation ( wat] 9 cutt+s & embankm5ts1 ! dra9age is n[ consid]$4 ,x mu/ be ei!r precaution>y1 i4e41 to prev5t a slip1 or rem$ial1 i4e41 to dra9 a slip4 ,! aim ( any dra9+ op]ations to prev5t slips 9 e>?work is to se>* = ! s\rce ( wat] dis*>ge1 to tap & g5tly conduct x away & prev5t x rea*+1 accumulat+1 p]colat+1 or be+ conf9$ )9 ! slope ( a cutt+1 :i* x may !n r$uce to a pulpy condition2 its free effluxion be+ mo/ important1 z also ! less5+ ( ! p]colation ( ra9 & surface-wat]s4 ,! dra9age ( cutt+s or embankm5ts may consi/ ( wells1 culv]ts1 clos$ or op5 *annels1 pipes1 & tile dra9s ( e reasonable & economical =m1 & may be plac$ 9 v>i\s positions4 ,to describe !m & ! diff]5t sy/ems ( dra9+ is to op5 up a subject requir+ sev]al volumes2 "h ! endeav\r is made to indicate :e!r elaborate or ord9>y dra9age is requir$1 or m]e wat]-tables & surface dra9s1 & c>e 9 ! process ( excavation & deposition1 protection ( ! slopes1 & 9 giv+ !m suffici5t incl9ation to prev5t movem5t4 ,if possible & "t all[s1 ! dra9age 9 trea*]\s soils %\ld always be comm5c$ be=e ! ma9 excavation1 &1 9 any case1 simultane\sly4 ,rock & solid imp]meable e>? may m]ely require to be surface dra9$1 b all trea*]\s & por\s soil1 deep dra9+2 & granul> soils1 :i* usually exude wat] f ! :ole mass1 dem& diff]5t treatm5t to ^? e>?s :i* dis*>ge wat] at p>ticul> places2 b x may be mo/ difficult to dra9 a mix$ soil1 su* z s&y loam & silt4 ,) ! exception ( a c\nt]=t & dra9 at ! foot ( a slope1 & an imp]meable cat*wat] dra9 ^u ! slopes & top dra9s1 to prev5t & less5 surface p]colation1 ! be/ me?od to adopt 9 e>? ( ?is description may be to s9k wells at int]vals to int]cept ! fl[ or p]colation ( any gr\nd wat]s2 to attempt to dra9 or draw out ! wat] 9 ! soil w end 9 comp>ative failure4 ,to r$uce ! volume ( ! p]colat+ wat]s is ! object to be atta9$1 & !n evaporation1 vibration1 :i* t5ds to %ake d[n wat]1 & "t may gradually conv]t ! e>? to ! desir$ dri] condition4 ,! wells c be fill$ ) brok5 /one or co>se gravel to support !m1 & prev5t _! clos+4 ,x is an advantage to prev5t ! p]colation ( wat] into soil t w n readily "p ) x1 su* z ! clay e>?s1 z x may be economically impossible to dra9 or re/ore ! e>? to its normal condition1 & %\ld ! /rata be upheav$1 int]mix$1 & ( a p]meable & imp]meable "*1 a sci5tific application ( dra9age c alone succe$4 ,:5 ! s\rce ( ! wat] is asc]ta9$1 x c be se5 :e!r a complete sy/em ( dra9age is necess>y ov] ! :ole ( a cutt+ or only a portion ( ! slopes4 ,dampness & ! egression ( wat] may be m]ely local2 if s1 by bor+ a hole & ins]t+ a dra9 into a slope to tap ! fl[ x may be cur$1 ! surface be+ made dry by a lay] ( a%es or o!r absorb5t mat]ial4 ,pipes or tile dra9s may be suffici5t :5 spr+s exi/1 or ! fl[ ( wat] is local1 & 9 loose soils x is especially advisable to provide op5+s = clean+ any cov]$ dra9s4 ,brickwork1 masonry1 concrete1 pipes1 or o!r rigid dra9s1 may n be suitable = gr\nd likely to unequally subside1 z !y w probably crack or leak1 & loose-jo9t$ pipes or ov]-lapp+ tile dra9s may be requir$4 ,9 trea*]\s clay soils surface longitud9al & transv]se dra9s w mo/ probably be insuffici5t1 & deep dra9+ ( ! mass be necess>y1 also ! gr\nd ^u :i* e>? is deposit$ w require to be dra9$ & a lay] ( rubble /one plac$ ^u x1 a cutt+ or embankm5t be+ divid$ into small dra9age areas by deep op5 dry /one tr5*es4 ,wat] may n suffici5tly p]colate into a hill1 ei!r because ( its surface be+ cov]$ ) vegetation1 or ! soil be+ ( an imp]vi\s nature4 ,x may !n fl[ d[n ! slope ( a cutt+ :i* w probably be b>e & unprotect$4 ,to prev5t slips ! dis*>ge mu/ be c>efully controll$ & l$ away1 p>ticul>ly :5 ! =mation is drift soil ^u rock1 or ! e>? w be liable to saturation & degradation2 also to prev5t a fl[ ( wat] "u its seat1 & ^u ! natural gr\nd1 %\ld an embankm5t be deposit$ ^u x4 ,:5 a slope ^u ! hill-side ( a cutt+ is ( consid]able l5g? & /eepness1 x is advisable to b5* x & divide x into a s]ies ( t]races & %ort slopes1 & to provide cat*wat] dra9s1 ) imp]meable surfaces s z to prev5t any surface wat] atta9+ a high velocity1 & sc\r+ p[]4 ,all surface wat] ^u ! side ( a hill %\ld be controll$1 & cat*wat] dra9s may suffice to d ?is4 ,%\ld an imp]vi\s /ratum be upheav$ s z to make a res]voir wall = wat] "u ! seat ( an embankm5t1 x is useless to surface-dra9 ! valley side ( x 9 sidelong gr\nd1 z x w n affect ! wat]s t trickle d[n ! hill1 :i* w be damm$ up to ! top level ( ! imp]vi\s /ratum1 & may saturate ! seat ( an embankm5t & cause a slip4 ,9 su* a case ?r\gh dra9age mu/ be creat$ f ! hill to ! valley1 & ! imp]vi\s upheav$ cap mu/ be pi]c$ s z n to int]f]e ) ! passage ( wat]4 ,9 c\ntries :]e !re is a c]ta9 dry & ra9y season1 ! necess>y provision requir$ = dra9age mu/ n be comput$ f ! visible effects ( ! ra9fall soon aft] ! wet season has comm5c$1 b ! maximum flood may be disc]n$ :5 ! e>? has absorb$ or reta9s ! moi/ure evaporat$ dur+ ! dry season1 & becomes wat]-*>g$4 ,9 ! tropics or exceptionally wet di/ricts ! only effectual me?od ( dra9+ may be to divide ! area into small portions1 z ! ra9fall may be s great1 sudd51 & cont9u\s t unless x naturally fl[s into a *annel1 :i* %\ld n be div]t$ or its c\rse be mat]ially alt]$1 x w be impossible to control ! wat]s4 ,9 an exceptional situation :]e a railway mu/ be locat$ 9 a rav9e & close to a riv]1 & ! mat]ial ( :i* an embankm5t is made is compact e>? or ! gr\nd firm1 x may be advisable to all[ ! ov]fl[ wat]s ( a riv]1 or ! fl[ ( surface wat] t[>ds x1 :5 ! extreme flood level is kn[n1 to g5tly pass ov] a l9e ( railway1 x be+ kept at su* a level z n to imp$e free work+1 & to ensure t any back wat] is n prev5t$ f escap+4 ,if n1 an embankm5t may slip & require ext5sive & frequ5t bridges1 culv]ts1 or dra9age *annels 9 ord] to provide suffici5t wat]way1 & to atta9 p]man5t /ability ( ! embankm5t4 ,9 all cases x is necess>y to det]m9e ! dep? to :i* ! dra9s mu/ be plac$ to be effectual1 & _! position1 ext5t & numb]1 & x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! few] !re are ! great] w be ! velocity & dis*>ge2 also if _m small dra9s are ins]t$ ! soil may /&1 b if only "o or two are made ! surface may succumb to ! erosive action ( ! fl[+ wat]s4 ,! provision ( a wat]-table or ! m]e surface dra9age ( a cutt+1 or ! seat ( an embankm5t may be ( little use1 z ! sup]impos$ soil may slide ^u a /ratum1 & unless ?is b$ is ?or\ghly dra9$ ra9 may quickly de/roy ! equilibrium4 ,( c\rse1 9 ! case ( a slip1 ! dra9s to be effectual mu/ be plac$ bel[ its level & d[n to ! lay] ^u :i* movem5t has occurr$1 especially 9 clay & ret5tive & imp]vi\s e>?s1 = in/ance1 surface dra9age 9 yell[ clay is almo/ useless4 ,%\ld ! s\rce be kn[n f :i* ! wat] issues ! dra9age may be local1 & if a spr+ be unseal$ x may be necess>y to ins]t pipes 9 ! slope1 = until ! spr+ is tapp$ & guid$ no sy/em ( dra9s may be effectual4 ,by ins]t+ a /&-pipe ov] a spr+1 ! height to :i* ! wat] w rise w approximately %[ ! head-level ( ! supply4 ,if possible1 ?is %\ld be asc]ta9$1 z x may happ5 t ! wat] c be dra9$ by gravitation 9 pipes )\t mu* excavation be+ requir$ 9 ! slopes or =mation2 b c>e %\ld be tak5 t no wat] is all[$ to settle or accumulate = ! purpose ( its be+ conduct$ away unless ^u a protect$ surface4 ,) reg>d to cat*wat] dra9s ^u ! cess at ! top ( ! slopes1 !y %\ld be cut be=e ! excavation is comm5c$2 & x is important to rememb] t in/ead ( _! af=d+ protection by guid+ ! surface wat]s1 :i* w\ld o!rwise proce$ t[>ds ! slopes1 !y may increase ! p]colation by localiz+ ! wat] & all[+ x to accumulate & f9d its way to ! slope2 & 9 sidelong gr\nd x may1 !re=e1 be necess>y to protect _! valley m ?an _! uphill side1 z ! surface wat] w imp+e aga9/ x2 b :5 !y are practically imp]vi\s & g5tly direct ! surface wat] !y are advantage\s1 & 9 p]meable soil1 unless !y are s con/ruct$ z to be imp]vi\s1 p]haps x is bett] to h none4 ,!y %\ld be z reasonably di/ant f ! top ( ! slope z is conv5i5t )\t weak5+ ! f\ndations ( ! po/s support+ any f5c+1 & 9 ord] to quickly dis*>ge ! wat] & less5 ! *ance ( _! becom+ *ok$ by detritus or ice1 !y %\ld h consid]able incl9ation4 ,z ! adoption ( ev5 a mod]ate fall 9 ! dra9s may erode ! side dit*es & cause wat] to p]colate to ! slopes & make a wat]-seam1 x may be necess>y to protect ! bottom1 & z ! dep? ( ! side dra9s 9 ord] to be effectual may be consid]able1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! soil1 ! sides may also require to be cov]$ & support$4 ,9 cutt+s 9 _m soils suffici5t /ones c be pick$ out to cov] ! surfaces ( ! side dra9s1 & !y c be r\ghly pack$1 ! small] /ones be+ ramm$ into ! int]/ices betwe5 ! l>g]1 :i* w gradually become fill$2 also a cov]+ ( bru%wood1 ramm$ e>?1 or puddl$ clay c be us$1 or o!r exp$i5t :i* occasion may sugge/4 ,! incl9ation mu/ n be /eep] ?an ! natural or protect$ b$ c be> )\t ! wat] sc\r+ x1 & yet %\ld be suffici5t to prev5t any deposit or *ok+1 & ! dra9s %\ld be cle>$ regul>ly1 & especially 9 ! autumn 9 ,engl& or be=e ! wet season comm5ces1 & all depressions 9 :i* wat] c accumulate %\ld be levell$ 9 ord] to assi/ easy dis*>ge4 ,small op5 dra9s become *ok$ some:at easily1 & x is !re=e advisable to make !m accord+ to ! nature ( ! soil1 situation1 & requirem5ts n less ?an #a foot #f in*es to #c feet 9 wid? at ! top & #a foot at bottom2 !y may be f #a foot to #c feet 9 dep?4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! b5ds are n too abrupt or ! wat] may make its own c\rse4 ,a g5tle curve consid]ably increases ! fl[4 ,! angle ( a b5d %\ld be z easy z possible1 & n exce$ #bf or #b to #a4 ,9 s&y & loose soils1 if unprotect$1 op5 dra9s may be difficult to ma9ta9 ev5 :5 fill$ ) brok5 /one1 & cov]$ or pipe dra9s be necess>y1 & ^? loosely fill$ ) /ones or faggots may n succe$2 9 any case no run ( ! s& mu/ be all[$1 & x is advisable to rapidly con/ruct !m4 ,9 peaty soils1 f subsid5ce ( ! gr\nd consequ5t ^u dra9+1 ! dra9s (t5 become *ok$4 ,! dep? ( a dra9 9 ! =mation may require to be deep] ?an else:]e1 z at ! toe ( ! slope1 ! weake/ "p1 ! wat] w g5]ally be mo/ abundant4 ,^u railways1 ! advantage ( ?or\gh dra9age ( ! =mation z reg>ds ! /ability ( ! p]man5t way & r$uction ( ! co/ ( repairs is prov]bial1 b "h is only nam$ 9 its relation to ! prev5tion & ! rep>ation ( slips4 ,:5 field dra9s are int]cept$ 9 ! slopes1 dra9 pipes or timb] ducts %\ld be jo9$ to !m & be connect$ ) ! g5]al dra9age ( a cutt+4 ,dra9+ ! slopes1 provid+ outlets = ! wat]1 & also support to ! e>? c be effect$ by means ( a c\nt]=t ( p]meable mat]ial at ! toe ( ! slope1 ) its f\ndation a few feet bel[ =mation level1 ) op5 dra9s at "r angles or obliquely to x ext5d+ f ! foe to ! top ( ! slope4#a ,^! op5 dra9s & tr5*es c be fill$ ) /ones1 gravel1 h>d *alk1 a%es1 bru%wood & gravel1 brok5 bricks1 burnt clay or o!r suitable mat]ial2 & a simple cov]+ ( pick$ a%es1 c41 ov] a moi/ place 9 a clay cutt+ ( little dep? may be suffici5t4 ,! di/ance ap>t ( su* tr5*es 9 clay cutt+s g5]ally ranges betwe5 #aj & #cc feet2 _! location mu/ be gov]n$ by ! consid]ation t !y exi/ 9 ord] to prev5t a localization ( wat] 9 ! slopes3 _! wid? is usually f #b feet to #h feet1 & mo/ frequ5tly #d to #f feet1 & ! dep? f #a foot #f in*es to #c feet & upw>ds1 bel[ ! surface ( ! slope1 b 9 v wet embankm5ts a wid? f #f to #aj feet & ( su* a dep? z ! soil w all[ )\t ext5sive support4 ,if ! e>? has n slipp$1 & x %\ld be f\nd t ! gr\nd is wet = f #f to #h feet or s b5ea? ! surface1 & ! dep? ( ! tr5* is made ab\t half t ( ! wett$ soil1 x is suffici5t to collect ! wat]1 b if x has slipp$ mo/ probably su* dra9s w n be effectual until c>ri$ d[n bel[ ! seat ( movem5t4 ,at ! foot ( a slope ^! dra9s %\ld be connect$ ) longitud9al *annels p>allel to ! =mation to g5tly convey ! wat] to ! ne>e/ outlet4 ,! location1 di/ance ap>t1 dep?1 wid?1 & direction ( ! tr5*es mu/ be gov]n$ by ! nature ( ! soil1 ! dep? ( a cutt+ or height ( an embankm5t1 ! area ( ! surface to be dra9$1 ! quantity ( wat] 9 x1 ! pres5ce ( wat]-seams & weak places1 & by o!r m9or consid]ations4 ,footnote #a3 ,vide ,*ap4 ,,vi41 pp4 #aaa1 #aab4 ,) respect to ! mat]ial ) :i* ! tr5*es %\ld be fill$1 a uni=m sub/ance hav+ consid]able p[] ( absorption1 & b few p>ticles betwe5 ! int]/ices1 is to be pref]r$1 z ! trickl+ ( wat] & vibration causes ! small] mat]ial to fall t[>ds ! bottom ( ! tr5*1 :i*1 !re=e1 may become p>tly *ok$1 & free dra9age be int]rupt$ at ! toe ( ! slope1 ! mo/ vuln]able place4 ,z s& is always pres5t 9 unwa%$ gravel1 x w gradually fl[ or fall to ! base ( ! tr5* & w prev5t equal dra9age1 b prop]ly burnt clay1 be+ a m uni=m & fragm5t>y sub/ance1 is bett] ?an s&y gravel1 z x is dry & por\s2 b mu* dep5ds ^u x be+ well burnt or x may wea!r4 ,a%es & *alk are excell5t collectors ( wat] & are usually ( an ev5 "*1 b a%es are bett] ?an *alk1 z ! latt] mat]ial1 unless v h>d1 is liable to become dis9tegrat$ by ! action ( ! atmosph]e1 ra91 & fro/4 ,! difficulty ) respect to a%es is to obta9 !m 9 suffici5t quantity1 free f du/1 & ( ! requisite size4 ,:5 weight is requir$ z well z dra9age1 burnt clay1 gravel1 or *alk is to be pref]r$ to a%es4 ,burnt clay1 al?\gh burn$ ^u ! site1 is g5]ally a m exp5sive mat]ial ?an gravel1 b ! am\nt ( moi/ure 9 ! clay w pr9cipally det]m9e ! quantity ( fuel necess>y to burn x1 & !re=e ! co/4 ,if %ale is pres5t1 by ?or\ghly ignit+ x ! exp5se ( burn+ may be ne>ly r$uc$ to t ( light+ & turn+ ov]1 z x w usually burn unaid$4 ,all tr5*es %\ld dra9 into pipes plac$ bel[ ! =mation or into op5 dra9s at a suffici5t di/ance f ! toe ( a slope z n to delet]i\sly affect x1 9 ord] t ! wat] may be controll$ & g5tly convey$ to an outlet4 ,! *ief objection to op5 dra9s is t all excavat$ tr5*es or ins]t$ dra9s 9 ! slopes de/roy ! cohesion ( ! e>? & aid 9 deta*+ portions ( ! surface4 ,if ! cohesion & adhesion ( ! soil 7 ! same "u e condition1 ?is w\ld be a cog5t reason aga9/ ! sy/em1 b1 z 9 e>?work1 e degree ( moi/ure f dampness to saturation may be atta9$1 ! cohesive p[] is a v v>iable quantity1 ap>t f ! effects ( vibration2 & also op5 dra9s und\bt$ly d cause a slope to be dri]1 & mod]ate local humidity1 & !re=e increase ! cohesion & g5]al /ability ( ! "p dra9$2 ! only fe> be+ t f inatt5tion !y may become *ok$2 !n !y are dang]\s1 z !y w p]man5tly collect & reta9 wat] in/ead ( tempor>ily reta9+ & g5tly guid+ x4 ,a c>eful consid]ation ( ! circum/ances may mu* r$uce ?is objection by indicat+ :e!r x is advisable to h only a few deep1 or sev]al small surface dra9s4 ,provid$ prop] precautions are tak51 exp]i5ce indicates t fill$-9 tr5*es 9 ! slopes are g5]ally successful1 & c]ta9ly are simpl] & *eap] ?an a reta9+ wall at ! toe ( a slope4 ,9 p]vi\s soil x may be economically impossible to dra9 ! slopes unless !y are divid$ into sections1 & %\ld ! mat]ial 9 ! tr5*es be well-pack$ & press$ d[n1 x may ev5 increase ! friction betwe5 ! sep>at$ portions4 ,9 connection ) ! dra9age ( cutt+s may be nam$ t excavation %\ld n be all[$ to be ca/ ^u ! cess unless "s di/ance f ! edge ( a slope1 & only tempor>ily = purposes ( balla/+ & metall+2 z su* spoil-banks increase ! load & localize ! wat] to be dra9$4 ,a m complete sy/em ( dra9age may be necess>y ?an ^? previ\sly nam$1 consi/+ ( a comb9ation ( wells1 op51 or hold+ filt]+ mat]ial2 pipe-dra9s or fill$-9 tr5*es1 wells ) a pipe lead+ to a cat*wat] dra91 c41 or o!r usual me?ods ( l& dra9age4 ,= in/ance1 x may be discov]$ t wat] issues f a spr+ outside ! f5ce or cutt+2 if s1 9 ord] to dra9 ! slopes x may be necess>y to s9k a well to a /ratum bel[ ! =mation level s z to tap ! spr+1 !reby prev5t+ an exudation ( wat] ^u ! slope2 ?is is a bett] plan ?an draw+ ! wat] into ! slope & !n dra9+ x4 ,:5 p]vi\s e>? ov]lies an imp]vi\s /ratum1 i4e41 gravel or s& ^u clay1 r\gh-fill$ wells at int]vals inside ! f5ce ext5d+ #c or #d feet into ! clay1 ) an outlet dra91 may be requir$ to prev5t a fl[ ( wat] ^u ! clay & a wett$ surface ^u :i* ! gravel c slide2 & x may be necess>y to h a cess on ! slope betwe5 ! top ( ! clay & ! bottom ( ! gravel or s&1 ) a cat*wat] dra9 ^u x1 p>ticul>ly 9 a cutt+ 9 sidelong gr\nd4 ,%\ld ! soil be silty s&1 or be *>g$ ) wat]1 consequ5t ^u ! =mation ( ! c\ntry1 x may be impossible to dra9 a cutt+ )\t a complete sy/em ( wells1 cat*wat] dra9s & pipes1 & ev5 !n x may be difficult to sep>ate ! wat] f ! e>?4 ,9 build+ a dra9-%aft x %\ld be rememb]$ t x may n only be subject to a compressive /ra91 b also to transv]se /ra9 & flexure f diff]5t pressures ( ! e>? at v>i\s dep?s1 especially :5 ! soil is n ! same ?r\gh\t1 & unequally damp4 ,:5 8boils0 occur 9 s&-cutt+s1 p]haps ! *eape/ exp$i5t is to place a %aft ov] ! boil1 weight ! bottom suffici5tly to prev5t a movem5t ( ! s&1 b to all[ ! wat] to escape1 & make a dis*>ge outlet aft] hav+ asc]ta9$ its head level3 vide ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,on no acc\nt %\ld a spr+ be /opp$1 z su* action w result 9 its div]sion to "s o!r place2 b ! wat] fl[+ f x %\ld be guid$ & dis*>g$4 ,weight+ may arre/ a slip 9 any s&y soil1 also clay or any imp]vi\s mat]ial plac$ ^u ! s&1 or s9k+ a well outside a cutt+ to a dep? ( "s #e feet bel[ ! bottom may effect a rem$y by ab/ract+ ! surplus wat]1 b c>e mu/ be tak5 n to di/urb ! s&4 ,slips 9 embankm5ts frequ5tly occur f ! p]colation ( wat] ?r\gh ! =mation to ! slopes1 & s to ! toe1 ! l[] portions become dis9tegrat$ by moi/ure & ! effects ( wea!r1 & cause ! upp] p>ts to slide or move4 ,to less5 p]colation & to prev5t an accumulation ( wat] ^u ! =mation1 x is usual = its c5tre to be rais$ a few in*es above ! level ( ! top ( ! slope4 ,?is is und\bt$ly a good practice1 z x also t5ds to dra9 ! balla/1 b x may be nullifi$ 9 "t if ! entire wid? ( ! =mation be n cov]$ ) an imp]meable lay] or ) balla/2 = :5 an unprotect$ space rema9s betwe5 ! toe ( ! slope ( ! balla/ & ! top ( ! slope ( an embankm5t1 wat] is liable to p]colate ?r\gh ! cess & cause a slope to become wet & un/able2 p>ticul>ly s if ! balla/ is brok5 rock & has side walls in/ead ( slopes1 z !n a depression w probably be made by ! platelay]s or signalm5 walk+ ^u ! cess4 ,9 all cases :]e ! mat]ial is trea*]\s or likely to slip1 x is advisable to cov] ! top ( embankm5ts ( consid]able height ?r\gh\t _! wid? ) balla/ or "s imp]vi\s soil1 provid$ ! p]man5t way is also prop]ly dra9$4 ,?is is ! simple/ precaution to take respect+ ! pres]vation ( ! =mation level or summit ( an embankm5t4 ,all grass1 dirt1 & refuse %\ld be regul>ly remov$ f x & any?+ t ob/ructs free dra9age4 ,! nature ( ! balla/ also affects ! ev5ness ( ! surface ( ! =mation1 z if x consi/s ( brok5 rock1 ! equal & regul> pack+ ( ! sleep]s is n s easily effect$ z ) gravel balla/2 ! sleep]s are frequ5tly n uni=mly support$ ?r\gh\t _! l5g?1 ! pressure ^u ! =mation is localiz$1 depressions are =m$ & wat] collect$1 & slips & subsid5ces 9 soils ( a trea*]\s nature may be induc$ f ?is cause1 z ! equilibrium is soon di/urb$4 ,! =mation %\ld be s dra9$ & con/ruct$ t wat] _c p]colate to or cause ! surface to become s(t & "w up into or ?r\gh ! balla/1 or a /ate ( unsettlem5t w be produc$ by wat] soak+ ?r\gh ! balla/ to an embankm5t1 & s saturat+ "p ( x & =c+ out ! upp] portion ( a slope4 ,9 all close granul> balla/ cross *annels %\ld be made to lead away ! surface wat]4 ,transv]se op5 tile-dra9s may be requir$ lead+ to an imp]vi\s *annel4 ,wat] has be5 kn[n to p]colate ?r\gh a consid]able dep? ( balla/ :5 add$ to re/ore a sunk5 embankm5t1 ev5 ?r\gh z mu* z #g to #aj feet :5 two fall+ gradi5ts induc$ a fl[ ( ! surface wat]s to "o place4 ,9 c]ta9 situations x may be necess>y %\ld an embankm5t be ( clay or trea*]\s soil :5 wet1 to cov] ! =mation ) an imp]vi\s /ratum to prev5t p]colation to ! embankm5t1 & to ?or\ghly & sep>ately dra9 ! balla/ plac$ ^u x4 ,at ! base ( an embankm5t a dit* %\ld be cut ^u ! high] side1 or bo? sides1 z ne> z conv5i5t to ! f5ce4 ,:5 9 addition to ! int]ception ( any surface wat]s by an embankm5t ! gr\nd is v ret5tive ( moi/ure1 x may be necess>y to dra9 ! seat2 ) ?is object tr5*es c be excavat$ at int]vals at "r angles or obliquely to ! c5tre l9e ( ! embankm5t1 & be fill$ ) "s h>d filt]+ sub/ance1 su* z /one or gravel1 s z to effect & control ! dis*>ge ( ! wat]s4 ,%\ld ?is be too exp5sive a me?od to adopt1 & always provid$ ! surface wat]s are prev5t$ f fl[+ or trickl+ into ! base ( an embankm5t1 ! gr\nd might be excavat$ s z to equally incl9e d[nw>ds t[>ds ! c5tre1 ! level at t po9t be+ #a foot to #b feet bel[ ! toe ( ! slope on ea* side1 accord+ to ! wid? ( ! base ( ! embankm5t2 a small tr5* be+ cut 9 ! c5tre & fill$ ) /ones1 & cov]$ at ! top ) bru%wood or hurdles or o!r provision necess>y to ensure x be+ p]man5tly an effectual wat] *annel1 ) occasional or o!r dra9s to lead ! wat] to ! ne>e/ culv]t or side dit*4 ,:5 x is f\nd t wat] passes ov] ! surface ( firm soil ^u :i* an embankm5t is deposit$1 ! wat] mu/ be int]cept$ & l$ away2 & %\ld an embankm5t be ( ret5tive e>?1 9 ord] to tap ! wat] t has fl[$ & p]colat$ into x1 & to re/ore ! e>? to its normal condition & prev5t slips & subsid5ces1 x may be necess>y to s9k %afts to a dep? ( a few feet bel[ ! seat ( an embankm5t until ! mass is dra9$4 ,) reg>d to culv]ts1 a settlem5t or slip ( an embankm5t ov] a culv]t may unequally /ra91 fracture1 & displace portions ( x1 & !re=e int]rupt ! fl[ ( ! dra9age wat]s1 :i* may !n rea* ! seat ( an embankm5t & cause x to be 9 a dang]\s condition4 ,!y are usually necess>ily plac$ at ! deepe/ po9t ( an embankm5t1 & consequ5tly ! mo/ difficult to make repairs4 ,9 su* a situation !y %\ld be built suffici5tly l>ge to all[ ( ! easy passage ( a man1 9 ord] t due inspection may be made1 & be con/ruct$ ( mat]ials ( a durable "*4 ,%\ld a naturally firm bank exi/ on "o or bo? sides ( a /ream1 x %\ld be /ripp$ ( all plant gr[? & decay+ matt]1 & be pres]v$ 9 ord] to =m a natural wall to relieve a culv]t f side pressure1 b firm or h>d mat]ial mu/ be ins]t$ betwe5 ! back ( ! wall & ! face ( ! /ream bank s z to support ! wall aga9/ ! pressure x receives f ! ar*4 ,?is leads to a consid]ation ( ! be/ =m ( culv]t4 ,9 clay soils1 & ^? :i* ex]t pressure f expansion1 especially if ! culv]t is surr\nd$ by clay e>?1 ! circul> is g5]ally consid]$ to be ! be/ =m1 & ?is has be5 prov$ to be s 9 tunnels 9 simil> soil1 ) splay$ w+-walls to assi/ & guide ! fl[ & help to keep a cle> entrance4 ,9 granul> soils1 su* z dry s& or gravel1 ! e>? acts diff]5tly & m 9 accordance ) ! angle ( repose !ory ( pressure1 !re=e ! /ra9 ^u ! ar* w\ld be ! greate/1 & its ?ru/ mu/ be c\nt]balanc$ at ! sides1 ! /ra9 ^u ! inv]t be+ probably v little & due to ! t5d5cy to an ov]turn+ movem5t ( ei!r ( ! /raight walls4 ,h[ev]1 9 culv]ts z 9 tunnels1 x is impossible to say ! exact am\nt or direction ( ! /ra91 al?\gh x may be approximately comput$4 ,%\ld x be necess>y to erect a culv]t ^u s(t gr\nd1 z mu* ( x z practicable %\ld be excavat$ & a concrete f\ndation be plac$ !reon2 x is also advisable to all[ an extra l5g? to t requir$ by ! calculat$ slope4 ,a culv]t %\ld h an inv]t unless ^u a h>d rock b$1 & c>e %\ld be tak5 t !re %all be no leakage at ! spr++ ( ! inv]t$ ar* or "u x1 or b5ea? ! sidewalls at ! level ( ! surface ( a flat /one dra9 or bel[ x4 ,! banks ( a /ream or wat]c\rse %\ld be inspect$ occasionally1 especially on ! up-/ream side ( a culv]t1 9 ord] to note :e!r !y are /able or crumbl+ away1 z !n ! c\rse ( ! /ream may be wid5$ or div]t$1 & s erode ! toe ( an embankm5t & cause a slip ( e>?4 ,splay$ w+-walls are a protection aga9/ su* a dang] besides aid+ ! fl[ ( wat] ?r\gh !m1 & !y also less5 ! *ance ( a damm+ back ( ! wat] & und]m9+1 z !y increase ! dis*>ge2 = in/ance1 a splay ( #ec has be5 f\nd to increase ! fl[ ab\t #be p] c5tum4 ,! surface ( ! mat]ial ( :i* a culv]t is con/ruct$ %\ld be z smoo? z practicable1 s z to r$uce ! friction ( wat] fl[+ pa/ x1 :i*1 9 ! case ( unplan$ timb]1 ca/ & wr\ght ironwork1 a%l> masonry1 brickwork1 & concrete1 is ab\t ! same1 b is "s #cj p] c5t4 m :5 ! surface consi/s ( rubble masonry4 ,:5 an embankm5t crosses a n>r[ valley1 9 :i* no wat]c\rse exi/s1 in/ead ( a culv]t1 a b$ ( loose /ones has be5 plac$ ^u ! gr\nd "u ! :ole area ( ! seat ( an embankm5t at its greate/ dep?1 a prop] fall & b$ be+ giv5 to x4 ,! toe ( ! slope on ! up-/ream side %\ld be protect$ f any wa%1 & ! /one lay] be c>ri$ a few feet beyond ! foot ( ! slope on ! l[] side4 ,! foll[+ g5]al pr9ciples x is well to rememb] 9 design+ culv]ts4 ,:5 a culv]t is ( uni=m section1 :i* is almo/ inv>iably ! case1 x %\ld h ! same incl9ation ?r\gh\t4 ,avoid1 or ease1 all b5ds z mu* z possible4 ,h splay$ w+-walls4 ,make provision aga9/ und]m9+ by sc\r or p]colation ( wat]4 ,h smoo? & ev5 surfaces s z to r$uce ! friction & increase ! dis*>ge4 ,h an ar*$ inv]t to a culv]t1 & a flat b$ /one to all small surface dra9s1 ) complete connection to ! side walls4 ,9 "s c\ntries hav+ a sev]e climate1 or 9 high m\nta9\s di/ricts :]e ! soil is rock & a heavy dis*>ge ( flood-wat]s occurs1 in/ead ( plac+ a culv]t & ga!r+ ! wat]s at or ab\t ! level ( ! toe ( an embankm5t1 9 deep hillsides or rav9es an unl9$ tunnel is made "u ! embankm5t 9 ! rock1 ?us avoid+ a masonry or brickwork /ructure1 :i* c\ld only be set 9 ! summ] mon?s1 & prev5t+ ! wat]s t\*+ ! seat ( an embankm5t & promot+ a slip4 ,:5 ! level ( a rivulet all[s1 & ! wat]s are simply surface dis*>ge1 ! sy/em has be5 us$ ( mak+ two op5 *annels1 "o ^u ea* side ( a /eep valley1 ?us reta9+ ! wat]s1 all[+ ! adoption ( two %ort span op5 culv]ts & two *annels in/ead ( "o l>ge culv]t at ! deepe/ place1 & sav+ exp5se1 ! orig9al b$ ( wat]c\rse be+ fill$ ) ! surplus excavation4 ,! embankm5t consi/+ ( brok5 rock or h>d granul> soil1 any little p]colation ( wat] along ! old b$ w n delet]i\sly affect x1 b w f9d a passage4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,approximate ,,safe ,,maximum ,,load ,,^u ,,diff]5t ,,e>?s4--,,normal ,,pressure ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4--,,! ,,safe ,,maximum ,,load ,,^u ,,deposit$ ,,e>?4--,,approximate ,,safe ,,maximum ,,height ,,( ,,an ,,embankm5t4 ,!re is no limit to ! dep? ( a cutt+ except a due reg>d to economical con/ruction1 provid$ ! slopes are suffici5tly flat1 & ! lat]al & upw>d fluid pressure 9 ! slope1 & =mation & quantity ( wat] n too great = ! /ability ( ! e>?2 b1 9 ! case ( embankm5ts1 ! load ^u ! gr\nd & ! deposit$ mat]ial 9 great measure re/ricts ! height1 or necessitates an embankm5t be+ gradually spread out1 s z to enl>ge ! be>+ area z ! weight is increas$4 ,! foll[+ values ( ! safe maximum compressive load h be5 compil$ f actual practice1 b are1 ( c\rse1 only int5d$ z a guide to ! safe load = f\ndations excavat$ 9 gr\nd n artificially deposit$4 ,! condition ( ! e>? 9 ea* case %\ld be consid]$1 & 9 works ( magnitude x is advisable to make exp]im5ts ext5d+ z long z practicable1 & = at lea/ a mon?1 & x is false economy n to c>efully asc]ta9 ! "*1 condition & o!r circum/ances ( a f\ndation de/9$ to support any "p ( a /ructure1 a failure ( :i* may result 9 s]i\s consequ5ces2 & x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t a cont9u\s surface possesses great] su/a9+ p[] ?an ! same area 9 deta*$ portions1 z ! adhesion ( ! sides is n de/roy$2 simil>ly1 ! load t a t5aci\s e>? w support ^u a small area is some:at great] ?an ov] a l>ge area1 because ! lat]al surfaces are relatively l>g] 9 proportion to ! area1 &1 !re=e1 ! effect ( cohesion is proportionately great]2 b 9 loose soils x is n s1 = cohesion exi/s b 9 "n1 & ! gr\nd ar\nd w\ld be upheav$ ^u an excessive load be+ sup]impos$4 ,9 te/+ ! weight any e>? w support1 x is n s mu* ! fir/ settlem5t1 provid$ x is n excessive1 t x is desir\s to "k1 b :e!r aft] ! fir/ settlem5t x ceases or ! e>?1 z x 71 reacts & reb\nds1 :i* x may d 9 firm gr\nd to ! ext5t ( "o-eigh? to half an in*4 ,if s1 ! gr\nd is n ov]load$4 ,aft] asc]ta9+ by exp]im5t ! pressure any e>? w be> ov] a giv5 area1 ! object %\ld be to make ! soil nei!r dri] nor wett] ?an t ( its natural /ate :5 exp]im5t+1 & x %\ld be ma9ta9$ 9 t condition4 ,9 te/+ ! weight :i* a s(t e>? w support1 "s days %\ld be all[$ = ! s9k+ ( ! te/ plat=m1 & su* subsid5ce %\ld be asc]ta9$ p]iodically by c>eful levels4 ,a mon? is n too long = a reliable & complete te/1 z _m s(t soils cont9ue to yield4 ,9 s(t clay soils consid]able depression (t5 proce$s = weeks aft] a load has be5 appli$1 b except 9 peculi> e>?s su* settlem5t w ultimately be imp]ceptible1 & w practically cease4 ,a consid]able m>g9 ( /ability %\ld 9 all cases be all[$4 ,al?\gh x may n be absolutely necess>y to exp]im5t :5 ! nature ( ! gr\nd is well kn[n1 :]ev] /ability is ( great importance1 ! co/ ( a practical exp]im5t be+ s small1 !re is no suffici5t reason :y an actual te/ ( ! su/a9+ p[] ( ! soil %\ld n be made 9 ! majority ( in/ances1 = !re are _m e>?s ^: friction & cohesiv5ess c alone be dep5d$ ^u = resi/ance to displacem5t4 ,9 su* cases ! initial pressure ^u ! e>? %\ld n be mu* exce$$4 ,description ( ,e>?4 ,approximate ,safe ,maximum ,load 9 ,tons p] ,squ>e ,foot4 ,bog1 morass1 quicks&1 peat moss1 m>%-l&1 silt #j to #jbj ,slake & mud1 h>d peat turf #j to #jbe ,s(t wet pa/y or muddy clay1 & m>% clay #jbe to #jcc ,alluvial deposits ( mod]ate dep?s 9 riv] b$s1 c4 #jbj to #jce ,,note4--,:5 ! riv] b$ is rocky & ! deposit firm !y may safely support #jge ton1 b n m4 ,diluvial clay b$s ( riv]s #jce to #ajj ,alluvial e>?1 loams & loamy soil 7clay & #dj to #gj p] c5t4 ( s&71 & clay loams 7clay & ab\t #cj #jge to #aej p] c5t4 ( s&7 ,damp clay #aej to #bjj ,loose s& 9 %ift+ riv] b$1 ! safe load increas+ #bej to #cjj ) dep? ,upheav$ & int]mix$ b$s ( diff]5t s\nd clays #cjj ,silty s& ( uni=m & firm "* 9 a riv] b$ #cej to #djj secure f sc\r1 & at dep?s bel[ #be feet ,solid clay mix$ ) v f9e s& #djj ,,note4--,equal dra9age & condition is especially necess>y 9 ! case ( clays1 z moi/ure may r$uce !m f _! greate/ to _! lea/ be>+ capacity4 ,:5 f\nd equally & ?or\ghly mix$ ) s& & gravel _! support+ p[] is usually increas$4 ,s\nd yell[ clay conta9+ only ! normal quantity ( #djj to #fjj wat] ,solid blue clay1 m>l & indurat$ m>l1 & firm b\ld] #ejj to #hjj gravel & s& ,s(t *alk1 impure & argillace\s #ajj to #aej ,h>d :ite *alk #bej to #djj ,ord9>y sup]ficial s& b$s #bej to #djj ,firm s& 9 e/u>ies1 bays1 c4 #dej to #ejj ,,note4--,! ,dut* eng9e]s consid] ! safe load ^u firm clean s& z #e tons p] squ>e foot ,v firm1 compact s& f\ndations at a consid]able #fjj to #gjj dep?1 n less ?an #bj feet1 & compact s&y gravel ,,note4--,! su/a9+ p[] ( s& increases z x approa*es a homog5e\s gravelly /ate4 ,firm %ale1 protect$ f ! wea!r1 & clean gravel #fjj to #hjj ,compact gravel #gjj to #ijj ,,note4--,! relative be>+ p[]s ( gravel may be ?us describ$3-- #a4 ,compact gravel4 #b4 ,clean gravel4 #c4 ,s&y gravel4 #d4 ,clayey or loamy gravel4 ,s\nd1 clean1 homog5e\s ,?ames gravel has be5 weight$ ) #ad tons p] squ>e foot at a dep? ( only #c to #e feet bel[ ! surface1 & pres5t$ no indication ( failure4 ,?is gravel 0 simil> to t ( a clean pebbly bea*4 ,9 loose non-cohesive e>?s ! load may be increas$1 :5 ! dep? is consid]able1 z ! soil has be5 subject to a great] normal pressure due to ! weight ( ! soil ^u x at any dep?2 b x is n advisable to consid] su* increase ( be>+ p[] ( ! soil1 unless at any dep? x is f\nd t ! normal pressure augm5ts ! be>+ p[] & makes ! e>? m d5se1 :i* may be approximately asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t4 ,9 su* ev5t ! load ^u ! base c be increas$ by ! weight ( ! normal pressure remov$4 ,suppos+ #e tons p] squ>e foot 0 kn[n to be ! safe load ^u ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 & at any dep? x 0 f\nd t ! normal pressure ( ! soil 0 #b tons2 #e #b #g tons plac$ at t dep? w\ld equal #e tons at ! surface4 ,9 ! wor/ case1 :5 ! loose e>? is ( great dep?1 & x is c]ta9 t x _c be tapp$ or di/urb$ at ! dep? at :i* x is decid$ to place ! f\ndations ( a /ructure1 provid$ ! load is n m ?an ! normal pressure1 x is n probable t x w subside or slip1 z no additional weight is impos$4 ,9 f\ndation & g5]al "w1 rocks are usually n load$ ) a great] weight ?an f #h to #ah tons p] squ>e foot1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! rock4 ,z ! cru%+ /r5g? has be5 pr9cipally asc]ta9$ f cubes1 & n f prisms1 rectangul> blocks1 or irregul>ly %ap$ pieces1 & z ! resi/ance ( rocks to transv]se /ra9 or break+ across is consid]ably less ?an ! compressive /r5g?1 & v>ies greatly & n always accord+ to ! cru%+ resi/ance ( ! mat]ial1 f #h to #bj tons p] squ>e foot is a prud5t limit = ! safe load1 & %\ld n be exce$$ unless "u exceptional circum/ances2 z unequal be>+ may greatly int5sify ! /ra91 & irregul>ity 9 ! texture may r$uce ! resi/+ p[]s to t ( ! weake/ "p4 ,s&/one rock t c be crumbl$ 9 ! h& %\ld n be load$ ) m ?an #a to #a ton p] squ>e foot1 or x w probably beg9 to flake & dis9tegrate4 ,! /r5g? ( s&/one v>ies v greatly1 & 9 exp]im5ts x has be5 f\nd t :5 f9e close gra9$1 x support$ be=e be+ cru%$ five times ! weight t v co>se gritty s&/one1 hav+ a s&y appe>ance1 w\ld su/a92 ! respective cru%+ pressures p] squ>e foot be+ #cfb & #fg tons4 ,ref]5ce to au?orities on ! resi/ance ( /ones to cru%+1 t5sion & transv]se /ra91 w give ! approximate safe load p] squ>e foot2 b 9 f\ndations1 i4e41 ^u ! rock 9 its natural location1 x %\ld n exce$ "o-t5? ( ! ultimate resi/ance1 & ! compressive /r5g? %\ld n alone be tak5 z a guide to ! safe load1 b ! resi/ance ( ! rock to t5sional & transv]se /ra9 %\ld be consid]$4 ,! value giv5 = crumbl+ s&/one is = ! s(te/ mat]ial t c be call$ rock1 & is m]ely /at$ to %[ t al?\gh "s e>?s may be g5]ally class$ z rocks _! be>+ p[] may be limit$4 ,! safe load ^u an artificial rubble m\nd f\ndation dep5ds ^u its "*1 & firmness & solidity :5 deposit$1 & ^u t ( ! gr\nd on :i* x is plac$4 ,no g5]al values c be nam$1 al?\gh x may be class$ z clean or compact gravel4 ,9 a cutt+1 by excavation1 ! normal pressure ( ! e>?1 :i* v>ies ) ! dep? & weight ( ! soil1 is remov$4 ,let ,d ! dep? 9 feet ( a cutt+ f ! orig9al surface ( ! gr\nd1 ,w ! weight ( a cubic foot ( e>? 9 decimals ( a ton1 ,p ! normal pressure 9 tons p] squ>e foot at any giv5 dep?1 ,!n ,p ,d ,w4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! case ( an embankm5t ! normal load ^u ! e>? is n affect$1 b an additional weight is sup]impos$2 consequ5tly1 to prev5t slips or subsid5ce f ov]weight+1 !re is a limit to ! height ( an embankm5t1 ap>t f economical consid]ations ( its deposition4 ,! problem to det]m9e is1 !re=e1 ! limit ( ! height to :i* an embankm5t may be deposit$ )\t exce$+ ! safe load t ! natural gr\nd w p]man5tly su/a94 ,! safe load ^u ! e>? ( :i* an embankm5t is compos$ is ref]r$ to 9 due c\rse4 ,let ,s ! safe load 9 tons p] squ>e foot ^u ! orig9al gr\nd or e>? n artificially deposit$4 ,h ! !oretical limit+ height 9 feet ( an embankm5t4 ,w ! weight 9 tons ( a cubic foot ( ! deposit$ e>?4 ,,note4--,:5 ! e>? is ( a mix$ "*1 ! safe load %\ld be t ( ! weake/ soil4 ,! condition ( equilibrium is t ! height is n great] ?an ! safe load divid$ by ! weight ( ! gr\nd1 & is consequ5tly giv5 by ! expression-- ,h ,s_/,w4 ,9 ord] to prev5t a ref]5ce to o!r books1 a table is app5d$ ( ! approximate weights ( diff]5t e>?s 9 _! ord9>y condition1 compil$ f ! be/ au?orities4 ,! weights are ^? ( solid rock1 !re=e1 :5 x is deposit$ !y w be light] accord+ to ! volume ( ! int]/ices4 ,"n ( ,e>?4 ,weight4 ,decimals ( a ,tons4 ,ton4 ,cubic ,y>d4 ,cubic ,foot4 ,basalt1 solid #jjhc #bbe ,ba? /one1 solid #jjeb #adj ,*alk1 damp to wet1 loose to close #jjef to #jjgd #aej to #bjj ,clay #jjed to #jjei #ade to #afj ,fl9t1 solid #jjgd #bjj ,granite #jjgh #baj ,gravel & %+le #jjdf to #jjee #abe to #aej ,lime/one4 ,lias to compact m\nta9 #jjfg to #jjgh #aha to #baj ,m>l #jjdd to #jjeb #abj to #adj ,mud1 at surface #jjdd #abj ,mud1 at ab\t #ae feet 9 dep? #jjdh #acj ,peat1 h>d1 & top m\ld #jjcf #jih ,portl& /one1 solid #jjfe #age ,qu>tz1 solid #jjgf #bje ,s&1 dry riv] #jjda #aaj ,s&1 damp & %ak5 #jjee #aej ,s&/one1 solid #jjfc to #jjgb #agj to #aie ,%ale #jjgd #bjj ,slate1 solid #jjhj #bae ,trap1 solid #jjgh #baj ,9 det]m9+ ! safe load ^u deposit$ e>? x is well to rememb] t3 #a4 ,excavat$ e>? _c be re/or$ 9 bulk to its orig9al condition4 #b4 ,:5 ! e>? is simply deposit$ f a tip head1 x _c be imm$iately consolidat$ by ! act ( deposition4 #c4 ,until subsid5ce may1 = all practical purposes1 be consid]$ at an end1 no deposit$ e>? c be reg>d$ z /able2 b a m]e uni=m wea!r+ ( ! surface1 :i* _c be prev5t$ :5 ! ext]ior is uncov]$1 w g5]ally n cause in/ability ( ! mass4 #d4 ,^u mo/ public works ! e>? 9 an embankm5t is expos$ 9 ?9 lay]s4 #e4 ,! e>? is load$1 9 ! great majority ( cases1 soon aft] x is deposit$ & be=e x has settl$ or become consolidat$1 & is also subject to vibration f e>? waggons1 locomotives1 c4 #f4 ,! comp>ative dry or wet /ate ( ! deposit$ e>? & its p[] ( resi/ance to meteorological det]ioration4 ,vide also ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,tak+ into consid]ation ^! & o!r det]iorat+ influ5ces1 ! problem to be solv$ is1 :at d$uction mu/ be made f ! safe load ^u unexcavat$ e>? 9 f\ndations1 9 ord] to "k ! safe su/a9+ p[] ( ! same e>? :5 deposit$ 9 an embankm5t8 ,mu* dep5ds ^u ! liability ( ! soil to become saturat$ or 9 a damp] /ate ?an t 9 :i* x is kn[n to be /able4 ,= ?is reason ! height ( embankm5ts 9 clay soils1 :i* are s delet]i\sly affect$ by ! wea!r1 is g5]ally made z little z possible4 ,( c\rse1 tempor>ily an embankm5t w /& ) a great] pressure1 i4e41 at a great] height ?an ! safe height1 &1 provid$ no lat]al movem5t took place1 an embankm5t w\ld be /able until ! e>? 0 ne>ly cru%$2 b p]man5t /ability & fre$om f slips & subsid5ce is ! object to be atta9$1 & ev]y?+ mu/ be subject to local conditions1 su* z ! am\nt ( ra9fall1 ! situation1 ! c>e ex]cis$ dur+ deposition1 ! protection giv5 to ! surface1 & ! g5]al dra9age1 & ^! mu/ always gov]n ! application ( any g5]al rule4 ,x is1 !re=e1 necess>y to divide e>?s into two k9ds1 namely3--granul> & non-granul>2 ! =m] is assum$ to h p>ticles1 = purposes ( e>?work1 insoluble 9 wat]1 ! latt] to be liable to be dissolv$ by aque\s action1 or to be s affect$ by x z to less5 ! /ability4 ,x is impracticable to det]m9e by a =mula ! p]man5t safe maximum height ( an embankm5t2 ! values nam$ are1 h[ev]1 an approximately reliable indication ( ! height1 & are bas$ ^u ! assumption t ! slopes are suffici5tly flat to be /able1 & t ! embankm5ts are deposit$ 9 ! ord9>y way1 ! wid? ( ! =mation or top be+ n less ?an ab\t #ae feet4 ,x is seldom economical to make an embankm5t m ?an #gj to #ij feet 9 height1 except = %ort l5g?s1 & :]e deep cutt+s _c be avoid$1 & x becomes a "q ( tipp+ spoil banks or ma9 embankm5ts1 or ! f\ndations = a viaduct are kn[n to be ( a trea*]\s & d\btful "*4 ,! heights nam$ h be5 calculat$ "u ! wor/ conditions1 i4e41 t any weight ^u ! =mation w be directly communicat$ to ! base z 9 ! case ( a column1 & n ?r\gh ! cross-section ( an embankm5t1 & ov] ! :ole area ( ! base2 h[ev]1 !re is always ! dang] t ! c5tral portion may subside1 z ! weight ^u x is ! greate/1 & t ! slopes may be di/urb$ & press$ out1 especially 9 s(t or soluble e>? likely to be quickly affect$ by moi/ure4 ,! soil is consid]$ to h no reliable cohesion4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! limits ( g5]al practice = ! height ( embankm5ts :5 unaid$ by reta9+ walls or o!r support1 b ) ! slopes soil$1 cov]$ ) grass1 & only ext]nally dra9$1 has be5 z foll[s3-- ,surface soils1 ab\t #bj to #cj feet4 ,b\ld] clay f #be to #cj feet4 ,yell[1 or ord9>y clay1 #cj to #dj feet4 ,ditto1 ditto1 9 cutt+s1 #fj to #fe feet4 ,*alk1 #cj to #dj feet4 ,gravel & s&1 ab\t #fj feet4 ,ditto1 9 cutt+s1 #hj feet4 ,^! h1 h[ev]1 be5 exce$$ 9 _m in/ances1 especially ^u ! l[] side ( an embankm5t ^u sidelong gr\nd4 ,probably ! highe/ artificial embankm5ts unsupport$ by walls or any protective works1 are qu>ry & m9+-tips1 & balla/-heaps4 ,^! h be5 ca/ out 9 all wea!rs1 & all[$ to assume any slope or %ape1 & to a height z great z #ajj to #abj feet1 & h rema9$ /able1 al?\gh usually 9 an expos$ situation1 b almo/ free f vibration4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 a railway embankm5t #ij feet 9 height1 9 trea*]\s clay-soil is in/anc$1 & !re are _m embankm5ts ( v>i\s e>?s f #gj to #ij feet 9 height on ! c5tre l9e1 b a railway embankm5t exce$+ #ajj feet 9 height on ! c5tre l9e is r>e1 al?\gh ! height f ! toe ( ! slope to ! =mation level 9 sidelong gr\nd may be frequ5tly exce$$4 ,a %ort & v high embankm5t may /& :]e "o ( consid]able l5g? w\ld slip1 consequ5t ^u v>iations 9 ! "* & condition ( ! e>?1 ! be>+ capacity ( ! gr\nd1 ! /ate ( ! wea!r1 ! fl[ ( ! surface wat]1 g5]al homog5e\sness1 ! configuration ( ! gr\nd1 & o!r det]iorat+ influ5ces2 b dra9+1 c>eful deposition1 & a judici\s adoption ( ! v>y+ slope sy/em1 & o!r precaution>y works1 w conduce to /ability4 ,unless 9 exceptional circum/ances1 x is advisable to avoid v high embankm5ts1 z a slip ( e>?work seldom gives mu* prev5i5t notice1 & ! works ( rep>ation c sc>cely be effect$ by any means ?an manual lab\r4 ,! quantity ( e>? to be treat$ may be s l>ge t be=e ! rem$ial works c be complet$ a wet season may arre/ op]ations & cause additional movem5t & subsid5ce ( ! e>?4 ,,granul> ,,e>?s4 ,description ( ,e>? ,embankm5t4 ,approximate safe p]man5t maximum height 9 feet1 ( an embankm5t 9 e>?1 conditions z describ$4 ,feet4 ,indurat$ compact gravel1 cem5t+ mat]ial #abj imp]i%able4 ,clean balla/ ,clean gravel1 unwa%$ #aaj ,%>p compact clean s& #ajj ,firm1 clean1 angul>1 l>ge-gra9$ s& #ij ,ord9>y nodul> s&1 slightly loamy #fj to #gj ,loamy s& #ej to #ee ,,note4--,clean fragm5t>y rock ( uni=m size1 c>efully tipp$1 w\ld /& p]man5tly at any height )9 reasonable approa* to ! safe compressive load2 b 9 deposit$ e>?1 z 9 cutt+s1 9 addition to ! cont+5cy t ! natural gr\nd at ! base may n be able to be> ! /ra91 ! effect ( wat] pressure mu/ be consid]$ z x may become ( suffici5t =ce to cause ! face ( ! slopes to become loose & f9ally sep>ate & slip4 ,at a height ( only #ej feet cle> head1 ! pressure w\ld be ab\t #bb lbs4 p] squ>e in*2 !re=e1 x is n s mu* ! weight ! deposit$ e>? w be> z ! effects ( wat] ^u ! e>?1 & ! wat] pressure t h to be consid]$4 ,,o!r ,,e>?s4 ,description ( ,e>? ,embankm5t4 ,approximate safe p]man5t maximum height 9 feet1 ( an embankm5t 9 e>?1 conditions z describ$4 ,feet4 ,peat moss1 m>% e>?1 consolidat$ mud1 silt1 #j to #g h>d peat turf ,alluvial soil obta9$ f a riv] b$ #e to #h ,,note4--,:5 ! riv] b$ is rocky & ! deposit firm1 ! height may be increas$ to #ae feet4 ,s(t wet pa/y clay1 & m>% clay1 moi/ & #e to #f difficult to dra9 ,diluvial clay soil ( riv] b$s1 accord+ to its uni=m "*1 degree ( firmness & #f to #bj h>dness ,alluvial soil4 ,loam & loamy e>?4 7,clay & #dj to #gj p] c5t4 ( s&47 ,clay loams 7clay & #ae to #cj ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ( s&7 ,damp clay soil4 ,equably damp1 t c be dra9$ #be to #cj & w p>tly dra9 itself ,,note4--,! e>?s nam$ w g5]ally h _! be>+ p[] increas$ by c>eful deposition 9 an embankm5t1 = ! act ( equal sep>ation ( ! mass w cause a decrease 9 ! quantity ( wat] conta9$ 9 !m3 & !y w be reliev$ ( ! wat]-pressure to :i* !y 7 liable 9 _! natural position4 ,on ! contr>y1 :5 c>elessly tipp$ !y may be det]iorat$4 ,vide ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,9 ! case ( all e>?s t are readily impair$ by wat]1 x is ! degree ( p]man5t uni=m dryness or wetness t gov]ns ! safe height ( an embankm5t2 = ev5 ! surface ( ! mo/ imp]vi\s clay w be liable to become 9 a muddy /ate1 al?\gh 9 ! mass x may be dry or 9 a condition conducive to /ability4 ,almo/ all alum9\s or calc>e\s e>?s hold or reta9 wat] 9 v>y+ quantity1 & z 9 embankm5ts ?is may con/antly *ange1 no safe p]man5t height ( an embankm5t 9 su* soils c be e/abli%$4 ,! mo/ solid imp]meable clay :5 sep>at$ into small pieces & impregnat$ ) wat] to any quantity above t x normally conta9s1 w h its be>+ p[] & g5]al /ability r$uc$1 until1 :5 saturat$1 x becomes z mud4 ,impure & argillace\s *alk1 m>ly clay1 m>l1 & %ale1 are all m or less weak5$ by aque\s action1 & _! safe p]man5t height may be any?+ n exce$+ ! cru%+ /r5g? ( ! e>?1 ) a due all[ance = ! det]iorat+ influ5ces ( wea!r1 vibration1 & int]nal wat]-pressure4 ,9 ?is *apt] ref]5ce has be5 made to c]ta9 limits ( ! safe height ( embankm5ts2 b 7 ^! to be adopt$ z ! maximum safe height 9 ea* e>? x w\ld be an indef5sible edict1 = by ! adoption ( ! requir$ precaution>y measures nam$ 9 ! sev]al *apt]s ( ?is book ! height c be consid]ably increas$1 & :at is m1 has be5 mu* exce$$ ) impunity 9 num]\s in/ances4 ,! incl9ation t any e>? assumes1 aft] be+ expos$ to ! wea!r a suffici5t "t = x to be affect$ by x1 w af=d a good indication ( ! safe load x w support4 ,z ! slope ( repose becomes flatt]1 ! be>+ p[] ( ! soil 9 an embankm5t w be r$uc$1 all ! det]iorat+ influ5ces be+ id5tical4 ,= ! be/ in=mation 8,on ! actual lat]al pressure ( e>?work10 vide ! pap] by ,sir ,b4 ,bak]1 ,m4 ,c\ncil ,in/4 ,c4,e41 ,m9utes ( ,proce$+s ( ! ,in/itution ( ,civil ,eng9e]s1 ,london1 vol4 lxv41 "p iii4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,slopes1 ,,g5]al ,,consid]ations4--,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,usual ,,range ,,( ,,slopes4--,,table ,,( ,,coeffici5ts ,,( ,,friction4--,,notes ,,on ,,! ,,cohesion ,,( ,,e>?4--,,=m ,,( ,a ,,slope4--,,"s ,,conditions ,,gov]n+ ,,! ,,necess>y ,,incl9ation4--,,wid5+ ,,e>?works ,,)9 ,,! ,,orig9al ,,f5ces4 ,) reg>d to ! incl9ation & ! =m ( a slope1 & ! prev5tion ( slips 9 e>?work1 9 any slip ! surface mu/ be affect$2 !re=e1 to det]m9e ! slope ( p]man5t /ability ( any e>?1 :e!r 9 a cutt+ or an embankm5t1 is ( great importance4 ,an unnecess>ily flat slope is n only a monet>y wa/e b may be a cause ( in/ability1 = x exposes a l>g] surface to det]ioration by ! wea!r4 ,by :at means is a correct decision to be atta9$8 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t c]ta9 e>?s "u kn[n conditions w repose at p>ticul> incl9ations2 h[ev]1 to empirically assume t any e>? w always /& "u any circum/ances is cle>ly imprud5t & unt5able4 ,z a guide1 a table ( slopes = e>?s is valuable1 b consid]ation ( ! consequ5ces ( movem5t1 & ! di/9ctive features ( ea* case %\ld gov]n a decision4 ,%\ld ! e>? be trea*]\s & require a flat slope1 x may be advisable to r$uce ! quantity ( excavation by ! erection ( a reta9+ wall1 n only to effect a sav+ 9 exp5diture1 b also to p]man5tly support ! soil1 & prev5t in/ability4 ,an inspection ( neighb\r+ qu>ries & ! wa/e tips1 s& or gravel pits1 hills & cliffs1 cutt+s & embankm5ts = roads1 riv] banks1 c41 w af=d an indication ( any local peculi>ities caus$ by ! climate or o!rwise2 & a comp>ison ( ! natural slopes assum$ :5 ! soil has to )/& vibration1 & :5 n s di/urb$1 w enable a judgm5t to be =m$ ( its delet]i\s effect ^u ! e>?2 b above all1 an exam9ation ( ! cutt+s & embankm5ts pass+ ?r\gh or ^u ! same geological =mation4 ,reliable evid5ce c be s obta9$ ^u :i* ! slope ( p]man5t repose c be det]m9$ accord+ to ! dictates ( sci5ce & exp]i5ce1 b ! probable consequ5ces ( in/ability w dem& a due reg>d to provision aga9/ cont+5t det]iorat+ influ5ces :i* may almo/ de/roy cohesion & r5d] x necess>y to rely solely ^u frictional resi/ance1 ! rema9+ resi/+ p[] aga9/ movem5t ( ! e>?1 except 9 solid rock1 :i* may /& ) an ov]hang+ or v]tical face1 :]eas mud & quicks& may n be 9 a /ate ( re/ ev5 :5 horizontal4 ,! foll[+ table ( slopes = diff]5t e>?s has be5 c>efully compil$ to indicate ! probable p]man5t slope1 b x %\ld n be sep>ately consid]$ f ! o!r *apt]s 9 ?is book1 z circum/ances modify ev5 a consid]able range ( incl9ations2 = in/ance1 e>?s t w be /able at a c]ta9 slope 9 temp]ate climates w require a mu* flatt] slope 9 tropical or v cold c\ntries4 ,^? nam$ are m especially = artificially deposit$ or embank$ e>?s subject to vibration1 &1 !re=e1 9 cutt+s ! slope might be /eep]1 al?\gh n s 9 alum9\s soils or ^? 9 :i* ! p>ticles become decompos$ ^u exposure4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 "u ! head ( ea* k9d ( e>?1 ! approximate slopes ( repose are m exactly nam$1 z !y w\ld occupy too mu* space 9 a table4 ,:5 n m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ! slope is giv54 ,,g5]al ,,note4--,! slopes mu/ be flatt] accord+ to ! am\nt ( wat] 9 ! same soil or to :i* x may be subject1 ! dep? ( a cutt+ & height ( an embankm5t1 & ! pres5ce ( all o!r di/urb+ influ5ces4 ,vide ,*apt] ,v4 = ! safe maximum dep? ( cutt+s or height ( embankm5ts4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,g5]al ,,range ,,( ,,slopes4 ,description ( ,e>?4 ,incl9ation4 ,peat moss1 m>% e>?1 consolidat$ mud1 silt1 ,horizontal to #d to #a h>d peat turf1 :5 load$ ,alluvial soil #b to #a ,,to #c to #a ,ditto4 ,:5 wet ab\t #d to #a ,s(t wet pa/y clay 9 sup]ficial b$s #c to #a ,,to #d to #a ,diluvial firm clay ( riv] b$s #b to #a ,,to #c to #a ,alluvial soil4 ,loam & loamy e>?4 7,clay & #dj #a to #a ,,to #b to #a to #gj p] c5t4 ( s&7 ,ditto4 ,clay loams4 7,clay & ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ( s&7 ,ditto4 ,:5 wet & crumbl+ #c to #a ,,to #d to #a ,damp clay soil #c to #a ,upheav$ & int]mix$ b$s ( diff]5t s\nd #b to #a ,,to #c to #a clays ,solid clay mix$ ) v f9e s& #b to #a ,s\nd yell[ clay conta9+ only ! normal quantity ( wat]1 ! surfaces cov]$ aft] #b to #a ,,to #c to #a deposition ,br[n lam9at$ clay1 quickly affect$ by wea!r3-- ,surface cov]$ #f to #a ,surface expos$ #ab to #a ,solid blue & firm clays1 m>l & indurat$ #a to #a ,,to #b to #a m>l1 & b\ld]s imb$d$ 9 s& & gravel ,s(t *alk1 impure & argillace\s #a to #a ,,to #b to #a ,ditto4 ,9 cutt+s to #a ,,to #a to #a ,h>d :ite *alk1 hav+ great] d5sity ?an ! #a to #a ,,to #a to #a prec$+4 ,ditto4 ,9 cutt+s ,ne>ly v]tical ,,to to #a ,a%es #a to #a ,v f9e dry s& #a to #a ,,to #b to #a ,firm s&1 surface n completely protect$ #a to #a ,,to #a to #a ,firm s& 9 embankm5ts1 surface protect$ by #b to #a 7lea/7 ,,to #c fasc9e mattresses1 z 9 ,holl&2 & expos$ to #a to mod]ate sea ,ditto1 on l& side4 #a to #a 7lea/7 ,firm %ale1 surfaces cov]$ to #a ,,to #a to #a ,,note4--,:5 ! %ale is greasy & becomes ungu5t\s ^u be+ expos$ to ! wea!r1 x mu/ be consid]$ z a clay4 ,clean gravel & dry %+le #a to #a 7dry7 ,,to #a to #a 7wet7 ,ord9>y clean co>se sea bea*1 #c to #a at top1 graduat+ accord+ to ! dep?1 size1 range1 set ( ! tide1 & exposure1 to #e to #a ,,to #h to #a at mod]ate dep?s1 & at ! base to #bj to #a ,,to #cj to #a1 ! curve ( ! slope be+ p>abolic if ! waves alone di/urb x4 ,! angle ( repose w be less z ! size ( ! p>ticles become small]1 & betwe5 high wat] & a few feet bel[ l[-wat] m>k w seldom be less1 if n %elt]$1 ?an #d to #a to #f to #a2 b co>se firm s& t has become consolidat$ w (t5 /& at a /eep] incl9ation ?an a mass ( roll+ /ones1 h[ev] h>d !y may be4 ,compact gravel #a to #a ,ord9>y road metall+1 mod]ate height #a to #a 7clean71 ,,to #a to #a 7/ack$1 z excavat$ f road47 ,l>ge concrete blocks4 ,%elt]$ position & c>efully deposit$4 to #a ,h>b\r side ,l>ge concrete blocks4 ,expos$ site & c>efully #a to #a deposit$ ,rubble m\nd4 ,%elt]$ position #a to #a ,,to #a to #a 7h>b\r side47 ,rubble m\nd4 ,expos$ to sea #b to #a 7sea slope47 ,,note4--,if an expos$ coa/1 ! rubble may require f #d to #a to #g to #a slope1 dep5d+ ^u its size1 ! curr5ts1 dep?1 & 8fet*0 ( ! sea1 & solidity ( ! mass4 ,! usual slopes adopt$ = cutt+s & embankm5ts may be said to range f #a to #a = firm e>?1 hav+ p>ticles n s]i\sly affect$ by wat] or wea!r1 to #d to #a1 & ! mo/ frequ5t1 #a to #a ,,to #a to #a 9 cutt+s & #a to #a 9 embankm5ts4 ,) respect to ! *ief organ ( /ability 9 e>?s o!r ?an rock1 namely1 ! frictional resi/ance2 friction dur+ motion is g5]ally consid]$ to be less ?an ! =ce necess>y to ov]come x :5 at re/1 & und\bt$ly ?is is ! case :5 ! surfaces are simil>1 & are smoo? & h>d & n easily impress$1 z iron1 granite1 concrete1 & metals g5]ally2 b :5 !y are comp>atively s(t & incapable ( resi/+ ind5tation at any pressure t !y may h to be>1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! coeffici5t ( friction dur+ motion & t at ! comm5cem5t ( motion or ( repose w n be s m>k$1 = o!r resi/ances may come into action n due solely to surface friction ( ! mass4 ,a surface may become ind5t$ or r\gh5$ ?us (f]+ opposition to motion n exi/+ at ! comm5cem5t ( movem5t1 & p>ticul>ly s 9 any e>? ( a mix$ "* possess+ h>d p>ticles1 su* z b\ld]s1 or s& 9 clay4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! case ( h>d rock1 solid clay1 or o!r homog5e\s e>?1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 friction dur+ motion & t ( friction at re/ may be reliably det]m9$4 ,9 soils ( a granul> or gritty nature small p>ticles become deta*$ dur+ motion1 & by pressure occupy or become w$g$ into any cavities ^u ! surfaces1 & !re=e (f] resi/ance :i* is n alone due to friction ( a mass ^u a l mass4 ,f ?is cause friction dur+ motion may seem+ly ev5 become great] ?an dur+ re/1 b ) mat]ial consi/+ ( r\nd$ p>ticles t w n w$ge1 ! friction ^u a slid+ surface may be less5$ by reason ( ! gra9s revolv+4 ,9 d$uc+ a slope ( repose = e>?1 ! l[e/ value ( frictional resi/ance1 :e!r dur+ motion or at re/1 %\ld be tak51 & always z if ! surfaces 7 wet4 ,! coeffici5ts ( friction1 ,f1 dur+ motion usually range betwe5 #jbe to #aaj1 & ! slope ( repose1 ,s to #a1 is consequ5tly f\nd by ! expression-- ,s #a_/;,f1 !re=e1 ,s w\ld equal to #a_/jbe to #a_/aaj #d to #a ,,to #jia to #a1 say1 #a to #a4 ,?is is ! requir$ incl9ation to prev5t movem5t provid$ no pressure is ex]t$ ^u ! surface1 & n tak+ into consid]ation ! di/urb+ & weak5+ effects ( vibration & all o!r det]iorat+ influ5ces1 su* z ! v>iable degree ( moi/ure ( ! soil1 ! irregul>ity ( its "*1 ! de/ruction ( ! cont9uity ( ! surface by tr5*es or dra9s 9 a slope1 ! effect ( gravity to deta* a mass1 ! process ( excavation or deposition1 & ! expansion & contraction ( soils ( an argillace\s nature4 ,:5 any e>? becomes sudd5ly wat]-*>g$ or det]iorat$ by any ( ! ag5cies previ\sly & subsequ5tly m5tion$1 movem5t may be expect$1 & x %\ld be rememb]$ t 9 ! same soil ! resi/+ p[]s to dis9tegration frequ5tly v>y1 consequ5t ^u inequality 9 ! quantity ( moi/ure1 ! r\ghness1 ev5ness1 smoo?ness1 compactness1 loos5ess1 ! degree ( f95ess ( ! e>?1 & also ! mann] 9 :i* /ra9 is appli$4 ,friction ^u a dry surface is almo/ inv>iably great] ?an t ^u a wett$ surface1 & is s beyond all "q ^u any plane lubricat$ ) an ungu5t4 ,! di/urb+ & enfeebl+ effect ( wat] may be judg$ f a c>eful analysis ( _m reliable exp]im5ts to asc]ta9 ! frictional resi/ance 9 ! case ( ! same mat]ial 9 a dry & 9 a wet /ate on an unplan$ surface ( ca/ iron & on timb] piles4 ,x %[s ! foll[+ results 9 addition to ^? giv5 9 ! table ( coeffici5ts ( friction ( e>? ^u e>? 9 ! next page4 ,! surface friction ( masonry or brickwork ^u dry clay is r$uc$ by f #be to #cj p] c5t4 :5 ! clay is wet4 ,! frictional resi/ance ( an unplan$ surface ( ca/ iron ^u wet s& is ab\t #af p] c5t4 less ?an ! resi/ance ^u ! same mat]ial :5 dry4 ,9 ! case ( timb] piles1 x is ab\t #ab p] c5t4 less1 & ab\t #dj p] c5t4 less 9 s&y clay & gravelly clay soil4 ,9 s&y gravel ! diff]5ce 9 ! resi/ances is small1 be+ only f #e to #aj p] c5t4 less :5 ! e>? is wet4 ,s& has ab\t #bj p] c5t4 m friction ?an s&y gravel1 bo? mat]ials be+ 9 a wet /ate2 & bel[ a dep? ( f #aj to #ae feet1 ! frictional resi/ance increases little 9 gravelly s& & gravelly soils4 ,9 lieu ( a suffici5t example "u simil> conditions & circum/ances1 ! mo/ reliable me?od to asc]ta9 ! slope ( repose ( any e>? is t ( ,s1 ! slope ( repose1 to #a1 #a_/;,f1 any cohesion ( ! soil be+ disreg>d$ & consid]$ z a m>g9 ( /ability liable to be mu* impair$2 &1 !re=e1 except 9 a mass1 x is prud5t to look ^u x z non-exi/5t 9 ! :ole ( a slope2 & :5 motion has comm5c$1 z ev5 a means ( accel]at+ movem5t by caus+ lumps to become displac$ in/ead ( m]e p>ticles4 ,! foll[+ coeffici5ts ( friction dur+ motion are "h giv5 9 confirmation ( ! frictional resi/ance ( an e>? be+ an indicator ( its slope ( repose4 ,!y h be5 tabulat$ f diff]5t au?orities1 are ! av]age results ( practical exp]im5ts1 & h be5 comp>$ ) ! incl9ation ( slopes actually assum$ "u ! ord9>y conditions ( "w4 ,description ( ,e>? or ,mat]ial4 ,coeffici5t ,correspond+ ,e>? ^u ,e>?4 ( ,friction ,slope4 dur+ ,s ,,to #a #a_/;,f4 ,motion--,f4 ,damp vegetable or loamy e>? #jej to #jfgb to #a ,,to #a to #a ,clean dry %+le or balla/1 ne>ly #jge to #jhja to #a ,,to #a to #a )\t s& ,clean wet %+le or balla/1 ne>ly #jfg #a to #a )\t s& ,%+le or balla/ ) ord9>y #jhj #a to #a quantity ( s& ,,note4--,! pres5ce ( s& 9 gravel increases ! frictional resi/ance because x makes x gritty4 ,excavat$ h>d road metall+1 ca/ #jhj #a to #a into a m\nd ,f9e dry s& #jge #a to #a ,h>d clay1 slightly damp #jfg #a to #a ,h>d clay1 damp to wet #jdj to #jejb to #a ,,to #b to #a ,damp lias1 yell[1 & mo/ upheav$ #jbe to #jcc #d to #a ,,to #c to #a clays 9 sup]ficial b$s ,wet rubble on wet rubble1 ord9>y size#jfg to #jhja to #a ,,to #a to #a & "* ,d41 d41 :5 ! surfaces are unclean #jfg #a to #a ,d41 d41 ,l>ge to v l>ge size4 #jhj to #aj #a to #a ,,to #a to #a ,surfaces clean ,,note4--,all rubble c>efully deposit$4 ,r\gh-fac$ granite on gravel & s&1 #jed #ahe to #a bo? dry ,r\gh-fac$ granite on gravel & s&1 #jdh #bji to #a bo? wet ,r\gh-fac$ granite on s&1 bo? dry4 #jgj #a to #a ,r\gh-fac$ granite on s&1 bo? wet #jec #ahh to #a ,,con/ruct$ ,,mat]ial ,,on ,,e>?4 ,rubble masonry1 or brickwork on clay1 #jej #b to #a dry ,rubble masonry1 or brickwork on clay1 #jcc #c to #a wet ,,note4--,vide ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,friction is ! *ief cause ( /ability 9 granul> soils & ^? readily affect$ by moi/ure :i* h = practical purposes no immutable cohesion4 ,9 few e>?s are bo? cohesion & friction ( consid]able & reliable value1 "o or ! o!r quickly becom+ impair$ or de/roy$4 ,movem5t is caus$ by su* v>i\s means t ea* e>? mu/ be sep>ately consid]$1 & also ! circum/ances "u :i* x is plac$4 ,! p>ticles ( ! e>? may be dissolv$ by wat] & become 9 a muddy /ate1 or !y may be consid]$ insoluble z 9 clean s& & gravel1 al?\gh 9 compact s& or gravel ! cem5t+ mat]ial may crack & wea!r4 ,provid$ x 0 c]ta9 any e>? w\ld always rema9 z orig9ally =m$1 a condition :i* x is impossible to gu>antee 9 "w1 ! cohesion & frictional resi/ance be+ kn[n1 ! correct slope c\ld be ma!matically det]m9$1 b z all e>?s are subject to v>y+ det]iorat+ influ5ces1 su* a d$uction is only valuable z a guide = reasonable inf]5ce4 ,cohesion may be m quickly impair$ by c]ta9 action ?an friction1 & vice v]s4 ,probably1 ( all soils1 t to be mo/ di/ru/$ is "o t exp&s & contracts1 su* z clay e>?1 :i* al?\gh possess+ consid]able cohesion may become ^u dry+ a m]e congregation ( disconnect$ lumps ready to move ^u ! return ( wet wea!r1 ?us its consid]able p[] ( cohesion may practically be "o ( ! *ief causes ( a slip4 ,on ! contr>y1 clean s&1 al?\gh devoid ( cohesion1 w n crack or h a greasy surface1 b ! p>ticles may be wa%$ away4 ,to asc]ta9 t any e>? is uni=mly affect$ ?r\gh\t ! mass1 & to prev5t or provide aga9/ det]iorat+ influ5ces is ! *ief aim4 ,x is useless to decl>e any e>? possesses consid]able cohesion :5 ! p[] c be quickly dissipat$ by ord9>y atmosph]ic action & ev5 become a cause ( movem5t1 & to rely = p]man5t /ability ^u su* prop]ty4 ,9 ord9>y e>?s1 n rock1 x w g5]ally be f\nd t cohesion is small or insignificant 9 soil hav+ a coeffici5t ( friction ( "s mom5t1 & ! rev]se4 ,9 mo/ e>?s friction1 al?\gh x is affect$ 9 a great] degree by vibration1 has to be reli$ ^u1 & n cohesion1 z ! latt] is v>iable & may exi/ almo/ unimpair$ 9 a lump1 :i* nev]!less may become deta*$ because ( fissures4 ,! coeffici5ts ( friction ( diff]5t e>?s are also bett] kn[n ?an ! cohesion2 b h[ easily ev5 friction is impair$ may be ga!r$ f ! sudd5 mann] 9 :i* bridge cyl9d]s w s9k aft] hav+ hung = days by surface friction1 or be5 held by ! transitory expansion ( clay4 ,mr4 ,wilfrid ,airy1 ,b4,a41 9 a s]ies ( exp]im5ts on ! cohesion ( e>?1 f\nd t 9 /rong brick loam x is ab\t #afh lbs4 p] squ>e foot1 9 compact clay & gravel x may rea* #hjj lbs4 p] squ>e foot ( section1 & 9 clean s& x is practically nihil4 ,9 rock ! slope ( repose dep5ds :e!r ! e>? is un/ratifi$ or /ratifi$2 & if /ratifi$1 ^u ! dip ( ! /rata & _! resi/ance to ! effects ( ! wea!r4 ,a v]tical face may be /able 9 un/ratifi$ or /ratifi$ rock1 provid$ 9 ! latt] case x does n dip t[>ds a cutt+2 or ! requisite slope may range f to #a to su* an incl9ation t ! cohesion & friction1 :i* v>y greatly1 are suffici5t to prev5t movem5t4 ,9 sidelong gr\nd %\ld ! rock dip p>allel to ! surface ! hill slope may require to be flat1 :]eas ! valley slope may /& v]tically4 ,al?\gh1 p]haps1 9 _m in/ances ! slopes ( cutt+s & embankm5ts h be5 arbitr>ily fix$1 x may be said1 on ! :ole1 no v s]i\s int]ruptions to traffic h be5 caus$ f ! sole want ( suffici5t initial flatness ( a slope1 z t w soon become kn[n4 ,9 det]m9+ ! incl9ation x is n ! angle at :i* ! e>? w /& at ! "t ( excavation or deposition1 & = a few mon?s aft] t is requir$ to be asc]ta9$1 b t :i* w p]man5tly suffice to prev5t movem5t4 ,x is well kn[n t almo/ all fre%ly cut soil /&s ne>ly v]tically = a small dep? = a few days 9 ord9>y wea!r b !n beg9s to crumble & f9ally break away4 ,:at !n w be ! slope ( p]man5t /ability8 ,?is *iefly dep5ds ^u ! degree ( exposure1 ! effects ( ! wea!r1 wat]1 & vibration ^u ! soil1 & ! dep? or height ( a cutt+ or embankm5t4 ,ea* e>? requires to be duly consid]$2 = in/ance1 gravel & s& are pieces ( rock1 h[ev] small1 & = e>?work purposes ! p>ticles may be reg>d$ z insoluble 9 wat]2 nev]!less 9 ! case ( s&1 %\ld x be *>g$ ) wat]1 x may be necess>y to treat x z a fluid1 ! same z mud1 al?\gh wat] does n *ange ! p>ticles2 h[ev]1 slips 9 cutt+s & embankm5ts 9 s&y or gravelly soils are n usually caus$ by _! becom+ gradually saturat$ ?r\gh\t _! mass1 b by a fl[ ( wat] :i* creates wat] seams3 ! /ability1 !re=e1 is dep5d5t ^u equal p]colation & dra9age & protection ( ! surface2 & ! slope t %\ld be giv5 to a s& cutt+ is also gov]n$ by ! quantity ( wat] x w h to hold1 & :e!r ! s& is pure or loamy4 ,! dep? ( a cutt+ 9 s& has a consid]able influ5ce ^u ! slope ( /ability1 = frequ5tly s& is 9 a dry /ate 9 ! upp] portion ( a cutt+1 b b5ea? x is wet1 & p>takes m ( a silty "*1 & !re=e may /& at a /eep] incl9ation 9 ! upp] "p1 b require a flat slope 9 ! l[] portion4 ,! same conditions are f\nd 9 all soils1 & ! sides ( a cutt+ v>y1 "o may be comp>atively compact & free f wat]1 ! o!r 9 a wet /ate & dis9tegrat$4 ,!y w n p]man5tly repose at ! same angle1 ! slope v>y+ accord+ to ! degree ( dryness1 size1 & uni=mity ( ! p>ticles4 ,9 all e>?s 9 :i* cohesion is liable to be quickly de/roy$1 a /raight slope is ! be/ z hav+ an ev5 surface1 :i* prev5ts ! =mation ( depressions & causes ! wat] to dra9 away1 & also (f]s ! lea/ surface to ! wea!r4 ,9 all e>? su* z %+le1 gravel1 or s&1 consi/+ ( pieces ( rock or rubble1 or hav+ r\nd p>ticles1 x is important to rememb] t any surface di/urbance may cause s]i\s movem5t1 p>ticul>ly %\ld x comm5ce at ! bottom ( a slope1 z !n ! revolv+ action may n cease until a flatt] incl9ation is produc$ by mat]ial roll+ f ! top & n repos+ until x ne>ly rea*es ! base4 ,! quantity ( moi/ure is ! *ief gov]n+ condition ( ! slope ( repose 9 clay soils1 & x %\ld n be =gott5 t ?is may v>y consid]ably4 ,clay :5 only slightly moi/ may /& at a #a to #a or #a to #a slope1 b z x gradually becomes 9 a wet /ate w require a flatt] incl9ation1 & may n be at re/ until ! slope is at lea/ #c to #a1 & x is n safe to rely ^u a /eep] slope ?an #c to #a 9 ! case ( almo/ any surface clay b$s liable to become *>g$ ) wat]1 & ev5 #d to #a1 %\ld ! excavation be on ! side ( a clay hill & ne> h\ses1 or ! gr\nd be load$2 b clay hav+ "s p[]s ( cohesion :i* usually are great] z ! clay is h>d]1 is n s quickly dis9tegrat$ z 9 ! case ( m por\s soil1 & ! =m ( ! slope x assumes is n a /raight l9e2 t mo/ usually approa*$ by s& or gravel or a granul> soil consi/+ ( p>ticles ( ! same "*1 al?\gh ! l[] "p ( ! slope may be flatt5$ consequ5t ^u ! erosion ( ! f9] p>ticles :i* crumble & become deposit$ at ! base4 ,z a rule1 ! great] ! cohesion ( ! soil ! m curv$ is its natural slope1 ! greate/ pressure be+ at ! base :]e ! incl9ation is flatt]1 & is /eep] t[>ds ! top1 z ! gr\nd may be held toge!r by cohesion at a v]tical face4 ,! h>d] & loos] ! p>ticles ! /raight] w be ! slope1 & if ! gr\nd gradually increases 9 firmness x w usually be ne>ly /raight2 b if ! contr>y condition exi/s1 ! natural slope w be flatt] t[>ds ! base al?\gh ne>ly v]tical = a few feet f ! top4 ,z a pro( h[ quickly clay becomes less /able & loses its cohesive p[] ) ! usual quantity ( moi/ure 9 x1 :5 fir/ tipp$ x may assume a slope ( #a to #a ,,to #a to #a1 b ^u exposure to ! wea!r1 :i* causes ! lumps to wa/e away & ! clay to swell f moi/ure & o!r ag5cies1 ! firme/ clay 9 cutt+s & embankm5ts may be said to be un/able until a slope ( at lea/ #a to #a is rea*$ 9 mod]ate dep?s1 & #b to #a ,,to #c to #a 9 high embankm5ts or deep cutt+s4 ,9 all e>?s ! *ief cause ( movem5t ( e>? is wat]1 & ! ma9 que/ions to be decid$ are s f> z reg>ds ! incl9ation ( ! slope4 #a4 ,%\ld ! surfaces ( a cutt+ be dra9$ & protect$ & be excavat$ to a comp>atively /eep slope2 or1 #b4 ,%\ld !y be left undra9$ & uncov]$ & be excavat$ to a flat slope4 ,provid$ a cutt+ c be readily dra9$ & cov]$ & !re is no probability ( any sudd5 or p]man5t increase ( moi/ure1 p]haps ! fir/ me?od is ! m economical2 b mu* dep5ds ^u ! quantity ( wat] held by ! e>? 9 its normal /ate1 :e!r x is ( ! same "* ?r\gh\t1 & ! dep? ( a cutt+4 ,%\ld ! b$s be upheav$ or int]mix$1 !n a flat slope is necess>y & no cov]+ except a wall may make x /able at a /eep slope1 &1 = in/ance1 %\ld clay be always 9 a semi-saturat$ condition1 #c to #a is ! lea/ slope at :i* x w p]man5tly /&1 & x w usually require a m mod]ate incl9ation4 ,a m$ium c\rse to adopt is t ( v>y+ ! incl9ation ( ! slopes1 ! /eepe/1 ( c\rse1 be+ at ! top & ! flatte/ t[>ds ! toe2 ?is is 9 accordance ) ! laws ( pressure & a ma!matical inve/igation ( ! !oretically correct slope1 :i* ne>ly corresponds ) ! actual slope a high embankm5t w assume :5 all[$ to wea!r & settle3 = by v>y+ ! incl9ation ( ! slope ! latt] becomes practically a curv$ l9e & approximates to t ( ! curve ( equilibrium4 ,9 almo/ all slips ! surface f :i* ! fall5 mass has become deta*$ is curv$1 ! upp] "p be+ concave & ! l[] slightly convex1 ! outl9e be+ caus$ f ! upp] portion fall+1 ! l[] receiv+ x & be+ press$ outw>ds2 h[ev]1 x may happ5 t ! l[] "p ( a slope has rema9$ intact1 & only ! upp] slipp$ & become deposit$ ^u x4 ,! v>y+ slope sy/em has rec5tly be5 adopt$ by ,mr4 ,francis ,fox1 ,m4 ,in/4 ,c4,e41 ^u ! ,sc>bor\gh & ,:itby ,railway1 :]e an embankm5t ab\t #ij feet 9 height 9 trea*]\s clay _h slopes ( #a to #a = ! upp] #cj feet 9 height1 #b to #a = ! middle #cj feet1 & #c to #a = ! bottom #cj feet4 ,=mation wid? #bh feet4 ,a calculation ( ! insi/5t weight p] squ>e foot1 )\t a tra91 at /at$ heights gives ! foll[+ results2 tak+ ! weight ( ! e>? at #jjee ( a ton a cubic foot1 or #a ton a cubic y>d1 & assum+ ! wor/ case1 t ( ! e>? = ! wid? ( ! =mation1 viz41 #bh feet1 to act simply z a column #a foot squ>e & ! load z n be+ di/ribut$ ov] ! area ( ! entire base at any po9t4 ,at ! base ( ! upp] #cj feet1 #a to #a slopes1 x w\ld be ab\t #afe ton p] squ>e foot4 ,at ! base ( ! middle #cj feet1 #b to #a slopes1 x w\ld be ab\t #ccj tons p] squ>e foot4 ,at ! base ( ! l[] #cj feet1 #c to #a slopes1 x w\ld be ab\t #die tons p] squ>e foot4 ,if ! weight ( #a foot l9eal ( ! embankm5t is tak5 & consid]$ z equally di/ribut$ ov] ! :ole area ( ! base at ! #cj feet divisions1 ! /ra9 p] squ>e foot w\ld be z foll[s3 ,at ! base ( ! upp] #cj feet1 #a to #a slopes1 ab\t #a ton p] squ>e foot4 ,at ! base ( ! middle #cj feet1 #b to #a slopes1 ab\t #a ton p] squ>e foot4 ,at ! base ( ! l[] #cj feet1 #c to #a slopes1 ab\t #b tons p] squ>e foot4 ,,note4--,! actual /ra9 is probably approximate to a mean betwe5 ! two values1 & is ne>] ! latt] ?an ! =m]4 ,!re is no reason :y ! v>y+ slope sy/em %\ld n be adopt$ 9 embankm5ts ( clay or soil hav+ consid]able p[]s ( cohesion1 z ! exp5se ( trimm+ ! slopes is v little m ?an mak+ !m to a /raight l9e4 ,to trim a slope to an elliptical1 p>abolic1 or cycloidal curve w\ld be a ne$less ref9em5t requir+ a template2 moreov]1 ! surface is bett] :5 x consi/s ( /raight l9es1 provid$ t at ! junction ( any two incl9ations ! po9t ( meet+ is suffici5tly r\nd$ to prev5t a lodgm5t ( wat]4 ,9 cutt+s 9 non-wea!r+ t5aci\s soil ! upp] "p might be left at a /eep slope = #e or #f feet f ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,x is evid5t t ! dep? ( a cutt+ or ! height ( an embankm5t affects ! /ability ( ! slopes1 b "s soils are s weak t an embankm5t ( ev5 little height w n be at re/ until ! toe ( ! slope is support$4 ,if ! slopes 7 n press$ out ! e>? 9 ! c5tral portion ( an embankm5t w\ld /& at any weight less ?an t :i* w\ld cru% x :5 9 its weake/ condition2 !re=e1 z ! load increases d[nw>ds x is a logical d$uction t ! slope %\ld be flatt] z x approa*es ! base4 ,9 slips ! =m g5]ally assum$ 9 soils hav+ consid]able cohesive p[] ne>ly approa*es t ( a p>abolic curve1 :i* %[s t a /raight slope is n ! correct "o 9 t5aci\s soil1 & !ory confirms x4 ,9 ! case ( cutt+s ( consid]able dep?1 ap>t f ! "q ( ! be/ =m ( slope1 9 ord] to less5 ! velocity ( ! surface wat] & ! ext5t ( a slip1 & cause support$ weight ^u ! slopes1 !y c be divid$ by broad t]races or b5*+s1 ab\t #f feet 9 wid?1 & at v]tical di/ances ( #ae to #bj feet1 ^u :i* c be imp]meable cat*wat] dra9s4 ,x is important n to all[ a fl[ 9 a /raight l9e or ne>ly s1 z ! velocity ( ! wat] may erode ! slope4 ,if ! nature ( ! e>? & its resi/ance to erosion w all[1 ! b5*es or /eps %\ld be abrupt1 9 ord] to cause ! greate/ resi/ance & deviation f a direct dis*>ge4 ,! slopes ( ! cat*wat] dra9s may require to be cov]$ 9 a flood di/rict or "o hav+ a heavy ra9 or sn[fall4--,vide ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,9 excavat+ a cutt+ 9 soil likely to slip1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! surfaces are n /ra9$ by lumps be+ left ^u !m :i* are only reta9$ by reason ( ! cohesion ( ! e>?1 z !y w cause weak places less able to be> any pressure br\ght ^u ! slopes ?r\gh ! sides be+ depriv$ ( cont9uity ( support4 ,!re=e1 9 su* cases1 ! slopes %\ld always be r\gh trimm$ z quickly z possible aft] ! gullet has be5 excavat$4 ,also :5 ! slope ( a cutt+ is furr[$ s t its surface consi/s ( sep>ate & unsupport$ masses ( e>? cl++ to x1 cont9uity ( support is de/roy$ & ! e>? is m expos$ to meteorological dissipation2 & 9 non-cohesive soils su* z s&y or gravelly e>?1 9 :i* especially a /raight & uncut surface is ( importance1 movem5t is incit$4 ,!re=e1 :5 x is f\nd necess>y to ins]t op5 tr5*es 9 a slope1 !y %\ld be at "r angles to its foot1 & ! ins]t$ mat]ial %\ld be well pack$ s z to support ! sides & to int]f]e z little z possible ) ! slope4 ,ev5 9 clay soils or any hav+ consid]able cohesion1 tr5*es diagonally or transv]sely cut 9 ! surface are g5]ally inexp$i5t z di/urb+ & de/roy+ ! cont9uity ( support ( ! surface & increas+ its exposure to ! action ( ! wea!r2 & al?\gh !y may be tempor>ily effectual z dra9s1 su* division ( ! incl9$ face _c b induce a disunit$ condition :i* w at once be app>5t %\ld ! tr5* become *ok$ & x misc>ry z a dra92 & a tempor>y failure may s de/roy ! exi/+ delicate equilibrium z to cause movem5t4 ,su* tr5*es %\ld be reg>d$ ) suspicion1 z any /ability caus$ by _! dra9+ or conduct+ away wat] may be effect$ at ! co/ ( cont9uity ( support1 ! det]ioration ( ! resi/ance ( ! soil to wea!r1 & ! impairm5t ( its frictional & cohesive prop]ties4 ,if plac$ ^u a slope at "r angles to ! =mation ! prec$+ objections are remov$4 ,x may become necess>y to excavate or trim a slope to a /eep] incl9ation ?an t :i* w\ld o!rwise be adopt$ & is consid]$ to be its angle ( repose1 9 ord] to wid5 a railway betwe5 ! f5ces1 or enl>ge a /ation4 ,!n1 pre-em95tly ! "q ( ! effects ( a slip dem& att5tion4 ,! great majority ( railway /ations are locat$ prior to ! comm5cem5t (1 or z ! works progress1 b additional accommodation :i*1 = reasons ( economy mu/ proce$ p>i passu ) ! developm5t ( a di/rict1 is usually requir$ "s "t aft] a railway has be5 op5$ = public traffic1 & x may be imp]atively necess>y to conf9e ! works )9 ! b\nd>ies ( ! l& orig9ally pur*as$4 ,consid]ation ( ! sev]al *apt]s 9 ?is book w recall to ! m9d ! *ief po9ts to be reg>d$4 ,=tunately1 /ations are seldom plac$ 9 deep cutt+s or ^u high embankm5ts2 b frequ5tly :5 a /ation is op5$1 h\ses w be erect$ ar\nd x1 ?us caus+ any movem5t ( ! gr\nd to be ( s]i\s mom5t & dang]\s4 ,assum+ ! railway mu/ be wid5$ )9 ! orig9al f5ces1 ! position ( ! toe ( ! slope is fix$1 & also t ( ! top ( ! slope4 ,! que/ions !n 9 ! case ( a cutt+ are pr9cipally3-- #a4 ,w ! slope be too precipit\s = ! e>? to /& at "o incl9ation8 #b4 ,c x be made suffici5tly /eep = #e or #f feet f ! top to obta9 an incl9ation = ! l[] portion at :i* x w h p]man5t /ability8 #c4 ,c ! e>? be made to repose if ! face is ev5ly protect$ "u circum/ances #a & #b8 #d4 ,is x necess>y to erect a reta9+ wall to a di/ance a few feet f ! orig9al surface ( ! gr\nd8 #e4 ,if a wall be necess>y1 :at %\ld be its l[e/ height consi/5t ) ! /ability ( ! unsupport$ incl9$ e>? above x8 ,provid$ !re is no appreciable sup]9cumb5t weight to be borne ne>] ?an #aj feet f ! top ( ! slope1 & t ! f\ndations ( a build+ are at a consid]able dep? 9 ! gr\nd1 & ! surface & back dra9age wat]s prop]ly controll$1 no reta9+ wall may be requir$1 assum+ ! orig9al incl9ation "u ord9>y conditions to be prov$ to be ! p]man5t slope ( /ability2 b %\ld ! di/ance ( ! face ( a build+ f ! toe ( ! slope aft] wid5+ be insuffici5t to all[ ( ! orig9al slope be+ adopt$1 a reta9+ wall w be necess>y1 its height be+ *iefly gov]n$ by ! proximity ( any build+1 & ! necessity ( ne>ly ma9ta9+ ! orig9ally e/abli%$ /eepe/ slope ( repose 9 ! case ( any unsupport$ e>?4 ,! advantage ( a suffici5t cess 9 su* a case is t x makes provision aga9/ det]ioration ( ! surface1 & causes an imag9>y slope ( ! same incl9ation z ! orig9al slope to be conta9$ )9 ! space betwe5 ! face ( ! build+ & t ( ! reta9+ wall at =mation level4 ,9 s&y or loose soil if any build+s or wells ne> ! site %[ signs ( crack+1 ! excavation %\ld at once be /opp$ to see :at prev5tive measures are requisite1 & pump+ wat] out ( a tr5* may be dang]\s4 ,any reta9+ wall 9 su* a position %\ld be erect$ 9 %ort l5g?s1 s t ! e>? & f\ndations are expos$ to ! wea!r z little z practicable4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,notes ,,^u ,,! ,,pres]vation ,,( ,,! ,,foot ,,( ,a ,,slope4--,,v>i\s ,,me?ods ,,( ,,cov]+ ,,& ,,support+ ,a ,,slope4--,,protection ,,f ,,sn[-,,drifts4--,,! ,,=mation ,,wid? ,,( ,,cutt+s ,,& ,,embankm5ts4--,,! ,,delet]i\s ,,effects ,,( ,,vibration4 ,! protection ( ! toe ( a slope is ( importance1 z x is usually ! mo/ vuln]able & ! weake/ "p4 ,:5 ! e>? is ( ! same "*1 ! quantity ( wat] is usually great] at ! l[e/ level ?an above x1 & ! /ability ( ! soil 9 its vic9ity is !re=e less5$4 ,9 clay soils ?is s(t5+ action at ! base may cause a slip & probably c only be prev5t$ by r$uc+ ! p]colation by surface dra9age1 :i* has be5 ref]r$ to 9 ,*apt] ,,iv42 ! matt] "u consid]ation be+ ! c\nt]action ( movem5t 9 ! toe by o!r means ?an dra9+1 al?\gh comb9$ ) x1 su* z by-- #a4 ,an imp]vi\s reta9+ wall ) a p]vi\s back+ ( a%es1 gravel or s&1 & ample weep-holes1 at ! foot ( a slope1 :i*1 by pref]5ce1 %\ld be ( ,portl& cem5t concrete1 a m homog5e\s mat]ial ?an brickwork or masonry1 z x has no jo9ts1 & is p>ticul>ly to be pref]r$ = reta9+ walls 9 clay soils1 z x approa*es 9 a great] degree ! condition ( air-tightness & t ( equal resi/ance4 #b4 ,by a p]vi\s wall or c\nt]=t ( gravel1 burnt balla/1 h>d *alk1 rubble1 /rutt$ timb] framework1 or a cov]+ ( o!r firm mat]ial4 ,9 bo? ! prec$+ cases1 to ensure /ability & to prev5t any protective works be+ pu%$ =w>d1 ! f\ndations mu/ be bel[ ! =mation or gr\nd level4 ,to less5 slid+ action ! f\ndation %\ld incl9e at "r angles to ! face1 & %\ld h a batt] ei!r = ! :ole wid? or = a di/ance n less ?an ab\t "o-?ird to "o-half ( ! bottom ?ickness 9 ! case ( l[ reta9+ walls4 ,a wall hav+ a /eep batt] ^u ea* face1 & !re=e a wide base z comp>$ ) its area1 causes ! c5tre ( gravity to be at a great] di/ance f ! expos$ face1 & !re=e ! resi/ance to ov]turn+ is increas$2 b c>e mu/ be tak5 t x does n slide =w>d4 ,a f\ndation = su* a wall ^u clay or t5aci\s soil is to be pref]r$1 provid$ !re is no upheaval ( ! gr\nd 9 front1 b x %\ld n be ^u a ?9 /ratum1 or ! latt] may slide ^u ano!r4 ,9 t[ns1 or :]e l& is ( consid]able value1 ! two sides ( a cutt+ c be made to support ea* o!r1 & "o ( ! foll[+ pr9cipal me?ods may be adopt$4 #a4 ,an inv]t "u ! l9e4 #b4 ,a heavy flat plat=m1 ar*$ on plan or solid ?r\gh\t1 "u ! p]man5t way or =mation1 to prev5t a =w>d movem5t ( ! toe4 #c4 ,ov]head ar*es & iron /ruts at int]vals to resi/ & r$uce ! pressure ^u a wall4 ,9 su* a situation1 %\ld a tunnel or cov]$ way be n requir$1 any subsid5ce ( ! e>? may cause ! de/ruction ( valuable prop]ty1 & ! erection ( a reta9+ wall be imp]atively necess>y f a due consid]ation ( prud5tial con/ruction1 & altoge!r reg>dless ( ! "* or condition ( ! e>? or its liability to become wat]-*>g$4 ,9 ord] to prev5t movem5t ( ! e>? diff]5t =ms ( support may be requir$4 ,9 "s cases1 ow+ to excessive pressure1 a c\nt]=t$ wall ) an inv]t "u ! p]man5t way may be ess5tial1 or ! inv]t may be flat & be ar*$ on plan1 ?us support+ ! toe ( a reta9+ wall betwe5 ! int]vals1 9 comb9ation ) a v]tical or incl9$ pila/] & a front c\nt]=t sy/em1 & 9 addition flat ov]head /ruts ( iron or o!r mat]ial betwe5 ! walls act+ z an auxili>y support above ! requir$ traffic space may h to be adopt$ :]e ! walls h to su/a9 consid]able ?ru/1 ! ?ickness ( ! reta9+ wall be+ ?us r$uc$2 or a simple reta9+ wall may be suffici5t4 ,a non-jo9t$ mat]ial z ,portl& cem5t concrete ( equal "* is to be pref]r$ to a mass consi/+ ( h>d mat]ials yet incapable ( possess+ a jo9t equal to _! /r5g? or durability4 ,) reg>d to ! protection ( ! toe or l[] portion1 ( a slope by means ( a reta9+ wall1 x may be ! only effectual support 9 "o case1 & n succe$ 9 an expos$ c\ntry )\t a complete sy/em ( op5 or clos$ dra9s1 & !n its adoption may be sup]flu\s4 ,9 ! foll[+ few p>agraphs an endeav\r is made to indicate "s situations 9 :i* reta9+ walls h or h n be5 completely successful :5 erect$ = su* purpose4 ,fir/1 x is mo/ important t ample provision be made = dra9+ ! back ( ! walls1 = if ! egression ( ! surface wat]s be ob/ruct$1 !y mu/ accumulate & cause hydro/atic pressure1 s(t5 ! l[] portion ( ! e>?1 !reby fail+ to p>tly effect "o ( ! objects ( _! erection1 & cease to protect ! surface2 ! probable result be+ t ! wall is pu%$ =w>d1 brok5 up1 or ov]turn$4 ,! dra9age mu/ be regulat$ by ! quantity & velocity ( ! fl[1 & ample weep-holes %\ld be provid$ to prev5t an accumulation ( wat] at ! back4 ,9 damp soil !re %\ld be "o to ab\t e ?ree or f\r sup]ficial y>ds1 & an outlet at ea* wet place1 or a wall may n /&4 ,! wall %\ld be back$ ) a filt]+ m$ium su* z co>se gravel1 h>d a%es1 balla/1 & no ret5tive e>? %\ld be us$4 ,9 clay e>?s a reta9+ wall %\ld always h a dry por\s back+1 z x n only r$uces any pressure due to a head ( wat]1 b also all[s ( ! e>? swell+ )\t affect+ ! /ability ( ! wall1 z x probably w\ld if ! clay re/$ aga9/ ! back ( ! wall4 ,reta9+ or brea/ walls are p>ticul>ly useful 9 loose soil hav+ no cohesion1 i4e41 ^? ( a s&y "* or consi/+ ( v small gra9s1 & :i* ^u saturation by wat] or by ! action ( its fl[ become 9 an un/able /ate or "o ( actual movem5t2 9 su*1 a case n only is x requisite to protect ! surface ( a slope1 b support at ! toe is indisp5sable4 ,9 cohesive soil1 su* z clay or clay m>ls1 surface protection1 comb9$ ) sy/ematic & ?or\gh dra9age1 may be all t is requir$ to make a slope /able1 & ! erection ( an imp]vi\s or solid high wall be unnecess>y1 always provid$ ! e>? _c slide f be+ sup]impos$ ^u an incl9$ /ratum4 ,9 fact1 reta9+ walls 9 ret5tive soil h be5 f\nd to induce a slip1 because !y nei!r dra9 ! e>? nor prev5t ! additional impregnation ( wat]1 & !y h consequ5tly be5 de/roy$4 ,9 c\ntries :]e floods or v heavy & sudd5 ra9fall1 fro/ & sn[ quickly succe$1 masonry or dry /one reta9+ walls at ! foot ( a slope soon become impair$1 & require con/ant sup]vision & c>eful ma9t5ance1 & _c be consid]$ z economically or g5]ally effectual2 & %\ld ! e>? settle1 z !y are comp>atively solid !y w n foll[ any subsid5ce ( ! surface2 !re=e cracks occur & wat] accumulates 9 ! holl[s1 ! slope has no long] uni=m support1 a localization ( ! egression ( wat] is caus$1 ow+ to ! fissures 9 ! wall induc+ a fl[1 & ! wall becomes a cause ( a slip in/ead ( a protection aga9/ movem5t4 ,%\ld su* a wall bulge aft] x has be5 re/or$ to ! condition ( be+ a cont9u\s support1 its =w>d movem5t may be arre/$ by ! erection ( c\nt]=ts ) an incl9$ face 9 front f #aj to #cj feet ap>t accord+ z weak places exi/1 hav+ jo9ts at "r angles to ! batt]2 & ?is is1 p]haps1 ! *eape/ & quicke/ rem$y1 b ! slope mu/ be c>efully dra9$ & ! numb] ( weep-holes be increas$4 ,9 ord] n to ob/ruct1 b induce ! ?r\gh dra9age ( wat]1 reta9+ walls to prev5t slips h be5 erect$1 consi/+ ( ar*es turn$ ^u pi]s1 ! int]v5+ space be+ dry wall+ :i* all[s a free fl[ ( wat]1 ! idea be+ to af=d ! necess>y support )\t int]f]+ ) ! dra9age4 ,9 "s cases1 z x t5ds to cond5se ! soil1 weight+ ! toe ( ! slope may prev5t movem5t1 & on ! side ( a hill weight & mass1 ap>t f slope protection or dra9age1 mu/ be provid$ to arre/ a slip or prev5t fur!r movem5t1 ei!r by means ( a cont9u\s wall1 or by ! addition ( frequ5t c\nt]=ts1 #e or #f feet 9 wid?1 to an exi/+ wall1 if space p]mits1 ! back & front hav+ a consid]able batt]3 ! c5tre ( gravity ( su* a mass be+ l[ & ! base l>ge1 ov]turn+ is improbable4 ,=w>d movem5t c be also gu>d$ aga9/ by deep f\ndations1 & z ! e>? w re/ on ! inside !y c h a flatly incl9$ base slop+ t[>ds ! cutt+1 z x w t5d to prev5t ov]turn+1 ! dep? ( ! f\ndations at ! face be+ two or ?ree times t at ! back4 ,su* a /ructure c h>dly be call$ a wall1 be+ really an ext5sive & massive concrete toe4 ,p]haps g5]ally ! mo/ economical & secure way ( prev5t+ movem5t is to erect a l[ ,portl& cem5t concrete wall at ! toe ( a slope ) a consid]able batt]2 or to cut a tr5* at =mation level outside ! l9e ( ! slope1 & to %ore x by means ( old sleep]s /rutt$ at int]vals :5 bett] & durable mat]ial _c be readily obta9$4 ,! *ief object ( a protection at ! toe 9 clay soils is to prev5t ! bottom ( a slope be+ s(t5$ by a lodgm5t ( wat]1 or fissur$ by heat or dr\ght2 ?is may be effect$ )\t a wall2 b 9 ! case ( s& or f9e granul> e>? cutt+s liable to become quicks&1 support at ! base is absolutely necess>y1 & ! be/ way to prev5t movem5t may be to erect a brea/ reta9+ wall at ! toe a few feet 9 height1 say #c to #e feet1 ! back+ be+ ( dry por\s mat]ial su* z a%es1 co>se gravel1 or brok5 /one1 increas+ accord+ to ! dep? or height ( ! e>?work & quantity ( wat]1 ! ?ickness be+ m ?an suffici5t to conta9 ! dra9age wat]s1 & n less ?an #a foot #f in*es1 9 ord] t x may act z a filt] & dra9 ! slope1 c41 s z to less5 ! p]colation ( wat]4 ,%eet-pil+ & a back+ ( rubble act+ z a dra9 #b or #c feet squ>e1 or a /rutt$ timb] duct1 bo? made out ( old sleep]s1 h be5 us$ ) ?is object 9 quicks& :]e wat] rapidly p]colat$ to & accumulat$ at ! base4 ,in/ability ( ! toe may also be prev5t$ by cov]+ x ) lay]s ( gravel1 b "o ( ! reasons t may cause a gravel c\nt]=t to fail 9 loose por\s soil is t s& or m\ld may be wa%$ ?r\gh ! int]/ices 9 ! /ones =m+ ! gravel2 h5ce a m imp]meable cov]+ is to be recomm5d$ 9 su* a case4 ,a toe ( ramm$ co>se gravel or brok5 /one may supply ! requir$ support 9 ! case ( co>se & f9e s&1 :5 ! latt] is alone movable4 ,exp]im5ts h %[n t s& ramm$ 9 lay]s ( ab\t #e in*es & e>? m\ld #b in*es 9 ?ickness give ! be/ results4 ,! less ! weight is increas$ by ramm+ ! m solid ! orig9al e>?4 ,bru%wood or fasc9e "w weight$ ) gravel1 /one or brok5 bricks1 & /one pit*+ c also be us$ = s&y soils1 b a filt]+ lay] mu/ cov] ! s&1 or ! latt] w be erod$4 ,c\nt]=ts ( well-ramm$ natural e>? may be suffici5t provid$ ! soil is firm & is made compact & uni=m 9 texture4 ,9 o!rwise /able soil1 :5 x is kn[n t a s& ve9 is ! cause ( a slip because ( wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh x1 x %\ld be rak$ out z deeply z practicable if n too l>ge1 & ! space be fill$ ) /ones1 co>se gravel1 or dry mat]ial =m+ an op5 dra9 = ! wat] to issue )\t a fl[ ( s&1 !reby prev5t+ any accumulation4 ,:5 a /ratum ( %ift+ s& ov]lies b$s ( conglom]ate & gravelly or clayey s& x w be necess>y to support ! l[] portion ( its slope by a wall4 ,! wette/ places 9 a slope %\ld be not$ & ! surface be turf$ or cov]$1 & %\ld ! dep? ( ! un/able s& exce$ #e or #f feet1 n>r[ b5*+s c be made #b or #c feet 9 wid? at e #e or #f feet ( v]tical height to divide ! fl[ ( wat] & prev5t x foll[+ a cont9u\s c\rse4 ,x also sometimes happ5s t two trea*]\s e>?s h a /ratum ( /able soil betwe5 !m su* z rock2 9 t ev5t x is advisable to leave a cess betwe5 ! bottom ( ! slope ( ! upp] /ratum ( un/able soil & ! und]ly+ rock1 s z to all[ ( weight+ or o!r works to resi/ movem5t ( ! toe4 ,) respect to ! adoption ( op5 surface rubble dra9s ^u ! slopes1 9 ,*apt] ,,iv41 page #gh1 special ref]5ce is made to !m z dra9s1 & 9 ,*apt] ,,vi41 pages #aaa1 #aab1 an objection is exam9$2 b !y are g5]ally effective if cut at "r angles to ! =mation & n diagonally or transv]sely4 ,:5 a slip is repair$ by replac+ ! slipp$ e>? :5 dri$ & ramm$ betwe5 su* dra9s1 x %\ld be det]m9$ :e!r x w\ld be bett] to cov] ! slope or increase ! numb] ( dra9age *annels4 ,a simpl] rem$y is ! ins]tion ( a dry rubble l9+ on ! surface ( ! orig9al gr\nd ^u :i* a slip has occurr$1 & ! re/oration ( ! slope by means ( firm e>? or ramm$ & dri$ slipp$ soil2 b ! sy/em ( ramm$ e>? c\nt]=ts1 al?\gh x has succe$$ :5 effect$ dur+ ! dry season1 ! e>? be+ wett$ suffici5tly to make x cohesive by ramm+1 w n succe$ 9 wet or w9t] wea!r1 z ! soil _c !n be consolidat$ by ramm+ op]ations1 = x w be ov]*>g$ ) wat] f ! effects ( ra91 fro/1 or sn[4 ,fair or summ] wea!r is requir$ to ensure success4 ,%\ld x be consid]$ advisable1 9 addition to ! erection ( ramm$ e>? c\nt]=ts to a height ( f "o-?ird to "o-half ( t ( an embankm5t1 a por\s lay] or wall ( brok5 /one c be ins]t$ betwe5 ! slipp$ mat]ial1 :i* is n t\*$1 s t ! wat]s c filt] away ?r\gh x & ! slope be re/or$2 & ! c\nt]=t h a *annel at its base1 9 ord] to prev5t a lodgm5t ( wat]1 to dra9 ! slipp$ e>? & ! embankm5t1 & to prev5t ! c\nt]=t becom+ saturat$4 ,?is me?od may be insuffici5t 9 any b comp>atively firm soil1 & x may be necess>y to make a tr5* at ! toe ( ! slope hav+ its base #b or #c feet bel[ ! seat ( ! slip or firm gr\nd1 x be+ fill$ ) rock *ipp+s1 %+le1 gravel1 burnt balla/1 brok5 bricks1 a%es1 co>se clean s&1 or o!r mat]ial hav+ equable frictional /ability & p>ticles t may = e>?work purposes be consid]$ z insoluble 9 wat]1 & !re=e t =m /able masses & yet act z dra9s2 & to dra9 ! slopes by tr5*es v>y+ 9 wid? accord+ to ! position & dep? ( cutt+1 ! dep? ( a tr5* may be little or h to be su* t x ext5ds to ! solid gr\nd ?r\gh ! slip1 or ab\t #ej to #ge p] c5t4 ( its dep?1 :i* mu/ be det]m9$ 9 ea* case1 may be suffici5t4 ,su* dry /one c\nt]=ts may be requir$ at di/ances f c5tre to c5tre ( #ae to #ff feet1 & are sometimes plac$ 9 ! same "r l9e & ev5 ?r\gh an embankm5t1 & are connect$ ) a dra9 suffici5tly deep to prev5t any lodgm5t ( wat] at ! c5tre ( ! base ( ! embankm5t or ne> ! foot ( a slope4 ,) reg>d to cov]+ a slope ( a cutt+ or embankm5t1 its pr9cipal use is to less5 det]ioration f meteorological action1 to keep ! gr\nd und]nea? 9 an equable condition1 to r$uce p]colation & make x uni=m1 to dim9i% ! dang] aris+ f cracks & fissures caus$ by heat1 evaporation1 or dr\ght1 to prev5t ! erosion ( ! surface by a fl[ ( wat] or ! production ( unctu\s surfaces1 & yet n int]f]e ) effectual dra9age4 ,x is kn[n t p]colation is decreas$ by vegetation1 & t x is less ?r\gh turf ?an b>e gr\nd1 b v>ies greatly accord+ to ! k9d ( cov]+1 ! season ( ! ye>1 ! regul> or irregul> di/ribution ( ! ra9fall1 & o!r causes4 ,if ! surface has to be cov]$ ) vegetation x %\ld be close1 uni=m1 & vigor\s ?r\gh\t ! :ole ye>1 & no?+ fulfils ^! conditions z well z grass or turf4 ,! protect+ value ( turf+ e>?work may be judg$ f an inspection ( =tifications 9 :i* /eep slopes1 deep dit*es1 & p]fect ma9t5ance are a necessity4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ! b9d+ & %ield+ ( ! e>? by ! roots ( grasses & plants1 & _! protection ( ! surface1 ! slopes /& at a /eep] incl9ation ?an !y o!rwise w\ld1 & ! sy/em ( cl9*+ ! expos$ faces ( ! p>apets ( e>?work ) a lay] ( sods laid head] & /ret*] is f\nd to be a great support4 ,9 e>? possess+ consid]able cohesion1 su* z ! clays1 provid$ ! cov]+ is uni=m1 grass hav+ comp>atively deep roots is n a p>ticul> advantage1 b ! clos5ess ( ! gr[? ( ! plant & ! unimpair$ ma9t5ance ( a complete cov] is ( importance1 & ! e>? %\ld be di/urb$ z little z possible s z to prev5t any p>ticles compris+ ! soil becom+ dis9tegrat$ & dissolv$4 ,:5 x is consid]$ advisable to adopt a cov]+ ( grass1 plants1 %rubs1 or trees1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t "s grasses1 su* z ! c\*-grass1 are injuri\s to o!r plants4 ,to equally cov] a slope ) sods ( turf !y %\ld be cut to a regul> =m & dep? ( ab\t #f in*es1 & be firmly press$ into _! places s z to produce an ev5 smoo? surface4 ,a /eep slope or any less ?an #a to #a1 if ( consid]able dep?1 w n give a suffici5tly flat surface = grass to prop]ly gr[ ^u x4 ,9 s&y & gravelly gr\nd1 z ! p>ticles may be consid]$ insoluble 9 wat] & z possess+ no cohesion1 grass1 if x w gr[1 hav+ deep roots is to be pref]r$1 ev5 if pass+ ?r\gh any e>? t has be5 plac$ ^u a slope1 9 ord] to c\nt]act ! want ( cohesion by a great] hold 9 ! soil & any peel+ ( ! turf or tufts =m+ or becom+ deta*$1 roll+ d[n & leav+ an unb>$ surface4 ,b5t-grass w usually gr[ on mo/ s&y soils1 & a %rub kn[n on ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( ,engl& z ! sea buck?orn also rapidly vegetates1 b m>9e grasses mu/ be us$ 9 gr\nd impregnat$ ) bracki% or sea wat]4 ,to prev5t light s& f be+ scatt]$ by ! w9d or wa%$ away a species ( ru% 7,bot4 ,ammophila arund9acea7 has be5 us$ 9 ,holl& & ,engl&1 & is f\nd to fl\ri% 9 dry soils1 & z x has spread+ roots :i* (t5 gr[ to a l5g? ( #bj feet or m x b9ds ! gra9s ( s&4 ,exp]i5ce 9 ,holl& has %[n t grass ^u sea embankm5ts does n gr[ well or fl\ri% at a /eep] slope ?an ab\t #f to #a4 ,9 c\ntries :]e w9d /orms occur1 or ! soil is ( s light a "* t ! passage ( a tra9 at consid]able spe$ raises ! e>? & moves x z du/1 a cov]+ ( f9e grass indig5\s to ! c\ntry has be5 f\nd to be a protection & necess>y to economical ma9t5ance4 ,plant+ ! :ite basket will[1 or )y1 has be5 recomm5d$ z a means ( prev5t+ slips 9 loose soil1 z ! roots =m a network & b9d ! e>? & cov] ! surface ) %rub gr[?4 ,9 damp gr\nd ! cutt+s ne$ n be plant$ z deeply z 9 dry e>?1 b ( c\rse !y w n fl\ri% 9 all soils4 ,osi]s h also be5 adopt$ ) good results 9 damp places4 ,embankm5ts ( bl[n or drift s&1 easily mov$ by ! w9d1 h also be5 protect$ & ma9ta9$ by bran*es ( trees laid horizontally4 ,!y 7 plac$ 9 regul> c\rses alt]nately ) a /ratum ( s&1 ! ends project+ ov] & d[n ! slopes1 :i* 7 s[n ) indig5\s plants t x is kn[n w fl\ri% ^u x4 ,great difficulty _h be5 exp]i5c$ 9 ma9ta9+ ! embankm5t until its surface 0 s %ield$4 ,s&y dunes h also be5 prev5t$ f slipp+ & be+ erod$ & de/roy$ by ! sea & w9d by r$uc+ !m to ! same l9e1 level1 & slope1 by fill+ all op5+s or depressions1 or1 if curv$1 by trimm+ !m to a regul> ext]ior & ! l>ge/ radius1 & by a cov]+ ( fasc9e "w 9 ! expos$ places1 & 9 any less expos$ situation by plant+ !m ) grasses t w gr[ ^u su* soil1 ! object be+ to remove all local ob/ruction to w9d or wave =ce & cause equable resi/ance & protection4 ,9 ,france1 ! drift+ ( bl[n sea-s& into cutt+s1 :i* n only may int]f]e ) ! free traffic b also be a de/ructive ag5t to ! roll+ /ock1 has be5 prev5t$ by plant+ p9e trees ^u ! cess4 ,9 embankm5ts 9 loose soil & across valleys1 especially if !y are n>r[ & deep1 repeat$ gu/s ( w9d :i* h _! maximum effect ^u a flat surface at "r angles to x1 w produce a hamm]+ action ^u ! w9dw>d side1 & :5 ! velocity is v great1 ^u ! leew>d portion !re may ev5 be a p>tial vacuum creat$ by ! w9d ru%+ ov] ! top ( an embankm5t4 ,an actual maximum mom5t>y pressure ( w9d ( #hj lbs4 p] squ>e foot 0 regi/]$ at ! ,liv]pool ,obs]vatory 9 #ahfi1 equal to a hamm]+ action ( #jee lb4 p] squ>e in*4 ,x is "h ref]r$ to 9 ord] to %[ t 9 expos$ valleys ! surface ( all embankm5ts ( light soil %\ld be cov]$ s t ! p>ticles _c be bl[n away at ! top or f ! slopes1 = a =ce ( #hj lbs4 p] squ>e foot ne>ly equals ! weight ( a cubic foot ( dry op5 s& :i* _c be tak5 z weigh+ mu* m ?an #ij to #ajj lbs4 ,if se$ be s[n ^u a slope x is evid5t t x %\ld be ( uni=m k9d 9 ord] to create a g5]al equable condition1 & ! gr[? ( all rank vegetation %\ld be prev5t$1 = an unev5ly protect$ or cov]$ surface w promote a localization ( di/urb+ ag5cies1 & especially 9 trea*]\s gr\nd :5 x has be5 cov]$1 nei!r ! surface nor ! turf %\ld be all[$ to be brok54 ,9 ord9>y cases :]e slips may be expect$1 soil+ ) m\ld or top dress+1 & s[+ ! slopes may be suffici5t1 & turf+ 9 o!rs ( small ext5t2 b 9 ret5tive soluble soil1 a filt]+ lay] "u ! turf may be requir$1 s z to prev5t spread+1 p>ticul>ly ne> ! toe ( a slope2 h[ev]1 9 m\nta9\s or hilly di/ricts1 exp]i5ce seems to indicate t x is advisable to all[ e>?work to become consolidat$ by ! natural effect ( ra9 & atmosph]e be=e f9ally trimm+ or cov]+ ! slopes3 on ! contr>y x may be advisable1 especially 9 trea*]\s gr\nd1 to trim & cov] ) m\ld1 s[1 turf1 plant1 or cov] ! slopes z soon z possible aft] !y are excavat$ or deposit$1 9 ord] to protect soluble soil f ra91 fro/1 or sn[/orms consequ5t ^u ! wet season be+ ne>4 ,( c\rse1 :5 exp]i5ce %[s t slips are improbable1 ! slopes c rema9 b>e & simply be trimm$1 & a cov]+ ( grass be left to "t to effect1 & ?is is n[ ! frequ5t practice4 ,%\ld settlem5t be expect$ or be unavoidable1 ! face protection c be s made t x w n be di/urb$ or brok54 ,9 su* a case a %ort1 /raight slope ) a flat incl9$ b]m or cess1 ! l5g? ( ! slope be+ divid$ into ?ree or f\r %ort cont9u\s /raight portions1 has be5 adopt$ ) success4 ,%\ld s[+ or plant+ ! slopes be consid]$ z too sl[ 9 produc+ a cov]+1 exp]im5ts c be made by mix+ available soils1 or ) "o e>?2 & by expos+ ! mixture or e>? to ! det]iorat+ wea!r influ5ces x w h to resi/1 ! be/ protective cov]+ to be readily obta9$ c be discov]$4 ,respect+ ! plant+ ( sapl+s or %rubs1 laws h be5 enact$ to compel ! plant+ ( sapl+s & trees ^u c]ta9 l&s z a protection aga9/ l&slips1 & x seems to be g5]ally ackn[l$g$ t trees1 p>ticul>ly :5 9 plantations1 are a protection1 z !y n only absorb moi/ure & b9d ! e>? ) _! roots1 b also less5 any fl[ ( wat] d[n ! /eep sides ( a cutt+ or embankm5t2 & in/ances h be5 record$ 9 :i* trees h be5 %[n to pres]ve ! alluvial banks ( riv]s1 z :5 !y 7 fell$ ! sides 7 erod$1 or weak5$1 probably by ! increase ( moi/ure & exposure1 ) ! result t ! *annel became wid5$4 ,! sy/ematic plant+ ( live slips ( popl> or will[ has be5 f\nd to effectually protect s(t banks ( riv]s1 wa%$ by ! /ream1 aga9/ wea!r+ & erosion4 ,also 9 trea*]\s clay m>ly-soils1 9 :i* slips ( e>? 7 num]\s1 acacia trees h af=d$ a good protection1 z _! widely spread+ roots conduc$ to hold ! soil toge!r1 & _! foliage & bran*es g5tly regulat$ & less5$ ! effects ( ra9 & prev5t$ quick infiltration into ! e>?4 ,h[ev]1 c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! roots d n op5 or /ra9 ! surface ( ! gr\nd by =ce ( ! w9d or o!rwise1 & increase & localize p]colation2 b !y t5d to prev5t crack+ & fissur+ ( ! surface 9 clay & argillace\s e>?1 & =m a protection aga9/ ! effects ( ! sun's rays & dr\ght4 ,quick-gr[+ trees %\ld be select$ hav+ l>ge & deep roots & abundant foliage1 especially 9 non-cohesive e>?s4 ,acacia & bir* trees appe> to give satisfactory results4 ,unless 9 exceptional situations1 su* z to protect a cutt+ f drifts ( sn[1 or :]e f local exp]i5ce !y are prov$ to act ^u ! e>? z a holdfa/1 x is que/ionable :e!r ! indiscrim9ate & non-sy/ematic plant+ ( sapl+s or bu%es is n m likely to aid disruption ?an promote /ability1 &1 z a rule1 o!r & less exp5sive means ( protect+ a slope are to be pref]r$ unless a uni=m cov]+ by trees or %rubs is practicable1 :e!r ov] a small or l>ge un/able area4 ,isolat$ trees %\ld n be all[$ )9 ! f5ces ( a cutt+1 al?\gh if j outside ! toe ( ! slope ( an embankm5t ! roots may s]ve z a buttress1 & !re=e be b5eficial4 ,al?\gh 9 "s dyke embankm5ts 9 ,nor? ,europe no trees or plants are all[$ to gr[ ^u !m1 s t any det]ioration ( ! mass maybe cle>ly & quickly app>5t2 9 ,holl& ! def5sive cov]+ v>ies accord+ to ! "* ( ! e>?1 fasc9es1 wattl+1 sodd+1 a gravel coat+1 b5*+ at ! top ( a slope & plant+ x ) re$s to protect an embankm5t f erosion & wa% caus$ by traffic2 pit*+1 plank fac+1 & %eet plank+ at ! toe1 :5 ! gr\nd is v s(t1 h all be5 us$ ) success4 ,on silty l& will[s g5]ally gr[ rapidly1 & :5 plant$ a little di/ance f ! toe ( ! l& slope 9 enclosure embankm5ts !y are f\nd to protect ! gr\nd4 ,9 "s situations x may be necess>y to protect an embankm5t aga9/ bor+ by burr[+ animals or cru/acea4 ,clay & clay loams are soils especially liable to be burr[$4 ,usually z ! quantity ( s& increases1 ! bor+ decreases2 a coat+ ( h>d a%es may af=d ! requir$ protection3 h[ev]1 9 ! case ( cru/acea1 local exp]i5ce alone c indicate ! be/ protection1 probably no?+ less ?an /one pit*+ may suffice1 b z a g5]al rule 9 ?is c\ntry1 no precautions are necess>y2 9 w>m] regions x may be o!rwise4 ,) ref]5ce to fissures 9 a slope :i* t5d to produce slips z !y all[ wat] to trickle d[n !m1 :i* mu/ ei!r be absorb$ by ! e>? or f9d an outlet2 a slipp]y surface is ?us creat$ & ! t5acity & cont9uity ( ! soil impair$ or de/roy$2 sep>ation also takes place 9 non-homog5e\s e>?s su* z b\ld] clay & 9 embankm5ts =m$ ( rock & e>? tipp$ toge!r4 ,x is practically impossible to fill or pun e fissure t may appe> 9 a cutt+ or an embankm5t1 b z !re are g5]ally places :]e slips are m probable ?an o!rs1 x may be advantage\s 9 trea*]\s soils to adopt a regul> sy/em ( fill+ ! fissures1 especially be=e ! wet season comm5ces4 ,cov]+s c also be made ( a ?9 coat+ ( burnt balla/1 h>d *alk1 or gravel1 :i* w r$uce ! numb] ( cracks or crevices1 or a mattress ( fasc9e "w c be us$ at ! toe ( ! slope 9 subm]g$ "w1 b c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! mattresses ov]lap & t !re are no op5 places betwe5 !m1 or1 in/ead ( be+ a protection !y w !n be a s\rce ( dang] by conduct+ wat] betwe5 ! jo9ts2 = ?is reason1 z ) any o!r mat]ial hav+ loose op5+s1 x is advisable to use !m ov] a cont9u\s surface s t p]colation may be uni=m & n simply = weak places or = ! purpose ( repair+ a slip 9 an e>? embankm5t4 ,! *ief aim 9 fasc9e "w is to ?or\ghly b9d ! "w toge!r s t x is ( equal /r5g? 9 all directions1 & a little "t aft] con/ruction %\ld be all[$ be=e deposition 9 ord] t ! mat]ial may settle1 z an ev5 surface is important4 ,! mo/ durable mat]ial %\ld be us$ 9 mak+ a fasc9e cov]+1 will[ be+ ! be/1 or x may require con/ant r5ew+4 ,ald]1 asp51 & ! be/ available bru%wood are also employ$1 & /raw & ord9>y matt+ = %all[ embankm5ts1 say up to #h feet 9 height1 :i* la/s only six to twelve mon?s4 ,! be/ "t = cutt+ %\ld be locally asc]ta9$1 & :5 !y comm5ce to det]iorate aft] be+ hewn1 g5]ally f ?ree mon?s to a ye>1 dep5d+ ^u ! season 9 :i* !y are cut1 c41 c4 ,9 ,engl&1 ?orn swit*es h be5 us$ 9 l5g?s ( #e to #f feet1 ti$ up ) t>r$ rope 9 bundles hav+ a diamet] ( ab\t #a foot1 e endeav\r be+ made to b9d & int]weave !m4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! mattresses are well load$ or !y w float2 ! load+ %\ld comm5ce at ! c5tre1 & be equally cont9u$ 9 all directions1 z t has be5 f\nd to be ! be/ me?od2 !y %\ld be made to s9k ev5ly if !y h to be l[]$ ?r\gh wat]1 & !y mu/ be prev5t$ f curl+ up at ! edges4 ,! props :i* fix !m mu/ n be too close to ! bord]1 or ne> ! c5tre1 z !n ! extremities w be torn away or b5t upw>ds4 ,! sy/em ( fasc9e "w may be v useful = protect+ s&y & s(t f\ndations 9 su* situations1 to prev5t slips 9 ! slopes ( an embankm5t & 9 provid+ a firm b$1 & also = mak+ tra9+ banks1 groynes1 & spurs1 = correct+ & direct+ a curr5t 9 a desir$ *annel1 & to secure fre$om f slips 9 a riv]-bank4 ,dep5d+ ^u ! degree ( loos5ess ( ! s& or s&y b$1 load$ fasc9e mattresses w assume a slope ( f #a to #a ,,to #e to #a if all[$ to s9k 9 ! b$1 & aft] !y h settl$ & rea*$ ! angle ( repose :i* ! action ( wat] w effect2 ! l>ge numb] ( /ructures /&+ ^u !m = _m ye>s 9 consid]able dep?s ( wat] proves1 :5 !y are prop]ly made1 t !y are to be tru/$ 9 comp>atively unexpos$ situations4 ,a cov]+ ( /one pit*+ may be necess>y1 b 9 unsubm]g$ "w x has "s disadvantages =1 hav+ jo9ts1 x all[s unequal p5etration ( wat] ?r\gh !m & imp$es ! equal dis*>ge ( wat] f ! e>?1 al?\gh its weight is a recomm5dation z x opposes & may balance a pressure ( wat] beh9d ! slope4 ,h[ev]1 unless x is b$d$ ^u a lay] ( soil ( equal p]meability1 su* z gravel laid ^u a ne>ly imp]meable b$ ( clay1 :i* %\ld always be mix$ ) s& to prev5t x fissur+ & bur/+ by heat or wat]1 s z to convey ! wat] t has p]colat$ & also t :i* exudes ?r\gh ! slope2 x may cause a localization ( ! fl[1 &1 except 9 peculi> cases & provid$ ! slopes are cov]$1 !re is no occasion = pit*+ if m]ely us$ to prev5t slips & n erosion1 z obvi\sly weight & a secure protection may be obta9$ by o!r means & at less exp5se4 ,= ! protection ( ! slopes ( riv]s or canals or subm]g$ "w ! case is diff]5t1 z !n pit*+ prev5ts erosion & may be ! only secure pres]vative 9 expos$ situations1 al?\gh g5]ally ! mo/ exp5sive4 ,! pit*+ %\ld re/ ^u a b$ ( p]meable mat]ial1 & ?is lay] %\ld h a p[] ( suction & di/ribution m ?an equal to ! quantity ( wat] t may p5etrate ! jo9ts ( ! pit*+2 !re %\ld be a b$ ( imp]meable mat]ial next to ! soil1 & 9 exceptional cases ev5 two to c>ry (f any wat] t has p]colat$1 s z to obviate any lodgm5t ( wat]1 due provision be+ made = ! l& dra9age dis*>ge4 ,sir ,james ,brunlees1 ,pa/-,presid5t ,in/4 ,c4,e41 f\nd by exp]im5t t at a slope ( #b to #a pit*+ has ! greate/ resi/ance to extraction1 i4e41 x requires a great] ef=t to extract a brick at t slope4 ,tak+ ! slope ( #b to #a z unity1 ! relative resi/ances 7 f\nd to be z foll[s3-- #a to #a slope #jga #b to #a slope #ajj #c to #a slope #jig #d to #a slope #jff ,! resi/ances at #b to #a & #c to #a are practically ! same4 ,%\ld x be det]m9$ to pit* ! l[] "p only ( a slope1 9 ord] to prev5t slips1 ! pit*+ mu/ cont9ue to su* a height t a fl[ ( wat] d[n ! slope is impossible1 or x may become deta*$4 ,if ! pit*+ is n r\gh squ>$ on ! jo9ts1 b ( v>i\s =ms1 x is pref]able t ! face hav+ ! l>ge/ area be laid d[nw>ds1 small] /ones be+ c>efully w$g$ 9 betwe5 ! int]/ices4 ,any defective execution is usually foll[$ by a fall+ ( ! /ones1 & %\ld ?is happ5 ! surface w be brok5 & erosion & slips w ensue4 ,9 lay+ ! /ones !y %\ld be s plac$ t if a few become remov$ ^? above or ^u ! sides w n be di/urb$1 & 9 loose soil no pit*+ %\ld be laid until an embankm5t has _h "t to settle & consolidate1 :i* ! necessities ( rapid execution may prev5t1 = h[ev] ev5 ! pit*+ may be :5 fir/ laid1 x w settle & become m or less unev5 9 su* soil z s& or e/u>y slake1 & e ef=t %\ld be made to leave no hole or expos$ surface1 b to cause a cont9u\s close cov]+4 ,fasc9e mattresses may h to be us$ 9 su* a situation1 z !y w foll[ ! cont\r ( ! slope4 ,%\ld ! slope be subject to consid]able wave action1 smoo? surfaces (f]+ ! lea/ frictional resi/ance1 obvi\sly aid ! travel ( a wave1 :i* is undesirable1 & provid$ ! embankm5t is suffici5tly /rong a r\gh] surface is to be desir$4 ,project+ /akes t5d to subdivide a wave4 ,%\ld pit*+ be requir$ to be plac$ p>tly ^u ! face ( a cutt+ & p>tly ^u ! slope ( an embankm5t1 z 9 ! case ( a canal ^u sidelong gr\nd1 c>e mu/ be tak5 t x does n settle unequally1 & provision %\ld be made by sett+ x ^u a p]vi\s lay]1 s t any damm+ back ( dra9age wat]s may be prev5t$4 ,! weight ( pit*+ ^u a slope af=ds a c\nt]-pressure to t ( any wat] 9 ! slopes :i* may be try+ to em]ge4 ,*alk rubble1 also h>d *alk1 or gravel has be5 us$ 9 lieu ( /one pit*+ = protect+ slopes aga9/ erosion4 ,) ! exception ( reta9+ walls1 ! prec$+ may be consid]$ z ! pr9cipal means1 us$ sep>ately or 9 reasonable comb9ation1 = cov]+ ! surface ( a slope 9 a cutt+ or an embankm5t4 ,a frequ5t cause ( in/ability ( ! slopes 9 c\ntries hav+ sev]e w9t]s is ! melt+ ( unequal masses ( sn[1 ! result ( drifts1 & also f ! ?aw+ ( a consid]able sn[fall4 ,! *ief prev5tive measures aga9/ sn[drifts & consequ5t protection to ! slopes1 al?\gh n a cov]+1 may be /at$ to be z foll[s3-- #a4 ,locate ! l9e 9 a naturally %elt]$ position1 :i* x is mo/ improbable c be done ?r\gh\t its l5g?4 #b4 ,adopt tunnels1 cov]$ or %elt]$ gall]ies :]e ! di/rict is subject to avalan*es or sn[-slips4 #c4 ,prev5t drifts by p]man5t or portable scre5s su* z e>? m\nds1 trees1 h$ges1 f5ces1 c4 #d4 ,ob/ruct drifts by hav+ deep tr5*es "s di/ance f ! top ( ! slopes4 #e4 ,avoid cutt+s z mu* z possible1 & make ! l9e ^u an embankm5t ( su* a height z to be above ! dep? ( ! drift sn[ 9 simil> situations4 #f4 ,con/ruct ! embankm5ts f side cutt+1 in/ead ( cutt+1 s t ! tr5*es may cat* ! sn[ be=e x rea*es ! railway4 #g4 ,make ! slope mu* flatt] ?an its angle ( repose4 #h4 ,increase ! wid? ( ! =mation s z to less5 ! dep? ( a drift1 & to enable a sn[-pl\gh to m readily dis*>ge its excavation4 ,) reg>d to ! prev5tive measures enum]at$4 ,no4 #a4--;,z a rule ?is c only be practis$ to a limit$ ext5t consequ5t ^u traffic requirem5ts & ! configuration ( ! c\ntry4 ,no4 #b4--,%elt]-gall]ies are f\nd to be g5]ally effectual1 b obvi\sly are exp5sive2 !y may1 h[ev]1 be ! only means to adopt1 z any ob/ruction to a sn[-slip is avoid$4 ,! slope ( ! top ( a cov]$ or %elt]-gall]y %\ld n be /eep] ?an t ( ! hill1 s z to (f] no imp$im5t to ! free passage ( ! sn[4 ,no4 #c4--;,exp]i5ce has prov$ t p]man5t scre5s are to be pref]r$ to portable %ields1 & t ultimately !y are ! m economical4 ,! excavat$ mat]ial1 ei!r f a cutt+1 dra9s or f5ce-dit*es1 is g5]ally us$ = ! e>? m\nds s z to save exp5se2 _! height1 :i* is (t5 f #g to #aj feet1 ( c\rse is gov]n$ by ! greate/ dep? ( ! sn[fall1 degree ( exposure & usual direction ( /orms1 w9d1 & drift4 ,%\ld ^! v>y mu*1 9 an op5 air l9e x may be impracticable to entirely %ut out or prev5t drifts1 b ! protective works w less5 drift+ & may r$uce x to manageable proportions4 ,a simple e>? dam is seldom suffici5t1 ow+ to ! impell+ p[] ( ! w9d ^u ! sn[-flakes & ! consid]able height at :i* x acts2 !re=e1 f5c+ has be5 fix$ 9 ! top ( ! m\nd1 or trees & %rubs plant$1 also old sleep]s h be5 successful :5 simply closely driv5 into ! surface ( ! orig9al gr\nd4 ,a scre51 consi/+ ( "o or m r[s ( trees or %rubs plac$ at a little di/ance f ! top ( ! slope ( a cutt+1 is t mo/ g5]ally pref]r$4 ,x is made ei!r d\ble or s+le1 z may be ?\ght necess>y4 ,9 ,g]many1 h$ges ( fir trees simil> to ,*ri/mas trees h be5 f\nd to af=d excell5t protection4 ,9 ,france1 p9e trees plant$ ^u ! cess h effectually prev5t$ s]i\s sn[drifts4 ,9 slop+ gr\nd1 m\nds or dams1 scre5s1 plantations ( trees & h$ges 9 v expos$ places h be5 insuffici5t to prev5t "s drift+ & accumulation ( sn[ 9 a cutt+1 & a m\nd or f5ce has consequ5tly be5 erect$ ^u ! plateau at ! top ( ! hill a suffici5tly safe di/ance f its face t sn[-slips1 :i* might be increas$ into avalan*es1 7 prev5t$ f rea*+ ! slopes or =mation4 ,a dra9 %\ld be cut ^u ! high] side ( su* a hill-dam or f5ce s z to c>ry away ! sn[-wat] ^u a ?aw1 & prev5t ! e>? becom+ 9 an un/able condition4 ,no4 #d4--,?is sy/em is g5]ally us$ :5 an e>? m\nd is also adopt$ & x has to be deposit$ f side cutt+4 ,! tr5*1 ( c\rse1 %\ld be on ! side ( ! m\nd f>!/ f ! ma9 cutt+4 ,z a sn[-cat*] x is successful1 especially 9 %all[ embankm5ts1 = x n only reta9s sn[ t w\ld o!rwise heap1 b dra9s an embankm5t4 ,no4 #e4--,?is dep5ds ^u ! configuration ( ! c\ntry1 b z cutt+s act z traps to cat* sn[1 if possible !y %\ld be avoid$2 & p>ticul>ly :5 ( little dep?1 z x is f\nd !y quickly become *ok$1 & want z mu* protection z deep] excavations1 & f be+ m expos$ to ! cold air1 ! sn[ 9 !m becomes cak$ & froz51 & requires break+ up be=e x c be remov$4 ,embankm5ts ( a height a little above ! gr\nd1 & ! greate/ dep? ( ! uni=m sn[fall ( ! c\ntry1 are to be pref]r$4 ,no4 #f4--;,g5]ally approv$1 z n only af=d+ an advanc$ cat*-tr5*1 b because x acts z a p]man5t dra94 ,no4 #g4--,?is is a controv]t$ sy/em4 ,"s eng9e]s object to x z facilitat+ ! deposition ( sn[drifts2 o!rs approve1 ^u ! gr\nd t by flatt5+ ! slopes ! sn[ c drift freely & w fall equally ^u ! =mation4 ,! balance ( exp]i5c$ op9ion seems to be r aga9/ ! adoption ( flatt5$ slopes1 unless !y are made v flat1 su* z f #d to #a ,,to #aj to #a1 at :i* latt] slope sn[ x is f\nd does n usually accumulate b passes on deposit+ only its g5]al dep?3 & additional means ( protection are af=d$1 & appe>s to indicate t ! unaid$ sy/em is only well adapt$ = c\ntries 9 :i* w9ds ( great =ce are g5]at$1 su* z ! 8blizz>ds0 ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,no4 #h4--;,x is f\nd t increas$ wid? ( ! =mation ( a cutt+ is an advantage1 z x ret>ds *ok+1 facilitates cle>+ op]ations1 & provides room = %ovell+ sn[ f ! p]man5t way1 :e!r effect$ by a sn[-pl\gh or by manual lab\r4 ,) reg>d to ! =mation wid?1 i4e41 ! wid? ( ! bottom ( a cutt+ or ! top ( an embankm5t1 & ! prev5tion ( slips 9 e>?work1 ample bread? is necess>y 9 cutt+s = ! purposes ( dra9age1 al?\gh less 9 a rock cutt+ ?an 9 t ( ord9>y soil1 & ! ext5t ( ! top ( an embankm5t has "s influ5ce 9 ! promotion ( /ability4 ,! requir$ wid? ( ! =mation mu/ be pr9cipally regulat$ by ! "* ( ! e>?1 ! am\nt & sudd5ness ( ! ra9fall1 ! height ( an embankm5t or dep? ( a cutt+1 ! degree ( exposure1 ! exig5cies ( ! traffic1 & ! requir$ dra9age4 ,9 wet cutt+s ! =mation %\ld be wid] ?an 9 dry e>?1 & ! side dit*es %\ld be made l>g]1 especially :5 !re is a /eep gradi5t 9 a long cutt+1 9 ord] to keep ! =mation & ! p]man5t way 9 z dry a /ate z possible & aid traction1 = ! coeffici5t ( friction ( ! :eels ( a locomotive w !n be great] ?an :5 ! rails are damp & greasy4 ,9 cold climates ! wid? ( ! =mation is (t5 increas$ s z to less5 ! dep? ( sn[drifts1 & to enable a sn[-pl\gh or m5 to m readily deposit ! excavat$ sn[ & cle> ! track1 z has be5 ref]r$ to 9 ! imm$iately prec$+ pages2 & 9 sev]e climates 9 wet places ample wid? 9 cutt+s is f\nd necess>y1 z dra9s frequ5tly h to be cut 9 !m z deep z #d to #e feet to af=d a free fl[ = & to prev5t an accumulation ( wat]4 ,9 temp]ate climates ! wid? c be mu* r$uc$4 ,:5 ! =mation is n>r[ ! simple p]colation ( wat] ?r\gh ! slopes ( an embankm5t1 unaid$ by any aque\s action caus$ by fissures1 may gradually saturate ! mass1 & z ! wid] ! =mation ! l>g] ! cross-sectional area ( an embankm5t1 x foll[s t increas$ resi/+ p[] to det]ioration is obta9$ by wid5+ ! =mation1 z !re is m e>? to absorb ! wat]4 ,a tra9 ^u ! p]man5t way w make a =ce act d[nw>ds until x meets ) suffici5t resi/ance to cause reaction4 ,! direction ( ! resolution ( ^! =ces is t[>ds a slope1 !re=e1 ! f>!r ! surface ( a slope is f ! l9e ( action & reaction1 ! great] is its di/ance f ! di/urb+ =ce & ! lat]al resi/ance x receives f ! mass4 ,9 ! case ( a solid rock f\ndation & a homog5e\s embankm5t 9 ! same /ate ( consolidation ?r\gh\t its mass1 ! direction ( ! =ces might be accurately del9eat$1 b z su* a uni=mly homog5e\s & equable condition seldom exi/s 9 railway embankm5ts1 x _c be absolutely said t ! =ces act ?r\gh\t ^u c]ta9 l9es2 h[ev]1 x is advisable to asc]ta9 ! probable direction ( ! =ces4 ,! all[ance = lat]al settlem5t %\ld be lib]al & be regulat$ by ! nature ( ! e>?1 ! height ( an embankm5t1 & o!r local conditions ( situation & ra9fall t affect e>?1 _m ( :i* are nam$ 9 o!r *apt]s4 ,x w v>y greatly1 & may be any?+1 f #e p] c5t4 to #ajj p] c5t4 additional wid? ( =mation4 ,an addition ( f #e to #aj p] c5t4 ( ! height ( an embankm5t is usually suffici5t1 b 9 clay s& & su* soils an embankm5t may be sl[ly wa%$ away by ra9 until x has %runk to half its requir$ wid?4 ,z an embankm5t settles or wea!rs ! wid? ( ! =mation %\ld be ma9ta9$ )\t hav+ to /eep5 ! slope1 wid5 ! top1 or erect a wall ^u ! =mation 9 ord] to hold ! add$ e>?4 ,! additional =mation wid? ( embankm5ts is also a provision aga9/ ! effects :i* ! 8lur*+0 ( an eng9e may cause by its weight tempor>ily act+ ^u "o rail1 & ! pressure to be 9 ! #d feet #h in*es gauge at a di/ance ( ab\t #b feet #f in*es f ! c5tre ( ! p]man5t way4 ,= "s di/ance ^u ea* side ( ! po9t ( junction ( two high tip heads ! top wid? %\ld be increas$1 vide ,*ap4 ,,ix41 & 9 sidelong gr\nd x is advisable to wid5 an embankm5t m on ! upp] side ?an ! l[]1 z slips seldom occur ^u ! high] side2 & 9 ! case ( railways1 %\ld ! l[] slope move1 ! rails c be plac$ t[>ds ! hill1 & p]haps away f ! slipp$ portion ( ! embankm5t4 ,) respect to ! det]iorat+ influ5ce ( vibration z reg>ds ! slope ( a cutt+ or embankm5t1 x is well e/abli%$ t vibration w cause movem5t 9 a reta9+ wall :i* w\ld o!rwise be /able1 & t soils possess+ consid]able p[]s ( cohesion are n s easily affect$ by vibration z ^? ( a loos] "* consi/+ ( p>ticles hav+ m or less r\nd$ surfaces2 b ! action ( wat] may produce seams 9 su* e>?s z clay1 & create a smoo? greasy slid+ surface ^u :i* any repos+ mass may b require ! lea/ di/urb+ =ce1 on ! pr9ciple t ! lea/ impact is suffici5t to imp>t motion to ! l>ge/ body2 su* z a man walk+ ^u x or ! tread ( an animal1 to unbalance ! delicate /ate ( equilibrium4 ,?is action may be gradual1 cont9u\s1 & increas+1 z ! e>? w always be subject to *anges ( wea!r4 ,on ! contr>y1 vibration 9 soils hav+ p>ticles insoluble 9 wat]1 provid$ wat] does n dissolve any cem5t+ mat]ial betwe5 !m1 may cause !m to equally settle & become firm] by be+ press$ toge!r ?an if !y 7 n subject to su* op]ation1 & %\ld ! p>ticles w$ge by %ak+ & ! slopes be suffici5tly flat1 vibratory motion may1 "u ^! circum/ances1 t5d to consolidate c]ta9 e>?s 9 an embankm5t2 b n s 9 ! slopes ( a cutt+ :i* vibration mu/ di/urb by reason ( x agitat+ & loos5+ ! surface & mak+ x less d5se4 ,= in/ance1 9 s&y soils ! surface friction on a cyl9d]1 :5 s9k+ op]ations are n be+ prosecut$ & :5 ! mat]ial is be+ rais$ f ! int]ior1 is diff]5t2 ! latt] resi/ance be+ f #bj to #be p] c5t4 less ?an ! =m]1 consequ5t ^u ! di/urbance1 & al?\gh f9e1 s(t drift s& usually pres5ts great] frictional resi/ance ?an firm s&1 x obvi\sly _c be tak5 z equal to t ( firm s&1 z x is quickly dissipat$4 ,! conditions ( e>? be+ s v div]se no rules c be d$uc$1 = ev5 ! effects ( su* /up5d\s =ce z t ( e>?quake vibrations v>y accord+ to ! nature ( ! gr\nd1 h[ev]1 ! weak5+ effects ( vibration are und\bt$ly v consid]able4 ,x is kn[n t ! lat]al ?ru/ ( e>? is !reby mu* augm5t$1 &1 !re=e1 t ! /ra9 ^u ! frictional resi/ance & ! cohesion ( ! e>? is increas$2 & exp]im5ts h %[n t :5 a wall is ne>ly /ra9$ to ! po9t ( ov]turn+1 slight vibration w quickly de/roy ! equilibrium1 ?us demon/rat+ t x adds to ! lat]al pressure4 ,an analysis ( "s reliable exp]im5ts proves ?is increase to usually range f #aj to #fj p] c5t41 b x is evid5t t ! practical effect ( any increase may be v mu* great] ?an a m]e computation ( ! increm5t1 = x may supply ! additional /ra91 h[ev] small1 necess>y to initiate a movem5t1 h5ce ! dang]4 ,z collat]al te/imony to ! important effects ( vibration may be m5tion$3-- ,a comp>ison ( ! coeffici5ts ( friction dur+ motion & ^? at ! comm5cem5t ( movem5t or ( repose4 ,! exi/5ce ( a ne>ly v]tical face g5]ally assum$1 :5 un%ak5 by artificial means1 9 ! b>$ top e>? 9 a qu>ry1 %all[ well1 gravel or s& pit1 pond1 & ev5 a riv]-bank or a cliff1 :i* exp]i5ce has prov$ c\ld n be ma9ta9$ :5 subject to vibration4 ,! fact t timb] piles1 :i* are *iefly support$ by ! frictional resi/ance ( _! surfaces1 w n su/a9 a roll+1 i4e41 a vibratory1 load equal to t ( a fix$ load1 & also t ! me?od ( driv+ 9 soils easily di/urb$1 su* z s&1 is also consid]$ z r$uc+ ! safe load accord+ to ! p]cussive action & frequ5t vibration caus$ by a pile-driv]1 :e!r work$ by /eam1 h&1 or by means ( an explosive sub/ance4 ,z fur!r pro( may be nam$ t 9 pile-driv+1 especially 9 op5 soil1 piles cont9ually driv5 p5etrate ! e>? consid]ably quick] & easi] ?an if driv5 at int]vals1 z ! latt] sy/em all[s ! soil to settle r\nd !m & ! loos5+ & friction de/roy+ effects ( vibration are less5$4 ,! exp]im5ts made by ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,longridge1 ,m4 ,in/4 ,c4,e41 = ,mr4 ,g4 ,r4 ,/eph5son1 ,pa/-,presid5t ,in/4 ,c4,e41 9 ,morecambe ,bay1 ,engl&1 %[$ t by vibration ! be>+ p[] ( driv5 timb] piles 0 r$uc$ to "o-f\r? or "o-fif? ( t :5 subject to a /eady non-vibratory load4 ,its delet]i\s effect on ! /ructure ( su* a solid sub/ance z iron1 c41 p>ticul>ly :5 x is load$ beyond its ela/ic limit4 ,x is g5]ally agre$ t a sub/ance is brok5 soon] :5 a load is int]mitt+ly impos$ ?an :5 ! same load is p]man5tly plac$ ^u a /ructure4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,pr(essor ,/okes1 #ahdi2 ,m4 ,phillips1 #ahee2 ,m4 ,r5audot1 #ahfa2 ,m4 ,bresse1 #ahff2 & rec5tly ( ,dr4 ,w9kl] & o!rs1 %[ t ! increase ( ! int5sity ( /ra9 consequ5t ^u ! dynamic effect ( a sudd5ly-appli$ mov+ load may be z mu* z #cc p] c5t4 m ?an t ( ! comput$ /atical pressure4 ,! fact t 9 masonry pi]s ( consid]able height & small dim5sions1 z 9 pi]s ( viaducts1 ! vibration caus$ by tra9s loos5s ! brickwork or masonry & necessitates frequ5t repairs4 ,! !ory t ! p>ticles ( all solid bodies may be 9 a /ate ( cont9u\s vibration & motion1 ?\gh !re may be no means ( r5d]+ _! motion visible1 has n be5 refut$ by d$uctive reason+2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x is 9 accord ) ! !ory t 8motion communicates itself among mat]ial bodies1 & is nev] lo/2 :5 x appe>s to be s1 x 9 fact only passes f ! mov+ body into o!r bodies :i* are at re/1 or are endu$ ) a less velocity1 & at l5g? x becomes ins5sible 9 consequ5ce ( its enorm\s diffusion4 ,9 fact1 motion c only be de/roy$ by motion2 resi/ances & friction disp]se x1 b d n de/roy x40 ,! laws ( /atics & dynamics are well e/abli%$1 & are fully describ$ 9 _m admirable works ^u me*anical philosophy2 s f> z ! subject ( ?is book is conc]n$ t :i* is requir$ to be answ]$ is ! "q4 ,h ! delet]i\s effects ( vibration ^u e>?work 9 v>i\s conditions be5 det]m9$ s z to be ( practical value8 ,n by exp]im5t ^u a l>ge scale1 nor is x probable t !y w be2 b !y h be5 d$uc$ f exp]i5ce1 reasonable inf]5ce1 & exp]im5ts on a small scale1 z has be5 be=e m5tion$4 ,! effect ( vibration is usually m m>k$ 9 cutt+s ?an 9 embankm5ts1 al?\gh x may ne>ly approa* :5 !y are ( little dep? or height3 because a tra9 9 a cutt+ is conta9$ )9 ! area excavat$1 :]eas 9 an embankm5t x is )\t ! area deposit$4 ,9 a cutt+ vibration comm5ces ^u ! =mation level & ! toe ( ! slopes1 ! latt] ! mo/ vuln]able p>ts & ^? mo/ /ra9$4 ,9 an embankm5t x proce$s ?r\gh ! =mation to ! base & ! toes ( ! slopes :i* are necess>ily ! mo/ di/ant4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! mat]ial 9 an embankm5t is g5]ally 9 a loos] & light] condition1 & !re=e m incl9$ to move & to suff] f vibration4 ,x may also be great] ^u "o side consequ5t ^u ! 8lur*+0 ( ! eng9e & c>riages4 ,obvi\sly1 vibration is increas$ ) ! spe$ & weight ( a tra92 probably a %ort1 heavy tra9 travell+ at high spe$ causes a m delet]i\s effect ?an a long heavy tra9 travell+ at a sl[ spe$3 also ! high] an embankm5t or ! deep] a cutt+ ! great] ! area ( ! cross section4 ,assume a tra9 weighs #ajj tons1 & ! weight ( ! e>? is #aab lbs a cubic foot1 or #jje ( a ton2 x might be consid]$ t ! effects ( vibration w\ld be less z ! areas increas$4 ,consid] ! =mation to be #ah feet 9 wid? & ! slopes #a to #a1 ! respective areas ( cross section w\ld be z foll[s3-- ,height4 ,area4 ,weight ( ,weight ( ,ratio ( ,feet4 ! ! ,tra94 ! ,weight ,embankm5t4 ,tons4 ( #a ,foot ,tons p] ,l9eal ( ,l9eal an ,foot4 ,embankm5t to ! ,weight ( ! ,tra94 ,squ>e ,l9eal ,ton4 ,feet4 ,foot4 #aj #ccj #a #jje #afe #ajj #jafe to #a #bj #ifj #a #jje #dhj #ajj #jdhj to #a #cj #a1hij #a #jje #ide #ajj #jide to #a #dj #c1abj #a #jje #aefj #ajj #aefj to #a #ej #d1fej #a #jje #bcbe #ajj #bcbe to #a #fj #f1dhj #a #jje #cbdj #ajj #cbdj to #a ,,note4--,= ! purpose ( a comp>ison ( ratios x is n necess>y to consid] ! l5g? ( ! tra94 ,a simple inspection ( ! above ratios w\ld lead to a supposition t ! effects ( vibration w\ld be no less ?an #cbaj_/jafe #aif times great] 9 a #aj feet ?an 9 a #fj feet embankm5t4 ,m]ely comp>+ ! weight ( a tra9 ) t ( an embankm5t1 & assum+ t ! results ( vibration at ! same rate ( spe$ are s gov]n$ is incorrect1 = ! effect ( vibration at ! =mation level is n regulat$ by ! height ( an embankm5t or ! dep? ( a cutt+4 ,! weight ( a tra9 may be> a v small relation to t ( ! quantity ( e>? slipp$1 yet ! soil may h gradually become 9 su* a /ate ( delicate equilibrium t at la/ ! lea/ vibration w de/roy x1 ev5 a little ( ! top soil fall+ ^u ! slope2 & x frequ5tly occurs t a slip comm5ces by ! deta*m5t ( a few small lumps & increases until x becomes ( s]i\s dim5sions2 !re=e1 ! area ( a cutt+ or embankm5t _c necess>ily be consid]$ z r$uc+ vibration al?\gh ! s\rce ( di/urbance may be m di/ant2 b1 ( c\rse1 ! heavi] ! mass ! great] ! weight & spe$ requir$ to cause ! :ole to vibrate4 ,ligh?\ses & su* expos$ works be+ con/antly subject to vibration1 ! exp]i5ce ga9$ ?r\gh _! behavi\r may be consid]$ z indicat+ ! direction 9 :i* ! /ability ( /ructures 9 analog\s situations has to be s\ght4 ,x is g5]ally agre$ t x fav\rs weight & bulk1 z !y are un*angeable1 & %[s t al?\gh ! =m1 execution1 & ! mat]ial may be p]fect1 a light fabric w gradually be det]iorat$ by con/ant tremor & vibratory motion1 at l5g? culm9at+ 9 ! loos5+ & sep>ation ( ! p>ts4 ,except f actual exp]im5t 9 ea* case1 x is impossible to det]m9e ! greate/ weight ( & ! spe$ at :i* a tra9 %\ld be all[$ to travel s z to prev5t any delet]i\s effect f vibration1 & ! circum/ances are s v>i\s t a practical rule _c be d$uc$1 except by assum+ conditions f exp]i5ce alone1 :i* w\ld s modify a =mula z to make x %[ any desir$ result1 & cause x to be reg>d$ z too complaisant to be tru/$4 ,p]haps ! be/ te/ ( ! effects ( vibration t any e>?works c receive is :5 a tempor>y railway is laid ^u ! =mation or cess = ! c>riage ( mat]ials1 & 9 a less] degree a /eam excavator1 z ! weight & vibratory action may %[ ! weak places 9 a cutt+1 or s %ake portions ( an embankm5t t %\ld ! e>? be un/able a slip w soon occur4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,e>?works ,,9 ,,or ,,^u ,,sidelong ,,gr\nd4--,,"s ,,insecure ,,conditions4--,,precaution>y ,,measures4--,,embankm5ts ,,^u ,,s(t ,,gr\nd4--,,embankm5ts ,,compos$ ,,( ,,s(t ,,e>?4--,,! ,,promotion ,,( ,,/ability ,,& ,,consolidation4 ,) reg>d to e>?works 9 or ^u sidelong gr\nd1 ! configuration ( ! surface conduces to a movem5t ( ! hill-slope ( a cutt+1 & ! c5tre ( gravity ( an embankm5t is n 9 ! middle1 & 9 a n>r[ embankm5t may be outside ! c5tral portion1 ! t5d5cy1 !re=e1 is = ! slope ( an embankm5t on ! upp] or hill-side to assume a /eep] incl9ation ?an t on ! l[]1 z ! e>? is tipp$ aga9/ ! incl9$ gr\nd until ! po9t is rea*$ :]e a p]p5dicul> erect$ ^u ! surface ( ! gr\nd cuts ! top ( ! inside slope4 ,?is slope1 if protect$ f wea!r+1 might be all[$ to /& at ! incl9ation at :i* x rema9s :5 tipp$1 & be simply trimm$ & cov]$2 b ! toe ( ! slope on ! l[] or valley side is especially likely to slip1 & !re=e1 e precaution %\ld be tak5 to prev5t movem5t4 ,a reta9+ wall is a c]ta9 protection1 b5*+ ! gr\nd1 weight+ ! foot ( ! slope1 divid+ x into b5*es ab\t #aj to #ae feet ap>t1 v>y+ 9 wid? f #e feet & increas+ accord+ to ! dep?2 ! b5*es hav+ suffici5t incl9ation to prev5t an accumulation ( wat]2 c\nt]=t+ ! slopes 9 dry & mild wea!r ) simple e>? c\nt]=ts #e to #ab feet 9 wid? at int]vals1 & 9 l5g? ab\t twice _! height ) a reasonable slope1 ! height be+ ab\t half t ( ! embankm5t2 a dry reta9+ wall may also be erect$ 9 temp]ate climates & 9 a comp>atively unexpos$ situation3 are all precaution>y measures t c be adopt$4 ,b 9 ! case ( a cutt+ 9 drift or p]meable soil ^u rock or an imp]meable surface liable to become wet1 :i* n infrequ5tly occurs1 ! conditions ( equilibrium may easily be de/roy$1 & ! slope ^u ! high] side may n /& at a less incl9ation ?an t ( ! hill4 ,obvi\sly ?is slope _c be obta9$ ei!r 9 cutt+s or embankm5ts1 !re=e1 provid$ ! drift is ( consid]able dep? & trea*]\s1 means mu/ be tak5 to prev5t movem5t1 & dra9s %\ld be ins]t$ s z to make ! e>? capable ( /&+ at a /eep] incl9ation ?an x naturally assumes2 & 9 ord] to dra9 ! gr\nd at ! seat ( an embankm5t1 a tr5* on ! valley side fill$ ) /ones or support$ by o!r means act+ z a wall & dra9 c be made4 ,e precaution %\ld be tak5 to prev5t any accumulation ( wat] 9 e>?works 9 sidelong gr\nd1 & to g5tly control !m1 & to promote ?is object x is well t lat]al outlets be opposite to ea* o!r s z to af=d ?r\gh dra9age & an unob/ruct$ fl[4 ,z drift soil ^u ! incl9$ surface ( a rock may be held by friction1 ! lea/ *ange may impair x suffici5tly to cause movem5t1 !re=e x is advisable to h a n>r[ gullet or head+ excavat$ 9 %ort l5g?s1 foll[$ p>i passu ) protective works1 :e!r a reta9+ wall or n1 s t ! e>? is weak5$ z little z possible by exposure & deprivation ( its usual support2 & !re are _m places 9 :i*1 unless ! sy/em ( excavat+ 9 %ort l5g?s be adopt$1 failure & slips mu/ result4 ,9 sidelong gr\nd ! =mation is frequ5tly p>tly 9 cutt+ & p>tly 9 embankm5t1 if s1 & ! dra9 is imp]meable & c be ?or\ghly reli$ ^u1 x may be advisable to make ! =mation incl9e t[>ds ! hill1 s z to dra9 x1 less51 & p]haps prev5t p]colation into ! semi-embankm5t or "u its seat1 = ! soil be+ loos5$ by ! process ( excavation & deposition is 9 ! mass m por\s ?an 9 a cutt+4 ,! *ief aim ( all dra9age op]ations = ! pres]vation ( e>?works 9 sidelong gr\nd is to prev5t ! hill wat]s guidelessly fl[+ into1 ^u1 or "u !m1 _! accumulation1 or any ob/ruction to _! easy dis*>ge2 & to atta9 ?is object x is necess>y to "k ! location ( ! s\rces ( ! supply1 ! quantity1 & o!r p>ticul>s1 vide ,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,a prop] sy/em ( dra9s mu/ !re=e be made ^u ! hill-side to ga!r & g5tly guide ! wat]s1 to lead !m by *annels across ! =mation & dis*>ge !m outside x1 c>e be+ tak5 to protect & l9e ! surface ( ! dra9s s t no leakage occurs or any erosion ( ! face4 ,9 c\ntries :]e ! ra9fall is excessive or sudd5 at c]ta9 places or entirely1 x may be suffici5t to protect ! slopes s z to all[ ( a fl[ ov] !m1 & p>ticul>ly ^u ! valley slope ( an embankm5t1 & 9 a less] degree ^u ! hill-slope ( a cutt+4 ,:5 ! configuration ( ! c\ntry all[s1 x is advisable to avoid cutt+s1 & p>ticul>ly embankm5ts1 9 or ^u drift soil ly+ ^u an incl9$ surface ( rock or imp]meable soil1 because x c s easily be di/urb$1 become un/able1 & ( ! difficulty ( re/or+ x to a /ate ( equilibrium2 9 fact1 ?is may be impossible1 z vibration may cause x to move4 ,9 su* a case ! only means ( prev5t+ a slip is by erect+ a wall at ! toe ( ! slope1 & z x is necess>y t ! f\ndations be 9 ! rock b5ea? ! surface e>?1 ! simple op]ation ( excavat+ may impel ! drift d[n ! hill4 ,also %\ld an embankm5t be requir$ ^u drift soil its weight may be suffici5t to cause ! mass to slide & a div]sion ( a railway may be imp]ative1 = ! co/ ( a reta9+ wall1 because ( its height & ! great pressure x w\ld h to su/a91 or be built to su/a91 w\ld prohibit ! adoption ( su* a rem$y4 ,!re=e1 an embankm5t is m to be fe>$ ?an a cutt+ 9 su* e>?4 ,mak+ b5*+s 9 ! rock bel[ ! drift to resi/ movem5t ( an embankm5t w mo/ probably be impracticable1 & ! soil may be 9 su* a delicate condition t a %ock or v little additional weight may make x slip1 & :5 once x has mov$1 its /ability may n be p]man5tly re/or$4 ,su* a case may be consid]$ z "o ( ! wor/ t c be enc\nt]$1 & c]ta9ly ! simple removal ( deta*$ masses ( rock t may slide ^u ! =mation is easi] to effect ?an to treat drift soil ^u an incl9$ rock b$4 ,x is always well to rememb] t 9 sidelong gr\nd a hill may be repos+ at ! /eepe/ slope ( /ability1 & :5 ! e>? is rock x may dip 9 ! direction ( a cutt+ or be impos$ ^u a p]i%able /ratum1 su* z por\s or inf]ior %ale4 ,support ^u ! valley side is !n absolutely necess>y to re/ore its normal equilibrium1 & e c>e %\ld be tak5 to prev5t wat] rea*+ ! embankm5t or trickl+ "u its base1 & to control all wat] t may p]meate ?r\gh fissures 9 ! rock face1 especially %\ld x be loosely b$d$4 ,e>?works 9 su* positions require to be regul>ly wat*$4 ,9 =m+ an embankm5t ^u sidelong gr\nd e means %\ld be adopt$ to increase ! friction betwe5 ! tipp$ mat]ial & ! soil2 consequ5tly all turf or h]bage %\ld be remov$ 9 ord] t ! embankm5t may be ^u ! b>e e>?1 c>e be+ tak5 t no loose top m\ld or turf is deposit$1 b only ! firm soil4 ,x may be advisable to only tip e>? excavat$ f ! solid hill-side1 & n top soil su* z t obta9$ f side cutt+1 & unless 9 rock or firm soil to avoid p>tly side cutt+ & embankm5t4 ,%\ld an embankm5t h to be tipp$ ^u rock1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to prev5t ! surface wat] fl[+ "u its base1 & to c\nt]act slid+ movem5t ! gr\nd %\ld be b5*$ & a dra9 made on ! high] side2 also 9 a deep cutt+ ! slope or face %\ld be /epp$1 or h a cess at ab\t mid-height1 or :]e desirable1 to less5 ! effect ( ! trickl+ ( ! surface wat] & to prev5t a fl[ 9 a direct l9e1 :i* might make ! velocity ( any leakage wat]s dang]\s1 especially aft] a rapid ?aw4 ,on a mid-cess a cat*wat] dra9 %\ld be cut to int]cept ! surface wat]1 :i* may n p]colate b fl[ ^u ! slope1 &1 unless div]t$ & conduct$ to an outlet1 may saturate or erode ! bottom4 ,be=e a cutt+ 9 drift soil ^u ! side ( a hill c be dra9$1 x may be necess>y to s9k a %aft ^u ! high] side "s di/ance f ! slope & con/ruct a complete s]ies ( dra9s "u ! =mation4 ,also %\ld an embankm5t 9 sidelong gr\nd be ne> to a riv]1 ! expos$ riv]-bank face mu/ be protect$1 & 9 any case1 :5 a pi] ( a bridge has to be plac$ close to ! edge ( a rock1 ! face ( ! e>? %\ld be pres]v$ by a sub/antial ,portl& cem5t concrete cov]+ 9 ord] to prev5t dis9tegration culm9at+ 9 a slip or subsid5ce4 ,9 sett+ out a l9e ( railway or a canal c>e %\ld be tak5 to avoid1 if practicable1 ei!r cutt+s or embankm5ts 9 soil re/+ ^u incl9$ rock1 z slips are almo/ sure to occur4 ,h[ev]1 %\ld x be unavoidable1 _! dep? & height %\ld be r$uc$ to a m9imum &1 if possible1 ! =mation be rais$ until ! b>e rock crops out1 & ?is c frequ5tly be effect$ )9 ! limits ( deviation4 ,also deep cutt+s 9 clay or e>?1 hav+ p>ticles soon affect$ by wea!r1 %\ld be avoid$1 b !y may be necess>y2 & %\ld any h to be locat$ ^u a %>p curve1 x is advisable to excavate ! project+ spur on ! convex side ( ! curve m ?an t requir$ to obta9 ! =mation wid?1 z x is peculi>ly expos$1 & !re=e m likely to slip4 ,:5 cutt+s are ^u ! esc>pm5t ( a clay hill ! slope ^u ! valley side ne$ n be s flat z t aga9/ ! hill4 ,an incl9ation ( #c or #d to #a may be necess>y ^u ! hill-side1 :]eas a #a to #a slope may be suffici5t ^u ! o!r4 ,:5 a slip may involve ! de/ruction or injury ( any adjac5t build+s1 ! be/ plan is to erect a reta9+ wall at ! foot ( a slope1 n less ?an ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! height ( an embankm5t or ! dep? ( a cutt+1 ample provision be+ made = dra9age & ! expansion ( ! e>?4 ,x is a sure protection & support1 & ! consequ5ces ( a slip may be mo/ s]i\s 9 su* a position4 ,! protection ( ! slope & a brea/ wall may1 h[ev]1 be alone necess>y ^u ! valley-side4 ,! con/ruction ( embankm5ts ^u s(t soil is "h ref]r$ to s f> z reg>ds lat]al movem5t1 or :]e v]tical settlem5t causes su* action by draw+ asund]4 ,:5ev] ! surface ( ! gr\nd bulges or upheaves ^u e>? be+ tipp$ ^u x or pressure appli$1 x %[s t ! di/urb+ h>b+]s ( in/ability are 9 action & t its su/a9+ p[] has be5 rea*$1 its surface ruptur$1 & any m soil plac$ !reon w only s9k & displace ! e>? until x meets ! solid gr\nd b5ea?1 or ! mat]ial becomes suffici5tly compress$ & d5se = x to su/a9 ! load2 su* a condition ( unre/ g5]ally proce$s f ov]-pressure & w loos5 ! soil1 increase p]colation1 & aid dis9tegration4 ,:5 x is kn[n t s(t1 peaty1 muddy1 or silty e>? ov]lies level solid gr\nd1 & x is c]ta9 x _c escape1 & c only be cond5s$ by weight+ until x w p]man5tly be> ! /ra9 requir$1 x c be built ^u2 al?\gh %\ld !re be m pressure at "o place ?an ano!r1 or ! "* ( ! soil v>y1 9 c]ta9 places be swampy & 9 o!rs dry1 ! surr\nd+ gr\nd w probably rise :]e ! weight is ! lea/2 !re=e1 increas$ be>+ area ( an embankm5t maybe necess>y until ! su/a9+ p[] ( ! e>? is n exce$$1 or slips & subsid5ces w occur1 = ! weight ( an embankm5t 9 su* a situation _c be dim9i%$ by reta9+ walls1 z /able f\ndations are n to be obta9$4 ,x is obvi\s ! wid? ( ! =mation _c be r$uc$ & !re=e ! only way ( less5+ ! load ^u ! base p] squ>e foot1 assum+ ! embankm5t to act z a mass1 & ( di/ribut+ its weight1 is by flatt5+ ! slope & mak+ a plat=m "u ! seat ( an embankm5t4 ,all e>?s1 h[ev]1 t are n h>d rock subside ^u be+ weight$1 & 9 ! case ( t5aci\s clay soils1 ^u a consid]able load be+ appli$ ov] a small area1 a trifl+ contigu\s uplift+ ( ! gr\nd w g5]ally be notic$4 ,if su* rise ( ! soil does n exce$ ab\t "o-six? ( ! settlem5t ( ! clay "u ! load x may be disreg>d$ z n likely to cause a slip or s]i\s lat]al movem5t4 ,:5 ! f\ndation consi/s ( a firm /ratum ( gravel1 s&1 or solid e>? ov]ly+ s(t soil su* z quicks& or silt1 i4e41 mud & s&2 or alluvial deposit1 c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! latt] is n =c$ up at a weak place by ! additional weight ( an embankm5t1 & ! firm /ratum und]m9$1 z !n x w s9k1 fissure1 & be unsafe4 ,any di/urbance ( ! b$ or wat] ( an e/u>y or lake o!r ?an by ! tides1 curr5ts1 or w9d is an indication t ! e>? b5ea? ! firm soil is ov]load$1 & t subsid5ces & slips w ensue4 ,be=e det]m9+ ^u ! necess>y precautions t mu/ be tak51 ! deposits %\ld be ?or\ghly exam9$ & te/s made ( ! am\nt ( soluble & insoluble mat]ial 9 a c]ta9 mass1 z al?\gh ! e>? may h ! appe>ance ( be+ mud1 x may conta9 a prepond]at+ proportion ( insoluble p>ticles ( s&1 & its "* may h>dly be t ( mud or silt4 ,:5 a m>% re/s ^u clay x usually requires only reasonable c>e1 b if ^u mud or loose s& x may always be 9 a m or less un/able condition4 ,! *ief means ( consolidation 9 ! con/ruction ( embankm5ts ( s(t soil ^u s(t gr\nd may be /at$ to be z foll[s3-- #a4 ,dra9+1 :i* mu/ be deep1 & %\ld be effect$ be=e ! e>? embankm5t is deposit$4 #b4 ,weight+ ! gr\nd outside ! slopes ) firm mat]ial s z to consolidate ! soil by int]mixture ) x4 #c4 ,! =mation ( t]races ( e>?1 & by all[+ ! gr\nd to subside until movem5t is arre/$1 b !re may be a por\s seam ( h>d] soil1 su* z gravel1 "u ! s(t gr\nd1 !n c>e mu/ be tak5 n to dam back ! fl[ ( ! und]gr\nd wat]s by ! subsid5ce ( ! add$ e>? or ! :ole embankm5t may slide1 become s(t5$ & f9ally be swept away2 !re=e1 ?r\gh dra9age mu/ be ma9ta9$ "u an embankm5t4 #d4 ,mak+ ! load z light z possible consi/5t ) due consolidation4 #e4 ,con/ruct+ an embankm5t 9 equal & regul> lay]s ( a%es or o!r dry1 light1 /able soil1 & by dry+ ! e>? to be deposit$ by sep>ation1 w9d1 sun1 or by burn+4 ,to prev5t slips 9 su* situations1 dra9+1 al?\gh caus+ subsid5ce1 %\ld be execut$ z long z possible be=e ! embankm5t is tipp$1 is m effectual & c]ta9 9 its action ?an any sy/em ( less5+ ! load or ( c\nt]weight+ ! soil1 :i* may !reby tempor>ily be br\ght to re/ b aft]w>ds give way2 & any damm+ back ( wat] may cause additional s9k+1 & *ange ! condition ( ! e>? f a /ate ( dampness to t ( saturation4 ,x may be easy to calculate ! weight p] squ>e foot t w h to be su/a9$ by ! gr\nd f an embankm5t & ! heavie/ tra91 b to make ! necess>y all[ance = ! effects ( vibration is n s readily comput$4 ,! gr\nd c be weight$ to asc]ta9 ! limit ( its su/a9+ p[]4 ,! te/ %\ld ext5d = a p]iod ( sev]al weeks to be ?or\ghly reliable1 :i* "t c seldom be af=d$ ^u works2 !re=e a consid]able excess ( su/a9+ p[] ov] ! load %\ld be all[$4 ,9 dra9+ ! site ( an embankm5t 9 peat soil1 x is advisable fir/ to asc]ta9 ! dep? to :i* tr5*es c be cut )\t ! sides fall+ 94 ,x g5]ally v>ies f ab\t #a foot #f in*es to #c feet4 ,z ! gr\nd becomes firm] ! dra9s c be deep5$ if requir$4 ,! wid? %\ld n be less ?an #b feet #f in*es to #c feet4 ,cross dra9s c be cut at e #bj to #dj feet accord+ to ! /ate ( ! soil4 ,peat usually dra9s freely at ! surface :5 its level is n at or bel[ ! wat]-be>+ l9e ( ! c\ntry4 ,a successful me?od ( ?or\ghly dra9+ ! surface ( peat moorl& is to fir/ make a dra9 ab\t #a foot #f in*es 9 wid? & ! dep? ( an ord9>y spade1 & leave x = a "t until ! top soil to t dep? becomes firm]1 !n repeat ! op]ation until a dep? ( #c feet is obta9$1 ! sides be+ excavat$ to a p]p5dicul> face1 ! top turf be+ c>efully cut & /ack$ ^u ! surface to dry4 ,along ! c5tre ( ! bottom ( ! tr5* a small cut is made ab\t #a foot 9 dep? & #f in*es 9 wid?1 leav+ a #f-;in* l$ge ^u ea* side1 !n ! dry /ack$ turf #a foot #f in*es 9 wid? previ\sly excavat$1 is plac$ ^u ! l$ge1 ! grass d[nw>ds & ! lay]s rev]s$ 9 rotation to ! ord] 9 :i* !y 7 excavat$4 ,?is sy/em 9 moss peat l& is *eap] & bett] ?an tile or r\gh /one dra9s1 z !y (t5 settle unequally4 ,! und]nea? dra9 w n close up provid$ ! excavat$ turf is c>efully deposit$1 & wat] w n dis9tegrate ! peat4 ,^! dra9s %\ld be cut ab\t #bj feet ap>t4 ,a m ext5sive sy/em may be necess>y1 & a comp>atively l>ge area may be requir$ to be dra9$ 9 ord] to obta9 a firm f\ndation & to prev5t break+ away ( ! gr\nd4 ,9 su* ev5t ! fir/ dra9 on ea* side p>allel to an embankm5t %\ld be at a di/ance f ! c5tre l9e ( ! =mation at lea/ equal to ! bottom wid? ( an embankm5t1 & z deep z ! soil w all[1 s z to dra9 ! l& )9 ! f5ces4 ,a cut %\ld also be made outside ! f5c+ at a di/ance ( n less ?an #aj feet f ! inside dra91 to cat* ! surface wat]s & prev5t _! fl[+ ^u ! enclos$ l&4 ,cross dra9s may be requir$ at int]vals ( f #ae to #ej feet accord+ to ! "* & dep? ( ! bog4 ,! sides ( ! op5 dra9s may require to be support$4 ,bran*es ( trees & r\gh fasc9e "w laid 9 !m h be5 us$ to an ext5t s z n to int]f]e ) ! fl[2 & :5 a spoil or f5ce bank has to be deposit$ x %\ld be made a reasonable di/ance f ! dra9s or !y may become clos$4 ,e ef=t %\ld be direct$ to make ! dra9age ( ! same degree ?r\gh\t ! area2 x is !re=e necess>y to "k :e!r ! wat] c be dis*>g$ into a *annel or adjac5t riv]1 or if ! bottom ( ! dra9s w be above ! g5]al wat]-dis*>ge level ( ! di/rict s z to prev5t ! gr\nd be+ 9 ! condition ( a sponge always full ( wat] & becom+ a float+ mass4 ,:5 ! peat soil is ( little dep? & re/s ^u s& or clay1 dra9age c be effect$ by side dra9s rea*+ to ! und]ly+ /ratum1 & ! dra9s c be op5 & be fill$ ) gravel to prev5t ! sides fall+ or ! bottom ris+4 ,few s]i\s slips w take place 9 bog-l& :5 ! precaution>y works nam$ 9 ?is *apt] are m or less execut$2 subsid5ce is !n ! *ief difficulty4 ,x _c be entirely prev5t$1 b x may be less5$4 ,x is frequ5tly v consid]able1 dep5d+ pr9cipally ^u ! dep?1 situation1 & "* ( ! deposit & ! proportion ( wat] 9 x4 ,deep bog-l&s ^u be+ dra9$ h subsid$ z mu* z #d to #e feet ! fir/ ye>1 & #aj to #ab feet ! second1 & 9 ! wor/ situations !y w cont9ue to subside until ! e>? is suffici5tly compact to support ! insi/5t weight1 & !y h sunk z mu* z #cj feet be=e ! gr\nd became consolidat$4 ,burnt balla/1 f9e gravel1 or s&y gravel1 is to be pref]r$ z balla/ ^u peat embankm5ts1 z af=d+ an ev5 coat+ & t5d+ to consolidate ! e>?1 :]eas brok5 rock balla/ breaks up ! surface1 z ! pieces are n uni=m 9 size & are fragm5t>y4 ,! co/ ( ma9t5ance on bog or m>%-l& is sure to be heavy = two or ?ree ye>s1 b !n ! road w g5]ally h become firm4 ,! *ief po9ts 9 ma9t5ance are to cause equal load+ & to promote ?or\gh dra9age4 ,baulks laid "u ! sleep]s1 or ! longitud9al sy/em ( p]man5t way1 is n advantage\s 9 s(t soil1 & ev5 %\ld a longitud9al be>] be plac$ ^u ! cross sleep]s ! road is difficult to lift or pack1 & less timb] w be requir$ by a r$uction ( ! di/ance betwe5 ! cross sleep]s4 ,! rail jo9ts %\ld also be /iff5$ s z to make ! dep? ( ! undulations consequ5t ^u ! passage ( a tra9 z regul> z possible1 & ! numb] ( ! sleep]s c be increas$ ) ?is object4 ,! su/a9+ p[] ( peat moss1 & peat :i* is sometimes f\nd "u a b$ ( gravel & ^u a sub/ratum ( clay or m>l2 & bog-l& v>ies greatly4 ,z a rule high bog-l& w be> ! great] weight4 ,! only reliable me?od ( asc]ta9+ its su/a9+ capabilities is by an actual te/1 & su* exp]im5ts are ! m requisite 9 unreliable soils su* z mud & slake1 alluvial deposits1 peat & bog-l&4 ,x is kn[n t "s mossy peat & bog-l& w n ev5 resi/ ! weight ( a /one ( ord9>y size1 b w upheave & %ake ^u v little pressure be+ appli$4 ,by dra9+ & o!r consolidat+ op]ations su* l& may be r5d]$ capable ( su/a9+ a load if ! weight be spread ov] a consid]able area ^u a plat=m ( poles1 timb]1 or fasc9e "w1 z x !n z x 71 floats ^u ! surface2 b pil+ is n successful1 z ! piles disunite ! p>ticles1 de/roy ! cont9uity ( ! lay]s & make a passage = wat]4 ,! ela/icity ( bog-l& is manife/ ev5 :5 a road-b$ has become suffici5tly firm & ev5-be>+ = traffic1 by ! agitation ( ! wat] 9 any adjo9+ dra9s4 ,9 l[ bog-l&1 peat-moss1 or peat-l&1 x is important to asc]ta9 :e!r ! deposit ext5ds to a consid]able dep?1 z 9 ,holl& x has be5 f\nd t "s m>%es simply re/ ^u a b$ ( wat]1 be+ no?+ b float+ peat moss1 al?\gh hav+ z great a ?ickness z #bj feet4 ,x has also be5 notic$ t m>%-l&s (t5 re/ ^u peat mosses ) a small lay] or film ( loam ^u !m1 & t !y are float+ masses1 al?\gh ! wat] ^u :i* !y float may n be deep2 its dep? may be kn[n by ! ins]tion ( a b> or bor+-tool1 = :5 x s9ks sudd5ly x has probably rea*$ ! wat]1 & until its d[nw>d movem5t /ops x %[s t wat] exi/s4 ,peat bogs consi/ ( decompos$ mosses1 grasses1 aquatic plants1 & mud4 ,9 m\nta9\s di/ricts :5 !y are sup]impos$ ^u h>d or non-wea!r+ rock1 su* z qu>tz1 !y h little ?ickness2 if ^u clay rock1 or any t decomposes "u wea!r influ5ces1 !y are usually ( consid]able dep?4 ,z a rule1 ! great] ! specific gravity ( peat1 ! firm] x is & also ! d>k]4 ,! top lay]s are g5]ally ! mo/ fibr\s & ! drie/1 al?\gh spongy & conta9+ vegetable matt]1 & are ( a light br[n col\r1 & ( less specific gravity ?an ! next deposit1 :i* is ( a d>k] br[n t9t1 & is d5s] & m decompos$2 ! peat !n becomes br[n black or black 9 hue & approa*es a coaly condition4 ,compact turf usually conta9s little wat]1 b %\ld x be ( a mossy nature x is g5]ally saturat$4 ,wet bog1 peat1 or moorl& may conta9 z mu* z #hj p] c5t4 ( wat]1 & any soil hav+ s l>ge a proportion mu/ necess>ily subside & *ange ^u be+ ?or\ghly & regul>ly dra9$1 & h its be>+ p[] increas$ 9 a ratio approximate to ! p]c5tage ( wat] 9 x be=e dra9+ & t aft] su* op]ation has be5 effect$1 o!r conditions be+ simil>4 ,! dep? & "* ( ! top lay]s w indicate ! be/ me?od ( proc$ure1 & :e!r x is advisable to excavate !m & deposit an embankm5t ^u ! l[] & firm] b$4 ,9 ,holl&1 :]e ! peat is sup]impos$ ^u s&y soil1 9 ord] to prev5t slips 9 embankm5ts x is f\nd advisable to excavate a tr5* ab\t #ae to #bj feet 9 wid? & z wide z ! =mation wid? ( a railway or road1 until x rea*es ! subsoil1 & to fill x ) s&2 & :5 an embankm5t has to be =m$ ( v por\s e>?1 to make a tr5* at ! toe ( ea* slope1 & to fill x ) s& s z to act z a c\nt]=t4 ,peat & s& h be5 f\nd to lat]ally spread ! mo/1 clay & s& less1 & !re=e ! latt] soil /&s at a /eep] slope4 ,on ! ,s\? ,au/rian sy/em ( railways m>%-l& has be5 made firm1 & mal>ia-fev] almo/ annihilat$ by deposit+ a%es ov] ! e>?4 ,:5 !y are mix$ ) ! bog or swamp deposit1 x is f\nd t !y cause x to become f]tile4 ,peaty soils & peat bogs1 :i* latt] x %\ld always be rememb]$ may be almo/ float+ ^u wat] & h a surface lay] ( vegetation & moss1 mu/ be diff]5tly treat$ to o!r s(t soils1 & ?or\gh dra9age may be economically impossible 9 deep deposits4 ,9 su* a situation1 z ! peat is alone capable ( be>+ ! pressure1 x %\ld n be di/urb$ or ! p>ticles disunit$1 = ! cont9uity ( ! lay]s w !n be de/roy$1 & probably cause an upw>d fl[ or o!r passage ( wat] ^u pressure be+ appli$4 ,?is /ate is frequ5tly met ) :]e inl& wat]s h exi/$1 z 9 t case ! peat moss cov]+ has sunk1 ! depression dep5d+ ^u ! dep? ( ! peat und]nea? x & ! di/ance at :i* ! firm gr\nd is rea*$4 ,x is1 !re=e1 advisable to asc]ta9 ?is1 z !n "s idea ( ! probable subsid5ce may be kn[n4 ,! sy/em ( a plat=m ( poles1 hurdles1 or fasc9e-"w is well kn[n1 & has be5 prov$ to be effectual 9 prev5t+ any dang]\s lat]al or v]tical movem5t4 ,s&1 f9e gravel1 a%es1 or o!r b9d+ mat]ial1 spread ov] ! surface ( peat consolidates x & assi/s 9 prev5t+ movem5t1 & x is well if su* a cov]+ ext5ds = "s di/ance 9 front & at ! sides ( an embankm5t to keep ! gr\nd f ris+4 ,^u s(t soil1 a ?ick lay] ( clean s&1 well wett$ & consolidat$1 #e feet or m 9 dep?1 has be5 us$ 9 lieu ( piles = =m+ a b$ ^u :i* to deposit a ,portl& cem5t concrete f\ndation to receive heavy masonry pi]s ( a bridge1 & at mu* less exp5se & ) great] exp$ition1 & no slip or subsid5ce ( ! gr\nd has occurr$4 ,x is obvi\s ! e>? %\ld be deposit$ 9 ev5 lay]s1 simil>ly to ! g5]al me?od ( clos+ reclamation embankm5ts f ! bottom upw>ds2 /ag+ is1 !re=e1 necess>y = ! waggons to run ^u & dis*>ge _! cont5ts1 b piles %\ld n be driv51 z !y di/urb & upheave ! e>? & d n consolidate any soil4 ,a successful sy/em ( deposit+ embankm5ts ( bog or peat e>? is to ?or\ghly cut up1 pun1 & tread d[n ! soil 9 ord] t x may n %r9k 9 cakes4 ,if an embankm5t subsides & mu/ be rais$1 only light e>? or mat]ial %\ld be us$4 8,=m+0 or embankm5ts ( little height are usually made f ! dra9 excavation1 & :5 m e>? is requir$ ! out] dit*es are wid5$ & deep5$ s t ! f5c$-9 l& is made z firm z possible ^u :i* a railway or a road has to be ma9ta9$4 ,fasc9e mattresses1 to prev5t slips & subsid5ce 9 an embankm5t 9 v s(t gr\nd1 su* z loose s&1 are to be recomm5d$1 & exp]i5c$ eng9e]s h express$ _! belief t !y are ! be/ means ( procur+ a firm f\ndation & secur+ x f sc\r 9 loose s&y & s(t deposits2 & _! employm5t may become necess>y :5 ! e>? is v wet1 & ! cont\r ( ! di/rict r5d]s effective dra9age or consolidation ( ! soil difficult or impracticable4 ,%\ld ! gr\nd aft] dra9age be only damp1 bru%wood1 or hea!r1 s laid z to (f] ! firme/ & mo/ ev5 b$ may be suffici5t2 & if s& c be us$ ) x1 x is v advantage\s2 b ! fasc9e or a m solid me?od ( di/ribut+ weight may h to be adopt$4 ,fasc9es %\ld be laid ov] ! :ole base ( an embankm5t & ext5d "s little di/ance ^u ea* side1 beyond ! toe ( ! slope1 & be made /rong] accord+ to ! load !y h to support1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 increases t[>ds ! c5tre ( an embankm5t1 :]e x is greate/1 9 ord] to prev5t _! break+ ap>t & becom+ deta*$4 ,9 peaty soils an embankm5t %\ld be =m$ ( light dry mat]ials1 be spread out1 h equal be>+1 & be ( z little height z possible1 & all holl[s & depressions %\ld be c>efully fill$4 ,! wor/ /ate ( peaty or bog soils ^u :i* an embankm5t has to be tipp$ is :5 !y are no bett] ?an a float+ mass4 ,:]e a /ratum ( s\nd firm soil1 su* z gravel1 lies ^u a s(t b$ ( great dep?1 by increas+ ! be>+ area ^u ! firm e>? & n int]f]+ ) x1 a /able f\ndation = an embankm5t may be obta9$4 ,9 su* a case a cutt+ %\ld be avoid$1 = if c>e be tak5 n to impair or injure ! firm top lay] x may /& )\t s]i\s subsid5ce1 b "u o!r conditions x w\ld be un/able1 & :5 a s(t /ratum is affect$ & its natural condition alt]$1 x may be v difficult to re/ore x to a /ate ( p]man5t equilibrium 9 consequ5ce ( x be+ 9 almo/ a con/ant /ate ( mutation4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,deposition ,,( ,,an ,,embankm5t4--,,prep>ation ,,( ,,! ,,gr\nd ,,^u ,,:i* ,,an ,,embankm5t ,,has ,,to ,,be ,,deposit$4--,,me?ods ,,( ,,proc$ure4--,,consid]ation ,,( ,,"s ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,sy/ems4--,,! ,,effect ,,( ,,! ,,height ,,( ,a ,,tip ,,& ,,! ,,l5g? ,,( ,a ,,lead4--,,! ,,/eam ,,navvy ,,& ,,embankm5ts4 ,) reg>d to ! deposition ( an embankm5t1 "o ( ! *ief objects to be accompli%$ is to make x homog5e\s & prev5t ! =mation ( solid lay]s1 :i* may become deta*$ along ! l9e ( /ratification f less compact /rata4 ,c>eless & int]mitt5t tipp+ conduct$ 9 dry & wet wea!r & ) diff]5t k9ds ( e>?1 probably 9 v>i\s conditions1 w cause slips & subsid5ces2 z also any local di/urbance ( ! soil1 :i* is always m por\s & absorb5t ( wat] ?an :5 9 its natural unexcavat$ /ate1 al?\gh x may be free f wat]-pressure :i* may exi/ 9 a cutt+3 & p>ticul>ly s :5 fre%-tipp$1 z !n ! pressure & /ra9 ^u x is at ! maximum1 its t5d5cy to un/abl5ess gradually decreas+ z x becomes consolidat$4 ,9 h>d granul> soils ?is is almo/ c]ta9ly ! case1 b consequ5t ^u p]colation ( wat] into a mass deposit$ 9 a dry /ate t exp&s2 x may n be s 9 alum9\s or o!r e>? hav+ p>ticles affect$ by moi/ure1 = an additional or an unequal load aft] a settlem5t may cause fur!r movem5t & irregul> d5sity4 ,9 c\ntries :]e ! gr\nd becomes cak$ or p>*$ dur+ ! dry season1 ! *ange to a wet or saturat$ condition affects !m mu* m ?an 9 v>iable climates1 z !y are !n g5]ally 9 a moi/ /ate4 ,x is easy to decree t no embankm5t %all be made ( any e>? ( a trea*]\s "*1 if ! circum/ances are kn[n to conduce to in/ability1 & to rigidly specify :at %all be done & :at %all n be done1 b ! exig5cies ( an und]tak+ may cause su* /ipulations to be impracticable4 ,= in/ance1 x may be f\nd t no o!r e>? may be available except t :i* is proscrib$4 ,no "o ) a k ( e>?work w\ld desire to erect an embankm5t ( consid]able height ( yell[ or s&y clay1 or excavate a deep cutt+ 9 su* soil unless a consid]able all[ance be made to provide aga9/ cont+5cies2 nev]!less1 x has to be done1 & w h to be done4 ,! precisianism & delicate ref9em5t ( a specification replete ) good int5tions has1 !re=e1 v frequ5tly to be ton$ d[n 9 ord] to all[ ( ! execution ( "w4 ,x is obvi\s ! c>e t is be/[$ ^u a res]voir embankm5t1 su* z ! damp+1 punn+1 roll+1 mix+ ( ! mat]ial1 & rais+ x 9 lay]s1 is n necess>y 9 a railway or ord9>y embankm5t2 h[ev]1 c]ta9 precautions %\ld be obs]v$ & may be effect$ at a small co/1 & x is well to rememb] t errors ( con/ruction w cause undue /ra9 ^u p>ticul> p>ts4 ,a fruitful cause ( a slip or subsid5ce 9 an embankm5t is ! v>iation ( ! "* & condition ( ! tipp$ e>?4 ,x seldom happ5s t ! soil ( a cutt+ ( consid]able ext5t is ! same ?r\gh\t 9 "* & condition2 & ! e>? 9 an embankm5t tipp$ at "o end may be diff]5t to t deposit$ at ! o!r1 & !re=e ! po9t ( contact ( ! two e>?s w probably be tr\blesome4 ,:5 a seam ( un/able soil occurs 9 a clay cutt+1 x %\ld n be tipp$ b be run to spoil4 ,su* lay]s are usually ( small ext5t1 yet 9 an embankm5t !y may cause portions to run 9 ra9y or fro/y wea!r4 ,side cutt+s are a protection aga9/ slips 9 embankm5ts :5 !y are suffici5tly f> f ! toe ( ! slope1 z !y =m dra9age *annels1 b ! excavation be+ top soil is loose & por\s1 !re=e1 :5 ! l[] portion ( an embankm5t is made f side cutt+ & ! upp] f a cutt+1 ! firm mat]ial may be at ! top & ! m op5 e>? at ! base2 consequ5tly1 if an embankm5t 9 soil ( a d\btful "* mu/ be p>tly con/ruct$ f side cutt+ & p>tly f cutt+1 especial c>e is requir$ 9 =m+ x s z to prev5t slips & subsid5ce1 & also1 9 excavat+ any gr\nd = su* purposes1 x is advisable n to int]f]e ) any dit*es1 or jo9 !m1 z by conc5tration a /ream may be creat$4 ,9 c\ntries :]e l& is ( little value1 contractor's plant exp5sive1 n to be obta9$ 9 ! di/rict1 & c>riage co/ly1 embankm5ts 9 mo/ cases c be m *eaply & quickly deposit$ f side cutt+ ?an cutt+1 ! excavation f ! latt] be+ run to spoil in/ead ( tipp$ by waggons into ! embankm5t1 !re=e1 _! erection by su* means becomes imp]ative = reasons ( economy4 ,9 deposit+ embankm5ts x is well to rememb] t exp]i5ce has prov$ t mat]ials uni=m 9 size & homog5e\s 9 "* =m ! mo/ compact & imp5etrable masses4 ,! great /ability ( breakwat]s =m$ ( mat]ials ( uni=m size & ! firmness ( macadamiz$ roads are pro(s ( ?is4 ,! same rule applies to soils4 ,x is ! sep>ation ( ! l>g] bodies f ! small] t causes a want ( cohesiv5ess & weight-su/a9+ p[]4 ,to prev5t embankm5ts ( little height z 9 8=m+10 spread+1 slipp+ or wea!r+1 z !y are usually con/ruct$ f side cutt+ & loose top soil1 ! sods ov] ! site ( ! side cutt+ %\ld be remov$ & a turf wall be made ( !m on ea* side ( ! =mation1 ! excavation be+ deposit$ )9 !m1 :5 x w settle equally & become consolidat$1 ! wall prev5t+ x spread+ & also sav+ exp5se 9 ma9t5ance4 ,9 an embankm5t ( s(t e>? t wea!rs quickly1 ! tipp$ mat]ial %\ld be all[$ to take its natural slope1 & !n e ef=t %\ld be made to prev5t its equilibrium be+ de/roy$4 ,:]e heavy & sudd5 ra9fall occurs ! edges ( ! =mation h be5 purposely tipp$ & ma9ta9$ f #f to #ab in*es above ! height ( ! c5tre1 9 ord] to prev5t dur+ con/ruction gutt]s or erod$ *annels be+ =m$ ^u ! slopes1 ! c5tral portion be+ dra9$ & ! wat] l$ away4 ,h[ev]1 aque\s action may n delet]i\sly affect e>? :5 tipp$ into an embankm5t not)/&+ t ! soil _c be made 9 ! same /ate z be=e excavation1 & t deposit$ mat]ial is m op5 & subject to p]colation ?an ! solid unexcavat$ e>?2 on ! o!r h&1 al?\gh ! p]colation & degree ( exposure to ! atmosph]e are great]1 9 "s soils ?is may t5d to dra9 & r5d] !m h>d] & m /able4 ,9 fact1 special circum/ances may alt] ! g5]al behavi\r ( any e>?1 b ! mat]ial =m+ an embankm5t %\ld be reg>d$ z 9 ! same condition z if x _h be5 expos$ to meteorological influ5ces1 & x %\ld be rememb]$ t 9 railway1 dock1 or canal works ! deposit$ e>? is seldom uni=m ?r\gh\t1 x be+ ei!r s(t at "o place & h>d at ano!r1 or int]mix$ 9 a mann] unkn[n 9 nature1 & t exceptionally difficult cases may occur :i* c h>dly be treat$ by any p>ticul> me?od ( proc$ure or ev5 9 ! way :i* exp]i5ce has prov$ to be effectual 9 sev]al in/ances 9 simil> soils "u app>5tly l conditions4 ,! sy/em ( tipp+ has "s influ5ce ^u ! /ability ( an embankm5t & ! prev5tion ( slips & subsid5ces4 ,! fir/ op]ation is ! prep>ation ( ! gr\nd ^u :i* an embankm5t w be deposit$4 ,solid hillocks or firm m\nds t 9 any way t5d to arre/ motion %\ld n be remov$1 b vegetable or bu% gr[? %\ld be de/roy$1 & :]e slips & subsid5ces are likely to occur1 turf & all s(t soapy matt] %\ld be /ripp$ s t ! deposit$ e>? re/s ^u a s\nd /ratum4 ,9 ! dyke c\ntries ( ,nor? ,we/ ,europe1 be=e an embankm5t is deposit$1 c>e is tak5 to remove all trees & roots s z to effect a ?or\gh connection betwe5 ! gr\nd & ! e>? =m+ ! embankm5t4 ,x is well if ! gr\nd be pl\gh$1 rak$1 or h>r[$1 s z to (f] a r\gh & simil> surface to ! tipp$ mat]ial1 & also to obviate any arre/ ( ! p]colation ( wat]1 :i* ^u rea*+ a turf or smoo? or less p]meable surface1 may =m a wat] seam at ! foot ( an embankm5t4 ,x may n be necess>y to /rip ! turf = ! full wid? ( ! base ( an embankm5t1 b only = "s #bj feet f ! toe ( ! slope on ea* side4 ,z ! e>? is b>$ x %\ld be cov]$ 9 ord] n to expose x to ! wea!r1 = %\ld ! surface be coat$ ) mud1 wat] w accumulate1 z x _c dra9 away or evaporate z quickly z :5 ! gr\nd at ! seat is laid b>e2 & also if ! top soil be m]e du/ moi/ure w conv]t x into mud4 ,:5 ! surface ( ! gr\nd is incl9$ x c be b5*$ or b>$1 & x is op5 to "q :e!r b>+ & h>r[+ ! surface is n a bett] practice ?an b5*+1 z x gives uni=m support & increases friction & prev5ts a slid+ surface1 & is g5]ally a quick] & *eap] me?od to adopt z ! soil ne$ n be s prep>$ = a great] dep? ?an #f to #i in*es4 ,b5*+ may be ! bett] sy/em to adopt1 9 loose & non-cohesive e>?s :i* require support to prev5t roll+1 b x mu/ be c>efully made ) ! necess>y slopes & incl9ation ( cess to prev5t a localization ( wat]1 or ! l$ges may slip & c>ry away ! mat]ial deposit$ ^u !m4 ,! gr\nd at ! seat ( an embankm5t c also be prep>$ by pl\gh+ ov] x & remov+ ! di/urb$ e>? ) a scrap]4 ,! dra9age ( ! gr\nd is mo/ important 9 ord] t wat] _c rea* ! seat ( an embankm5t4 ,_m sy/ems are ref]r$ to 9 ,*apt] ,,iv41 & o!rs are h]e9 nam$4 ,a complete sy/em ( dra9s may be necess>y1 b mu* dep5ds ^u ! "* & s\nd condition ( ! e>? & :e!r ! slopes & =mation are protect$4 ,simply cov]+ ! :ole area ( ! seat1 or t ^u :i* ! base ( ! slopes re/s1 ) brok5 /one obta9$ f ! cutt+s may suffice1 ! /one be+ s deposit$ t wat] fl[s f ! c5tre to ! sides1 ) a r\gh dra9 "h & !re1 or c5tral1 diagonal1 & lat]al dra9s may be requir$2 b ! pressure ( ! deposit$ e>? frequ5tly causes l& spr+s to issue 9 ! seat ( an embankm5t1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* 0 n conjectur$1 h5ce ! effect ( tipp+ %\ld be wat*$4 ,slips & subsid5ces are induc$ 9 embankm5ts by ! mat]ial be+ deposit$ :5 ! soil is dry1 & 9 e /ate ( humidity f dampness to saturation2 consequ5tly ! e>? settles unequally1 is d5s] 9 p>ts1 & a /ratification is caus$ z if x 7 compos$ ( dissimil> e>?s4 ,%\ld any soil be deposit$ 9 ! same condition ?r\gh\t1 & be punn$ or ramm$ 9 lay]s1 x becomes z ne> its orig9al texture z is possible to quickly atta92 b 9 deposit+ railway embankm5ts1 :i* _c be punn$ or ramm$1 ! p]fect incorporation ( any soil is n effect$ by ! simple op]ation ( tipp+ f a spurn head1 & /ratification ( e>? is disadvantage\s1 inasmu* z ! lay]s may n be homog5e\s1 & 9 railway embankm5ts are1 ) a few exceptions1 9 a diff]5t /ate ow+ to *anges 9 ! "* ( ! soil1 ! effects ( wea!r1 mode ( excavation1 & 9 a less] degree ! height & l5g? ( ! lead or di/ance f ! cutt+ to ! tip2 ! /ratification1 !re=e1 becomes v>i$ & irregul>1 & depressions are =m$ :i* may hold wat]1 & none %\ld be p]mitt$ to accumulate 9 or ^u a fre%ly tipp$ embankm5t1 = !n x is 9 its mo/ p]meable condition1 & 9 ret5tive soil especially ! exi/5ce ( a wet place may cause x to become s det]iorat$ t x _c be made /able )\t be+ dra9$1 & :5 ! e>? is liable to become alt]nately v wet & dry1 e means mu/ be tak5 to less5 ! delet]i\s effects4 ,provid$ an embankm5t is tipp$ ( "o k9d ( e>?1 al?\gh x w be 9 a m op5 /ate ?an ! solid unexcavat$ gr\nd1 ! slopes giv5 to x are flatt] ?an ! angle ( repose1 ! weight br\ght ^u x does n exce$ ! safe load1 t x is deposit$ ^u level gr\nd 9 regul> & equal p>ticles & ! soil ( ord9>y "*1 !re is no reason t x %\ld slip or subside unequally if x be n und]m9$ by aque\s action4 ,"u ^! conditions settlem5t w\ld be equal1 or ne>ly s1 & z all deep embankm5ts mu/ necess>ily subside f ab\t #aj to #dj p] c5tum1 & 9 extreme cases "o-half1 ! object to be ga9$ is to cause ! settlem5t to be ev5 & regul> t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,b5*+ ! gr\nd s z to prev5t a movem5t ( ! toe1 does n aid equal settlem5t nor keep ! portion ( an embankm5t above ! level ( ! gr\nd f spread+1 except f ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! cohesion & friction ( ! soil2 :]eas1 if ! gr\nd slopes inw>ds t[>ds ! c5tre ! e>? has a t5d5cy to re/ & come toge!r1 & !re=e n to slip ^u ! slopes4 ,?is sy/em is subsequ5tly ref]r$ to4 ,all saturat$ or wet e>? %\ld1 if practicable1 be run to spoil1 b x is n easily effect$1 z x _c well be fill$ into "o waggon ( a set1 = x may be pres5t ?r\gh\t ! :ole surface ( a cutt+1 nor 9 v>iable wea!r c op]ations be conv5i5tly susp5d$ until ! expos$ faces ( a cutt+ are dry1 b means are g5]ally available by :i* any s]i\s det]ioration may be less5$4 ,no turf1 m\ld1 mud1 peat-moss1 s(t pa/y e>?1 froz5 soil1 or sn[1 %\ld be deposit$ 9 an embankm5t1 b only firm e>?2 & no solid lumps ( l>ge size int]mix$ ) %ovell$ mat]ial unless !y are brok5 up & trimm$ :5 tipp$1 z ! absorption ( wat] w be great] 9 ! e>? hav+ ! small] p>ticles2 & %\ld x happ5 t sev]al waggon-loads ( su* mat]ial are tipp$ & are succe$$ by o!rs conta9+ l>ge lumps1 an embankm5t _c be a homog5e\s mass1 b w consi/ ( m or less consolidat$ portions 9 a comp>atively dry /ate1 & o!rs :i* are less imp]vi\s & !re=e m subject to ! effects ( wat] & settlem5t4 ,all sn[ or froz5 soil or muddy e>? %\ld be cle>$ away f ! spurn head1 & if x c be avoid$ no mat]ial %\ld be tipp$ 9 bad wea!r4 ,) respect to ! loos5+ ( ! soil by ! process ( tipp+1 tak+ into consid]ation t railway embankm5ts are almo/ inv>iably =m$ 9 masses ( #b1 #c1 or #d cubic y>ds1 accord+ to ! capacity ( a waggon1 x is obvi\s almo/ ! :ole bulk has be5 di/urb$1 & t ! condition ( ! solid e>? 9 a cutt+ is n ma9ta9$1 = ! soil 9 addition to be+ unb\nd by ! process ( excavation1 ca/+ into waggons1 & %ak+ dur+ transition1 is eject$ ) =ce d[n ! slope ( ! tip1 ! impetus hav+ to be disp]s$4 ,x is c]ta9 ! size ( e>? waggons _c conv5i5tly be mu* increas$1 & t little w\ld be ga9$ if a cubic y>d or two 7 add$ to _! cont5ts2 & t ! high] an embankm5t ! great] ! velocity ( ! soil d[n ! slope ( ! tip & ! loos5+ action :i* causes ! e>? to be light] & to take a flatt] slope ?an :5 deposit$ 9 lay]s f a mod]ate height1 also ! great] ! l5g? ( ! lead1 ! great] ! vibration & agitation4 ,9 ! case ( c]ta9 soils ! p>ticles ( :i* become s(t or dissolv$ :5 9 a wet /ate1 su* z s&y clay1 loamy soil1 & "s v>ieties ( clay1 vide ,*apt] ,,ii41 ! effect ( a long lead or ev5 a %ort "o w be t ! m solid portion ( ! cont5ts ( a waggon w settle1 leav+ ! loose or mud at ! top1 & :5 a waggon is tipp$ ! loose top 8slurry0 w roll d[n ! tip almo/ z a fluid & proce$ beyond ! spurn head1 ?us mak+ a wet slid+ surface1 ! bottom toil frequ5tly rema9+ 9 ! waggons & requir+ to be excavat$ f x4 ,no?+ c be done 9 su* a case b wait until ! e>? has _h "t to dry1 or pref]ably ! wet mud %\ld be run to spoil4 ,9 fact a long lead1 especially :5 aid$ by deposition f a consid]able height1 w cause friable soil possess+ p>ticles readily impair$ or dissolv$ 9 wat] to become du/ :5 9 a dry /ate1 or mud if saturat$4 ,! gradi5ts & leads *iefly det]m9e ! mann] 9 :i* e>?work c be economically execut$1 & are1 9 great measure1 gov]n$ by ! configuration & roads ( ! c\ntry2 !re=e1 x w usually happ5 t ! l5g? ( ! lead _c be r$uc$1 & ! only res\rce is to less5 ! height ( ! tip1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! mom5tum ( ! e>? d[n ! slope1 & to r$uce ! incl9ation ( ! tempor>y road at ! tip head to t suffici5t to cause ! cont5ts ( a waggon to be freely eject$ & no m4 ,?is _c be effect$ at ! same co/ z deposit+ an embankm5t to ! full height1 al?\gh 9 ! case ( an uphill lead a d[n gradi5t ^u :i* ! waggons w run freely by =ce ( gravity c be made f ! comm5cem5t ( a cutt+ to ! requir$ wid?1 ! embankm5t be+ rais$ to its desir$ height )\t extra exp5se b assum+ ! case ( an embankm5t #fj feet 9 height1 & t 9 ord] to make x z d5se & firm z possible x has to be tipp$ 9 ?ree heights av]ag+ #bj feet1 x involves ! lay+1 ma9ta9+1 & removal ( ?ree tempor>y roads in/ead ( "o1 & _c be erect$ )\t extra exp5diture4 ,! l>ge majority ( railway embankm5ts h be5 deposit$ to ! full height & wid?1 & !y /&2 al?\gh ! effect ( tipp+ loose soil ^u loose soil1 :i* has n _h "t to consolidate1 is at ea* addition to cause a movem5t ( ! surface4 ,x is obvi\s ! high] ! tip ! great] ! di/urbance1 b x may be said 9 firm & h>d granul> e>?1 if always dry1 ?is unb9d+1 al?\gh tempor>ily a di/urb+ elem5t1 may really t5d to produce ultimate homog5eity & /ability2 on ! o!r h&1 9 tipp+ dry clay f a consid]able height x (t5 sep>ates & becomes loose & m]e du/4 ,9 an embankm5t ( mod]ate height ! day's excavation f a cutt+ w increase its l5g? sev]al y>ds1 & ! mat]ial f ea* set ( waggons w only be expos$ to ! wea!r = a %ort "t4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 a high embankm5t1 ! effect ( ! deposition ( ! cont5ts ( a set ( waggons ^u ! tip head is h>dly p]ceptible1 & is1 until ! toe ( ! slope is approa*$1 ! sup]imposition ( a ?9 lay] ( e>? :i* a %[] ( ra9 c conv]t into mud or cause to be 9 a s(t or disunit$ condition1 especially 9 ! case ( soils hav+ easily soluble p>ticles4 ,! det]iorat+ influ5ce ( high deposition may be judg$ f ! clos+ ( an embankm5t ( consid]able height1 z x is (t5 a t$i\s & some:at anxi\s und]tak+1 z might be expect$ f excavat$1 %ak51 & loos5$ e>? be+ deposit$ ^u soil 9 a simil> condition1 in/ead ( ^u ! solid gr\nd l ! o!r portions ( an embankm5t4 ,also wat] frequ5tly p]colates & trickles d[n ! approa*+ slopes1 & p5etrates !m & loos5s ! soil1 :]eas if "o tip is proce$+1 any surface wat]s may fl[ away ^u ! slope & ! solid gr\nd1 & ! e>? has "t to become 9 a simil> /ate ?r\gh\t4 ,to less5 ^! dis9tegrat+ effects1 if x c be done )\t int]f]+ ) ! due progress ( ! works1 x is well to all[ "o tip end to consolidate = "s "t1 & to complete ! closure ( ! embankm5t solely f ! o!r1 suitable means be+ adopt$ to effect a firm junction4 ,%\ld clos+ f a s+le tip head be impracticable1 ! e>? f ! meet+ po9t ( ! toe ( ! slopes ( ! tip heads %\ld be simil> 9 "* & be deposit$ 9 ! same condition2 9 any case additional c>e %\ld be tak5 to adopt e reasonable precaution to secure equal consolidation4 ,z evid5ce ( ! dissipation ( e>? at & ne> to ! junction ( two high tip heads may be /at$ t !y require m mat]ial to close !m ?an w\ld appe> to be necess>y f a computation bas$ ^u measurem5ts tak5 f cross sections4 ,9 non-granul> e>?s few cases w occur 9 :i* high tipp+ is an advantage2 "o ( ! few is :5 loose rock & firm e>? are deposit$1 !n ! rock hav+ l>g] p>ticles1 & consequ5tly be+ heavi]1 w roll to ! foot ( ! tip be=e ! small] mat]ial1 & s =m a brok5 /one seat = ! embankm5t4 ,9 granul> e>?s1 su* z gravel or s&1 ! height ( a tip head is n a matt] requir+ mu* c>eful att5tion1 z ! p>ticles are n delet]i\sly affect$ by wat]4 ,:5 !y are ( ne>ly equal size1 an embankm5t w settle equally1 b 9 gravelly s& ! /one w sep>ate to "s ext5t dur+ transit & ! process ( deposition w be at ! base2 a v>y+ slope may !n be assum$1 & x may "h be nam$ t x is kn[n :5 s& is diff]5tly deposit$1 al?\gh its appe>ance is unalt]$1 x w ex]t dissimil> ?ru/s4 ,an embankm5t ( little height may be deposit$ 9 bad wea!r )\t slipp+ or subsid5ce1 b :5 a high embankm5t is simil>ly tipp$ ! surface ( ! e>? is 9 an unfit /ate1 & op]ations %\ld be susp5d$ = a few days4 ,) reg>d to ! sy/ems ( tipp+ & ! prev5tion ( slips1 z a g5]al rule an embankm5t %\ld be deposit$ to ! full wid?1 = if x be n erect$ at "o op]ation ! e>? may be ( a diff]5t "* 9 div]se conditions1 & w be m expos$ to ! vicissitudes ( wea!r2 & 9 wide embankm5ts1 %\ld ! sy/em be adopt$ ( tipp+ two out] roads & "o c5tral road1 ! ?ree tips %\ld equally proce$ 9 ord] t ! e>? may be 9 a simil> /ate & be subject to equal exposure2 or wea!r$ surfaces w be creat$ d[n :i* wat] w m easily p]colate ?an ?r\gh ! solid mass4 ,9 ! ?ree tip sy/em ! two sides h a t5d5cy to lean t[>ds ea* o!r1 & cause ! greate/ pressure to be ^u ! inn] mat]ial dur+ con/ruction1 & !re=e ! embankm5t is suppos$ to be m consolidat$ & less likely to slip2 b1 unless ! conditions are exactly simil>1 ! advantage ( ?is arrangem5t is m fanciful ?an real1 = %\ld ! inside slopes ( ! out] roads meet fir/1 ! e>? deposit$ f ! c5tre tip has n an equal di/ance to desc5d &1 !re=e1 ! mass has n be5 tipp$ f ! same height1 ! loos] mat]ial1 tempor>ily or p]man5tly1 be+ ^u ! out] tips & ! d5s] 9 ! c5tre2 :]eas ! slopes1 be+ ! mo/ expos$1 %\ld be ! m compact1 & :5 !y settle t[>ds ! c5tre )\t an outw>d movem5t at ! foot1 s mu* ! bett] = ! /ability ( ! embankm5t4 ,! pressure ^u ! seat is m regul> :5 x is deposit$ to ! full wid?1 z weight is !n n irregul>ly add$1 probably aft] "s settlem5t4 ,in/ead ( divid+ ! tips into two out] roads & "o c5tral road1 & 9 t way endeav\r+ to obta9 p]man5t /ability1 x is bett] to dim9i% ! height ! e>? has to be ca/1 & to deposit x z f> z practicable 9 lifts1 & to ! full wid?4 ,9 trea*]\s soils su* z "s ( ! clays1 embankm5ts t w\ld n /& at a dep? ( #cj feet h be5 p]man5tly /able :5 ! seat 0 dra9$1 & !y 7 tipp$ 9 lifts ( #ae to #bj feet 9 s(t clay1 & #bj to #be feet 9 firm] clay1 at d\ble ! height at :i* !y previ\sly slipp$4 ,?is me?od involves ! exp5se ( mov+ ! tempor>y roads1 b all[s m "t = subsid5ce1 & ! mass ( an embankm5t is n s expos$ to ! wea!r2 h[ev]1 9 a dry season1 an embankm5t c (t5 be tipp$ to ! full height1 :]eas 9 wet or *angeable wea!r x w\ld n /& if s deposit$1 & two lifts may be requir$4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! wid? is always suffici5t to receive ! top lift4 ,x is m 9 ! direction ( equally r$uc+ ! height ! mat]ial has to be tipp$1 especially 9 trea*]\s soils1 t solidity is to be atta9$1 ?an 9 an attempt to consolidate e>? by endeav\r+ to cause x to fall toge!r by deposition f two or m sep>ate p>allel roads at ! same level4 ,_m slips & failures ( embankm5ts h be5 caus$ by ! c5tral portion be+ deposit$ ( "o mat]ial1 su* z clay1 & ! slopes aft]w>ds made ( a diff]5t e>?1 z rock4 ,! latt] w !n slip ^u ! greasy surface ( ! clay1 ! por\s nature ( ! brok5 rock readily admitt+ wat] & air4 ,9 fact1 a m flagrant example ( effect+ t :i* on no acc\nt %\ld be done is n easy to imag9e4 ,9 trea*]\s soil ! sy/em ( tipp+ an embankm5t wid] ?an t requir$ f consid]ations ( lat]al & v]tical settlem5t1 & all[+ x to /& at a /eep] slope ?an its p]man5t angle ( repose1 & p>+ d[n ! top unnecess>y wid? is n to be comm5d$1 z ! e>? is !n /ra9$1 & ! l[] portion is 9 ! loos] condition & ! toe ! weake/ "p3 h[ev]1 9 ! con/ruction ( a s+le l9e ( railway ) a n>r[ =mation wid?1 x is v conv5i5t z af=d+ room = roads = load$ & empty waggons1 & 9 any soils o!r ?an alum9\s & calc>e\s e>?s x may be done ) impunity1 provid$ all slimy & slipp]y surfaces are remov$4 ,no side tipp+ %\ld be all[$ 9 deposit+ a new embankm5t1 & any addition ( soil to a slope %\ld be avoid$ z mu* z practicable1 al?\gh 9 trimm+ "s fill+ may be necess>y1 b ! slopes %\ld be r\gh trimm$ by ! bank-head m5 z ! e>? is deposit$ s z to prev5t holl[s & depressions1 =m a comp>atively ev5 & regul> surface1 cause ! mass to be equally expos$ to ! wea!r1 & prev5t any lodgm5t ( wat]4 ,! =m a tip head naturally assumes w af=d "s indication ( ! /ability1 = %\ld x be regul> & approa* a semicircul> %ape x %[s ! e>? is ( a comp>atively uni=m "* & is subsid+ equally4 ,:5 x is unev5 & jagg$1 ) /reaks d[n ! tip1 x indicates unev5ness ( soil & condition4 ,circum/ances arise :i* necessitate a dep>ture f any g5]ally approv$ me?od1 = frequ5tly an embankm5t mu/ be wid5$ to provide = increas$ traffic1 & tipp+ ^u a consolidat$ surface mu/ be effect$4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 & ?is ref] to su* a condition ( "w4 ,x sometimes occurs :5 a slip has tak5 place t only a n>r[ tip c be adopt$1 z ! soil may n tempor>ily be able to be> ! weight ( a l>g] mass unless equally diffus$2 !n !re is no o!r reasonable c\rse to pursue ?an to complete an embankm5t to ! requir$ wid? & slopes by dry side-fill+1 su* z a%es1 brok5 bricks1 or o!r absorb5t firm mat]ial regul>ly & c>efully deposit$4 ,9 ord] to prev5t slips & subsid5ce & increase friction1 :5 an embankm5t mu/ be wid5$ by tipp+ ^u its side1 ! exi/+ slope %\ld be /ripp$ ( all turf or cov]+1 b only s z to leave no uncov]$ surface expos$ to ! wea!r2 & ! b>$ e>? %\ld be made to pres5t an ev5 surface4 ,:5 ! slope is b5*$1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! b5*+s d n localise wat]1 & t x _c p]colate d[n ! face ( ! old bank at its po9t ( junction ) ! new2 also 9 tipp+ an embankm5t ^u sidelong gr\nd or ^u ! slope ( an old bank1 ! seat %\ld be b>$1 p>ticul>ly on ! l[] side1 z ! e>? meets ) no resi/ance f ! gr\nd except f friction2 b ^u ! upp] side1 ! mat]ial be+ tipp$ p>tly aga9/ ! hill has a less di/ance to travel1 &1 !re=e1 ! upp] or less] slope is n s loose z ! l[] or long] slope1 :i* latt] is ! m likely to admit wat]1 & requires a flatt] incl9ation ?an ! d5s] portion ( ! embankm5t4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( o!r protective works1 x is advisable to =m on ! l[] side an e>? wall or c\nt]=t cov]$ ) turf at ! toe ( ! slope 9 advance ( ! tip1 & to make x ( ! h>de/ & l>ge/ mat]ial deposit$ & ) a f\ndation ^u b>$ soil1 z x is ! "p mo/ liable to injury4 ,?is is a simple precaution aga9/ slips1 & w save its co/ 9 less5+ ! exp5se ( repair+ & trimm+ ! slopes4 ,z ! /eam navvy or excavator has n[ become necess>y plant ^u mo/ l>ge public works1 & greatly accel]ates ! spe$ at :i* cutt+s c be execut$1 always provid$ ! excavation is n ( a trea*]\s nature1 & is 9 su* quantity t if n s us$ x w\ld h to be run to spoil1 _m n>r[ valleys 9 ! ne> future w probably be :olly or ne>ly clos$ ) an e>!n embankm5t1 !reby effect+ an important sav+ ( "t & exp5se2 or ! numb] ( spans ( a viaduct w be less5$1 & only made suffici5t to cross a road or all[ ! requir$ wat]way = a riv] or ! dis*>ge ( any dra9age or surface wat]s4 ,! t5d5cy1 !re=e1 w be to increase ! height ( embankm5ts ( e>?2 & 9 c\ntries :]e ! fir/ co/ ( an iron1 masonry1 or brickwork viaduct is too great1 & ! use ( timb] r5d]$ necess>y1 e>? embankm5ts1 except 9 trea*]\s soil or ^u s(t gr\nd1 are to be pref]r$ to wood5 pile & tre/le bridges or culv]ts1 ^: av]age life 9 ,am]ica1 :i* probably n[ possesses z _m z all o!r c\ntries1 is f eight to t5 ye>s1 & t ( timb] truss bridges n9e to elev5 ye>s4 ,9 addition to o!r recomm5dations1 ! /eam navvy usually excavates ! e>? 9 small pieces ( ne>ly uni=m size1 & z x w p]=m ! "w ( _m m5 x may be mo/ useful 9 trea*]\s soil1 z x may enable a cutt+ to be excavat$ 9 dry wea!r & be protect$ be=e ! comm5cem5t ( ! wet season4 ,! slopes %\ld be excavat$ 9 su* e>? z soon z possible aft] ! gullet has be5 remov$ s z to prev5t a slip1 & x may be necess>y to close-sleep] or consolidate ! gr\nd 9 ord] t ! weight ( ! ma*9e c be support$ ^u s(t gr\nd4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,notes ,,^u ,,! ,,location1 ,,pres]vation1 ,,& ,,protection ,,( ,,sea1 ,,e/u>y1 ,,reclamation1 ,,canal1 ,,& ,,res]voir ,,embankm5ts ,,( ,,e>? ,,con/ruct$ ,,to ,,conta9 ,,or ,,expel ,,wat]4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 c>e %\ld be tak5 9 det]m9+ ! site ( an embankm5t across an e/u>y t !re %all be no conc5tration or alt]ation ( ! g5]al direction ( ! curr5ts1 or sc\r+ action w be creat$2 = ! erosive & o!r delet]i\s effects ( wave action ^u a %ore are influ5c$ by ! angle at :i* !y are impell$ aga9/ x4 ,a prud5t c\rse to adopt is to c>efully pres]ve ! usual *annels by means ( bridges1 p>ticul>ly 9 gr\nd ( a loose "*1 su* z is usually f\nd 9 p>tly l&lock$ wat]s2 = if ! velocity is increas$1 ! e>? :i* has be5 deposit$ by ! orig9al curr5t be+ r$uc$ or imp$$ result+ 9 ! susp5d$ matt] 9 ! wat] fall+ to ! bottom1 w be subject to a =ce t w aga9 di/urb & cause x to return to its previ\s susp5sory condition2 & any di/urbance ( ! normal curr5ts may de/roy ! equilibrium ( /ability & alt] ! fl[1 & :5 !y are affect$ x may be mo/ difficult to re/ore !m to _! orig9al /ate1 = wat] w always endeav\r to obta9 ! easie/ *annel4 ,x is ess5tial to "k ! heavie/ flood dis*>ge ( any riv] t may fl[ into an e/u>y1 ! greate/ dep? & velocity ( ! riv]1 ! normal & flood *annels1 _! sectional area & direction1 & ! ext5t & %ape ( ! cat*m5t area1 s z to e/abli% ! requir$ op5+ to give ! natural wat]way2 = x is important n to int]f]e ) ! tidal capacity ( an e/u>y or ! volume or fl[ ( any upl& wat]s into ! sea1 z a navigable *annel may become fill$ ) silt1 especially :5 ! %ore is flat or s&banks exi/2 & ^u a s&y coa/ an embankm5t across an e/u>y ) op5+s = a navigable *annel w probably cause x to become difficult to navigate &1 p]haps1 impossible1 )\t con/ant dr$g+ & o!r works ( ma9t5ance1 z an embankm5t may ob/ruct & deflect ! curr5ts & prev5t !m c>ry+ away ! susp5d$ matt]4 ,an op5 viaduct in/ead ( an embankm5t is almo/ always to be pref]r$1 & may be necess>y2 = ! p[] ( a curr5t to sc\r or move p>ticles is greatly augm5t$ by a small increase ( ! velocity1 & ! e>? may be 9 su* a delicately balanc$ condition t any increase ( sc\r+ action may de/roy ! seat ( an embankm5t4 ,to prev5t leakage & sc\r ( ! base ( an embankm5t ne> a riv] re/+ ^u loose soil1 curta9 walls are sometimes ins]t$ ^u bo? sides ext5d+ to a consid]able dep?1 !reby af=d+ security aga9/ an embankm5t m]ely re/+ ^u a m\nd :i* may gradually erode1 ) ! result t x mu/ f9ally slip & be de/roy$2 & x may happ51 unless ! f\ndations are c>ri$ d[n into imp]vi\s soil1 t wat] may escape und]nea? & und]m9e x2 su* action is ob/ruct$ by c>ry+ ! slopes a few feet bel[ ! gr\nd s z to prev5t ?r\gh surface p]colation4 ,z a rule1 an embankm5t across an e/u>y ) "o or two op5+s 9 x is to be avoid$1 & x %\ld be mo/ c>efully consid]$ :e!r x w n be bett] to exp5d a l>g] sum & erect a pile viaduct :i* w n int]f]e ) ! curr5ts or *annels & only require ord9>y precautions to be tak5 aga9/ erosion1 in/ead ( deposit+ an embankm5t ) op5+s at ! *annels & ! necess>y protective works :i* may consi/ ( pit*+ ! slopes1 cov]+ !m ) fasc9es1 mattress "w1 or sods1 erect+ %ort or long1 l[ or high1 groynes1 z ! =m] may be ineffectual 9 caus+ a deposit or a %oal 9 front ( ! toe ( ! slope & 9 prev5t+ sc\r1 = 9 loose silty & s&y soil ( consid]able dep? & n suffici5tly firm to resi/ erosion1 !y w probably fail by reason ( ! space betwe5 !m be+ wa%$ away2 & a complete cov]+ ( ! =e%ore may be requisite1 or a protect+ apron ( homog5e\s imp]meable soil1 & cont9u\s tra9+ walls to prev5t ! creation ( %oals3 all ( :i* protective works w con/antly ne$ to be repair$1 & ! failure ( any "o may cause n only an embankm5t to give way b ! rema9+ pres]vative works4 ,und\bt$ly !re are _m e/u>ies ^u :i* if an embankm5t ev5 ) _m op5+s = *annels _h be5 deposit$1 x w\ld h fail$1 ! soil be+ 9 su* a t5d] /ate t ! lea/ additional weight ^u ! surface w\ld de/roy ! equilibrium4 ,also int]f]5ce ) ! littoral curr5ts is a risky op]ation 9 any b a h>d rock b$ z reg>ds ! f\ndations1 q ap>t f injury to navigable *annels4 ,:5 !re are num]\s dit*es1 creeks1 or *annels cross+ ! l9e ( a propos$ e/u>y embankm5t ( v>iable /ability1 especially %\ld hills be ne> & ! e>? be s por\s z to be saturat$ e tide1 )\t d\bt ! saf] plan is to erect a l[ viaduct1 z ! old wat]ways w be an endless s\rce ( tr\ble %\ld ! gr\nd be any?+ b firm clay1 & int]f]5ce ) ! curr5ts w n be prev5table1 z ei!r _! velocity w be increas$ or decreas$1 ! result be+ sc\r or fre% deposits :i* w affect ! *annels2 & su* alt]ation may *ange ! direction ( ! motion ( ! wat]s1 :i* mu/ be prev5t$ 9 front ( an e/u>y embankm5t2 or waves w be creat$ by ! wat] travell+ & ru%+ ov] %oals1 = ! ev5 configuration ( ! bottom is a wave less5]1 & %\ld !re be a deep *annel ne> an e/u>y embankm5t sev]e wave action may be creat$4 ,! pi]s or piles ( su* a viaduct %\ld be cyl9drical1 ?us (f]+ no flat surface = ! waves to break aga9/1 & yet tempor>ily to divide !m )\t s]i\s %ock to a /ructure4 ,:5 ( v consid]able l5g?1 a project+ embankm5t deposit$ ^u a flat %ore ( a tidal e/u>y has caus$ a heap+ up ( ! wat] on "o side at l[ tide1 & !re=e x is unequally /ra9$4 ,?is 0 f\nd to be ! case ) an e/u>y embankm5t on ! ,s*eldt1 #b miles 9 l5g?4 ,! =m ( ! slope has also to be consid]$1 b all ! pr9ciples t det]m9e ! be/ pr(ile 9 ea* case ( a pi] or breakwat] d n necess>ily apply to an embankm5t 9 an e/u>y4 ,! recoil ( ! waves wa%+ away ! gr\nd 9 front & at ! toe is p>ticul>ly to be gu>d$ aga9/1 & ! action ( spray or a brok5 mass ( wat] fall+ ^u ! =mation1 z also ! direct action ( ! waves4 ,a concave =m %\ld n be adopt$ ?r\gh\t1 z waves roll up until !y approa* ! top portion1 :5 !y turn ov] & fall ^u ! flatt] portion & (t5 brea* x1 b :5 ! face is /raight1 except+ = a few feet at ! toe1 ! waves are diffus$ 9 travell+ up1 al?\gh !y proce$ to a high] po9t ^u a flat slope ?an a /eep "o1 & ! recoil is greatly dim9i%$1 b ) ! view ( avoid+ direct wave action1 :5 ! gr\nd is incl9$ 9 front ( a sea or e/u>y embankm5t1 x is well to curve ! l[] "p ( ! slope & to make x cycloidal to ! surface ( ! gr\nd & ! slope = a little di/ance1 s z to r$uce ob/ruction to a m9imum4 ,! me?od ( mak+ a level t]race or /epp+ ! slope in/ead ( a curv$ face has ! advantage ( *eck+ ! ris+ ( ! sea up ! face1 alt]+ its direction & act+ z a wave-break]1 & also comb9es ^! effects ) giv+ z l>ge an area ( ! base z c be obta9$ by a curv$ face1 & 9 br++ ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! cross section ( ! embankm5t ne>] to ! seat1 b ! face mu/ be securely protect$4 ,! wid? ( ! cess %\ld increase accord+ to ! degree ( exposure4 ,if an embankm5t consi/s ( e>? ! slope ( ! cess %\ld be f #f to #aj to #a1 or ! sy/em is bett] avoid$ & a cont9u\s face adopt$4 ,%ort groynes w (t5 protect ! toe ( an embankm5t & prev5t any longitud9al curr5t und]m9+ x4 ,z a rule1 9 a tidal e/u>y ! co/ ( protect+ ! slopes is consid]able1 & m above l[-wat] level ?an bel[ x4 ,9 adopt+ groynes =m$ ( s+le or d\ble r[s ( piles1 9 ord] to prev5t erosion ( ! toe & a slip & subsid5ce 9 an e/u>y or sea embankm5t1 ! littoral curr5ts mu/ be consid]$ be=e det]m9+ _! direction & position1 ! object ( _! erection be+ to prev5t ! waves1 & especially ! prevail+ waves1 f sc\r+ ! %ore1 & also to cause a g5]al deposition ( %+le1 &1 !re=e1 !y are usually plac$ at an angle to ! set ( ! waves1 s z to cause ! latt] to be diffus$4 ,! angle w v>y2 ! be/ guide is to exam9e ! effects ( any t may be erect$ 9 a simil> position to t to be built4 ,an angle ( #ej to #gj ) ! =e%ore1 9 a leew>d direction is frequ5tly adopt$1 & ) respect to ! di/ance ap>t1 ?is dep5ds pr9cipally ^u ! direction ( ! curr5t & prevail+ w9d1 cont\r ( ! %ore1 degree ( exposure1 & ! l5g? ( ! groynes4 ,:5 ! :ole ( an op5 coa/ has to be protect$1 no natural def5ce exi/+1 ! l9e ( ! prevail+ set ( ! curr5t & w9d on a /raight %ore c be set (f at ! end ( a groyne1 & be=e ! po9t at :i* x meets ! =e%ore ano!r c be erect$4 ,!y are g5]ally successful :5 prop]ly plac$1 & are mo/ frequ5tly /raight2 if n1 !y h a concave face to ! direction ( maximum erod+ =ce2 a convex mu/ be avoid$1 z x w n p]man5tly reta9 ! deposits2 _! practical effect be+ t ! brea* is heap$ up or reta9$ ^u ! prevail+ w9d1 set ( curr5t1 or w9d-wave side to a height ( "s feet above ! leew>d side1 !re=e1 a groyne %\ld be s con/ruct$ t planks c be add$ to x z requir$4 ,!y h be5 prov$ to prev5t ! =mation ( b>s :5 judici\sly locat$1 b _! success greatly dep5ds ^u _! prop] position & direction1 or 9 loose soils su* z s& !y may cause a deposit ^u ! w9dw>d & prevail+ curr5t side1 b an erosion & fall+ away ^u ! o!r2 & :5 plac$ 9 front ( a reclamation embankm5t ^u %ift+ s& until ! gr\nd at ! back ( ! embankm5t becomes dry by ! tidal wat]s be+ exclud$1 or ! surface is imp]meably coat$1 !y may be ( comp>atively little use to prev5t a slip or movem5t ( ! %ore2 = z ! tide rec$es bel[ ! level ( ! toe ( ! slope1 a seaw>d fl[ ( ! tidal & l& wat]s w be creat$ 9 v por\s soil "u ! seat ( an embankm5t1 & may cont9ue until ! tide returns & rises to ! level ( ! gr\nd1 ?us caus+ ! %ore to be con/antly *ang+ place & p]man5tly e/abli%$ accumulation impossible4 ,%ort transv]se spurs h be5 adopt$ to less5 ?is action b _! effect is h>dly noticeable4 ,z failure ( a groyne w probably cause erosion ( ! foot ( an embankm5t & a slip1 a *eap & effective means1 atte/$ by ! exp]i5ce ( ne>ly half a c5tury1 ( pres]v+ ! timb] f ! attacks ( mo/ m>9e worms may "h be nam$4 ,x consi/s 9 scor*+ ! piles1 ?us prev5t+ f]m5tation ( ! sap1 & imm$iately t>r+ !m3 also 9 plac+ ! wood 9 ! opposite direction to t 9 :i* x grew2 ! latt] op]ation has be5 f\nd to increase ! durability #ej p] c5t41 ! reason1 x is believ$1 be+ t ! capill>y tubes 9 ! trees are s adju/$ z to oppose ! ris+ ( moi/ure :5 ! wood is inv]t$4 ,9 excavat+ = an enclosure embankm5t1 ! e>? %\ld n be di/urb$ ne>] ?an is economically necess>y1 & a cess %\ld be left ( ab\t #dj to #ej feet 9 loose p]meable soil1 ! wid? be+ gov]n$ by ! "* ( ! e>?1 ! dep? ( ! excavation1 & ! height ( ! embankm5t4 ,%\ld dr$g+ h to be execut$ ne> an embankm5t1 a consid]able di/ance %\ld be left betwe5 ! toe ( ! slope & ! l9e ( op]ations4 ,be=e comm5c+ an e/u>y or enclosure embankm5t1 x is advisable to notice :e!r a deposit is left ^u ! %ore by ! incom+ tide1 & to asc]ta9 :e!r x =ms 9 "s degree a protective cov]+1 = if ?is %\ld be ! case1 any increase ( ! velocity ( ! fl[+ wat] :i* might be caus$ by dr$g+ or a conc5tration ( ! littoral curr5ts %\ld be avoid$1 or ! tidal matt] 9 a /ate ( susp5sion w n gradually s9k to ! gr\nd4 ,! tidal deposit1 al?\gh ! e>? =m+ ! embankm5t %\ld n be tipp$ ^u x1 may also be ( importance z t5d+ to prev5t or less5 any p]colation ( wat] ?r\gh ! =e%ore & "u ! seat ( an embankm5t2 = in/ance1 on ! ,nile1 ! deposit$ slime is f\nd to make a practically wat]tight cov]+ on ! loose s&4 ,mr4 ,?omas ,/ev5son has also /at$ t1 accord+ to ! dep? bel[ ! surface ( l[ wat] t mud reposes1 may be approximately judg$ ! =ce ( wave di/urbance & degree ( exposure2 ! less ! dep?1 ! less ! p[] possess$ by ! waves4 ,9 ! case ( trea*]\s soil :i* circum/ances compell$ to be p>tly us$ 9 a reclamation embankm5t ( mod]ate height1 b :i* x 0 f\nd w\ld gradually become firm by compression1 r\gh %eet piles ) a plank at top h be5 ins]t$1 giv+ ! outl9e ( ! f9i%$ slope ( ! mat]ial to be aft]w>ds tipp$ ^u x1 ! piles & plank+ n be+ remov$1 &1 !re=e1 af=d+ ! requir$ tempor>y support be=e ! e>? became consolidat$ & /able by compression & "t4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ! deposition ( embankm5ts is ref]r$ to z x affects slips & subsid5ces 9 e>?work1 b 9 an enclosure embankm5t an additional precaution is p>ticul>ly necess>y1 namely1 t imm$iately tipp+ f ! ends increases ! velocity ( ! fl[ ( ! outgo+ or incom+ tidal wat] ?r\gh ! op5+1 & consequ5tly augm5ts its sc\r+ action2 its deposition f a spurn head %\ld be ab&on$1 & ! embankm5t be uni=mly rais$ f ! base4 ,! employm5t ( c(f]dams1 pil+ & plank+ = effect+ a closure is n[ g5]ally disc>d$ 9 fav\r ( ! horizontal sy/em ( equally rais+ ! height ( an embankm5t f its base2 & is ev5 to be pref]r$ to fasc9es1 unless ! latt] are m]ely us$ to di/ribute ! weight ov] ! base1 to protect ! surface ( a slope1 or =m a %ield aga9/ sc\r ei!r tempor>ily or p]man5tly4 ,9 previ\s *apt]s ! protection ( a slope is exam9$2 "h "s ref]5ce is made to ! p>ticul> pres]vation ( ! slopes ( an e/u>y or reclamation embankm5t4 ,:5 ! protection af=d$ is n uni=m c>e mu/ be tak5 t al?\gh x makes "o "p secure x does n weak5 ano!r4 ,9 ! case ( riv]-banks 9 a soil t is 9 a delicate /ate ( equilibrium1 x may occur t soon aft] "o portion has be5 protect$1 ano!r is be+ sc\r$1 :]eas previ\sly x 0 /able2 !re=e1 to prev5t localization ( ! erosive action1 :e!r on ! =e%ore ( an e/u>y1 reclamation1 or a riv]-bank1 & consequ5t slips & subsid5ces1 ! cov]+ %\ld ext5d ov] a consid]able l5g?4 ,9 a %elt]$ position simply sodd+ ! slopes may be effectual4 ,"s o!r means ( protection are a h>d *alk or gravel c\nt]=t f\nd$ a few feet bel[ ! gr\nd at ! toe ( an embankm5t1 & a cov]+ ( simil> *alk or gravel ^u ! slope1 %\ld ! soil be fav\rable4 ,:5 an embankm5t ( e>? 9 an e/u>y or riv] is ( firm soil & only requires to be made pro( aga9/ wave action1 /ones may be simply deposit$ ev5ly ^u a slope & s t !y w n be wa%$ out1 & pit*+ be n requir$1 z ! r\gh face w t5d to break up ! waves2 b :]e a simple cov]+ is adopt$1 :e!r close or comp>atively loose1 ! slope %\ld be /raight1 z a concave =m caus+ a recoil ( ! waves w 9 "t damage or sep>ate ! face %ield4 ,a coat+ ( clay ab\t #b feet 9 ?ickness1 ^u a slope ) /akes driv5 into x1 & l>ge bu%y b\ghs ( trees fix$ !reon ) ! tops d[nw>ds1 is frequ5tly us$ 9 ,india z a protective cov] to a crumbl+ bank ( a riv]1 & to tra9+ spurs erect$ to prev5t erosion & slips4 ,mattresses1 fasc9e or wattl$ "w1 besides be+ exp5sive1 w slide d[n a slope unless well secur$ to x1 & !re=e a con/ant /ra9 is produc$ z 9 all /ake-held cov]+s2 x has also be5 obs]v$ by ! exp]i5c$ t al?\gh s l>gely & successfully us$ 9 ,holl& & on its coa/1 !re is v little gr\nd swell on ! ,dut* %ores1 & t 9 a v expos$ situation1 or :]e heavy gr\nd swells exi/1 !y may n answ]1 & may become dis9tegrat$ by ! mu* great] weight & =ce ( ! sea2 & ?is1 not)/&+ ! surface break]s ( ?9 wat] & little mass brok5 up by ! w9d may produce m visible agitation4 ,to prev5t a riv]-bank slipp+1 & also to ma9ta9 a *annel 9 a muddy riv]1 half-tide longitud9al tra9+ walls made ( wattl$ "w or fasc9es h be5 us$1 s z to cause ! deposition ( ! susp5d$ matt] 9 ! tidal wat] & to gradually re/ore ! impair$ slope & secure x f crumbl+ into ! riv]4 ,! /ones br\ght d[n by heavy floods h also be5 us$ to ma9ta9 a riv] *annel & protect its banks f slipp+1 ! int]/ices gradually becom+ fill$ ) mud deposit$ by ! wat] :5 ! floods subside4 ,:5 sudd5 & unexpect$ sc\r ( ! slope or b$ ne> an e/u>y embankm5t ^u s(t soil has to be imm$iately arre/$ to prev5t a slip1 gunny bags fill$ ) s& af=d a ready means ( repair+ any cavities1 ! int]/ices betwe5 ! bags usually be+ fill$ rapidly4 ,mat]ial %\ld be add$ z requir$ & any conc5tration ( ! erosive curr5ts %\ld be avoid$4 ,! requir$ height has to be det]m9$ ( an embankm5t 9 an e/u>y or ! sea to prev5t any fl[ ov] x or waves fall+ ^u ! inn] slope2 #d to #e feet above ! highe/ wat] m>k appe>s to be adopt$ 9 ! l[] rea*es ( ! ,?ames & unexpos$ e/u>ies 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ,holl& #aj to #ae feet1 dep5d+ ^u ! degree ( exposure4 ,x is ( p>am\nt importance to prev5t any waves wa%+ ov] ! top1 z damage &1 p]haps1 a brea* may be caus$ !reby4 ,! height ( ! highe/ kn[n wave mu/ !re=e be asc]ta9$4 ,%\ld ! %ore be s&y & loose1 a *>act]i/ic ( e/u>9e accumulations1 al?\gh its usual b$ may be pres]v$ 9 any /orm1 :5 an embankm5t is erect$ ! rapid & ceaseless process ( wa/+ ( ! s& & loose soil by ! recoil ( ! waves f ! face may 9 "t lay b>e ! toe ( a /eep slope & und]m9e x2 = x has be5 f\nd :]e ! f\ndation 0 s& & a rubble m\nd1 :i* %\ld be s con/ruct$ t its int]/ices become fill$ 9 ord] to make x m solid & /able1 0 plac$ ^u x1 & ! sup]/ructure ^u ! m\nd1 t ! sea be+ resi/$ by a v]tical wall recoil$ & made ! soil a quicks&1 al?\gh ! s& w\ld be /able at its natural slope 9 /ill wat]4 ,obvi\sly ! less ! action ( ! waves is imp$$1 ! less ! loos5ess ( ! s&4 ,exp]im5ts h %[n t a slope ( #a to #a w reflect waves1 on a flatt] slope !y are brok54 ,9 su* situations light /ructures1 (f]+ little resi/ance to ! action ( ! waves & n caus+ an imp$im5t to ! curr5t1 %\ld be adopt$ 9 pref]5ce to a massive or solid erection2 b :5 an embankm5t is necess>y1 x %\ld h a long slop+ m\nd or =e%ore ^u :i* ! waves w gradually become less5$ & disp]s$1 ! desir$ object be+ to prev5t deep wat] close to ! "w4 ,:5 a railway or road foll[s ! %ore1 in/ead ( erect+ a reta9+ wall to protect an embankm5t1 a pref]able plan to adopt may be to h op5 tre/le-"w (f]+ ! lea/ possible ob/ruction1 & :5 ! =mation is at ! base ( a cliff ( v>iable & d\btful soil x is ! be/ con/ruction1 z ! cliff is n t\*$1 & slips & subsid5ces are avoid$4 ,%\ld ! deposition ( an artificial bea* be consid]$ necess>y = ! pres]vation ( ! foot ( a cliff 9 addition to ! tre/le road1 exp]i5ce seems to indicate t ! cont\r af=d+ ! mo/ protection is "o 9 :i* ! slope has a flat t]race or cess at n above ?ree-f\r?s ( ! v]tical height1 ano!r %ort slope1 & a ne>ly horizontal space "s di/ance f ! foot ( ! cliff2 b a /orm w /raight5 ! face1 & x may be impossible to economically ma9ta9 x2 h[ev]1 %\ld su* a slope be assum$ x %\ld n be di/urb$4 ,vide ,*apt] ,,vi4 = in=mation respect+ slopes4 ,:5 a sea or an e/u>y reta9+ wall is necess>y 9 ord] to prev5t ! slipp+ ( an embankm5t consi/+ ( loose soil1 an inn] dw>f wall at ! edge ( ! =mation ^u ! l& side %\ld be erect$ s z to hold ! embankm5t 9 a box1 & n all[ any spray or wat] pass+ ov] ! reta9+ wall to erode ! inn] portion4 ,deep wat] is g5]ally requir$ close to ! "w 9 railway pi]s or jetties to enable vessels to get alongside2 a heavy & monoli?ic wall mu/ consequ5tly be erect$2 h[ev]1 9 ! case ( loose soil1 ! v]tical sy/em simply %\ld n be us$ unless ! f\ndation is ?or\ghly protect$ & bel[ ! rea* or effect ( wave action1 & no re-ent]+ or "r angles %\ld exi/1 z !y increase ! action ( ! waves4 ,:5 a rubble m\nd is ca/ 9 & a v]tical /ructure plac$ !reon1 great c>e mu/ be tak5 t !re are no holes1 except ! natural int]/ices betwe5 ! /ones1 & t !y h a firm f\ndation & s9k equally1 or ! r&om m\nd may give way & ! sup]/ructure w !n necess>ily foll[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,data4--,s& embankm5t3 ,wid? ( =mation1 #cj ft42 incl9ation ( ! slopes1 #c to #a2 height ( embankm5t f ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 #cj ft42 dep? ( wat]1 #bj ft42 height ( wave1 #e ft4 ,z an illu/ration ( ! delet]i\s effects ( ! recoil ( waves may be m5tion$ t a high v]tical wall ) a p>apet has be5 f\nd to endang] ! toe1 b :5 ! p>apet has be5 remov$ 9 ord] to all[ ! head ( ! waves to leap ov] ! top ( ! "w1 ! /ructure rema9$ /able4 ,to prev5t ! recoil ( ! sea & ! scoop+ away ( ! base & ! =e%ore 9 mu* expos$ situations1 & consequ5t slips & subsid5ces1 breakwat]s :i* simply act z wave scre5s1 & n z w9d scre5s1 are sometimes kept a little bel[ high-wat] m>k s t ! heads ( ! waves may h free action1 al?\gh _! onw>d motion is prev5t$4 ,on ! contr>y1 light op5 "w1 su* z a lattice scre51 al?\gh x may some:at less5 wave action1 does n prev5t x pass+ ?r\gh4 ,! pr9cipal causes ( ! failure ( v]tical walls :5 plac$ ^u an easily erod$ f\ndation are by ! sc\r+ action ( ! recoil+ waves1 !re=e _! magnitude %\ld be r$uc$ to ! l[e/ limit3 by ! imp\nd$ air driv+ out p>ticles ( ! /ructure3 by waves travell+ ^u ! top1 !re=e _! =w>d motion %\ld be deflect$ & r5d]$ v]tical3 by ! hamm]+ action ( ! mass caus$ by its be+ alt]nately quickly subm]g$ & unsubm]g$2 ! practical effect be+ t ! f\ndation is int]mitt+ly releas$ ( a portion ( ! load & !n fully /ra9$1 !re=e ! height ( ! waves %\ld be r$uc$ z mu* z possible4 ,respect+ ! action ( fall+ wat]1 exp]im5ts 7 rec5tly made 9 ,india1 :i* prov$ t 8! greate/ int5sity ( pressure does n exce$ t due to a column ( wat] ( a height equal to ! fall20 ! greate/ int5sity ( pressure be+ always fractionally "u ! hydro/atic head4 ,z an illu/ration ( ! con/ant *ange ( ! load ^u ! f\ndations ( an embankm5t 9 tidal wat]s1 ! foll[+ calculations h be5 made4 ,! weight ( a cubic foot ( sea wat] is tak5 z #jjbh ton4 ,! weight ( a cubic foot ( s& is "h tak5 z #jjef ton4 ,a4 ,! weight ( a l9eal foot ( ! embankm5t :5 unsubm]g$ equals #bjafj tons1 comput$ z foll[s3-- ,cubic ft4 ,! c5tral portion #cj ft4 #cj ft4 #a ft4 #ijj ,! two incl9$ #ij ft4 #cj ft4 #a ft4 #b1gjj portions ---------- ,ton4 ,tons4 ,cubic cont5ts #c1fjj #jjef #bjafj4 ,b4 ,at high wat] ! weight ( ! embankm5t is r$uc$ by ! weight ( ! wat] displac$1 :i* equals #hd tons1 calculat$ z "u4 ,! subm]g$ cont5ts ( ! embankm5t are-- ,cubic ft4 ,! c5tral portion #cj ft4 #bj ft4 #a ft4 #fjj ,! two incl9$ portions #b_/cj ft4 #bj ft4 #a ft4 #a1bjj #fj ft4 #bj ft4 #a ft4 #a1bjj ---------- ,ton4 ,tons4 ,cubic cont5ts #c1jjj #jjbh #hd4 ,f ?is mu/ be d$uct$ ! weight ( ! wat] re/+ ^u ! two slopes1 :i* equals #ccfj tons-- ,cubic ft4 ,ton4 ,tons4 #fj ft4 x #bj ft4 ,x #a ft4 #a1bjj ,x #jjbh #ccfj4 ,c4 ,?us ! insi/5t load at high wat] ^u ! :ole area ( ! f\ndation is r$uc$ by ,tons4 ,tons4 #hd - #ccfj #ejdj -------------------- ------------ #jbe 4 #bjafj #bjafj ,d4 ,at high wat] a v]tical pressure is impos$ ^u ! gr\nd beyond ! toe ( ! slope due to ! #bj feet head ( wat]-- #bj ft4 #a ft4 #a ft4 #jjbh #jef ton p] squ>e foot4 ,?is latt] weight & elem5t ( /ability t5ds to prev5t movem5t ( ! gr\nd1 & also ! toe ( ! slope1 b is entirely remov$ at l[ wat] :5 ! insi/5t pressure at ! foot ( ! embankm5t is ! greate/4 ,= ! purposes ( illu/rat+ ! v>y+ load ^u ! surface ( ! gr\nd caus$ by a rise & fall ( a tide1 x w be suffici5t to take "o slope ( ! embankm5t4 ,e4 ,! weight ( a l9eal foot ( "o slope1 if unsubm]g$ ,cubic ft4 ,ton4 ,tons4 #ij ft4 #ae ft4 #a ft4 #a1cej x #jjef #gefj4 ,f4 ,! weight ( wat] re/+ ^u ! slope p] l9eal foot at high tide ,cubic ft4 ,ton4 ,tons4 #fj ft4 #aj ft4 #a ft4 #fjj #jjbh #afhj4 ,g4 ,! weight ( ! wat] displac$ by a l9eal foot ( ! subm]g$ portion ( "o slope ( ! embankm5t at high tide ,unsubm]g$ portion ( "o slope ,cubic ft4 ,ton4 ,tons4 #a1cej - 7#cj ft4 #e ft4 #a ft47 #a1bjj #jjbh #ccfj4 ,h4 ,! area ( ! base ( ! slope p] l9eal foot #ij ft4 #a ft4 #ij squ>e ft4 ,i4 ,!re=e ! insi/5t pressure ^u ! surface ( ! gr\nd at ! base ( "o slope at l[ wat]1 :5 ! b$ is presum$ to be dry1 is1 ,e #gefj ---------- #jhd ( a ton p] squ>e foot4 #ij ,h ,j4 ,at high wat] x is ,e ,f ,g 7#gefj #afhj7 - #ccfj #ehhj ---------------------------------------- ------ ---------- #jfe #ij #ij ,h ( a ton p] squ>e foot1 or #bbfj p] c5t4 less4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! v]tical pressure ( ! wat] ^u ! gr\nd beyond ! slope is #jef ton p] squ>e foot at high tide1 vide ,d41 !re=e ! weight ^u ! seat ( ! slope is only 9 excess ( ! normal weight ( ! wat] ^u ! gr\nd beyond ! slope1 ,j ,d #jfe - #jef #jji ( a ton4 ,an inspection ( ! diagram %[s t ! flotation p[] ( ! :ole ( ! %ad$ portion ( ! slope is balanc$ by ! weight ( wat] re/+ ^u ! :ole ( x1 ! areas ( ! triangles be+ simil>2 & t ! portion ,w4 ( ! slope is t :i* loses weight by imm]sion4 ,calculat+ ! pressures at l[ & high wat] ^u ! base ( ! portion ,w41 ! relative v]tical pressures w\ld be-- ,,at ,,l[ ,,wat]4 ,cubic ft4 #cj ft4 #e ft4 #a ft4 #aej #cj ft4 #bj ft4 #a ft4 #fjj ------ #gej #jjef #db tons4 ,k4 ,! area ( ! base #cj ft4 #a ft4 #cj squ>e ft41 consequ5tly ! pressure ^u x #db_/cj #adj ton p] squ>e foot4 ,,& ,,at ,,high ,,wat]4 ,l4 ,! unsubm]g$ portion ,cubic ft4 ,ton4 ,tons4 #cj ft4 #e ft4 #a ft4 #aej #jjef #hdj ,! subm]g$ portion #cj ft4 #bj ft4 #a ft4 #fjj 7#jjef - #jjbh7 #afhj_/bebj #bebj ,consequ5tly ! pressure ---------- #jhd ton p] squ>e foot1 #cj ,k a diff]5ce ( #jef ton p] squ>e foot1 or #dj p] c5t4 less load4 ,m4 ,& ^u ! base ( ! c5tral portion-- ,,at ,,l[ ,,wat]4 ,cubic ft4 ,ton4 ,tons4 #cj ft4 #cj ft4 #a ft4 #ijj #jjef #ejdj4 #ejdj ,! pressure is1 !re=e1 equal to ---------- #afh ton p] squ>e foot4 #cj ,k ,,at ,,high ,,wat]4 ,n4 ,! unsubm]g$ portion ,cubic ft4 ,ton4 ,tons4 #cj ft4 #aj ft4 #a ft4 #cjj #jjef #afhj ,! subm]g$ portion #cj ft4 #bj ft4 #a ft4 #fjj #jjbh #afhj_/ccfj #ccfj ,consequ5tly ! pressure ---------- #aab ton p] squ>e foot2 #cj ,k also a diff]5ce ( #jef ton p] squ>e foot1 or #cc p] c5t4 less load4 ,! diff]5ce 9 weight1 assum+ a wave ( #e feet 9 height1 measur$ d[nw>ds f high wat] level1 to simultane\sly roll aga9/ ! embankm5t ^u bo? slopes & completely recoil1 w\ld be equival5t to ! displacem5t ( #e feet dep? ( wat] = a /rip 7#cj ft4 #cj ft4 #cj ft47 7#de ft4 #cj ft4 #de ft47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #aje ft4 9 wid?4 #b ,! cubic cont5ts p] l9eal foot are-- #aje ft4 #a ft4 #e feet #ebe cubic ft4 ,o4 ,! flotation p[] #ebe cubic ft4 #jjbh ton #adgj tons4 ,= ! purposes ( ?is calculation1 ?is weight is tak5 z if x 7 spread ov] ! :ole area ( ! seat ( ! embankm5t at a dep? ( #ae feet f ! top #de ft4 #cj ft4 #de ft4 #abj ft4 #a ft4 #abj squ>e ft4 ,! v]tical pressure p] squ>e foot !re=e #adgj_/abj #jabc ton #bge lbs41 :i* is equival5t to a hamm]+ action ^u ! f\ndations ( #bge_/add say1 #b lbs4 p] squ>e in* occurr+ ea* "t ! #e feet waves recoil4 ,! weight1 #aje ton ^u ea* slope1 ( ! wat] ^u t portion ( ! slope :i* is alt]nately subm]g$ & unsubm]g$ is n consid]$4 ,?is wave action may1 & g5]ally w1 happ5 ^u "o side only ( an embankm5t ow+ to ! direction ( ! w9d1 ! curr5t1 & ! 8fet*0 ( ! wat]4 ,9 t ev5t ! lat]al pressure ^u ! embankm5t w also con/antly *ange1 & !re w be a v>y+ horizontal =ce f ! #e feet 9 height wave & its p]cussive action ^u ! slope t5d+ to produce unequal /ra9 & movem5t4 ,! object ( ! prec$+ calculations is to %[ ! v>iation ( pressures an embankm5t 9 an e/u>y or a tidal riv] has to su/a9 9 addition to ^? ( an ord9>y embankm5t ^u dry l&1 & its especial liability to slip & subside2 & also to demon/rate t ! v]tical & necess>ily ! horizontal pressures may be 9 a p]petual /ate ( mutation & v>y consid]ably1 & t ! v]tical pressure ( ! wat] outside an enclosure embankm5t may rea* a po9t :5 ! wat] may be =c$ upw>d ^u ! l& side4 ,usually1 subsid5ce is greate/ 9 ! wet seasons & at ! "t ( ! l[e/ tides4 ,9 *oos+ betwe5 two mat]ials = subm]g$ "w practically equal 9 o!r respects1 ! heavi] %\ld be pref]r$1 z by reason ( its own weight x has great] p[] to resi/ ! action ( ! waves & sc\r1 & ! decrease ( its specific gravity by ! weight ( ! bulk ( wat] displac$ is relatively n s l>ge4 ,) respect to ! e>?work ( canals & embankm5ts con/ruct$ to hold wat]1 ea* *apt] ( ?is book conta9s in=mation relat+ to ! promotion ( ! /ability ( ! soil1 & x is n "h int5d$ to ref] to ! mo/ approv$ me?ods ( con/ruction1 b only to "n "s po9ts requir+ att5tion4 ,a b>ge or ord9>y %ip canal is usually plac$ at a %all[ dep? 9 ! gr\nd & me&]s ?r\gh a di/rict1 avoid+ deep cutt+s & heavy embankm5ts1 su* an und]tak+ z ! ,suez1 or ! ,panama1 %ip canals be+ altoge!r exceptional und]tak+s2 & also ! ,man*e/] ,%ip ,canal4 ,"s ( ! mo/ trea*]\s soils are nam$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 b probably ! wor/ e>? 9 :i* a canal c be made is peat-bog l&2 ! me?od ( proc$ure is !n diff]5t to t requir$ 9 mak+ a railway or a road1 & 9 su* soil ! con/ruction ( a canal %\ld be avoid$1 z x necessitates mo/ exp]i5c$ & skilful treatm5t & ext5sive dra9age1 :i* causes subsid5ce2 difficult ma9t5ance to pres]ve ! *annel & reta9 ! wat] ( navigation1 control ! dra9age wat]s1 & keep unimpair$ ! t[+-pa?1 :i* mu/ be firmly cov]$ ?r\gh\t4 ,f9e s& is also an unfav\rable soil z x s readily becomes a quicks&1 b almo/ all o!r e>?s usually met ) c be s protect$ t failure %\ld be an improbable cont+5cy1 except :5 ! cutt+s are ( extraord9>y dep?1 z on ! ,panama ,canal2 ! *ief dang] be+ :5 !re is consid]able div]sity1 irregul>ity1 fissur+1 loos5ess1 & upheaval ( ! soil1 = v>ieties ( almo/ e surface e>? may be enc\nt]$1 ea* ) its own *>act]i/ics & behavi\r :5 dry or wat]-*>g$1 & requir+ great att5tion1 especially at ! jo9ts1 & n a few sep>ate treatm5t1 n only ( ! soil b ( ! same e>? 9 a cutt+ & 9 an embankm5t4 ,x sometimes happ5s t !re is n en\gh clayey e>? to =m a canal bank1 b if ! :ole ( ! excavation1 except ! m]e surface e>?1 is us$ !re is suffici5t1 & t x mu/ be employ$ = reasons ( economical con/ruction4 ,9 su* a case ! clayey e>? %\ld be deposit$ ^u ! wat] side1 & ! gravelly or s&y soil on ! l& side & z a t[+-pa? cov]+1 great c>e be+ ex]cis$ t no /ratification ( ! e>? takes place1 or x may sep>ate1 & wat] seams be creat$4 ,! bottom & slopes ( a canal embankm5t mu/ be cov]$ ) an imp]vi\s lay]1 puddle or concrete be+ mo/ frequ5tly us$ = ! bottom1 & puddle or a coat+ ( well ramm$ vegetable soil s[n closely ) grass se$s = ! slopes1 or /one pit*+ 9 a wide canal liable to wa%3 also 9 loose or d\btful soil4 ,9 canal cutt+s :5 ! wat] is drawn (f ! c\nt]-?ru/ aga9/ ! slopes is remov$1 & unless ?is is ma9ta9$ ! e>?1 if 9 a delicate or loos5$ condition1 may slip1 z a fl[ may be caus$ ( previ\sly damm$ up wat]s4 ,prior to any works be+ comm5c$ ^u a canal embankm5t x is advisable to /r5g!n x = a di/ance ( n less ?an ab\t #fj feet 9 l5g? on ea* side ( a propos$ railway bridge or o!r /ructure1 p>ticul>ly :5 x w be subject to vibration4 ,wat] w soon f9d a weak place 9 any e>?work &1 c]ta9ly1 :5 an eng9e] c ma9ta9 heavy e>?works 9 trea*]\s soils 9 canal con/ruction1 :]e "p ( "o slope is subm]g$ 9 an embankm5t & ! o!r dry1 & 9 a cutt+ "p wet & "p dry1 he %\ld be able to d s 9 any analog\s situation1 mak+ due provision = vibration1 ! *ief di/urb+ ag5cy canals are n subject to1 b :i* is s pot5t 9 its effect ^u railway e>?work4 ,canal & res]voir embankm5ts are s simil> z reg>ds ! /ability ( e>?work t !y are "h consid]$ "u "o head4 ,! object ( a canal1 res]voir1 or riv] embankm5t is 9 a desir$ position to hold wat] )\t leakage1 subsid5ce1 or det]ioration ( ! e>?1 or o!r works connect$ ) ! g5]al con/ruction4 ,9 dock1 canal1 or any e>?works made = ! purpose ( conta9+ or expell+ wat]1 x is obvi\s ! position is entirely dissimil> to t ( railway works3 = :]eas a slip or a subsid5ce 9 an embankm5t ^u railway "w may be ( slight mom5t & give comp>atively little tr\ble or anxiety1 any movem5t 9 e>?work con/ruct$ = ! purposes nam$ is ( grave importance1 z x may mean ! de/ruction ( ! "w1 loss ( life & prop]ty1 n only ^u ! site b also 9 ! surr\nd+ di/rict4 ,no leakage or m>k$ weep+ ( su* an embankm5t %\ld be disreg>d$1 z unless arre/$ x w gradually det]iorate ! e>? until ! equilibrium becomes s affect$ t ! embankm5t fails4 ,z a rule1 ^u railway works1 s]i\s slips1 except 9 v un/able soil1 su* z drift e>?1 or ^? quickly decompos$ by atmosph]ic influ5ces1 seldom occur1 vide ,*apt] ,,ii41 until a ye> or two has elaps$1 ! process ( dis9tegration f wat] be+ necess>ily sl[] 9 its action1 ! mat]ial hav+ an opportunity to return to its normal condition1 & ! surface be+ m equally expos$4 ,9 e>?work = hydraulic purposes1 al?\gh n subject to frequ5t & sudd5 vibration1 ! slopes be+ unequally expos$ & "p g5]ally ei!r p]man5tly or tempor>ily subm]g$ or alt]nately wet & dry1 & ! top & l& side unsubm]g$ & fully op5 to ! action ( ! wea!r1 p]colation _c be equal & regul> ^u its surfaces1 & slips & subsid5ces !re=e usually occur )9 a %ort "t1 v>y+ f a few weeks to a few mon?s2 & aft] ab\t a ye> or a cycle ( seasons !y are n frequ5t1 unless ! inh]5t design & con/ruction ( an embankm5t is faulty1 p]mitt+ leakage ?r\gh ! subm]g$ slope or bottom1 pools ( wat] to collect ^u ! top1 & ! bank to become fissur$ & unequally wet or dry4 ,especial c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ to ensure a complete & imp]meable connection ) ! e>? ^u :i* x is plac$4 ,9 embankm5ts to conta9 or expel wat] "t %\ld always be all[$ = an embankm5t to consolidate be=e ! admission ( ! wat]1 b 9 ! case ( a cutt+ ! pres5ce ( ! navigation wat] z soon aft] con/ruction z practicable may be an advantage1 dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ! e>? 9 ea* case2 z x may protect ! subm]g$ portions ( ! slopes f ! det]iorat+ effects ( be+ 9 a con/antly *ang+ degree ( dryness & wetness1 & %ield !m f ! sun & dry+ w9ds4 ,except "u peculi> circum/ances ! un/able places w be kn[n 9 a few mon?s1 & provid$ a canal is prop]ly con/ruct$1 x w n cause mu* tr\ble aft] six mon?s or a ye> f e>?work movem5t if ! embankm5ts & cutt+s receive ord9>y att5tion1 z ! navigation wat] w quickly indicate ! unconsolidat$ places4 ,9 clay1 clay m>ls1 clay loams1 & :]e loamy soil is int]mix$ ) p]meable & wat]-be>+ /rata1 movem5t ( ! e>? 9 canals w spe$ily occur unless prop] precautions h be5 tak5 9 ! con/ruction1 z !y are seldom homog5e\s4 ,e>?works to conta9 or expel wat] %\ld be made pro( aga9/ ev5 improbable det]ioration & accid5t1 & 9 proportion z ! soil is less solid & firm x %\ld be consolidat$ by ramm+ or o!r means1 or be cov]$ & protect$ to prev5t x crack+1 & only firm & b9d+ mat]ial %\ld be us$ 9 canal embankm5ts or ^? hold+ or expell+ wat] 9 ord] to prev5t slips & subsid5ces4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 treats ( "s conditions "u :i* slips & subsid5ces may be expect$4 ,no precaution %\ld be omitt$ t w r5d] ! "w solid & uni=m1 & no?+ %\ld be left to *ance4 ,! location is ( great importance1 = ! e>? may v>y 9 /ability )9 a v %ort di/ance1 n only 9 "* b z reg>ds ! sup]imposition ( ! /rata4 ,upheav$ & di/ort$ b$s %\ld be avoid$1 & all loose & fissur$ e>?s1 especially rock or o!r soils hav+ m or less v]tical seams3 = all embankm5ts con/ruct$ ^u fissur$ soils are sure to cause anxiety & tr\ble1 & w always be liable to become 9 a dang]\s /ate f an excessive ra9fall4 ,imp]meable horizontally deposit$ e>? ( consid]able ?ickness is t to be desir$1 or firm gr\nd t _c slide ^u ano!r /ratum or be affect$ by any artificially br\ght addition to ! p]colat+ wat]s consequ5t ^u ! con/ruction ( wat]works4 ,hav+ c>efully select$ a site1 :i* = wat]works purposes mu/ almo/ inv>iably be ^u high gr\nd & may h to be ^u ! top cap soil ( a hill & be peculi>ly expos$1 ! next /ep to gu>d aga9/ a slip or a subsid5ce is to prep>e ! f\ndations s t no leakage or trickl+ ( wat] c und]m9e or gradually det]iorate ! seat ( ! embankm5t2 &1 !re=e1 a ?or\gh connection betwe5 ! deposit$ embankm5t & ! gr\nd mu/ be e/abli%$ & ! :ole be prev5t$ f movem5t4 ,! selection ( ! be/ available e>? is "o requir+ c>eful consid]ation1 & x may be necess>y to exp]im5t to te/ ! capability ( ! soil to be made wat]tight by compression or o!r comp>atively inexp5sive means4 ,9 "s cases none may be obta9able2 if s1 ! only c\rse to pursue may be to consolidate ! e>? z mu* z possible1 & protect x ) an imp]meable homog5e\s & durable cov]+1 & "o t exp]i5ce has %[n c be tru/$ to equally resi/ p]colation4 ,! :ole practice ( /able e>? dam con/ruction is compris$ 9 ! employm5t ( homog5e\s1 f9e1 & t5aci\s e>? uni=mly deposit$ 9 ?9 lay]s1 g5tly wat]$ suffici5tly to aid ramm+ & consolidation1 roll$1 press$1 or trodd5 d[n by ! passage ( c>ts1 m51 or animals1 & 9 its due surface protection4 ,heavy roll+ is to be pref]r$1 = x is m effective ?an ramm+1 z may be judg$ by ! great] compression2 ! ?ickness ( ! lay]s & ! weight be+ s regulat$ t x compresses ! e>? to its /ate ( maximum solidity1 & does n pulv]ize x1 z ! compression is m uni=m1 & irregul>ly compact masses are n creat$1 :i* n only de/roy uni=mity ( condition ( ! mass1 b cause seams & ve9s & de/roy homog5eity4 ,aft] roll+1 ! compress$ lay] %\ld be g5tly wat]$1 z ! weight ( ! roll] w h made ! top cru/ dri] ?an ! l[] portion1 unless x has be5 made into too moi/ a /ate4 ,! ?ickness ( ! lay]s %\ld n exce$1 :5 ! soil is to be heavy /eam-roll$1 ab\t #f in*es 9 e>?1 & #d in*es 9 clay soils2 !y may be compress$ to ab\t f\r-fif?s to two-?irds ( _! normal ?ickness1 ! degree ( compression to ensure maximum solidity indicat+ ! op5ness ( ! orig9al e>?4 ,9 s&1 ! lay]s :5 simply wett$ & ramm$ ) an ord9>y ramm]1 %\ld be ab\t #d to #e in*es 9 ?ickness1 & ord9>y e>? ab\t #b in*es4 ,! volume ( ! s& w be r$uc$ f #aj to #ae p] c5t4 ,simple ramm+ ( s& w only r$uce x ab\t #f to ab\t #i p] c5t41 & wat] ab\t #d to #f p] c5t41 mak+ ! total compression z be=e /at$1 ! quantity ( wat] us$ be+ "s #bj p] c5t4 ( ! volume ( ! s&4 ,embankm5ts ( mod]ate height h be5 made ( s& :5 no o!r e>? 0 available1 except clay loamy soil 9 comp>atively small quantities1 ! surface ( ! embankm5t be+ work$ by ?9 b>s1 & ! loam be+ incorporat$ ) ! s& & made to fill its int]/ices1 surface protection be+ ?us af=d$1 & all ! usual means to promote consolidation be+ adopt$4 ,wet e>? well mix$ ) a gr\t ( quicklime has also be5 us$ to make a firm embankm5t ( little height4 ,clay is n a good mat]ial to use unless x is incorporat$ ) a consid]able p]c5tage ( s& to prev5t fissures & to less5 expansion4 ,_m pref] ! s& to be 9 ! proportion ( ab\t two-?irds ( ! mass1 only "o-?ird be+ clay2 ! soil be+ !n a loam1 & _c be class$ z a clay4 ,!re is mu* div]sity ( op9ion z to ! relative value ( a c5tral puddle wall or protection ( ! slope & toe4 ,su* a wall is plac$ 9 ! c5tre1 n only to give support to an e>? embankm5t & prev5t any ?r\gh leakage1 b also to keep ! puddle 9 a uni=mly moi/ condition1 & !re=e to prev5t x fissur+ & crack+ f exposure to ! sun or air4 ,9 an embankm5t erect$ ^u an e>? f\ndation x may be advantage\s & w>rant ! exp5se1 b :5 ! embankm5t ( e>? is plac$ ^u rock x %\ld n be erect$1 = x is impossible to make a wat]tight jo9t betwe5 rock & clay puddle1 & %\ld x be plac$ 9 a rock tr5* leakage w n be prev5t$ by x1 & wat] w accumulate :5 x does n at once pass ?r\gh ! seat ( an embankm5t until ! surface ( its base becomes s(t5$1 & ! :ole mass almo/ wor?less ei!r z a means ( support or ( prev5tion ( ?r\gh p]colation2 &1 moreov]1 !re is ! dang] t ! clay w draw away f ! sides ( ! rock4 ,:at is want$ is1 z x 71 to ins]t z f> z ! top ( an embankm5t an artificial rock hav+ a ?or\gh connection ) ! f\ndation1 consequ5tly a ,portl& cem5t concrete wall %\ld be adopt$ 9 su* a case & n "o consi/+ ( clay puddle4 ,two great advantages ( a ,portl& cem5t concrete c5tral support ov] t ( a clay puddle wall are t x does n settle & ! weight is ev5ly di/ribut$1 :]eas a puddle wall 9 subsid+ may draw away f ! e>? ( ! embankm5t & cause cavities & cracks & consequ5t leakage4 ,! *ief consid]ation is to produce an embankm5t hav+ imp]meability1 solidity1 & homog5eity1 & a ?or\gh connection at ! f\ndations2 & z ! c5tral puddle wall sy/em r>ely does s1 & usually only "u circum/ances :i* w\ld probably h>dly w>rant ! exp5se ( its adoption1 x is 9 a /ate ( obsolesc5ce2 & %\ld c5tral wall support be necess>y1 :i* may n infrequ5tly be ! case1 ,portl& cem5t concrete is be+ adopt$ 9 its place1 a solid & durable mat]ial be+ us$ in/ead ( "o v>y+ 9 %ape & size1 accord+ to its /ate ( dryness or wetness1 liable to fissure1 & incapable ( be+ p]man5tly & firmly jo9$ to any mat]ial4 ,?is sy/em may be describ$ z "o ( arre/+ ! p]colation ( wat] 9 ! int]ior ( an embankm5t2 b ! great aim is to prev5t any p]colation into ! mass1 z :5 once a passage is made ! wat] w escape along ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance1 & a fissure become a cavity1 a cavity a brea*4 ,! protection ( ! slope & toe has = its object ! prev5tion ( any p]colation into ! mass1 & x may effect all t is requisite1 b its effici5cy & complet5ess mu* dep5ds ^u ! prep>ation & deposition ( ! lay]s dur+ ! con/ruction ( an embankm5t1 & also ! "t t c be all[$ = consolidation1 s z to prev5t any crack+ or fissur+ ( ! face cov]+ f settlem5t ( ! embankm5t4 ,x is obvi\s 9 ! case ( a res]voir embankm5t or a slope alt]nately subm]g$ & unsubm]g$1 t an expos$ clay puddle cov]+ _c be us$1 z heat or ! sun's rays w cause x to crack1 al?\gh if con/antly wet x w\ld succe$4 ,a puddl$ clay cov]+ ) a brok5 /one b$ plac$ ^u x to receive dry or mort>-set /one pit*+ has be5 frequ5tly adopt$2 a simple cem5t concrete fac+ ab\t #f to #ab in*es 9 ?ickness1 dep5d+ ^u ! dep? ( ! wat] & ! nature ( ! soil1 or 9 conjunction ) an asphalt coat+ ( ord9>y ?ickness4 ,9 ! two latt] cases c>e mu/ be tak5 t !y d n sep>ate f ! embankm5t ei!r f ! =ce ( p5t-up wat]1 fro/1 or %r9k+ ( ! e>? embankm5t4 ,z any p]=ation ( ! surface mu/ be prev5t$1 9 c]ta9 di/ricts ! cov]+ %\ld be capable ( resi/+ ! attacks ( rod5ts & cru/acea1 &1 !re=e1 a /one pit*$ or concrete cov]$ slope is necess>y1 or ! puddle t[>ds ! surface mu/ be well incorporat$ ) small /ones or a%es or o!r t\gh mat]ial4 ,9 ,european c\ntries ! effects ( ! burr[+ ( rats may be insignificant1 b 9 w>m] climates1 z1 = in/ance1 on ! coa/ ( ,corom&el & 9 "s p>ts ( ,b5gal1 :]e rats may measure z mu* z #b feet 9 l5g?1 _! attacks are n to be disreg>d$ ) impunity4 ,! causes ( failure ( wat]-conta9+ embankm5ts af=d an indication ( ! direction 9 :i* especial c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ 9 _! con/ruction4 ,assum+ a res]voir embankm5t to be ( ! necess>y =m & bulk1 & to be prop]ly con/ruct$1 ! pr9cipal causes ( failure are z foll[s3-- #a4 ,leakage along ! l9e ( a culv]t or pipe pass+ ?r\gh ! l[] portion ( an embankm5t4 #b4 ,leakage "u ! seat ( an embankm5t4 #c4 ,wat] ov]fl[+ ! top & erod+ ! l& slope & s de/roy+ ! equilibrium4 #d4 ,bur/+ ( spr+s ov] ! site4 ,vide ,*apt] ,,xii4 on 8boils0 9 loose soils4 ,) reg>d to ! fir/1 ! mo/ frequ5t cause ( ! failure ( a wat] enclosure embankm5t2 ! culv]t or outlet passages h be5 r5d]$ unnecess>y by conduct+ ! wat]s 9 a tunnel passage "u ! seat ( ! embankm5t & )\t int]f]+ ) x2 b ?is me?od is exp5sive4 ,"o ( ! causes ( failure is ! weight ( ! embankm5t ow+ to unequal settlem5t produc+ a brea* 9 a culv]t1 ! probable result ( insecure f\ndations or want ( a firm concrete base to ! culv]t to ev5ly di/ribute ! weight2 or x be+ plac$ ^u clay puddle1 :i* %\ld nev] be done2 or ! embankm5t be+ con/ruct$ )\t due c>e4 ,all culv]ts %\ld be suffici5tly l>ge = a man to easily pass ?r\gh & %\ld be equally wat]tight )9 & )\t1 = a leakage f ! culv]t to ! bank is equally dang]\s1 & means %\ld be provid$ s t x c be clos$ 9 %ort l5g?s4 ,reports on ! tempor>y failures ( res]voir embankm5ts almo/ inv>iably /ate1 failure occurr$ f wat] p5etrat+ betwe5 ! puddle & ! culv]t1 f wat] p]colat+ betwe5 ! rock f\ndation & ! c5tral puddle wall1 or ! embankm5t gave way z wat] issu$ ?r\gh int]/ices 9 x caus$ by settlem5t ( ! masonry outlet passage4 ,c>eless con/ruction has (t5 be5 %[n by inspection to be ! reason ( s _m embankm5ts yield+ along ! l9e ( ! culv]t2 b :5 ! latt] is prop]ly design$ & built x seldom causes a tempor>y failure ( a well-made res]voir embankm5t4 ,respect+ ! second cause ( failure1 x g5]ally proce$s f want ( c>e 9 ?or\ghly b9d+ an embankm5t to ! solid gr\nd & protect+ ! toe2 by 8boils0 9 ! f\ndations2 or by a por\s e>? seam1 su* z f9e s&1 exi/+ "u ! /ratum ^u :i* ! embankm5t is erect$ becom+ a quicks& on fl[+ wat] rea*+ x4 ,9 connection ) ! ?ird1 x may be said t x is n a frequ5t cause ( failure1 z provision is almo/ always made to prev5t x1 b x may occur 9 a res]voir embankm5t f extraord9>y circum/ances1 or 9 a mu* less degree f suffici5tly high waves be+ g5]at$ ^u a lake or imp\nd+ res]voir t ! top ( ! bank may be loos5$1 & ! wat] da% ov] x & erode ! l& slope1 & conv]t x into a k9d ( tail-race2 t>paul9s h be5 tempor>ily laid ^u ! surface on an em]g5cy to protect a s(t place1 also s& bags & plank+ to prev5t an ov]fl[4 ,9 an embankm5t erect$ = su* a purpose ! top wid? is m sev]ely /ra9$1 consequ5t ^u ! great] exposure1 ?an 9 a res]voir embankm5t1 & ! height mu/ be suffici5t to prev5t wat] pass+ ov] x4 ,) ref]5ce to ! f\r? cause ( failure1 8boils0 9 loose soil & ! bur/+ ( spr+s are ref]r$ to 9 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,:5 a res]voir is empti$ ! weight ( ! wat] on its bottom is remov$1 b ! load f ! embankm5t is ! same1 & %\ld ! gr\nd be s(t ! embankm5t may subside t[>ds ! res]voir & ! b$ be uplift$2 h5ce x may be advisable n to draw (f ! wat] unless ! bottom is weight$ or movem5t prev5t$4 ,due reg>d ( ! diff]5t causes ( failure h]e9 enum]at$ & c>e 9 con/ruction1 w r$uce to a m9imum ! probability ( a slip or a subsid5ce 9 an e>? embankm5t erect$ to conta9 or expel wat]4 ,! tempor>y or p]man5t div]sion ( riv]s or /reams be+ s (t5 necess>y 9 public works1 a few p>agraphs are "h devot$ to x s f> z reg>ds e>?slips & subsid5ces4 ,if x be possible :5 ! soil is v por\s & incapable ( reta9+ wat]1 x is advisable n to div]t a riv]4 ,"s ( ! mo/ vuln]able places 9 a newly-=m$ riv]-bank are3 ,! ends t jo9 x to ! old bank or to ! l&1 to :i* x %\ld be ?or\ghly connect$4 ,! toe ( ! slope & seat1 :i* %\ld be ti$ into ! b$ ( ! riv] or be well protect$ by mak+ ! slope flat t[>ds ! base4 ,any abrupt b5ds or angles %\ld always be avoid$ z !y increase erosive action4 ,! w9d & wat] l9e :i* requires especial protection4 ,provid$ ^! po9ts are rememb]$ & ! usual precautions tak5 9 =m+ a riv]-bank to make x ?or\ghly s\nd & homog5e\s1 a slip or subsid5ce ( s]i\s mom5t is improbable4 ,9 ord] to protect ! s&y b$ ( a riv] & to prev5t ! banks slipp+ & subsid+1 x may be necess>y to gu>d aga9/ sc\r ( ! b$ & consequ5tly ( ! toe ( ! banks4 ,/one ?r[n 9 w settle & compress ! b$ by weight+ & consolidation4 ,by p]iodical depositions ! s& becomes m protect$ & ! quantity ( /one requir$ is r$uc$1 b especial c>e %\ld be tak5 to pres]ve ! normal b$1 to (f] no ob/ruction1 & n to cause :irlpools or to int]f]e ) ! curr5t except to direct & tra9 x1 or ! erosive action s creat$ w cause movem5t4 ,/ones simply ca/ 9 & all[$ to s9k & f9d a p]man5t b$ until ! regul> surface ( ! bottom ( a riv] is s rea*$1 h be5 prov$ 9 _m in/ances to be a sure protection 9 s&y soils provid$ eddies d n exi/4 ,! pres]vation ( ! slopes is p>ticul>ly ref]r$ to 9 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,notes ,,^u ,,! ,,failure ,,( ,,dock ,,& ,,o!r ,,walls ,,f ,a ,,=w>d ,,movem5t ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,fill+ ,,or ,,back+4--,,consid]ation ,,( ,,! ,,causes ,,( ,,su* ,,action ,,& ,,"s ,,prev5tive ,,& ,,rem$ial ,,measures4 ,! mo/ s]i\s consequ5ces (t5 result f slips or 8boils0 ( s& or loose soil dur+ ! con/ruction ( docks1 & f ! slid+ =w>d or subsid5ce ( quay walls1 z 9 addition to ! great exp5se ( re/or+ ! damag$ wall mu/ be consid]$ ! loss ( receipts caus$ ei!r by delay 9 op5+ ! docks or f int]f]5ce ) ! traffic4 ,9 ?is *apt] no attempt is made to lay d[n rules & to decl>e t if !y are foll[$ failures f pressure1 subsid5ce1 or a slip ( e>?1 c be obviat$ by c>eful att5tion to !m4 ,_m ( ! mo/ r5[n$ eng9e]s & contractors ?r\gh\t ! _w1 ^: sci5tific atta9m5ts & practical k are univ]sally & def]5tially ackn[l$g$ by ^? compet5t to =m a judgm5t1 h _h any?+ b pleasant exp]i5ces 9 ! con/ruction ( docks & simil> works4 ,! two banes ( dockworks may be said to be3-- #a4 ,defective f\ndations4 #b4 8,boils10 or ! ru%+ up ( loose soil & wat] 9 ! f\ndations4 ,to say t a failure ( a dock-wall _c b be ! result ( defective eng9e]+ is a /atem5t :i* x w\ld be difficult to sub/antiate4 ,to di/urb ! e>? bel[ ! requir$ dep? ( ! f\ndations at int]vals ov] ! area ( su* works 9 trea*]\s soils 9 ord] to asc]ta9 its "* w\ld simply be to (f] a g5]al invitation to x to comm5ce movem5t1 vide p4 #bjh4 ,x w\ld be wor?y to rank ) ! erudite report ( a local committee =m$ to decl>e ! be/ means ( prev5t+ floods 9 a di/rict1 :i*1 aft] deep consid]ation report$3 8,t ! committee 7 ( op9ion ! floods w\ld be p]man5tly remov$ provid$ ! eng9e] div]ts all riv]s1 /reams1 wat]c\rses1 & dit*es1 to ! next valley1 & closes ! up-/ream hole 9 ! hill1 or causes ! wat] to be dis*>g$ else:]e1 & r$uces ! ra9fall )9 ! limits requir$ f "t to "t by ! inhabitants ( ! di/rict40 ,inasmu* z x is impracticable to asc]ta9 ! exact "* & condition ( any e>? ov] a l>ge area 9 su* a location z t usually occupi$ by a dock1 & to be c]ta9 t no un/able seams exi/1 & z ! =ces ( nature are inf9itely m p[]ful ?an ^? ( man1 x _c be said t a failure is absolutely impossible4 ,all t c be done is to r5d] improbable any slip or subsid5ce by ! employm5t ( e kn[n means to promote /ability ju/ifi$ by ! importance ( ! "w & ) a due reg>d to economy4 ,dock-works are peculi>ly liable to slips & subsid5ces because ( _! position necess>ily be+ ne> to ! sea1 an e/u>y1 riv]1 or lake1 & !re=e 9 usually trea*]\s sup]ficial soil ( an insecure1 wat]-*>g$ "*4 ,! f\ndations are also at b comp>atively little dep? bel[ ! l[e/ wat]-level1 & al?\gh !y are n subject to ! frequ5t vibration railway cutt+s & embankm5ts h to )/&1 !y are j>r$ by bl[s f vessels & falls ( heavy goods1 vibration f cranes & ma*9]y1 & also are liable to be sudd5ly & unev5ly sur*>g$4 ,! e>? back+ may also become quickly wat]-*>g$1 & a =ce caus$ by ! tide v>y+ 9 height has to be consid]$ 9 e>? embankm5ts = docks or reclamation purposes1 p>ticul>ly 9 s&y or loose soil1 namely1 t ( ! f\ndations be+ 8bl[n0 up by ! upw>d pressure ( ! tidal or p]man5t head ( wat] above ! level ( ! bottom ( ! f\ndation2 ?us inside an enclosure embankm5t1 or c(f]dam1 a dep? ( wat] ( #cj feet w\ld give an upw>d pressure (1 say1 #jhe ton p] squ>e foot1 & :5 ! excavation has ext5d$ to a dep? ( #cj feet an insi/5t natural weight ( a column ( s& #a foot squ>e ^u ! f\ndation has be5 remov$ by ! excavation equal to #afe ton1 vide ,*apt] ,v4 ,?us ! upw>d & reliev$ pressure #jhe #afe equals #bej tons p] squ>e foot1 #jhe ton ( :i* con/antly v>ies4 ,x is obvi\s t 9 v p]meable soils1 su* z s&1 ! hydro/atic pressure w be mo/ felt1 & %\ld ! range ( tide be consid]able ! /ra9 ^u ! e>? w *ange & an active di/urb+ =ce be con/antly pres5t4 ,?is v>y+ di/urb+ ag5t mu/ be s]i\sly consid]$ 9 all dockwork or excavation ne> ! sea or a tidal riv]1 & also approximate to wat]1 = !re w always be dang] ( ! wat] p]colat+1 & :5 ! f\ndations are n suffici5tly deep ( _! be+ und]m9$4 ,! weight & dep? mu/ !re=e be suffici5t to balance or exce$ any upw>d pressure ( ! wat] 9 ! soil due to its head level4 ,! bottom ( ! f\ndation w almo/ inv>iably be bel[ ! dep? at :i* wat] is usually f\nd 9 ! locality1 & x %\ld n be =gott5 t soon] or lat] ! e>? ^u :i* dock-walls re/ is ne>ly c]ta9 to become wet & p]haps saturat$1 & t :5 saturat$ any additional wat] mu/ fl[ away4 ,9 s&y or loose soils ?is may become dang]\s4 ,c>e mu/ also be tak5 9 loose soil t x is n load$ by any tempor>y works s z to =ce ! e>? 9 any direction1 or a slip w occur & any tr5*es may become fill$1 & e ef=t %\ld be made to cause equal load+ & pressure & to prev5t unequal settlem5t4 ,! selection ( ! site ( a dock is g5]ally conf9$ )9 n>r[ limits su* z railway connection1 roads1 location ( ! want ( dock accommodation1 curr5ts1 ! prop] position ( ! entrances1 c41 c42 nev]!less ! nature ( ! soil %\ld be consid]$1 = ^u a tidal riv] a few hundr$ feet "o way or o!r may cause ! works to be ^u v>i\s k9ds ( e>? ea* m or less trea*]\s1 & :5 int]mix$ p]haps m un/able4 ,ev5 ^u "o side ( a comp>atively n>r[ riv] ! e>? may be 9 a mu* m /able condition ?an ^u ! o!r2 & :5 an old wat]c\rse or a dry dit* passes across ! site ( a dock x mu/ n be disreg>d$1 z failures & damage h occurr$ because ! same section ( a wall 0 cont9u$ ?r\gh\t4 ,x is !n necess>y to adopt a sy/em ( con/ruction suitable = s(t] or less /able gr\nd1 & especially s if ! wall has to be built ^u a firm /ratum ov]ly+ s&1 z a dim9ution 9 ! ?ickness ( ! b$ may cause a settlem5t & ! wall to be pu%$ =w>d2 = !re is always dang] 9 s&y soils1 unless ! sup]impos$ lay] is ( consid]able ?ickness1 t ! latt] may be pi]c$ & ! :ole site be 9 jeop>dy f a fl[ ( ! s&4 ,x may be t a dock mu/ be built at a p>ticul> place1 al?\gh ! gr\nd may be full ( spr+s1 ! b$s incl9$1 or a level /ratum ov]lies an incl9$ b$ ( rock or s(t] e>? incapable ( /&+ at any b a flat slope1 ! :ole be+ an un/able mass1 = ! deposits may ext5d to su* consid]able dep?s t to g bel[ !m is impracticable2 h[ev]1 uni=m weight+ & consolidation by ! deposition ( firm soils hav+ insoluble p>ticles w g5]ally make x firm]1 & by compression & admixture w ultimately cause ! gr\nd to be m solid4 ,x %\ld be load$ z long z possible1 & ! mat]ial be deposit$ beyond ! site s z to prev5t ! outside & less consolidat$ e>? slipp+ ^u ! works1 & z x w be di/urb$ by ! load$ portion hav+ subsid$ x may require slight support ^u ! l[] portion ( ! slope4 ,:5 ! settlem5t ov] ! base & ! slopes to ! orig9al b$ is equal & regul> & c>e is tak5 t ! s(t soil _c run1 by a due protection ( its surface x c be built ^u4 ,! rise ( ! mud 9 front & = "s di/ance f ! wall is g5]ally f ab\t "o-?ird to "o-half ( its subsid5ce :5 load$4 ,! rate ( s9k+ & uplift+ ( ! soil %\ld be notic$1 & :e!r x is equable & ! dep? to :i* settlem5t ext5ds is ! same ov] a consid]able area & practically ceases at a c]ta9 dep?4 ,:]e a dry dock _h to be made ^u s(t f9e s&1 ,portl& cem5t concrete has be5 successfully us$ to cov] ! :ole site4 ,9 su* soils1 to avoid ! dang] ( ! bottom be+ bl[n up :5 a dock is empty1 & has n ! c\nt]balanc+ weight ( a %ip1 arrangem5ts %\ld be made s t suffici5t wat] is let 9 to c\nt]act ! uplift+ =ce4 ,if x c be avoid$ x is advisable n to erect a grav+ dock ^u v por\s e>?1 z ! exp5se ( an imp]vi\s l9+1 :e!r ( ,portl& cem5t concrete or clay puddle1 & ( keep+ x dry w be consid]able2 & :5 unequal settlem5t takes place a run ( ! soil may occur & a slip ( e>? cause x to become fissur$ & sep>at$1 especially 9 an e/u>y or bay ) headl&s1 z natural spr+s may make ! s& a quicks&4 ,mu* dep5ds ^u ! head1 if ! wat] comes f ! adjo9+ hills x may be s great z to prev5t any b a /rongly con/ruct$ dock1 act+ z a wat]tight box1 be+ successful4 ,! be>+ p[] ( ! soil w also be practically ! same :e!r ! f\ndations are a few feet or at a consid]able dep?1 z ! head w be suffici5t to make ! spr+s issue1 & !re=e di/urb ! e>?4 ,! dra9age ( ! site requires to be c>efully delib]at$1 & no rules c be laid d[n1 b ! fl[ ( all surface wat] & spr+s %\ld be controll$4 ,! *ief aim %\ld be r to prev5t wat] rea*+ ! site ?an to all[ x to be pres5t & !n pump x away1 h5ce x is well to h ! deepe/ sump & all wat]-rais+ app>atus1 if possible1 outside ! area ( ! works ( art & 9 ! direction ( ! l& or riv] fl[4 ,! fir/ op]ation 9 dra9+ ! site is to con/ruct ! necess>y surface dra9s ar\nd x & also ! s9k+ ( a sump1 cyl9d]1 or wells :]e requir$1 :i* to be effectual mu/ be "s few feet deep] ?an ! l[e/ level ( ! works ( con/ruction2 b ! dep? %\ld be no m ?an is absolutely requisite1 z ! great] ! lift ( a pump ! less ! effici5cy2 c>e be+ tak5 t ! bottom ( ! sump is suffici5tly l[ t wat] gravitates to x1 & t ! pump+ app>atus is at su* a height t x _c be 8dr[n$40 ,:5 ! soil is ( s loose a "* t pump+ w cause x to 8run10 ! bottom c be clos$ & holes made 9 ! r+ & wat] pump$ 9 ?r\gh !m1 & 9 addition co>se gravel or brok5 /one c be ins]t$ to act z a filt]4 ,! act ( dra9age may cause soil t has be5 full ( spr+s to be entirely free f !m1 & _c b always t5d to consolidation1 if only because ( settlem5t & ! int]/ices or fissures be+ less occupi$ by wat] or be+ r$uc$ 9 size4 ,9 loose soils1 especially at ! comm5cem5t ( pump+ op]ations1 x is advisable t x be n v rapid1 z a quick *ange ( condition may cause ! gr\nd to be di/urb$ too mu*1 :]eas sl[ pump+ may cle> ! wat] z effectually & enable ! soil to settle to its new /ate4 ,! location ( ! sump %\ld be at or ab\t ! l[e/ level ( ! gr\nd well away f any wall or ! dock area1 & on ! l9e ( ! greate/ fl[ ( ! l& wat]s or natural wat]c\rse1 ?us1 deal+ ) !m be=e !y rea* ! site ( ! works4 ,9 loose & almo/ all e>? ! f\ndations %\ld be cov]$ up quickly s z to pres]ve ! natural condition ( ! soil4 ,x is also important to (f] e possible support to ! e>? to prev5t initial movem5t1 & slight assi/ance may af=d ! requir$ /r5g?4 ,unless !re are cog5t reasons to ! contr>y1 ! excavation = dock-walls is bett] execut$ 9 tr5*es1 ! frames ( :i* be+ /ruck z ! "w progresses c be us$ aga92 ! wall c ?us be support$ by ! e>? on ei!r side1 & no lat]al ?ru/ is br\ght ^u ! wall until x has set1 & !re=e ! dang] ( br++1 p]haps1 ! greate/ /ra9 ^u x :5 9 an imp]fectly solid condition is obviat$1 ! back & top ( ! wall be+ protect$ f ! wea!r1 & any movem5t or slip ( ! e>? prev5t$2 h5ce a wall %\ld act z quickly z practicable z a monoli?ic mass1 & ! mat]ial =m+ x be ?or\ghly bond$ & set 9 ,portl& cem5t or ! be/ hydraulic lime mort>1 or be :olly ( /rong ,portl& cem5t concrete4 ,! tr5* sy/em ( con/ruct+ dock-walls1 cov]$ ways1 & all "w bel[ gr\nd is ! safe/ to adopt1 & 9 loose soils or clay t exp&s & is quickly affect$ by atmosph]ic influ5ces1 & :]e !re are build+s or ! gr\nd is weight$1 ! erection ( side walls 9 tr5*es1 & !n ! completion ( ! inv]t or ar* is (t5 ! only way 9 :i* ! "w c be execut$4 ,ev5 %\ld ! =mation be rocky1 & ! b$s be incl9$ t[>ds ! site1 ! %ort #ae to #bj feet 9 l5g? tr5* sy/em is ! be/ to adopt2 & x may be advisable or necess>y to "w day & night 9 ord] t ! gr\nd may be left expos$ = ! lea/ possible "t & z ma*9e mix$ ,portl& cem5t concrete walls c be erect$ mu* quick] ?an masonry or brickwork1 9 su* situations x is ! be/ mat]ial to use4 ,! excavation = ! walls %\ld be conf9$ )9 ! smalle/ limits1 b no "u-cutt+ %\ld be all[$ 9 ! excavation tr5*es1 or ! portion und]cut may /ra9 ! upp] "p & cause x to slip & subside4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,viii4 s(t soil or weak gr\nd is ref]r$ to1 & z 9 dockworks ?is s frequ5tly occurs1 ! necessity ( mak+ e reasonable provision aga9/ undue settlem5t is app>5t4 ,9 su* f\ndations ! weight ^u !m %\ld be z equable z possible1 = any excess ( load w cause subsid5ce at t place1 & a l>ge be>+ area is requir$ :i* may n be easy to obta91 except by increas+ ! area at ! back1 z ! face mu/ be ne>ly /raight1 or only slightly curv$1 to enable vessels to get alongside1 b ! wall %\ld n be ! heavi] 9 front z x w aid an ov]turn+ movem5t4 ,any dr$g+ op]ations %\ld be effect$ at su* a di/ance t ! /ability ( a wall _c be impair$1 or a slip ( e>? may occur1 z ! b>$ soil may comm5ce to 8bl[0 or run consequ5t ^u ! dr$g+ hav+ reliev$ ! gr\nd ( weight &1 p]haps1 remov$ an imp]vi\s cov]+4 ,a r[ ( %eet piles ins]t$ be=e dr$g+ is comm5c$1 if well support$ 9 front1 may be suffici5t to prev5t movem5t4 ,9 dockwork1 ! m>g9 all[$ to resi/ lat]al /ra9 be+ consid]able1 walls seldom fail by be+ fractur$ f excess ( lat]al pressure2 b ei!r by v]tical or lat]al pressure caus+ subsid5ce or ! :ole ( a wall to slide =w>d ^u ! f\ndations2 & n f defective =m1 workman%ip1 or mat]ials2 b f a compressive /ra9 ^u ! face ( a wall caus$ by a =ce t5d+ to ov]turn x2 &1 z a rule1 :5 a wall incl9es t[>ds ! face v little m pressure w upset x4 ,g5]ally ! f\ndations are suffici5tly firm to support ! insi/5t load1 & ! *ief cause ( failure or undue movem5t is pr9cipally ! result ( slipp+ =w>d & ! want ( adhesion ( ! soil & frictional resi/ance ( ! wall ^u x4 ,h[ c ?is =w>d movem5t ( ! e>? be prev5t$8 ,be=e proce$+ to "n "s means t c be employ$ x is advisable to rememb] ! c>d9al pr9ciples ( ! con/ruction ( dock-walls to resi/ lat]al ?ru/1 because a /ructure may be s design$ z to induce a movem5t or a slip ( e>?4 ,!y may be briefly /at$ to be z foll[s3-- #a4 ,t ! maximum weight is n requir$ 9 ! front ( a dock-wall b at ! back1 9 ord] t ! c5tre ( gravity may be z f> di/ant f ! face z ! exig5cies ( s\nd con/ruction w all[4 #b4 ,t ! c5tre ( gravity %\ld be z l[ z possible consi/5t ) ! due /r5g? ( ! upp] portions ( a wall s z to increase ! resi/ance to an ov]turn+ movem5t4 #c4 ,to h an equal load ^u ! gr\nd1 & to gu>d aga9/ any extra /ra9 ^u ! f\ndations ne> ! face ( a wall consequ5t ^u ! lat]al ?ru/1 :i* has a t5d5cy to cause a wall to ov]turn4 #d4 ,p>ticul>ly to provide aga9/ any =w>d movem5t ei!r by hav+ deep f\ndations1 protective works at ! base ( a wall1 or by o!r means4 ,,note4--,x is obvi\s1 9 ord] to c\nt]act a slid+ movem5t1 t ! f\ndations %\ld be at "r angles to ! face batt] at ! base1 & n be horizontal4 ,^! incl9+ inw>d f\ndations1 h[ev]1 c only conv5i5tly ext5d = a portion ( ! wid? 9 v ?ick walls1 b ?r\gh\t 9 ^? ( less ?ickness4 ,:5 no support is possible 9 ! front ( a wall1 su* z an extra dep? ( f\ndations1 an inv]t1 or a firm connection betwe5 ! l[] portion ( opposite dock-walls1 c41 x is advisable to c\nt]=t ! wall4 #e4 ,t ! wall %\ld be z symmetrical 9 =m z possible1 p>ticul>ly ^u a s(t f\ndation1 9 ord] to ensure equal load+ & settlem5t1 & t x subsides )\t a =w>d movem5t or tilt+4 #f4 ,t x %\ld be homog5e\s1 especially :5 ! /rata dip t[>d x1 suffici5t provision be+ made to prev5t any lodgm5t ( wat] at ! back4 #g4 ,t x mu/ h ! usual m>g9 ( /ability above ! suffici5t weight & mass to resi/ ! calculat$ lat]al ?ru/ ( ! e>? & t caus$ by x be+ sur*>g$ by build+s1 goods1 cranes1 or ma*9]y1 :i* may cause unequal & sudd5 load+ & /ra92 & to )/& 9 sidelong gr\nd ! additional lat]al ?ru/ caus$ by ! incl9ation ( ! /rata4 #h4 ,t ! face be suffici5tly p]p5dicul> to all[ %ips to lay close alongside1 & t x be ( ! requir$ h>dness to resi/ ! rubb+ ( vessels1 & especially ( b>ges4 #i4 ,t1 :5 a wall is con/ruct$ ( diff]5t mat]ials1 a complete union is effect$ ( all ! p>ts1 & any?+ t5d+ to make x ( v>y+ /r5g?1 unless exceptionally requir$1 %\ld be avoid$2 su* z ! junction ( lime concrete ) ,portl& cem5t concrete1 or ! employm5t ( ! h>de/ & /ronge/ bricks or /ones & _! connection by means ( a weak mort>4 #aj4 ,t ! resultant ( ! v]tical & lat]al pressure ( ! wall1 :e!r sur*>g$ or n1 falls well )9 ! middle ?ird ( ! wall at its base4 ,if n1 ! f\ndations w be unequally /ra9$4 #aa4 ,t any moor+ po/s or boll>ds1 gate or sluice *amb] ma*9]y be s plac$ & secur$ t !y cause no s]i\s additional /ra9 ^u a dock-wall4 #ab4 ,9 soils t exp&1 su* z ! clays1 dry back+ %\ld be provid$ ( absorb5t & ev5 mat]ial capable ( compression suffici5tly to relieve a wall ( sev]e pressure f ! expansion ( ! e>?4 #ac4 ,t select$ mat]ial be us$ = ! back+1 & t x be rais$ 9 lay]s incl9+ 9 a direction opposite to t ( ! wall1 c>e be+ tak5 t x _c become wat]-*>g$4 ,hav+ briefly ref]r$ to a few ( ! *ief pr9ciples ( con/ruction ( dock-walls1 ! connection betwe5 !m & slips & subsid5ce 9 e>?work has to be consid]$4 ,x is seldom a dock-wall fails f insuffici5t mass or incorrect design4 ,! *ief elem5t ( dang] be+ imp]fect f\ndations caus+ a =w>d movem5t ( ! wall1 :i* may ei!r result 9 a bulge or a complete advance ( ! :ole section = a consid]able di/ance1 & usually :5 ?is =w>d motion comm5ces x ext5ds = a long l5g?1 & has an apex1 & is n only ( a disa/r\s "*1 b also difficult to quickly & p]man5tly re/ore to a /ate ( /ability4 ,! wall may be mo/ c>efully design$1 & be amply suffici5t to resi/ lat]al ?ru/ due to ! pressure ( ! e>? & any load ^u ! quay1 & nev]!less1 al?\gh z a wall x is p]fect & unimpair$1 ! :ole mass f want ( suffici5t dep? ( ! f\ndations or hold 9 ! gr\nd frequ5tly slides =w>d3 & !re are few ext5sive docks t h be5 con/ruct$ 9 any b ! firme/ e>? t h be5 free f su* a mi%ap4 ,9 ord] to limit ! ext5t ( a slid+ movem5t1 x might be said1 r$uce ! l5g?s ( ! wall & make ! unsupport$ f ! front l5g? z %ort z possible1 & 9 d\btful e>? x may be advisable to ab&on all long /raight walls & adopt ! sy/em ( %ort jetties1 ) ample wid? at _! heads = unload+ & load+ op]ations1 = a vessel to lay alongside1 = /ore-h\se room1 & a d\ble l9e ( rails & ! necess>y free action ( ma*9]y2 s z to avoid ! exp5se ( slips pu%+ =w>d ! wall3 b to d ?is may almo/ ru9 ! comm]cial prospects ( a dock1 = naturally own]s & capta9s ( %ips w s5d _! vessels :]e ! greate/ facilities are (f]$ & ! imp$im5ts to movem5t ! lea/4 ,local consid]ations 9 ea* case alone c det]m9e ! %orte/ requir$ cle> l5g?4 ,h[ev]1 9 design+ jetties to dock-walls x is advisable to s con/ruct !m t !y may act also z face c\nt]=ts to a wall1 & be locat$ at any app>5tly weak place s z to give support :]e x is ne$$4 ,! *ief dang] is f v>iation ( ! e>? 9 ! f\ndations & ! exi/5ce ( ?9 seams ( an un/able "*1 or fissures 9 rocky soil all[+ p]colation ( wat]1 mo/ difficult1 if n bord]+ ^u ! impossible1 to discov] unless by trial pits & bor+s ov] ! :ole area ( ! site ( a dock1 :i* w\ld be a mo/ unwise proce$+1 z has be5 previ\sly nam$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,! m>vell\s lab\rs ( geologi/s & o!rs h enabl$ an accurate op9ion to be =m$ ( ! locality & ! dep? at :i* wat] & c]ta9 m9]als are to be f\nd & also to indicate ! e>?s 9 :i* fissures & seams are frequ5t2 b x mu/ ev] be impossible = man to absolutely /ate t no un/able seams or ve9s exi/ ov] a consid]able area ( gr\nd1 m especially 9 ! sup]ficial b$s ^u :i* a dock-wall has to be con/ruct$1 al?\gh ! probability ( _! pres5ce may be det]m9$ ) "s degree ( precision4 ,! importance ( a complete exam9ation ( ! gr\nd ( ! site & neighb\rhood is imp]ative1 & p>ticul>ly ( any cutt+s & embankm5ts 9 ! locality4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 _m conditions ( e>? are ref]r$ to 9 :i* slips & movem5t are probable1 b t n[ "u consid]ation is usually caus$ by a wall re/+ ^u seams or weak ve9s ( un/able soil2 !re=e1 !re is dang] :5 a comp>atively ?9 seam ( s(t slimy e>? int]poses betwe5 ! h>d b$ ^u :i* ! f\ndations may re/ & "o bel[ ! ve92 =1 b a little additional moi/ure may suffici5tly lubricate ! surface to enable ! firm b$ to slide ^u x1 ! frictional resi/ance be+ !reby s r$uc$ t movem5t results4 ,simil>ly1 9 ! case ( a seam ( gravel ov]ly+ clay1 ! firm gravel b$ may slide ^u ! clay3 ! f\ndations %\ld !n be c>ri$ d[n to ! clay4 ,piles at ! base driv5 into ! gravel w be ( little use2 9 fact1 = p]man5t "w1 !y are n[ almo/ ab&on$ except = jetties1 cills1 aprons1 dolph9s1 c41 = uni=mity ( support is v difficult to obta9 9 pilework & _c be prov$ to exi/2 b piles may be useful to help to su/a9 a /ructure until x has tak5 its p]man5t be>+ & is 9 possession ( its full /r5g?4 ,= purposes ( p]man5t support !y are some:at unreliable1 = failures h happ5$ because ( _! weakness1 & walls h consequ5tly be5 ov]turn$2 _! *ief use is z auxili>y tempor>y aids to lat]al /ability1 su* z conf9+ concrete or less5+ ! p]colation ( wat]4 ,h[ev]1 ! e>? may be 9 su* a condition t x _c reta9 !m 9 position :5 !y are /ra9$1 !n !y are useless = lat]al support4 ,_! resi/ance to horizontal /ra9 v>ies mu* ) ! nature ( ! soil & n necess>ily accord+ to its cohesive p[]2 = in/ance1 exp]im5ts h %[n s& to af=d ! greate/ horizontal resi/ance2 clay1 less2 & 9 loose a%es ! p[] is fur!r r$uc$4 ,:5 a clay /ratum is ?9 & ov]lies gravel or s&1 provid$ ! necess>y precautions are tak5 t ! s& does n 8boil10 x is bett] to h ! f\ndations ^u ! und]ly+ gravel or s&1 z ! lay] ( clay may bulge & slide ^u ! gravel & ?ru/ out ! wall4 ,%\ld a /ratum ( clay be sup]impos$ ^u ano!r ( simil> "*1 x w always be 9 a damp /ate conducive to lat]al in/ability1 z !re w be two slid+ surfaces1 & ! upp] may be =c$ =w>d & c>ry ! wall ) x1 & %\ld a seam ( s& be int]pos$ x may become 8quick0 & fl[ away4 ,9 su* cases ! f\ndations %\ld ext5d to a safe dep? 9 ! l[] clay /ratum or be bel[ ! un/able seam1 & :5 ! dep? ( silt or un/able soil ov]ly+ a firm b$1 z rock1 is consid]able1 ! well sy/em c be adopt$1 provid$ ! bottom is levell$4 ,z seams1 weak ve9s1 & fissures are s frequ5tly met ) ! examples might be cont9u$ almo/ ad inf9itum4 ,to asc]ta9 :e!r !y exi/ & _! location is "o ( ! prim>y precautions to be obs]v$1 z dock-walls usually fail f bulg+ or slipp+ =w>d1 caus+ fracture or ov]turn+4 ,additional weight or increase ( ! ?ickness ( a wall may n suffice to arre/ movem5t ( ! base or =w>d motion ( ! e>?4 ,to place ! f\ndations at a great] dep? may be impracticable1 al?\gh x may be ! be/ me?od ( re/oration2 x !n becomes necess>y to ins]t an inv]t or /rut betwe5 ! walls 9 a n>r[ dock1 or 9 a l>ge dock to attempt to remove ! un/able seam 9 front ( ! wall & prev5t movem5t ( ! ve9 by a curta9-wall1 additional weight1 or o!r means ( consolidation2 or by remov+ ! solid back+1 dra9+ ! back1 & ! erection ( a timb] plat=m in/ead ( ! e>?1 s t x reposes at its natural slope )\t creat+ a ?ru/ ^u ! wall2 or by hav+ pack$ rubble fill+ in/ead ( ord9>y solid back+ s z to remove or light5 ! lat]al pressure ^u x1 by dra9+ ! gr\nd at ! back2 or by c\nt]=ts f ! f\ndation to ! gr\nd level1 at ! front ( ! wall1 especial c>e be+ tak5 to prev5t _! p>t+ f ! ma9 wall4 ,! ar*$ wall sy/em is sometimes adopt$ = docks1 b z x requires a long] "t to con/ruct1 & is obvi\sly m liable to be damag$ f settlem5t & by pressure ( ! e>? & ! failure ( jo9ts & weak places1 solid walls ( ,portl& cem5t concrete ) a h>d face are m to be desir$2 z 9 su* situations a monoli?ic & equally resi/+ mass is requir$1 weight & mass be+ ( importance4 ,! relative bulk ( mat]ials = a c]ta9 exp5diture %\ld be consid]$1 z x may happ5 t greatly increas$ weight & mass may be obta9$ = no extra exp5se by ! employm5t ( a c]ta9 sub/ance4 ,comb9ations ( brickwork & masonry & concrete are be+ ab&on$ 9 fav\r ( "o homog5e\s mat]ial ?r\gh\t1 & no yet kn[n aggregate fulfils ?is condition = su* "w z ,portl& cem5t concrete1 ow+ to ! difficulty ( mak+ secure & p]fect jo9ts1 al?\gh h>d brick fac+ may be necess>y to protect ! face f we> by ! rubb+ ( vessels4 ,by a judici\s adoption ( mat]ial = a dock-wall 9 ord] to give x weight & mass1 & suffici5tly deep f\ndations1 nei!r c\nt]=ts nor o!r special means ( protection aga9/ failure may be requir$1 & slips & movem5ts ( ! e>? may be prev5t$4 ,9 ! case ( a /ratum ( s(t soil ( consid]able dep? ov]ly+ a firm f\ndation1 dock & quay-walls ^u ar*es1 n exce$+ ab\t #cj feet span1 h be5 successfully erect$ ^u wells sunk 9 or to ! solid gr\nd1 :5 by reason ( ! co/ x 0 impracticable to c>ry a solid wall to ! firm gr\nd2 & no slipp+1 slid+ =w>d1 or subsid5ce has occurr$4 ,to prev5t movem5t ( ! e>? at ! back ( a wall pu%+ or fractur+ x & be+ ! cause ( a slip1 x may be well to briefly /ate a few po9ts to :i* att5tion %\ld be especially direct$4 ,9 adopt+ two sy/ems ( design ( a wall1 x is advisable t ! *ange ( =m be gradual & n made abruptly1 or cracks may occur f unequal settlem5t or load ^u ! f\ndations1 & also :5 a concrete b$ is us$ "u a wall a lime concrete lay] _c be firmly jo9$ to "o compos$ ( m solid & unyield+ mat]ial1 su* z ,portl& cem5t concrete4 ,simil> walls erect$ ^u diff]5t soils are n equally /ra9$1 z "o e>? may sc>cely *ange f ! effects ( air & wat]1 & ano!r may v>y daily accord+ to ! wea!r4 ,to c\nt]act any ov]turn+ t5d5cy1 a wall %\ld h a l>ge be>+ area "u ! face portion1 all projections & heavy cop+s %\ld be avoid$1 or any?+ t increases ! load ne> ! face at ! top4 ,weight & wid? ( base & consid]able dep? ( f\ndations are mo/ important1 = well design$ walls :5 plac$ ^u /able gr\nd h be5 pu%$ =w>d simply f an insuffici5tly deep hold 9 ! gr\nd2 & ! load ^u ! e>? mu/ be )9 its safe be>+ p[]4 ,a wall %\ld be design$ s t its c5tre ( gravity is z f> f ! face z practicable1 & :5 x is con/ruct$ ( /one or brick x is necess>y t ! jo9ts be z /rong z possible1 & be capable ( resi/+ v>y+ /ra9s4 ,%\ld lime mort> be us$ x is probable x w be p>tly wa%$ out1 & ,portl& cem5t mort> %\ld always be pref]r$ ^u ! face1 or wat] may p]colate into ! wall & ev5 pass ?r\gh x to ! e>? & cause slips & subsid5ces4 ,c\nt]=ts erect$ ^u ! out] face ( reta9+ walls are mu* to be pref]r$ to any plac$ at ! back1 = support at ! face is :at is requir$3 9 ! latt] case !re is always a *ance ( _! becom+ sep>at$ f ! ma9 wall1 al?\gh :5 s locat$ at ! back !y are consid]$ to less5 ! lat]al pressure ( ! e>? by divid+ x1 b any r$uction caus$ by friction ( ! soil aga9/ ! sides may v>y s greatly1 accord+ to ! condition & subsid5ce ( ! e>?1 t x is prud5t to disreg>d x1 & x is well to rememb] t ! pressure may become int5sifi$ or unev5 ^u ! ma9 wall by deflection & conc5tration caus$ by ! c\nt]=ts1 ! result be+ ! creation ( weak & unduly /ra9$ places2 x may !re=e be bett] to uni=mly increase ! ?ickness ( ! wall4 ,c\nt]=ts ( triangul> %ape on plan h be5 adopt$ 9 ord] to less5 ! lat]al ?ru/ by direct+ x to ! sides ( ! triangles1 _! bases be+ aga9/ ! wall4 ,x is d\btful :e!r ! ?ru/ ( ! e>? s acts "u ! usual v>y+ conditions ( "w4 ,! necessity ( moor+ vessels alongside a dock or quay-wall prev5ts ! adoption ( face c\nt]=ts except to a v limit$ ext5t2 h[ev]1 al?\gh ! =m ( a %ip p]mits ( only a slight batt] = ! upp] half1 ! l[] portion may be incl9$ = a few feet f ! bottom4 ,z ! adoption ( a batt] on ! face increases ! area ( ! base ( a wall & its frictional surface ^u ! gr\nd1 & t5ds to less5 ov]turn+ movem5t & undue /ra9 ^u ! face1 a dock1 quay1 or reta9+ wall hav+ a batt] is to be pref]r$ to "o ) a v]tical face2 9 fact1 x acts z a triangul> front c\nt]=t1 ) ! great advantage ( be+ an inh]5t "p ( a wall4 ,9 f\ndations ( a s&y or silty "*1 a dock or quay-wall hav+ wells 9 ! cross section to )9 a few feet ( its base fill$ ) ramm$ light dry mat]ial1 ! wid? ( ! bottom ne>ly approa*+ t ( ! dep? ( wat]1 has be5 adopt$ 9 pref]5ce to a solid wall ( less ?ickness1 z af=d+ a wid] base1 great] resi/ance to ov]turn+1 & a r$uction ( ! weight ^u ! f\ndations4 ,a slip ( ! e>? back+ is frequ5tly caus$ f insuffici5t dra9age & a consequ5t accumulation ( wat] beh9d a wall1 produc+ su* pressure t ! friction ( ! weight ( ! wall ^u ! f\ndations is impair$ & ! support 9 front insuffici5t to resi/ a =w>d movem5t1 !re=e ! back dra9age %\ld receive due att5tion4 ,:5 a dock-wall has be5 ?ru/ =w>d by ! e>? x may be a s]i\s movem5t1 likely to increase & culm9ate 9 ! de/ruction ( ! wall1 or be m]ely a slight lat]al settlem5t4 ,su* slips are usually ( consid]able l5g?1 & h an apex :]e ! greate/ =w>d motion has occurr$4 ,! *ief rem$ies consi/ 9 secur+ ! f\ndations1 support+ ! face1 light5+ or remov+ ! pressure ( ! back+1 dra9+ ! backwat]s & prev5t+ _! rea*+ ! wall4 ,provid$ a wall is intact & n damag$1 b solidly & horizontally pu%$ =w>d1 x ne$ n be tak5 d[n1 b if v]tical subsid5ce has tak5 place1 or a settlem5t1 at ! face only1 x is g5]ally ( s]i\s importance1 & x may be necess>y to remove & replace x4 ,:5 a wall bulges slightly f ! pressure ( ! e>? at ! back & !n ceases to move1 ! gr\nd beh9d may h become 9 a /ate ( p]man5t equilibrium1 & ! lat]al ?ru/1 :i* be=e movem5t 0 too great1 may be s r$uc$ t 9 ! alt]$ position x may rema9 /able1 provid$ ! void is fill$ ) light por\s back+1 & ! dra9age ( ! e>? receives due att5tion4 ,c\nt]=ts ( piles rea*+ to ! level ( ! gr\nd 9 front ( ! face h be5 adopt$ to arre/ & prev5t a =w>d movem5t1 b :5 ! gr\nd is mu* di/urb$ & 9 a loose /ate1 x is unadvisable to drive piles because ( vibration :i* may induce fur!r motion4 ,in/ead ( timb] pile c\nt]=ts1 tr5*es might be cut at int]vals along ! toe & be fill$ ) quick-sett+ cem5t concrete1 ! fill+ to foll[ ! excavation z closely z possible1 & no unsupport$ e>? to be all[$ to rema94 ,z improp] back+ (t5 induces a slip & subsid5ce ( ! e>? & ! failure ( a wall1 x is ( importance t x %\ld be c>efully execut$1 = _m well-design$ walls h fail$ or bulg$ f be+ badly & hurri$ly back$ ) unsuitable & s(t ret5tive mat]ial 9 a det]iorat$ condition1 ! result be+ movem5t ( ! e>?4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! mat]ial ( :i* ! back+ is compos$ w always ma9ta9 ! slope ( repose ^u :i* ! calculations h be5 bas$ t det]m9$ ! dim5sions ( ! wall2 !re=e1 x %\ld always h an angle ( repose :i* is n mu* affect$ by moi/ure4 ,x is important to rememb] t accord+ to ! nature ( ! back+ s w be ! pressure ^u a wall1 dep5d+ pr9cipally ^u ! coeffici5t ( friction ( ! e>? ^u simil> e>?1 its cohesion1 its friction ^u ! surface ( ! back ( a wall1 ! incl9ation ( ! lay]s1 ! g5]al "* ( ! soil & ! effect ( moi/ure ^u x2 & no vegetable1 decay$1 or 8made0 e>? %\ld be us$ = su* a purpose1 nor mat]ial :i* gives a v>y+ ?ru/ accord+ to ! /ate ( dampness or dryness1 & ! lighte/ dry1 firm1 & /able e>? %\ld be pref]r$4 ,:5 rubble back+ is adopt$ & is c>efully pack$1 ! lat]al ?ru/ may be greatly r$uc$1 z 9 "s degree1 in/ead ( back+ a dry wall may be consid]$ to h be5 built at ! back ( ! face wall4 ,clean a%es are an excell5t mat]ial = fill+ damp places 9 a wall1 because !y n only absorb moi/ure1 b are light1 & /& p]man5tly at a slope ( ab\t #a to #a ,,to #a to #a1 b !y c seldom be obta9$ 9 suffici5t quantity to be us$ 9 consid]able masses2 also brok5 bricks & burnt balla/1 al?\gh heavi]1 make good back+4 ,e>? t is mu* affect$ by air or wat]1 or t exp&s1 contracts1 or fissures1 su* z clay1 is n good = fill+1 & dry masonry reta9+ walls %\ld n be hack$ ) e>? b ) rubble1 or 9 c\ntries ) a heavy ra9fall ! wall w mo/ probably be =c$ =w>d4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to h pl5ty ( weep-holes 9 a wall s z to obviate any accumulation ( wat]1 & x is well if ! back has a r\gh face 9 ord] to increase friction & prev5t cavities 9 ! back+ d[n :i* wat] may p]colate4 ,dur+ con/ruction a few weep-holes 9 a dock or quay-wall %\ld always be provid$1 until ! wat] is to be let 9 to a dock1 :5 x is be/ to fill !m ) /rong ,portl& cem5t concrete z wat] w\ld proce$ along !m f ! face & accumulate at ! back ( a wall2 ! p]man5t dra9age be+ affect$ by o!r means4 ,9 pull+ d[n walls t h be5 built ) (fsets at ! back x w usually be notic$ t ! fill+ does n re/ ^u !m1 b t holl[s occur z ! e>? subsides2 = ?is reason1 a /raight batt] at ! back is to be pref]r$4 ,no support f ! weight ( ! e>?1 :i* is suppos$ to be ^u !m1 %\ld be reli$ ^u1 al?\gh x may tempor>ily exi/4 ,! fill+ %\ld be comm5c$ at ! wall1 & ! lay]s be s deposit$ t _! slope approximates to t ( be+ at "r angles to ! surface ( ! slope ( ! gr\nd r ?an p>allel to x4 ,:5 ?\ght desirable & ! natural gr\nd is solid1 x c be b5*$1 & ! back+ be damp$ & ramm$4 ,! back+ ( a wall may consi/ n only ( an inv]t$ triangul> piece ( e>?1 b ext5d = "s di/ance to ! re>1 & may h a top surface at a consid]able height above x2 ! wall w !n h to su/a9 a sev]e ?ru/4 ,! angle ( repose ( ! e>? %\ld be asc]ta9$ & ! fill+ be ?or\ghly dra9$1 or x may be dis9tegrat$ by moi/ure1 ! :ole mass gradually become un/able1 & f9ally pu% ! wall =w>d ) great =ce4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,notes ,,^u ,,slips ,,( ,,e>?1 ,,subsid5ces ,,& ,,movem5t ,,9 ,,f\ndations ,,caus$ ,,by 8,,boils0 ,,or ,,an ,,upw>d ,,ru% ,,( ,,wat] ,,9 ,,loose ,,e>?s4--,,consid]ation ,,( ,,"s ,,precaution>y ,,& ,,rem$ial ,,op]ations4 ,) reg>d to 8boils0 9 s&y soils & ! g5]al dra9age ( ! site ( dockworks1 op]ations %\ld be comm5c$ z long z possible be=e ! works ( con/ruction1 s z to less5 ! probability ( ! occurr5ce ( slips1 subsid5ces1 & movem5t ( e>?work4 ,9 ord] to r$uce infiltration1 x is well to make a tr5* r\nd ! area ( any gr\nd t has to be excavat$1 :i* may embrace ! :ole site4 ,a sy/em ( dra9s & conduits %\ld be e/abli%$ )9 x1 & at ! l[e/ level a sump at a conv5i5t position1 & to a dep? a few feet bel[ t ( ! "w2 x c !n be made ! *ief pump+ /ation ( ! dock2 b all draw+ away or fl[ ( ! e>? mu/ be prev5t$3 & to obviate erosion ( ! dra9s1 !y may require to be r\gh l9$ ) an imp]vi\s cov]+ su* z clay4 ,! sump %\ld consi/ ( an iron cyl9d] ) prop] provision aga9/ a run ( soil4 ,9 all loose e>?s ! pump+ /ation %\ld be "s di/ance f build+s or roads s z to avoid any settlem5t4 ,:5 a *oice ( sites exi/s & ! position ( a dock is n absolutely fix$1 x may be possible to h ! f\ndations ( ! :ole "w 9 "o k9d ( e>?2 if o!rwise1 "o portion may be /able & ano!r un/able1 always trea*]\s1 & liable to slip & subside4 ,9 any case settlem5t is n likely to be equal1 & !re=e a f\ndation :i* is well able to su/a9 an ev5ly di/ribut$ load may yield f unequal /ra9 & excess ( lat]al ?ru/4 ,consequ5t ^u ! situation ( docks1 ! sup]ficial b$s ^u :i* !y h to be erect$ frequ5tly v>y 9 /ability & reliability2 & ! location be+ alt]$ 9 any direction may result mo/ s]i\sly2 ! e>? ^u "o side ( a comp>atively n>r[ riv] be+ /able 9 "* & on ! opposite bank mo/ trea*]\s4 ,difficulties (t5 arise 9 f\ndations1 especially 9 s&y soils1 f mak+ bor+s & trial pits too ne> ! important p>ts ( ! "w2 !y %\ld be made z reasonably f> away z is conv5i5t4 ,9 bor+1 a s& fl[ may occur1 :5 x may be necess>y to fill ! bore-hole & su/a9 ! soil by a cov]+1 or by consolidat+ ! s& by means ( ,portl& cem5t1 & !n1 p]haps1 reliable op]ations may be cont9u$4 ,bor+s %\ld be consid]$ z unreliable if m]ely sup]ficial2 9 any case ( importance !y %\ld only be tru/$ = ! place :]e !y are made1 & n z indicat+ ! nature or condition ( ! soil ov] a consid]able area4 ,:5 pits _c be sunk1 x is desirable t 9 a suspect$ly trea*]\s site ! bore-holes %\ld be at e #bjj or #cjj feet4 ,excavat+ pits1 us+ te/-b>s1 & driv+ piles are "s ( ! me?ods ( det]m9+ ! "* ( f\ndations1 b c>e %\ld be tak5 to asc]ta9 9 bor+ t b\ld]s1 or ?9 /rata ( h>d gravel1 are n mi/ak5 = solid rock4 ,9 s&1 mud1 or s(t clay !y c be made by means ( an iron pipe & ! wat]-jet sy/em4 ,exp]i5ce has prov$ t bor+ ) an aug] is n s reliable z bor+ ) a tube1 su* z is us$ = artesian wells4 ,9 ! case ( aug]s1 :5 b\ld]s are enc\nt]$1 fur!r bor+ is usually arre/$ 9 t place & ano!r bore-hole has to be comm5c$4 ,trial pits1 :]e practicable1 %\ld be pref]r$ to bor+1 & !y %\ld be sunk to a dep? consid]ably bel[ ! l[e/ level ( ! int5d$ f\ndations1 & !n !y may d = sump holes = pump+ op]ations4 ,9 te/+ gr\nd by bor+s1 sev]al %\ld be made1 z "o hole might enc\nt] a b\ld] or "s h>d soil1 su* z indurat$ clay1 & ! latt] may adh]e to ! aug] & arre/ its progress2 ! specim5s !n br\ght up1 be+ cru%$ & press$ toge!r1 w appe> to be firm] ?an ! actual condition ( ! gr\nd4 ,hav+ briefly ref]r$ to ! prelim9>y dra9age1 & "s me?ods ( asc]ta9+ ! nature ( ! gr\nd1 ! =m] to less51 & ! latt] to aid discov]y ( ! "* ( any probable upw>d lu%es ( soil3 8boils0 9 f\ndations are m specifically consid]$4 ,x may be said t !y g5]ally proce$ f an imp]vi\s top /ratum be+ pi]c$1 !reby tapp+ ! wat] 9 a p]vi\s b$ :i* may be impos$ ^u ano!r imp]vi\s lay]2 = ! upp] b$ be+ excavat$ removes ! weight ^u ! l[] /rata & induces a fl[ ( ! previ\sly conf9$ wat]4 ,! s\rce ( di/urbance may be ei!r f surface-wat] 9 ! top soil or f deep und]gr\nd spr+s1 dep5d+ 9 great measure ^u ! ext5t ( ! cat*m5t area & head-wat] level ( ! di/rict1 z its quantity & uplift+ pressure w be pr9cipally gov]n$ by !m4 ,:5 ! soil is 9 a delicate /ate ( equilibrium x only requires a slight det]iorat+ alt]ation ( ! normal condition to initiate a movem5t4 ,! di/urbance ( ! gr\nd may be m]ely sup]ficial1 nev]!less its effect may be suffici5t to />t a 8boil10 al?\gh ! *ief cause pot5tly exi/s at "s consid]able dep? & di/ance4 8,boils0 produc$ by simply surface-wat] require "o sy/em ( treatm5t2 if f und]gr\nd wat]s1 ano!r rem$y is necess>y4 ,e ef=t %\ld be made to "k ! reason1 trace ! orig91 & to asc]ta9 ! p[] ( ! di/urb+ =ces4 ,x may be possible to det]m9e !m1 al?\gh g5]ally x c only be done by d$uctive reason+ & logical inf]5ce4 ,9 any ev5t imm$iate action is invaluable :5 a 8boil0 appe>s4 ,weight+ ! gr\nd ar\nd a 8boil0 ) an imp]vi\s mass ( clay1 & ! ins]tion ( a /&-pipe w indicate ! level to :i* ! wat] w rise1 v>y+ accord+ to ! seasons1 & w give an approximate idea ( ! head supply & pressure2 c>e be+ tak5 t ! pipe does n become ob/ruct$ & t ! wat] has a free fl[4 ,x may also be asc]ta9$ by ! ins]tion ( pipe-rods to diff]5t dep?s1 & by notic+ ! effects1 su* z ! rapidity1 ! quantity & ! "* ( ! dis*>ge4 ,!re may be an appreciable diff]5ce 9 ! height to :i* ! wat] rises 9 v>i\s /&-pipes2 if s1 its fl[ is ob/ruct$ or ! s\rce is n id5tical4 ,an exam9ation ( ! col\r & nature ( ! susp5d$ matt] 9 ! wat] & a comp>ison ( x ) ! /rata may %[ its s\rce1 b x is n always reliable unless ! same col\r is ma9ta9$ = ! l[e/ dep?s4 ,a p]usal ( ,*apt] ,,ii4 w indicate "s situations 9 :i* 8boils0 may be expect$4 ,! conditions "u :i* !y may appe> are s num]\s t x may be /at$ !y g5]ally occur 9 any situation :5 a lay] ( loose soil has a sup]impos$ b$ ( m or less imp]vi\s boil ^u x :i* is p]=at$ by ! excavation = a dock or o!r "w2 & especially %\ld a wat]-be>+ /ratum1 su* z *alk1 und]lie a s& /ratum2 also :5 a wat]-be>+ /ratum is sup]impos$ ^u s& :i* lies ^u an imp]vi\s b$ su* z clay1 z wat] w p]colate to ! s&2 & :5 s& ov]lies a wat]-*>g$ /ratum2 or at ! outcrop ( *alk hills ne> ! site2 or :]e s& is bel[ an imp]vi\s lay] ( clay & ! latt] is tapp$4 ,! 8boils10 ( c\rse1 become m s]i\s z ! head ( wat] increases1 & also :5 ! /rata dip t[>ds ! site4 ,an imp]vi\s b$ may be ( su* ?ickness1 t :5 ! l[e/ f\ndation is excavat$ !re may be no fe> ( wat] f any und]gr\nd s\rce be+ =c$ up ?r\gh x2 h[ev]1 unless ! ?ickness ( ! upp] lay] is kn[n to be ne>ly uni=m ov] ! site ( a dock1 :i* is seldom ! case1 ! wat] pressure1 aid$ by ! weight ( ! /ructure1 may sep>ate or loos5 ! soil at a weak place1 & !n a 8boil0 w be ! result4 ,! ?ickness ( ! cru/ requir$1 :i* may be any?+ f ab\t #ae feet upw>d1 may be approximately asc]ta9$ by weight+ ! e>? consid]ably above ! load x w p]man5tly h to su/a91 & by wat*+ ! subsid5ce & g5]al effect4 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 n to p]=ate ! firm /ratum1 z dang] w at once ensue %\ld loose soil1 su* z s&1 be tapp$1 = cavities w !n be produc$ caus+ subsid5ce1 probable fracture ( ! firm /ratum1 8boils10 & slips ( s]i\s ext5t4 ,:5 a heavy /ructure has to be built ^u su* a soil1 & x is impossible because ( ! exp5se to place ! f\ndations except ^u ?is sup]ficial b$1 exp]im5ts 9 ! direction indicat$ %\ld always be made1 & any o!r means ( pro( t circum/ances may all[ o!r ?an by p]=ation ( ! /ratum3 9 any case e ef=t %\ld be made to reliably asc]ta9 t ! firm /ratum is ( uni=m dep? & "*4 ,! dis*>ge *annel ( any und]gr\nd wat]s likely to di/urb ! f\ndations %\ld be discov]$1 & :5 !re are adjac5t hills1 by trac+ _! dampe/ "p ! probable direction ( ! surface fl[ may become kn[n4 ,inquiry %\ld be made to f9d out :e!r any bor+s h be5 made ov] ! site 9 ord] to det]m9e if ! 8boils0 h be5 artificially creat$ or are natural bl[-wells1 9 :i* ! wat] rises ov] ! top & c1 p]haps1 be l$ away by gravitation4 ,x is advisable to fill e bore-hole ) ,portl& cem5t mort> be=e any excavation is comm5c$1 or !y w bur/ out :5 ! surr\nd+ gr\nd is di/urb$4 ,bags conta9+ %ot h be5 us$ to help to close a hole1 b a pref]able me?od is to ins]t a pipe d[n ! bore1 x hav+ be5 previ\sly cle>$ ( all dirt2 & to fill x ) neat ,portl& cem5t mort>1 ! tube be+ rais$ z ! hole is fill$4 ,su* a me?od1 al?\gh successful ) small holes1 is useless 9 ! case ( 8bl[s0 ( ! ord9>y size4 ,a p]man5t %aft or cyl9d] is !n necess>y4 ,) reg>d to ! treatm5t ( 8boils0 9 f\ndations1 :5 9 ! possession ( ! in=mation h]e9be=e nam$ x may indicate a rem$y ei!r = 8boils0 9 :i* ! cause ( di/urbance is at a consid]able dep? & ! head & fall ( wat] mod]ately l>ge1 or :5 ! agitation is m]ely sup]ficial1 :i* may result f ! range ( ! tidal wat]s or ! want ( surface dra9age4 ,:5 a 8boil0 is ( ! fir/ ord]1 x is useless attempt+ to simply /op x by =ce & prev5t ! issue ( wat]1 z su* a me?od ( proc$ure w\ld result 9 m]ely div]t+ ! di/urbance1 & 9 addition leave a weak place 9 ! f\ndations2 h[ev]1 if _m 8boils0 appe>1 & ! dis9tegrat+ ag5cy ( ! wat] is remov$ ei!r by conduct+ or div]t+ ! fl[ f ! site1 !y c !n be fill$1 & x %\ld be simultane\sly effect$1 or any m]e exudation 9 ! :ole ( ! 8boils0 may become increas$ 9 "o or two to a fl[ suffici5t to cause a slip or in/ability1 & any conc5tration ( ! dis*>ge may produce movem5t ( ! gr\nd4 ,small spr+s or 8boils0 h be5 suffici5tly arre/$ by deposit+ clay ov] !m1 excavat+ x1 & putt+ 9 ! f\ndations v promptly & be=e ! 8boil0 bur/ out aga92 su* treatm5t1 h[ev]1 may lead to ! back+ ( a wall becom+ saturat$ & ! wat] be+ damm$ up3 on ! o!r h&1 ! 8boil0 may be seal$ & ! wat] fl[ away 9 ! orig9al und]gr\nd *annels2 also :5 a 8boil0 is tapp$ x may induce an increas$ fl[ ( ! und]gr\nd wat]s1 = !y w f9d ! c\rse ( lea/ resi/ance2 & %\ld !y rea* a f9e s& /ratum w filt] ?r\gh & set x 9 motion1 provid$ ! head is suffici5t to ov]come friction2 & ! support r5d]$ to any ov]ly+ /ratum w !re=e be de/roy$4 ,9 ! ev5t ( !re be+ only "o 8boil10 b t ( important ext5t1 p]haps ! be/ way to proce$ is to place clay ^u ! surface = a few feet ar\nd x1 ! weight ( :i* %\ld n be less ?an ! normal pressure ( ! e>? remov$ by excavation1 vide ,*apt] ,v43 & by ! ins]tion ( a cyl9d]1 ) a prop]ly design$ bottom1 to prev5t ! issue ( soil to a level "s feet bel[ ! l[e/ int5d$ excavation ^u ! site1 or to ! dep? at :i* ! greate/ fl[ ( wat] is obta9$2 c>e be+ tak5 t no run ( s& or soil is all[$ & t ! wat] is n *>g$ ) e>?1 ei!r by a ?ick gravel lay] until ! s& ceases to pass ?r\gh x1 or by o!r means1 rememb]+ t ! motive p[] ( runn+ s& is t ( ! pressure ( wat]4 ,! fl[ %\ld be g5tly l$ away1 if necess>y1 to a sump1 & dis*>g$ by pump+1 ?us dra9+ ! works4 ,! sump %\ld always be l9$1 n only to prev5t any fl[ ^u or into ! surface caus+ saturation1 b s z to control & regulate ! wat] "s feet bel[ ! l[e/ level ( ! f\ndations1 ! great po9t be+ to draw d[nw>ds ! wat] f ! e>? & !n to c>ry x away4 ,an iron or wood5 cyl9d] sump is to be pref]r$ to "o con/ruct$ ( %eet piles or timb]-l9$1 z ! soil may be s loose t any %ak+ or vibration %\ld n be all[$1 & a close jo9t is n easy to atta9 9 timb] pile "w4 ,x is well to deposit "s clay puddle = a little di/ance r\nd ! sump aft] s9k+ x 9 ord] to weight ! soil & /eady ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 a dis*>g+ outlet has be5 made x %\ld be ma9ta9$ 9 p]fect condition1 or a slip or subsid5ce may occur f leakage or div]sion ( ! fl[4 ,x may also happ5 t no dis*>ge is necess>y1 = if ! 8boil0 is only1 z x 71 ( local ext5t & caus$ by a weak ve9 9 o!rwise /able soil1 ! wat] may rise to ! head level & !re rema92 ! equilibrium be+ re/or$ :i* _h be5 de/roy$ by reason ( ! upp] /rata ( an imp]vi\s "* be+ excavat$4 ,! removal ( ! normal pressure ^u ! loose soil to "s ext5t1 lib]ates ! wat]1 & ! head ceas+ to be balanc$ by x1 ! e>? _c d o!rwise ?an all[ wat] to upraise x4 ,a calculation ( ! weight ( ! e>? remov$ may give an indication )9 :i* w be ! probable head level ( ! supply1 & usually x is mu* bel[ a head ( wat] t w\ld equal ! normal pressure ( ! soil4 ,suppos+ ! weight ( ! e>? to be twice t ( wat]1 :5 #aj feet ( soil is excavat$ be=e a 8boil0 began1 its removal w\ld approximately be equival5t to a #bj feet head ( wat]4 ,! great po9t is to conf9e a 8boil0 )9 a c]ta9 space1 & !re to treat x & s prev5t ! appe>ance ( o!rs & int]ruption to ! prosecution ( ! works4 ,all agitation ( ! surface ( s&1 especially :5 a 8boil0 appe>s1 mu/ be prev5t$1 z induc+ a di/urb$ & m por\s condition4 ,:5 ! seat ( a 8boil0 mu/ be built ov]1 ! well sy/em ( f\ndations c be us$ z n only af=d+ reliable support1 b also prev5t+ a 8boil0 ext5d+1 & all[+ ! fl[ ( wat] to be dis*>g$1 c>e be+ tak5 t complete connection is made ) a wall con/ruct$ ^u any o!r pr9ciple4 ,if 8boils0 appe> ov] a consid]able area1 x is evid5t t ! di/urbance is g5]al1 & may ei!r be because ! site or ! f\ndations ( ! works are bel[ ! level at :i* wat] is usually f\nd 9 ! di/rict1 or be produc$ by ! rise & fall ( tidal wat]s4 ,:5 by ! =m]1 dra9s are requir$ a few feet bel[ ! g5]al wat]-be>+ level1 & !y %\ld int]cept ! p]colation ( ! l& wat]s & conduct !m f ! site ( ! works1 or s g5tly localize !m t !y c be treat$ z be=e describ$4 ,! l& wat]s are ! mo/ tr\blesome because _! volume1 "t ( appe>ance1 & duration ( fl[ w v>y1 :]eas ! range ( ! tidal wat]s is kn[n1 & !re=e ! effects may be asc]ta9$ ) "s approa* to accuracy4 ,x may be impossible to erect walls 9 v loose soils )\t encircl+ ! site ) %eet piles to prev5t a run ( s&1 to less5 8bl[s0 & to r$uce ! di/urbance1 z plac+ !m ^u an imp]vi\s /ratum maybe prohibitory because ( ! exp5se3 b ! adoption ( ! well sy/em ( f\ndations d[n to a firm /ratum1 or at a suffici5t dep? to be /able1 & ! build+ walls !reon may cause ! tempor>y pile support to be unnecess>y & prev5t a slip or subsid5ce4 ,quick erection & ! lea/ exposure or di/urbance ( e>? are ess5tials 9 su* cases4 ,by ! use ( ,portl& cem5t concrete1 f\ndations c n[ be *eaply obta9$ ) ! gr\nd 9 a wet condition1 :i* 9 ! days :5 x 0 consid]$ only suitable = second>y works1 w\ld h requir$ ! employm5t ( exp5sive me?ods ( con/ruction4 ,x may be unwise to arre/ ! upw>d fl[ ( ! tidal wat]s 9 loose soil except by int]cept+1 less5+1 or prev5t+ x by %ore protection1 = ! upw>d pressure ( ! head ( wat] may 8bl[0 up ! e>? & cause di/urbance2 on ! o!r h&1 %\ld ! 8boils0 be m]ely sup]ficial & ! head v little1 a ?ick wat]tight cov]+ ( ,portl& cem5t concrete1 :5 accompani$ by ! necess>y dra9age op]ations1 may suffice2 ! surface wat] bl[s be+ cov]$1 & ! pressure ( ! wat] be+ ov]balanc$ by ! sup]impos$ weight4 ,all works to prev5t 8boils0 or to dra9 wat]s f ! site %\ld1 if possible1 be execut$ prior to ! excavation1 z ! effect ( dra9+ c !n be obs]v$ & :e!r any 8boils0 arise f l& wat]s or f a tidal fl[1 & ! e>? w h _h "s "t 9 :i* to subside & become consolidat$4 ,a mon?'s te/ w af=d "s crit]ion 9 a v>iable climate & :5 *anges ( wea!r are frequ5t2 b %\ld a long p]iod ( dr\ght prevail x may be no indication ( ! /ate 9 :i* ! e>? w\ld be 9 a wet season1 or "u ord9>y meteorological influ5ces2 & fur!r1 ! l& wat]s may take a consid]able "t 9 fl[+ to ! %ore1 dep5d+ ^u ! cat*m5t area1 "* ( ! soil1 position ( ! b$s1 :e!r ! di/rict is dra9$ or n1 & _m o!r local conditions4 ,:5 ! soil is firm clay1 ! locality ( any leakage or wat] seam 9 x w usually be indicat$ by surface exudation ov] ! wat]-*>g$ ve92 also 9 ne>ly all compact e>?1 p>ticul>ly if ( a clayey or loamy nature1 & !re=e ! seat ( di/urbance may n h to be discov]$ z 9 loos] or s&y soils4 ,%\ld a wat]-be>+ fissure occur 9 rock & x be necess>y to /op x1 !re be+ no dang] ( div]t+ ! fl[ to ano!r place ^u ! site ( ! works1 x c be done by means ( neat ,portl& cem5t mort> press$ d[n & kept 9 place by timb] /rips1 weights or o!r means until x has set2 ! face ( ! fissure %\ld be made z clean z possible1 & ! wat]-be>+ seam be fill$ & weight$ directly a leak appe>s1 or ! fl[ may become mu* increas$ & accel]at$ & a curr5t ( wat] be induc$ :i* may become ( s]i\s ext5t4 ,to avoid slips & movem5t ( ! gr\nd :5 x is necess>y t a wat]-*>g$ b$ ( s& be excavat$ to enable a /ructure to be built ^u a firm imp]vi\s /ratum bel[ x1 %eet piles c be us$ or corrugat$ iron %eets1 /rutt$ at int]vals1 s z to prev5t a run & slip ( s&2 & ! space betwe5 !m c be excavat$1 a ,portl& cem5t concrete f\ndation be+ ins]t$ ^u ! firm soil1 ! wall be+ erect$ 9 l5g?s1 & ! piles or case be+ practically ?ree-sid$ s z to leave no unsupport$ surface ( s&1 c>e be+ tak5 to prev5t any run betwe5 ! front & ! back ( ! la/ built l5g? ( wall & ! e>?1 s t ea* l5g? is erect$ 9 a conta9$ area4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,absorption1 brok5 e>?1 #gj ----1 *alk1 #bi ----1 s&1 #cd ,alignm5t ( public works1 vide location1 #i-ab1 #adf ,alluvial deposits1 safe load ^u1 #hh-hi ----1 soil1 slope1 #ajj ----1 protection ( ! banks ( riv]s1 #abf ,angul> p>ticles 9 e>?1 #cf ,approa*es to culv]ts1 #hd1 #he ,ar*$ sy/em1 dock-walls1 #baj1 #baa ,argillace\s rocks1 slopes1 #bd ,a%es1 slope1 #ajj ,atmosph]ic pressure1 influ5ce (1 #ag ,b4 ,back+1 dock-walls1 #bad1 #bae ,balla/1 ^u s(t soil1 #hb1 #aea ,basalt1 #ah ,bea*1 artificial slope1 #ahj ----1 natural slope1 #ajj1 #aja ,b5*+ gr\nd1 #afj1 #afb ,blue clay1 #ch1 #hi ,bog-l&1 safe load ^u1 #hh ----1 su/a9+ p[]1 #aeb ----1 treatm5t (1 #adi-aea 8,boils0 9 f\ndations1 asc]ta9+ "* (1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbd ----1 di/urbance ( soil1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bba ----1 orig9 & s\rce1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbc1 #bbd ----1 treatm5t (1 #baf1 #bah-bbe 8,boils0 9 f\ndations1 well sy/em ( f\ndations =1 #bbc ,bor+s1 effect (1 #bag1 #bbj ,b\ld]s1 #bb ,breakwat]s & pi]s1 f\ndations (1 #aha1 #ahb ,br[n clay1 #ac1 #db1 #dc ,bulg+ ( gr\nd1 #adg1 #adh ----1 ( walls1 #bjg1 #bac ,burn+1 slipp$ e>?1 #fb1 #fc ,c4 ,canal & simil> e>?works4 ----1 admittance ( navigation wat]1 #aij ----1 clay & loamy soils1 #aij ----1 concrete wall1 #aic ----1 consolidation1 #aij-aib ----1 draw+ (f wat]1 #ahh1 #aif ----1 failure (1 #h1 #aid-aif ----1 leakage 91 #ahi ----1 peat & bog1 #ahg ----1 precautions1 #aij1 #aic ----1 prep>ation ( f\ndations1 #aia ----1 protection ( surfaces1 #ahh1 #aib-aid ----1 puddle wall1 :5 objectionable1 #aib ----1 s&1 #ahg ----1 selection ( e>?1 #aia1 #aib ----1 ---- location1 #adf1 #aij ----1 "t ( occurr5ce ( slips1 #aij ,cat*wat] dra9s1 #gf1 #gg ,causes ( slips & subsid5ces 9 e>?4 ----1 pr9cipal1 #h ,causes ( slips & subsid5ces 9 e>?1 univ]sality1 #a ----1 v>iety (1 #a ----1 wat]1 ! *ief cause1 #h ,causes ( slips 9 cutt+s & embankm5ts1 enum]ation !re(1 #b-h ,*alk1 absorption (1 #bi ----1 aff9ity = wat]1 #bh ----1 angle ( friction ( wat] 91 #bh1 #bi ----1 *>act]i/ics (1 #cj ----1 classification = e>?work purposes1 #ca1 #cb ----1 cohesion (1 #ca ----1 cutt+s 91 #cc ----1 difficulty ( dra9+1 #bi ----1 dis*>ge ( wat] 91 #bi-cj ----1 faults1 crevices & pot-holes1 #bh ----1 fl9ts 91 #bh ----1 magnitude ( _m slips 91 #cb ----1 mutability (1 #bi ----1 non-wat] be>+1 #cj-ca ----1 pressure on1 effects (1 #cc ----1 safe load ^u1 argillace\s1 #hi ----1 ---- :ite1 #hi ----1 sep>ation1 dang] (1 #bh ----1 slopes1 #bg1 #ajj ----1 trea*]\s condition1 #ca ----1 ---- soil1 #ac ----1 treatm5t ( spr+s 91 #bi ----1 tunnel entrances 91 #cb1 #cc ----1 use z dra9s 9 o!r soils1 #bh ----1 v>ieties (1 #bf1 #bg ----1 ve9s & seams 91 #bi ----1 wat]-be>+ level 91 #cj ,classification ( e>?s1 #bc1 #cf1 #df ,clay1 b$s (1 #da1 #db ----1 *>act]i/ics (1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj-dc ----1 classification (1 #df ----1 condition ( /ability1 #ci ----1 contraction (1 #ch1 #ci ----1 expansion (1 #cg1 #ch ----1 fissures & cracks 91 #ch1 #ci ----1 humid1 #da ----1 load ^u1 blue1 #hi ----1 ---- damp1 #hi ----1 ---- diluvial1 #hi ----1 ---- int]mix$ b$s1 #hi ,clay1 load ^u1 muddy1 #hh ----1 ---- solid1 #hi ----1 ---- upheav$ b$s1 #hi ----1 ---- wet1 #hh ----1 ---- yell[1 #hi ----1 mud mi/ak5 = solid clay1 #db1 #dc ----1 notes ^u1 blue1 #ch1 #ci ----1 ---- b\ld] #ac1 #db1 #dc ----1 ---- br[n1 #ac1 #db1 #dc ----1 ---- gault1 #dc ----1 ---- lias1 #ac1 #ci ----1 ---- m>l1 #de1 #df ----1 ---- mica 91 #dc ----1 ---- r$1 #dc ----1 ---- rock1 #bb ----1 ---- s&y1 #ci-da ----1 ---- slate1 #ah ----1 ov]-dra9+ x1 #ci ----1 protect+ ! surface (1 #dj ----1 slopes1 #ad1 #df-di1 #ajj1 #ajh ----1 te/+ "* (1 #dj1 #da ----1 "t ( slip 91 #dc ----1 und]gr\nd excavation 91 #di ----1 weakness 91 #dc1 #dd ,cohesion ( e>?s1 g5]al consid]ation1 #ad1 #aje1 #ajf ----1 values1 #ajf ,concrete blocks1 slopes (1 #aja ,condition ( e>?1 wor/1 #af ,configuration ( gr\nd1 influ5ce (1 #ah ,consolidation1 s(t soil1 #adh1 #adi1 #aec1 #aed ,cont9u\s surface1 value (1 #hg ,c\nt]=ts1 e>?1 #eg1 #eh1 #fa1 #aba ----1 9 slopes1 #aai-abb ,cov]+1 nature (1 #abb1 #abc ----1 slope1 #abb ,crumbl+ ( ! surface1 #b ,cry/all9e rocks1 #ba ,culv]ts1 approa*es to1 #hd1 #he ----1 design (1 #he ----1 failures (1 #aie ----1 =m1 #hc1 #hd ----1 g5]al consid]ations1 #hc1 #hd ----1 influ5ce on slips & subsid5ces 9 e>?work1 #hc ----1 special sy/ems1 #he1 #hf ,cutt+s1 causes ( slips 91 #b-e ----1 side1 #aeg ----1 slips 91 require sep>ate consid]ation1 #b ----1 vibration 91 #acf-ada ,d4 ,deposition ( embankm5ts4 ----1 effect (1 #afa ----1 failure (1 #afg ----1 =m ( tip head1 #afh ----1 g5]al1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aei ----1 height ( tip1 #afc1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg ----1 junction ( high embankm5ts1 #afd1 #afe ----1 long lead1 #afc ----1 me?od (1 on s(t soils1 c41 #aed1 #aee ----1 precautions 9 !1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb ----1 prep>ation ( gr\nd1 #aei1 #afj ----1 f side-cutt+1 #aeg1 #aeh ----1 side tipp+1 #afg1 #afh ----1 specifications1 impracticable1 #aef1 #aeg ----1 /eam navvy & !1 #afi1 #agj ----1 sy/ems (1 #aei1 #afa-afd1 #aff-afi ----1 wea!r influ5ce1 #afg ,dep?1 influ5ce (1 9 cutt+s1 #hg ----1 ---- embankm5ts1 #hg ----1 ---- f\ndations1 #hi1 #ij ,diluvial soil1 safe load ^u1 #hi ,div]sion ( l& wat]s1 #ae ----1 ---- riv]s1 /reams c41 #aif1 #aig4 ,vide ,,riv]4 ,dock e>?works4 ----1 asc]ta9+ nature ( soil1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjh-baj1 #bag1 #bah ----1 8,boils0 9 f\ndations1 #baf4 ,vide 8,,boils40 ----1 causes ( slips & subsid5ces 91 #c-h ----1 difficulties ( con/ruction1 #aih-bjj ----1 dit*es & wat]c\rses1 #bja ----1 dra9age ( site & pump+ ( wat]1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #baf1 #bbd ----1 execution (1 #bjc1 #bjd ----1 f\ndation1 #bja ----1 liability to slip1 #aii-bja1bjd1 #bje ----1 location (1 #bjj-bjb1 #baf1 #bag ----1 pressure ( wat] 91 #aii1 #bjj ,dock-walls4 ----1 ar*$ sy/em1 #baj1 #baa ----1 back dra9age1 #bac1 #bae ,dock-walls1 back+1 #bad1 #bae ----1 bulg+1 #bjg1 #bac ----1 con/ruction (1 #bje-bjg1 #baa-bac ----1 c\nt]=ts to1 #bab ----1 jetties z face c\nt]=ts1 #bjg1 #bjh ----1 mat]ial1 #bjc1 #baj ----1 piles1 use ( 91 #bji ----1 ,portl& cem5t concrete wall1 #bbc ----1 prev5tion ( movem5t 91 #bjg-bab ----1 repair+ a slipp$ wall1 #bac1 #bad ----1 slid+ =w>d (1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bac ----1 well sy/em (1 #bbc ,dra9age1 balla/+1 #hb ----1 cat*wat] dra9s & dit*es1 #gf1 #gg ----1 *alk1 #bi ----1 clay1 #gc-ge ----1 controll+ dis*>ge1 #gd ----1 c\nt]=ts & tr5* dra9s1 #gg-hj ----1 culv]ts1 #hc-he ----1 equable1 necess>y1 #aej ----1 field dra9s1 int]ception (1 #gg ----1 fill+ ( tr5* dra9s1 #gh1 #gi ----1 =mation1 #ha1 #hb ----1 mix$ soils1 #gb ----1 numb] & dep? ( dra9s1 #ge ----1 object (1 #fe1 #gb1 #gc1 #ha ----1 ov]fl[+ e>?works1 #gd1 #ge ----1 peat1 #gg1 #adi1 #aej ----1 s&1 #gg1 #hj1 #ha ----1 seat ( an embankm5t1 #hb1 #hc1 #he1 #hf ----1 slope dra9s1 #gg-hj1 #aaa1 #aab ----1 s(t soils1 #gc1 #adi1 #aej ----1 spoil banks1 #hj ----1 spr+s1 #ge1 #gf1 #hj1 #ha ----1 sy/ems requir$1 #gb-gg1 #hj1 #ha ----1 well sy/em1 #ha ,drifts ( sn[1 protection aga9/1 #aca-acd ,drift soil1 trea*]\s1 #ac1 #ah ----1 ---- ^u sidelong gr\nd1 #adc-ade ,e4 ,e>?s1 pres]vation :5 load$1 #hh ----1 maximum safe load ^u1 #hg-ia ----1 table ( weights (1 #ib ----1 trea*]\s1 #ac ----1 univ]sality ( slips 91 #b ,effect ( a slip1 cutt+s1 #ej ----1 embankm5ts1 #ej ----1 influ5ce ( dep? ( cutt+ & height ( embankm5t1 #ej1 #ea ,embankm5ts1 balla/ ^u1 #aea ----1 causes ( slips & subsid5ces1 #b1 #e-h ----1 condition ( e>?1 #ig ----1 consolidation ( s(t soil1 #adh-aea1 #aec-aee ----1 consolidation by "t1 #ag ----1 deposition (1 #aef-aei1 #afa-i ----1 deposition1 f side cutt+1 #aeg1 #aeh ----1 deposit+ ^u s(t soil1 #aed1 #aee1 #afh1 #afi ----1 det]ioration ( excavat$ e>?1 #ic1 #id ----1 dra9age ( ! seat (1 #afj1 #afa ----1 failure (1 #afg ----1 fasc9e mattress b$1 #aee ----1 =m+1 #aeh ----1 height1 safe1 #ia1 #ib ----1 ---- ( tip1 #afd-afg ----1 high1 #ie ----1 homog5e\sness1 #aeh ----1 junction (1 precautions1 #afd1 #afe ----1 long lead1 #afc ----1 precautions 9 deposition1 #aeg-aei1 #afa-afc ----1 prep>ation ( gr\nd1 #aei-afa ----1 safe maximum heights (1 #id-if ----1 safe load ^u1 #hh1 #ic1 #id ----1 sidelong gr\nd1 #adb1 #adc1 #ade ----1 side tipp+1 #afg1 #afh ,embankm5ts4 ----1 s(t soil1 #adg-adi ----1 specifications1 impracticable1 #aef1 #aeg ----1 /eam navvy1 influ5ce (1 #afi1 #agj ----1 sy/ems ( deposition1 #aei1 #afa-afi ,embankm5ts1 tip head1 =m (1 #afh ----1 vibration1 effects (1 #acf-ada ----1 wea!r influ5ce dur+ deposition1 #afg ,e/u>y or %ore embankm5ts4 ----1 closure (1 #agg ----1 deposition (1 #agf-agg ----1 design1 #aga-agc ----1 effect ( erection1 #agc1 #agi1 #ahj ----1 excavation =1 #agf1 #agg1 #ahg ----1 height1 #agi ----1 mat]ial1 #ahg ----1 pressures1 calculations %[+ *anges ( #ahb-ahg ----1 protection ( slope1 #agd-ahj ----1 %ore deposit protection1 #agf1 #agg ----1 site1 #aga ----1 slope1 =m (1 #agd1 #ahj ----1 tre/le "w1 & on sea-%ore1 #ahj ----1 viaducts &1 #agb1 #agc1 #ahj ,f4 ,fasc9e cov]+ ( slopes1 #abh1 #abi1 #agh1 #agi ,field dra9s1 int]ception (1 #gg ,fissures 9 slopes1 #abg1 #abh ,fl9t1 b$s 9 *alk1 #bh ,flood-wat]s1 protection aga9/1 #eg ,foot ( slope1 g5]al consid]ations1 #aae ----1 protection & pres]vation1 #aae-aca ,=mation1 special =m (1 #aei ,=mation wid?1 balla/1 #aea ----1 influ5ce (1 #acd1 #ace ----1 junction ( embankm5ts1 #acf ----1 lat]al settlem5t1 #ace ----1 sev]e climates1 #acd1 #ace ----1 sidelong gr\nd1 #adc ----1 temp]ate climates1 #ace ----1 value ( wid?1 #acd1 #ace ----1 wet cutt+s1 #acd 8,=m+0 embankm5ts1 #aeh ,friable rock1 slopes1 #bd ----1 *alk1 slopes1 #bg ,friction ( e>?s1 effects ( wat] on1 #ajc ----1 g5]al consid]ations1 #aja-ajc1 #aje1 #ajf ,friction ( e>?s1 necessity ( rely+ ^u1 #aje1 #ajf ----1 relation to slope1 #ajb ----1 table ( slopes calculat$ f coeffici5t ( friction1 #ajd ,g4 ,glacial deposits1 trea*]\s1 #ah ,gneiss1 slopes1 #bc ,granite1 slopes1 #bc ,grass1 cov]+ slope )1 #abb-abd ,gravel1 angul>ity & r\ndness ( p>ticles1 #cf ----1 asc]ta9+ "* (1 #cf ----1 b\ld]1 & gravel & s&1 safe load ^u1 #hi ----1 capability ( subsid5ce1 #ce ----1 classification = e>?work purposes1 #cf ----1 compact1 safe load ^u1 #hi ----1 c\nt]=ts1 #aai ----1 int]/ices 91 #ce ----1 slopes1 #cg1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajf1 #ajg ,gr\nd1 configuration (1 #ah ,groynes1 protect+ slopes by1 #agd-agf ,h4 ,height1 ( embankm5ts1 #ia-ig ----1 influ5ce ( l5g? on safe1 #ie ----1 influ5ce ( nature & condition ( e>?1 #ig ----1 limit (1 9 embankm5ts1 #ia-if ----1 table ( approximate safe maximum heights = diff]5t e>?s1 #id-if ----1 usual limitations1 #id1 #ie ,i4 ,igne\s rocks1 slopes1 #bc ,impair+ elem5ts1 v>iabl5ess (1 #a ,incl9$ b$s1 dang] 9 rock1 #bj1 #ba1 #bf ,in/ability1 e>?'s cru/1 #a ,irrigation e>?works1 special causes ( slips & subsid5ces1 #ahg4 ,vide ,,e/u>y ,,embankm5ts4 ,j4 ,jetties1 z c\nt]=ts to dock walls1 #bjg1 #bjh ----1 f\ndations (1 #aha1 #ahb ,junction1 ( high embankm5ts1 #acf1 #afd1 #afe ,l4 ,l& dra9s1 cause ( slips1 #ae ,l& wat]s1 div]sion (1 #ae ,lat]al settlem5t1 9 embankm5ts1 #ace1 #acf ,lead1 effect ( long1 #afc ,l5g?s1 %ort excavat$ l5g?s1 :5 necess>y1 #cc1 #adc1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bbe ,lime/one1 #ah1 #bd1 #be ,load on e>?1 cont9u\s surface1 #hg ----1 deta*$ portions1 #hg ----1 exp]im5ts to asc]ta9 safe1 #hg1 #hh ----1 influ5ce ( area1 #hg ----1 influ5ce ( normal load1 #ij1 #ia ----1 safe1 #hg-ij ,loamy soils1 slopes1 #cg ----1 safe load1 #hi ,location ( e>?works1 configuration ( gr\nd1 #aj1 #ab1 #adf ----1 drift soil1 #i1 #aa1 #adf ----1 ob/ruct+ dra9age1 etc41 by embankm5t1 #i-aa ----1 riv] ne> to1 #aj ----1 riv] & /ream div]sions1 #aj ----1 road1 ne> to1 #aj ----1 road approa*es1 #aa ----1 /ations1 position (1 #aj ----1 tre/les or solid embankm5t1 #ab ----1 tunnels or cutt+s1 #aa ----1 valley or hill-side l9e1 #aa ----1 valley1 /able side (1 #aj ----1 valley1 sunny or wood$ side1 #aa ----1 wett] side ( a hill1 #ab ,loose *alk1 #bg ,loose rock1 #bd ,m4 ,ma9t5ance1 s(t gr\nd1 #aea ,m>ly *alk1 slopes1 #bg ,m>ly soils1 *>act]i/ics (1 #dd-df ----1 difficulty ( dra9+1 #df ----1 safe load ^u1 #hi ----1 slopes1 #ajj ,m>% e>?1 slope1 #ajj ,m>% l&1 safe load ^u1 #hh ,metall+1 slope1 #aja ,mica-s*i/1 h>dness (1 etc41 #bd ----1 quantity ( qu>tz 9 x1 #bd ,mixtures ( e>?1 tr\blesome1 #bj ,mora9e1 trea*]\s soil1 #ah ,morass1 safe load ^u1 #hh ,mud1 consolidat$1 slope1 #ajj ,mutability1 ( ! creat$ elem5ts1 #a ,n4 ,normal load1 influ5ce (1 #hi-ia ,normal pressure1 consid]ation (1 #ia ,numb] ( dra9s1 #ge ,o4 ,object (1 dra9age1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #ha ,ob/ruction1 ( dra9age by embankm5t1 #i1 #aj1 #aa ,op5 tre/le "w v]sus embankm5ts1 #ahj ,ov]fl[1 dra9age by1 #ge ,p4 ,peat moss1 safe load ^u1 #hh ,peat soil1 consolidation (1 #aec1 #aed ----1 dra9age (1 #adi-aea ----1 nature (1 #aeb1 #aec ----1 necess>y te/1 #aea1 #aeb ----1 su/a9+ p[] (1 #aea1 #aeb ,peat turf1 slope1 #ajj ,p]colation ( wat]1 ov]fl[ & requisite pump+1 #fi1 #gj ----1 *alk1 #gj1 #ga ----1 clay soils1 #gj ----1 cutt+s & embankm5ts1 #fe-fg ----1 effect (1 #ff-fi ----1 excavat$ e>?1 #gj ,p]colation ( wat]1 fissures1 #fi-ga ----1 loamy soils1 #gj-gb ----1 m>ly clays1 #gj ,p]colation ( wat]1 maximum1 #ff1 #fh ----1 pr9ciples (1 #fg-gb ----1 regulation (1 #fe1 #ff ----1 s&1 #ga ----1 top soil1 #gj ,pi]s1 f\ndations (1 #aha1 #ahb ,pit*+1 on unequally consolidat$ soil1 #aca ----1 precautions respect+1 #acj-aca ----1 protection ( slope by1 #abi1 #acj ----1 :5 necess>y1 #abi1 #acj ,porphyry1 slope1 #bc ,pressure1 normal1 on e>?1 #ia ,probability ( a slip1 #ac-ah ,protective works1 burn+ ! slipp$ e>?1 #fb1 #fc ----1 cov] %$ & cat* tr5*es1 #ei1 #fj ----1 diff]5t me?ods necess>y1 #eb-fj ----1 e>? c\nt]=ts1 #eg1 #eh1 #fa1 #aba ----1 enum]ation (1 #ec-ee ----1 exceptional1 #ee1 #eg1 #eh ----1 flexible v4 rigid dra9s1 #ef ----1 flood wat]s1 #eg ----1 g5]al pr9ciples1 #ee-eh ----1 object (1 #eb ----1 salifiable e>?1 #ei ----1 slopes1 g5]al consid]ations1 #aae-aag ----1 trickl+ ( surface soil1 #eh ----1 turf & plant1 #abb-abd ----1 weight+ ! foot (1 #aai ----1 :5 dra9age alone requir$1 #ef ----1 :5 requir$1 #eb ----1 :]e to comm5ce dra9age op]ations1 #ef ,q4 ,qu>tz1 slope1 #bc ,quicks&1 safe load ^u1 #hh ,r4 ,ra9fall1 influ5ce (1 #ae1 #af ,ramm$ e>? c\nt]=ts1 #fa1 #aba ----1 ?ickness ( lay]s1 #abj ,reclamation embankm5ts4 ,vide ,,e/u>y ,,embankm5ts4 ----1 special causes ( slips 91 #h ,removal ( slipp$ e>?1 g5]al consid]ations & treatm5t1 #fj-fd ,repair+ slope1 #aba ,res]voir embankm5ts1 #ahg1 etc4 ,vide ,,canals4 ,reta9+ walls1 desirability1 #aag1 #aah1 #adf ----1 dra9+ back (1 #aag ----1 failure (1 :5 probable1 #aah ----1 =m1 #aah1 #aai ----1 protection to slope1 #aae-aai ,riv] banks4 ,vide ,,canals1 #ahg1 & ----1 ----1 ,,e/u>y ,,embankm5ts4 ----1 protect$ v4 unprotect$ slopes1 #dh1 #di ----1 slopes (1 #dh ----1 tree protection (1 #abf1 #abg ,riv] div]sions1 #aif1 #aig ,road metall+1 slope1 #aja ,rock1 asc]ta9+ "* (1 #ah-ba ----1 "*1 etc41 #ah-bb ----1 classification = e>?work purposes1 #bc ----1 cry/all9e1 #ba ----1 exam9ation (1 #ai ----1 g5]al consid]ation1 #ah-bf ----1 incl9$ b$s1 #bj1 #ba1 #bf ----1 mica s*i/1 #bd ----1 nature ( "s1 #ba1 #bb ----1 safe load ^u1 #ij1 #ia ----1 s&/one1 #ij ----1 s*i/ose1 #bd ----1 slopes1 friable1 #bd ----1 ----1 loose1 #bd ----1 ----1 s$im5t>y1 #bc ----1 /ratifi$1 #ah-bj ----1 trea*]\s condition (1 #h1 #i ----1 unev5ness ( surface1 #ah1 #ai ----1 un/ratifi$1 #ah ----1 v>iation ( "*1 #ah1 #ai ----1 wat] levels 91 #bd ,rubble m\nd1 safe load ^u1 #ia ----1 slope1 #aja ,s4 ,salifiable e>?1 #ei ,s&/one1 #ai1 #bb1 #be ,s&/one1 slope1 #bc1 #bd ----1 9 tropical climates1 #be ,s&1 absorption ( wat]1 #cd ,s&1 angul>ity v4 r\ndness ( p>ticles1 #cf ----1 capability ( subsid5ce1 #ce ----1 compact1 safe load ^u1 #hi ----1 delicate /ate ( "s1 #cd ----1 dra9age (1 #cd ----1 draw+ away (1 #cc ----1 excavat+ 9 %ort l5g?s1 #cc1 #adc1 #bjc1 #bjd ----1 firm1 safe load ^u1 #hi ----1 int]/ices 91 #ce ----1 light s&1 protection (1 #abc-abe ----1 loose s&1 safe load ^u1 #hi ----1 mutability ( condition1 #cd ----1 s& 8boils0 9 f\ndations1 ,vide 8,,boils40 ----1 silty1 safe load ^u1 #hi ----1 slopes ( repose1 #cf1 #cg1 #ajj1 #ajf1 #ajg ----1 s(t s& rock1 #ij ----1 spr+s 91 #cc ----1 sup]ficial b$s (1 #hi ----1 :5 likely to slip1 #cd ,s&y clay1 #ci1 #dj ,s*i/ose rock1 #bd ,seat ( embankm5t1 dra9age1 #afj ,sett+ out1 ) ref]5ce to e>?work1 #i-ab ,settlem5t1 lat]al1 ( an embankm5t1 #ace ----1 provision aga9/ 9 slopes1 #abe1 #abf ,%ales1 *>act]i/ics (1 #bj1 #ba1 #dd ----1 iron pyrites 91 #dd ----1 safe load ^u1 #hi ----1 slopes1 #ba1 #ajj ,%ore embankm5ts4 ,vide ,,e/u>y ,,embankm5ts4 ,sidelong gr\nd1 cutt+s & embankm5ts ^u1 #adb-adf ----1 deposit+ embankm5ts ^u1 #ade1 #adf ----1 excavat+ 9 %ort l5g?s1 #cc1 #adc1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bbe ----1 object ( precaution>y works1 #adb-ade ----1 precautions1 #adb-adf ----1 :5 incl9$ rock1 #adf ----1 :5 especially trea*]\s1 #add-adf ----1 v>y+ ! slope1 #adf ,silt1 safe load ^u1 #hh ----1 slope1 #ajj ----1 trea*]\s1 #ah ,slake1 safe load ^u1 #hh ,slate rock1 #ba ,slipp$ e>?1 treatm5t & removal (1 #fj-fd ,slips 9 canals1 special causes1 #h1 #ahg ---- "t ( occurr5ce1 #aij1 etc4 ---- docks ( occurr5ce1 #ahg ---- dra9age works1 #ahg ---- irrigation works1 #ahg ---- reclamation works1 #ahg ---- wat]works1 #ahg ,slips 9 cutt+s1 causes (1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #h ----1 embankm5ts1 causes (1 #e-h ,slips1 imm$iate action necess>y1 #fa ,slopes1 b>e1 :5 c be left1 #abe ----1 cess ^u1 #aaa1 #aac1 #aad ----1 c\nt]=t at foot (1 #aai-abb ----1 curv$1 #aji-aaa ----1 di/urbance (1 #aaa1 #aab ----1 fasc9e cov]+1 #abh1 #abi ----1 fissures 91 treatm5t (1 #abg-abh ----1 flat1 %\ld n be too1 #ih ----1 =m (1 #ajg-ajh1 #aaj1 #aaa ----1 g5]al consid]ations1 #ih-ii1 #aje-aaj ----1 nature ( cov]+1 #abb-aca ----1 object ( protection1 #aai1 #abb ----1 p]man5t1 ( e>?1 #ih-aja1 #ajf-aji1 #adf ----1 precautions conc]n+ tree protection1 #abf1 #abg ----1 protection & pres]vation1 g5]al consid]ations & diff]5t sy/ems1 #aae-aca ----1 protection aga9/ burr[+ animals & cru/acea1 #abg ----1 protection ( light s&1 #abc-abe ----1 protective cov]+s1 #abb-abi ----1 provision aga9/ settlem5t1 #abe1 #abf ----1 range ( slopes 9 diff]5t e>?s1 #ajj1 #aja ----1 repair+1 #fa-fd1 #aba1 #abb ----1 s& ve9s 91 #abj ----1 /eepe/1 #aab1 #aac ,slopes1 /one pit*+ ^u1 #abi-aca ----1 t]rac$1 #aaa ----1 "t to trim1 #abe ----1 trees & %rubs ^u1 protection by1 #abf1 #abg ----1 tr5* dra9s 91 #gg1 #gh1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aba ----1 trimm$ z excavat$1 #aaa ----1 turf+1 grass & plant protection1 #abb-abg ----1 v>y+ ! =m (1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa ----1 walls1 #aag-aai ,sn[-drifts1 prev5tion (1 protection aga9/1 #aca-acd ,s(t soil1 consolidation (1 #aec1 #aed ----1 deposit+ embankm5ts ^u1 #aed1 #aee ----1 dra9age1 #gc1 #adi-aea ----1 embankm5ts ^u1 #adg-adi ----1 equable dra9age necess>y1 #aej ----1 influ5ce ( balla/ on =mation1 #aea ----1 su/a9+ p[] (1 #aea1 #aeb ----1 te/+1 #adh1 #adi1 #aeb ,spr+s 9 *alk1 treatm5t (1 #bi ,subsid5ce1 capability ( s&1 #ce ---- 9 s(t gr\nd1 #aea ,subsid5ces 9 embankm5ts1 causes (1 #e-h ,t4 ,"t ( occurr5ce1 slips1 #ac-ag ----1 usual1 #ae-ag ----1 subm]g$ & unsubm]g$ "w1 #ag1 #ahi ,trap rock1 slopes1 #bc ,trea*]\s e>?s1 #ac1 #bjd1 #bag ,tree protection1 g5]al1 #af1 #abf ----1 precautions conc]n+1 #abf1 #abg ----1 slopes1 #abf1 #abg ,trickl+ ( surface soil1 #eh ,trimm+ slopes1 #aaa1 #abe ,tunnels1 entrances (1 9 *alk1 #cb ,turf+ slopes1 #abb-abf ,u4 ,univ]sality ( slips1 #a1 #b ,un/able soils1 #ac1 #bjd1 #bag ,upheaval ( gr\nd1 #adg1 #adh ,v4 ,v>iabl5ess (1 impair+ elem5ts1 #a ,v>iety ( causes ( slips & subsid5ces1 #a ,viaduct1 v]sus embankm5t1 #aga-agc1 #agi1 #ahj ,vibration1 9 cutt+s & embankm5ts1 #acf1 #acg ----1 det]iorat+ influ5ce (1 #acf-ada ----1 effect on e>?s1 #acf1 #acg ----1 influ5ce (1 #h1 #i ----1 lat]al pressure &1 #acg ----1 te/ ( effects1 #ada ,w4 ,wat]1 ! *ief cause ( det]ioration ( e>?1 #h ,wat]-be>+ level1 #ad1 #bd ,wat]work e>?works1 special causes ( slips & subsid5ces 91 #h1 #ahg4 ,vide ,,canals1 etc4 ,wat] pressure 9 cutt+s1 #ad ,weights ( diff]5t e>?s1 #ib ,wid5+ works1 consid]ation respect+ slopes1 #aab-aad ----1 /eep5+ ! slopes1 #aab-aad ,y4 ,yell[-clay1 #dc1 #hi ,,london3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$1 ,,/am=d ,,/reet ,,& ,,*>+ ,,cross4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,cr[n #hvo41 clo?1 price #ds4 #f;d4 ,,notes ,,on ,,concrete ,,& ,,works ,,9 ,,concrete4 ,,by ,,john ,,newman1 ,assoc4 ,m4 ,in/4 ,c4,e4 ,,reviews ,,( ,,! ,,press4 ,,eng9e]+--#aa? ,novemb]1 #ahhg4 8,an epitome ( ! be/ practice :i* may be reli$ ^u n to mislead40 8,! successful con/ruction ( works 9 concrete is a difficult matt] to expla9 9 books40 8,all ! po9ts :i* op5 ! way to bad "w are c>efully po9t$ out by our au?or ) a p]t9aci\s insi/5ce :i* demon/rates 8 cle> appreciation ( _! value40 ,,iron--#ba/ ,octob]1 #ahhg4 8,z num]\s examples are cit$ ( ! use ( concrete 9 public works1 & details suppli$1 ! book w greatly assi/ eng9e]s engag$ ^u su* works40 ,,! ,,build]--#bd? ,septemb]1 #ahhg4 8,a v practical little book1 c>efully compil$1 & "o :i* all writ]s ( specifications = concrete "w w\ld d well to p]use40 8,! book conta9s reliable in=mation = all engag$ ^u public works40 8,a p]usal ( ,mr4 ,newman's valuable little h&book w po9t out ! importance ( a m c>eful inve/igation ( ! subject ?an is usually suppos$ to be necess>y40 ,,am]ican ,,press4 ,,build+--#ai? ,novemb]1 #ahhg4 8,to accompli% s mu* 9 s limit$ a space1 ! subject-matt] has be5 conf9$ to *apt]s40 8,we take pleasure 9 say+ t ?is is ! mo/ admirable & complete h&book on concretes = eng9e]s ( :i* we h k40 ,,london3 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #abe1 ,,/r&4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes #a4 ,*ang$ 8! s9k+ a sump0 to 8! s9k+ ( a sump0 on p4 #bjb4 #b4 ,sil5tly correct$ typographical errors4 #c4 ,reta9$ ana*roni/ic & non-/&>d spell+s z pr9t$4 #d4 ,enclos$ italics font 9 und]scores4