,,texas ,,parks ,,and ,,wildlife ,,department ,,poisonous ,,snakes ,,of ,,texas ,,and ,,first ,,aid ,,treatment ,,of ,,their ,,bites ,,bulletin ,,no4 #ca ,originally published ,february #aiej ,revised ,february #aieb ,reprinted ,may #aifj ,revised ,july #aifc2 ,may #aifd ,reprinted ,jan4 #aifg ,reprinted ,jan4 #aifi ,reprinted ,august #aigj ,by ,,john ,e4 ,,werler ,director1 ,houston ,zoological ,gardens ,illustration3 ,texas ,state ,seal ,published by ,texas ,parks and ,wildlife ,department ,austin1 ,texas ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,introduction #d ,,precautions ,,at ,,home #e ,,protection ,,in ,,the ,,field #g ,,recognizing ,,the ,,poisonous ,,kinds #h ,,the ,,pit ,,vipers #ab ,,the ,,copperheads #ac ,southern #ad ,northern #af ,broadbanded #ah ,trans-,pecos #bj ,,the ,,cottonmouth #bb ,western ,cottonmouth #bb ,,the ,,rattlesnakes #be ,western ,massasauga #bf ,western ,pigmy #bh ,western ,diamondback #cj ,timber #cd ,canebrake #cf ,banded ,rock #ch ,mottled ,rock #dj ,blacktailed #db ,mojave #dd ,prairie #df ,,the ,,elapid ,,snakes #dh ,texas ,coral #dh ,,venoms #eb ,,diagnosing ,,the ,,bite #ec ,,severity ,,of ,,the ,,bite #ed ,,first ,,aid ,,treatment #ee ,,suggestions ,,to ,,physicians #eg ,,bibliography #fa ,,films #fb ,,introduction ,this ,bulletin has been prepared in response to many requests from hunters1 ranchers1 telephone construction personnel1 ,boy ,scouts and others who spend much time outdoors1 for a concise and illustrated guide to the poisonous snakes of ,texas4 ,the information presented is merely an outline of the poisonous snakes found within the state and is not intended to replace the several excellent snake books now on the market4 ,sixteen species and subspecies of poisonous snakes1 belonging to four general groups1 are found in ,texas4 ,the most characteristic features of each are described4 ,a photograph accompanies each description and a map indicating the snake's known range by counties is included4 ,with this information1 the reader should have little difficulty recognizing the poisonous snakes found in his region and1 should he be required to render first aid for snake bite1 the text and photos covering this subject will help him to do the job successfully4 ,a number of persons have extended help during the current revision of this booklet4 ,i am most indebted to ,alvin ,flury1 information and education officer for the ,texas ,parks and ,wildlife ,department1 who not only did much of the necessary legwork for the project1 but who also provided the impetus that saw it to completion4 ,thanks are due also to the following persons for county records of poisonous snakes in ,texas3 ,ralph ,w4 ,axtell1 ,richard ,j4 ,baldauf1 ,edward ,w4 ,bonn1 ,bryce ,c4 ,brown1 ,james ,r4 ,dixon1 ,alvin ,flury1 ,john ,w4 ,forsyth1 ,w4 ,c4 ,glazener1 ,w4 ,grainger ,hunt1 ,l4 ,m4 ,klauber1 ,verlin ,nethery1 ,floyd ,potter1 ,kirk ,preston1 ,stephen ,preston1 ,gerald ,g4 ,raun1 ,michael ,sabath1 ,joe ,t4 ,stevens1 ,ernest ,c4 ,tanzer1 ,donald ,w4 ,tinkle1 ,clay ,touchstone and ,john ,wooters4 ,live specimens for making photographs used here were provided by ,russell ,j4 ,long1 ,rusty ,martin1 ,ernest ,c4 ,tanzer1 ,clay ,touchstone and ,lawrence ,curtis4 ,finally1 ,i wish to thank ,robert ,l4 ,carlisle1 ,joseph ,f4 ,gennaro1 ,richard ,mac,allister1 ,don ,w4 ,micks1 ,j4 ,fred ,mullins1 ,a4 ,c4 ,stimson and ,john ,h4 ,werler for other information and assistance4 ,,john ,e4 ,,werler ,,poisonous ,,snakes ,,of ,,texas ,,and ,,first ,,aid ,,treatment ,,of ,,their ,,bites ,it is widely known among snake bite authorities that more persons die from snake bite in ,texas than in any other state of the nation4 ,this startling fact should encourage every ,texan to obtain a thorough working knowledge of the correct first aid treatment for snake bite so he will be prepared to act promptly in the event of an emergency4 ,in addition1 and perhaps just as important1 he should learn how to prevent a bite before it can happen4 ,this means knowing where to expect poisonous snakes1 how to avoid them1 and how to identify on sight the venomous kinds found in the region where he lives4 ,,precautions ,,at ,,home ,statistics show that a large percentage of all bites takes place near the home and more than a few of these are inflicted upon small children playing in their yards4 ,therefore1 let us consider first the possible presence of poisonous snakes around the home and some precautions that can be taken to keep them away4 ,each year ,texas zoos receive calls from distressed home owners within city limits who have discovered rattlesnakes or copperheads under their houses or beneath trash piles on their property4 ,these people ask for assistance in the removal of the snakes or for advice which may prevent similar future invasions4 ,the trespassing snake often can be disposed of quickly1 but the removal of one snake does not always solve the problem4 ,something must be done to discourage other snakes from taking residence on the grounds4 ,the steps to be taken are simple2 chief among them is the removal of all rubbish4 ,rock piles1 trash piles1 stacked lumber1 tree stumps and other forms of debris near or under houses often harbor rats and mice which form the principal food of most snakes4 ,in addition1 this trash furnishes cover for the reptiles and offers them protection from enemies and bad weather4 ,therefore1 if all rubbish is removed from the premises1 the food and shelter which attract snakes are largely eliminated and the snakes are forced to seek a more suitable environment4 ,dense1 low growing plants may also supply cover for snakes4 ,finally1 the removal of rubbish and dense vegetation enables the homeowner to easily see and destroy poisonous snakes that may be present4 ,in settled areas1 however1 where poisonous snakes are particularly abundant and present a serious problem1 it may be necessary to take further protective measures4 ,dr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,bogert of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history has suggested the use of a quarter-inch mesh wire fence to keep snakes off residential property4 ,this yard-high1 snake-proof fence is placed around the house in much the same manner as an ordinary picket fence1 except that the bottom must be set about six inches into the ground to prevent snakes forcing their way beneath it4 ,in addition1 all gates must be provided with close-fitting sills on the bottoms and sides to insure a completely tight enclosure4 ,experiments with fences of this kind were made to determine their effectiveness and to seek possible improvements in their construction1 with the result that one important change was made4 ,copperheads and small rattlesnakes could not get over the vertically-straight fence1 but a six-foot rattlesnake used in the experiment was able to climb over it4 ,when the same fence was tilted outward at a #cj-;degree angle1 not even the largest snake was able to reach the top4 ,although such fences are expensive and difficult to keep in good repair1 they may be desirable under some circumstances4 ,a less costly method of keeping snakes away from residential property has been proposed by the manufacturers of a new chemical that allegedly repels and kills snakes4 ,the product1 a granular material with a civet musk odor1 is reported by its distributors to kill a snake less than two feet in length if it is exposed longer than #bj seconds4 ,preliminary tests made at the ,houston ,zoo indicate that1 in spite of claims to the contrary1 the material had little effect on the snakes used4 ,each of more than a dozen different specimens1 including examples of all the local poisonous kinds1 unhesitatingly crawled through a wide barrier of the repellent that was poured on the ground4 ,in some instances1 the snake's tongue contacted the granules1 but none of the test reptiles showed any ill effects from exposure to the chemical4 ,while these crude tests are certainly not conclusive1 it would seem advisable to use commercial repellents with some reservations until they can be proved effective4 ,meanwhile1 we can still prevent most snake bites by observing a few simple safe practices4 ,,protection ,,in ,,the ,,field ,in the field1 where poisonous snakes are more common1 they present a greater hazard to human life2 consequently1 campers1 crop farmers and others who spend a great deal of time outdoors should necessarily take more care in avoiding snake bites4 ,because almost all snake bites are inflicted on the arms or legs of the victim1 these limbs require special protection4 ,the use of a little caution1 when placing hands or feet where snakes may be partially or completely hidden from view1 is the best protection you can give them4 ,this is particularly true when climbing hand-over-hand on rocky ledges1 where your hands reach the level of the ledge before your eyes do4 ,rattlesnakes and copperheads are partial to such rocky hillsides and here1 especially during the warm days of early spring1 they prefer to coil and sun themselves4 ,illustration3 ,thoughtless reach ,armadillo and pack rat burrows also make excellent shelters for rattlesnakes1 and only a reckless person would find an excuse to reach into one of these holes4 ,yet one year1 in ,south ,texas alone1 at least two snake bites occurred when the victims1 each in search of small game1 reached into armadillo holes and were bitten by rattlesnakes coiled there4 ,another way to invite snake bite is to thoughtlessly turn over a log with bare hands or to step over one without first looking to see whether a snake is coiled on the other side4 ,many snakes1 particularly the copperhead and coral snake1 are fond of hiding beneath or within decaying logs1 as any snake collector will testify1 and such a log is at all times to be considered a potential snake den4 ,if a log must be moved1 use a long stick as a pry-bar4 ,stepping over a log will be less risky if boots or high-top shoes are worn1 but even then it is safer to see first what is on the other side4 ,several types of footwear offer good protection against the bites of most snakes4 ,especially effective are high-top leather shoes1 riding boots1 rubber boots or a combination of army 8paratrooper shoes0 and heavy leather puttees4 ,probably the best of these is a snakeproof boot made of extra heavy bullhide leather1 sold by the ,gokey ,company1 #id ,east #dth ,street1 ,st4 ,paul1 ,minnesota4 ,for protection of the legs above the knees1 snakeproof pants that weigh little more than ordinary duck trousers are available4 ,they consist of three thicknesses of duck material and one layer of fine wire mesh1 flexible enough to allow easy knee movement4 ,snakeproof leggings of similar material can be purchased for safeguarding just the lower legs4 ,recently marketed aluminum leggings furnish good protection in many cases1 but some brands tested were too thin and easily damaged2 others were too uncomfortable4 ,if a poisonous snake is discovered close by1 the best protection is to remain as still as possible until the snake has moved away4 ,it should be remembered that a snake is quick to strike at a moving object1 so to quickly step away at such a moment may be disastrous4 ,if a rattlesnake is heard nearby but cannot be located1 do not begin a wild dash for safety4 ,location of the snake may be misjudged and by taking a step you are likely to walk into1 rather than away from1 it4 ,again1 remain still until the snake is sighted and1 when it is certain the snake is at least five or six feet away and no others are nearby1 slowly back away4 ,if you must move away1 do so as slowly as possible4 ,because our native poisonous snakes are mostly nocturnal in their activities1 remaining hidden during the day and emerging at night in search of food1 a flashlight should be used by persons who find it necessary to travel through snake country after dark4 ,during the cool days of spring and autumn1 however1 nocturnal habits are often reversed4 ,during the day snakes search for warm spots in which to sun themselves2 by nightfall they are again under cover4 ,none of our poisonous ,texas snakes ordinarily can strike more than three-quarters of its body length1 unless it has a firm backing or is striking downward from an incline4 ,certainly none has the ability to jump at an enemy1 a feat often attributed to the rattlesnake4 ,a snake on the defensive is coiled with the forward part of its body in a loose ,s position4 ,when striking1 this coil is straightened out and the head is thrust forward4 ,it is not necessary for a snake to strike from a coil in order to bite4 ,if picked up near the head1 it may simply turn1 open its mouth and bite the hand4 ,it is dangerous to believe1 as many do1 that a water moccasin cannot bite under water1 and woe to the person who dares to seize a submerged cottonmouth4 ,,recognizing ,,the ,,poisonous ,,kinds ,suppose1 in spite of attention to the precautions and protective measures just outlined1 someone is bitten by an unidentified snake4 ,certainly the victim would not wish to delay treatment if the snake were poisonous1 because every minute wasted would make recovery more difficult4 ,on the other hand1 he would not care to undergo either the pain associated with snake bite treatment or the anxiety following a bite if a harmless snake were the cause of the accident4 ,yet time and again people have been bitten by harmless snakes and have been needlessly given first aid and hospital treatment because the offending snake was incorrectly classified as poisonous4 ,still others have been bitten by harmless snakes and died from nothing more than fright4 ,when recognition of the snake is doubtful1 it should1 if possible1 be killed and taken to a hospital or doctor's office for correct identification4 ,always keep in mind1 however1 that a recently killed poisonous snake may still be potentially dangerous4 ,even after its head is cut from the body1 a reptile is capable of marked reflex activity2 merely touching the head may cause it to bite4 ,to be on the safe side1 use a stick to lift or carry a dead snake4 ,it is evident that the ability to distinguish between harmless and poisonous snakes goes hand in hand with a knowledge of proper first aid treatment4 ,ability to recognize a poisonous snake on sight can best be achieved by a study of live poisonous kinds and a comparison of them with harmless species4 ,at many zoos1 where both kinds are on display in glass-fronted cages1 they may be examined safely4 ,if a zoo is not conveniently near1 an examination of photographs showing the different kinds is probably the next best way to become familiar with them4 ,it is generally considered by the layman that four kinds of poisonous snakes are found in the ,united ,states--the rattlesnake1 cottonmouth1 copperhead and coral snake4 ,this grouping1 although somewhat arbitrary and certainly not zoologically correct1 is firmly established in the minds of most people and may very well be here to stay4 ,nevertheless1 a more accurate and scientific approach is possible if we consider each species and subspecies as a different kind4 ,illustrations in this booklet show the #af kinds 7species and subspecies7 of poisonous snakes known in ,texas4 ,these photographs1 together with descriptions in the text1 should aid in identification4 ,the accompanying distribution map for each form has been compiled from county records based on museum specimens1 but in a few cases reliable 8sight0 records have been used as proof of a snake's occurrence within a county4 ,distribution of snakes within ,texas is incompletely known because of a lack of reliable records2 for this reason1 the distribution maps are necessarily far from complete4 ,it is hoped1 however1 that the lists will be brought up to date as new localities come to light4 ,if the reader can make any additions to the present lists1 he is asked to communicate with the author or to deliver specimens to the nearest large college1 zoo or museum maintaining a zoological collection4 ,only #af of the approximately #ajf different kinds of snakes found in the state are dangerously poisonous to man1 and some are so rare that they are seldom seen4 ,in addition1 we have in ,texas several species of smaller snakes known as opisthoglyphs1 each possessing a mild venom and a set of small grooved fangs far back in the upper jaw4 ,because of their weak and limited supply of venom and small fangs1 which are poorly adapted for injecting poison into large animals1 these rear-fanged snakes are considered harmless to man4 ,by far1 the majority of species are small1 being not more than #ae inches long and about three-sixteenths of an inch thick4 ,in this group are the blackheaded snakes 7genus ,tantilla7 found over most of the state4 ,the slightly larger spotted night snakes 7genus ,hypsiglena7 of west and central ,texas have enlarged but ungrooved teeth in the upper jaw4 ,two ,mexican rear-fanged snakes1 found as far north as the ,brownsville region1 are somewhat larger4 ,they are the blackstriped snake 7,coniophanes imperialis imperialis7 which grows to about #bj inches in length1 and the ,texas cat-eye snake 7,leptodeira annulata septentrionalis71 which reaches a length of about three feet4 ,still another species1 the very rare ,texas lyre snake 7,trimorphodon vilkinsonii71 is known from extreme western ,texas4 ,it is generally less than three feet long4 ,in spite of the small percentage of poisonous kinds of snakes in the state1 it must be made clear that no one general rule can be used safely to identify all of them at a glance4 ,it is a mistaken idea that all venomous snakes have broad1 triangular heads4 ,on the contrary1 by using this rule1 many of our harmless snakes look more dangerous than do some poisonous kinds4 ,furthermore1 this generalization is made useless by several exceptions1 a notable example being the coral snake which has a round head and does not look at all poisonous4 ,even the characteristic rattle is not always present to make a rattlesnake's identification certain4 ,sometimes the snake's rattle is accidentally broken off1 in which case this identifying appendage is gone4 ,then1 too1 a rattlesnake often is coiled in such a way that its rattles are concealed beneath a loop of its body4 ,again1 the tell-tale rattle is not visible and it is necessary to recognize the snake by some other means4 ,disregard all so-called 8easy0 rules by which poisonous snakes may be identified2 instead1 learn to know each one by its general overall appearance4 ,for example1 to identify the cottonmouth1 look for a combination of its most characteristic features--relatively short1 stout body and a broad1 flat head4 ,also look for a body color of black1 dark brown or olive and from #aj to #ae wide1 usually indistinct1 crossbands which are generally lighter in the center than on the edges4 ,the upper jaw below the eye1 as well as the lower jaw1 will be light colored in contrast to the dark color above the eye4 ,together1 these characteristics will make identification quite certain at a reasonable distance4 ,remember that the young of this snake are colored differently from the adults and you will not be able to identify the juvenile by using the color characteristics of the adult snake4 ,,the ,,pit ,,vipers ,our poisonous ,texas snakes belong to two families--the ,viperidae 7subfamily ,crotalinae--pit vipers7 and the ,elapidae 7cobra-like snakes74 ,the pit vipers1 which include rattlesnakes1 copperheads and cottonmouths1 possess an opening on either side of the head1 between the eye and the nostril4 ,with these heat-sensitive pits1 the snake can locate warm-blooded prey in the dark and make a direct hit upon a rat or mouse which it cannot see4 ,illustration3 ,snake skeletons ,snakes belonging to this family are further characterized by the possession of elliptical eye pupils1 somewhat triangular-shaped heads and long1 movable fangs in the front of the upper jaw4 ,each fang is connected by a tube to the poison gland located just behind the eye4 ,when the snake is at rest and its mouth is closed1 the fangs lie folded back against the roof of the mouth4 ,during the strike1 the mouth is opened so that the upper and lower jaws form an angle of nearly #ahj degrees4 ,the fangs are then erected to point almost directly forward4 ,with the fangs in this position1 the strike results in a stabbing action rather than a true bite4 ,,the ,,copperheads ,four kinds of copperheads are known in ,texas4 ,they are much smaller and more slender than the closely related cottonmouth and1 because they have proportionately smaller fangs and less venom1 are not very dangerous to man4 ,the four copperheads resemble one another by having the same general pattern of chestnut or reddish-brown crossbands on a lighter body color4 ,differences are based mostly on the size and shape of crossbands and in the degree of marking present on the belly4 ,copperheads are most common in rocky areas of hilly or mountainous country1 as well as in wooded bottomlands4 ,they are rarely seen in dry1 cactus country4 ,although spending most of their time on the ground1 copperheads occasionally climb bushes and low trees in search of food4 ,along the ,colorado ,river near ,wharton1 they were observed high in trees2 some were #dj feet above the ground4 ,the snakes reached these unusual heights by crawling along wild grape vines that clung to the tree trunks and draped over lower limbs4 ,one snake hunter in the area collected nearly #ajj copperheads by pulling them off the branches4 ,copperheads do most of their feeding at night4 ,during the spring in some parts of the state1 they are found in large numbers along streams and other moist areas1 where they spend most of the day hidden beneath decaying logs and other debris which affords good cover4 ,copperheads also can be expected when air temperatures are high1 and when the soil and vegetation are wet from recent rain4 ,they often make their homes within the suburbs of large cities where1 due to their nocturnal habits and protective coloration1 they are apt to be overlooked4 ,not quick to seek cover when approached1 copperheads prefer to lie perfectly still until an intruder has passed4 ,once molested1 they frequently vibrate their tails and1 if among dry leaves1 produce a buzzing sound not unlike that made by a rattlesnake4 ,copperheads are quick to strike at any annoying object1 and often bite several times in rapid succession4 ,copperheads seldom deliver a fatal bite because of their short fangs and small size4 ,their strike is often blocked by a mere trouser leg4 ,records of the ,antivenin ,institute of ,america show that during a #aj-year period1 not a single death resulted from #cjh recorded copperhead bites regardless of the lack or kind of treatment given victims4 ,in spite of these reassuring figures1 it must be remembered that the copperhead is potentially a dangerous snake1 especially when the bite involves a child4 ,all bites from this species should receive the same urgent consideration given the bite of a diamondback rattlesnake4 ,the four forms of copperheads occurring in ,texas are the only kinds found in the ,united ,states4 ,,southern ,,copperhead ,agkistrodon contortrix contortrix ,illustration3 ,,southern ,,copperhead ,description--,lighter in color than the other copperheads1 this form has a body color of light brown or tan1 often with a pinkish tinge4 ,hourglass-shaped crossbands of darker brown are very narrow along the middle of the back and are sometimes broken1 forming two separate triangular markings1 one on each side of the body4 ,as on the northern copperhead1 the bands are rounded at their bases4 ,the belly is pale and indistinctly marked4 ,size--,adults average between #bj and #cj inches long1 while some especially large examples reach a length of more than #dj inches4 ,young--,the average number in a brood is five or six4 ,as with all ,north ,american pit vipers1 the young do not hatch from eggs but are born alive1 enclosed in a thin membranous sack4 ,they are paler than adults1 with a more vivid pattern1 and a bright sulphur yellow tail tip4 ,distribution in ,texas--,the southern copperhead is known in about the eastern third of the state1 where it has been found in the following counties3 ,austin1 ,bastrop1 ,bowie1 ,brazoria1 ,brazos1 ,burleson1 ,calhoun1 ,chambers1 ,cherokee1 ,colorado1 ,fort ,bend1 ,gonzales1 ,grimes1 ,hardin1 ,harris1 ,harrison1 ,henderson1 ,hopkins1 ,houston1 ,jefferson1 ,leon1 ,liberty1 ,madison1 ,matagorda1 ,montgomery1 ,nacogdoches1 ,newton1 ,orange1 ,polk1 ,robertson1 ,san ,jacinto1 ,smith1 ,tarrant1 ,trinity1 ,victoria1 and ,walker4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,northern ,,copperhead ,agkistrodon contortrix mokasen ,illustration3 ,,northern ,,copperhead ,description--,this darker form has a pattern of reddish-brown or chestnut colored crossbands1 which become narrower near the middle of the back and rounded at the bases4 ,the darker color of these 8dumbbell0 shaped bands contrasts with the hazel-brown body color4 ,the underside of the snake is dark and indistinctly mottled with gray or black4 ,its head is usually of a lighter tint than the body4 ,size--,adults usually are about two and a half feet long but record size individuals of more than #dj inches have been caught4 ,young--,newborn northern copperheads1 from three to #ad in a brood1 may be from eight to #aj inches long4 ,distribution--,records of this snake are rather widely scattered over the northeastern part of the state4 ,specimens have been collected in the following counties3 ,bastrop1 ,bowie1 ,burleson1 ,cass1 ,collin1 ,colorado1 ,coryell1 ,dallas1 ,ellis1 ,fannin1 ,grayson1 ,guadalupe1 ,hopkins1 ,hunt1 ,kaufman1 ,lamar1 ,lee1 ,mc,lennan1 ,milam1 ,morris1 ,robertson1 ,smith1 ,somervell1 and ,titus4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,broadbanded ,,copperhead ,agkistrodon contortrix laticinctus ,illustration3 ,,broadbanded ,,copperhead ,description--,the very broad1 straight edged crossbands of this snake easily distinguish it from other copperheads4 ,the similar ,trans-,pecos copperhead differs by the presence of a light colored inverted ,u at the base of each crossband4 ,the dark brown bands of this form are slightly narrower at the middle of the back than on the sides2 their nearly straight edges gives the bands a squarish appearance4 ,the dark crossbands contrast strongly with the lighter body color1 while the belly is of almost the same shade as the bands4 ,the tail is tipped with yellowish green1 more pronounced in the young4 ,size--,snakes of this subspecies probably reach a length of three feet but most adults are about two feet long4 ,young--,litters probably average five or six but little else is known about the breeding habits of this form4 ,distribution--,widely scattered records include the following counties3 ,atascosa1 ,bandera1 ,bastrop1 ,bexar1 ,bosque1 ,burnet1 ,callahan1 ,comal1 ,cooke1 ,crockett1 ,denton1 ,dimmit1 ,eastland1 ,fayette1 ,frio1 ,gillespie1 ,gonzales1 ,grayson1 ,guadalupe1 ,hamilton1 ,hays1 ,kendall1 ,kerr1 ,mason1 ,medina1 ,mc,lennan1 ,parker1 ,palo ,pinto1 ,real1 ,san ,saba1 ,tarrant1 ,taylor1 ,throckmorton1 ,tom ,green1 ,travis1 ,uvalde1 ,victoria1 ,wilson1 ,wise1 and ,young4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,trans-,,pecos ,,copperhead ,agkistrodon contortrix pictigaster ,illustration3 ,,trans-,,pecos ,,copperhead ,description--,this species resembles the broadbanded copperhead by its straight edged1 squarish crossbands but differs from all other copperheads by having uniformly dark or strongly mottled belly4 ,it also differs from the broadbanded form by the presence of a light colored inverted ,u at the base of each crossband4 ,the pattern consists of about #ac chestnut-brown crossbands with narrow1 dark borders4 ,the color between the bands is light hazel brown1 flecked with darker brown4 ,size--,this is the smallest of the copperheads1 probably not reaching a length of two and one-half feet4 ,young--,nothing is known of the breeding habits of this rare snake4 ,distribution--,this form apparently is restricted to the mountains of ,west ,texas1 where it is known in ,brewster1 ,jeff ,davis1 ,presidio and ,terrell ,counties4 ,until #aidi it was found sparingly throughout its range and less than a dozen specimens had been found by experienced collectors4 ,recently1 however1 students from ,the ,university of ,texas obtained about #ajj of these snakes during a six weeks' summer course in a small section of ,terrell ,county4 ,this indicates that the ,trans-,pecos copperhead is common1 but in restricted areas only4 ,such areas generally are in wooded canyons and live oak groves where there is some leaf litter4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,the ,,cottonmouth ,only one kind of cottonmouth is found in ,texas4 ,it is one of our heaviest and largest poisonous snakes and may reach a length of more than five feet4 ,when viewed from above1 the head appears triangular shaped and from the side the head looks flat on top4 ,the eye pupils1 as with all members of the pit viper sub-family1 are elliptical4 ,,western ,,cottonmouth ,agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma ,illustration3 ,,western ,,cottonmouth ,description--,this is the most variable poisonous snake in the state1 both in color and in the presence or absence of markings4 ,adults are much less brilliantly marked than are the young or newborn snakes4 ,adults have a background of dark brown and are marked by from #aj to #ae dark1 wide crossbands somewhat lighter in the center than at the edges4 ,the bands1 which have irregular edges1 become a little wider along the sides4 ,however1 not all cottonmouths look like this4 ,while some individuals have clearly defined crossbands1 others have none4 ,there is also considerable variation in color4 ,some cottonmouths are brown2 some are olive brown or olive green2 and some are entirely black4 ,the lower jaw1 as well as the upper jaw below the eye1 is light in contrast to the dark color on top of the head4 ,young cottonmouths are vividly marked on a background of reddish-brown1 highlighted by darker brown bands edged with white4 ,they look much like copperheads4 ,size--,in ,texas1 this heavy-bodied snake reaches a maximum length of about four and a half or five feet1 but the average is more nearly three feet4 ,young--,about eight are born in each litter4 ,they are from six to eight inches long at birth4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,distribution--,the cottonmouth has been reported in the following counties3 ,anderson1 ,aransas1 ,atascosa1 ,austin1 ,bandera1 ,bexar1 ,bowie1 ,brazos1 ,brazoria1 ,burleson1 ,burnet1 ,cass1 ,calhoun1 ,chambers1 ,cherokee1 ,collin1 ,colorado1 ,comal1 ,dallas1 ,denton1 ,ellis1 ,falls1 ,fannin1 ,fisher1 ,fort ,bend1 ,galveston1 ,goliad1 ,gonzales1 ,grayson1 ,guadalupe1 ,hardin1 ,harris1 ,harrison1 ,hays1 ,henderson1 ,houston1 ,jasper1 ,jefferson1 ,kaufman1 ,kerr1 ,kimble1 ,lamar1 ,leon1 ,liberty1 ,limestone1 ,marion1 ,mason1 ,matagorda1 ,maverick1 ,mc,lennan1 ,medina1 ,montgomery1 ,morris1 ,nacogdoches1 ,newton1 ,nueces1 ,orange1 ,parker1 ,polk1 ,red ,river1 ,refugio1 ,robertson1 ,san ,jacinto1 ,san ,patricio1 ,shelby1 ,smith1 ,sterling1 ,tarrant1 ,tom ,green1 ,travis1 ,uvalde1 ,val ,verde1 ,victoria1 ,walker1 ,wharton1 ,wilson1 and ,wise4 ,the cottonmouth is one of our largest poisonous snakes4 ,it is particularly abundant in the coastal marshes of southeastern ,texas where it is found along streams1 ponds and lakes4 ,although ordinarily rather sluggish1 it immediately draws back its head and opens its mouth widely in a threatening manner when annoyed1 exposing the white tissue lining the inside of the mouth4 ,this characteristic pose is responsible for its popular name4 ,moreover1 like the copperhead1 which also lacks rattles1 it has the habit of vibrating its tail when sufficiently annoyed4 ,thus1 when it is among dry leaves1 or if the tail strikes a hard object1 the resulting sound may be similar to that made by a rattlesnake4 ,the name water moccasin1 which is loosely applied to any and all water snakes as well as to the cottonmouth1 has resulted in a popular but misplaced belief that all 8water0 snakes are poisonous4 ,it should be pointed out here that the cottonmouth1 ,agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma1 is our only poisonous aquatic serpent4 ,the several kinds of harmless water snakes1 which in some instances resemble it1 are devoid of poison4 ,they can1 at most1 inflict a bite no more serious than the scratch of a cat and these wounds require only the first aid recommended for minor cuts4 ,harmless water snakes most frequently mistaken for the cottonmouth include the large diamondbacked water snake of central and eastern ,texas1 the blotched water snake found over most of the state1 and the yellowbellied and broadbanded water snakes of eastern ,texas4 ,most of them are relatively heavy bodied1 possess somewhat diamond shaped heads and1 although not venomous1 will bite viciously if stepped upon or handled4 ,,the ,,rattlesnakes ,more than one-half of all the poisonous kinds of snakes known in ,texas are rattlesnakes1 and records show that almost every county has at least one variety4 ,texas rattlesnakes range in size from the very small1 #ah-;inch western pigmy rattlesnake1 which rarely if ever causes death among humans1 to the seven-foot western diamondback rattlesnake1 known to be one of the most dangerous snakes in ,north ,america4 ,all have comparatively stout bodies1 facial pits characteristic of the family1 and rattles4 ,the rattle1 which sets this snake apart1 is a series of loosely interlocking horny segments which1 when vibrated1 produce a sharp buzzing sound as the segments strike against one another4 ,a rattlesnake's age cannot be determined by the number of segments of its rattle because a new segment is added with each shedding of the skin4 ,because a snake may shed several times a year1 the resulting number of segments added annually may be six or more4 ,on the other hand1 the segments are frequently broken off as the rattle becomes caught in underbrush1 so that few rattlesnakes have a complete rattle4 ,,western ,,massasauga ,sistrurus catenatus tergeminus ,illustration3 ,,western ,,massasauga ,description--,the general body color is brown or gray4 ,about #ci dark brown1 oval blotches extend along the middle of the back while two rows of smaller blotches are found along each side4 ,these blotches are narrowly edged with a lighter color4 ,size--,adults average two feet in length2 larger specimens are sometimes as long as three feet4 ,young--,the young resemble the adults but are lighter in color4 ,average number in a litter is eight or nine and they measure eight or nine inches at birth4 ,distribution--,records of this snake are widely scattered throughout the state1 including the following counties3 ,andrews1 ,aransas1 ,armstrong1 ,bell1 ,bosque1 ,brazos1 ,calhoun1 ,cameron1 ,chambers1 ,clay1 ,colorado1 ,crosby1 ,dickens1 ,el ,paso1 ,gaines1 ,galveston1 ,hardeman1 ,haskell1 ,hemphill1 ,jim ,hogg1 ,johnson1 ,king1 ,matagorda1 ,mc,lennan1 ,midland1 ,nolan1 ,nueces1 ,parker1 ,pecos1 ,roberts1 ,shackelford1 ,sutton1 ,tarrant1 ,throckmorton1 ,victoria1 ,wheeler1 ,wilbarger1 ,winkler1 ,yoakum1 and ,young4 ,this small rattlesnake is uncommon in ,texas1 although years ago it was plentiful in some parts of the state4 ,j4 ,k4 ,strecker in his ,reptiles and ,amphibians of ,texas1 #aiae1 states3 ,mr4 ,luttrell of ,claude1 ,armstrong ,county1 informed me that he has often killed from #ej to #fj during one wheat season1 but during the past four or five years he has not seen more than half a dozen a year4 ,wet places1 usually near swamps or marshes1 are its favorite habitat4 ,one of our most docile rattlesnakes1 it is seldom inclined to use its rattle1 even when almost stepped upon4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,western ,,pigmy ,,rattlesnake ,sistrurus miliarius streckeri ,illustration3 ,,western ,,pigmy ,,rattlesnake ,description--,the body color of this snake is from gray to grayish-brown4 ,its back is marked with about #ce small1 dark spots which are wider than long4 ,another row of smaller spots is located along each side toward the belly4 ,size--,specimens average #ah inches long and large examples may reach a length of more than two feet4 ,young--,the normal brood contains from eight to #aj but some may have as many as #ah4 ,average length of the newborn is five or six inches4 ,distribution--,all county records of this snake1 except one from ,mitchell ,county1 are in the eastern part of the state4 ,the ,mitchell ,county record may be an error4 ,records include the following counties3 ,anderson1 ,angelina1 ,brazoria1 ,brazos1 ,chambers1 ,cooke1 ,dallas1 ,galveston1 ,hardin1 ,harris1 ,harrison1 ,henderson1 ,houston1 ,jasper1 ,jefferson1 ,lamar1 ,leon1 ,liberty1 ,matagorda1 ,mc,lennan1 ,mitchell1 ,montgomery1 ,newton1 ,orange1 ,red ,river1 ,refugio1 ,robertson1 ,san ,jacinto1 ,smith1 ,somervell1 ,victoria1 ,walker1 ,wharton1 and ,wise4 ,the western pigmy rattlesnake prefers to live in dry areas2 reports of professional collectors indicate that it is found in greatest number after heavy rains and at night4 ,while more aggressive than its close relative1 the massasauga1 its small size makes it one of our least dangerous poisonous snakes4 ,its rattle is small1 often difficult to see1 and cannot be heard at distances greater than a few feet4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,western ,,diamondback ,,rattlesnake ,crotalus atrox ,illustration3 ,,western ,,diamondback ,,rattlesnake ,description--,although individuals of this species show a great deal of variation in color1 from a chalky white to a dull red1 they can be identified immediately by the alternate black and white rings of about equal width on the tail4 ,there is a pattern of brown diamond shaped markings along the middle of the back1 which stands out against the lighter body color4 ,each diamond has a narrow light border4 ,size--,adults are generally from three and a half to four and a half feet long4 ,reliable reports indicate that this species grows to a length of over seven and a half feet1 and six-foot specimens are not rare4 ,young--,broods average #aj or #ab but occasionally contain #bj or more4 ,the newborn diamondback is about a foot long and looks very much like the adult4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,distribution--,known throughout most of the state except the extreme eastern part1 it may be expected in many more counties from which records of its occurrence have not yet been received4 ,it is definitely known in these counties3 ,andrews1 ,aransas1 ,archer1 ,armstrong1 ,atascosa1 ,bandera1 ,bastrop1 ,baylor1 ,bee1 ,bell1 ,bexar1 ,blanco1 ,borden1 ,bosque1 ,brazoria1 ,brazos1 ,brewster1 ,briscoe1 ,brooks1 ,brown1 ,burnet1 ,caldwell1 ,calhoun1 ,cameron1 ,clay1 ,coke1 ,comal1 ,comanche1 ,concho1 ,coryell1 ,cottle1 ,crockett1 ,crosby1 ,culberson1 ,dallam1 ,dallas1 ,dawson1 ,deaf ,smith1 ,de,witt1 ,dickens1 ,dimmit1 ,donley1 ,duval1 ,eastland1 ,ector1 ,edwards1 ,el ,paso1 ,erath1 ,fisher1 ,foard1 ,frio1 ,galveston1 ,garza1 ,gillespie1 ,goliad1 ,gonzales1 ,guadalupe1 ,hardeman1 ,harris1 ,hartley1 ,hays1 ,hidalgo1 ,howard1 ,hudspeth1 ,hutchinson1 ,irion1 ,jack1 ,jackson1 ,jeff ,davis1 ,jim ,hogg1 ,jim ,wells1 ,karnes1 ,kendall1 ,kenedy1 ,kent1 ,kerr1 ,kimble1 ,king1 ,kinney1 ,kleberg1 ,knox1 ,lampasas1 ,la ,salle1 ,lavaca1 ,limestone1 ,live ,oak1 ,llano1 ,lubbock1 ,lynn1 ,martin1 ,mason1 ,matagorda1 ,maverick1 ,mc,culloch1 ,mc,lennan1 ,mc,mullen1 ,medina1 ,midland1 ,milam1 ,mills1 ,mitchell1 ,moore1 ,motley1 ,nolan1 ,nueces1 ,oldham1 ,palo ,pinto1 ,pecos1 ,porter1 ,presidio1 ,randall1 ,real1 ,reeves1 ,refugio1 ,san ,patricio1 ,scurry1 ,shackelford1 ,somervell1 ,starr1 ,sterling1 ,stevens1 ,tarrant1 ,taylor1 ,terrell1 ,throckmorton1 ,tom ,green1 ,travis1 ,uvalde1 ,val ,verde1 ,victoria1 ,ward1 ,webb1 ,wells1 ,wilbarger1 ,willacy1 ,williamson1 ,wilson1 ,winkler1 ,wise1 ,wichita1 ,young1 ,zapata1 and ,zavala4 ,this is the most dangerous and1 at the same time1 the most common poisonous snake in the state4 ,therefore1 it is one which all ,texas outdoorsmen should be able to recognize on sight4 ,a summary of snake bite cases in the ,united ,states over a #aj-year period shows that more people died from bites of this species than from bites of any other ,north ,american snake4 ,there are several reasons why this snake is responsible for so many bites and such a high number of deaths4 ,chief among these is its large size4 ,it ranks as one of the two largest poisonous snakes in the country1 being second only to the eight-foot eastern diamondback rattlesnake of the southeastern states4 ,in direct proportion to its size1 it has long fangs and poison glands which hold a great amount of venom4 ,these factors insure a long strike and deep fang penetration4 ,in addition1 it has an unusually furious disposition and1 if threatened with danger or sufficiently annoyed1 will vigorously defend itself instead of seeking immediate escape4 ,although strictly a land snake1 the diamondback may sometimes be found crossing streams or ponds and1 occasionally1 individuals will venture out into lakes and bays4 ,,timber ,,rattlesnake ,crotalus horridus horridus ,illustration3 ,,timber ,,rattlesnake ,description--,this snake is much like the larger canebrake rattler but lacks the dark stripe from the eye to the back of the mouth1 and generally is without the reddish-brown stripe down the middle of its back4 ,dark brown chevron shaped crossbands contrast with the general body color of yellowish tan4 ,in some specimens black stippling occurs between the markings4 ,both black and light color phases of this snake are found in some parts of its range4 ,it is unknown whether the dark specimens occur in ,texas4 ,the tail is marked with three or four dark bands on the lighter specimens but is altogether black on the darker ones4 ,size--,throughout its range this snake has an average length of from three and a half to four feet1 but a specimen six feet long is on record4 ,young--,the number in a brood varies from three to #ab4 ,length of the newborn is eight or nine inches4 ,distribution--,the timber rattlesnake prefers rocky hills and mountains that are not too heavily wooded1 but it sometimes inhabits bogs and swamps at lower elevations4 ,in either situation1 it seldom survives for long in areas heavily populated by man4 ,in common with most other rattlesnakes1 it seeks escape when approached by man and fights only when surprised or cornered4 ,known in northeastern ,texas1 it is reported from ,cooke1 ,denton1 ,eastland1 ,grayson1 ,lamar1 ,red ,river1 ,taylor1 and ,wise ,counties4 ,like the prairie rattler1 it often seeks the same denning areas year after year and congregates in numbers to hibernate for the winter4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,canebrake ,,rattlesnake ,crotalus horridus atricaudatus ,illustration3 ,,canebrake ,,rattlesnake ,description--,this is a large and heavily built snake with a brown or tan back marked by a series of wide1 dark1 chevron shaped crossbands4 ,it may be distinguished from the similar timber rattlesnake by its larger size1 its more vivid markings1 and the presence of a dark stripe from the eye to the angle of its mouth4 ,generally1 a narrow1 reddish-brown stripe extends down the middle of the back4 ,its tail1 as in some other rattlesnakes1 is entirely black4 ,size--,in ,texas this snake reaches a length of about six feet1 while in nearby ,louisiana exceptionally large specimens1 some nearly seven feet long1 have been found4 ,length averages four and a half feet4 ,young--,about eight or ten are born in a brood4 ,distribution--,this species prefers wooded areas in wet bottomlands4 ,it has been found in the following counties3 ,austin1 ,bexar1 ,bosque1 ,bowie1 ,brazoria1 ,brazos1 ,cass1 ,cooke1 ,coryell1 ,dallas1 ,denton1 ,eastland1 ,ellis1 ,falls1 ,fayette1 ,freestone1 ,gonzales1 ,grayson1 ,hardin1 ,harris1 ,henderson1 ,jasper1 ,jefferson1 ,liberty1 ,madison1 ,mc,lennan1 ,navarro1 ,robertson1 ,san ,jacinto1 ,san ,patricio1 ,taylor1 ,victoria1 ,waller1 ,williamson1 and ,wise4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,banded ,,rock ,,rattlesnake ,crotalus lepidus lepidus ,illustration3 ,,banded ,,rock ,,rattlesnake ,description--,this snake is very similar to the mottled rock rattlesnake1 with which it might be confused1 but from which it differs by having a more mottled appearance between the crossbands and a dark stripe from the eye to the angle of the mouth4 ,it has a pattern of about #ah or #bj widely spaced dark crossbands with irregular edges in contrast to its gray body color4 ,belly color varies from cream to pink4 ,in the ,chisos ,mountains1 where there is much reddish igneous rock1 the normal color of this snake is pinkish2 the variety has been given the name of 8pink rattler0 by people of that region4 ,specimens from the limestone ledges along the ,pecos ,canyon at ,howard ,creek and ,sheffield are very light in color1 resembling the limestone rock on which they are found4 ,size--,this is one of our smallest rattlesnakes1 having an average length of two feet4 ,the rattle is rather large in proportion to the small size of the snake4 ,young--,about four are born in a brood and they measure about seven and a half inches at birth4 ,distribution--,this form is restricted to the mountainous areas of the western and southwestern parts of the state2 it has been found in the following counties3 ,brewster1 ,culberson1 ,edwards1 ,jeff ,davis1 ,maverick1 ,pecos1 ,presidio1 ,real1 ,terrell1 and ,val ,verde4 ,because of its small size and distribution restricted to rocky places at high elevations1 the banded rock rattlesnake cannot be considered a serious menace to man4 ,apparently there is no record of anyone ever having been bitten by this snake4 ,it has a quiet disposition and1 if alarmed1 will immediately retreat within the masses of jumbled rock which are its home4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,mottled ,,rock ,,rattlesnake ,crotalus lepidus klauberi ,illustration3 ,,mottled ,,rock ,,rattlesnake ,description--,this species and the banded rock rattlesnake look much alike4 ,both are small and slender1 and marked with a series of widely-spaced dark crossbands along the length of the body and tail4 ,the banded rock rattlesnake1 however1 has about #bj or #bb dark brown or black crossbands1 which contrast strongly with its greenish-gray body color4 ,it further differs from the banded rock rattlesnake in lacking a dark stripe from the eye to the angle of its mouth4 ,size--,adults average two feet in length4 ,young--,a record of one brood is the only known published information concerning the young of this snake4 ,carl ,f4 ,kauffeld of the ,staten ,island ,zoo mentioned a litter of four and wrote3 ,all were irritable from the first1 promptly broke through the membranous sacs in which they were enclosed and struck violently at any passing object4 ,all were marked and colored much like the adults except that the delicate pink along the venter of the latter was not in evidence2 and the tails1 which in the adults are salmon or terra cotta red 7including the basal segment of the rattle7 were brilliantly sulphur yellow for at least their distal half4444 ,the newborn snakes measured about eight inches in length4 ,distribution--,this subspecies is found in much the same type of country as the banded rock rattlesnake1 being partial to rock slides high in the mountains4 ,the two counties in the state in which it is known1 ,el ,paso and ,culberson1 are both in extreme western ,texas4 ,in disposition it is said to be quite timid2 however1 at times1 it becomes irritable without much provocation4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,blacktailed ,,rattlesnake ,crotalus molossus molossus ,illustration3 ,,blacktailed ,,rattlesnake ,description--,there are about #cb dark rhomboid markings along the back4 ,these light edged blotches are centered with one or two irregular light areas1 while the outer edges form bars which extend down each side to the belly4 ,body color varies from gray to olive green1 while the blotches are dark brown or black4 ,the tail is uniformly black1 as its name implies4 ,size--,the blacktailed rattlesnake is one of our largest poisonous snakes4 ,texas specimens average three and a half feet but may grow somewhat longer4 ,one1 nearly #ej inches long1 was collected at ,persimmon ,gap in ,brewster ,county4 ,young--,about five young comprise the average brood4 ,distribution--,records are available from the following counties3 ,bandera1 ,bexar1 ,brewster1 ,burnet1 ,comal1 ,culberson1 ,edwards1 ,el ,paso1 ,hudspeth1 ,jeff ,davis1 ,kendall1 ,kerr1 ,kimble1 ,medina1 ,pecos1 ,presidio1 ,real1 ,san ,saba1 ,terrell1 ,travis1 ,upton1 and ,val ,verde4 ,hilly areas with steep canyons are the preferred habitat of this snake4 ,in the ,big ,bend region of ,texas1 where apparently it is the most common rattlesnake1 specimens have been taken from as high as #g1djj feet elevation4 ,it shows an inclination to coil in bushes or on tree limbs near the ground1 although by far the majority of specimens encountered are found on rocky ledges4 ,its disposition has been reported by some to be very irritable1 while others claim it is quiet and docile4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,mojave ,,rattlesnake ,crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ,illustration3 ,,mojave ,,rattlesnake ,description--,this moderately slender snake is very similar in color and markings to the western diamondback rattlesnake4 ,its body is olive green with a pattern of darker diamond shaped markings down the middle of the back4 ,these blotches are well defined by a border of light scales4 ,it differs from the western diamondback in having narrower black tail rings and wider white spaces between these rings4 ,a narrow light line extends from the eye to above the angle of the mouth4 ,size--,average length is three feet1 or shorter than the diamondback rattlesnake4 ,because of its more slender form1 it does not appear as large as a western diamondback of equal length4 ,young--,the average litter contains eight1 the young being similar to the adults in color and marking4 ,distribution--,the ,mojave rattlesnake is known in ,brewster1 ,hudspeth and ,presidio ,counties4 ,unlike most other rattlers1 this species is reported to be most active during daylight hours4 ,it is rather quiet by nature and does well in captivity4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,prairie ,,rattlesnake ,crotalus viridis viridis ,illustration3 ,,prairie ,,rattlesnake ,description--,color of the back is greenish or grayish4 ,a series of dark1 rounded blotches extends down the middle of the back4 ,these markings1 with narrow white borders1 become wider and shorter near the tail to form bands4 ,in front of the eye is a narrow light line which extends backward and downward to the mouth4 ,size--,rather slender in form1 this snake reaches a maximum size of five and a half feet4 ,average length is three feet4 ,young--,broods average #ab but vary from four to #ba4 ,distribution--,texas records of this snake are widely scattered4 ,counties in which it is know include3 ,andrews1 ,armstrong1 ,baylor1 ,brewster1 ,briscoe1 ,callahan1 ,carson1 ,castro1 ,childress1 ,crane1 ,crosby1 ,dallam1 ,dawson1 ,deaf ,smith1 ,dickens1 ,ector1 ,el ,paso1 ,garza1 ,gray1 ,hansford1 ,hartley1 ,haskell1 ,hemphill1 ,hockley1 ,hutchinson1 ,kent1 ,lamb1 ,lipscomb1 ,lubbock1 ,lynn1 ,midland1 ,moore1 ,ochiltree1 ,oldham1 ,pecos1 ,potter1 ,presidio1 ,randall1 ,reeves1 ,roberts1 ,sherman1 ,taylor1 ,tom ,green1 ,ward1 ,wheeler1 ,wilbarger1 ,winkler1 and ,yoakum4 ,when aroused1 this snake becomes a vicious adversary but1 like most snakes1 is satisfied to go its way if given half a chance4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,,the ,,elapid ,,snakes ,the single representative of this family 7,elapidae7 in ,texas is small1 slender1 and brightly colored with rings of red1 yellow and black4 ,the head is small and rounded and eye pupils are circular4 ,its venom-conducting fangs1 in the front of the upper jaw1 are small and permanently erect2 consequently1 some chewing is required before the snake can inject its poison with certainty4 ,as if to make up for its poor biting equipment1 the coral snake possesses a venom of high toxicity1 a venom much more potent than that of the pit vipers which are so well adapted for injecting their poison quickly and deeply4 ,because this poison produces scarcely any severe local symptoms1 the danger from a bite may be overlooked and treatment delayed4 ,although pain is present1 the usual dramatic symptoms of snake poisoning1 such as extensive discoloration and great swelling at the site of bite1 are scarcely noticeable4 ,this absence of conclusive symptoms may lead the victim to believe he has been bitten by a harmless snake4 ,in all coral snake bites1 prompt action is necessary4 ,,texas ,,coral ,,snake ,micrurus fulvius tenere ,illustration3 ,left1 coral snake2 right1 ,mexican milk snake ,description--,generally less than two and a half feet long1 this is our most colorful venomous snake and1 at the same time1 the least dangerous in appearance4 ,its small1 narrow head1 slender body and brightly colored pattern can be dangerously misleading4 ,children1 especially1 are inclined to pick it up because they are attracted by its colors and convinced that such beauty must be harmless4 ,the pattern consists of red1 yellow and black rings which encircle the body in the following order3 a broad black ring1 a much narrower yellow ring1 a broad red ring1 a narrow yellow ring1 a broad black ring1 and so on4 ,note that the red and yellow rings on the body touch one another4 ,the snout is black and a broad yellow ring crosses the back of the head4 ,identification of this snake would be simple were it not for the fact that several harmless snakes resemble it in form and coloration4 ,these mimics are marked with yellow1 red and black rings--but the arrangement is consistently different from that of the coral snake4 ,the red and yellow rings of the coral snake touch one another1 while in the harmless forms these colors are separated by black rings4 ,a simple rhyme adopted by ,boy ,scouts to help them associate 8danger0 with the color combination found on the coral snake is1 8,red and yellow kill a fellow40 ,remember this easy rhyme and1 when you find yourself involved with a colorful little snake with adjacent red and yellow rings1 be cautious4 ,the harmless kind most closely resembling the coral snake probably is the ,mexican milk snake1 technically known as ,lampropeltis doliata annulata and found south of ,kerrville4 ,the head of this snake normally is black4 ,body and tail are marked with a series of from #ai to #be narrow yellow rings bordered by slightly wider black rings4 ,the red rings on the body are just as wide as the combined yellow and two adjacent black rings4 ,another of these mimics is the western milk snake 7,lampropeltis doliata gentilis71 a small species usually less than two feet long1 which is native to central and western ,texas4 ,it has a pattern of from #be to #dj yellow rings which are bordered by black4 ,the red rings are separated from the yellow by black rings4 ,all rings on this form are very narrow4 ,in the southeastern part of the state is found still another of these mimics--the ,louisiana milk snake 7,lampropeltis doliata amaura74 ,rarely reaching a length of two feet1 this form has a pattern of narrow yellow rings which are bordered on each side by narrow black rings4 ,the much wider red rings are separated from the yellow by the black rings4 ,in the scarlet snake 7,cemophora coccinea7 of eastern and coastal ,texas1 the pattern is a series of wide red blotches bordered by much narrower black bands4 ,the yellow bands1 about half the width of the red ones1 are separated from them by the black bands4 ,the belly is unmarked white or yellow4 ,adults are about a foot and a half long but a #be-;inch specimen is on record4 ,size--,the coral snake is generally less than two and a half feet long with a body diameter of about three-eights of an inch4 ,the largest known specimen is nearly #db inches long and was collected on the mid-,texas coast4 ,young--,this is the only poisonous ,texas snake which lays eggs4 ,from two to nine eggs constitute the egg complement of this form4 ,distribution--,this snake is known in the following counties3 ,angelina1 ,aransas1 ,atascosa1 ,austin1 ,bandera1 ,bastrop1 ,bee1 ,bell1 ,bexar1 ,bosque1 ,brazoria1 ,brazos1 ,brooks1 ,burleson1 ,burnet1 ,caldwell1 ,calhoun1 ,cameron1 ,chambers1 ,colorado1 ,comal1 ,dallas1 ,de,witt1 ,duval1 ,ellis1 ,fort ,bend1 ,galveston1 ,goliad1 ,gonzales1 ,guadalupe1 ,hardin1 ,harris1 ,harrison1 ,hays1 ,henderson1 ,hidalgo1 ,houston1 ,jackson1 ,jasper1 ,jefferson1 ,jim ,hogg1 ,karnes1 ,kendall1 ,kenedy1 ,kerr1 ,kleberg1 ,lavaca1 ,lee1 ,leon1 ,liberty1 ,live ,oak1 ,llano1 ,mason1 ,matagorda1 ,mc,lennan1 ,milam1 ,montgomery1 ,morris1 ,nacogdoches1 ,newton1 ,nueces1 ,orange1 ,palo ,pinto1 ,panola1 ,polk1 ,real1 ,refugio1 ,robertson1 ,san ,jacinto1 ,san ,patricio1 ,sutton1 ,tarrant1 ,terrell1 ,tom ,green1 ,travis1 ,victoria1 ,walker1 ,waller1 ,wharton1 ,willacy1 ,williamson1 and ,wilson4 ,unlike most other poisonous snakes1 this species is a burrower1 coming to the surface after a warm rain to feed upon small lizards and snakes4 ,contrary to even expert opinion1 it is not primarily nocturnal1 but becomes active during daylight and evening hours4 ,it is often found in or under decaying logs or other trash1 especially in damp regions2 in the ,san ,antonio area1 specimens frequently are found under flagstones near homes4 ,illustration3 ,distribution map ,in spite of its inoffensive nature1 the coral snake is no different from other snakes in that it will bite if stepped upon or restrained4 ,it does not deliberately coil and strike with accuracy like the pit vipers4 ,instead1 it swings the forward part of the body from side to side until it can secure a hold to bite and then begins a chewing motion to imbed its short fangs4 ,the notion that its mouth is too small to bite effectively has in some instances resulted in careless disregard for its deadliness4 ,it is true that the head appears very short and the mouth not capable of opening widely4 ,actually1 the skull is rather elongated and the mouth can be opened to a greater degree than might be expected4 ,even when it bites a relatively flat surface1 such as the back of the hand1 the snake's closing mouth will pinch the skin1 allowing the fangs to penetrate4 ,,venoms ,generally speaking1 snake venoms are divided into two broad categories1 neurotoxic and hemorrhagic1 depending on their destructive actions4 ,neurotoxic poison is characteristic of cobras and coral snakes and produces considerable pain but little or no swelling and discoloration at the bite4 ,death from this type of poison is the result of respiratory failure and is preceded by such symptoms as headache1 muscular weakness1 lethargy and facial paralysis with accompanying difficulty in speech4 ,hemorrhagic venom1 on the other hand1 affects primarily the blood cells and vessels4 ,local reaction is evident soon after injection of the venom and consists of pain1 discoloration1 and swelling at the site of the bite4 ,all of these symptoms gradually become more extensive4 ,weakness1 nausea1 vomiting and--occasionally--diarrhea may follow in a few hours4 ,in many cases of snake bite1 shock is present4 ,although every snake's venom contains both the neurotoxic and hemorrhagic elements1 the proportion of these components varies with each kind of poisonous snake4 ,for example1 the venom of the coral snake is primarily neurotoxic in action1 but produces a small hemorrhagic effect as well4 ,on the other hand1 water moccasin venom1 although basically hemorrhagic in action1 has a greater amount of the neurotoxic element than do the poisons of the copperheads or rattlesnakes4 ,furthermore1 neurotoxic effects are more evident following the bites of the ,mojave and massasauga rattlers than they are in poisonings by other ,texas rattlesnakes4 ,illustration3 ,,first ,,aid ,,kit ,equipment necessary for first aid treatment of snake bite includes a sharp cutting instrument such as a razor blade or sharp knife for making incisions1 a constricting band to retard the flow of lymph1 iodine or alcohol for sterilizing the knife and bitten area1 and a suction device for removing the venom-contaminated lymph4 ,this last item is especially important if you are alone and cannot reach the wound to apply suction by mouth4 ,snake bite kits containing the essential items can be purchased at most drug or sporting goods stores at a cost of from two to five dollars1 depending upon the make4 ,anyone who spends much time outdoors should carry a snake bite kit at all times1 and he should know how to use it4 ,a smaller kit can be more easily carried and is less likely to be left at home or in the car4 ,,diagnosing ,,the ,,bite ,to make certain that a poisonous snake has caused the bite1 first examine the wound for teeth marks4 ,in a perfect bite by a poisonous snake 7excluding the coral snake71 the pattern will reveal two distinctly larger holes where the fangs have entered the flesh4 ,there also may be two rows of smaller teeth marks between these punctures4 ,illustration3 ,snakebite patterns ,furthermore1 if the snake engages the lower jaw1 two additional rows of small teeth impressions will be seen below the first group4 ,frequently the bite pattern is not a clear one4 ,for example1 if the snake pulls to one side as it disengages the fangs after a strike1 the result is a series of scratch marks instead of punctures4 ,there is also the possibility that the snake will engage only a single fang2 or1 perhaps1 during fang replacement1 two fangs are temporarily in position on one or both sides of the upper jaw4 ,any of these conditions1 as well as others1 can contribute to an obscure bite pattern4 ,the bite of a coral snake often is difficult to diagnose by examination of the wound4 ,because this snake impels its fangs in a sort of chewing motion1 the pattern created by its bite may be two groups of closely spaced punctures where the fangs have entered the flesh a number of different times4 ,a clearly defined harmless snake bite pattern consists of a series of uniformly small punctures 7four rows made by teeth in the upper jaw1 two rows by teeth in the lower71 but always without the large fang holes4 ,more typically1 a non-poisonous bite produces several rows of scratches4 ,pit-viper poisoning is diagnosed primarily by the presence of local signs and symptoms4 ,the most important of these are3 #a4 ,pain accompanies most poisonous snake bites4 ,generally intense and burning in character1 it becomes more severe with the passing of time4 ,this symptom alone is not conclusive because pain can be imagined following a non-poisonous bite4 ,occasionally in a severe bite1 the pain is replaced by numbness and tingling4 #b4 ,swelling at the bite area is present in every case of poisoning4 ,it will appear within five to #cj minutes4 ,in a severe case1 the swelling may continue to spread for #bd hours4 ,there will be no swelling from a bite by a non-poisonous snake or by a poisonous snake that injected no venom4 ,illustration3 ,snakebite swelling #c4 ,discoloration1 reddish or bruise-like in appearance1 begins around the fang punctures within a half hour and becomes gradually more extensive4 ,intense local pain is symptomatic of coral snake poisoning but1 unlike a case of pit-viper poisoning1 swelling and discoloration are not pronounced4 ,diagnosis of coral snake envenomation is difficult and must be based primarily on systemic symptoms3 headaches1 weakness1 lethargy and facial paralysis4 ,,severity ,,of ,,the ,,bite ,even after the bite has been diagnosed as venomous1 it is not immediately possible to predict the course it will follow4 ,the severity of each case of snake poisoning is determined by the speed with which symptoms progress4 ,although the bite of a large snake is generally more serious than one caused by a small snake1 the seriousness of a bite cannot be gauged by snake size alone4 ,some variable factors that affect the severity of each case include3 #a4 ,age1 size and health of the victim4 #b4 ,his allergy complex and sensitivity to protein poisoning4 #c4 ,his emotional condition immediately after having been bitten4 #d4 ,location of bite on the victim4 #e4 ,amount of fang penetration and venom injection4 #f4 ,number of times the victim was bitten4 #g4 ,kind and size of snake that bit him4 #h4 ,whether or not the snake recently had eaten4 #i4 ,conditions of the snake's fangs4 #aj4 ,how soon treatment was administered4 ,,first ,,aid ,,treatment ,it is important that every snake bite victim receive first aid treatment as soon as possible4 ,the patient must not exert himself by running1 because increased circulation brought on by such physical activity will speed up absorption of the poison4 ,for the same reason1 the use of whiskey or other stimulants should be avoided4 ,the victim's state of mind is important2 he must promptly be convinced that his chances for recovery are good--and1 indeed1 they are4 ,he should not be terrified by the thought that every snake bite means certain death4 ,actually1 a survey of case histories shows that with prompt and proper treatment1 only about one or two per cent of all snake bites in this country are fatal4 ,there is a considerable difference of opinion about the correct first aid treatment for poisonous snake bite4 ,the ,division of ,medical ,sciences of the ,national ,research ,council1 a section of the ,national ,academy of ,sciences1 recently made a study to determine the most effective method of such treatment4 ,it recommended immobilization of the bitten limb1 application of a constricting band1 and prompt incision and suction4 ,based on these recommendations1 the following first aid treatment for poisonous snake bite is suggested3 #a4 ,,immobilize ,,the ,,affected ,,arm ,,or ,,leg whenever possible4 ,where this is not practicable1 keep movement of the bitten limb to a minimum4 ,muscular activity helps increase the spread of venom4 ,whenever feasible1 transport the victim by litter to further medical aid4 #b4 ,,apply ,a ,,constricting ,,band from two to four inches above the bite1 between the wound and the heart4 ,this will help to limit the spread of venom until it can be removed by incision and suction or neutralized by antivenin4 ,a piece of rubber tubing or a strap tourniquet1 included with every snake bite kit1 is best for this purpose4 ,when these are not available1 items of clothing may be used4 ,a shoe lace1 neckerchief or a strip of clothing torn from shirt or trousers will do4 ,the poison1 unless injected directly into a major blood vessel or deeply into a muscle1 is absorbed slowly by the lymphatics below the skin4 ,therefore1 do not restrict the deeper blood circulation by applying the constricting band too tightly4 ,it should be loose enough for a finger to be slipped under it with little difficulty4 ,remember that during first aid treatment the constricting band must be loosened every #ae minutes for about two minutes4 ,this precaution may prevent gangrene4 ,if the bite is on the hand or forearm1 take off rings1 bracelets or other jewelry because subsequent swelling may make their removal difficult4 ,illustration3 ,applying constricting band #c4 ,,make ,,incisions after sterilizing the cutting instrument and the bite area with iodine or alcohol4 ,if no antiseptic is available1 the blade of the cutting instrument can be sterilized by holding it over a flame 7a match will do74 ,make one cut over each fang mark parallel with the long axis of the bitten limb1 not across it4 ,incisions should be one-quarter inch long and one-eighth to one-quarter inch deep1 but definitely no longer than the diameter of the suction apparatus being used4 ,this would allow air to enter the suction bulb from the outside and the device would then be unable to work4 ,incisions are of the utmost importance to first aid treatment2 without them little or no poison can be withdrawn from the wound by suction4 ,however1 making even a small incision involves some risk and this operation should be done with considerable care4 ,improper or carelessly applied first aid may actually do more harm than good4 ,although a physician may later decide to make additional incisions to relieve the pressure of swelling1 only the cuts over the fang marks are recommended for first aid4 ,illustration3 ,making incision #d4 ,,apply ,,suction to the cuts4 ,this can best be done with one of the suction devices manufactured for that purpose but1 if none is available1 suction can be applied by mouth4 ,there is little danger in oral suction unless the lips or inside of the mouth have cuts or abrasions4 ,contrary to popular opinion1 a tooth cavity will not permit passage of venom into the blood4 ,moreover1 snake venom is destroyed by the stomach's digestive juices1 so if some is accidentally swallowed1 there is little need to worry if you have a healthy system4 ,only during the first #cj minutes following the bite can much venom be removed by incision and suction4 ,illustration3 ,applying suction ,illustration3 ,snakebite kit #e4 ,,get ,,to ,,medical ,,aid as soon as possible--but keep in mind that unnecessary physical exertion is harmful4 ,antivenom may be administered soon after first aid has been started1 but this is best left to a doctor4 ,the ,north ,american ,antisnakebite ,serum made by ,wyeth1 ,inc41 of ,philadelphia #c1 ,pennsylvania1 is effective against pit viper bites but is of less value in the treatment of coral snake poisoning4 ,because coral snakes cause so few bites in the ,united ,states1 no serum to neutralize their venom is prepared in this country4 ,in ,south ,america1 where these snakes are common and may reach a length of five feet1 a serum to neutralize the poison is being produced by the ,instituto ,butantan at ,sao ,paulo1 ,brazil4 ,it and other foreign snake bite serums often are available at larger zoos where exotic poisonous species are exhibited4 ,,suggestions ,,to ,,physicians ,in most areas of ,texas1 snake bite is an uncommon medical emergency1 and one with which few doctors have had experience4 ,for this reason1 the following recommendations by the ,national ,research ,council's ,division of ,medical ,sciences are included for the benefit of the physician4 ,statement on ,hospital ,care ,following ,bites by ,venomous ,snakes ,december #ad1 #aifj ,admission ,procedures ,the routine admission history and physical examination should provide and record1 if possible1 the identity and length of the snake1 the time of the bite1 and the details of all first aid measures employed1 including the time lapse for each and the mode of transportation to the hospital4 ,the record should state whether a tourniquet1 incision and suction1 or the ligature-cryotherapy technique has or has not been used4 ,inquiry should be made concerning previous bites1 allergic manifestations in general1 and whether or not the patient had previously received horse serum4 ,the admission examination should provide information from which the severity of the envenomation can be estimated as a guide to the need for the administration of antivenin and other therapy4 ,sensitivity tests should be instituted promptly during admission if not previously begun4 ,when the patient enters the hospital1 blood should be drawn immediately for typing1 matching and coagulation studies4 ,although envenomation by one of the snakes of ,north ,america may present severe signs and symptoms1 death is rare except in children or following envenomation by a large snake4 ,however1 permanent damage of an involved extremity is frequent following a bite by certain of the ,north ,american venomous snakes2 plastic or orthopedic surgical repair to restore function1 or amputation1 are not unusual consequences4 ,early and continuing close observation is needed to determine if certain therapeutic measures prevent or promote undesirable results4 ,laboratory ,tests ,no rigid set of rules regarding therapy can be justified2 the responsible physician must use his best judgment in his choice of tests to be performed as a guide to procedures to be used4 ,clinical studies could include items such as repeated hematologic tests1 hepatic and renal function studies1 serial electrocardiograms1 electroencephalograms1 and other studies to therapy1 depending on the composition of the venom involved and within the limits of personnel1 time and equipment available4 ,therapeutic ,procedures ,a4 ,systemic #a4 ,immobilization4 ,during transportation1 admission procedures1 and most of the early hospitalization period1 immobilization of the affected part and absolute rest should be continued4 ,a sedative or analgesic may be administered to relieve restlessness and anxiety2 ice bags may be applied to alleviate severe pain4 ,the extremity should be immobilized in the position of function1 and active and passive exercises to prevent contracture started after the third day if consistent with the patient's condition4 #b4 ,blood ,transfusion4 ,postmortem examinations have at times revealed extensive retroperitonial and intraperitonial hemorrhage1 and hemorrhage into the viscera1 including the liver and kidney4 ,progressive decrease in the total volume of circulating red blood cells has been attributed to the development of a massive hemolytic anemia or internal hemorrhage4 ,blood transfusions may be necessary and at times have been followed by marked improvement4 ,studies of the several factors involved in blood clotting may be useful as guides to treatment4 ,the first and subsequent specimens of urine should be especially examined for the presence of red blood cells1 hemoglobin1 and protein4 #c4 ,electrolyte ,balance4 ,abnormality of fluid and electrolyte balance should be detected and corrected on a continuing basis4 #d4 ,antivenin4 ,polyvalent or specific antivenins prepared from venoms of snakes in the same geographic area should be administered in therapeutic quantity as recommended by the manufacturer only with full realization that the hazard of immediate allergic reaction or delayed serum sickness are factors to be evaluated in the decision to carry out this type of treatment4 ,during hospitalization1 antivenin should be given intravenously1 provided that sensitivity tests indicate that the patient is not allergic to the antiserum to be used4 ,desensitization1 if necessary1 should precede the administration of antivenin by any route4 ,the use of antivenin in such cases should be carefully evaluated4 ,injection in normal muscles in other extremities would be the second choice1 since local injections into the deposit site do not diffuse efficiently into the entire damaged area and would increase the hazard of pressure ischemia leading to increased tissue necrosis4 ,epinephrine should be available for immediate use when foreign protein is being administered4 #e4 ,corticosteroids4 ,the use of corticosteroids should be restricted to the prevention or treatment of late manifestations of allergy following administration of antivenins4 #f4 ,antibiotics4 ,a broad-spectrum antibiotic should be administered promptly in appropriate dosage if the reaction to envenomation is severe4 ,since the nature of the injury markedly predisposes to infection1 and pathogenic bacteria are found in the wound1 this use of antibiotics seems justified4 ,laboratory sensitivity tests1 if available1 should control the continuing choice of antibiotics to be used4 ,a massive wound infection with severe systemic reaction could be mistaken for severe envenomation4 ,repeated blood and wound cultures would be of help in making the distinction4 #g4 ,tetanus ,prophylaxis4 ,tetanus toxoid should be administered upon admission if it has not been given as a first aid measure4 #h4 ,respiratory ,paralysis4 ,if respiratory paralysis develops following envenomation by one of the ,elapidae 7this family includes the coral snake71 the use of tracheostomy and intermittent positive pressure artificial respiration is indicated4 #i4 ,renal ,shutdown has been an occasional occurrence following massive envenomation4 ,an awareness of this possible complication can do much toward the prevention and treatment of secondary effects arising after its occurrence4 ,routine daily tests such as ,b4,u4,n41 ,,co combining power1 and serum potassium levels are indicated in severe cases4 ,b4 ,local ,measures ,during ,hospitalization #a4 ,tourniquet 7,constricting band74 ,a tourniquet applied following a bite by a venomous ,north ,american snake should be removed if envenomation seems mild or after a potent antivenin is given in therapeutic quantity4 ,the prolonged use of a tourniquet or of a constricting band would increase local tissue damage due to the action of venom and might delay the vascular transport of antivenin into envenomated areas4 #b4 ,incision and ,suction4 ,substantial amounts of venom can be removed during the first half-hour from subcutaneous deposits by incision and suction4 ,on the other hand1 if the casualty is admitted to the hospital one hour or more following envenomation1 an attempt to remove venom by incision and suction at the site of the bite would be of little value4 ,however1 if marked subcutaneous pitting edema develops1 interstitial pressure can be relieved by several longitudinal incisions extending into the subcutaneous tissues4 ,suction and fasciotomy may be required at times4 ,parrish 7#aifa71 using a modification of ,wood1 ,hoback and ,green's 7#aiee7 clinical classification of pit viper venenations1 has proposed the following guide for determining the severity of a poisonous snake bite4 ,this classification is based upon present signs and symptoms and the clinical course of the patient during the first #ab hours of hospitalization4 ,it will be useful as a guide in treatment4 ,grade ,o 7,no venenation74 ,fang or tooth marks present1 minimal pain1 less than one inch of surrounding edema and erythema1 and no systemic involvement4 ,grade ,i 7,minimal venenation74 ,fang or tooth marks present1 moderate pain1 from one to five inches surrounding edema and erythema in the first #ab hours after bite1 and no systemic involvement4 ,grade ,,ii 7,moderate venenation74 ,fang or tooth marks present1 severe pain1 six to #ab inches of surrounding edema and erythema in the first #ab hours after bite1 with systemic involvement--nausea1 vomiting1 giddiness1 shock or neurotoxic symptoms present4 ,grade ,,iii 7,severe venenation74 ,fang or tooth marks present1 severe pain1 more than #ab inches of surrounding edema and erythema in the first #ab hours after bite1 with systemic involvement 7as in ,grade ,,ii74 ,,bibliography ,boys1 ,floyd and ,hobart ,m4 ,smith4 ,poisonous ,amphibians and ,reptiles4 ,charles ,c4 ,thomas ,co41 ,springfield1 #aiei4 ,brown1 ,bryce ,c4 ,an ,annotated ,check ,list of the ,reptiles and ,amphibians of ,texas4 ,baylor ,university ,press1 ,waco1 #aiej4 ,buckley1 ,eleanor and ,nandor ,porges 7,editors74 ,venoms4 ,publication ,no4 #dd1 ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 #aief4 ,conant1 ,roger4 ,a ,field ,guide to the ,reptiles and ,amphibians of ,eastern ,north ,america4 ,houghton ,mifflin ,co41 ,boston1 #aieh4 ,curran1 ,c4 ,h4 and ,carl ,f4 ,kaufield4 ,snakes and ,their ,ways4 ,harper ,brothers ,publishers1 ,new ,york1 #aicg4 ,emery1 ,jerry ,a4 and ,findlay ,e4 ,russell4 ,studies with ,cooling ,measures ,following ,injection of ,crotalus ,venom4 ,copeia1 no4 #c pp4 #cbb-cbf1 ,september1 #aifa4 ,fischer1 ,f4 ,j41 ,h4 ,w4 ,ramsey1 ,j4 ,simon and ,j4 ,f4 ,gennaro4 ,antivenin and ,antitoxin in the ,treatment of ,experimental ,rattlesnake ,venom ,intoxication 7,crotalus adamanteus74 ,american ,journal of ,tropical ,medicine1 vol4 #aj1 pp4 #ge-gi1 #aifa4 ,gloyd1 ,howard ,k4 ,the ,rattlesnakes1 ,genera ,sistrurus and ,crotalus4 ,chicago ,academy of ,sciences1 ,special ,publication no4 #d1 #aidj4 ,harman1 ,r4 ,w4 and ,c4 ,b4 ,pollard4 ,bibliography of ,animal ,venoms4 ,university of ,florida ,press1 ,gainesville1 #aidi4 ,kauffeld1 ,carl ,f4 ,staten ,island ,zoo4 ,keegan1 ,hugh ,l41 ,frederick ,whittemore1 ,jr41 and ,james ,f4 ,flanigan4 ,heterologous ,antivenin in ,neutralization of ,north ,american ,coral ,snake ,venom4 ,public ,health ,reports1 vol4 #gf1 no4 #f1 pp4 #edj-edb1 #aifa4 ,klauber1 ,lawrence ,m4 ,rattlesnakes1 ,their ,habits1 ,life ,histories1 and ,influence on ,mankind4 #b vols4 ,university of ,california ,press1 ,berkeley1 #aief4 ,minton1 ,sherman ,a4 ,snakebite4 ,scientific ,american1 vol4 #aif1 no4 #a1 pp4 #aad-aah1 #abj1 #abb1 #aieg4 ,national ,academy of ,sciences1 ,national ,research ,council4 ,interim ,statement on ,first-aid ,therapy for ,bites by ,venomous ,snakes4 ,mimeographed4 pp4 #a-e1 #aifj4 ,national ,academy of ,sciences1 ,national ,research ,council4 ,statement on ,hospital ,care ,following ,bites by ,venomous ,snakes4 ,mimeographed4 pp4 #a-d1 #aifj4 ,oliver1 ,james ,a4 ,the ,prevention and ,treatment of ,snakebite4 ,animal ,kingdom1 vol4 #ee1 no4 #c1 pp4 #ff-hc1 #aieb4 ,parrish1 ,henry ,m4 ,the ,poisonous ,snake ,bite ,problem in ,florida4 ,journal of the ,florida ,academy of ,sciences1 vol4 #bj1 no4 #c1 pp4 #ahe-bjd1 #aieg4 ,parrish1 ,henry ,m4 ,poisonous ,snakebites ,resulting in ,lack of ,venomous ,poisoning4 ,virginia ,medical ,monthly1 vol4 #hf1 pp4 #cif-1 #aiei4 ,parrish1 ,henry ,m4 ,snake ,venom ,poisoning4 ,medical ,times1 vol4 #hi1 no4 #f1 pp4 #eie-fjb1 #aifa4 ,pope1 ,clifford ,h4 ,snakes ,alive and ,how ,they ,live4 ,viking ,press1 ,new ,york1 #aicg4 ,pope1 ,clifford ,h4 and ,r4 ,marlin ,perkins4 ,differences in the ,patterns of ,bites of ,venomous and of ,harmless ,snakes4 ,archives of ,surgery1 vol4 #di1 pp4 #cca-ccf1 #aidd4 ,russell1 ,findlay ,e4 ,rattlesnake ,bites in ,southern ,california4 ,american ,journal of the ,medical ,sciences1 vol4 #bci1 no4 #a1 pp4 #ea-fj1 #aifj4 ,russell1 ,findlay ,e4 ,injuries by ,venomous ,animals in the ,united ,states4 ,journal of the ,american ,medical ,association1 vol4 #agg1 pp4 #ijc-ijg1 #aifa4 ,russell1 ,findlay ,e4 and ,jerry ,a4 ,emery4 ,incision and ,suction ,following ,injection of ,rattlesnake ,venom4 ,american ,journal of the ,medical ,sciences1 vol4 #bda1 no4 #b1 pp4 #afj-aff1 #aifa4 ,stimson1 ,a4 ,c4 and ,h4 ,t4 ,engelhardt4 ,the ,treatment of ,snakebite4 ,journal of ,occupational ,medicine1 vol4 #b1 no4 #d1 pp4 #afc-afh1 #aifj4 ,strecker1 ,j4 ,k4 ,reptiles and ,amphibians of ,texas1 #aiae4 ,wood1 ,john ,t4 ,a ,survey of #bjj ,cases of ,snakebite in ,virginia4 ,american ,journal of ,tropical ,medicine and ,hygiene1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #icf-idc1 #aied4 ,wood1 ,john ,t4 ,a ,critique on the 8,l-,c0 ,treatment of ,snakebites4 ,southern ,medical ,journal1 vol4 #di1 pp4 #gdi-gea1 #aief4 ,wood1 ,john ,t41 ,w4 ,w4 ,hoback and ,t4 ,w4 ,green4 ,treatment of ,snake ,venom ,poisoning with ,,acth and ,cortisone4 ,virginia ,medical ,monthly1 vol4 #hb1 pp4 #acj-ace1 #aiee4 ,wright1 ,a4 ,h4 and ,a4 ,a4 ,wright4 ,handbook of ,snakes of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,comstock ,publishing ,associates1 ,ithaca1 #aieg4 ,ya1 ,p4 ,m4 and ,john ,f4 ,perry1 ,jr4 ,experimental ,evaluation of ,methods for the ,early ,treatment of ,snake ,bite4 ,surgery1 vol4 #dg1 no4 #f1 pp4 #ige-iha1 #aifj4 ,young1 ,nettie4 ,snakebite3 ,treatment and ,nursing ,care4 ,american ,journal of ,nursing1 vol4 #dj1 pp4 #feg-ffj1 #aidj4 ,,films ,a #af mm4 motion picture film in color1 entitled1 8,poisonous ,snakes10 is available from the ,texas ,parks and ,wildlife ,department1 ,reagan ,state ,office ,building1 ,austin1 ,texas4 ,it deals with snake bite prevention1 poisonous snake identification and first aid treatment4 ,,field ,,notes ,transcriber's ,notes --,retained publication information from the printed edition3 this e,book is public-domain in the country of publication4 --,corrected a few palpable typos4 --,collated ,table of ,contents1 and re-ordered entries1 or added headings1 to coordinate with the actual contents4 --,in the text versions only1 text in italics is delimited by underscores4