,,janus ,,in ,,modern ,,life            
,,janus                                 
,,in                                    
,,modern ,,life                         
,,by                           ,w4 ,m4  
,,flinders ,,petrie                     
,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41         
,f4,b4,a41 c4                  ,fools   
only learn by their own experience1     
,wise men learn by the experience of    
others4                                 
,,london3                               
,,archibald ,,constable  ,,co4 ,,ltd4   
#aj ,,orange ,,street1 ,,leicester      
,,square ,w4,c4                         
#aijg4          ,there are two roads to 
reformation for mankind--one through    
misfortunes of their own1 the other     
through those of others2 the former  is 
the more unmistakable1 the latter the   
less painful4444 ,for it is  history1   
and history alone1 which1 without       
involving us in actual  danger1 will    
mature our judgment1 and prepare us to  
take right views1  whatever may be the  

crisis or the posture of affairs4       
,,polybius4          ,,preface4         
,these papers essay an understanding of 
some of the various principles  which   
underlie the course of political        
movements in the present age4  ,there is
 no attempt at introducing any          
considerations which are  not familiar  
to every intelligent person1 nor any    
comparisons with  other instances which 
are not already well known in history4  
,why  considerations which seem so      
obvious when stated1 should yet not be  
familiar1 may perhaps be due to the     
estrangement between science and        
corporate life1 which is an unhappy     
feature of a time of transition  both in
 education and in motives4    ,the point
 of view here is that of public and     
general conditions and  not of private  
variations of beliefs4 ,such moral      
factors1 though  all important to the   
individual1 are not so much the subject 
of  the direct physical causes and      
effects which are here considered4      

,similarly the beneficial result of     
private benevolence is not added  to    
these considerations1 because it is     
largely outside of the effects  of      
conduct1 and finds its good in amending 
or neutralising the evil  consequences  
of various actions4 ,it will always have
 its scope1 but in  opposition to1      
rather than in concert with1 the direct 
effects which we  are here to consider4 
,too often the objections to various new
 views are based upon some  sentiment of
 one party1 rather than upon the reason 
which is common to  all parties4 ,here1 
on the contrary1 the aim is to consider 
the natural  consequences of various    
actions1 apart from personal opinion1   
and  therefore on a common ground which 
all readers can equally accept4    ,the 
position of a partisan or an advocate   
has been avoided so far as  possible4   
,no doubt to many of the statements and 
deductions here1 one  party or another  
would cry1 ,anathema4 ,as a whole the   
results are more  in accord with        

,individualism than with ,collectivism2 
but an attempt  is made to trace what   
are the limits of a ,collectivism that  
may not  involve deleterious            
consequences4 ,it may seem a fault to   
many minds  that no cut and dried       
definite system or course of action is  
advocated2  many people prefer a        
medicine which is guaranteed to relieve 
all  their complaints1 instead of a     
physiological research on the obscure   
causes of their troubles4 ,but1 if we   
are to advance1 we must study  the      
diseases of bodies politic with the same
 disinterestedness1 and  somewhat of the
 same unfeeling temper1 as that of the  
physiologist in  dealing with animated  
nature4 ,such a line of study will be   
useless  to the politician1 so long as  
he is an opportunist or a placeman2  and
 useless to the socialist1 so long as he
 refuses to learn by the  experience of 
others4    ,the present time seems to   
most people so infinitely more important
  to them than the past or future1 that 

they are impatient at the  introduction 
of comparisons which seem to reflect    
upon their immediate  judgment1 or of   
anticipations which would check their   
present  gratification4 ,they forget    
that it is only a fiction to speak of   
the  present1 an infinitely thin        
division between what has been and that 
which will be4 ,every step of the past  
has been a present1 living1  urgent1    
imperative1 to the whole world2 and     
every such present has  been entirely   
conditioned by its past1 just as the    
future to us is  conditioned by our     
present4 ,if any race now cares to learn
 somewhat  from its own past1 and that  
of others1 it may benefit its own       
future2  if it prefers a blind          
selfishness1 a better race will be      
welcomed to  its place4    ,janus1 who  
looked to the past and to the future1   
was the god whose  temple stood always  
open during war1 that he might bring    
peace upon  earth4 ,and in our day it is
 only the view of the past and the      

future  which can warn us of evils to   
come1 and save us from violence and     
confusion4          ,,contents4         
,,page      ,,preface                   
v        ,,chapter ,i4    ,,character1  
,,the ,,basis ,,of ,,society4           
,production of character the most       
important object1 p4 #a4 ,the    known  
conditions of physical variation1 p4 #b4
 ,mental equivalents    of physical     
variation in 7#a7 benefits of ability1  
p4 #d2 7#b7    ,inheritance1 p4 #d2 7#c7
 ,artificial increase of variation1 p4  
#e2    7#d7 ,excitement of variation1 p4
 #f2 7#e7 ,gain by use1 p4 #f2    7#f7  
,loss by atrophy1 p4 #g2 7#g7 ,variation
 made permanent by    competition1 p4   
#aj4 ,immutability of general type1     
physical and    mental1 p4 #aa4         
,,chapter ,,ii4    ,,present ,,changes  
,,of ,,character4      ,loss of national
 character by emigration1 p4 #ac2 by    
promotion    of sloth1 p4 #af4 ,lack of 
adaptability1 p4 #af4 ,low type of      
public pleasure1 p4 #ag4 ,repression of 

character by communism1    p4 #bj4      
,conditions of successful communism1 p4 
#bj4 ,communism    in early             
,christianity1 p4 #bc4 ,intense         
competition    among herbivora1 p4 #be4 
,communism fatalistic1 p4 #bf4          
,destruction of character by municipal  
communism1 p4 #bf4        ,,chapter     
,,iii4    ,,trade ,,unionism1 ,,its     
,,flower ,,and ,,fruition4      ,town   
influence in ,rome1 p4 #bh4 ,decay of   
the country1 p4 #bi4    ,growth of trade
 unions1 p4 #cj4 ,trade unions          
compulsory1 p4 #cj4    ,cheap production
 for the proletariat1 p4 #cb4 ,sharing  
of proletariat    burden by a trade1 p4 
#cb4 ,all property hypothecated to      
the ,trade ,unions1 p4 #cc4 ,the social 
burden the destruction of    ,rome1 p4  
#cd4 ,the growth of the little-,italy   
party1 p4 #ce4 ,devolution    of        
government1 p4 #cf4 ,the state          
regulation of prices and    wages1 p4   
#cg4        ,,chapter ,,iv4             
,,revolution ,,or ,,evolution8          

,great effects best produced by small   
causes1 p4 #dj4 ,revolution    leads to 
greater tyranny1 p4 #dj2 also leads to  
military    despotism1 p4 #da4 ,radical 
changes show ignorance1 p4 #db4         
,scope to be allowed for gradual change1
 p4 #dc4 ,variability    tolerated by   
bye-laws1 p4 #dd4 ,effects of small     
changes as seen    in ,death ,duties and
 reduced colonising power1 p4 #dd4      
,income    tax and expulsion of trade1  
p4 #dg2 benefits of taxing extravagance1
    p4 #eb2 ,irish tenant right1 p4 #ec2
 high interest on loans1    p4 #ee2     
equalisation of land values1 p4 #ef2    
growth of cities1 p4 #eg4    ,effect of 
workmen's compensation1 p4 #eh2 of old  
age pensions1    p4 #ei2 of state help  
for children1 p4 #fj4 ,effects of wealth
 in the    hands of different classes1  
p4 #fj4        ,,chapter ,v4    ,,the   
,,need ,,of ,,diversity4                
,variability needful for advance of a   
species1 p4 #fe4 ,large    states a     
necessary result of rapid communication1

 p4 #ff4 ,diversity    needed therefore 
within the state1 as well as between    
states1 p4 #fg4 ,no moral obligation to 
uniformity1 p4 #fg4    ,separate states 
needed for a doubled-centred diversity1 
p4 #gj4    ,diversity as yet remaining  
in marriage-law and custom1 p4 #ga4     
,society a mixture of many past stages  
of culture1 p4 #gb4 ,present            
education a bar to progress by          
diversity1 p4 #gc4 ,need of diversity   
in education1 p4 #ge4        ,,chapter  
,,vi4    ,,lines ,,of ,,advance4        
,personal initiative essential1 p4 #gh4 
,prevention of waste the    main        
principle of advance1 p4 #gi4 ,gain in  
health1 p4 #gi4 ,gain    in amount of   
activities of life1 p4 #hj4 ,gain in    
rapidity1 p4 #ha4    ,gain by working   
instead of playing1 p4 #ha4 ,gain by    
saving    waste in renewal1 p4 #hc4     
,gain by permanent marriage1 p4 #hd4    
,gain by high-tending of families1 p4   
#he4 ,gain by improving or    weeding of
 bad stocks1 p4 #hf4 ,gain by           

individualism1 p4 #hi4    ,gain by free 
combinations1 p4 #ib4 ,gain by          
international    labour1 p4 #ic4 ,the   
meaning of war1 by trade1 by armament1  
and by violence1 p4 #ie4 ,improvement of
 checks1 p4 #ii4 ,the    ultimate type  
of states1 p4 #ajj4 ,the ultimate type  
of man1    p4 #aja4        ,,index      
#aje          ,,janus ,,in ,,modern     
,,life4          ,,chapter ,i4          
,,character1 ,,the ,,basis ,,of         
,,society4      ,in considering or      
designing any kind of work the first and
 most  essential condition is the       
quality of material that has to be used4
  ,you cannot make a silk purse out of a
 sow's ear4 ,and what is  true          
materially is true also mentally2 the   
character of a people  is the essential 
basis of all their institutions and     
government4  ,if we intend to consider  
what improvements are possible1 or what 
degradations may occur1 we must treat   
the matter entirely as a question  of   
character4 ,for forms of ,government let

 fools contest1 whate'er  is best       
administered is best1 and the           
administration depends upon  the        
character of the people4 ,we see on all 
sides that races of a  low character    
necessarily pass1 by the force of       
events1 under the  domination of other  
races who have a higher or stronger     
character4 ,it  is the quality of the   
race which is the most essential and    
determining  factor in its history4     
,that every nation has the kind of      
government  which it deserves1 is an old
 remark1 which implies that its         
character  determines its fate4 ,the    
diligent but cautious ,scot2 the        
slovenly  ,slovene2 the self-deceived   
,gaul2 the tediously complete and       
logical  ,german2 these all show the    
manner in which their administration is 
the  product of the individual          
character4 ,further1 happiness is       
essentially  dependent upon character1  
and is--by comparison--determined by    
character alone1 almost apart from      

external circumstances4    ,it is       
therefore a matter of the first         
importance to consider how  character is
 produced or modified4 ,possibly to some
 it may appear  presumptuous to apply to
 the mind those natural laws which it is
  now generally agreed apply to bodily  
development4 ,yet even the              
probabilities of chance distribution may
 be shown to apply to the  varieties of 
mind2 both by rough observation in      
general1 and also  by a test case       
quantitatively applied 7see ,religion   
and ,conscience  in ,ancient ,egypt74 ,a
 feeling against this treatment of the  
mind  by material law is based on the   
idea that it implies an absence of      
free-will4 ,but1 to take an             
illustration1 a railway company may be  
certain of carrying very closely the    
same number of passengers each  day1    
without in the least embarrassing the   
free-will of any passenger  as to       
whether or no he will travel4 ,let us   
notice1 therefore1 how  the various     

principles of physical modification are 
applicable also  to mental change4      
,whether it may be that changes take    
place by the  inheritance of acquired   
characteristics1 or whether they occur  
solely  by accidental variation which   
proves beneficial1 is a much debated    
question which is not requisite for us  
to settle here4 ,it is agreed  that in  
the physical life of all animals it may 
be seen that3 7#a7  ,favourable         
variations give a determining advantage 
to one individual  over another1 or to  
one more than another against a common  
enemy2 7#b7  ,useful variations tend to 
be maintained in successive generations2
  7#c7 ,artificial conditions tend to   
produce variation2 7#d7 ,greater        
variability accompanies unusual         
developments2 7#e7 ,growth is directed  
and encouraged by use2 and 7#f71 as the 
total activity is limited1  therefore   
disuse causes atrophy and degradation1  
by favouring of parts  more used4 ,to   
these follows the important corollary   

7#g73 ,variation  being only of benefit 
where there is competition in which it  
gives an  advantage1 its improvements   
will cease to be maintained in the      
absence  of competition2 it is only     
competition which makes improved        
variations  permanent4 ,for instance1 if
 there were no carnivora the swifter    
deer  would not have found their pace a 
benefit1 and there would be no          
sufficient cause for their attaining    
their present swiftness4 ,in place  of  
looking on selection as merely a        
struggle we must look on it as the  sole
 physical means of permanent elevation1 
the motor which has raised  every       
species to its present point of ability4
    ,to these principles common to all  
organic nature must be added another    
which is almost peculiar to man alone4  
,we often hear that environment  is the 
determinant of the nature of both       
animals and man4 ,but the  distinctive  
quality of man is the subjection of the 
environment to the  ruling faculty2 man 

is not necessarily conditioned by his   
environment1  but a direct measure of   
his civilisation is the extent to which 
he  creates his own conditions4 ,other  
communal animals1 as the ant1 the  bee1 
or the beaver1 have anticipated this to 
some extent2 but in man  alone can the  
ruling faculty rise to an entire        
reversal of almost  every condition of  
environment4    ,the mental equivalents 
of these physical modifications are     
obviously  true in common experience and
 in historical example4    7#a7 ,that a 
favourable variation of mind gives a    
determining advantage  needs no         
illustration1 as every sharp and able   
man of business has  shown this in all  
ages4    7#b7 ,that mental qualities are
 inherited has been pretty generally    
recognised1 and the work of ,galton on  
,hereditary ,genius has enforced  this  
by statistical example4 ,but the        
historical consequences have not  been  
sufficiently noticed2 for it is         
obviously possible by selective  action 

to increase or diminish not only the    
bodily activity but  also the mental    
ability seen in the whole community4    
,the series of  proscriptions of all the
 leading men of ,rome1 alternately on   
one side  and then on the other1 from   
,marius down to ,octavius1 was so       
disastrous  a drain of political        
ability1 that only the ,julian family   
was left2 and  there was never an able  
emperor of ,roman ancestry after that   
line was  extinct4 ,the expulsion of the
 ,huguenots from ,france drained it of  
the  active middle class minds1 and left
 the great gap in the continuity of     
sympathy which made the ,revolution     
possible4 ,the later expulsion or       
extermination also of the active upper  
class minds drained that land of  nearly
 all the hereditary ability of the race3
 the consequence has been  to leave at  
the present day a nation of             
mediocrities1 among whom there  is but a
 fraction of the genius seen in ,germany
 and ,england on either  side of it4    

,almost every leading name is that of a 
foreigner1 as for  instance ,waddington1
 ,zurlinden1 ,eiffel1 ,reinach1         
,rothschild1 ,gambetta1  ,maspero4      
,another very important consideration is
 that sporadic ability  is not inherited
 in the same manner as long continued   
family ability4  ,not a single ,roman   
,emperor who rose solely from his       
individual powers  left a worthy and    
capable son4 ,the ,gordians were a good 
senatorial  family1 and ran through     
three generations on the throne4 ,in    
,england  the same thing is seen4 ,the  
main source of new men of ability is    
from  sturdy ,puritan or ,quaker stocks 
that have long practised self-denial    
and hard work2 old families with long   
traditions of public service  continue  
usually on the same line of ability2 but
 the nouveaux riches  who have sprung   
forward on some lucky speculation or    
trade enterprise  usually go hopelessly 
to pieces in the next generation4 ,the  
longer a  useful type has been          

maintained the more stable it is4       
7#c7 ,that artificial conditions tend to
 produce variation is obvious  in every 
civilisation4 ,the more intense is the  
artificiality of life1  the greater are 
the extremes of ability and             
incompetence1 of riches  and poverty1   
accompanying it4 ,it is often a problem 
to kind hearts  that there should be    
such misery and degradation side by side
 with the  ease and welfare of          
civilisation4 ,the answer is that it is 
inevitable1  because the very same      
artificiality which gives scope to the  
capable  to rise1 equally gives scope   
for the incapable to fall4 ,every       
chance1  every opening1 every benefit   
attainable by exertion1 is a means of   
advance to him who uses it2 but it is   
accompanied by equal chances of         
failure1 equal openings to loss1 equal  
injuries resulting from sloth1  which   
are the equally sure means of           
degradation for those who have  not the 
wit or energy to avoid them4 ,the       

submerged tenth is the  inevitable      
complement of the leading tenth4    7#d7
 ,greater variability of mind           
accompanies unusual development2  this  
is seen in the great outbursts of mental
 activity which have  occurred along    
with external expansion in the times of 
,elizabeth and of  ,victoria4 ,or in    
earlier times the growth of ,greek      
literature following  the ,periclean    
expansion1 or of ,roman literature with 
the ,augustan  settlement of the world4 
7#e7 ,mental growth is directed and     
encouraged by use4 ,this fact is so     
obvious that it is proverbial1 as in the
 saying1 ,the mind grows by  what it    
feeds upon4 ,all mental training and    
teaching recognise this1  but it is true
 in later life as well as in youth4 ,it 
is well known  how in the least         
civilised races small children are as   
advanced--or  more so--than in higher   
races4 ,the ,australian is said to come 
to a  standstill at ten or twelve years 
old4 ,the ,egyptian seldom advances     

mentally after sixteen4 ,a low-class    
,englishman does not improve after      
twenty or so4 ,a capable man will       
continue to expand till thirty or       
forty4 ,and the man of the greatest     
capacity will continue to grow          
mentally1 and assimilate new lines of   
thought1 until seventy or eighty4       
,thus the greater the power of use and  
the activity of the mind1 the  longer   
will it continue to grow4 ,this may well
 be regarded as one of  the main tests  
of a great mind2 and it is strictly in  
accord with the  system of the          
well-known embryonic changes passing    
from lower to higher  stages1 and       
continuing to grow in development into  
higher and higher  types4 ,the savage   
ceased to grow mentally even while in   
childhood2 the  sage continues the      
expansion of mind to extreme old age4   
7#f7 ,disuse of mind causes atrophy and 
degradation4 ,this principle  is one of 
the most important of all in its        
practical bearings4 ,the  familiar      

figure of the later ,merovings1 the rois
 fainants1 is  an historical example3   
freed from all necessity of thought by  
the  assiduity of the mayors of the     
palace1 the family mind atrophied       
further in each generation1 until the   
king became a puppet without  volition  
in royal affairs4 ,the same working may 
be seen in the  upper classes of many   
countries1 where the spur of the        
necessity  of action ceases4 ,within a  
century of the cessation of the ,moorish
  wars the chivalry of ,spain began to  
atrophy2 the same was seen in a  century
 after the cessation of civil war in    
,france4 ,in ,england the  strong       
tradition of training for the public    
careers in the civil and  military      
services and parliament1 has saved the  
upper classes more  than elsewhere4 ,but
 a rich family without active interests 
almost  always shows atrophy of mind4   
,there is a fine saying of ,mencius1    
,those whom ,god destines for some great
 part1 ,he first chastens by  suffering 

and toil4 ,the same tendency to atrophy 
is equally seen in  the lower classes1  
when the necessity of self-help is      
removed4 ,and many  of the modern       
movements have been of a degrading      
tendency1 leading  to the holding back  
of the capable and the artificial help  
of the  incapable4 ,it is obvious that  
if persons have retrograded and got into
  difficulties1 they are presumably less
 capable than those around them4  ,if   
then they are relieved independently of 
their own exertions1 their  incapacity  
is fostered and they retrograde still   
further4 ,to compensate  them for their 
incapacity by relief works1 by farm     
colonies1 by outdoor  relief doles1 by  
maintenance of their children1 will     
inevitably lead  to further atrophy of  
mind4 ,the doctrine of equality of wages
 in a  trade is a double injury1 it     
encourages the most incapable man that  
can  possibly squeeze into the trade1   
and it discourages the capable man who  
is worth far more than the average4 ,it 

must tend to drive capable men  out of  
the trades which they might have raised 
by their example and  stimulus1 into    
other lines where capacity can still    
earn its value4  ,the mental atrophy    
that has come over ordinary workmen is  
appalling1  at least in the region of   
,london4 ,in case after case1 the common
 sense  and intelligence seems to have  
been entirely lost1 and the grossest    
blunders will be made by well-paid men2 
and it is safe to say that in  most     
business a really capable and active man
 can do from three to six  times as much
 as the average workman1 beside avoiding
 the loss of time  by mistakes4 ,in     
short a certified ease of conditions1   
and absence of  direct penalties of     
incapacity1 has atrophied the ordinary  
working mind  to a point which is       
dangerously low in comparison with that 
of other  races4 ,the remedy lies in    
training the incapable by a stern       
discipline  of gradually teaching them  
the maximum that they can perform in the

  day1 with good direction and avoidance
 of bad conditions4 ,after a  couple of 
years of such intensive training they   
should be drafted into  ordinary        
factories1 with the warning that if they
 fall out of work  again1 another year's
 compulsory hard training will be the   
result4    ,in another way this atrophy 
of mind may be seen and felt as a       
temporary  condition by members of      
boards and committees4 ,what is         
everyone's  business is nobody's        
business2 and when each person feels    
that he is  not personally responsible1 
a numbness and inaction ensues which is 
characteristic of such bodies4 ,men1 any
 one of whom would act sensibly  when   
alone1 will succumb to the paralysing   
sense that they need not  think because 
nine other men are doing so1 and the    
results are well  known as              
characterising these assemblies which   
have neither a body to  be kicked nor a 
soul to be damned4 ,there are very few  
public bodies  which are not really     

dependent on the individual thought and 
design of  one person1 criticised and   
amended by the collateral views of      
others4  ,in short1 all action and rule 
must be personal and not corporate1     
however much the person may be checked  
and controlled by general  opinion of   
the public1 or of a restricted body4    
,without personal  initiative atrophy is
 the result4    ,another great theatre  
of mental atrophy is officialism1 where 
a man  is bound to follow certain rules 
and routine rather than to think4  ,a   
,german has remarked to me that a man   
who is perfectly reasonable  and        
intelligent in private life becomes     
quite foolish as soon as he  enters his 
office4 ,this constant result is the    
strongest reason for not  extending     
official control of affairs needlessly1 
or the management  of public work by    
officials4 ,private enterprise will     
always be more  effective than an       
official system1 because it is solely   
the result of  individual initiative4   

,the enormous monopolies of railways in 
,england  are on the whole far more     
beneficial to the public than the ,state
  railways of other countries4 ,the     
evils of corporate monopoly1 checked  by
 law and supervision of the ,board of   
,trade1 are less than the evil of       
stagnation by official atrophy4 ,in the 
,republic of ,france the principal  line
 runs its best trains slower than1 and  
at three times the cost of1  the best   
trains on great ,english lines4    7#g7 
,it is only competition which makes     
permanent the improved mental           
variations which occur4 ,the evils of   
competition in physical things  almost  
disappear in the mental field2 and1     
unless misused as in a  foolishly       
designed examination1 there seems an    
unmixed benefit from  unlimited         
competition of mind4 ,it is only by such
 competition that  higher types of      
ability have been established in the    
past1 and it is  to such that we must   
look for future improvement4 ,it is true

 that in  various directions we find a  
dislike of competition2 but that is the 
surest sign that it is effective1 and   
therefore beneficial to the whole  body4
    ,we see then that each of those     
principles which rule in physical       
modification is equally true of mental  
modification4    ,but though the modes  
of mental variation may be fairly clear1
 we  must not be carried away by the    
view that therefore great changes in    
man are to be expected4 ,the effects of 
various conditions upon the  body are   
tolerably familiar1 yet the average form
 of man has varied  extraordinarily     
little during ten thousand years4 ,the  
highest type  of ancient man differs    
almost inappreciably from the highest   
type of  modern man1 certainly by not a 
tenth of the difference that may be seen
  between different types at present4   
,it may be practically said that man  is
 at a standstill in physical            
development4 ,sanitary improvements and 
better feeding may do great things1 but 

they leave the essential form  and      
constitution unaltered4 ,the same is    
true of mind4 ,when we become  familiar 
with details of early ages nothing is   
more astonishing than  to see how       
unaltered the mind of man is in its     
essentials4 ,in tales  and maxims six   
thousand years old we see not only the  
common stock of  primary instincts1 but 
also the finesse of conduct in public   
life1  the modes of ensuring respect in 
dealing with superiors and inferiors1   
the attention to very varied elements of
 character1 and a fine suavity  and     
kindliness pervading the whole4 ,there  
is not a single class or a  single      
public body at present that practically 
stands as high as the  ideal of two     
hundred generations ago4 ,and when we   
look at the material  civilisation we   
see still farther back the appreciation 
of qualities of  work which only a very 
small proportion of mankind care for    
now4 ,the  overwhelming zeal for minute 
accuracy was as perfect a mental state  

at  #dgjj ,b4,c4 as it is in a ,royal   
,society paper of our day4 ,the subject 
and the method have changed2 but the    
mental attitude is the same in a  man   
who demanded1 and in those who executed1
 beautifully true plane  surfaces1 and  
long measurements exact to far within   
the variation of  size caused by a hot  
or a cold day1 and the men now who      
triangulate  a continent and measure the
 world4 ,the mind is the same1 only the 
stock-in-trade of it has increased4 ,at 
the beginning of history the  palaces   
were adorned with table services cut in 
the hardest and most  beautiful stones1 
exquisitely formed and polished2 and    
such homes  were assuredly inhabited by 
men whose tastes and artistic sense were
  closely the same as the best of ours1 
and who would1 like us1 have  revolted  
at most of the products of the present  
time4 ,not only was  there the body of  
highly skilled and intelligent men to do
 such work1  but there must have been a 
widely spread standard of taste         

demanding  this exquisite work as an    
aesthetic pleasure4 ,the nature of mind 
is  unchanged1 its motives1 its         
feelings1 its sense of life2 only in    
knowledge and the applications of it do 
we differ from the earliest             
civilisation that we can trace4    ,it  
is1 therefore1 quite unreal for us to   
anticipate any change in the  essential 
nature of man in the next few thousand  
years4 ,the increase  of knowledge and  
its applications will not alter that    
nature1 or the  relation of mind to     
mind4 ,we shall still desire and admire 
the same  things1 and be moved by the   
same impulses2 and we may neglect as    
ignorant dreams all speculations about  
any essential changes in the  motives or
 constitution of man4          ,,chapter
 ,,ii4    ,,present ,,changes ,,of      
,,character4      ,having now seen how  
the fluctuations of amendment or        
deterioration  of character1 are subject
 to the same common laws as those of the
  variation of physical structure1 we   

are in a position to see more  clearly  
the effect of gradual changes around us 
in ,england4 ,emigration  has been very 
active in the past three generations1   
and immigration has  recently become    
important4 ,the loss of the earliest    
emigrants who moved  for religious and  
political reasons affected the national 
character  very little2 there was plenty
 of solid character remaining in        
,england1  and the removal of the more  
disputatious elements gave added        
strength  to those who continued at     
home4 ,the compulsory emigration of     
convicts  was similarly a gain by       
removing those who were most out of     
harmony  with the majority4 ,happily    
those whose characters made it most     
irksome  to them to comply with the     
legal formulae of life at home1 were    
just  those best suited for the type of 
a new country1 less restrained and  more
 varied1 with greater scope for         
enterprise4 ,so far there had been  a   
gain by removal of the two extreme      

types4 ,but then succeeded a most       
serious movement of the voluntary       
selection of persons who thought that   
their energies would have a better and  
more remunerative scope in the          
colonies4 ,this implied a draining away 
of those who had intelligence  to choose
 a more promising career1 energy to     
break with their  present life and start
 afresh1 and who possessed most         
adaptability1  self-reliance1 and       
hopefulness4 ,all of these qualities are
 greatly  needed at home for a          
prosperous population2 and the incessant
 natural  selection from the general    
mass1 and removal of those who had most 
of such qualities1 must have produced a 
serious effect on the home  population4 
,we see in ,england undoubtedly a       
lessening of sturdiness  as a whole1 and
 the deficiency of the abilities which  
have been most  exported4 ,there is a   
general outcry about the lack of        
adaptability in  business2 and the      
general want of self-reliance is shown  

by all the  grandmotherly legislation   
which is sought and granted4 ,at first  
we  succeeded in getting rid of some    
amount of less desirable stock along    
with the capable stock2 but in later    
years most countries will not  admit any
 but good stock1 and we lose the        
valuable examples of national  character
 without any compensation4 ,the drain of
 capacity from the  nation is a most    
serious feature of life in ,england2 and
 how far the  prominence of the         
submerged tenth1 and the large          
proportion who live  only a week's      
remove from starvation1 is due to the   
lowering of the  standard of capacity by
 the emigration of the more capable1 is 
a very  important question4 ,the same   
consideration applies to ,ireland in a  
far  more acute form1 as the emigration 
has been of much larger proportions4    
,a large immigration into ,england has  
recently grown up4 ,so far as this  is  
of more energetic men1 who see their way
 to win over our heads1  they should be 

welcomed4 ,the ,german who comes to     
,england to establish  factories and    
exploit the ,english market is at least 
a gain to the  country1 as it is far    
better he should do this in ,england    
rather than  expend all that energy and 
management out of ,england4 ,the trade  
and  manufacture of ,england have been  
largely built up by immigrations of     
,flemings1 ,huguenots1 ,dutch1 ,french1 
and now ,germans1 who have each         
contributed to our capacity for work4   
,in commercial business the  foreign    
influence is strong4 ,in north-west     
,london one-tenth of the  private       
residents are of ,german origin4 ,a     
movement is going on quite  comparable  
to other great race movements of past   
history2 but it only  affects the upper 
classes1 and not the hand-labourer4     
,beside this there  is the large        
movement of the lowest and most         
depressed mass of ,european  humanity1  
from the sink of poverty in ,poland and 
,western ,russia4 ,it is  essentially a 

bad stock1 one of the lowest in ,europe2
 and the large  proportion of criminal  
cases arising among these immigrants    
shows how  undesirable they are4 ,to    
allow such a low type free settlement in
  ,england1 after draining the capable  
,englishmen to the colonies1 makes a    
serious danger of a national collapse   
under a sudden pressure of some  new    
circumstances1 which might arise by     
trade or warfare4    ,some other        
consequences which flow from recent     
changes will be dealt  with in the      
fourth chapter in considering the       
effects of small causes4    ,the low    
type of character prevailing in all     
classes in ,england at  present needs to
 be fully recognised4 ,no doubt there   
has been in  past centuries more        
external coarseness1 and this detail    
strikes the  attention of many people   
because it differs from their own       
present  convention4 ,but mere          
directness and plainness of speech is   
quite  immaterial compared with the     

essentials of working power of mind and 
body1 and the capacity for intelligent  
interests4 ,some centuries ago1  when   
men thought more about the quality of   
their actions1 sloth was  ranked as one 
of the seven deadly sins4 ,but now1 in  
place of regarding  it as anything      
wrong1 there is an elaborate system of  
compulsory sloth2  it is enforced by    
heavy penalties1 and drilled into the   
character by  example and self-interest4
 ,one man is forbidden to lay more than 
three  hundred bricks a day1 another    
forbidden to make more than so many     
glass  dishes1 another forbidden to     
attend to more than one machine4 ,in    
every  trade where a selfish            
short-sighted policy has gained its way1
 there  is this system1 which is doing  
inconceivable harm to character4 ,the   
compulsory glorification of sloth is the
 most deleterious misfortune  that can  
happen to a nation4 ,the wreck of wars1 
pestilence and famine1  will leave a    
more hopeful prospect than that of a    

people sunk in  organised sloth4        
,connected with this is the strange lack
 of thought and adaptability in  common 
matters of everyday life4 ,the daily    
loss of time1 and cost in  trivial      
matters1 which affects thousands of     
persons1 makes a heavy tax  on the      
whole4 ,for instance1 such a simple     
matter as putting the offices  of a     
terminal station at the ends of the     
platforms is still ignored  at many     
termini2 the name of a station is often 
hard to find1 and is  never once put up 
in most termini2 the price of a ticket  
is often not  to be discovered2 the     
right types of carriages are only now   
being  tried1 after persevering in a    
wrong form for two generations4 ,in the 
streets the same lack of sense is seen  
in the immense omnibus system1  which is
 difficult to use1 especially for       
strangers1 owing to the lack  of        
numbered routes and conveyances4 ,it has
 been officially decided  that the      
numbering of routes and omnibuses is    

beyond the powers of  the ,london       
,county ,council2 and we must be        
compensated by the pleasing  reflection 
that something at least is too hard for 
that body4 ,the  thoughtless edict      
however was enforced that every vehicle 
must carry a  white light in front1 and 
all the distinctive colours of the      
tram-car  lights were abolished1 causing
 great inconvenience at night4 ,even in 
the most recent appliances the same     
dulness is shown2 electric fans  are    
commonly placed where they only stir    
foul air1 and not where they  draw in   
fresh or expel used air4 ,the whole     
lighting system still throws  away two  
thirds of all its cost by lighting sky  
and walls as much as  streets4 ,in every
 direction it seems hard to believe that
 five minutes'  thought has been given  
to matters costing thousands of pounds4 
,if we  traced such a mixture of design 
and of chance in any other subject it   
would lead to some curious speculations 
on the implied limitations of  the      

directing ,intellect4 ,and in private   
matters it is the same2 the             
extraordinary blunders and oversights in
 common trade work show that  the most  
obvious details have not had a minute's 
real thought given  to their            
arrangement4 ,the result is an          
accumulation of difficulty and  muddle  
which cripples1 if not destroys1 the    
purpose of the work4 ,this  persistent  
dulness1 and incapacity for management  
and design1 shows a  defect of character
 which is a heavy detriment to the whole
 community4    ,the pleasures of the    
public show the same low type as their  
business4  ,the illustrated papers that 
are read1 apart from serious news1 are a
  revelation of the vacuity of the      
public mind1 as the advertisements  are 
a testimony to its imbecility4 ,the     
absence of any thoughts or  information 
that can enlarge the mind1 or give it   
fresh insight or  understanding1 and the
 fatuity of the illustrations1 show the 
helpless  little round of common ideas  

of the well-to-do classes3 while the    
dishing up of legal filth for the lower 
classes1 and the morbid love of  trivial
 accidents and catastrophes1 shows      
terribly the mere animalism  which fills
 their horizon4 ,the one subject on     
which most print is spent  is that which
 is absolutely futile1 sport and games4 
,whether one group  of men1 selected by 
mere accident1 is a minute trifle more  
active than  another accidental group1  
is a matter of such utter insignificance
 that  it would seem impossible to      
suppose that anyone would turn the head 
to  see the result decided4 ,yet such   
questions absorb most of the interests  
and spare thoughts and reading of a     
great part--perhaps the greater         
part--of the population1 just as the    
races of the circus swamped all  other  
interests of the decadent ,roman4 ,the  
results which they crave for  cannot    
possibly mean anything to the present or
 to the future1 as the  selection is    
merely due to accidental causes4 ,even a

 lower depth is the  relative excellence
 of two horses which are completely     
unknown to the  persons who speculate on
 them4 ,the utter waste of thought and  
print in  such interests is a form of   
insanity which is worse than a drug     
habit1  as it implies a hopeless atrophy
 of the mind to interests which would   
help it or develop it4    ,the whole    
interest of betting on sport1 and also  
of gambling1 is  another evidence of an 
unwholesome condition4 ,it implies a    
craving  for excitement apart from      
personal exertion1 which is always a    
bane  to character2 it involves the idea
 of gain apart from labour of mind  or  
body1 which is demoralising to the sense
 of work2 it results in  unearned       
fluctuations1 which induce a wasteful   
habit2 and it is based  on the          
essentially ungentlemanly principle of  
benefiting by the loss  of another1     
whereas all honourable gain is by the   
sharing of the  benefits of labour4 ,if 
a large part of the public are          

determined on  deteriorating in this    
manner1 it might be better for the      
community to  satisfy it by public      
lottery1 where one party is the         
government1 which  at least removes the 
last-named serious detriment to         
character4 ,the  gaming at ,monte ,carlo
 is moral compared with promiscuous     
betting4    ,the objections to such     
forms of interest are perhaps too often 
urged by  moralists who wish to cause an
 alteration in the customs around them4 
,even if we can care for the benefit of 
persons with such interests1  certainly 
we are not likely to make any difference
 to them by talking  on the subject4    
,but as students of diseased society we 
may take a deep  interest in such forms 
of aberration as a pathologist may in a 
case  of cancer4 ,and it is difficult to
 feel any particular wish to change     
habits which so obviously belong to a   
bad stock that is hardly worth          
improving4 ,the best hope is that the   
unmitigated results of such mental      

disease may quickly have full effect on 
the type1 and result in its             
extermination before a better class or  
better race4 ,so far as cure  is        
possible1 the most hopeful direction is 
by an increase of useful  and beneficial
 interests1 which will make such vapid  
and senseless  amusements decay by mere 
disgust4    ,the distaste for work and  
craving for amusement extends beyond the
  above limits in a manner very         
deleterious to character4 ,it is a      
feature  of a decaying civilisation1 as 
shown on the later ,mykenaean frescoes1 
and the rage for the circus in later    
,roman times4 ,besides the waste of     
time and labour1 it acts injuriously in 
producing a restless incapable  type of 
mind1 brought more forward lately in    
motoring2 and also by  creating a false 
social atmosphere1 in which the business
 of life is  contemned and treated as a 
drudgery1 instead of being a main       
subject of  interest and emulation4 ,as 
the shrewd ,carl ,peters remarks on     

,english  society1 ,nobody can fail to  
be struck by its utter recklessness and 
shallowness1 and an increasing objection
 to labour is noticeable  right through 
the ,british nation4    ,these various  
forms of a low type of character are on 
the increase1 and  it does not seem at  
all likely that they will be checked1   
except by  great disasters which remove 
the less capable part of the population1
  and compel the rest to adopt a more   
energetic mode of life4    ,among the   
various movements which are by some     
expected to benefit  character1 the     
communistic ideals have enthusiastic    
support4 ,but it  must be remembered    
that all such types of society tend to  
repress  ability4 ,if any form of       
communism is to succeed there must be a 
fixed  minimum of labour compulsory on  
each member2 and it is certain that     
human nature will take the minimum limit
 as all that need be done4 ,the         
tendency will be to drag down all energy
 to the speed of the weakest4           

,moreover1 if there is to be any private
 peculium outside of the share  of      
common produce1 the able man will at    
once rise into a capitalist2 if  no     
private peculium is tolerated it is     
certain that ability will be  driven out
 to other lands1 or to other lines of   
life where communism  cannot be         
enforced4 ,it must always be kept in    
view that mediocrity  hates ability1    
wherever it comes into comparison or    
competition2 and  in a uniform          
community1 mediocrity must be dominant1 
and ability  persecuted4    ,again the  
communistic type tends to repress       
variation and diversity  by making      
everyone subject to the control of the  
dull average2 and  this repression is   
most fatal to due advance by natural    
selection of  beneficial variation4 ,we 
may see in ,france how a centralised    
management  by the ,state accompanies   
the lack of enterprise in affairs4 ,it  
is  notorious that in business the      
,french will not spend freely on        

creating  new openings and encouraging  
new demand4 ,probably the habit of mind 
and  the type of government act and     
react by one intensifying the other4    
,where we can study an actual working   
system of communism in such a  climate  
as our own1 we see that it only         
succeeded by some elaborate  and very   
forcible regulations4 ,to outsiders1    
ignorant of the machine1  the less      
advanced states of society are generally
 supposed to be very  simple1 and to    
leave a large amount of liberty4 ,on the
 contrary1  whenever a barbaric or      
savage society is really understood1 the
  complexity which is essential to its  
success is seen to be even greater  than
 among ourselves4 ,the movement of      
society has been from an earlier        
complexity of special restriction1 to a 
later generalised simplicity4  ,the     
whole of northern ,europe appears to    
have had a very similar system  of      
communal organisation1 which has been   
mainly brought to light by the          

researches of ,dr4 ,seebohm4 ,the peace 
was kept by making every relation  of a 
man responsible for his actions2 either 
wounding in any degree1  or murder1 had 
to be compounded for by fines extending 
even to distant  cousins1 which were    
payable to the similar relations of the 
injured  or murdered man4 ,the immediate
 male relatives1 father1 son1 brother1  
and first cousin1 were responsible for  
two-thirds of the blood money1  and     
other relations to the fifteenth degree 
made up the remainder4  ,thus the       
criminal law was communal in a full     
sense2 and injuries were  fully         
compensated in a manner which made every
 man his brother's keeper  in a real    
communism4 ,how would modern admirers of
 communism like to  undertake the       
responsibilities of making up for the   
misdeeds of every  relative8 ,yet that  
is an essential part of communal duties4
    ,the poor-law system1 as revealed in
 the ,norse laws1 was that all  the     
poorer men were bound to do a certain   

amount of work for their  chief1 like   
the payment of taxes at present1 which  
amounts now to  more than a month's work
 in the year4 ,in return the chief was  
bound  to see that they were insured    
against extreme-poverty or distress4    
,they were free to accumulate wealth if 
they had the ability to do so1  but     
their bargains and marriages had to be  
ratified by the chief in  order to      
safeguard them from the follies of      
incapacity4 ,when a man  wished to      
resign this position of insurance       
against misfortune there  was no        
objection to his independence1 and he   
could do so on paying  a small fee1 and 
having a feast with the chief and       
witnesses4 ,but if  after that he played
 the fool1 and his family came to       
naught1 no one  was responsible for     
them1 as he had resigned his insurance4 
,there  was but one course left1 a wide 
grave in the churchyard received the    
whole family alive1 and only the one who
 survived longest had the  right to live

 at the cost of his chief afterwards4   
,such was the price  of communal        
support2 and this decisive treatment1   
even in ,christian  times1 ensured the  
sturdiness of the hardy ,norseman1 by   
effectively  weeding the incapable4     
,this was the practical working of the  
communal  system which did not check    
ability1 and which succeeded in our     
climate in past times4 ,it needed a     
fuller organisation of penalties  and   
obligations than our present            
individualism2 and whether any          
communism could permanently succeed with
 less compulsion may gravely  be        
doubted4 ,in using the terms ,socialism 
and ,communism they are taken  here in  
their widest sense1 as referring to all 
the courses opposed to  individualism4  
,such is the general usage of our       
language at present1  and we cannot     
restrict these terms solely to extreme  
views1 as some of  their advocates would
 wish4 ,moreover1 it is the influence of
 views on  practical life that we are   

considering1 and not an ideal state     
which  never has been realised1 and     
probably never can be put in practice4  
,a favourite idea has been that the ,new
 ,testament teaching favours  communism4
 ,to many such an authority would be    
decisive2 and those who  would not      
accept it as authoritative1 must        
consider that the teaching  is at least 
that of men who had such an instinctive 
knowledge of human  nature1 and such    
sympathy with the springs of action1    
that their views  have held ,western man
 more firmly than any other system4 ,the
 first  point to notice in looking at   
the teaching1 is that it was given to  a
 very severely selected group of        
persons4 ,the early disciples were  one 
of the hardest-weeded bodies of men that
 ever existed1 like the  ,huguenots or  
the ,quakers2 ready perception1 hearty  
conscientiousness1  and a will to do    
right at all costs were the first       
qualifications1  and incessant          
persecution from various sides weeded   

out all those who  had no deep root of  
character4 ,to such a body temporary    
communism was  almost a need of         
existence at starting2 all the causes   
and characters  which would ordinarily  
make it a failure were weeded out1 and  
such a  highly selected group might     
safely benefit by a system which        
depended  on self-abnegation4 ,but so   
soon as the ,church spread1 no trace of 
communism remained2 and even in general 
altruism the injunctions  referred only 
to the ,church and not to the world4    
,the teaching was  ,bear ye one         
another's burdens2 not1 bear the burdens
 of the ,roman  rabble1 but only those  
of the stringently weeded community4    
,the one  saying which survived most    
strongly of all the ,gospel teaching1   
and is  repeated oftenest1 is1 ,to him  
that hath shall be given1 and from him  
that hath not shall be taken away even  
that which he seemeth to have4  ,the    
full benefit of capacity and its utmost 
gains1 and the direst  losses of        

incapacity1 are the main principle that 
is inculcated4    ,in another point of  
view the parable of the prodigal son is 
sometimes  felt to inculcate the        
ignoring of failure in life1 and the    
permitting  of follies to have no effect
 on the position of a person4 ,the      
prodigal  son among us is too often     
allowed to go on draining the resources 
on  which his brethren rightfully have a
 claim4 ,but the father in the  parable1
 who had divided the family property    
already1 was not intending  to give     
anything more to the prodigal1 however  
penitent he might be2  forgiveness might
 be his1 but the other brother was      
reassured at once  by the formal        
declaration1 ,all that ,i have is thine4
 ,the greatest  penitence1 and the      
fullest forgiveness after it1 will not  
give the  prodigal a farthing beyond    
those rights which he has already       
misused4    ,another appeal has been    
made1 to a comparison with nature1 in   
favour of  communism4 ,it is asked why  

we should be struggling like the        
carnivora1  instead of peacefully       
browsing in amity like herbivora4 ,but  
it would  be hard to find a more intense
 example of competition than that among 
the cattle4 ,look at the skeleton of a  
bull1 and see how every rib is          
broadened out into an armour plating for
 its vitals1 each rib lapping  over the 
other1 so that no opening can be found  
for the point of its  adversary's horn4 
,none but those thus proof against      
goring have ever  survived the desperate
 struggle of the strongest4 ,in place of
 the  artificial paddocks1 where man has
 placed a single bull to lord the  herd1
 look at the tragedy of the wild cattle1
 where the dispossessed  chief of the   
,chillingham breed mopes apart in sullen
 anger1 a ,saturn  dethroned and        
banished by the ,jupiter who now leads  
the race4 ,then  reflect how competition
 is more bitter and more intense in the 
bovine  commune than among any          
individualistic carnivora4    ,the      

communistic view appears to tend to     
fatalism4 ,this is practically  seen for
 instance in ,tolstoi's ,peace and ,war1
 where the gigantic  movements of the   
,french and ,russian hosts are looked on
 as inherent in  the millions of people1
 and not originating in the leaders4    
,and the  habit of looking to the       
commune as the source of action will    
naturally  tend toward a sense of the   
impossibility of altering the           
determination  of a whole people1 and   
the powerlessness of the individual     
against such  forces4 ,now nothing more 
surely undermines activity and          
initiative than  a fatalistic view4 ,it 
saps the whole springs of action1 and   
destroys  the spirit of advance and     
improvement4 ,in this aspect therefore  
we  again see how injurious the         
communistic ideal is to solid character4
    ,the recent growth of municipalising
 enterprises is another outcome  of this
 spirit4 ,the principle of it seems to  
be to absorb any public  business which 

appears profitable1 whether conveyance1 
supplies of  material1 or contracting   
for public work4 ,apart from the fact   
that  only strong personal interest in  
management will make such enterprises   
profitable1 there is also the inherent  
objection to the bad management  which  
clings to the atrophy of mind of        
officials1 as such2 but there is  also  
another serious influence upon          
character1 which we should notice4  ,the
 energy and initiative needed to start  
and work improvements1 which  is the    
essential source of profit in business1 
is easily suppressed or  driven away4   
,many an enterprise which would succeed 
well is set aside  because of the risks 
or the trouble of starting it1 many     
another is  left alone owing to little  
deterring causes2 and if the great      
incentive  of the possibility of large  
profits on some schemes1 to compensate  
for  the risks of many failures1 is cut 
away by a municipality having the  right
 of seizure of whatever succeeds1 the   

whole enterprising character  is cut    
down at the roots1 to the immense injury
 of the nation at large4  ,supposing    
that some public enterprise makes #bj   
per cent4 profit to its  shareholders1  
the people who use it are certainly     
better off1 or they  would leave it     
alone1 and the profit is no loss to the 
community1 as  it merely means so much  
transferred from one pocket to another1 
and  none wasted4 ,but if such          
enterprises are choked at the roots by  
fear  of seizure1 the whole community   
suffers4 ,who will care to develop      
suburbs by starting electric trams when 
the whole can be seized in  twenty-one  
years1 so soon as it begins to repay the
 risks incurred8  ,this short-sighted   
grasping system has held ,england back  
behind most  civilised countries1 and   
been a gigantic public loss1 not only by
  hindering specific enterprises1 but   
more by thwarting most valuable         
characteristics4          ,,chapter     
,,iii4    ,,trade ,,unionism1 ,,its     

,,flower ,,and ,,fruition4      ,when we
 are continually assured that there is a
 new and better way of  doing anything1 
it is only reasonable to ask if anyone  
has tried it  before4 ,the proof of the 
pudding is in the eating1 and if some   
one  has eaten such a pudding before us1
 we may be saved from using up good     
materials in a bad concoction4 ,until   
now the attention of historians  has    
been so fixed upon the great military   
autocracy of ,rome1 that the  growth of 
trade unionism and socialism under that 
government has been  overlooked4 ,here  
we will trace and put together such     
facts as seem  curiously parallel to the
 growth of modern unionism2 and which1  
when  they outstep our present position1
 may serve to show what further         
developments may be expected by us4     
,the first great step1 which bore       
centuries of bitter results1 was the    
favouring of the townsman as against the
 countryman4 ,the voter in ,rome  could 
push laws to his own advantage in the   

hurly-burly of the public  assembly1    
while the countryman was working hard in
 his furrow miles  away4 ,the conquered 
provinces were a great temptation2 they 
had to  yield tribute1 grain came       
pouring into ,rome1 and why should not  
this  abundance benefit the citizen by  
being sold at a low price8 ,they forgot 
the countryman4 ,his toil was none the  
less because ,carthage or ,sicily  or   
,egypt were being plundered4 ,but his   
pay was much the less if his  produce   
lost its market value4 ,the cheap corn  
of ,gracchus was the knell  of the      
honest agriculturist1 as ,professor     
,oman has pointed out4 ,the  only remedy
 was to try to cheapen production in    
,italy4 ,this was done by  giving up the
 small farmer altogether1 and running   
only big estates by  slave-labour1 the  
human machine which was to ,rome what   
machinery is to  us4 ,this staved off   
the evil somewhat4 ,but soon the        
townsman demanded  more and more1 and at
 last free doles of corn were given to  

him1 and  agriculture became impossible 
in ,italy4 ,what tribute-corn did to    
,italy1  cheap transport has done to    
,england4 ,the townsman is always       
favoured  at the cost of the countryman1
 and the country is being depopulated4  
,not only cheap bread1 but doles of     
every kind--hospitals1 wash-houses1     
music1 games1 libraries--all are given  
to the townsman1 while the  countryman  
cannot possibly share in such doles4 ,a 
large policy of  equivalent benefits to 
the countryman would be the only        
corrective to  this one-sided and       
deleterious favouritism4 ,but the votes 
carry it1 as  they did in ,rome4    ,in 
the earlier part of the second century1 
under ,trajan1 two little  statements   
show what was going on4 ,a guild or     
trade union of firemen in  ,asia ,minor 
wished to be incorporated3 but the      
emperor forbade1 because  such trade    
guilds became political centres4 ,there 
must have been  some experience of such 
movement for it to be anticipated4 ,the 

other  statement is that the more able  
and wealthy men avoided entering the    
guild of permanent aldermen1 or curia1  
because of the burdens which  were      
thrown upon them4 ,a century later1     
about #bcj ,a4,d41 all trades  were     
organised into corporations or trades   
unions1 recognised by the  government1  
instead of being only private societies 
as before4 ,this  seems to have been a  
compulsory unionism2 but there was some 
difference  in class between this trades
 unionism and our own4 ,in ,rome the    
trades  were in the hands of smaller    
men1 and not of large firms and         
companies  as much as with us2 and on   
the other hand the mere mechanic was    
usually a slave1 this slave labour being
 economically the equivalent  of        
machinery in our time4 ,hence the ,roman
 trades unions were small  employers of 
the status of our plumbers or           
upholsterers1 more than1 as  with us1 a 
large mass of crude labour organised    
against all capital4  ,they were trade  

unions1 rather than unions of the       
mechanics as against  the managers4 ,the
 compulsory entry of all the master     
employers into a  union would no doubt  
be a step very welcome to modern        
unionism2 and the  compulsory extension 
of it1 so as to leave no free labour1   
would be an  ideal condition1 in which  
picketing would be quite superseded by  
legal  compulsion to join the union4    
,the differences therefore were mainly  
such as our trades unions would desire1 
and aim at in future2 in short  unionism
 by #bcj ,a4,d4 was more developed than 
it is at present with us4    ,but here  
came in a very difficult question1 which
 is before us also  whenever unionism   
becomes dominant in any trade4 ,it is   
all very well to  let unions pillage    
capital1 or even pillage each other1 but
 can they be  allowed to pillage the    
poor8 ,this at once clashes with the    
favouring of  the proletariat4 ,it has  
already raised an acute difficulty in   
,england4  ,the ,bricklayers' ,union    

cannot be competed with from abroad1    
except  very slightly by means of       
imported wooden houses4 ,hence this     
union  has been able to close its grip  
firmly on the throat of the public2  it 
has raised wages1 and it has cut down   
work from eight hundred or  nine hundred
 bricks laid daily to two hundred and   
seventy or three  hundred and thirty in 
different standards now4 ,by raising the
 cost  of labour to about three times   
the amount1 the cost of building as a   
whole must be nearly doubled4 ,the      
dearness of lodging of the poor is      
really due to the remorseless extortion 
of the bricklayers1 abetted  by the     
extravagant building regulations locally
 in force in their  interest1 to        
increase the expenditure on a building4 
,in the country  there is disgraceful   
overcrowding for lack of cottage        
accommodation1  and in towns miserable  
rooms fetch high rents4 ,the            
ground-landlord1  who is so much abused1
 has little to do with this2 for        

ground-rents  are seldom more than a    
tenth of the house rent and taxes4 ,if  
all land  were confiscated to-morrow it 
would not lower most rentals more than a
  fraction4 ,if the ,bricklayers' ,union
 and all its results were abolished1    
rentals would descend to nearly half the
 present amounts4    ,if we were to meet
 this difficulty in the way that ,rome  
dealt with it1  the ,government would   
give the ,bricklayers' ,union an        
absolute monopoly  of building1 on      
condition that dwellings under a certain
 value were  charged at a third of the  
cost of labour1 that is on the old terms
 of a  full day's work fifty years ago1 
leaving all later profits to be gained  
from the wealthier classes4 ,in the     
present straits about housing it is  by 
no means certain that this would not be 
a popular course4    ,in ,rome the grain
 importers and the bakers were the two  
trades  which touched the proletariat   
most closely4 ,and early in the third   
century these1 and probably other       

essential trades1 were organised  as    
monopolist unions1 on condition that the
 union was bound over to  do a certain  
amount of work for the poor at a nominal
 rate4 ,thus the  wastrel was favoured  
and protected1 with his right to        
maintenance2  and all profits of the    
business were to be made from work done 
for  those who could afford to pay for  
it4 ,this is unquestionably an ideal    
toward which a great deal of social     
legislation is tending at present4      
,railway companies and tramways are     
bound to carry workmen at nominal       
rates1 while all their profits are to be
 earned from wealth4 ,so far has  this  
burden been imposed1 that the           
construction of one railway line at     
least has been prevented by the heavy   
toll of cheap transport which was       
demanded before sanctioning it4    ,if  
the trade is not in the hands of a      
single firm for a whole district1  like 
a railway company1 there arises the     
problem1 how is the burden  of cheap    

work for the poor to be distributed over
 the constituent  firms8 ,this was      
solved in ,rome by the union1 which was 
the sole body  recognised in law4 ,each 
member of the union was assessed by his 
union1  on the basis of both his capital
 and his trade returns1 and he had to   
do so much of the cheap work in         
proportion4 ,hence the wealth of each   
firm determined the amount of their     
proletariat taxation4 ,if they could    
withdraw temporarily part of the capital
 from the business1 their  assessment   
would be lighter4 ,hence to each person 
the aim was to work  with the smallest  
amount of capital1 and to remove from   
the business  all spare capital1 and    
invest it elsewhere4 ,this naturally    
resulted in  business being badly       
worked4 ,the difficulty was met by the  
law that  all capital once in the       
business could never be withdrawn2 and  
all  profits--and1 later1 all acquired  
wealth--must be kept in the business1   
so that the richer firms should do their

 full share of proletariat  service4    
,the results of these logical           
developments of unionism and help  to   
the proletariat1 were that many withdrew
 altogether from unions1  retiring on a 
small competence rather than live under 
such a burden1  and that there was a    
general decline of commerce and of      
industry4    ,property having thus      
become the gauge of responsibility in   
the union1  the only way to prevent     
desertions was to declare that the      
property  was attached to the union     
permanently1 and whosoever acquired it  
did  so under the implied covenant of   
supplying the share of union work out   
of it4 ,the result of this law was that 
no one with capital would join  a trade 
union1 as their whole property became   
attached to the union2  and poor persons
 were not desired on unions1 as they    
could not take  up a share of the       
proletariat service4 ,this condition was
 met by the  law forcibly enrolling     
capitalists in the unions1 and demanding

 their  personal service as well as the 
use of their capital4    ,by #bgj ,a4,d4
 ,aurelian had made unionism compulsory 
for life so as to  prevent the able men 
from withdrawing1 to better themselves  
by free  work individually4 ,he also    
gave a wine dole1 and gave bread in     
place  of corn1 to save the wastrel the 
trouble of baking4 ,in the fourth       
century every member1 and all his sons1 
and all his property1 belonged          
inalienably to the trades union4 ,by    
#cfi ,a4,d4 all property however        
acquired belonged to the union4    ,yet 
still men would leave all they had to   
get out of the hateful  bondage1 and so 
the unpopular trades--such as the       
moneyers in #chj  ,a4,d4 and the bakers 
in #djh--were recruited by requiring    
that everyone  who married the daughter 
of a unionist must join his             
father-in-law's  business4 ,and thus the
 ,empire was an immense gaol where all  
worked not  according to taste but by   
force1 as ,waltzing remarks in his great

 work  ,corporations ,professionnelles1 
where the foregoing facts are stated4   
,there was but one end possible to this 
accumulation of move upon move1  on the 
false basis of compulsory trade         
unionism1 and work under cost  for the  
proletariat4 ,the whole system was so   
destructive of character  and of wealth 
that it ruined the empire4 ,slavery was 
by no means the  destruction of ,rome1  
it flourished in the centuries when the 
,government  was strongest1 and         
diminished in advance of the social     
decay4 ,vice  was by no means the       
destruction of ,rome1 it was worst when 
,rome was  most powerful and was        
lessened in the decline4 ,the one       
movement which  grew steadily as ,rome  
declined1 and which was intimately      
connected  with every stage of that     
decline1 was the compulsion of labour   
and  the maintenance of the wastrel as a
 burden on society4 ,it was that  which 
pulled down the greatest political      
organism1 by the crushing of  initiative

 and character1 and by the steady drain 
on all forms of  wealth4 ,the free ,goth
 was the welcome deliverer from social  
bondage4  ,this growth of trade unionism
 has been followed here as a whole1     
without stopping to note other effects  
of the same type of mind1 which  are    
also very instructive to us4 ,we now    
turn back to look at some  earlier      
developments4    ,the ,empire had a long
 age of internal peace1 from the        
accession of  ,vespasian to the rise of 
,severus1 comprising four or five       
generations4  ,men had forgotten in     
,italy and the provinces what war meant1
 as the  only troubles had been frontier
 fighting4 ,they ceased to value the    
strength of unity1 and the importance of
 keeping the empire bound  together4    
,the sayings attributed to ,gallienus in
 the middle of the  third century cannot
 be looked on as merely wild vagaries1  
contrary  to all the public opinion     
around him4 ,had no one else advocated  
the  subdivision of the empire1 he would

 never have continued to jest about  not
 needing the produce of ,gaul or of     
,syria4 ,such phrases must have  been   
familiar among a little-,italy party1 of
 whom ,gallienus was the  agent and     
mouthpiece4 ,and such a situation will  
help to explain his  conduct regarding  
the captivity of ,valerian his father in
 ,persia4 ,a  glance at old ,valerian   
shows him to have been a rigid gentleman
 of  the old school1 like ,galba or     
,nerva4 ,and1 when he was captured1 the 
little-,italy party who had hold of     
,gallienus were relieved rather than    
otherwise4 ,had ,george ,,iii been      
captured by the ,french1 probably       
,george  ,,iv and ,charles ,james ,fox  
would not have been very anxious for his
  return4    ,the policy of the party   
seems to have been to encourage each    
province  to start a separate government
 under its local ruler1 in touch with   
the ,roman ,government1 but with        
recognised independence4 ,britain was   
separated1 and was only reunited to the 

empire at later times for  short        
periods2 ,postumus1 ,victorinus1        
,tetricus1 ,carausius1 ,allectus1       
,constantius1 ,magnentius1 ,magnus      
,maximus1 ,jovinus1 all ruled without   
any check from ,italy4 ,syria was       
separated with such good will that the  
coinage for ,zenobia was struck at the  
,imperial mint in ,alexandria4 ,in  all1
 nineteen independent rulers are        
enumerated in this reign2 and no        
attempt was made to reunite the         
provinces4 ,there were gains in such a  
course2 the heavy charge on ,italy of   
keeping a great army was lessened2  the 
risks of civil war seemed to be reduced1
 when each province was  not tempted to 
set up its own ruler for the whole      
empire2 and local  feelings and         
variations could have free scope4 ,it   
might be thought that  three centuries  
of rule had fitted the provinces to hold
 their own in  the world1 and to be     
ruled independently4 ,the result of the 
experiment  in devolution1 or home rule 

all round1 was a time of such anarchy1  
misery and loss1 as had not been known  
since a unified civilisation had        
existed in those lands4    ,after the   
immediate catastrophes had been somewhat
 rectified by  succeeding emperors1     
,aurelian took up the great task of     
reuniting the  whole empire4 ,he carried
 this out victoriously2 ,tetricus from  
,gaul  and ,zenobia from ,syria adorned 
his triumph4 ,but ,rome was bitter at   
such a policy4 ,a furious rebellion     
broke out1 nominally called the  revolt 
of the mint2 that it was a great social 
movement was seen by  ,gibbon1 though he
 confesses that it is mysterious how    
three senators1  most of the senatorial 
families1 and multitudes of minor people
 were  involved in it4 ,the fighting was
 so severe that five thousand of        
,aurelian's trained army were killed4   
,that the mint workmen took part  in it 
is certain3 but probably the mint was   
adopted as headquarters  of the movement
 owing to its strength4 ,all this shows 

that1 so far  from the great victories  
making ,aurelian popular in ,rome1 they 
were  most bitterly opposed4 ,the only  
ground for this must be that a very     
strong party clung to the little-,italy 
policy1 and hated ,aurelian in          
consequence4 ,this movement gives good  
ground for interpreting the  policy of  
,gallienus in the way we have done      
above1 as being a great  party policy   
and not merely an imperial freak4       
,within less than a generation later    
came the vast socialist decree of       
,diocletian1 regulating all prices and  
wages throughout the empire4 ,a  maximum
 value was fixed for every kind of      
food--grain1 wine1 oil1 meat1  fish1    
vegetables and fruit4 ,hence such food  
would never be produced  where the      
natural conditions prevented a profit   
within this maximum  price2 nor would it
 be transported beyond the distance     
within which the  maximum yielded a     
profit4 ,whole districts must have been 
cut off from  different kinds of supply 

by such legislation4 ,meanwhile the     
wages of  labourers1 of artizans1 and of
 professions were all equally regulated1
  so that the best men could never have 
their superior ability rewarded4  ,the  
prices of skins and leather1 of all     
clothing1 and of jewellery were         
likewise defined4    ,the consequence   
must have been that the losses in bad   
years of supply1  owing to weather and  
other circumstances1 must have fallen   
wholly on  the producer1 who might be   
ruined by the whole brunt of the loss1  
instead of being partly compensated by a
 rise in prices which taxed the  whole  
body of users4 ,no wonder that after    
such a law the whole empire  plunged    
ever deeper into poverty and confusion4 
,the coinage depreciated  even more     
rapidly than before2 and the economic   
distress of such a  fixed system with a 
falling currency must have been         
overwhelming4 ,such  were the results of
 one of the great socialistic attempts  
to remedy the  course of events by      

artificial legislation4    ,we thus see 
how by the establishment of unionism1   
the feeding of  paupers1 the devolution 
of the empire1 and the legislation on   
prices  and wages1 the socialistic      
policy brought to naught the greatest   
social  organism that had yet appeared  
in the world4          ,,chapter ,,iv4  
,,revolution ,,or ,,evolution8          
,those persons who are unaccustomed to  
consider the great effects  which flow  
from a continuous action of small       
causes1 are too liable  to suppose that 
a large result can only be obtained by a
 violent and  immediate action4 ,they   
suppose that only some mighty impulse   
can change  the face of affairs2 they   
pray that the mountains be rent1 and    
look to  the earthquake and the tempest1
 not thinking that it is the still small
  voice that really directs4 ,they      
forget that it is the humble earthworms 
that plough the land1 and the invisible 
bacteria that destroy nations  and alter
 the face of politics4    ,ignoring the 

far-reaching after-effects of action1   
men are led to  over-do all the changes 
which they attempt to carry out by      
direct and  immediate means4 ,this is   
like a child who asks to have its hand  
cut off  because its finger aches4      
,the bad effect of sudden and violent   
changes may best be observed  in our own
 history4 ,the great changes of the     
,civil ,war left ,england  without any  
checks on the violence of parties4 ,the 
,king and ,lords had  been abolished1   
and the ,commons ruled alone4 ,the      
fierce factions of the  ,presbyterians  
and ,independents would have wrecked the
 country1 had not  a ruler come forward 
far more arbitrary than the one already 
rejected4  ,charles had looked over the 
wall when he tried to arrest five       
members1  but ,cromwell stole the horse 
outright when he dismissed the          
parliament  by armed force4 ,pride's    
,purge was a greater violation of       
popular  liberties than anything done by
 ,tudor or ,stuart2 and the effect of   

half  a generation of such violence was 
that the nation was heartily glad to    
get back a worse king than the one they 
had beheaded4 ,cromwell's great  service
 was1 that he saved ,england from a     
fanatical and factious ,house  of       
,commons1 by exercising monarchical     
prerogatives which ,charles never  dared
 to assert4 ,the needs of the time drove
 him1 as a capable man1  to act for the 
highest good outside the law4 ,when we  
hear a faction  lauding ,cromwell now1  
it may be overlooked that he made short 
work of  ,fifth ,monarchy men and other 
extremists2 and that the great struggle 
of mind to him was the dire necessity of
 crushing the factions1 and of  using   
that compulsion which he clearly saw was
 the only alternative to  anarchy4 ,the 
bitter persecuting spirit of the        
factions was far more  violent than any 
course of action which preceded or      
followed their  rule4 ,neither ,charles 
,i nor ,charles ,,ii touched the private
 religious  actions of the people2 but  

the factions proscribed even the private
 use  of the ,book of ,common ,prayer4  
,the subsequent ,five-mile ,act         
regulating  public meetings for worship 
was mild compared with the domiciliary  
visitations in search of the ,prayer    
,book in #afde4 ,but for the visits  of 
the parliamentary soldiery1 breaking    
into chapels and putting their  swords  
to the breasts of the kneeling          
communicants1 there would never  have   
been the milder dispersions of the      
,restoration4 ,but for the  bitter      
persecution of the so-called            
,malignants1 and the deprivation of  the
 clergy throughout the country by the   
parliament1 there would never  have been
 the milder reversion of ,bartholomew's 
,day1 #affb4 ,in every  point the       
violent changes of constitution wrought 
more tyranny and more  personal hardship
 than was even caused by the revulsion  
which followed4    ,in ,france the same 
effect was seen4 ,the ,revolution       
probably caused more  bloodshed and more

 personal misery in ten years1 than the 
old rgime  had done in a century4       
,england has paid twenty-five millions a
 year for  a century past as interest on
 the debt incurred for crushing         
,napoleon4    ,another result should be 
noted with care4 ,a great popular       
ferment with  a diminution of           
constitutional control1 must result in  
establishing  a military despotism as   
the lesser evil for the country4        
,caesar1  ,aurelian1 ,cromwell1         
,napoleon1 all arose from the popular   
party1 as the  necessary substitutes1 by
 arbitrary action1 for the              
constitutionalism  which had been       
abolished4 ,in the place of the legally 
regulated  courses1 more or less        
unsuitable and corrupted1 it proved     
absolutely  necessary when they were    
abolished to have some other supreme    
authority  with power to enforce        
obedience4    ,we are not concerned at  
this point to consider the relative     
right or  wrong of the various parties  

just mentioned2 that has nothing to do  
with the matter4 ,the lesson is that a  
violent and rapid change of             
constitution leads to worse evils than  
those which it is sought to  remedy4    
,every existing order of things1 however
 imperfect or bad1 must  have a certain 
balance of parts or it could not        
continue4 ,and when  that balance is    
destroyed the results can seldom be     
foreseen4 ,it is  exactly the same in   
nature2 when any species of animal is   
exterminated  suddenly--as by           
firearms--the far-reaching consequences 
of its  disappearance cannot be         
anticipated2 other species will increase
 or  disappear1 and even vegetable life 
will be modified4    ,the phrase        
therefore of a radical reform1 or       
briefly radicalism1 is  in defiance of  
natural science and of historical       
experience2 it denies  the principle of 
gradual evolution in the development of 
institutions  and of character4 ,a small
 amount of experience of different types

 is  enough to show its fallacy1 for    
radicals say that travelling abroad     
always spoils a good radical4    ,in    
order to avoid violent change it is     
needful to allow free scope  for gradual
 change4 ,the greatest catastrophes may 
be caused by the  accumulation of small 
forces2 when a tiny stream becomes      
dammed by a  landslip it may form a     
lake1 which in bursting will devastate a
 whole  valley4 ,so when the gradual    
movement of a people is checked1 and an 
artificial condition is enforced by     
laws1 the breaking down of such         
restrictions will cause wholesale       
disaster4 ,had the ,romans allowed  free
 immigration of ,gothic settlers there  
would never have been the  ,gothic      
conquest of ,italy4 ,were the           
,californians and ,australians to  allow
 a free immigration of ,japanese1 under 
fair and equal laws1 they  would not    
have to fear a squadron demanding       
justice in their ports4  ,the necessity 
of violent changes is therefore always  

the fault of  those who prevent gradual 
changes to fit new conditions4 ,if the  
,house  of ,commons tries again the     
experiment of the ,long ,parliament1 and
 by  force or subterfuge abrogates the  
second chamber1 it will be largely  due 
to the ,house of ,lords refusing changes
 in its mode of action4 ,an  ,upper     
,house which elected a legislative      
committee1 like the election of  ,scotch
 and ,irish ,peers1 would be in a far   
stronger position4 ,the ,house  of      
,commons at present is too much like an 
elephant picking up pins2 and  if the   
public become so much disgusted with its
 incapacity for business  that at some  
crisis they throw the reins of power to 
an able man like  ,kitchener1 it will be
 largely due to the fossilisation of the
 ,rules of  ,procedure4 ,a ,lower ,house
 which allotted its time strictly       
according to  the value of its votes of 
supply1 or of the interests             
involved--which  registered its         
decisions instantly1 as by the electric 

signals which  are now found in every   
hotel1 and which employed diagrams in   
debate  by means of the lantern and     
screen which are now found in every     
school--would stand a better chance of  
coping with its business in a           
creditable manner4 ,the fault of violent
 change1 and all its damaging           
consequences1 rests in the first place  
on those who resist gradual  change4    
,it is therefore needful to leave the   
way open for gradual changes4 ,in  every
 new law1 the changes of circumstance   
which are likely to arise  should be    
anticipated1 by leaving the way open for
 them to begin to  act gently and       
gradually4 ,the principle of fixed fines
 7based on  income tax71 regardless of  
any reflection on character1 for various
  infractions of a civil law 7or even of
 some criminal laws7 should be  always  
open1 so that1 as necessities arise1 the
 prevalence of such  fines would call   
attention to the need of some change4   
,an excellent  system has been found in 

allowing a department a large latitude  
in  interpreting a law1 or a dispensing 
power in administering it2 and this     
system might well be extended so far as 
it was not seriously abused by          
favouritism4 ,another mode of change is 
to permit a variety of types in         
different places1 as in local           
administration1 and then allow a large  
latitude for the adoption of any type   
found to work well in another  place4   
,this is partly reached by varying      
bye-laws2 but this might well  be       
extended higher in the scale1 and with  
local liberty to adopt any  bye-law     
already sanctioned elsewhere4 ,the ways 
would thus be open for  gradual         
movements1 which could extend until they
 produced such pressure  on the larger  
and more organic laws as to cause a     
serious legislative  step4    ,we will  
now turn to observe the far-reaching    
actual and probable  effects of various 
laws1 which at first might seem quite   
inadequate  to cause such changes4 ,some

 years have passed since the graduation 
of  death-duties1 and we can begin to   
see the effects4 ,the simple action  of 
a tax1 without any compulsion1 has      
produced a profound change in a  family 
system which centuries or thousands of  
years had left unaltered4  ,the         
notorious clinging to power and money   
among the aged1 has given  way before   
the screw of the ,state4 ,the custom    
which left the control  of large estates
 to men generally between fifty and     
eighty years of  age1 and hampered their
 development by the dying hand1 has     
largely  yielded to the ,indian custom1 
of the division of property among sons  
on their marriage or entry on public    
life4 ,it is becoming habitual for  a   
father to establish his sons with the   
family property1 and only  to retain    
such a portion of the estate as he may  
wish to fill his  declining activities4 
,this is a very beneficial change1      
though by no  means a grateful one to   
the ,exchequer which has brought it     

about4 ,in  lesser properties the same  
action occurs2 a father will buy an     
annuity  for himself1 and distribute the
 remaining capital1 each son being at   
liberty either to place his portion at  
compound interest1 so as to  replace at 
the probable date of his father's death 
the full amount  which he would have    
received otherwise1 or else to trust to 
replacing  the amount when he may be at 
his most remunerative age4    ,not only 
is this a great social change1 with     
far-reaching consequences  in the       
management of property1 but it will also
 act in other lines4  ,when a man deals 
with his property in the unchecked      
privacy of a will1  he can neglect the  
pressure of personality of his children 
in favour  of the sentiment of leaving a
 powerful family name in perpetuity4    
,but  primogeniture must more or less   
succumb before the obvious personal     
claims of those who are joining in the  
daily life4 ,it requires not only  a    
flinty heart but also a brazen face1 to 

leave younger sons penniless  when      
personally distributing the means of    
ensuring the happiness and  the         
amenities of life4 ,hence it is probable
 that estates will be much  more        
sub-divided1 and sons encouraged to     
continue to live on corners  of the     
paternal acres4 ,in short it will be a  
step toward the ,french  infinitesimal  
splitting of property4    ,this again   
will act in a fundamental manner on our 
colonising ability4  ,primogeniture has 
made us a colonising race2 no system is 
so perfect  for ensuring a supply of fit
 colonists4 ,when each wealthy house in 
the land educated two or three sturdy   
sons1 with every benefit of  health and 
knowledge1 and then sent them out to    
form new centres1  with a small capital 
to start with1 and a reserve of help at 
home for  any dire emergencies1 the most
 perfect colonising machine had been    
evolved4 ,without these conditions      
,england could never have filled  other 
continents as she has4 ,when sons stay  

at home on portions of the  old estate1 
and have not enough wealth for the high 
training of their  families1 all this   
colonising power will be at an end4     
,france cannot  colonise because her    
domestic system does not produce this   
type of man1  fitted in person and in   
condition to take up such a life4 ,our  
high  death-duties are a certain way to 
stop educated colonisation4    ,another 
change is also seen resulting from these
 duties4 ,england1 more  than other     
lands1 was rich in private treasure     
houses of precious  things--pictures1   
statuary1 libraries1 and other          
collections4 ,these  represented a large
 amount of capital locked up1 but it    
yielded a rich  interest in the home    
education of the upper classes1 in      
redeeming  them from the dull1          
unimaginative1 coarse1 or sordid lives  
of wealthy  classes in some other lands4
 ,so long as a duty only equal to a few 
months' or a year's interest was levied1
 the succession was not too  burdensome1

 and the state reaped a steady small    
return4 ,but when  the possession of    
such means of amenity involves at each  
generation  a crushing tax on the       
productive part of an estate1 they must 
be  sacrificed4 ,the collections are    
vanishing to other lands1 where such    
short-sighted policy is unknown1 and    
,england will be left bare4 ,a  far more
 profitable policy would have been to   
exempt all artistic or  historical      
collections from death-duties1 if they  
were thrown open to  the public for a   
certain number of days in each year4    
,they would thus  have become partly    
public museums1 provided free of all    
cost to the  surrounding districts4     
,another serious consideration is that  
#aj or #ae per cent41 or even  #bj per  
cent4 in case of bequests for public    
purposes1 is taken off  accumulated     
national capital and thrown into yearly 
income4 ,the estate  duty is incessantly
 eating up the national reserves1 and   
using them for  current expenses4 ,we   

should call any family which did this   
shameless  spendthrifts1 yet this is the
 immoral fashion of our taxation4       
,the effect of income tax is one of the 
most serious economic subjects1  because
 it directly touches the production of  
wealth4 ,there is little  objection to  
income tax for emergencies of war1      
because if merely  nominal 7#a;d4 in the
 pound7 during peace1 the true amount   
taxable  will be well known1 and a      
sudden increase will be truly collected 
and  will not have distinct economic    
effects if only used for a year or  two4
 ,but treating direct tax on incomes as 
a large source of revenue  has very     
important effects on a commercial       
nation4 ,a tax as high as  #as4 in the  
pound is practically a tax on all       
,english enterprise  as compared with   
foreign4 ,if a mill can be run at       
,calais to produce  non-dutiable        
articles1 free of income tax on its     
dividends1 while a  mill at ,dover pays 
#e per cent4 tax on its dividends1 that 

constitutes  a discrimination of #e per 
cent4 against the ,english              
manufacturer's  capital4 ,the outcome of
 the whole is that all shares of        
,english  companies will stand          
permanently at #e per cent4 lower value 
than the  shares of foreign companies4  
,or in other words #d interest will have
 to  be paid by an ,english company for 
#ie raised by debenture1 while the      
foreign company will raise #ajj for the 
same interest4 ,the immediate  result is
 that investments will increasingly be  
made in foreign  governments and        
companies1 whose dividends are payable  
abroad1  instead of in ,london4 ,this is
 not merely an evasion of tax1 but it is
  perfectly legal if the dividends are  
spent abroad4 ,no one need pay  tax on  
any cost of foreign travel or residence 
if they draw the money  from foreign    
sources1 and do not let it be trapped in
 ,london4 ,thus  there will be an ever  
increasing demand for purely foreign    
investment1  according to the amount of 

tax on the investments in ,england4 ,if 
the proposal was carried out to tax all 
investments much higher as  unearned    
income1 it would cripple all ,english   
manufacture for lack of  the capital1   
which would be driven abroad to escape  
the tax4 ,it might  be thought that     
other governments will come into line1  
and tax equally  with ours2 but if they 
see their own commercial advantage they 
will be  very loth to put this bar on   
,english capital flowing into their land
  to gain freedom4 ,even if ,france and 
,germany did as we do1 it might be  well
 worth while for ,monaco to become the  
financial centre of ,europe by  having  
no income tax on companies centred      
there4 ,the recent ,de ,beers  decision 
illustrates this very clearly4 ,a       
company with its work abroad1  and its  
investors largely abroad1 is taxed on   
all its income because  it uses a few   
square yards of space in ,london as an  
office4 ,obviously  it will not remain4 
,london will no longer be the centre of 

commercial  work of the world if #e per 
cent4 or perhaps #aj per cent4 is the   
price  to be paid by all who use it4 ,no
 company will remain in ,england that   
is not fixed by its works being here1   
and all those who are fixed here  will  
work at a permanent disadvantage        
compared to the foreigner4 ,it  is      
doubtless thought that the large income 
yielded by the interest on  the national
 debt is a safe and easy subject of     
taxation2 ,italy indeed  raises #bj per 
cent4 income tax on its debt interest4  
,but this tax is  purely nominal1 as it 
is discounted in the price of stock1 and
 such a  government is merely paying    
with the left hand what it takes with   
the  right4 ,the case is seen clearly in
 ,italian stock which stands at #bj  per
 cent4 lower value than it otherwise    
would2 that is to say1 that  ,italy pays
 say #d for the loan of #hj now1 instead
 of for the loan of  #ajj which it would
 receive if this tax was not imposed4   
,the same is  equally true of the tax as

 applied to government salaries2 it     
cannot  be evaded1 and therefore it is  
merely a diminution of the salary1 or a 
depreciation of the quality of men      
obtained for the nominal salary4 ,a     
government cannot tax its own payments  
by any financial jugglery4 ,of  course a
 government can cheat like a private    
person2 promise a certain  payment1 and 
then break its word1 and pay less by a  
tax4 ,but that is  only a transient     
profit raised by the sale of its        
character1 and is not  a permanent      
bargain4    ,another effect of income   
tax will be seen if the proposed higher 
grading of incomes is carried out4 ,the 
same changes that we have traced  owing 
to the death duties will be produced by 
the life duties4 ,property  will be     
sub-divided wherever possible4 ,every   
child will have a trust  created for its
 benefit1 every member of a family will 
have a separate  income1 every large    
estate will be nominally the property of
 a group  of independent persons--a     

family club4 ,this will tend1 like the  
death  duties1 toward equal shares1     
instead of the parent hive system of    
primogeniture2 and it likewise marks the
 end of educated colonising4  ,the      
effect of this may be good for family   
life1 but it will be  disastrous        
commercially4 ,there will no longer be  
the large capitalists  who can take the 
risks of great enterprises4 ,to raise a 
large floating  capital for great       
undertakings will require the           
co-operation of so many  small          
capitalists1 that it will not be worth  
while for any one investor  to give time
 to the affair4 ,the lack of personal   
concern and interest1  and the cost of  
dealing with widely collected capital1  
will all be a  detriment to enterprises 
of large extent4    ,but the most       
disastrous as well as immoral kind of   
taxation will be  that proposed as      
additional upon all permanent           
investments1 under  the guise of        
unearned income4 ,it is a fatally easy  

screw for a  government to put on2 but  
the effect of it will be to penalise all
  ,british manufacture in competition   
with foreign productions4 ,all that  we 
have noticed about the effect of a #e   
per cent4 tax will apply far  more      
rapidly and decisively if a #aj per     
cent4 tax should be put on4  ,shippers  
would sail under another flag and       
transfer their offices of  registration2
 manufacturers would pass to a tax-free 
country2 and a  larger proportion of    
persons living on fixed income would    
spend it  abroad4 ,beside the material  
disadvantages of such high taxation on  
enterprise1 it would be a grave moral   
detriment4    ,it is too often forgotten
 that in taxation the government wields 
one  of the greatest means of moral     
education4 ,what does it say now by its 
taxation8 ,suppose a man to have saved  
#ajj1 and to consider whether  he will  
spend it on unremunerative pleasures1 or
 on useful public  works4 ,the          
government says1 ,if you will spend your

 money on waste  and luxury1 paying for 
useless and monstrous rooms1 making men 
stand  idle in your hall1 or decorate   
your extravagant food2 if you will make 
women waste their eyes and lives on a   
fresh absurdity of fashion1 or  sell    
their souls2 or if you will pay boys to 
become ne'er-do-weels on  golf-links--in
 short if you will do as much mischief  
as possible1 we  will take #e per cent4 
of your money4 ,but if you spend it on  
benefiting  the world1 improving        
cultivation1 building railways1 opening 
the waste  places and making them       
blossom1 we will take #ah per cent41 and
 leave  you only #hb out of your #ajj4  
,that is to say #e per cent4 on the     
original earning of the capital1 #e per 
cent4 tax on investment income1  and #aj
 per cent4 on death duties1 as estimated
 on large capital by  the ,income ,tax  
,commission1 #aijf4 ,and if the proposed
 higher taxing  of so-called unearned   
income were carried out1 this government
  claim would rise to #bc per cent4 or  

even higher4 ,in all reason1 after      
money when earned has paid its tax of #e
 per cent4 it should be free  of all    
further claims1 at least if employed for
 public utility1 and  there should be no
 tax on dividends whatever1 nor any     
death duties  on savings2 all such      
taxation falls eventually on the capital
 of the  useful undertakings1 and       
directly cripples the industry of the   
country4    ,the only way to escape the 
deadly effects of income tax upon home  
manufactures and produce would be to lay
 a countervailing duty on all  imports1 
and a bounty on all exports4 ,then1 and 
only then1 would the  manufacturer or   
farmer here be on exactly the same      
footing as one  abroad4 ,then1 and only 
then1 would free trade be really carried
 out4  ,so long as taxes fall on home   
production or home capital1 which do not
  fall similarly abroad1 so long free   
trade cannot exist4    ,another highly  
immoral view of taxation is that of     
plucking the  goose so that it feels it 

least4 ,such a maxim was appropriate and
  excellent for an opportunist minister 
of an autocratic sovereign4 ,but  the   
first necessity for the political health
 of a democracy is that  the individual 
shall feel every tax2 such is the only  
way to prevent  the squandering of      
public money by the votes of ignorant   
taxpayers4 ,it  would be very wholesome 
if the national expenditure was         
presented as a  series of personal      
bills1 showing how much was spent on    
each department  by an average #ej1 or  
#ajj1 or #bjj householder4 ,he would    
then be as  much ashamed of the         
smallness of some items as of the       
largeness of  others4    ,what is needed
 in place of the tax upon industry is a 
tax upon  extravagance4 ,we are         
accustomed to taxes which far exceed the
 prime  cost upon tobacco and alcohol2  
and other luxuries should also be       
similarly taxed4 ,if instead of taxing  
income 7which is often requisite  for   
reasonable living1 or else usefully     

spent on improvements of the  world71 we
 had the luxuries taxed1 the only people
 to complain 7if the  change were       
gradual7 would be those who wasted      
instead of using their  income4 ,let all
 ostentation be taxed very heavily1     
spacious rooms1  large numbers of       
servants1 costly food1 motor cars 7not  
professionally  needed71 entrance money 
for amusements1 and tailors' and        
milliners'  bills2 and then a much      
smaller amount of such extravagance will
 equally  bespeak wealth1 and gain as   
much social consideration as at present4
  ,such would be a moral taxation in    
place of the present wholly immoral  and
 indefensible system of taxing industry 
and leaving waste unchecked4    ,we will
 now look to other eventual results of  
small continual action4  ,the effect of 
transferring little by little the       
property in ,irish  land to the present 
occupiers has not been sufficiently     
noticed4 ,for  the present generation   
such a transference was merry enough to 

the  tenant4 ,but when he sells to      
another tenant what is to happen8 ,will 
a  future tenant enter and gradually    
expropriate the present tenant1 by      
treating him as a landlord8 ,certainly  
the present tenant will not be  so      
foolish as to be thus trapped1 he will  
demand money on the nail4  ,how then is 
the future tenant to get his capital to 
buy the land8 ,in  most cases he will   
have to get it by borrowing on mortgage4
 ,and if  the government is not prepared
 to always keep open a loan office for  
every incoming tenant to the end of     
time1 a loan society or company  must be
 his resort4 ,then if he should not pay 
this rent to the distant  intangible    
society1 his mortgage will be           
foreclosed4 ,in place of a body  of     
landlords1 and landlords' agents who    
could always be personally  approached1 
,ireland will fall into the hands of a  
landlordism of  distant money-lenders   
without souls or feelings1 and whom     
neither  blandishments nor bullets can  

affect4    ,the remedy for land         
difficulties and various ills1 that has 
been so  often proposed1 namely the     
,state ownership of the land1 is by no  
means  promising4 ,the greatest         
objection that can be flung at a        
landlord is  that he is an absentee4 ,no
 amount of agency1 no excellence in the 
subordinate1 is thought to compensate   
for the personal interest1 the  personal
 influence and care1 of a good          
conscientious landlord spending  his    
life among his tenants4 ,yet the ,state 
ownership would be worse  than any      
absentee landlord4 ,the agent would be  
that of an impersonal  government1 and  
responsible to nobody so long as he     
fulfilled a certain  set of hard rules4 
,he would have no personality more or   
less pliable  behind him1 but would     
blindly carry out the general dictates  
of a  ,parliament or a ,revenue office1 
which neither knew nor cared about  any 
personal exceptions or local details4   
,we all know the ways of the  ,inland   

,revenue already2 the extortions which  
have to be tediously  reclaimed at a    
greater cost of time than the refunded  
money is worth2  the starving of the    
,post ,office in order to wring a profit
 of #ej per  cent4 on the whole         
correspondence of the country2 the      
various illegal  demands which have had 
to be resisted by legal trial1 and      
appeal over  appeal1 at a ruinous cost  
to those who will not be cheated2 we see
 in  ,france and ,italy the atrophy of a
 railway system which is ruled by       
government officials4 ,and yet          
unobservant enthusiasts wish that every 
field should be under some petty        
official tied by red tape1 and every    
farmer bound by laws and regulations    
which could never be applied to  even a 
small district without individual       
hardship4 ,the townsman cannot  be      
allowed to play political experiments   
with the largest industry of  ,england1 
of which he is profoundly ignorant3 it  
must rest with the  farmer only1 to     

decide if he prefer to be under the     
,inland ,revenue  or under his landlord4
 ,it is notorious that government lands 
are  administered more wastefully and   
less remuneratively than any private    
property2 and it would be ruinous to tie
 up the whole country to such           
administration4 ,it is useless to say   
that these are mere abuses which  must  
be rectified4 ,let them be rectified in 
the minor scale first1  before the      
system can be applied in the major      
scale4 ,there is no kind  of government 
in the world that would not ruin this   
country if it  introduced ,state        
ownership4 ,human nature does not allow 
of it1 and only  ignorance of human     
nature could propose it4    ,another    
large effect of trifles is seen in the  
cumulative character  of borrowers4 ,mr4
 ,harold ,cox1 ,m4,p41 has reminded     
those who are in  favour of rather      
confiscatory proposals1 that a loss of  
character of  a public body1 so that    
their good faith is not certain1 may    

easily  mean that they have to pay #d   
per cent4 instead of #c per cent4 for   
loans3 and hence that all rents of      
public works paid for by loans will     
have to be #cc per cent4 higher4 ,this  
loss is far more than could be  gained  
by entire confiscation of ground values1
 and entire ruin of all  landlords4     
,that this is by no means only a future 
risk may be seen in  the stock list any 
day4 ,india is not entirely safe2 there 
are risks  of financial ruin--by        
conquest1 by ruinous wars against       
invasion1 by  ruin in insurrection1 by  
ejectment1 or by having to drop ,india  
owing  to a collapse of the navy4 ,yet  
all these risks together are thought  to
 be less than the risk of bad faith on  
the ,london ,county ,council4  ,their   
stock stands at a lower price than      
,india stock4 ,such is the large  result
 of the many little touches of folly and
 extravagance which have  lowered the   
financial barometer4    ,another        
instance of remote changes is in the    

effects of the steam  engine and other  
cheap and rapid communication4 ,the full
 extent of the  changes caused are yet  
far from being completed4 ,externally   
the great  change is that of the        
equalisation of land values for         
agriculture all  over the world1 as the 
produce can be carried from land to land
 for a  small part of its value4 ,hence 
tropical lands with rapid growth and    
high fertility will compete with others2
 and the cheapness of labour  there1    
owing to the smaller requirements in a  
warmer climate1 will  react on all      
agricultural wages4 ,there will also be 
a demand for cheap  labour to work      
tropical lands to their full extent2 and
 the facility  for transportation of    
labourers will result in constantly     
shifting  energetic people from rather  
cooler climates into the hotter land for
  a time1 and withdrawing them again4   
,the same system we already carry  out  
for governing classes in ,india2 and    
cheap transport will make it  possible  

for an energetic race to hold hot       
countries continuously1  without decay  
due to enervation by climate1 as was the
 case in all  earlier northern invaders4
    ,internally the changes owing to    
cheap communication are that land of    
similar quality equalises in value2 and 
hence the worst land will  fall to      
bottom price all over the country1 and  
cannot be locally of  any higher value4 
,also it will be difficult to get people
 to live in  unpleasant districts1 as   
they can easily shift about2 hence wages
 will  need to be higher in such        
districts1 and therefore the land will  
be  still lower4 ,thus the mobility of  
the inhabitants exaggerates the         
variation of land values already due to 
differing quality4 ,the more  bulky     
industries that need cheap land1 and not
 much labour1 will be  fixed in the     
unpleasant districts2 and peasant       
proprietors will tend to  the worse     
land1 as being abnormally low in value4 
,regarding movement of  population only1

 as capable men can move about freely to
 get work that  gives them full scope1  
the less capable will supplant the      
capable in  all work that they are able 
to do4 ,hence we shall no longer find   
men  of high quality leading simple     
lives in remote districts4 ,the gain to 
the whole community is clear1 but we    
lose one of the most interesting  types 
of national character4 ,the free and    
rapid transit in cities will  cause them
 to be much less crowded in one mass4   
,at ,chicago men go to  business from   
five miles out in five minutes4 ,our    
cumbrous stoppages  along the whole     
route must be entirely given up for the 
outer districts  of ,london4 ,what is   
needed is a series of new centres twenty
 to thirty  miles out of ,london2       
joined1 some to the ,city1 some to the  
,west ,end1  by non-stop trains1 at     
sixty miles an hour4 ,such is certainly 
the  type of great city which will      
finally be reached--a county covered    
with separate centres linked by trains  

at the highest speed4 ,as we  shall note
 further on1 the development of great   
equatorial estates of  ,european powers1
 and the growth of immense permanent    
armaments are both  the inevitable      
result of rapid communication4 ,we see  
thus how the whole  type of human life  
and conditions has been altered1 and the
 whole balance  of circumstances        
readjusted1 by the evolution of cheap   
motor power4    ,we have already noticed
 another effect of this change1 in the  
increase  of emigration draining the    
more capable persons from ,england1 and 
so  leaving a residue inferior in       
energy1 initiative and self-reliance4   
,this deterioration of the occupants of 
,england and ,ireland is thus due  to   
the purely mechanical contrivance of a  
steam engine4    ,we have now traced the
 large effects of small economic causes1
 and  we see how such apparently        
insignificant alterations may be far    
more  effective and act far more        
beneficially than smashing the social   

machine with a sledge hammer because it 
does not run smoothly4 ,we will  now    
turn to look at some of the effects of  
favourite ideas of the  present time4   
,the compensation to workmen for        
accident seems at first sight a         
righteous charge upon capital for the   
benefit of those who are injured  in    
their business4 ,the immediate effect   
upon character is to save  the careless1
 thoughtless1 and incompetent from the  
results of their  faults2 this at once  
reduces largely the weeding and         
educational  effects of the bad         
qualities4 ,no man would ever have      
become careful  if he did not find the  
necessity of being so4 ,even if a       
tendency to  malingering can be avoided1
 yet the teaching effect is done away4  
,it may be thought that it is better to 
save the individual from his            
indiscretions rather than cure the race4
 ,like most sentimentalism it  causes   
more misery in the long run4 ,another1  
and entirely separate1  effect is to    

prevent the employment of those who by  
age or bodily  defect are the more      
liable to accident2 the immediate       
hardship of loss  of employment to these
 classes is1 in the total1 probably     
greater than  the hardship of loss of   
employment by accidents which it is     
sought  to compensate4 ,we injure the   
individual as well as the race by such  
grandmothering4 ,a severe law demanding 
full and adequate protection of         
workers1 where they can be mechanically 
protected1 is the utmost that  could be 
beneficially enforced4    ,the provision
 of old age pensions is another pleasing
 scheme4 ,in  the first place it will   
diminish the need of foresight and of   
self-restraint2 it will thus weaken     
character by removing the great  driving
 force of self-interest4 ,the burden    
will have to be borne by  all1 including
 those who are already at the last gasp1
 and will tend  to push such over the   
border line4 ,it will not discriminate  
between  those who have borne a large   

share in the cost of national renewal   
by bringing up a family1 and those who  
have selfishly squandered all  they     
received4 ,and like outdoor poor relief1
 it will be discounted  in wages1 and   
tend to lower the wage rate if no       
savings are to be  expected4 ,a sounder 
plan would be to revert to the kind of  
communal  system of our forefathers1 and
 make a legal demand for a pension of1  
say1 #b a year from every child1 and    
#ajs4 a year from every grown  up nephew
 or grandchild4 ,thus those who have    
done most for the ,state  by renewal    
would receive most in return1 and the   
greatest inducement  would be given to  
bring up children to active and capable 
lives4 ,the  idea of a right to         
maintenance would be the knell of any   
,state which  undertook it4 ,the        
endowment of wastrels1 the taxing of all
 the capable  for the propagation of the
 incapable1 and the wholesale           
deterioration  of character1 would be   
utter ruin to a nation4 ,nature knows of

 no right  to maintenance1 but only the 
necessity of getting rid of those who   
need  it by mending or ending them4     
,there is another movement which seems  
most desirable and humane at  first     
sight1 and irreproachable in its        
economic aspect3 the saving of  infant  
life by greater care4 ,a huge waste of  
life is going on1 and  it has been      
proved that it is preventable4 ,but     
however much we must  sympathise with   
it1 we cannot shut our eyes to its      
meaning4 ,england  produces over        
#cjj1jjj excess of births over deaths   
yearly1 and perhaps  a tenth more might 
be added to that by care of infant life4
 ,but would  that tenth be of the best  
stock or the worst8 ,we must agree that 
it  would be of the lower1 or lowest    
type of careless1 thriftless1 dirty1    
and incapable families that the increase
 would be obtained4 ,is it worth  while 
to dilute our increase of population by 
#aj per cent4 more of the  most inferior
 kind8 ,will ,england be stronger for   

having one thirtieth  more1 and that of 
the worst stock1 added to the population
 every year8  ,this movement is doing   
away with one of the few remains of     
natural  weeding out of the unfit that  
our civilisation has left to us4 ,and it
  will certainly cause more misery than 
happiness in the course of a  century4  
,lastly1 let us look to the general     
question of the results of the          
accumulation of wealth in the hands of  
different classes4 ,roughly we  may     
divide three classes of money-earners3  
the lower1 who receive  weekly pay1 and 
are tempted to spend it all by the      
certainty of poor  relief when needed2  
the middle1 who receive yearly pay1 and 
must  save if they are to avoid losing  
caste in late life2 the upper1 who  make
 large but uncertain profits by         
organising work1 or by financial        
manipulation1 regular or irregular4     
,during the last century we have  seen a
 great growth of wealth in ,england4 ,at
 first it spread to  workmen and        

manufacturers1 then to the middle       
classes generally1 and  latterly much   
has accumulated in the hands of large   
operators with  trusts and financial    
dealings4 ,what has been the result of  
the wealth  in the hands of each class1 
to that class1 and to the whole         
community8  ,the rise of workmen's pay  
has mainly been used up2 there has been 
a  great benefit by improving the       
conditions of life1 but perhaps half of 
the increase has been lost in mere      
waste2 very little has gone toward      
lifting families to a higher class1 and 
but a very small proportion  has been   
saved4 ,the whole property of the poor  
is estimated now at  nearly a year's    
income1 the result of savings in a      
century1 or less  than #a per cent4     
saved4 ,when we turn to the middle      
classes there is  a worse spectacle4    
,there was1 broadly speaking1 but little
 need to  raise the standard of         
expenditure among the middle classes4   
,they  were fairly comfortable1 and need

 not have spent more on themselves2     
their gains might have been spent on    
profitable enterprises1 or given  for   
endowments to public purposes4 ,on the  
contrary1 but a small part  of their    
gains have been saved or remuneratively 
spent1 and far the  greater part has    
disappeared in ever-increasing          
ostentation4 ,it has  been turned into a
 curse by creating an absurdly          
artificial standard of  living and of   
sociality1 so burdensome that every man 
is ashamed to ask  a friend to the leg  
of mutton dinners of his grandfather's  
standard4  ,it is thought mean to spend 
less per head on a single dinner than   
the  amount which ought to keep a man in
 comfort for a couple of weeks4  ,real1 
genial sociality has been uprooted and  
killed in the senseless  race of        
ostentation4 ,and practically nothing   
has been done for public  benefits by   
endowments4 ,as a manufacturer in a     
park1 with a motor1  remarked1 you      
cannot expect anyone not to spend up to 

his income4 ,the  idea of using what is 
really requisite for successful living1 
and not  squandering money beyond that1 
is entirely forgotten4 ,the simplicity  
of having nothing that is unnecessary1  
the pleasure of having a large  balance 
to use beyond the needs of life1 and the
 comfort of never  needing to worry     
about money1 are all unknown to those   
who spend up to  the hilt1 and who turn 
their money into a grinding curse of    
life4 ,the  distribution of surplus     
wealth among the middle classes has     
proved an  entire failure in national   
economics4    ,now1 lastly1 the surplus 
is passing into a new class1 the large  
business speculator1 the financier1 and 
trust-man4 ,so far as we can  yet see1  
this class is justifying itself far more
 than the middle  class4 ,in fifty years
 the middle classes have not given as   
much to  endow education as the         
millionaires have given in five years4  
,a man  with a gigantic income cannot   
spend more than a few per cent4 of  it  

on himself4 ,he must use it for large   
public enterprises which  benefit       
mankind4 ,to put it in another form1 a  
great dealer has  organised a method for
 taxing the community in such a way that
 they  do not notice it4 ,and if he     
spends the tax on public improvements or
  endowments--railways1 new inventions1 
or universities--he is an active        
benefactor to the whole community4 ,he  
sponges up the surplus which  would     
otherwise be frittered away in          
ostentation or luxury1 and drops  it out
 where it is a permanent benefit4 ,as a 
principle we may hate the  trust-man and
 multi-millionaire1 but he may be a     
lesser curse than the  extravagant      
middle or lower-class man4 ,war is      
hateful1 but it may be a  lesser curse  
than rotting in peace4 ,so long as the  
average man shows  by his selfish luxury
 that he is incapable of managing       
wealth1 so long  the private taxer--who 
prevents some of the waste--will be a   
positive  blessing to the community4    

,the evolution of the great             
money-manager  type now going on is a   
distinct step forward in the prevention 
of  waste1 and the growth of a better   
system of expenditure4 ,a million       
pounds a year scattered over a hundred  
thousand men will be all eaten  up in   
luxuries or lost in folly2 spread among 
a thousand men it will  only swell their
 wasteful pride of life2 but put it in  
the hands of ten  men who have worked   
for it1 and they will spend most of it  
in useful  work that will bear fruit4   
,until the education1 moral and         
intellectual1  of the average man is on 
a higher plane1 it will be well for the 
surplus wealth to be in the safer hands 
of those who have proved their  capacity
 for avoiding waste4 ,the evolution of  
society is not fitted at  present for a 
wealthy middle-class1 or a proletariat  
domination4    ,we have now seen in many
 directions how great are the changes in
 the  constitution of society1 which are
 brought about by a succession of  small

 movements1 each of which imperceptibly 
bears its share in the  change4 ,we see 
thus how carefully small tendencies     
should be watched2  and we learn how    
needless and often how futile is a      
violent uprooting  of institutions      
instead of a gradual growth4    ,another
 lesson to note is that every attempt to
 interfere by  legislation in the       
natural working of causes is more likely
 to do  harm than good4 ,the long       
lesson1 which it took all the middle    
ages to  teach1 was that legislative    
interference with trade always did harm2
  we have come to believe that in a     
half-hearted way1 but we are still      
perpetually longing to tinker society by
 interfering with natural cause  and    
effect4          ,,chapter ,v4    ,,the 
,,need ,,of ,,diversity4      ,a large  
part of the aims of government in all   
ages has been the  securing of          
uniformity1 and much of the misery of   
mankind has been  caused by the         
enforcing of it4 ,but when we look at   

nature we see that a  highly uniform    
species is the least likely to advance2 
and a seedsman  or a breeder will try to
 break up too uniform a strain by       
exciting  conditions which may lead to  
beneficial new varieties4 ,it is only in
 a  fluctuating species in which new    
sports easily arise1 or are quickly     
developed by conditions1 that we can    
expect to acquire new qualities or      
beneficial advance4    ,it is therefore 
one of the essentials for an advancing  
species that it  should have full scope 
for diversity1 so that any new varieties
 may not  be crushed out by a uniformity
 of conditions4 ,too uniform a type of  
government is a deadly thing4           
,compulsory orthodoxy killed the        
vitality  of ,spain1 and--so far as it  
succeeded--that of ,france also4 ,no    
state  was more brilliant or vigorous   
than the ,norman rule in ,sicily1 which 
equally patronised ,muhammedan and      
,christian4    ,diversity may be secured
 in two ways1 either by large varieties 

within  a single great state1 or by     
differences between homogeneous small   
states4 ,the diversity within a large   
state may be seen in ,england or        
,america2 diversity between small states
 was attained between the cities  of    
ancient ,greece or mediaeval ,italy4    
,but we meet with limiting conditions in
 the necessity of combination  for      
mutual support2 and in small states that
 can be carried out by a  vigorous      
intolerance which weeds out those who   
are not conformable1 and  drives them   
into more congenial communities4        
,intolerance1 therefore1 is  a gain to a
 small community1 though detrimental to 
a large state where  it excludes the    
neighbourhood of variety4    ,in modern 
times it is with large states that we   
have mainly to deal4  ,they are a       
necessary development where             
communication is sufficiently  easy for 
the concentrated military pressure of   
the whole to be brought  to bear on a   
single point4 ,if states are so small   

that concentration  on the border is too
 easy1 the state will expand2 if        
concentration is  difficult owing to    
size1 the state will tend to fall apart 
again4 ,the  size for states which is   
most successful is a function of the    
facility  of internal communication4    
,let those who deplore the absorption of
  small states1 and the growth of       
,imperialism in all countries1 ponder   
the tale of the ,north ,american        
,indians1 who resented the power of the 
white man1 and considered how to rid    
themselves of him4 ,their great  council
 was rejoiced1 when one sage said that  
if they would do as he  said1 he would  
promise that no white man should remain4
 ,if the white  man is to go you must   
give up all that he brought1 the horse1 
the gun1  the blanket1 the firewater2 if
 you will do this you may be free4 ,they
  thought--and then said1 ,no1 he must  
stay4 ,so1 if we are willing to  revert 
to nothing quicker than a cob1 we might 
get back to a ,heptarchy4    ,the modern

 condition of great states being        
therefore forced upon us by  the railway
 and telegraph1 the only practical      
question is the form of  life in such   
communities4 ,uniformity that is        
enforced1 either by law1  or by custom  
or fashion1 is certainly a detriment1 as
 it will suppress  the useful variations
 when they arise4 ,and the objection to 
it bursts  out in the form of anarchism1
 which is specially a disease of great  
states4 ,the amount of anarchism is very
 closely related to the size of  the    
state2 and it is probably an exact      
measure of the internal strain  produced
 by repulsion of diverse types and the  
pressure needed to keep  them together4 
,it is only a very crude form of        
intolerance to expect many tens of      
millions of people to agree in religion1
 morals1 and government4 ,a  degree of  
intolerance that may succeed1 and even  
be useful1 for some  thousands1 will be 
disastrous if applied to as many        
millions of men4    ,but here we run    

against another guiding principle of    
many people4 ,it  is often assumed that 
possibly in government1 probably in     
religion1  and certainly in morals1     
there is an absolute standard of right  
and  wrong1 immutable and irremovable4  
,to take the last subject--that of      
morals--to the utilitarian they are the 
conditions for the well-being  of       
society1 and may vary indefinitely with 
the variations of society1  and he      
recognises that there is perhaps no     
action which may not belong  to the best
 code of morality for certain possible  
conditions4 ,to the  theologian morals  
are the ,divine dictates1 which have    
varied immensely  under different       
dispensations2 and the ,patriarchal1    
early ,jewish1  ,prophetic1 or          
,christian codes are represented as     
quite incompatible one  with another4   
,the subjects of sister-marriage1       
concubinage of captives1  lapidation1   
private revenge1 communal or individual 
responsibility1  and others1 all show   

how entirely variable the presentation  
of the  moral standard is for different 
states of society4 ,hence we must always
  regard any given moral standard as    
being rightly associated with some      
particular condition of society and     
typical of it2 much as the colour  of   
red heat1 or yellow heat1 or white heat1
 is typical of particular  temperatures4
 ,and instead of blindly reprobating    
those among us who do  not conform to   
our present theoretical standard1 or    
even the present  normal standard1 we   
should regard them as fragments of a    
different  society gone astray in time  
or space4    ,thus we see that diversity
 should be tolerated up to the limits   
of the laws that are absolutely         
necessary to avoid confusion and        
misunderstanding between members of the 
same community3 and there is no         
constraining principle which would      
narrow the variability allowable1  short
 of permitting injustice1 hardship1 or  
unfair competition between  those who   

need to work together in mutual         
confidence and good faith4 ,it  may     
truly be said that civilisation is the  
means for giving scope to  diversity4   
,under stagnant and uniform conditions  
there may be a fossilised form  of      
civilisation2 but any living form must  
yield opportunities for  individual     
effort1 and every such opportunity is   
the making or marring  of the man who   
rises to it or who falls before it4 ,the
 leading  tenth and the submerged tenth 
are equally the proof that a living     
civilisation is doing its work of       
sorting out the best and getting rid  of
 the worst stock4    ,from another point
 of view1 toleration is essential to    
completion4  ,the enormous variety of   
character1 and ability for special work1
 is  all needed in a complete community4
 ,there are many wrong paradises  in a  
whole society4 ,we see the necessity for
 mental diversity1 from  the pure       
mathematician who is proud of the       
inapplicability of his  results1 through

 all the successive stages of research  
work1 commercial  work1 administrative  
management1 and mechanical work1 even   
down to  merely automatic work which    
needs no more mind than a cow's4 ,and it
  is perfectly clear that such mental   
diversity must have corresponding       
variety of external life to accommodate 
it4 ,the student or experimental  worker
 finds the disturbances of communal life
 almost insufferable1  while the        
mechanical worker would be miserable    
almost to suicide in  the silence and   
lack of excitement of a life devoted to 
abstract  thought or to millionths of an
 inch4 ,if1 therefore1 the productions  
of  the externals of life differ so     
profoundly in a complete society1 we    
must expect and allow equally great     
differences in all the feelings1        
instincts1 and requirements4 ,one man   
may have a physical repulsion  to       
affecting his mind and condition by     
stimulants and narcotics1 a  repulsion  
that extends more or less to every one  

addicted to such  drugging of the       
senses4 ,but it would be a misfortune to
 be without  that variety1 and the world
 would be poorer by losing ,falstaff1 or
  even ,bardolph4 ,the utmost we can say
 is that we should never be blind  to   
the bad effects on the community of a   
low type if it be too widely  diffused4 
,so long as the extreme parties are but 
a small portion1 and the  distribution  
of variation is normal1 most in the     
middle course and  thinning away to the 
upper and lower limits1 the society is  
stable and  benefits by its variations4 
,but if the curve of variation is       
irregular1  and shows two large groups  
with fewer in the middle course between 
them1 the condition is dangerous4 ,we   
had such a condition in ,england  in the
 seventeenth century1 and after a long  
struggle of each group  to capture the  
middle party1 the separation into two   
communities took  place4 ,the spiritual 
ancestors of ,clifford and ,perks and   
,byles were  happy in their paradise of 

intolerant puritanism in ,new ,england1 
while  ,old ,england had internal peace 
for a couple of centuries4 ,another such
  process of fission now seems growing  
imminent1 and it is again the  question 
as to which group will capture the      
middle party4 ,the positive  danger of a
 diversity running into two separate    
groups is notorious in  history4 ,the   
,copts invited the ,arab invasion to rid
 them of ,byzantine  bondage2 the       
,britons invited the ,saxons to save    
them from their  neighbours4 ,the ideals
 of a ,county ,council which will not   
tolerate a  quiet square in ,london1 or 
of labour members who promote marches of
  the unemployed and unlimited taxation 
at their will1 may drive the  best      
thought in ,england to the tranquillity 
of a well-governed capital  abroad2 and 
as there are many people now who would  
prefer in ,england a  ,boer domination  
to that of the party represented by     
,cecil1 ,halifax1 and  ,riley1 so there 
are many others who would rather submit 

to a ,german  government of ,london than
 to a sacking by a hungry mob4 ,the     
segregation  into two groups with an    
unstable link between them is fatal to  
the  virtues classed as ,patriotism4 ,a 
studious ,englishman would sooner have  
a ,japanese or ,russian professor for a 
neighbour1 than have the average        
drinking workman and rowdy family who   
may be his distant cousins4 ,and        
assuredly he would make no personal     
sacrifices to keep out of ,england  any 
people who were proved to be the moral  
or intellectual superiors of  the rest  
of his countrymen4 ,we thus see that    
diversity1 however great1  must vary    
about a single centre1 if it is to be   
favourable to society  as a whole4      
,looking at the general domination of   
modern law it is truly astonishing  how 
much uniformity is possible4 ,but the   
fact of a uniform law being in  force   
must not blind us to the existence of a 
great amount of diversity  being now    
tolerated side by side with it4 ,for    

instance1 we are so  accustomed to think
 of only one type of marriage that the  
various  stages recognised in ,roman law
 seem astonishing4 ,yet in legal status 
in ,england there are ten stages        
surviving1 most of which are tolerated  
by the law4 ,there is 7#a7 royal assent1
 needful in the royal family1  just as  
it is needful in every family in some   
,african communities2 7#b7  normal      
religious or civil marriage2 7#c7       
marriage of divorced persons1  only     
civil2 7#d7 within prohibited degrees1  
but tolerated socially1 as  deceased    
wife's sister1 or 7#e7 not tolerated1 as
 uncle and niece2 7#f7  quasi-permanent 
connection with full legal              
responsibility for children2  7#g7      
temporary license4 ,only in case of lack
 of full consent does the  law step in  
to punish1 in 7#h7 marriage under age1  
7#i7 bigamy or 7#aj7  violence4 ,every  
one of these stages has been normal in  
some conditions  of society1 and most   
are normal in some countries even at    

present4 ,we  may1 for example1 instance
 7#a7 normal in ,benin2 7#b7 religious  
marriage  only normal in ,england2 7#c7 
normal in ,eastern ,europe2 7#d7 normal 
in  our colonies2 7#e7 normal in ,italy2
 7#f7 normal in ,islam2 7#g7 normal in  
,madagascar in interregnum of           
sovereignty1 and in other countries2    
7#h7  normal in ,india2 7#i7 normal in  
,islam2 7#aj7 normal in most warfare4   
,and each of these stages carries with  
it in ,england different legal  and     
social conditions4 ,again1 as regards   
the period of the marriage  ceremony1   
the ,church has had a long and hard     
fight to get it recognised  as a        
hymeneal ceremony and not a maternity   
ceremony2 yet the latter  status is     
recognised in law as equal to the       
former1 and it is still  prevalent among
 a third of marriages in some           
,australian colonies1 and  very largely 
in ,england1 both in the country from   
end to end and in  town life4 ,on the   
whole some fifteen hundred years of     

church pressure  has not turned the     
scale very far against the older custom1
 which we  might well call approximation
 by trial and error4 ,such is the       
diversity  which is yet uncontrolled4   
,we must regard society1 therefore1 as  
in the above definite subject1  in the  
light of a mixture of many stages of    
evolution4 ,we may still  sit at table  
with palaeolithic man1 put into modern  
dress and eating  modern dishes it is   
true1 but absolutely in the palaeolithic
 stage of  thought and intellect2 he is 
entirely absorbed in the interests of   
hunting wild animals1 and devoted to his
 appliances for the chase1  while       
incapable of making or improving        
anything belonging to a higher  kind of 
civilisation4 ,crime and illegalities   
are very largely merely  survivals of   
different conditions of society1 which  
the law of the  majority has not        
succeeded in repressing4 ,as such1 the  
more reasonable  and favourable mode of 
dealing with them would be deportation  

to  communities where such actions are  
still normal4 ,instead of five years'   
sentence for bigamy1 let us exile a man 
to a ,muhammedan country4 ,if we  were  
seriously to establish island           
communities where theft1 violence1      
anarchy1 and other phases incompatible  
with any passable diversity1  were still
 normal and unpunished1 we might leave  
all those who  preferred to practise    
such conditions to work out their own   
life and  views with kindred minds4     
,regarding now the individual rather    
than the community1 we see in  modern   
education a very serious force acting   
against that diversity  which is needful
 for progress4 ,so far as it is a social
 force1 owing  to the herding together  
of large masses of children1 and so     
destroying  family types1 it is mainly  
deleterious4 ,the enforcement of trivial
  and senseless regulations by boys     
themselves is entirely a detriment  to  
character1 as destroying a habit of     
dealing with matters on their  own      

merits1 and creating a terrible bogey of
 senseless public opinion4  ,the        
compulsory games and the ordering of the
 use of personal time1  is another      
detriment1 for it certainly destroys    
some ability which  might find its      
footing in the character permanently4   
,but beside the  detriment of the system
 of herding1 there is the more direct   
question  of the influence of the       
teaching4 ,most children begin with a   
great  curiosity concerning the world   
and their experience of it1 a curiosity 
which when unguided leads to many       
unpleasant and inconvenient results4    
,hence1 instead of guiding it aright1   
and encouraging the benefits of  it1 the
 selfish and lazy plan of elders is to  
destroy and obliterate  the reasoning   
interest in things1 and try to enforce  
in its place a  knowledge of matters1   
which are generally less useful1 and    
certainly  less interesting1 than those 
which a child wants to know about4 ,the 
leading factor of character1 the        

acquisition of knowledge of benefits    
and injuries1 of good and of evil1 is   
mainly rooted out2 and the new  plants  
of abstract ideas and bookwork require  
generally many years to  take good root1
 if they do so at all4 ,this system lies
 at the base of  the unintellectual     
character of the average educated       
,englishman1 who  takes no useful       
interest in anything4 ,as an example of 
this1 there is  a foreign land full of  
interest1 scientific1 historical1 and   
social2  for a quarter of a century     
hundreds of ,englishmen have been there 
in  comfortable official positions with 
reasonable leisure4 ,yet there is  not a
 single good memoir produced1 not even a
 hundred pages of original  matter1     
outside of official work1 by all this   
mass of educated minds  during nearly a 
generation4 ,the possibility of what    
might have been  done in such grand     
opportunities has been stamped out by   
the education  which they have suffered4
 ,they are all of regulation pattern1   

with as  little variation as is possible
 between different temperaments--amiable
  upright men1 who will leave no trace  
of anyone being the wiser in  future for
 their existence4 ,such is the product  
of the numbing chill of  uniformity1 and
 the weeding out of the advancing power 
of diversity4    ,we are all familiar   
with the epigram of ,england having a   
hundred  religions but only one sauce2  
but we see a worse misfortune in the    
absurd incongruity of now having two    
hundred religions and only one  system  
of elementary education4 ,amid the great
 variety of minds1 which  is illustrated
 by the free choice of religious belief 
and practice1  we certainly require a   
great diversity of education to bring   
out the  best development of each type4 
,we require simultaneous experiment on  
a small scale1 instead of vast          
experiments of ,acts which apply to  the
 whole country for a generation at a    
time4 ,every ,act is only an            
experiment1 and one which is usually    

spoiled by attempting too much  in a    
compromise1 which is neither fish1      
flesh1 nor fowl4 ,had there  been in    
#ahgj a hundred schools used for        
experiment1 say five of twenty          
different types in different parts of   
the country1 the life-history  of the   
pupils would by now have given us a firm
 basis for rational  adjustment of a    
system4 ,it is fatuous to suppose it    
possible to make  one ,procrustean bed  
to fit children of the country1 the     
mining centre1  the manufacturing       
district1 the commercial town1 or the   
fisher folk--of  the ,yorkshire tyke1   
the ,suffolk dumpling1 or the ,hampshire
 hog4 ,nor is  it merely the success of 
a system in producing examination       
results that  has to be attained4 ,it is
 quite possible that the best workers in
 after  life may not be the best to cram
 with temporary bookwork4 ,nothing short
  of twenty years of active life can    
test the value of the education on      
which it is based4    ,should we not at 

least try the effect of varying amount  
of control by  the central board1 the   
local council1 and the teacher himself8 
,may  not some latitude in subject be   
allowed to a teacher1 to follow lines   
which his own mind is best capable of   
making useful8 ,should not a great      
difference be made between the town1    
where an infant school is needed1  to   
keep children safe while parents are at 
work1 and the country where  they can be
 left to play in the open8 ,should not  
country teaching be  adapted to making  
agriculturists8 ,might it not be        
possible to leave  children entirely in 
the fields till sixteen1 provided that  
they could  pass in reading at nine1 and
 in figures at twelve1 however it was   
learned8 ,a solid two years' half-timing
 from sixteen to eighteen1 when  they   
valued knowledge1 might be worth all    
they gain in the present  way4 ,such are
 a few of the questions to which answers
 are necessary1  before we can begin to 
provide for the diversity of education1 

which is  certainly requisite if we are 
to make it successful--a help instead of
  a detriment in after life4    ,and in 
more detailed education is it not       
possible to let a child's mind  grow on 
what is of interest to it--to further it
 on whatever subjects  are most         
attractive and easy to that type of     
mind1 until the habit of  learning is so
 developed that it can be more easily   
levelled up on  the subjects which have 
been neglected8 ,the mere habit of      
learning  and applying knowledge has to 
be acquired to begin with1 and surely   
the easier subjects are the best on     
which to practise the power of          
concentration of mind4 ,the trainer     
knows that his monkeys cannot be  taught
 unless they can concentrate attention  
on the subject in hand4  ,in every      
direction we need to gain diversity--in 
types of society1  in customs1 in       
varieties of mind2 and to gain this     
basis for useful  variation we must     
begin by cultivating diversity and      

providing for its  success1 in place of 
attacking and crushing it wherever it   
appears4          ,,chapter ,,vi4       
,,lines ,,of ,,advance4      ,before we 
can imagine what may be lines of        
possible advance1 for the  individual or
 the community1 we should base our ideas
 on observing  what have been the means 
of advance in the past4 ,many of the    
,utopian  visions which have been       
sketched by different writers are in    
flagrant  contradiction of all history  
and human nature4 ,it is at least far   
more  likely that gain in the future    
will be on similar lines to those which 
have been successful in the past1 rather
 than on lines opposed to all  previous 
growth4    ,the personal1 rather than   
the communal1 advance is the main       
consideration1 inasmuch as it is        
personal initiative of the most  able   
which helps the rest of the community   
forward4 ,the greatest  improvements are
 the result of a single mind1 animating 
perhaps a small  group of similar minds4

 ,we all know how such great benefits as
 prison  reform1 the abolition of       
slavery1 the restriction of child       
labour1  and similar movements of which 
the public are now proud1 were each     
originated by one mind1 and worked by a 
small group in the teeth of the         
bitterest opposition to start with4 ,it 
goes without saying that the  same is   
the case in all inventions2 it takes not
 only an inventor1 but  also a          
commercial organiser 7seldom one and the
 same man71 to help the  public to any  
improvement4 ,if ten thousand men could 
be picked out of  any one country1 so as
 to remove the most fruitful minds1 that
 country  would come to an entire       
standstill1 and would continue in       
mechanical  repetition until a fresh    
generation gave a chance of the rise of 
original minds4 ,probably not more than 
one in a thousand minds causes  useful  
advance among the others4 ,and the      
majority of men lead automatic  lives1  
of which the reflexes have been trained 

by teaching and  experience to do what  
is required1 and the daily actions are  
performed  without a single real        
thought1 but only in response to        
external stimuli  of sights and orders4 
,it is therefore in the development of  
the able  individuals1 and in giving    
every chance to such whenever they      
arise1  that the hopes of the great mass
 must lie4    ,it is perhaps not too    
much to say that all general popular    
advance of  the community at large is   
based on the prevention of waste4       
,wherever  waste exists improvement is  
possible2 and we need not trouble       
ourselves  much about the construction  
of the social organism1 so long as we   
can  lay our finger on the waste and    
check it4 ,as with a machine we know    
the amount of force that is put into it1
 and can see what percentage  is yielded
 up usefully in its output1 so it is    
with a community4 ,the  design of the   
nature and quality of work done by the  
community or the  machine is another    

matter2 though that again comes under   
the head of  waste if the quality is    
bad4 ,we will now look more precisely at
 the  gains by prevention of waste in   
health1 life1 energy1 and renewal4      
,the saving of health is one of the     
greatest steps that has been made1  as  
it has been suddenly performed within a 
generation4 ,man had  unconsciously     
conquered bacteria to a great extent by 
the invention  of cooking1 and by the   
experimental learning of cleanliness2   
but the  scientific attack on bacteria  
and protozoa has given the prospect  of 
preventing all epidemic disease1 and    
largely increasing the  efficiency of   
man in the most fertile countries4 ,this
 advance means  the economic            
exploitation of the whole tropical      
regions1 which--with  cheap             
transport--will provide an immense fresh
 basis for the advantage  of other      
lands4 ,the gain in antiseptic surgery1 
giving safety for  operation on all     
internal organs1 as it only affects the 

small  proportion of sick and injured1  
is not of so much general importance as 
the conquest of the microorganisms1     
which have hitherto ruled the best  part
 of the world4 ,it is in the complete   
domination over all forms of  life1     
however minute1 that we shall find one  
of the greatest lines for  future       
advance4 ,only a small band of workers1 
about one in a hundred  million of the  
world's population1 has made this       
advance possible4    ,the saving of life
 is another great step which will give  
man far higher  power2 not only in the  
mere hindrance of death1 but far more in
 the  increased power of work per day4  
,the power of continuity of work  is a  
growth of civilisation2 and it is       
obvious that a man who can do  twelve   
hours' work per day1 instead of six     
hours1 not only lives  virtually twice  
as long1 but costs the community only   
half as much  for what he does4 ,this   
continuity of work1 or industry1 is seen
 in  both high and low classes of work4 

,some races can do more than twice  as  
much agricultural work in the day as    
others4 ,the same is true of  scientific
 or commercial work4 ,and there have    
been some of the highest  minds which   
could only work for two hours a day1    
while others could  work up to fourteen 
or sixteen hours daily4 ,this power of  
continuity  of work is obviously then a 
matter improvable by cultivation1 both  
in  the individual and in the race2 and 
as it may easily double a man's         
effective life it is certainly a line of
 great promise for the future4          
,another direction for saving a portion 
of life is in the rapidity of  thought  
and action4 ,it is easy to find a       
difference of two or three  times the   
amount of work per hour between         
different men4 ,all that we  have just  
said about the continuity of work       
applies to its rapidity2  and a large   
gain may be looked for in cultivating   
pace and vigour4 ,we  need hardly note  
that trades-union ideals would destroy  

instead of  promoting these most        
promising and fruitful lines of advance4
    ,in transport from place to place   
the movement at fifty miles an hour     
instead of five means a gain of several 
years of life to most men4  ,but here we
 have probably reached the useful       
limits1 as any possible  further saving 
would not yield much more time4    ,the 
saving of energy is another form of the 
question of continuity of  work4 ,the   
ideal of work--as varied as possible1   
and as interesting as  possible--being  
the joy of life and the greatest good1  
is an aim hardly  yet grasped by more   
than a very few persons4 ,to the        
majority1 work is  a hateful thing1 to  
be done solely in order to get means for
 enjoyment  in some other way4 ,this    
essentially savage and uncultivated     
ideal  needs to be steadily rooted out  
by the better adaptation of work to  the
 individual4 ,an education which started
 by cultivating the natural  interests1 
using them for mental development1 and  

only superadding  what further knowledge
 was really requisite for life1 would   
greatly  help to eradicate the false and
 low idea of work which prevails4 ,there
  is a common feeling that business     
cannot be interesting in itself2 but    
there are few1 if any1 businesses which 
if intelligently followed will  not     
yield scope for some real interest of   
observation and study4 ,the  greater    
application of mind to the work of life 
will leave far less  scope for fruitless
 amusement and--as a great painter      
remarked--there  is nothing of interest 
in life to be compared with work4    ,to
 minds which are incapable of continuity
 of work1 or of relaxation  by variation
 of work1 mere amusements are needful4  
,darwin's health  prevented more than   
two hours' work a day1 and the flimsiest
 of  novels was his needful relaxation4 
,but the need of amusement for this     
purpose must be taken as the index of   
incapacity for continuity--as  an       
unfortunate failure of mental and       

physical health--as a disastrous  defect
 when it occurs along with great        
abilities which can only  thus work at  
low speed4 ,the same may be said of     
athletics2 the need  of physical        
exercise outside of work is an index of 
incapacity for  physical health adapted 
to the work1 an unfortunate failure of  
those  who are of defective condition4  
,the idea that no one can be too strong 
and robust is a wild exaggeration2      
physical strength needs to be           
proportioned to the nature of work1 and 
a slender wiry man will do far  better  
for indoor life than a plethoric mass of
 brawn and muscle which  needs much     
exercise to keep in health4 ,unlimited  
robustness is not an  absolute good1 to 
be pursued at all costs1 or else we     
should make  every schoolboy a ,hun1    
living without shelter1 and feeding on  
flaps of  raw meat which form the only  
saddle of his horse4 ,in brief1 the need
  of athletics shows a weakness of body 
to be remedied1 or a physical           

over-development unsuited to the        
person's work in life2 it is the mark   
of unfitness1 and the need ceases so    
soon as a man is adapted to his  work4  
,the need of spending any considerable  
time on amusement is the  sign of an    
incapacity1 which has to be removed by  
strengthening the  mind in the          
individual or in the race4 ,the passion 
for amusement is  the sure evidence of a
 defective education1 which has left the
 mind  incapable of continuity1 or bare 
of interests4 ,an important advance     
therefore lies in better use of the time
 which is at present wasted in          
fruitless action of mind or body2 better
 adaptation and education for  the work 
of life will gradually raise the        
standard so that this form  of waste    
will be avoided4 ,we do not expect a    
uniform type of horse to  be equally    
adapted to draught or hunting or racing2
 and similarly we  ought to specialise  
on different types of men fitted for    
agriculture1  or mechanical work1 or    

office work4    ,the great subject of   
the waste by renewal of the population  
in each  generation has an immense      
variety of aspects2 but the essential   
importance of it is seen when we reflect
 that about half the labour of  the     
world is swallowed up in this renewal4  
,the burden of production1 of  rearing1 
of education1 and the waste and loss in 
the process1 exceeds  that of any other 
activity1 such as supply of food or     
shelter1 for  the adult4 ,hence any     
possible saving in this great mass of   
labour1 or  reduction of waste1 is of   
the first importance to the individual  
and  the race4    ,those who have       
proposed temporary marriage hardly seem 
to have  considered that one of the most
 important economies adopted1 perhaps   
dating from a pre-human period1 was that
 of permanent marriage4 ,this  saved at 
a stroke the enormous loss of time and  
energy in the rivalries  of repeated    
mating4 ,the gain to the race by leaving
 the members free  for continuous work  

is greater than the loss by reproducing 
inferior  stocks4 ,there is no need for 
the system to have been intentionally   
adopted for this purpose2 but merely a  
race which economised the time  of      
repeated mating would soon oust a race  
in which it was customary4  ,for this   
reason any fancied reconstruction of    
society without permanent  marriage is  
entirely futile2 even if it could be    
universal1 yet the  advantage given to  
the lazy and emotional type of man above
 the  continuous worker would soon pull 
down the race4 ,one frequent argument   
for a more revocable union is the number
 of divorces effected or  desired4 ,but 
nearly all such are among people whose  
judgment in any  other line of life     
would certainly not be trusted1 and who 
habitually  get into trouble over other 
communal obligations4 ,to abolish       
marriage  for their benefit would be as 
reasonable as allowing all debts to be  
repudiated because such people cannot   
pay their ,i4,o4,u4's4 ,there is        

moreover a great gain in permanent      
marriage when judiciously effected1  by 
the new mental pivot of a sense of      
permanent ensurance of various of  the  
conditions of life1 which liberates the 
attention of both parties  from a large 
number of points1 and leaves each free  
to concentrate  attention on a partial  
phase of feelings and duties4 ,it is a  
far higher  and a spiritual counterpart 
of a successful business partnership1   
where each member trusts the other to   
manage a different part of the  affair4 
,all this mental economy and help would 
be impossible without  permanence4      
,another wastage which has been greatly 
reduced in modern times is that  of high
 birth rate and high death rate4 ,the   
allusions in mediaeval  times show a    
state much like that now described among
 the ,slovenes1  where incessant        
maternity is only balanced by the       
reduction of children  due to filth1    
neglect1 and bad conditions4 ,the modern
 ideal of a small  family carefully     

tended is an immense advance1 both for  
the individual  life and for the saving 
of waste4 ,but its benefits should be   
sought and  not commanded4 ,if the      
neglectful1 dirty1 and wasteful stocks  
of low  type in our midst let their     
children die off1 it is the only balance
  to their overgrowth1 which would soon 
outnumber the better class of           
population4 ,the right end to begin at  
is by insisting on hard work and  tidy  
living1 under penal enactments2 the     
saving of the children may  then be left
 to take care of itself4 ,to begin at   
the sentimental end1  as is now the     
fashion1 is to degrade the whole race by
 swamping it with  the worst stocks4    
,the line of progress in invention is   
the remorseless scrapping of  poorer    
machines4 ,the more serious the progress
 becomes1 the more  scrapping needs to  
be done4 ,we must not be surprised then 
if a sign  of human progress of mind and
 body should be the large number of     
inefficients who are thrown out of work 

on the scrap heap of society4    ,in    
another direction advance has been made 
by general lengthening of  the stages of
 life4 ,the early marriage and early    
deaths of past times  brought the cost  
of renewal at every twenty years1 which 
was a much  severer tax on the community
 than renewal in thirty or forty years4 
,there is probably also a great benefit 
in the higher development of  parents   
before each generation4 ,it is well     
recognised how the later  children of a 
family are more able1 and of a more     
finished quality than  the earlier2     
great examples of such a view in older  
literature being  ,joseph and ,david1   
and in our own history1 ,alfred4 ,the   
longer growth of  mind before each      
generation appears to be a great gain of
 advance for  the race4 ,among the lower
 races1 by far the most advanced are    
those  like the ,zulu1 which have a long
 period of hard training and active     
life before settling down to family     
duties4    ,the often debated problem   

dealing with the human refuse of bad    
stocks  is one which presses most on an 
advanced civilisation4 ,we will not do  
like the ,christian ,norseman1 when he  
put the ne'er-do-weel family into  a    
wide grave in the churchyard1 and wiped 
his hands of them4 ,we will  not even   
leave them to exterminate themselves by 
their own follies1  vices1 and          
ignorance4 ,but if the state takes up   
the burden of such  wastrels it must    
have an entire control of them4         
,responsibility without  rule is worse  
than rule without responsibility4 ,the  
only safe course  is a rigorous         
enforcement of parental duties2 with the
 alternative of  penal servitude in     
state workshops1 the mother and children
 together1  the father elsewhere4 ,there
 is no middle course1 of                
semi-maintenance  by school meals1 which
 will not injure the children by their  
being  correspondingly neglected at     
home1 injure the parents by lowering the
  spur of necessity to work1 and injure 

the state by flooding it with the  worst
 types4    ,much more drastic treatment 
of the unfit has been advocated1 as by  
,dr4 ,rentoul4 ,in a future period of   
civilisation a logical course of        
treatment might have a chance of        
adoption2 but in our age any serious    
changes of the habits of thought and    
action will not be tolerated1  unless   
brought about very gradually under small
 influences1 such as  we have noticed as
 acting through taxation4 ,what we need 
is to try to  give effect to the gospel 
of giving to him that hath1 and taking  
away  from him that hath not4 ,the most 
likely opening for such a line of       
advance would be giving partial state   
maintenance to the best stocks1  so as  
to ensure large returns from them1 and  
taxing down the worst  stocks--exactly  
the opposite course to the present      
craze4 ,let us try to  realise if there 
be a practical system for this advance4 
,we should need a ,board of ,health in  
each area of about #aj1jjj  inhabitants1

 composed of three examining doctors4   
,every child on  leaving school1 or at  
about fifteen1 should be examined1      
merely by a  glance at the greater bulk 
of normal cases1 but carefully in       
extreme  cases4 ,the finest #e per cent4
 both mentally 7shown by school-leaving 
certificates7 and physically as well1   
should be premiated by assisted  higher 
education of suitable type4 ,the worst  
#aj per cent4 should be  remanded to a  
training school where physical and      
mental development  would be            
scientifically carried out1 and as much 
profit as possible  made from their     
labour toward self-support4 ,this would 
reclaim the  hooligan class effectually 
before they run amuck1 and help on those
  who need care and assistance to get a 
good footing in life4 ,no course  could 
possibly be kinder for the weaklings4   
,at the age of twenty a  further        
examination of both the best and the    
worst classes should  ensue4 ,the best  
half of the most able should receive a  

certificate  granting them practically  
free support for all children they may  
have  after they have reached the age of
 twenty-five4 ,the worst half of the    
most incapable1 or #e per cent4 of all1 
should be required to report  residence 
during their lives to the ,board of     
,health of their district1  and informed
 that if they had any children they must
 pay a heavy fine1  or else go into     
servitude4 ,this would practically mean 
the segregation  of the lowest class of 
the unfits under compulsory work4 ,it   
would be  cheaper to the state to keep  
them thus at work1 than to pay poor     
rates  to maintain this submerged       
twentieth and their helpless families4  
,in all these proposals there would be  
no ,socialistic constraint of the  great
 majority1 which is normal in mind and  
body4 ,but such attention  to the unfit 
would be merely adding a porch to the   
poorhouse1 the  hospital1 and the       
asylum1 and there sorting over the      
material which can  be possibly saved   

from a bad end4 ,the nine-tenths of     
people who were  ordinary would be thus 
left even more free for individual      
growth than  they now are1 when hampered
 by the inefficient residue4    ,we     
might not exclude the thought of another
 favourite idea of some  reformers which
 in a modified shape might be allowed to
 gradually take  root4 ,since ,spencer  
,wells familiarised the world with an   
operation  for which he will always be  
remembered1 hundreds of women have      
gladly improved their health by a safe  
treatment1 which1 if anything1          
threatened to become too fashionable4   
,every woman who was1 as above1         
required to report her residence as     
being unfit1 and being liable to  heavy 
penalties on having children1 should be 
offered the option of  perfect freedom  
if she chose the operation4 ,the        
marriage of such women1  with men who   
were condemned as unfit1 would entirely 
free both parties  from reporting and   
inspection in future1 and give the best 

prospect  of happy lives to the weakest 
and less capable of the community1 free 
from what would be only too truly       
encumbrances to such people4 ,this      
course might give a permanently safe    
line of improvement1 without any        
consequent stigma or hardship in the    
world around2 and so gentle a           
change--beneficial to the individual as 
well as the community--seems  not       
outside of future possibilities4 ,at    
least such a course would be  the more  
practicable form of such a proposed     
change4 ,of course1 no such  legislation
 would be complete in its action1 and   
evasions would often  occur4 ,but if it 
checked even one half of the growth of  
bad stock it  would be an enormous gain4
    ,we now turn to other lines of      
advance from the communal point of view4
  ,the old system of community1 in which
 all the nations of northern  ,europe   
lived1 was based on each man being his  
brother's keeper2  every one was liable 
to fines if any relative committed a    

crime1 in  proportion to their closeness
 of relation4 ,to this succeeded        
individual  responsibility1 both in     
property and in penalties4 ,this raises 
the  question whether it is possible to 
separate property and penalty in        
communism4 ,at present the tendency is  
to a state communism1 begun  by heavy   
death duties and taxation 7for a variety
 of purposes which  the taxed do not use
 or require71 amounting to a quarter of 
all  property4 ,if this system is       
extended1 and property becomes more     
largely  hypothecated to public         
purposes1 then when a man is condemned  
in  heavy damages or fines his          
neighbours will suffer by reduction of  
the  rateable property4 ,will it not be 
thought more fair for his relatives  to 
be responsible for the public loss8 ,and
 if so1 we indirectly revert  to the    
payment by relatives of a share of all  
fines4    ,to anyone who has had        
experience of combined labour1 it is    
obvious how  two people working together

 do not perform twice as much as one    
alone4  ,there is always a loss by one  
waiting on the action of another2 and   
it appears as if the amount of work done
 only increased as the square  root of  
the number of people working together4  
,hence the group-work  of communistic   
taste is very wasteful4 ,this is        
practically seen among  the ,slavs in   
,russia1 where communal                 
agriculture--which is extolled  by its  
admirers--produces far less per acre on 
fine land1 than is  obtained by         
individual agriculture on poor land in  
,england4 ,again it is  notorious how   
the ,irishman who goes to work apart    
among individualist  people1 then       
flourishes as he never does when held   
down by the communal  claims socially   
enforced among his own countrymen4 ,this
 is the root  of the success of the     
,irish out of their own land4 ,thus we  
see how  communal action is the more    
wasteful form of labour2 and how it was 
a  great advance for man when he made   

individual success entirely depend  upon
 individual labour4    ,another question
 is what form of government will most   
favour the  strong breeds and the new   
strains of ability as they arise8       
,certainly  any system which ties the   
actions of one person with those of     
others is  detrimental to ability4 ,the 
better man is held back by the          
co-operation  with others1 by their     
lower example1 and by their direct      
disfavour4 ,any  communistic tie is     
unfavourable to advance2 and it was a   
great step  in favour of new and        
improved variations when each individual
 stood  entirely on his own resources1  
and was not bound by his inferior kin4  
,in every way1 therefore1 individualism 
was a line of advance for men in  the   
past2 and the principles which are      
involved promise that it will  yet      
likewise be the main line of future     
advance4 ,if we look practically  at    
which class of government is associated 
with advance of ideas1 of  inventions1  

and new types of thought1 let us put on 
one hand the more  individualist        
countries1 ,america1 ,england1 ,germany1
 and perhaps ,france1  and on the other 
hand the more communist countries1      
,switzerland1  ,norway1 ,ireland1       
,greece1 ,australia1 and especially ,new
 ,zealand4 ,can  we question for a      
moment which type of country is most    
advancing the  intellect and abilities  
of man8    ,but we must not forget that 
,union is strength1 the motto that      
,belgium  strangely took on separating  
from ,holland2 and combined action has  
great advantages4 ,in this view the     
beneficial combination is that  to which
 all contribute without one being a     
hindrance to the other4  ,how far can   
these benefits be gained without loss to
 the improved  individual8 ,the main    
principle is that all combinations must 
be  entirely voluntary1 and have no     
suspicion of coercion about them4       
,where even peaceful persuasion comes   
in1 ability is crushed1 and  the whole  

community is the loser by it4 ,coercive 
union of individuals  is the            
unpardonable sin against human nature1  
because it kills the  hopes of the      
future4 ,the safe line of advance is    
combination by  large clubs for every   
purpose1 with healthy rivalry between   
similar  institutions--benefit clubs1   
co-operative stores1 co-operative works1
  holiday clubs1 and insurance of all   
kinds4 ,every inducement should be  held
 out to join in such combinations1      
giving them the assistance and  security
 of official auditors1 as is provided   
for friendly societies  at present      
,every line in which any class can      
profitably unite for  economic action1  
on an entirely voluntary basis1 and     
without any tie  on the individual      
beyond his share in the enterprise1 is a
 clear gain  to society4 ,in this way   
the taxation for these ends would fall  
on  those who benefit by them1 and not  
on those who do not want them4 ,thus    
the individual would be free to take1 or

 leave alone1 the benefits  provided2   
and many purposes to which taxation is  
now applied would  be far better        
effected by gigantic clubs of those     
classes who want  such assistance4      
,taxation must be strictly limited to   
those purposes  in which all persons    
must necessarily share1 such as         
protection and  justice4    ,hence a    
future line of advance lies in a great  
development of purely  voluntary        
co-operation in any one class1 in order 
to obtain the  advantages of            
combination4 ,in one direction it is    
clear what immense  savings might be    
thus effected4 ,co-operative purchase of
 supplies and  cooking1 with            
distribution of hot meals to            
subscribers1 would save  perhaps a third
 of the cost of living to the working   
classes4 ,and if  the prepaid weekly    
subscriptions might be deducted before  
wages were  received1 such a system     
would go far to solve the question of   
proper  feeding of children4 ,again1 the

 education of hand-workers in the       
subject of economics can be best        
furthered by the experience gained in   
co-operative works1 and even on this    
ground alone every encouragement  should
 be given to such combinations of       
workers4    ,another line of advance now
 coming into practical view is the use  
of  various nationalities1 according to 
their abilities for different  kinds of 
works in foreign countries4 ,we have    
seen1 in ,europe1 ,italian  miners taken
 to many lands for tunnelling and       
submarine work1 we have  ,norwegians    
largely employed in our shipping1 and   
,english engineers  find many careers   
abroad4 ,of recent years the great mass 
of cheap  skilled labour of ,china and  
,japan has been getting its due share of
  the world's work4 ,the infamous manner
 in which the ,chinese have been        
treated in ,america is apparently now   
nearly at an end2 the ,republic  where  
all men are free and equal will be      
coerced into fairness by the  reasonable

 refusal to take ,american goods as long
 as the ,americans will  not take       
,chinese labour4 ,in ,british ,columbia 
the ,japanese are objected  to because  
they are more industrious1 more         
economical1 more sober  and quiet than  
the white1 who1 as their inferior in    
these principal  respects1 cannot bear  
their competition4 ,the ,americans are  
likewise  trying to prevent their       
industry1 while at the same time wishing
 to  make the ,panama ,canal with       
,chinese labour2 in this they will      
probably  be rebuffed1 unless the whole 
national position is put on a fair      
basis4  ,the objections to ,chinese     
labour in ,south ,africa have never been
 put  on the real fact--tacitly felt1   
though unexpressed--that the white      
dreads the competition of an economical 
people4 ,first they were said to  be    
tortured in slavery1 a lie which served 
its big political purpose  until it was 
found that they would not leave2 then   
the danger of public  crime and burglary

 was put forward1 until it was shown    
that there  were fewer criminals in     
proportion than among other inhabitants2
 then  a cry of immorality was raised1  
until the ,colonial ,secretary stated   
that the ,kaffirs who would replace them
 had just the same habits4 ,now  the    
,transvaal refuses to destroy its own   
welfare by the falseness of  playing    
with any of these cries2 but such hatred
 to free labour has all  served the     
political ends which were intended by an
 unscrupulous party  that revels in     
keeping a conscience4 ,meanwhile the    
,prussian ,board of  ,agriculture       
desires to import ,chinese              
agriculturists into ,germany2 and  it   
will be strange if the great ,german    
coalfields in ,south ,wales are  not run
 by the cheapest labour that can be     
obtained4 ,we have no laws  to prevent  
,chinese working freely in ,england1 and
 we cannot afford to  wreck our great   
,china trade by starting a gross        
injustice of exclusion4    ,if          

objections are felt--by a people so     
immoral as ourselves--to the  toleration
 of any habit of foreign residents1 let 
it be legislated upon  equally for all  
nationalities in ,england4 ,in this way 
the ,canadians  expelled the rowdy      
negroes who had taken refuge with them  
in the days  of slavery4 ,a rigid and   
impartial punishment of rowdyism cleared
 out  the undesirable negro1 and left   
the inoffensive behind4 ,the only       
possible course of safety is not by any 
laws directed against any  one race2 for
 when such laws break down in the growth
 of the future  there will be a terrible
 economic--if not                       
political--catastrophe4  ,rigid laws to 
check evils of all inhabitants of a     
country alike are  sound and safe1 and  
will prevent most of the objectionable  
results of  immigration1 ,jewish1       
,italian1 ,chinese1 or any other4 ,with 
such laws a  great advance can be made  
by the free use of that kind of labour  
which  is most adapted to the work1     

whatever source it may come from4 ,such 
must inevitably be the course of the    
distant future2 and those who  play with
 holding what they please to call a     
white man's land will  find that mean   
whites of hot countries are wholly      
inferior to other  races which are      
fitted for such a position4 ,bret ,harte
 has well stated  the conscious hate and
 fear with which inferiority always     
regards the  possibility of even-handed 
justice1 and which is the key-note to   
the  vulgar clamour about servile and   
degraded races4    ,another subject     
which has seemed to be a most promising 
line of advance  is that of the         
reduction or abolition of warfare4 ,we  
must not limit  our view in this to open
 and direct violence1 there are other   
forms of  warfare quite as effective1   
and causing as much1 or more1 misery in 
the  total4 ,the warfare of trade is    
always going on1 each nation is pushing 
its neighbours as much as it can for its
 own benefit4 ,some gain benefit  by    

closed markets and bleeding a monopoly1 
others benefit by open  markets1 and    
each fights for what it wants by trade  
methods backed with  force4 ,the free   
trader honestly believes that all this  
can and should  be abolished by each    
country producing what it is best fitted
 for1 and  a tacit or legal             
understanding that there is to be no    
trade rivalry on  the various lines thus
 assigned to different countries4 ,such 
would be  the only system which could   
abolish trade warfare4 ,under such a    
system  advance would be greatly        
checked1 if not killed4 ,look at the    
history  of quinine2 only twenty years  
ago it was #ajs4 an ounce1 and the      
growers 7though competing among         
themselves7 did not think they could    
improve the process or reduce the price4
 ,the chemist in ,europe stepped  into  
the market and smashed the old system by
 much cheaper artificial  quinine4 ,but 
the growers1 sooner than be ruined1     
invented extraction by  petroleum1 and  

brought down the price to #as4 #f;d4 an 
ounce4 ,now here  were two acts of      
violent trade warfare between countries2
 the result  being such an improvement  
that instead of one of the most         
life-saving  medicines being a luxury1  
it can now be used six times more freely
 than  before4 ,without trade war this  
would never have come about4 ,free trade
  implies free competition1 and that is 
trade-warfare4    ,another form of trade
 war is holding a country for the sake  
of a  monopoly of trade1 thus enabling a
 group of manufacturers--say of         
,france--to tax all the inhabitants     
under their government1 especially  in  
colonies--as ,algiers1 ,madagascar1     
,tahiti1 c4 ,this is simply a form  of  
tribute1 like the taxation levied by    
,rome on various conquered  countries2  
it holds back the taxed countries4 ,if  
other countries wish  to get a share of 
that trade they will have to fight1 by  
trade or by  violence1 to conquer the   
right to join in it4 ,and a trade war   

which  shut1 say1 all ,english markets  
to ,france1 until all ,french markets   
were open to ,england1 would not violate
 any economic principle4 ,it  is meeting
 force by force1 exclusion by exclusion2
 and no shudder at  our using trade war 
ourselves will prevent for an instant   
the trade  war which is used against us4
 ,our principles will not weigh a       
feather  in other nations' practice4    
,but warfare is a temporary measure1 and
  retaliation must only be temporary4   
,the great danger would be in           
establishing a permanent system of      
taxation of foreign productions1  which 
would be worked to the utmost by trades 
unions at home1 in order  to enable them
 to bleed the country to death by high  
prices4 ,this  terrible danger of ruin  
is the main reason against protective   
duties1  though seldom1 if ever1 noticed
 in public discussion of the subject4   
,another form of warfare is the relative
 burden of armaments4 ,this may  be     
called slow combustion1 in contrast to  

the open flame of war4 ,now if  there is
 no joint limitation--as at present--the
 most long-sighted and  powerful nation 
stands to win at this game2 the result  
is the same as  if actual war were in   
progress1 but the terrors and           
destruction of war  are avoided4 ,but if
 there be a joint limitation of         
armament--as some  hope may be          
established--it must be on such a basis 
that no one state  is left in a         
condition of clear superiority to       
another1 otherwise it  would tie the    
inferior state to be in a permanently   
inferior condition4  ,and the qualities 
which will win will be subterfuge1      
evasion1 and bad  faith2 whichever state
 contrives to be better prepared than   
another  behind the agreement will stand
 to win when the war does come4 ,in the 
unlimited condition the qualities win   
which are those best for mankind  in all
 other respects2 in the limited         
condition the qualities will  win which 
are worst for mankind otherwise4 ,the   

real fact is that great  armaments are  
like great states1 a needful condition  
of the new speed  of communication4     
,when it took two or three months to    
move an army  from central ,europe to   
,england1 we had two or three months to 
prepare2  when it takes only two or     
three days we must be always prepared4  
,no  one can put the clock back1 and    
steam is the end of small armaments4    
,within a generation of quick transport 
being started1 big armaments  were found
 needful1 and will never cease to be    
needful4 ,great permanent  combinations 
of states are the only line of relief   
under the new  conditions1 which bind   
mankind for ever in the future4    ,let 
us look now at direct war4 ,what are the
 qualities which tell  for success1     
looking to the wars of recent times with
 which we are  familiar8 ,in the brains 
of the army the main qualities have been
 7#a7  ,foresight2 7#b7 ,combining      
power2 7#c7 ,honesty2 7#d7 ,imagination2
 7#e7  ,skill2 and in the muscle of the 

army 7#f7 ,physique2 7#g7 ,industry2    
7#h7 ,tenacity4 ,in short1 success in   
war requires precisely the same         
qualities as success in peace4 ,even if 
the cause is bad1 yet it is the  best   
man all round that wins4 ,in each case  
recently the winner has  been the better
 power for future civilisation4 ,war    
then may be defined  as the             
concentration into a year of the same   
results which would take  place by      
economic causes within perhaps a        
generation or a century4 ,so  far as    
violent changes are undesirable--as we  
have noticed before--so  far war is     
undesirable4 ,but on the purely         
humanitarian view it may be  better to  
flee before one's enemies for three     
months than have three  years' famine2  
it may be better to kill #ajj1jjj in a  
brief campaign  than starve a million   
during a whole generation by bad trade  
owing to  slow economic changes4 ,war   
strikes the imagination and impresses   
the  thoughtless with its horror1 but a 

starving peace may be a far more        
painful process4    ,it is difficult to 
see that any of the causes of trade war1
 armament  war1 or open war are at all  
likely to be less in the future than    
they  have been in the past2 and if the 
causes are the same we must expect  like
 effects4 ,nor do we see that any result
 of these different kinds of  war is    
injurious to that character of man which
 is requisite for his  advance in better
 lines4 ,each of these forms of         
competition tends to  give an advantage 
to the best qualified race1 and to      
promote the most  beneficial strains of 
character4 ,on the general principle    
that slow  evolution is preferable to   
violent changes we must look for advance
 by  intensified trade war rather than  
by armaments1 and by the strain of      
armament rather than by open war4    ,a 
direction in which great improvements of
 organisation may be  attained would be 
in better adaptation of checks4 ,so far 
as possible1  checks should be abolished

 by establishing interests in the same  
direction between different parties4    
,the profit-sharing movement is  an     
excellent beginning of what needs to be 
fully and exactly carried  out4 ,the    
checks of inspection1 which have been so
 greatly multiplied  lately1 are        
peculiarly liable to abuses2 and a      
system of fewer and far  superior       
inspectors1 much less inspection1 and   
much heavier penalties  to correspond1  
would in the long run prove the safer   
line4 ,the great  check by popular      
election is very wasteful1 a general    
election costing  the country over a    
million pounds in various ways4         
,precisely as fair a  check would be    
gained by summoning one in a hundred of 
the electors by  lot at the day of      
election2 and the nursing of a          
constituency would be  much diminished4 
,lastly1 let us look at the final type  
to which man will probably be  led by   
natural survival4 ,this enquiry is      
limited throughout to those  qualities  

which are the product of external       
causes2 and no attempt  is made to      
estimate the more spiritual side of man 
or his higher  mental development4 ,for 
that we have not the same physical basis
  of research1 and it would be a        
fruitless mixture to include such       
considerations--however important--in an
 enquiry which by its scope  might be   
similarly applicable to lower organisms4
 ,we are therefore  dealing here only   
with the physical basis of civilisation4
    ,for the sake of safety from        
aggression and prevention of small      
quarrels1 federations of great size must
 prevail2 while those  federations which
 allow for the greatest diversity       
between the states  will prove more     
adaptable and vigorous4 ,similarly1     
states which allow  of the greatest     
diversity of life to the individual will
 succeed best1  by the promotion of the 
most vigorous strains4 ,more systematic 
law  will be needed between states4     
,this may perhaps be on the line of all 

contracts being on the seller's law1 and
 all marriage on the husband's  law1    
regardless of change of residence2 and  
all contracts being suable  on their own
 law in any state4    ,the greatest     
empires have in the past allowed great  
diversity between  states4 ,persia left 
each land to its own laws1 and only     
required the  control of a satrap1 a    
small tribute1 and unification of army  
and navy4  ,rome interfered very little 
with local law1 and left the principal  
cities autonomous throughout the empire4
 ,britain has carefully  preserved local
 law where a system existed1 as in      
,india1 the ,cape1  and many varieties  
nearer home1 even in ,england itself4   
,the ,united  ,states have kept local   
laws of states and local legislatures4  
,hence  it is likely that groups of     
states with great variety of type will  
prevail1 only unified by a common system
 of defence and compulsory  taxation for
 that purpose4 ,it is even conceivable  
that such a system  might be established

 in ,england1 if the ,privy ,council was
 supplemented  by ,colonial ex-ministers
 of long standing1 and was granted      
powers of  assessment over all          
parliaments for the common defence4     
,the type of man which must prevail is  
that of the greatest industry and       
greatest individuality2 each man        
belonging to many voluntary societies   
for various united benefits4            
,agriculture1 the main industry of man1 
will be far more elaborate and          
economical2 as much so as the present   
,chinese system1 or even carried to     
further detail with machinery4 ,and  the
 unlimited supply of atmospheric        
nitrates1 now in sight1 will also       
greatly increase production4            
,profit-sharing or the shareholding of  
all workers must gradually prevail in   
all industries4 ,the growth of  rapidity
 of thought and action1 and the economy 
of organisation1 will  enable a living  
to be earned with perhaps half a day's  
labour1 or less4  ,the large balance of 

time1 beyond that which will be needed  
for bare  necessities1 will be spent on 
a much greater development of natural   
resources and conveniences of life2 each
 man will thus enjoy the result  of an  
immense accumulated capital of          
improvements and benefits4 ,in  short1  
each one will be rich1 either by the    
cheapness of articles or  abundance of  
money1 a merely relative question4 ,the 
accumulated wealth  of improvement will 
leave a smaller profit on labour1 or in 
other words  capital will command a very
 low interest4 ,therefore there will be 
less inducement to work for saving2 and 
hence spare time will be more  readily  
employed in the personal quest of       
knowledge1 and enlargement  of mental   
interests1 in literature1 in science1 in
 history1 and in the  arts1 or among the
 less capable in mere amusements4 ,but  
the higher the  social organisation and 
reward of ability1 the more intense will
 be the  weeding of the less capable1   
and the more highly sustained will be   

the  general level of ability4    ,that 
fluctuation will occur is inevitable2   
but it will be gradually  understood    
that the utmost freedom of labour and   
communication is the  only way to allow 
changes to be gradual1 and so to avert  
the great and  disgraceful catastrophes 
of forcible migration of hordes4 ,hence 
there  will tend to be an incessant flow
 of labour from country to country1     
assisted by international labour        
bureaus3 thus the wage of any given     
ability will be equalised over the      
world1 and hence prices of all  produce 
will equalise also4 ,the whole of this  
action will further  enforce the power  
of ability1 and tend to end or mend the 
less capable4    ,we must1 then1 look   
for a world with approximately equal    
civilisation  and prices in all lands2  
but with each people developed in their 
own lines of ability1 in accord with    
climate and conditions1 to  such a point
 that no other people can compete with  
them in their own  conditions4 ,the     

equatorial races tending to have less   
initiative  and vigour than those of    
colder climates1 the equatorial lands   
will  therefore tend to be each attached
 to a temperate land which will  supply 
more energy to their development2 while 
a steady drift of  population from      
colder to hotter lands will take place1 
as for a  generation or two they will   
retain a greater vigour4 ,thus the      
tropics  will be the seat of the keenest
 competition and extinction of races2   
while the borders of the arctic regions 
will always afford most room  for human 
increase4    ,so far as peoples turn    
their backs on the inevitable goal1 they
  will have to painfully retrace their  
course1 or else disappear by            
extinction2 while the peoples who move  
toward the lines of success will  be the
 fathers of the future4 ,will they be   
found in ,east or ,west8                
,,index4        ,a4      ,ability1      
inherited1 #d      sporadic1 not        
inherited1 #e      driven out1 #c1 #d1  

#h1 #ba      favoured by war1 #ih       
,administration depends on character1 #a
      ,advance checked by communism1    
#bj1 #ba      checked by education1     
#gc-ge      due to individual1 #gh1 #hj 
gained by saving waste1 #gi             
,agriculture1 elaboration of1 #aja      
to be saved from townsmen1 #ed          
,amusement1 passion for1 #bj1 #hb1 #hc  
,anarchism1 product of great states1 #fg
      ,armaments1 big1 needful1 #ih     
war by1 #ig      ,artificial conditions 
encourage variation1 #e      ,athletics1
 needed by the unfit1 #hb      ,atrophy 
of mind1 #g-i      ,aurelian1 #cf       
,automatic lives of majority1 #gi       
,b4      ,barbaric society1 complex1 #ba
      ,bartholomew's ,day1 #affb1 #da   
,benevolence1 scope of1 v4              
,betting1 #ai      ,birth rate1 waste of
 high1 #he      ,bricklayers' ,union1   
influence of1 #ca      ,building1 dear  
in ,england1 #ca      ,bye-laws1 value  
of1 #dd        ,c4      ,capacity1 see  
,ability4      ,capital used for income1

 #dg      ,capitalists1 result of       
diminishing1 #ej      ,catastrophes     
produced by small causes1 #db           
,cattle1 competition among1 #be         
,change1 gradual1 to be allowed1 #dc    
effect of1 #ac1 #fc      violent1       
injurious1 #da      ,character1 the     
basis of society1 #a      production of1
 #b      subject to natural law1 #b     
low type at present1 #ae-ai      killed 
by municipalising1 #bf      grown by    
experience1 #gd      ,checks1 better use
 of1 #ii      ,children1 later more     
able1 #hf      maintenance of1 #h1 #fj1 
#hf-hh      ,chinese labour1 need for1  
#ic-ie      ,civil war1 results of1     
#ci-da      ,civilisation a means of    
diversity1 #fh      ,clubs1 benefit of1 
#ib      ,collections1 dispersal of1 #df
      ,colonising result of             
primogeniture1 #de1 #df                 
,combinations1 must be voluntary1 #ia   
,combined labour1 wasteful1 #ij         
,committees1 mind of1 #i      ,commons  
rule alone1 #ci-da      weakness of1 #dc

      ,communal organisation of early   
,europe1 #bb      ,communication1       
results of1 #ef1 #ff1 #ih               
,communism a bar to useful variation1   
#bj1 #ba      and early ,christianity1  
#bd      and fatalism1 #be1 #bf      and
 labour1 #ij      ,compensation for     
accidents1 #eh      ,competition1       
necessity of1 #c1 #aj      dislike of1  
#aj      among cattle1 #be              
,continuity of work1 power of1 #hj1 #ha 
,co-operation a main line of advance1   
#ib      ,cox1 ,mr4 ,harold1 #ee        
,crimes1 survivals of early life1 #gc   
,criminals to be sorted into            
communities1 #gc      ,cromwell an      
arbitrary ruler1 #dj      value of1 in  
anarchy1 #dj1 #da        ,d4      ,death
 duties1 effect of1 #dd1 #df            
,despotism1 a refuge from anarchy1 #da  
,devolution of the ,roman ,empire1 #cf  
,diocletian1 decree of prices1 #cg1 #ch 
,disciples1 early1 hard-weeded1 #bd     
,diseases of bodies politic1 vi41 #ai   
,diversity1 need of1 #fe-gg1 #ajj       

of moral standards1 #fg1 #fh      of    
types required1 #fi      dangerous form 
of1 #gj      still existing1 #ga-c      
of marriage laws1 #ga1 #gb      ,dulness
 of observation1 #af1 #ag        ,e4    
,education1 a bar to advance1 #gc-gf    
experiments needed1 #ge      variety of1
 needed1 #ge1 #gf      ,elections1 waste
 by1 #ajj      ,emigration beneficial1  
#ac      harmful1 #ac1 #ad              
,environment subject to man1 #c         
,equatorial races1 future of1 #ajc      
,escape of the capable1 #h              
,extremes of condition appear together1 
#e        ,f4      ,factions of the     
,civil ,war1 #ci1 #dj      ,farm        
colonies1 #h      ,fatalism and         
communism1 #bf      ,federations must   
prevail1 #ajj      ,five-mile ,act1 #dj 
,france1 ability drained from1 #d       
cost of ,revolution in1 #da             
,free-trade only possible with bounties1
 #eb      ,free-will a subject of normal
 variation1 #b        ,g4               
,gallienus1 #ce      ,german            

immigration1 #ae      ,government cannot
 tax its own payments1 #di              
,gracchus1 cheap com of1 #bi            
,gradual changes to be allowed1 #dc     
,h4      ,happiness based on character1 
#b      ,health1 saving of1 #gi1 #hj    
,housing problem1 cause of1 #ca         
,huguenots closely weeded1 #bd          
expulsion of1 #d        ,i4             
,illustrated papers1 #ah                
,immigration1 #ad1 #ae      ,income tax1
 effect on trade1 #dg-di                
,individual thought essential1 #i       
,individualism a line of advance1 #ia   
,infant life1 saving of1 #fj            
,inspection1 abuse of1 #ii              
,intellect1 limitations of1 #ag         
,intolerance of ,puritans1 #ci-da1 #gj  
gain and loss of1 #ff      ,investments1
 foreign1 demand for1 #dh      ,ireland1
 emigration injuring1 #ad               
land-holding in1 #ec      ,italian      
labour abroad1 #ic        ,j4           
,janus1 the peace bringer1 vii4         
,japanese too industrious1 #ic          

,l4      ,labour1 combined1 wasteful1   
#ij      in the tropics1 #ef      ,land 
in ,ireland1 #ec      state ownership   
of1 #ec-ee      equal values of1 #ef    
,laws impartial to all residents1 #id   
,life1 infant1 saving of1 #fj           
,life-duties1 effect of1 #di            
,lighting system faulty1 #ag            
,little-,italy party1 #ce-cg            
,loans1 risks of1 #ee      ,local       
administration1 variety in1 #dd         
,london ,county ,council1 #ag1 #ee      
,low races pass under higher1 #a        
,m4      ,malignants deprived1 #da      
,man subjugates environment1 #c         
permanence of type of1 #aj-ab      final
 type of1 #ajj-ajb      ,marriage       
ceremony1 period of1 #gb      laws1     
diversity of1 #ga1 #gb      temporary1  
#hd      ,medical examination of        
children1 #hg      ,mencius quoted1 #g  
,mental changes similar to physical1    
#b-g      qualities inherited1 #d       
growth encouraged by use1 #f      growth
 to old age1 #f      ,merovings1        

degradation of1 #g      ,middle-class   
waste1 #fa      ,mind subject to natural
 variation1 #b-g      variability       
induced1 #f      arrested at various    
ages1 #f      atrophy of1 #g-i          
unchanged in nature1 #aa-ab             
,monopolies1 #i1 #if      ,moral        
standard typical of a society1 #fh      
,morality1 relative standard of1 #fg-fh 
,municipalising enterprises1 #bf        
,n4        ,nationalisation of land1    
#ec-ee      ,nationalities1 use of      
various1 #ic      ,new ,testament       
teaching1 #bc1 #bd      ,norse poor law1
 #bb1 #hf        ,o4      ,officialism1 
#i      ,old age pensions1 #ei          
,oman1 ,prof41 #bi        ,p4           
,pasts have all been present1 vii4      
,patriotism killed by separate groups1  
#ga      ,permanence of type of man1    
#aj-ab      ,peters1 ,carl1 opinion of1 
#bj      ,physical changes similar to   
mental1 #b-g      ,pleasures1 low type  
of1 #ag-ai      ,polybius on history1   
iv4      ,poverty results from          

opportunity1 #e      ,prayer1 ,book of  
,common1 proscribed1 #dj      ,present  
time1 apparent importance of1 vii4      
,prices1 consequence of regulating1 #cg1
 #ch      ,primogeniture diminished1 #de
      effect of1 #de1 #df      ,private 
enterprise most effective1 #i           
,prodigal son1 his rights1 #bd          
,profits to be earned from wealth1      
#cj-cb      ,profit-sharing1 #ib1 #ii   
,proletariat1 support of1 #cj-cb        
,property parted in life1 #dd1 #di      
,proscriptions1 disastrous effect of1 #d
      ,provinces parted from ,rome1 #cf 
,r4      ,radicalism contrary to        
evolution1 #db      ,railway stations1  
faulty1 #af      ,railways1 effects of1 
#ef1 #ff      ,rapidity1 gain by1 #ha   
,reasoning interest obliterated1 #gd    
,regulation pattern men1 #gd            
,relatives1 responsibility of1 #bb1 #hi 
,remedy for the incapable1 #h           
,renewal of population1 #hc             
,rentoul1 ,dr41 #hg      ,responsibility
 without rule1 #hf      ,retaliation in 

trade war1 #ig      ,retrograde         
characters ruined by help1 #g           
,ruling faculty of man1 #c        ,s4   
,scrapping of machines and men1 #he     
,seebohm1 ,dr41 #bb      ,selection the 
means of elevation1 #c1 #bj             
repressed by communism1 #bj-bg          
,slavery not fatal to ,rome1 #cd        
,sloth a deadly sin1 #af      now       
compulsory1 #af      ,socialism1 use of 
word1 #bc      ,society1 barbaric       
complexity1 #ba      a mixture of       
stages1 #gb      final type of1 #ajj-ajc
      ,sport1 #ah1 #ai      ,states1    
large1 a result of speed1 #ff           
,submerged tenth1 #f1 #ad1 #fi1 #hh     
,survivals of earlier stages1 #gb1 #gc  
,t4      ,taxation in death duties1     
#dd-df      on capital1 #dg      on     
trade1 #dg-ej      in life duties1 #di  
immoral1 #ej1 #ea      should be felt1  
#eb      limitations of1 #ib            
,taxation of extravagance1 #eb          
,tenth1 submerged1 #f1 #ad1 #fi         
,theologic morality1 #fh      ,thought1 

lack of1 at present1 #af      ,town1    
type of1 #eg      ,townsman favoured1   
#bh      ,trade unionism and sloth1 #af1
 #ha      in ,rome1 #bi-cd              
compulsory1 #cj-cd      and the poor1   
#cj1 #ca      assessment of tax1 #cb    
,transit1 rapid1 result of1 #ef-eh      
,trust-man class1 #fb      ,trusts1     
creation of1 #di        ,u4      ,unfit1
 treatment of1 #hg-hi      ,uniformity1 
evils of1 #fe1 #fg      ,unintellectual 
character1 source of1 #gd               
,utilitarian morality1 #fg        ,v4   
,variability induced1 #f      ,variation
 produced by artificial conditions1 #e  
needed for advance1 #fe1 #fi      about 
one centre1 #gj      ,vice not fatal to 
,rome1 #cd      ,violent changes        
injurious1 #ci-da        ,w4            
,wages1 equality of1 #h      ,waltzing  
quoted1 #cd      ,war by trade1 #ie     
by armaments1 #ig      by violence1 #ih 
favours best stocks1 #ih      causes1   
permanent1 #ii      ,waste1 taxation of1
 #eb      the bar to advance1 #gi       

,wealth held by different classes1 #fj  
,white labour dreads competition1 #id1  
#ie      ,work1 distaste for1 #bj1 #ha  
power of1 #hj1 #ha      to be adapted to
 the person1 #ha1 #hb      ,workmen1    
atrophy among1 #h      ,workmen's       
,compensation ,act1 #eh                 
,,bradbury1 ,,agnew  ,,co4 ,,ld41       
,,printers1 ,,london ,,and ,,tonbridge4 
,transcriber's ,note      ,obvious      
punctuation and spelling errors have    
been repaired4      ,pg4 #ajh3 ,added   
missing sub-topic heading ,i4 of ,index4