,,the ,,panama ,,canal ,,by ,,harry ,,clow ,,boardman ,,thesis ,,for ,,the ,,degree ,,of ,,bachelor ,,of ,,science ,,in ,,civil ,,engineering ,,college ,,of ,,engineering ,,university ,,of ,,illinois ,,presented ,,june1 #aiaj ,,university ,,of ,,illinois ,,college ,,of ,,engineering4 ,june #a1 #aiaj ,this is to certify that the thesis of ,,harry ,,clow ,,boardman entitled ,the ,panama ,canal is approved by me as meeting this part of the requirements for the degree of ,bachelor of ,science in ,civil ,engineering4 ,f4 ,o4 ,dufour ,instructor in ,charge4 ,approved3 ,ira ,o4 ,baker4 ,professor of ,civil ,engineering4 ,,outline ,,of ,,thesis ,,on ,,the ,,panama ,,canal ,page ,i4 ,,introduction v ,,ii4 ,,interoceanic ,,canals #a ,,iii4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,panama ,,canal #f ,,iv4 ,,type ,,of ,,canal1 7,lock or ,sea-level7 #ac ,v4 ,,location1 ,,size ,,and ,,plan #bj ,,vi4 ,,organization ,,of ,,forces #ba ,,vii4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,canal ,,prism #bf ,,viii4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,locks #bi ,,ix4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,dams #cc ,x4 ,,sanitation #ch ,,xi4 ,,social ,,life #dj ,,xii4 ,,economic ,,importance #dc ,i4 ,,introduction ,the building of a canal across the ,american ,isthmus has occupied the attention of the world for four hundred years4 ,while yet the sailors who crossed the sea with ,columbus were living in all the vigor of mature manhood1 a ,spanish engineer drew the plans for an artificial waterway across the ,isthmus and submitted them to the ,king of ,spain4 ,from that time to this the building of an ,isthmian ,canal has been a fascinating project in the minds of progressive men4 ,attempts to build it have resulted in the loss of thousands of lives and the squandering of millions of treasure2 and this 8dream of the centuries0 is still unrealized4 ,illustration3 ,,proposed ,,routes ,,for ,,an ,,isthmian ,,canal4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,ii4 ,,interoceanic ,,canals ,there are at least five routes which at one time or another have been chosen and seriously considered as possible locations for the ,isthmian ,canal4 ,they are3 the ,atrato-,napipi1 the ,san ,blas1 the ,tehuantepec1 the ,nicaragua1 and the ,panama routes4 ,the ,atrato-,napipi route follows the river ,atrato1 which empties into the ,gulf of ,darien1 as far as the mouth of its tributary1 the ,napipi1 thence up that river through the mountains and empties in ,capica ,bay4 ,see ,fig4 #a1 ,no4 #a4 ,the ,san ,blas route runs from the bay of the same name on the ,atlantic side to the river ,chipo which empties in the ,gulf of ,panama4 ,it is only forty or fifty miles southeast of the ,panama route4 ,see ,fig4 #a1 ,no4 #b4 ,the ,tehuantepec route begins at the bay of ,coatzacoalcos in the ,bay of ,campeche and ends at the harbor of ,salina ,cruz in the ,gulf of ,tehuantepec4 ,see ,fig4 #a1 ,no4 #c4 ,all modern engineers thrust these aside as impracticable1 the first two because of the necessity for tunnels and the last because of its great length and number of locks4 ,they will1 therefore1 receive no further attention4 ,the choice of the location for an ,interoceanic canal has long been conceded by practical engineers to lie between the ,nicaragua and ,panama routes4 ,a consideration of the natural advantages and disadvantages of these rival lines follows4 ,since the ,nicaragua route has been abandoned the features of the proposed construction will receive no attention4 ,it is highly probable that this route would never have been seriously considered by the ,united ,states had it not been for the fact that the ,panama line was for many years under the control of ,france and apparently was destined to continue so for a considerable period4 ,logically the question of harbors first suggests itself4 ,natural harbors do not exist in ,nicaragua nor could one be excavated and maintained on the ,atlantic side without a continual battle with forces which1 in the last fifty years1 have transformed what was once an excellent harbor at ,greytown into a lagoon partially enclosed by an ever advancing line of sand brought down by the river ,san ,juan4 ,experience on the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf coasts of the ,united ,states has given abundant evidence of the results of a fight with such forces4 ,in his 8,the ,american ,isthmus and ,interoceanic ,canal0 ,w4 ,henry ,hunter says1 8,the policy which fights against the forces of nature is a mistaken one2 it is foredoomed to failure4 ,nature may be aided in her operations2 her more gigantic forces may to some extent be curbed and controlled2 but an almost certain ,nemesis pursues any effort which may be made to arrest and to determine in an absolute way a process so continuous as that of the filling up of the ,greytown bight40 ,brito1 the ,pacific terminus1 is little better than ,greytown since 8even in the calmest weather there is a nearly constant surf1 with breakers from four to ten feet high40 ,therefore1 the terminus at ,greytown would always be in danger of being filled up by the ,atlantic waves and the one at ,brito would constantly be liable to destruction by the ,pacific breakers4 ,on the other hand the natural harbors of the ,panama route have successfully met the demands of commerce for the last four hundred years4 ,on the ,pacific end practically no harbor improvements will be necessary4 ,on the ,atlantic the present needs are satisfied1 but the large steamers of the future may require deepening which can be done and the resulting channel easily maintained since there is no persistent filling in process such as characterizes the ,greytown harbor4 ,volcanoes have long been plentiful in ,central ,america1 especially near the proposed ,nicaragua canal4 ,nicaragua ,lake1 so geologists say1 owes its separation from the ,pacific to a great upheaval4 ,there is now an active volcano near which ships would have to pass4 ,from ,january #a1 #aija to ,april #cj1 #aijd1 a period of forty consecutive months1 the instruments of the ,instituto-,fisico ,geografico1 located #fj miles from the locks of the proposed canal1 recorded #dc tremors1 #ia slight shocks and #ce strong shocks1 some of which lasted #af minutes4 ,similar observations at ,panama for the same period revealed only #f tremors and #d slight shocks1 the longest being for a period of only #aj seconds4 ,the lock gates of a canal might very easily be injured by earthquakes2 and common sense would dictate that other things being equal1 the canal should be placed where the shocks are fewest4 ,strong trade winds rush through the ,san ,juan gorge at all seasons4 ,the rainfall near the ,atlantic is enormous1 averaging from #bfj to #bgj inches per year1 and rain may be expected any day4 ,in the western part the fall is only #fe inches1 and there is also a well defined dry season4 ,clear vision is essential to safe passage through the canal and it is extremely doubtful if it could be obtained under the above conditions4 ,still more serious perhaps is the excessive curvature of the channel for #ej miles of its course4 ,it is impossible to reduce the curvature to the limit which experience on the ,suez canal has proved necessary for safety and speed4 ,furthermore the channel must carry off to the sea the drainage from #ab1jjj square miles of territory4 ,this cannot do otherwise than create currents and eddies unfavorable to navigation4 ,the ,panama route has no continued strong winds2 the curvature is comparatively favorable2 the annual rainfall is from #adj inches on the ,atlantic coast to about #fj inches on the ,pacific1 with a definite dry season of three months2 and the concensus of expert engineering opinion is that there need be no objectionable currents if proper provision is made for the regulation of the ,chagres river4 ,this phase will be discussed later as will also the question of curvature4 ,much has been said about the advantages furnished by ,lake ,nicaragua which covers about #gj miles of the ,canal route4 ,however1 for #bi miles of that distance1 an artificial channel through soft mud would be necessary1 and dredging would probably be practically continuous for maintenance4 ,from a purely engineering standpoint the most serious objection to this route is the liability to interruption for lack of water in seasons of extreme drought which are not at all uncommon in that region4 ,upon first thought it seems that a lake #c1jjj square miles in extent cannot be other than an ideal source of supply1 but such is not the case4 ,by the proposed dam on the lower ,san ,juan river the channel of the stream would become an arm of the lake through which all shipping would have to pass1 the depth of water being1 of course1 dependent upon the lake level4 ,this level has a natural variation of #ac feet4 ,under the projected conditions the whole outflow would pass over the dam about #ej miles away from the lake proper4 ,the present high water mark cannot be exceeded without flooding valuable lands1 nor1 on the other hand1 can the channel depth be made as great as desirable because the river bed is crossed by many rock ledges1 and the cost of excavation fixes a limit to the depth economically practicable4 ,the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission of #ahii-'ja concluded that the variation would have to be reduced to #g feet4 ,this means that the level would be held between #ajd and #aaa feet above tide water and the river bed excavated enough to give a minimum sailing depth of #dj feet4 ,records show no regular succession of high and low lake years2 and as it is plainly impossible to keep a reserve sufficient to control such an enormous expanse of water1 the regulation of this most important matter would be left to the judgment of the operator controlling the overflow at the dam4 ,carelessness or bad judgment on his part might therefore easily stop traffic for an indefinite period4 ,there is a similar question in regard to ,gatun ,lake of the ,panama line although the majority of authorities anticipate no trouble from that source4 ,a more complete discussion of this danger will be given later4 ,concerning the actual difficulties of construction at ,nicaragua1 little need be said inasmuch as no work is now contemplated there4 ,the ,san ,juan dam of the ,nicaragua and the ,gatun dam of the ,panama route both present conditions which have never been met before4 ,also the deep cuts of the ,culebra find their counterpart in portions of the longer route4 ,the time-saving element is of more apparent than real importance because the time lost on the longer sea-voyage for the ,panama route would be practically balanced by the gain of time in actual passage through the canal1 the ,nicaragua route being about four times as long as the ,panama route4 ,henry ,l4 ,abbot1 in his 8,problems of the ,panama ,canal01 estimates that #cd hours more time would be required for passage by way of the ,nicaragua than by way of the ,panama route4 ,an excellent reason for the adoption of the ,panama rather than the ,nicaragua route was the existence of a good railroad and the fact that the ,french had actually completed about two fifths of the work required4 ,,summary ,,of ,,comparison ,below is given a summary of the comparisons which have just been discussed4 ,panama ,route ,nicaragua ,route ,there are two good harbors4 ,there are no good harbors4 ,there is a good railroad4 ,there is a very poor railroad4 ,two-fifths of the work is completed4 ,no work is completed4 ,the projected construction1 according ,a dam without precedent in to the majority of canal work is projected4 engineers1 is justified by good engineering practice4 ,except at ,bohio1 the annual rainfall ,the most difficult works are nowhere exceeds #ic inches4 where the rainfall is nearly #bef inches4 ,the length is #ej miles4 ,the length is #agf miles4 ,there are no active volcanoes4 ,there is one active volcano near the route4 ,the time of transit is #ad hours4 ,the time of transit is #dd hours4 ,the curvature is comparatively ,the curvature is sharp4 gentle4 ,no troublesome winds and ,heavy trade winds and strong cross-currents are expected4 currents would be troublesome4 ,,iii4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,panama ,,route ,the ,panama route as a line of transit was first established between the years #aeag and #aebj4 ,the first settlement on the site of old ,panama1 six or seven miles east of the present city1 was made in #aeag4 ,the ,atlantic end1 called ,nombre de ,dios1 was built in #aeai4 ,here ,balboa was tried and executed4 ,it grew rapidly in importance and in #aeba became a city by royal decree4 ,even at that early date a road was established across the ,isthmus4 ,it1 however1 did not enter the city of ,panama1 but at the ,pacific end passed through a small town called ,cruces on the ,chagres river about #ag miles distant1 and at the ,atlantic end passed through ,nombre de ,dios4 ,the latter terminus did not prove satisfactory so the town of ,porto ,bello was made the ,atlantic ,port in #aeig4 ,this also was subsequently abandoned4 ,at least part of this road was paved1 and bridges were built over the streams4 ,even today its course is well defined4 ,as early as #aecd boats began to pass up and down the ,chagres river between ,cruces and its mouth on the ,caribbean shore and thence along the coast to ,nombre de ,dios1 and later to ,porto ,bello4 ,the commerce thus begun increased rapidly during the sixteenth century and ,panama became a very important commercial center with a trade extending to the ,spice ,islands and the ,asiatic coast4 ,it was at the height of its power in #aehe and was called the 8toll-gate between western ,europe and ,eastern ,asia40 ,in time this commercial prosperity1 which enriched ,spain1 called the attention of her rulers and others to the possibility of constructing an interoceanic ship-canal4 ,tradition says that ,charles ,v ordered a survey in #aebj to determine the feasibility of a canal1 but that the governor reported such an undertaking absolutely impossible for any monarch4 ,from that time the prosperity of ,panama increased rapidly4 ,lines of trade were established with the west coast of ,south ,america and the ,pacific ports of ,central ,america4 ,its glory came to a sudden end when1 on the sixth of ,february1 #afga1 it was sacked and burned by ,morgan's buccaneers4 ,a new city1 the present ,panama1 was founded in #afgc1 but the old one was never rebuilt4 ,the project of a canal on this route1 because of its romantic and commercial interest1 was kept alive for more than three centuries without definite action being taken4 ,finally1 in #ahgf1 a ,french ,company was organized at ,paris to make surveys preparatory to building a ship canal across the ,isthmus4 ,lieutenant ,l4 ,n4 ,e4 ,wyse1 a ,french naval officer1 had immediate charge of the work4 ,he obtained a concession1 known as the ,wyse ,concession1 from ,colombia giving ,france the necessary rights for the construction of a canal4 ,in ,may1 #ahgi1 an international congress was convened in ,paris under the auspices of ,ferdinand de ,lesseps1 to consider the question of the best location and plan for the canal4 ,this congress1 after a two weeks session1 decided in favor of a sea-level canal without locks to be located on the ,panama route4 ,immediately after this action the ,panama ,canal ,company was organized under the general laws of ,france with ,ferdinand de ,lesseps as its president4 ,the ,wyse concession was purchased by the company1 and after two attempts the stock was successfully floated in ,december1 #ahhj4 ,two years were then devoted to surveys and preliminary work4 ,in the plan first adopted the canal was to be #bi4e feet deep and #gb feet wide at the bottom4 ,leaving ,colon1 the canal passed through low ground to the valley of the ,chagres river at ,gatun2 thence through the valley to ,obispo where it left the river and crossed the continental divide by means of a tunnel and reached the ,pacific through the valley of the ,rio ,grande4 ,the tides on the ,pacific were to be overcome by sloping the bottom of the ,pacific end of the canal4 ,no provision was made for controlling the ,chagres4 ,early in the eighties a tidal lock near the ,pacific was added to the plan1 and various schemes for the control of the ,chagres were proposed1 the one most favored being the construction of the dam at ,gamboa4 ,the tunnel idea was soon abandoned4 ,the ,french engineers estimated that the excavation would be about #aeg1jjj1jjj cubic yards1 that eight years would be required for completion1 and that the cost would be #abg1fjj1jjj4 ,work proceeded continuously until #ahhg1 when a change to the lock type was made in order to secure the use of the canal as soon as possible1 it being understood that the construction of a sea-level canal was not to be abandoned but merely deferred until financial conditions would allow its completion4 ,this new plan placed the summit level above the ,chagres river1 and proposed to supply this summit level with water pumped from that stream4 ,work went on until #ahhi when the company became bankrupt2 and on ,february #d1 a liquidator was appointed to take charge of its affairs4 ,work was stopped on ,may #ae1 #ahhi4 ,the liquidator appointed a commission of eleven engineers to give him technical advice as to the condition of the work and the best methods for its completion4 ,five of these commissioners visited the ,isthmus and reported on ,may #e1 #ahij4 ,the report contained plans for the completion of a lock canal and emphasized the necessity for more complete examinations before beginning work4 ,this advice was followed by the liquidator who at once took steps for the formation of a new company1 and at the same time continued to take careful observations on the ,isthmus1 and these observations have been of great value since then4 ,the ,new ,panama ,canal ,company was organized in ,october1 #ahid4 ,it proposed to construct a sea-level canal from the ,atlantic as far as ,bohio 7,see ,map1 pp #de71 where a dam was to form a lake as far as ,bas ,obispo1 the difference in elevation being overcome by two locks4 ,the summit level extended from ,bas ,obispo to ,paraiso1 and was reached by two more locks and received water from an artificial reservoir formed by a dam at ,alhajuela in the upper ,chagres valley4 ,four dams were located on the ,pacific side1 the two middle ones at ,pedro ,miguel combined in a flight4 ,work continued on this plan up to the time of the ,spanish-,american ,war in #ahih4 ,about that time a 8,comite ,technique01 as it was called1 composed of seven ,french and seven foreign engineers who had been appointed by the ,board of ,directors of the ,new ,company1 submitted its final report upon the canal4 ,it was estimated that1 at a cost of #ajj1jjj1jjj a canal suitable for all commercial needs could be completed in #aj years4 ,had matters continued as before it is probable that the ,new ,canal ,company would have completed the canal as it had planned4 ,but the ,spanish-,american ,war developed wholly new conditions4 ,the trip of the ,oregon around ,cape ,horn drew the attention of the ,american people to the importance of an interoceanic canal4 ,prior to this time the ,board of ,directors of the ,new ,company1 although aware that the ,maratime ,canal ,company was actively engaged in securing funds from the ,united ,states ,congress for the ,nicaragua route1 were so confident that a canal by that route could never seriously compete with their own that they gave little attention to the efforts of their rival4 ,now1 however1 if the newly awakened popular demand for a canal should induce the ,american government to undertake the work1 the ,new ,company would face two formidable conditions1 namely1 the difficulty of raising funds for the completion of the ,panama ,canal would be greatly increased if the parallel route were supported by the ,united ,states and the question of labor would become greatly complicated4 ,knowing that the favorable conditions created by the ,french at ,panama were unknown in the ,united ,states and certain that if known the ,united ,states would assist rather than retard the work the ,board of ,directors1 on ,december #b1 #ahih1 sent a complete copy of the report of the 8,comite ,technique0 to ,president ,mc,kinley and offered to explain the exact conditions to any body of men appointed for the purpose4 ,this offer came at the proper time since ,congress was then ready to pass a bill to aid the ,maratime ,company in the construction of a canal on the ,nicaragua route4 ,on ,february #bg1 #ahii the representatives of the ,new ,company were granted a hearing in the ,house of ,representatives4 ,they presented a technical exhibit1 and stated that their company was authorized to reincorporate as an ,american company under ,american laws4 ,so ably did they present their case that ultimately on ,march #c1 #ahii1 by act of ,congress a commission1 known as the 8,isthmian ,canal ,commission0 was appointed by the ,president to determine the 8most practicable and feasible route for an ,isthmian canal1 with the cost of constructing the same and placing it under the control1 management1 and ownership of the ,united ,states40 ,the original intention of the ,new ,panama ,canal ,company in bringing the subject before the ,united ,states was not to sell its rights on the ,isthmus but to reincorporate and receive the support of ,american wealth4 ,however1 it was evident that the ,united ,states desired absolute control1 and accordingly the consent of ,colombia to a transfer was obtained and the ,company prepared a classified list of its properties which it placed before the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission on ,october #b1 #aija with the statement that the sums given were not to be considered as final but were merely presented as a basis for discussion4 ,the ,commission1 however1 refused to take this view of the matter and persisted in considering the prices offered as constituting1 when summed up1 a definite lump sum for which the ,company would sell its property4 ,this lump sum was #aji1ada1ejj4 ,the ,commission's valuation was #dj1jjj1jjj4 ,consequently when the ,commission made its final report it closed with these words1 8,having in view the terms offered by the ,new ,panama ,canal ,company this ,commission is of the opinion that the most practicable and feasible route for an ,isthmian ,canal to be under the control1 management1 and ownership of the ,united ,states is that known as the ,nicaragua route40 ,when the ,french ,company heard this report it immediately offered to sell its property for #dj1jjj1jjj4 ,accordingly the ,commission made a supplementary report on ,january #ah1 #aijb stating that 8,after considering the changed conditions that now exist1 the ,commission is of the opinion that the most practicable and feasible route for an ,isthmian canal to be under the control1 management1 and ownership of the ,united ,states is that known as the ,panama route40 ,thus it came about that the ,united ,states was authorized to obtain permanent possession of the concessions and properties of the ,new ,panama ,canal ,company at a very low price4 ,congress meanwhile had not waited for the report of the ,commission but had passed a bill known as the ,hepburn ,bill1 authorizing the ,president to acquire the right to construct a canal at ,nicaragua and to begin the actual construction4 ,ten million dollars were appropriated and contracts for material and work to the sum of #adj1jjj1jjj authorized4 ,many discussions arose in the ,senate2 and a strong feeling in favor of the ,panama route became apparent4 ,senator ,hanna was especially active4 ,he sent letters to eighty shipowners1 shipmasters1 officers and pilots1 in which he enclosed a description of the two routes and a list of questions intended to bring out their relative merits from a practical viewpoint4 ,their answers were all in favor of the ,panama route4 ,as a result of the long debate a bill was passed ,june #bf1 #aijb with the ,president's approval4 ,in effect it was as follows4 ,the ,president is authorized to acquire for the sum of #dj1jjj1jjj or less the rights and property of the ,new ,panama ,canal ,company1 and by treaty with ,colombia1 the perpetual control of the strip of territory necessary for operating the canal and is then instructed to proceed and complete the work under an ,isthmian ,canal ,commission of seven members to be appointed by him4 ,one hundred and forty-five million dollars was pledged for this purpose4 ,the ,hay-,herran treaty with ,colombia was signed ,january #bb1 #aijb1 but failed of ratification by ,colombia4 ,in ,november1 #aijc1 however1 there was a successful revolution upon the ,isthmus and a republican form of government was adopted4 ,the ,hay-,bunan-,varilla treaty was thereupon made on ,november #ah1 #aijc4 ,it was ratified by both governments on ,february #bf1 #aijd4 ,it gave the ,united ,states control of a strip of land ten miles wide1 five on each side of the canal4 ,since then the work has proceeded under the complete control and supervision of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,president1 whose duty it was to provide for the government of the ,canal ,zone1 put that as well as the engineering into the hands of the ,commission of seven members which he had appointed4 ,it has remained there4 ,the office of chief engineer has been held by three men1 ,j4 ,f4 ,wallace1 ,j4 ,f4 ,stevens and ,g4 ,w4 ,goethals1 the first two of whom resigned4 ,the question of a sea-level canal was again agitated and became so insistent that the ,president appointed an international board of engineers1 consisting of thirteen members1 to assemble in ,washington ,september #a1 #aije to consider the various plans for the construction of the canal submitted to it4 ,the board consisted of five foreign and five ,united ,states engineers1 three of the latter having formerly served on the canal commission4 ,the ,board visited the ,isthmus on ,september #bh1 had some examinations made for its enlightenment and in ,november submitted a majority report signed by the five foreign engineers and the three former members of the commission1 and a minority report1 the former advocating a sea-level canal and the latter a lock canal with the summit level #he' above the sea4 ,the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission with but one dissenting voice recommended the adoption of the lock type proposed by the minority4 ,on ,june #bi1 #aijf ,congress in opposition to the majority report of the engineers1 provided that the #he-;foot lock type of canal be constructed across the ,isthmus2 and work has since continued on that plan4 ,this final decision1 however1 was made with reluctance by many congressmen and some of them are regretting it today4 ,this ,congress also decided that all materials used in building the canal should be purchased in the ,united ,states4 ,early in #aiji a special body of engineers appointed by the ,president accompanied ,w4 ,h4 ,taft on an inspection trip to ,panama particularly with a view to determining the feasibility of the ,gatun dam project4 ,in a report made ,february #af they unanimously approved the plans for the various changes in the original project made by the engineer4 ,this included the widening of the locks to #aaj feet and constructing the ,pacific dams at ,miraflores instead of at ,la ,boca4 ,,iv4 ,,type ,,of ,,canal ,the controversy over the relative merits of a lock and a sea-level canal at ,panama is as old as the question of building the canal itself4 ,supporters of the lock canal now in process of construction have sought to silence the storm of protest occasioned by its adoption2 but in spite of their precautions reports have reached the ,american public which have created a lack of faith in the present engineers and their methods4 ,it is1 of course1 impossible for a layman to decide arbitrarily in favor of the lock or sea-level type4 ,the only reasonable way to arrive at a conclusion is to examine carefully the arguments of both factions and reach a decision therefrom4 ,the writer has found it difficult1 if not impossible1 to obtain an accurate presentation of the facts4 ,engineers high in their profession make contradictory statements4 ,presumably they honestly express their convictions but their failure to agree is strong evidence that there is a large element of uncertainty in the whole proposition4 ,if they1 acknowledged authorities1 not only cannot arrive at a common decision in this matter1 but consider it necessary to ridicule each other's plans1 there is certainly cause to doubt the wisdom of the present project4 ,it is the intention of the writer to state the principal arguments both for and against the two types of canals as presented by their most ardent advocates4 ,it is generally conceded that a lock canal at ,panama would cost less than an efficient sea-level canal4 ,engineers on the ,isthmus make an estimate of over #ajj1jjj1jjj as the minimum excess of cost of a sea-level canal over the lock canal for construction alone4 ,this estimate does not include the cost of carrying on the work of government and sanitation during the additional years which would be required to build a sea-level canal4 ,furthermore1 it is true that there are many problems in connection with a sea-level canal1 in spite of its apparent simplicity1 which have never been solved and consequently no engineer can say how many millions would be required for its completion4 ,experience has shown1 however1 that the same unsolved problems were also true of the lock type4 ,in their report to the ,president and to ,congress1 the minority of the board of consulting engineers pledged their professional reputations that if the lock type of canal were adopted the aggregate cost of completing the canal1 exclusive of sanitation and zone government1 would not exceed #aci1gje1bjj4 ,not four years have passed since that report was made yet #abj1jfd1dfh4eh have already been appropriated and the great dams and locks are only fairly begun4 ,in the last session of ,congress it was proposed to increase the limit of the cost of construction of the ,panama ,canal to #ejj1jjj1jjj4 ,senator ,teller in a speech said1 8,i have said again and again on the floor and ,i repeat it now--that if we get the canal built for #ejj1jjj1jjj1 whether a lock or a sea-level canal1 we shall do very well4 ,in my judgment1 we will never get that canal1 in either form1 except at a cost of more than #ejj1jjj1jjj40 ,these figures are sufficient evidence that the engineers who made the original estimate were dealing with a subject too big for them4 ,at the time ,congress voted to adopt a lock canal the estimated cost of a sea-level canal1 excluding the cost of sanitation1 civil government1 the purchase price and interest on the investment 7which seem unnecessary refinement in view of later developments7 was given by the ,board of ,consulting ,engineers as #bdg1jba1jjj4 ,the project on which this estimate was made provided for a waterway #dj feet deep at mean sea-level1 #aej feet wide at the bottom in earth and #bjj feet wide in rock1 with a length of #di4ad miles4 ,on the basis of this estimate advocates of the sea-level canal argue that on grounds of economy alone the lock type should be abandoned in favor of the sea-level type4 ,it stands to reason1 however1 that some of the causes which have led to an increase in cost over the original estimates for the lock canal1 such as the increase in the wage scale and the cost of material1 and the adoption of the eight-hour day1 would affect equally the sea-level project if it were undertaken4 ,the total estimated cost by the present canal commission for completing the work1 including purchase price is #cge1bja1jjj1 while the total estimated cost of the sea-level canal made by the same commission is #efc1jjj1jjj4 ,this latter sum is largely mere conjecture because of the many unknown elements entering into the problem2 and there are successful engineers today who do not hesitate to state that a sea-level canal can be constructed for less than the present lock canal4 ,very few question the statement that the sea-level canal would take longer for construction than a lock canal4 ,the majority of the ,board of ,consulting ,engineers estimated that from #aj to #ac years would be required4 ,the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission fixed the time at from #ah to #bj years and ,lieutenant ,george ,w4 ,goethals1 its chairman and chief engineer1 states that the lock canal will be completed by ,january #a1 #aiae4 ,a great objection to the narrow sea-level canal is the difficulty of river control4 ,the proposed plan was to construct a huge concrete dam #ahj feet high across the ,chagres at ,gamboa4 ,this of itself is a great undertaking but when done would not solve the question of flood control1 for below ,gamboa there are many more streams which if unregulated would plunge precipitately into the canal channel thereby not only creating cross-currents extremely unfavorable to navigation1 and these would also erode the banks and settle deposits which would necessitate continual dredging for maintenance4 ,if these rivers were not allowed to flow into the canal1 the only other solution would be the construction of channels on either side of the canal to take care of this flow4 ,this would be very expensive and decidedly dangerous since the rivers in places would be considerably above the canal4 ,the old ,chagres ,channel and the old ,french diversion canal could be utilized for a part of the distance4 ,it is claimed that even a sea-level canal would require a lock at the ,pacific end because of the enormous difference1 sometimes #bj' between high and low tides4 ,even the majority of the ,board of ,consulting ,engineers1 the supporters of the sea-level type1 considered such a lock necessary4 ,since they made their report1 however1 a noted scientist1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,lely1 formerly minister of waterworks of ,holland1 has made an extended study of the question and states that the currents in a sea-level canal at ,panama would not exceed those now common at ,suez1 namely1 #b miles per hour4 ,on the other hand six huge locks are to be built on the lock canal1 and they must be used at every passage of a boat4 ,their upkeep and operation will be a constant source of expense which would not exist in a sea-level canal4 ,if one pair of locks is destroyed or put out of commission1 the whole canal will be disabled and useless4 ,not only is this so1 but they are a constant source of danger4 ,the destruction of the gates of an upper lock1 which is by no means an unknown occurrence1 would allow the upper lake to empty into the canal channel1 and probably destroy everything to the sea1 including the dams4 ,that such accidents can occur was demonstrated at the ,welland ,canal when a small steamer struck one gate and continuing her progress crashed through four other separate gates1 the locks being #bdj feet long4 ,again1 at the ,manchester ,canal a vessel collided with a gate and carried it away1 allowing the water to escape in such great volumes that it caused the other gates to give way also4 ,some conception of the force held in leash by the gates at ,panama may be gained when it is stated that the 8fall from the upper lock at ,gatun to the empty second lock is over five times the rate of fall in the ,whirlpool ,rapids at ,niagara and the depth is greater04 ,it is true that various safety devices are to be installed at the locks but they can serve only to minimize not eliminate a danger which would not exist on a sea-level canal4 ,the curvature in the proposed sea-level canal is gentle1 but for #ai miles of its course a large ship would continually be changing direction in a channel having a width of from one-fourth to one-fifth of her own length and in a current which may be as great as #e feet per second4 ,on the ,manchester ,canal all large vessels are aided by two tugs whose duty it is to help in steering4 ,through the above mentioned #ai miles speed could not exceed #f miles an hour1 and whenever a ship going the opposite direction passed1 one or the other would have to stop and tie up to the shore as they do on the ,suez ,canal4 ,the courses on the lock canal are straight1 giving a clear view ahead1 and the vessels can pass without being forced to tie up4 ,the great ,gatun ,lake will permit of full speed and in all ordinary cases in the passage from ocean to ocean enough time can be saved by reason of the wider and straighter channels of the lock canal to compensate for the time lost in passing through the locks4 ,while the question of flood control is solved by ,gatun ,lake the question of water supply is not4 ,this lake must1 under the present plans1 furnish the water necessary for lockages4 ,experts have carefully studied this subject1 and while most of them agree that there is water sufficient for immediate needs they also recognize the possibility of a scarcity in the future4 ,general ,l4 ,abbot1 one of the most enthusiastic supporters of the lock plan1 states that there will be water for but #bf daily transits during the dry season which would accommodate from #cj to #dj million tons of annual traffic4 ,other prominent engineers are not so sanguine and some go so far as to say the supply will be totally inadequate even for the first years of canal operation4 ,at any rate there is a considerable element of uncertainty in the matter which actual trial alone will settle4 ,no such trouble1 of course1 would exist in the operation of the sea-level canal4 ,much has been said about the relative vulnerability of the two types4 ,the arguments are decidedly at variance and approach the ridiculous when placed side by side4 ,common sense dictates that both types are open to injury by earthquakes or the hand of man2 neither is invulnerable4 ,it also seems evident that a lock canal with its many artificial devices is more open to serious injury by earthquake than a sea-level canal4 ,in fact it is easy to believe that a shock severe enough to put a lock out of commission would scarcely affect a sea-level canal at all1 and all who say otherwise are prejudiced4 ,in fairness be it said that the danger from this source is exaggerated and probably should not occupy as large a place in the discussion of canal problems as has been given to it4 ,lock canal advocates say a narrow sea-level canal could easily be obstructed by an obstacle placed in the channel2 sea-level advocates say that a bag of dynamite under the lock-gates could put the canal out of service4 ,both statements are true but the essential element of difference is in degree4 ,the obstruction in the channel would be no real injury to the canal at all3 it would necessitate merely a few days work at the most for its removal4 ,an injury to the locks1 however1 might readily mean draining of the summit lake and the destruction of all between it and the sea not to speak of the indefinite period required for reconstruction4 ,the point is that it is practically impossible for man to seriously injure a sea-level canal2 it is easily possible for him to so injure a lock canal4 ,however1 lock canals can be more readily defended in time of war because the points of attack are known beforehand4 ,a very serious objection to the lock type is that it cannot be readily enlarged4 ,the locks are to be #a1jjj feet long and #aaj feet wide4 ,this is ample for the present but indications are that future needs will be far greater4 ,if they do become greater the ,panama ,canal will be an inefficient servant and will come far short of fulfilling the purpose which prompted its building4 ,the sea-level canal could be enlarged by dredges without stopping traffic through it1 but with a lock canal it is different4 ,when the locks as constructed become inadequate the only way to increase their capacity is to shut down the canal for years while new and larger ones are being built4 ,it is unquestionably true that the ideal canal is a sea-level canal #ejj feet to #fjj feet wide4 ,this is of the type known as the 8,straits of ,panama0 proposed by ,philippi-,bunau-,varilla to the consulting board in #aije4 ,there is a growing feeling that this plan is the one which will ultimately be adopted for the completion of the canal4 ,it contemplates the construction of a lock canal to be finally converted into a sea-level canal4 ,the locks were to be constructed so that as the levels were deepened by dredging they could be eliminated1 navigation continuing during the enlargement4 ,the material removed by the dredges was to be deposited in the lake formed by a dam at ,gamboa4 ,the plan was carefully considered and finally rejected because of the excessive time and cost involved4 ,it is interesting to note what the author of the plans states in regard to it4 ,he says in part1 8,it is easy to see from the records that this rejection was purely based on the false assumption that the transformation of rock into dredgable ground would cost #b4ce 7per cubic yard71 when it has since been officially demonstrated to cost eleven times less in the ,suez ,canal and eighteen times less in the ,manchester ,canal40 ,the cost at ,panama of that transformation would be certainly inferior to the cost at ,manchester not only on account of the saving of expense due to the gratuitous mechanical power given by the falls of the ,chagres but also and principally on account of the extremely soft character of the greater part of the isthmian rocks4 ,the electricity generated by the falls of the lake will put in action the rock breakers1 the floating dredges1 and the scows4 ,the water in the small barge locks will raise the scows from the level of the summit to that of the lake and the depths of the lake will absorb the material of the straits4 ,thus the ,chagres1 once harnessed1 will offer freely by its waters the way for the excavating and transporting instruments1 by its falls the energy to animate everything and by its upper valley the dump to receive the spoils4 ,if unbiased and free-minded engineer officers of the army1 having no anterior connection with the plans under discussion1 should be sent to investigate the nature of the rock on the ,isthmus and then to study in ,france1 ,england1 and ,japan the actual improved methods of dredging soft and hard material the cloud would soon be dissipated4 ,the supposed chimera would become a real tangible thing and the ,united ,states1 the trustees of humanity in the construction of the great international waterway1 would give to the world what it wants1 what it is possible now and easy to obtain1 the 8,straits of ,panama40 ,this sounds very plausible2 and it is a significant fact that engineers do not ridicule it4 ,their respect for it is growing4 ,today rock-dredging is on trial at ,panama4 ,if its feasibility can be there demonstrated the plan will undoubtedly be adopted4 ,no man can find objections to this type when once constructed4 ,the objections to the narrow sea-level canal first considered do not apply to the 8,straits of ,panama01 so they will stand as the ideal solution4 ,a canal designed to carry the world's commerce1 to furnish free communication between the ,atlantic and ,pacific should be as free from artificial devices as it is possible to make it4 ,it is therefore hoped that some day the present lock canal will be enlarged to an ideal1 wide1 sea-level channel4 ,v4 ,,location1 ,,size1 ,,and ,,plan ,the location1 size and plan of the ,panama ,canal with several recent changes which have been ordered by the ,president and adopted by the commission is described in the 8,canal ,record0 as follows3 8,a channel1 #ejj feet wide at sea-level will lead from deep water in ,limon ,bay to ,gatun1 a distance of #f4gf miles4 ,at ,gatun a dam one and one-half miles long and #aae feet high will impound the waters of the ,chagres river in a lake1 the normal level of which will be #he feet above mean sea-level1 ,a flight of three twin locks1 each #a1jjj feet long1 #aaj feet wide1 and allowing for #da feet of water over the sills1 will raise vessels from sea-level to the lake1 or lower them from the lake to the sea-level channel4 ,from ,gatun navigation will be through the lake in a channel from #a1jjj feet to #ejj feet wide for a distance of #bc4ei miles to ,bas ,obispo where ,culebra cut begins4 ,the channel through the continental divide1 from ,bas ,obispo to ,pedro ,miguel1 a distance of #h4aa miles will be #cjj feet wide1 and the surface of the water will be at the lake level4 ,at ,pedro ,miguel vessels will be lowered from the #he-;foot level to a small lake at #ee feet above sea-level1 in twin locks of one flight4 ,a channel #ejj feet wide and #j4ig miles long will lead to ,miraflores locks1 where the descent to sea-level will be made in twin locks of two flights4 ,the locks at ,pedro ,miguel and ,miraflores will be of the same dimensions as those at ,gatun4 ,from ,miraflores to deep water in ,panama ,bay1 a distance of #h4ca miles1 the channel will be #ejj feet wide and #de feet deep at mean tide4 ,the channel widths given are all bottom widths4 ,the entrance both in ,limon ,bay and in ,panama ,bay will be protected by breakwaters40 ,,vi4 ,,organization ,,of ,,forces ,work on the ,isthmus is in the hands of an ,isthmian ,canal ,commission1 consisting of seven members1 all of whom are appointed by the ,president4 ,all of them have headquarters on the ,isthmus4 ,the present personnel of the ,commission is as follows4 ,lieutenant ,colonel ,g4 ,goethals1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 chairman and chief engineer2 ,major ,david ,du ,b4 ,gaillard1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 corps of engineers2 ,major ,william ,l4 ,sibert1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 corps of engineers3 ,colonel ,william ,c4 ,gorgas1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 medical department2 ,harry ,rosseau1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 civil engineer2 ,lieutenant ,colonel ,h4 ,f4 ,hodges1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 corps of engineers and ,joseph ,c4 ,s4 ,blackburn1 civilian4 ,as chairman1 ,colonel ,goethals receives a salary of #ae1jjj annually4 ,majors ,gaillard and ,sibert and ,civil ,engineer ,rosseau #ad1jjj each and ,dr4 ,gorgas1 ,colonel ,hodges and ,mr4 ,blackburn #aj1jjj each4 ,the principal departments on the ,isthmus1 each in charge of a head who is directly responsible for the work carried on under his direction are3 ,construction and ,engineering2 ,quartermaster's2 ,subsistence2 ,civil ,administration2 ,sanitation2 ,disbursements2 and ,examination of ,accounts4 ,the ,department of ,construction and ,engineering is subdivided into the following named divisions2 ,atlantic ,division from deep water to and including the ,gatun locks and dams2 the ,central ,division from ,gatun to ,pedro ,miguel2 and the ,pacific ,division from ,pedro ,miguel to the ,pacific4 ,the ,department of ,construction and ,engineering is under the direct charge of the ,chief ,engineer4 ,the general plans come from the office of the ,chief ,engineer and details are left to division engineers1 subject to his approval4 ,the whole idea of the organization in this department is to place and fix responsibility1 leaving to each subordinate the carrying out of the particular work intrusted to his charge4 ,the ,chief ,engineer is assisted by the ,assistant ,chief ,engineer1 who considers and reports upon all engineering questions submitted for final action4 ,the ,assistant ,chief ,engineers have charge of the designs of the locks1 dams1 and spillways1 and the supervision of these particular parts of the work4 ,there is also attached to the ,chief ,engineer an assistant who looks after mechanical forces on the ,isthmus1 and has supervision over the machine shops1 the cost-keeping branch of the work1 the apportionment of appropriations1 and the preparation of the estimates4 ,there is also an assistant engineer1 who has charge of all general surveys1 meteorological observations1 and river hydraulics4 ,the ,quartermaster's ,department has charge of the recruiting of labor1 the care1 repair1 and maintenance of quarters1 the collection and disposal of garbage and refuse1 the issue of furniture1 and the delivery of distilled water and commissary supplies to the houses of employees and the construction of all new buildings4 ,operating in conjunction with the purchasing department in the ,united ,states1 the ,quartermaster's ,department secures all supplies needed for construction and other purposes1 and makes purchases of material on the ,isthmus when required4 ,the common labor force of the ,commission and ,panama ,railroad is more than #be1jjj men1 and consists of about #f1jjj ,spaniards1 with a few ,italians1 the remainder being from the ,west ,indies4 ,the ,spaniard is the best worker1 although he objects to working in water4 ,the total number on the pay rolls will average more than #cj1jjj4 ,of these #e1jjj are 8gold men01 that is1 officials1 clerks and skilled laborers1 all of whom are ,american recruited through the ,washington office4 ,in the month of ,september1 #aiji1 there were approximately #dd1jjj employees on the ,isthmus on the rolls of the ,commission and the ,panama ,railroad4 ,there were actually at work1 on ,november #c1 #aiji1 #ce1caa men1 #bg1fgb for the ,commission and #g1fci for the ,panama ,railroad ,company4 ,the salaries and wages of these men are paid once a month4 ,this ,quartermaster's ,department also has charge of the property records1 receives semiannual returns of property from all those to whom property has been issued1 and checks the returns and inventories of the storehouses with the records compiled from the original invoices4 ,the ,subsistence ,department has charge of the commissaries and the manufacturing plants which consist of an ice and cold-storage establishment1 a bread1 pie1 and cake bakery1 a coffee roasting outfit1 and a laundry4 ,these belong to the ,panama ,railroad ,company1 as1 at the time they were established1 money received from sales could be reapplied1 whereas if operated by the ,commission it would have reverted to the ,treasury1 necessitating reappropriation before the proceeds of the sale could be utilized4 ,they are1 however1 under the management of the subsistence officer of the ,commission1 who has charge of the various hotels1 kitchens and messes4 ,there are #af hotels from ,cristobal to ,panama which serve meals to the ,american1 or 8gold0 employees at #cj cents per meal4 ,there are #bd messes where meals to ,european laborers are served1 the cost per day being #dj cents2 and there are #bd kitchens for meals supplied to the 8silver0 laborers 7men paid in ,panamanian currency71 the cost to the laborer being #cj cents per day4 ,there is no profit to the ,commission4 ,the commissaries and manufacturing plants are operated at a profit so as to repay the ,panama ,railroad ,company for its outlay in six years from ,january #a1 #aiji1 at #d per cent interest4 ,the ,subsistence ,department also has charge of a large hotel at ,ancon for the entertainment of the ,commission's employees at a comparatively low rate1 and of transient guests at rates usually charged at first class hotels4 ,the ,department of ,civil ,administration exercises supervision over the courts1 which consist of three circuit and five district3 the judges of the three former constitute the supreme court4 ,the district courts take cognizance of all cases where the fine does not exceed #ajj or imprisonment does not exceed #cj days4 ,jury trials are restricted to crimes involving the death penalty or life imprisonment4 ,the ,sanitation ,department looks after the health interests of the employees4 ,it is subdivided into the health department1 which has charge of the hospitals1 supervision of health matters in ,panama and ,colon and of the ,quarantine1 and into the sanitary inspection department1 which looks after the destruction of the mosquito by various methods1 as grass and brush cutting1 the draining of swamp areas1 and by oiling unavoidable pools and stagnant streams4 ,to this ,department also belong #aa chaplains employed by the ,commission to attend the sick as well as look after the spiritual welfare of the employees4 ,all moneys are handled by the ,disbursement ,department1 which pays accounts which have been previously passed upon by the ,examiner of ,accounts4 ,the ,examiner of ,accounts makes the examination required by law prior to the final audit of the accounts by the ,auditor for the ,war ,department4 ,the pay rolls are prepared from time books kept by foremen1 timekeepers1 or field clerks1 subsequently checked by the ,examiner of ,accounts who maintains a force of inspectors4 ,the time inspectors visit each gang1 generally daily1 at unknown times to the foreman1 time-keeper1 or field clerk1 and check the time books with the gangs of workmen2 the inspectors report to the ,examiner of ,accounts the results of their inspection not in connection with timekeeping but all violations of the regulations of the ,commission that may come under their observation4 ,payments of pay rolls are made in cash1 beginning on the #abth of each month and consuming four days for the entire force on the ,isthmus4 ,the last published financial report of this ,department was as follows3 ,statement of ,receipts1 ,disbursements1 and ,balances ,available to ,june #cj1 #aiji4 ,receipts ,appropriations by ,congress #agf1dcb1dfh4eh ,rentals collected and returned to appropriations #bfd1cic4gf ,collections account sale government property1 etc4 #d1bce1ada4ej ,balance due individuals and companies1 account collections from employees #a1hef4gc -------------- ,total receipts #ahj1icc1hfj4eg ,disbursements ,classified expenditures #ajf1gie1jeh4ch ,department of civil administration #b1icb1iea4jf ,sanitary department #h1gda1gae4dj ,hospitals and asylums #d1fef1abe4ii ,sanitation #d1jhe1ehi4da ,department of construction and engineering #ed1hcb1edj4ad ,canal construction #dh1caa1fbb4af ,municipal improvement on ,zone #d1bde1iac4ih ,municipal improvements in ,panama and ,colon #b1bge1jjd4jj ,cost of plant #dj1bhg1hea4gh ,rights of way and franchises #di1ajg1iad4hi ,rights acquired from the ,republic of ,panama #aj1jjj1jjj4jj ,rights acquired from ,new ,panama ,canal ,company #ci1ajg1iad4hi ,payment to ,new ,panama ,canal ,company #dj1jjj1jjj4jj ,less value of ,french material sold or used in construction #hib1jhe4aa ,panama ,railroad ,company stock purchased #aeg1aah4bd ,loans to ,panama ,railroad ,company for reequipment and redemption of bonds #d1jji1eif4jc ,paid into ,united ,states ,treasury for sale of government property1 etc4 #c1egb1ada4ej ,services rendered and material sold individuals and companies #b1gfd1jja4cj ,unclassified expenditures #d1hgg1jgb4cf ,material and supplies #d1hac1aeh4cg ,other unclassified items #fc1iac4ii ,advances to laborers for their transportation #dh1ghc4bf ,bills collectible outstanding #eag1ehe4gi -------------- ,total #aga1hdi1bga4ge ,less amounts included in above but unpaid on ,june #cj #a1fid1cee4gj ,salaries and wages unpaid on rolls to ,june #a1 #aiji #aha1bia4jh ,pay rolls for the month of ,june1 #aiji #a1eac1jfd4fb -------------- ,net disbursements #agj1aed1iaf4je ,balances available ,june #cj1 #aiji #aj1ggh1idd4eb ,congressional appropriations #aj1aad1jhg4gi ,miscellaneous receipts of ,united ,states funds #ffc1jjj4jj ,collections from employees account individual and companies #a1hef4gc -------------- ,total #ahj1icc1hfj4eg ,note4--,by an act of ,march #d1 #aiji1 additional appropriations were made to continue the construction of the ,isthmian ,canal1 during the fiscal year #aiaj1 available for expenditures ,july #a1 #aiji1 as follows3 ,expenses in the ,united ,states #bbe1jjj4jj ,construction and engineering #bg1chh1jjj4jj ,civil administration #fcj1jjj4jj ,sanitation and hospitals #a1iae1jjj4jj ,reequipment ,panama ,railroad #gjj1jjj4jj ,relocation of ,panama ,railroad #a1ihj1jjj4jj ,sanitation in cities of ,panama and ,colon #hjj1jjj4jj ------------- ,total #cc1fch1jjj4jj ,,vii4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,canal ,,prism ,excavation throughout the whole length of the canal is being carried on as much as possible in the dry as this has been found to be the cheaper method4 ,upon the ,atlantic ,division1 during the fiscal year #aijh-'ji1 a dredging fleet consisting of one sea-going suction dredge1 two #e-yard dipper dredges and three ,french ladder dredges worked on the section between ,mindi and deep water1 removing #f1jci1icd cubic yards1 of which #dbg1jje cubic yards were rock4 ,the rock is removed by blasting4 ,holes averaging #ae feet apart are drilled to a depth of #ej feet below sea level1 loaded with dynamite and fired4 ,at the close of the year nearly #c miles of the channel from deep water were completed4 ,the plans for breakwaters in ,limon ,bay were recently changed4 ,originally breakwaters were planned to extend nearly parallel to the axis of the channel to protect against filling by wave action4 ,however1 it was found that the northers entering between these breakwaters would lack room to dissipate and so vessels would be unprotected for a great portion of the distance to the locks4 ,accordingly two breakwaters have been planned which are to be so placed as not only to prevent filling but also to give shelter to shipping4 ,on the ,culebra section of the ,central ,division considerable trouble has been caused by the great rainfall4 ,to carry the rain off quickly diversion channels have been constructed at a large expense of money and labor4 ,water falling in the prism is cared for by the cut itself4 ,in the process of deepening pilot cuts are started from either end towards the summit which is now between ,empire and ,culebra4 ,drainage in either direction is by gravity through these cuts4 ,the total amount excavated from the canal prism in this division during the past year was #ah1ddb1fbd cubic yards1 #ab1bia1dgb cubic yards being rock4 ,at the close of the year #dc1egd1ied cubic yards remained to be removed4 ,the material is loaded on the cars by steam shovels1 is hauled to the various dumps1 and unloaded by a huge plow-like apparatus which is drawn from end to end of the train4 ,part of the spoil aided in the rebuilding of the ,panama ,railroad2 the rock from ,empire and ,bas ,obispo went to ,gatun for the dam1 and some material was hauled to ,balboa on the ,pacific and was there used in reclaiming ground and in building a breakwater in ,panama ,bay to cut off silt-bearing currents which were filling up the excavated channel4 ,it has been built out about #b miles by dumping from a trestle built for the purpose4 ,one mile more remains to be built4 ,the slides in ,culebra ,cut have continued4 ,the largest1 called the ,cucaracho slide1 measures #b1gjj feet along the cut1 involving an area of #bg acres4 ,during the year #aijh-'ji1 #fgj1jag cubic yards were removed from this slide but it is estimated that #gjj1jjj more are still in motion4 ,drainage seems to be ineffectual in these cases4 ,the original summit at ,culebra ,cut was #ccc feet above the sea2 it was lowered by the ,french to #aeg feet and the lowest point at the summit is now #adc feet above sea level4 ,the lake section of the ,central ,division extends from ,gamboa to ,gatun4 ,the ,chagres ,river here crosses the line of the canal #bc times1 forming a series of peninsulas4 ,a portion of the channel #b1gjj feet long1 #ejj feet wide at the bottom and #ej feet deep1 was completed ,may #be1 #aiji and the waters of the ,chagres turned in4 ,a total of #a1ghd1dei cubic yards were taken out1 of which #a1cej1cjh were removed in #aijh-'ji4 ,from the remainder of this division #b1fbe1bhc cubic yards were excavated in #aijh-'ji4 ,to secure the necessary width and depth between ,pedro ,miguel and ,miraflores on the ,pacific ,division #a1bgi1fjj cubic yards of material1 of which #fc1fjj are rock1 must be excavated4 ,the material still to be taken out between ,miraflores and deep water is #ac1jjj1ijj cubic yards of loam and #a1gbe1jjj cubic yards of rock4 ,it has been decided to remove all rock between the locks and for #b miles below the ,miraflores locks1 in the dry4 ,this will leave #c1fjj1jjj cubic yards of loam and #abc1jjj of rock to be removed by dredging and blasting4 ,the dredging fleet in ,panama ,bay for #aijh-'ji consisted of one sea-going suction dredge1 one #bj inch suction and pipe-line dredge1 one #e yard dipper dredge1 and four ,french ladder dredges4 ,they removed #h1dge1ica cubic yards of material during the year4 ,the channel is completed for about #e miles from deep water in the ,pacific4 ,the entire present steam-shovel equipment on the ,isthmus consists of forty-eight #ie-ton1 forty-two #gj-ton1 ten #de-ton1 and one #ch-ton steam-shovels1 or a total of one hundred and one steam-shovels4 ,dry excavation for the first quarter of the fiscal year #aijh-'ji1 7,july #a to ,october #a71 cost #fc cents per cubic yard for direct charges and #ab cents per cubic yard for general administration1 making a total of #ge cents4 ,dredging cost #i cents per cubic yard for direct charges and #b cents per cubic yard for general administration4 ,the average cost per cubic yard for excavation was #dj cents for direct charges and #h cents for general administration1 making a total of #dh cents4 ,,viii4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,locks ,locks ,as before stated there are to be #f locks on the ,panama ,canal1 #c at ,gatun1 #a at ,pedro ,miguel and #b at ,miraflores4 ,all of these locks are arranged in duplicate1 i4e41 at any group of locks a vessel may ascend at one side of the middle wall1 while another is descending at the other side4 ,it is the intention that ,pacific bound vessels use one side and ,atlantic bound the other4 ,the middle wall is to extend #a1fjj feet above the upper gates and below the lower gates as an approach wall against which vessels to be locked may lie while waiting for the gates to open4 ,the side walls will not be as long1 and will flare out at their ends4 ,the lock chambers are to be #aaj feet wide and #a1jjj feet long and will pass vessels of #dj feet maximum draught in sea water4 ,the upper lock in each flight is to be subdivided by additional gates into a #fjj foot and a #djj foot lock so that water may not be needlessly wasted in passing small boats4 ,these smaller subdivisions may be used until vessels of over #eej feet length require passage4 ,the lifts will average #bh feet1 but will vary with changes in tide1 lake level1 and conditions of lockage4 ,the diagram below shows the entire lock system at ,gatun4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,general ,arrangement of the ,locks1 ,valves and ,gates at ,gatun4 ,s4 ,v41 ,stoney valve4 ,g4 ,v41 ,guard valve4 ,e4 ,d4 ,p41 ,emergency dam pier4 ,u4 ,g4 ,g41 ,upper guard gate4 ,u4 ,g41 ,upper gate4 ,m4 ,g41 ,middle gate4 ,s4 ,g41 ,safety gate4 ,l4 ,g4--,u4 ,l41 ,lower gate1 upper lock4 ,l4 ,l4 ,g4--,i4 ,l41 ,lower gate1 intermediate lock4 ,l4 ,g4--,l4 ,l41 ,lower gate1 lower lock4 ,l4 ,g4 ,g41 ,lower guard gate4 ,ch41 ,fender chain4 ,ga41 ,gauge4 ,l41 ,ladder4 ,st41 ,stairs4 ,inc41 ,incline4 ,i41 ,intake4 ,o41 ,outlet4 ,in each side of the wall ,between1 there will be ,a and ,b-- #c cylindrical valves4 ,c and ,d-- #g cylindrical valves4 ,e and ,f-- #aj cylindrical valves4 ,g and ,h-- #aj cylindrical valves4 ,near the bottom of each wall will be a large culvert for passing water from the lakes into the upper chamber1 and from chamber to chamber1 and then out to the canal below the locks4 ,the intakes 7,see ,fig4 #b7 will be located at 8,i0 and outlets at 8,o04 ,the water enters and leaves the culverts through several small openings1 the intakes being screened4 ,the flow of water in the culverts is to be controlled by what is called the ,stoney type of valves4 ,these valves occur in pairs which are duplicated at each of the lifts so that if one pair is disabled the other set may be used while repairs are being made4 ,on each side wall1 at the middle gates in the upper lock there will be only one set of valves1 but none in the middle wall4 ,the flow between the culvert in the middle wall and the lock chamber is to be controlled by cylindrical valves capable of withstanding pressure on both sides4 ,by using these valves water may be saved under certain conditions of lockage by cross-connecting the twin chambers through the middle wall4 ,in each chamber #aa laterals of #da square feet cross-section will be led from the side wall culverts while at the middle culvert there will be #aj laterals having a minimum cross-section of #cc square feet4 ,each lateral will have five holes1 each of #ab square feet area1 opening up through the lock floor4 ,the laterals leading from the middle wall culvert are to be controlled individually to provide for independent operation of the twin chambers4 ,the lake levels and the desired lock levels are to be maintained by large steel miter gates4 ,at the upper and lower end of the upper chambers of all locks there will be two sets of these gates operated simultaneously so that a vessel entering the upper chamber will always have two pairs of gates between it and the lake4 ,at the lower end of each flight1 besides the regular gates there will be guard gates mitering in the opposite direction4 ,they are intended primarily for holding back the water in the canal below1 when the lock above is unwatered for repairs but may be operated during lockages purely as a safeguard4 ,as a protection to the gates heavy fender chains are to be stretched across the locks at critical places4 ,they are designed by suitable retarding devices to bring a slowly moving vessel to rest before it can strike the gate4 ,while the gates below are being opened the chains drop into recesses in the walls and across the floor4 ,near the upper end of the locks and #bjj feet above the uppermost gate1 an emergency dam of the swing bridge type will be provided to be used in case of accident to the upper gates4 ,the following precautions against accident are to be observed3 ,first4 ,all vessels must stop some distance from the gates4 ,second4 ,the lock operators here take the vessel in charge and control its passage through the locks4 ,third4 ,if a vessel breaks away from the operators or fails to stop at the proper place1 it comes against the heavy chains stretched across the locks and is either brought to a full stop or is greatly retarded4 ,fourth4 ,in case a chain breaks1 the vessel has two sets of gates to break1 if at the upper level1 where an accident would be most serious4 ,should all these barriers fail the emergency dam can be swung into place in a very short time4 ,the floors of the ,miraflores and ,pedro ,miguel locks will have #a foot thickness of concrete on top of the rock as a wearing surface4 ,at ,gatun1 however the rock is of a character susceptible to the weather4 ,it has therefore been considered necessary1 in constructing the floor here1 to leave the rock above grade until just before the concrete is to be placed and then to scrape and wash the surface to be covered4 ,the floor in the lower portion of the upper chamber is to be of concrete #c feet thick4 ,the rock here is considered thick enough to withstand the pressure from the water-bearing stratum below4 ,above the middle gate1 however1 this stratum is too thin1 and a floor #ac feet thick of concrete is provided and anchored by rails set in holes and surrounded by concrete4 ,the main floor level will be about #b feet below the sills1 in order that small objects dropped from vessels may be passed without being struck4 ,the sills for the gates are designed as concrete arches in a horizontal plane1 #ca feet thick throughout and of #ajj feet radius at the extrados4 ,the filling system is designed so that1 with all valves opened the chamber can be filled in #h minutes1 but to prevent possible damage to vessels in the lock the maximum rate will probably not be allowed to exceed #c feet a minute which would correspond to less than #ae minutes for filling4 ,most of the foregoing discussion is taken from the ,engineering ,record of ,february #bf1 #aiaj4 ,there has been much criticism of the lock sites1 but the engineers now in charge seem to have perfect confidence in their work4 ,during the fiscal year #aijh-'ji the work of excavating for the ,gatun locks was continued by steam shovels and one #bj-;inch suction dredge4 ,material excavated in the dry amounted to #icc1edf cubic yards1 and that in the wet to #dgi1iej cubic yards4 ,it was decided to construct curtain walls to stop any underflow2 these will extend across the lock under the sill of the emergency dam and downstream outside the walls to the intermediate gates4 ,as an additional precaution to making the concrete floor #ac feet thick as before mentioned a system of sumps under the floor with telltales in the walls will be built4 ,the plant for the construction of the locks is practically installed and ready for work1 it being operated entirely by electricity4 ,at the ,pedro ,miguel locks #gae1gbf cubic yards were removed in #aijh-'ji4 ,one lock chamber was completed to grade1 but #de1jjj cubic yards remain for removal in the other one4 ,at ,miraflores work was done the past year with steam shovels and one suction dredge4 ,the total amount excavated was #a1adg1ebg cubic yards which is one-half of the total estimated quantity4 ,,ix4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,dams ,the ,gatun dam has aroused more adverse criticism than any other canal feature4 ,most startling statements have been made concerning it4 ,its history is worthy of notice4 ,the first study of the ,panama route under ,united ,states authority was made by an ,isthmian ,canal ,commission of which ,admiral ,walker was chairman and ,generals ,hains and ,ernst and ,mr4 ,noble were members4 ,with respect to the location of locks1 the report of this commission said3 8,no location suitable for a dam exists in the ,chagres ,river below ,bohio04 ,hains and ,ernst signed this report4 ,in a paper read before the ,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers on ,march #e1 #aijb1 ,mr4 ,george ,s4 ,morison1 a very distinguished ,american engineer1 said3 8,all engineers who have examined the route of the ,panama ,canal agree that the neighborhood of ,bohio is the only available location for a dam by which the summit level must be maintained04 ,under authority of the ,president1 by executive order dated ,june #bd1 #aije1 a board of consulting engineers was appointed to consider the various plans proposed for the construction of a canal across the ,isthmus4 ,the minority of the board1 as has been stated before1 recommended a lock canal with a dam at ,gatun4 ,the majority of the board1 #h to #e1 opposed the idea of a dam and locks at ,gatun on two grounds3 first1 that the introduction of locks in a treatment of the question was objectionable from many points of view2 and1 second1 that the maintenance of a summit by means of an earth dam of immense magnitude to control the flood waters of this river introduced an element of great danger since the dam1 without sheet piling1 was proposed to be founded on the alluvial-filled gorges of the ,chagres ,river1 where the depth at one point extended #beh feet below the level of the sea4 ,of the minority above mentioned one member1 ,mr4 ,noble1 was a member of the former ,commission who had reported that ,bohio was the lowest point on the ,chagres where a dam was practicable4 ,the report was reviewed by the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission which included among its members ,major ,harrod and ,generals ,hains and ,ernst4 ,they all indorsed the minority report1 notwithstanding the fact that in ,march1 #aije1 ,major ,harrod was opposed to any lock plan1 and that his two associates had said in #aija that no proper site for a dam existed below ,bohio4 ,it is true that every consideration of the ,panama ,canal type by any unauthorized body rejected the idea of a dam at ,gatun1 and its indorsement is confined to a minority of the board of consulting engineers and to three members of the canal commission who had previously either been in favor of a sea-level canal or who had said1 in effect1 that ,gatun was not a proper site for the dam4 ,the attitude of the majority of the board of consulting engineers upon this most important question is best shown by an extract from its report4 8,the ,united ,states ,government is proposing to expend many millions of dollars for the construction of this great waterway which is to serve the commerce of the world for all time and the very existence of which would depend upon the permanent stability and unquestioned safety of all dams4 ,the board is therefore of the opinion that the existence of such costly facilities for the world's commerce should not depend upon great reservoirs held by earth embankments resting literally upon mud foundations or those of even sand and gravel4 ,the board is unqualifiedly of opinion that no such vast and doubtful experiment should be indulged in1 but1 on the contrary1 that every work of whatever nature should be so designed and built as to include only those features which experience has demonstrated to be positively safe and efficient04 ,the remarkable diversity of statement in regard to this dam is shown by the following quotations4 ,mr4 ,teller in a speech in the last session of ,congress said in part1 8,let me say a word or two about the great dam to be built at ,gatun4 ,we were told in the beginning that the engineers would find a foundation upon which they could build a safe dam4 ,the ,french ,government declared they had found such a foundation2 our own engineers declared they had found it4 ,it turned out that they had struck some floating pieces of rock in the mud1 and when they had gone down #bhg feet they found the same conditions practically that they found in the first #ej feet4 ,the place where it is proposed to construct this dirt dam1 which will be half a mile wide and #ace feet high 7now #aae feet71 is a great swamp4 ,no such dam has ever been built in the history of the world1 and the engineers of the world1 with few exceptions1 have declared it cannot be built4 ,the dam at ,gatun is to be built upon a foundation of doubtful safety1 and there is not an engineer in the country who does not know that it is doubtful04 ,lindon ,w4 ,bates1 in his 8,retrieval at ,panama01 says1 8,the utter indifference to real information as to existing conditions at ,panama has been astounding4 ,despite1 for instance1 the private knowledge of the ,commission in #aijf through their last #ae months that the bores in these ,gatun gorges were flowing bores1 not one additional test had been undertaken in them4 ,in summary of foundation conditions one thing is certain4 ,first and foremost and indispensibly there must be at the ,isthmus1 since the underground conditions have been revealed1 the safe barring off of permeable strata under the crucial dam4 ,this cannot be done at ,gatun for the high dam04 ,on the other hand an editorial in the ,engineering ,news of ,february #be1 #aiji1 says1 8,we can testify from actual personal observation and study of the dam site and of the borings and pits that the ,gatun dam will be as safe and permanent as any structure ever reared by man04 ,in the ,president's message of ,february #ag1 #aiji there is this statement1 8,as to the ,gatun dam itself1 they 7the board of engineers7 show that not only is the dam safe1 but that on the whole the plan already adopted would make it needlessly high and strong1 and accordingly they recommend that its height be reduced by #bj feet1 which change ,i have accordingly directed04 ,in the ,engineering ,news of ,april #a1 #aiji is the following statement1 8,if a private corporation1 not subject to the clamor of public criticism were confronted with the task of throwing a dam across the ,chagres ,valley at ,gatun1 they would build a structure which would be not more than one-fifth the size of that which is now being built there04 ,farther on in the same article a comparison of the ,gatun dam with alluvial dams of ,india and the levees along the ,mississippi is summed up with these words1 8,compared with any and all of these the conditions for safe and permanent dam construction at ,gatun may be considered ideal04 ,is it any wonder that people are confused and disgusted when they attempt to obtain the truth8 ,the length of the dam is to be #g1gjj feet1 but the natural surface reaches or exceeds the dam elevation in three places for about #gjj feet in all4 ,at the level of #ba feet above the sea it will be about #b1fjj feet long in two sections1 separated by ,spillway ,hill4 ,according to the engineer's report the dam will rest upon brown or blue clay and silt4 ,under the dam there are two geologic gorges1 one #ahe feet deep 7below sea level7 and the other #bee feet deep4 ,these are filled with river alluvium and other deposits1 consisting1 according to official reports1 of silt1 soil1 brown and blue clay1 rotten wood1 sand1 and gravel--the most1 if not all of it water bearing4 ,the cross-sectional area of the shallower gorge is #bje1jjj square feet and of the deeper one #abj1jjj square feet4 7,for profile1 cross-section1 and plan see the following page47 ,the dam is to consist of two piles of rock #a1bjj feet apart and carried up to #fj feet above mean tide with the space between them and up to #aae feet above sea-level filled by selected material deposited in place by the hydraulic process4 ,a slip occurred at one of these rock toes during ,november1 #aijh1 and caused considerable alarm throughout the country1 so much1 in fact1 that the ,president sent ,w4 ,h4 ,taft with a group of #g noted engineers to investigate4 ,they reported that 8,a full study of all the data and of the material1 and of the plans that are proposed leaves no doubt in our minds as to the safe1 tight1 and durable character of the ,gatun dam04 ,at the close of the fiscal year #aijh-'ji three #bj-;inch suction dredges were depositing material over the area between the rock piles1 and the fill had reached an average elevation of #af feet above sea-level4 ,a total of #b1eja1cgb cubic yards was placed in the dam during the year4 ,excavation through the ,spillway ,hill was practically completed and #cj1dfd cubic yards of concrete laid4 ,during the year #cei1hba cubic yards of material were removed from ,spillway hill by steam shovels and placed on the dam4 ,the original canal plans provided for a flight of two locks at ,la ,boca1 near the ,pacific1 and one at ,pedro ,miguel4 ,steps were taken to construct the former and trestles were built along the toes from which to dump material from ,culebra ,cut4 ,the trestles failed after dumping began and material overlying the rock moved laterally1 the movement continuing for two weeks in some places4 ,after this result these dams were abandoned so that instead of locks at ,la ,boca they will be built at ,miraflores4 ,another reason for the change besides poor foundations is the military advantages of the latter over the former position4 ,both the dams at ,pedro ,miguel and ,miraflores will be constructed of two rock piles1 the portion between being filled by hydraulic methods4 ,very little work has been done upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,profile ,,on ,,the ,,axis ,,of ,,the ,,gatun ,,dam ,,site ,,showing ,,underlying ,,material ,,as ,,determined ,,by ,,boring4 7,from ,report of ,c4 ,m4 ,saville1 ,assistant ,engineer1 ,august #bi1 #aijh47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,revised cross-section of ,gatun ,dam as recommended by ,board of ,consulting ,engineers1 ,february1 #aiji4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,general ,,plan ,,of ,,gatun ,,dam4 ,x4 ,,sanitation ,at ,panama the seasons are divided into two well defined periods3 the dry1 or winter1 and the wet1 or summer seasons4 ,by this occurrence of maximum moisture and maximum heat1 the health conditions are made the worst possible4 ,the dry season includes the months of ,january1 ,february1 ,march and ,april1 the rainy season the remainder of the year4 ,during the dry season the average temperature at ,colon for #f years was #gj4e ,f1 with a monthly maximum of #ij4i ,f1 which came in ,january1 and a monthly minimum of #fh4d in the same month4 ,during the rainy season the maximum average temperature for any month occurred in ,october and was #ia4i ,f4 ,the minimum was #ff4i ,f41 for ,august4 ,a record of #ae years at ,colon shows a maximum rainfall of #aed4i inches and a mean of #acj4b inches4 ,four years' records at ,panama show a maximum of #hd4gc inches and an average of #ff4h inches4 ,at ,culebra the records for #c years showed a maximum of #ih4ig inches and a minimum of #fd4be inches4 ,the most common forms of disease on the ,isthmus are due to fevers4 ,according to good authority the most sickly period is ,september1 ,october and ,november1 during which time dysentery and a severe bilious fever are very common4 ,foreigners seldom acquire the immunity of the natives from local diseases4 ,the ,isthmus by various writers has been called1 8,the ,grave of the ,european01 8,the ,pest-,house of the ,tropics01 and one author says that here truly 8,life dies and death lives04 ,on account of the health conditions the labor question is greatly complicated4 ,for this reason extreme care has been taken by the ,united ,states ,government to do all in the power of science to make the zone a healthy locality4 ,sanitation expenses will average at least #b1jjj1jjj per year4 ,the work has been under the direct supervision of ,colonel ,w4 ,c4 ,gorgas4 ,the war on the mosquito has been continual and unrelenting4 ,for the first two months of the fiscal year #aijh-'ji1 the work in the ,canal ,zone1 consisted of the collection and disposal of garbage and night soil1 the cutting of grass and brush1 and sanitary drainage and oiling4 ,in the terminal cities the work consists of inspection1 fumigation1 grass cutting1 surface drainage1 and oiling undrained areas4 ,this department also has charge of the hospitals and of the quarantine4 ,as far as possible all the sick are concentrated at ,ancon4 ,last year's records show an improvement over the preceding year4 ,the total number of employees admitted to the hospitals and sick camps amounted to #df1aid1 representing #bc4di as the number of men sick daily as against #bc4he for the preceding year4 ,the number of deaths was #ecj4 ,according to these figures the ,canal ,zone is one of the healthiest communities in the world2 but it must be remembered that the population there consists of men and women in the prime of life and that a number of the sick are returned to the ,united ,states before death overtakes them4 ,there were no cases of plague or yellow fever originating on the ,isthmus during the year #aijh-'ji4 ,the last case of yellow fever occurred in ,may1 #aijf4 ,a supply of perfectly healthful water has been secured by the construction of reservoir at different points of the ,zone1 and the ,commission hotels and cottages have all the advantages of an excellent modern water system4 ,,xi4 ,,social ,,life ,those who have endeavored to better the standard of social life at ,panama have met with difficulties always connected with an enterprise of the character and magnitude of the great ,canal4 ,it is surprising what has been accomplished4 ,questionable amusements there are1 but that is to be expected among such an assemblage of men4 ,nevertheless1 the conditions of living there are gradually approaching what we find in the average community in the ,united ,states4 ,there is a well organized school system in the ,canal ,zone4 ,twelve schools are maintained for white children and seventeen for colored children4 ,the highest monthly enrollment was #fge whites and #a1dag colored pupils4 ,there is a superintendent of schools and assistant supervisor of primary grades4 ,two high schools are in operation1 one at ,culebra and one at ,cristobal4 ,children at other points in the ,zone requiring high school instruction are given free transportation over the railroad by the ,commission4 ,instruction is given in algebra1 geometry1 physical geography1 general history1 botany1 ,english1 ,german1 ,french1 ,spanish1 and ,latin4 ,there were but #be children who took high school work in #aijh-'ji4 ,in addition to the transportation given high school pupils1 transportation is given to children in towns where no white schools are maintained4 ,last year children were also carried by wagon from ,balboa to ,ancon1 as were high school pupils from ,empire and ,culebra4 ,a boat and ferryman were employed in two cases4 ,quarters are furnished free to all the men1 married and unmarried4 ,roosevelt1 upon his return from ,panama said the wives of the employees seemed satisfied with their home life and surroundings4 ,the houses are excellent considering the conditions4 ,employees purchase all necessary supplies from government commissaries at about the same prices as are current in the ,united ,states4 ,on every workday a refrigerator car runs from ,colon to ,panama and delivers to the various villages all orders previously placed for supplies such as ice1 meat1 vegetables and fruit4 ,payment is made by the use of coupons1 their values being deducted from the employee's salary4 ,employees are allowed free medical1 surgical1 and hospital attendance1 including medicines and food while in the hospital4 ,employees with salaries fixed on an annual or monthly basis receive no pay for overtime work but if their health requires it1 will be granted a leave of #f weeks absence or less during the year with full pay4 ,those who are paid by the hour do1 of course1 receive pay for overtime work4 ,a number of suitable church buildings has been erected by the ,commission4 ,they are two-story buildings1 the upper floors being fitted up as lodge rooms and the first floor for religious purposes4 ,practically every religious denomination is now represented on the ,isthmus by the chaplains employed by the ,commission4 ,roosevelt stated after his visit to the ,zone that 8,it is imperatively necessary to provide ample recreation and amusement if the men are to be kept well and healthy40 ,to this end four clubhouses have been completed at ,culebra1 ,empire1 ,gorgona1 and ,cristobal and several more are contemplated4 ,the four are alike in design1 and consist of a front building of two stories connected with a rear building of one story4 ,the front part is #ace feet by #de feet1 and contains a social parlor1 a card room1 a billiard and writing room on the first floor and an assembly hall on the second floor4 ,the rear building1 #ajj feet by #bh feet1 contains a double bowling alley1 a gymnasium1 shower baths1 and over a hundred single lockers4 ,the ,commission1 assisted by the ,young ,men's ,christian ,association1 manages these buildings4 ,besides furnishing a library of #ghg volumes to each of these buildings provision is made for the delivery of #ajj weekly and monthly periodicals4 ,last year #aijh-'ji1 #b1adj employees availed themselves of regular membership privileges4 ,the membership rate is #aj dollars per year4 ,the fact that #ef1hce games in bowling took place during the year shows the extensive use made of these buildings4 ,there are various athletic organizations on the ,isthmus4 ,gymnasium activities have consisted mostly of basket ball and indoor baseball4 ,field sports are sometimes held on moonlight nights and holidays4 ,an athletic park has been built near ,cristobal4 ,during the year there were #ha performances given by lyceum and vaudeville talent from the ,united ,states1 with an attendance of #ah1bbe4 ,chess1 checker1 glee1 minstrel1 dramatic1 and orchestra clubs have been successfully maintained4 8,these associations have held a vital relation to the canal construction in promoting contentment among employees1 furnishing healthful amusement1 effecting greater permanency of the force1 and in elevating the standards of living04 ,,xii4 ,,economic ,,importance ,the economic importance of the ,panama ,canal is a fruitful topic for discussion4 ,some authorities think that a large share of the world's commerce will naturally and immediately use this new path between the oceans2 but the general opinion of those best fitted to decide is that the canal will not be a paying investment1 at least for the first years of its operation4 ,as a ,german paper puts it1 8,nobody thinks of remunerativeness any more4 ,the fruits of the enterprise consist in indirect profits2 they must be looked for in the military-political field and in the promotion of ,american commerce4 ,in this lies the center of gravity of the situation04 ,from a commercial standpoint the canal will be of little or no advantage to ,europe for the way to the whole of eastern ,asia and ,australia1 inclusive of ,new ,zealand via the ,suez ,canal will remain much nearer4 ,for ,europe1 then1 the only saving is in traffic with the west coast of ,america4 ,in commerce with western ,south ,america ,england occupies first place1 and is followed by ,germany1 the ,united ,states and ,france1 in the order named4 ,it is to be noted that vessels trading with the southern portion of the west coast of ,south ,america will prefer to go around ,cape ,horn rather than pay the tolls through the ,panama ,canal4 ,the greatest commercial advantage comes to the eastern ports of the ,united ,states1 namely #i1eca nautical miles between ,new ,york and ,san ,francisco1 so that ,new ,york on this route gains #b1hhi miles more1 for example1 than ,hamburg1 ,germany4 ,the main fact1 however1 is that this saving is so large on the route from ,new ,york to ,eastern ,asia and ,australia that it changes the present disadvantage of ,new ,york into an advantage when compared with many ,european ports4 ,from ,hamburg to ,hongkong1 via ,suez1 the distance is #aj1edb miles2 from ,new ,york to ,hongkong1 via ,suez1 it is #aa1fee miles4 ,the ,panama ,canal will give nothing to ,hamburg but a saving of #a1hbj miles to ,new ,york so that the distance will be #gjg miles less than from ,hamburg4 ,in routes to the more northern ports of eastern ,asia1 as well as to those of eastern ,australia1 the gain of ,new ,york is still greater4 ,from ,hamburg via ,suez to ,melbourne is #ab1cfg miles2 from ,new ,york #ab1ejj miles4 ,via ,panama1 however1 the distance from ,new ,york is only #aj1dbg miles1 so that ,new ,york will be about #b1jjj miles nearer than ,hamburg4 ,in many cases therefore the ,panama ,canal will give ,new ,york a decided advantage over ,european ports4 ,there are other than commercial reasons for building the canal4 ,the effect which it will have upon the tropical districts of the west is worth considering4 ,an author on 8,social ,evolution0 in describing this region said that there are only two words which adequately represent the conditions of this country1 8anarchy and bankruptcy01 and he suggests removing the anarchy by the substitution of strong and righteous government4 ,can any one doubt that the construction of an international waterway through the ,isthmus will tend to improve administration in the ,american tropics8 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,canal ,,zone ,,and ,,the ,,panama ,,canal ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,the original text was typed1 not printed4 ,consequently1 there were more typographical errors than would normally be found in a book1 and ,transcribers corrected most of them without noting the individual corrections here4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained2 occurrences of inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed4 ,transcriber segmented the map at the end of the book into three larger parts for readability1 in addition to retaining an image of the original4 8,maratime0 was printed that way1 twice2 8,maritime0 did not occur in this book4 ,page #c3 8concensus0 was printed that way4 ,page #ae3 8built on the lock canal0 was printed as 8built on the sea-level canal01 but 8sea-level0 was crossed out by hand and replaced by what appears to be 8,loc04 ,given the context and name of the chapter1 ,transcribers decided it was intended to be 8lock04