,text between underscores represent texts printed in italics2 text between tildes represents text printed in a sans-serif font 7to indicate shape rather than letter74 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,,the ,,municipal ,,and ,,sanitary ,,engineer',s ,,handbook4 ,,the ,,municipal ,,and ,,sanitary ,,engineer',s ,,handbook4 ,,by ,h4 ,,percy ,,boulnois1 ,m4 ,,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,m4 ,,san4 ,,inst4 ,,gt4 ,,britain2 ,,borough ,,engineer1 ,,portsmouth2 ,,late ,,city ,,surveyor1 ,,exeter2 ,,author ,,of 8,,dirty ,,dust-,,bins ,,and ,,sloppy ,,streets10 8,,annihilation ,,of ,,sewer ,,gases10 ,,etc4 8,,salus ,,populi ,,suprema ,,lex40 ,illustration ,,london3 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #af1 ,,charing ,,cross4 ,,new ,,york3 #ce1 ,,murray ,,street4 #ahhc4 ,,preface4 ,in carrying out the many duties devolving upon a ,borough ,surveyor1 it has so often been my wish to turn to a practical book of reference upon the many subjects connected with these duties1 that ,i have written the following pages2 and ,i trust that they will form a useful ,handbook4 ,h4 ,,percy ,,boulnois4 ,,portsmouth1 ,may1 #ahhc4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,town ,,surveyor4 ,office of surveyor first legalised -- ,clause of ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 making appointment -- ,division of ,england into districts -- ,surveyor to ,rural ,authority -- ,clauses of ,act referring to surveyor -- ,title of 8,surveyor0 is an erroneous one -- ,list of subjects on which he has often to advise -- ,want of ,government protection for surveyor -- ,mr4 ,lewis ,angell on protection -- ,reasons for ,government refusal -- ,time will effect a change page #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,appointment ,,of ,,surveyor4 ,sub-committee to fix salary and duties -- ,specimen report and list of duties -- ,test of merit necessary -- ,examination by ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain -- ,particulars of these examinations -- ,syllabus of subjects -- ,specimens of examination papers -- ,authoritative examination1 however1 still necessary -- ,methods to be adopted to obtain appointment of surveyor -- ,canvassing #aj ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,surveyor',s ,,duties4 ,public ,health ,act and surveyors of highways -- ,list of duties devolving upon surveyor in consequence -- ,meetings of boards and committees -- ,list of suitable names for committees -- ,punctuality -- ,reports -- ,methodical habits #bj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,traffic4 ,interests involved in construction and maintenance of streets -- ,requirements of a good roadway -- ,wearing effect of traffic -- ,mr4 ,deacon's standard -- ,effect of horses' hoofs on roadways -- ,remarks on shoeing -- ,traction on roads -- ,tables of resistance -- ,forces tending to destroy momentum -- ,table of tractive force1 etc4 -- ,another table giving inclinations -- ,proper gradients of roadways -- ,table of resistance by ,crompton -- ,wheel resistance -- ,mr4 ,haywood and safety of traffic -- ,stopping and starting vehicles -- ,safe width of roadways -- ,vehicles and pedestrians passing each other -- ,sanctuaries -- ,danger of crossings #be ,,chapter ,v4 ,,macadamised ,,roadways4 ,laying out new roads -- ,macadamised roads a luxury -- ,telford and ,macadam -- ,specification of roadway1 fifty years ago -- ,modern specification of roadway -- ,advantages of ,telford's system -- ,hard core -- ,concrete -- ,table of depths of materials -- ,ellice ,clarke's tables of comparative cost -- ,further particulars of comparative cost -- ,streets of ,paris -- ,cross section of roadway -- ,objections to macadamised roadways -- ,notes on maintenance -- ,bituminous roadways #cd ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,road ,,metal ,,and ,,breaking4 ,test of fitness of stone -- ,primary investigations -- ,qualities necessary -- ,list of stones used as road metal -- ,variety of materials used -- ,table of comparative efficiency of road metal in ,france -- ,hand-broken stone -- ,gauging the size -- ,quantity broken per diem -- ,machines for breaking stones -- ,price of machines -- ,work effected by machinery -- ,precautions necessary -- ,objections to machinery -- ,weight of broken stone -- ,specification for supply of road metal #dh ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,road ,,rolling4 ,first introduction of rollers -- ,mr4 ,parry on steam rolling -- ,cost for repairs -- ,number of men necessary -- ,fuel used -- ,other uses for engine power -- ,spikes for chequering -- ,binding material -- ,gradients -- ,work effected -- ,description of manner in which roller should be applied -- ,method adopted in the ,united ,states -- ,use of roller for repairs of roads -- ,method adopted at ,gloucester -- ,effect of weight of roller on roads -- ,advantages of steam rolling -- ,mr4 ,paget on rolling -- ,disadvantages of steam rolling -- ,horse rollers #fj ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,pitched ,,pavements4 ,economy under heavy traffic -- ,noise and slipperiness -- ,improvements effected -- ,size of setts -- ,description of best class of stones -- ,mr4 ,walker and wear of stones -- ,the ,euston pavement -- ,the ,guidet paving -- ,manchester pavement -- ,concrete foundations -- ,grouting -- ,bituminous mixture -- ,stone tram-tracks #gc ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,wood ,,paving4 ,first introduced into metropolis -- ,improvements since -- ,list and description of many various modern methods -- ,sanitary objections to wood pavement -- ,power of absorption of wood -- ,preserving processes -- ,wear of wood paving -- ,different estimates of life -- ,woods employed -- ,advantages of this description of paving -- ,objections to it -- ,cost of wood pavement -- ,tables of cost and life -- ,specification of wood pavement #ha ,,chapter ,x4 ,,compressed ,,asphalte ,,roadways4 ,description of asphalte -- ,mr4 ,deland's test -- ,percentage of bitumen necessary -- ,method of construction of compressed asphalte roadway -- ,advantages of this description of pavement -- ,objections to it on account of slipperiness -- ,gradient -- ,cost of asphalte pavement -- ,tables on the subject -- ,specifications for a compressed asphalte roadway -- ,other descriptions of asphalte roadways -- ,hints on the success or the reverse of asphalte roadways #if ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,footpaths4 ,foundation -- ,list of materials for footpaths -- ,mastic asphalte -- ,description of manner of laying -- ,proportions of asphalte1 bitumen1 and grit -- ,yorkshire flagging -- ,specification for ,york flagging -- ,caithness flagging -- ,its advantages -- ,blue lias flagging -- ,concrete footpaths -- ,description of ,american concrete path -- ,artificial stone pavements -- ,brick footpaths -- ,granite slabs -- ,artificial asphalte paths -- ,specification of tar pavement -- ,american tar pavement -- ,gravel footpaths -- ,sections of paths -- ,tarred paths #ajf ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,kerbing ,,and ,,channelling1 ,,etc4 ,necessity for kerb -- ,section of granite kerb and channel -- ,setting kerb -- ,cost of kerb and channelling -- ,necessity for gutter or channel crossings -- ,gully gratings -- ,objects to be attained -- ,drawing of a gully-pit -- ,drawing of a buddle-hole -- ,mr4 ,baldwin ,latham on the subject #abc ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,lighting ,,streets4 ,gas v4 ,electricity -- ,public ,health ,act on lighting -- ,different hours at which public gas lamps are lighted -- ,hints for a contract with a gas company -- ,supply by meter -- ,objections to meters -- ,regulators -- ,lamp-posts -- ,lanterns -- ,burners -- ,numbering lamps -- ,formula for determining distance of lamps -- ,m4 ,servier on spreading light uniformly -- ,tables of different lights -- ,points to be considered in public lighting by electricity -- ,motive power required -- ,machinery necessary -- ,regulations as regards fire risks -- ,lamps -- ,value of electric light -- ,difficulty of photometrical measurement -- ,cost of electric light -- ,mr4 ,shoolbred's tables -- ,comparative cost on ,thames embankment -- ,value of these investigations -- ,acme of all lighting #abi ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,street ,,naming ,,and ,,numbering4 ,necessity of naming and numbering streets -- ,public ,health ,act on the subject -- ,different methods of naming -- ,minton's china letters -- ,cast iron plates -- ,painted names -- ,enamelled iron -- ,wooden figures -- ,enamelled glass tablets -- ,size of letters -- ,association of names -- ,methods of numbering -- ,forms of notice to number #adi ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,breaking-,,up ,,streets4 ,the law on the subject -- ,water ,works ,clauses ,act1 #ahdg -- ,consideration of the clauses -- ,what is meant by 8plan0 -- ,specimen of specification or plan -- ,damage caused to roads by opening them -- ,private individuals breaking-up streets -- ,clauses of the ,public ,health ,act -- ,telegraphs ,act1 #ahfc -- ,clauses of this ,act -- ,advantages and disadvantages of subways -- ,power of individuals to open streets for drains -- ,clauses of the ,public ,health ,act on the subject -- ,uncertainty on the subject -- ,forms of notices necessary -- ,customs prevailing in different towns #aeg ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,obstructions ,,in ,,streets4 ,list of subjects discussed -- ,improving line of frontages -- ,assessing value of compensation -- ,removing projections of buildings -- ,what are legal projections8 -- ,doors or gates opening outwards -- ,forms of notice necessary -- ,vaults or cellar coverings -- ,forms of notice necessary -- ,advantages of an 8,easement book0 -- ,rain water from shutes or down pipes -- ,form of notice necessary -- ,blinds or awnings over paths -- ,trees overhanging roadways -- ,form of notice necessary -- ,surface water from premises -- ,hoardings and scaffolds -- ,dangerous ,buildings -- ,tall chimney shafts -- ,dangerous rock -- ,forms of notice necessary -- ,temporary obstructions #agd ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,private ,,streets4 ,the #aejth section of the ,public ,health ,act -- ,criticisms of this section -- ,duties of the surveyor in connection with it -- ,specimen forms of notices -- ,carrying out the work -- ,taking over private streets -- ,agreement to take over a road -- ,what is a 8road08 -- ,legal definition of the term street #aic ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,new ,,streets ,,and ,,buildings4 ,important duty of surveyor -- ,clauses of the ,public ,health ,act -- ,model bye-laws -- ,what is a new building8 -- ,the term 8ground floor0 -- ,alteration of existing buildings -- ,deposit of plans -- ,clauses of the ,public ,health ,act -- ,clauses necessary in the bye-laws with regard to deposit -- ,form of notice in respect of deposit of plans -- ,suggestions for town surveyor in connection with this duty and examination of plans -- ,supervision of buildings in course of erection -- ,stringency of bye-laws -- ,protection of life from fire necessary -- ,party walls through roofs -- ,space at back -- ,fee for inspection #bjf ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,scavenging4 ,the ,public ,health ,act on the subject -- ,list of duties involved by the clauses of the ,act -- ,what is house refuse8 -- ,removal of trade or garden refuse -- ,position of dust bin -- ,objections to fixed bin -- ,different methods of collection of refuse -- ,public dust bins -- ,house to house call -- ,receptacles brought out into streets -- ,carts employed for scavenging -- ,life and cost of wooden carts -- ,improved sanitary carts -- ,disposal of refuse -- ,methods adopted in various towns -- ,destruction by fire -- ,cleansing of streets -- ,machinery v4 hand labour -- ,durability of brooms -- ,scavenging at ,liverpool -- ,quantity of material removed from roads -- ,cleansing private courts and alleys -- ,removal of snow -- ,mr4 ,hayward on the subject -- ,clarke's apparatus -- ,hints on removal of snow -- ,street watering -- ,several methods described -- ,brown's system -- ,mr4 ,parry on hand- watering -- ,headley's machine -- ,street watering in ,paris -- ,bayley's ,hydrostatic ,van -- ,mr4 ,scott on watering and stand-pipes -- ,advantage of using disinfectant with water -- ,cost of scavenging1 c4 -- ,heads for a contract -- ,administration of work without intervention of contractor the best #bba ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,sewerage4 ,public ,health ,act on the subject -- ,definition of sewer -- ,definitions of sewerage and sewage -- ,requirements of good system of sewerage -- ,position of sewers should be at back of houses -- ,form of notice to carry sewer through private lands -- ,hints for carrying out sewerage -- ,stamford's joint -- ,pipe sewers -- ,drawing of various pipes -- ,causes of breakage -- ,causes of chokage -- ,separate system -- ,advantages of partial separation -- ,list of different methods of sewerage -- ,dry systems #bea ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,sewage ,,disposal4 ,magnitude of question -- ,interception -- ,list of methods of disposal -- ,tidal outfalls -- ,broad irrigation -- ,crops for sewage -- ,intermittent filtration -- ,action of earth on sewage -- ,mechanical subsidence -- ,artificial filters -- ,screening -- ,precipitation -- ,list of chemical processes -- ,list of chemical ingredients -- ,disposal of sludge -- ,effect of plants on sewage #bfc ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,ventilation ,,of ,,sewers4 ,duty of dealing with noxious sewer vapours -- ,germ theory and open ventilation -- ,open shafts and objections to them -- ,shafts against dwellings -- ,use of rainwater pipes -- ,use of lamp posts -- ,charcoal trays -- ,use of chimney shafts -- ,lofty shafts -- ,failure of furnaces -- ,list of methods tried -- ,annihilation of sewer gas -- ,composition of sewer gas -- ,direction of flow -- ,importance of disconnecting house drains #bga ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,public ,,conveniences4 ,clause of ,public ,health ,act empowering their erection -- ,selection of site -- ,construction of ,urinals -- ,why iron is preferable -- ,description of urinals -- ,public w4 c4 accommodation -- ,description of a simple w4 c4 -- ,jennings and ,macfarlane for urinals #bhj ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,artizans ,,and ,,labourers' ,,dwellings4 ,the ,act of #ahfh -- ,mode of procedure under it -- ,amendment of ,act in #ahgi -- ,further amendment in #ahhb -- ,importance of this amendment -- ,act of #ahge for improvement of dwellings of working classes -- ,mode of procedure under it -- ,amended by ,act of #ahgi -- ,further amended1 #ahhb -- ,duties of surveyor under these acts -- ,health of model dwellings -- ,description of industrial dwellings -- ,labouring classes' ,lodging ,houses ,acts -- ,copy of bye-laws under them -- ,table of sizes of rooms #bhd ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,defects ,,in ,,dwelling-,,houses1 ,,etc4 ,cellar dwellings -- ,clauses of the ,public ,health ,act on the subject -- ,insufficient w4 c4 accommodation -- ,clauses on the subject -- ,forms of notice to be served -- ,w4 ,c4 accommodation for factories -- ,houses without a proper supply of water -- ,clauses on the subject -- ,mode of procedure -- ,disadvantages of cistern storage #bie ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,house ,,drainage4 ,definition of drain -- ,difficulty of always deciding what is a drain -- ,duties of surveyor in connection with house drainage -- ,inspection of new drains -- ,form of 8regulations0 necessary by a local authority -- ,difficulty of efficient inspection -- ,drains of new buildings -- ,inspection of defective drains -- ,several clauses of the ,public ,health ,act on the subject -- ,procedure necessary to carry them out -- ,list of a few requirements of good house drainage -- ,necessity of register of all house drains #cjc ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,public ,,pleasure ,,grounds ,,and ,,street ,,trees4 ,law empowering acquisition and maintenance of parks1 c4 -- ,duties of surveyor in connection therewith -- ,public playgrounds -- ,a few hints -- ,list of a few useful shrubs -- ,trees in gales -- ,planting trees at sides of streets -- ,qualities necessary in trees for this purpose -- ,list of suitable trees -- ,precautions necessary -- ,grating and grill -- ,description of ,paris planting -- ,cost of trees in ,paris -- ,damage to street trees #cah ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,public ,,abattoirs4 ,necessity and law for their establishment -- ,defects of private slaughter-houses -- ,legal powers to close private slaughter-houses -- ,particulars of ,london private slaughter-houses -- ,site of public abattoir -- ,the ,manchester abattoir -- ,accommodation necessary -- ,lairs and pens -- ,the killing-house -- ,floor1 drainage1 rings1 pole- axe1 lighting1 c4 -- ,machinery for hoisting -- ,plans of public abattoir -- ,condemned meat department -- ,pig-killing department -- ,blood-house -- ,tripery -- ,tallow market -- ,other accommodation -- ,dr4 ,chancellor on slaughter-houses -- ,difference between public and private slaughter-houses #cbh ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,markets4 ,law authorizing their establishment -- ,site for a cattle market -- ,accommodation necessary -- ,paving -- ,cattle enclosures -- ,sheep pens -- ,dimensions of pens and lairs -- ,weighing machine -- ,markets for general merchandise -- ,list of requirements -- ,a few hints on their accommodation #cdd ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,cemeteries4 ,the surveyor's duties in connection with these -- ,some legal points to be remembered -- ,selection of site on sanitary grounds -- ,mr4 ,eassie on soils -- ,dr4 ,parsons on requirements of cemeteries -- ,unsuitability of clay soil -- ,amount of land necessary -- ,points to be considered in laying out a cemetery -- ,division of cemetery -- ,description of sections -- ,cemetery rules and regulations -- ,suitable trees for cemeteries -- ,regulations by ,secretary of ,state1 #ahfc -- ,cremation -- ,its great advantages over burial -- ,area of some existing cemeteries -- ,necessity for reliable information as to causes of death #cej ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,mortuaries4 ,evils arising from keeping corpses -- ,some clauses of the ,public ,health ,act on the subject -- ,list of different descriptions of mortuaries -- ,a ,german ,leichenhaus -- ,requirements of a mortuary -- ,the chapel -- ,the dead-house -- ,the post-mortem room -- ,the coroner's court -- ,other accommodation necessary -- ,plan of a model mortuary -- ,disinfection -- ,apparatus necessary -- ,dr4 ,ransom's machine -- ,fetching infected clothing #cfe ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,borrowing ,,under ,,the ,,local ,,government ,,board4 ,clauses of the ,public ,health ,act -- ,stimulus to public works -- ,list of time for which money can be borrowed -- ,mr4 ,rawlinson on procedure and plans1 c41 necessary -- ,responsibility of ,local ,government ,board -- ,captain ,galton on ,government responsibility #cge ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,contracts4 ,clauses of ,public ,health ,act -- ,public contracts different from private ones -- ,specifications necessary -- ,conclusion -- ,a list of useful books #cha ,,municipal ,,and ,,sanitary ,,engineers' ,,handbook4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,town ,,surveyor4 ,the office of town surveyor was first legalised by the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #g71a although for some considerable period prior to this date similar appointments had been made in several of the more important ,english towns1 notably in the case of ,liverpool4 ,in the following year the legal office of surveyor was confirmed by the ,public ,health ,act #ahdh 7#aa #ab ,vic4 c4 #fc1 s4 #cg71 and it is now law under the ,public ,health ,act #ahge 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee73 that comprehensive statute1 under which all ,sanitary ,acts are now included1 and which ,act will be frequently alluded to in the course of this book4 ,the clause which specially refers to the appointment of the surveyor is as follows3-- 8,every urban authority shall from time to time appoint fit and proper persons to be medical officer of health1 surveyor1 inspector of nuisances1 clerk1 and treasurer3 ,provided that if any such authority is empowered by any other ,act in force within their district to appoint any such officer1 this enactment shall be deemed to be satisfied by the employment under this ,act of the officer so appointed1 with such additional remuneration as they think fit1 and no second appointment shall be made under this ,act4 ,every urban authority shall also appoint or employ such assistants1 collectors1 and other officers and servants as may be necessary and proper for the efficient execution of this ,act1 and may make regulations with respect to the duties and conduct of the officers and servants so appointed or employed 4 4 40 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ahi71 and these officers 7except the medical officer of health and the inspector of nuisances1 when any portion of their salary is paid out of moneys voted by ,parliament to the powers of the ,local ,government ,board71 may be removed by the urban authority at their pleasure1 which was not the case when the appointment was first made in #ahdg4 ,here it is necessary to state that for sanitary purposes ,england and ,wales are divided into two divisions--viz4 urban sanitary districts and rural sanitary districts1 the former of these divisions being further subdivided into boroughs1 where the urban sanitary authority is the mayor1 aldermen1 and burgesses acting by the council1 and districts1 which are under the authority of improvement commissioners or local boards2 the rural sanitary districts are the areas of unions not included in urban districts1 and they are under the authority of the guardians of the union4 ,it is my intention to deal more particularly with the duties of a surveyor acting under an urban authority1 but the following section of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge relates apparently to the appointment of a surveyor to a rural authority1 although no mention is made in this or any other clause of the ,act directly of such an officer by name1 except that amongst the definitions of the ,public ,health ,act the following appears3-- 8#8,surveyor' includes any person appointed by a rural authority to perform any of the duties of surveyor under this ,act0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #d74 ,the clause ,i have above referred to is as follows3-- 8,every rural authority shall from time to time appoint fit and proper persons to be medical officer or officers of health and inspector or inspectors of nuisances2 they shall also appoint such assistants and other officers and servants as may be necessary and proper for the efficient execution of this ,act 4 4 40 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aij74 ,the following clauses apply to officers of rural as well as urban authorities3-- 8,the same person may be both surveyor and inspector of nuisances 4 4 40 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aib74 8,officers or servants appointed or employed under this ,act by the local authority shall not in any wise be concerned or interested in any bargain or contract made with such authority for any of the purposes of this ,act 4 4 40 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aic74 8,before any officer or servant of a local authority enters on any office or employment under this ,act by reason whereof he will or may be entrusted with the custody or control of money1 the local authority by whom he is appointed shall take from him sufficient security for the faithful execution of such office or employment and for duly accounting for all moneys which may be entrusted to him by reason thereof0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aid74 ,in addition to these clauses there are several regulating the receipt of money by officers1 but these should not affect the town surveyor4 ,although in many places he has the onerous duty of paying workmen1 certifying tradesmen's accounts1 and other financial transactions1 he ought under no circumstances to have anything to do with the receipt of money4 ,unfortunately1 in some of the smaller towns the surveyor is also employed as rate collector2 but as this is evidently a very improper proceeding1 ,i shall not further allude to it in any manner4 ,it will be observed that in the foregoing clauses of the ,public ,health ,act the word 8surveyor0 is always used1 and thus this is the legal title of those holding such appointments4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that1 although this title may have well suited the office up to the year #ahdg1 when it was made the legal title1 the prodigious growth of municipal work during the last #ce years has made it necessary that some change should be made1 and the title altered to that of 8engineer10 or some other similar suitable name4 ,at the present time several different meanings and occupations are attached to the word 8surveyor10 as the following list will show3--8land surveyor10 8district surveyor10 8county surveyor10 8road surveyor10 8surveyor of taxes10 8surveyor of customs10 8quantity surveyor10 8fire insurance surveyor10 8,lloyd's surveyor10 and a still more curious instance where an urban authority is itself dubbed 8surveyor of highways0 by the #addth section of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge2 and the title of town surveyor as now applied cannot but lead to confusion and to perfectly erroneous impressions as to his work and duties4 ,dr4 ,ackland1 in a paper read before the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors1 at a district meeting held at ,oxford1 makes the following remarks on this point3--8,in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge 7the summary of all health enactments7 the name of #8engineer' does not once occur in the #cdc clauses4 ,he is still the old #8surveyor' we all remember1 the plodding1 energetic man of highways and byeways 4 4 4 but then the surveyor of the present day may be called on to advise on anything1 from the form and cost of an earthen syphon trap to the calculation of work to be done by engines which are to supply half a million of persons with water2 to be responsible for the construction of sanitary mechanisms1 from a housemaid's sink to an intermittent downward filtration farm40 ,there can be but little doubt that it is absolutely necessary for the town surveyor of the present day to be a competent civil engineer of great knowledge and varied experience1 for he may at any moment be called upon to advise his corporation upon any of the following subjects1 or to act in any one of the following capacities1 in addition to the multifarious ordinary duties legally devolving upon him as surveyor under the ,sanitary ,acts3-- 7#a47 ,as engineer for sewerage and sewage works4 7#b47 ,as engineer for water and gas works4 7#c47 ,as engineer for canals1 docks1 harbour improvements1 and river navigation1 or for the protection of coasts against the encroachments of the sea1 and the prevention of floods by rivers4 7#d47 ,as engineer for the construction and maintenance of roads and bridges4 7#e47 ,as engineer for the construction and maintenance of lines of tramways4 7#f47 ,as architect for the construction of lunatic asylums1 municipal offices1 hospitals1 abattoirs1 mortuaries1 baths and wash-houses1 cemetery chapels1 stables1 police stations1 and other similar works4 7#g47 ,as landscape gardener for the laying out of public recreation grounds1 parks1 and cemeteries4 7#h47 ,as quantity surveyor to make estimates of all works1 and often 7very improperly7 to furnish bills of quantities to intending contractors4 7#i47 ,as surveyor and valuer to advise his employers on the values1 c41 of corporate or other property4 7#aj47 ,as land surveyor to make surveys of any size that may be required4 7#aa47 ,as accountant to examine and rectify the workmen's wages sheets1 and all tradesmen's accounts for work performed or goods supplied4 ,the foregoing list is no exaggeration of the onerous duties of the town surveyor1 and it seems to be a grievous mistake that this officer1 whose importance in all practical sanitary work cannot be over-stated 7as without him no useful municipal work could go on7 has been left unprotected by the ,public ,health ,act of #ahge4 ,in that ,act both the medical officer of health and the inspector of nuisances have received ,government protection1 whereas the surveyor1 the very officer of all others who necessarily is more likely to come into collision and to be unpopular with his employers in the faithful discharge of his duties1 has been afforded no protection whatever1 but has been left to the tender mercies of an annually changing body of municipal governors1 8to be removable at their pleasure0 7#ch #ci ,vic41 c4 #ee1 s4 #ahi74 ,on this highly important point ,i cannot do better than quote several passages from ,mr4 ,lewis ,angell's interesting address to the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors on the occasion of their inauguration in the year #ahgc3b 8,the #8town surveyor1' according to his opportunities1 has done the country good service1 but1 surrounded as we have been with obstructions and difficulties1 cramped and restricted by popular prejudices and private interest1 subject to clamour and attack1 without protection and without appeal1 it is indeed surprising that we have accomplished so much4 ,had such officers been from the first judiciously selected1 adequately remunerated1 properly supported1 and duly protected1 our influence upon sanitary progress would have been more conspicuous and our office better appreciated4 8,as engineers we do not pretend to a knowledge of medical science1 but it is equally within the knowledge of the average sanitary engineer as of a medical officer of health that pure air1 pure water1 properly constructed houses1 and an unpolluted soil are the cardinal conditions of health4 ,these are mere sanitary axioms4 ,the means by which such conditions are attained are drainage1 ventilation1 water-supply1 and other matters entirely within the functions of the engineer4 ,it is the function of the sanitary engineer to prevent that which the medical officer of health is called upon to detect4 4 4 4 8,in many cases the unprotected surveyor may be required to report to a protected medical officer the negligence of his own employers4 ,no local surveyor or engineer can be expected to give cordial and active assistance in compulsory sanitary work when he is conscious that his action would be opposed to the views or the interests of his employers1 the public upon whom he is dependent4 ,the existence of such a distinction between the medical officer and surveyor under the same board will produce a want of harmony in interest1 and must lead to a divergence of action between the two departments4 4 4 40 ,and speaking of the multifarious duties of the town surveyor1 ,mr4 ,angell says3 8,any one section of his duties would1 under commercial circumstances1 command fair pay according to its importance2 but where cumulative duties are included in the same office1 they demand constant attention1 special knowledge1 professional experience1 and administrative ability2 to which is added the anxiety which the responsibilities of public office always involve4 ,such a position in a commercial concern would receive high remuneration in proportion to the extent of the undertaking1 but unfortunately1 our work does not pay a dividend3 it is all expenditure from which the town derives no return excepting in health and comfort1 matters which are neither fairly assessed1 nor duly appreciated2 consequently1 the municipal engineer is paid less for his professional knowledge than the contractor's agent whose work he directs40 ,speaking further on the subject of ,government protection1 ,mr4 ,angell says3 8,surveyors appointed under the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act were protected during the existence of the ,general ,board of ,health4 ,sir ,c4 ,adderley's ,public ,health and ,local ,government ,bill of #ahgb proposed similar protection4 ,officers employed under the ,poor ,laws are fully protected as to position1 emoluments1 and superannuation4 ,the administration of the ,poor ,laws and the ,public ,health ,acts is now united in one department under the newly established ,local ,government ,board3 it is therefore in my opinion equally due to ,local ,board officers1 that they also should be recognised and protected4 ,without such protection1 sanitary legislation cannot1 in the words of the ,royal ,sanitary ,commission1 be #8active and effective1' because local officers are too dependent on their immediate employers to be thoroughly efficient4 8,in advocating protection let me not be misunderstood4 ,i do not mean centralisation or the removal of that proper control which every local authority should maintain over its own officers4 ,i would maintain intact the great principle of local government1 which has been the bulwark of our social and political freedom4 ,but local government may degenerate1 and in small towns deteriorate into littleness3 local affairs are too frequently avoided by those who are most fitted by intelligence and social standing to take part therein4 ,i would simply control in the most constitutional manner the short-comings or excesses of local government as is already done in various other departments4 ,i would require that local officers should be properly qualified and adequately remunerated2 that in the honest discharge of their duties and during good behaviour they should be protected from the effects of ignorance1 narrow prejudices1 and interested clamour1 and that they should have an appeal to a disinterested and judicial body1 superior to local feeling4 ,the demand is reasonable--,i ask no more4 4 4 4 40 ,to these admirable remarks by ,mr4 ,angell on the present position of the town surveyor ,i can add but little4 ,i believe that the sole reason which is given why ,government protection is not granted to the surveyor is the argument used by those in authority1 that if a surveyor disagrees with the corporation he serves1 it is considered better that he should resign his appointment rather than be protected by the ,local ,government ,board or other central office2 but if this argument is sound1 why does it not also apply in a similar manner to the medical officer of health or the inspector of nuisances8 ,the real fact no doubt is1 that in framing the ,public ,health ,act of #ahge1 medical men were consulted and not engineers1 and this is very apparent in many of the clauses1 which will be fully considered in their proper places in this book4 ,the time will no doubt come when the necessity for some change in the position of the town surveyor will be apparent1 and adequate protection will be afforded him2 in the meantime let him strive1 by attention to work1 and by daily advancement in scientific knowledge1 and in courtesy to those with whom he is associated1 to make the position and power of the town surveyor felt and honoured as it should be throughout the kingdom4 #a ,the section is as follows3--8,the ,commissioners shall appoint1 subject to the prescribed approval1 or where no approval is prescribed1 subject to approval by one of ,her ,majesty's principal ,secretaries of ,state1 a person duly qualified to act as a local surveyor of the paving1 drainage1 and other works authorized under the provisions of this and the special ,act 4 4 4 4 4 4 and the ,commissioners with the like approval may remove any such surveyor40 #b ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors1' vol4 i4 p4 #ah4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,appointment ,,of ,,surveyor4 ,whenever a vacancy occurs in the office of surveyor to a town1 or upon a sanitary authority determining to make such an appointment1 the question is usually relegated to a committee or sub-committee to report upon the subject1 to fix the amount of salary proposed to be given1 and frame the duties of the office4 ,the following report is one that has lately emanated from an important ,english borough1 and is given in full as a specimen of such reports1 and as a guide on which a report could be framed2 altered1 of course1 to such requirements as may be locally necessary3-- ,report of the ,special ,sub-,committee as to the ,surveyor4 7#a47 ,your sub-committee report that they have1 in compliance with the resolution of the day of 1 carefully considered the steps to be taken with reference to the vacancy caused by ,mr4 ------'s resignation1 and they have come to the unanimous conclusion that it is desirable that the office of surveyor should be continued4 7#b47 ,your sub-committee have also considered the duties which were assigned to the office of ,mr4 ------'s appointment1 and they beg now to submit them1 revised in accordance with the present circumstances of the department1 and with the recommendations contained in this report4 7#c47 ,your sub-committee further recommend that the salary of the surveyor be fixed at 4 4 per annum1 and that advertisements be issued for candidates4 ,duties of the ,surveyor4 7#a47 ,to have charge of the repairs of all highways1 and to perform all duties devolving on the council as surveyors of highways4 7#b47 ,to report from time to time to the committee superintending the same1 the state of the several highways and lines of tramway1 and as to the materials wanted or works necessary4 7#c47 ,to prepare all plans1 specifications1 or instructions necessary in relation thereto1 and as to the materials to be used therein1 and to see that all works are completed according to contracts entered into4 7#d47 ,to engage and dismiss under sanction of the committee all workmen employed at daily and weekly wages4#c 7#e47 ,to certify all accounts for work done1 materials supplied1 and wages due4 7#f47 ,to have charge of all materials and implements4 7#g47 ,to purchase or contract for1 or hire all horses1 carts1 tumbrils1 stones1 flags1 gravel1 draining pipes1 and proper implements and materials1 and all other matters and things1 at such prices and in such manner as the committee shall judge reasonable and expedient1 and to sell or otherwise dispose of the same as he may be directed4 7#h47 ,to have the entire charge and superintendence of the breaking up and repairing of all streets1 for the purpose of laying or replacing gas and water pipes4 7#i47 ,to inspect and report1 in conjunction with the medical officer of health1 upon slaughter-houses preliminary to licences being granted1 and to make the plans and superintend the construction of any slaughter-houses which the council may hereafter erect4 7#aj47 ,to take all levels and surveys which may be necessary for the purpose of deciding on the best mode of draining the several districts1 or any part thereof1 or for the purpose of fixing the levels and inclinations of any streets or roads1 or in anywise relating thereto4 7#aa47 ,to carry out the scheme now in course of construction for the interception of the sewage of the borough1 and any future scheme1 for its precipitation1 filtration1 deodorization1 or any other process which the council may adopt1 either within or without the borough4 7#ab47 ,to superintend the construction and completion of all tramway lines and sidings which may be required4 7#ac47 ,to prepare1 from time to time1 schemes for the drainage of the several districts or any part thereof4 7#ad47 ,to prepare all such plans1 sections1 and specifications as may be necessary for the due execution of any flagging1 paving1 sewering1 or other works required to be done1 or for entering into any contracts in relation thereto1 and to see that all works are executed in accordance therewith4 7#ae47 ,to measure up and duly certify the execution of all works1 and apportion the cost to the parties chargeable therewith4 7#af47 ,to see that all house drains1 which may from time to time be carried into any public sewer1 are made and connected in accordance with the regulations4 7#ag47 ,to give to the several contractors performing any works1 orders for the same in writing only1 keeping duplicates thereof1 duly entered in a book to be kept by him for that purpose4 7#ah47 ,to prepare all plans1 drawings1 and estimates required1 and to superintend the execution of all improvements4 7#ai47 ,to see that no encroachments be made on any highway or public place4 7#bj47 ,to advise on1 and execute1 all engineering works1 and prepare all such plans1 specifications1 and estimates of1 and take out quantities for1 such sewers1 buildings1 bridges1 and works as may be required1 and to superintend the erection and execution thereof4 7#ba47 ,to have in his charge1 and be responsible for1 the proper management of all buildings and properties belonging to the corporation1 or for the repair and maintenance of which the corporation is liable1 except otherwise directed by the council4 7#bb47 ,to examine and report upon all plans and elevations of buildings proposed to be erected or altered upon land sold or leased by the corporation4 7#bc47 ,to inspect and report on plans of new streets to be laid out1 of houses to be built1 and of buildings to be erected or altered4 7#bd7 ,to see that all streets are properly named1 and that the name plates are kept in good order4 7#be47 ,to act as building surveyor in all matters relating to the execution of the ,sanitary and ,local ,acts1 and to examine and certify new houses as fit for habitation4 7#bf47 ,to examine all buildings in a condition dangerous to the public1 to report thereon1 and to take such steps as may be necessary to prevent accidents arising therefrom4 7#bg47 ,to prepare all plans and sections for deposit1 pursuant to ,standing ,orders1 with respect to all street improvements1 tramways1 gasworks1 waterworks1 or other works1 unless otherwise ordered by the council1 and to prepare all other surveys1 plans1 and sections required4 7#bh47 ,to attend the meetings of the several committees when required4 7#bi47 ,to prepare all returns relating to his office that may be required by the ,government4 7#cj47 ,to attend in ,london or elsewhere when required1 without extra charge1 excepting only his travelling and hotel expenses4 7#ca47 ,to keep accurate permanent records and plans relating to all properties purchased1 leased1 or sold1 or in possession4 7#cb47 ,to devote the whole of his time to the duties of his office1 and not to be engaged in any other office1 business1 or employment whatever4 7#cc47 ,to report from time to time all and every matter connected with any branch of his office which1 in his opinion1 may require the attention of any committee1 and take their instructions thereon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,clauses #ah and #bj in the above list of duties are very comprehensive1 and as a rule a town surveyor's duties may be summed up in a very few words--8to do anything that he is requested40 ,it is1 however1 better that some definite instructions should be laid down1 and those which ,i have given may be taken as a fair specimen of what such duties may be4 ,unlike the medical officer of health1 who by ,act of ,parliament is required to hold a diploma of competency1#d it is open to anyone to apply for and obtain the appointment of a town surveyor4 ,this is no doubt unfortunate1 as some test of merit is desirable1 and of late years the necessity of some examination as to competency has been much discussed4 ,in order to meet this requirement1 the ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain has instituted examinations and granted certificates of competency for both town surveyors and inspectors of nuisances4 ,the following particulars of these examinations1 and the reasons given for their necessity1 may be of interest1 and are given in full4#e ,examination of ,local ,surveyors and ,inspectors of ,nuisances4 ,the great and increasing importance of the duties devolving upon local surveyors and inspectors of nuisances in connection with the various statutes relating to ,public ,health and the ,sale of ,food and ,drugs ,act1 has led the council of the ,institute to establish voluntary examinations for local surveyors and inspectors of nuisances1 and for persons desirous of becoming such1 or of obtaining the certificate of the ,institute4 ,each examination occupies a portion of two days4 ,on the first day the examination of surveyors is continued for four hours1 viz4 from #b to #d and #f to #h ,p4,m4 and consists of written papers only4 ,inspectors of nuisances have two hours' written examination on the first day1 viz4 from #d to #f ,p4,m4 ,on the second day the examination for both classes commences at #aa ,a4,m41 and is viv voce2 with one or more questions to be answered in writing if deemed necessary4 ,a certificate of competence signed by the examiners is granted to successful candidates4 ,as rural sanitary authorities are able under the ,public ,health ,act #ahge to obtain almost all the powers of urban sanitary authorities1 it is not considered advisable to make any distinction in the examination of the two classes of surveyors4 ,as one person may1 under the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 be both local surveyor and inspector of nuisances1 candidates wishing to obtain the double qualification may enter for both examinations on the same occasion4 ,candidates are required to furnish to the council of the ,institute satisfactory testimonials as to personal character1 and to give two weeks' notice to the secretary previous to presenting themselves for examination1 stating whether they wish to be examined as surveyors or inspectors of nuisances1 or as both4 ,the fee for the examination must be paid to the secretary1 by post-office order or otherwise1 at least six days before the the day of examination4 ,on receipt of the fee a ticket will be forwarded admitting to the examination4 ,the fees payable for the examination are as follows3-- ,for ,surveyors #e #e #j ,for ,inspectors of ,nuisances #b #b #j ,unsuccessful candidates are allowed to present themselves a second time for one fee4 ,syllabus of ,subjects for ,examination for ,local ,surveyors4 ,laws and ,bye-,laws4--,a thorough knowledge of the ,acts affecting sanitary authorities1 so far as they relate to the duties of local surveyors2 also of the model bye-laws issued by the ,local ,government ,board4 ,sewerage and ,drainage4--,the sanitary principles which should be observed in the preparation of schemes for1 and the construction of sewerage works2 the ventilating and flushing of sewers and drains2 the internal drainage and other sanitary arrangements of houses1 privies1 water-closets1 dry-closets1 and the removal of refuse2 the sanitary details of builders' and plumbers' work4 ,water ,supply of ,towns and ,houses4--,the sanitary principles which should be observed in the preparation of schemes for1 and the construction of water-works2 the various ways in which water is likely to become polluted and the best means of ensuring its purity4 ,regulations of ,cellar ,dwellings and ,lodging ,houses4--,general principles of ventilation2 the amount of air and space necessary for men and animals2 the means of supplying air1 and of ensuring its purity4 ,highways and ,streets4--,the sanitary principles which should be observed in the construction and cleansing of streets and roads4 ,,examination ,,papers1 ,,november #f1 #ahgi4 ,questions for ,surveyors1 ,november #f1 #ahgi1 #b to #d o'clock4 #a4 ,define street2 state the law applicable to every description of street in an urban sanitary authority district1 and the rights and obligations and duties of sanitary authorities1 owners and occupiers therein4 #b4 ,what are the relative advantages of circular and egg-shaped sewers2 in what case are they respectively preferred8 #c4 ,give a specification of a water-tight sewer4 ,describe and give a sketch of the form of man-hole which you consider best adapted for ordinary town sewers1 and state the rule which you adopt for determining the amount of ventilation to be afforded in a main street sewer4 #d4 ,in what way does the size and shape of the sewer affect the velocity of sewage flowing through it8 ,if a nine-inch pipe sewer1 laid at an inclination of #a in #bjj1 gives a velocity of #c feet per second1 what velocity will it give when laid at an inclination of #a in #hjj1 the pipe running full in each case8 ,will this velocity suffice to keep it clear from deposits8 ,describe the various modes which may be resorted to for flushing sewers4 #e4 ,give a description of the process termed intermittent downward filtration4 ,state what area of land you would require1 with a gravelly soil1 for applying this method of purifying sewage to a town with a population of #ajjj inhabitants1 and state the arrangements you would adopt for dealing with the rain-water falling on the roofs1 yards1 and streets4 ,november #f1 #ahgi1 #f to #h o'clock4 #a4 ,in reporting upon the source of water supply for a town1 what are the points to which you would direct your attention8 #b4 ,give a sketch of a ,d trap1 an ,s trap1 a ,p trap1 and a pan water closet 7plan of a dwelling-house annexed74 #c4 ,criticise the arrangements of this residence as to position of rooms1 walls1 doors1 fire places1 windows1 c41 from a sanitary point of view4 #d4 ,describe the drainage arrangements shown on the plan4 ,say whether they are satisfactory2 if not1 in what way are they faulty8 #e4 ,sketch on the plan any other system of drains which you would think preferable4 #f4 ,describe in detail the arrangements necessary for the water supply of the residence1 a bath being fixed in the room over the serving room1 a ,w4,c4 on the first floor over that on the ground floor1 and a housemaid's sink near4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is1 of course1 open to consideration whether the ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain is the proper authority to hold these examinations or not2 but there is no doubt that some such examination is necessary1 and would be welcomed by nearly all town surveyors in order to more firmly secure their positions2 and the ,sanitary ,institute is entitled to every credit for having taken the initiative step in the matter4 ,under the present system of appointment to the office of town surveyor those seeking that office must be prepared to work hard to obtain it1 and to give up some considerable time to its acquisition4 ,tact1 patience1 and perseverance are indispensable qualities when seeking such appointments1 and the following suggestions on this matter may be of use4 ,the appointment usually rests finally with the whole body of the town council or corporation1 even if a sub-committee or committee has been appointed in the first case to make some selection of candidates4 ,the candidates thus selected by the committee are usually requested to appear before the whole body of the town council1 who then make the appointment from amongst them4 ,the first thing a candidate should do when he hears of a vacancy occurring in the office of a town surveyor1 or sees an advertisement requiring a surveyor's services1 is to obtain fresh testimonials from those persons of position and influence for whom he has worked or who know him professionally4 ,these testimonials1 with any very good old ones 7but not too many of either71 should be sent by post to the town clerk or person mentioned in the advertisement1 with a formal1 carefully-worded application for the appointment4 ,if canvassing is not prohibited1 a list of the members of the town council1 with their addresses1 should then be procured1 to whom printed copies of the application and testimonials should be sent1 accompanied by an autograph letter asking that the application and testimonials should be read4 ,this should be followed up 7if possible1 immediately71 by a journey to the town and a personal visit to each member of the council or corporation1 not necessarily for the purpose of soliciting a vote1 but with a view to making the acquaintance of the members of the corporation and to identify the applicant with his testimonials2 and in these visits great tact and patience are necessary4 ,it is also of importance to seek and obtain all the outside influence that is possible1 in order to bear upon the members of the corporation1 by means of letters of introduction1 and informal testimonials as to eligibility for the appointment1 and personal character and position1 c4 ,canvassing on behalf of oneself is extremely unpleasant and harrassing work2 but wrong as the system may appear to be1 it is not easy to see how1 in municipal government1 any other method can be adopted1 and the visit of the candidate to each member gives the latter an opportunity of asking him questions and satisfying himself as to his qualifications1 and thus he will not feel he is acting blindly when he gives his vote in favour of that candidate whom he thinks1 after a personal interview1 the most suitable for the appointment4 #c ,this seems to be an undue interference with the control which a surveyor should always have over his men4 #d 8,a person shall not be appointed ,medical ,officer of ,health under this ,act unless he is a legally qualified medical practitioner0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 sec4 #aia74 #e ,vide #8,calendar of the ,sanitary ,institution of ,great ,britain for the year #ahhj4' ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,surveyor',s ,,duties4 ,it will be observed on reference to the list of the duties of the surveyor1 given in the preceding chapter1 that the first on the list is as follows3-- 8,to have charge of the repairs of all highways1 and to perform all duties devolving on the council as surveyors of highways40 ,the necessity for these duties are obvious when we turn to the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 and read the following sections3--#f 8,every urban authority shall within their district1 exclusively of any other person1 execute the office of and be surveyor of highways1 and have1 exercise1 and be subject to all the powers1 authorities1 duties1 and liabilities of surveyors of highways under the law for the time being in force1 save so far as such powers1 authorities1 or duties are or may be inconsistent with the provisions of this ,act2 every urban authority shall also have1 exercise1 and be subject to all the powers1 authorities1 duties1 and liabilities which by the ,highway ,act #ahce1 or any ,act amending the same1 are vested in and given to the inhabitants in vestry assembled of any parish within their district4 8,all ministerial acts required by any ,act of ,parliament to be done by or to the surveyor of highways may be done by or to the surveyor of the urban authority1 or by or to such other person as they may appoint0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #add74 8,all streets being or which at any time become highways repairable by the inhabitants at large within any urban district1 and the pavements1 stones1 and other materials thereof1 and all buildings1 implements1 and other things provided for the purposes thereof1 shall vest in and be under the control of the urban authority4 ,the urban authority shall from time to time cause all such streets to be levelled1 paved1 metalled1 flagged1 channelled1 altered1 and repaired as occasion may require2 they may from time to time cause the soil of any such street to be raised1 lowered1 or altered as they may think fit1 and may place and may keep in repair fences and posts for the safety of foot-passengers4 ,any person who without the consent of the urban authority wilfully displaces1 or takes up1 or who injures the pavement1 stones1 material1 fences1 or posts of1 or the trees in1 any such street shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds1 and to a further penalty not exceeding five shillings for every square foot of pavement1 stones1 or other materials so displaced1 taken up1 or injured2 he shall also be liable1 in the case of any injury to trees1 to pay to the local authority such amount of compensation as the court may award0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #adi74 ,the duties thus devolving upon the town surveyor by reason of these sections and the orders of the council are very considerable4 ,the following table gives a list of the principal subjects which will require his attention2 all of which will be considered in due course in this book4 ,list of ,duties devolving upon a ,town ,surveyor as 8,surveyor of ,highways40 7#a47 ,the construction and maintenance of highways or streets1 including-- 7a47 ,roads formed of broken stones or 8metal10 commonly called macadamised roadways2 7b47 ,streets paved with granite cubes or setts2 7c47 ,streets paved with wood2 7d47 ,streets paved with asphalte4 7#b47 ,the construction and maintenance of footwalks or footpaths1 including the different materials of which these are formed4 7#c47 ,the breaking of stone for road metal4 7#d47 ,steam rolling4 7#e47 ,the necessary notices and specifications under the #aejth ,section of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 for the purpose of compelling private streets to be properly sewered1 levelled1 paved1 metalled1 flagged1 channelled1 lighted1 and made good4 7#f47 ,the lighting1 cleansing1 and watering of streets4 7#g47 ,the naming and numbering of streets4 7#h47 ,the planting of trees along the sides of footwalks4 7#i47 ,obstructions caused by builders' rubbish or by hoardings and scaffold poles2 and also by dangerous or defective cellar coverings4 7#aj47 ,the damage caused to footpaths by allowing water from private premises to flow over them1 and the nuisance caused by defective rain-water gutters or shutes4 7#aa47 ,the damage caused to roadways by the laying or removal of gas and water mains and services1 and the surveyor's powers and duties in connection therewith4 7#ab47 ,the importance1 especially in old towns1 of laying down improved building lines of frontage in the narrower or crooked streets4 7#ac47 ,the examination of all plans of proposed new streets or buildings4 7#ad47 ,the supervision of all new streets and buildings whilst their construction is in progress4 7#ae47 ,dealing with all buildings in a condition dangerous to the public4 ,each of the foregoing list of duties will be dealt with in separate chapters in addition to other matters which will be treated1 but before closing this chapter a few words upon the subject of 8meetings0 may be of use4 ,it will be observed upon reference to the list which ,i have given of the duties of the surveyor1 that there is one which says1 8,to attend all meetings of the board1 and committee meetings1 except where his attendance has been previously dispensed with2 to attend upon the chairman when so required40 ,the result of this order is that a very large percentage of the surveyor's time has to be devoted to attendances at long meetings of the ,board or town council1 and at the numerous committee and sub-committee meetings which are appointed under it4 ,this work is doubled where1 as in some towns1 the corporation and their committees sit in a dual capacity1 viz4 as the council proper1 and the council as the urban sanitary authority2 this generally involves two ordinary meetings of the whole body each month1 and probably at least six committee meetings a week1 leaving the surveyor but scanty time to look properly after his works4 ,with regard to these committee meetings it is necessary that each should have some distinguishing title descriptive of the class of work over which it has jurisdiction1 and in selecting names for them the following list may be of some service3--,finance ,committee1 ,general ,purposes ,committee1 ,law and ,parliamentary ,committee1 ,surveyor's ,committee1 ,land and ,estates ,committee1 ,rates and ,taxes ,committee1 ,streets ,committee1 ,lighting and ,cleansing ,committee1 ,navigation of ,port ,committee1 ,public ,grounds ,committee1 ,sanitary ,committee1 ,drainage and ,sewerage ,committee1 ,markets ,committee1 ,properties for ,sale ,committee1 ,works ,committee1 ,water ,committee1 ,gas ,committee1 ,watch ,committee1 ,health ,committee1 ,library ,museum and ,arts ,committee1 ,baths ,committee1 ,parks1 ,gardens1 and ,improvement ,committee1 ,streets ,improvement ,committee1 etc4 etc4 ,the surveyor should always endeavour to be punctual in his attendance at the council meetings and those of the committees1 as to be late is always looked upon with disfavour4 ,his reports should as much as possible be in writing1 so that there should be no misunderstanding as to what his advice is on any subject4 ,to save trouble and expense it is well that all drawings of new schemes should be first submitted to a committee in pencil1 as they are frequently much altered2 this is very vexing if they have been neatly and highly finished4 ,it must not be forgotten that the gentlemen who form municipal bodies give their time gratuitously1 and everything should be done to save it as much as possible4 ,it is an excellent plan and a great convenience1 if a surveyor will have a series of named and numbered pigeon holes in his office corresponding to his committees1 in which to place all papers1 drawings1 correspondence etc41 which he intends to bring up to the next meeting of a committee2 thus saving himself flurry at the last moment before the meeting1 in endeavouring to find the papers he wants4 ,with his varied duties1 correspondence1 interviews1 meetings1 inspections1 investigations1 reports1 drawings1 and calculations1 the motto of a surveyor's office should be 8method40 #f ,for full particulars and explanations of the various ,highway ,acts see #8,the ,powers and ,duties of ,surveyors of ,highways and of other ,authorities with regard to the ,management of the ,public ,highways1' by ,alex4 ,glen1 ,m4,a41 etc4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,traffic4 ,before a surveyor can decide upon the best material with which the streets of his town shall be paved1 it will be well to consider the question of the class of traffic they will have to bear4 ,it must be remembered that three distinct interests have to be considered in dealing with this question1 viz4 7#a47 ,the rate-payers1 upon whom the cost of construction and maintenance of streets falls4 7#b47 ,the owners and employers of horses and vehicles who principally use the streets2 and 7#c47 ,the inhabitants of the adjoining premises1 who would be annoyed if the material selected were unduly noisy or dirty4 ,in addition to these considerations1 much depends upon local circumstances2 the class of trade upon which the welfare of a town is dependent must not be lost sight of4 ,a pavement suitable for a busy1 pushing manufacturing city may not be suitable for a quiet agricultural or cathedral town1 or for a town which is used as a health resort4 ,again1 the question of the most adaptable materials must be considered1 and the climate and physical character of a town should enter largely also into this question4 ,to condense the requirements of a good roadway into as small a compass as possible1 the following may be given as some of its principal requisites3-- 7#a47 ,it must not be extravagantly costly in its first construction4 7#b47 ,it must be durable and require the least possible amount of repairs at the least cost4 7#c47 ,it must be safe1 firm and hard1 with an even face and yet giving sufficient foothold to horses4 7#d47 ,it must be as noiseless as possible4 7#e47 ,it must be so constructed as to be quickly laid down and repaired when broken up for water1 gas1 drains1 or other purposes4 7#f47 ,it must be of strong foundation1 so as to carry the heaviest weight without subsidence4 7#g47 ,it must be of such a shape as will throw off all surface water at once4 7#h47 ,it must be of such materials as will make a minimum of dust or mud4 7#i47 ,it must be easily cleansed4 7#aj47 ,it must be non-absorbent of impurities or moisture of any kind4 7#aa47 ,it must give easy traction upon its surface4 7#ab47 ,it must not cause jolting to the traffic4 7#ac47 ,it must not injure horses' legs or hoofs4 ,of the above requirements ,no4 #a affects the ratepayers alone2 ,nos4 #c1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 affect the traffic only1 except that the occupiers of shops are indirectly affected by them2 ,no4 #d affects both traffic and occupiers1 and ,no4 #aj affects the occupiers principally4 ,the remainder of the requirements affect all three interests4 ,with reference to the wearing effect of traffic upon the surface of the roadway1 no standard has yet been arrived at by which this can be determined with accuracy4 ,in ,france a great number of observations and experiments have been made from time to time by the engineers of the ,ponts et ,chausses1 but their practice has been to count the number of 8collars0 passing a given section of a roadway in a given time1 irrespective of the weights1 speeds1 or number of wheels such collars may be drawing4 ,mr4 ,deacon1 the former ,borough ,engineer of ,liverpool1 has1 however1 reduced traffic to a standard of tons per yard width of roadway per annum4 ,this he effected by having the traffic in any street carefully watched for a certain definite time1 the number of vehicles1 their character and approximate weight being noted as well as the number of horses by which they were drawn1 and their number of wheels4 ,the effect of the traffic thus tabulated1 arranged1 and reduced to ton yards per annum1 can be ascertained upon any roadway1 and ,mr4 ,deacon has given the results of his observations in a valuable paper on the subject of street carriage pavements which he read before the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers4#g ,sir ,john ,mac,neill has estimated that #hj per cent4 of the total wear of a road is due to traffic1 the remaining #bj per cent4 being due to atmospheric causes4 ,of this #hj per cent4 #fj per cent4 he considers is due to the action of horses' hoofs where the traffic is fast1 and #dde per cent4 where the traffic is slow4 ,general ,morin estimates the wear of a road due to horses' feet to be two-thirds of all causes4 ,there can be no doubt that the action of horses' feet1 shod as they are with heavy iron shoes with long toe pieces and heels1 must have a destructive effect upon the surface of a carriage-way1 and this may be easily observed when watching the ruts formed by any continuous line of traffic in a roadway4 ,the following remarks from a report of the ,society of ,arts on this subject may here be of interest4 8,it may be mentioned that as respects the horses' shoes1 attention has long been called to its defects by ,sir ,francis ,head and others1 but ,sir ,joseph ,whitworth now points out the achievement of a decided and important improvement1 which will have a large effect in road conservancy1 as well as the reduction of noise4 ,the improvement consists in the fastening of a rim of hardened steel1 of about half-an-inch square1 to the horses' feet1 and letting the frog grow to its natural size4 ,one effect is to reduce by five-sixths the weight of the old shoe1 or in other words to reduce by five-sixths the weight of the iron hammers constituted by the common horses' shoes1 pounding the road surface1 and creating road dust and dirt1 and distributing it about4 ,the saving in this respect1 as well as the reduction of noise by the reduction of the weight of rim1 and also the saving of road wear1 would warrant the imposition of the stimulus of a tax1 or a toll upon heavy horses' shoes to hasten this removal40#h ,up to the present date1 however 7#ahhc71 no general change has been effected in the manner of shoeing horses1 notwithstanding these admirable remarks of ,sir ,joseph ,whitworth upon the subject4 ,with reference to the question of traction upon roads ,general ,morin1 in his #8,expriences sur le ,tirage des ,voitures1' states that the resistance to the rolling of vehicles upon solid metalled roads and pavements is proportional to the weight and inversely proportional to the diameter of the wheels4 ,on solid roads he states that the resistance is nearly independent of the width of the tires when they exceed #c or #d inches1 but on a compressible face it decreases in proportion to the width of the tire2 the resistance further increases with the velocity on hard roads1 but does not do so when they are soft4 ,the following table is almost universally now adopted as showing the traction upon level roads formed of different materials1 asphalte being taken as the standard of excellence in this respect4 ,asphalted roadway #aj ,paved roadway1 dry and in good order #ae to #bj in fair order #bj #be but covered with mud #bj #bg ,macadamised roadway1 dry and in good order #be #cj in a wet state #cc in fair order #de but covered with mud #ee with the stones loose #ej #hb ,there are four forces constantly at work tending to destroy the momentum of vehicles passing along a roadway3 they are gravity1 collision1 friction1 and the resistance of the air4 ,the first of these is lessened by easy gradients in a road1 the second can be overcome to a great extent by evenness of surface1 the third by hardness1 and the fourth1 as well as all the others1 by giving sufficient foothold to the animal drawing the vehicle4 ,another excellent table#i prepared from experiments made by ,mr4 ,amos on different descriptions of pavement in the ,city of ,london may be useful1 and is here given3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,speed ,tractive ,force ,road ,material4 in ,miles ,draught,fraction in ,decimals per hour4in lbs4of ,load4 of the ,load4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,gravelly ,macadam in #fide #abff #a_/dec #jbai a side street #cde #aadcbb #a_/ejc #jaig #eae #gjifc #a_/haa #jabc ,granite pitching by #caif #daicb #a_/acgc #jjgb side of tramway #beeg #dgegb #a_/aba #jjhb ,granite ,macadam #dbci #bfbhhf #a_/bai #jdef 8freshly laid0 #bgge #bdbgbf #a_/bcg #jdba #ejbe #iaebe #a_/fdi #jaeh ,asphalte ,pavement #cef #figec #a_/hbe #jaba #efhg #hdbfh #a_/fhc #jaaa #cicb #aahafc #a_/dhg #jbje ,wood ,pavement #cbgh #ajbdab #a_/efb #jagg #chbg #ajjjff #a_/ege #jagc ,macadam road1 very good on ,victoria #ffe #ajijf #a_/ebg #jaha ,embankment ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,the following table from ,law's #8,rudimentary ,treatise on ,civil ,engineering' shows the force required to move a load of a ton weight on different descriptions of roadway1 the limiting angle of resistance1 and the greatest inclination which should be given to the road being also stated4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,force ,greatest in lbs4 ,limiting inclination ,description of the ,road4 required angle which should to move of be given a ton4 resistance4to the road4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,well laid pavement #cc #j #ej #a in #fh ,broken stone surface on a bottom #df #a #aa #a #di of rough pavement or concrete ,broken stone surface laid on an #fe #a #dj #a #cd old flint road ,gravel road #adg #c #de #a #ae ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the gradient of a macadamised road should not1 if possible1 exceed #a in #bj1aj experience having shown that a horse1 unless the hill is a very long one1 is able to draw his ordinary load for a level up such an inclination1 whereas1 if it is steeper he is sometimes stopped altogether1 even though the carter tries the zigzag route so as to obtain an artificial ease of gradient4 ,the table given in #8,molesworth' upon the same subject is too well known to be repeated1 and another table may be found in ,sir ,henry ,parnell's work on roads1 which gives a comparison between the draught necessary on a well-paved road at #b1 on a well-made1 clean macadamised road at #e1 whereas on a wet and muddy gravel or flint road it rises to #cb6 ,mr4 ,t4 ,d4 ,hope1 of ,liverpool1 assuming the power of traction at #ajj1 gives the following table3-- ,weight drawn4 ,level macadamised road #bg cwt4 granite pavement #cje wood #edge ,and ,lieut4 ,crompton has given the resistance of wheels in lbs4 per ton on different surfaces as follows3-- ,very good pavement #ce lbs4 ,good macadam #fj ,ordinary ditto #ij ,newly-laid gravel #bjj ,soft grass land #cjj ,newly-laid metal #ddj ,here 8newly-laid metal0 comes out very badly1 and points to the necessity of rolling1 of which ,i shall speak in a future chapter4 ,whilst on the question of wheel resistance1 it may be well to note that the small front wheels of a waggon cause considerably more harm to a macadamised road than the larger hind wheels4 ,in the smaller diameter any loose stone or obstruction is pushed along in front for a considerable distance1 often tearing up the surface of the road1 whereas in the other case the stone is forced into its place or crushed as under a roller4 ,on the question of 8safety0 to traffic1 ,mr4 ,haywood1 the eminent ,surveyor of the ,city of ,london1 has caused several most complete observations to be made from time to time1 the results of such observations being detailed by him in various reports4 ,amongst other useful information compiled by him1 he has ascertained that a horse will travel #ddf miles upon a roadway paved with blocks of wood without a fall1 #aia miles upon asphalte1 and #acb miles upon granite setts4 ,i cannot do better than give verbatim his remarks upon this point3-- 8,slight rain makes both asphalte and wood more slippery than they are at other times4 ,on asphalte the slipperiness begins almost immediately the rain commences1 wood requires more rain before its worst condition ensues4 ,the slipperiness lasts longer upon wood1 on account of its absorbent nature1 than it does upon the asphalte2 when dry weather comes after the rain1 when asphalte is in its most slippery state1 and the horses fall on it very suddenly1 on wood their efforts to save themselves are more effectual2 wood also is frequently in that peculiar condition of surface in which horses slip or glide along it without falling4 ,a small quantity of dirt upon asphalte makes it very slippery1 wood requires a large quantity4 ,slipperiness can be temporarily cured on both pavements2 on the asphalte by sprinkling it with sand1 on the wood by sprinkling it with gravel4 ,the result in both cases is dirt4 ,the sand thrown on asphalte helps to wear it out1 the gravel thrown on wood tends to preserve it4 ,when a horse falls on asphalte it has difficulty in getting up2 on wood it rises more readily40#aa ,in streets crowded with traffic1 the constant stopping and starting1 especially on any surface that is slippery1 is very trying to horses4 ,attention has lately been directed to this point with a view to the storage of some power in a vehicle1 either by the compression of a spring in stopping or by some other mechanical means1 in order that in starting the driver may at will liberate this power so as to assist the horse in overcoming the inertia of his load4 ,these trials1 however1 have not at present met with much success4 ,before closing this chapter on traffic1 it will be well to point out that nearly all vehicles travelling rapidly can pass each other safely if allowed a clear space of eight feet2 hence all roadways should1 if possible1 be made of a width between the kerbs of some multiple of eight3 a convenient width for the footpaths1 so far as foot-passenger traffic is concerned1 is found to be one-fifth of the entire width of street4 ,it is scarcely necessary to add that vehicles pass each other on the left side1 pedestrians on the right4 ,it is not easy to assign a cause for the former beyond custom1 except that the whip is held in the right hand1 and in consequence free play is given for its use as the driver sits on that side and can watch his wheels in passing4 ,in ,france and other countries the right side is the 8rule of the road40 ,in the case of pedestrians it is perhaps more convenient for many reasons to pass on the right side1 one being that the umbrella or parasol is always carried in the right hand1 which is also used to remove the hat when bowing1 and another because one's tendency in passing any obstacle is to give way with the left shoulder4 ,for regulating the traffic and for the protection of foot passengers1 8sanctuaries10 as they are termed1 have often to be constructed by surveyors in broad streets or awkward centres of traffic1 and it is well to place a lamp-post on these sanctuaries1 on which may be advantageously fixed a notice1 8,keep to the ,left10 so as to regulate vehicular traffic4 ,on the lamp-posts at the edge of the footpaths it is also sometimes customary to fix small enamelled iron plates bearing the inscription on both sides1 8,keep to the ,right10 so as to regulate the pedestrian traffic4 ,of the danger to life and limb to pedestrians in ,london much has frequently been said1 and no wonder1 when we consider the number of persons who are daily injured and sometimes killed according to the ,registrar-,general's returns4 ,some years ago it was proposed to erect light iron bridges over the most dangerous crossings approached by winding stairs1 but 8time is money0 in the mighty metropolis1 and the scheme was abandoned because it was felt that most persons would prefer the risk of being run over rather than spend the time in ascending and descending the necessary steps for this purpose4 #g ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 lviii4 #h ,vide ,report of the ,society of ,arts on the application of ,science and ,art to street paving and street cleansing of the metropolis1 #ahge4 #i ,ibid4 #aj ,experiments made by the direction of the ,french ,government on the tramway between ,svres and ,versailles1 showed that a horse on a level tramway draws three-and-a-half times the weight1 at the same speed and with the same expenditure of power1 that he can do on an ordinary road4 ,up a gradient of #a to #ajj1 he is capable of drawing #bbe times the weight he can do up the same gradient on an ordinary road1 and up a gradient of #a to #be he can draw one-and-a-half times the load he can do under similar circumstances on the ordinary road4 #aa #8,report on accidents to ,horses on ,carriageway ,pavements1' by ,william ,haywood 7#ahgd74 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,macadamised ,,roadways4 ,i do not propose in this work to speak of any of the engineering operations necessary to lay out or construct long lines of connecting roadways1 as that is a duty which seldom falls to a town surveyor to perform1 and there are a great number of treatises and books upon the subject already published4 ,the object of this chapter will be to give some information and hints upon the construction and maintenance of what are known as macadamised roads1 suitable for urban and suburban traffic4 ,there can be little doubt that roadways of this description are expensive luxuries where the cost of their maintenance1 owing to excessive traffic or other causes1 exceeds #bs4 per square yard per annum1 but they are often necessary luxuries when the requirements of the locality are considered1 a point to which ,i drew attention in the preceding chapter upon 8,traffic40 ,for purposes of what may be styled 8pleasure traffic10 macadamised roadways are unequalled when well constructed and maintained1 but there are many objections to them which will be considered in their place in this chapter4 ,the word macadamised is1 as is well known1 derived from one ,john ,loudon ,macadam1 who in the year #ahaf first took up the question of putting broken metal upon a road instead of the boulders previously used4#ab ,his name1 being rather a peculiar one1 has been attached to this description of road ever since4 ,as a matter of fact1 the 8macadamised0 roadways of the present day are constructed after a method introduced by ,thomas ,telford as an improvement upon ,macadam's principles1 and a perusal of the two following specifications will1 ,i think1 show that there is not very much difference between the method introduced by ,telford and that followed at the present time4 ,specification of a ,roadway as designed by ,thomas ,telford more than fifty years ago4#ac 8,upon the level bed prepared for the road materials1 a bottom course or layer of stones is to be set by hand in form of a close1 firm pavement2 the stones set in the middle of the road are to be seven inches in depth2 at nine feet from the centre five inches2 at twelve feet from the centre four inches2 and at fifteen feet three inches4 ,they are to be set on their broadest edges lengthwise across the road1 and the breadth of the upper edge is not to exceed four inches in any case4 ,all the irregularities of the upper part of the said pavement are to be broken off by the hammer1 and all the interstices to be filled with stone chips firmly wedged or packed by hand with a light hammer1 so that when the whole pavement is finished there shall be a convexity of four inches in the breadth of fifteen feet from the centre4#ad 8,the middle eighteen feet of pavement is to be coated with hard stones to the depth of six inches4 ,four of these six inches to be first put on and worked in by carriages and horses2 care being taken to rake in the ruts until the surface becomes firm and consolidated1 after which the remaining two inches are to be put on4 8,the whole of this stone is to be broken into pieces1 as nearly cubical as possible1 so that the largest piece in its longest dimensions may pass through a ring of two and a half inches inside diameter4 8,the paved spaces on each side of the eighteen middle feet are to be coated with broken stones or well-cleaned stony gravel up to the foot path or other boundary of the road1 so as to make the whole convexity of the road six inches from the centre to the sides of it1 and the whole of the materials are to be covered with a binding of an inch and a half of good gravel free from clay or earth40 ,if the above specification1 written more than fifty years ago1 is compared with one of the present date1 it will be seen that there is a strong resemblance between them4 ,specification of a ,roadway as now executed4 ,the cross section of the roadway when finished is to be an arc of a circle1 with a rise of #a in #bg from kerb to the centre of the roadway each way4#ae ,the roadway1 when consolidated and finished1 to be #ab inches in depth at the gutters and #ae inches at the centre1 diminishing gradually from this point right and left to the depth named4 ,the gutters to be #b feet in width1 formed of stone setts #f inches by #f inches1 and laid in sand1 on a firmly consolidated surface of small broken stone or gravel4 ,the earth road-bed on which the surface formation is to rest is to be excavated to the required depth1 and when graded and shaped to its proper form1 it is to be thoroughly and repeatedly rolled with a steam roller1 and all depressions which then appear are to be filled with the same material as the road-bed1 and rolled until the whole be uniformly compact and firm4 ,on the road-bed thus formed and compacted1 a bottom layer of stone of a depth of #h inches at the centre of the road1 and gradually diminishing to #f inches at the kerb1 is to be set by hand1 to form a close1 firm pavement4 ,the stones are to be laid1 with their largest side down1 in parallel lines across the street1 breaking joint as much as practicable4#af ,the width of the upper part of the stone not to be more than #h inches1 nor less than #f inches4 ,the stone not to exceed #ae inches in length4 ,after being set closely together1 the stones are to be firmly wedged by inserting a bar in all possible places1 and placing between them stones as nearly as possible of the depth of the pavement1 until the whole is bound in position4 ,projections of the upper part of this course are to be broken off1 care being taken not to loosen the pavement2 and no wedging is to be done within #bj feet of the face of the work being laid4 ,the small interstices are to be filled in with stone chips firmly wedged with hammers4 ,the whole is to be thoroughly rammed and settled to place1 and all undue irregularities of surface broken off4 ,on the foundation course must be laid an intermediate layer of broken stones1 varying in size from #c inches in their greatest diameters to #a inch in their smallest diameters4 ,these irregular-sized stones may be either the 8tailings0 of the screened stones1 or may be raked from the quarry1 and placed on the roadway without being machine-broken2 but they must nevertheless be so laid as to compact solidly1 and must be clean broken stone1 free from dust and dirt1 and within the dimensions given above4 ,this intermediate course must be #d inches in depth at the centre of the roadway1 gradually decreasing to #c inches in depth at the gutters2 it is to be thoroughly rolled with the steam roller until it be firm1 compact1 and solid4 ,on its upper surface it must be identical in rise and form to the cross-section of the finished pavement1 as specified above4 ,in the laying of this course of stone a small quantity of binding material is to be used1 sufficient only to fill up the crevices1 and render this portion of the pavement solid4 ,preferably the binding is to be of fine screened gravel or sand1 which is to be sufficiently watered during the process of rolling1 so that the 8licking up0 of the road material1 and its adherence to the rolling-wheels may be prevented4 ,on the intermediate course is to be laid the surface layer of broken stone4#ag ,it must be #b inches in depth1 and the stones must be practically uniform in quality1 and as near an approach to a cube in form as possible4 ,each stone used in this layer must have passed through a #b-;inch circular hole1 and all stones that are wedge-shaped1 and do not approach uniformity of measurement on their sides1 are to be taken from the road with properly shaped rakes1 and no stones allowed to remain which are not sound1 strong1 and equable in size and quality of material4 ,the stones are to be raked into an even layer1 and the steam roller passed over them twice or thrice4 ,after this a quantity of fine screened gravel or sand is to be thrown on and sufficiently sprinkled to moisten the mass without 8licking up40 ,the rolling is then to be continued 7working the roller backwards and forwards1 gradually from the gutter to the crown71 with an occasional light watering of the pavement1 until the cross-section be exact according to specification1 the interstices filled in1 the roadway firmly compacted and solid1 and all excess of binding removed from the surface of the finished pavement4#ah ,telford's object was the complete separation of the road metal from the subsoil by a firm and regular foundation1 and this system has ever since held its ground4 ,the advantages to be gained in constructing a roadway in this manner may be summed up as follows3-- 7#a47 ,economy of construction1 as a considerable quantity of metalling is saved2 only #c inches of properly broken stone and a little binding material being necessary1 the foundation of the roadway 7which really carries the traffic7 may be made of a quality of stone unsuitable for road metal1 or even of bricks or stones from old buildings that are being pulled down4 7#b47 ,the prevention of the rising up or 8spewing0 of the clay or other soft material on which the roadway rests4 7#c47 ,a solid foundation is secured which will successfully resist the weight and percussion of the traffic4 7#d47 ,the increased facility for the drainage of the roadway water being ruinous to it4#ai ,instead of forming a paved or 8pinned0 foundation for macadamised roadways1 sometimes what is called 8hard core0 is placed at the bottom of the road upon the surface formation4 ,this 8hard core0 is made of very heterogenous materials1 often the waste products of the house refuse dept1 and consists of ashes1 old pots and pans1 meat tins1 old bottles1 shells1 and a variety of similar articles2 sometimes the core is made of burnt ballast1 but in no case does it make so good a foundation as stones set by hand4 ,concrete has also been employed as a foundation with great success1 but it is very expensive1 and is seldom used except under streets paved with either granite1 wood1 or asphalte1 of which ,i shall speak hereafter2 for if the traffic was so great as to necessitate the use of concrete for a foundation it would surely be better to give the roadway a more durable surface than macadam4 ,the following tables1 showing the thickness of the foundation and metalling of broken stone roads1 is from a paper on roadways1 read to the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers1 by ,mr4 ,james ,hall1 ,borough ,surveyor of ,stockton1 and may be of use to those who would like to know what proportions to use4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,pinned ,foundations4 ,broken ,stones4 ,concrete4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,pinning4,covering4,metal4 ,under4 ,upper4 ,con-,metal4 crete ---------------------------------------- --------------------- in4 in4 in4 in4 in4 in4 in4 ,country roads #f #c #d #i #d #d #c ,suburban #i #c #e #i #f #f #e ,town streets #i #f #e #ae #f #aj #e ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,chalk has sometimes been used for the bottom of a roadway1 but where this is likely to be affected by frost it is the worst material that can be used1 as it is likely to blow up the roadway4 ,with regard to the annual outlay upon macadamised roadways1 the following comparative tables#bj prepared by ,mr4 ,ellice ,clark1 the then ,surveyor of ,derby1 may be of interest4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,annual ,outlay4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,sink- ing fund #c ,ori- per ginal cent4 cost com- per ,in- pound ,description of squareter-inter- ,main- ,scav- ,pavement4 yard4 est4 est4 tenance4enging4,gravel4,total4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- s4 d4d4 d4 s4 d4s4 d4 d4 s4 d4 ,wood pavement #ae #ae #ge #aja #j #aj #j #bg #ej #b #bc ,val de ,travers compressed #ah #jj #ig 44 #j #cf #j #jd 44 #a #ag asphalte ,granite setts #g inches by #c inches laid over a layer #ag #ij #if #je #j #ac #j #be 44 #a #ai of #ab inches of cement concrete ,macadam in south of #d #ij #ba 44 #c #fj #a #jj 44 #d #ha ,england ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,load of ,mud ,traffic per ,annum ,material4 per area4 per yard of width4 ---------------------------------------- --------- superficial yards4 tons4 ,macadam #cdd #be1jjj ,granite setts #ejj #ej1jjj ,wood #afff #be1jjj ,asphalte #djjj #ejj1jjj ---------------------------------------- --------- ,the following is a table of the cost of streets in ,paris per square yard per annum4#ba ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,description of ,pavement4,maintenance4,cleansing4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- s4 d4 s4 d4s4 d4 ,stone ,pavement #j #dej #j #ccg #j #ghg ,macadam #j #ibe #j #gca #a #ebf ,asphalte #j #ajbj #j #dag #a #bcg ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,the cost of maintaining macadamised roadways as compared with that of granite setts has been said to be as high as #e to #a and that this cost if capitalised for #ab or #ac years will equal the first expense1 interest on money1 and the necessary repairs for a granite paved roadway4 ,the following table gives the cost per annum per square yard for the maintenance of macadamised roadways in different places1 so far as ,i have been able to collect them3 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,bristol #d to #a #j ,charing ,cross 7,london7 #e #j 7now paved7 ,exeter #f #b #f including cleansing ,glasgow #h ,leeds #aj #a #b ,liverpool #b #b #f ,manchester #f #a #h ,merthyr ,tydfil #d ,newcastle #a #c including watering ,paris #i #aj #i ,parliament ,street 7,london7 #c #f repairs only ,regent ,street 7ditto7 #c #g 7now paved with wood7 ,stockton #i #a #f ,sheffield #a #h #b #j ,wakefield #a #j all paved streets now4 ,in ,birmingham the macadamised streets have worn down #f inches in one year1 with a traffic of #bdhd vehicles passing in #aj hours4 ,with reference to the great cost of maintenance in ,paris1 the following particulars#bb may here be given2 8,the surface of the street is picked by gangs of men1 metal from #b to #i inches in thickness is then laid on1 a coating of sand is then spread upon it1 it is watered and rolled at per kilometre ton1 that is1 at per ton weight of roller per kilometre travelled1 at a cost of about #aecc;d4 per ton mile for the first #bej1jjj ton miles1 and at reduced rates for additional service4 ,the materials used for the roads are flints costing #ds4 #f;d4 per cubic yard for light traffic roads2 for medium traffic1 hard millstone at #aas4 #d;d42 and for the heaviest and greatest traffic1 porphyry at #aes4 #i;d4 ,the average total cost of maintenance of the streets is #as4 #h;d4 per square yard per annum for the first-class roads1 and #as4 #a;d4 for the lighter traffic2 the highest cost for maintenance is as high as #ajs4 #i;d4 per square yard1 the lowest #i;d4 per annum40 ,it may be well to mention that #gc per cent4 of the streets in ,paris are paved1 #e per cent4 are coated with asphalte1 and #bb per cent4 are macadamised4 ,the contour1 or best form of cross section that should be given to a roadway1 has often exercised the minds of engineers1 but for all practical purposes evenness of surface and regularity of section in a macadamised roadway are of more importance than the slight difference between straight lines and curves1 which might only tend to confuse the workmen4 ,formerly it was the practice to employ a complicated gauge in the form of a straight-edge fitted with plummet or level and sliding bars1 but a good eye1 assisted by a long straight-edge and spirit-level and three boning rods1 is generally found to be sufficient1 and if the centre of the roadway is kept level with the heel of the footpath1 a sightly cross-section is generally the result2 or say #f inches to #i inches higher in centre of a roadway #cj feet in width between the kerbs1 #c inches to #d inches where it is from #ah to #bj feet in width4 ,the following detailed section of a macadamised roadway is one which ,i am in the habit of specifying for suburban districts1 as it is easily set out and constructed1 and answers all purposes most admirably4 ,illustration ,the total width of street is #cf feet1 of which the roadway takes #bd1 leaving a footpath #f feet in width on each side4 ,the surface of the finished roadway is a segment of a circle1 the crown being level with the heels of the footpaths on each side2 the formation surface is parallel with it1 and of course the depth of this and the thickness of foundations and metal must depend upon local circumstances4 ,it will be seen that the haunches are drained with #c-;inch common drain-pipes4 ,this may be omitted if the ground is thoroughly dry1 but it is often a great help to a road4 ,the paths1 kerbing1 and channelling will be described in their respective chapters4 ,it must be borne in mind that on a perfectly level road a more convex section is necessary than on a gradient4 ,it is wrong to make the sides of a roadway weaker than the centre1 especially in streets with shops on each side1 or on hills where drags are likely to be used4 ,on hills1 too1 be it remembered1 the channels should take the surface water2 any ruts from wheel tracks acting as watercourses are disastrous4 ,hauling timber on a macadamised roadway is also very damaging4 ,the great objections to macadamised roadways are as follows3-- 7#a47 ,they manufacture too much mud and dust4#bc 7#b47 ,they are too absorbent4 7#c47 ,they are very noisy and damaging to vehicles and horses when fresh metalled4 7#d47 ,they constantly require mending1 but never seem quite sound4 7#e47 ,they are frequently encumbered by men and carts engaged in either repairs1 cleansing1 or watering4 7#f47 ,they are very expensive to maintain and cleanse4 7#g47 ,they are bad for a horse to fall upon1 as such falls generally damage the knees4 ,the following notes upon the maintenance of macadamised roadways may here be of service3-- 7#a47 ,roads should be inspected in wet weather1 as hollows and other imperfections are then easily detected2 a hollow place extends very rapidly if neglected4 7#b47 ,all ruts should be filled in at once4 ,if there are three parallel1 the centre rut should be first filled in2 the traffic is thus slightly diverted1 as a horse will avoid new metal4 7#c47 ,ruts should not be allowed to form2 the surface of the road ought never to lose its regular section4 7#d47 ,a road should be thoroughly repaired directly it shows the least sign of being fairly worn all over4 7#e47 ,the right season of the year for repairs is the autumn1 although where a steam roller can be used almost any time will do4 ,if the surface of the road is very hard it should be 8lifted0#bd previous to repairs4 7#f47 ,all loose stones should be picked off at once or put together in hollow places upon the roadway1 as1 if allowed to remain1 they are not only dangerous to horses1 but are liable to be crushed1 or to be forced through the skin of the roadway1 thus causing it damage4 7#g47 ,water lodging upon a road does great mischief1 but it should not be let off by digging a trench with a pickaxe to the side of roadway1 as is sometimes done4 7#h47 ,a roadway when very dry sometimes suffers through disintegration of the surface4 7#i47 ,scraping the mud off a roadway may damage it by loosening stones2 sweeping the surface when wet is best4 7#aj47 ,a heavy shower does a road good by washing it2 a continuous drizzle1 especially after frost1 is very ruinous to a roadway4 7#aa47 ,a good cleansing is sometimes worth a coat of metal4#be ,bituminous ,roadways4 ,in some towns in ,england bituminous or asphalte macadamised roadways are made4 ,this consists in mixing ordinary coal tar with the road metal ordinarily employed for macadamised roads1 only it must be borne in mind that the metal employed must be limestone or some other soft material1 otherwise it will not wear down evenly with the tar1 and thus a lumpy surface will be produced in course of time4 ,the method of mixing is by heating the stone1 which has of course been previously broken to the required size1 and then thoroughly mixing and incorporating it with the tar4 ,this is then carried to the roadway1 is spread in the ordinary manner and well rolled to the proper contour1 a surface being afterwards given to it by a coating of about #b inches thick1 composed of a similar mixture1 the stones of which are of much smaller size4 ,another method is to place about #f inches of the broken metal described above upon the necessary foundation4 ,upon this a boiling mixture composed of about #ej gallons of creosote oil and #a ton of pitch is poured until every interstice is filled with the mixture4 ,whilst this is still warm1 a thin layer of small broken stone is spread upon the surface and well rolled2 more small stones or chippings are added1 and the whole is rolled until the surface of the roadway has attained its proper contour and presents a perfectly smooth and clean appearance1 little inferior to that of real asphalte4 ,dry weather is essential whilst this class of roadway is in course of construction1 and they require careful watching1 as1 upon the skin becoming broken1 the whole roadway soon breaks up4 ,they have1 however1 many advantages over ordinary macadamised roadways when finished1 not the least of them being their imperviousness to moisture1 and the ease with which they are cleansed4 #ab ,the first road 8engineer0 in this country was ,john ,metcalf of ,knaresborough1 who was born in #agag1 and who1 although totally blind1 was the first person to introduce a methodical system of road repairs4 ,vide #8,roads and ,road ,makers1' by ,henry ,alexander ,glass4 #ac ,vide #8,a ,treatise on ,roads1' by ,sir ,h4 ,parnell 7#ahcc74 #ad ,the total width of roadway being thirty feet4 #ae ,it is necessary to give a new roadway more convexity than it will have when finished1 for however carefully it is raked or attended to when being rolled1 the top is sure to flatten and spread towards the haunches4 #af ,instead of parallel lines it is sometimes well to place these stones diagonally from centre to kerb or 8herring-bone0 fashion1 thus greatly facilitating the under drainage4 #ag ,in metalling a road it is better to put on the coats gradually1 than to give the whole thickness of metal at once4 #ah ,the method adopted in ,chicago1 ,u4,s4,a41 for forming their roadways is as follows3--,the road bed is prepared of the proper contour and well-rolled with a #ae-ton steam roller until it is even1 firm1 and compact2 on this bed rubble stone is carefully placed by hand with its broadest surface downwards1 then #ab inches of metal are added #f inches at a time1 thoroughly rolled to bond it well1 it is then topped with #d inches of crushed trap rock or some other equally hard stone1 which will not disintegrate through the action of the weather1 nor pulverise under the pressure and wear of vehicles upon it2 this is again1 thoroughly well rolled so as to compact and bind it together4 #ai 8,if roads be kept dry they will be maintained in a good state with proportionally less expense4 ,it has been well observed that the statuary cannot saw his marble1 nor the lapidary cut his jewels without the assistance of the powder of the specific materials on which he is acting2 this1 when combined with water1 produces sufficient attrition to accomplish his purpose4 ,a similar effect is produced on roads1 since the reduced particles of the materials1 when wet1 assist the wheels in rapidly grinding down the surface40 ,parnell's #8,treatise on ,roads1' #ahhc4 ,more modern writers have likened macadamised roadways to 8stone mills on which the stones are ground into dust when dry1 or mud when wet40 #bj ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 lx4 #ba ,vide #8,annales industrielles de ,paris1' ,oct4 #bast and ,nov4 #dth1 #ahgg4 #bb ,vide #8,annales industrielles de ,paris4' #bc ,a report of the ,paddington ,vestry on 8wood and other pavements10 7#ahgh7 states macadam as a mud producing material is twelve times worse than wood1 and six times worse than granite cubes4 #bd ,this is also sometimes called 8stocking0 or 8chequering10 and consists of making furrows across a roadway with a sharp pickaxe1 about a couple of inches in depth1 thus removing any irregularities1 and also allowing the new metal to bed properly4 #be ,in ,birmingham1 good cleansing is said to have reduced the amount of metal necessary for the maintenance of the roadways from #bj1jjj tons per annum to #ac1jjj tons4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,road ,,metal ,,and ,,breaking4 ,the only true test of the fitness of any stone for use as a road metal is by an experimental trial upon a certain length of roadway2 but in making the first selection for such trials it is well to make the following investigations3-- 7#a47 ,ascertain from local persons1 such as masons1 quarrymen1 and others1 their opinion of the qualities of the stones in the neighbourhood4 7#b47 ,make a trial of the stone for toughness4 ,this can be done by setting a good stone-breaker to work upon a heap of the stone as quarried and carefully watching how much he can break in an hour4#bf 7#c47 ,ascertain what power the stone has to resist abrasion4 ,this is done in ,france by putting the broken metal into a revolving cylinder and then carefully noting by weight what the cubes lose by contact with each other4 ,another plan may be adopted by pressing the stone against a grindstone with a uniform pressure1 and noting the loss caused by such contact4 7#d47 ,the power to resist compression may be easily ascertained by placing small cubes in an hydraulic press and noting under what pressures each cube will crush4 7#e47 ,the effect of weather is not easily ascertained artificially1 although it is suggested that a good test may be made by soaking the stone in a saturated solution of sulphate of soda2 and then on exposure to the air1 if soft1 it is said the stone will disintegrate as if under the action of thaw succeeding frost4#bg ,the specific gravity of a stone is no criterion whatever as to its fitness4 ,clay-slate has a higher specific gravity than a tough flint1 and yet the former is almost useless as a road metal2 the latter1 on the contrary1 often making excellent roadways4 ,the qualities necessary for a really good road metal are hardness1 toughness1 not easily decomposed or affected by the weather1 and at the same time the stone when broken ought to have some power of cohesion without the necessity of much binding material4 ,the question of cost ,i put aside at once1 as it is well known that the best road metal is always the cheapest where there is much or heavy traffic4 ,local circumstances must to a great extent determine what stone to use upon a roadway1 but the following list may be of use3-- ,syenite4--,this is a granite in which hornblende takes the place of mica1 and is an excellent road material2 the darker the colour the more durable it is found to be4 ,granite4--,this should have more felspar than quartz1 and have as little mica as possible2 the closer the grain the better4 ,coarse-grained granites soon decompose4 ,trappean ,rocks4--,some of these are excellent for road metal4 ,basalts of dark colour and close grain should be selected4 ,greenstones with similar characteristics are good2 as is also ,whinstone4 ,gneiss4--,is inferior to granite2 it has mica in layers and is not a good road metal4 ,clay ,slates4--,these are useless1 as they crumble on exposure or degenerate into mud4 ,limestone4--,the ,metamorphic1 ,silurian1 and ,carboniferous limestones may be used if crystalline in appearance1 but the ,lias and ,oolitic are of little use4#bh ,sandstones4--,some of these1 if cherty or containing a large percentage of iron1 may be used2 but as a rule they are quite unfitted for use as a road metal4 ,flints4--,these1 if tough1 make excellent roadways2 but unfortunately they are sometimes too brittle for heavy traffic4 ,surface-picked flints are better than those from a quarry4#bi ,pebbles4--,these are found on sea shores and river beds4 ,they are composed of very various rocks1 and are much water-worn and rounded2 when broken they sometimes answer very well if mixed with gravel to bind them4 ,gravel4--,this1 if of a flinty character1 and not too much mixed with earthy matter1 makes good roads for light traffic1 if carefully watched or well rolled during formation4 ,pit gravel should always be screened through wire screens of #a to #a gauge1 and the small can be used for footpaths4 ,in some places it is difficult to obtain any natural stone for the purposes of road metal2 in these cases slag from blast furnaces or ordinary clinkers from furnaces are sometimes used4 ,oyster shells are used on the roadways near the ,gulf coasts#cj and charcoal in ,michigan1 ,united ,states4#ca ,i have myself made a most excellent roadway with coral on the coast of ,jamaica1 and no doubt many strange materials have been1 and still are1 used for this purpose4 8,i never mix0 is an adage that should be followed by surveyors as regards road metal4 ,do not mix a soft material with one that is harder for either construction or maintenance of a roadway2 the effect is what is known as a 8bumpy0 road1 arising from the fact of the soft stone wearing faster than the hard4 ,the hardest metal should be kept for the top or surface layer of the roadway4 ,as an instance of the extreme difficulty besetting the question of the best material for road metal1 ,i will here give a table showing the comparative coefficients of quality assigned to them by the engineers of the ,french ,department of the ,ponts et ,chausses4#cb ,,coefficients ,,of ,,quality ,,of ,,road ,,materials4 ,granitic gravel #bch ,quartz gravel #bad ,trap #bjj ,quartz #ajj to #bej 7in one instance #dh7 ,basalt #abj #bjj ,porphyry #ajj #bjj 7in one instance #ej7 ,quartzite #aaj #ahj ,devonian schist #afj ,schist #dj to #abj ,sandstone #abj #afj ,granite #fj #bjj 7generally #ajj to #abj7 ,syenite #abj ,gneiss #ij to #abj ,silicious pebbles and gravel #hj #aij 7in one instance #fj7 ,silex #hj #afj ,chalk flints #gj #aaf ,silicious limestone #fj #ahj 7generally about #ajj to #abj7 ,compact limestone #adj ,magnesian limestone #afj ,carboniferous limestone #ij ,oolitic limestone #ej to #abj ,lias limestone #ej #ajj ,juranic limestone #ej #hj ,limestone #ej #abj ,mean of all ,france #ajfc ,it will be seen by the above table how different are the results obtained from materials of the same character4 ,breaking stone for the purpose of using it as a road metal was1 until comparatively recent years1 always effected by hand2 now1 as in other cases1 machinery has stept in and somewhat supplanted manual labour4 ,hand-broken road metal1 however1 still finds favour with road surveyors2 it is better broken1 and in some districts1 the occupation finds employment for persons who otherwise would be thrown on the rates for support4 ,in breaking stone by hand the breaker sits and strikes the stone with a small cast-steel chisel-faced hammer1 weighing about one pound1 at the end of a long1 straight-grained but flexible ash stick4#cc ,the breaker also has another hammer1 weighing about five pounds1 with which he reduces the size of the large stones before breaking them into the proper size for road metal4 ,this latter size is often a matter of choice1 some engineers preferring it to be broken so small as will pass through a ring of only #a inch in diameter2 others are content with #c inches1 especially where the roads are steam rolled4 ,an old method of gauging used to be 8such a size as the stone breaker could put in his mouth10 but this was unsatisfactory to all persons concerned1 and 8to pass all ways through a ring of #b inches internal diameter0 is now the size most generally adopted4 ,mr4 ,codrington says#cd 8a good stone breaker will break #b cubic yards of hard limestone to the ordinary gauge in a day1 and some men will break more4 ,hard silicious stones and igneous rocks can only be broken at the rate of #a or of #a cube yard per day2 of some of the toughest1 such as ,guernsey granite1 a man can only break on an average half a cube yard per day4 ,river gravel1 field stones1 or flints1 which are already of a small size1 can be broken at the rate of #c or #d cube yards per day40 ,this may be taken as fairly representing a day's work1 the price for breaking however must vary considerably in different localities on account of the variety of the stones to be broken and the value of labour2 in some districts the road metal does not cost more than #as4 per cube yard1 in others #bs4 #f;d4 and #bs4 #h;d4 is not considered too high1 and it was to meet and reduce this great expense that steam stone-breaking machines have been introduced4 ,these machines are known as 8,ellison's10 8,newall and ,archer's10 8,hope's10 and 8,blake's10 the latter being that which is best known and most generally used in this country4 ,illustration3 8,,archer',s0 ,,stone ,,breaker4 ,illustration3 8,,blake',s0 ,,stone ,,breaker4 ,illustration3 8,,newall ,,and ,,archer',s0 ,,stone ,,breaker4 ,the foregoing illustrations will give a general idea of the manner in which the stone is broken or crushed between strong iron jaws2 in all cases a revolving perforated screen is necessary 7not shown in the drawings7 to separate the stone broken to proper gauge from that which is too large1 and also from the spalls or chippings4 ,the ,blake's or 8,blake ,marsden's0 machines are of various sizes and weights2 the following particulars with respect to them1 as advertised1 may be of use4#ce ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,size of machine at ,approxi- ,total weight mouth1 mate of machine showing what quanti- with wheels1 size of ty of ,nominal axles1 horse stone each road metal horse- shafts1 auto- ,price of#cf machine will broken power matic screening machine take4 per hour4required4apparatus1 etc4 complete4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- inches4 cube ,h4,p4 tons cwt4 qrs4 s4 d4 yards4 #aj #h #c #c #e #f #j #aeg #j #j #ab #h #d #c #e #aa #j #afg #j #j #ae #h #e #e #f #ai #j #bjj #j #j #ae #aj #f #f #h #e #j #bbj #j #j #bj #aj #h #h #aj #b #j #bfe #j #j #bd #ac #ab #aj #ae #e #j #cij #j #j #bd #ag #ac #ad #af #b #j #dae #j #j #bd #ai #ad #af #ai #ag #j #ddj #j #j #cj #ac #ad #af #af #b #j #ddj #j #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,mr4 ,till1 the ,borough ,engineer of ,birmingham1 speaking of the work done by one of ,blake's machines in #ahgd1 says3#cg 8,the stone-breaking machine at ,holliday ,street will break on an average #dj tons of ragstone per day1 at a cost1 exclusive of wear and tear of machine1 of #aj;d4 per ton1 but it produces #af per cent4 of dust or fine stone2 of the remainder one-fifth has to be rebroken by hand1 the whole is very irregular in size and very flaky in comparison with hand-broken stone4 ,the machine is much more efficient in breaking granites or pebbles4 ,it has1 however1 been found very useful during the last two years1 in consequence of the difficulty of obtaining labour40 ,mr4 ,jacob1 the ,borough ,engineer of ,barrow in ,furness1 read an excellent paper on the subject of stone-breaking machinery to the members of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers1 at their meeting in ,manchester in #ahge1ch giving a full description of one of ,blake's machines1 to which ,i will refer my readers4 ,mr4 ,codrington#ci gives the result of breaking whinstone in a #af-;inch by #i-;inch ,hope machine1 from which it appears that the total cost1 including wages1 coal1 oil1 cottonwaste1 etc41 wear and tear of machinery1 and1 ,i presume1 interest on first cost of machine1 was about #as4 per cube yard4 ,this effected a saving of #aj;d4 per cube yard as compared with the same stone broken by hand1 and the machine broke #dj tons of stone per diem4 ,to make a stone-breaking machine pay1 it is necessary3 7#a47 ,to give it nearly constant work4 7#b47 ,that the stone to be broken shall be too tough to break economically by hand4 7#c47 ,that the machine shall be at the quarry1 so as to save the expense of much handling4 7#d47 ,to exercise care in feeding1 to give it a sufficient supply without allowing an undue quantity of stone to pass in at one time4 7#e47 ,as about #bj per cent4 of grit or dust is produced1 this must be used for foot-paths1 or as a binding material for roads1 or in asphalte or tar paving4 ,in addition to the grit which is produced1 a great many long and thin pieces of stone pass through the machine1 which have to be again broken by it before they could be used as road metal2 and having once taken this form1 they will frequently pass several times through the machine before they get properly broken4 ,the wear and tear of a stone-breaking machine is very considerable1 as can be easily imagined2 it has been known to reach as high as #fbe per cent4#dj of the first cost of the machine in one year4 ,the objections to stone-breaking by machinery are principally3 7#a47 ,in some districts labour can be successfully employed in this manner4 7#b47 ,hand-broken stone is sharper in fracture1 as it is done by a blow and not by gradual pressure1 whereas machine-broken stone is often flaky or with rounded edges1 and frequently each stone may be cracked and shaken by the pressure4 7#c47 ,want of uniformity in the size of the stones4 ,the smaller the stone is broken the heavier a cubic yard of it will weigh1 as the percentage of vacant space between each stone will be less4 ,it has been found by experiment1 however1 that #ee per cent4 of ordinary road metal is solid1 so that the weight of a cubic yard of it can easily be ascertained in the following manner4#da ,multiply the weight of a cubic foot of any stone by #bg to bring it to a cubic yard1 and then multiply this by #jee3 the result will be the weight of a cubic yard of the same stone when broken for metalling4 ,a cubic yard of ,guernsey granite broken to pass through a #b inch ring has been weighed1 and gives an average of #a ton #c cwt4 #b qrs4 tons cwt4 qrs4 ,a cube yard of flint weighed #a #a #c pit gravel weighed #a #d #c limestone weighed #a #c #j ,a cubic yard of ordinary broken road metal will1 when properly spread1 cover an area of about #cj square yards of surface of a roadway4 ,the following specimen specification for the supply of stone either unbroken or broken may be of use4 ,specification for the ,supply of ,road ,metal4 7#a47 ,the road metal must at all times be clean and free from clay or other dirt1 and fully equal to the sample2 if required to be broken1 each cube must have a square face and sharp edges1 and pass all ways through a #b inch ring4 7#b47 ,the metal must be delivered in 7name of town7 free of all charge to the corporation1 either at a railway station or at one of the depts of the corporation1 at the option of the contractor1 such option to be declared in the tender4 7#c47 ,the metal must be supplied on the order of the borough engineer in such quantities as he may specify1 and must be delivered within the time specified in the order4 ,the contractor shall not be required to supply and deliver more than tons in any one week2 but the corporation will be at all times ready to take the metal in larger quantities4 7#d47 ,the bill of lading or railway invoice shall be taken as prim facie evidence of the weight of metal supplied2 but the corporation retain the right to test the accuracy of such bill of lading or railway invoice1 by passing the metal over a weighbridge as it is received4 7#e47 ,metal delivered at a dept by carts shall be measured when broken and paid for at the rate of cwt4 per cubic yard4 7#f47 ,the corporation retain the right to reject all metal which shall not be equal to the sample1 or at their option to pay a reduced price according to its value4 7#g47 ,quarterly payments will be made by the corporation on the certificate of the borough engineer1 and within one month from the date of such certificate4 7#h47 ,the borough engineer shall be the sole judge as to the fitness of the metal supplied1 and his certificate1 in writing1 shall be conclusive evidence upon the point as between the corporation and the contractor4 7#i47 ,if the contractor shall make default in the supply and delivery of road metal in accordance with the terms of this specification1 and within the time specified for the purpose in the order of the borough engineer1 the corporation shall be at liberty to obtain such road metal as they may deem fit and necessary from another source1 and any excess in price or other loss they may consequently incur1 shall be recoverable by them from the contractor as liquidated and ascertained damages4 7#aj47 ,tenders must be sent in only on the prescribed form1 and the person tendering must insert in his tender the name of two persons who will join him in a joint and several bond to the corporation in the sum of l4 for the due performance of the contract4 7#aa47 ,each person tendering must send to the office of the borough engineer a sample of the road metal he offers1 accompanied by a full description1 and the name and position of the quarry from which it is produced2 such sample to be not less that one cwt4 in weight1 and to be retained by the corporation in the event of the tender being accepted4 7#ab47 ,the corporation do not bind themselves to accept the lowest or any tender2 and they further retain the right to reject a contractor in the event of his failing to find sureties to their satisfaction in compliance with the #ajth condition4 7#ac47 ,the word 8corporation0 shall mean the mayor1 aldermen and burgesses1 of in their capacity as the urban sanitary authority for 4 ,the word 8contractor0 shall mean the person whose tender is accepted1 and who has signed these conditions2 and the words 8borough engineer0 shall mean the engineer to the said corporation for the time being4 ,since writing this chapter my attention has been directed to a stone-breaking machine which is said to substitute a 8knapping0 for that of the usual crushing motion which is so generally the great defect in these machines3 ,i allude to that known as 8,baxter's patent knapping-motion stone breaker10 by which a rapid jerk or blow is given instead of the slow crushing movement1 thus 7it is contended7 causing less waste from dust and chippings1 and also less strain of the machinery and less power to drive it4 #bf ,toughness is not all that is required4 ,leather would be very difficult to break with a hammer1 but it would not make a good road metal4 #bg ,i have tried this experiment1 but without success1 except on such soft stones as were evidently unfitted for use as a road metal4 #bh ,many hundreds of miles of roadways in this country are made with limestones2 they often make an excellent surface1 as they possess a considerable power of binding together1 but weather and very heavy traffic affect them considerably3 as they all have a strong affinity for water1 their very power of thus cementing themselves together causes a quantity of dust in dry1 and mud in wet weather4 #bi ,a flinty or quartzose stone seems to harden with exposure4 ,this is notably the case in pebbles2 old pebble paving taken up and broken makes a most hard and durable road metal4 #cj #8,roads1 ,streets and ,pavements1' by ,q4 ,a4 ,gillmore1 p4 #aj4 #ca ,ibid4 #cb ,vide #8,the ,maintenance of ,macadamised ,roadways1' by ,thomas ,codrington1 p4 #cc1 a most excellent work upon this subject4 #cc ,mr4 ,w4 ,bold considered a hammer weighing #a lb4 of an elliptical form1 pointed at the ends1 the area of each end being about th of a square inch1 to be the most suitable to break hard stones4 ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings1 ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 i4 7#ahdj7 p4 #ej4 #cd #8,the ,maintenance of ,macadamised ,roads1' by ,thomas ,codrington1 p4 #ch4 #ce1 #cf ,no doubt the price of the machine varies with the price of iron1 etc4 #cg ,vide #8,report of the ,borough ,surveyor of ,birmingham to the ,paving and ,street ,improvement ,sub-,committee1' p4 #aa4 #ch ,vide #8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers1' vol4 ii4 p4 #gf4 #ci ,vide #8,the ,maintenance of ,macadamised ,roadways1' by ,thomas ,codrington1 p4 #da4 #dj ,vide #8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers1' vol4 ii4 p4 #hb4 #da ,vide #8,the ,maintenance of ,macadamised ,roadways1' by ,thomas ,codrington1 p4 #de4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,road ,,rolling4 ,the march of civilisation has decided that road rolling is a necessity for macadamised roads1 instead of allowing the stones of which they are composed to be worn in by the traffic1 as was formerly the custom4 ,in ,calcutta bullock rollers were used so long ago as the year #ahee1 and it was the cruelty of this operation that suggested to ,mr4 ,w4 ,clark the necessity for a steam roller1#db the outcome of which was the well-known roller as manufactured and supplied by ,messrs4 ,aveling and ,porter of ,rochester1 and now so generally used throughout this country1 as well as in ,american and other foreign towns4#dc ,steam rolling saves money as well as suffering1 and the legislature have recognised the importance of a sanitary authority becoming possessed of a steam roller by permitting money to be borrowed for the purchase of a roller as for a permanent work4 7,sect4 #bcd ,glenn's ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 footnote to ,sub4 ,sect4 7#a747 ,mr4 ,albert ,w4 ,parry1 the ,borough ,surveyor of ,reading1 has prepared some tables on the subject of steam road rollers1 from information he received on this subject1 in answer to some questions he addressed to the surveyors of a number of towns a few years ago4 ,it appears from this tabulated statement that thirty-three #ae-ton steam rollers were in use1 six #aj-ton rollers1 one #ba-ton roller1 one #h-ton roller1 one #i ton roller1 one #ad-ton roller1 one #ag-ton roller1 and one #be-ton roller2 this latter not being much used1 as it was found to be too heavy4 ,the average gross cost per annum of necessary repairs to the rollers1 other than those which could be effected by the men in charge of it1 amounted to #cel4 #abs4 ,the number of men employed to attend to the roller and cost of labour per day varied considerably1 from one case 7,south ,shields7 where 8one engine-man at #bfs4 per week1 and an old scavenger with the flag0 were found to be sufficient2 to another 7,gloucester7 where the cost per day is stated as follows3 8one man works the engine at #es4 per day1 one boy with signal flag1 #as4 #h;d41 two men spreading gravel or sand at #cs41 two men watering and sweeping to keep water from running off in channels40 ,some of the older rollers require a steersman as well as a driver1 and the ,locomotives ,amendment ,act requires two men with flags1 but this is seldom really necessary4 ,the sweepers1 spreaders and sprinklers should be taken as irrespective of the actual cost of the roller1 which may therefore be assumed to be the wages of the engine-man1 say #es4 per diem1 and a boy or old man with a flag at #bs41 thus making a total for labour of #gs4 per diem4 ,the fuel that is consumed by a #ae-ton roller seems to be from #c to #e cwt4 of coke per diem1 common gas coke being generally used1 though steam coal would no doubt answer equally well1 some of the smokeless ,welsh descriptions being of course necessary4 ,with regard to the question 8,when not used for rolling roads1 to what other use 7if any7 do you put the engine power80 there are not many towns that use the machine for any other purpose than rolling1 but the following uses may be enumerated to which the machines have been applied3--,driving a stone-breaker1 a mortar-mill1 a saw-bench1 a chaff-cutting machine1 a bean-crusher1 etc4 ,it has also been used in connection with pumping1 and to produce the necessary power for the electric light1 and it is frequently employed as a traction engine4 ,the driving rollers usually have provision by which spikes may be fitted into holes in their faces1 in order that they may be used for lifting or chequering roads4 ,these1 however1 apparently do not answer2 the working of a machine in this manner is said to shake and strain it considerably1 and the holes in the rollers1 which are plugged with wood when not in use1 are objectionable1 as these plugs wear out and the road metal gets into the holes1 and the surface of the road is picked up as the rolling proceeds2 besides this1 the spikes seem to have no effect unless the surface of the roadway being operated upon is soft4 ,with reference to the use of binding material1 the most commonly used and that which receives most favour is road grit or scrapings1#dd sharp sand is also employed1 as well as gravel if clean1 and also stone chippings and screenings2 these should be of the same material of which the road is made1 if possible1 and no doubt newly constructed roads require more care in the binding material than simple repairs4 ,the steepest gradient upon which a roller will act appears to be #a in #i in ,blackburn1 with a #ae-ton roller1 but this must require a very heavy pressure of steam1 and #a in #ad seems to be a gradient that gives no trouble to roll either up or down2 in going down hill1 of course it is a mere question of sufficient break power4 ,the number of superficial yards rolled per day must vary extremely with circumstances3 the class of material1 the amount of binding and water used1 the gradient and pressure of steam maintained1 and the amount of rolling considered necessary1#de being amongst the various influences4 ,from the above returns ,i find that the number of square yards rolled varies from #ejj to #cjjj per diem1 the average for #db towns being #aaje square yards per diem4 ,the cost per square yard rolled1 including all charges1 may be assumed to be between d4 and #a;d41 and the cost of binding material about #c;d4 per square yard4 ,with reference to the necessity of binding material1 the following1 facts are interesting4 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,h4 ,grant1 ,superintending ,engineer of the ,new ,york ,central ,park1 in his report upon the park roads1 says3#df 8,at the commencement of the macadam roads1 the experiment was tried of rolling and compacting the stone by a strict adherence to ,macadam's theory1 that of carefully excluding all dirt and foreign material from the stones1 and trusting to the action of the roller and the travel of teams to accomplish the work of consolidation4 ,the bottom layer of stone was sufficiently compacted in this way to form and retain1 under the action of the rollers 7after the compression had reached about its practical limit7 an even and regular surface2 but the top layer1 with the use of the heavy roller loaded to its greatest capacity1 it was found impracticable to solidify and reduce to such a surface as would prevent the stones from loosening and being displaced by the action of waggon-wheels and horses' feet4 ,no amount of rolling was sufficient to produce a thorough binding effect upon the stones or to cause such a mechanical union and adjustment of their sides and angles together1 as to enable them mutually to assist each other in resisting displacement4 ,the rolling was persisted in with the roller adjusted to different weights up to the maximum load 7#ab tons7 until it was apparent that the opposite effect from that intended was being produced4 ,the stones became rounded by the excessive attrition they were subjected to1 their more angular parts wearing away1 and the weaker and smaller ones being crushed40 8,the experiment was not pushed beyond this point4 ,it was conclusively shown1 that broken stones of the ordinary sizes1 and of the very best quality for wear and durability1 with the greatest care and attention to all the necessary conditions of rolling and compression1 would not consolidate in the effectual manner required for the surface of a road while entirely isolated from and independent of other substances4 ,the utmost efforts to compress and solidify them while in this condition after a certain limit had been reached1 were unavailing40 ,from the foregoing it is very evident that some description of binding material is essential in making a road under a roller4 ,where traffic is allowed to consolidate a road it is different1 as then the stones are knocked about and are sufficiently abraded against each other to form a binding material for themselves4 ,too much binding material or too much water should not be used in forming a road with a steam roller4 ,it is unfortunately frequently the case that a road is made quickly only to go to pieces with the traffic in a few weeks4 ,the surface of a well-constructed macadamised roadway should after being rolled look almost like an encaustic pavement4 ,if there is too much binding material in the joints of the stones1 the first heavy rain washes it out and the surface of the roadway quickly goes to pieces4 ,the following description of the manner in which it is recommended that the roller should be applied is taken from an excellent little pamphlet on ,steam ,road ,rolling1 by ,messrs4 ,aveling and ,porter1 the well-known makers of steam-rollers1 and although local circumstances must guide the surveyor in all his works1 the particulars may be of use3-- 8,in the best practice the roadway is excavated1 graded1 and properly formed to a depth of #ad inches from the level of the gutters1 with a cross section conforming to the cross section of the road when finished2 it is then thoroughly and repeatedly rolled with the steam roller1 all depressions being carefully filled and rolled before the stone is put on4 ,on the bed thus formed and consolidated a layer of stones #h inches thick is set by hand1 and rammed or settled to place by sledge hammers1 all irregularities of surface being broken off and the interstices wedged with pieces of stone4 ,the intermediate layer of broken stone1 of a size not exceeding #c inches in diameter1 is then evenly spread to a depth of #d inches and thoroughly rolled1 and this is followed by rolling in half-an-inch of sand4 ,the surface layer of stone1 broken to a size not larger than #b inches diameter1 and to a form as nearly cubical as possible1 is then put on to a depth of #c inches1 thoroughly rolled1 and followed as before by sand1 also rolled4 ,finally1 a binding composed of clean1 sharp sand is then applied1 well watered and most thoroughly rolled with the steam roller1 until the surface becomes firm1 compact and smooth1 the superfluous binding material being swept off and removed40 ,and the following account of the method adopted in the ,united ,states at ,hartford may also be of interest4#dg 8,the surface of the road is excavated to a suitable depth--say1 #ah inches2 preparing the form for the pavement with the precautions as for a common pavement2 #d inches of gravel and proper drainage where required1 provided blocks of stone of any irregular shape are selected for the pavement1 of about #g inches in thickness4 ,the blocks are set by hand with great care1 as closely in contact at their base as practicable4 ,the surface between the blocks is filled with chippings of stone carefully laid in4 ,a layer of broken stone1 #d inches thick1 is laid over this pavement4 ,the road-covering thus prepared should be rolled with the steam roller until the upper layer has become perfectly compact and consolidated4 ,the second layer1 about #c inches in depth1 is then laid on2 a coating of clean coarse gravel1 #a inch thick1 termed #8binding1' is spread over the surface1 and the whole well rolled as before1 and you have the requisites of a good road--viz41 clean1 hard1 and even at all seasons4 ,no road should be considered made until it is completely rolled4 ,a road made in the manner above described1 and kept perfectly clean1 hard1 and even1 with materials of a good tough quality1 would show extremely little wear on the surface2 indeed1 it has been found in ,france to be less than an inch in a year1 on a road of great traffic40 ,in the neighbourhood of ,new ,york the steam roller is used as follows3-- ,two and a half inches of trap rock is laid and lightly rolled until the stones have become a little compacted1 then coarse screenings are added1 and it is again rolled2 after this a layer of about #b inches of stones are added and rolled with coarse screenings as before4 ,fine screenings or stone dust is then applied1 and the roadway is then rolled until every interstice is filled up2 it is then well watered and again rolled4 ,with reference to the employment of the steam roller in repairs of roads1 the following description is given of the method adopted by the ,surveyor to the ,tottenham ,local ,board1 near ,london4#dh 8,when a road becomes so full of holes or so worn as to require coating throughout its entire length and width1 it should be hacked completely over and raked into a segmental form in its transverse section to remove irregularities1 and so that the road may have a fall from the crown to the channel of not less than one inch to a yard4 ,it should then be coated with stone broken as nearly cubical as possible and to an uniform gauge4 ,when spread it should be slightly coated with gravel screenings1 or the grit sweepings from the roads1 which are equally suitable for the purpose when in proper condition4 ,the road should then be watered and rolled1 beginning with the road at the channels1 and ending at the crown of the road1 until a smooth surface is obtained1 more stones being added to fill up any inequalities that may exist1 until the whole is consolidated4 ,by constantly sweeping the grit from the sides to the crown of the road as the roller passes over1 every stone is thoroughly grouted into its bed40 ,mr4 ,r4 ,read1 the ,surveyor of ,gloucester1 says3#di 8,the road should be thoroughly well lifted and the metalling spread in three-inch layers evenly1 and rolled once or twice before the gravel or other binding material is spread2 then spread gravel or sand evenly and well watered with fine distributor until the stone is entirely covered1 and the sand does not adhere to the roller4 ,dam up the road channels to prevent water and sand running off into sewers and let men scoop up the water1 and throw it back on the road1 as it collects in the gutters40 ,in all cases the sides should be rolled first to such a degree of firmness that when the roller passes over the centre or crown of road1 its weight1 which tends to spread the metal or make it work off towards the sides1 may be resisted by their consolidation4 ,with reference to the effect of the weight of steam road rollers upon roadways1 it may be well here to compare that of a #ae-ton roller with other burdens that a road has to bear1 taking each case at per inch of width of tire4 ,an ordinary loaded two-wheeled cart presses with a weight of about #i cwt4 per inch width of tire1 a loaded wagon about #g cwt41 a #i-ton traction engine about #c cwt41 and a #ae-ton steam road roller about #c cwt4 ,so that as far as the surface of the roadway is concerned1 a roller affects it the least of any of the above loads4 ,it has1 however1 been found that where rollers of more weight than #ae tons are used1#ej not only are they unwieldy1 but1 from their great weight1 the solidity of the foundation of the roadway may be interfered with1 and also there is great danger of damaging gas or water mains and services1 besides any cellars that may be constructed under the roadway4 ,the steam rollers which are principally used in this country1 are those manufactured by ,messrs4 ,aveling and ,porter1 and those by ,messrs4 ,green and ,sons1 drawings of both of which are here represented4 ,illustration3 ,,messrs4 ,,aveling ,,and ,,porter',s #ae-,,ton ,,steam ,,road ,,roller4 ,illustration3 ,,messrs4 ,,green ,,and ,,son',s #ae-,,ton ,,steam ,,road ,,roller ,,and ,,traction ,,engine ,,combined4 ,in ,paris the ,gellerat steam roller is used1 and another is also known1 which is manufactured by ,messrs4 ,morland and ,sons4 ,a #ae-ton steam roller costs about #fejl4 in the first place1 the cost of working it c41 has been given in the early pages of this chapter4 ,the advantages of steam road rolling may be summed up as follows3-- 7#a47 ,the saving of wear and tear to vehicles and horses4 ,roads should be made for the traffic1 and not by it4#ea 7#b47 ,economy2 as it is said that a saving of from #cj to #ej per cent4 is effected by reason of the roads being better made thus obviating the necessity for such frequent sweeping and scraping4 7#c47 ,the roads can be made or repaired at any season of the year4 7#d47 ,the avoidance of cruelty to horses1 cattle1 and sheep1 as in the case of newly metalled unrolled roads4 7#e47 ,a saving of road metal4 7a7 ,because it need not be broken so small4 7b7 ,because there are no loose stones to be kicked about and lost4 7c7 ,because there is no abrasion of the stones1 only one surface of the stone being exposed4 7d7 ,because no ruts can be formed in which water can lie to rot the stone4 7e7 ,because a thinner coating of metal can be employed4 7#f47 ,the roller can be advantageously used for other purposes4 7#g47 ,rolled streets have a better appearance1 they are easier of traffic as having more evenness of surface and superior hardness1 and it is contended that if steam rollers were more general there would not be such an outcry for other descriptions of pavement for roadways4 7#h47 ,the steam roller soon finds out the good from the bad metal for roads1 it is also contended that it also does this with respect to the gas and water mains1 the latter1 however may be looked upon as a rather doubtful advantage4 7#i47 ,the avoidance of the necessity of the continued employment of men raking the metal into the ruts4 ,in ,mr4 ,paget's valuable little pamphlet upon the subject of steam rolling#eb may be found the following remarks3-- 8,one of the main advantages attending the rolling of roads by steam-power1 consists in the diminished proportion of mud or soluble matter which is then incorporated in the structure of the road surface4 ,if the surface of an ordinary road that has not been rolled is broken up and the material washed1 it is found that as much as half of it is soluble matter1 mud1 dirt1 and very fine sand2 the stones1 having only been thrown loosely upon the road1 have lain so long before becoming consolidated by the traffic1 and have undergone in the meantime such extensive abrasion that the proportion of mud1 dirt1 and pulverised material in the metalling is increased to that extent1 and the stones are really only stuck together by the mud4 ,this accounts for the fact that although an unrolled macadamised road may indeed1 after long use1 have a surface that is pretty good and hard in dry weather1 and may offer then a very slight resistance to traction1 yet it will quickly become soft and muddy when there is any rain4 ,by the employment1 however1 of a steam roller upon the newly-laid metalling of a macadamised road the stones are rolled in and well bedded at once1 and the surface is thus consolidated into a sort of stone felt1 capable of resisting most effectually the action of ordinary traffic1 and containing the smallest quantity of soluble matter to form mud in wet weather40 ,having given the advantages of steam road rolling1 ,i will now proceed to give the disadvantages4 7#a47 ,the first cost2 this to a small borough or town is often the great stumbling block4 ,it is a pity that two or three of them could not join1 and procure one between them at joint cost1 thus avoiding the individually heavy burden4 7#b47 ,the risk of damage to gas and water mains and services2 or even of cellars under the streets in some of the older towns4 7#c47 ,the interference to traffic whilst the roller is at work2 the result is generally unsatisfactory if1 to avoid this1 the machine is worked during the night4 7#d47 ,the noise and smoke4 7#e47 ,the risk of frightening horses4 7#f47 ,if too heavy a roller is used1 the foundation of the roadway may be injured or the metal may be crushed instead of bedded4 7#g47 ,the necessity of using so much binding material and water4 ,before closing this chapter it will be necessary to say a few words upon rollers drawn by horses4 ,these are always unsatisfactory3 they are expensive to use1 as a large team of horses and a number of attendants are necessary2 they are difficult to turn1 and the horses' feet displace almost as many stones as the roller compresses into their beds4 ,they cannot be of greater weight than #aj tons1 even when on the hydrostatic principle1 and they are clumsy and difficult of manipulation4 ,if a roller is to be used at all1 let it be a steam road roller of the most modern description1 and of the best manufacture4 #db ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 lviii4 p4 #ie4 7,the first steam roller was made in the year #ahfd47 #dc ,the first steam roller used in ,england was1 ,i believe1 in the year #ahgb2 in ,paris about #ahfd4 #dd ,this should be collected and 8weathered0 so as to get rid of mud and any organic matter in it4 #de ,in ,paris #c to #cge ton miles of roller are applied to every cubic yard of metal2 in ,america #e ton miles are thought necessary4 #df ,vide #8,roads1 ,streets1 and ,pavements1' by ,q4 ,a4 ,gillmore1 p4 #hi4 #dg ,vide ,aveling and ,porter's pamphlet on #8,steam ,road ,rolling1' p4 #cb4 #dh ,vide ,aveling and ,porter's pamphlet on #8,steam ,road ,rolling1' p4 #cc4 #di ,vide #8,the ,use of ,steam ,rollers1' by ,a4 ,w4 ,parry1 ,reading4 #ej ,some road surveyors contend that for gravelled roads #f-ton rollers are heavy enough1 for macadam roads #ab-ton rollers4 #ea ,traffic in making a roadway is apt to grind off the sharp edges and spoil the metal before it is set4 #eb #8,report on the ,economy of ,road ,maintenance and ,horse ,draught through ,steam ,rolling1 with special reference to the ,metropolis1' by ,frederick ,a4 ,paget1 ,c4,e41 etc4 etc41 ,london #ahgj1 to which ,i refer my readers for many scientific and useful facts upon this subject4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,pitched ,,pavements4 ,it has been asserted that where a roadway has a traffic exceeding #ajjj vehicles per diem1 that to maintain it as a macadamised roadway is not economical4#ec ,however that may be1 it is unquestionable that for very heavy traffic blocks of hammer-dressed stone1 laid upon a concrete or hard gravel bed1 have been in use for a great number of years1 and indeed the ,romans1 who were great road makers1 introduced the system 7the ,archaic1 as it is sometimes called7 into this country more than #bjjj years ago2 the size of the paving stones was1 however1 much larger than modern science finds necessary4 ,there is no doubt that a roadway paved with granite or whinstone setts1 upon a hard concrete foundation1 presents a most enduring pavement1 costing but a few pence per annum in repairs#ed and cleansing1 and in other respects it answers nearly all the requirements of traffic except in two very important particulars--it becomes very greasy and slippery under certain conditions of the weather after having been laid any time1 and it is an intolerable nuisance in any great thoroughfare1 from the incessant din and clatter arising from the wheels of vehicles and the iron shoes of the horses striking upon it2 so great is the noise in some thoroughfares thus paved1 that tradesmen are compelled to keep their doors and windows tightly closed in order that they may be able to conduct their business1 and it is known to injuriously affect the nerves and health of persons who are obliged to live in the vicinity of such streets4 ,it is a bad pavement too for horses to travel upon1 the jar upon the legs of the unfortunate animals soon telling upon them4 ,great improvements1 however1 have in recent years been introduced to correct these faults4 ,the setts are now made very narrow1 about #c inches in width1 or #d setts to #ad inches including the joints3 this gives a better foothold for the horse1 the hoof having but a little way to slip before being arrested by a joint2 it also lessens the noise1 and helps besides to prevent the edges of the stones becoming worn or the pavement wearing unevenly4 ,running the joints with an asphaltic composition instead of ordinary grouting has also materially conduced to deaden the noise4 ,taking the question of cost into account--and cost of this description of paving1 be it remembered1 is considerably affected by weight1 when carriage of the stone has to be considered--the following sizes of stones may be taken as satisfactory4#ee ,depth #f to #h inches ,width #b #c ,length #e #i ,the following table1#ef showing the number of square yards that #a ton in weight of different sizes of granite setts will cover1 may be of use1 but this must vary with the specific gravity of the stone employed4 ,depth4 ,width4 ,square yards4 #e inches #c inches covers #d #f #c #c #d #d #e #g #c #c ,the question of the best class of stones to employ as a paving material must to a great measure depend upon local circumstances1 but it is important to select such stones as are very hard and durable1 but which will not wear smooth and slippery nor round by reason of the chipping off of their edges4 ,nearly all granites are suitable for this work1 but ,carnarvonshire syenite#eg is said to be the best material that can be used1 although1 being denser than granite1 it is heavier and consequently more expensive4 ,at one time large quantities of paving stones were used in ,london and ,liverpool which were brought from ,bombay and ,china1 as ballast for ships trading between those ports4 ,mount ,sorrel from ,leicestershire and the ,welsh stones are said to wear slippery#eh as well as porphyry1 whereas the presence of felspar in the granite always keeps it rough under traffic4 ,of the granites1 that from ,dalbeattie in ,scotland is said to be the best4 ,the table on the next page1 prepared by ,mr4 ,walker in #ahca1 showing the wear of different stones1 may be of interest4 ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,result ,,of ,,experiments ,,made ,,by ,,mr4 ,,walker ,,on ,,the ,,wear ,,of ,,stones ,,in #ahcj-ca1 ,a ,,period ,,of #ag ,,months4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,super- ,loss of ficial weight ,loss per area in ,original by superficial,relative ,name of stone4 feet4 weight4 wear4 foot4 losses4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 ,guernsey #dgcd #g #a #abge #dej #jiea #ajjj ,herm #ebej #g #c #bdbe #eej #ajdh #aajb ,budle #fccf #i #j #aege #gge #abbc #abhf ,peterhead 7blue7 #cdhd #d #a #gej #fbe #agie #ahhg ,heytor #dcac #f #j #aebe #hbe #aiae #bjad ,aberdeen 7red7 #ecge #g #b #aaej #aaej #baci #bbdi ,dartmoor #dejj #f #b #bej #abej #bggh #biba ,aberdeen 7blue7 #dhbc #f #b #afj #adge #cjeh #cbaf ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the ,aberdeen granite as at present laid in the ,city of ,london1 #c inches wide by #i inches in depth1 has a life of about #ae years4#ei ,in the ,city of ,durham whinstone setts of the same width last #ag or #ah years1 in ,manchester similar granite setts last #ae to #bj years4 ,on this subject ,mr4 ,deacon1 the then ,borough ,engineer of ,liverpool1 has collected some most valuable information1 and ,i refer my readers to a paper read by him before the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers in #ahgi1fj for a great deal of useful information on this and other subjects connected with roadways4 ,various methods have been adopted for constructing granite paved streets1 some of which ,i will proceed to describe4 ,one of the first really good granite pavements introduced into ,london was that known as the 8,euston ,pavement10 and it was constructed in the following manner3 ,the foundation was shaped to the intended surface of the finished roadway2 upon this a layer of coarse gravel was spread #d inches in thickness1 this was well rammed1#fa and upon it was spread #d inches of gravel mixed with a small quantity of chalk to bind it2 this again being well rammed1 upon it was placed a similar layer only composed of finer gravel1 and upon this foundation the stones were placed1 being bedded upon about an inch of fine sand4 ,the stones used were ,mount ,sorrel granite1 which were hammer-dressed and squared1 #c inches in width by #d inches in depth2 they were set close together at right angles with the lines of the kerb1 they were then thoroughly rammed by the pavior4 ,the whole surface was afterwards covered with screened gravel which was allowed to find its way into the joints and thus steady the entire pavement4 ,the following section will explain this4 ,illustration ,in many cases the foundation is simply formed by shaping the soil to the required contour1 and covering this with #c or #d inches of gravel or cinders1 which is afterwards either rammed or consolidated by the traffic2 upon this the setts are placed as closely as possible1 the joints are then filled with fine gravel well worked in with a 8cramming iron10 the whole surface being then covered with a grouting of lime and sand1 which is brushed into the joints with a stumpy broom4#fb ,in ,leeds1 ,manchester1 ,salford1 and many other important cities1 ,i believe the foundations are formed in the manner just described1 but of greater depth1 the grouting also is a bituminous mixture1 which ,i will presently describe1 instead of the ordinary lime grouting4 ,the paved streets of ,manchester are proverbial for their excellence1 which is attributable to the manner in which the foundations of the streets are consolidated by the traffic before any setts are placed on them2 in many cases the old macadamised surface of a street being utilised as a foundation1 this process being almost identical with that recommended by ,sir ,henry ,parnell fifty years ago4#fc ,where the traffic is heavy1 however1 a firmer foundation even than this is necessary1 and up to the present time no better foundation has been introduced than that of good ,portland cement concrete4 ,this should be at least #i inches in thickness1 and be composed of one part of ,portland cement1 two parts of clean sharp river sand1 and four parts of clean river ballast1 or broken stones1 or other suitable material4 ,the surface of the concrete1 after having been placed in position1 should be smoothed over with the shovel1 so as to present the proper convexity and have an even surface for the granite setts to be bedded upon4 ,another description of foundation now very extensively used where the traffic is heavy1 is that known as 8,bituminous ,concrete10 which is made as follows3 ,the ground being excavated to the proper depth and contour1 broken stone as for macadam is spread for a depth of #f or #i inches2 this is then levelled and thoroughly rolled with a light roller1 a boiling mixture of pitch and tar1 or creosote oil is then poured over the whole surface until every interstice is filled1 when a thin layer of small broken stone is spread upon it1 and then well rolled until it consolidates4 ,it may be well to observe here that in all works involving concrete foundations and paving in streets1 the traffic should be entirely stopped if at all possible4 ,streets paved half at a time are never quite satisfactory1 and the concrete should have at least a week to set before the pavement is placed upon it4 ,upon a foundation of either ,portland cement or bituminous concrete1 the granite setts themselves should be grouted with a bituminous mixture instead of cement or lime grouting4 ,this renders the pavement more impervious to moisture1 makes it less noisy1 and adds considerably to its strength2 the mode of applying it is nearly similar to that of ordinary grouting4 ,the setts are placed on about an inch of sand and well rammed1 the boiling mixture is then poured over the whole surface1 which is then covered with a thin coating of small1 sharp gravel4 ,the following table of the proportions necessary for the bituminous mixture may here be of use4 ,,proportions ,,for ,,bituminous ,,mixture4#fd ,creosote ,pitch4 ,tar4 ,pitch4 oil4 ,for grouting in pavements #a to #a or #c to #a ,for foundations or lower layer #c to #a or #c to of asphalte macadam ,for upper layer of asphalte #b to #a or #c to macadam and for foot paths ,the objections to this method of paving are only temporary3 the nuisance arising from the fumes of the boiling mixture whilst it is being applied1 and the necessity for dry weather to make the operation successful4 ,healey's ,patent ,pitch ,boilers#fe are said to moderate1 if not entirely to do away with the former1 and the latter can be arranged by only doing the work at favourable seasons1 or if the worst come to the worst1 to cover the work with tarpaulins raised on trestles4 ,before closing this chapter ,i should like to draw attention to the question of provision for wheel tracks1 or tramways paved with stone1 asphalte1 or other hard material1 and a track for horses giving a firmer foot-hold1 similar to those so highly spoken of in ,milan and other ,italian cities4 ,an excellent description is given of them by ,mr4 ,p4 le ,neve ,foster1 ,jun41 in an appendix to a report on the ,application of ,science and ,art to ,street ,paving and ,street ,cleansing of the ,metropolis 7#ahgb74 ,the roadway where stone tramways are employed cannot be of convex section2 on the contrary1 it should be concave1 with the channel1 gutter1 or water table in the centre4 ,this is in itself an obvious advantage1 and ,i trust that the question of these tramways may at some future date receive more attention from ,english engineers2 the great objection to them in this country being that the smooth tram-track would be very slippery and apt to throw horses down when passing on and off1 but they have many advantages which should not be passed over without consideration4#ff #ec ,birmingham in #ahed had not1 ,i believe1 a single mile of paved streets2 the principal ones are now nearly all paved with granite setts1 and over #bj1jjj square yards were so paved in #ahhj4 #ed ,it is said that the cost per annum per square yard of granite paved roadways is but #c;d41 whereas the same cost for macadamised roadways under the same circumstances is #as4 #f;d4 #ee ,in ,paris after considerable research into the question1 the engineers of the ,ponts et ,chausses1 decided that the size of the paving stones1 which used formerly to be #i inches square should be #d inches wide by #f inches long by #f inches deep1 the stone that is used being a grit sandstone1 from the forest of ,fontainebleu4 #ef ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 lviii4 p4 #ff4 #eg ,syenite is a hard1 greenish-grey metamorphic rock1 composed principally of silica1 alumina1 and lime1 in conjunction with magnesia1 iron1 etc4 ,its specific gravity is #bif4 #eh ,mr4 ,boyle1 ,district ,surveyor of ,manchester1 says3 8,i would caution you against the use of the old blue ,penmaenmawr stone as being an extremely slippery stone1 and one which makes a dangerous pavement40 ,vide #8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers1' vol4 iii4 p4 #eh4 #ei ,the old granite paving of ,london used only to last eight years4 ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 ix4 p4 #bbb4 #fj ,vide #8,street ,carriageway ,pavements1' by ,george ,frederick ,deacon1 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 lviii4 p4 #a et seq4 #fa ,the pavior's rammer is about #ee lb4 in weight1 with an iron ring at its foot2 this is swung with some dexterity between the legs1 and is allowed to fall with great force upon the earth or stones it is in use upon4 #fb ,the usual specifications for the ,guidet paving blocks 7in ,new ,york7 require that they shall be of granite1 equal in hardness to the ,quincy granite1 of durable and uniform quality1 each measuring not less than #c nor more than #d inches in width on the upper surface or face1 and not less than #aj nor more than #ae inches in length1 and not less than #h nor more than #i inches in depth4 ,blocks of #c inches in width on the face to be not less than #c inches in width at the base2 all other blocks to measure on the base not more than #a inch less in width or in length than on the face4 ,the blocks are set upright in close contact on their edges in courses1 with the longest dimensions and the continuous joints running across the street1 breaking joints lengthwise of the street4 ,the ends of the blocks are dressed off so as to give close joints in the direction of the draught1 while the broad vertical sides of the blocks are left rugged or uneven1 or with the split rock-face so that the continuous joints running across the street are somewhat open4 ,vide #8,roads1 ,streets1 and ,pavements' by ,q4 ,a4 ,gillmore1 p4 #aeg4 #fc ,vide #8,a ,treatise on ,roads1' by ,sir ,henry ,parnell1 p4 #acj4 #fd ,as these ingredients often vary very much in their constitution1 the surveyor must use his judgment to a great extent as to these proportions4 #fe ,these boilers are now much used for such purposes1 they hold from #fj to #ejj gallons and are light and portable2 the temper of the bituminous mixture also remains uniform whilst being drawn off1 and there is very little evaporation or waste arising from them4 #ff ,since writing the above1 the ,liverpool and ,manchester tram-road was designed ,i believe on this principle4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,wood ,,paving4 ,in the year #ahdc ,mr4 ,charles ,cochrane1 the ,president of the #8,association for the promotion of ,improved ,street ,paving1 etc41' in a paper which he read before the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 on the ,state of the ,streets of the ,metropolis1 said that there existed at that date #ajj1jjj yards of wood pavement4#fg ,he further states that it is said to be slippery1 but that he approves of it as the best material hitherto used1 8both as regards its general economy and durability as well as its facility of traction1 and more especially its extreme cleanliness40 ,two years previous to this date1 ,mr4 ,edward ,lomas condemned wood pavement as slippery1 and recommended granite pavement for horses with wood tram-tracks for the wheels of vehicles4#fh ,since these dates the question of wood paving has made giant strides1 many companies and private firms having started business as wood paviors1 with many various methods1 which they strongly advocate as being superior to the others2 amongst them ,i will enumerate and describe the following3 ,the ,improved ,wood ,pavement ,company4--,the ground being consolidated1 a layer of sand is made the basis of the pavement1 and assumes the shape the surface of the street is intended to take4 ,red-wood boards #a-;inch in thickness are then laid across the roadway1 from kerb to kerb1 placed together so as to break joint2 boards of the same material and thickness are then laid longitudinally1 and breaking joint in the same manner4#fi ,on this foundation red-wood blocks are placed in rows1 taking the same direction as the under flooring4 ,between each row of blocks1 a strip of wood inch is nailed to the block and flooring1 the blocks in all cases breaking joint2 the spaces thus formed between the rows of blocks are then run with a thick composition which fills all vacant spaces there may be between the strip and the block1 covering the strip about of an inch4 ,gravel1 dried and sifted through -inch mesh1 is then put in1 solidly rammed1 and composition poured in2 the pavement is then covered to a depth of an inch with dried gravel and composition for the purpose of indurating the surface1 and filling the spaces flush with the top of the block1 a slight covering of sand is then spread1 when the traffic may immediately pass over4 ,the ,asphaltic ,wood ,pavement ,company4--,after the ground is properly prepared1 #f or #i inches of concrete is laid1 on this is laid a bed of asphalte not less than -inch in thickness2 then wood blocks #c by #h by #e inches or #c by #i by #e inches1 of good1 sound1 yellow ,baltic timber are laid with joints -inch in width1 these joints are filled from #b inches up with heated asphalte1 the remaining #c inches being filled with a grouting of hydraulic lime1 and clean1 sharp1 fine river grit or sand1 the whole being covered with a top dressing of fine1 sharp sand1 which wears in with the traffic4 ,croskey's ,wood ,pavement4--,upon a bed of concrete1 cross grained planks were to be placed side by side and be forced together by pressure so as to form a compact homogeneous surface of wood4#gj ,lloyd's ,patent ,keyed ,wood ,pavement4--,the special feature of this system is that ,pitch ,pine blocks are used laid direct upon the concrete foundation1 the blocks being grooved on each side so that the grouting 7composed of ,portland cement7 shall run in and form a key4 ,harrison's ,wood ,pavement4--,this system consists of a concrete foundation1 upon which strips of wood #b inches wide by an inch in thickness are laid4 ,upon these1 wood blocks #c inches in breadth are placed1 and then hot asphalte is poured into the joints1 which conglomerates the whole4 ,henson's ,wood ,pavement4--,the main feature of this patent consists in placing common felt on the concrete bed1 and between the joints of the wood blocks2 thus1 it is contended1 giving elasticity and allowing for the expansion and contraction of the blocks4 ,the blocks are also bevelled on the top and grooved in a particular manner4 ,carey's ,wood ,pavement4--,in this case the blocks are cut #d inches wide by #i inches long1 and #e or #f inches deep1 according to the traffic2 these blocks are shaped with alternate convex and concave ends1 and are laid on a bed of sand about #b inches thick1 the joints between the blocks1 which have been left about inch wide1 being filled with a grouting of lime and sand4 ,messrs4 ,mowlem and ,company's method of laying wood paving is to form a foundation of concrete1 varying in thickness according to the nature of the subsoil and the traffic2 then to pave with blocks of yellow deal1 #c inches wide and #f or #g inches deep2 the joints1 which vary from to inch1 are filled in with sand and lias lime1 and the surface is afterwards indurated by strewing it with shingle4 ,patent ,ligno-,mineral ,paving ,company4--,this company lays claim to the speciality of using hard woods as well as pine1 and that the pine blocks they employ are preserved or mineralised so as to be more durable than the wood in its natural state4#ga ,nicholson's ,wood ,pavement4--,this is principally in use in the ,united ,states1 and consists of rectangular blocks of pine laid upon a close flooring of pine boards1 #a inch thick1 laid lengthwise with the line of street1 their ends resting on similar boards laid transversely from kerb to kerb1 the boards being thoroughly tarred and laid upon a bed of sand4 ,the joints of the wood blocks are run with an asphaltic mixture1 and the whole surface is finally covered with hot coal tar and sprinkled with fine sand and gravel4 ,stowe's ,wood ,pavement4--,this is also ,american1 the blocks resting directly upon sand or gravel about #f inches in thickness4#gb 8,the blocks are set in courses transversely across the street1 so as to break joint lengthwise of the street1 the courses being separated from each other #a inch by a continuous course of wooden wedges placed close together edge to edge1 and extending from kerb to kerb4 ,these wedges are set in the first instance with their tops flush with the top surface of the blocks4 ,after the whole pavement shall have been well rammed1 so as to give each block a firm bed1 the wedges are driven down about #c inches1 and the open joints thus formed above them between the courses are filled in with a concrete composed of hot coal tar and fine roofing sand and gravel4 ,the surface of the pavement may then be coated with coal tar prepared by boiling with pitch1 and finished off with a thin layer of sand40 ,wood ,paving in ,norwich4--,mr4 ,p4 ,marshall1 the ,city ,surveyor of ,norwich1 states#gc that the wood pavement in that city is 8simply laid on the road formation levelled up with shingle4 ,the blocks are grouted in with blue lias lime and well rammed down4 ,this makes a splendid road1 and is superior to any portion of the road that has been laid with concrete4 ,this wood paving1 #e inches deep1 laid as described1 costs #gs4 per yard super4 ,we have had some down here now for #b years1 and have had no settlement whatever4 ,it is a very important matter1 for it makes wood paving possible for country towns40 ,shiel's ,composite ,block ,paving4--,this pavement consists of composite blocks #ab inches by #ae inches1 cast in iron moulds with two rows of wood placed at an equal distance from either side and each other1 the vacant spaces being filled with granite broken as for macadam2 over all is poured a boiling composition of pitch1 chalk1 and sand4 ,the blocks are thus treated at the works1 and are1 when cool1 taken to the street1 laid on a concrete foundation1 and grouted with cement grouting4 ,prosser's ,wood ,pavement4--,this is composed of blocks sawn at an angle of #fj1 the grain of the wood running in the same direction4 ,each end of the block rests on the other1 transversely to line of street4 ,between the rows of blocks a plank1 the same depth as the blocks1 but with the grain of the wood horizontal1 is placed4 ,the blocks1 which on one side of the plank lean in an opposite direction to those on the other1 are secured or dowelled together by wooden pins running through the plank and piercing the blocks about an inch4 ,in ,chicago1 ,u4,s4,a41 cedar blocks #f inches square1 set on a composition of tar and gravel1 are used1 and are said to make a very durable pavement4 ,the following sanitary objections to wood as a material for pavements are made in the ,report on the ,application of ,science and ,art to ,street ,paving and ,street ,cleansing of the ,metropolis 7#ahgb7 page #ag4 8,the ,general ,board of ,health set aside wood as an ineligible material for this amongst other reasons1 that street surfaces ought to be impermeable2 and for roads of light traffic and cheap construction1 they looked to modifications of macadam1 with bituminous binders of mineral tar4 ,since then wood has been reproduced for the purpose1 and strongly pressed in improved forms for trial4 ,it certainly offers the advantage of a great gain in noiselessness over granite1 more especially from the horses' feet1 though with some disadvantage from a dead rumble and vibration2 and further it has the advantage of being more available than smooth pavements for inclines4 ,but hygienists object to its use on grounds which1 in the absence of sanitary science1 are overlooked1 but which it is important to particularise as showing the dangerous state of ignorance and incompetency of the authorities by whom they are not entertained or are disregarded40 ,the sum total of these charges against wood as a pavement consists in the following3 8,wood is porous1 it is composed of bundles of fibres1 it absorbs and retains wet1 foul wet especially40 ,why foul wet should be absorbed more than ordinary wet does not transpire4 ,there is no doubt that wood in its natural state does absorb a large quantity of water1#gd but this can be avoided in wood paving by preserving the wood of which it is composed by one of the following processes4 7#a7 ,burnetising ,chloride of zinc is used in this process4 7#b7 ,kyanising ,corrosive sublimate is used4 7#c7 ,renwickising ,boiling in coal tar4 7#d7 ,boucherising ,sulphate of copper is used4 7#e7 ,bethelising ,creosote heated to #bjj ,f4 is used4 7#f7 ,seelyising ,creosote is also used1 the wood being first boiled4 7#g7 ,hayfordising ,creosote is also used1 wood being unseasoned4 ,the fibres of the wood are also compressed1 and no open joints between the blocks are permitted1 by paving the blocks transversely1 with butt joints closely packed together1 and by filling the cross joints with an asphaltic or other impervious grouting4 ,wood paving should1 however1 be laid in streets with moderate traffic1 and plenty of sun and air4 ,in confined spaces such as courts1 it soon rots and becomes a source of much unhealthiness4#ge ,many reports have been from time to time made on the advantages and disadvantages of wood paving1 and much has been said and written upon the subject1 so that ,i will only touch upon some of the principal questions at issue4 ,the first of importance is that of durability1 and although the life of a hard wood constantly exposed to attrition is amazing1 as may be seen on the stairs of the ,metropolitan ,railway ,stations1 and in many cog wheels of old machinery1 still some diversity of opinion exists as to what may be fairly put down as the wear per annum of the surface of a street paved with wood blocks4 ,it must be remembered that to arrive at any fixed ratio of wear1 a standard of traffic should be fixed2 but this unfortunately has not hitherto been done1 so that the results of observations are bound to differ considerably4 ,it must also not be lost sight of that the reason of excessive wear in a wood pavement generally arises from wide joints being the means of causing the edges of the blocks to abrade and become worn4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,t4 ,hope1 in a paper he laid before the ,scottish ,society of ,arts1 upon some most careful investigations he had made on this subject1 gives the wear as of an inch in #ah months on blocks laid with vertical fibre1 which he proved was the best manner of laying them to ensure the longest life4 ,mr4 ,deacon estimated the wear at from #a inch to #b inches per annum4#gf ,mr4 ,copland estimated the wear at of an inch per annum4#gg ,mr4 ,howorth estimates the life of wood paving at #be years per inch of wood1 if an absolutely uniform quality of wood fibre could be assumed4#gh ,mr4 ,haywood says1#gi 8,wood pavements with repairs have in this ,city 7,london7 had a life varying from #f to #ai years1 and that with repairs1 an average life of about #aj years may be obtained40 ,the life of wood is no doubt extended by being preserved by one of the processes ,i have enumerated1 but as its life may be taken as an average of #h to #aj years1 and as the blocks are bound to wear unevenly1 they should be made as shallow as is consistent with stability2 as it is an undisputed fact that the foundation of a roadway is the important carrier of the traffic1 the surface material1 of whatever it may be constructed1 only acting as a skin to preserve it4 ,if the blocks are too thick1 unnecessary capital is locked up4 ,wood pavement was laid in ,sunderland#hj in #ahei with strips of creosoted red pine1 creosoted beech wood1 and unpreserved oak1 the bulk of the paving being unpreserved red deal1 and this was replaced in #ahfg4 ,in #ahgg1 on renewing the pavement1 it was found that the creosoted wood suffered less from wear and tear than the unpreserved1 so the whole was done with creosoted red pine1 the original strip of creosoted red pine was left untouched1 the strip of oak was turned1 and the beech was merely raised2 and there is no doubt that the best wood pavement is that which can be constructed in the simplest manner1 as for instance deal blocks #d or #e inches deep1 laid with a close joint upon a ,portland cement concrete bed1 the blocks being well grouted in with ,portland cement grouting1 their surface being afterwards sprinkled or strewn with sand or sharp gravel4 ,the woods employed for paving are beech and oak1 both of which are said to be too slippery1 elm1 which is not durable1 pitch pine and ,baltic fir4 ,memel and ,dantzic timber is better than ,riga1 the best wood for the purpose being said to be ,wyborg or ,st4 ,petersburgh red deals4 ,all sappy wood must be at once rejected as unsuitable4 ,this is a great objection to creosoting or other preserving processes1 as it hides defects in the wood4 ,the advantages of wood paving may be summed up as follows3-- 7#a47 ,it is the quietest of all known pavements1 wheels make scarcely any noise upon it and there is no clatter of horses' hoofs4 7#b47 ,it is much safer than either asphalte or granite pavements for horses travelling upon it and if a horse falls he can rise more easily4 7#c47 ,the traction necessary upon it1 though slightly greater than upon asphalte1 is compensated for by the better foothold given to horses4 7#d47 ,it is clean4 ,if well constructed there should be no mud made upon it2 all that appears upon its surface should arise either from its being imported upon it1 or from the gravel with which it is sometimes necessary to dress the surface4 7#e47 ,it presents a uniform and slight elasticity1 which is of great benefit to vehicles passing over it4 7#f47 ,it may be laid on a gradient of #a in #bj with safety to the traffic4 ,the principal objections to wood as a paving are3-- 7#a47 ,it is said to absorb moisture and to smell offensively1 but this has often been refuted4#ha 7#b47 ,it is said to be difficult to cleanse without the aid of water1 as dirt adheres to the wood1 and lingers in the joints4 7#c47 ,it is not easy to open it or repair it1 for the purposes of gas and water pipes1 etc41 and rather a large surface has to be removed for this purpose1 and it has to be left a little time after repairs before traffic is again allowed on it4 7#d47 ,the wood swells if wet1 and cases are on record of the side kerbs of streets being raised1 and lamp posts thrown down1 by the pressure of the wood thus swelling4#hb ,with regard to the cost of wood paving4 ,this must vary in different localities1 according to the value of labour1 of materials1 and in the manner in which the work is done4 ,the practice of most of the companies engaged in this class of work is to make a fixed charge per square yard for the pavement1 including the concrete but excluding the excavation1 and they also guarantee to keep the pavement in repair free of charge for one or two years1 and then for so many years after1 at so much per yard per annum4 ,about #ads4 per square yard is generally the first charge for constructing1 and #as4 per square yard is the annual charge for maintenance4 ,upon the subject of cost the following tables#hc may be useful4 ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,actual ,,duration ,,and ,,cost ,,of ,,certain ,,wood ,,pavements ,,in ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,london4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,total ,cost ,average ,first ,cost of ,repairs ,cost per per ,square per ,square ,date when ,square ,yard during ,yard per ,situation4laid ,new4 ,life4 ,yard4 ,life4 ,annum4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,yrs4 ,mths4 s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,cornhill ,may1 #ahee #aj #b #j #ab #b #j #ag #dj #b #aa ,july1 #ahfe #f #h #j #aa #f #j #h #ij #c #j ,gracechurch,nov4 #ahec #aa #g #j #ab #h #j #ag #aj #b #f ,street ,june1 #ahfe #f #j #j #aa #f #j #f #aa #j #c #j ,lombard ,may1 #ahea #i #d #j #i #f #j #f #j #j #a #g ,street ,sept4 #ahfj #aj #g #j #i #b #a #j #b #j #b #i ,lothbury ,may1 #ahed #ab #c #j #ab #f #a #h #dj #c #d ,aug4 #ahff #f #a #j #ab #f #j #c #ej #b #g ,mincing ,july1 #ahda #ai #a #j #ad #d #j #ac #d #j #a #e ,lane ,aug4 #ahfj #ac #j #j #i #b #a #b #fj #b #e ,bartholomew,may1 #ahed #ab #c #j #ab #f #j #ag #ej #b #e ,lane ,aug4 #ahff #e #e #j #ab #f #j #c #aaj #c #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,foundations are included1 but no excavation4 ,,table ,,showing ,,first ,,cost1 ,,and ,,tendered ,,cost ,,per ,,annum ,,for ,,maintaining ,,certain ,,wood ,,carriageway ,,pavements ,,in ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,london4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,years to be maintained ,first ,cost ,date when ,name of by per ,situation4 ,laid4 ,contractor4 ,contractor4 ,square ,yard4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ s4 d4 ,king ,william ,feb4 #ahgc ,improved ,wood #af #j #ah #j ,street ,paving ,co4 ,ludgate ,hill ,nov4 #ahgc ,ditto #af #j #ah #j ,portions of ,great ,tower ,street and ,sept4 #ahgc ,ditto #af #j #af #j ,seething ,lane ,bartholomew ,lane ,jan4 #ahgb ,carey ,no agreement #j #ab #f ,ditto ,dec4 #ahga ,improved ,wood #c #j #af #j ,paving ,co4 ,duke ,street ,may1 #ahgc ,mowlem and #hde #j #ae #j ,co4 ,houndsditch ,not yet ,ditto #hdg #j #ag #j laid ,ditto ,ditto ,carey #hdg #j #ac #f ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,total ,cost of ,pavements during ,agreed ,cost of ,contract ,average ,cost maintenance per ,term1 per ,square ,square ,yard for the per ,square ,yard per ,situation4 ,contract ,term4 ,yard4 ,annum4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- s4 d4 s4 d4 ,king ,william #a year free #b #j #f #j #b #f ,street #ae years at #as4 #f;d4 #al4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,ludgate ,hill #a year free #b #j #f #j #b #f #ae years at #as4 #f;d4 #al4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,portions of ,great #a year free #a #ad #i #j #b #b ,tower ,street and #ae years at #as4 #c;d4 #ahs4 #i;d4 ,seething ,lane ,bartholomew ,lane ---- ---- ---- ,ditto #c years free #j #af #j ---- ,duke ,street #b years free #c years at #as4 #cs4 ,these pavements ,houndsditch #b years free will no doubt last #e years at #i;d4 some years longer #cs4 #i;d4 than the contract term of maintenance4 ,ditto #b years free #e years at #as4 #es4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,in the wood pavements the cost of the foundation is included1 but no excavation4 ,the pavements at the end of each financial year are to be in a good sound condition4 ,the following table#he is also given as showing the comparative cost of wood paving with macadam and bituminous concrete paving in ,liverpool4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,deductions from ,sinking ,first ,cost to determine ,interest on ,fund ,original ,cost of ,renewal4 ,original invested ,cost per--------------------------- ,cost at at #c ,des- ,square ,cost of ,allowances for #d per per cription ,yard at ,foundation old ,materials cent4 per cent4 of presentnot requiring at date ,square ,yard,compound ,pavement4 prices4 renewal4 of renewal4 per ,annum4 ,interest4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- s4 d4 s4 d4 s4 d4 d4 d4 ,no4 #f4 ,bituminous ,concrete #c #i ,nil ,nil #bj ,nil ,pavement ,no4 #g4 ,wood #ae #ae #b #j ,nil #ge #dc ,pavement ,no4 #h4 ,macadam #f #i ,nil ,nil #cd ,nil ,pavement ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,total ,des- ,maintenance,scavenging,gravelling ,annual cription per ,square per ,squareper ,square,cost per of ,yard per ,yard per ,yard per ,square ,pavement4 ,annum4 ,annum4 ,annum4 ,yard4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- s4 d4 d4 d4 s4 d4 ,no4 #f4 ,bituminous ,concrete #j #i #bd 44 #a #ad ,pavement ,no4 #g4 ,wood #j #aj #bg #ej #a #he ,pavement ,no4 #h4 ,macadam #a #j #hj ,nil #a #aad ,pavement ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,in concluding this chapter upon wood paving1 ,i will give a specimen specification for work of this description4 ,excavation4--,excavate the ground to a depth of -- inches below the level of the proposed finished surface of the roadway4#hf ,the formation surface thus excavated must be well watered and rolled or punned if found necessary1 and any soft or made earth removed to such a depth as may be found to be sufficient4#hg ,foundation4--,upon the excavated formation surface a bed -- inches thick of concrete is to be laid1 composed of one part of good approved ,portland cement to two of fine1 sharp river sand1 and three of clean river ballast or broken stone4 ,the concrete to be finished off with an even and smooth top surface conforming with the contour line of proposed finished roadway4 ,wood ,blocks4--,upon the concrete thus laid1 and after it has sufficiently set1 wood blocks are to be laid4#hh ,these blocks must be of the best description of ,baltic red timber#hi 7or such other timber as shall be specified71 sound and thoroughly well seasoned1 free from all sap1 shakes1 large and loose knots or other defects1 and any that may be rejected by the surveyor as unfitted for the work shall be at once removed from the works or broken up4 ,the blocks must not be less than #f inches or more than #ab inches in length by #c inches in width and #f inches in depth1 they are to be carefully laid with the fibre of the wood placed vertically1 their ends must butt with close joints to each other1 and each course must be kept of an inch apart by means of wooden laths1 which are afterwards removed4 ,joints4--,the joints are then to be carefully run with a grouting composed of one part of best approved ,portland cement to two parts of fine1 sharp1 clean river sand4 7,in some cases a hot bituminous mixture or asphalte is run between the joints as a grouting47 ,top ,dressing4--,the whole surface of the pavement is then to be spread with a coating1 at least -inch in thickness1 of fine sharp gravel or chippings4 ,the following heads of general conditions under such a contract may also be useful4 ,alteration of gullies1 sewer man-holes etc41 will be done at the expense of the sanitary authority4 ,contractor must make good at once any damage caused to gas or water mains or services--time penalty for delay4 ,maintenance of work after completion for a specified time4 ,power must be reserved to surveyor to suspend work during bad weather or from other causes4 ,heavy time penalties for non-completion of contract by a certain date4 ,payments to be made to contractor on surveyor's certificate1 up to #hj per cent4 of whole contract1 remaining #bj per cent4 to be paid at end of 7say7 #b years after completion4 ,with the above specimen specification ,i conclude the chapter on ,wood ,paving4 #fg ,the first wood pavement laid in ,london was in front of the ,old ,bailey1 in #ahci4 #fh ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 i4 p4 #aca4 #fi ,this specification is the company's own1 as advertised when they first began business2 for many reasons the boards have since been discontinued1 and other alterations introduced into the system4 #gj ,i am unable to ascertain if this plan has ever been tried anywhere4 #ga ,it is also affirmed by the ,borough ,surveyor of ,sunderland that this process dispenses with watering4 ,vide #8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors1' vol4 iii4 p4 #gb4 #gb ,vide #8,a ,practical ,treatise on ,roads1 ,streets1 and ,pavements1' by ,q4 ,a4 ,gillmore1 p4 #aff1 which see also for a good account of wood pavements in the ,united ,states4 #gc ,vide #8,wood ,pavements1' by ,henry ,allnutt1 #ahhj1 p4 #bb4 #gd ,the power of absorbing water by wood varies from #icg to #agdhf per cent4 in dry wood4 ,in its ordinary state the power varies from #dcf to #aejfd per cent4 ,the quantity of water contained in wood in its natural state varies from #dfa to #acef per cent4 ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 lvi4 p4 #cjj4 #ge ,vide #8,roads and ,roadways1' by ,george ,waller ,wilcocks1 #ahgi1 p4 #cd4 #gf ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 lviii4 p4 #hb4 #gg ,ibid1 vol4 lx4 p4 #bic4 #gh ,ibid1 vol4 lviii4 p4 #de4 #gi #8,report upon ,asphalte and ,wood ,pavements1' by ,william ,haywood1 7#ahgd7 p4 #dd4 #hj ,see #8,paper on ,wood ,pavements1' by ,r4 ,s4 ,rounthwaite1 ,boro' ,surveyor1 ,sunderland1 #8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors1' vol4 vii4 p4 #dh4 #ha ,the surveyor of the parish of ,st4 ,george's ,hanover ,square1 ,london1 says1 8,my experience of wood1 and ,i have laid down #be1jjj yards1 is that it is perfectly free from smells1 even on a cab rank40 ,report of a ,committee of the ,paddington ,vestry on ,wood and other ,pavements 7#ahgh7 p4 #cj4 #hb ,mr4 ,allnutt says on this3 8,as to the swelling of the wood1 it has been remarked that even brick walls have been forced out4 ,we do not see what provision can be made for this2 but leaving the channel by the kerb stone for the last work may relieve the lateral pressure1 and perhaps it would be as well for the blocks not to be so dry when being laid down40 ,vide #8,wood ,pavement as carried out on ,kensington ,high ,road1 ,chelsea1 etc4' by ,henry ,allnutt 7#ahhj7 p4 #ae4 #hc ,vide #8,report on ,asphalte and ,wood ,pavements1' by ,william ,haywood1 #ahgd1 pp4 #ch and #da4 #hd ,the ,ligno-,mineral ,paving ,company and the ,improved ,wood ,paving ,company offered to maintain their pavements1 if laid1 for terms of ten years and fourteen years respectively2 their tenders were not accepted4 #he ,vide #8,paper on ,street ,carriageway ,pavements1' by ,g4 ,f4 ,deacon1 #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 lviii4 p4 #bc4 #hf ,if the road material thus excavated is macadam1 it may be screened and used as concrete in the foundation1 if approved by the surveyor4 ,the granite pitching of crossings1 channel gutters1 etc41 must remain the property of the sanitary authority1 as well as the surplus macadam4 #hg ,it is important to give sufficient notice to gas and water companies in order that they may attend to their mains and services before the foundations are put in4 #hh ,sometimes about half an inch of fine sand is spread upon the surface of the concrete upon which the wood blocks are bedded4 #hi ,if the blocks are to be creosoted1 the number of pounds of creosote that should be absorbed in a cubic foot of the wood should be specified2 this is generally about #aj lb4 of creosote to #a cubic foot of wood4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,compressed ,,asphalte ,,roadways4 ,the word asphalte in its generally accepted sense implies a natural rock consisting of pure carbonate of lime1 intimately combined and impregnated with mineral bitumen in very variable proportions2 that used for roads or footpaths should not contain less than #g or more than #ab per cent4 of bitumen4 ,the rock when broken takes an irregular fracture without definite cleavage2 it is principally derived from ,val de ,travers1 ,seyssel1 ,sicily1 ,chieti1 ,auvergne1 ,lobsann1 and ,limmer4 ,its grain should be regular and homogeneous1 the finer the grain the better4#ij ,when exposed to the atmosphere asphalte gradually assumes a grey tint1 by reason of the bitumen evaporating from the surface leaving a thin film of limestone behind4 ,the stone is usually taken from open quarries1 but at ,val de ,travers shafts are sunk and the general treatment is similar to a coal mine4 ,bitumen1 it must be borne in mind1 is itself a mineral product found in ,trinidad and some other places2 it is composed of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen4 ,the weight of a cubic yard of natural asphalte is about #chgd lbs41 its specific gravity is #baad1 but this of course varies with its percentage of bitumen4 ,the following is a test for asphalte given by ,mr4 ,deland in a paper he read before the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers in the year #ahhj4ia 8,a specimen of the rock freed from all extraneous matter1 having been pulverised as finely as possible1 should be dissolved in sulphurate of carbon1 turpentine1 ether or benzine1 placed in a glass vessel and stirred with a glass rod4 ,a dark solution will result1 from which will be precipitated the pulverised limestone4 ,the solution of bitumen should then be poured off4 ,the dissolvent speedily evaporates1 leaving the constituent parts of the asphalte1 each of which should be weighed so as to determine the exact proportion4 ,the bitumen should be heated in a lead bath and tested with a porcelain or ,baum thermometer to #dbh ,fahr4 ,there will be little loss by evaporation if the bitumen is good1 but if bituminous oil is present the loss will be considerable--gritted mastic should be heated to #dej ,fahr4 ,the limestone should next be examined4 ,if the powder is white and soft to the touch it is a good component part of asphalte1 but if rough and dirty on being tested with reagents it will be found to contain iron pyrites1 silicates1 clay1 etc4 ,some asphaltes also are of a spongy or hygrometrical nature4 ,thus1 as an analysis which merely gives so much bitumen and so much limestone may mislead1 it is necessary to know the quality of the limestone and of the bitumen4 8,for a good compressed roadway an asphalte composed of pure limestone and #i to #aj per cent4 of bitumen1 non-evaporative at #dbh ,fahr41 is the most suitable4 ,asphaltes containing much more than #aj per cent4 of bitumen get soft in summer and wavy1 those containing much less have not sufficient bind for heavy traffic1 although asphalte containing #g per cent4 of bitumen properly heated does well for court yards1 as it sets hard when cold40 ,for roadways 8compressed0 asphalte should be used and not 8mastic10 which is only fitted for footpaths1 court-yards1 etc4 ,compressed asphalte roadways are constructed as follows3 ,the asphalte rock is first crushed in a 8,blake's0 or other suitable crusher1 then pulverised in what is known as a 8,carr's disintegrator10 until it is reduced to a powder2 this powder is then heated up to between #bab and #bej ,fahr4 in revolving cylinders and is laid about #b inches in thickness upon a concrete foundation previously prepared for its reception1 the powder is carefully raked to the required contour and then either rolled or punned with iron punners previously heated to prevent the adhesion of the powder to them4 ,a roadway thus prepared presents many advantages over macadam1 granite setts or wood1 the following passage amply describing one of them3#ib 8,an indispensable feature of a weight-carrying pavement must be the absolute exclusion of water at the surface as nearly as it can be insured1 and in this one respect it cannot be questioned that a surface like asphalte has no equal1 the absorption being so gradual as to be inappreciable during any possible continuance of moisture40 ,in addition to this indisputable fact the advantage of durability is claimed for asphalte1 but this must vary considerably with the quality of the material and of the work4 ,mr4 ,hayward estimates the life of an asphaltic ,val de ,travers compressed roadway at #ag years1 and it is claimed for it that it will wear until it becomes quite thin1 very heavy traffic breaking it up when it is worn to about of an inch thick4 ,another advantage claimed for asphalte is cleanliness1 and this is evidently indisputable1 as1 being impervious1 none but imported mud or dust can be formed upon it4 ,in addition to the foregoing the following advantages are also claimed3 ,pedestrians can walk on asphaltic roadways as well as on the footways4 ,it is comparatively noiseless under traffic1 though in this case wood is better1 as the clatter of the iron-shod horses' feet upon asphalte is very apparent4 ,it is expeditiously laid1 and when repairs are necessary they can easily be effected2 no pavement shows less signs of openings being made in it for gas and water-pipe repairs than asphalte4 ,the rapid laying causes less inconvenience to traffic in the streets4 ,ease of traction2 but here steps in the one great objection to asphalte as a roadway paving1 viz4 danger to horses by slipping and falling1 of which ,i shall say more hereafter4 ,cellars and vaults under the streets are kept dry1 by reason of its impermeability to moisture4 ,easily cleansed1 especially by mechanical sweeping1 and snow is easily removed4 ,it is very pleasing to the eye1 being so uniformly regular and of good colour4 ,there is no vibration or concussion in travelling over it1 and apart from the question of safety it is delightful to drive over it4 ,it is a cool pavement at night2 it does not absorb heat during the day1 and consequently none radiates from it after the sun has gone down4#ic ,the great objection to asphalte as a material for roadways arises from the fact that it is extremely slippery when damp1#id irrespective of temperature1 and this in the climate of ,england is frequently the case4 ,the result of this slipperiness is1 that not only do horses frequently fall upon it1 but it is also difficult to stop a horse when drawing a load1 thus causing more risk to foot-passengers of being run over1 and straining the horse considerably in its efforts4 ,again1 in thoroughfares crowded with vehicular traffic1 constant stoppages occur1 and in starting again it is painful to witness the struggles of the horses to keep their footing and overcome the inertia of their load4 ,when a horse falls he has very great difficulty in rising1 but on the other hand1 although he may be strained1 a horse never breaks his knees upon this class of pavement4 ,how far this might be altered if all the streets of a town were paved with asphalte1 is a fair matter for argument1 as it is asserted that horses are very nervous on going from one pavement to another1 and accidents frequently happen in consequence4 ,the strewing of sand upon asphalte renders it less slippery1 but in addition to the interference of the traffic whilst this is being done1 there are the further objections1 of the possible injury of the sand cutting into the asphalte1 the expense of labour and materials1 and the mud caused thereby which has afterwards to be removed4 ,another plan is to frequently wash the asphalte with water1 but this is expensive and only of temporary benefit4 ,another objection to asphaltic roadways is that they cannot with safety be constructed of greater gradient than #a in #fj1 and it must also be borne in mind that fine weather is necessary both for the construction and repairs of a roadway of this description4 ,very little smell1 and that not of an unpleasant character1 arises from the work when compressed asphalte is being used1 the mastic is however temporarily unpleasant to those who dislike the odour4 ,with reference to the question of the cost of compressed asphalte for roadways3 it is of course a matter depending upon local circumstances as to the first cost1 but it must be remembered that the compressed asphalte hitherto laid has been nearly all that of the ,val de ,travers ,company1 who charge a fixed price per square yard for laying according to thickness required1 the distance of the locality from ,london1 and other local circumstances4 ,with reference to maintenance1 this is a question dependent mainly upon traffic1 but here again the company will undertake to keep in repair at so much per square yard per annum for a certain number of years4 ,it would1 however1 perhaps be a better plan not to enter into such an agreement1 but to arrange for repairs under a schedule of prices1 but this must greatly depend upon the character of the work in the first place1 and other local considerations4 ,mr4 ,ellice ,clarke gives the following as the cost of ,val de ,travers compressed asphalte4#ie ,the cost is reduced to #ajj1jjj tons per annum per yard of width4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,original ,cost ,interest ,maintenance,scavenging per ,square on originalper ,square per ,square ,yard4 ,cost4 ,yard4 ,yard4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- s4 d4 d4 d4 d4 s4 d4 #ah #j #ig #cf #jd #a #ag ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,nothing is charged for renewal1 as the annual sum for maintenance provides the asphalte in perpetuity4#if ,the following table#ig may here be of use3 ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,agreed ,,cost ,,per ,,annum ,,of ,,certain ,,asphalte ,,carriageway ,,pavements ,,in ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,london4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,years to ,first ,agreed ,cost of be main- ,cost maintenance tained per per ,square ,description by ,con- ,square ,yard for the ,situation4of ,asphalte4tractor4 ,yard4 ,contract ,term4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ s4 d4 ,cheapside ,val de #ag #j #ah #j #b years free and ,poultry ,travers #ae years at #as4 #f;d4 7,compressed7 #a #bs4 #f;d4 ,gracechurch ,ditto #ag #j #ag #j #b years free ,street #ae years at #as4 #aes4 #j;d4 ,finsbury ,ditto #ag #j #af #j #b years free ,pavement #ae years at #i;d4 #aas4 #c;d4 ,moorgate ,ditto #ag #j #af #j #b years free ,street #ae years at #i;d4 #aas4 #c;d4 ,ditto ,limmer #ag #j #af #j #b years free 7,mastic7 #ae years at #i;d4 #aas4 #c;d4 ,lombard ,ditto #ag #j #af #j #b years free ,street #ae years at #i;d4 #aas4 #c;d4 ,cornhill ,ditto #ag #j #ae #j #b years free #ae years at #i;d4 #aas4 #c;d4 ,mincing ,ditto #ag #j #ab #j #b years free ,lane #ae years at #i;d4 #aas4 #c;d4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ -------------------------------------- ,total ,cost of ,pavements ,average ,cost during ,contract per ,square ,term per ,yard per ,situation4 ,square ,yard4 ,annum4 -------------------------------------- s4 d4 s4 d4 ,cheapside #b #j #f #j #b #d and ,poultry ,gracechurch #a #ab #j #j #aj #a ,street ,finsbury #a #g #c #j #a #g ,pavement ,moorgate #a #g #c #j #a #g ,street ,ditto #a #g #c #j #a #g ,lombard #a #g #c #j #a #g ,street ,cornhill #a #f #c #j #a #f ,mincing #a #c #c #j #a #d ,lane -------------------------------------- ,the cost of foundations is included in this table1 but their thickness is not mentioned2 the excavation was done for the contractors4 ,with the one serious objection of slipperiness1 compressed asphalte seems a most suitable material for the surface of a roadway1 but that objection is of considerable weight when we reflect that the great object of roadways is that of 8traffic10 and it is for that purpose they are constructed2 still1 in cities where a heavy business traffic is going on1 this class of roadway has so many advantages that where cheap horses are driven it might be used2 where1 however1 valuable horses are used for pleasure driving1 as in the west end of ,london and the corresponding better parts of cities1 some other description of roadway should be maintained4 ,mastic asphalte will be described in the chapter on footpaths4 ,specimen ,specification for a ,compressed ,asphalte ,roadway4 ,excavation and ,concrete4--,the excavation and concrete#ih foundation may be specified to be executed in a manner similar to that contained in the specimen specification for wood paving1#ii except of course that the excavation will be shallower in this case4 ,asphalte4--,the asphalte to be used shall be the pure unadulterated natural rock known as the ,val de ,travers1 and be unmixed with any foreign or other matter whatever4 ,the rock after being properly broken1 shall be ground in a ,carr's disintegrator to a powder of such fineness1 that not more than per cent4 shall be left on a sieve containing meshes to the square inch and decrepitation by heat will not be accepted4 ,this powder shall be heated to #bdj ,f4 or such other temperature as shall be found desirable1 so as to eliminate all moisture1 and carefully transported to the street in covered iron carts1 in order that not more than #bj ,f4 of heat shall be lost in transit4 ,the powder must be spread upon the concrete inches in thickness#ajj and carefully raked so as to have regularity of depth and surface4 ,ramming4--,the powder must then be rammed with iron punners of not less weight than #aj lb4 heated so as to prevent the adhesion of the asphalte4 ,the ramming must be done lightly at first1 so as to ensure equality of thickness1 and afterwards augmented to heavy blows4 ,where the rammers are not available a ,t tool must be employed4 ,to meet some of the objections to compressed asphalte as a material for roadways the 8,imperishable ,stone ,paving ,blocks0 have been introduced in ,america2 they consist of asphalte formed into rectangular blocks under pressure of about one ton to the square inch1 these are laid close together without any grouting1 and a pavement of this description is said to combine all the advantages of wood and asphalte1 though sufficient time has not yet elapsed to prove this4 ,in ,salford1 ,manchester1 etc41 ,i believe 8,woodward's ,patent ,molten ,ironstone ,blocks0 are used with some success where there is not any very exceptionally heavy traffic4 ,one of the principal reasons of durability in asphalte pavement is its elasticity1 and it should be remembered that compressed asphalte does not begin to 8wear0 until all compression has ceased2 this is the case with no other system of pavement--stone and wood both begin 8wearing0 from the day the traffic commences4 ,under ordinarily heavy traffic it may be estimated that it will take two years to complete the compression of asphalte1 and the weight of a square foot of this pavement will at the expiration of that time be nearly the same as on the day it was laid1 though the thickness is reduced during the first two years as much as it will be in the following eight4 ,much is said about the advisability of good and dry concrete1 but it may be as well to explain the reasons that necessitate so much care in the foundation4 ,first1 it should be always borne in mind that asphalte pavement is nothing more than a tough 8carpet10 and has no power of itself of offering resistance to heavy traffic2 consequently1 if the substratum or concrete is not thoroughly solid and resisting1 the weight of traffic will crush it1 and the asphalte will at once give way in all directions4 ,the concrete should be made strong enough to resist the traffic1 and the asphalte is a simple covering to protect the concrete from direct contact with the wear and friction caused by the traffic4 ,so much for the strength1 but the dryness is of even still greater importance2 for the best asphalte1 laid by skilled workmen1 on thoroughly first-rate but damp concrete1 will rapidly go to pieces--a phenomenon takes place1 which1 although quite natural1 is little realised by most engineers4 ,when the hot asphalte is laid1 the water is immediately sucked up and turned into steam1 which tries to escape through the heated powder1 and the result is that although the surface of the asphalte is smooth1 the mass is really disintegrated from underneath by its bitter enemy 8water10 and as soon as the surface begins to wear1 the fissures formed by the passing of the steam appear on the surface and the whole pavement falls to pieces3 thus accounting for some of the failures this description of roadway has met with under unskilled treatment4 ,this completes the subject of roadways2 ,i will turn to that of footpaths in the next chapter4 #ij ,in this respect the ,seyssel is the best1 being of a very fine grain4 #ia ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 lx4 #ib ,vide ,mr4 ,howarth's paper on #8,wood as a ,paving ,material under ,heavy ,traffic1' #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 vol4 lviii4 p4 #ce4 #ic ,in ,paris and other cities liable to civil war or internal commotions1 it is contended as an advantage of asphalte that it cannot be used for the construction of barricades1 breastworks1 or rifle pits4 #id ,vide ,mr4 ,haywood's ,report upon ,asphalte and ,wood ,pavements1 also ,report on the ,application of ,science and ,art to ,street ,paving and ,cleansing of the ,metropolis1' and numerous other pamphlets and reports by eminent authorities upon the subject4 #ie ,vide #8,asphalte and its ,application to ,street ,paving1' by ,e4 ,b4 ,ellice ,clarke1 #8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers1' vol4 vi4 p4 #eb4 #if ,the asphaltic roadways of ,paris1 of which there were #bij1jjj square yards in the year #ahgh1 cost from #ajs4 to #abs4 per square yard to lay1 and about #hhc pence per square yard per annum to maintain1 including the charge for renewing th part of the surface every year1 which is the method adopted there4 ,vide #8,annales ,industrielles1' #ahgh4 #ig ,vide ,mr4 ,haywood's report on asphalte and wood pavements1 #ahgd4 #ih 8,lime concrete ruins compressed work40 ,vide #8,asphalte and its ,application to ,street ,paving1' by ,b4 ,ellice ,clarke4 #8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors1' vol4 vi4 p4 #df4 #ii ,see p4 #id ante4 #ajj ,it must be ths more in thickness than that specified as finished4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,footpaths4 ,as in the case of roadways1 so with footpaths3 the foundation is of primary importance1 whatever material may be used for the surface4 ,where this material may be classed under the head of 8,paving10 concrete#aja makes the best foundation4 ,for gravel1 tar paving1 or other similar surface1 a hard core bottom well drained is sufficient4 ,the materials of which a footpath can be formed are almost innumerable1 but the following may be given as embodying most of them3 7#a47 ,natural asphalte1 compressed and mastic4 7#b47 ,yorkshire flagging--,caithness flagging4 7#c47 ,blue lias1 and ,devonian limestone flagging4 7#d47 ,concrete4 7#e47 ,bricks4 7#f47 ,granite slabs4 7#g47 ,artificial asphaltes1 including tar pavement4 7#h47 ,gravel4 ,first on the list stands natural asphalte1 compressed and mastic4 ,the compressed has been thoroughly described in the preceding chapter2 it is sometimes used for footpaths where there is a very heavy traffic1 and answers admirably4 ,i will1 however1 now deal solely with mastic asphalte1 which means the rock ground to powder1 mixed with a certain proportion of bitumen to act as a flux1 and then subjected to heat2 this is sometimes used in conjunction with fine sharp clean river sand1 but more often with finely crushed stone about the size of peppercorns1 and is styled 8gritted asphalte40 ,as long ago as the year #ahch1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,simms speaks of asphalte mastic from ,pyrimont1 near ,seyssel1 and says 8it may be considered a species of mineral leather0#ajb--;a very good description of its surprisingly tough1 hard1 durable and pliant properties4 ,the usual method of the preparation of the mastic is as follows3-- ,according to the amount of bitumen contained in the natural stone1 from #e to #h per cent4 of refined ,trinidad bitumen#ajc is placed in a large caldron which is usually provided with agitators driven by steam power2 when this is thoroughly melted1 the powdered asphalte is added little by little1 the heat being raised to between #cij and #dhj ,f41 the mixture kept well stirred and 8cooked0 for about five hours4 ,it is then turned out into iron moulds1 most companies having a special pattern with a trade mark for this purpose4 ,the caldrons generally used contain from #a to #b tons of mastic4 ,some companies in large towns are provided with caldrons on wheels1 commonly called 8,locomobiles10 in which case the grit is mixed with the mastic in the fixed caldrons1 and the whole mass run out into the locomobiles 7which are also provided with agitators worked by an endless chain attached to the axle of the wheels71 and transported direct to where the work has to be done4 ,this system1 though undoubtedly the best1 is not practicable except in large towns2 the more usual method of laying mastic footpaths is to send the asphalte cakes to the works1 where they are remelted in small round street caldrons1 containing from #h to #ab cakes each1 weighing from #dj to #ej lbs41 the grit being sometimes added in the fixed caldrons1 sometimes in the street caldrons1 this amount of grit varying from #bj to #fj per cent4 according to the nature of the work4 ,the grit makes the asphalte more difficult to spread1 but it lessens the cost and makes a very durable path4 ,the affinity between the asphalte and grit is so great that1 in breaking a sample1 the actual pieces of grit will be found broken in half4 ,the asphalte should be spread from to of an inch in thickness 7if compressed #a inch is the minimum71 and should be brought hot on to the works in covered caldrons on wheels1 the test of its being ready and fit to lay being made by plunging a wooden spatula into it1 which should come out without any of the asphalte adhering to it1 and also by jets of light smoke darting out of the mixture4 ,the mastic should be taken from the caldron with a warmed ladle1 and put into buckets previously heated1 then thrown out on the concrete 7which should be perfectly dry7 near the spreader1 who spreads it skilfully with a wooden stave1 spreader1 or spatula4 ,the surface should then be floated and dusted over with fine sand1 portland cement1 or stone dust4 ,dishonest contractors sometimes substitute inferior materials for natural asphalte1 such imitations being made of ground chalk1 fire-clay1 and pitch or gas tar1 or ground limestone mixed with bitumen4 ,a sample of the footpath after it is laid should be cut out 7this is easily effected by heating the surface with a piece of hot mastic71 in order to see that the proper thickness is given1 and by applying a light to the sample1 the smell will readily tell if real asphalte or any inferior material has been used4 ,stockholm tar or common pitch should not be allowed to be substituted for ,trinidad bitumen1 or it will spoil the mastic4 ,asphalte mastic footpaths are excellent in every way1 the only objections to them being the necessity for the grit1 and the temporary unpleasant smoke and smell whilst being laid4 ,it is also necessary to put stone sills round the cellar openings and coal shutes1 etc41 for it to butt against1 but it makes an invaluable pavement1 especially for courts1 alleys1 back yards1 etc41 for sanitary and other reasons4 ,the proportions of asphalte1 bitumen and grit are given as follows by ,mr4 ,delano in his translation of a paper by ,m4 ,ernest ,chabrier1 on the applications of asphalte4#ajd 8,one ton of sanded mastic requires #ac cwt4 of pure block mastic1 #b qrs4 #ab lb4 of bitumen1 #g cwt4 of grit or sand washed and dried10 and it takes #b cwt4 of coal to heat it4 ,he further says that one workman can easily prepare #c tons of material in #ab hours4 ,the following table gives the number of square yards that a ton of prepared ,sicilian rock asphalte will spread4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,with about ,without grit4 #be per cent4 of grit4,thickness4 ---------------------------------------- ----- square yards4 square yards4 inches4 #fc #hj #ea #fe #cb #dj #bf #cc #a #af #bj #a #ab #af #b ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,a skilled workman properly assisted can lay #adj to #ahj square yards in a day4#aje ,with regard to the price of asphalte mastic footpaths1 this is quite a local question1 and is not worth while discussing4 ,the life of a footpath thus treated may be reckoned at about #ae years under ordinary traffic2 the concrete will remain untouched and what is left of the asphalte may be remelted1 so that a renewal is not so costly as the first expense4 ,yorkshire ,flagging4--,this pavement is too well known to need any description from me2 it is an excellent pavement in many ways1 and is most pleasant to walk upon1 there being a cling or foothold not experienced in any other material4 ,the objections to this description of pavement are3-- 7#a47 ,its first cost1 which is undoubtedly high as compared to its durability4 7#b47 ,the fact of uneven wearing3 one stone will be found soft next to a hard one2 the former wears1 leaving a pit which forms a pool for water in due course1 and has to be removed4 7#c47 ,unless very carefully bedded1 a stone will see-saw2 this is very unpleasant in wet weather1 water accumulates beneath1 and as the pedestrian treads on one end of the stone a squirt of dirty water up to his knees1 and a stumble1 remind him that the stone is loose4 7#d47 ,liability to crack when any heavy goods are thrown upon it4 ,the following specimen specification for ,yorkshire flagging pavement may be of use4 ,specimen ,specification for ,yorkshire ,flagging ,foot ,pavements4 ,the old flagging 7where and when directed7 to be taken up1 refaced1 squared1 and relaid4 ,the new flagging is to be chisel-dressed to a fair face1 true1 out of winding1 and not less than #c inches thick1#ajf to be properly squared and not pitched off only1 or undercut1 but to hold good to the square2 to have not more than fourteen pieces to the hundred superficial feet2 the joints must be set flush1 and bedded and pointed with the best blue lias mortar4 ,the bed for the flagging both old and new1 if any is required1 to be made with proper earth1 gravel1 or dry rubbish1 and all surplus earth and rubbish to be carted from the streets as it arises from the works4 ,the flagging to be properly cut and rebated to receive all area gratings1 coal shoots1 rain water troughs1 c4 ,any damage done to gas or water service pipes in digging for the flagging1 or in any way connected with the work1 to be made good by the contractor1 as also all and every other damage to windows1 wood1 or glass work2 and the contractor will be held responsible for1 and will make compensation for any injury that the public may sustain through the negligence of his workmen1 or otherwise4 ,the whole of the flags to be of the very best quality1 from ,halifax1 the quarries in the neighbourhood of ,bradford or in ,yorkshire1 and subject to the approval of the surveyor4 ,the contractor to provide all lights and proper guards at night1 and when old paving is to be taken up the work is to be done under the direction of the surveyor1 and if considered necessary1 the stones are to be removed from the streets to be re-faced and squared4 ,no stone to be stacked in the streets4 ,the flagging to be measured after the work is completed4 ,the contractor to provide all stone1 materials1 tools1 implements1 horse and cart hire1 and pay all railway dues1 freightages1 etc41 and also to provide all labour of every kind for properly completing the work to the full and entire satisfaction of the surveyor4 ,payment will be made as the work proceeds1 on the certificate of the surveyor4 ,should the contractor fail to perform the work to the satisfaction of the surveyor1 he then shall have power to execute the work and charge the same to the contractor1 and deduct the cost from any amount that may be due to him2 and in the event of the cost being more than the amount due1 or if there shall then be no sum due to the contractor1 such cost shall be paid by the contractor to the mayor1 aldermen1 and citizens1 and the same shall be recoverable from him as liquidated and ascertained damages4 ,caithness ,flagging is now used very largely instead of ,yorkshire2 it comes from ,thurso in ,scotland1 and it is contended for it that it possesses many excellent qualities1 amongst others may be enumerated the following3 7#a74 ,it is impervious to wet4 7#b47 ,it is not slippery nor does it wear so4 7#c47 ,it does not scale or flake4 7#d47 ,it dries rapidly after rain4 7#e47 ,its appearance is cheerful4 7#f47 ,great durability1 as it does not abrade4 7#g47 ,frost has no effect upon it4 7#h47 ,can be re-used when half worn4 7#i47 ,cleanliness2 for1 not being porous1 no dirt or dust can adhere to it4 7#aj47 ,vehicular traffic may be turned over it without injury to the path4 7#aa47 ,economy2 as natural forces can be used1 thus saving labour1 and it can be laid from #a to #b inches thick only4 7#ab47 ,having sawn edges1 the joints are expeditiously and well made4 7#ac47 ,its whole surface wears evenly4 ,the following table was compiled by the well-known firm of ,kirkaldy1 by direction of ,mr4 ,tarbotton the ,borough ,engineer of ,nottingham1 in order to ascertain the resistance to a gradually increased bending stress upon ,yorkshire flagging as compared with ,caithness4 ,,yorkshire4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,dimensions4 -------------------------,ultimate ,test ,no4,weight4,length4,breadth4,thickness4 ,stress4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,k lbs4 inches4 inches4 inches4 lb4 #aiah #ahd #cf #bdjg #bdf #dgdd #aiai #afc #cf #bdjc #bbb #ccih #aibj #ajg #cf #bcij #aej #adei ---------------------------------------- ,mean #aea #cf #bdjj #bjf #cbjj ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,caithness4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,dimensions4 -------------------------,ultimate ,test ,no4,weight4,length4,breadth4,thickness4 ,stress4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,k lb4 inches4 inches4 inches4 lb4 #aiba #bae #cf #bdjf #bei #agbgd #aibb #agh #cf #bdje #bae #abgaa #aibc #aad #cf #bcij #ach #fbaa ---------------------------------------- ,mean #afi #cf #bdjj #bjd #abjfe ---------------------------------------- -------- ,by which it appears that the balance in favour of ,caithness flagging is #hhfe lbs4 ,the objection to this style of flagging is1 that however varied the sizes of the stones selected may be1 as they have sawn edges and are very hard to cut with a chisel1 a difficulty sometimes arises in finishing rounded corners of footpaths1 and against uneven frontages of shops or buildings abutting on the footpath2 this is especially the case in old towns4 ,blue ,lias ,flagging4--,a blue lias flagging does not make a first-rate pavement1 as although it is very cheap1 durable1 clean1 and has many other good qualities1 it sometimes wears slippery and is then dangerous to pedestrians2 but the ,devonian limestone1 which is much used in the west of ,england1 has not apparently this defect4 ,concrete ,footpaths4--,these have been tried in this country1 but generally without success2 the concrete or cement cracks1 and in addition to this the paths wear slippery and greasy1 and as some time is necessary in order to allow the concrete to thoroughly set before the traffic can be allowed on them1 they have not found much favour4 ,in the ,united ,states1 however1 concrete footpaths seem to be made successfully2 the following detail particulars of such a foot-pavement will1 ,i think1 be of great interest and use4#ajg 8,concrete footpaths should be laid upon a form of well-compacted sand1 or fine gravel1 or a mixture of sand1 gravel and loam4 ,the natural soil1 if sufficiently porous to provide thorough sub-drainage1 will answer4#ajh 8,it is not usual to attempt to guard entirely against the lifting effects of frost1 but to provide for it by laying the concrete in squares or rectangles1 each containing from #ab to #af superficial feet1 which will yield to upheaval individually1 like flagging stones1 without breaking and without producing extensive disturbance in the general surface4 8,when a case arises1 however1 where it is deemed necessary to prevent any movement whatever1 it can be done by underlying the pavement with a bed of broken stone1 or a mixture of broken stone and gravel1 or with ordinary pit gravel containing just enough of detritus and loam to bind it together4 ,in high latitudes this bed should be #a foot and upwards in thickness1 and should be so thoroughly subdrained that it will always be free from standing water4 ,it is formed in the usual manner of making broken stone or gravel roads already described1 and finished off on top with a layer of sand or fine gravel1 about #a inch in depth1 for the concrete to rest upon4 8,the concrete should not be less than #c1 and need rarely exceed #d to #d inches in thickness1 the upper surface to the depth of an inch should be composed of hydraulic cement and sand only4 ,portland cement is best for this top layer4 ,for the rest1 any natural ,american cement of standard quality will answer4 ,the following proportions are recommended for this bottom layer4 ,rosendale or other ,american cement #a measure ,clean sharp sand #b ,stone and gravel #e 8,it is mixed from time to time as required for use1 and is compacted with an iron-shod rammer in a single layer to a thickness less by an inch than that of the required pavement4 ,as soon as this is done and before the cement has had time to set1 the surface is roughened by scratching1 and the top layer1 composed of1 #a volume of ,portland cement1 and #b to #b volumes of clean fine sand1 is spread over it to a uniform thickness of about #a inch1 and then compacted by rather light blows1 with an iron-shod rammer4 ,by this means its thickness is diminished to an inch4 ,it is then smoothed off and polished with a mason's trowel and covered up with hay1 grass1 sand1 or other suitable material to protect it from the rays of the sun1 and prevent its drying too rapidly4 8,it should be kept damp and thus protected for at least #aj days1 and longer if circumstances will permit2 and even after it is opened to travel1 a layer of damp sand should be kept upon it for two or three weeks1 to prevent wear while tender4 8,at the end of one month from the date of laying1 the ,portland cement mixture forming the top surface will have attained nearly one-half its ultimate strength and hardness1 and may then be subjected to use by foot-passengers without injury4 8,the rammers for compacting the concrete should weigh from #ae to #bj lb41 those used on the surface layer from #aj to #ab lb4 ,they are made by attaching rectangular blocks of hard wood shod with iron to wood handles about #c feet long1 and are plied in an upright position4 ,certain precautions are necessary in mixing and ramming the materials in order to secure the best results4 ,especial care should be taken to avoid the use of too much water in the manipulation4 ,the mass of concrete1 when ready for use1 should appear quite incoherent1 and not wet and plastic1 containing water however in such quantities that a thorough ramming with repeated though not hard blows will produce a thin film of moisture upon the surface under the rammer1 without causing in the mass a gelatinous or quicksand motion40 ,under the head of ,concrete may be included many artificial stone pavements1 such as 8,bucknell's ,granite ,breccia0 8,ransome's ,artificial ,stone10 8,eureka ,concrete10 8,granolithic10 and the 8,silicated ,victoria ,stone10 this last being worth a description4 ,the stone is really a concrete1 formed by mixing very superior ,portland cement with crushed ,thames gravel1 furnace or iron slag1 ,kentish rag-stone1 granite chippings1 or other suitable material carefully washed4 ,this fine concrete1 after being mixed in the moulds forming the slabs1 is thoroughly incorporated by being rocked or jiggled in a trembling machine2 this motion1 as can be easily understood1 making the whole mass even and homogeneous when it sets4 ,the cost of the slabs is about #i;d4 per square foot1 #c inches in thickness1 and they make an excellent footpath4 ,brick ,footpaths4--,these are sometimes constructed of ordinary bricks laid on their sides1 but soon wear1 and are unsuitable for the purpose4#aji ,staffordshire blue paving bricks make an excellent footpath4 ,these are bricks made of stoneware highly vitrified2 they should be about #ab inches in length by #f inches wide1 by about #b inches in thickness1 their surface being chequered with a diamond pattern so as to prevent their being slippery4 ,they are exceedingly hard and durable if well burnt1 and to ascertain this a brick should be broken across and the colour1 etc41 noted4 ,they should be laid in cement mortar upon a bed of concrete or sand4 ,the objections to this class of pavement are as follows3 7#a47 ,the colour is objectionable2 being very dark1 the footpaths give a street the appearance of mourning4 7#b47 ,the difficulty of breaking up the path for gas or water services1 or for other purposes4 7#c47 ,the hardness of the bricks makes them awkward to cut to rounded corners1 or for water trunks1 coal-holes1 etc4 7#d47 ,a loaded hand-barrow driven over them will sometimes break off the chequered pattern4 7#e47 ,they are slippery in a frost after snow4 ,but notwithstanding these disadvantages1 they make a most wonderfully durable and useful pavement for back streets4 ,granite ,slab ,pavement4--,this is sometimes adopted1 large granite slabs1 #f inches in thickness being laid2 they are very useful when there are cellars underneath1 or where heavy vehicular traffic is intended to cross the foot pavement4 ,granite is of course excessively durable1 but it wears very slippery with traffic and must then be tooled or axed2 in process of time this wears it out1 and its first cost is heavy4 ,this description of pavement can be laid with advantage in front of markets or similar buildings4 ,artificial ,asphalte ,pavements4--,the cost of obtaining natural rock asphalte from the mines1 and the knowledge that it is composed of two very simple ingredients1 limestone and bitumen1 has led to a great number of artificial asphaltes being introduced1 especially for foot pavements4 8,british ,rock ,asphalte0 is a name by which many of the compositions are known2 8,beauchamp's ,mendip ,mountain ,machine-made ,granite ,asphalte0 is a high-sounding title2 8,prentice's ,mineral ,foreign ,rock ,asphalte0 is another4 ,all these1 and many more of the same description1 are really what may be better and more correctly described as 8tar concrete0 or 8tar paving10 and consist of different modifications of the homely coal-tar and limestone4 ,so long ago as the year #ahdj1 8,lord ,stanhope's ,composition0 was well known2 it was made as follows3 ,three gallons of ,stockholm tar1 #b bushels of well-dried chalk1 #a bushel of fine1 sharp1 clean sifted sand1 the whole being boiled in an iron caldron4 ,tar paving is now made in many and various ways by different surveyors of towns1 some making it with hot compositions1 some with cold4 ,a description will be found in the chapter on ,macadamised ,roadways1 page #df1 of one method of making it1 a modification of this being all that is necessary for foot pavements4 ,the best paths of this description that ,i have seen are to be found at ,torquay1 and by the kind permission of ,mr4 ,john ,little1 ,county ,surveyor of ,devon1 and late ,surveyor of ,torquay1 ,i give his useful specification in detail1 as follows3 ,tar ,concrete for ,footpaths4 ,,proportions ,,of ,,materials4 #ab barrow loads of engine ashes4 #d screened slaked blue lias lime4 #d small spar or sharp grit4 #cd gallons of best gas tar4 #bj bucketsful1 say #gj to #hj gallons of water4 ,method of ,mixing4--,on a clean flagged or wooden floor spread three barrow-loads of ashes1 then about one barrow-load of lime1 and so on until the whole of the dry materials 7or one mixing7 has been spread2 then throw over them about three bucketfuls of tar1 and before mixing it with them add 7say7 six bucketfuls of water2 then mix as for concrete1 and when the liquids are pretty well absorbed add a similar quantity1 mix again1 and so on until all the liquids have been absorbed2 the mass will then be something of the consistency of ordinary mortar4 ,next pass the whole three times at least through a pug mill3 if this be not done the concrete will be a failure4 ,an ordinary hand pug-mill will not be sufficient2 the knives are not strong enough1 nor will it incorporate the materials thoroughly1 but an upright pug-mill1 worked by steam power where practicable1 or by at least one horse1 should be used4 ,it will be found that as the mass emerges from the pug-mill a large proportion of the water will run from it2 means should therefore be provided for allowing the water to escape freely from the floor4 ,method of ,laying4--,prepare the path for a layer of concrete #c inches in thickness1 on a hard dry bottom1 inclining from the inside to the kerb1 at the rate of an inch to a foot for pathways not more than #f or #g feet wide1 but for wider pathways an inclination of of an inch to a foot will be sufficient4 ,a template the full width of the path having been provided1 lay concrete with a shovel on the inner side of the path for a length of 7say7 #ae feet and a width of #a foot1 at such a height that when it has been well rammed and patted with shovels it shall be the exact height intended for the path2 this is to form a resting-place for one end of the template1 the kerb forming that for the other end2 then fill the intervening space with concrete up to the template1 treading and ramming it solidly for about twenty minutes1 and as it gets into shape1 patting it with shovels and smoothing with a trowel2 then1 with an iron 7not stone7 roller weighing about #e cwts41 roll for two hours1 trimming and filling up hollows where necessary2 then go on with another length1 and occasionally roll the first for half-an-hour1 and so on4 ,experience alone will decide the quantity of rolling necessary after the first day or two1 as weather and other causes tend to a more rapid solidification of the concrete at some times than at others4 ,on the third day1 sprinkle a small quantity of sea or other very fine sand on the concrete1 and allow it to remain for two or three days after the path has been in use--it should then be removed4 ,general ,remarks4--,the ashes should not be those from a saw-mill or other place where wood ashes would be mixed with them4 ,all ashes1 spar or grit1 and lime1 should be passed through a screen of -inch mesh4 ,the lime should be the best blue lias1 slaked under cover2 it should be allowed to lie for at least four days1 but not more than six days1 before it is used4 ,the spar or grit should be sharp and angular4 ,great care should be taken to keep the concrete free from mud or dust2 it should be tipped from the carts or barrows1 either directly into place1 or1 if this cannot be done1 a few slabs or boards should be laid down1 on which it may be tipped4 ,the path should not be used until the concrete is sufficiently solid to bear a man's weight without taking the impression of his boots4 ,it has been found by experience that the laying of this concrete should not be commenced before ,may1 and that it should not be continued beyond the end of ,september 7or middle of ,october1 if the weather is very fine74 ,frost is fatal to it before it has become hard1 and continuous cold wet weather retards considerably the hardening4 ,there can be no doubt that a pavement of this description for traffic that is not too heavy answers every requirement2 for streets of greater traffic1 genuine mastic asphalte should be used4 ,before closing my remarks on artificial asphalte pavements1 the following description of an ,american method may be interesting3 ,on a dry foundation is placed a coat of rough clinkers from anthracite coal or iron clinkers from a foundry1 mixed with sand and tar in the proportions of #ae cubic feet of fine sifted ashes1 #ad cubic feet of pit sand1 and #a cubic feet or #i gallons of tar4 ,this is laid about #c to #d inches thick and well rolled4 ,over this is placed a coating from #a inch to #a inch thick1 composed of #ae cubic feet of coarse sifted ashes1 #ae cubic feet of clinkers1 and #a cubic feet or #h gallons of tar4 ,it must be then well rolled and sanded1 care having been taken that the materials are thoroughly mixed4 ,gravel ,footpaths4--,for the suburbs of a town and in the country1 nothing looks so pretty as a gravel footpath4 ,the same rules that apply to a macadamised roadway apply to a gravel footpath4 ,they must be well 8bottomed10 and well drained and well rolled4 ,limestone or other stone chippings may with advantage be used with a pit gravel for constructing paths of this description1 and a barrelled surface looks better and is more enduring than a hanging path4 ,the following cross sections of footpaths will explain themselves better than any long description3 ,illustration ,gravel footpaths are sometimes tarred over when thoroughly consolidated4 ,this must be done only when the weather is quite settled and fine3 the least rain will spoil the whole operation2 it consists in simply tarring over the surface of the footpath in the same manner that a gate or wall or any other substance would be tarred4 ,the surface of the path must previously have been swept perfectly clean1 and immediately as the tarring is completed1 fine stone dust must be sprinkled on its surface2 the traffic should be diverted from it for a few hours1 and it is then ready4 ,care must be taken that the tar is not too thin in consistency1 and that the coat is not put on too thick4 ,treating a path in this manner saves gravel1 which is washed or kicked off it if left with an ordinary surface2 but a cold night1 a slight shower1 or inferior tar will make the whole process abortive1 and the path will be in a fearful mess in the winter4 #aja ,concrete is especially necessary as a foundation for asphalte1 as it has little or no power of resistance to vertical pressure in itself1 and indentations in its surface would be very unsightly as well as hold water4 ,the concrete should be perfectly dry and thoroughly set before the asphalte is laid on it4 #ajb ,vide #8,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 i4 p4 #f4 #ajc ,trinidad bitumen is best1 but it has to be refined before it can be used4 ,this is done by cooking it with shale oil1 then straining it and decanting it1 which is a troublesome and tedious process1 and there is great danger of fraud being practised4 ,good bitumen can be detected by its elasticity and softness when rolled between the finger and thumb1 and also by its smell4 #ajd ,vide #8,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 xliii4 p4 #bic4 #aje ,ibid1 vol4 xliii4 p4 #bic4 #ajf ,a rule is sometimes made that ,york flags should be -inch thick for every square foot of surface1 but they should never be less than #b inches thick4 #ajg ,vide #8,roads1 ,streets1 and ,pavements1' by ,q4 ,a4 ,gillmore1 p4 #bjh4 #ajh ,sawdust #b feet in thickness has sometimes been used1 well rammed and rolled4 #aji ,the town of ,brighton is an instance of this4 ,ordinary red bricks used to be laid as a footpath1 no doubt to give a rural appearance for the eye of the jaded ,londoner1 but these are giving place to more modern materials4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,kerbing ,,and ,,channelling1 ,,etc4 ,for all footpaths both urban and sub-urban a kerb of some description is necessary to be fixed on the outside of the footpath1 for the following reasons3 7#a47 ,it acts as a sill against which the material of which the footpath is paved may butt4 7#b47 ,it retains both the foundation and surface of the footpath4 7#c47 ,whether there is a paved channel gutter or not1 a kerb is necessary in order to finish the haunches of the roadway4 7#d47 ,the appearance of a footpath without kerbing is very unsightly4 7#e47 ,unless a footpath is raised above the roadway it is liable to be flooded4 ,many materials are used for kerb1 of which granite being the best is generally used in streets where there is much traffic1 as the kerb is often subjected to severe blows from the passing vehicular traffic as well as a grinding action from the wheels of waggons and other heavy vehicles1 especially on gradients where 8hugging0 the kerb acts as a drag or break4 ,in such cases granite1 although the most expensive in the first case1 is certainly the most economical1 and no other material should ever be used4 ,granite kerb varies in dimensions considerably in different localities and according to the width of the footpaths1 the wider the path the wider should be the kerb4 ,it should however never be of less depth than #i inches1 nor narrower than #d inches2 depth is necessary to prevent the kerb turning over towards the channel gutter1 or water table as it is sometimes termed1 and the filling in on the gutter side must also be well rammed with a bar to prevent this4 ,kerb should never be in less lengths than #c feet1 and when #h inches and broader it is better that the top surface should be bevelled off to conform with the slope of the footpath1 but in narrower kerbing such a practice is unnecessary1 and if carried to an extreme may even be dangerous4 ,the kerb should be drafted about #a inch along both top edges and hammer dressed about #e inches on the face1 in addition to the whole surface of the top and for #c inches at the back1 in order that there may be a smooth surface visible against the channel gutter1 and also for the flagging or other paving to butt fair against1 besides giving a clean appearance to the aris of kerb both inside and out4 ,the following section of an #h-;inch granite kerb will explain this3 ,illustration ,the top surface should always be tooled or axed whenever it has worn smooth and slippery1 as a slip from a kerbstone often causes a very bad fall to a pedestrian4 ,setting kerb requires a very experienced hand1 for as it is set dry great care must be shown1 or it will sink1 turn slightly over1 or move even months after it has been set4 ,in addition to this it is heavy stuff to handle1 but unless the line is accurate both as regards level and contour1 the appearance will be exceedingly bad4 ,of course the skillet line and boning rods are freely used in setting kerb1 but even with these helps one mason will set kerb in a pleasing manner1 whilst another1 with even more care1 does not seem able to make it appear graceful4 ,deep and narrow kerb should be bedded on good clean river gravel1 and beaten into its place with hard blows from a heavy wooden setting maul or beetle weighing not less than #ej lbs4 ,broader and shallower kerb should be bedded on concrete4 ,in addition to granite1 kerbing is also made of ,endon or ,yorkshire stone1 limestone1 and for brick pavements a kerb specially made of the same material is generally used2 it is also1 though not often in this country1 constructed of wood1 old railway sleepers being used for the purpose4 ,in the more rural districts grass sods are used with good effect for gravel paths4 ,it is difficult to estimate the cost of kerbing1 as local questions must interfere1 carriage of the material and value of labour entering so largely into the question4 ,mr4 ,codrington#aaj states that 8,a limestone kerb about #a foot deep and #d inches wide costs from #bs4 #f;d4 to #cs4 #f;d4 per lineal yard1 and a channel #aj inches wide by #f inches thick rather more4 8,granite kerbs #ab inches wide by #i inches deep1 #fs4 #f;d4 to #gs4 per yard run4 8,granite channel #ab inches wide by #f inches deep1 #ds4 #f;d4 per lineal yard4 8,a channel #ab inches wide1 formed of granite cubes #d inches by #g inches1 costs about the same40 ,i have found that granite kerb #f by #ab inches could be fixed 8in situ0 at #cs4 #c;d4 per yard run1 and #h by #ab inches at #ds4 #f;d4 per lineal yard4 ,granite channelling composed of #c courses of granite pitchers #f by #h inches1 costing #es4 #f;d4 per lineal yard4 ,limestone channelling #ae inches in width by #c inches in depth1 costing #cs4 per lineal yard4 ,a paved channel1 gutter1 or water table is of the greatest use to a roadway1 besides adding greatly to its appearance4 ,without such a channel the haunches of a road become sadly damaged by the wash of the surface water1 which is sometimes so extreme as to undermine the kerb and cause it to fall out4 ,these channel gutters are made of different materials for macadamised roads1 granite setts laid in the direction of the gutter being the best4 ,a channel gutter should not be less than #ah inches wide1 so that if made with ordinary #c-;inch setts1 #f courses will be necessary2 they should be bedded on gravel and well grouted in with lime or cement grouting4 ,sometimes granite slabs #ah inches wide by #c or #d inches thick are used and make an excellent gutter1 they are however liable to tip under heavy loads4 ,limestone slabs can also be used in roads of light traffic with advantage4 ,in streets paved with granite setts1 wood blocks or asphalte1 the same material is used for the channelling1 the setts or blocks being however bedded in line with the channel instead of transversely as in the street itself4 ,the channel gutter should take the slope of the roadway and the granite kerb should show from #c to #e inches above it4 ,at paved crossings it is well to keep them level with the kerb so that pedestrians may step off the path on to the crossing without any drop1 or if there is any water in them at such points1 it is a good plan to let the edge of the crossing drop rather suddenly towards the kerb1 so that the ordinary stride of the pedestrian carries him on to the level4 ,gulley gratings or buddle holes should be placed along the line of channel at such intervals as may be found necessary4 ,a great number of different forms have been from time to time introduced for this purpose1 the objects to be considered being3 7#a47 ,sufficient area to carry off all the water4 7#b47 ,not easily choked on surface by leaves or other debris4 7#c47 ,sufficiency of pit to retain all sand or road detritus and prevent it being washed into the sewer4 7#d47 ,the least possible obstruction to the traffic4 7#e47 ,constructed so that the pit may easily be cleaned out4 7#f47 ,trapped so as to prevent the escape of sewer gas4#aaa 7#g47 ,the drain from it should be easily freed of any obstruction4 ,one of the best forms of gully pit is that manufactured by ,messrs4 ,oates and ,green of ,halifax1 as it meets nearly all the requirements which ,i have summarised as being necessary for this description of work4 ,the following drawing will explain itself3 ,illustration ,what is called a 8buddle hole10 which is an opening under the kerb1 has much to recommend it as giving a free unobstructed waterway and at the same time avoiding the necessity of a grating in the street itself4 ,the following drawing will explain the general features of this 8buddle-hole30 ,illustration ,a great number of different descriptions and forms of gully pits are shown in ,mr4 ,baldwin ,latham's excellent book on sanitary engineering1 to which ,i refer my readers for any further information upon this subject4 #aaj #8,the ,maintenance of ,macadamised ,roads1' by ,thomas ,codrington1 p4 #ah4 #aaa ,in many towns the gully gratings are purposely in direct communication with the sewers1 so as to act as ventilators4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,lighting ,,streets4 ,at the present moment the question of lighting streets by electricity is gaining so much attention1 that it must necessarily be first considered in connection with the subject of lighting streets3 but to enter fully into all the details and comparative merits of electricity and gas as applied to street lighting would entail more space than can be afforded in this work4 ,it may however be of some use1 even under the present state of uncertainty1 if ,i attempt to condense as much information upon this necessary part of a surveyor's duty into as small a compass as possible4 ,nor must it be forgotten that electric lighting will not easily be adapted in old cities and towns1 where1 in addition to the main streets being narrow and crooked1 there are few large open spaces suitable for intense lights1 and there are numerous small courts and alleys which require lighting1 and this for a long time to come will probably be effected with gas4#aab ,section #afa of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge enacts as follows3 8,any urban authority may contract with any person for the supply of gas or other means of lighting the streets1 markets1 and public buildings in their district1 and may provide such lamps1 lamp-posts and other materials and apparatus as they may think necessary for lighting the same4 4 4 40 7#ch and #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #afa47 ,i do not propose to entertain the question of lighting where the gas works are the property of the corporation1 but only to give information that may be of use where a contract has to be entered into between the corporation and a company4 ,these contracts are based nearly always upon the length of time at which the public lamps are to be kept lighted1 and may be summarised as follows3 7#a47 ,the public lamps are lighted from sunset to sunrise every night throughout the year2 this averages #ab hours per diem1 or about #djjj hours per annum4 7#b47 ,the public lamps are not lighted on the nights of full moon1 nor for two or three nights before and after this period2 the rest of the year they are lighted at sunset4 7#c47 ,similar to the preceding1 except that the public lamps are not lighted during the five nights of full moon1 the night after they are lighted for one hour and extinguished on the rising of the moon2 this lighting increases from night to night about three quarters of an hour until the moon has entirely disappeared1 when the lamps are lighted during the whole of the night for five consecutive nights4 ,then again on the appearance of the new moon the lamps are extinguished the first night for about an hour that the moon is visible1 and this extension increases nightly about three quarters of an hour according as the moon appears until the period of full moon1 the intention being to profit by every hour of the moon's light4 ,by this arrangement the lighting is about #bjjj hours per annum1 instead of #djjj hours1 when it is continued throughout the night during the whole of the year4 7#d47 ,sometimes1 in addition to the foregoing1 the lamps are not lighted at all during the summer months4 7#e47 ,occasionally the public lamps are extinguished at midnight all the year round1 if not for the whole1 for some portions of the district1 it being assumed that all respectable citizens being in bed1 no light is required4 7#f47 ,in some cases every other lamp only is lighted in the summer months1 and many other similar variations for the sake of economy may be practised4 7#g47 ,the public lamps are sometimes supplied by gas through meters1 which is then paid for at so much per #ajjj cubic feet consumed4 ,of all the above methods the first is undoubtedly the most satisfactory to the inhabitants1 the urban authority1 their officers1 and the gas company2 it is the least likely to introduce disputes1 and although something may be saved by adopting the more parsimonious methods enumerated1 it is found in practice that the first is the best4 ,in drawing up an agreement with the gas company to light the public street lamps for any length of time1 the following points must be considered4 ,hints for a ,contract with a ,gas ,company4 ,the company to provide a sufficient supply of gas of the full illuminating power and quality as provided by their ,act4 ,payment to be at so much per lamp1 or per #ajjj cubic feet consumed1 or at per hour1 or whatever may be determined on4 ,payment to be made by urban authority for lighting1 extinguishing1 cleaning1 repairing1 etc41 as may be agreed1 such payments to be made quarterly1 or at such times as may be agreed upon4 ,the hours or times throughout the year during which the lamps shall be lighted to be determined by a table1 every lamp to be fully lighted within one hour of the time named1 and not extinguished before that named for extinguishing4 ,the consumption of the gas to be regulated and determined by ,sugg's or ,borradaile's street lamp governors1 or such other mode as is agreed upon4 ,the company to keep the governors and burners in repair1 and also the lanterns1 at a fixed sum per lamp per annum4 ,the company to light and extinguish1 and keep all lanterns clean1 and all pipes1 valves1 etc41 in repair4 ,the company to keep the lamp posts etc41 properly painted after they are fixed by the urban authority4 ,lamps may be shifted or fresh lamps erected by the urban authority1 on their paying the cost4 ,the company not to be compelled to supply gas to lamps which are beyond a certain distance of their existing mains1 without compensation4 ,a certain pressure of gas must be maintained1 to be ascertained by water gauges fixed at certain public places1 or at such points as may be determined4 ,any lamps burning under size or out1 shall be immediately attended to by the company4 ,a deduction in payment for gas by the urban authority to be made if neglect can be proved4 ,an arbitration clause is necessary for this or other matters that may be disputed1 and also a clause for determining the agreement upon notice being given4 ,in supplying gas to the public lamps by meter1 either wet or dry meters may be employed1 and these are fixed either in the lamp posts themselves or under the footpath4 ,sometimes each lamp has a separate meter1 but in the generality of cases one meter fixed to a lamp gives the average of gas consumed by ten or a dozen of its fellows at the same level1 and in the same neighbourhood4 ,the difficulties arising from this system are3 7#a47 ,the liability of the meters to get out of repair1 especially in times of severe frost1 or by vibration of traffic4 7#b47 ,the first cost of providing and fixing the meters1 and subsequent cost of repairs4 7#c47 ,the trouble and cost of inspection and keeping the accounts4 ,and it is found that by employing either 8,borradaile's10 8,sugg's10 or other regulators the consumption of the gas can be readily adjusted to consume from #c to #f cubic feet per hour1 according to the requirements of the situation of the lamp4#aac ,lamp posts and lanterns are of innumerable sizes1 shapes1 and patterns1 but the following hints in connection with them may be of some service4 ,the lamp must not only be ornamental by day1 but useful by night4 ,the light must not be placed either too high or too low4 ,the post must not be too clumsy so as to interfere with the pedestrian traffic1 nor too fragile so as to be easily broken if driven against4 ,bracket lamps have advantages in these respects1 and also in the very important one of throwing no downward shadow1#aad as well as being cheaper4 ,the lantern should be made with the lightest possible amount of metal frame compatible with sufficient strength1 the angle bars should be very narrow to avoid shadow1 trap doors of perforated zinc or glass should be provided at the bottom for the admission of the torch1 and a good outlet at the top is essential for the escape of the heated air4 ,flat glass is much cheaper and easier of repair than curved4 ,the top of the lantern should be furnished with a reflector cover1 otherwise a large percentage of the light is lost3 this is very observable on approaching a large city1 by the glare which is thrown upwards4 ,some hundreds of different patterns of lanterns for street lamps have been designed from time to time1 and it is not necessary1 nor have ,i space1 to describe them4 ,the burners should have steatite tips and be of varying size to suit the requirements of the locality1 the regulators which ,i have previously mentioned must be kept in good repair4 ,a lever tap is indispensable with the torch for lighting1 as well as the trap door or opening in the bottom of the lantern through which the torch is inserted4 ,each public lamp post should be legibly numbered1 and the surveyor should keep a register in his office of all the public lamps in his town4 ,in order to determine the distance apart of the public lamps in a street1 it must be remembered that the intensity of light is directly proportional to the illuminating power of the light1 and inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the light1 if unreflected4 ,for instance1 the illumination of any point between lamps may be arrived at by adding all the quotients obtained by dividing the illuminating power in standard sperm candles of each lamp1 by the square of its distance in yards from the point4 ,thus a point midway between two lamps of #ae candles each1 #bj yards apart1 would be reckoned thus3 #ae #ae ,x --- --- #cj #ajj #ajj ,in this country1 the rule has generally been adopted that public street lamps burning #e cube feet per hour of #ae candle gas should not be placed at a greater distance than #fj yards apart1 the average distance in most ,english towns being about #dj yards4 ,on this question1 the following interesting particulars by ,monsieur ,servier will be of special interest4#aae ,it appears to ,m4 ,servier that up to the present there has been too much straining after intensity1 with insufficient care for the object of obtaining a proper quantity of light uniformly spread over the surface of the ground4 ,the paper in question is therefore intended in the first place to elucidate this latter subject1 so as to determine beforehand the necessary intensity for luminous centres1 gas or electric1 and also their height from the ground and distance from each other required to produce a certain effect4 ,with this purpose ,m4 ,servier proposes to determine for any point of the road-surface1 by the law of the squares of the distances1 the intensity of light1 in terms of the ,carcel standard1 which is spread at that point by one or more lights of given power4 ,representing these intensities by proportional ordinates1 the extremities of these ordinates form an irregular surface1 and the volume contained between this surface and that of the roadway represents a specific value equivalent to the total luminous intensity distributed over the soil4 ,in default of a better term1 ,m4 ,servier calls this a volume of cubic ,carcels1 a cubic ,carcel being the intensity of a ,carcel 7#ie standard candles7 multiplied by a square mtre of surface4 ,the different cases capable of being valued in this manner are as follows3 #a4 ,a burner consuming #adj litres 7#e cubic feet nearly71 and of #aa ,carcels 7#ajde candles7 illuminating power1 placed at the height of #c mtres 7#i feet #f inches74 ,this burner gives at the foot of the lamp-pillar a maximum intensity of #jabb ,carcel 7#aaei candles71 and at #aj mtres 7#cbh feet7 away the illuminating power is reduced to #jja ,carcel 7#jjie candle74 ,the distance of #bj to #cj mtres kept between the street lamps1 even in the best-lighted towns1 is therefore excessive1 for these should not be more than #ac mtres 7#ad yards7 apart in order to obtain between them the minimum illuminating power of #jje ,carcel 7#jdge candle71 sufficient for enabling passengers to read4 #b4 ,the second case is that of a burner consuming #adjj litres 7#ej cubic feet nearly7 of gas1 with an illuminating intensity of #ad ,carcels 7#acc candles71 placed at the height of #cbj mtres2 this being the class of burner fixed in the ,rue du ,quatre ,septembre4 ,the intensity of light at the foot of the lamp-pillar is #acfg ,carcels 7#ac candles nearly71 and to obtain the light of #jje ,carcel 7#jdge candle7 already mentioned as the least intensity enabling one to read1 a point must be fixed in a circle of #af mtres radius from the lamp as a centre4 ,taking now a group of six lamp-columns1 three on each side of the street1 and overlapping1 as in the ,rue du ,quatre ,septembre1 it will be found that the distribution of light is defective4 ,the most brilliantly lighted point at the foot of the column has an intensity of #acfg ,carcels 7#ac candles71 or more than triple that of the darkest point1 which has an intensity of #je ,carcel 7#dge candles7 at #deh mtres distance4 #c4 ,a lamp of #ej-;,carcel 7#dge-;candle7 power1 gas or electric1 fixed at the height of #h mtres 7#bfbd feet74 ,the illuminating intensity at the point vertically under the light is reduced to #jg ,carcel 7#ffe candles72 but the light of #je ,carcel 7#dge candles7 is to be found in a circle of #f mtres radius from this point4 ,it will therefore be observed that the distribution of light over the ground is better in proportion as the luminous centre is higher2 but conversely also1 the amount of light thrown on the ground is greater as the luminous centre is lower4 ,it consequently results that the power of the light and its height should be determined in every case with reference to the effect desired4 ,the method shortly described shows that1 in the case of the lighting of the ,rue du ,quatre ,septembre1 the mean amount of light per square mtre of the roadway is #hee dcicarcel-cubes1 the best lighted parts having an intensity of #afb cubic ,carcels1 and the darkest portions an intensity of #jej cubic ,carcel4 ,m4 ,servier has examined the question of lighting a street #bj mtres wide and one or more kilomtres long1 with the condition that the illumination of the ground shall present a mean determinate quantity of light per square mtre1 or a given intensity at the darkest points4 ,some interesting results are thus obtained4 ,thus1 by substituting for the #ad-;,carcel 7#acc-;candle7 lamps in the ,rue du ,quatre ,septembre1 burners of #ej-;,carcel 7#dge-;candle7 power1 with the condition of giving the same intensity of #je ,carcel 7#dge candles7 to the darkest points1 a quantity of light more considerable than before will be required4 ,that is1 a greater number of ,carcels 7#cjjj as against #ahdh per kilomtre in length7 will be necessary in the larger burners than were required in the original smaller lamps4 ,it is therefore imperative1 in order that the lighting shall be equally economical1 that the unit of intensity--the ,carcel or candle power--shall be less costly in a lamp of #ej ,carcel 7or #dge-;candle power7 than in the smaller lamps4 ,by fixing lamps of #ej-;,carcel 7#dge-;candle7 power in the centre of the street1 instead of along the side walks1 maintaining the condition of giving the light of #je ,carcel 7#dge candles7 in the darkest parts of the thoroughfares1 it is found that the pillars must be #h mtres high and #bj mtres apart4 ,the best-lighted part of the road would then have the intensity of #a ,carcel 7#ie candles71 and would therefore be only twice as brilliantly lighted as the darkest corner2 the mean quantity light per square mtre would be #gee dcicarcel-cubes4 ,lastly1 the same method of lighting has been applied to the 8ordinary10 as distinguished from the 8luxurious0 lighting of the public thoroughfares1 assumed to be #bj mtres wide1 giving a light of #jje ,carcel 7#jdge candle7 at the darkest points4 ,with ordinary street burners consuming #bjj litres 7#g cubic feet7 of gas per hour1 and giving #agb-;,carcel 7#afcd-;candle7 power1 it is found that the lamps should be #ah mtres 7#bj yards nearly7 apart1 the burners being #c mtres 7#i feet #aj inches7 high4 ,with burners of #ad-;,carcel 7#acc-;candle7 power placed at the height of #cbj mtres 7#aj feet #f inches71 the lamp-pillars would be #ajf mtres 7#aae yards7 apart4 ,or with lamps of #ej-;,carcel 7#dge-;candle7 power placed at a height of #h mtres 7#bfbd feet71 the distance between the pillars may be increased to #bgj mtres 7#did yards74 ,in the case of electric lighting ,m4 ,servier has studied two examples--the ,jablochkoff candle1 and an arc light 7system not stated74 ,the former is credited with the illuminating power of #af ,carcels 7#aeb candles71 and is fixed at the height of #e mtres 7#af feet #c inches71 on pillars #aaj mtres 7#abj yards7 apart4 ,this would give a light of #jfe ,carcel 7#fbg candles7 at the foot of the pillar1 and a minimum intensity of #jje ,carcel 7#jdge candle7 midway between the lights4 ,the arc light is purposely made exactly equal in computed efficiency to the larger ,siemens burner of #ej ,carcels 7#dge candles74 ,in the matter of expense1 however1 using the data applicable to ,paris1 with #ab-;candle gas at #fs4 #f;d4 per #ajjj cubic feet1 ,m4 ,servier makes a striking comparison4 ,the cost of lighting a kilomtre of road in the 8ordinary0 manner last described varies very little for the three classes of gas lamps--small1 large1 and very powerful--included in the calculation1 and ranges from #ccc frs4 to #cif frs4 per hour4 ,the cost of the same work done by the ,jablochkoff candle is estimated at about double1 or #fia frs4 per hour2 and with the arc light the cost would be #d frs41 or still higher than with the most costly system of gas lighting1 although less than the expense of the ,jablochkoff electric light4 ,the following table will show the particulars of different lights so placed that persons may see to read ordinary print in any part of the street1 which may be taken as then being a well-lighted street4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,distance of ,number of ,illuminating,height of ,lamps ,lamps per ,description of ,light4 ,power4 ,lamps4 apart4 ,mile4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,gas4 candles4 ft4 in4 yards4 ,batswing1 #g cubic feet #afcd #i #aj #bj #agf ,cluster1 #ej #accjj #aj #f #aae #bi ,siemens1 #ajj #dgejj #bf #c #bid #aj ,electricity ,jablochkoff candle #aebjj #af #c #abj #bi ,arc light #dgejj #bf #c #bid #aj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,greatest ,least ,total ,consumption,intensity ,intensity ,illuminatingof ,gas per of ,light of ,light ,description of ,light4 ,power4 ,mile4 on ,ground4on ,ground4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,gas4 candles4 cub4 ft4 candles4 candles4 ,batswing1 #g cubic feet #bhgf #abcb #bae #jdg ,cluster1 #ej #cheg #adej #acaj #jdg ,siemens1 #ajj #dgej #ajjj #gdf #jdg ,electricity ,jablochkoff candle #ddjh 44 #fah #jdg ,arc light #dgej 44 #gdf #jdg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,it must not be lost sight of1 that the illuminating power of the gas in ,paris is very low1 and is thus fixed4 ,under a pressure of #ab hundredths of an inch1 gas burning at the rate of #dje cubic feet per hour 7or #aae litres7 shall give a light of #ie standard sperm candles 7or a 8,carcel0 lamp burning #db grammes of pure colza oil7 per hour4 ,the competition which has been started by the electric lighting companies has given a great impetus to gas lighting4 ,a large number of improved street gas lamp burners and lanterns having been invented and brought into general use1 the following particulars with reference to some of those which were tried in the ,city of ,exeter may be of use as a comparison4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,consumption ,cost per ,hour1 of gas in gas being supplied ,candle ,power cubic feetat #cs4 per #ajjj ,description of ,lamp4 of ,light4 per hour4 cubic feet4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- pence4 ,ordinary street lamp #ae #e with batswing burner ,siemens' #ccj #ej #a ,ditto #acj #be ,ditto #de #aj ,sugg's #ej #af ,ditto #cj #aj ,bray's #hj #bj ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,having thus far given a few facts upon lighting streets with coal gas1 ,i will now turn to the question of lighting them by means of electricity1 and in doing this the following points will be considered3 7#a47 ,the motive-power to be employed in producing electricity and its applicability for the purpose4 7#b47 ,the description of machinery to be employed4 7#c47 ,the value of the light produced1 and its adaptability to the requirements of any town4 7#d47 ,the comparative cost of the electric light as compared with gas4 7#a47 ,whatever motive power is employed1 whether water-power1 steam or gas1 it is essential that it should be steady and unfailing2 steady1 because the regularity and uniformity of the light depends upon the evenness of the speed with which the power works1 and unfailing1 because a stoppage means the immediate extinguishment of the lights3 electricity1 unlike gas1 is not stored after manufacture1 but is used as fast as it emanates from the producing power4#aaf ,sensitive governors and careful bedding of the machinery greatly tend to lessen unsteadiness1 and are points of considerable importance4 7#b47 ,the machinery consists of the dynamo machines1 the conducting wires and the lamps4 ,i will not here enter into the question of which is the best dynamo machine to employ1 as to discuss the merits of them all would involve a large amount of space2 but for this and other valuable information upon the subject of electric lighting ,i will refer my readers to ,mr4 ,hedges' excellent little book entitled #8,useful ,information on ,electric ,lighting1'#aag but the following points should be attended to4 ,the dynamo machine should be fixed in a dry place1 and not be exposed to dust or flyings1 it should be kept perfectly clean1 and its bearings well oiled1 its coils and conductors should be perfectly insulated1 and it should1 where practicable1 be fixed on an insulated bed4 ,with regard to the wires1 the following #8,regulations for the prevention of ,fire ,risks arising from ,electric ,lighting1' published by the ,society of ,telegraph ,engineers and of ,electricians1 are given in full1 as they leave nothing to be desired in the way of their careful selection and fixing3 87#g47 ,every switch or commutator used for turning the current on or off should be constructed so that when it is moved and left to itself it cannot permit of a permanent arc or of heating1 and its stand should be made of slate1 stoneware1 or some other incombustible substance4 87#h47 ,there should be in connection with the main circuit a safety fuse constructed of easily fusible metal which would be melted if the current attain any undue magnitude1 and would thus cause the circuit to be broken4 87#i47 ,every part of the circuit should be so determined that the gauge of wire to be used is properly proportioned to the currents it will have to carry1 and changes of circuit1 from a larger to a smaller conductor1 should be sufficiently protected with suitable safety fuses1 so that no portion of the conductor should ever be allowed to attain a temperature exceeding #aej ,f4 8,n4,b4--,these fuses are of the very essence of safety4 ,they should always be enclosed in incombustible cases4 ,even if wires become perceptibly warmed by the ordinary current1 it is a proof that they are too small for the work they have to do and that they ought to be replaced by larger wires4 87#aj47 ,under ordinary circumstances complete metallic circuits should be used1 and the employment of gas or water pipes should in no case be allowed4 87#aa47 ,where bare wire out of doors rests on insulating supports1 it should be coated with insulating material1 such as india-rubber tape or tube1 for at least two feet on each side of the support4 87#ab47 ,bare wires passing over the tops of houses should never be less than seven feet clear of any part of the roof1 and they should invariably be high enough1 when crossing thoroughfares1 to allow fire-escapes to pass under them4 87#ac47 ,it is most essential that the joints should be electrically and mechanically perfect4 ,one of the best joints is that shown in the annexed sketches4 ,the joint is whipped around with small wire1 and the whole mechanically united by solder4 ,illustration 87#ad47 ,the position of wires when underground should be efficiently indicated1 and they should be laid down so as to be easily inspected and repaired4 87#ae47 ,all wires used for indoor purposes should be efficiently insulated4 87#af47 ,when these wires pass through roofs1 floors1 walls1 or partitions1 or where they cross or are liable to touch metallic masses1 like iron girders or pipes1 they should be thoroughly protected from abrasion with each other1 or with the metallic masses1 by suitable additional covering2 and where they are liable to abrasion from any cause or to the depredations of rats or mice1 they should be efficiently encased in some hard material4 87#ag47 ,where wires are put out of sight1 as beneath flooring1 they should be thoroughly protected from mechanical injury1 and their position should be indicated4 8,n4,b4--,the value of frequently testing the wires cannot be too strongly urged4 ,it is an operation skill in which is easily acquired and applied4 ,the escape of electricity cannot be detected by the sense of smell as can gas1 but it can be detected by apparatus far more certain and delicate4 ,leakage not only means waste1 but in the presence of moisture it means destruction of the conductor and its insulating covering by electric action40 ,the lamps may take either the 8arc0 form1 or the 8incandescent40 ,the former is produced by the electric current passing between carbon points1 and requires considerable electrical pressure2 they give a light of from #aejj to #djjj candle power2 the mechanism of arc lamps has to be of the most delicate kind to ensure the proper distance of the carbon points being maintained4 ,the lamps should be guarded by globes of frosted glass1 not only to prevent incandescent pieces of carbon from falling1 but to lessen the glare of the light4 8,incandescent0 lamps are of small size1 giving a light of from #h to #ej-;candle power1 which is produced by the heating of a filament of carbon in a vacuum owing to the resistance caused to the electric current by this contraction of the conductor4 7#c47 ,with regard to the value of the light produced1 and its adaptability to the requirements of any town1 it will be seen on reference to the opening of this chapter that at present considerable doubt exists as to its adaptability for general public lighting1 and as each town varies in the length1 straightness1 and width of its streets1 the number of its large squares or confined courts and alleys1 the surveyor must use his own judgment as to the suitability of the light before recommending his corporation to adopt it4 ,as to the value of the electric light1 there can be no doubt that a most brilliant and powerful light is produced by the voltaic arc3 so brilliant indeed1 as to render it necessary to screen it nearly always behind frosted or opalescent glass globes1 the former being found to be much the best for many reasons4 ,as to the photometrical value of the light1 some considerable difficulty has hitherto been experienced in obtaining accurate observations1 principally owing to the peculiar colour of the electric light1 and also from its fluctuating character2 but these difficulties are being steadily overcome1 and with a photometer mounted on a light frame with wheels1 some excellent experiments have been made in the public streets upon the comparative values of different lights4 7#d47 ,the last and really one of the most important questions remaining to be discussed is that of the cost of the electric light as compared with gas4 ,with reference to the cost of the electric light1 the following table may be of use2 it is compiled from an excellent paper on electric lighting1 by ,mr4 ,james ,n4 ,shoolbred3#aah ,,table ,,of ,,comparative ,,estimates ,,of ,,first ,,outlay ,,and ,,of ,,working ,,expenses ,,of ,,some ,,systems ,,of ,,electric ,,lighting4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,first ,cost1 including ,engine to drive it4 --------------------------- ,one ,two ,three ,five ,name of ,machine4light4lights4lights4lights4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,gramme single light 8,a0 with #ccj #ece #gbe #ice ,siemens lamp ,cost per light -- -- -- -- per hour ,siemens single light 8medium0 with ,siemens #cfe #faa #hce #aahe small-sized lamp ,cost per light -- -- -- -- per hour ---------------------------------------- --- ,six lights4 ,twenty lights4 ----------------------------- ,gramme 8many light0 machine #egf #aaee with candles ,cost per light -- -- per hour ---------------------------------------- ----- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,working ,expenses per hour4 -------------------------------------- ,one ,two ,three ,five ,name of ,machine4 light4 lights4 lights4 lights4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- s4 d4 s4 d4s4 d4s4 d4 ,gramme single light 8,a0 with #a #f #b #a #b #g #c #j ,siemens lamp ,cost per light #a #aad #a #dh #a #bb #j #ajb per hour ,siemens single light 8medium0 with ,siemens #a #gaai #b #d #b #aj #c #i small-sized lamp ,cost per light #b #ad #a #fh #a #chd #a #jh per hour ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,six lights4 ,twenty lights4 ---------------------------------------- s4 d4 s4 d4 ,gramme 8many light0 machine #b #h #f #c with candles ,cost per light #j #fd #j #db per hour ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,mr4 ,shoolbred has also given another table#abj of street lighting which partly deals with the question of cost1 it is as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,illumi- nating ,cost to ,annual ,power ,munic- ,length ,cost of ipal of per ,no4 each 7on ,date of ,author-,streetmile of of hori- ,lighting4 ity4 ,lit4 street4,lamps4zontal74 ,remarks4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- yards line- can- al4 dles4 ,,city ,,of ,,london4 ,district ,no4 #a4 7,ludgate ,hill1 c474--8,brush0 ,electric ,light ,co4 ,mar4 #ca1 #ahha #ffj;,a #agej #ffj #cb arc #iejf #a #dj-light ,brush to machine4 ,mar4 #cj1 #ahhb ,a ,add #gej to cost1 for fixing and final removal of apparatus4 ,district ,no4 #b4 7,king ,william ,street1 c474 --,siemens ,bros4 ,co41 ,ld4 ,mar4 #ca1 #ahha #bbgj;,b #aifj #bjbf #f arc #djjj #f continuous to #bc arc #ccj current ma- ,mar4 #cj1 #ahhb chines4 #b alternating ditto4 ,b ,add #adej to cost1 for fixing and removal of apparatus4 ,metropolitan ,board of ,works 7,thames ,embankment74--8,jablochkoff0 ,co4 ,dec4 #ac1 #ahghb;d4 #bedj #aaca #fj #chj #c ,gramme double- to per can- machine 78,a0 and ,june #cj1 #ahha light dles divider74 per #a ,ransome's hour4 steam engine4 #bj ,,hp nominal4 ,july #a1 #ahha #a;d4 44 #gec to per ,june #cj1 #ahhd light per hour4 ,,city ,,of ,,norwich 7,prince of ,wales' ,road1 c474--,r4 ,e4 ,crompton ,co4 ,aug4 #ae1 #ahha #gaj #agjj #eca #e arc #bjjj #d ,brgin to #i arc #ejj machines4 ,jan4 #ca1 #ahhc #a ,ransome's steam engine1 #bj ,,hp nominal4 ,chesterfield 7,market ,place1 c474 --,brush 7,hammond7 ,electric ,light ,co4 ,nov4 #a1 #ahha #hee #cejj #bb arc #iej #b #dj-,light to 44 #ajj #af 8,brush0 ma- ,oct4 #ca1 #ahhb ,incan- chines4 des- #b ,fowler's semi- cent4 portable com- pound engines #bj ,,hp nominal4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,as to the comparison of cost between the electric light and gas1 this has only1 ,i believe1 been properly estimated on the ,thames ,embankment1 ,london1 by ,sir ,joseph ,bazalgette1 the results of whose investigations upon this important point ,i shall give presently2 it has1 however1 been stated generally1 and without contradiction1 that arc lights can be produced of about #bjjj candle power1 with #a ,,hp at a cost of from #c;d4 to #f;d4 per candle per annum of #djjj hours1 gas costing from #as4 #i;d4 to #cs4 #f;d4 per candle according to the price of the gas4 ,incandescent lamps cost #cs4 to #ds4 per candle per annum1 as their life is short1 and only #bjj candle power can be got from #a ,,hp4#aba ,the latest investigations into the comparative cost of lighting by gas and electricity upon the ,victoria ,embankment and ,waterloo ,bridge in ,london1 show that the lighting as effected by #if gas burners for an average of #ab hours burning all night1 and #aba gas burners for #f hours lighted after the electric lights are put out1 together with the electric lighting #dj lights on the parapet of ,embankment1 and #aj on the bridge1 costs #hcdl4 for the gas and #ffcl4 for the electric light per annum4 ,gas costing #cs4 #b;d4 per #ajjj cubic feet showed a cost of nearly #as4 per hour for every #ajjj candle power of light4 ,the electric lights cost #a;d4 per light per hour1 which is stated to represent #eff pence per #ajjj candle power of light2 each electric light as now used1 it is said1 gives a photometric light of #bfe candles1 frosted glass globes being found to pass much more light than the opalescent globes4 ,these are by far the most important and reliable comparisons that have hitherto been made1 and it will be seen that the cost is in favour of the electric light4 ,there is no doubt that the acme of all artificial lighting is the prolongation of the light of day1 and whether this is proposed to be effected by electricity or gas1 it should be the goal aimed at by all who make this question their study4 #aab ,since writing these lines the following letter has appeared in the ,standard and has never been refuted1 which shows that electric lighting for streets is not yet all that can be desired3 ,,electric ,,lighting4 ,to the ,editor of the ,,standard4 ,,sir1--,at this time1 when the question of lighting by means of electricity is receiving so much attention1 and as ,chesterfield is the only town in ,england whose lighting is done throughout by electricity1 it may be interesting to your readers to know what our experience has been4 ,i need not detail the stages which led to our abandoning gas1 and taking up the electric light after being in darkness some months4 ,i may briefly state that1 after going carefully into the question1 we decided to adopt the system whose praise was in everyone's mouth a year ago1 namely1 8,the ,brush10 and1 though we were applied to by other companies1 we placed the execution of the work in the hands of the one that we considered the most suitable--the ,hammond ,company4 ,during the negotiations of the contract1 ,mr4 ,hammond particularly pressed us not to stipulate for incandescent lamps1 as he acknowledged that their ,company were not in a position to cope with incandescent lighting for public purposes4 ,we1 however1 decided upon the town being lighted with the ,lane-,fox ,incandescent ,lamps1 as well as the ,brush ,arc ,lights4 ,after waiting many weary months for the completion of the incandescent lighting1 it is now1 when declared by the contractors complete1 in my opinion a decided failure4 ,the ,lane-,fox lamps1 which have been supplied by the ,brush ,company1 are most variable in their lighting power2 whilst some are good1 others only give a feeble light instead of a light equal to that of fifteen candles1 as expected4 ,the arc lights are doing good service in some of the large streets1 but as a whole ,i think it has been fully demonstrated in a year's trial in ,chesterfield1 that the field for arc lighting is very limited indeed4 ,though the tradesmen have been canvassed by the ,hammond ,company with a view to introducing the arc lights into their shops and hotels1 in not one single case has the light been adopted4 ,indeed1 it is evident to us who have them under our eyes every night1 that they are only fit for lighting works and large1 open spaces4 ,the experience that has been thus gained at ,chesterfield at the present juncture must be of value to all towns intending to adopt the electric light1 and is my reason for troubling you with this letter1 although ,i believe the time will shortly come when lighting by electricity may be advantageously adopted1 both for public and private purposes4 ,i am1 ,sir1 your obedient servant1 ,,geo4 ,,edwd4 ,,gee1 ,alderman of the ,borough of ,chesterfield4 ,,high ,,street1 ,,chesterfield1 ,october #aj1 #ahhb4 #aac ,the ,surveyor of ,folkestone says3 8,sugg's self-acting regulator is used1 adjusted as nearly as may be practicable to consume #d feet per hour1 and so very satisfactory is this apparatus that for the last two years1 after burning #gbid hours1 it is found by the average meter to have consumed #bi1bbg feet1 as against #bi1agf feet as per regulator1 being only #ea feet in excess of that which the apparatus is adjusted to consume40 ,vide ,ellice ,clark on gas in ,public ,streets1 #8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors1' vol4 ii4 ,p4 #aic4 #aad ,bracket lamps may not be fixed by an urban authority to houses within their district without the previous consent of the owners of such houses4 ,vide #8,fitzgerald's ,public ,health ,act1' third edition1 p4 #ahb4 #aae ,meeting of the #8,socit ,technique de l'lndustrie du ,gaz en ,france' in #ahhb4 #aaf 8,faure's0 batteries can store electricity1 but at present this cannot be manipulated on a very large scale4 #aag ,published by ,messrs4 ,spon1 #af ,charing ,cross1 ,london4 #aah ,vide #8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors1' vol4 vi4 p4 #i et seq4 #aai ,siemens' light at ,blackburn cost #bs4 per hour per lamp of #fjjj candle power4 #abj ,vide #8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors1' vol4 viii4 p4 #aga1 c4 #aba ,on this point ,mr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,laws1 ,borough ,engineer1 ,newcastle-upon-,tyne1 says3 8,taking as an example a street a mile long1 lighted by the arc system1 the arrangement would probably be lamps #fj yards apart1 placed alternately on either side1 giving #cj lamps or #fj1jjj candles at a cost of about #hjjl4 per annum4 ,if lighted by #8incandescent lamps' we should have them placed about #cj yards apart on both sides3 that is1 #abj lamps giving #bdjj candles at a cost of about #dbjl4 per annum4 ,the number of gas lamps for the same distance might be #aej1 giving about #bbej candles at a cost of #cjjl4 per annum40 7#8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors1' vol4 viii4 p4 #fe47 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,street ,,naming ,,and ,,numbering4 ,it was not until the commencement of the present century that inconvenience was apparently felt from the want of any distinguishing names of streets1 or numbers to houses1 either in ,london or provincial towns2 the first ,act of ,parliament on the subject being one passed in the year #ahai1 which gave powers to vestries and district boards to put up the names of streets1 and even then for some considerable period afterwards houses or premises were not marked with numbers1 but with distinguishing trade signs or names4 ,the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg1 however1 contains the following clauses which are incorporated with the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 by the #afjth section of that act3 8,the commissioners shall from time to time cause the houses and buildings in all or any of the streets#abb to be marked with numbers as they think fit1 and shall cause to be put up or painted on a conspicuous part of some house1 building or place at or near each end1 corner1 or entrance of every such street the name by which such street is to be known2 and every person who destroys1 pulls down1 or defaces any such number or name1 or puts up any number or name different from the number or name put up by the commissioners1 shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding #djs4 for every such offence0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 sec4 #fd74 8,the occupiers of houses and other buildings in the streets shall mark their houses with such numbers as the commissioners approve of1 and shall renew such numbers as often as they become obliterated1 or defaced2 and every such occupier who fails within one week after notice for that purpose from the commissioners to mark his house with a number approved of by the commissioners1 or to renew such number when obliterated1 shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding #djs42 and the commissioners shall cause such numbers to be marked or to be renewed as the case may require1 and the expense thereof shall be repaid to them by such occupier1 and shall be recoverable as damages0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #fe74 ,some difference even now exists as to the manner in which streets are named1 there being considerable diversity in the sizes1 colours1 and materials of the name plates1 as well as in the spaces allowed for the letters4 ,the following list is given to show how this diversity existed in the metropolis even so late as the year #ahgj4 ,table taken from a 8,memorandum by the ,superintending ,architect of the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works1 relative to the enforcement of the ,law regulating the naming of ,streets and numbering of ,houses in the ,metropolis0 7#ahga73 ,parish ,a4 ,parish ,b4 ,names on houses at corners of streets #bcg #bha on piers of railings #bd #cf on iron plates #f #dd on wooden boards #ah #cf on enamelled plates #a #b impressed in terra cotta #b #c in cement letters #ad #i in ,minton's china letters #b #a engraved on stone #e #ac on porcelain plates #a #a with raised letters on iron girder #a on board on posts #aa on zinc #b ,and to this table are added the words 8,some names are completely hidden by vines1 names given for #8streets' are put up as #8roads4'0 ,since this table was prepared however1 the confusion has been rectified by the energetic action of the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works4 ,it is no doubt essential that for postal1 telegraphic1 and social reasons there should be uniformity in the manner in which the naming and numbering of streets is carried out1 and the following particulars and suggestions may be of use4 ,names of streets should be marked up in such a manner as to be legible both by day and lamp light1 and the materials of which the name-plates are composed should be of sufficient strength to prevent any damage accruing to them from stone-throwing or other wilful or accidental injury1 or from the action of changes of temperature or climatic influences of any kind1 and the following list is given descriptive of some of the modern methods of effecting this3 ,minton's ,china ,tiles4--,these are white glazed china tiles #f inches square1 on which either blue or black letters are burnt in1 one letter on each tile 7except in the case of ,st4 which is on one tile72 they are fixed by chasing them into walls of buildings1 and setting them in cement4 ,they are the best description of name-plate with which ,i am acquainted1 their cost being only #f;d4 each1 with the additional advantages of being not easily broken1 they can be removed and re-used with facility1 weather has no effect upon them1 and they require no attention whatever after they are once fixed4 ,cast-iron ,plates with ,embossed ,letters4--,these are generally painted with a white ground1 and black letters2 they are liable to become broken1 and as they are fixed with screws these rust through in course of time1 when the plate may suddenly fall in a dangerous manner into the street2 another disadvantage is that they require to be painted about once every three years4 ,painted ,names on ,walls of ,buildings4--,this method requires no special mention2 it is an economical plan and is more adopted than any other1 but the letters must be painted every three years at least1 and they are apt to be defaced if the premises are painted by the owner or occupier4 ,enamelled ,iron ,plates4--,these look very well1 but they are apt to get loose1 and a blow from a stone will shiver them4 ,wooden or ,metal ,figures cut out and fastened on to ,boards or against ,walls4--,the same objection holds good with this method as with others of the same description1 the fastenings fail in time1 and the name disappears4 ,enamelled ,glass ,tablets in ,street ,lamps4--,this is an excellent method of recent introduction1 and has many advantages4 ,the name can be seen very plainly either by day or night1 no private premises have to be interfered with in fixing them1#abc a uniformity of position or 8where to look0 for the name of the street is secured1 and there is no limit to the number of times the name may be repeated4 ,where the names of streets are placed against buildings the letters which compose the name should not be less than #d inches in height by #b inches in breadth1 with a space between each letter of not less than #a inch2 a light colour should always where practicable be used for the back ground1 and black or blue for the letters4 ,one great objection to painted letters is that they must be frequently repainted1 and in order to do this1 ladders have to be raised against the building1 which the occupiers naturally object to without previous notice3 it is always very annoying to any citizen to have the head of a painter appearing outside his bed-room window at any time1 and more especially at an inconvenient hour in the morning4 ,in selecting names for streets it is very important that they should not be duplicated in a town1 and also that there should be some sense in their nomenclature2 generally some local association can be found with a family or historical name which is suitable for the street4 ,nothing is more ridiculous than to see such names as ,bath ,street or ,york ,road given to streets which have as much association with such places as with ,jericho4 ,the street having been properly and conspicuously named1 the next point to consider is that of the manner in which it shall be numbered1 there being three methods in vogue by which this can be effected4 7#a47 ,by allotting even numbers on one side of the street and odd numbers on the other side4 7#b47 ,by allotting consecutive numbers up one side of the street1 and down the other side4 7#c47 ,by allotting corresponding numbers to both sides of the street1 which are distinguished by a prefix of north and south1 or east and west1 as the case may require4 ,the first is by far the best method to pursue1 for the following reasons3 ,if the street is ever extended after being numbered1 the sequence is in no way disturbed4 ,by this method any house can be more easily found1 as on reference to a directory it will at once be seen at which end of the street it is situated4 ,if the second method had been adopted this would be impossible1 except for the first few numbers1 and where a street is of considerable length with branch streets running into it this is of the greatest importance4 ,it is the best method also for the ,post-,office officials1 as it facilitates the district sorting of the letters4 ,giving each side of the street distinctive prefixes to its name1 such as north and south1 c41 is evidently a bad plan1 and leads to much confusion4 ,in allotting numbers to premises in a street1 if it has been already numbered care should be taken to disturb existing numbers as little as possible1 for an altered number involves considerable expense as well as inconvenience to the occupier of business or trade premises1 owing to the necessity of altering bill heads1 letter paper1 c41 and sometimes even considerable trouble and expense in order to secure the validity of the title4 ,avoid numbering from right to left1 and take care to allot sufficient numbers to vacant spaces which may eventually be built upon1 and to do this the length of frontage may be divided into such lengths as 7in the surveyor's judgment7 will represent the new frontages4 ,in any case it is better to have too many numbers in a street than too few1 and large premises1 and any public or other buildings which may be removed1 and other buildings substituted should have numbers allotted to them1 although it will not be necessary to serve the notices to have them affixed4 ,most large shops prefer to have more than one number1 although ,i have heard the rather far-fetched contention urged1 that more than one number means extra rating4 ,considerable care must be exercised to ensure that no separate premises are passed over in allotting the numbers1 often only a door or side passage denoting the existence of another claimant for a number4 ,nothing looks worse in a freshly numbered street than to see such numbers as #cg;,a or #if placed upon premises that should have had a distinct numeral1 and thus showing that they must have been left out4 ,the manner in which streets are numbered is generally as follows3 ,the town surveyor or one of his assistants walks through the street1 and with a piece of chalk legibly marks each house with its correct number1 taking care to observe the precautions ,i have enumerated2 having done this throughout its entire length1 these numbers must be entered in a book with the name of the occupier written opposite to the number4 ,upon returning to the office the surveyor must then fill up and serve the necessary notice upon each of these occupiers1 the following being given as a specimen of such notice3 ,urban ,sanitary ,authority for the 4 ,,town ,,surveyor',s ,,office1 #ahh 4 ,i beg leave to give you notice1 that the ,town ,council of 1 as the ,urban ,sanitary ,authority1 have approved of the number for the house in your occupation1 in 4 ,you are therefore required1 within one week from the date of this notice to obliterate the present number1 and#abd to mark the said house with the number so approved of1 and to renew the same from time to time in the case of its becoming obliterated4 ,a penalty of #djs4 will be incurred in the event of default in compliance with this notice4 ,i am1 ,your obedient ,servant1 ,town ,surveyor4 ,to ,no4 ,in the event of the old number with which any premises were marked not being obliterated by the occupier1 the following notice may be served3 ,urban ,sanitary ,authority for the 4 ,,town ,,surveyor',s ,,office1 #ahh 4 ,it has been reported to the ,town ,council that you have neglected to obliterate the old number of your premises1 ,no4 ,street1 after receiving notice of a new number being allotted to such premises by the ,town ,council1 whereby you have incurred a penalty of #djs4 ,the duplication of numbers in the same street was found to be the occasion of so much inconvenience1 that the ,council were obliged to re-number the street in question1 and it is manifest that if a number allotted to another house is retained by you1 the inconvenience sought to be removed will still remain4 ,i am therefore instructed to inform you that unless the old number of your premises is obliterated within seven days from the date of this notice1 proceedings will be taken against you for the recovery of the penalty incurred4 ,yours faithfully1 ,town ,surveyor4 ,of course1 if nothing is done after service of this second notice1 it only remains to summon the offender as provided by the sections of the ,act1 which ,i have given in the early part of this chapter4 #abb 8,street0 includes any highway 7not being a turnpike road71 and any public bridge 7not being a county bridge71 and any road1 lane1 footway1 square1 court1 alley1 or passage1 whether a thoroughfare or not4 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #d47 #abc ,the law apparently gives the ,sanitary ,authority power to fix names of streets against any premises they may choose1 without first applying for or obtaining any consent from either the occupier or owner of such premises4 7,vide #aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #fd47 #abd ,if the premises have no existing number1 these words can be left out4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,breaking ,,up ,,streets4 ,in nearly every city and town of the ,united ,kingdom1 except those where the gas and water undertakings are the property of the urban authority1 the town surveyor is constantly annoyed by having some portions of his streets broken up and greatly damaged by the action of the gas or water companies of the district4 ,with regard to the lasting character of the damage caused to the street by this disturbance of its surface1 ,i shall have something to say in this chapter1 but it is first necessary to see what legal powers the companies have to break up the streets1 and what powers the surveyor has to enforce the work being properly carried out4 ,it will be found that the sections bearing upon this point are almost precisely similar in their wording in the following ,acts3 8,the ,gas ,works ,clauses ,act #ahdg0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #ae74 8,the ,water ,works ,clauses ,act #ahdg0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #ag74 8,the ,electric ,lighting ,act #ahhb0 7#de #df ,vic4 c4 #ef74 but with regard to the powers of the ,government to lay telegraph and telephone wires1 c41 the clauses are different1 and are contained in1 8,the ,telegraphs ,act #ahfc0 7#bf #bg ,vic4 c4 #aab74 ,as the clauses on this subject of 8the ,water ,works ,clauses ,act0 are those which are incorporated with the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 ,i shall select the sections from that ,act1 the first of importance being as follows3 8,the undertakers1 under such superintendence as is hereinafter specified1 may open and break up the soil and pavement of the several streets and bridges within the limits of the special ,act1 and may open and break up any sewers1 drains1 or tunnels1 within or under such streets or bridges1 and lay down and place within the same limits pipes1 conduits1 service pipes1 and other works1 and engines1 and from time to time repair1 alter1 or remove the same1 and for the purposes aforesaid remove and use all earth and materials in and under such streets and bridges1 and do all other acts which the undertakers shall from time to time deem necessary for supplying water#abe to the inhabitants of the district included within the said limits2 doing as little damage as can be#abf in the execution of the powers hereby or by the special ,act granted1 and making compensation for any damage which may be done in the execution of such powers0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #ag s4 #bh74 ,the next clause deals only with the powers of laying pipes1 c41 in private property1 and here it will be well to remark that if the water undertaking is in the hands of the urban authority they have much more power of entry for these purposes than companies possess 7,vide ss4 #af1 #ah1 #cb1 and #ed1 #ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee71 but this is a matter which does not affect the questions dealt with in this chapter4 ,the next clause is upon the subject of giving the necessary notices1 and is as follows3 8,before the undertakers#abg open or break up any street1 bridge1 sewer1 drain1 or tunnel1 they shall give to the persons under whose control or management the same may be1 or to their clerk1 surveyor1 or other officer1 notice in writing of their intention to open or break up the same1 not less than three clear days before beginning such work1 except in cases of emergency arising from defects in any of the pipes or other works1 and then so soon as is possible after the beginning of the work or the necessity for the same shall have arisen0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #ag1 s4 #cj74 ,the next clause is of great importance1 as it gives the surveyor the necessary powers to dictate the manner in which the interference with his streets is to be conducted4 8,no such street1 bridge1 sewer1 drain1 or tunnel shall1 except in the cases of emergency aforesaid1 be opened or broken up except under the superintendence of the persons having the control or management thereof1 or of their officer1 and according to such plan#abh as shall be approved of by such persons or their officer1 or in case of any difference respecting such plan1 as shall be determined by two justices2 and such justices may1 on the application of the persons having the control or management of any such sewer or drain1 or their officer1 require the undertakers to make such temporary or other works as they may think necessary for guarding against any interruption of the drainage during the execution of any works which interfere with any such sewer or drain4 ,provided always1 that if the persons having such control or management as aforesaid1 and their officer fail to attend at the time fixed for the opening of any such street1 bridge1 sewer1 drain1 or tunnel1 after having such notice of the intention of the undertakers as aforesaid1 or shall not propose any plan for breaking up or opening the same1 or shall refuse or neglect to superintend the operation1 the undertakers may perform the work specified in such notice without the superintendence of such persons or their officer0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #ag1 s4 #ca74 ,there are several points to which it is necessary to draw attention whilst considering the above clause4 ,i am afraid that the 8attendance0 of the surveyor 8at the time fixed for the opening0 or even of one of his assistants could not always be managed1 nor would it be practicable to prepare a 8plan0 for every opening that might be made by a gas or water company for new services1 leaks in mains1 c42 but where it is proposed to carry out any extensive works1 such as laying a considerable length of new main or removing an old one1 it is certainly necessary that there should be some 8plan0 of the manner in which such work is proposed to be carried out by the company4 ,on referring to the clause it is evident that the first 8plan0 mentioned must be prepared by and on behalf of the company proposing to carry out the work1 and this plan must show the exact position on each street of the proposed excavations1 and their depth1 c41 which 8shall be approved of by such persons 7having the control of the streets7 or their officer10 their officer really being the surveyor4 ,lower down in the clause another 8plan0 is referred to in the following words3 8or shall not propose any plan for breaking up or opening the same40 ,this plan1 or more correctly speaking1 a specification of the manner in which the company shall proceed with the work1 must be prepared by the surveyor1 and if it meets with the approval of his corporation it can be enforced4 ,in order to assist town surveyors who may be required to act under this clause1 ,i now give a verbatim copy of a 8plan0 or specification under which ,i compelled a gas company to work after they had given me the usual statutory notice of their intention to break up certain macadamised streets for the purpose of removing some disused mains4 ,plan of the manner in which the ,gas ,light and ,coke ,company shall take up and remove the old mains in street1 commencing at or near street4 ,a trench to be excavated of not greater width than inches and of no greater length than feet at a time4 ,great care must be taken to keep the top facing metal separate from the lower formation of the roadway1 so that they may not become mixed together2 no metal is on any account to be removed from the street4 ,the mains must be taken up with all possible speed and instantly conveyed away1 without being allowed to remain at the sides of the streets4#abi ,the trench to be then at once filled in1 care being taken to replace all the materials of which the roadway is formed in their proper positions4 ,all extra filling in that may be required owing to the removal of the mains shall be done on the surface with the best stone1 broken so as to pass all ways through a ring of #b inches internal diameter1 the top of the trench being always kept flush with the surface contour of the roadway4 ,no earth1 rubbish1 or other material shall be allowed to be brought on to the ground by the gas company for the purpose of filling in1 nor shall any material of any kind be allowed to be brought from any other excavations that may be being made by the gas company in other parts of the town for the purpose of laying or removing mains4 ,the filling in to be done in the proportion of one man filling to two men ramming with punners of not less weight than lbs4 each4 ,during dry weather a plentiful supply of water must be allowed to run into the trench whilst the filling in is in progress1 for the purpose of consolidating the ground4 ,the traffic must not in any case be impeded1 and planks must be placed across the excavations1 where necessary1 for the convenience of foot passengers4 ,the work shall if necessary be suspended on market days1 or any other days that the surveyor may deem proper for the convenience of the public4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the next clause of the ,act deals with the manner in which the companies shall reinstate and make good the road or pavement1 and is as follows3 8,when the undertakers open or break up the road or pavement of any such street1 or bridge1 or any sewer1 drain1 or tunnel1 they shall with all convenient speed complete the work for which the same shall be broken up1 and fill in the ground and reinstate and make good the road or pavement1 or the sewer1 drain1 or tunnel so opened or broken up1 and carry away the rubbish occasioned thereby2 and shall at all times whilst any road or pavement shall be so opened or broken up cause the same to be fenced and guarded1 and shall cause a light sufficient for the warning of passengers to be set up1 and kept there against every night during which such road or pavement shall be continued open or broken up1 and shall after replacing and making good the road or pavement which shall have been so broken up1 keep the same in good repair for three months thereafter1 and such further time1 if any1 not being more than twelve months in the whole1 as the soil so broken up shall continue to subside0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #ag1 s4 #cb74 ,the conditions embodied in the above clause are easier written than carried out4 ,it is well known that a trench cut longitudinally through a street takes a very long time to heal4 ,asphalte shows it the least if there is a good backing of concrete1 but all other pavements suffer considerably in the process1 as it is almost impossible to maintain their strict contour1 and with macadamised roadways the result is simply disastrous4 ,opening a macadamised roadway does it more harm than the heaviest and most persistent traffic1 and it is surprising for what a length of time the surface will show the treatment it has received4 ,it is unfortunately the practice generally for the men in the employ of a gas or water company1 after laying a pipe1 to try and ram into the trench all the material they have removed1 without allowing for the cubical contents taken up by the pipe1 or if they do condescend to cart anything away it is generally the metal1 which they think will come in nicely for the repairs of the trench during their liability for such repairs4 ,what ought to be done is that no filling of ordinary earth1 c41 should be allowed to come within at least six inches of the top of the trench1 which should then be filled in with good road metal1 and as this wears down it should be brought up to the proper level with more metal4 ,in the former plan a hump is seen over the trench1 and this hump is a mass of mixed dirt and road-metal for which there is no cure but its entire removal to a depth of at least six inches1 and the substitution of good clean road-metal1 which would have been the best and most economical plan in the first place4 ,the clauses following those ,i have quoted are 8penalty clauses0 for non-compliance with the provisions of the ,act1 and need not be here given1 but there is one more clause of the ,water ,works ,clauses ,act #ahdg1 dealing with the powers of private individuals to break up streets for the purpose of laying service pipes1 which it is necessary to give in extenso4 ,on the question of similar powers to private individuals to break up streets for drains1 c41 ,i shall speak later on in this chapter3 8,any such owner or occupier may open or break up so much of the pavement of any street as shall be between the pipe of the undertakers and his house1 building or premises1 and any sewer or drain therein1 for any such purpose as aforesaid1 doing as little damage as may be and making compensation for any damage done in the execution of any such work2 provided always1 that every such owner or occupier desiring to break up the pavement of any street or any sewer or drain therein1 shall be subject to the same necessity of giving previous notice1 and shall be subject to the same control1 restrictions1 and obligations in and during the time of breaking up the same1 and also reinstating the same1 and to the same penalties for any delay in regard thereto1 as the undertakers are subject to by virtue of this or the special ,act0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #ag1 s4 #eb74 ,it would also seem that the consent of the urban authority must be obtained 7as well as notice given to them7 before a street is broken up 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #adi74 ,very often1 however1 the companies prefer to execute all this work themselves1 as they do not like anyone else to interfere with their mains or put in services which may be unfitted for the purpose2 consequently they give the necessary notices1 execute the work themselves1 and charge the owner or occupier with the expense4 ,the powers under which streets are broken up for telegraphic or telephonic purposes are1 as ,i have previously stated1 contained in the 8,telegraphs ,act #ahfc10 the following being the clauses which refer to this subject3 8,the company shall not place a telegraph under any street within the limits of the district over which the authority of the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works extends1 or of any city or municipal borough or town corporate1 or of any town having a population of thirty thousand inhabitants or upwards 7according to the latest census71 except with the consent of the bodies having the control of the streets within such respective limits0 7#bf #bg ,vic4 c4 #aab1 s4 #i74 8,where the company has obtained consent to the placing1 or by virtue of the powers of the company under this ,act intends to proceed with the placing of a telegraph under a street or public road1 the depth1 course and position at and in which the same is to be placed shall be settled between the company and the following bodies3 8,the body having the control of the street or public road4 8,the body having the control of the sewerage or drainage thereunder4 8,but if such settlement is not come to with any such body1 the following provisions shall take effect3 87#a47 ,the company may give to such body a notice specifying the depth1 course and position which the company desires4 87#b47 ,if the body to whom such notice is given does not1 within #bh days after the giving of such notice1 give to the company a counter-notice objecting to the proposal of the company1 and specifying the depth1 course and position which such body desires1 they shall be deemed to have agreed to the proposal of the company4 87#c47 ,in the event of ultimate difference between the company and such body1 the depth1 course and position shall be determined in ,england or ,ireland by two ,justices1 and in ,scotland by two ,justices or the ,sheriff0 7#bf #bg ,vic4 c4 #aab1 s4 #aj74 8,subject to any special stipulations made with a company by the body having the control of a street or public road1 and to any determinations1 orders1 or directions of the ,justices1 or ,sheriff1 as aforesaid1 where the company proceeds to open or break up a street or public road1 the following provisions shall take effect4 87#a47 ,the company shall give to the bodies between whom respectively and the company the depth1 course and position of a telegraph under such street or public road are hereinbefore required to be settled or determined1 notice of their intention to open or break up such street or public road1 specifying the time at which they will begin to do so1 such notice to be given in the case of an underground work ten days at least1 and in the case of an above-ground work five days at least before the commencement of the work1 except in case of emergency1 in which case notice of the work proposed shall be given as soon as may be after the commencement thereof4 87#b47 ,the company shall not 7save in case of emergency7 open or break up any street or public road except under the superintendence of the bodies to whom respectively notice is by the present section required to be given1 unless such bodies respectively refuse or neglect to give such superintendence at the time specified in the notice for the commencement of the work or discontinue the same during the work4 87#c47 ,the company shall pay all reasonable expenses to which such bodies respectively may be put on account of such superintendence0 7#bf #bg ,vic4 c4 #aab1 s4 #ag74 ,it will be seen by the above section that the time required before the work is commenced after service of the notice is considerably longer than that for gas or water mains or for electric lighting wires1 and subsection #c authorises a payment for the services of the surveyor or other officer attending to superintend the work1 which is not the case in the other ,acts4 ,the next clauses are as follows3 8,subject to any such special stipulations as aforesaid1 after the company has opened or broken up a street or public road they shall be under the following further obligations3 87#a47 ,they shall with all convenient speed complete the work on account of which they opened or broke up the same1 and fill in the ground and make good the surface1 and generally restore the street or public road to as good a condition as that in which it was before being opened or broken up1 and carry away all rubbish occasioned thereby3 87#b47 ,they shall in the meantime cause the place where the street or public road is opened or broken up to be fenced and watched1 and to be properly lighted at night3 87#c47 ,they shall pay all reasonable expenses of keeping the street or public road in good repair for six months after the same is restored1 so far as such expenses may be increased by such opening or breaking up0 4 4 4 7#bf #bg ,vic4 c4 #aab1 s4 #ah74 8,whenever the permanent surface or soil of any street or public road is broken up or opened by the company it shall be lawful for the body having the control of the street or road1 in case they think it expedient so to do1 to fill in the ground1 and to make good the pavement or surface or soil so broken up or opened1 and to carry away the rubbish occasioned thereby1 instead of permitting such work to be done by the company2 and the cost and expenses of filling in such ground and making good the pavement or soil so broken up or opened1 shall be repaid on demand to the body having the control of the street or road by the company1 and in default thereof may be recovered by the body having the control of the street or road from the company1 as a penalty is or may be recoverable from the company0 7#bf #bg ,vic4 c4 #aab1 s4 #ai74 8,the company shall not stop or impede traffic in any street or public road1 or into or out of any street or public road1 further than is necessary for the proper execution of their works4 ,they shall not close against traffic more than one third in width of any street or public road or of any way opening into any street or public road at one time2 and in case two-thirds of such street or road are not wide enough to allow two carriages to pass each other1 they shall not occupy with their works at one time more than fifty yards in length of the one-third thereof except with the special consent of the body having the control thereof0 7#bf #bg ,vic4 c4 #aab1 s4 #bj74 ,it will be seen that these are much more elaborate clauses1 restricting the rights of the telegraph companies than those of the gas and water companies1 c41 and as the ,telegraphs ,act containing these strict clauses was passed in the year #ahfc and the ,water ,works ,clauses ,act in #ahdg1 it is fair to assume that the clauses of the ,telegraphs ,act #ahfc were framed to meet certain objections to these clauses and upon experience of their working1 and are consequently better and more adapted for the case in point4 ,to obviate all the difficulties and complications arising out of this constant breaking up of streets1 with the attendant inconvenience to the public and damage to the surfaces of the roadways1 it was suggested many years ago that subways should be constructed under the surface of the principal streets1 in which should be placed all the gas and water mains then existing4 ,there is no doubt that there are many advantages in this plan as well as some disadvantages4 ,it must be recollected that probably the subways would have been constructed of sufficient capability to carry all the mains and wires then existing1 with a margin for future extensions of size1 but when we see the enormous growth of many towns1 notably that of the metropolis1 and the consequent increase necessary in the number and diameters of the mains1 it is to be feared that sufficient space would not have been left1 and competition between rival gas and water companies might consequently have been crippled4 ,still there would be great convenience in many respects if all water and gas mains1 telegraph and telephone wires could be carried in subways1 as they would be easily accessible for repairs1 and hidden leaks would be unknown4 ,with regard to the one great objection so constantly urged1 that in the case of a leaky gas main or service a most terrible and damaging explosion might take place1 it is true that this is a very grave and serious objection1 but it must also be recollected that although this danger may be enhanced by the necessarily solid masonry of which the subway is constructed1 still there would be every precaution taken to prevent leakage of gas1 and in the present system liability to explosion is not altogether remote4 ,in ,percy ,street1 ,tottenham ,court ,road1 only a year or two ago1 there was a terrible explosion in trenches and mains which had become full of gas and atmospheric air in the proportions of one volume of gas to fifteen volumes of air1 and if gas mains were laid in subways greater precautions would no doubt be taken4 ,there would be also great danger in conveying the wires used for electric lighting purposes in these subways1 as they might fuse and thus cause danger1 and at all events they would have some considerably disturbing influence upon the wires of the telegraph and telephone systems1 if laid too near4 ,i will now pass on to consider the powers of individuals to break the surface of public streets for the purpose of putting new drains to their premises or of repairing existing drains4 ,with regard to the former question ,i have given full particulars with regard to new drains or connections with sewers in the chapter upon 8house drainage10 but with regard to the latter question it will be necessary to make a few remarks4 ,there is no doubt that the public streets vest in the urban authority1 and it is contended that the following clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge prevents any person from breaking up any street without their permission1 although it is sometimes questioned whether the words 8wilfully displaces0 do not mean the doing of an illegal act1 such as taking up a stone in a street to annoy or injure a neighbour or from sheer mischief1 rather than that of a legal act for a proper purpose2 the clause in question is as follows3 8,all streets being or which at any time become highways repairable by the inhabitants at large within any urban district1 and the pavement stones and other materials thereof and all building implements and other things provided for the purposes thereof1 shall vest in and be under the control of the urban authority4 4 4 4 ,any person who without the consent of the urban authority wilfully displaces or takes up1 or who injures the pavement1 stones1 materials1 fences or posts of or the trees in any such street1 shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five shillings for every square foot of pavement1 stones or other materials so displaced taken up or injured2 he shall also be liable in the case of any injury to trees to pay to the local authority such amount of compensation as the court may award0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #adi74 ,even1 however1 granting that application must be made before any individual can break up a street1 the urban authority would not be likely to withhold their consent if it was for a legitimate purpose1 and having disturbed the street1 a person must light and guard the opening1 and the 8hole10 as it is called in the clauses following must be 8filled up or otherwise made secure20 but it is very doubtful if he can be called upon to keep the surface of the road in repair for any length of time1 as can be done in the case of water and gas companies1 c42 the following are the clauses in question3 8,when any building materials1 rubbish or other things are laid or any hole made in any of the streets1 whether the same be done by order of the commissioners or not1 the person causing such materials or other things to be so laid or such hole to be made1 shall at his own expense cause a sufficient light to be fixed in a proper place upon or near the same1 and continue such light every night from sun-setting to sun-rising while such materials or hole remain4 ,and such person shall at his own expense cause such materials or other things and such hole to be sufficiently fenced and enclosed until such materials or other things are removed or the hole filled up or otherwise made secure0 4 4 4 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #ha74 8,in no case shall any such building materials or other things or such hole be allowed to remain for any unnecessary time40 4 4 4 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #hb74 8,if any building1 or hole1 or any other place near any street be for want of sufficient repair1 protection or inclosure1 dangerous to the passengers along such street1 the commissioners shall cause the same to be repaired1 protected1 or inclosed1 so as to prevent danger therefrom1 and the expenses of such repair1 protection1 or inclosure shall be repaid to the commissioners by the owner of the premises so repaired1 protected or inclosed1 and shall be recoverable from him as damages0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #hc74 ,these three sections are incorporated in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 by #ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #afj1 and the last clause undoubtedly gives power to the urban authority to repair a 8hole0 which for want of 8sufficient repair0 is 8dangerous to passengers0 but not otherwise1 in however unsightly a manner the trench may have been repaired4 ,the result of this uncertainty has been that a great many towns have inserted in their private improvement ,acts1 clauses making it compulsory upon all persons to give them from #c to #g days' notice of their intention to break up the streets1 specifying the manner in which the work shall be done1 and also compelling them to deposit a sum of money in order to secure that the repairs of the street are properly executed4#acj ,a better method than this is to insert in any private improvement ,act a clause giving powers to the urban authority to execute all drain-work themselves and charge it upon the owners of the property1 thus ensuring that any interference with the surface of the street shall be done in a proper manner by men accustomed to the work1 and also that the drain itself shall be of perfect workmanship4 ,where the town surveyor has no private improvement ,act dealing with this question1 it is well to frame some regulations as to the manner in which the notice of intention to break up the surface of the street shall be given to him by the person intending to do the work1 and if possible to obtain a deposit of a few shillings as a guarantee that the surface of the street shall be kept in something like decent repair4 ,although this may not be strictly legal1 it is a very universal practice amongst town surveyors4 ,the following forms of notices are given as specimens of the description of notice now in use1 and are copied verbatim from those which are now enforced in a very large borough in this country3 ,borough of 4 ,,to ,,the ,,borough ,,surveyor1 ,i hereby apply for permission to break up the footway or roadway1 and make excavations in for the purpose of 1 and ,i hereby undertake to light1 watch and fence the place during the progress of the works1 to temporarily make good the surface of the footway or roadway1 to remove all rubbish1 and to execute and complete the work to the satisfaction of the borough surveyor4 ,i also deposit the sum of five shillings for the repair of the surface1 and agree to pay the balance if it should cost more than that sum4 7,signature7 7,address7 ,witness and receiver 4 ,received by accountant #ahh 4 ,surface repaired #ahh 4 ,at a cost of 4 ,borough of 4 #ahh 4 ,to ,mr4 ,this is to certify that you have paid a deposit of five shillings1 and that you are hereby permitted to take up the footway or roadway and make excavations in for the purpose of on the undertaking you have given to light1 watch and fence the place during the progress of the works1 to temporarily make good the surface of the footway or roadway1 to remove all rubbish1 and to execute and complete the work to the satisfaction of the borough surveyor2 also that you will pay the balance if the surface repairs should cost more than the aforesaid sum of five shillings4 ,borough ,surveyor4 ,,note4--,if the surface repairs should cost less than the deposited sum1 the balance will be returned to you by the accountant1 who will notify you of the fact4 ,notice must be given to the ,building ,inspector when the work is ready for inspection1 and no drainage work must be covered up until it has been examined by the ,inspector4 ,it may be well to add to this authority to break up the streets1 the following words-- 8,this authority may be revoked at any time if found necessary1 and it does not in any way relieve the person to whom it is granted from any liabilities he may incur in respect of accidents from anything done in pursuance thereof40 ,in some towns the following custom prevails in regard to this question4 ,the person desirous of opening the street for the execution of any work has to apply to the surveyor for a licence1 and at the same time deposit a sum sufficient to cover the expense of the work1 such sum being estimated and fixed by the surveyor4 ,the corporation then supply one labourer whilst the job is in hand1 who1 whilst working1 takes care that the soil is properly rammed and the surface made good2 a mason is also supplied to make any drainage or sewer connections4 ,the deposit is kept for about #c months1 and the cost of the labourer and mason1 and of any subsequent making good the surface of the street1 is then deducted1 and the balance returned to the person who made the deposit4 ,this arrangement seems an excellent plan1 and is said to work remarkably well where it is in vogue1 but whether it is strictly legal is open to considerable question4 #abe ,or gas or electricity1 as the case may be4 #abf ,these words apply only to the manner of doing the work1 not to alternative ways of doing it4 7,vide #8,fitzgerald's ,public ,health and ,local ,government ,act1 #ahge1' #crd edition1 p4 #de47 #abg ,in the 8,electric ,lighting ,act #ahhb10 the words 8proceed to0 have been inserted before the word open1 which is an obvious improvement4 #abh ,it is incumbent upon the undertakers intending to break up a road to communicate beforehand their proposed plan or method of executing the work to the road authority1 and this in a sufficient manner to enable the road authority to judge whether what is proposed ought to be done without modification4 ,the plan should1 therefore1 show the position on the road of the proposed excavation1 and its depth4 7,edgware ,highway ,board v4 ,colne ,valley ,water ,company1 #df ,l4 ,j4 ch4 #hhi47 #abi ,this precaution was necessary1 as the smell of the old mains was naturally very offensive and a nuisance4 #acj ,in some towns it is the practice to give the builder a junction pipe or block for nothing1 thus ensuring his calling to give notice1 but this is only successful in the case of new attachments to sewers1 in which case the law is much more strict4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,obstructions ,,in ,,streets4 ,for convenience1 ,i propose to treat in this chapter some subjects which1 strictly speaking1 do not come under the head of 8obstructions10 but they are all questions which have to be considered by the town surveyor2 temporary obstructions and other offences with which it is the province of the police to deal are omitted4 ,the following subjects will therefore be discussed3 7#a47 ,improving the line of frontages of streets4 7#b47 ,removing projections4 7#c47 ,doors and gates opening outwards4 7#d47 ,vault or cellar coverings4 7#e47 ,rain-water shutes and down-pipes4 7#f47 ,blinds or awnings over footpaths4 7#g47 ,trees over-hanging roadways4 7#h47 ,surface water from private premises running over footpaths4 7#i47 ,hoardings and scaffolds4 7#aj47 ,dangerous buildings4 7#a47 ,improving the ,line of ,frontages of ,streets4--,by the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg1 certain powers were granted which enabled the commissioners to agree with owners of property to set back for the purpose of widening any street1#aca but this was often found to be difficult and wearisome of accomplishment1 consequently in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 the following important clause bearing upon this point was inserted4 8,where any house or building situated in any street in an urban district1 or the front thereof1 has been taken down in order to be rebuilt or altered1 the urban authority may prescribe the line in which any house or building1 or the front thereof1 to be built or rebuilt in the same situation shall be erected1 and such house or building or the front thereof shall be erected in accordance therewith4 ,the urban authority shall pay or tender compensation to the owner or other person immediately interested in such house or building for any loss or damage he may sustain in consequence of his house or building being set back or forward1 the amount of such compensation in case of dispute to be settled by arbitration in manner provided by this ,act0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aee74 ,this clause gives an excellent power to the sanitary authority1 especially in older towns1 to lay down improved building lines upon the plan of their town1 and thus set back the line of buildings as opportunity offers4 ,in assessing the value of compensation to be paid to the owner for setting back his property1 the following points should be considered3 7#a47 ,the value of the area of the land given up to the public4 7#b47 ,the loss of available and useful space to the premises4 7#c47 ,if any use is made by the owner of the land given up to the public by constructing cellars underneath1 the amount of compensation should be less4 7#d47 ,the amount the owner will have to expend to make good the sides of the neighbouring premises thus exposed by his setting back must be considered4 ,a surveyor should be very careful to recollect if any building line has been laid down in any street when the plans of new buildings are deposited with him for approval4 ,if these plans are approved without any notice being given to the owner to set back1 it is questionable whether he can afterwards be called upon to do so4#acb 7#b47 ,removing ,projections of ,buildings4--,the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg made provision for setting back any house or building1 or any part which projected beyond the regular line of street when taken down1 on payment of compensation1#acc and this and the following sections were incorporated in the general ,public ,health ,act #ahge4acd 8,the commissioners may give notice to the occupier#ace of any house or building to remove or alter any porch1 shed1 projecting window1 step1 cellar1 cellar-door1 or window1 sign1 sign-post1 sign-iron1 show-board1 window shutter1 wall1 gate1 or fence1 or any other obstruction or projection erected or placed after the passing of the special ,act1 against or in front of any house or building within the limits of the special ,act1 and which is an obstruction to the safe and convenient passage along any street1 and such occupier shall within fourteen days after the service of such notice upon him1 remove such obstruction or alter the same in such manner as shall have been directed by the commissioners1 and in default thereof shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding forty shillings2 and the commissioners in such case may remove such obstruction or projection1 and the expense of such removal shall be paid by the occupier so making default1 and shall be recoverable as damages2 provided always1 that except in the case in which such obstructions or projections were made or put up by the occupier1 such occupier shall be entitled to deduct the expense of removing the same from the rent payable by him to the owner of the house or building40 ,the wall of a garden in front of a house1 and shrubs in the garden1 which encroach on the street1 come within the words 8any other obstruction0 in this section4#acf ,it is doubtful1 however1 if trade signs projecting at such a height as not to be 8an obstruction to the safe and convenient passage along any street0 can be removed under this section1 however unsightly they may be1 nor does it appear that flag poles or flags can be ordered to be removed when at such a height as to cause no obstruction4 ,the following clause1 however1 of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge affects the question of new projections much more closely4 8,it shall not be lawful in any urban district1 without the written consent of the urban authority1 to bring forward any house or building forming part of any street or any part thereof1 beyond the front wall of the house or building on either side thereof1 nor to build any addition thereto beyond the front of the house or building on either side of the same4 ,any person offending against this enactment shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding #djs4 for every day during which the offence is continued after written notice in this behalf from the urban authority0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aef74 ,here some difficulty is frequently experienced as to the question if the building has really been brought beyond the common line of neighbouring buildings1 especially where the houses are detached2 but it is apparently left to the tribunal before whom the case is heard to decide this point1 and the surveyor can only give his evidence1 as in many other cases1 to the best of his ability and knowledge1 and trust to obtaining a verdict in his favour4 ,with regard to obstructions erected before the passing of the special ,act1 the commissioners may cause the same to be removed or altered as they think fit-- 8,provided that they give notice of such intended removal or alteration to the occupier#acg of the house or building against or in front of which such alteration or removal is begun2 and if such obstructions or projections shall have been lawfully made1 they shall make reasonable compensation to every person who suffers damage by such removal or alteration40#ach ,here the words 8reasonable compensation0 are difficult of construction and lead frequently to long litigation4 7#c47 ,doors or ,gates opening outwards4-- ,section #ga of the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg enacts that 8,all doors1 gates and bars put up after the passing of the special ,act within the limits thereof1 and which open upon any street1 shall be hung or placed so as not to open outwards1 except when in the case of public buildings the commissioners allow such doors1 gates or bars to be otherwise hung or placed2 and if 7except as aforesaid7 any such door1 gate or bar be hung or placed so as to open outwards on any street1 the occupier of such house1 building1 yard or land shall1 within eight days after notice from the commissioners to that effect1 cause the same to be altered so as not to open outwards2 and in case he neglect so to do the commissioners may make such alteration1 and the expenses of such alteration shall be paid to the commissioners by such occupier1 and shall be recoverable from him as damages1 and he shall in addition be liable to a penalty not exceeding #djs40 ,section #gb of the same ,act further enacts1 8,if any such door1 gate or bar was before the passing of the special ,act hung so as to open outwards upon any street1 the commissioners may alter the same so that no part thereof when open shall project over any public way40 ,it is naturally necessary that doors or gates of all public buildings should hang so as to open outwards1 so as to give a free and easy exit in case of panic1 many serious accidents having arisen from a want of this precaution2 but with regard to private premises the case is altogether different1 and if doors and gates were allowed to open outwards1 they would soon become a dangerous and intolerable nuisance4 ,it will be seen that there are two courses to be pursued in connection with this offence4 ,the first is where the door1 gate or bar has been placed before the passing of the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act in #ahdg1 in which case the 8commissioners may alter the same1 so that no part thereof when open shall project over any public way40 ,this duty of course rests with the town surveyor1 and in many cases it is not easy of execution1 as structural difficulties may have to be encountered and overcome4 ,in the second case1 where the door1 gate or bar has been placed since the passing of the ,act in #ahdg1 certain penalties are incurred by the occupier or owner1 and the commissioners may also alter the door1 gate or bar at his expense4 ,the following specimen form of notice to be served in connection with a case of this description may be of use3 ,,town ,,surveyor',s ,,office4 ,,sir1 ,i beg leave to give you notice that of the premises in your occupation opens outwards1 and when open1 projects into the street called or known as 4 ,i have therefore to require that you will be good enough to have such altered so that it shall not open outwards into the said street1 within eight days next after your receipt of this notice4 ,i beg leave also to give you notice that if you neglect to make the alteration required within the period specified by this notice1 you render yourself liable to a penalty of #djs41 and ,i shall proceed to make the necessary alterations1 and recover the costs and penalties from you as the law directs4 ,i am1 ,sir1 your obedient ,servant1 ,town ,surveyor4 ,to 7#d47 ,vault or ,cellar ,coverings4-- ,section #gc of the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg enacts1 8,when any opening is made in any pavement or footpath within the limits of the special ,act1 as an entrance into any vault or cellar1 a door or covering shall be made by the occupier#aci of such vault or cellar1 of iron1 or such other materials1 and in such manner as the commissioners direct1 and such door or covering shall from time to time be kept in good repair by the occupier of such vault or cellar3 and if such occupier do not within a reasonable time make such door or covering1 or if he make any such door or covering contrary to the directions of the commissioners1 or if he do not keep the same when properly made in good repair1 he shall for every such offence be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds40 ,besides the penalty1 the person negligently leaving the covering in a dangerous condition would be liable to an action for damages at the suit of anyone who had sustained an injury in consequence of the covering being so kept4#adj ,there is another clause incorporated in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge from the ,towns ,police ,clauses ,act #ahdg upon this subject1 which is as follows3 8,every person who leaves open any vault or cellar1 or the entrance from any street to any cellar or room underground1 without a sufficient fence or hand rail1 or leaves defective the door1 window or other covering of any vault or cellar 4 4 4 4 shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding #djs4 for each offence1 or in the discretion of the justice before whom he is convicted may be committed to prison1 there to remain for a period not exceeding #ad days0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #hi1 s4 #bh74 ,but the former section ,i have quoted is that upon which the town surveyor generally acts4 ,in connection with this duty the following is given as a specimen notice3 ,,sir1 ,i beg to call your attention to the fact that the door or covering to the vault or cellar in your occupation1 ,no4 ,street1 is not in good repair 7and is slippery and dangerous to foot-passengers71#ada you are in consequence liable to a penalty of #el4 ,i must request you will be good enough to have such door or covering properly repaired and made good in accordance with the construction required by law1 within days from the date hereof1 and in the event of your failing to do so1 proceedings will be taken to enforce the penalty to which you are liable without further notice4 ,i am1 your obedient ,servant1 ,town ,surveyor4 ,to ,in accordance with the provisions contained in the section of the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg which ,i have quoted1 that the 8door or covering shall be made by the occupier of such vault or cellar of iron or such other materials1 and in such manner as the commissioners direct10 most towns in this country have prescribed the size and materials of which they shall be made1 the size being often limited to #f feet in length1 by #bj inches projection1 from the line of plynth of the building1 for cellar coverings or pavement lights as they are sometimes called1 and #ab inches in diameter for coal plates4 ,hayward's patent hexagonal and semiprismatic pavement lights1 however1 have obviated the danger of slipping upon this description of covering1 and consequently little or no inconvenience is experienced1 even if the greater portion of the foot pavement is covered by them4#adb ,coalhole plates should be so firmly fixed as to prevent the possibility of their shifting1 even when the rebate of the flag stone into which they are dropped is worn1 and also to prevent mischievous persons from raising them4 ,here let me state that no person can without the written consent of the urban authority cause 8any vault1 arch or cellar to be newly built or constructed under the carriageway of any street0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #bf72 but from this section it does not appear illegal to construct a vault1 arch or cellar under the footpath1 which would generally be the extent to which such constructions would be extended4 ,however1 the more general powers contained in section #adi of the same ,act1 by which all 8streets and the pavement stones and other materials thereof0 vest in and are under the control of the urban authority1 give the necessary powers to prevent the construction of cellars under any portion of the foot-pavement without the consent of the urban authority4 ,the usual practice adopted is for any person who requires to construct a cellar under the foot-pavement or carriageway of any street1 to apply to the urban authority for the necessary permission to do so4 ,in granting the permission1 the urban authority call upon the owner of the premises to which the proposed vault or cellar is attached1 to enter into an agreement acknowledging that the cellar or vault is only an easement1 and agreeing to remove the encroachment whenever called upon by the urban authority to do so4 ,these agreements and any other similar easements should be kept together in a book1 which may be called the 8,easement ,book10 and indexed in such a manner that a reference can be easily made at any time to any easement that has been granted4 7#e47 ,rain-water from ,shutes or ,down ,pipes4-- ,water may not be allowed to drip on to the pavements of the streets from the adjoining houses1 and the following clause from the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg has been incorporated with the ,public ,health ,act #ahge3 8,the occupier of every house or building in1 adjoining1 or near to any street shall1 within seven days next after service of an order of the commissioners for that purpose1 fit up and keep in good condition a shoot or trough of the whole length of such house or building1 and shall connect the same either with a similar shoot on the adjoining house1 or with the pipe or trunk to be fixed to the front or side of such building from the roof to the ground1 to carry the water from the roof thereof in such a manner that the water from such house or any portico or projection therefrom shall not fall upon the persons passing along the street or flow over the footpath2 and in default of compliance with any such order within the period aforesaid1 such occupier shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding #djs4 for every day that he shall so make default0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #gd74 ,in many private ,town ,improvement ,acts1 the cost of the repair necessary under an order to do so from the urban authority may be deducted by the occupier from the rent payable to the owner of the premises1 thus ensuring the work being done more quickly4 ,the following is a specimen notice to be served upon the occupier to repair or put new shuting to his house3 ,i beg to give you notice that the eaves1 shuting1 or projecting cornice#adc to the house or building ,no4 in your occupation1 is out of repair4 ,a penalty of #djs4 will be incurred if this shuting be not repaired within seven days from the date of this notice 7and under the ,special ,improvement ,act the cost of such repair may be deducted from the rent payable to the owner74#add ,i am1 your obedient ,servant1 ,town ,surveyor4 ,to ,it is a common practice in most towns for the urban authority to provide and fix trunks or troughs across their footpaths into which the down pipes from the rain-water shutes can empty their contents4 7#f47 ,blinds or ,awnings over ,footpaths4-- ,these may be dealt with as obstructions under sec4 #fi of the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg1 which ,i have already quoted1#ade but they are more particularly alluded to in the ,police ,clauses ,act #ahdg in the following section3 8,every person who 4 4 4 places any blind1 shade1 covering1 awning1 or other projection over or along any such footway1 unless such blind1 shade1 covering1 awning or other projection is #h feet in height at least in every part thereof from the ground1 shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding #djs4 for each offence1 c40 4 4 4 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #hi1 s4 #bh74 ,thus legalising the fixing of shop-blinds1 c41 provided they are at least #h feet in height and consequently no obstruction to the traffic4 ,in order to make the blinds or awnings sufficiently secure where they are of large dimensions1 it is very usual for the owner or occupier of the premises to which the blind or awning is to be attached1 to seek and obtain the consent of the local authority to fix iron sockets in the kerb of the footpath into which iron or wood standards are inserted for the purpose of supporting the outer part of the blind or awning1 and there can be no objection to this practice provided that the work is efficiently performed and to the satisfaction of the town surveyor4 7#g47 ,trees overhanging ,roadways4-- ,it used formerly to be considered by road surveyors and others#adf that great injury was caused to roadways by overhanging branches of trees or bushes1 which were supposed to exclude the light and air from the roadway and thus damage it1 hence powers were given to local authorities1 as surveyors of highways1 to compel occupiers of premises adjoining the roadways to cut back and prune their trees or hedges in order to prevent this damage4 ,the following being the form of notice usually adopted for this purpose3 ,to ,you are hereby required to cut1 prune1 and trim your hedges adjoining the highway leading from to and also to cut down1 prune1 or lop the branches of trees1 bushes and shrubs growing in or near such hedges and other fences adjoining thereto1 in such manner that the said highway shall not be prejudiced by the shade thereof1 and that the sun and wind may not be excluded therefrom4 ,and you will further take notice1 that if you shall neglect so to do within five days of the delivery hereof1 ,i shall proceed to have the said hedges1 trees1 and bushes cut and pruned1 according to the power and provisions of the various ,acts of ,parliament relating thereto4 ,and further1 that ,i shall also proceed to recover from you the penalties in this respect imposed by the said ,acts of ,parliament4 ,dated this day of ,surveyor4 ,it is however now very seldom that overhanging branches of trees or hedges cause any damage to the roadways within an urban district1 and unless they are an actual obstruction to the traffic1 the growth of trees near urban roads and streets should be encouraged2 indeed it is now a common practice to plant trees close alongside the roadway1 the branches of which must of necessity hang over it1 and cause no damage if the roadway is properly formed and attended to4 7#h47 ,surface ,water from ,private ,premises running over ,footpaths4-- ,it frequently happens that the rain-water which falls upon a front garden or courtyard finds its way1 for want of a sufficient drain1 out of the gate and across or along the public footpath1 thus causing annoyance to pedestrians even if it does no injury to the path4 ,there does not seem to be any clause in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge to meet this objection1 for the section which ,i have given with reference to rain-water shutes and down pipes 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #gd71 does not apply to such cases1 as it only refers to water from the 8roof or any portico or projection0 and not to water falling upon the surface of a garden or courtyard1 nor is there anything in the ,highways ,acts which can be brought to bear upon the subject4 ,if1 however1 any injury is caused to the footpath1 no doubt the cause of offence may be stopped or the perpetrator prosecuted or indicted in default4 7#i47 ,hoardings and ,scaffolds4-- ,when buildings are in course of erection1 or repairs are being carried out to them1 it is generally necessary that the person engaged in the work should construct either a hoarding or inclosure1 or at all events a scaffold1 so as to execute the work properly4 ,upon this point the following clause of the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act has been incorporated with the ,public ,health ,act #ahge3 8,every person intending to build or take down any building within the limits of the special ,act1 or to cause the same to be so done1 or to alter or repair the outward part of any such building1 or to cause the same to be so done1 where any street or footway will be obstructed or rendered inconvenient by means of such work1 shall1 before beginning the same1 cause sufficient hoards or fences to be put up in order to separate the building where such works are being carried on from the street1 with a convenient platform and handrail if there be room enough1 to serve as a footway for passengers1 outside of such hoard or fence1 and shall continue such hoard or fence with such platform and handrail as aforesaid standing and in good condition1 to the satisfaction of the commissioners1 during such times as the public safety or convenience requires1 and shall1 in all cases in which it is necessary in order to prevent accidents1 cause the same to be sufficiently lighted during the night4#adg ,and every such person who fails to put up such fence or hoard or platform with such handrail as aforesaid1 or to continue the same respectively standing and in good condition as aforesaid1 or who does not1 while the said hoard or fence is standing1 keep the same sufficiently lighted in the night1 or who does not remove the same when directed by the commissioners within a reasonable time afterwards1 shall for every such offence be liable to a penalty not exceeding #el41 and a further penalty not exceeding #djs4 for every day while such default is continued0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #hj74 ,hoardings and scaffoldings are now so scientifically erected as to be little or no inconvenience to foot-passengers4 ,care must1 however1 be taken to see that in the erection of a hoarding the doors or gates in it shall not open outwards1 and the police should be instructed to prevent carts being backed in and left standing across the footpath4 ,the surveyor must exercise great discretion in the length of time he allows a hoarding to remain2 without undue hardship on the builder1 he must study at the same time the more important question of the public convenience4 7#aj47 ,dangerous ,buildings4-- ,this is the last1 although by no means the least1 of the series of 8obstructions0 ,i have enumerated4 ,here1 again1 very grave responsibility rests with the surveyor to determine what is a dangerous building1 and in what manner it shall be rendered safe and secure1 for his opinion is apparently legally conclusive on this matter4 ,the following is the clause of the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act which deals with ruinous or dangerous buildings3 8,if any building or wall1 or anything affixed thereon1 within the limits of the special ,act1 be deemed by the surveyor of the commissioners to be in a ruinous state and dangerous to passengers or to the occupiers of the neighbouring buildings1 such surveyor shall immediately cause a proper hoard or fence to be put up for the protection of passengers1#adh and shall cause notice in writing to be given to the owner of such building or wall1 if he be known and resident within the said limits1 and shall also cause such notice to be put on the door or other conspicuous part of the said premises1 or otherwise to be given to the occupier thereof1 if any1 requiring such owner or occupier forthwith to take down1 secure or repair such building1 wall or other thing1 as the case shall require4 ,and if such owner or occupier do not begin to repair1 take down or secure such building1 wall or other thing1 within the space of three days after any such notice has been so given or put up as aforesaid1 and complete such repairs or taking down or securing as speedily as the nature of the case will admit1 the said surveyor may make complaint thereof before two justices to order the owner1 or in his default the occupier 7if any7 of such building1 wall1 or other thing1 to take down1 rebuild1 repair or otherwise secure1 to the satisfaction of such surveyor1 the same1 or such part thereof as appears to them to be in a dangerous state1 within a time to be fixed by such justices4 ,and in case the same be not taken down1 repaired1 rebuilt or otherwise secured within the time so limited1 or if no owner or occupier can be found on whom to serve such order1 the commissioners shall with all convenient speed cause all or so much of such building1 wall1 or other thing as shall be in a ruinous condition and dangerous as aforesaid1 to be taken down1 repaired1 rebuilt or otherwise secured in such manner as shall be requisite1 and all the expenses of putting up every such fence1 and of taking down1 repairing1 rebuilding or securing such building1 wall or other thing shall be paid by the owner thereof0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #ge74 ,great care must be observed in seeing that the notices are properly prepared and served in accordance with sections #bff and #bfg of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 and the town clerk1 as the legal adviser of the sanitary authority1 should be consulted 7in this as in all cases requiring notices7 by the surveyor4 ,it sometimes happens that a tall chimney shaft1 wall1 or other erection may apparently be perfectly safe1 whereas in a high gale of wind it may be blown down4 ,many tall chimney shafts rock in an alarming manner in a high wind1#adi but he would be a bold surveyor who would order some of these expensive structures to be pulled down in the face of the opposition he would receive4#aej ,a curious case of some difficulty in connection with dangerous buildings has come under my notice1 where a house was built with the approval of the urban authority1 and after completion and occupation the attention of the surveyor was called to the fact that a large piece of rock at the back of the house1 from which the site had been excavated for the purpose of its erection1 was in a dangerous condition and likely to fall at any moment and cause great damage to property1 or even loss of life4 ,the clerk to the urban authority1 when consulted1 was of opinion that the surveyor could do nothing in the matter1 as the case was not met in any way by the ,act4 ,the following is given as a specimen notice to serve with reference to a dangerous structure3 ,,notice4 ,to 7,a7 the ,owner of the ruinous and dangerous 7,b7 under-mentioned and the occupier thereof4 ,whereas a certain 7,b7 situated at within the borough of 1 in the county of 1 is deemed by me1 the undersigned1 the surveyor of the mayor1 aldermen and burgesses of the said borough of 1 acting by the council as the urban sanitary authority for the same1 to be in a ruinous state and dangerous to passengers or to the occupiers of neighbouring buildings3 ,therefore take notice1 that you are hereby required1 in pursuance of the provisions in that behalf of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 and the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg1 to take down1 repair or secure the said 7,b74 ,and that if you do not or if neither of you does begin to take down1 repair1 or secure the said 7,b7 within the space of three days after this notice has been served upon you or put upon the said premises1 and complete such taking down1 repairing or securing as speedily as the nature of the case will admit1 ,i shall cause complaint thereof to be made before two justices in accordance with the provisions of the statutes aforesaid4 ,dated this day of #ah 4 ,surveyor of the said ,urban ,sanitary ,authority4 ,a4 ,the name and description of the owner or occupier1 or the names1 c41 of both should be here inserted4 ,b4 ,building1 wall1 or anything affixed thereon4 ,before closing this chapter upon 8,obstructions in ,streets0 ,i give the following clause from the 8,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act10 which comes after two other sections of the same ,act principally dealing with building materials1 rubbish1 or holes in streets1 and although in this clause the word 8building0 is used1 the section cannot be taken as referring to dangerous buildings1 although it may undoubtedly be used where it is required on account of waste land1 c41 being left in an unprotected and dangerous state3-- 8,if any building or hole or any other place near any street be1 for want of sufficient repair1 protection or inclosure1 dangerous to the passengers along such street1 the commissioners shall cause the same to be repaired1 protected or inclosed so as to prevent danger therefrom2 and the expense of such repair1 protection or inclosure shall be repaid to the commissioners by the owner of the premises so repaired1 protected or inclosed1 and shall be recoverable from him as damages0 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #hc74 ,i have purposely omitted any reference to temporary obstructions in the streets1 which are naturally subjects for the interference of the police1 but ,i think ,i have enumerated all those which require the attention of the town surveyor4 #aca ,vide #aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #fg4 #acb ,vide ,fitzgerald's #8,public ,health and ,local ,government ,act #ahge1' #crd edition1 p4 #aff4 #acc ,vide #aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #fh4 #acd ,ibid4 ss4 #fi and #gj4 #ace ,or ,owners1 see s4 #afj1 #ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee4 #acf ,vide ,fitzgerald's #8,public ,health and ,local ,government ,act #ahge1' #crd edition1 p4 #agd4 #acg ,or owner1 see #ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #afj4 #ach ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg1 s4 #gj4 #aci ,or owner4 #adj ,vide #8,fitzgerald's ,public ,health and ,local ,government ,act #ahge1' #crd edition1 p4 #age4 #ada ,care must be taken that the mode of construction 8directed by the commissioners0 authorises this part of the notice4 #adb ,in the ,city of ,london these patent lights have been fixed in the pavement round the whole of the frontage of ,mansion ,house ,buildings1 at the corner of ,queen ,victoria ,street1 and also over the whole of the pavements in ,draper's ,gardens1 besides many other equally crowded thoroughfares1 without the least inconvenience being experienced4 #adc ,in the ,act the words used are 8shoot0 and 8trough40 #add ,these words must be omitted if there is no special ,improvement ,act4 #ade ,vide p4 #agf4 #adf ,sir ,fred4 ,parnell in his celebrated work upon roads has the following paragraph upon this subject3-- ,the great advantage of having a road perfectly exposed to the action of the sun and wind will be more accurately conceived by referring to writers of science on evaporation4 ,dr4 ,hailey states that one-tenth of an inch of the surface of the sea is raised per diem in vapour4 ,he also says that the winds lick up the water somewhat faster than it exhales by the heat of the sun4 ,other writers say the dissipation of moisture is much accelerated by the agency of sweeping winds1 the effects being sometimes augmented five to ten times4 ,trees are particularly injurious by not allowing the sun and wind to have free action on the surface of roads producing evaporation4 ,besides the benefit which a road receives from its drying rapidly by an open exposure to the atmosphere1 there is another of great importance1 namely1 that of affording to horses the advantage of free respiration2 for it is well known that the powers of a horse to perform work with ease1 particularly when moving rapidly1 depends upon the quantity of cool and fresh air that he can pass through his lungs4 ,if the cause of horses tiring or becoming ill under their work be carefully examined into1 it will often be found that it is not their muscles or limbs that fail them1 but their wind2 and therefore1 it is particularly important to have a road so circumstanced that a horse may on all parts of it have the benefit of a free current of air4 #adg ,no person can put up hoards or scaffolds in the streets without first obtaining the consent of the urban authority1 vide sections #add and #adi of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge4 ,many towns also have private improvement ,acts with very binding clauses on this subject1 empowering the surveyor to demand a fee for a licence to erect a hoarding1 and empowering him to remove these after notice1 c4 #adh ,this is scarcely ever feasible1 or of the slightest use if done4 #adi ,mr4 ,cooper states that 8a tall chimney will rock #a inch in a moderate wind1 and even to an extent of th of an inch at a distance of only #af feet up from its base1 and yet be safe40 7,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 xxvii4 p4 #ajj47 #aej ,whilst this work was in the press the terrible disaster arising from the falling of an immense chimney shaft at ,bradford took place1 the result of which was the death of upwards of forty persons and great destruction of property4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,private ,,streets4 ,prior to the passing of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge the improvement of private roads and streets was dealt with under section #fi of the ,public ,health ,act #ahdh1 but the clause under which the town surveyor now works is that which is so well known as the #aejth section of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 and is as follows3 8,where any street within any urban district 7not being a highway repairable by the inhabitants at large7 or the carriageway1 footway1 or any other part of such street is not sewered1 levelled1 paved1 metalled1 flagged1 channelled and made good1 or is not lighted to the satisfaction of the urban authority1 such authority may1 by notice addressed to the respective owners or occupiers of the premises fronting1 adjoining or abutting on such parts thereof as may require to be sewered1 levelled1 paved1 metalled1 flagged or channelled1 or to be lighted1 require them to sewer1 level1 pave1 metal1 flag1 channel or make good1 or to provide proper means for lighting the same within a time to be specified in such notice4 8,before giving such notice the urban authority shall cause plans and sections of any structural works intended to be executed under this section1 and an estimate of the probable cost thereof1 to be made under the direction of their surveyor1 such plans and sections to be on a scale of not less than one inch for eighty-eight feet for a horizontal plan1 and on a scale of not less than one inch for ten feet for a vertical section1 and1 in the case of a sewer1 showing the depth of such sewer below the surface of the ground3 such plans1 sections and estimate shall be deposited in the office of the urban authority1 and shall be open at all reasonable hours for the inspection of all persons interested therein during the time specified in such notice2 and a reference to such plans and sections in such notice shall be sufficient without requiring any copy of such plans and sections to be annexed to such notice4 ,if such notice is not complied with1 the urban authority may1 if they think fit1 execute the works mentioned or referred to therein2 and may recover in a summary manner the expenses incurred by them in so doing from the owners in default1 according to the frontage of their respective premises1 and in such proportion as is settled by the surveyor of the urban authority1 or 7in case of dispute7 by arbitration in manner provided by this ,act2 or the urban authority may by order declare the expenses so incurred to be private improvement expenses4 8,the same proceedings may be taken and the same powers may be exercised in respect of any street or road of which a part is or may be a public footpath or repairable by the inhabitants at large1 as fully as if the whole of such street or road was a highway not repairable by the inhabitants at large0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aej74 ,one has only to look at the number of footnotes that follow this clause both in 8,glenn0 and 8,fitzgerald0 to see that it requires some considerable interpretation4 ,i propose in this chapter to call attention to some of its engineering discrepancies and to point out the duties of the town surveyor in connection with its enforcement4 ,first then1 ,i conclude that it is the duty of the surveyor to call the attention of the urban authority to the fact that any street within his district 7not being a highway repairable by the inhabitants at large7 is not 8sewered1 levelled1 paved1 c40 but there is no express order for him to do so1 but with whoever this duty rests1 it is no doubt the surveyor's duty to be certain that the street in question has never been dedicated to the public or repaired at the cost of the rates1 but is really a private street within the meaning of the ,act4 ,before proceeding to give the manner of putting the #aejth section into force1 it is necessary to draw attention to some of its wording4 ,the word 8sewered0 no doubt is also meant to include all drains both for house sewage and surface water falling on the street1 c41 and may be used in the same comprehensive manner that the word 8sewerage0 is generally employed4 8,levelled0 is also rather a vague term1 but it has been held to refer only to the level or cross section of the street itself1 there being no power to charge the adjacent owners with the expense of altering the level of the street so as to make it conform to a street with which it connects4 ,the word 8formed0 would in this case have therefore been a more appropriate phrase4 8,paved1 metalled1 flagged1 channelled and made good0 are very precise directions1 but why both the words 8paved0 and 8metalled0 are used is not clear4 ,is the paving to be placed on the top of the metalling or vice vers8 ,it seems ludicrous to have used both words4 ,the word 8kerbed0 also ought no doubt to have been inserted1 as no street either urban or suburban can be formed without this necessary adjunct4 ,these very precise directions1 if carried out in their entirety1 would cause great injustice to the adjacent owners of the property who had to bear the expense1 for although 8paving0 and 8flagging0 may be necessary for streets situated in a town itself1 they would be perfectly unnecessary for a suburban road1 and it is to this latter class of work that the section is more frequently applied4 ,there are generally very few badly maintained private streets in the heart and busiest parts of a town1 much difference of opinion consequently exists in different localities as to what the requirements shall be4 ,some urban authorities insist that the roadways shall be paved with granite setts or wood blocks1 the footpaths being flagged or paved with asphalte1 while others are content with ordinary macadamised roadways and gravelled paths4 ,there can be no doubt that the town surveyor must use considerable discretion in deciding what class of work should be demanded1 and he must be greatly guided by the situation and requirements of the street in question and the description and value of the adjoining property4 ,with reference to the words 8or is not lighted10 my opinion is that nearly all private streets are at once lighted by the urban authority out of the rates1 so soon as buildings are erected at its sides or it is found necessary for the public convenience to do so4 ,a reference to section #afa of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge will show that there is no exclusion of private streets for that purpose1 and for many obvious reasons it is better that the urban authority should themselves undertake this duty rather than throw it upon private individuals4 ,having thus far drawn attention to some of the wording of the clause1 it is now necessary to discuss the duties of the town surveyor in connection with it4 ,it will be seen that notice has to be addressed to the owners or occupiers of 8premises fronting1 adjoining or abutting on such parts thereof as may require to be sewered1 levelled1 paved1 c40 ,it is often found that although the greater portion of a certain private street may be in a shocking state of repair1 perhaps just a small length here and there opposite portions of different frontages may not be so bad3 for instance1 the path may be well gravelled and kerbed and a narrow channel gutter inserted against a wretchedly constructed roadway4 ,it is often open to question if the owners of these properties against which these partial improvements have been effected can expect to escape their liability4 ,if they can1 it complicates still more the working of an already greatly complicated clause4 8,before giving such notice the urban authority shall cause plans and sections 4 4 4 to be made under the direction of their surveyor40 ,this order involves some considerable amount of work4 ,very accurate surveys must be made and plotted to a large scale1 levels must be taken1 and where sewers have to be included in the notice it is often necessary to extend the survey considerably1 in order to make provision for future extensions of streets or buildings or for the existing sewerage system4 ,the clause is very particular in stating that the 8depth of such sewer below the surface of the ground0 must be shown1 but no mention is made about the size4 ,the latter point being of quite as great importance it would be thought as the depth1 the question also at once arises1 whether the new sewer must be specified of such a size as only to meet the requirements of the street alone1 or may it be made of such an area as will carry the sewage of a considerable district8 ,it would be most unjust to expect the owners of property to pay for a sewer larger than was required for the street in respect of which they were responsible1 and if legal1 the better plan would be for them to be charged with the cost of such a sewer as would be sufficient for their purpose and let any extra size that the surveyor found was requisite be paid for out of the public rates4 ,it should be noted that in addition to the plans and sections 8an estimate of the probable cost0 must also be prepared by the surveyor1 and this must be very carefully prepared1 for it has been held to be a 8condition precedent to the recovery of the expenses1 that such estimate should have been properly made0 7,vide #8,fitzgerald' p4 #afj1 #crd edition74 ,no mention is however made in the ,act of a specification1 which is of course absolutely essential4 ,it may here be of use if ,i give a specimen form of notice to be served in connection with carrying out the duties involved by this clause2 of course each town surveyor must alter the work specified to meet the requirements of the case2 ,to the ,owner or ,owners of certain premises fronting1 adjoining1 or abutting upon a certain street1 called in the parish of in the borough of in the county of ,whereas the said street is not levelled1 paved1 metalled1 channelled and made good to the satisfaction of the mayor1 aldermen and burgesses of 1 the urban sanitary authority of the above-named borough3 ,and whereas your said premises front1 adjoin1 or abut on certain parts of the said street which requires to be levelled1 paved1 metalled1 channelled and made good as aforesaid3 ,now therefore1 the mayor1 aldermen and burgesses of 1 the urban sanitary authority of the said borough as aforesaid1 hereby give you notice 7in pursuance of the statute in that case made and provided7 to level1 pave1 metal1 channel and make good the portion of the said street in which your said premises front1 adjoin1 or abut as aforesaid1 within the space of one month from the date hereof1 in manner following1 that is to say3 7,if a sewer is to be formed1 fill in this first47 ,the carriage-way and water tables thereof to be formed in the mode1 according to the sections1 and on the levels and at the rates of inclination shown upon the plan1 sections1 and in accordance with the specification of the work prepared by the surveyor to the said urban sanitary authority1 and now open for public inspection at his office1 during the usual office hours4 ,the carriage-way to be bottomed1 formed1 and carefully levelled up to the form shown by the said sections2 and in the following manner3 7,here fill in specification of method47 ,construct gullies1 fitted with five-bar cast-iron gratings and frames of the form and pattern to be seen at 1 these gullies to be placed in such positions as are shown on the aforesaid plan and sections2 each gully to have a six-inch glazed stoneware socket-pipe drain connecting it with the sewer1 to be laid on a solid bed1 and at an uniform inclination from gully to sewer1 with joints made of neat ,portland cement4 ,the existing kerb to be taken up and replaced by inches by inches granite kerb in lengths of not less than inches1 to the lines shown on plan1 and to the levels marked on sections4 ,the water-tables or gutter to be channelled with properly laid1 and bedded on fine gravel to the levels and inclinations marked on sections4 ,the footpaths shall be properly formed1 bottomed1 and drained where required2 the formation level made to the inclination shown on section1 and afterwards coated with 4 ,the whole of the above-mentioned works to be executed by you in accordance with the plan and sections hereinbefore referred to and now open for inspection at the surveyor's office as aforesaid1 and of the dimensions1 widths and levels shown thereon1 and to be done in a good1 workmanlike and substantial manner1 to the satisfaction of the said urban sanitary authority and of their surveyor4 ,an estimate of the probable cost of the said work1 prepared under the direction of the surveyor to the said urban sanitary authority1 is also lying for inspection at the office of the said surveyor1 in manner required by section #aej of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge4 ,dated this day of #ah 4 ,town ,clerk4 ,the clause then goes on to say 8,if such notice is not complied with40 ,it would be a most difficult and costly proceeding for any individual owner of property to execute the work for half the width of the street opposite his length of frontage1 and the result would be anything but satisfactory if the owners of the properties were to comply with the notices in this manner4 ,if the owners do intend to comply with the notice1 and carry out the work themselves1 the best method for them to adopt is to hold a meeting and decide upon having it done1 then to appoint one of their number1 or some other person to superintend or carry out the work1 and afterwards collect the money1 but this is very seldom done1 and the wisest course 7which is generally adopted7 is not to comply with the notice1 but let the urban authority execute the work themselves4 ,this again entails considerable labour upon the town surveyor1 who has to superintend the work and see that all the details contained in the statutory notices are properly carried out1 but his labour does not end here4 ,upon the completion of the work the amount expended has to be recovered 8from the owners in default according to the frontage of their respective premises1 and in such proportion as is settled by the surveyor of the urban authority1 or 7in case of dispute7 by arbitration40 ,it is scarcely necessary to point out what an immense amount of responsible work this involves4 ,first1 a separate account of all the labour and materials employed on the street must be most carefully kept and totalled at the end of the work1 with such additional sum for supervision1 c41 as the urban authority may think necessary4#aea ,the exact length of each property 8fronting1 adjoining or abutting0 on the street1 must be most carefully measured4 ,a proportionate sum has then to be calculated for each of these1 and this sum is often complicated by cross roads1 cul-de-sacs1 narrow passages1 strips of land intervening between the street and the properties1 and many other perplexing intricacies1 in addition to those persons who are legally exempted from any payment under the following clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge3 8,the incumbent or minister of any church1 chapel1 or place appropriated to public religious worship1 which is now by law exempt from rates for the relief of the poor1 shall not be liable to any expenses under the last preceding section as the owner or occupier of such church1 chapel1 or place1 or of any churchyard or burial ground attached thereto1 nor shall any such expenses be deemed to be a charge on such church1 chapel or other place1 or on such churchyard or burial ground 4 4 40 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aea474 ,the town surveyor1 having ascertained what is the amount of the sum due from each owner1 shall proceed to fill in the amount upon a form a specimen of which is now given3 ,to the ,owner of certain premises fronting1 adjoining or abutting upon a certain street called in the parish of in the borough of in the county of ,whereas the mayor1 aldermen and burgesses of the urban sanitary authority for the said 1 by a notice in writing pursuant to the statute in that behalf made and provided1 dated the day of 1 #ah 1 required you being the owner of certain premises fronting1 adjoining or abutting upon a street or highway called 1 within the said 7and not being a street or highway repairable by the inhabitants at large7 to level1 pave1 metal1 channel and make good the said street or highway within the time and in the manner specified in the said notice1 and according to the plans and sections deposited at the office of the surveyor to the said urban sanitary authority at 3 ,and whereas the said notice not having been complied with by you within the time limited by the said notice1 the said urban sanitary authority have executed the works mentioned or referred to therein3 ,and whereas the expenses incurred by the said urban sanitary authority in levelling1 paving1 metalling1 channelling and making good the said street1 amount to pounds shillings and pence3 ,wherefore take notice that ,i the undersigned1 being the surveyor of the said urban sanitary authority1 in pursuance of the statutes in that case made and provided1 do hereby apportion the sum of pounds1 shillings and pence as the proportion of the said sum of pounds1 shillings and pence1 to be paid by you as such owner aforesaid1 such apportionment being according to the frontage of your said premises1 fronting1 adjoining or abutting upon the said street or highway4 ,further take notice that the aforesaid apportionment will be binding and conclusive upon you unless within the period of three months from the day of the date of this notice you shall by written notice to the said urban sanitary authority dispute the same4 ,dated this day of 1 #ah 4 ,surveyor to the said ,urban ,sanitary ,authority4 ,clerk of the said ,urban ,sanitary ,authority4 ,there seems to be no power on the part of any owner to dispute the question as to whether the works carried out have been necessary or not1 or whether the cost of the works have been excessive2 the only point upon which they can go to arbitration is that as to whether the proportion settled by the surveyor is accurate or not1 and this point the arbitrator is left to decide4 ,it must not be lost sight of that there is a clause in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 which makes the expenses so settled by the surveyor very binding upon the owner of the property in question1 unless he appeals within three months from the service of the notice1 as the following extract from the clause will show3 4 4 4 8,where such expenses have been settled and apportioned by the surveyor of the local authority as payable by such owner1 such apportionment shall be binding and conclusive on such owner1 unless within three months from service of notice on him by the local authority or their surveyor of the amount settled by the surveyor to be due from such owner1 he shall by written notice dispute the same0 4 4 4 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #beg7aeb and it must also be borne in mind that the person from whom these expenses may be recovered 8is the owner of the premises at the time when the work was done1 not the owner to whom notice requiring the work to be done may be given0 7vide ,fitzgerald's ,public ,health ,act1 p4 #cja1 #crd edition72 so that the town surveyor must be very careful to make sure that any of the property abutting on the street has not changed hands before he commences the work4 ,after the #aejth section of the ,public ,health ,act has been carried out and a private street has been thus put into thorough repair1 the urban authority may take possession of it and declare it to be a highway repairable by the inhabitants at large2 the following section of the ,act gives the modus operandi necessary to effect this3 8,when any street within any urban district1 not being a highway repairable by the inhabitants at large1 has been sewered1 levelled1 paved1 flagged1 metalled1 channelled and made good and provided with proper means of lighting to the satisfaction of the urban authority1 such authority may if they think fit1 by notice in writing put up in any part of the street1 declare the same to be a highway1 and thereupon the same shall become a highway repairable by the inhabitants at large1 and every such notice shall be entered among the proceedings of the urban authority4 8,provided that no such street shall become a highway so repairable if within one month after such notice has been put up1 the proprietor or the majority in number of proprietors of such street1 by notice in writing to the urban authority1 object thereto1 and in ascertaining such majority1 joint proprietors shall be reckoned as one proprietor0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aeb74 ,the necessary notices in conformity with this section are usually prepared by the town clerk1 so that the town surveyor has nothing to do with this proceeding except to maintain the street after it has been declared a highway repairable by the inhabitants at large1 in the same manner as he does the rest of the public streets within his district4 ,there is still one other clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 which deals with the question of private roads1 and it is as follows3 8,any urban authority may agree with any person for the making of roads within their district for the public use through the lands and at the expense of such person1 and may agree that such roads shall become and the same shall accordingly become on completion1 highways maintainable and repairable by the inhabitants at large within their district2 they may also with the consent of two-thirds of their number agree with such person to pay and may accordingly pay any portion of the expenses of making such roads0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #adf74 ,this clause is very explicit and requires no comment1 it would however be much better for the urban authority in contemplating a case of this description to execute the necessary works themselves and agree with the person about the expense1 for if they are intended to be afterwards taken over it is to be feared that the roads would be very improperly constructed in the first place by the person intending to hand them over4 ,it must be noted that the word 8roads0 is used in the above clause instead of 8streets0 as in the other clauses ,i have quoted1 and also that the word 8maintainable0 is added to repairable4 ,street is the term legally used in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 and is thus defined3 8,street includes any highway 7not being a turnpike road7 and any public bridge 7not being a county bridge71 and any road1 lane1 footway1 square1 court1 alley or passage1 whether a thoroughfare or not0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #d47 so that whereas in the #aejth section of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 any of the above can be dealt with1 it is only open for the urban authority to deal with roads under the #adfth section of the ,act1 and it is sometimes rather difficult to define a road for the purposes of the latter section4 #aea ,in some districts the urban authority make an additional charge of #e per cent4 upon the total outlay to cover the cost of preliminary surveys and supervision of the work by their surveyor2 this #e per cent41 however1 is not paid to him1 but is paid to the city treasurer1 and thus becomes a set off against his salary4 #aeb ,see also #ch #ci ,vict4 c4 #ee1 s4 #bfh1 where a person who deems himself aggrieved may memorialise the ,local ,government ,board1 c4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,new ,,streets ,,and ,,buildings4 ,one of the most important duties devolving upon a 8town surveyor0 is that of exercising control over any new streets that may be constructed1 or any new buildings that may be erected1 within the limits of his jurisdiction4 ,this duty is imposed on him by the following clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge3 8,every urban authority may make byelaws with respect to the following matters2 7that is to say17 87#a47 ,with respect to the level1 width and construction of new streets1 and the provisions for the sewerage thereof2 87#b47 ,with respect to the structure of walls1 foundations1 roofs1 and chimneys of new buildings1 for securing stability and the prevention of fires1 and for purposes of health2 87#c47 ,with respect to the sufficiency of the space about buildings to secure a free circulation of air1 and with respect to the ventilation of buildings2 87#d47 ,with respect to the drainage of buildings1 to waterclosets1 earth closets1 privies1 ashpits1 and cesspools1 in connexion with buildings1 and to the closing of buildings or parts of buildings unfit for human habitation1 and to prohibition of their use for such habitation2 8,and they may further provide for the observance of such byelaws by enacting therein such provisions as they think necessary as to the giving of notices2 as to the deposit of plans and sections by persons intending to lay out streets or to construct buildings2 as to inspection by the urban authority1 and as to the power of such authority 7subject to the provisions of this ,act7 to remove1 alter1 or pull down any work begun or done in contravention of such byelaws4 ,provided that no byelaw made under this section shall affect any building erected in any place 7which at the time of the passing of this ,act is included in an urban sanitary district7 before the ,local ,government ,acts came into force in such place1 or any building erected in any place 7which at the time of the passing of this ,act is not included in an urban sanitary district7 before such place becomes constituted or included in an urban district1 or by virtue of any order of the ,local ,government ,board subject to this enactment4 8,the provisions of this section1 and of the two last preceding sections1 shall not apply to buildings belonging to any railway company1 and used for the purposes of such railway under any ,act of ,parliament0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aeg74 ,the result of this power having been so given to urban authorities1 is that they have all framed sets of byelaws1 which having received the sanction of the ,local ,government ,board1 are now law in the several districts4 ,in the year #ahgg1 it being found that considerable variation existed in the requirements set forth in the byelaws1 according to the districts from which they emanated1 and experience having shown that the forms of byelaws previously issued by the ,local ,government ,board were inadequate1 the ,local ,government ,board in order to assist urban authorities issued a series of model byelaws2 amongst the series being a set of byelaws regulating the manner in which new streets should be constructed and buildings erected4#aec ,these model byelaws are too extensive to give in detail1 as they contain #ii clauses1 but every town surveyor should at once procure a copy1 even if his corporation have not adopted them1 nor intend to do so4 ,one of the first difficulties that often presents itself to those who have to enforce the observance of the necessary 8giving of notices and deposit of plans and sections by persons intending to construct new buildings0 is to prove that the building is 8new0 so as to bring it under the operations of the ,act4 ,in many cases1 of course1 there can be no doubt where bare land is being built upon1 but often after buildings have been partially destroyed by fire1 or where extensive alterations are being carried out1 some considerable elements of uncertainty as to what is a 8new building0 are introduced4 ,the law attempts to settle the question as follows3 8,for the purposes of this ,act1 the re-erecting of any building pulled down to1 or below the ground floor1 or of any frame-building of which only the frame-work is left down to the ground floor1 or the conversion into a dwelling house of any building not originally constructed for human habitation1 or the conversion into more than one dwelling house of a building originally constructed as one dwelling house only1 shall be considered the erection of a new building0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aei74 ,but the difficulty at once presents itself as to what is meant by the words 8ground floor40 ,does this mean the actual floor level1 or the cubical space contained by the walls1 floor and ceiling of the 8ground floor0 7or as it is sometimes called 8ground story07 of the building8 ,the latter may be assumed to be the correct interpretation1 for if we order a man to hang a picture1 or to fix a chandelier on the 8ground floor10 we certainly do not expect to find them placed upon the floor4 ,it is important that this point should be settled definitely1 or some more explanatory term employed in the ,act in order to determine what is a new building1 for in the present state of uncertainty it may be urged that the whole building must be razed to the ground1 whereas if the proper meaning of 8ground floor0 is taken1 would the removal of the superstructure and destruction of the ceiling only of the 8ground floor0 bring the new work under the definition of a new building and within the operation of the byelaws8 ,this uncertainty is now taken advantage of by builders and others1 who sometimes find it irksome and inconvenient to be obliged to construct a building in accordance with the byelaws of any town4 ,somewhat sharp practices are consequently resorted to in order to evade the law1 and old buildings are converted into new ones without any powers of interference by the urban authority or their surveyor4 ,this is greatly to be regretted1 as unless the building comes within the operation of the byelaws1 it is frequently erected without any sanitary precautions or even stability4 ,sometimes a so-called repair of a building is commenced by adding a new roof perhaps1 at a higher level than the old one2 when sufficient time has elapsed to allay suspicion1 a new front is erected1 and then new back and side walls in due course1 the alteration of the interior floors not attracting much attention4 ,cases of this description are very troublesome to the town surveyor1 as if legal proceedings are to be taken against the offender1 it is necessary for the surveyor to make surveys and drawings of the works as they are in progress in order to prove his case1 and these might extend over a considerable period of time4#aed ,in order to make these surveys it would be necessary for him to enter the premises whilst the works were in progress1 but there does not seem to be any powers conferred on him by any ,act of ,parliament for such a purpose1 so that really he has no power to prevent the occurrences ,i have mentioned4 ,it must also not be forgotten that what may sometimes appear to be an entirely new building1 may only be an addition to one that existed before the passing of the ,act1 and although the new work may be ten times as large as the old1 still much conflicting evidence may be brought to bear before it can be proved to be a 8new building0 within the meaning of the ,act4 ,turning again to section #aei of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 these words will be found as defining also what is a new building3 8or the conversion into a dwelling house of any building not originally constructed for human habitation40 ,it would have been better in the interests of sanitation if the ,act had prohibited the conversion of any building at all into a dwelling house without the approval of the urban authority1 for as the law stands at present1 it is open for an owner of property to convert stables or warehouses1 c41 into dwelling houses1 by simply asserting and bringing witnesses or other evidence to prove that they were 8originally constructed for human habitation0 irrespective of whether they are adapted for the purpose or not1 thus defeating the intention of the ,public ,health ,act to secure a better description of dwellings than those that were erected before the passing of the ,act4 ,when a dispute does arise with anyone as to whether a building comes within the definition of 8new0 or not1 it is well if possible to agree upon certain points of fact and upon plans1 c41 before the case comes into court1 and then to endeavour to get the magistrates to 8view40 ,this course if pursued often saves lengthy litigation1 and a great waste of time and money4 ,with reference to the deposit of plans of new streets or buildings1 the following clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge provides that this shall be done3 8,where a notice1 plan or description of any work is required by any byelaw made by an urban authority to be laid before that authority1 the urban authority shall1 within one month after the same has been delivered or sent to their surveyor or clerk1#aee signify in writing their approval or disapproval of the intended work to the person proposing to execute the same2 and if the work is commenced after such notice of disapproval1 or before the expiration of such month without such approval1 and is in any respect not in conformity with any byelaw of the urban authority1 the urban authority may cause so much of the work as has been executed to be pulled down or removed0 4 4 4 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aeh474 ,the result of these clauses of the ,act with reference to new streets and buildings is1 that some of the most arduous and irksome duties of the town surveyor are embodied in the few words they contain4 ,these duties consist of1 first1 the careful examination of1 and report upon all plans of new streets and buildings2 secondly1 the constant supervision of these streets and buildings whilst the works are in progress2 and each of these duties will be considered in the course of this chapter4 ,first then1 as to the deposit and examination of the plans of new streets or buildings4 ,the byelaws of which ,i have already made mention should contain some such clause as the following3 8,every person who shall intend to make or lay out any new street1 whether the same shall be intended to be used as a public way or not1 shall give notice to the urban authority of such intention1 by writing delivered to them at their office1 or at the office of their surveyor1 and shall at the same time leave or cause to be left at the office of the urban authority1 or of their surveyor1 a plan and section of such intended new street1 drawn to a scale of not less than #a inch to every #dd feet1 and shall show on every such plan the names of the owners of the land through or over which such street shall be intended to pass1 the level1 width1 direction1 the proposed mode of construction1 the proposed name of such intended new street1 and its position relatively to the streets nearest thereto2 the size and number of the intended building lots1 and the proposed sites1 height1 class1 and nature of the buildings to be erected therein1 and the proposed height of the division and fence walls thereon2 and the name and address of the person intending to lay out such new street1 and he shall himself sign such plan1 or cause the same to be signed by his duly authorised agent4 8,such person shall show on every such section the level of the present surface of the ground above some known fixed datum1 the level and rate or rates of inclination of the intended new street1 the level and inclination of the streets with which it will be connected1 and the level of the lowest floors of the intended new buildings4 8,every person who shall intend to erect any new building shall give notice to the urban authority of such intention by writing delivered to them at their office or at the office of their surveyor1 and shall at the same time leave or cause to be left at the said office detail plans and sections of every floor of such intended new building1 drawn to a scale of not less than #a inch to every #h feet1 showing the position1 form and dimensions of the several parts of such building1 and of the watercloset1 earth closet1 privy1 cesspool1 ashpit1 well1 and all other appurtenances2 and together with such plans and sections he shall leave or cause to be left at the office of the urban authority1 or of their surveyor1 a description of the materials of which the building is proposed to be constructed1 of the intended mode of drainage1 and means of water supply4 8,such person shall at the same time leave or cause to be left at the office of the urban authority1 or of their surveyor1 a block plan drawn to a scale of not less than #a inch to every #dd feet1 and shall show the position of the buildings and appurtenances of the properties immediately adjoining1 the width and level of the street in front1 and of the street1 if any1 at the rear of such building1 the level of the lowest floor of such building1 and of any yard or ground belonging thereto4 8,such person shall likewise show on such plan the intended lines of drainage of such building1 and the intended size1 depth and inclination of each drain2 and the details of the arrangement proposed to be adopted for the ventilation of the drains40 ,with reference to the deposit of plans as required by the above byelaw1 the following suggestions as to the best manner of effecting this may be of some use3 7#a47 ,the town surveyor should see that the person1 or his agent1 intending to carry out the work1 deposits tracings of the proposed street or building signed by himself1 so that there should be no after dispute as to what really has been deposited2 these tracings should be on good paper properly inked in and coloured so as to be indelible4 ,in some towns it is the practice for original plans to be deposited temporarily with the surveyor1 who is expected to have them traced and then returned to the owner1 but this not only tends to the possibility of dispute as to the correctness of the tracings1 but it also takes up a large amount of the surveyor's time1 or of such other officer as may have charge of this branch of the duties4 ,in order to insure that the plans deposited shall not be afterwards claimed by the person making the deposit1 it might be well to add these words to the clause of the byelaws which ,i have quoted3 8,all such plans and sections so left at the office of the urban authority or of their surveyor1 shall remain the property of the urban authority40 7#b47 ,it is advisable for the town surveyor to have in his possession a number of printed forms on which application should be made by the person intending to erect a new building and filled in and signed by him or his duly authorised agent4 ,the following is given as a specimen form for this purpose3 ,to the ,surveyor of the ,urban ,authority of ,i hereby give you notice that it is my intention to erect certain buildings in street1 and that the following particulars relate thereto3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,no4 ,questions4 ,no4 ,answers4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #a ,christian and ,surname in full1 #a ,address and ,occupation of persons for whom buildings to be erected4 #b ,number of drawings deposited4 #b #c ,name of architect1 if any4 #c #d ,description of buildings and of #d the materials to be used in construction of same4 #e ,situation of buildings4 #e #f ,level1 or intended level of cellar1 #f or ground floor1 with reference to surface of street4 #g ,thickness of walls4 #g #h ,height of building in stories4 #h #i ,area of clear open space at rear #i or side of buildings exclusively belonging thereto4 #aj ,distance across such open space4 #aj #aa ,description of ventilation4 #aa #ab ,width of street or open space #ab opposite buildings4 #ac ,size and description of drains1 #ac and traps1 and if ventilated4 #ad ,inclination of drains4 #ad #ae ,description of outlet to drains4 #ae #af ,how supplied with water4 #af #ag ,situation1 dimensions1 and #ag particulars of apparatus of w4c4's4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,and ,i herewith leave detail plans and sections of every floor of such intended new buildings1 drawn to a scale of not less than #a inch to every #h feet1 showing the position1 form1 and dimensions of the several parts of such buildings1 and of the watercloset1 privy1 cesspool1 earthcloset1 ashpit1 well1 and all other appurtenances2 and also1 a block plan drawn to a scale of not less than #a inch to every #dd feet1 showing the position of the buildings and appurtenances of the properties immediately adjoining1 the width and level of the street1 the level of the lowest floor of the intended building1 and of the yard or ground belonging thereto4 ,dated this day of #ah ,signature in full1 ,address1 ,occupation1 ,a similar form may be prepared relating to plans of proposed new streets1 but of course the number of the questions contained in it will be less4 7#c47 ,when the necessary notices have been given and the tracings properly deposited with the surveyor1 he should carefully examine them to see if they are in accordance with the byelaws which are in force in his district4 ,they should then be folded and placed in a large envelope1 which should be endorsed with the name of the person proposing to carry out the work1 the description of the work proposed1 the name of the architect1 if any1 the name of the builder1 if any1 the date of the deposit1 and a blank left for the date of approval4 ,each envelope should also have a large number stamped upon it4 7#d47 ,these particulars should be entered in a book of reference against a corresponding number1 so that at any future date it may be easy to find and refer to any plans that have been deposited by means of an index and the number on the envelope4 7#e47 ,if on examining the plans the surveyor finds anything in them which does not conform to the byelaws1 he should be empowered by the urban authority to return them at once to the person depositing them1 without having to wait to lay them before a committee1 as this is a great saving of time4 ,in returning the plans the surveyor should write a letter setting forth a schedule of his objections and the particulars of the manner in which the plans and sections fail to comply with the requirements of the byelaws4 7#f47 ,if the plans are redeposited unaltered or showing still some non-compliance with the byelaws1 the surveyor must lay them before his committee and explain in what respects they are defective1 leaving it to the committee to decide whether they shall be approved or not4 7#g47 ,if the plans are in accordance with the byelaws1 the surveyor reports the fact to the committee1 whereupon the plans should be at once signed by the chairman of the committee4 7#h47 ,all plans which the committee decline to approve of should be at once returned to the person who deposited them with a written notification of the reasons4 7#i47 ,plans which are approved of by the committee and afterwards ratified by the general meeting of the urban authority1 should be carefully put away in pigeon-holes1 so that by means of the reference book previously described they can be easily found at any future time4 ,this is very important1 as no extension of a building the plans of which have been thus approved by the urban authority can ever afterwards be carried out without their consent2 and the plans of any alteration which would not involve building upon an increased area must be deposited as in the case of a new building4 7#aj47 ,a notification in writing should be sent to the person who has deposited the plans when they have been approved by the urban authority2 and in sending this notification it is well to draw his attention to the fact that notice must be given to the surveyor of the commencement of the work1 in order that the foundations1 drains1 c41 may be examined by him before the ground is filled in4 ,the importance and necessity for the deposit of plans with a sanitary authority cannot be over-estimated1 but this deposit is of but little practical good unless it can be insured that all the buildings are erected strictly in conformity with these plans1 and this1 according to the ,act1 is the duty also of the town surveyor4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is quite impossible for any single person in any large town to perform this duty1 and a staff of assistants is consequently necessary if the sanitary authority really wish their byelaws to be enforced4 ,anyone who is practically acquainted with the difficulties that even architects experience in superintending buildings they have themselves designed1 and how much they have to trust to the clerk of works 7of which there is generally one to every building71 will readily see what an absurdity it is to suppose that a town surveyor1 with his multitude of other duties and attendances at committees and meetings1 can even pretend to see that the #ii detail clauses of such byelaws as those emanating from the ,local ,government ,board ,office1 or even those of a less stringent character1 can possibly be enforced1 especially when it is remembered that many of the buildings he has to inspect have no superintending architect1 but are being erected for purposes of speculation by what are commonly known as jerry builders4 ,laws may be passed1 books on sanitary questions may be written1 but until a change is made in the machinery and manner of the inspection of buildings in the course of erection1 and a large staff of inspectors or sanitary police or some such officials are kept by a sanitary authority1 very little real advancement will be made with the poorer classes of buildings4 ,it must in fairness to the builder be stated that to erect houses in strict accordance with the model byelaws would probably mean loss of money to him1 as they could not possibly be built with any prospect of a reasonable return upon the outlay4 ,this partly arises from the stringent clauses inserted with respect to the structure of walls and other precautions for the prevention of fires4 ,i cannot help thinking that too much interference is now made by sanitary authorities for the protection of property from fire4#aef ,it is not a sanitary question1 and is certainly one which chiefly affects insurance companies4 ,every one should be able to pay his small insurance premium and the companies should look after their own interests1 and not expect it to be done by others4 ,if the sanitary authority wish to interfere in the question of fire1 why should not the protection of life be considered as much as property8 ,yet no clause can be discovered in the model byelaws rendering it compulsory to make some provision in dwelling-houses or factories for the easy escape of the inmates in case of fire4 ,indeed1 as the ,public ,health ,act does not authorise the enactment of a byelaw for such a purpose1 such a clause would most probably be held to be ultra vires4 ,another cause of expense to builders is the necessity imposed on them to provide a comparatively large open space at the back or sides of new dwelling-houses1 thus sacrificing land1 and sometimes making it almost impossible to build at all4 ,this necessity for open gardens or yards at the back of even small labourers' dwellings is in some towns pushed to an extreme4 ,if such houses are erected in a thoroughly sanitary manner in all points of detail1 it is questionable if this open space is really beneficial4 ,my experience has shown me that the space is often misused1 animals1 such as rabbits1 chickens1 pigeons1 c41 being kept there1 or it is made into a so-called garden1 really a refuse heap which is a receptacle for all the garbage and filth of the house1 soon becoming a fruitful source of disease to the occupants of the house itself and the neighbours4 ,it is also difficult to ensure that the space thus provided and approved of in the deposited plans shall not be built upon at some future period4 ,it would be better if the streets in front of such dwellings were wide1 and a narrow street or 8drangway0 constructed at the back for the dust-cart service1 supply of coals1 c4 ,the houses themselves should have their rooms properly and thoroughly ventilated2 underground kitchens or living rooms should be prohibited4 ,the drainage1 water-supply1 and all the apparatus in connection with them1 should be perfect but simple4 ,at the back of the house should be a small yard or court well paved with asphalte or other impervious material1 in which should be placed the wash-house1 w4c41 c4 ,these and public parks and plenty of fresh air in the streets and in the dwelling-houses themselves should take the place of the large open spaces at the back of small dwelling-houses1 which1 as ,i have already stated1 are generally so much misused4 ,the model byelaws with regard to new streets and buildings issued by the ,local ,government ,board contain most admirable clauses--valuable suggestions which should receive attention from any town surveyor who has to advise his corporation upon the subject of framing a set of byelaws for his district--but they necessarily contain many clauses which are not suitable equally well for towns in the north1 south1 east1 and west of ,england4 ,many of the clauses are too stringent to be enforced1 but this arises not from any fault in the byelaws themselves1 but rather from the machinery employed in carrying them into effect4 ,to secure all that they require adequate inspection is needed1 and this might be effected if there was a fee charged by the urban authority of any town for the purposes of proper inspection of buildings in course of construction2 and although it must be admitted that any provision which increases the cost of construction of small dwelling-houses which shall be complete in all sanitary requisites is undesirable1 the extra cost of such inspection would be too small to be appreciable1 while the advantages arising from such improved supervision would1 even from a pecuniary point of view1 be of immense advantage not only to the community as tending to improve the public health1 but also to the owner as ensuring good honest work in return for his money4 ,in larger and more expensive buildings this supervision is exercised by the architect1 but as a rule there is no architect employed in the case of small houses1 and the builder is accordingly left to his own devices1 with frequently unfortunate results4 #aec #8,model ,bye-laws issued by the ,local ,government ,board for the use of sanitary authorities4 ,new ,streets and ,buildings1 ,,iv4' ,printed by ,george ,e4 ,eyre and ,william ,spottiswoode1 #ahgg4 #aed ,it is open also to question whether in the case of an old building being gradually altered into a new one1 it would be possible to prosecute1 as there is the following limitation as to proceedings in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge3 8,any complaint or information made or laid in pursuance of this ,act shall be made or laid within six months from the time when the matter of such complaint or information respectively arose0 4 4 4 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #beb74 ,the complaint could not be made when the work was first commenced1 as no offence would have been committed1 and if made after the work was finished1 it might be urged that the offence was commenced more than six months prior1 and that the complaint should have been made 8when the matter of such complaint or information respectively arose40 #aee ,plans are usually deposited with the surveyor as being the officer who would be most likely to understand them4 #aef ,nothing can be more vexatious than the bye-law compelling the party walls of new buildings to be carried up above the roof to at least #ab inches2 not only does this frequently spoil the architectural appearance of a building1 but it causes great expense in order to keep the wet out3 a very difficult thing with a wall treated in this manner4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,scavenging4 ,in a great number of towns in this country the town surveyor has charge of the unostentatious1 though very necessary sanitary work of the scavenging of the district over which he has charge1 and the following are the clauses of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 under which he carries out his duties3 8,every local authority may1 and when required by order of the ,local ,government ,board shall1 themselves undertake or contract for-- 8,the removal of house refuse from premises2 8,the cleansing of earthclosets1 privies1 ashpits1 and cesspools2 either for the whole or any part of their district3 ,moreover every urban authority and any rural authority invested by the ,local ,government ,board with the requisite powers may1 and when required by the said board shall1 themselves undertake or contract for the proper cleansing of streets1 and may also themselves undertake or contract for the proper watering of streets for the whole or any part of their district4 8,all matters collected by the local authority or contractor in pursuance of this section may be sold or otherwise disposed of1 and any profits thus made by an urban authority shall be carried to the account of the fund or rate applicable by them for the general purposes of this ,act2 and any profits thus made by a rural authority in respect of any contributory place shall be carried to the account of the fund or rate out of which expenses incurred under this section by that authority in such contributory place are defrayed4 8,if any person removes or obstructs the local authority or contractor in removing any matters by this section authorised to be removed by the local authority1 he shall for each offence be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds3 ,provided that the occupier of the house within the district shall not be liable to such penalty in respect of any such matters which are produced on his own premises and are intended to be removed for sale or for his own use1 and are in the meantime kept so as not to be a nuisance0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #db74 ,the next clause imposes a penalty on the local authority if they fail 8without reasonable excuse after notice in writing from the occupier of any house0 to cleanse the ashpit1 c41 within seven days if they have 8themselves undertaken or contracted for the removal of house refuse0 c41 and the next clause is as follows3 8,where the local authority do not themselves undertake or contract for1 8,the cleansing of footways and pavements adjoining any premises2 8,the removal of house refuse from any premises2 8,the cleansing of earthclosets1 privies1 ashpits1 and cesspools belonging to any premises2 8,they may make byelaws imposing the duty of such cleansing or removal1 at such intervals as they think fit1 on the occupier of any such premises4 8,an urban authority#aeg may also make byelaws for the prevention of nuisances arising from snow1 filth1 dust1 ashes1 and rubbish1 and for the prevention of the keeping of animals on any premises so as to be injurious to health0#aeh 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #dd74 ,there is also another clause in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 which is as follows3 8,any urban authority may1 if they see fit1 provide in proper and convenient situations receptacles for the temporary deposit and collection of dust1 ashes1 and rubbish2 they may also provide fit buildings and places for the deposit of any matters collected by them in pursuance of this part of this ,act0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #de74 ,the result of the above comprehensive clauses upon the subject of scavenging is that the following duties fall upon the town surveyor where that officer is responsible for such work3 7#a47 8,the removal of house refuse from premises40 ,this work1 like all the rest which follows1 can be done either by the local authority themselves or by contract1 the former method1 as ,i hope presently to show1 being much the best system4 ,in connection with this first duty of the removal of house refuse1 the following points will have to be considered3 7a47 ,what is house refuse8 7b47 ,what is the best manner of storing it on the premises pending the visit of the scavenger8 7c47 ,which are the best methods for its collection8 7d47 ,which are the best methods for its disposal8 7#b47 8,the cleansing of earthclosets1 privies1 ashpits1 and cesspools40 ,this work where necessary 7owing to the want of a system of sewerage7 can be carried out simultaneously with the collection of house refuse and in almost the same manner4 7#c47 8,the proper cleansing of streets40 ,in connection with this duty the following points must be considered3 7a47 ,the best methods for sweeping and cleansing streets4 7b47 ,if machinery effects such work better and more economically than hand labour4 7c47 ,the extra work involved by the bad construction of streets1 or the ill chosen materials of which they are formed4 7d47 ,whether private streets1 courts and alleys1 8not repairable by the inhabitants at large10 should be swept and cleansed by the local authority8 7e47 ,the ultimate disposal of excessive accumulations of mud4 7f47 ,the removal and disposal of snow4 7#d47 8,the proper watering of streets for the whole or any part of their district40 ,in considering this question it is necessary to note3 7a47 ,the best form of vehicle for carrying and spreading the water4 7b47 ,the number1 position1 and description of standpipes4 7c47 ,whether vehicles1 or fixed standpipes and hose are best4 7#e47 ,if the local authority do not impose a byelaw they must themselves cleanse the 8footways and pavements adjoining any premises20 and this in excessively muddy weather1 or after a heavy fall of snow1 is no inconsiderable work4 7#f47 ,an urban authority may make provision for the 8temporary deposit and collection of dust1 ashes and rubbish40 ,this involves public dust-bins being placed in suitable positions in the town1 the points in connection with this work being1 7a47 ,the most suitable sites for such accommodation4 7b47 ,the materials and form of which they shall be constructed4 ,having thus stated all the heads under which the work of scavenging may be grouped1 it is necessary to decide what is 8house refuse20 for unless this is satisfactorily settled1 considerable onus and expense will be put upon the local authority if they are to include in the removal trade1 garden1 and other similar refuse4#aei ,it may be assumed that all house refuse which it is the duty of the scavenger to remove1 is really so removed by the direction of the local authority without dispute1 but that the following articles1 which frequently find their way into a domestic dust-bin1 are not in the strict terms of the ,act expected to be removed by him4 7#a7 ,plaster from walls and brick bats1 7#b7 ,large quantities of broken bottles and flower pots1 7#c7 ,clinkers and ashes from foundries and green-houses1 7#d7 ,wall paper torn from the rooms of a house1 7#e7 ,scrap tin 7but not old tins which have contained meats1 c41 and which1 although very useless and bulky1 may be fairly assumed to be house refuse71 7#f7 ,all garden refuse such as grass cuttings1 dead leaves1 and the loppings from trees and shrubs4#afj ,as a matter of fact1 out of ninety towns with which ,i communicated on this subject only thirteen of them directed the removal of both trade and garden refuse without any special extra payment being made by the householder1 and this is only done when these materials are placed in the ordinary dustbin or ashpit attached to a house4 ,several towns1 however1 it appears remove such materials on special payments being made of sums varying from #as4 #f;d4 to #cs4 per load4 ,disputes frequently arise between the men employed in scavenging and the householder on these vexed questions as to the difference between house1 trade or garden refuse3 a dispute often raised by the scavengers themselves1 in the hope of obtaining a gratuity or reward for the clearance of a dustbin1 which no doubt1 legally1 they are perfectly justified in refusing to empty2 and in order to lessen the chance of such disputes and to attempt to settle this question1 the following suggestions may be of value4 ,it would no doubt be vexatious if any sanitary authority were to absolutely refuse to remove the 8garden0 refuse from those houses to which a small flower garden was attached1 whilst it would on the contrary be an unfair tax upon the general community if the refuse of large gardens was removed without payment4 ,a good rule would therefore be to remove only such garden refuse as was contained in the ordinary dustbin or ashpit attached to a house1 and that as the removal of any kind of trade refuse would no doubt lead to abuses if done gratuitously by the sanitary authority1 that this material should only be removed on payment of some sum1 which should be previously fixed by the local authority1 and each case should be reported to the officer superintending the work before it was removed4 ,the next question is the important one of the manner and place in which house refuse shall be temporarily stored pending the visit of the scavenger4 ,the ,public ,health ,act of #ahge enacts that3 8,every local authority shall provide that all drains1 waterclosets1 earthclosets1 privies1 ashpits1 and cesspools within their district be constructed and kept so as not to be a nuisance or injurious to health0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #dj74 ,and section #ce of the above ,act states1 8,it shall not be lawful newly to erect any house or to rebuild any house pulled down to or below the ground floor without a sufficient watercloset1 earth closet1 privy1 and an ashpit furnished with proper doors and coverings4 ,any person who causes any house to be erected or rebuilt in contravention of this enactment shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ce74 ,the same ,act also gives power to local authorities to enforce provision of ashpit accommodation for houses where such accommodation does not already exist1 and to frame byelaws with respect to ashpits4 ,there can be no doubt that the position of the dustbin or ashpit1 as regards its site with reference to the main dwelling-house1 is of primary sanitary importance1 for if the garbage and domestic accumulations therein are allowed to remain for a few days1 especially when the weather is close1 damp1 and warm1 they become very offensive1 and the emanations therefrom may even be highly deleterious and dangerous to health2 this effect is aggravated by persons emptying vegetable refuse and other matters which are wet into the dustbin1 as decomposition of these matters is greatly assisted by this addition1 and it would be well that all such matters should be burnt on the kitchen or scullery fire along with a large percentage of the ashes which could be sifted and saved from those which too readily find their way into the dustbin1 and are thus wasted4 ,care would of course have to be taken in this process that no smell or nuisance was caused by the process of burning4 ,it is open to considerable doubt if the fixed dustbin or ashpit is the best or most sanitary receptacle for the house refuse2 they may be necessary and suitable for ,public ,institutions1 or for large isolated private dwellings1 or for schools or any places where excessive quantities of refuse may accumulate1 but where this refuse is systematically and properly removed by the order of the local authority1 at such times and in such manner as will be hereafter pointed out1 moveable or portable dustbins1 boxes or baskets are far preferable to the large immoveable1 inconvenient fixed ashpit1 recommended and enforced under the ,act4 ,the next point to consider is that of the collection of the house refuse1 which should be effected satisfactorily1 economically and expeditiously4 ,the following are the three methods by which this is attempted3 7#a47 ,by a house to house call at intermittent periods4 7#b47 ,by the scavengers giving notice of their approach by ringing a bell or by other signal1 and requiring the householder to bring out the refuse to the cart4 7#c47 ,by placing public dustbins in different localities1 and expecting householders in their vicinity to place the house refuse in these dustbins1 which are then cleared from time to time by the local authority4 ,experience alone can teach which of these is the best method to adopt in any district1 and it is usually found that some modification of all three is necessary4 ,it is1 however1 difficult sometimes to adopt public dustbins not only on account of their first cost1 but from the objections raised by the occupiers of adjacent houses to their being fixed in their neighbourhood4 ,if these dustbins were constructed with properly balanced self-closing lids1 these objections might be overcome1 and their first cost would be but trifling when compared with the benefit to be derived by placing them in some of the thickly populated courts and alleys which are unfortunately to be found in nearly every town4 ,where there are no public dustbins the inhabitants of these courts throw their waste products upon the surface of the streets or courts1 from time to time throughout the day1 as it cannot be expected nor desired that such materials should remain1 even for twenty-four hours1 in their one living room1 which is frequently over crowded1 and has but little spare space even for the common necessities of life2 but that these waste products should be thus strewn over the surface of the street or court is almost equally objectionable1 and points to the advantage to be gained by placing in convenient situations covered dustbins which could be easily emptied once a day4 ,undoubtedly the best method for the removal of refuse is the house to house call1 but except in suburban districts and for the collection of refuse from the better class of dwelling-houses and public institutions1 the expense1 delay and difficulty which would be incurred in calling at every house throughout a town1 would make it almost impracticable1 and consequently this system is universally combined with that which is known as the bell or signal system1 which simply means that the scavenging cart in going its rounds has a bell attached to it1 or the horse1 which bell rings automatically as the cart proceeds on its way2 or the man in charge blows a trumpet1 or calls in stentorian tones1 8,dust oh60 ,on hearing this signal1 but not before1 the householder is expected to bring out the refuse in some convenient receptacle1 which is then emptied into the cart by the scavenger4 ,as a matter of fact1 the receptacles containing all the waste products of these householders are brought out and are placed in the gutter of the street close to the kerb1 long before the cart makes its appearance or can be reasonably expected to do so4 ,the result of these 7generally inappropriate7 receptacles filled with heterogenous collections of house refuse being left unprotected in the public streets1 is that their contents are quickly strewn about the surface of the street1 by their being upset accidentally1 or purposely1 and the appearance of the street1 which has probably been carefully swept and garnished during the night or early in the morning1 quickly assumes1 especially in a high wind1 a very offensive character1 and probably has to be entirely re-swept and cleansed before the ordinary traffic of the day commences4 ,to obviate this evil ,i must refer my readers to a small book on the subject of scavenging1 entitled #8,dirty ,dustbins and ,sloppy ,streets1' published by ,messrs4 ,spon ,co41 written by myself1 in which ,i have suggested moveable iron cylinders being placed in the streets for the reception of the house refuse4 ,the 8house to house0 call system in the suburbs of a town may be greatly assisted by a very simple remedy1 which has already been tried in some towns with considerable success4 ,it consists in the householder placing a card bearing the letter ,d1 or some other distinguishing mark1 in a conspicuous place in a window1 when the services of the scavengers are required2 these cards should be printed and circulated by the ,sanitary ,authority of the district1 who should state on the back of the card the days on which the scavengers would visit each neighbourhood1 with the approximate hour of the day in which they would appear1 in order that the householder may not be unnecessarily inconvenienced by being obliged to keep the card for any length of time in his window4 ,the scavengers in passing observe the signal1 and call at the house2 otherwise they pass on1 unless specially called in by the occupants1 thus avoiding any unnecessary delay in their rounds4 ,a visit from the scavengers either before seven or after ten in the morning is generally very inconvenient for households of a superior class1 and should be1 if possible1 carefully avoided by the sanitary authority4 ,the cart usually employed for scavenging is that known as the ordinary 8tip cart10 strongly1 if not clumsily1 constructed of an oak frame1 with elm or deal sides of considerable height2 it holds about a couple of cubic yards of material1 and costs from sixteen to twenty pounds4 ,these carts are not only clumsy and heavy1 but they give an overweighted diminutive appearance to the horse between the shafts1 especially as the quality of horses employed for work of this character is frequently none of the best4 ,the height1 too1 of the cart is often so great as to necessitate the use of a short ladder1 up which the scavenger has to climb1 the result being a shower of dust when it is being loaded with house refuse1 and spatterings of mud1 when it is being used as a slop cart4 ,it is difficult also to effectually cover a cart of this description4 ,the imperfect mode at present adopted is to cover it with a tarpaulin1 which is tied down as tightly as the circumstances of the case will admit1 but which as a rule does not effectually answer the purpose for which it is intended4 ,in towns where the house refuse is not collected separately from the road scrapings1 a judicious mixture of the two in the cart considerably assists in preventing any mud from splashing over or the dust from blowing about4 ,the employment of wooden carts for this work is bad economy1 their rough usage1 and the mode adopted for emptying them by 8tipping10 renders their life a short one2 a cart in constant work frequently costs from #dl4 to #el4 per annum in repairs1 and having but little of the original material of which it was constructed left in it at the end of six years4 ,they are also difficult to cleanse or disinfect4 ,with a view to obviate these and other objections1 several improved carts and waggons have been introduced by different makers1 who have styled them by a variety of names4 ,amongst others they are called dust carts1 general purpose carts1 sanitary carts1 slush carts1 tumbler carts1 mud waggons1 tip waggons1 slop waggons1 c4 ,these are constructed with iron bodies fixed upon wooden frames and wheels2 they are of various forms and designs1 the principal objects aimed at being lightness of construction combined with strength1 so balanced as to bear with a minimum of weight upon the horse2 economy in their cost has not been lost sight of1 and they are usually provided with some special means for emptying1 either by being tipped by a chain and windlass1 or by some mechanical arrangement of the tailboard2 they are built very low upon their axles1 so as to be easily filled1 are either completely covered over with a moveable lid1 or are fitted with hinged side boards1 so as to prevent any splashing over of their contents1 and as they are nearly all constructed with iron2 they are easily cleansed and disinfected whenever it is thought necessary to do so4 ,with reference to the important question of the ultimate disposal of house refuse1 street sweepings c41 no rules can be laid down1 as so much depends upon the position of every town and the character of the district in which it is situated1 as the following replies to some questions which ,i addressed to several ,english towns will show4 ,in many towns it is stated that the whole of the refuse is used by brick makers1 in others it is simply 8tipped to waste40 ,in one case the answer is1 8,sold by auction twice a year10 but to whom it is sold1 and for what purpose1 does not transpire4 ,in some towns it appears to be mixed with lime and used as manure upon the fields1 and in others it is mixed with the sludge of the sewage farms1 and is then ploughed or dug into the soil of the farm4 ,this seems a better plan than that of another town1 where it is 8given or thrown away10 although the difficulty of disposing of the old iron1 tins1 c41 is not touched upon in any of the foregoing answers4 ,the next reply states that 8it is riddled1 and the cinders and vegetable refuse are burnt to generate steam1 the fine dust is used with the manure manufactory 7tub system71 the old iron is sold1 and the pots1 c41 used for the foundations of roads40 ,in one case the whole of the refuse is taken out to sea in hopper barges1 and sunk in deep water4#afa ,in a great number of towns it is sold by tender for the year1 but what eventually becomes of it does not transpire4 ,but the most favoured methods1 where it cannot be sold as manure to farmers1 seem to be either that of carting it away to some spot outside the town1 and there using it for the purpose of filling up hollows and depressions1 or that of giving or selling it to brick-makers4 ,the practice of filling up hollow places with such materials cannot be too strongly deprecated if there is any chance of dwelling houses being erected on them1 as the unsanitary condition of sites thus formed has been frequently demonstrated4 ,where towns are unable to dispose of their refuse by sale to farmers or market gardeners1 the best method1 and one which is gaining in popularity every day1 is that of its destruction by fire4 ,with this object in view a ,mr ,fryer has invented an apparatus which he styles a 8,patent ,carboniser1 for the conversion of garbage1 street1 and market sweepings1 also other vegetable refuse1 into charcoal40 ,this apparatus consists of a structure somewhat resembling1 externally1 a brick kiln4 ,it is divided into hopper-shaped compartments1 which at the bottom are furnished with a furnace1 fitted with a reverberatory arch4 ,a fire is lighted in this furnace1 the necessary combustion being obtained1 and the heat maintained1 by burning the cinders1 which are sifted out of the house refuse for this purpose4 ,all the street sweepings1 refuse1 garbage1 c41 is then thrown in at the top of the kiln1 and it is there and then completely destroyed by the action of the fire1 and converted into charcoal1 which is withdrawn through a sliding door fixed at the bottom of the kiln4#afb ,the next point which has to be considered1 and which is the second in order of the list of duties ,i have given at the commencement of this chapter1 is 8the cleansing of earth closets1 privies1 ash-pits1 and cesspools40 ,this is generally effected in conjunction with the collection of the house refuse and the work is carried out at night4 ,under the ,goux-tub system the ashes of the house refuse are largely used as a deodorant or absorbent as a lining for the tub1#afc but in the pail systems this mixture is not effected until the tubs and refuse arrive together at the dept4 ,for descriptions of the manner in which the pail system for the collection of excreta is carried out in ,birmingham1 ,i must refer my readers to an article written by myself in a number of ,the ,sanitary ,engineer of ,new ,york published on the #ast ,sept4 #ahha1 in which ,i have entered fully into the method there adopted and its advantages and disadvantages1 but which are too long to recapitulate in this chapter4 ,the next duty which has to be considered is that of 8the proper cleansing of streets40 ,there is no doubt that for the sake of the appearance as well as the health of any town its streets cannot be too well cleansed4 ,muddy and wet streets cause dampness in the subsoil of neighbouring dwellings1 and dust is not only injurious to tradesmen's goods but also to the lungs of those who have to breathe an atmosphere loaded with silicate and organic impurities4#afd ,street cleansing is effected either by hand-sweeping and hand-scraping1 or by machinery4 ,as to which is the most economical much depends upon the value of labour1 and also upon the condition of the roads to be dealt with1 but in point of time and as a general rule the value of a horse rotary brush-sweeping machine is undoubted1 the only time at which such a machine fails to do effective work is on the occasions when the mud to be removed 7owing to a peculiar condition of the atmosphere71 has attained a semisolidity1 and is of a stiff and sticky consistency1 when it either adheres to and clogs the brushes of the machine1 or is flattened by them on to the road instead of being removed4#afe ,the brushes of a machine last about #ahj hours constant work1 and then the old stocks can be easily refilled with bass at no great cost4 ,the comparative work which can be done by a sweeping machine is about #aa to #a of that effected by manual labour1 so that the economy involved by the former method is evident4 ,the strength and durability of the brooms used for the work of sweeping the streets is of some importance1 as affecting the ultimate cost of the work1 and some care and skill is required in their selection4 ,bass brooms are better than birch brooms for this purpose1 and the bass of which the brooms are made should be sufficiently stout and of regular thickness2 it should be tough and elastic1 not old1 dry1 and brittle1 each knot should be of uniform size and be firmly set1 and the number of knots in each broom head is also a matter of choice4 ,a convenient and fair test of the soundness of a broom is to soak it for a few days in water before issuing it to the sweeper1 and then note the time it will last4 ,the handles of the brooms should be made of alder wood4 ,on the question of the extra work involved in street cleansing by its bad construction or by the materials of which it is constructed1 climate must be considered1 as well as the amount of traffic it has to bear1 and also its gradient and the habits of the people residing in it4#aff ,the ,superintendent of the ,scavenging ,department at ,liverpool has made some observations and obtained some valuable information on these points1 which he has detailed in a report he presented to the ,health ,committee of that borough in the year #ahgg1 an abstract of which is as follows3 ,,gross ,,cost ,,for ,,each ,,time ,,of ,,cleansing #aj1jjj ,,yards ,,superficial ,,of ,,different ,,descriptions ,,of ,,roadway ,,in ,,the ,,borough ,,of ,,liverpool4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,con- ,gross dition ,area ,loads ,times ,cost per ,descrip- of re- of re- swept#aj1jjj ,yards tion pair of ,car- moved in ,superficial of ,when ,road- riage-in one one for each ,street4,pavement4 paved4 way4 way4 ,month4month4 cleansing4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,yds4 supr4 s4 d4 ,lord ,granite #ahgg ,very #d1ejc #ae #bf #j #f #e ,street setts1 good asphalte joints ,north ,ditto #ahgb ,good #c1bhg #ag #bf #j #h #aj ,john ,street ,tithe- ,granite #ahgb ,bad #e1aej #ch #bf #j #aa #b barn setts1 and ,street ordinary #ahgd joints ,west ,ditto1 #ahgf ,very #aa1ihj #ce #ac #j #i #d ,derby asphalte good ,road joints ,great ,ditto #ahgg ,good #af1hfj #he #ac #j #ad #d ,howard ,street ,great ,ditto1 ,not as- ,mod- #ae1ijj #he #ac #j #ad #a ,homer ordinary certain- erate ,street joints able ,kensing-,macadam ,ditto ,good #ad1edj #gf #ac #j #ad #c ton breasted ,street with sett ,stanley ,ditto ,ditto ,bad #af1ecdahf #ac #a #h #i ,road ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,he adds that the full benefit of the impervious pavements as regards the cost of scavenging has not yet been felt1 for almost all the lines of streets so paved are intersected at short distances by streets of ordinary jointed granite setts or macadam1 whence a quantity of mud and refuse is dragged by the traffic on to the asphalted jointed roadways1 which are consequently debited with the cost of removal of some effete material not intrinsically belonging to them4 ,mr4 ,till1 the ,borough ,surveyor of ,birmingham1 from investigations he has made on this subject1 says that for granite pavement #b cart loads of mud have to be removed from every #ajjj square yards of surface1 one third of a load for wood pavement#afg and #d loads three times a day 7a total of #ab loads7 for macadamised roadways4 ,the ultimate disposal of the material removed from the surfaces of roadways especially when they are macadamised is a difficult matter1 as1 being chiefly composed of silicate1 it is valueless as a manure4 ,in small towns1 except during abnormally muddy weather1 it may be mixed with the house refuse and sold to farmers1 or the road scrapings themselves may be used as an excellent sand1 if thoroughly washed1 to mix with lime or cement to form mortar for public works2 excessive accumulations of mud1 however1 must be got rid of in the most economical and speedy manner possible1 and this is effected either by filling up old disused quarries with it1 or depositing it upon waste lands1 or forming embankments for new roads1 but in no case should it be used1 as ,i have before stated1 upon building sites2 it is difficult and expensive to destroy it or partially convert it into other matters by fire1 so that if these methods which ,i have enumerated are impracticable1 the only other method left for the disposal of the sweepings or scrapings from the streets is to take them out to sea in hopper barges and sink them in deep water4 ,the last question that arises on the subject of scavenging before we consider the disposal of snow1 is whether the onus of cleansing private courts and alleys which are not repairable by the urban authority should be borne by them or not4 ,the great difficulty attached to this duty arises from the fact that these private courts and alleys are generally very badly paved1 if paved at all1 full of pits1 where pools of stagnant mud and water collect1 and even in the best cases1 the interstices between the pebbles1 or other paving1 are filled with filth arising in great measure from the dirty habits of the people1 and this filth it is found exceedingly difficult to dislodge4 ,the remedy for this is to compel the owners of the abutting properties to have the courts and alleys properly paved with asphalte1 or other equally impervious material1 after which it would be easy for the urban authority to cause them to be swept at least once a day1 and flushed with water in the hot weather once a week1 but in order to compel the owners to execute this very desirable work it would be necessary to put the complicated machinery of section #aej of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge in force1 and the expense to the landlords would be in many cases very disproportionate to the value of their property4 ,out of the ninety towns to which reference has before been made1 the authorities of only nineteen of them cleanse the private courts and alleys in their jurisdiction1 although for the sake of sanitation it is very desirable that such work should be so undertaken by them4 ,in most towns it is necessary to cleanse its principal streets at least once a day1 and this appears to be the practice of nearly all the ninety towns ,i have referred to2 only seven of them1 however1 appear to have this operation repeated more frequently2 in several towns1 the horse droppings1 c41 are removed at once1 under what is called the 8orderly0 system1 and this is especially necessary in streets that are paved with such materials as wood paving1 asphalte1 or granite setts4 ,the suburban streets of a town need only be cleansed once or twice a week1 except in special cases of extremes of mud or snow1 and ,i will now proceed to discuss the questions involved by a heavy fall of the latter4 ,experiments have shown that a cubic yard of fresh fallen snow may weigh as much as #had pounds or as little as #ga pounds4 ,assuming that a cubic foot will weigh #afch pounds1 ,i estimate that for a fall of #c inches of snow upon a street #cf feet in width1 #bj tons1 representing a bulk of about #ajj cubic yards1 would have to be removed for every #ajj yards of length of street if it was thought necessary to clear it away4 ,assuming that there are #cj miles of street in a town from which the snow must be removed2 #ba1add loads must be carted somewhere1 at a cost of at least #a1ejjl41 assuming that each cart could make ten trips a day1 and even then it would take #ceb carts a whole week to effect it4 ,it may be contended that ,i have taken an extreme case1 and that1 of course1 the snow does not lie for very long upon the ground in the condition in which it fell1 and that hourly it is reducing in bulk and weight by being ground up by the traffic1 and finding its way in the form of water into the sewers4 ,this may be so1 but at the same time it must not be forgotten that the bulk is also being constantly increased by that which is shovelled off the house tops#afh and brought out from private premises adjoining the streets4 ,upon this point ,mr4 ,hayward1 the ,engineer to the ,commissioners of ,sewers of the ,city of ,london1 says#afi3-- 8,snow readily compresses under the traffic1 and when removed in carts and shot down elsewhere it may be assumed that on an average four cubic yards of snow measured as it has fallen is equal to one cubic yard when placed on the apparatus40 ,this computation1 however1 does not make any allowance for the snow thrown from off the roofs1 c41 and it of course greatly consolidates whilst travelling in the cart4 ,fortunately for a town surveyor in this country1 exceptionally heavy falls of snow are not very frequent1 but when they do happen great pressure is put upon his department to cope with it1 and one of the greatest difficulties he has to contend against is the disposal of the snow after it has been placed in the cart4 ,if there is a river close by1 it can be taken there and tipped1 but this is objectionable if it is a navigable river where dredging has to be done1 as it is surprising what a quantity of road scrapings and other matters are always removed with the snow1 and these materials naturally sink to the bottom1 and add considerably to the cost of dredging4 ,if there are public parks the snow may be heaped in them1 provided no damage is done to the grass or paths1 but the snow thus heaped takes a considerable time to melt1 the first effect of a thaw being to consolidate it3 a better plan is to deposit it upon waste spots1 if these are not too far from the streets which have to be cleared4 ,tipping the snow down the manholes into the sewers has been tried in ,london and other cities1 but has failed through the snow consolidating1 and although lighted gas jets have been turned on to the snow1 it has still melted too slowly to be of any practical utility4 ,speaking of ,clarke's apparatus for melting snow1 ,mr4 ,haywood1 in the same report from which ,i have already quoted1 says3 8,it is seldom that a fall of snow occurs sufficiently large to cause serious interruption to the traffic2 heavy snowstorms in fact occur only once in six or seven years2 for some years therefore these apparatuses if fixed might not be required4 ,they would either have to be taken out1 stored and refixed yearly or maintained in their places and kept in order there1 in either case at an annual expense40 ,in perusing ,mr4 ,hayward's report it also appears that the cost of this apparatus fixed is about #abjl41 and the cost of melting the snow #i;d4 per cubic yard4 ,in order to grapple with this question of the removal of snow1 ,i am of opinion that it is useless to attempt to cart it away while falling1 but try to make clear crossings for the foot passengers and to keep the traffic open4 ,if there should be a high wind at the time1 and the snow drifts in consequence1 cut through the drifts so as to allow the vehicular traffic to continue4 ,directly the snow ceases to fall put on all available hands to clear the channel gutters and street gratings1 in preparation for a sudden thaw1 when1 if these precautions were not taken1 serious flooding and great damage to property might ensue2 for the same reason cart away all the snow you can at the bottom of gradients and in the valleys1 and also from very narrow streets and passages1 c4 ,in the wider streets use the snow plough1 or with gangs of men 7in the snow season there is generally plenty of labour obtainable71 shovel the snow into a long narrow heap on each side of the street1 taking care to leave the channel gutters and gratings quite clear1 and a sufficient space between the heaps for at least two lines of traffic4 ,passages must also be cut at frequent intervals through the heaps1 in order to allow foot passengers to cross the street1 and also to let the water reach the channel gutters as soon as the snow begins to melt4#agj ,the next point to be considered in this chapter is that of 8,the proper watering of streets for the whole or any part of their district40 ,one of the earliest methods for watering streets1 but one which has1 ,i think1 almost entirely died out1 on account principally of the large quantity of water used in the process1 was that of allowing the water to run down the channel gutters1 ponding it back by means of canvas or leather aprons placed across the gutter1 and then spreading the water on to the surface of the street by throwing it with wooden shovels4 ,this method1 which at first sight may appear clumsy1 is an exceedingly good one upon sanitary grounds4 ,it not only lays the dust1 but it washes the surface of the street1 and it most effectually scours out the gutters and at the same time flushes the sewers1 which at the season that watering is necessary is also of great importance to any town4 ,by this process a delightful freshness is given to the air1 and the appearance of the cool and limpid water rushing along on each side of the street acts favourably upon the inhabitants4 ,the great objections to this system are 7#a7 the enormous quantity of water that is used in the process1 and 7#b7 the difficulty of doing the work after the traffic of the day has commenced4 ,somewhat of a modification of this process is what is known as 8,brown's ,system of ,street ,watering10 which may be described as follows3--,a lead pipe is laid in the footpath at the back of the kerb on each side of the street to be watered1 small gratings or shields being fixed in the pipe at intervals of twelve inches1 and the remaining space filled with asphalte2 small holes are then bored in the pipe through the openings in the shields4 ,the pipe is connected with the water main in the street1 and is provided with the necessary stopcocks1 c4 ,on the water being turned on1 fine jets are thrown in different directions upon the surface of the street4 ,the width of roadway that can be watered by this process depends upon the pressure of the water1 but it may be fairly assumed that in most towns streets of fifty feet width could be effectually watered in a few minutes by a pipe on each side of the street4 ,this process has not gained much favour hitherto1 principally on account of the large first cost involved1 which would amount to upwards of #hjjl4 per mile of street1 but the expense afterwards should not much exceed the wages of one man at about #cs4 #f;d4 per day to manipulate the necessary work1 and the interest on the outlay and depreciation of the pipes1 c4 ,the other objections to this system are3-- 7#a47 ,the liability of the pipes and perforations to get out of order1 especially when allowed to lie idle for so many months in each year4 7#b47 ,the unpleasantness to pedestrians which must be caused whilst the watering is proceeding4 7#c47 ,the inconvenience to the traffic during the process4 7#d47 ,the effect upon the water by high winds1 when in all probability it would be blown back across the foot pavement4 7#e47 ,in very broad streets it would be inoperative4 ,in ,paris and other continental cities1 and also in several towns in this country1 the watering is effected by hose and reels1 or by portable iron tubes4 ,mr4 ,parry1 ,c4,e41 the ,borough ,surveyor of ,reading1 has given the following particulars of the system of hand watering adopted in that borough1 in which he gives the cost1 and describes the utility of that method as compared with the use of water carts3 ,a water cart 7he states7 will water twice a day a superficial area of #bc1hdi yards1 and for a length watered one width that means #e1ifb lineal yards1 or for a double width #b1iha yards1 the cost per day of laying on being as follows3--,horse1 cart1 and man1 #hs4 cost of maintenance of cart1 harness1 shoeing1 c41 #as4 #e;d41 making #is4 #e;d4 per day4 ,with respect to the hand machines he states that he has one of ,headley's drum machines1 and three of special make1 somewhat similar to those used in ,paris4 ,they are equal in point of work2 and one machine will water #bc1gdj square yards twice a day1 which1 it will be observed1 is very close to the amount of work performed by a cart4 8,headley's machine cost us 7he continues71 five years ago when new1 #cal4 #gs4 #c;d41 and the repairs and maintenance since that date have been #bbl41 or an average of #dl4 #hs4 per annum1 and is just now almost past repair4 ,the other description of hand machine cost each when new #bjl41 and the repairs and maintenance have amounted to an average of #cl4 #ahs4 each year4 ,they were in use some time before ,headley's was obtained1 and they will be of use for a long time yet4 ,the cost of labour per day by the hand machines is for two men at #bs4 #aj;d4 each--#es4 #h;d4--as it requires two men to work the machine properly1 one to distribute the water1 and the other to move the machine and to attach and detach the apparatus to and from the hydrants2 add to this #g;d4 per day for maintenance and repairs1 will make #fs4 #c;d4 per day4 ,the quantity of water delivered by the water carts is #jea gallons per square yard1 and by the hand machine #acj gallons40 ,it will thus be seen that in the case of the cart #bd1cbd gallons of water are used per diem1 and #fa1gbd gallons by the hand machines1 the surface watered being very nearly the same in both cases4 ,assuming that the water has a commercial value of #f;d4 per #ajjj gallons1 and adding this to the cost per diem in each case1 the total cost stands thus3 ,hand machines #a #ajs4 #aj;d4 ,carts #a #as4 #g;d4 the advantage in point of cost being in favour of the carts2 but the hand machine may water better1 especially in broad streets1 although in narrow streets or where there is much traffic1 this method would be impracticable4 ,in ,paris both hose and carts are used for watering the thoroughfares1 the former for the boulevards1 the avenues1 and a certain number of first-class streets4 ,the most commonly known method in this country for watering the streets and roads of our towns is that of carrying the water in wheeled barrels1 carts1 or vans1 and distributing it therefrom through a perforated pipe upon the surface of the road as the vehicle is drawn along by a horse attached to the shafts4#aga ,the old barrel upon wheels gave place to a cart1 and now we have 8,bayley's ,patent ,hydrostatic ,van10 which is too well known to almost all town surveyors to need much description4 ,it holds about #dej gallons of water and takes about #i minutes to fill 7this time of course varying with the size of main and pressure of water71 and ten minutes to spread the water upon the surface of the road4 ,with regard to the work that one of these vans will accomplish in comparison to that effected by an ordinary cart1 the following table1 compiled from experiments on the question1 will be useful3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,no4 of ,loads ,total ,contents to quantity ,gain in cover of per ,cart or ,van4 ,gallons4 beat4 ,water4 ,time4 ,difference4 ,cent4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,hrs4 ,mnts4 ,hrs4 ,mnts4 ,bayley's van #dej #e #bdge #a #bc 44 44 ,ordinary cart #bbe #aa #bdge #a #ej #j #bg #bd ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,bayley's van #dej #e #bdge #a #ch 44 44 ,ordinary cart #bcg #aa #bfjg #b #aj #j #cb #be ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,bayley's van #dej #f #bgjj #a #de 44 44 ,ordinary cart #bij #aa #caij #b #aj #j #be #ai ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,bayley's van #dej #h #cfjj #b #ae 44 44 ,ordinary cart #bfj #ag #ddbj #c #cj #a #ae #cf ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,this shows a mean gain of #bf per cent4 in favour of the van1 and the following tables1 made by an inspector in #ahgc1 showing the actual occupation of the ordinary carts and ,bayley's vans during a day's work1 are extremely interesting1 as showing that while the van is engaged in spreading the water the time of the cart is wasted in travelling to and from the stand posts1 and when it is borne in mind also that the van spreads water more widely than the cart1 there can be no doubt that a saving of at least #cj per cent4 can be effected by the substitution of these vans for the old-fashioned cart4 ,,carts4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,travelling,travelling ,filling4 ,full4 ,empty4 ,waiting1 c4,spreading4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,h4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m4 ,paddington #a #de #b #i #a #eh #j #bj #a #cj ,st4 ,saviour's #a #bi #b #af #b #d #j #bf #a #bi ,strand #a #aa #b #cj #b #ah #j #ag #a #c ,kensington #d #dj #b #b #a #eg #j #j #a #ed ,chelsea #b #dd #a #ae #b #ad #j #ce #a #f ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,vans4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,paddington #c #cc #a #i #a #c #j #j #c #j ,st4 ,saviour's #b #bj #a #d #a #ba #j #bc #b #eh ,strand #b #cj #a #be #a #ad #j #bj #b #bc ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,in the year #ahef1 ,mr4 ,scott1 ,c4,e41 the ,chief ,surveyor of the parish of ,st4 ,pancras1 kept an account of the daily round of an ordinary water cart1 when he found that through an average working day of #aj hours1 exclusive of the breakfast and dinner hours1 the cart took one hour and twenty minutes filling1 fifty minutes only in distributing the water on the roads1 and eight hours and seven minutes in travelling to spread the water and back to the stand posts4 ,it was obvious that these were placed too far apart1 and by the subsequent introduction of additional standposts ,mr4 ,scott found1 in the year #ahfg1 that the filling occupied two hours1 the distribution one hour and thirty minutes1 and the travelling to and fro six hours and thirty minutes2 so that it may be assumed1 with an ordinary two-wheeled water cart1 that two-thirds of the day is spent in travelling1 one fifth in filling1 and about one-seventh in the actual spreading4 ,but a watch should be kept upon the man who is engaged in this work1 otherwise he will idle away his time and the streets remain unwatered4 ,a good check upon this is ,mr4 ,bayley's ,tell-,tale1 which registers automatically on a dial at the side of the van the number of rounds a man goes each day4 ,watering the streets with sea water should be adopted whenever it is feasible1 as it not only gives a delightful freshness to the air and dispels iodine1 but it also causes the surface of the street to maintain its humidity for a longer period than when fresh water is used1 as it impregnates the soil with hygrometric matter4 ,this has been often attempted artificially1 by adding common salt to the water used for watering1 but it is rather too expensive for the benefit derived4#agb ,watering the roads with a largely diluted disinfectant such as 8,sanitas0 in the liquid form1 is frequently of great benefit1 and where it can be afforded1 it should be occasionally done1 especially in the narrower streets and more crowded districts of a city or town1 or when an epidemic has broken out4 ,with reference to the very important question as to the cost of scavenging1 street-cleansing and watering4 ,it is1 of course1 not possible to lay down any hard and fast lines1 as it must necessarily vary considerably according to circumstances2 much depends upon whether the district is an urban one1 consisting of houses closely packed together1 or whether it is suburban1 with scattered villas and mansions standing in their own grounds2 the question1 also1 of the distance of the depts to which the material has to be carted1 considerably affects the result of any estimate1 as also does the cost of horse hire1 the rate of wages1 and whether the district is of a hilly or flat nature1 and1 as ,i have before shown1 the manner in which the streets are formed and paved1 the habits of the people1 the requirements as to cleansing streets and watering1 and last1 but not least1 the manner of the eventual disposal of the rubbish after removal2 all these points must bear with great weight upon any question of cost1 and make the results widely different4 ,on referring to the returns to which ,i have more than once alluded1 it is found that the cost of removing the house refuse and cleansing and sweeping the streets combined1 varies considerably in different localities4 ,in one case the sum amounts only to the rate of one half-penny per annum per head of the population of the town1 whereas in another case the amount is at the rate of three shillings and sixpence per head4 ,on calculating the average cost per head of population per annum of the ninety towns from which ,i received replies on this point1 ,i find that it amounts to about tenpence half-penny1 after giving credit for any sum of money realised by the sale of the refuse to farmers and others2 so that if this work is costing the ratepayers of a town or city anything under a shilling per head of the whole population every year1 they have no cause to grumble4 ,before closing this chapter ,i will make a few observations upon the subject of contracts for work of this description4 ,there is no doubt that the 8dust and slopping0 contractor is fast going out of fashion1#agc as it has been found that the work is far more carefully and systematically carried out without the intervention of a contractor2 for if we turn to the articles of agreement or contract usually drawn up between a sanitary authority and a contractor for scavenging1 we find that they must be very binding in their phraseology1 and enter fully into the details of the work2 they should state very clearly the number of times in every week that the contractor shall cause all the ashpits in the districts enumerated to be emptied and cleansed1 the manner in which this work shall be performed1 and how the materials thus removed shall be disposed of and the place of their ultimate destination4 ,the conditions should further specify what amount of manual1 team labour1 and carts1 are necessary for the work1 and also what plant the contractor must keep in the way of ladders1 baskets1 shovels1 and brooms1 c4 ,the conditions should also contain a carefully prepared list of the streets to be swept1 and the manner and number of times this work must be executed1 and arrange for the disposal of the materials thus removed4 ,in many such contracts it is found necessary to insert clauses binding the contractor1 under all sorts of penalties1 to be always at the disposal of and under the commands of the inspector of nuisances1 or such other officer or officers as the sanitary authority may appoint4 ,the contractor's men also are forbidden to accept gratuities1 and are directed on no account to remove either trade or garden refuse1 and they are also enjoined to be 8careful to consult the convenience of the householders in their visits1 and to thoroughly clean up all dirt and litter that they may cause in the discharge of their duties4 ,if they fail in any or either of these injunctions and commands1 or for any other dereliction of duty1 the inspector of nuisances1 or such other officer as the sanitary authority shall appoint1 may summarily dismiss them1 without any reference being made on the subject to their employer the contractor1 and in fact the conditions have necessarily to be made so stringent and binding as to be either totally inoperative or open to grave abuses1 or1 on the other hand1 the work can be carelessly and improperly executed by the contractor4 ,the consequence of such binding clauses is that the officers1 if they do their strict duty1 will probably be engaged in constant disputes and litigation with the contractor as to the due and proper observance of the terms of his contract1 and thus their time is much occupied instead of in other more important matters1 which is naturally detrimental to the interests of the ratepayers4 ,i am strongly of opinion that the work of the collection of house refuse and cleansing the streets should be carried out by the local authority with their own officers and staff1 and that executing this work by contract is a mistake and a false economy4 ,it is1 perhaps1 true that it may be done in the latter manner at less actual cost to the ratepayers1 but all public work should be done in the best manner possible1 irrespective of cost1 thoroughly1 but without extravagance1 and the result of such work1 especially where it affects the cleanliness and the appearance of a town1 soon fully repays any moderate extra cost that may thus have been incurred1 irrespective of the enormous benefit that is conferred upon any community by the reduction of disease and the death-rate by a proper attention to such necessary sanitary work4 #aeg ,a rural authority cannot apparently make any byelaw with regard to the prevention of such nuisances4 #aeh ,a byelaw under this section 8must be limited to imposing upon the occupier the duty of cleansing or removal at such intervals as the sanitary authority may think fit4 ,the mode of cleansing or removal and the precautions to be observed in connection with the process are not matters within the range of such byelaws40 ,vide #8,memorandum to the ,model ,byelaws issued by the ,local ,government ,board for the use of ,sanitary ,authorities1 ,no4 #a1 ,cleansing of ,footways and ,pavements1 c41' #ahgg4 #aei ,in ,glenn's #8,law of ,public ,health and ,local ,government1' #hth edition1 in a footnote to section #dd1 p4 #ci1 several instances are given of what is not refuse1 such as ashes from furnaces1 c41 and it is stated that 8the intention of the ,act was that only the rubbish arising from the domestic use of houses should be removed40 #afj ,the ,bromley ,local ,board issue a card on which is printed1 amongst other information with reference to the contract for the removal of house refuse1 the following suggestions3--8,it is hoped that householders will as far as possible facilitate the systematic removal of refuse by providing suitable dust-bins1 and directing their servants that ordinary house refuse only shall be deposited in such receptacles4 ,the following are some of the items of refuse which the contractors are bound to remove1 viz43--cinder ashes1 potatoe peelings1 cabbage leaves1 and kitchen refuse generally4 ,but the contractors are not required to remove the refuse of any trade1 manufacture1 or business1 or of any building materials or any garden cuttings or sweepings40 #afa ,in ,new ,york about #hjj1jjj tons of refuse are disposed of annually in this manner4 #afb ,for a description of the manner in which this is effected at ,manchester1 see my book on scavenging1 to which ,i have before referred4 #afc ,the ashes are mixed with chaff1 chopped straw1 refuse hay1 grass cuttings1 dry street sweepings1 wool and hair1 shoddy1 c41 and a small percentage of sulphate of iron or lime4 #afd ,professor ,tyndall1 in his beautiful experiments1 has proved that dusty air is alive with the germs of the bacteria of putrefaction1 whilst the pure fresh air which he gathered on a mountain peak in the ,alps is innocent of such germs1 and is absolutely powerless to produce any organisms4 #afe ,dry dust will absorb about ten times its bulk of water1 thus swelling considerably and producing the greasy mud so often seen after rain4 #aff ,in ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 the macadamised roads are not swept at all1 as it is considered that by sweeping off the sand and detritus their durability is much lessened1 but their gutters are cleansed as required1 and rubbish picked up4 7,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 lxiii4 p4 #cfh47 #afg ,in ,regent ,street1 ,london1 in ,november #ahha1 ,i saw four loads of mud removed from about #ajjj square yards of surface1 it being then almost new wood pavement4 #afh ,see note under 8,other ,obstructions and ,nuisances10 p4 #aee1 #hth edition1 ,glen's #8,law of ,public ,health and ,local ,government4' #afi ,vide #8,report to the ,streets ,committee of the ,honourable the ,commissioners of ,sewers of the ,city of ,london on ,melting ,snow by ,clarke's ,apparatus1' by ,william ,haywood1 ,engineer and ,surveyor to the ,commission1 #ahha1 p4 #i4 #agj ,with regard to the removal of snow from the footpaths1 it is highly desirable that this should be effected by the occupiers of the premises adjacent to the street1 as otherwise it adds immensely to the work of the local authority4 ,the following interesting remarks by the superintendent of the scavenging department of ,liverpool will be no doubt read with great interest3 8,the only way to compass the removal of snow from the footwalks of the principal thoroughfares within a comparatively short time1 is by sprinkling them with salt1 such as is commonly used for agricultural purposes4 ,it is certain that1 unaided by the salt1 a sufficient number of men cannot be procured for the emergency of clearing snow from the footways of the most important thoroughfares4 ,it has been stated by medical authorities that the application of salt to snow is detrimental to the health of people who have to walk through the #8slush' produced by the mixture1 and that the excessive cooling of the air surrounding the places where the application has been made is injurious to delicate persons4 ,it therefore seems that the application of salt to snow should not be undertaken during the day time1 but should be commenced not before #aa p4m41 nor continued after #f a4m41 and that only such an area of footwalks should be so treated on any one night as the available staff of men can clear by an early hour the following morning4 8,to sweep snow from the footwalks whilst the fall of snow continues1 and especially during business hours1 appears to be wasteful and futile1 and to apply salt during the same periods may be held to be injurious to health4 8,that the snow of an ordinary fall can be removed from the footwalks by an application of salt an hour or so before they are scraped is an ascertained fact1 except at least when a moderately severe frost has preceded1 accompanied1 or followed the snow-fall1 or when the snow has drifted into extensive accumulations4 ,were it not for the danger to health by excessive cooling of the air1 and for the expense attending the operation1 all the impervious pavements could be cleared of snow 7unless the fall was a heavy one7 in a comparatively short time by a liberal application of salt and the employment of the horse sweeping machines as soon as the snow had become sufficiently softened to admit of their use40 #aga ,in the metropolis of ,london alone1 the watering of the streets and roads employs1 in addition to a staff of inspectors and foremen1 about #aejj men1 and an equal number of horses and carts2 and in order to lay the dust effectually1 about #cj1jjj tons of water must be spread upon the streets every dry day1 the cost of this gigantic work being nearly #bjj1jjjl4 per annum upon an average of #abj days when watering becomes necessary4 #agb ,in ,rouen1 where chloride of calcium is obtained from the manufactories of pyroligneous acid in the neighbourhood1 it is mixed with the water for use on the roads1 and it is stated that on a mile of road1 #af feet in width1 #efcj gallons of water were necessary daily1 but that the same result was attained with #adhj gallons of chloride solution1 marking #cj ,baum1 and costing about d4 per gallon1 the humectation remaining good for five or six days with the solution of chloride4 ,with water only in #ajic yards1 in four rounds daily1 #cebj gallons were used1 the cost being #dhs42 with chloride of calcium the cost was #cbs4 per day4 #agc ,amongst the questions which ,i addressed to the surveyors of the principal towns of ,england in #ahgi was the following3--8,is the house refuse collected by the sanitary authority or by a contractor80 and out of the ninety towns from which ,i received replies1 only thirty were found to employ contractors for this purpose1 and of these the authorities of two of them proposed to dispense with the services of the contractor1 and to administrate the work with their own staff1 as they found the existing state of things was thoroughly unsatisfactory4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,sewerage4 ,the ,public ,health ,act #ahge contains a considerable number of clauses dealing with the subject of the sewers of a town1 but two of the shortest sections in the whole ,act1 and yet those that involve a considerable amount of work in the town surveyor's department1 are the following3 8,every local authority shall keep in repair#agd all sewers belonging to them1 and shall cause to be made such sewers as may be necessary for effectually draining their district for the purposes of this ,act0#age 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ae74 8,every local authority shall cause the sewers belonging to them to be constructed1 covered1 ventilated1#agf and kept so as not to be a nuisance or injurious to health1 and to be properly cleansed and emptied0#agg 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ai74 ,as to what sewers do 8belong0 to the local authority1 the following section of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge states3 8,all existing and future sewers within the district of a local authority1 together with all buildings1 works1 materials1 and things belonging thereto1 8,except 87#a47 ,sewers made by any person for his own profit1 or by any company for the profit of the shareholders2 and 87#b47 ,sewers made and used for the purpose of draining1 preserving1 or improving land under any local or private ,act of ,parliament1 or for the purpose of irrigating land2 and 87#c47 ,sewers under the authority of any commissioners of sewers appointed by the ,crown1 shall vest in and be under the control of such local authority4 8,provided that sewers within the district of a local authority which have been1 or which may hereafter be constructed by or transferred to some other local authority1 or by or to a sewage board or other authority empowered under any ,act of ,parliament to construct sewers1 shall 7subject to any agreement to the contrary7 vest in and be under the control of the authority who constructed the same1 or to whom the same have been transferred0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ac74 ,and as to the definition of the word 8sewer10 the same ,act states3 8#8,sewer' includes sewers and drains of every description1 except drains to which the word #8drain'#agh interpreted as aforesaid applies1 and except drains vested in or under the control of any authority having the management of roads and not being a local authority under this ,act40 ,the result of this acquisition by the local authority of the sewers in their district is1 that in most of the old cities and towns a legacy of very defective and imperfect sewers has been inherited1 and considerable expense in their repair and maintenance has thus been entailed4 ,a great number of books have been written on the subject of sewerage1 and much valuable information has been published from time to time1 so that it almost seems superfluous to say much upon the subject2 however1 a few remarks which are particularly applicable to the work of a town surveyor may be of some service4 ,the word sewerage may be taken as meaning a system of sewers carrying sewage which is the fluid and feculent refuse from dwellings and their yards1 c4 ,sewage is generally found mixed with rain water from the surface of the streets and roofs of houses1 together with the liquid waste products from manufactories1#agi and sometimes1 although very improperly1 with subsoil water4 ,a good system of sewerage should embrace the whole of the following requirements3-- 7#a47 ,each sewer should be laid at such a depth as will readily drain the basements of the adjoining buildings4 7#b47 ,its area and gradient must be so regulated as to make it self-cleansing1 and at the same time carry off effectively the maximum quantity of liquid for which it is intended4#ahj 7#c47 ,each sewer should 7unless quite impracticable7 be laid in straight lines and with even gradients between man- or lamp-holes1 and these gradients must not be excessive1 or damage may be caused to the sewer4 ,a velocity of about #f feet per second is sufficient4 7#d47 ,sewers must be laid at proper levels in respect of their intersection with each other1 bearing in mind that they are all generally converging to one point4 7#e47 ,manholes should be of simple construction2 circular brickwork upon concrete is a convenient description4 ,they may be made to serve the additional purposes of ventilating shafts1 flushing chambers1 junction shafts1 storm overflows1 and side entrances4 7#f47 ,tributary sewers or drains should not join the main sewers at right angles unless the bottom of the manhole is so constructed as to give the required curve in the direction of the flow of the sewage1 and they should join at a height 7if of unequal section7 equal to the difference of their sectional diameters1 the aim of all junctions being to cause as little disturbance as possible in the proper flow of the liquids along their respective channels4 7#g47 ,sewers should not be constructed of too large a sectional area1 but none should be less than #f inches internal diameter1 as house-drains in this country are never less than #d inches diameter1 and the main sewer should of course be larger than its tributaries4 ,it is also rather difficult to ventilate a smaller sewer than #f inches1 and very little is saved by putting in a smaller sewer than that4 ,stoneware pipes of greater diameter than #ah inches should never be used4 ,where larger sewers are constructed they should be either concrete pipes1#aha or brickwork or concrete should be employed4 ,the position of the sewer should1 if possible1 be behind the houses for the following reasons3-- 7#a47 ,the waterclosets1 sinks1 c41 being nearly always at the back1 a drain under the house 7which is always objectionable7 is avoided4 7#b47 ,economy is secured to the owner of the property1 as a shorter length of drain is required than if the sewer was in the front4 7#c47 ,a better fall is usually obtained4 7#d47 ,where there is a separate or partially separate system of sewerage1 a double sewer in the street is avoided4 ,the only objection to this method being that of the chance of the sewer becoming choked or broken when entry has to be made into private property to repair it1 but this ought never to happen after once the sewer has been properly constructed4 ,of course1 where houses are closely packed together it would not be possible to carry the sewer at the back1 but where it can be done ,i agree thoroughly with ,mr4 ,rawlinson1 ,c4,b41 ,c4,e41 c41 who1 speaking of this method1 says1 8,i know nothing but good of it40 ,where the sewer is proposed to be taken through any private lands it is necessary to act in accordance with the following clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 and serve the necessary notices1 a specimen form of which also follows3 8,any local authority may carry any sewer through1 across1 or under any turnpike road1 or any street or place laid out as or intended for a street1 or under any cellar or vault which may be under the pavement or carriageway of any street1 and1 after giving reasonable notice in writing to the owner or occupier 7if on the report of the surveyor it appears necessary71 into1 through1 or under any lands#ahb whatsoever within their district4 ,they may also 7subject to the provisions of this ,act relating to sewage works without the district of the local authority7 exercise all or any of the powers given by this section without their district for the purposes of outfall or distribution of sewage0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #af74 ,the form of notice necessary to be served before entry upon any lands for the purpose of carrying out any sewerage works may be on the following pattern3-- 8,,notice ,,is ,,hereby ,,given4 8#a4 ,that the mayor1 aldermen1 and burgesses of the borough of 1 in execution of the powers and authorities given to and vested in them by virtue of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 upon the report of their surveyor1 whereby it appears to the said authority to be necessary to enter into1 through1 or under the lands and premises particularly described in the schedule hereunder written1 for the several purposes hereinafter mentioned1 the said mayor1 aldermen1 and burgesses will immediately after the day of enter into and upon the premises described in the said schedule hereto1 and on the plan hereinafter mentioned numbered 1 for the purpose of in1 through1 or under the said lands and premises 1 and to construct all other necessary works for all or any of the purposes aforesaid4 8#b4 ,the course of the said sewer is indicated by a line drawn on the said plan from the point to 4 8,and notice is hereby further given that a plan of the intended works1 and of the lands and premises upon which it is intended to enter for the construction of the same1 is now open for inspection1 between the hours of #aj in the forenoon and #d in the afternoon1 and may then be seen at the offices of the borough surveyor1 ,street1 1 and a tracing thereof is hereunto annexed4 ,dated this day of #ah 4 ,town ,clerk40#ahc ,,the ,,schedule ,,referred ,,to4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,no4 on plan4,description of premises4,where situate4,owner4 ,occupier4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,in carrying out works of sewerage the greatest care is necessary in the materials selected and the manner in which the work is executed4 ,tunnels and shafts must be most carefully timbered1 levels very accurately given and adhered to1 and for this purpose sight rails and long boning rods can be used with great advantage4 ,in running sands1 or where the line of an old sewer is being followed1 or in fact anywhere where a good and quick joint is required1 8,stanford's0 patent jointed pipes should be used4 8,this joint is made by casting1 upon the spigot and in the socket of each pipe1 rings of durable material1 which1 when put together1 fit mechanically into each other1 as in a bored and turned joint2 it needs no skilled labour in fixing1 only a little grease1 allows of slight settlement of the pipes without injury1 and requires neither cement1 clay1 nor other extraneous material1 the pipes containing a perfect joint within themselves40 ,breakages sometimes occur in stoneware pipe sewers after they are laid1 which generally are found on examination to arise from one of the following causes3 7#a47 ,laying the pipes on a rigid foundation without recessing the sockets so as to give an even bearing4 7#b47 ,laying the pipes on foundations which afterwards yield or settle4 7#c47 ,laying the pipes at too great a depth without protection by concrete or otherwise to resist the pressure of the superincumbent earth1 or by not sufficiently punning the filling-in1 when a sudden settlement will often crack or crush a pipe4 7#d47 ,accidental or wilful injuries to pipes which are not noticed before the trench is filled in4 7#e47 ,laying the pipes at too shallow a depth without protection1 when heavy traffic or a falling weight upon the surface will crush or crack a pipe4 7#f47 ,defective or weak pipes4#ahd ,the following plates give the different forms of sewerage pipes that are now manufactured in this country1 in addition to those of common shapes3 ,illustration3 ,,brooke',s ,,patent ,,subsoil ,,drains ,,and ,,pipe-,,rests4 ,illustration3 ,,creeke',s ,,patent ,,capped ,,pipes4 ,illustration3 ,,mawbey',s ,,patent ,,grooved ,,socket-,,pipes4 ,illustration3 ,,henry ,,sharp1 ,,jones1 ,,co4',s ,,rock-,,concrete ,,pipes4 ,illustration3 ,,jenning',s ,,patent ,,chair ,,and ,,saddle ,,pipes4 ,the chokage in pipe sewers generally arises from one or more of the following causes3-- 7#a47 ,improper gradients4 7#b47 ,insufficient flush4#ahe 7#c47 ,foreign articles finding their way into and choking the sewer4 7#d47 ,defective joints through which the liquid runs leaving solid matters behind4 7#e47 ,an excess of road detritus or of ashes1 through the house closets of the poor1 finding their way into the sewer4 7#f47 ,improper bends in the line of sewer4 7#g47 ,right-angle or improper junctions being formed with the sewer4 7#h47 ,a collapse of the sewer4 ,a temporary chokage in a small-sized sewer which does not arise from any structural defect can be speedily and effectually remedied by the use of ,ben ,reed's patent drain-cleaning rods1 which are probably too well known to every town surveyor to need any description1 but in conjuction with man- or lamp-holes and straight lines of sewers they are very valuable4 ,before closing this chapter1 a few words upon what is called the 8separate system of sewerage0 may be of use4 ,the mistake hitherto made has been to try to absolutely separate all rainfall from the sewers1 and there is no doubt that a partial separation of the rain-water from the sewage proper has many advantages2 but it must be understood that a great deal of the rain-water that falls upon roofs of buildings and in back yards and small back streets must of necessity be carried into the sewers1 as well as liquid refuse from manufactories4 ,a partial separation thus carried out has the following advantages3 7#a47 ,it is not necessary to have sewers of enormous diameter4 7#b47 ,the depth of the surface water conduits need not be so great as that which is necessary for sewers4 7#c47 ,the avoidance of road detritus being washed into the sewers4 7#d47 ,where the sewage has to be pumped or treated chemically or put on the land1 the combined system causes an immense unwieldy bulk of liquid to be at times dealt with4#ahf 7#e47 ,the sewers may be placed at the back of the houses1 a great advantage which cannot be carried out under the combined system4 7#f47 ,the regularity in the amount of flow of sewage4 7#g47 ,the accuracy with which the quantity of sewage may be calculated and the sizes of sewers apportioned4 7#h47 ,economy both to the general rates and also to individuals in carrying out their connections4 7#i47 ,where old and defective sewers exist they are often fitted to carry surface water1 but are quite inappropriate as sewers4 ,no rules1 however1 can be laid down with regard to this question1 as each town or district must be treated as the case requires4 ,in conclusion1 ,i will mention the different methods at present in vogue for the sewerage of towns4 7#a47 ,the combined system1 where all sewage1 surface water1 manufacturers' refuse1 and subsoil waters are carried in the same sewer4 7#b47 ,similar to the above1 the subsoil water1 however1 being carefully excluded4 7#c47 ,the partially separate system4 7#d47 ,the absolutely separate system1 where there are three sets of sewers1 one for sewage proper1 one for surface water1 and one for subsoil water4 7#e47 ,the 8,lieurner0 system1 which professes to remove all sewage by exhausting the air in the sewers and drains4 7#f47 8,shone's0 pneumatic ejector system1 which is described as follows3-- 8,the ejectors are cast-iron receivers of a suitable form1 placed underground at depths to suit the locality1 into which ejectors the sewage flows through the ordinary pipe drains from the houses4 ,as the liquid rises in the interior of the ejector1 and when full1 it lifts a valve and admits compressed air from an engine which supplies the entire district4 ,the ejectors are thus emptied of their contents1 which are blown out in about eighty seconds of time1 and the sewage passes through cast-iron main pipes of suitable diameters to the land1 or other outlet provided to receive it1 or it may be distributed upon the waste land as it passes through40 7#g47 ,the dry systems1 which consist of-- 7a47 ,earth closets2 7b47 ,tubs1 as the ,goux1 c42 7c47 ,pails1 as the ,rochdale2 7d47 ,middens4 ,but all these dry systems require some system of sewers to carry off rain-water1 slop-water1 c41 and in my opinion are not suitable for very large communities4 #agd ,if the sewers vested in and belonging to a local authority are allowed by their negligence to get out of repair1 they are liable to an action for damages 7,vide #8,fitzgerald's ,public ,health ,act1' #crd edition1 p4 #ai74 ,keeping in repair does not1 however1 include construction of entirely new works4 7,ibid47 #age ,the sewers provided by a local authority must be sufficient to carry off the ordinary sewage and rainfall of the district1 but they need not be sufficient to carry off an extraordinary flow of water caused by a storm2 damage caused by that comes under the definition of damage caused by the act of ,god1 for which there is no individual responsibility 7,ibid4 p4 #bj74 ,this clause seems to insist upon sewers carrying the rainfall4 #agf ,see chapter on 8,ventilation of ,sewers40 #agg ,a local authority is not to be held liable for not keeping their sewers cleansed at all events and under all circumstances1 but only where by the exercise of reasonable care and skill they can be kept cleansed4 ,they are1 however1 liable1 in case they make default in observing the requirements1 to have an injunction filed against them and to be restrained by injunction from allowing the continuance of the nuisance4 7,ibid4 p4 #bc47 #agh ,for the legal definition of 8drain10 see the chapter on 8,house ,drainage40 #agi ,facilities must be given to enable manufacturers to send the liquids proceeding from their works into the public sewers1 provided the sewers are more than sufficient for the requirements of the district1 or if the liquids would not prejudicially affect the sewers1 or from their temperature or otherwise be injurious in a sanitary point of view4 ,vide ,rivers ,pollution ,act #ahgf 7#ci #dj ,vic4 c4 #ge1 s4 #g74 ,but this question is often greatly disputed1 and has led to much litigation4 #ahj ,if everything has to be carried in a sewer1 the following provisions must be made3-- 7a7 ,the house sewage which may be calculated from the water supply4 7b7 ,manufacturers' refuse4 7c7 ,rainfall1 which is a very uncertain quantity4 7d7 ,the subsoil water should certainly be dealt with1 but it should on no account be permitted to enter the sewers themselves2 separate provision under the main sewers should be provided for this purpose4 #aha ,messrs4 ,sharp1 ,jones and ,co41 of ,bournemouth1 make most excellent concrete pipes up to #cf inches in diameter1 which can be economically and advantageously used in many instances1 and are gaining every day in popularity with engineers4 #ahb ,the definition of 8lands0 as given in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 is as follows3--8#8lands' and #8premises' include messuages1 buildings1 lands1 easements1 and hereditaments of any tenure0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #d74 #ahc ,notices may be signed either by the clerk to the local authority or their surveyor 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #bff74 #ahd ,the thickness of stoneware pipe sewers should be as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,internal diameter of pipe4,thickness of material4 ---------------------------------------- -------- in4 in4 #c #d #f #i #a #ab #a #ae #a #ah #a ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the thickness of fire clay or earthenware pipes should be slightly in excess of those given for stoneware4 #ahe ,the patent automatic flushing arrangement by ,mr4 ,rogers ,field1 ,c4,e41 is an excellent apparatus for lessening the chances of a sewer becoming choked from this cause4 #ahf ,it is necessary in many towns where the combined system is in force1 and the sewage has to be pumped when heavy rains commence1 to put temporary clay dams round the street gratings to prevent the surface water from entering the sewers1 thus at once showing the inability of the system to deal with flood waters4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,sewage ,,disposal4 ,the magnitude of the question of 8sewage disposal0 almost decided me to refrain from making any remarks upon it1 but on reconsideration ,i thought a few might be serviceable4 ,sewage disposal means the getting rid of the foul water contained in the sewerage system of any community4 ,where a dry method is in force for the collection of the excrementitious matters it is called 8interception02 the following are some of the systems which effect it3-- ,privies1 ashpits1 middens1 cesspools1 pails1 troughs1 the 8,rochdale10 the 8,eureka10 the 8,goux10 ,fosses ,permanentes1 ,fosses ,mobiles1 and ,moule's1 ,taylor's1 and ,phillip's earth closets4 ,the collection and disposal of the mass of excrement under these dry systems is found to be a very troublesome matter1 and they are at their best but inferior substitutes for water carriage1 nor must it be forgotten that sewers and drains are necessary even if a good interception process is in force4 ,i shall therefore confine my remarks to the disposal of water-carried sewage4 ,many books have been written1 many valuable reports have been prepared and issued1 lengthy papers and discussions have been frequent at the meetings of scientific societies1 and almost innumerable pamphlets have been published upon this important sanitary subject4 ,some millions of money have also been spent in trying to deal satisfactorily with this question1 not only with a view to the purification of the effluent of the sewage1 but also to endeavour to make a profit out of the residuals4#ahg ,the result of this literature1 discussion1 and experiment has led to the following conclusions3 ,no hard and fast lines can be laid down as to the best method to be adopted for the disposal of the sewage of any town1 but the peculiar circumstances of each case must be considered before advice could be given on the subject3 geographical position1 physical arrangement1 habits of the population1 and the character and quantity of the sewage of the town being some of the most important4 ,in any case it is necessary that the transmission of the sewage to the outfall should be effected as speedily as possible1 and that the position of this outfall should be such as to cause no nuisance4 ,the contents of the sewers should1 if possible1 be emptied by gravitation1 as pumping is a constant expense1 and economy with efficiency must of course be studied4 ,up to the present time the following are the methods adopted in this country for the disposal of sewage3 7#a47 ,passing the sewage in its crude state into the sea or tidal river4 7#b47 ,passing the sewage in its crude state over large tracts of land2 this is called broad irrigation4 7#c47 ,passing the sewage in its crude state on to small tracts of land previously prepared by deep drainage2 this is called intermittent downward filtration4 7#d47 ,mechanical subsidence of the sewage in large tanks1 the effluent passing on to land or into a river4 7#e47 ,mechanical filtration of the sewage1 the effluent passing on to land or into a river4 7#f47 ,the introduction of lime or other precipitant into the sewage1 which is allowed to settle in tanks1 the effluent passing on to land or into a river4 ,very little need be said upon the first of these methods4 ,many engineers of high standing contend that1 where practicable1 the sea or the tidal estuary of a river is the right place for the sewage1 as no costly works are necessary1 and an abominable nuisance is thus got rid of at once and for ever4 ,to ensure this1 however1 great care must be exercised in the selection of the site for the outfall4 ,float observations should be made1 not only of the surface tides and currents1 but also of those at different depths1 and the effect upon the sewage by its different specific gravity from that of the salt water must be allowed for1 as well as the difference of level of the tides and the configuration of the adjoining coast line4 ,the second method1 that of broad irrigation1 is one that finds considerable favour with a large number of engineers and agriculturists4 ,the great sewage-disposal cry has always been1 8,put back on the land what you have taken from it1 or some day there will be no beef and no bread40 ,the difficulty is to always find land in sufficient quantity and so situated as to be available for this purpose4 ,almost any soil is1 however1 suitable for irrigation1 provided it is well and properly drained4 ,the quantity of sewage which should be used for this purpose per acre of land varies considerably1 as will be seen on reference to a table prepared by ,mr4 ,henry ,robinson1#ahh where the number of inhabitants to each acre irrigated is in one case 7,leamington7 stated to be #ee1 in another 7,blackburn7 #bjh1ahi the average being #acg1 the number of gallons per head of population per diem being #ch4 ,it may be useful to state here that a hundred tons of sewage will cover an acre of land #a inch in depth1 and that the value of sewage as a manure is said to vary from d4 to #b;d4 per ton1 or1 calculated in another manner1 about #aj;d4 per head of population per annum4 ,the best crops for a sewage farm 7in addition to nearly all kinds of market-garden produce7 are rye-grass1 mangolds1 beetroot1 cabbages1 carrots1 potatoes1 turnips1 rabi1 parsnips1 lucerne1 beans1 wheat1 oats1 and barley2 the cereals1 however1 are apt to run rather to straw1 and some care is also necessary not to oversewage potatoes and some other root crops4 ,grazing cattle or cows can also be carried on with advantage1 the presence of sewage having no effect either on the milk or flesh of animals fed on sewage farms4 ,the third method1 that of intermittent downward filtration1 is really irrigation of land to such an extent as the land will filter or purify the sewage1 the effluent passing off pure1 irrespective of any effect upon the crops which may be growing upon the land4 ,great discussions have arisen 7the principal battle-ground being ,merthyr ,tydvil7 as to the maximum quantity of sewage which an acre of properly prepared land will treat1 some of the champions of this system contending that a good porous soil properly drained to a depth of six feet will purify the sewage of #fjjj persons per acre1 others that only the sewage of #bej persons can be so treated4#aij ,there can be no doubt that earth has a most powerful deodorising power4 ,laboratory experiments have shown that as much as eight gallons of sewage can be filtered through a cubic yard of loamy soil in twenty-four hours1 the soil being drained at a depth of six feet1 the effluent therefrom having obtained a wonderful degree of purity4 ,much1 however1 must depend upon the character of the soil of the filtering area and the strength of the sewage which is being operated upon4 ,the following description of the manner in which the earth acts upon sewage will be of interest3 8,the fcal matters and other impurities attached themselves to the surfaces of the particles of earth by a kind of cohesive attraction1 and in this state were readily attacked by the oxygen of the air4 ,their organic carbon became carbonic acid1 their nitrogen was converted into nitrous or nitric acid1 which united with the lime1 magnesia1 and other basic matters present4 ,mechanically suspended impurities were arrested as by a sieve1 and the water issued from beneath--not indeed fit for dietetic or domestic purposes1 but at any rate in a fair state of purity and quite inoffensive to the senses40 7,vide ,w4 ,crookes in the discussion on the ,sewage ,question by ,norman ,bazalgette1 #8,min4 of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 xlviii4 p4 #afd47 ,the land thus used as a sewage filter requires constant aration by being dug over or ploughed1 and if this precaution is taken1 it is surprising to what a wonderful extent the land will take sewage without becoming what is called 8sewage sick40 ,clay soils are1 however1 stated to be ill-adapted for this purpose4 ,the next method1 that of mechanical subsidence of the sewage in large tanks1 has been attempted in conjunction with irrigation and filtration without much benefit1 nor has the fifth method ,i have mentioned1 viz41 that of mechanical filtration of the sewage1 met with any better result4 ,artificial filters have been constructed of burnt clay1 cinders1 coke1 charcoal1 peat1 chalk1 gravel1 broken stone1 sand1 spongy iron 7this is now being applied very successfully for the purification of water71 straw1 cocoa-nut matting1 wicker-work1 and wire gauze of different degrees of fineness of mesh4 ,the late ,mr4 ,odams spent a considerable sum in endeavouring to strain sewage through revolving screens of wire gauze with but little success1 and ,mr4 ,bannehr has striven to achieve the same object by passing sewage over oscillating screens of the like material4 ,in all these cases of mechanical filtration1 however1 the effluent has either not been sufficiently pure or the screens and filters have become clogged and refused to act4#aia ,the last method that ,i have mentioned for the disposal of sewage is that of precipitation1 or what may be more properly called the chemical treatment of sewage4 ,precipitation means the production1 by the introduction of chemical substances within the body of the sewage1 of certain solid compounds1 which1 in settling1 drag down with them the suspended matters in the sewage1 together with a small proportion of the polluting matters which are in solution in the sewage1 this proportion varying with the quantity of solid matters deposited4 ,the effluent from the tanks in which this precipitation takes place is then allowed to flow direct into a river or stream1 or is still further purified by being passed over land or filtered through deep-drained soils4 ,chemical treatment of sewage was first tried in ,paris in the year #agdj1 and since then every effort has been made to extract a valuable and commercial manure from sewage and purify the effluent4 ,between the years #ahfe and #ahge more than #djj patents were taken out in respect of these and other matters in connection with the sewage question4 ,it is almost needless to say that but few of these patents were of any practical value4 ,those processes which have some merit and are now best known are1 ,i believe1 included in the following list3-- ,,list ,,of ,,chemical ,,processes ,,for ,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,town ,,sewage4 ,the ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 7or ,sillar's7 process ,anderson's process ,bird's ,blyth's ,campbell's ,collin's ,forbes and ,price's process ,fulda's process ,goodall's ,hanson's ,higg's ,hille's ,holden's process ,lenk's ,lundy's ,manning's ,scott's ,smith's ,spence's ,stothert's ,suvern's ,whitthread's process ,wickstead's ,space will not permit me to describe these processes1 and probably most of them1 if not all1 are familiar to my readers4 ,suffice it to say that in nearly all cases the modus operandi is that of mixing certain chemicals with the sewage by mechanical agitation1 or by passing the sewage over 8salmon ladders10 c41 then allowing the sewage to remain perfectly still whilst the solids are gravitating1 and then dealing with the effluent in different manners4 ,amongst the numerous chemical ingredients which are used for this purpose may be mentioned the following3-- ,alum1 animal charcoal1 ashes1 blood1 bone ash1 carbolic acid1 chalk1 chloride of lime1 chloride of zinc1 chloride of iron1 clay1 creosote1 hmatite1 hydrate of lime1 lead nitrate1 magnesian salts1 oxide of manganese1 perchloride of iron1 salt1 soda1 sulphate of zinc1 sulphate of iron1 sulphuric acid1 and tar4 ,one of the great difficulties in connection with the precipitation of sewage is the disposal of the sludge which is left behind in the tanks4 ,this sludge contains about #ij per cent4 of moisture1 and if left to dry atmospherically1 a thin crust forms over it1 thus protecting that which is underneath1 and it will not dry for many months4 ,in some cases it is sought to dispose of the accumulations of sludge by digging it into the land2 in others it is mixed with house ashes1 c41 and sold as manure4 ,its bulk1 however1 in proportion to its manurial value is so excessive as to render it almost valueless1 and it is difficult to get rid of it for this purpose even when fortified with ammonia or other chemical4 ,a frequent practice now adopted is to reduce its bulk by exposure or by presses to a semi-dried condition2 in other cases it is dried to a powder by heat1 and ,general ,scott has patented a method where1 in connection with the lime process1 it is burned and manufactured into cement4 ,sometimes it is squeezed in presses1 such as ,needham and ,kite's or ,johnson's1 or it is filtered by ,milburn's or ,weare's apparatus4 ,for drying the sludge by heat1 ,borwick's or ,forrest's machines have been used with some success1 but there is no doubt that the slimy1 glutinous1 albuminous1 offensive mixture technically known as sludge is a difficult matter to dispose of in all sewage works4 ,in connection with the chemical treatment of sewage1 it is of advantage to pass the effluent over land filters on the intermittent downward filtration principle4 ,another very effective plan is to pass the effluent 7or even crude sewage7 through land which is thickly planted with the ,anacharis or ,american weed1 duckweed1 sedges1 rushes1 reeds1 c41 or through beds of osiers or alder trees4 ,an acre of land thus planted is said to purify more than three million gallons of sewage per diem4#aib ,there is no doubt that plants of this description have a powerful action in purifying sewage or foul water of any kind1 and where land is scarce this method has many advantages4 ,it is almost unnecessary to add that where sewage is treated in any other manner than that of throwing it into the sea or river1 bulk is a great objection1 especially if it has to be pumped4 ,to obviate this bulk the separate system is of great advantage1 and ,isaac ,shone's new method for ejecting sewage along pipes seems also to be a most desirable invention in connection with this subject4 #ahg ,it is computed that every ton of liquid sewage which is treated chemically costs about three-quarters of a farthing4 #ahh ,vide #8,sewage ,disposal1' by ,henry ,robinson1 ,c4,e41 c41 #bnd edition1 p4 #gi4 #ahi ,i purposely omit 7,kendal7 #hef1 as this is1 properly speaking1 8filtration40 #aij ,for much interesting information upon this and other subjects in connection with sewage disposal1 see #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 xlviii4 p4 #aje et seq4 ,also the report of a committee of the ,local ,government ,board on ,modes of ,treating ,town ,sewage1 #ahgf4 #8,sewage ,disposal1' by ,henry ,robinson1 ,c4,e41 and other works on the subject4 #aia ,under the ,rivers ,pollution ,act1 no effluent is allowed to enter a stream c41 if it contains more than three parts of suspended inorganic matter1 and one part organic matter for every #ajj1jjj parts of liquid4 #aib ,vide #8,minutes of ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1' vol4 xlviii4 p4 #agi4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,ventilation ,,of ,,sewers4 ,the necessity for some manner of dealing with the noxious vapours emanating from sewage other than that of letting it find its way from the sewers into the house drains and thence into dwelling houses1 has induced the legislature of this country to introduce the following clause in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 which imposes on every local authority the duty of causing their sewers to be ventilated so as not to be a nuisance or injurious to health4 8,every local authority shall cause the sewers belonging to them to be constructed1 covered1 ventilated and kept1 so as not to be a nuisance1 or injurious to health1 and to be properly cleansed and emptied0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ai74 ,the result of this compulsion upon local authorities to ventilate their sewers has been the introduction of many methods to effect the purpose1 the great difficulty being to 8ventilate so as not to be a nuisance or injurious to health10 the advocates of open ventilation contending that this is effected by having a sufficient number of openings in a sewer to dilute and safely disseminate the foul gas with atmospheric air so that no nuisance is caused4#aic ,many other methods have been from time to time suggested1 some of which have been carried into effect1 and ,i will now proceed to give them in detail1 discussing their merits and objections in each case4 7#a47 ,open shafts are carried up from the crown of the sewer to the centre or side of the roadway1 and there protected by an open iron grid or grating at the level of the street surface4 ,this is the system which has hitherto found most favour with town surveyors1 and is sometimes modified or worked in conjunction with the practice of untrapping all the gully pits and buddle holes at the sides of the roadway1 which is an excellent plan if the theory of the atmospheric air dilution at which this system aims is a correct one2 in fact1 if this dilution by air is all that is necessary to render the foul air in a sewer innocuous and inoffensive1 there cannot be too many openings into it4 ,the objections to this system are as follows3 7a47 ,the foul air escaping into the public streets is often very injurious to persons passing a ventilator1 and sewers are buried out of sight1 but they are not out of mind so long as we are constantly and unpleasantly reminded of their existence4 7b47 ,it is found that a change of temperature either of the atmosphere1 or of the air in a sewer1 will seriously affect the action of a shaft1 causing it sometimes to have upcast currents of air1 sometimes downcast2 the effect of this latter action1 especially when it arises from the direction of the wind blowing over or into the shaft1 is frequently to drive the impure gases contained in the sewer into the house drains1 and from thence into the houses1 unless they are so trapped and ventilated as to prevent it4 7c47 ,they are also affected by the fluctuations of the flow of sewage in the sewer1 or by barometric changes in the atmosphere4 7d47 ,the situation of the open grids in the street is sometimes somewhat awkward for traffic1 and horses will frequently shy at them1 they also admit solid road detritus into the sewer unless they are protected by a catch plate of some description4 7e47 ,they are tempting places for children to play over1 with what results may be imagined4 7#b47 ,open shafts are carried up the sides 7gable ends if possible7 of buildings in the neighbourhood of the sewer2 these shafts may be either open at the top1 or be furnished with exhaust cowls4 ,this system is sometimes employed in conjunction with inlet shafts at the sides of the street1 in the manner shown by the drawing which follows3 ,illustration ,this method has the advantage over the first system ,i have mentioned of carrying the smells further from our reach1 but it also has the following disadvantages3 7a47 ,the distance and the number of bends and elbows the gases have to traverse before reaching the external air4 7b47 ,the difficulty of fixing them just at the points where they are most required with reference to the gradients of the sewer1 especially if they are to be constructed of such an internal diameter as will ensure their efficiency4 7c47 ,the great objection raised by occupiers and owners of premises against having them fixed on their premises1 both on sanitary and legal grounds4 7d47 ,their great expense4 7e47 ,the effect of weather upon their currents4 7#c47 ,by making use of the rain-water pipes from adjoining buildings4 ,this method commends itself as being very economical1 and the opportunities thus given for ventilation are so numerous4 ,if sewers are to be ventilated at all#aid it would seem at first sight that there could not be too many openings from and into them1 but this system has the following serious objections3 7a47 ,when raining1 little or no ventilation can take place1 and this is the very time1 owing to the rising of the water in the sewer1 that the gases should be allowed free egress if such is considered the best manner of dealing with them4 7b47 ,the position of the head of the rain-water pipe is generally the worst that could be chosen for the egress of the gases1 both on sanitary and pneumatic grounds4 7c47 ,the joints of a rain-water pipe are usually none of the best4 7d47 ,the objections persons naturally have to allow the rain-water pipes of their houses to be used for such a purpose4 7#d47 ,by utilising the lamp posts or columns adjacent to the sewer4 ,the objects of this system are first to obtain a constant upward current from the sewer1 and secondly to secure that the foul gases and air shall be consumed and rendered innocuous by being burnt4 ,the objections to this system are-- 7a47 ,the lamps are only lit at night1 consequently little or no ventilation would be going on during the day4 7b47 ,the number and diameter of the lamps are generally too small to make any appreciable effect upon the ventilation of the sewer4 7#e47 ,by passing or filtering the foul air through charcoal placed in trays or other receptacles in shafts4 ,the theory of this method is admirable1 as the charcoal would arrest all the impurities and flocculent organic matters contained in the foul air1 and allow only the pure filtered air to pass into the atmosphere4 ,it has been found1 however1 where this method has been adopted1 that the charcoal very soon becomes so caked and consolidated from damp and the vibration of the traffic1 that it will neither allow the air to filter through1 nor absorb the impurities contained in it2 these objections and the amount of attention this system requires1 has not rendered it very popular with town surveyors1 although it has much to recommend it4 7#f47 ,by making use of ordinary chimney shafts4 ,this method and the one which follows have some merits1 the principle being that an upward current is established as an exhaust from the sewer1 and also that the foul air is purified by being passed through fire1 but both these advantages are only gained when the fires are actually burning2 the objections to this system are-- 7a47 ,structural difficulties must often be encountered and overcome4 7b47 ,possibility of explosion arising from leaks of gas mains into sewers 7a by no means uncommon occurrence1 as all who have charge of sewers frequently find to their cost74 7c47 ,the objections of owners and occupiers to allow their premises to be thus made use of to carry off a public nuisance for which they as individuals are in no way responsible4 7#g47 ,by lofty shafts erected at convenient positions which are either in connection with furnaces or are simply open to the air4 ,for a long outfall sewer with no connections this method has many advantages1 notably so in the large furnace and shaft erected on the ,brighton outfall sewer by the borough surveyor1 ,mr4 ,lockwood4 ,but in a general system of sewerage1 it was found by experiments made by ,sir ,joseph ,bazalgette1 ,c4,b4 that the effect of trying to reduce the gases by the action of furnaces was but very small1 and that the area over which the effect extended was but very limited3 in fact1 a sewer may be compared to a perforated tube1 the house drains1 gully drains1 c41 representing the perforations2 the effect of an exhaustion by the action of the furnace is simply to suck fresh air into the sewer at all these points instead of removing the foul air for any distance4 ,high shafts at different points effect a partial clearance of sewer gases1 but they are very costly1 and the reasons ,i have previously given against the system of open shafts are practically the same in this and all other modifications of the principle4 ,many other methods have been tried from time to time1 either to prevent the formation of gases in the sewers1 or neutralize or destroy them1 some of which are as follows3 ,by giving a quick velocity of discharge in a sewer2 by placing materials within sewers which would absorb the gases as fast as they were generated2 by passing deodorants or disinfectants into sewers2 by deodorizing or disinfecting all materials before they are allowed to enter a drain or sewer2 by placing chemical agents within sewers to give off certain gases which would then1 it was conjectured1 destroy the noxious properties of the sewer gases2 by introducing charcoal into sewers to absorb the foul gases2 by laying pipes within the sewers for the purpose of discharging chlorine into the sewer2 by employing galvanic agency to disengage or to produce ozone from the sewer gas2 by passing the foul air through shafts into which water was constantly injected1 and by endeavouring to extract the foul air by fans driven by machinery4 ,i have myself patented a plan for 8annihilating sewer gases0 by allowing them to be absorbed into dry earth1 and have tried the system with some very marked and successful results4#aie ,having thus far considered all the known methods for dealing with the noxious emanations which proceed from sewers1 the next point to consider is what these noxious emanations are1 and whether they exist in all sewers4 ,it has been found that even in sewers of the best and most modern construction what is called 8sewer gas0 is generated in more or less quantity2 this arises even from fresh sewage1 but is far more noxious and dangerous to health when the sewage has begun to decompose4 ,even where the sewers are so constructed as to remove all the sewage to the outfall within #bd hours 7which has been decided to be the maximum time it should take71 there is still an accumulation of slime on the inner periphery of the sewers1 owing to the rise and fall of the sewage line1 which is constantly manufacturing gases of decomposition4 ,it is no doubt true that the more perfect the system of sewerage is the less foul air there is in the sewers1 but in very few towns will there be found no sewers or drains where temporary obstructions of the sewage do not occur1 and where gases are generated1 which then find their way into other parts of the sewage system unless they are dealt with in some effective manner4 ,as to what is the actual composition of this foul air in a sewer little or nothing seems to be known1 except that it is highly dangerous to health if breathed1 and is also very offensive to the smell4 ,the 8ftid organic vapour10 or sewer gas proper1 has for its companions in a sewer1 sulphuretted hydrogen1 a most poisonous as well as unpleasant smelling gas1 carburetted hydrogen1 due very often to leaky gas mains or services1 or to decomposing vegetable matters1 carbonic acid gas or carbonic anhydride 7choke damp71 and some ammoniacal compounds4 ,the actual component parts1 however1 of any gases in a sewer must vary considerably with its conditions and locality1 c41 in the same manner as they would in any public building or room1 and it is impossible to tell1 without costly experiments1 what gases may be prevalent in any particular portion of a sewer4 ,but whatever may be the analysis of this foul air1 there can be but little doubt that it contains organic matter floating about in it as solids1 and that it is excessively injurious and even dangerous to breathe1 and that it should be caught and destroyed or rendered innocuous1 and not be permitted to pass into and contaminate and poison the air we breathe4 ,some engineers are of opinion that this foul air always finds its way to the upper portions of the sewerage system1 but my investigations into this subject have led me to believe that no rule of this kind can be laid down1 for with quick velocities of flow1 in some sewers1 the gases are carried by friction in the direction of the flow of the sewage1 and do not ascend as has been imagined4 ,whatever system of ventilation of the main sewers in any town may be adopted1 it is imperative that the house drains connected with them should be properly trapped and ventilated1 and this is in my judgment of even greater importance than the ventilation of the main sewers4 ,on this point ,i have given more explanations in the chapter upon 8,house ,drainage40 ,in conclusion1 let me refer my readers to a most exhaustive discussion1 and very valuable information contained in the chapter entitled 8,ventilation of ,sewers and ,drains0 in ,mr4 ,baldwin ,latham's #8,sanitary ,engineering1' in which may be found almost everything that is at present known upon this important subject4 #aic ,if there is any truth in the 8germ theory0 of disease1 how dangerous must be the practice of open sewer ventilation1 a waft of foul air from a sewer carrying with it a germ1 and the unsuspecting passer-by is inoculated just as surely as if he had handled or been near the excrements of the diseased person whose evacuations have been passed into the public sewer4 #aid ,the important city of ,bristol has no system of sewer ventilation1 and yet the death rate of the city1 which is by no means specially healthily situated1 has not been abnormally high up to this year 7#ahhc74 #aie ,for further information upon my system for the annihilation of sewer gases1 ,i must refer my readers to a pamphlet written by myself in #ahhj1 entitled #8,sewer ,ventilation1 or a ,new and ,improved ,system for the disposal of the ,noxious ,gases generated in ,sewers and ,drains1' and also to a paper ,i read on this subject at the meeting of the ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain1 held in ,exeter in the year #ahha4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,public ,,conveniences4 ,in almost every town in the ,united ,kingdom public urinals are now erected1 although it is not often that good watercloset accommodation is provided1 except at hotels and railway stations1 over which the local authority have no jurisdiction2 or perhaps if they do provide any accommodation of this description it is only in connection with the public parks or in the markets1 museums1 c4 ,the clause of the ,public ,health ,act which empowers an urban authority to spend money out of the district rates for this purpose is as follows3 8,any urban authority may if they think fit provide and maintain in proper and convenient situations1 urinals1 waterclosets1 earthclosets1 privies and ashpits and other similar conveniences for public accommodation0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ci74 ,it is not my intention to enter into the merits or otherwise of the many descriptions of urinals and latrines that have been brought to the notice from time to time of every town surveyor by enterprising manufacturers and patentees1 but only to give a few suggestions upon the subject4 ,public urinals ought to be erected by the urban authority as a matter of convenience to the peripatetic portion of any community1 and also to prevent nuisances being committed in improper places4 ,in selecting sites for urinals the town surveyor must take care that after erection they shall not be offensive or a nuisance to any persons living in the vicinity1 and that they shall be so placed that although they may be easily found1 the persons using them shall be effectually screened4#aif ,urinals are better constructed of iron rather than of brickwork or more solid workmanship1 in order that they can be readily removed4 ,it is surprising what an uproar is sometimes raised in a neighbourhood by the erection of a urinal2 this clamour occasionally has so much effect upon the urban authority that they order the removal of the urinal1 although it may not have been erected many days1 and if it has been substantially built a considerable waste of the public money is thus involved4 ,where a urinal is constructed with basins1 as by the following plan1 the basins may be of iron or good stone ware or similar construction1 these being always kept full of water which is constantly although slowly changing4 ,illustration ,stall urinals may be some modification of the following plan1 and be constructed of iron with slate partitions1 or the partitions may be of iron covered with plate glass where soiled1 the stalls should not be less than #bd in4 in the clear1 and water must be kept constantly flowing over the soiled portion either from a perforated pipe or a spreader4#aig ,a very excellent arrangement is to have a trench or trough cut at the foot of the stall for the whole length of the urinal1 which is kept constantly full of water and occasionally flushed1 thus avoiding nuisance in a very satisfactory manner4 ,illustration ,provision must of course be made to efficiently drain and light all public urinals1 and arrangements should be made by which they can be thoroughly washed once or twice a day1 so as to keep every part scrupulously clean4 ,urine after a very short exposure exhales a most ftid and unpleasant odour1 from the decomposition of its nitrogenous matter4 ,carbolic acid1 chloride of lime1 sanitas1 or other disinfectant should also be used1 especially in warm weather4 ,if the interior of a public urinal or latrine has to be painted a light colour1 it is well to mix a little sand with the paint1 so as to prevent as much as possible that literature and art which so often disfigures establishments of this description4 ,an excellent composition with which to treat urinals1 although it is of a somewhat dark tint1 is a mixture of common coal tar and naphtha1 which not only gives a clean and polished appearance to the place1 but is also an excellent deodorant and disinfectant4 ,with regard to public ,w4,c4 accommodation1 this1 as ,i have before stated1 is not very often provided by an urban authority1#aih although common public latrines are sometimes erected4 ,these are generally used by rather rough persons1 and should be constructed in a strong and simple manner4 ,for this purpose stoneware bowls or basins placed over a drain and fitting into ordinary right-angled junctions placed vertically are simple and effective as well as very economical in construction4 ,slate1 iron1 or wood seats may be placed on these basins1 which should be kept half full of water4 ,a periodical and sudden flush which carries the whole contents into the nearest sewer can be arranged for so as to work automatically by the introduction of a cistern and one of ,mr4 ,roger ,field's flush syphons at the upper end of the system4 ,for further information on the subject of urinals1 waterclosets1 latrines1 and all similar subjects1 let the town surveyor refer to ,mr4 ,george ,jennings or ,messrs4 ,macfarlane1 who have an endless variety of designs and appliances in connection with such matters4 #aif ,the urban authority have an absolute discretion as to the sites they select4 ,they cannot1 however1 erect public conveniences so as thereby to cause a nuisance1 even though the convenience is wanted and the locality chosen suitable4 7,vide #8,public ,health and ,local ,government ,act1' by ,f4 ,v4 ,fitzgerald1 #crd edition1 p4 #cc47 #aig ,the quantity of water usually required to each stall when kept constantly running is about half a gallon per minute4 #aih ,for an excellent specimen of such public accommodation1 that at ,liverpool near the ,st4 ,george's ,hall should be inspected4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,artizans ,,and ,,labourers' ,,dwellings1 c4 ,the ,artizans and ,labourers' ,dwellings ,act #ahfh 7#ca #cb ,vic4 c4 #acj7 was in effect incorporated in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge so that 8every urban authority shall within their district1 4 4 4 have1 exercise and be subject to all the powers1 rights1 duties1 capacities1 liabilities1 and obligations within such district exercisable or attaching by and to the local authority0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aj74 ,the mode of procedure is as follows3 ,where the 8officer of health0#aii finds any premises in a condition or state dangerous to health so as to be unfit for human habitation1 he shall report the same in writing to the clerk of the local authority4 ,the local authority must then refer such report to a surveyor or engineer1#bjj who shall thereupon consider the report so furnished to him1 and report to the local authority what is the cause of the evil so reported on1 and if such evil is occasioned by defects in any premises1 whether the same can be remedied by structural alterations and improvements or otherwise1 or whether such premises or any or what part thereof ought to be demolished 7#ca #cb ,vic4 c4 #acj1 s4 #f74 ,upon the receipt of this report from the surveyor the local authority sends copies to the owner of the premises1 giving him opportunities of attending before them and of appealing against the report1 and if his objections are overruled1 a plan and specification of the works 7if any7 and an estimate of the cost of such works1 must be prepared by the surveyor1 and these in turn may be inspected by the owner and objected to by him in writing1 and he may also attend before the local authority1 and if he makes good his objections the local authority may direct the plan1 specification and estimate to be amended1 and the works would then be executed in accordance with the amended plans1 c4 7#ca #cb ,vic4 c4 #acj1 s4 #h74 ,persons who are aggrieved by any order of the local authority may appeal against it1 but failing this1 if the owner does not within two months diligently proceed with and complete the same in conformity with the specification to the satisfaction of the surveyor1 the local authority may either order the premises to be shut up1 or to be demolished1 or may themselves execute the required works in conformity with the specification 7#ca #cb ,vic4 c4 #acj1 s4 #ah74 ,if the requirements of the order involve the total demolition and not the improvement of the premises1 the owner shall within three months proceed to take down and remove them1 and if he fail to do so1 then the local authority may pull down and recoup the expenses by a sale of the old material 7#ca #cb ,vic4 c4 #acj1 s4 #bj74 ,the above ,act was amended in #ahgi by the 8,artizans and ,labourers' ,dwellings ,act 7#ahfh7 ,amendment ,act #ahgi0 7#db #dc ,vic4 c4 #fd71 the most important clause affecting the action of the town surveyor being as follows3 8,notwithstanding anything in the ,act of #ahfh1 the owner of any premises specified in an order of the local authority made under that ,act1 and requiring him to execute any works or to demolish such premises1 may within three months after service on him of the order1 require the local authority in writing to purchase such premises0 7#db #dc ,vic4 c4 #fd1 s4 #e74 ,the amount of compensation to be paid to the owner is to be settled by arbitration if no agreement can be arrived at1 such arbitration to be carried out in a manner provided for by certain clauses in this ,amendment ,act #ahgi4 ,sec4 #i of the same ,act also provides for the repayment 7by sale of old materials1 c47 of the cost incurred by the local authority in executing any works under the ,acts4 ,this ,act has again been amended quite recently 7,august #ahhb7 by 8,an ,act to ,amend the ,artizans and ,labourers' ,dwellings ,acts0 7#de #df ,vic4 c4 #ed71 the most important clause affecting the working of this ,act being as follows3 7#a47 8,if in any place to which the ,artizans and ,labourers' ,dwellings ,act #ahfh applies the officer of health finds that any building1 although not in itself unfit for human habitation1 is so situate that by reason of its proximity to or contact with any other building it causes one of the following effects1 that is to say3 87#a47 ,it stops ventilation or otherwise makes or conduces to make such other buildings to be in a condition unfit for human habitation2 or 87#b47 ,it prevents proper measures from being carried into effect for remedying the evils complained of in respect of such other buildings1 in any such case the officer of health shall make a report to the local authority in writing of the particulars relating to such first-mentioned building 7in this ,act referred to as #8an obstructive building'7 stating that in his opinion it is expedient that the obstructive building should be pulled down1 and shall deliver the report to the clerk of the local authority4 87#b47 ,the local authority shall refer such report to a surveyor or engineer to report thereon1 and to report as to the cost of acquiring the lands on which such obstructive building is erected1 and of pulling down such building40 ,the local authority then consider the reports of the officer of health and of the surveyor1 and proceed to give copies to the owner of the lands in question1 who has liberty of appeal1 c41 as before given in the ,act #ahfh4 ,the lands may be acquired by the local authority by agreement or compulsorily under the ,lands ,clauses ,consolidation ,acts1 and the obstructive building1 8or such part thereof as may be obstructive10 may be pulled 8down1 and the whole site1 or such part thereof as may be required to be kept open for the purpose of remedying the evils0 kept as an open space4 ,the owner of the land may1 by giving due notice1 declare that 8he desires to retain the site of the obstructive building1 and undertake either to pull down or to permit the local authority to pull down1 the obstructive building10 in which case he retains the site1 and is compensated only for the building4 ,these recent amendments to the old ,act of #ahfh are of the greatest importance1 for they aim at the easy improvement of courts and alleys1 by opening them where houses have been erected across the entrance1 in some cases depriving the courts and alleys of light and air1 and leaving only a small covered archway through which the occupants can enter4 ,the ,act has only too recently become law for me to give any particulars with regard to its working1 but it appears to be a most valuable sanitary ,act4 ,prior to these amendments of the ,act #ahfh1 it was felt that it dealt only with isolated buildings1 and consequently1 in order to improve large areas1 the 8,act for ,facilitating the ,improvement of the ,dwellings of the ,working ,classes in ,large ,towns0 was passed in #ahge 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #cf71 since which date1 like the ,act #ahfh1 it has been twice amended1 once in #ahgi 7#db #dc ,vic4 c4 #fc71 and again in #ahhb 7#de #df ,vic4 c4 #ed74 ,the object of the ,act of #ahge was to facilitate the removal of portions of towns1 especially of the courts and alleys in the poorer and more densely-populated parts4 ,the ,act is to be put in force where an official representation is made by the medical officer of health to the local authority of an urban sanitary district 7which must contain a population of at least #be1jjj7 that 8any houses1 courts1 or alleys within a certain area0 are 8unfit for human habitation1 or that diseases indicating a generally low condition of health amongst the population have been from time to time prevalent in a certain area10 and that this is attributable to the bad arrangement or bad condition of the streets and houses1 or 8other sanitary defects10 which can only be remedied by 8an improvement scheme for the rearrangement and reconstruction of the streets or houses0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #cf1 s4 #c74 ,the improvement scheme to be prepared on receipt of this report by the local authority must be accompanied by 8maps1 particulars1 and estimates0 7no doubt these must be prepared by the surveyor1 although no mention is made as to who shall prepare them71 and this scheme may 8provide for widening any existing approaches to the unhealthy area1 or otherwise for opening out the same for the purposes of ventilation or health40 ,it must distinguish 8the lands proposed to be taken compulsorily10 and by the ,act #ahge it was necessary to 8provide for the accommodation of at the least as many persons of the working class as may be displaced in the area with respect to which the scheme is proposed in suitable dwellings1 which1 unless there are any special reasons to the contrary1 shall be situate within the limits of the same area or in the vicinity thereof0 7sec4 #e74 ,so much practical difficulty was experienced in carrying this latter part of the clause into effect1 that in #ahgi a short ,act was passed 7#db #dc ,vic4 c4 #fc71 which by the #dth section amended that part of the original clause as to the provision of accommodation for the working classes as follows3 8,where it is proved to the satisfaction of the confirming authority 4 4 4 4 that equally convenient accommodation can be provided 4 4 4 4 at some place other than within the area or the immediate vicinity 4 4 4 4 and it is also proved to the satisfaction of such authority that the required accommodation has been or is about to be forthwith provided40 ,the confirming authority may be satisfied with such provision1 and for this purpose the local authority may make use of any lands belonging to them1 or purchase any that are suitable 7#db #dc ,vic4 c4 #fc1 s4 #d74 ,this part of the ,act has again been amended in the year #ahhb by #de #df ,vic4 c4 #ed1 which in section #c enacts as follows3 84 4 4 4 and where any such improvement scheme comprises an area situate elsewhere than in the metropolis or the ,city of ,london1 it shall1 if the confirming authority so require 7but it shall not otherwise be obligatory on the local authority so to frame their scheme71 provide for the accommodation of such number of those persons of the working class displaced in the area with respect to which the scheme is proposed in suitable dwellings to be erected in such place or places either within or without the limits of the same area as the said authority1 on a report made by the officer conducting the local enquiry1 may require 4 4 4 40 ,having thus far given the modus operandi under which the ,act has to be enforced1 it is necessary to see what are some of the town surveyor's duties in connection therewith4 ,first1 there are the 8maps1 particulars1 and estimates0 which have to be prepared1 and these involve-- 7a47 ,accurate surveys of the area2 7b47 ,a reference of all the properties included3 7c47 ,a census of the population of the area2 7d47 ,a valuation of all the properties2 7e47 ,a plan of the proposed new streets1 c4 7f47 ,an estimate of the cost of the whole work4 ,in addition to this it is necessary for the local authority to 8impose suitable conditions and restrictions as to the elevation1 size1 and design of the houses and the extent of the accommodation to be afforded thereby1 and to make due provision for the maintenance of proper sanitary arrangements10 and this naturally involves detailed drawings of the buildings to be erected4 ,in the same clause 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #cf1 s4 #i7 it is stated that the local authority may engage with any society1 c41 to carry the whole or any part of the scheme into effect1 but 8the local authority shall not themselves1 without the express approval of the confirming authority1 undertake the rebuilding of the houses or the execution of any part of the scheme1 except that they may take down any or all of the buildings upon the area1 and clear the whole or any part thereof1 and may lay out1 form1 pave1 sewer1 and complete0 all the necessary streets1 c41 which shall thenceforth be public streets repairable by the inhabitants at large4 ,it is scarcely necessary to say that the enforcement of this ,act involves a considerable expenditure of work and time in the office of the town surveyor4 ,the buildings which are erected on the sites dealt with under this ,act are generally of the 8high block0 class1 as it is found that the labouring man prefers to live near his work1 and land is generally too expensive in such localities to admit of the erection of any other description of buildings4 ,as to whether this class of dwelling is as healthy as ordinary cottages or houses1 the following death-rates for the year #ahgi will be some guide3 ,the ,london ,improved ,industrial ,dwellings #afd per #ajjj ,the ,peabody ,trust ,dwellings #agb ,the ,metropolitan ,association ,dwellings #adc ,the ,newcastle ,improved ,industrial ,dwellings #abj ,the general death rate for the ,metropolis at the same date being #bab ,it is of course necessary that the sanitary arrangements of industrial dwellings of the block type should be very perfect1 and as to the manner in which they should be erected the following words of ,mr4 ,john ,price1 who for twelve years had lived in one of them himself1 can be here given with advantage3#bja 8,model dwellings are therefore most appreciated by working men when placed near the scene of their daily labour4 ,the arrangements most preferred are those which bring the fewest families or persons in contact with one another on a flat or landing4 ,as a rule the buildings should not exceed four stories in height2 the staircases should be about four feet in width1 and broken by short landings1 lighted by large windows open to the external air2 the window-sills should not be less than three feet from the floors for the safety of young children1 and for the same reason well staircases should be avoided4 ,the steps of the stairs should only have a #f-;inch #8rise1' for the more easy accommodation of old people and young children2 they should be fire-proof1 and well lighted with gas on an evening4 ,there should be a thick layer of deafening between the floors4 ,the waterclosets should be placed in an offshoot from the main building1 opening on to each landing1 and well ventilated by open windows and air bricks4 ,the watercloset apparatus should be as simple and effective as possible4 ,patents depending upon the proper working of valves and ball-cocks should be avoided1 as the fruitful cause of trouble and expense2 little reliance must be placed on their proper use by tenants where more than one family have access to them4 ,i have seen excellent closets stopped up with cloths and all manner of earthenware and hardware1 children of careless parents being the principal offenders2 what is everybody's duty is often most neglected4 ,it will be found most economical in large buildings of this class to appoint a person whose duty it should be to attend to the proper flushing of waterclosets daily4 ,i would suggest that there should be a large cistern under the roof 7distinct from the cistern used for domestic purposes71 a -inch feed pipe should lead to each w4c41 which should consist of a simple metal or earthenware pan1 provided only with a tap1 flushing rim1 and plug1 placed under the seat securely1 and under the sole control of the attendant1 who1 by the necessary daily inspection1 would detect any stoppage or injury to the fittings4 ,the expense of such supervision would probably be soon saved in plumbers' bills4 ,of course the soil-pipes should be well ventilated above the roof of the building1 and all drains and sinks should be properly trapped4 ,the attendant on his daily rounds would also be able to see that these are kept in proper order4 ,the dust-shaft1 extending to the full height of the building1 should have proper hoppers connected with it to prevent the dust coming from the lower or upper landings2 a nuisance sometimes complained of in block dwellings4 ,the washhouses should be placed on the roof or in the yards1 fitted with set pots and requisite conveniences4 ,the soft water from the roofs should be stored in tanks for washing and domestic purposes--it will be much appreciated by sensible tenants1 and save the water bill greatly4 8,the great desiderata of these large blocks of buildings is ample playground for the children1 without which they play upon the stairs1 and are often the cause of strife amongst neighbours4 ,i know those who have experience in the matter may say that it is more easy to state what is desirable than what is practical4 ,the enhanced value of land in all our large towns precludes any liberal investment on what appears so financially unremunerative as playgrounds1 yet they are essential adjuncts wherever there is an infantile population4 ,mr4 ,powell1 on behalf of the ,london ,trades' ,unions1 enumerated before ,sir ,richard ,cross's ,committee certain objections which the working classes of ,london entertained against the earliest erected blocks of dwellings1 amongst which was their barrack-like and uninviting appearance1 and also their want of playgrounds for children4 ,recently these defects have been greatly remedied40 ,a few words are necessary upon the 8,labouring ,classes' ,lodging ,houses ,acts0 7#ad #ae ,vic4 c4 #cd2 #bi #cj ,vic4 c4 #bh2 #cj #ca ,vic4 c4 #bh74 ,the object of these ,acts was to empower urban authorities1 under certain restrictions and after certain formalities1 to appropriate any lands vested in them or at their disposal1 or to purchase or rent the necessary lands for the purpose of erecting suitable buildings for lodging-houses for the working classes1 or to convert any buildings into lodging-houses1 and 8repair and improve the same respectively with all requisite furniture1 fittings1 and conveniences02 and further powers are given in the ,acts for the urban authority to contract with persons for different objects1 c4 ,i am unable to give any experiences of the working of these ,acts1 for ,i do not know of any urban authority which has carried them into effect1 the ,artizans and ,labourers' ,dwellings ,improvement ,acts having virtually superseded them4 ,the following copy of the bye-laws as sanctioned by the ,treasury in #ahfg in connection with the ,labouring ,classes' ,lodging ,houses ,acts may1 however1 be of interest1 as well as the table of sizes of rooms which follows3 ,separate watercloset accommodation to be provided for each tenement1 or else1 where watercloset accommodation is to be used in common by the occupants of two or more tenements1 separate accommodation must be provided for each sex4 ,such accommodation may be either watercloset1 earthcloset1 or privy4 ,each tenement to have a dustbin or the use of a dustbin common to several buildings4 ,each tenement to be well lighted by external windows made to open4 ,each tenement to have ready access to water4 ,where several tenements in one building1 proper ventilation to be provided for the passages1 staircases1 c4 ,the drains to be well constructed4 ,parties to whom moneys to be advanced to enter into covenants with the ,public ,works ,loan ,commissioners1 that where there are several tenements in one building they 7a47 ,will cause the passages1 staircases1 c41 to be kept clean2 7b47 ,will cause the waterclosets1 c41 to be kept in good repair2 7c47 ,will cause the dustbins to be emptied at intervals of seven days2 7d47 ,will take precautions against any interruption in the supply of water2 7e47 ,will keep the windows in good order and repair1 and the chimneys swept2 7f47 ,will keep the drains in proper order2 7g47 ,will allow inspection by ,commissioner of ,works to see that the above covenants are observed4 ,number of cubic feet in each room of the several classes of tenements 7none of less than two rooms7 for which money has been authorised to be advanced3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,one ,one ,one ,one ,one ,room of,room of,room of,room of,room of cubic cubic cubic cubic cubic ,class4 feet4 feet4 feet4 feet4 feet4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,class ,i4 of two rooms #gae #a1bai ,ditto #haf #iid ,ditto #iie #a1jbj ,class ,,ii4 of four rooms #ifj #ifj #ifj #ifj ,class ,,iii4 of five rooms #cgb #fge #ajef #ajef #abcb ,ditto #ddf #dei #dei #gha #adfh ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,it may be information valuable to a town surveyor1 if before closing this chapter ,i draw attention to the provisions of the ,municipal ,corporations ,act #ahhb1 sec4 #c1 which gives corporations power to convert any corporate land into sites for working men's dwellings1 although the corporation are not authorised to erect the dwellings thereon4 #aii ,the term 8officer of health10 as respects any urban sanitary district in ,england1 means the medical officer of health appointed by the urban sanitary authority under the ,public ,health ,act #ahge 7#db #dc ,vic4 c4 #fd1 s4 #c74 #bjj ,the town surveyor is usually employed for this work4 #bja ,vide #8,industrial ,dwellings from a ,sanitary point of ,view1' by ,john ,price1 ,resident ,agent1 ,newcastle-on-,tyne ,industrial ,dwellings ,company1 read ,september #bhth1 at the ,congress of the ,institute1 held at ,newcastle-on-,tyne4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,defects ,,in ,,dwelling-,,houses1 ,c4 ,there are many defects in dwelling-houses with which it is the duty of the sanitary inspector to deal1 such as the ,bakehouse ,regulations ,act1 offensive trades1 nuisances rendering houses unfit for human habitation1 c41 but ,i propose to give in this chapter1 in addition to those with which ,i have already dealt1 such subjects under this head as come within the duties of the town surveyor4 ,the first which ,i propose to treat is that of the question of ,cellar ,dwellings4--,these are at all times objectionable even if the clauses of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge be strictly carried out1 and the surveyor should discourage them as much as possible4 ,nothing more can be said with reference to them than is contained in the provisions of the above ,act1 which are as follows3#bjb 8,it shall not be lawful to let or occupy or suffer to be occupied separately as a dwelling1 any cellar 7including for the purposes of this ,act in that expression any vault or underground room7 built or rebuilt after the passing of this ,act1 or which is not lawfully so let or occupied at the time of the passing of this ,act0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ga74 ,and with regard to existing cellar dwellings they are only to be let or occupied on the following conditions3-- 8,unless the cellar is in every part thereof at least seven feet in height1 measured from the floor to the ceiling thereof1 and is at least three feet of its height above the surface of the street or ground adjoining or nearest to the same2 and 8,unless there is outside of and adjoining the cellar and extending along the entire frontage thereof1 and upwards from six inches below the level of the floor thereof up to the surface of the said street or ground1 an open area of at least two feet and six inches wide in every part2 and 8,unless the cellar is effectually drained by means of a drain1 the uppermost part of which is one foot at least below the level of the floor thereof2 and 8,unless there is appurtenant to the cellar the use of a watercloset1 earthcloset1 or privy1 and an ashpit1 furnished with proper doors and coverings1 according to the provisions of this ,act2 and 8,unless the cellar has a fireplace with a proper chimney or flue1 and an external window of at least nine superficial feet in area clear of the sash frame1 and made to open in a manner approved by the surveyor 7except in the case of an inner or back cellar let or occupied along with a front cellar as part of the same letting or occupation1 in which case the external window may be of any dimensions1 not being less than four superficial feet in area clear of the sash frame74 8,provided that in any area adjoining a cellar there may be steps necessary for access to such cellar1 if the same be so placed as not to be over1 across1 or opposite to the said external window1 and so as to allow between every part of such steps and the external wall of such cellar a clear space of six inches at the least1 and that over or across any such area there may be steps necessary for access to any building above the cellar to which such area adjoins1 if the same be so placed as not to be over1 across1 or opposite to any such external window0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #gb74 ,where two convictions in respect of the same cellar have taken place within three months1 the local authority may close it1 and recover any expenses incurred by them in the execution of this duty 7#ch #ci ,vic41 c4 #ee1 s4 #ge74 ,the next defect in a dwelling-house which will be considered is that of ,insufficient ,w4,c4 accommodation4--,a new house may not be erected without 8a sufficient watercloset1 earthcloset1#bjc or privy0 under a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds#bjd 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ce74 ,and with regard to existing premises3 8,if a house within the district of a local authority appears to such authority by the report of their surveyor or inspector of nuisances to be without a sufficient watercloset1 earthcloset1 or privy 4 4 4 4 the local authority shall by written notice require the owner or occupier of the house within a reasonable time therein specified1 to provide a sufficient watercloset1 earthcloset1 or privy 4 4 4 4 or either of them as the case may require4 ,if such notice is not complied with the local authority may1 at the expiration of the time specified in the notice1 do the work1 provided that where a watercloset1 earthcloset1 or privy has been and is used in common by the inmates of two or more houses1 or if in the opinion of the local authority a watercloset1 earthcloset1 or privy may be so used1 they need not require the same to be provided for each house0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #cf74 ,if the local authority approve1 an earthcloset may be constructed instead of a watercloset1 but in this case they should make arrangements for the supply of the dry earth and the removal of its contents4 ,the necessary form of notice to be served in connection with insufficient w4c4 accommodation may be as follows3 ,to the owner of the house ,no4 in the borough of 4 ,whereas the above-mentioned house is situate within the district of the mayor1 aldermen1 and burgesses of 1 the urban sanitary authority for the borough of 3 ,and whereas it appears to the said urban sanitary authority that the said house is without a sufficient watercloset1 earthcloset1 or privy3 ,now the said urban sanitary authority do hereby require you1 the said owner1 within from the date of this notice to provide a sufficient watercloset for the use of the inhabitants of the said house4 ,and take notice1 that if you do not within the time above specified provide a sufficient watercloset1 as aforesaid1 to the satisfaction of the said urban sanitary authority1 they will themselves1 at the expiration of such time1 do the necessary work to provide such closet accommodation as aforesaid1 and proceed to recover the costs and expenses thereby incurred in manner provided by the ,public ,health ,act #ahge4 ,dated this of 1 #ahh 4 ,surveyor to the said ,mayor1 ,aldermen and ,burgesses4 ,and where the case demands1 the following note may be added below the above notice3 8,,note4--,the urban sanitary authority may1 if they so determine1 require a separate watercloset to be provided for each house1 or they may permit a watercloset to be used in common by the inmates of two or more houses1#bje but in either case the closet itself must be properly constructed and provided with due means of ventilation4 ,the urban sanitary authority will approve of the existing closet accommodation if it is perfected by means of the following works being carried out4 7,specification of work required to be done must here be inserted47 ,the whole of the work to be executed in a workmanlike manner and to my entire approval4 8,it is1 however1 to be understood that the above notice requiring the work to be executed within one month will be rigidly enforced2 and if at the expiration of that time the work be not completed1 the urban sanitary authority will themselves proceed to execute the necessary work to provide proper closet accommodation in such manner as they may deem most advisable1 without pledging themselves to the adoption of the method above suggested40 ,surveyor to the said ,mayor1 ,aldermen and ,burgesses4 ,with regard to watercloset accommodation for factories1 it appears to rest entirely with the town surveyor to draw the attention of the sanitary authority to any case where he considers this is deficient1 as by the following clause3 8,where it appears to any local authority by the report of their surveyor that any house is used or intended to be used as a factory or building in which persons of both sexes are employed or intended to be employed at one time in any manufacture1 trade1 or business1 the local authority may1 if they think fit1 by written notice require the owner or occupier of such house1 within the time therein specified1 to construct a sufficient number of waterclosets1 earthclosets1 or privies and ashpits for the separate use of each sex4 8,any person who neglects or refuses to comply with any such notice shall be liable for each default to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds1 and to a further penalty not exceeding forty shillings for every day during which the default is continued0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ch74 ,in providing closet accommodation which is to be used in common by the occupants of a number of houses1 it must be remembered that it should be of the most simple description4 ,any one acquainted with the working of waterclosets situated in courts and alleys will know how badly they are treated1 and into what a fearful state of disrepair and filth they speedily fall1 as the great difficulty the sanitary inspector always finds is to have them kept clean2 8,what is everybody's business is nobody's40 ,and although by clauses #dj1 #da1 #df1 c41 of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge persons causing a nuisance can be punished1 it is a difficult matter to detect the person in fault1 unless of course it is a structural defect1 when the owner can be summoned if it is allowed to remain uncured4 ,for this reason what are known as 8,fowler's closets10 or some modification of this principle1 should be adopted in all such localities where earthclosets or some of the dry systems are not in force1 as they are without any complicated valve apparatus or anything of the kind4 ,the last point to consider in this chapter is that of ,houses without a proper supply of water4 8,where on the report of the surveyor of a local authority it appears that any house is without a proper supply of water1 and that such a supply can be furnished at a cost not exceeding that authorised by any local ,act1 or where there is not any local ,act1 not exceeding twopence a week1 or at such other cost as the ,local ,government ,board may determine1 the local authority shall give notice in writing to the owner1 requiring him1 within a time specified1 to obtain such supply1 and to do all such works as may be necessary for that purpose1#bjf and in default of his doing so may carry out all necessary works themselves for obtaining such supply0 7vide #ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 lxii474 ,it is not very often that a house is found without any supply of water at all1 for if that from the mains is not laid on it is generally found that the house is supplied from a well or from a stand-pipe in a court1 or some similar source4 ,if the water is derived from an impure well or other contaminated source1 the following clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge must be enforced in order to close the well or compel the discontinuance of the polluted supply1 when a 8proper0 supply of water can be enforced in the manner ,i have described3 8,on the representation of any person to any local authority that within their district the water in any well1 tank1 or cistern1 public or private1 or supplied from any public pump1 and used or likely to be used by man for drinking or domestic purposes1 or for manufacturing drinks for the use of man1 is so polluted as to be injurious to health1 such authority may apply to a court of summary jurisdiction for an order to remedy the same2 and thereupon such court shall summon the owner or occupier of the premises to which the well1 tank1 or cistern belongs if it be private1 and in the case of a public well1 tank1 cistern or pump1 any person alleged in the application to be interested in the same1 and may either dismiss the application1 or may make an order directing the well1 tank1 cistern1 or pump to be permanently or temporarily closed1 or the water to be used for certain purposes only1 or such other order as may appear to them to be requisite to prevent injury to the health of persons drinking the water4 8,the court may1 if they see fit1 cause the water complained of to be analysed at the cost of the local authority applying to them under this section4 8,if the person on whom an order under this section is made fails to comply with the same1 the court may1 on the application of the local authority1 authorise them to do whatever may be necessary in the execution of the order1 and any expenses incurred by them may be recovered in a summary manner from the person on whom the order is made4 8,expenses incurred by any rural authority in the execution of this section1 and not recovered by them as aforesaid1 shall be special expenses0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #gj74 ,it is an established fact that wells within a town must always be regarded with some suspicion1 and where they exist either publicly or privately the local authority would do well to have the water from them analysed with a view to having them closed4 ,even cisterns1 if not frequently examined and cleansed1 will cause the water that is stored in them to become polluted1 not only from the dust of the air settling in them and the natural impurities of the water passing through them1 but frequently from foreign objects falling into them and decaying1 such as rats1 mice1 cats1 and in one case that ,i know of1 a sirloin of beef1 and in another a plumber6 ,these remained in the cistern until the colour1 smell1 and taste of the water drew the attention of the drinkers to 8something being the matter60 ,the cure for the chance of such cases as these is of course the constant supply4 #bjb ,any cellar in which any person passes the night shall be deemed to be occupied as a dwelling within the meaning of this ,act 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #gd74 #bjc 8,in this ,act 7,p4 ,h4 ,act #ahge7 the term #8earth closet' includes any place for the reception and deodorization of fcal matter constructed to the satisfaction of the local authority0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #cg74 #bjd ,in case of several houses together1 it has been held as not necessary to have separate accommodation for each house1 if there is sufficient for them collectively4 7,clutton ,guardians v4 ,pointing1 #d ,q4 ,b4 ,division #cdj1 #dh ,l4 ,j4 ,m4 ,c4 #acg47 #bje ,it is not always possible for a separate w4c4 to be provided for each house1 hence the wisdom of the law which makes it permissive for a local authority to allow a group of tenements to be provided for by several waterclosets close together4 #bjf ,a similar provision is made requiring the keeper of a common lodging house to obtain a proper supply of water 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ha71 but it does not appear to be the express duty of the town surveyor to draw attention to this1 as it does in the more general clause4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,house ,,drainage4 ,it would not be possible in one chapter of a book of this description to enter into all the details and necessary apparatus in connection with house drainage4 ,i propose only to point out some of the town surveyor's duties in connection with this subject1 and to add a few remarks which may be of some service4 ,the definition of the word 8drain0 as given in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge is as follows3 8#8,drain' means any drain of and used for the drainage of one building only1 or premises within the same curtilage1 and made merely for the purpose of communicating therefrom with a cesspool or other like receptacle for drainage1 or with a sewer into which the drainage of two or more buildings or premises occupied by different persons is conveyed0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #d74 ,although this definition is very clear1 it occasionally happens1 especially in old towns1 that some doubt arises as to whether an existing conduit for sewage is a 8drain0 or a 8sewer0#bjg for though a conduit is of small size it maybe found to be carrying the sewage of two or more buildings1 and thus is really 8a sewer belonging to the local authority40 ,this difficulty often leads to litigation where a notice having been served upon an owner of property to put in a new drain in place of one that has been found on examination to be defective1 the new work is of course commenced at the junction with the main sewer1 and it is not until the new so-called drain is nearly completed that it is found to be 8used for the drainage0 of more than one building1 and is in fact 8a sewer into which the drainage of two or more buildings or premises1 occupied by different persons is conveyed0 7see clause quoted above71 and is therefore repairable by the local authority 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ac74 ,where the town surveyor is in any doubt as to whether the conduit is a drain or a sewer1 he should test from whence the sewage comes by passing diluted white lime or carbolic acid down the adjacent water-closets and watching whether it flows through the conduit or not1 but even here he is sometimes at fault if the drains are old and dilapidated1 as they do not reach the point he is watching and he is thus misled4 ,in connection with the question of house drainage the town surveyor has the following duties to perform3 7#a47 ,to inspect all new drains that are constructed in connection with existing buildings within his district4 7#b47 ,to inspect all drains of new buildings that are constructed within his district4 7#c47 ,to inspect all defective drains within his district1 serve the necessary notices in respect thereof1 and inspect the works he has required to be executed whilst they are in progress4 7#a47 ,with reference to the first of these duties the following is the clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge which bears upon the point3 8,the owner or occupier of any premises within the district of a local authority shall be entitled to cause his drains to empty into the sewers of that authority on condition of his giving such notice as may be required by that authority of his intention so to do1 and of complying with the regulations of that authority in respect of the mode in which the communications between such drains and sewers are to be made1 and subject to the control of any person who may be appointed by that authority to superintend the making of such communications4 ,any person causing a drain to empty into a sewer of a local authority without complying with the provisions of this section shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds1 and the local authority may close any communication between a drain and sewer made in contravention of this section 4 4 4 40 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ba74 ,the first thing therefore that a local authority has to do is to frame the necessary regulations and appoint a 8person to superintend the making of such communications40 ,the following is given as a specimen form of the manner in which these regulations may be compiled3#bjh ,regulations made and ordained by the ,urban ,sanitary ,authority for 1 as to the giving of notice before any drains are made to communicate with the sewers of the said ,urban ,sanitary ,authority2 regulating the mode in which such communications are to be made2 and appointing the person under whose superintendence and control the work is to be executed4 #a4--,no communication shall be made with any sewer belonging to the said ,urban ,sanitary ,authority1 nor any drain made to empty therein1 unless notice of an intention so to do1 signed by the owner or occupier of the premises to which such drains belong1 be left at the office of the borough surveyor two days previously2 and such notice must specify the point at which it is desired that communication shall be made1 and the time at which it is proposed the work shall be commenced1 and any person not complying with these regulations will be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds4 #b4--,work required to be done in connecting any house drain or drains with the main or public sewer1 shall be executed in the following manner3 ,the ground to be excavated to the required depth with all possible expedition1 the work to proceed by night and day2 and there shall be maintained during the progress of the work all such fencings1 hoardings1 struttings1 and shorings1 as may be necessary for or in consequence of any of the works1 for the protection of the public1 and of all buildings and property whatever1 near to or liable to be affected by the work1 which shall also be well watched and lighted4 ,the shoring and strutting of the excavation is to be done in such manner1 with poling boards1 waling pieces and struts1 as the surveyor shall consider necessary4 ,all surplus earth or material is to be carted away as speedily as possible4 ,care must be taken where the excavation is made in a road or path to keep separate the surface material from the lower1 so as to replace them in their proper positions4 ,the excavation shall in all cases where practicable be in open cutting1 and not by shafts and headings4 ,the junction with the main sewer to be done in the following manner3-- ,the drain shall in no case be less than four inches internal diameter1 and shall be constructed of well-burnt glazed socketed stoneware pipes1 circular1 perfectly true in bore1 and straight1 with whole socket joints free from flaws1 blisters1 cracks1 or other defects1 set in ,portland cement joints with a uniform fall1 well bedded on well-rammed and solid ground1 the sockets being sunk into it so as to give an even bearing4 ,no shafts or sudden falls will be allowed4 ,where the junction is with a sewer constructed of pipes1 one length of the sewer 7or more if necessary7 shall be removed and an oblique proper glazed socket junction pipe1 set in ,portland cement1 inserted in its place4 ,the junction with the sewer shall be of the same size as the drain4 ,where the junction is with a brick or stone sewer1 the connection shall be made at such height above the invert as the surveyor shall determine1 and be made with a glazed socket pipe obliquely in line of current of main sewer1 properly bedded in with cement1 cut off so as to take the form of the main sewer and offer no obstruction to the proper flow of sewage therein1 or with a properly constructed stoneware block junction4 ,on completion of the junction1 which shall be made before any of the pipe drain is laid1 it shall be inspected by the surveyor1 and the work must not be further proceeded with until such inspection has been made and the junction pronounced satisfactory4 ,the drain shall be properly trapped between the sewer and the house1 with a syphon of such form as the surveyor shall direct1 and be at its inlet end or other extremity carried up open its full diameter to above the roof line4 ,the excavation is to be filled in within six inches of the surface of the ground1 with layers of earth not more than six inches in thickness1 carefully rammed or punned with iron punners of not less weight than #aj lbs4 ,the surface of a roadway must be brought up to its proper level with the surface material kept separate1 and properly broken or other approved road metal1 and the roadway where broken shall be kept in repair by the person opening the ground for a period of twelve months after the completion of the work4 ,if the excavation is made under a footpath or paved road1 the paving must be made good and kept in repair for a similar period4 #c4--;,a4 ,b4 ,c41 the present borough surveyor1 and his successors in office1 or the person for the time being acting as or discharging the duties of borough surveyor1 are hereby appointed as the person or persons to superintend the making of such communications with the public sewers as aforesaid4 99 99 99 99 99 7#a47 ,notwithstanding the stringency of the above regulations it is very difficult to ensure that the whole of the new drain is properly executed by the person who is carrying out the work1 for if he wishes to deceive the surveyor's department it is not very difficult to do so in works of this description4 ,it would be far better if all drains of dwelling houses could be constructed solely by the staff of the local authority1 and failing any general act upon the subject1 that they should be able to obtain private powers to do so4 ,it is illegal for anyone to touch the surface of either roadway or footpath for any purpose whatever#bji without the consent of the urban authority 7see #ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 sec4 #adi71 and especially to touch or interfere with the main sewers4 ,all such work could be done better and cheaper1 both for the ratepayers and the owners of property1 if carried out by the trained staff of the local authority2 nothing would be gained by scamping the work1 and one of the worst stumbling blocks in the interests of sanitation would be removed by this simple and effective measure4 ,gas and water companies invariably refuse to allow anyone to interfere with their mains or services1 but execute the work with their own men2 how much more important is it that house drains and sewers should be equally protected4 ,if a gas or water main or house service leaks through defective work it is quickly detected and remedied2 not so with a drain or sewer1 the deadly gases may be oozing through defective joints or the foul liquid may be poisoning the soil under the adjacent dwelling houses1 and many victims may suffer before the cause is ascertained1 and even then laborious legal machinery has to be put in force before it can be rectified4 ,the only objections that can be raised to the plan ,i so strongly advocate are1 first1 the interference with the trade connections and interests of builders and others2 and secondly1 the responsibility incurred by the local authority to execute thoroughly sound and good work1 and the difficulty they might afterwards experience if it was necessary to find fault with their own work4 ,the first objection should really have no weight when lives are at stake1 and the responsibility incurred by the second objection ought not to be shirked4 ,until some alteration is made in the present law the town surveyor must be as vigilant as he can1 and endeavour to induce the public to look more closely themselves into such all-important points4 7#b47 ,the next duty of the town surveyor is to inspect all drains of new buildings that are being constructed in his district4 ,i have dealt with this subject in the chapter on 8,new ,buildings40 ,the model bye-laws to which ,i have there referred contain some excellent principles in reference to this matter1 and too much power cannot be given to a local authority in respect of house drains1 even to the extent of prohibiting any one else to construct them4 ,the main sewer1 shared in common as it is by all the inhabitants of a town1 must be looked upon as a common danger1 and each house that connects with it should so far as possible be severed from it2 at the same time the drain must be so constructed that the sewage reaches the sewer as quickly and as completely as possible1 without any nuisance or knowledge of the unpleasant nature of its contents or those in the sewer reaching the inhabitants of the house3 this is the key-note of all house drainage1 and many excellent books and descriptions of this class of work have been from time to time written4 7#c47 ,the next duty of the town surveyor is to inspect all defective drains within his district1 and serve the necessary notices1 c4 ,this duty is embodied in the following clauses of the ,public ,health ,act1 #ahge3 8,where any house within the district of a local authority is without a drain sufficient for effectual drainage1 the local authority shall by written notice require the owner or occupier of such house1 within a reasonable time therein specified1 to make a covered drain or drains emptying into any sewer which the local authority are entitled to use1 and which is not more than one hundred feet from the site of such house2 but if no such means of drainage are within that distance1 then emptying into such covered cesspool or other place not being under any house as the local authority direct2 and the local authority may require any such drain or drains to be of such materials and size1 and to be laid at such level and with such fall1 as on the report of their surveyor may appear to them to be necessary4 8,if such notice is not complied with1 the local authority may1 after the expiration of the time specified in the notice1 do the work required1 and may recover in a summary manner the expenses incurred by them in so doing from the owner1 or may by order declare the same to be private improvement expenses4 8,provided that where1 in the opinion of the local authority1 greater expense would be incurred in causing the drains of two or more houses to empty into an existing sewer pursuant to this section1 than in constructing a new sewer and causing such drains to empty therein1 the local authority may construct such new sewer1 and require the owners or occupiers of such houses to cause their drains to empty therein1 and may apportion as they deem just the expenses of the construction of such sewer among the owners of the several houses1 and recover in a summary manner the sums apportioned from such owners1 or may by order declare the same to be private improvement expenses0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #bc74 ,the above clause is the most simple under which this duty can be carried out1 provided it can be proved that the house#baj is 8without a drain sufficient for effectual drainage10 and for this purpose it would probably be necessary to enter the premises and open up and examine the drain1 unless1 of course1 it was a case where no drain existed to the house at all1 or was evidently and notoriously without 8effectual drainage40 ,in order to enter for this purpose the requisite powers are conferred in the following clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge3 8,the local authority1 or any of their officers1 shall be admitted into any premises for the purpose of examining as to the existence of any nuisance thereon1 or of enforcing the provisions of any ,act in force within the district requiring fireplaces and furnaces to consume their own smoke1 at any time between the hours of nine in the forenoon and six in the afternoon1 or in the case of a nuisance arising in respect of any business1 then at any hour when such business is in progress or is usually carried on4 8,where under this ,act a nuisance has been ascertained to exist1 or an order of abatement or prohibition has been made1 the local authority or any of their officers shall be admitted from time to time into the premises between the hours aforesaid1 until the nuisance is abated1 or the works ordered to be done are completed1 as the case may be4 8,where an order of abatement or prohibition has not been complied with1 or has been infringed1 the local authority1 or any of their officers1 shall be admitted from time to time at all reasonable hours1 or at all hours during which business is in progress or is usually carried on1 into the premises where the nuisance exists1 in order to abate the same4 8,if admission to premises for any of the purposes of this section is refused1 any justice on complaint thereof on oath by any officer of the local authority 7made after reasonable notice in writing of the intention to make the same has been given to the person having custody of the premises71 may1 by order under his hand1 require the person having custody of the premises to admit the local authority1 or their officer1 into the premises during the hours aforesaid1 and if no person having custody of the premises can be found1 the justice shall1 on oath made before him of that fact1 by order under his hand authorise the local authority or any of their officers to enter such premises during the hours aforesaid4 8,any order made by a justice for admission of the local authority or any of their officers on premises shall continue in force until the nuisance has been abated1 or the work for which the entry was necessary has been done0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ajb74 ,the above clause also gives the necessary powers of entry where the following clause of the ,public ,health ,act is enforced with reference to defective house drainage1 instead of the #bcrd section which ,i have quoted4 8,on the written application of any person to a local authority1 stating that any drain1 watercloset1 earthcloset1 privy1 ashpit1 or cesspool on or belonging to any premises within their district is a nuisance1 or injurious to health 7but not otherwise71 the local authority may1 by writing1 empower their surveyor or inspector of nuisances1 after twenty-four hours' written notice to the occupier of such premises1 or in case of emergency without notice1 to enter such premises1 with or without assistants1 and cause the ground to be opened1 and examine such drain1 watercloset1 earthcloset1 privy1 ashpit1 or cesspool4 ,if the drain1 watercloset1 earthcloset1 privy1 ashpit1 or cesspool on examination is found to be in proper condition1 he shall cause the ground to be closed1 and any damage done to be made good as soon as can be1 and the expenses of the works shall be defrayed by the local authority4 ,if the drain1 watercloset1 earthcloset1 privy1 ashpit1 or cesspool on examination appear to be in bad condition1 or to require alteration or amendment1 the local authority shall forthwith cause notice in writing to be given to the owner or occupier of the premises requiring him forthwith or within a reasonable time therein specified to do the necessary works2 and if such notice is not complied with1 the person to whom it is given shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding ten shillings for every day during which he continues to make default1 and the local authority may1 if they think fit1 execute such works1 and may recover in a summary manner from the owner the expenses incurred by them in so doing1 or may by order declare the same to be private improvement expenses0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #da74 ,in acting upon the above clause it is well to note the machinery that is necessary in order to secure success in the event of a prosecution4 7#a47 ,the notice to the local authority of the existence of a nuisance arising from a drain1 c41 must be in writing1 and that authority must then proceed to consider the notice4 7#b47 ,if they agree to take action the local authority may empower their surveyor to enter the premises 7with or without notice as the case may require7 but this order to him must also be in writing4#baa 7#c47 ,if the surveyor is allowed by the occupier of the premises to enter 7and in default he must put the #ajbnd section which ,i have quoted in force7 he may then open the ground 8with or without assistants40 7#d47 ,if he finds a defective drain he must then report to the local authority in writing1 unless he has been primarily invested by the local authority with such powers as will dispense with such report4#bab 7#e47 ,the local authority shall 8forthwith cause notice in writing to be given to the owner1 c40 to do the work4 7#f47 ,if the owner executes the work the surveyor must supervise its execution4 7#g47 ,if this work is not done within a reasonable time the local authority 8may if they think fit0 execute the works2 the surveyor has probably to carry them out1 after having obtained the necessary permission to enter for the purpose4 7#h47 ,the costs of the work have to be recovered4 ,anyone acquainted with local government will know how difficult and tedious such processes must necessarily be1 the delay between the meetings of the local authority being quite sufficient to make the matter in dispute last a considerable time1 and this delay is extremely undesirable where a nuisance arising from a defective house-drain is in existence4 ,there seems to be no doubt that the clauses which are given in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge empower the local authority to specify without dispute the class of work they think necessary in order to remedy any evils arising from a defective drain1 but it is a pity that some more simple process cannot be introduced to improve the sanitary condition of a house without the necessity of so much laborious legal machinery4 ,there is still one other clause in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 which refers to house drainage1 and it is as follows3 8,every local authority shall provide that all drains1 waterclosets1 earthclosets1 privies1 ashpits1 and cesspools within their district be constructed and kept so as not to be a nuisance1 or injurious to health0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #dj74 ,but this clause is usually taken to apply rather to nuisances arising from temporary defects than to more important structural defects in a drain1 and such nuisances come more under the cognizance and duties of the inspector of nuisances than those of the town surveyor4 ,it would not be possible1 as ,i have already stated1 in one chapter to give all the detail descriptions of house drains and the necessary apparatus in connection therewith1 and besides very many excellent books1 pamphlets and papers have been from time to time written on this important subject4#bac ,before1 however1 bringing this chapter to a conclusion1 ,i will give a list of the essential requirements of all good house drainage which may be of some use to the town surveyor3 7#a47 ,a house drain should be constructed of stoneware pipes 7not earthenware or fire clay71 these are generally salt glazed1 and should be perfectly smooth or even slippery inside1 the pipes must be of true circular section and thickness of material1 and straight in the direction of their length1 with whole sockets of proper depth1 and free from any cracks1 blisters1 sand holes1 or other defects4 ,as even the most carefully manufactured pipes vary somewhat in diameter of sockets2 c41 it is well to have them sorted before commencing the work2 it is scarcely necessary to add that no 8seconds0 should be allowed on the works4 7#b47 ,the internal diameter of the drain should not be too large2 #f inches may be considered as a maximum1 #d inches is generally quite sufficient to carry off all the sewage from an extensive establishment1 even if all the water from the roofs or a portion of them is included4 7#c47 ,the inclination is governed by circumstances1 but about #a in #fj is found to be a very convenient fall for many hydraulic1 and other reasons4 7#d47 ,the jointing of the pipes should be executed with great care2 if cement joints are made each pipe should be jointed separately1 and it should be seen that no cement is left in the drain4 ,sometimes tarred gaskin is used to prevent this1 and ,stanford's patent joints are excellent where running water or sewage has to be contended with1 or great despatch of the work is necessary4#bad 7#e47 ,the sockets of the pipes should be sunk into the ground at the bottom of the trench so as to give an even bearing1 which amongst other benefits dispenses with the chance of settlements4 7#f47 ,no pipes should be allowed to be covered in until they have been inspected by the town surveyor or his assistants1 and in order to test the soundness of the joints1 it is a good plan to fill the drain with water1 having first stopped up the lower end1 and note the effect4 7#g47 ,drains should not pass under buildings if it can be avoided1 but if unavoidable they must be buried in good concrete1 and relieving arches turned to any walls passing over them4 ,in ,america iron pipes are used under houses4 7#h47 ,care must be exercised1 in filling in over pipes1 not to break or injure them4 7#i47 ,the trap to a house drain should be a 8,buchan0 or other similar syphon with a good cascade action1 its position must be guided by circumstances4 7#aj47 ,the drain should end at the outside wall of the house and be carried up the wall its full diameter to above the roof for ventilation1 an inlet for fresh air being essential on the house side of the trap2 if the drain has to pass under the house it must be similarly carried up on the other side4 7#aa47 ,the connection with the main sewer has been already described4 ,in conclusion ,i would urge the necessity of a register of all drains being kept that are examined by the surveyor's department4 ,this can be done by having a series of numbered notebooks kept solely for this purpose1 and all the information thus acquired should also be plotted on the map of the town if on a sufficiently large scale4 ,the necessity of correct plans of the drainage of buildings cannot be over-estimated1 especially for hospitals1 asylums1 workhouses1 schools1 or other public buildings1 and even for the smallest dwelling house such a plan would often prove to be the greatest boon to the occupier or owner as well as at all times to the town surveyor1 the medical officer of health1 and the inspector of nuisances4 #bjg ,for definitions of the word 8sewer10 see the chapter on ,sewerage4 #bjh ,the ,new ,york ,board of ,health require that earthenware drain pipes connecting dwellings with street sewers shall be hard and salt glazed1 sound and cylindrical2 at least ths of an inch thick if #e inches in diameter1 and of an inch thick if #f inches in diameter4 ,pipe must be connected with hydraulic cement of the best quality4 ,no 8tempered up0 cement can be used4 ,the pipes must be laid with such good alignment that the inspector can see through the entire line from the house to the sewer1 and every section must be bedded in cement so as to have a firm bearing1 not only at the hub1 but along its entire length4 ,the inside of the drain must be freed from all cement which may have oozed through at the joints1 and from all other obstructions4 ,before the drain is covered notice must be sent to the ,health ,department1 by the owner or plumber1 that the inspector may visit and examine the work1 and the ,board of ,health will not approve or permit a drain which has not been examined by one of its inspectors and found to be properly constructed4 #bji ,see chapter on 8,breaking up ,streets40 #baj ,the definition of house is as follows3--8,house0 includes schools1 also factories and other buildings in which more than twenty persons are employed at one time4 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #d7 #baa ,notices1 orders1 and other such documents under this ,act may be in writing or print1 or partly in writing and partly in print2 and if the same require authentication by the local authority1 the signature thereof by the clerk to the local authority or their surveyor or inspector of nuisances shall be sufficient authentication 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #bff74 #bab ,having obtained admission to the premises1 the inspection of the alleged nuisance should be so conducted as to enable the local authority to determine whether it exists1 or whether it existed at the time the notice was given1 and whether1 although it has since been removed or discontinued1 it is likely to recur or to be repeated2 and in all cases it will be the most expedient course to reduce to writing the result of the inspection4 ,when the inspection is made by an officer of the local authority1 it will also be expedient for that authority1 on receiving the report of their officer formally and in writing1 to record the conclusions to which they have come after considering his report in order to ground further proceedings4 7,vide #8,law of ,public ,health and ,local ,government1' by ,w4 ,c4 and ,a4 ,g4 ,glen1 #hth edition1 p4 #ha47 #bac ,for ample information on the subject of house drainage and similar subjects see the following books1 etc43-- ,bailey ,denton's #8,sanitary ,engineering'2 ,baldwin ,latham's #8,sanitary ,engineering'2 ,buchan's #8,plumbing'2 ,slagg's #8,sanitary ,work'2 ,hart's #8,manual of ,public ,health'2 ,hellyer's #8,plumber and ,sanitary ,houses'2 ,galton's #8,healthy ,dwellings'2 #8,house ,drainage1' by ,w4 ,a4 ,tylor2 ,philbrick's #8,american ,sanitary ,engineering1' and many others1 besides the numerous reports of the 8,health of ,towns ,commission10 and several articles in the ,sanitary ,record1 the ,sanitary ,engineer of ,new ,york1 and ,mr4 ,rawlinson's #8,hints1' all of which should be studied by the town surveyor4 #bad ,in some parts of the north of ,england taper pipes are used about #bj inches in length1 the internal diameter of the larger end being slightly greater than the external diameter of the smaller end1 thus allowing the small end of one pipe to enter the large end of another4 ,continuous lengths of cement pipes made in situ are also now being introduced4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,public ,,pleasure ,,grounds ,,and ,,street ,,trees4 ,amongst the clauses of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge which affect the duties of the town surveyor will be found the following3 8,any urban authority may purchase or take on lease1 lay out1 plant1 improve1 and maintain lands for the purpose of being used as public walks or pleasure grounds1 and may support or contribute to the support of public walks or pleasure grounds provided by any person whomsoever4 8,any urban authority may make bye-laws for the regulation of any such public walk or pleasure ground1 and may by such bye-laws provide for the removal from such public walk or pleasure ground of any person infringing any such bye-law by any officer of the urban authority or constable0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #afd74 ,there are very few1 if any1 cities or towns in this country that have not availed themselves of this clause1 even if they did not already possess one if not more public parks or pleasure grounds of some description1 these having either been given by some benevolent citizen or acquired in some other manner by the urban authority4#bae ,included in the powers given by the above clause are no doubt those regulating the acquisition and support of recreation or public playgrounds1 public walks1 or old city walls or other places1 and disused burying grounds4#baf ,in connection with the above clause of the ,public ,health ,act1 the town surveyor may have the following duties to perform3 ,to advise his corporation upon the value1 suitability1 and desirability of any site that is intended for use as a public park or recreation ground1 and after its acquisition to adapt it for the requisite purposes4 ,to effect this it must be drained and laid out with carriage-drives1 walks1 lawns1 flower-beds1 plantations1 and sometimes streams1 waterfalls1 and lakes4 ,he must design and erect the necessary lodges1 entrance gates1 fences1 shelters1 seats1#bag band-stands1 and fountains1 and must afterwards superintend the maintenance of these and the rest of the works in connection with the pleasure ground4 ,it would be impossible to lay down any rules for the guidance of a surveyor in carrying out these works1 for each case must be dealt with as its exigencies require1 and a great deal of common sense1 as well as engineering1 architectural1 and artistic skill must be displayed by him in carrying out any works of this description1 details of which could not possibly be given in a book of this size dealing with so many subjects4#bah ,a few suggestions may1 however1 be of some service on these points4 ,public playgrounds for children should be composed of large1 level1 well-rolled1 gravelled spaces1 with a few trees for shade1 and some sheds for shelter4 ,turf soon gets spoiled and worn bare1 when it is not so pleasant as well-rolled gravel1 as it is far more dusty in dry weather and very damp in wet1 besides having an uncared-for appearance4 ,in public parks1 shrubs planted singly directly on the lawns without any beds around them have a very pleasing look1 although it adds somewhat to the difficulty of mowing the grass4 ,the grass itself is greatly improved if it is well dressed with manure in the spring and constantly watered all the year round4 ,paths should be gravelled in the autumn1 care being taken to wait until all the leaves have fallen1 which are swept up and removed at once4 ,a good fence for a path1 if any protection is necessary1 is either a strained wire fence or cast-iron hoops representing bent sticks4 ,they are both cheap1 and stand well against weather and rough treatment4 ,a very economical and neat border to the footpaths can be made from the old used-up flagstones from the foot pavements of the streets1 these cut up and placed on edge1 especially if in conjunction with a pitched channel gutter of pebbles1 look remarkably well4 ,ornamental flints make a pretty border1 but they are nasty things for a child to fall upon4 ,for flower-beds a flat border or edge of ivy has a very telling effect4 ,if there are ponds or lakes in the park there should be a broad path or road close to the water's edge4 ,it is surprising what a great advantage in effect this has over the plan of leaving a strip of green between the path and the water4 ,the selection of the proper shrubs for a park and their distribution is a matter that requires the advice of an expert gardener4 ,the following list of ordinary shrubs that will thrive well almost anywhere in this country may however be of use for reference3 ,aucubas4 ,azaleas4 ,box4 ,berberises4 ,euonymus4 ,hollies4 ,ivies4 ,laurels4 ,lilacs4 ,mahorrias4 ,pampas grass4 ,privet4 ,rhododendrons4 ,thorns4 ,yuccas4 ,with regard to the selection of trees1 this also requires skilled advice1 but a list is given further on in this chapter1 of trees suitable for street planting1 which may be also some guide in this respect4 ,in high gales of wind the surveyor may be expected to endeavour to save valuable trees in a public park from being blown down4 ,this may sometimes be effected by a judicious application of chains or ropes1 but the better plan is to keep all trees well pruned and as free as possible from 8top hamper0 and undue leverage from overhanging limbs4 ,on the pruning of trees and the removal of large limbs ,i must refer my readers to a most admirable little book recently published in ,america1 being a translation from the celebrated #8,treatise on ,pruning ,forest and ,ornamental ,trees1 by ,a4 des ,cars1' which enters most fully into the subject1 and being of great practical value1 should be studied by anyone who has anything to do with the care of forest or other trees4#bai ,with regard to the planting of trees along the sides of streets1 our ,french neighbours are much in advance of us4#bbj ,it is true that in this country1 owing to the much larger consumption of coal as a domestic fuel1 there is more soot in the air1 but it is erroneous to suppose that trees will not thrive well in ,england4 ,no doubt the moisture of our climate causes the soot or 8blacks0 to adhere to the leaves and limbs of the trees1 but for that reason deciduous and not evergreen trees should be selected for planting in towns1 and these1 if well chosen and carefully planted1 will most undoubtedly fully repay their first cost and maintenance by the additional beauty to the street1 the agreeable shade they cast1 and their generally healthful action on the population4 ,in selecting trees to plant along the sides of the streets or roads in any towns1 it is well to bear in mind that the following qualities are necessary3-- ,the tree must be hardy2 it must not be affected by a long-continued drought2 heat must not wither it nor make it look rusty2 it must be able to withstand dust1 smoke1 soot1 foul air1 and the insidious attacks of insects1 and be able to recover from any malicious or accidental injury it may receive4 ,the tree must be of rapid growth1 and develope a straight1 clean stem with shady foliage4 ,it must be graceful either in full leaf or when bare as in winter2 its roots must not require too much room1 and they must be able to withstand the effects of pollution or rough treatment4 ,although the foregoing list of requirements may seem rather formidable1 yet amongst the trees whose names now follow there will be found some which meet many1 if not all of these requirements1 and which1 if properly planted with all reasonable care1 may be expected to thrive if planted at the sides of the streets in any town in this country4 ,,list ,,of ,,trees ,,suitable ,,for ,,planting ,,at ,,the ,,sides ,,of ,,streets4 ,western ,plane4 ,lime4 ,maple4 ,horse ,chestnut4 ,elm4 ,tulip tree4 ,lombardy ,poplar4 ,ash4 ,willow4 ,beech4 ,birch4 ,oak4 ,sycamore4 ,copper ,beech4 ,pawlonia4 ,ailantus ,glandulosa4 ,laburnum4 ,lilac4 ,almond4 ,peach4 ,hawthorn4 ,acacia4 ,double ,cherry1 etc4 ,of the above list the western plane for many reasons is the most desirable4 ,its freshness when it bursts into green buds is well known1 and it is proverbial for its hardiness4 ,the lime was at one time the most popular tree for this purpose1 but it has several defects1 the most notable being that its leaves wither before the summer is over1 and the tree assumes a lifeless look at a time when most shade and freshness are required of it4 ,of the remainder of the trees ,i have enumerated some are slow in growth1 which is a considerable drawback2 others are not wholly free from being affected by cold winds in the spring or by lice in the winter1 and the assistance of an expert is very necessary in selecting trees for this important purpose4 ,whatever trees are selected1 the following precautions should be taken3 ,the young tree should have been well nourished in its nursery before removal1 and should on no account be planted in the street until its stem is nearly #aj feet in height and about #c inches in diameter4 ,the stem should be clean and straight1 and the whole tree symmetrical4 ,the great difficulty in this country is to obtain sufficient numbers of trees of the exact size and description1 when it becomes necessary to plant out a street4 ,they have often to be imported1 when it is found that they are frequently unsuited both for soil and climate1 besides being very costly2 thus many failures have arisen in consequence4 ,to obviate this necessity in ,paris the ,government have for many years instituted and maintained special nurseries where trees are grown for this purpose alone1 these nurseries being situated at ,passy1 the ,jardin ,fleuriste1 and ,petit ,buy1 no less than #aae men being constantly employed in the work4 ,some further particulars will be given presently on the cost of this work4 ,the trees thus nourished and selected should be planted in the autumn1 for there is a well-known saying that 8a tree planted before ,christmas can be ordered to grow2 if planted after ,christmas it must be asked to do so02 and there is no doubt that if trees are planted too late in the season great difficulty in getting them to grow is generally experienced4 ,the excavated pits must be well drained1 and filling the bottom of the pit with rubble is a good plan4 ,the further the tree can be planted from the kerb the better1 so as not only to give it a larger body of soil1 but to lessen the risk of killing the tree by the pollution of the ground with gas from a defective main1 and also excess of moisture from the channel gutters4 ,the distance apart of the trees is a matter of choice4 ,in ,paris this is only #af to #ah feet1 but ,i think half a chain 7#cc feet7 is quite close enough2 it economises trees and gives plenty of room for the limbs of each tree to spread1 and the intermediate lamp-posts1 watering hydrants1 or other standards are not crowded out4 ,each tree should have a cast-iron grating around its roots similar to the following drawing3-- ,illustration ,this should be about #d feet square4 ,it prevents the ground getting hard about the trees1 and permits air and water to enter to the roots4 ,it also makes it easy to give any attention to the trees that they may require when young1 such as manuring1 digging1 c4 ,the tree should also be protected with a slight iron grill or railing to prevent mischievous persons from cutting their names on the trunk1 climbing up into the tree1 or breaking off its branches whilst still young4 ,the following sketch shows the description of grill necessary1 which is light1 cheap1 and at the same time effective4 ,illustration ,the following interesting particulars of the manner in which street planting of trees is conducted in ,paris will be useful1 and are given in extenso3#bba 8,when the boulevarde is marked out and levelled1 if the soil is of bad quality1 as is nearly always the case1 trenches are dug in the footway from one end of the boulevarde to the other4 ,the width of this trench is usually about #f feet1 and its depth #d or #e2 and before filling it in drain-pipes are laid along the sides made with lapped joints so that the roots shall not enter between them4 ,the trench is then filled with good garden earth1 raising it a little higher than the level so as to allow for settling4 ,in this ground the trees are planted about #f yards apart4 ,they should be carefully chosen with perfect roots1 and moderately pruned4 ,formerly the stem was cut at about #i feet from the ground1 but this had the bad effect of preventing the top of the tree from being straight1 and the practice has been given up4 ,the trees are next staked and tied with wire over a neat wad of straw1 which prevents all injury to the stem4 ,a protecting cage1 neither heavy nor very expensive1 is placed round the tree to prevent accidents2 and if the weather be at all dry at the time of planting1 the trees are copiously watered40 ,the cost of planting a tree in the ,paris boulevarde is thus given3#bbb fr4 c4 #ae cubic metres of excavation at #d francs #fjjj #ae cubic metres of vegetable mould at #d francs #fjjj ,training poles about #e metres in height #aej ------ #abaej ,average deduction of #ae per cent4 resulting from letting by tender #ahbc ------ ,price by contract #ajcbg ,pipe drainage and materials #aaae ,watering appliance 7average7 #bej ,cast iron grating round the base #dffi ,transport of tree from nursery #bjj ,planting1 including stakes #cjj ,iron basket 7to protect stem7 #hgj ,the tree #ejj ,labour for planting #afi ------ #ahdjj ,the maintenance of each tree costs #aeh francs4 ,the total cost1 therefore1 of each tree capitalised reaches about #hl41 and its life is said not to exceed twelve years4 ,before closing this chapter it is well to advert to the evident importance that the legislature attach to the planting and preservation of trees along the sides of the public streets in this country and their desire to protect them1 as the following clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge will show4 84 4 4 ,any person who1 without the consent of the urban authority1 wilfully displaces or takes up1 or who injures the pavement1 stones1 materials1 fences1 or posts of1 or the trees in any such street shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds1 and to a further penalty not exceeding five shillings for every square foot of pavement1 stones1 or other materials so displaced1 taken up1 or injured2 he shall also be liable in the case of any injury to trees to pay to the local authority such amount of compensation as the court may award0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #adi74 ,it is a great source of regret that mischievous persons can be found who by their wilful malice injure the trees planted at the sides of streets out of the public funds and with great expense and trouble4 #bae ,by the 8,commons ,act #ahgf10 powers were given to acquire and lay out commons for purposes of public recreation1 etc4 #baf ,upon this latter point ,vide #bd #be ,vic4 c4 #fa1 s4 #ba4 #bag ,as a preservative against the malicious disfigurement of wooden seats1 ,i have seen the following inscription placed upon some seats in an old public park1 8,never cut a friend10 and it had apparently the desired effect4 #bah ,as an instance of the size and importance works of this description may assume1 the ,bois de ,boulogne1 ,paris1 is an example4 ,it covers an area of #bjjj acres1 of which one half is forest1 one quarter is grass1 one-eighth roads1 and about #gj acres is water4 ,one of the most beautifully arranged public parks in this country is ,sefton ,park1 ,liverpool1 where the most perfect arrangements of lawns1 plantations1 lakes and drives1 have been carried out4 #bai #8,a ,treatise on ,pruning ,forest and ,ornamental ,trees1' by ,a4 des ,cars1 translated from the #gth ,french edition1 with an introduction by ,charles ,s4 ,sargent1 etc4 ,published by ,a4 ,williams and ,co41 ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 #ahha4 #bbj ,in ,paris in the year #ahhj1 there were #ij1jjj trees in the streets1 besides #bj1jjj more in the cemeteries4 7,vide ,report of ,mr4 ,till1 the ,borough ,surveyor of ,birmingham1 #bjth ,december1 #ahhj47 ,there are also upwards of #hjjj seats in public places2 the trees and seats costing nearly #ajj1jjjl4 per annum to maintain4 #bba ,vide #8,the ,parks1 ,promenades1 and ,gardens of ,paris1' by ,w4 ,robinson1 ,f4,l4,s41 #ahfi1 p4 #abh4 #bbb ,vide #8,l',architecte1' #bjth ,november1 #ahhj1 p4 #cgj4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,public ,,abattoirs4 ,the following is the clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge which empowers an urban authority to establish public slaughter-houses 7or 8abattoirs8#bbc as they are sometimes called7 for the purposes of the district they govern3 8,any urban authority may1 if they think fit1 provide slaughter-houses1 and they shall make bye-laws with respect to the management and charges for the use of any slaughterhouses so provided4 8,for the purpose of enabling any urban authority to regulate slaughter-houses within their district1 the provisions of the ,towns ,improvement ,clauses ,act #ahdg1 with respect to slaughter-houses1 shall be incorporated with this ,act4#bbd 8,nothing in this section shall prejudice or affect any rights1 powers1 or privileges of any persons incorporated by any local ,act passed before the passing of the ,public ,health ,act #ahdh1 for the purpose of making and maintaining slaughter-houses0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #afi74 ,the great necessity for the establishment of one or more public slaughter-houses in any town can only fully be realised by persons who will take the trouble to inspect those which are private2 they are generally placed near the shops of the butchers for the sake of convenience1 the result being that they are situated in the central portions of the town and are thus surrounded by closely packed dwellings4 ,the private slaughter house often consists of a stable or shed which has been converted into an ill-designed slaughter-house1 badly paved1 with imperfect drainage2 they are frequently not sufficiently lighted1 ventilated or drained1 and are utterly unfitted for the purposes for which they are used4 ,their position also is often so badly chosen that the children in the vicinity resort there to see the animals killed1 and the poor beasts have in some cases to be driven through a narrow passage into the slaughter-house itself1 where1 trembling at the sight and smell of the blood and carcasses of its dead companions1 it remains tethered until its turn comes to fall a victim to the blow of the slaughter-man3 a blow which sometimes has often to be repeated before its object is attained1 owing to the bad light and cramped surroundings of the place4 ,as these slaughter-houses are generally rented by the butcher using them at large rentals 7such accommodation being scarce71 it is not to be expected that he will spend much money to improve property which is not his own2 but notwithstanding the loss of weight incurred by the animal to be slaughtered thus fretting and sweating in its terror1 the damage to the meat by its being dressed in the same locality with the live beast1 steaming and smelling in the vicinity1 and the exorbitant rents demanded1 still there are great objections always raised by butchers in towns to the establishment of public slaughter-houses4 ,these objections are based by them on the following grounds3 ,they contend that the carriage of the meat from the slaughter-house to their shop deprives them of some of their profits2 that slaughtering their animals in the presence of other butchers leads to disparaging remarks and trade jealousies1 and that they sometimes are robbed of fat1 tools1 c4 ,these arguments are groundless if the public abattoir is properly designed1 is in a suitable locality1 and is well managed4 ,there are no powers by which butchers can be compelled to abandon private slaughter-houses1 and use those provided by the urban authority1 so long as the bye-laws of the authority are not infringed2 but as the law stands at present1 private slaughter-houses may be licensed 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 ss4 #abe1 #abf7 or registered 7#aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 s4 #abg71 and the only manner in which they could be closed 7which would then compel the butcher to use the public abattoir7 would be by putting the #abith section of the same ,act in force1 which states that the justices before whom any person is convicted of killing or dressing cattle contrary to the provision of the ,act1 or of the non-observance of any bye-law or regulation of the local authority1 in addition to the penalty may suspend the licence for any period not exceeding two months2 or in the case of the owner of any registered slaughter-house may forbid for any period not exceeding two months1 the slaughtering of cattle therein4 ,for a second or other subsequent like offence1 in addition to the penalty the justices may revoke the licence or absolutely forbid the slaughtering of cattle in the particular house or yard4 ,in such an event the local authority may refuse to grant any licence whatever to the person whose licence has been revoked1 or on account of whose default the slaughtering of cattle in any registered slaughter-house has been forbidden4 ,with reference to the establishment anew of the business of a slaughterer of cattle in ,london1 the following particulars required to be deposited by the applicant with the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works will be useful4 ,a plan of the premises and sections of the building drawn to a scale of -inch to the foot and showing the proposed or existing arrangements for drainage1 lighting1 ventilation1 and water supply1 with a key plan of the locality1 have to be deposited1 as well as replies to the following questions3 7#a47 ,state what place for the accommodation or poundage of the cattle about to be slaughtered is provided2 if such place has an entrance way for the cattle otherwise than through the slaughter-house2 if separated from the slaughter-house by a brick partition with a door2 and also what provision is made therein for watering animals4 7#b47 ,state if slaughter-house and its poundage is within #bj feet of an inhabited building2 and if it has any entrance opening directly on a public highway4 7#c47 ,state if the entrance to the premises is apart from and independent of any shop or dwelling-house2 if from a street at the side or rear2 and also the height of the entrance gates4 7#d47 ,state the dimensions of the slaughter-house1 length1 breadth1 height to eaves1 and construction of the roof2 and give similar information about the poundage4 7#e47 ,state if slaughter-house and poundage are drained by glazed pipes communicating with public sewer1 or how2 how drains are trapped2 and if gratings have openings greater than three-eighths of an inch across4 7#f47 ,state if floors are below level of outside road or footway1 and if paved with asphalte1 or flag-stone set in cement1 or how4 7#g47 ,state how walls of slaughter-house are constructed1 and if they are covered with hard smooth and impervious material to a height of at least #d feet2 and1 if so1 state what material is used1 and to what height it is carried4 7#h47 ,state how slaughter-house and poundage are lighted1 if with lantern1 sky1 or side-lights1 or otherwise4 7#i47 ,state how ventilated1 if by openings1 windows1 louvre boards1 or otherwise4 7#aj47 ,state what provision is made for water-supply1 the capacity of the cistern1 and at what height it is placed above floor level4 7#aa47 ,state if any watercloset1 privy1 urinal1 cesspool1 or stable1 is within1 or communicates directly with the slaughter-house4 7#ab47 ,state if any rooms or lofts are constructed1 or proposed to be constructed1 over the slaughter-house4 7#ac47 ,state if the premises will be provided with all the necessary and most approved apparatus and tackle for the slaughtering of cattle4 ,having thus far dealt with private slaughter-houses1 ,i will now turn to the question of the provision of public establishments of the kind by the urban authority1 for it is usually the duty of the town surveyor to advise his corporation upon such a matter4 ,first1 as to the site of the proposed public abattoir1 this depends greatly upon what sites are at the command of the town2 it should if possible be near the cattle market to prevent the passage of animals through the streets1 not only on account of the great public inconvenience1 but also the loss of weight to the animal#bbe and the heated and bad state into which its blood becomes from the exercise1 and the violent blows of the drovers' sticks4 ,the site would be isolated and yet not too far from the shops of the butchers1 or the cost of carriage of the meat will be considerable2 it is almost needless to say that it should be easily and effectively drained1 and the more air with which it can be surrounded the better4 ,it is imperative that the entrance for the live beasts should be separate from the exit of the dead meat1 and the approach roads to the site should not be narrow4 ,in laying out the site every town surveyor must use his own judgment1 but the following plan on which the site of the excellent public abattoir at ,manchester is laid out may serve as some guide for this purpose1 although of course this establishment is on a very large scale indeed1 and is in connection with a carcass market more than #ejj feet in length3 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,manchester ,,slaughter-,,house4 ,in designing an abattoir on a large scale provision for the following accommodation should be considered4 7#a47 ,lairs for cattle and pens for sheep4 ,these should be separated from the slaughter-house by a smaller temporary lair in which the beast whose turn has come can be fastened to the halter by which he is dragged into the slaughter-house1 the sides of the door-way being lined with iron for this purpose4 ,the paving of the lairs may be of asphalte1 but care must be taken that near the door of slaughter-house1 the paving is of pitchers or something that is not at all slippery1 as here the frightened beast often struggles and draws back when he sees the 8engines of destruction0 in the slaughter-house1 and smells the blood of those who have gone before4 ,the lairs must be thoroughly well drained1 lighted1 and ventilated1 and troughs for hay and water placed for each beast1 for although the animals are not expected to remain long in the lairs before being killed1 still it is very important that they should be well and kindly treated1 and rest1 so that they may obtain their normal condition before being killed4 ,a door easily closed should shut off the lair from the slaughter-house1 as it is open to question1 if animals do not see with fear the hapless fate of their comrades2 for this and other obvious reasons the animals must on no account be permitted to pass through the slaughter-house to reach the lair4 ,the lairs should be well lighted artificially1 as a great deal of slaughtering is conducted before and after daylight4 7#b47 ,the slaughter-houses4 ,these may be separate or in one long building used in common by the butchers2 both systems have their advantages and disadvantages4 ,the long building has the advantage of greater economy in erection and of management1 as one inspector can see from end to end of it4 ,where also a large site is not available greater advantage can be taken of a slaughter-house erected on this plan1 as several butchers can slaughter in turn2 the lairs1 however1 must be kept separate4 ,the butchers do not like this plan1 but prefer privacy1 and a great deal of 8horse play0 is sometimes indulged in by the slaughtermen at work in a large building4 ,the method of payment for the use of a slaughter-house of this description cannot well be by rent1 but by head of animal slaughtered1 and this is open to the objection of possible fraud4 ,it is necessary also to have separate slaughter-houses for the sheep and the pigs4 ,whether the slaughter-houses are constructed separately or in one long building1 the detail requirements are much the same4 ,the pavement of the floor should be placed on concrete and it should be constructed of some material that is easily cleansed1 is impervious to moisture1 and is not slippery either wet or dry4 ,it must also be of sufficient durability1 and be strong enough to bear the weight of the dead-meat carts which have to back in over it under the beams carrying the carcasses1 should there be no dead meat market in connection with the slaughter-house as at ,manchester1 ,dundee1 c4 ,the requirements of such a floor are met by good natural compressed or mastic asphalte4 ,the necessary holes for the reception of the flaying sticks used in many parts of ,england can be easily managed by inserting either small brass sockets specially made1 or more simply by pieces of gas-pipe cut into lengths of about an inch set tight in the asphalte4 ,the walls of the slaughter-house must be of sufficient strength to carry the beams or girders of the overhead hoisting gear1 as well as some tons of hanging carcasses1 as will presently be explained4 ,the inside of these walls must be lined to a height of about #f feet above the floor line with some material which is impervious and easily cleansed4 ,glazed white tiles or bricks are sometimes used for this purpose1 but are apt to get chipped or broken1 and ,i have found that asphalte1 although dark in colour1 answers the purpose admirably1 and is much cheaper4 ,with regard to the drainage of the slaughter-house1 this should1 if possible1 be so arranged that there are no gratings or gully-pits in the house itself4 ,the floor should fall about #a in #cj from the lairs to the cart doors1 so that everything should pass outside into a gutter in which the necessary gratings and gully-pits can be arranged4 ,if this is thought to be objectionable1 pits with double gratings1 the lower one being only a plate with perforated holes1 can be placed in the slaughter-house so as to prevent any solid matter whatever from entering the drains1 and these pits can be united by short drains with gully-pits outside4 ,the double grating should in any case be inserted1 as by this means all solid matter is kept out of the drains3 a very important consideration4 ,the cart doors should be made sliding1 and not hinged1 or great inconvenience will be experienced1 and they must be made wide enough for the carts to back in easily4 ,in some slaughter-houses the killing ring to which the beast is attached whilst the blow from the poleaxe is given#bbf consists of a strong horse-shoe shaped piece of iron projecting about #bd inches from the wall at a height of about #ah inches1 and having a ring in the top curve1 thus-- ,illustration whilst in others the killing ring is on the floor1 thus-- ,illustration and in others an iron pillar standing up from the floor is used1 which is considered the best plan1 as the beast should stand in a natural and easy position at about a right angle from the feller4 ,the lighting of the slaughter-house should be effected from the roof1 as a good and steady light is essential to the men engaged in this business4 ,an awkward cut may seriously damage good beef or mutton4 ,care must1 however1 be taken to exclude the glare of the sun1 and the ventilation should be carefully arranged by louvres easily manipulated4 ,water should be plentifully laid on at a good pressure1 so as to ensure thorough flushing1 c41 and the necessary taps should be recessed in the walls1 as everything in a building of this description should be kept as flush as possible1 or it will be damaged4 ,in some slaughter-houses hot water is laid on1 and this is a great boon to the butchers and much appreciated by them4 ,gas must of course be laid on1 as much slaughtering takes place during the night4 ,the machinery for hoisting the beasts and slinging the carcasses requires to be effective1 simple1 and very strong1 as it is subjected to the roughest treatment1 and such machinery has been patented and is erected by ,messrs4 ,john ,meiklejon and ,son1 of ,dalkeith1 on very reasonable terms4#bbg ,this machinery hoists the beast by simply pulling on an endless chain4 ,it remains suspended at any height1 and can be equally easily lowered4 ,the divided carcass can be placed upon hooks at any point along the girders above without being touched1 and it can be taken off again and lowered on to a man's shoulders or into the cart direct1 and in fact1 speaking from my own experience1 this machinery is very perfect4 ,the carcasses of the sheep are hung by hand upon hooks projecting from rails which are placed at a convenient height around the walls of the slaughter-house4 ,in some abattoirs the sheep slaughter-houses are distinct from those used for killing beasts1 and this method has many advantages4 ,before proceeding to describe the further requirements of an abattoir or group of slaughter-houses1 ,i think the following plan will be of use to show the arrangement which ,i have described with regard to lairs and slaughter-houses3-- ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,section ,,through ,a4,b4 ,the following plan shows the arrangements adopted in the ,metropolitan ,cattle ,market slaughter-houses3 ,illustration3 ,,metropolitan ,,cattle ,,market ,,slaughter-,,houses4 7#c47 ,the condemned meat department4 ,this should consist of a lair for suspected cattle1 a lair and slaughter-house for the condemned cattle similar to that already described1 and a condemned meat store3 this being the place where not only all the diseased animals' carcasses are temporarily stored pending destruction1 but also any meat of sound beasts that may have gone bad after killing1 c4 ,the whole of the meat thus placed in the condemned store must be taken to the boiling-down house1 where it is destroyed by being boiled down to fat1 which is disposed of for various trade purposes4 ,the following description of the method employed for this purpose at the ,deptford ,foreign ,cattle ,market will here be of use3#bbh 8,there are several killing houses for diseased cattle1 and excellent apparatus for boiling down condemned meat4 ,for this purpose two boilers are suspended from a strong platform through which they pass1 and the bottoms of them are several feet above the floor4 ,they are each #d feet #f inches in diameter and #aj feet in length under platform4 ,at the bottom the cylinder tapers to #b feet #h inches in diameter4 ,under this there is a semispherical bottom to the boiler hinged and kept shut by a back-weighted lever and screws4 ,on the top of each there is a semispherical cover and safety valve4 8,there is an iron crane and windlass for lifting off and on the covers4 ,after the boilers are charged with diseased meat the covers are made secure and steam let into them near the bottom4 ,there is a cock in the bottom of each for running off the liquid at certain stages into a trap grating in the floor under it1 and conducted into a cement cistern outside of the boiling-house1 from which it is periodically removed4 ,whether any use is made of the tallow produced ,i am not informed4 ,the bones when removed are quite porous1 of a very white colour1 and nearly as light as cork4 ,i presume that they will be sold for being converted into bone manure4 ,i understand these large boilers are not very often used1 and that a small close galvanized iron cylinder1 #b feet #i inches in diameter1 and #b feet #f inches high1 placed #ae inches above the ground1 having cock at bottom1 steam pipe at side1 and portable lid1 does most of the work very efficiently40 7#d47 ,the pig-killing department4 ,this should be separate from the ordinary slaughter-house1 as the styes for pigs must be differently arranged to the cattle lairs1 and a boiler house is necessary1 as boiling water must be had for scalding and dressing the carcasses4 ,special iron troughs with false bottoms have been arranged by ,messrs4 ,meiklejon1 which greatly facilitate this part of the butcher's work1 and simple hoisting apparatus over these troughs lifts the carcase in and out1 and carries it off to the cooling or hanging room1 which must of necessity be separate from the killing and scalding rooms4 ,drainage1 lighting1 ventilation and floors should be similar to those described for the slaughter-houses1 and plenty of lime wash can be used with advantage here as well as in the main slaughter-house4 7#e47 ,the blood house4 ,the blood of the slaughtered animals1 which formerly was allowed to run away1 has been found to contain a most valuable aniline dye1 and for this purpose it is now collected and taken to the blood-houses1 where in order to obtain this dye it is necessary to place the blood in shallow tins1 where it is warmed by steam-pipes1 the liquid is then drawn off1 which is the albumen from which the dye is extracted1 the residuum left in the trays is of the consistency of jelly1 and is sold for manure4 7#f47 ,the tripery4 ,this is provided in large abattoirs for the purpose of preparing the tripe and feet of the slaughtered animals1 and in the ,glasgow public slaughter-houses this is effected by the corporation free of charge by special machinery adapted for the purpose4 7#g47 ,the tallow market4 ,where tallow is melted down1 and moulded in shapes for manufacturers' uses4 7#h47 ,the hide store4 ,this is where the hides and sheep skins are weighed and temporarily stored1 sometimes in connection with this are-- 7#i47 ,sale rooms2 for the hides1 skins of sheep1 c41 and tallow4 ,in addition to the above requirements may be mentioned1 7#aj47 ,a superintendent's dwelling-house and office4 7#aa47 ,a gate keeper's dwelling-house and office4 7#ab47 ,a weighing machine and office4 7#ac47 ,a convenient room for the meetings of the committee of the corporation having charge of the slaughter-house4 7#ad47 ,waiting rooms for dealers1 drovers1 slaughtermen1 and butchers1 c4 7#ae47 ,store-rooms and a joiner's workshop4 7#af47 ,stables and shedding for the horses and carts of the jobbers and butchers1 c4 7#ag47 ,lofts for straw and hay2 the former should be provided free by the corporation1 the latter on payment of so much per diem for each beast4 7#ah47 ,the necessary urinal and w4 c4 accommodation4 ,with regard to the provision to be made for storing the dung and waste refuse from public slaughter-houses1 ,i am strongly of opinion that there should not be any fixed receptacle for such matters1 but that covered carts should be provided1 which could stand in convenient positions and be removed every day1 a fresh and clean cart being substituted at once for the one removed2 by this means all nuisance is avoided4 ,speaking of public abattoirs1 in a recent lecture on ,industrial ,nuisances1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,chancellor1 of the ,maryland ,state ,board of ,health ,u4,s4,a41 gives some advice on the management of slaughter-houses4 ,he says3 8,during the process of slaughtering as much care as possible should be taken to prevent the discharge of blood or other animal matter upon the floor of the slaughter-house1 upon the surrounding earth1 or into an open stream4 ,the contents of the viscera should1 with the blood1 offal and other garbage1 be placed in impervious1 covered1 moveable receptacles1 constructed of galvanized iron or other non-absorbent material1 and removed from the premises without undue delay4 ,where hides or skins are necessarily retained for a day or two before they can be removed1 they might without injury be advantageously brushed over on the fleshy side with a solution of carbolic acid or some other antiseptic4 ,fat should be freely exposed to the air in a cool place4 ,as soon as the slaughtering is completed the whole slaughter-house1 floor and walls1 should be thoroughly washed4 ,all the vessels and implements used in the slaughtering should be kept clean and sweet4 ,deodorizers may sometimes be used with advantage40 ,there can be no doubt that whereas private slaughter-houses are frequently a most injurious nuisance to the neighbourhood in which they are placed1 owing to their situation and construction1 and a visit to one of them is likely to give a strong impetus to vegetarianism1 the public abattoir1 on however large a scale1 if properly constructed and managed1 need be no nuisance whatever1 and every town in the kingdom should endeavour to obtain one1 not only on account of the nuisance caused by private slaughter-houses1 but for the incentive which is given to butchers to abstain from slaughtering diseased or unwholesome animals1 the prevention of cruelty1 and the material benefits derived in a proper establishment for the best methods of dressing the meat4 #bbc ,the word 8abattoir0 is a ,french word from 8abattre0 to fell1 it is used in this country to designate a group of slaughter-houses4 #bbd ,the clauses referred to are contained in #aj #aa ,vic4 c4 #cd1 and are ss4 #abe1 #abf1 et seq42 they refer to the registration1 licensing and management of private slaughter-houses1 and need not be commented upon here4 #bbe ,an ordinary beast is said to lose #c cwt4 in weight in a journey from ,edinburgh to ,london4 #bbf ,the pole-axe should be of the ,american pattern1 which has a head hollow and very sharp round the periphery4 ,the practise is1 after the blow is struck and the animal felled1 to plunge a thin cane into the wound1 which passes down the spine1 causing instantaneous death whilst the animal is lying stunned4 #bbg ,the following is from the patent specification of this machinery3 8,letters patent to ,john ,meiklejon1 of ,westfield ,iron ,works1 ,dalkeith1 in the ,county of ,mid-,lothian1 ,scotland1 for the invention of new or improved machinery and appliances to be used in hoisting1 removing1 dividing1 and hanging on hooks1 taking off these hooks again1 and loading carcasses and other bodies in abattoirs1 carcass and meat markets1 and other places40 8,the machinery and appliances above referred to enable the operations above named to be performed without the necessity of the butchers touching the meat4 ,also enables carcasses to be conveyed from abattoirs to carcass market on a travelling hoist 7hereafter described71 same being provided with rows of fixed jointed hooks or loops1 attached to rails on which the hoist runs1 so that the travelling hoist is enabled to hang the carcasses or bodies on to such hooks or loops4 ,also enables a butcher to hang a carcass on any of these hooks or loops1 and pick them off again1 and load on a vehicle1 without moving or touching any of the other carcasses hanging on the other hooks4 ,also enables all operations to be performed1 from hoisting when killed to loading when sold or removed from market40 #bbh ,vide #8,report on the ,new ,cattle ,market and ,abattoirs proposed to be erected at ,carolina ,port1 ,dundee1' by ,william ,mackison1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4 ,a41 c4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,markets4 ,under certain conditions urban authorities are empowered to provide markets in their district by the following clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge3 8,where an urban authority are a local board or improvement commissioners1 they shall have power1 with the consent of the owners and ratepayers of their district1 expressed by resolution passed in manner provided by ,schedule ,,iii4 to this ,act1 and where the urban authority are a town council they shall have power1 with the consent of two thirds of their number1 to do the following things1 or any of them1 within their district3 8,to provide a market place1 and construct a market house and other conveniences1 for the purpose of holding markets3 8,to provide houses and places for weighing carts3 8,to make convenient approaches to such market3 8,to provide all such matters and things as may be necessary for the convenient use of such market3 8,to purchase or take on lease land1 and public or private rights in markets and tolls for any of the foregoing purposes3 8,to take stallages1 rents and tolls in respect of the use by any person of such market3 8,but no market shall be established in pursuance of this section so as to interfere with any rights1 powers1 or privileges enjoyed within the district by any person without his consent0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aff74 ,in many towns1 markets both for cattle and general merchandise have been already established1 and the duties of the town surveyor are simply to execute the necessary alterations and maintenance of the buildings in connection with them1 but there may be occasions on which he has to advise his corporation upon the acquisition of land for the purpose of laying it out as a cattle market1 and afterwards the erection of the necessary pens and buildings1 and a few remarks upon the subject may be of some service4 ,the site for a cattle market should be selected1 if practicable1 near to a railway station1 so as to avoid as much as possible the dangerous and objectionable practice of driving cattle and sheep through the streets1 and for the same reasons it should be near the public slaughter-houses if there are any in the town4 ,plenty of space should be provided in the market for the cattle to move about in1 for it must be remembered that many of them which are sent to market are unused to the bustle of a town1 and are wild and untractable1 and have never in their lives been subjected to either penning or tethering4 ,the site must be easily and effectively drained1 it should be somewhat isolated with respect to neighbouring buildings1 the more air that can be got to sweep through it the better4 ,the accommodation necessary in a cattle market must vary considerably with the requirements of the district1 but the following list may be given for selection3 7#a47 ,pens or lairs for fat beasts4 7#b47 ,pens or lairs for store cattle4 7#c47 ,pens or lairs for cows with calves4 7#d47 ,pens or lairs for calves4 7#e47 ,pens for sheep4 7#f47 ,pens or styes for pigs4 7#g47 ,covered sheds or stables for horses4 7#h47 ,a space for showing horses off4 7#i47 ,sheds for agricultural implements4 7#aj47 ,shops for the display of seeds1 ropes1 tarpaulins1 sacks1 etc4 7#aa47 ,accommodation for auctioneers4 7#ab47 ,lodges and offices for the superintendent or gate keeper4 7#ac47 ,a weighing machine and office4 7#ad47 ,a corn exchange 7this is sometimes provided in the general market74 ,the entrance to a cattle market may with advantage be provided with double sets of gates1 with a space between in which flocks of sheep or herds of cattle can be temporarily penned2 a wicket gate in the second set of gates will enable the toll collecter to count the number of animals easily as they pass through into the market4 ,the paving of the market should be of granite pitches1 as it is essential that it should not be slippery1 or the cattle1 which usually arrive in a very excited condition1 will fall and injure themselves2 this description of paving is also fairly impervious1 and is easily cleansed4 ,the paving of the lairs and pens may1 however1 be of asphalte4 ,for the cattle there may be enclosures for loose bullocks as well as divisions in which the cattle are tethered2 these divisions and enclosures may be constructed of brick walls about #d feet #f inches in height1 or posts and rails of wood and iron1 strongly fastened iron rings about #d feet apart are necessary to which the beasts must be tethered4 ,the paving must be kept high towards the head of the beast in order to show him off to the greatest advantage4 ,large painted signboards should be fixed over the entrance of each compartment1 to designate to which class it belongs1 in order to avoid confusion or mistake4 ,there should be drinking troughs for all cattle1 and hydrants should be fixed all about the market1 so that it can be thoroughly flushed and washed down4 ,the sheep-pens can be constructed with iron or wood posts and rails with the whole of one side opening as a gate1 they should be about #c feet in height1 and the floor should slope up from the point at which the purchaser will stand in order that the sheep at the far end of the pen may not appear diminutive4#bbi ,the gates of the sheep-pens should be strongly stayed1 as they make most convenient seats on which the drovers and heavy farmers sit whilst they drive their bargains4 ,with regard to the dimensions of the pens and lairs1 the following sizes are suggested as sufficient spaces for different animals1 in the modern bye-laws1 emanating from the ,local ,government ,board in #ahgg1 with respect to markets3 ,for every horse #h feet by #b feet4 ,for every ox or cow #h #b ,for every mule or ass #e #a feet #f inches4 ,for every calf #e #a #c ,for every sheep1 goat or pig 7of medium size7 #d feet superficial4 ,the pens for calves and the styes for pigs should be covered1 and their floors should be about #c feet #f inches above the general level of the market1 as animals of this description are generally brought in carts1 and they could thus be easily moved out and in4 ,these pens and styes must of course be thoroughly well drained and ventilated4 ,with regard to the weighing machine1 this should be of the best manufacture1 and be of sufficient size to weigh a large wagon4 ,it is better to have what is called a 8self contained0 iron foundation1 and pit for the weighbridge rather than one of masonry4 ,a convenient size for this weighbridge would be #ae feet in length by #ab feet in breadth4 ,with reference to the rest of the provisions ,i have enumerated1 they require no special comment1 but must necessarily be left to the discretion of the town surveyor and the wishes of his corporation4 ,markets for general merchandise are usually handsome buildings1 which are erected in the most central positions of the town2 they contain3 7#a47 ,the corn exchange 7this is sometimes erected in the cattle market74 7#b47 ,the fish market4 7#c47 ,the dead meat market 7this is sometimes erected in connection with the public slaughter-houses74 7#d47 ,the game and poultry market4 7#e47 ,the fruit1 vegetable and flower market4 7#f47 ,the butter1 eggs and cheese market4 7#g47 ,the miscellaneous goods market4 7#h47 ,public conveniences4 7#i47 ,offices and dwelling for the clerk of the market4 7#aj47 ,committee room for the market committee4 ,the floor of the market should be on a level as much as is practicable with the adjacent streets2 steps up or down are objectionable for the public1 and galleries or upper floors should also be avoided unless the available area of the site is limited4 ,the interior of the building should be lofty1 and it must be thoroughly well ventilated2 the great fault with nearly all existing markets is the cutting draught to which buyers and sellers are usually subjected4 ,plenty of light is essential1 but the rays of the sun should be excluded by frosted glass or other contrivance1 or the goods exposed for sale will be damaged4 ,the floor should be of asphalte or other similar material2 it is surprising what a 8mess0 is always made in a market4 ,the stalls must be so arranged as to show to best advantage the goods offered1 and plenty of 8gangway0 should be left between them for the passage of the public4 ,fish stalls should be constructed of iron1 slate or similar material1 plenty of water being provided in this department2 fish-washing troughs filled with running water are very desirable1 and a fountain can be introduced with pleasing effect4 ,butchers' stalls should be of thick wood to resist the chopping1 and plenty of standards and rails provided with iron hooks must be fixed above them4 ,a great number of moveable iron 8offal boxes0 should be placed in different parts of the market1 which must be cleared at least once a day1 and the market should be frequently flushed and cleansed with water from hydrants fixed in different parts of the building4 ,many other points will no doubt suggest themselves to town surveyors1 who have the important work of designing either cattle or general markets to undertake1 but the few suggestions which have been given may be of some use4 #bbi ,the following is a description of the manner in which the sheep are penned in the cattle market of la ,villette at ,paris3--8,the enclosures or pens are all of iron1 those for the sheep have a centre railing #c feet #c inches high1 and cross railings #a foot #i inches high2 the former with three horizontal rails and vertical rods1 and the latter two horizontal rails and vertical rods4 ,there is a distance of #ae feet betwixt the high railings1 which is divided into three by iron posts #ba inches high4 ,the first row of these posts is placed at a distance of #c feet from the low cross railing at the passage1 the second row #ah inches from the first1 the third #c feet from the second1 and so on4 ,the sheep are placed in line side by side as close as they can stand1 with their heads up to the low rail4 ,a moveable hurdle of wood is then set on edge between the sheep in rear and the iron posts just described4 ,a passage of #ah inches is left clear1 and then another row of sheep and another passage1 and so on4 ,in this manner a great number of sheep are put into little space1 in such a way as all can be examined with the greatest ease40 7,vide #8,report on the ,new ,cattle ,market and ,abattoirs proposed to be erected at ,carolina ,port1 ,dundee1' by ,w4 ,mackison1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 c41 ,town ,surveyor1 ,dundee74 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,cemeteries4 ,amongst the many duties that a town surveyor has to perform is sometimes included that of laying out land for a large burial ground or cemetery1 and its management after construction4 ,power is given to all local authorities to become burial authorities by the ,public ,health ,interments ,act #ahgi1 and so strongly is the need felt for what is called extramural interment1 that the ,local ,government ,board may compel a local authority to provide and maintain cemeteries4 ,power is also given for the compulsory purchase of land for this purpose 7see sections #age1 #agf1 of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge71 and the cemetery may be placed either within or without the district over which the local authority exercise their jurisdiction1 and many other privileges are granted in order to encourage the acquisition of land so far removed from habitations as to make the burial ground as sanitary as the practice of burying human bodies can be made4 ,land once consecrated or used for burial cannot afterwards be sold or used for secular purposes1 except of course by an ,act of ,parliament2 8footpaths may1 however1 be provided in a consecrated but disused burial ground1 and the ground may be planted1 so as in effect1 though not nominally1 to make it a public garden40#bcj ,a cemetery must not be constructed within #bjj yards of any dwelling house1 without the consent in writing of the owner1 lessee1 and occupier of such house2 but there is no prohibition upon anyone to prevent their building a house close to a cemetery after it has been established4#bca ,chapels may be built in cemeteries for the performance of the burial services1 and the grounds may be laid out and embellished as the local authority may deem fit4 ,the cemetery must be enclosed by walls or other sufficient fences or iron railings #h feet in height2 it must be properly sewered and drained1 but such drainage must not flow into any 8stream1 canal1 reservoir1 aqueduct1 pond or watering place40#bcb ,cemeteries are divided into consecrated and unconsecrated portions by bond stones or other suitable marks2 a chapel must be built upon the consecrated portion1 although it does not seem to be compulsory to do so upon the unconsecrated portion4 ,the selection of a proper site on sanitary and other grounds for a cemetery is one of the greatest importance1 and a town surveyor1 or anyone who has this duty to perform1 cannot do better than keep the following words of the well-known sanitary engineer ,mr4 ,eassie before him3#bcc 8,a well-chosen cemetery is one whose soil is dry1 close1 and yet porous1 permitting the rain and its accompanying air to reach a reasonable depth1 and so expedite decay4 ,the formation is also well covered with vegetable mould1 which assists in neutralising any hurtful emanations1 and encourages the growth of shrubs4 ,the subsoil is also of such a kind as to need no under draining1 and such as will prevent the water lodging in any grave or vault4 ,it will also stand exposed to the north or north east winds which are dry1 and which do not hold the putrefactive gases in solution1 like the moist south or south westerly winds40 8,an improperly chosen graveyard may be said to be one where the soil is dense and clayey1 and impervious to moisture4 ,it will be insufficiently drained1 necessitating the use of planks to walk upon in wet weather4 ,it will be too close to the abodes of the living1 too small to permit proper planting1 the graves covered1 it may be with flat stones which prevent the passage downwards of the air and rain1 and surrounded moreover by high walls which exclude the fresh air4 ,the ground will be stony and insufficiently covered with vegetable soil4 ,no natural outfall will exist1 and the drainage water must be pumped up1 the bare idea of which is horrible4 ,it will be near also to water-bearing strata1 or to a reservoir4 ,long before decomposition has taken place owing to the smallness of the site1 and the impossibility of obtaining any more land except at high building prices1 the organic matter hidden out of sight will be far too large in proportion to the area40 ,dr4 ,parsons1 in a memorandum prepared by him on the 8,sanitary ,requirements of ,cemeteries0 and published by the ,local ,government ,board in their eleventh annual report1 says3 8,the soil of a cemetery should be of an open1 porous nature1 with numerous close interstices1 through which air and moisture may pass in a finely divided state freely in every direction4 ,in such a soil decay proceeds rapidly1 and the products of decomposition are absorbed or oxidised4 ,the soil should be easily worked1 yet not so loose as to render the work of excavation dangerous through the liability to falls of earth4 ,it should be free from water or hard rock to a depth of at least #h feet4 ,if not naturally free from water1 it should be drained if practicable to that depth3 to this end it is necessary that the site should be sufficiently elevated above the drainage level of the locality1 either naturally1 or1 where necessary1 by filling it up to the required level with suitable earth40 8,loam1 and sand with a sufficient quantity of vegetable mould1 are the best soils2 clay and loose stones the worst4 ,a dense clay is laborious to work and difficult to drain2 by excluding moisture and air it retards decay1 and it retains1 in a concentrated state1 the products of decomposition1 sometimes to be discharged into graves opened in the vicinity1 or sometimes to escape through cracks in the ground to the surface4 ,a loose1 stony soil1 on the other hand1 allows the passage of effluvia40 ,and with reference to the site to be chosen for a cemetery he further states3 8,nevertheless1 in view of the evils which in former times have undoubtedly arisen from the practice of intramural sepulture1 and also because the erection of houses near a cemetery interferes with the free play of air around and over it1 it is desirable that the site of the cemetery should be in a neighbourhood in which building is not likely to take place1 and also that so far as practicable a belt of ground should be reserved between the graves and the nearest land on which a house may be built1 in order to obviate to some extent the risk of contamination of ground-air and subsoil water with decomposing matters4 ,this is especially necessary where houses are constructed with cellars4 ,it is1 therefore1 highly desirable that interments should not be made up to the extreme edge of the cemetery1 and it would be possible without great waste of space to reserve in all cases a strip of ground free from interments1 #ae to #cj feet in width1 around the whole cemetery on the interior of the boundary fence4 ,this strip would afford room1 on the inside for a gravel or asphalte walk to give access to all parts of the cemetery1 and on the outside next the fence to a belt of shrubs or trees1 the rootlets of which1 penetrating the soil1 would arrest and assimilate any decomposing matters percolating to the exterior of the cemetery4 ,obviously a cemetery should not be placed on elevated ground above houses1 where the soakings from it may percolate to the sites and foundations of the dwellings below4 4 4 40 8,sites are of course unsuitable which are liable to be flooded or to landslips1 or which are in danger of being washed away1 or encroached upon by streams or the sea4 ,very steep sites are not desirable4 ,the cemetery should be accessible by good roads from all parts of the district40 ,as to the unsuitability of clay as a soil for cemeteries1 ,louis ,crteur in 8,hygiene in the ,battle ,field0 says1 that the bodies of soldiers slain during the ,battle of ,sedan were buried in chalk1 quarry rubble1 sand1 argillite1 slate1 marl1 or clay soils1 and the work of disinfection lasted from the beginning of ,march till the end of ,june4 ,in rubble the decay had fully taken place1 but in the clay the bodies kept well1 and even after a very long time the features could be identified4 ,with regard to the amount of land necessary for a cemetery1 ,dr4 ,parsons calculates that about a quarter of an acre of land for every thousand of the population of the community to whom the cemetery belongs1 is the 8usually estimated minimum10 but this is far too small a proportion even for a cemetery possessing every advantage1 and he further states1 8,the desirability of providing more than this bare minimum of space is obvious1 and is generally recognized40 ,it must be remembered that as a rule1 quite one-sixth of the total area of a cemetery is taken up by the roads1 paths1 ornamental grass or beds of flowers and shrubs1 the chapels1 mortuaries1 lodges1 c41 and sufficient width should be allowed between each grave space to permit every grave being reached without trampling on others3 a standard of #aaj burials per acre has sometimes been taken1 but this appears to me to be rather a small one4 ,in laying out ground for a cemetery1 the following are some points that require careful attention3 7#a47 ,the position of the entrance or entrances2 there should if possible be only one1 as a lodge is necessary at each1 which entails expense4 7#b47 ,the best position for the lodge or lodges1 the chapels and mortuary4 7#c47 ,the direction of the roads in the cemetery3 these must be wide enough for the hearses and mourning coaches1 and there must be convenient places provided for turning round4 7#d47 ,the direction of the paths3#bcd these and the roads should be as straight as possible1 so as to economise available burial ground1 paths should be sufficiently wide to allow an entrance to be made in them to the adjoining vaults or walled graves1 these being frequently covered with a massive tomb or ledger very difficult to remove4 ,the vaults and walled graves1 being of a better class1 are generally put in the borders of the burial ground1 close to the paths4 7#e47 ,in some soils deep and careful drainage is necessary4 ,this should be carried out with ordinary drain pipes laid at a depth of at least #aj feet1 and so communicating with each other and the grave spaces1 that even in a clay soil each grave as it is sunk should be found free from water4 7#f47 ,surface drainage1 especially of the roads and paths1 is also necessary4 7#g47 ,provision must be made for the disposal of the soil excavated from the graves1 as very little punning or ramming of the soil thrown in after a burial should be permitted1 and thus there is always a large quantity of material to be otherwise disposed of4 ,the cemetery must be divided into ,church or consecrated ground1 ,dissenters' ground1 and ,roman ,catholic ground1 in such proportions as may be found to suit the particular requirements of the locality in which the cemetery is placed4 ,these divisions must again be subdivided into sections according to the class and description of the proposed grave1 and each of these subdivisions and grave-spaces must be accurately marked with a distinguishing letter and number1 so that on reference to a plan and a register book1 any person's grave may be easily found1 however long a time may have elapsed since the interment took place1 and although no headstone or mark over the grave is there4 ,it is needless to say1 that the plan of the cemetery has to be most carefully prepared1 and the ground equally carefully set out1 to prevent any chance of error occurring1 or serious consequences might result4 ,it may be well to remark that no body can be removed after burial without an order from one of ,her ,majesty's principal ,secretaries of ,state1 or by faculty from the ,bishop in consecrated ground4#bce ,the following description of the different sections necessary in a large cemetery may here be of use1 the fees chargeable for the privilege of burying in each section advancing with the letters appropriated to the sections4 ,section ,a4 ,this is appropriated to workhouse paupers or very poor persons only1#bcf the depth#bcg of the grave may be limited to #f feet1 and the size should be #i feet by #d feet2 only coffins made of wood should be allowed in this section4#bch ,section ,b4 ,this is of a slightly superior class to the last1 the depth and size may however be the same1 but a larger fee can be charged1 and the position of the section with reference to the paths should be better and more convenient4 ,section ,c4 ,this is again superior to either of the former sections4 ,extra depth and size may be allowed1 and the position should also be better4 ,section ,d4 ,in the previous sections only 8common0 graves as they are called should be allowed4 ,in this section either walled graves1 vaults1 tombs or common graves may be placed1 the common graves may be of extra depth and size1 the space for a vault may be #h feet #f inches by #f feet4#bci ,this section should be exclusively the borders of the paths and other spots easily accessible and prominent to view4 ,section ,e4 ,this is the best section4 ,no common graves should be allowed in it1 and the spaces allotted for burial may be isolated and of various sizes according to agreement and payment4 ,here costly tombs and monuments are erected1 the position of the section being generally near the chapels4#bdj ,in all the above sections it is necessary to provide for the burial of children3 these require smaller space and in some instances they can be buried with their mother1 but in separate coffins4 ,unfortunately it is necessary to allow rather a large percentage of available space for the interment of children1 as the infant mortality in this country is so excessive4 ,in connection with the question of the plan and the sections for burial1 it may be well to give the following rules and regulations for the management of a cemetery3 ,cemetery ,rules and ,regulations4 7#a47 ,all charges for interment1 monuments1 and gravestones must be paid at the time the order is granted2 no kind of work allowed to be done1 or any corpse brought on the ground without the production of an order4 7#b47 ,certificates of death to be produced 7showing the name of the parish1 c41 and all other requisite information7 on paying the fees4 7#c47 ,two days' notice to be given for interment in graves1 7exclusive of ,sunday17 and three days if a vault or brick grave be required4 ,in default1 an extra charge will be made for working by night4 7#d47 ,the time when the funeral procession will be on the ground to be named in the notice4 ,an extra fee of will be charged when the funeral procession is minutes later than the time appointed1 and for every minutes afterwards4 7#e47 ,the hours of interment are from ,a4,m4 to ,p4,m4 from ,michaelmas to ,lady-day1 and from ,a4,m4 to ,p4,m4 from ,lady-day to ,michaelmas4 7#f47 ,all brick or stone work in the graves1 and all foundations and fixing of memorials1 or planting1 shall be under the supervision and control of the local authority or their appointed agent4 7#g47 ,no grave or vault shall be re-opened by other persons than members of that family without the written consent of the parties interested and of the local authority4 ,an extra fee for the interment of strangers will be charged at the discretion of the local authority4 7#h47 ,in all unbricked graves1 coffins of wood only shall be used4 ,no interment will be allowed nearer the surface than four feet for an adult1 or three feet for a child under #ab years4 ,every coffin in a bricked grave or vault to be separately entombed in an air-tight manner4 7#i47 ,no palisades or iron railings to exceed feet in height1 except with the special consent of the local authority2 and no palisades1 or enclosure of any description will be permitted to a grave until a headstone or tomb has been erected4 7#aj47 ,a drawing of every monument or gravestone to be submitted for approval1 and a copy of the intended inscription1 if it contains more than name1 age1 and date4 ,inscriptions to be arranged so as to face the paths as far as practicable4 ,any question which shall arise touching the fitness of any monumental inscription1 placed in any part of the consecrated portion of the ground1 shall be determined on appeal by the ,bishop of the ,diocese4 7#aa47 ,all graves and vaults1 monuments1 gravestones1 fencing or other enclosures1 to be kept in repair by the persons interested in their preservation4 ,if suffered to go out of repair and become unsightly1 the local authority will remove them altogether1 and they will not be allowed to be replaced without the consent of the local authority4 ,graves will be kept in order by the local authority for a fee of per annum4 ,a plan of the ground1 showing each grave space1 is kept at the office of the surveyor to the local authority and may be seen without charge4 ,the public are admitted to the cemetery1 on weekdays1 from #g ,a4,m4 to #h ,p4,m4 from ,lady-day to ,michaelmas1 and from #h ,a4,m4 to #e ,p4,m4 from ,michaelmas to ,lady-day4 ,on ,sundays1 from #b to #h ,p4,m4 in summer and #b to #e ,p4,m4 in winter4 ,all further information may be obtained at the office4 ,the local authority forbid any gratuity being received by their servants4 ,the local authority reserves a right1 from time to time1 to make any alteration in the foregoing charges and regulations4 ,in connection with the above rules1 a scale of fees of the charges for interments must be prepared as well as for headstones1 foot-stones1 ledgers1 and tombs1 or for enclosing any grave with kerbing1 iron-railings1 posts and chains1 c4 ,the practice of allowing persons to plant small shrubs and trees upon the graves of their friends1 should be deprecated1 as not only do they tend eventually to make a cemetery look untidy but they are placed so close to the graves that when they grow up their roots often split open a vault or walled grave1 and even damage valuable tombstones4 ,trees which are suitable for cemeteries1 and which would thrive even in a town atmosphere1 are the weeping willow1 cypress1 yew1 cedar1 juniper1 birch1 ash1 weeping elm1 and a considerable number and variety of drooping and other deciduous trees4 ,these should1 however1 be planted under the control of the local authority1 as otherwise a cemetery would soon be overrun by them4 ,the regulations issued by the ,secretary of ,state for the ,home ,department in ,january #ahfc1 for burial grounds provided under the ,burial ,acts1 may be of use for reference1 and are given in extenso3 7#a47 ,the burial ground shall be effectually fenced1 and1 if necessary1 under-drained to such a depth as will prevent water remaining in any grave or vault4 7#b47 ,the area to be used for graves shall be divided into grave spaces1 to be designated by convenient marks1 so that the position of each may be readily determined1 and a corresponding plan kept on which each grave space shall be shown4 7#c47 ,the grave spaces for the burial of persons above #ab years of age shall be at least #i feet by #d feet1 and those for the burial of children under #ab years of age1 #f feet by #c feet1 or if preferred1 half the measurement of the adult grave space1 namely1 #d feet by #d feet4 7#d47 ,a register of graves shall be kept in which the name1 age1 and date of burial in each shall be duly registered4 7#e47 ,no body shall be buried in any vault or walled grave unless the coffin be separately entombed in an air-tight manner2 that is1 by properly cemented stone or brickwork1 which shall never be disturbed4 7#f47 ,one body only shall be buried in a grave at one time1 unless the bodies be those of members of the same family4 7#g47 ,no unwalled grave shall be re-opened within #ad years after the burial of a person above #ab years of age1 or within eight years after the burial of a child under #ab years of age1 unless to bury another member of the same family1 in which case a layer of earth not less than #a foot thick shall be left undisturbed above the previously buried coffin2 but if on reopening any grave the soil be found to be offensive1 such soil shall not be disturbed1 and in no case shall human remains be removed from the grave4 7#h47 ,no coffin shall be buried in any unwalled grave within #d feet of the ordinary level of the ground1 unless it contains the body of a child under #ab years of age1 when it shall not be less than #c feet below that level4 ,for further information upon the subject of the ,interments ,act #ahgi and much useful information in connection with cemeteries1 ,i refer my readers to #8,notes and ,practical ,suggestions upon the ,interment ,act #ahge1' by ,t4 ,baker1 ,esq4 ,i cannot close this chapter upon cemeteries without a few words upon a subject which is analogous1 cremation2 and although ,i am aware that this is a debateable question1 still it is impossible for me to be silent1 as from my official experience on the practice of burial1 ,i am so deeply convinced that cremation should be substituted for it for very many weighty reasons1 that ,i feel it is necessary for me to give them4 ,they are as follows3 7#a47 ,nothing can be more unsanitary or dangerous to the living than the burial of the dead4 ,this has been enlarged upon over and over again by men who have well studied the subject and are competent to give an opinion and to that opinion ,i add my testimony4 7#b47 ,nothing can be more loathsome and degrading to the dead bodies of our friends or more revolting to our feelings1 than the horrible practice of placing the remains of those we love in the soil of a common churchyard or cemetery1 to be devoured with other bodies by worms4 7#c47 ,in placing a dead body under ground we can never be sure how long the remains will be left undisturbed1 a new street or railway will soon destroy all traces of its resting place1#bda and even the law only allows a grave to remain undisturbed for a short #ad years4 7#d47 ,in the event of friends or relations dying abroad their remains cannot be sent home for burial except at great expense1 cremation would reduce the body to a few beautiful silvery ashes which could easily be brought home and secured on arrival in a suitable and safe position4#bdb 7#e47 ,cremation is the most respectful and beautiful manner for the disposal of dead bodies1 and need not alarm 7on religious grounds#bdc7 any more than the practice at sea of lowering the dead bodies overboard to be eventually eaten and digested by marine animals4 7#g47 ,cremation would settle at once and for ever the vexed question of burial in consecrated or unconsecrated ground1 and all the unseemly quarrels which have taken place in connection with it from time to time4 7#h47 ,the great extent of land that is now wasted in public burial grounds and cemeteries4#bdd ,there is no reason1 even if cremation should take the place of burial1 why the fees for clergymen and others should not remain as at present1 and the unpleasant assistance of the ,british-ghoul1 the undertaker1 with his long face at the ceremony and still longer bill afterwards1 could easily be dispensed with4 ,the opponents of cremation urge that it would be more expensive than burial1 and consequently out of the reach of the poorer classes1 and also that it would cause so much difficulty in detecting cases of poisoning1 that it would tend to encourage persons to poison others who happened to be in their way1 or objectionable to them1 and thus crime would go unchecked4 ,if these are the only objections they are easily to be overcome4 ,first1 by constructing public crematories1 where for a few shillings a day sufficient heat could be maintained to consume almost any number of bodies1 whilst the present great expense of maintaining large cemeteries with their attendant guardians and other costs would be dispensed with2 and ,secondly1 by instituting a scientific and independent enquiry as to the cause of every death which occurs4 ,this is so much required at the present day for the sake of the public health1 that even if cremation is never introduced it should be at once enforced1 so that those who have charge of the public health could have exact and reliable knowledge of the causes of all the deaths throughout the ,united ,kingdom1 and thus obtain such valuable information as would greatly assist in the daily fight to subdue and overcome deaths from preventable causes4 #bcj ,vide #8,fitzgerald's ,public ,health ,act1' p4 #acj1 #crd edition4 #bca ,vide #8,fitzgerald's ,public ,health ,act1' p4 #aca1 #crd edition4 ,foot note to clause x4 ,cemetery ,clauses ,act #ahdg4 #bcb ,cemetery ,clauses ,act #ahdg1 s4 #bj4 #bcc ,vide #8,cremation of the ,dead1' by ,william ,eassie1 ,c4,e4 c4 c41 p4 #ej4 #bcd ,the roads and paths in a cemetery require to be carefully made1 in order that they may be available during any weather4 #bce #bj #ba ,vic4 c4 #ha1 s4 #be4 #bcf ,the following is a description of the manner of burying the poorer people in the cemetery of ,pere la ,chaise1 near ,paris4 7,vide #8,the ,parks1 ,promenades1 and ,gardens of ,paris1' by ,w4 ,robinson1 ,f4,l4,s41 c41 p4 #aji47 8,a very wide trench or fosse is cut wide enough to hold two rows of coffins placed across it1 and #ajj yards long or so4 ,here they are rapidly stowed in one after another1 just as nursery labourers lay in stock #8by the heels1' only much closer1 because there is no earth between the coffins1 and wherever the coffins1 which are very like egg-boxes1 only somewhat less substantial1 happen to be short so that a little space is left between the two rows1 those of children are placed in lengthwise between them to economise space2 the whole being done exactly as a natty man would pack together turves or mushroom spawn bricks404 4 4 ,let us hope that whatever else may be 8taken from the ,french10 we may never imitate them in their cemetery management4 #bcg ,depth of burial varies from #f to #aj feet1 but there must be #d feet of earth upon the top of the last coffin if an adult1 #c feet if a child4 #bch ,a proper grave should be dry when opened1 and have a sufficiency of soil over the coffin to absorb any gases of decomposition2 it should allow an adjoining grave to be opened without collapsing1 and should if possible dispense with the necessity of shoring or close timbering the sides1 and should allow sufficient space for a headstone to be placed over it4 #bci ,in a tomb or walled grave1 the coffin should be enclosed in an air-tight case1 by means of a stone cemented down which must never again be moved2 or concrete may be used4 ,it is a good plan to put some charcoal with the coffin to absorb any gases of decomposition in case of the vault opening accidentally at any future time1 and in order to guard against such an occurrence it is better to leave at least #b feet of earth on the top of the grave below the surface of the ground in walled graves4 #bdj 8,no body shall be buried in any vault under any chapel of the cemetery or within #ae feet of the outer wall of any such chapel40 7,vide s4 #ci1 ,cemetery ,clauses ,act #ahdg47 #bda ,in a beautiful out-of-the-way valley in ,wales1 there is a pretty village with a quiet churchyard far from the 8busy haunts of man10 yet here it is found necessary to disinter all the bodies1 as this churchyard will soon be #cj feet under the surface of the water of an immense reservoir now being constructed to supply the living with drinking water1 and it would not be right to leave the bodies there4 #bdb ,the body of ,lord ,balcarres was 7as is now history7 removed from the mausoleum in his own grounds1 and only recovered after a most painful interval2 this desecration could not have happened had his body been cremated and the ashes suitably secured4 #bdc ,i believe it was ,lord ,shaftesbury whose remark on this point was1 8,what would have become of the blessed martyrs1 if destruction by fire was to annul their chances of resurrection80 #bdd ,the metropolis alone has in addition to the numerous burying grounds near its parish churches1 c4 7many of which have been1 however1 dug up and destroyed71 the average of which it would be difficult to determine1 the following cemeteries1 which may be called extra mural3 ,woking ,cemetery #ejj acres ,ilford and ,leytonstone ,cemetery #afh ,norwood and ,nunhead ,cemetery #dj ,highgate ,cemetery #dj ,west ,london at ,brompton #dj ,abney ,park ,cemetery #cb ,kensal ,green ,cemetery #ah ,victoria ,cemetery ---- ,tower ,hamlets ,cemetery ---- ,colney ,hatch ,cemetery ---- ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,mortuaries4 ,as the ,public ,health ,act #ahge contains several clauses bearing upon mortuaries1 a few words upon this subject will not be altogether inappropriate4 ,the great and terrible evils arising from the practice of keeping corpses in inhabited rooms by the poorer classes were pointed out by ,mr4 ,chadwick in the year #ahdcbde and the following clauses upon this subject and the necessity imposed upon the local authority to provide proper mortuaries are contained in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge3 8,any local authority may1 and if required by the ,local ,government ,board shall provide and fit up a proper place for the reception of dead bodies before interment 7in this ,act called a mortuary71 and may make bye-laws with respect to the management and charges for use of the same2 they may also provide for the decent and economical interment1 at charges to be fixed by such bye-laws1 of any dead body which may be received into a mortuary 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #ada74 8,where the body of one who has died of any infectious disease is retained in a room in which persons live or sleep1 or any dead body which is in such a state as to endanger the health of the inmates of the same house or room is retained in such house or room1 any justice may1 on a certificate signed by a legally qualified medical practitioner1 order the body to be removed1 at the cost of the local authority1 to any mortuary provided by such authority1 and direct the same to be buried within a time to be limited in such order2 and unless the friends or relations of the deceased undertake to bury the body within the time so limited1 and do bury the same1 it shall be the duty of the relieving officer to bury such body at the expense of the poor rate1 but any expense so incurred may be recovered by the relieving officer in a summary manner from any person legally liable to pay the expense of such burial4 8,any person obstructing the execution of an order made by a justice under this section shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #adb74 ,from these clauses it would appear that a mortuary or mortuaries are an absolute essential in every town1 although it does not appear necessary to have a separate mortuary for any 8body of one who has died of any infectious disease10 but it may be taken to the mortuary which has been provided for the reception of dead bodies generally4 ,it may also be assumed that bodies may be viewed by a coroner's jury in the mortuary1 although a post-mortem examination cannot be made in it1 as by the following section3 8,any local authority may provide and maintain a proper place 7otherwise than at a workhouse or at a mortuary7 for the reception of dead bodies during the time required to conduct any post-mortem examination ordered by a coroner or other constituted authority1 and may make regulations with respect to the management of such place2 and where any such place has been provided1 a coroner or other constituted authority may order the removal of the body to and from such place for carrying out such post-mortem examination1 such costs of removal to be paid in the same manner and out of the same fund as the costs and fees for post-mortem examinations when ordered by the coroner 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #adc740 ,it will be observed that the above clause apparently forbids a post-mortem room being provided at the mortuary1 although this would appear to be the most appropriate situation for it1 and indeed such a room is frequently provided at or near the mortuary4 ,the reason for this prohibition1 especially as it is associated with a workhouse1 is evidently to overcome the prejudice which would exist in the minds of the ignorant that the fact of taking a body to a mortuary necessitated dissection3 a practice which is looked upon with much disfavour by such persons4 ,mortuaries in this country generally consist of one of the following descriptions3 7#a47 ,elaborate groups of buildings1 comprising mortuary chapel1 coroner's room1 post-mortem room1 dead house1 waiting rooms1 c41 and the necessary care-taker's rooms1 and offices4 7#b47 ,mortuaries in connection with infectious hospitals4 7#c47 ,mortuaries in connection with general hospitals4 7#d47 ,mortuaries at cemeteries or licensed burial grounds4 7#e47 ,dead-houses provided by the sanitary authority4 ,in arranging for the erection of a dead-house or mortuary in any town1 the surveyor may find the following particulars and suggestions of some use to him3 ,a mortuary must be provided in the grounds or near all cemeteries that are in active operation1 but in addition to these1 others ought to be erected in central positions of the town1 so that bodies can be easily conveyed there1 not only with a view to meet the objections mentioned in the opening of this chapter1 but also to avoid the unseemly practice at present so largely in vogue of taking any cases of sudden death1 suicide1 accidental drowning1 violence or accident1 c41 that may occur1 to the nearest public house1 there to await identification and the coroner's inquest4#bdf ,it has been computed that for every #ej1jjj of the population of any town1 a mortuary should be provided4 ,in ,frankfort mortuaries have been for some years in existence2 they are simple buildings1 with a separate room for each corpse1 intended not only to prevent bodies from being kept in private houses1 but also to lessen the chance of any person being buried alive4 ,the following is a plan of one of these institutions3 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,german ,,leichenhaus ,,or ,,dead-,,house4 ,to prevent the chance of burying any person alive1 each corpse as it is placed in its little dead-house has a ring placed upon its finger2 this ring is attached to a string which is in communication with a bell which hangs in the attendant's room1 who is there night and day1 a window communicates with each dead-house1 so that on the alarm being given he is at once ready to render assistance4 ,in ,paris1 as is well known1 all bodies that are found are placed in the 8,morgue0 behind 8,notre ,dame10 where they are publicly exhibited1 thus assisting identification1 although the exposure of bodies in this manner is not very attractive4 ,in preparing designs for a group of buildings such as are set forth in the first on the list which ,i have given1 the following requirements should be considered3 ,the ,mortuary ,chapel should be of such dimensions as are suitable for the requirements of the district1 bearing in mind that if an epidemic of a fatal character was to unfortunately break out1 it could either provide accommodation for the extra strain upon it or be capable of being easily extended4 ,it should be designed so as to combine the characteristics of a chapel with the most perfect sanitary arrangements4#bdg ,the walls should be of stone and are better lined with cement or glazed tiles1 and everything should be kept as flush as possible so as to avoid projections on which dust could accumulate1 the whole being easily and readily cleansed and disinfected4 ,the floor may be of asphalte or other impervious material1 and be well drained1 great care being of course taken to exclude rats4 ,the ventilation must be perfect1 the building should always be of low temperature even in the hottest days of summer4 ,all the group of buildings should1 if possible1 be surrounded by a free belt of air4 ,their position should be isolated with respect to other buildings1 and of course it is highly necessary that they should be as far away as possible from any dwelling-houses1 a disused burial ground being sometimes selected as a convenient site4 ,the furniture of a mortuary chapel should consist only of trestles or of brackets against the walls upon which to rest the shells containing the corpses4 ,the ,dead-house should be a room smaller than the mortuary chapel1 but its construction may be the same4 ,it is here that all bodies should be brought uncoffined for the purpose of awaiting identification1 or preparatory to post-mortem examination1 or of bodies of those who have died from dangerous contagious maladies1 and rendering immediate removal necessary2 these are placed upon slabs provided for the purpose1 which may be of slate1 zinc1 or other suitable material4 ,in conjunction with the dead-house should be ,the ,post-,mortem ,room1 which requires plenty of light2 it must also1 like the mortuary chapel and dead-house1 be thoroughly ventilated and drained and be easily cleansed4 ,its furniture must consist of the necessary post-mortem table of slate1 zinc1 or wood covered entirely with lead3 this table must slightly dish towards the centre and be drained into a pail or on to a grating4 ,plenty of water is essential1 conveniently laid on1 and the room must be fitted with good arrangements for gas or other means of artificial lighting4 ,some method is also necessary for the purpose of heating water whenever it is required4 ,the ,coroner's ,court may be simply a large room with convenient seatings and tables for the coroner and his jury1 accommodation being also provided for the press1 witnesses1 c4 with the necessary retiring rooms and offices4 ,in addition to the above requirements the following accommodation should also be provided3 ,a caretaker or resident attendant should have accommodation at or near the main group of buildings4 ,a ,laboratory and ,weighing ,room should also be provided in connection with the post-mortem room2 and a ,store ,room for spare shells and disinfectants1 c4 ,if possible also it is well to provide a ,hearse ,house2 and in connection with the mortuary establishment1 the disinfecting of bedding1 clothing1 c41 which have become infected1 should also if possible be carried on4 ,before1 however1 proceeding to discuss the question of disinfection ,i will give the following drawing of a mortuary chapel1 c41 as proposed by the late ,dr4 ,w4 ,hardwicke1 the well-known ,coroner1 in a valuable paper upon the subject of ,public ,mortuaries which he read before the ,royal ,institute of ,british ,architects in the year #ahfi3 ,illustration ,i am1 however1 not aware that any public mortuary even of this size has yet been actually carried out in this country1 greatly as they are needed4 ,with reference to the question of disinfection1 which as ,i stated can be conveniently taken in connection with that of mortuaries1 the following is the clause of the ,public ,health ,act #ahge which deals with it3 8,any local authority may provide a proper place1 with all necessary apparatus and attendance1 for the disinfection of bedding1 clothing or other articles which have become infected1 and may cause any articles brought for disinfection to be disinfected free of charge 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #abb74 ,see also #ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 ss4 #abj and #aba40 ,the first duty here involved is to provide a proper place for this purpose1 and this place cannot be better than that of the mortuary1 so as to centralize as much as possible the spots to which infection has to be carried1 and the necessary attendant can also here be found1 as well as convenient places to put the hand carts1 c41 presently described4 ,the next duty is to provide the necessary apparatus1 which is now done almost exclusively by the action of heat4 ,this is sometimes effected by building brick-work chambers which can be heated up to about #cej ,fahr4 after the doors are closed1 by means of coal or coke furnaces4 ,within these chambers are moveable horses on which are placed the articles to be disinfected3 these are exposed to the necessary heat for varying times according to the nature of the articles1 the horse is then drawn out1 when the articles should be thoroughly washed with a disinfecting soap and returned to their owners4 ,great care is necessary in this operation to ensure evenness of heat1 as otherwise the clothes1 bedding1 c41 may be scorched and injured1 and the local authority will then have to make compensation4 ,a more convenient form of disinfecting machine1 and one that is less costly to work and more even in its temperature1 is one that can be heated by gas1 this is sometimes effected by the use of an iron box with counter-balanced lid into which the articles are put1 heat being applied by means of gas jets burning underneath4 ,a more elaborate and effective method has however been patented1 and is now manufactured by ,messrs4 ,goddard and ,massey of ,nottingham1 which is known as ,dr4 ,ranson's system4 ,the following drawing shows the arrangement of this machine1 and some of the advantages claimed for it are as follows3 ,its heat is maintained automatically within certain limits in all parts of the chamber1 and has great drying power1 which is important1 as securing from the long period of time at which this steady heat can be maintained1 that penetration into bedding and other bad conductors which is so desirable to secure the necessary destruction of all disease germs or chances of after inoculation3 ,illustration ,there can be no doubt that where a machine is not required to be constantly at work gas is the cheapest and most convenient heat-producer that we have4 ,it is of course necessary that the infected bedding and clothing should be fetched from the owners' houses in such a manner as will lessen the risk of spreading infection as much as possible1 and for this purpose it is necessary for the local authority to keep a covered hand-cart which should be lined with tin and closed hermetically4 ,it should be sufficiently large to take a mattrass1 and be of light construction1 so that one man can draw it when full4 ,before concluding my remarks on disinfection1 it is well to state that plenty of carbolic acid should be kept in a mortuary4 ,sheets saturated with carbolic acid are used to wrap around the dead bodies of infected persons1 and sawdust saturated with carbolic acid is also freely used1 besides large quantities of that excellent disinfectant1 8,sanitas40 #bde ,vide #8,a ,supplementary ,report on the ,results of a ,special ,enquiry into the ,practice of ,interments in ,towns1' by ,edwin ,chadwick1 #ahdc4 #bdf ,there is no law that can compel any one to receive a dead body into his house4 #bdg ,it is important to remove the idea of a 8parish dead-house10 otherwise its object will be defeated1 as persons will object to allow the bodies of their deceased friends to be taken to it4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,borrowing ,,under ,,the ,,local ,,government ,,board4 ,there are a number of clauses in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge1 which empower a local authority to borrow money on the credit of the rates for the purpose of 8defraying any costs1 charges and expenses incurred or to be incurred by them in the execution of the ,sanitary ,acts40 7,vide #ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #bcc74 ,the exercise of these powers of borrowing are subject to the following regulations3 7#a47 ,money shall not be borrowed except for permanent works4#bdh 7#b47 ,the sum borrowed shall not exceed at any time1 including all outstanding debts1 the assessable value for two years of the district4 7#c47 ,where it exceeds the value of one year1 the ,local ,government ,board will not give their sanction until one of their inspectors has held a local enquiry4 7#d47 ,the money cannot be borrowed for a longer time than #fj years1 and it must be paid off within that time4 7#e47 ,certain regulations as to sinking funds1 c4 7,vide #ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #bcd et seq47 ,the power to borrow money thus granted to local authorities has undoubtedly given a considerable stimulus to the execution of important sanitary works which could not be carried out if they had to be paid for out of the current rates4 ,it is also a fair and equitable arrangement that permanent works should be paid for by those that reap the benefit of them1 and it is now so arranged that the money borrowed is repaid within a certain specified time by equal annual payments1 in order that the ratepayer of the present shall not be unduly taxed for the benefit of posterity4 ,no regular or fixed times have been settled by the ,local ,government ,board over which they will allow the repayment of loans to be spread1 but it appears that the duration of the proposed works somewhat guides the length of time allowed1 as will appear from the following list which ,i have prepared from the eighth ,annual ,report of the ,local ,government ,board3 ,description of ,work4 ,number of ,years4 ,purchase of land #ej to #fj ,sewage disposal #cj #ej ,sewerage works #cj #ej ,water supply #bj #ej ,fire brigade purposes #cj and #fj ,market ,purposes #cj #fj ,plan of district #bj #cj ,lamps for public lighting #aj #bj ,artizans and ,labourers' ,dwellings ,act #ej ,erection of hospital #cj public baths #cj slaughter-houses #cj buildings at sewage farm #cj ,a public park #ej ,cemeteries #cj ,gas supply #cj ,street improvements #ae to #cj ,paving#bdi and channelling #ae #bj ,stables1 urinals1 enginehouse #bj ,construction of a new road #bj ,disinfecting apparatus #bj ,mortuary and weighing machine #ae ,steam road roller #aj ,whenever a local authority decide to make application to the ,local ,government ,board for power to borrow money for any proposed improvements or works within their district1 it is the duty of the town surveyor to prepare the necessary drawings and obtain the required information in order to fill in the forms which are supplied from the ,local ,government ,board office4 ,with reference to this important part of his duty1 ,i cannot do better than give the following ,suggestions as to the ,preparation of ,plans of ,proposed ,works1 by ,robert ,rawlinson1 ,c4,b41 ,c4,e41 c4 7,chief ,engineering ,inspector to the ,local ,government ,board71 prepared by him in #ahgh3 8,it will in all cases be necessary1 upon application being made for sanction to a loan1 for the execution of works1 that plans 7or tracings of the plans71 sections1 estimates in detail and specifications be submitted with the application1 accompanied by information as to the population at the two last periods of the taking of the census1 the rateable value of the district1 and the amount of outstanding loans40 8,such plans or tracings may be used for showing lines of main sewers1 drains1 water-pipes and gas-mains4 ,the lines of main sewers and drains should have the cross sectional dimensions of the sewers and their gradients distinctly marked 7written and figured7 upon them4 ,the dimensions of water and gas pipes should also be shown in figures or by writing40 8,n4,b4--,no general map should be submitted which is drawn to a scale of less than #f inches to a mile1 except when the inch ordnance map is used40 8,maps upon which sewerage works or water works are to be shown1 or for street improvements1 should be not less than the ordnance scale of th40 8,the sections should be drawn to the same horizontal scale1 and to a vertical scale of #bj feet to #a inch40 ,any detailed plan for the purposes of house drainage1 paving1 the purchase of land c41 should be 8constructed to a scale of not less than #aj feet to a mile1 and upon this plan should be exhibited all houses and other buildings1 bench marks1 the levels of streets and roads1 of cellars1 of the sea at high and low tide level1 and the summer and flood levels of rivers4 #c feet by #b feet will be a convenient size for the sheets of this plan40 8,enlarged detail plans and sections of sewers1 side entrances1 man-holes1 sewer sluices1 sluice valves1 water-pipe joints1 and similar details1 should be to a scale not less than #h feet to #a inch1 and for some details #d feet to #a inch40#bej 8,as it may occasionally be desired to carry out works piecemeal1 with a view to save the time which would be occupied in the preparation of a complete plan from actual survey1 it will be sufficient in the first instance to furnish any available general plan of streets and roads1 with the surface levels and those of the deepest cellars figured in feet and inches1 and the proposed scheme of works shown 7or sketched7 thereon1 after which the works can proceed in sections4 ,it should be understood1 however1 that a complete plan of the entire district must be proceeded with1 so that when the works are finished1 the sanitary authority and this ,board may possess a proper record of them40 ,and again1 ,mr4 ,rawlinson in the same year1 at a meeting of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers1 writes as follows3 8,plans should be neatly and clearly drawn1 the cross sectional dimensions and the gradient being written on the plan of sewers2 there should be a title and scale on each plan1 as also on each sheet1 and the date with the name of the engineer or surveyor clearly written so as easily to be read2 this as a rule should be in the right-hand corner4 ,many names are so written that experts cannot read them1 and plans are frequently sent out having no title1 nor any scale1 nor any name40 8,plans of details1 such as side entrances1 man-holes1 flushing chambers1 and sewer ventilating arrangements1 should be at #d feet to an inch1 larger works may be at #d1 #aj to #bj feet to an inch4 ,clear understandable and measurable details are desirable 4 4 4 ,i have much trouble in looking over defectively prepared plans and crude ill-understood and ill-digested schemes as they are submitted to the ,local ,government ,board1 for approval and sanction to a proposed loan4 ,one great fact connected with the ,board must not1 however1 be overlooked4 ,it is not an office of works1 it does not undertake to devise neither does it make itself responsible in any degree for the plans or for the estimates which may have been sanctioned4 ,each engineer and each local authority must both devise and execute the local works1 and the district must alone be responsible for the local expenditure4 ,the ,board neither dictates as to works1 nor superintends works1 but reserves the power of refusing sanction to a proposed loan1 and of requiring full explanations as to failures in the works1 or as to expenses over estimates before sanctioning a supplemental loan4 ,the reason that the ,board declines responsibility ought to be clearly manifest2 plans and details may be the best possible1 but the ultimate result depends on daily local supervision1 and this the ,board does not give2 neither local action nor local responsibility is superseded40 ,speaking on this point at the first meeting of the ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain held at ,croydon in #ahgi1 ,captain ,douglas ,galton1 ,c4,b41 says3#bea 8,where a loan is applied for1 the plan upon which the money is to be spent is submitted for ,government approval4 ,the ,government only lends the money after the approval of the proposed scheme of expenditure by one of their inspectors40 8,the ,local ,authorities of the towns to be drained cannot therefore be responsible for the plan selected1 for the ,local ,authorities must alter their plans to suit the views of the inspector4 ,the responsibility of the engineer is diminished1 because he may be compelled to modify his plan in a manner in which he may not thoroughly approve1 and the inspector has no responsibility in the matter1 because1 after having approved of the general scheme1 he has no control over the details or the execution of the work1 nor can he be in any way held responsible1 if the result were a failure40 #bdh ,the ,local ,government ,board have held a steam roller1 a steam fire-engine1 a disinfecting apparatus1 and lamp columns to be permanent works4 #bdi ,for asphalte pavements twelve years have been allowed4 #bej 8,details may be drawn to any scale larger than the dimensions named4 ,engraved or lithographed diagrams1 if clear and distinct1 will be accepted4 ,a new plan of any town or district cannot be used for main sewering1 water supply1 gas supply1 pavements1 footwalks1 and other purposes without spoiling it2 consequently it had better be retained as a standard and be zincographed1 there may then be copies for all local purposes4 ,the zinc plates to be the property of the local authority40 #bea ,vide #8,transactions of the ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain1' vol4 i4 p4 #aaf4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,contracts4 ,contracts being principally a legal question1 it is not my intention to say much on the matter4 ,in the ,public ,health ,act #ahge will be found the following clauses3 8,any ,local ,authority may enter into any contracts necessary for carrying this ,act into execution 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #agc74 8,with respect to contracts made by an ,urban ,authority under this ,act1 the following regulations shall be observed 7namely73 87#a47 ,every contract made by an ,urban ,authority whereof the value or amount exceeds fifty pounds shall be in writing1 and sealed with the common seal of such authority3 87#b47 ,every such contract shall specify the work1 materials1 matters or things to be furnished1 had or done1 the price to be paid1 and the time or times within which the contract is to be performed1 and shall specify some pecuniary penalty to be paid in case the terms of the contract are not duly performed3 87#c47 ,before contracting for the execution of any works under the provisions of this ,act1 an ,urban ,authority shall obtain from their surveyor an estimate in writing1 as well of the probable expense of executing the work in a substantial manner as of the annual expense of repairing the same2 also a report as to the most advantageous mode of contracting1 that is to say1 whether by contracting only for the execution of the work1 or for executing and also maintaining the same in repair during a term of years or otherwise3 87#d47 ,before any contract of the value or amount of one hundred pounds or upwards is entered into by an ,urban ,authority ten days' public notice at the least shall be given1 expressing the nature and purpose thereof1 and inviting tenders for the execution of the same2 and such authority shall require and take sufficient security for the due performance of the same3 87#e47 ,every contract entered into by an ,urban ,authority in conformity with the provisions of this section1 and duly executed by the other parties thereto1 shall be binding on the ,authority by whom the same is executed and their successors1 and on all other parties thereto and their executors1 administrators1 successors or assigns to all intents and purposes3 ,provided that an ,urban ,authority may compound with any contractor or other person in respect of any penalty incurred by reason of the non-performance of any contract entered into as aforesaid1 whether such penalty is mentioned in any such contract1 or in any bond or otherwise1 for such sums of money or other recompense as to such ,authority may seem proper0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #agd74 ,in reading the numerous foot-notes that follow the above clauses in ,glen's #8,law of ,public ,health and ,local ,government1' it will be seen that contracts with corporations have been held to be very different from ordinary ones between individuals or companies4 ,all contracts should be by deed under the seal of the corporation1 or 8there is no safety or security for anyone dealing with such a body on any other footing10 and this applies also in 8respect of any variation or alteration in a contract which has been made40 8,a committee of the corporation has no power to enter into any contract0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #bjj74 ,a member of a corporation may not be 8concerned in any bargain or contract0 entered into by the corporation1 although this would not vitiate the contract 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 sch4 #aa1 clause #fd71 neither may an officer of the corporation be 8concerned or interested in any bargain or contract0 7#ch #ci ,vic4 c4 #ee1 s4 #aic74 ,it is1 of course1 necessary before any contract can be entered into1 that the town surveyor should prepare the specification1 schedule of prices and drawings where necessary2 this entails a considerable amount of work4 ,in addition to ordinary specifications for works1 the town surveyor has often to prepare specifications and schedules for the supply of the following goods3 ,ironmongery4 ,paints1 etc4 ,disinfectants4 ,castings4 ,coals4 ,harness4 ,fodder4 ,road metal4 ,paving4 ,clothing4 ,stationery4 ,horse hire4 and a host of other things too numerous to mention4 ,a well-written1 clear1 and comprehensive specification is a most difficult thing to write1 but it should be 8common sense0 from beginning to end1 any legal phraseology being left to the town clerk to introduce in his 8deed0 as required by the ,act4 ,for sewer and drain work lump sum contracts are often undesirable3 it is better to work according to a schedule of prices1 and periodical measurements4 ,it must not be forgotten that in all contracts the contractor seeks to make a profit out of the work2 if there is no intermediate contractor this profit goes to the ratepayers4 ,in most sanitary works also the men employed by the local authority are more skilled in that particular class of work than the chance men employed by a contractor1 and for this and many other reasons1 administration by the local authority is in most cases preferable to contracts4#beb ,where tenders have been invited by advertisement or otherwise1 the successful person should be written to1 apprising him of the fact1 and requesting him to call1 sign the necessary specification1 deeds1 and drawings2 an intimation should also be made to the unsuccessful competitors that their tenders have not been accepted4 ,in conclusion1 let me thank the authors of the following books for the useful information which ,i have gained in perusing them for the purposes of this work1 and1 let me add1 they can be studied with advantage by every 8,town ,surveyor03 #8,american ,sanitary ,engineering1' by ,e4 ,s4 ,philbrick4 #8,annales des ,ponts et ,chausses1' published in ,paris4 #8,annual ,reports of the ,local ,government ,board1' published in ,london4 #8,a ,practical ,guide for ,inspectors of ,nuisances1' by ,f4 ,r4 ,wilson4 #8,a ,treatise on ,roads1' by ,sir ,h4 ,parnell4 #8,cremation of the ,dead1' by ,w4 ,eassie4 #8,experience sur le tirage des ,voitures1' by ,m4 ,morin4 #8,healthy ,dwellings1' by ,d4 ,galton4 #8,health of ,towns ,commission1' sundry reports4 #8,law of ,public ,health and ,local ,government1' by ,w4 ,c4 and ,a4 ,glen4 #8,local ,board ,manual1' by ,owen ,harris4 #8,new ,mode of ,constructing ,streets1' by ,j4 ,edgworth4 #8,plumbing and ,house ,draining1' by ,w4 ,p4 ,buchan4 #8,practical ,treatise on ,roads1' by ,a4 ,penfold4 #8,repair of ,main ,roads1' by ,w4 ,h4 ,wheeler4 #8,roads and ,streets1' by ,d4 ,kinnear ,clark4 #8,roads1 ,streets1 and ,pavements1' by ,q4 ,a4 ,gillmore4 #8,roads and ,roadways1' by ,g4 ,w4 ,willcocks4 #8,remarks on the ,present ,system of ,road ,making1' c41 by ,john ,loudon ,mc,adam4 #8,sanitary ,engineering1' by ,baldwin ,latham4 #8,sanitary ,engineering1' by ,bailey ,denton4 #8,sanitary ,work1' by ,charles ,slagg4 #8,suggestions as to the ,preparation of ,district ,maps and of ,plans for ,main ,sewerage1 ,drainage1 and ,water ,supply1' by ,robert ,rawlinson1 ,c4,b41 c4 #8,street ,pavements1' by ,g4 ,f4 ,crosby ,dawson4 #8,steam ,road ,rolling1' by ,fred4 ,a4 ,paget4 #8,the ,parks1 ,promenades1 and ,gardens of ,paris1' by ,w4 ,robinson4 #8,the ,public ,health and ,local ,government ,act1' by ,j4 ,vesey ,fitzgerald4 #8,the ,interments ,act #ahgi1' by ,t4 ,baker4 #8,the ,plumber and ,sanitary ,houses1' by ,s4 ,s4 ,hellyer4 #8,the ,maintenance of ,macadamised ,roads1' by ,thomas ,codrington4 #8,the true system of ,wood ,pavement1' ,anonymous4 #8,the ,surveyor of ,highways1' by ,alex4 ,glen4 #8,tree ,pruning1' by ,a4 des ,cars4 ,various papers in the ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers4 ,various papers in the ,proceedings of the ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain4 ,various papers in the ,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors4 ,various papers from the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society4 ,various papers from the ,reports on the ,application of ,science and ,art to ,street ,paving4 ,various reports by ,mr4 ,haywood1 ,engineer to the ,commissioners of ,sewers of the ,city of ,london4 ,various reports by ,mr4 ,till1 ,surveyor of ,birmingham4 ,various reports of ,commissions1 etc4 #beb ,mr4 ,parry1 ,c4,e41 ,borough ,surveyor of ,reading1 says1 8,my experience of such works is that town authorities can obtain both labour and materials cheaper than contractors1 and with efficient supervision the work costs less money40 7,vide #8,proceedings of the ,association of ,municipal and ,sanitary ,engineers and ,surveyors1' vol4 iv4 p4 #hi47 ,,index4 ,abattoirs1 #cbh ,abrasion of stone1 #dh ,accidents to horses1 #ca ,accommodation in ,cattle ,market1 #cde ,acland1 ,dr41 on the surveyor1 #d ,acquisition of sewers1 #beb ,acreage of sewage farms1 #bfe ,action of earth on sewage1 #bff ,additions to old buildings1 #baj ,advantage of plants for sewage1 #bgj ,advantages of asphalte1 #ii ---- public abattoirs1 #cdc ---- separate system1 #bfa ---- steam rolling1 #gj ---- wood paving1 #hi ,alleys and courts if cleansed1 #bch ,allotting numbers1 #aed ,alteration of old building to new1 #bji ,american footpath1 #aad ---- paving1 #gg ---- road rolling1 #fe ,analysis of asphalte1 #ig ,angell ,lewis on the surveyor1 #f ,angles of roads1 #cj ,annihilation of sewer gases1 #bgg ,application to borrow1 #cgf ,appointment of surveyor1 #a1 #c1 #aj1 #ah ,arc lights1 #add ,area of cemeteries1 #ced1 #cfc ---- sewers1 #bec1 #bed ,artificial asphalte1 #aag ---- stone pavements1 #aaf ,artizans' dwellings1 #bhd1 #bia ,ashpits1 #bbf ,asphalte1 ,mac ,adam1 #df ---- mastic1 #ajg ---- roadways1 #if ,asphaltic wood pavement1 #hb ,automatic flushing1 #bfb ,aveling and ,porter's roller1 #fh ,awnings over paths1 #ahd ,bargains4 ,see ,contracts ,bars opening outwards1 #agh ,bayley's hydrostatic van1 #bde ,best stones for pitchers1 #ge ,bitumen1 #if ,bituminous concrete1 #gh ---- mixture1 #gi ---- roadways1 #df ,binding for roads1 #fb ,blinds over paths1 #ahd ,blood-house1 #cda ,books on drainage1 #cae ---- useful1 #chd ,borrowing1 #cge ,borders for paths1 #cbj ,bottles and brickbats1 #bbe ,bottoming roadways1 #cg ,breakages in pipe sewers1 #beh ,breaking stone1 #dh1 #ea ,breaking-up streets1 #aeg ,brick footpaths1 #aaf ,bridges over streets1 #cc ,broad irrigation1 #bfe ,brown's street watering1 #bdc ,buildings1 dangerous1 #ahh ---- projections of1 #agf ---- new1 #bjf ---- setting back1 #age ,buddle hole1 #abh ,bullock lairs1 #cdf ---- rollers1 #fj ,burial fees1 #cef ---- in clay1 #ced ,burners1 gas1 #adj ,burning refuse1 #bcc ,butchers1 #cbi1 #ccd ,byelaws for new streets1 c41 #bjf ,cage for trees1 #cbe ,caithness flagging1 #aab ,caldrons1 #ajg ,candle power1 #acf ,canvassing1 #ai ,capacities of surveyor1 #e ,carcel power1 #acf ,carey's wood pavement1 #hc ,cart for scavenging1 #bcj ,cast-iron name plates1 #aea ,cattle lairs1 #ccc ,cattle ,market1 #cde ,causes of breakages in pipes1 #beh ,cellar coverings1 #ahj ---- door projecting1 #agf ---- dwellings1 #bie ,cemeteries1 #cej ,channelling1 #abc ,chapel mortuary1 #cfi ,chapels in cemeteries1 #cea ,charcoal sewer ventilators1 #bge ,chemical treatment of sewage1 #bfh ,chesterfield lighting1 #abi ,chicago roads1 #ch ,chimney shafts1 #aij ---- ---- ventilators1 #bge ,chloride of calcium for watering1 #bdg ,choice of street names1 #aeb ,chokages in pipe sewers1 #bfj ,cisterns1 objectionable1 #cjb ,clarke's apparatus1 #bdj ,clay slate1 #di ,cleansing of streets1 #bcd ---- private courts1 c41 #bch ,climate and trees1 #cba ,clinkers1 #bbe ,closing polluted well1 #cja ---- slaughter-houses1 #ccj ,coal plates1 #ahb ,coefficients of road metal1 #ea ,collection of house refuse1 #bbh ,combined system of sewerage1 #bfa ,committees1 #bc ,common line of frontage1 #agg ,compensation for setting back1 #age ,composition of sewer gas1 #bgh ,compressed asphalte1 #if ,concrete1 #gh ---- footpaths1 #aac ---- pipes1 #bed ,condemned meat1 #cci ,connection with main sewers1 #cje ,construction of asphalte roads1 #ih ,contour of roadways1 #dc ,contract with ,gas ,company1 #acb ,contracts1 #cha ---- for scavenging1 #bdi ---- surveyor must not be interested in1 #c1 #chb ,conversion into new building1 #baj ,cost of asphalte1 #aja ---- chemical treatment1 #bfd ---- electric light1 #ade ---- kerbing1 #abe ---- maintenance of macadamised roads1 #cd1 #da ---- melting snow1 #bda ---- pipes1 #bed ---- scavenging1 #bdh ---- tree planting1 #cbf ---- watering1 #bdd ---- wood pavement1 #ia ---- working steam rollers1 #fa1 #fc ,core hard1 #ci ,coroner's court1 #cgj ,cremation1 #cfa ,crops for sewage farm1 #bfe ,croskey's wood pavement1 #hb ,damage to roads1 #afa ---- trees1 #cbg ,dangerous buildings1 #ahh ---- crossings1 #cc ,deacon on streets1 #gf ,dead-house1 #cfg1 #cfi ,declaration of public streets1 #bjd ,defacing numbers or names1 #adi ,defects in dwellings1 #bie ,defective cellar covers1 #aha ---- drains1 #caj ,definition of new building1 #bjh ---- sewer1 #beb ---- street1 #adi1 #bje ,demolition of premises1 #bhe ,deposit of plans of streets1 #baj ,depth of sewers1 #bec ,diameter of drains1 #cae ,diary of water-cart1 #bdg ,dimensions of lairs and pens1 #cdg ,disadvantages of steam rolling1 #gb ,diseased meat1 #cci ,disinfection1 #cga ,disposal of refuse1 #bcb ---- road scrapings1 #bcg ---- sewage1 #bfc ,distance of lamps1 #ace ---- trees1 #cbd ,division of cemeteries1 #cee ---- ,england1 #b ,doors opening outwards1 #agh ,down pipes1 #ahc ,drainage1 #cjc ---- definition of1 #cjc ---- of cemeteries1 #cea ---- slaughter-house1 #cce ,drain-cleaning rods1 #bfj ,drains under houses1 #caf ,draught on roads1 #bi ,dry systems1 #bfc ,drying sludge1 #bfi ,dust-bins1 #bbf ,dusty streets1 #bcd ,duties of surveyor1 #e1 #g1 #aa1 #bj ,dwellings and cemeteries1 #cej ,dynamos1 #ada ,earth as a sewage filter1 #bff ,easements1 #ahb ,eaves shuting1 #ahc ,effect of traffic1 #bg ,elasticity of asphalte1 #ajd ,electric lighting1 #abi1 #adj ,enamelled name plates1 #aeb ,entrance to cattle market1 #cdf ,erection of hoardings or scaffolds1 #ahg ,escape from fire1 #bah ,euston pavement1 #gg ,evasion of ,building ,acts1 #bji ,examination of surveyor1 #ad ,fees for burials1 #cef ,fences1 #cbj ,filling-in over pipes1 #cag ,filters for sewage1 #bfg ,filtration of sewage1 #bff ,fire protection1 #bah ,fitness of stone1 #dh ,flagging1 ,york1 #aaj ---- ,caithness1 #aab ---- blue lias1 #aac ,flag poles1 #agg ,flints1 #ej ,float observations1 #bfe ,flushing courts and alleys1 #bch ,footpaths1 #ajf ---- and snow1 #bda ,force required on roads1 #cj ,forms of ,notice4 ,see ,notice ,foundation of macadamised roads1 #ci ,french burial1 #cef ,frontage of streets1 #agd ,fryer's destructor1 #bcc ,fuel for rollers1 #fa ,furnaces as sewer ventilators1 #bgf ,furniture of mortuary1 #cfi ,gales and trees1 #cba ,galton on borrowing1 #cgi ,garden refuse1 #bbe ,gas-burners1 #adj ---- lighting1 #acj ,gates opening outwards1 #agh ,gauge of stone1 #eb ,general markets1 #cdh ,german dead-house1 #cfh ,germ theory1 #bga ,glass name tablets1 #aeb ,gneiss1 #di ,good house drainage1 #cae ,goux system1 #bcc ,gradients of house-drains1 #caf ---- roads1 #cj ---- sewers1 #bec ---- for rollers1 #fb ,granite1 #di ---- foot-pavement1 #aag ---- kerb1 #abd ,grass1 #cbj ,grating for trees1 #cbd ,gravel footpaths1 #aba ---- #ej ,grave spaces1 #cfj ---- yards1 #cej ,green and ,son's roller1 #fi ,grill for trees1 #cbe ,gritted asphalte1 #ajh ,ground floor1 #bjh ,grouting1 #gi ,gulley gratings1 #abf ,hammer-broken stone1 #eb ,hand or hose watering1 #bdd ,hard core1 #ci ,harrison's wood pavement1 #hc ,hayward on snow1 #bci ,hayward's pavement lights1 #aha ,heads of scavenging1 #bbd ,healey's boilers1 #hj ,health of district1 #bhh ,henson's wood pavement1 #hc ,hide store1 #cda ,highways1 surveyor of1 #bj ,hoardings1 #ahg ,hoisting machinery1 #ccg ,horse-shoes1 #bg ,house1 definition of1 #caa ---- drainage1 #cjc ---- refuse collection1 #bbh ---- ---- disposal1 #bcb ---- ---- destruction1 #bcc ---- ---- removed1 #bbc ,houses unfit for habitation1 #bhd ,hydrostatic van1 #bde ,illuminating power1 #ace ,imperishable stone-paving blocks1 #ajd ,importation of trees1 #cbb ,improper water supply1 #cjj ,improved wood pavement1 #ha ,improvement of courts and alleys1 #bhg ---- streets1 #agd ---- private streets1 #aic ,incandescent lamps1 #add ,inclination of roads1 #cj ,individuals breaking-up streets1 #afi ,industrial dwellings1 #bij ,inertia of load1 #cb ,ingredients used for precipitation1 #bfi ,inlets for fresh air into sewers1 #bgc ,inspection of drains1 #cje1 #cad ---- buildings1 #bag1 #bai ,insufficient w4c4 accommodation1 #big ,interception or dry systems1 #bfc ,intermittent filtration1 #bff ,intersection of sewers1 #bed ,iron name plates1 #aea ,irrigation1 #bfe ,joints of pipe drains1 #caf ,junction of drains1 #cjg ---- sewers1 #bed ,keeping sewers clean1 #bea ,kerbing and channelling1 #abc ,killing rings1 #ccf ,labourers' dwellings1 #bhd1 #bia ,lairs for cattle1 #ccc1 #cdf ,lamp-posts1 #acd ---- ---- as sewer ventilators1 #bgd ,land necessary for cemetery1 #ced ,latrines1 #bhb ,laying out a cemetery1 #ced ,leaky drains1 #cji ,leaves as refuse1 #bbe ,letters for names1 #aeb ,lias flagging1 #aac ,licence to break-up street1 #agb ,lieurner system1 #bfb ,life of brooms1 #bce ---- carts1 #bca ---- paving stones1 #gf ---- wood1 #hh ,lighting of slaughter-house1 #ccf ---- streets1 #abi ,ligno mineral pavement1 #hc ,limestone1 #di ,lime-tree1 #cbb ,line of frontage1 #agg ,lining of slaughter-house1 #cce ,list of borrowing powers1 #cgf ---- chemical processes for sewage1 #bfh ---- duties of surveyor1 #e1 #ba ---- persons called surveyors1 #d ---- road metal1 #di ---- shrubs1 #cbj ---- trees1 #cbb ---- useful books1 #chd ,liverpool scavenging1 #bce ,lloyd's wood pavement1 #hb ,locomobiles1 #ajg ,loose stones on road1 #de ,macadamised roadways1 #cd ,machinery for electricity1 #ada ---- in slaughter-house1 #ccg ,machines for sweeping1 #bcd ---- stone-breaking1 #ec ,management of cemetery1 #ceh ,manchester abattoir1 #ccc ---- pavement1 #gh ,manholes for sewers1 #bec ,manufacturers' refuse1 #bec ,markets1 #cdd ,mastic asphalte1 #ajg ,materials of sewage filters1 #bfg ,mechanical subsidence of sewage1 #bfg ,meetings of committees1 #bc ,melting snow1 #bdj ,merit1 test of1 #ad ,metal road1 #dh ,meters for public lamps1 #acc ,method of appointment1 #ah ,methods of disposal of sewage1 #bfd ---- lighting1 #aca ---- numbering1 #aec ---- sewerage1 #bfa ---- sewer ventilation1 #bgf ,minton's name plates1 #aea ,model bye-laws1 #bjg ---- lodging-houses1 #bia ,metropolitan slaughter-house1 #cci ,money1 receipt of1 #c ,mortuaries1 #cfe ,mount ,sorrel1 #ge ,mowlem's wood pavement1 #hc ,muddy streets1 #bcd ,names of committees1 #bc ,naming and numbering streets1 #adi ,necessity for kerb1 #abc ---- slaughter-house1 #cbh ,newcastle lighting1 #adg ,new streets and buildings1 #bjf ,nicholson's wood pavement1 #hd ,norwich wood pavement1 #hd ,notices to repair private streets1 #aih ---- of assessment of cost of ditto1 #bja ---- of defective drainage1 #cac ---- for breaking-up streets1 #aeh ---- cellar coverings1 #aha ---- for dangerous building1 #aij ---- defective shuting1 #ahc ---- doors and gates opening outwards1 #agi ---- insufficient w4c4 accommodation1 #bih ---- numbering1 #aee ---- overhanging trees1 #ahe ---- permission to break-up streets1 #agb ---- to construct sewers on private lands1 #bef ---- to erect buildings1 #bad ---- to open slaughter-house1 #cba ---- signature of1 #cac ,number of graves in cemetery1 #ced ,objections to asphalte1 #ajj ---- macadamised roadways1 #dd ---- steam rolling1 #gb ---- ,york flagging1 #aaj ,observations of tides1 #bfe ,obstruction in streets1 #agd ,obstructive buildings1 #bhf ,old tins1 #bbe ,opening graves1 #cef1 #cfa ,open space at back of buildings1 #bah ---- ventilating shafts1 #bgb ,ornamental shrubs1 #cbj ,outfalls of sewers1 #bfe ,overhanging trees1 #ahe ,paget on steam rolling1 #ga ,pail system1 #bcd ,pails1 #bfc ,painted names1 #aea ,painting urinals1 #bhb ,pamphlet on steam rolling1 #fe ,papers1 examination1 #af ,paris lighting1 #ace ---- roadways1 cost of1 #da ---- tree planting1 #cbf ,parks1 #cah ,parry on contracts1 #chc ---- watering1 #bdd ,party walls through roofs1 #bah ,paths in cemeteries1 #cee ,partially separate system1 #bfb ,paving of ,cattle ,market1 #cdf ---- lairs1 #ccc1 #cdf ,pebbles1 #ej ,pedestrian traffic1 #cc ,pens for sheep1 #ccc1 #cdf ,permission to break-up streets1 #agb ---- construct cellar1 #ahb ,persons called surveyor1 #d ,pig killing1 #cdj ,pinned roadways1 #cf1 #ci ,pipe drains1 #cae ---- sewers1 thickness1 c41 #beh ---- ---- diagrams1 #bei ,pitch boilers1 #hj ,pitched pavements1 #gc ,plan for breaking-up streets1 #afj ,plans of new streets or buildings1 #baj ---- of house drains1 #cag ---- for borrowing1 #cgg ---- slaughter-house1 #cch ,plane tree1 #cbb ,plants for sewage1 #bgj ,plaster not house refuse1 #bbe ,plates1 name1 #aea ,playgrounds1 #cah ,pleasure grounds1 #cah1 #cej ,paving of slaughter-house1 #ccd ,pole-axe1 #ccf ,polluted water supply1 #bia ,porch1 #agf ,portable dust-bins1 #bbg ,position of sewer1 #bed ,post-mortem room1 #cgj ,powers to close slaughter-houses1 #ccj ,power to borrow1 #cge ---- make contracts1 #cha ,precipitation of sewage1 #bfh ,preservation of wood1 #hf ,private lands and sewer1 #bee ---- roads improvements1 #bjd ---- slaughter-houses1 #cbi ---- street improvements1 #aic ,privies1 #bfc ,processes of chemical treatment1 #bfh ,projections1 #agf ,proportions for asphalte1 #aji ,prosser's wood pavement1 #he ,protection of surveyor1 #f1 #h ,pruning trees1 #cba ,public abattoirs1 #cbh ---- conveniences1 #bhj ---- dust-bins1 #bbh ---- lighting1 #aca ---- mortuaries1 #cfe ---- works1 #cgf ,punctuality1 #bd ,qualities of road metal1 #di1 #ea ,quantity of land for sewage farm1 #bfe ,rain-water pipes as ventilators1 #bgd ---- ---- shutes1 #ahc ,rate collecting by surveyor1 #c ,rawlinson on borrowing1 #cgg ,receipt of money1 #c ,refuse1 disposal of1 #bcb ---- from manufactories1 #bec ---- receptacles1 #bbi ---- trade and garden1 #bbe ,register of drains1 #cag ---- graves1 #cfj ,regulation of traffic1 #cc ,regulations of cemeteries1 #ceh1 #cfj ---- connections with sewers1 #cje ,regulations for breaking-up streets1 #aga ,reinstating trenches1 #afb ,removal of snow1 #bci ---- house refuse1 #bbc ,removing projections1 #agf ,requirements of artizans' dwellings1 #bia ---- drains1 #cag ---- roadways1 #be ,remuneration of surveyor1 #g ,reports1 #bd ---- on duties of surveyor1 #aj ,resistance of wheels1 #ca ,roads1 private1 improvement of1 #bjd ---- in cemeteries1 #cee ,roadway1 specifications of1 #ce1 #cf ,road metal1 #dh ---- ---- list of1 #di ---- ---- specification of1 #eg ---- ---- weight of1 #ef ---- repairs1 #ff ---- rolling1 #fj ---- ,roman1 #gc ,ruts in roads1 #de ,safety in traffic1 #ca ,sale rooms1 #cda ,sanctuaries1 #cc ,sandstone1 #ej ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain1 #ad ,scaffolds1 #ahg ,scavenging1 #bba ---- cart1 #bcj ,sea-water for watering1 #bdg ,section of roadway1 #dc ---- footpaths1 #aba ,sections of cemetery1 #cef ,security to be entered into1 #c ,selection of trees1 #cba1 #cbb ,separate system1 #bfj1 #bfb ,setting back buildings1 #age ---- kerb1 #abd ,sewerage1 #bea ,sewerage1 system of1 #bec ,sewer through private lands1 #bee ,sewered1 #aie ,sewage and plants1 #bgj ---- crops for1 #bfe ---- disposal1 #bfc ---- filtration1 #bff1 #bfg ---- irrigation1 #bfe ---- mechanical subsidence1 #bfg ---- precipitation1 #bfh ---- screening1 #bfg ---- value of1 #bfe ,sewer gas1 #bgg ---- ventilation1 #bga ,shafts for ventilation1 #bgc ,shed1 #agf ,sheep pens1 #ccc1 #cdf ,shiel's composite pavement1 #he ,shone's system1 #bfb ,shop blinds1 #ahd ,shrubs projecting1 #agf ---- #cbj ---- in cemeteries1 #cfj ,shutes1 #ahc ,shutter projecting1 #agf ,sight rails1 #beg ,sign projecting1 #agf ,site for abattoir1 #ccb ---- of ,cattle ,market1 #cde ---- for cemetery1 #cea ,size of cellar covers1 #aha ---- drains1 #caf ---- graves1 #cef ---- pitchers1 #gd ---- rooms1 #bid ---- trees1 #cbc ,slaughter-houses1 #cbh1 #ccd ,slaughtering1 #cdb ,slippery roads1 #cb ,sludge1 treatment of1 #bfi ,snow1 removal of1 #bci1 #bda ---- on footpaths1 #bda ,soil for cemetery1 #ceb ,soot on trees1 #cba ,specific gravity of road metal1 #di ,specifications of roadway1 #ce1 #cf ,specification for asphalte1 #ajc ---- flagging1 #aaj ---- for breaking-up streets1 #afa ---- of wood pavement1 #id ---- road metal1 #eg ---- scavenging1 #bdi ---- tar pavement1 #aah ,stalls in markets1 #cdi ,stanford's joint1 #beg ,step projecting1 #agf ,stone breaking1 #dh ,store for hides1 #cda ,stowe's wood pavement1 #hd ,street1 breaking-up1 #aee ---- cleansing1 #bcd ---- definition of1 #adi1 #bje ---- lighting1 #abi ---- lines1 #agd ---- private1 improvements1 #aic ---- trees1 #cah ---- watering1 #bdb ,streets1 new1 #bjf ,stringent bye-laws1 #bai ,subjects requiring attention1 #ba ,subways1 #afh ,sugg's regulator1 #acc ,supervision of new buildings1 #bag ,surface water over paths1 #ahf ,subsoil water1 #bfa ,surveyor1 office first legalised1 #a ---- appointment of1 #a1 #c1 #aj1 #ah ---- and private streets1 #aid ---- as rate collector1 #c ---- duties of1 #e1 #g1 #aa1 #bj ---- examination of1 #ad ---- entry of1 to see if new building1 #bji ---- may be also inspector of nuisances1 #c ---- must not be interested in contracts1 #c ---- of highways1 #bj ---- protection of1 #f1 #h ,sweeping machines1 #bcd ,syenite1 #di1 #ge ,tables of cost of roadways1 #da ,table of scavenging1 #bcf ---- watering1 #bdf ,tallow market1 #cda ,tar paving1 #aah ,telegraphs under or across roads1 #afd ,telford1 ,thomas1 #ce ,tell-tale on water-cart1 #bdg ,temporary obstructions1 #aib ,testimonials1 #ah ,test for asphalte1 #ig ---- brooms1 #bce ---- of good drains1 #caf ---- merit1 #ad ,thames ,embankment1 lighting1 #adg ,tides and outfalls1 #bfe ,tins as refuse1 #bbe ,title of surveyor1 #d ,town surveyor4 ,see ,surveyor ,traction on roads1 #bh ,trade refuse1 #bbe ,traffic1 #be ,tram track1 #hj ,trap for drain1 #cag ,trappean rock1 #di ,treatment of sludge1 #bfi ---- wood1 #hf ,trees1 #cah ---- in cemeteries1 #cfj ---- overhanging1 #ahe ,trenches cut in roads1 #afa ,toughness of stone1 #dh ,tripery1 #cda ,troughs for pig-dressing1 #cdj ,unhealthy areas1 #bhh ,urinals1 #bhj ,useful books1 #chd ,use of steam rollers1 #fa ,vacancy in office of surveyor1 #aj ,value of sewage1 #bfe ,vans for watering1 #bde ,vault or cellar coverings1 #ahj ---- ---- under-path1 #ahb ,velocity in sewers1 #bed ,ventilation of house drain1 #cag ---- mortuaries1 #cfi ---- sewers1 #bga ,vigilance of drain inspection1 #cji ,visit of scavengers1 #bcj ,walls of cemeteries1 #cea ---- mortuaries1 #cfi ,wall projecting1 #agf ---- slaughter-house1 #cce ,water and asphalte1 #aje ---- companies and streets1 #aeg ---- for slaughter-house1 #ccg ---- over footpaths1 #ahf ---- supply to dwellings1 #cjj ,w4,c4 accommodation1 #bhj1 #big ---- in factories1 #bii ,watering streets1 #bdb ,wear of paving stones1 #gf ,wearing effect of traffic1 #bg ,weather on stone1 #dh ,wheels1 resistance of1 #ca ,weighing machines1 #cdh ,weight of asphalte1 #if ---- road metal1 #ef ---- rollers1 #fg ---- snow1 #bci ,widening streets1 #agd ,width of roadways1 #cb ,window projecting1 #agf ,wires for electricity1 #ada ,wooden name plates1 #aeb ,wood paving1 #ha ---- treatment1 #hf ---- wear of1 #hh ,yards behind buildings1 #bah ,york flagging1 #aaj ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,stamford ,,street ,,and ,,charing ,,cross4 ,,books ,,relating ,,to ,,applied ,,science ,,published ,,by ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 ,,london3 #af1 ,,charing ,,cross4 ,,new ,,york3 #dd1 ,,murray ,,street4 ,a ,pocket-,book for ,chemists1 ,chemical ,manufacturers1 ,metallurgists1 ,dyers1 ,distillers1 ,brewers1 ,sugar ,refiners1 ,photographers1 ,students1 etc41 etc4 ,by ,,thomas ,,bayley1 ,assoc4 ,r4,c4 ,sc4 ,ireland1 ,analytical and ,consulting ,chemist and ,assayer4 ,second edition1 with additions1 #dcg pp41 royal #cbmo1 roan1 gilt edges1 #es4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,contents3 ,atomic ,weights and ,factors -- ,useful ,data -- ,chemical ,calculations -- ,rules for ,indirect ,analysis -- ,weights and ,measures -- ,thermometers and ,barometers -- ,chemical ,physics -- ,boiling ,points1 etc4 -- ,solubility of ,substances -- ,methods of ,obtaining ,specific ,gravity -- ,conversion of ,hydrometers -- ,strength of ,solutions by ,specific ,gravity -- ,analysis -- ,gas ,analysis -- ,water ,analysis -- ,qualitative ,analysis and ,reactions -- ,volumetric ,analysis -- ,manipulation -- ,mineralogy -- ,assaying -- ,alcohol -- ,beer -- ,sugar -- ,miscellaneous ,technological matter relating to ,potash1 ,soda1 ,sulphuric ,acid1 ,chlorine1 ,tar ,products1 ,petroleum1 ,milk1 ,tallow1 ,photography1 ,prices1 ,wages1 ,appendix1 etc41 etc4 ,the ,mechanician3 ,a ,treatise on the ,construction and ,manipulation of ,tools1 for the use and instruction of ,young ,engineers and ,scientific ,amateurs1 comprising the ,arts of ,blacksmithing and ,forging2 the ,construction and ,manufacture of ,hand ,tools1 and the various ,methods of ,using and ,grinding them2 the ,construction of ,machine ,tools1 and how to work them2 ,machine ,fitting and ,erection2 description of ,hand and ,machine ,processes2 ,turning and ,screw ,cutting2 principles of ,constructing and details of ,making and ,erecting ,steam ,engines1 and the various details of setting out work1 etc41 etc4 ,by ,,cameron ,,knight1 ,engineer4 ,containing #aadg illustrations1 and #cig pages of letter-press4 ,third edition1 #dto1 cloth1 #ahs4 ,on ,designing ,belt ,gearing4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,,cowling ,,welch1 ,mem4 ,inst4 ,mech4 ,engineers1 ,author of #8,designing ,valve ,gearing4' ,fcap4 #hvo1 sewed1 #f;d4 ,a ,handbook of ,formul1 ,tables1 and ,memoranda1 for ,architectural ,surveyors and others engaged in ,building4 ,by ,j4 ,t4 ,,hurst1 ,c4,e4 ,thirteenth edition1 royal #cbmo1 roan1 #es4 8,it is no disparagement to the many excellent publications we refer to1 to say that in our opinion this little pocket-book of ,hurst's is the very best of them all1 without any exception4 ,it would be useless to attempt a recapitulation of the contents1 for it appears to contain almost everything that anyone connected with building could require1 and1 best of all1 made up in a compact form for carrying in the pocket1 measuring only #e in4 by #c in41 and about in4 thick1 in a limp cover4 ,we congratulate the author on the success of his laborious and practically compiled little book1 which has received unqualified and deserved praise from every professional person to whom we have shown it40--,the ,dublin ,builder4 ,the ,cabinet ,maker2 being a ,collection of the most approved designs in the ,medival1 ,louis-,seize1 and ,old ,english styles1 for the use of ,cabinet ,makers1 ,carvers1 c4 ,by ,r4 ,,charles4 #if plates1 folio1 half-bound1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,quantity ,surveying4 ,by ,j4 ,,leaning4 ,with #db illustrations1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #is4 ,,contents3 ,a complete ,explanation of the ,london ,practice4 ,general ,instructions4 ,order of ,taking ,off4 ,modes of ,measurement of the various ,trades4 ,use and ,waste4 ,ventilation and ,warming4 ,credits1 with various ,examples of ,treatment4 ,abbreviations4 ,squaring the ,dimensions4 ,abstracting1 with ,examples in illustration of each ,trade4 ,billing4 ,examples of ,preambles to each ,trade4 ,form for a ,bill of ,quantities4 ,do4 ,bill of ,credits4 ,do4 ,bill for ,alternative ,estimate4 ,restorations and ,repairs1 and ,form of ,bill4 ,variations before ,acceptance of ,tender4 ,errors in a ,builder's ,estimate4 ,schedule of ,prices4 ,form of ,schedule of ,prices4 ,analysis of ,schedule of ,prices4 ,adjustment of ,accounts4 ,form of a ,bill of ,variations4 ,remarks on ,specifications4 ,prices and ,valuation of ,work1 with ,examples and ,remarks upon each ,trade4 ,the ,law as it affects ,quantity ,surveyors1 with ,law ,reports4 ,taking ,off after the ,old ,method4 ,northern ,practice4 ,the ,general ,statement of the ,methods recommended by the ,manchester ,society of ,architects for taking ,quantities4 ,examples of ,collections4 ,examples of 8,taking ,off0 in each ,trade4 ,remarks on the ,past and ,present ,methods of ,estimating4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on ,heat1 as applied to the ,useful ,arts2 for the ,use of ,engineers1 ,architects1 c4 ,by ,,thomas ,,box4 ,with #ad plates4 ,third edition1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,a ,descriptive ,treatise on ,mathematical ,drawing ,instruments3 their construction1 uses1 qualities1 selection1 preservation1 and suggestions for improvements1 with hints upon ,drawing and ,colouring4 ,by ,w4 ,f4 ,,stanley1 ,m4,r4,i4 ,fifth edition1 with numerous illustrations1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #es4 ,spons' ,architects and ,builders' ,pocket-,book of ,prices and ,memoranda4 ,edited by ,w4 ,,young1 ,architect4 ,royal #cbmo1 roan1 #ds4 #f;d42 or cloth1 red edges1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,published annually4 ,tenth edition4 ,now ready4 ,long-,span ,railway ,bridges1 comprising ,investigations of the ,comparative ,theoretical and ,practical ,advantages of the various adopted or proposed ,type ,systems of ,construction1 with numerous ,formul and ,tables giving the weight of ,iron or ,steel required in ,bridges from #cjj feet to the limiting ,spans2 to which are added similar ,investigations and ,tables relating to ,short-span ,railway ,bridges4 ,second and revised edition4 ,by ,b4 ,,baker1 ,assoc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,plates1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #es4 ,elementary ,theory and ,calculation of ,iron ,bridges and ,roofs4 ,by ,,august ,,ritter1 ,ph4,d41 ,professor at the ,polytechnic ,school at ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,translated from the third ,german edition1 by ,h4 ,r4 ,,sankey1 ,capt4 ,r4,e4 ,with #ejj illustrations1 #hvo1 cloth1 #aes4 ,the ,builder's ,clerk3 a ,guide to the ,management of a ,builder's ,business4 ,by ,,thomas ,,bales4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,elementary ,principles of ,carpentry4 ,by ,,thomas ,,tredgold4 ,revised from the original edition1 and partly re-written1 by ,,john ,,thomas ,,hurst4 ,contained in #eag pages of letter-press1 and illustrated with #dh plates and #aej wood engravings4 ,third edition1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #ahs4 ,section ,i4 ,on the ,equality and ,distribution of ,forces -- ,section ,,ii4 ,resistance of ,timber -- ,section ,,iii4 ,construction of ,floors -- ,section ,,iv4 ,construction of ,roofs -- ,section ,v4 ,construction of ,domes and ,cupolas -- ,section ,,vi4 ,construction of ,partitions -- ,section ,,vii4 ,scaffolds1 ,staging1 and ,gantries -- ,section ,,viii4 ,construction of ,centres for ,bridges -- ,section ,,ix4 ,coffer-dams1 ,shoring1 and ,strutting -- ,section ,x4 ,wooden ,bridges and ,viaducts -- ,section ,,xi4 ,joints1 ,straps1 and other ,fastenings -- ,section ,,xii4 ,timber4 ,our ,factories1 ,workshops1 and ,warehouses3 their ,sanitary and ,fire-,resisting ,arrangements4 ,by ,b4 ,h4 ,,thwaite1 ,assoc4 ,mem4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,with #ahc wood engravings1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #is4 ,gold3 ,its ,occurrence and ,extraction1 embracing the ,geographical and ,geological ,distribution and the ,mineralogical ,characters of ,gold-bearing rocks2 the peculiar features and modes of working ,shallow ,placers1 ,rivers1 and ,deep ,leads2 ,hydraulicing2 the ,reduction and ,separation of ,auriferous ,quartz2 the treatment of complex ,auriferous ores containing other metals2 a ,bibliography of the subject and a ,glossary of ,technical and ,foreign ,terms4 ,by ,,alfred ,g4 ,,lock1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with numerous illustrations and maps1 #abej pp41 super-royal #hvo1 cloth1 #bl4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,progressive ,lessons in ,applied ,science4 ,by ,,edward ,,sang1 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 each ,part1 #cs4 ,part #a4 ,geometry on ,paper -- ,part #b4 ,solidity1 ,weight1 and ,pressure -- ,part #c4 ,trigonometry1 ,vision1 and ,surveying ,instruments4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on ,coal ,mining4 ,by ,,george ,g4 ,,andr1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,assoc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,member of the ,society of ,engineers4 ,with #hb lithographic plates4 #b vols41 royal #dto1 cloth1 #cl4 #abs4 ,sugar ,growing and ,refining3 a ,comprehensive ,treatise on the ,culture of ,sugar-yielding ,plants1 and the ,manufacture1 ,refining1 and ,analysis of ,cane1 ,beet1 ,maple1 ,milk1 ,palm1 ,sorghum1 and ,starch ,sugars1 with copious statistics of their production and commerce1 and a chapter on the distillation of ,rum4 ,by ,,charles ,g4 ,,warnford ,,lock1 ,f4,l4,s41 c41 and ,g4 ,w4 ,,wigner and ,r4 ,h4 ,,harland1 ,,ff4,c4,s41 ,,ff4,i4,c4 ,with #bje illustrations1 #hvo1 cloth1 #cjs4 ,spons' ,information for ,colonial ,engineers4 ,edited by ,j4 ,t4 ,,hurst4 ,demy #hvo1 sewed4 ,no4 #a1 ,ceylon4 ,by ,,abraham ,,deane1 ,c4,e4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,contents3 ,introductory ,remarks -- ,natural ,productions -- ,architecture and ,engineering -- ,topography1 ,trade1 and ,natural ,history -- ,principal ,stations -- ,weights and ,measures1 etc41 etc4 ,no4 #b4 ,southern ,africa1 including the ,cape ,colony1 ,natal1 and the ,dutch ,republics4 ,by ,,henry ,,hall1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,f4,r4,c4,i4 ,with ,map4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,contents3 ,general ,description of ,south ,africa -- ,physical ,geography with reference to ,engineering ,operations -- ,notes on ,labour and ,material in ,cape ,colony -- ,geological ,notes on ,rock ,formation in ,south ,africa -- ,engineering ,instruments for ,use in ,south ,africa -- ,principal ,public ,works in ,cape ,colony3 ,railways1 ,mountain ,roads and ,passes1 ,harbour ,works1 ,bridges1 ,gas ,works1 ,irrigation and ,water ,supply1 ,lighthouses1 ,drainage and ,sanitary ,engineering1 ,public ,buildings1 ,mines -- ,table of ,woods in ,south ,africa -- ,animals used for ,draught ,purposes -- ,statistical ,notes -- ,table of ,distances -- ,rates of ,carriage1 etc4 ,no4 #c4 ,india4 ,by ,f4 ,c4 ,,danvers1 ,assoc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,with ,map4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,contents3 ,physical ,geography of ,india -- ,building ,materials -- ,roads -- ,railways -- ,bridges -- ,irrigation -- ,river ,works -- ,harbours -- ,lighthouse ,buildings -- ,native ,labour -- ,the ,principal ,trees of ,india -- ,money -- ,weights and ,measures -- ,glossary of ,indian ,terms1 etc4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on ,casting and ,founding1 including descriptions of the modern machinery employed in the art4 ,by ,n4 ,e4 ,,spretson1 ,engineer4 ,third edition1 with #hb plates drawn to scale1 #dab pp41 demy #hvo1 cloth1 #ahs4 ,the ,clerk of ,works3 a ,vade-,mecum for all engaged in the ,superintendence of ,building ,operations4 ,by ,g4 ,g4 ,,hoskins1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,third edition1 fcap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,tropical ,agriculture2 or1 the ,culture1 ,preparation1 ,commerce1 and ,consumption of the ,principal ,products of the ,vegetable ,kingdom1 as furnishing ,food1 ,clothing1 ,medicine1 etc41 and in their relation to the ,arts and ,manufactures2 forming a practical treatise and ,handbook of ,reference for the ,colonist1 ,manufacturer1 ,merchant1 and ,consumer1 on the ,cultivation1 ,preparation for ,shipment1 and ,commercial ,value1 etc41 of the various ,substances obtained from ,trees and ,plants entering into the ,husbandry of ,tropical and ,sub-,tropical ,regions4 ,by ,p4 ,l4 ,,simmonds4 ,second edition1 revised and improved1 #eae pages1 #hvo1 cloth1 #al4 #as4 ,steel3 its ,history1 ,manufacture1 and ,uses4 ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,jeans1 ,secretary of the ,iron and ,steel ,institute4 #hfj pages and #bd plates1 #hvo1 cloth1 #cfs4 ,american ,foundry ,practice3 ,treating of ,loam1 ,dry ,sand1 and ,green ,sand ,moulding1 and containing a ,practical ,treatise upon the ,management of ,cupolas1 and the ,melting of ,iron4 ,by ,t4 ,d4 ,,west1 ,practical ,iron ,moulder and ,foundry ,foreman4 ,second edition1 with numerous illustrations1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,maintenance of ,macadamised ,roads4 ,by ,t4 ,,codrington1 ,m4,i4,c4,e1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,general ,superintendent of ,county ,roads for ,south ,wales4 #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 ,hydraulic ,steam and ,hand ,power ,lifting and ,pressing ,machinery4 ,by ,,frederick ,,colyer1 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,m4 ,inst4 ,m4,e4 ,with #gc plates1 #hvo1 cloth1 #ahs4 ,pumps and ,pumping ,machinery4 ,by ,f4 ,,colyer1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,m4,e4 ,with #bc folding plates1 #hvo1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,tables of the ,principal ,speeds occurring in ,mechanical ,engineering1 expressed in metres in a second4 ,by ,p4 ,,keerayeff1 ,chief ,mechanic of the ,obouchoff ,steel ,works1 ,st4 ,petersburg2 translated by ,,sergius ,,kern1 ,m4,e4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 sewed1 #f;d4 ,girder ,making and the ,practice of ,bridge ,building in ,wrought ,iron1 illustrated by ,examples of ,bridges1 ,piers1 and ,girder ,work1 etc41 constructed at the ,skerne ,iron ,works1 ,darlington1 by ,,edward ,,hutchinson1 ,m4 ,inst4 ,m4,e4 ,with #ce plates1 demy #hvo1 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,spons' ,dictionary of ,engineering1 ,civil1 ,mechanical1 ,military1 and ,naval2 with technical terms in ,french1 ,german1 ,italian1 and ,spanish1 #cajj pp41 and nearly #hjjj engravings1 in super-royal #hvo1 in #h divisions1 #el4 #hs4 ,complete in #c vols41 cloth1 #el4 #es4 ,bound in a superior manner1 half-morocco1 top edge gilt1 #c vols41 #fl4 #abs4 ,see page #ae4 ,a ,treatise on the ,origin1 ,progress1 ,prevention1 and ,cure of ,dry ,rot in ,timber2 with ,remarks on the ,means of ,preserving ,wood from ,destruction by ,sea-,worms1 ,beetles1 ,ants1 etc4 ,by ,,thomas ,,allen ,,britton1 late ,surveyor to the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works1 etc41 etc4 ,with #aj plates1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,metrical ,tables4 ,by ,g4 ,l4 ,,molesworth1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 #cbmo1 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,contents4 ,general -- ,linear ,measures -- ,square ,measures -- ,cubic ,measures -- ,measures of ,capacity -- ,weights -- ,combinations -- ,thermometers4 ,a ,handbook of ,electrical ,testing4 ,by ,h4 ,r4 ,,kempe1 ,member of the ,society of ,telegraph ,engineers4 ,new edition1 revised and enlarged1 with #ha illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,electro-,telegraphy4 ,by ,,frederick ,s4 ,,beechey1 ,telegraph ,engineer4 ,a ,book for ,beginners4 ,illustrated4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 sewed1 #f;d4 ,handrailing3 by the ,square ,cut4 ,by ,,john ,,jones1 ,staircase ,builder4 ,fourth edition1 with seven plates1 #hvo1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,handrailing3 by the ,square ,cut4 ,by ,,john ,,jones1 ,staircase ,builder4 ,part ,second1 with eight plates1 #hvo1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,gas ,consumer's ,handy ,book4 ,by ,,william ,,richards1 ,c4,e4 ,illustrated4 #ahmo1 sewed1 #f;d4 ,steam ,heating for ,buildings2 or1 ,hints to ,steam ,fitters1 being a description of ,steam ,heating ,apparatus for ,warming and ,ventilating ,private ,houses and large ,buildings2 with ,remarks on ,steam1 ,water1 and ,air in their relation to ,heating2 to which are added miscellaneous ,tables4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,baldwin1 ,steam ,heating ,engineer4 ,with many illustrations4 ,second edition1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,a ,pocket-,book of ,useful ,formul and ,memoranda for ,civil and ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,by ,,guilford ,l4 ,,molesworth1 ,mem4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,consulting ,engineer to the ,government of ,india for ,state ,railways4 ,with numerous illustrations1 #gdd pp4 ,twenty-first edition1 revised and enlarged1 #cbmo1 roan1 #fs4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,contents3 ,surveying1 ,levelling1 etc4 -- ,strength and ,weight of ,materials -- ,earthwork1 ,brickwork1 ,masonry1 ,arches1 etc4 -- ,struts1 ,columns1 ,beams1 and ,trusses -- ,flooring1 ,roofing1 and ,roof ,trusses -- ,girders1 ,bridges1 etc4 -- ,railways and ,roads -- ,hydraulic ,formul -- ,canals1 ,sewers1 ,waterworks1 ,docks -- ,irrigation and ,breakwaters -- ,gas1 ,ventilation1 and ,warming -- ,heat1 ,light1 ,colour1 and ,sound -- ,gravity3 ,centres1 ,forces1 and ,powers -- ,millwork1 ,teeth of ,wheels1 ,shafting1 etc4 -- ,workshop ,recipes -- ,sundry ,machinery -- ,animal ,power -- ,steam and the ,steam ,engine -- ,water-power1 ,water-wheels1 ,turbines1 etc4 -- ,wind and ,windmills -- ,steam ,navigation1 ,ship ,building1 ,tonnage1 etc4 -- ,gunnery1 ,projectiles1 etc4 -- ,weights1 ,measures1 and ,money -- ,trigonometry1 ,conic ,sections1 and ,curves -- ,telegraphy -- ,mensuration -- ,tables of ,areas and ,circumference1 and ,arcs of ,circles -- ,logarithms1 ,square and ,cube ,roots1 ,powers -- ,reciprocals1 etc4 -- ,useful ,numbers -- ,differential and ,integral ,calculus -- ,algebraic ,signs -- ,telegraphic ,construction and ,formul4 ,spons' ,tables and ,memoranda for ,engineers2 selected and arranged by ,j4 ,t4 ,,hurst1 ,c4,e41 ,author of #8,architectural ,surveyors' ,handbook1' #8,hurst's ,tredgold's ,carpentry1' etc4 ,fifth edition1 #fdmo1 roan1 gilt edges1 #as42 or in cloth case1 #as4 #f;d4 ,this work is printed in a pearl type1 and is so small1 measuring only #b in4 by #a in4 by in4 thick1 that it may be easily carried in the waistcoat pocket4 8,it is certainly an extremely rare thing for a reviewer to be called upon to notice a volume measuring but #b in4 by #a in41 yet these dimensions faithfully represent the size of the handy little book before us4 ,the volume--which contains #aah printed pages1 besides a few blank pages for memoranda--is1 in fact1 a true pocket-book1 adapted for being carried in the waistcoat pocket1 and containing a far greater amount and variety of information than most people would imagine could be compressed into so small a space4 4 4 4 4 ,the little volume has been compiled with considerable care and judgment1 and we can cordially recommend it to our readers as a useful little pocket companion40--,engineering4 ,analysis1 ,technical ,valuation1 ,purification and ,use of ,coal ,gas4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,r4 ,,bowditch1 ,m4,a4 ,with wood engravings1 #hvo1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,condensation of ,gas -- ,purification of ,gas -- ,light -- ,measuring -- ,place of ,testing ,gas -- ,test ,candles -- ,the ,standard for ,measuring ,gas-light -- ,test ,burners -- ,testing ,gas for ,sulphur -- ,testing ,gas for ,ammonia -- ,condensation by ,bromine -- ,gravimetric ,method of taking ,specific ,gravity of ,gas -- ,carburetting or ,naphthalizing ,gas -- ,acetylene -- ,explosions of ,gas -- ,gnawing of ,gaspipes by ,rats -- ,pressure as related to ,public ,lighting1 etc4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on ,natural and ,artificial ,concrete1 its ,varieties and ,constructive ,adaptations4 ,by ,,henry ,,reid1 ,author of the #8,science and ,art of the ,manufacture of ,portland ,cement4' ,new ,edition1 with #ei woodcuts and #e plates1 #hvo1 cloth1 #aes4 ,hydrodynamics3 ,treatise relative to the ,testing of ,water-,wheels and ,machinery1 with various other matters pertaining to ,hydrodynamics4 ,by ,,james ,,emerson4 ,with numerous illustrations1 #cfj pp4 ,third edition1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,the ,gas ,analyst's ,manual4 ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,hartley1 ,assoc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 etc4 ,with numerous illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 ,gas ,measurement and ,gas ,meter ,testing4 ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,hartley4 ,fourth edition1 revised and extended4 ,illustrated1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #ds4 ,the ,french-,polishers ,manual4 ,by a ,french-,polisher2 containing ,timber ,staining1 ,washing1 ,matching1 ,improving1 ,painting1 ,imitations1 ,directions for ,staining1 ,sizing1 ,embodying1 ,smoothing1 ,spirit ,varnishing1 ,french-,polishing1 ,directions for ,repolishing4 ,third edition1 royal #cbmo1 sewed1 #f;d4 ,hops1 their ,cultivation1 ,commerce1 and ,uses in various ,countries4 ,by ,p4 ,l4 ,,simmonds4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on the ,manufacture and ,distribution of ,coal ,gas4 ,by ,,william ,,richards4 ,demy #dto1 with numerous wood engravings and #bi plates1 cloth1 #bhs4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,contents3 ,introduction -- ,history of ,gas ,lighting -- ,chemistry of ,gas ,manufacture1 by ,lewis ,thompson1 ,esq41 ,m4,r4,c4,s4 -- ,coal1 with ,analyses1 by ,j4 ,paterson1 ,lewis ,thompson1 and ,g4 ,r4 ,hislop1 ,esqrs4 -- ,retorts1 ,iron and ,clay -- ,retort ,setting -- ,hydraulic ,main -- ,condensers -- ,exhausters -- ,washers and ,scrubbers -- ,purifiers -- ,purification -- ,history of ,gas ,holder -- ,tanks1 ,brick and ,stone1 ,composite1 ,concrete1 ,cast-iron1 ,compound ,annular ,wrought-iron -- ,specifications -- ,gas ,holders -- ,station ,meter -- ,governor -- ,distribution -- ,mains -- ,gas ,mathematics1 or ,formul for the ,distribution of ,gas1 by ,lewis ,thompson1 ,esq4 -- ,services -- ,consumers' ,meters -- ,regulators -- ,burners -- ,fittings -- ,photometer -- ,carburization of ,gas -- ,air ,gas and ,water ,gas -- ,composition of ,coal ,gas1 by ,lewis ,thompson1 ,esq4 -- ,analyses of ,gas -- ,influence of ,atmospheric ,pressure and ,temperature on ,gas -- ,residual ,products -- ,appendix -- ,description of ,retort ,settings1 ,buildings1 etc41 etc4 ,practical ,geometry and ,engineering ,drawing2 a ,course of ,descriptive ,geometry adapted to the ,requirements of the ,engineering ,draughtsman1 including the determination of cast shadows and ,isometric ,projection1 each chapter being followed by numerous examples2 to which are added rules for ,shading1 ,shade-lining1 etc41 together with practical instructions as to the ,lining1 ,colouring1 ,printing1 and general treatment of ,engineering ,drawings1 with a chapter on drawing ,instruments4 ,by ,,george ,s4 ,,clarke1 ,lieut4 ,r4,e41 ,instructor in ,mechanical ,drawing1 ,royal ,indian ,engineering ,college4 #bj plates1 #dto1 cloth1 #aes4 ,the ,elements of ,graphic ,statics4 ,by ,professor ,,karl ,,von ,,ott1 translated from the ,german by ,g4 ,s4 ,,clarke1 ,lieut4 ,r4,e41 ,instructor in ,mechanical ,drawing1 ,royal ,indian ,engineering ,college4 ,with #ic illustrations1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #es4 ,the ,principles of ,graphic ,statics4 ,by ,,george ,,sydenham ,,clarke1 ,lieut4 ,royal ,engineers4 ,with #aab illustrations4 #dto1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,new ,formula for ,mean ,velocity of ,discharge of ,rivers and ,canals4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,kutter4 ,translated from articles in the #8,cultur-,ingenieur1' by ,,lowis ,d',a4 ,,jackson1 ,assoc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 #hvo1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,practical ,hydraulics2 a ,series of ,rules and ,tables for the use of ,engineers1 etc41 etc4 ,by ,,thomas ,,box4 ,fifth edition1 numerous plates1 post #hvo1 cloth1 #es4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on the ,construction of ,horizontal and ,vertical ,waterwheels1 specially designed for the use of operative mechanics4 ,by ,,william ,,cullen1 ,millwright and ,engineer4 ,with #aa plates4 ,second edition1 revised and enlarged1 small #dto1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,aid ,book to ,engineering ,enterprise ,abroad4 ,by ,,ewing ,,matheson1 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,the book treats of ,public ,works and ,engineering ,enterprises in their inception and preliminary arrangement2 of the different modes in which money is provided for their accomplishment2 and of the economical and technical considerations by which success or failure is determined4 ,the information necessary to the designs of ,engineers is classified1 as are also those particulars by which ,contractors may estimate the cost of works1 and ,capitalists the probabilities of profit4 ,illustrated1 #b vols41 #hvo1 #abs4 #f;d4 each4 ,the ,essential ,elements of ,practical ,mechanics2 based on the ,principle of ,work1 designed for ,engineering ,students4 ,by ,,oliver ,,byrne1 formerly ,professor of ,mathematics1 ,college for ,civil ,engineers4 ,third edition1 with #adh wood engravings1 post #hvo1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,contents3 ,chap4 #a4 ,how ,work is ,measured by a ,unit1 both with and without reference to a ,unit of ,time -- ,chap4 #b4 ,the ,work of ,living ,agents1 the ,influence of ,friction1 and introduces one of the most beautiful ,laws of ,motion -- ,chap4 #c4 ,the principles expounded in the first and second chapters are applied to the ,motion of ,bodies -- ,chap4 #d4 ,the ,transmission of ,work by simple ,machines -- ,chap4 #e4 ,useful ,propositions and ,rules4 ,the ,practical ,millwright's and ,engineer's ,ready ,reckoner2 or ,tables for finding the diameter and power of cog-wheels1 diameter1 weight1 and power of shafts1 diameter and strength of bolts1 etc4 ,by ,,thomas ,,dixon4 ,fourth edition1 #abmo1 cloth1 #cs4 ,breweries and ,maltings3 their ,arrangement1 ,construction1 ,machinery1 and ,plant4 ,by ,g4 ,,scamell1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,second edition1 revised1 enlarged1 and partly rewritten4 ,by ,f4 ,,colyer1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,m4,e4 ,with #bj plates1 #hvo1 cloth1 #ahs4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on the ,manufacture of ,starch1 ,glucose1 ,starch-,sugar1 and ,dextrine1 based on the ,german of ,l4 ,,von ,,wagner1 ,professor in the ,royal ,technical ,school1 ,buda ,pesth1 and other authorities4 ,by ,,julius ,,frankel2 edited by ,,robert ,,hutter1 proprietor of the ,philadelphia ,starch ,works4 ,with #eh illustrations1 #cdd pp41 #hvo1 cloth1 #ahs4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on ,mill-gearing1 ,wheels1 ,shafts1 ,riggers1 etc42 for the use of ,engineers4 ,by ,,thomas ,,box4 ,third edition1 with #aa plates4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,mining ,machinery3 a ,descriptive ,treatise on the ,machinery1 ,tools1 and other ,appliances used in ,mining4 ,by ,g4 ,g4 ,,andr1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,assoc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,mem4 of the ,society of ,engineers4 ,royal #dto1 uniform with the ,author's ,treatise on ,coal ,mining1 containing #ahb plates1 accurately drawn to scale1 with descriptive text1 in #b vols41 cloth1 #cl4 #abs4 ,,contents3 ,machinery for ,prospecting1 ,excavating1 ,hauling1 and ,hoisting -- ,ventilation -- ,pumping -- ,treatment of ,mineral ,products1 including ,gold and ,silver1 ,copper1 ,tin1 and ,lead1 ,iron1 ,coal1 ,sulphur1 ,china ,clay1 ,brick ,earth1 etc4 ,tables for ,setting out ,curves for ,railways1 ,canals1 ,roads1 etc41 varying from a radius of five chains to three miles4 ,by ,a4 ,,kennedy and ,r4 ,w4 ,,hackwood4 ,illustrated1 #cbmo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,science and ,art of the ,manufacture of ,portland ,cement1 with observations on some of its constructive applications4 ,with #ff illustrations4 ,by ,,henry ,,reid1 ,c4,e41 ,author of #8,a ,practical ,treatise on ,concrete1' etc41 etc4 #hvo1 cloth1 #ahs4 ,the ,draughtsman's ,handbook of ,plan and ,map ,drawing2 including instructions for the preparation of ,engineering1 ,architectural1 and ,mechanical ,drawings4 ,with numerous illustrations in the text1 and #cc plates 7#ae printed in colours74 ,by ,g4 ,g4 ,,andr1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,assoc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 #dto1 cloth1 #is4 ,,contents3 ,the ,drawing ,office and its ,furnishings -- ,geometrical ,problems -- ,lines1 ,dots1 and their ,combinations -- ,colours1 ,shading1 ,lettering1 ,bordering1 and ,north ,points -- ,scales -- ,plotting -- ,civil ,engineers' and ,surveyors' ,plans -- ,map ,drawing -- ,mechanical and ,architectural ,drawing -- ,copying and ,reducing ,trigonometrical ,formul1 etc41 etc4 ,the ,boiler-maker's and ,iron ,ship-builder's ,companion1 comprising a series of original and carefully calculated tables1 of the utmost utility to persons interested in the iron trades4 ,by ,,james ,,foden1 author of #8,mechanical ,tables1' etc4 ,second edition revised1 with illustrations1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #es4 ,rock ,blasting3 a ,practical ,treatise on the means employed in ,blasting ,rocks for ,industrial ,purposes4 ,by ,g4 ,g4 ,,andr1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,assoc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,with #ef illustrations and #ab plates1 #hvo1 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,surcharged and different ,forms of ,retaining ,walls4 ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,tate4 ,illustrated1 #hvo1 sewed1 #bs4 ,a ,treatise on ,ropemaking as practised in public and private ,rope-yards1 with a ,description of the ,manufacture1 ,rules1 ,tables of ,weights1 etc41 adapted to the ,trade1 ,shipping1 ,mining1 ,railways1 ,builders1 etc4 ,by ,r4 ,,chapman1 formerly foreman to ,messrs4 ,huddart and ,co41 ,limehouse1 and late ,master ,ropemaker to ,h4,m4 ,dockyard1 ,deptford4 ,second edition1 #abmo1 cloth1 #cs4 ,laxton's ,builders' and ,contractors' ,tables2 for the use of ,engineers1 ,architects1 ,surveyors1 ,builders1 ,land ,agents1 and others4 ,bricklayer1 containing #bb tables1 with nearly #cj1jjj calculations4 #dto1 cloth1 #es4 ,laxton's ,builders' and ,contractors' ,tables4 ,excavator1 ,earth1 ,land1 ,water1 and ,gas1 containing #ec tables1 with nearly #bd1jjj calculations4 #dto1 cloth1 #es4 ,sanitary ,engineering3 a ,guide to the ,construction of ,works of ,sewerage and ,house ,drainage1 with ,tables for facilitating the calculations of the ,engineer4 ,by ,,baldwin ,,latham1 ,c4,e41 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,m4,s41 ,past-,president of the ,society of ,engineers4 ,second edition1 with numerous plates and woodcuts1 #hvo1 cloth1 #al4 #ajs4 ,screw ,cutting ,tables for ,engineers and ,machinists1 giving the values of the different trains of ,wheels required to produce ,screws of any pitch1 calculated by ,lord ,lindsay1 ,m4,p41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 etc4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth1 oblong1 #bs4 ,screw ,cutting ,tables1 for the use of ,mechanical ,engineers1 showing the proper arrangement of ,wheels for cutting the ,threads of ,screws of any required pitch1 with a ,table for making the ,universal ,gas-pipe ,threads and ,taps4 ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,,martin1 ,engineer4 ,second edition1 royal #hvo1 oblong1 cloth1 #as41 or sewed1 #f;d4 ,a ,treatise on a ,practical ,method of ,designing ,slide-,valve ,gears by ,simple ,geometrical ,construction1 based upon the principles enunciated in ,euclid's ,elements1 and comprising the various forms of ,plain ,slide-,valve and ,expansion ,gearing2 together with ,stephenson's1 ,gooch's1 and ,allan's ,link-,motions1 as applied either to reversing or to variable expansion combinations4 ,by ,,edward ,j4 ,,cowling ,,welch1 ,memb4 ,inst4 ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 ,cleaning and ,scouring3 a ,manual for ,dyers1 ,laundresses1 and for ,domestic ,use4 ,by ,s4 ,,christopher4 #ahmo1 sewed1 #f;d4 ,a ,handbook of ,house ,sanitation2 for the use of all persons seeking a ,healthy ,home4 ,a reprint of those portions of ,mr4 ,bailey-,denton's ,lectures on ,sanitary ,engineering1 given before the ,school of ,military ,engineering1 which related to the 8,dwelling10 enlarged and revised by his ,son1 ,e4 ,f4 ,,bailey-,,denton1 ,c4,e41 ,b4,a4 ,with #adj illustrations1 #hvo1 cloth1 #hs4 #f;d4 ,treatise on ,valve-,gears1 with special consideration of the ,link-,motions of ,locomotive ,engines4 ,by ,dr4 ,,gustav ,,zeuner4 ,third edition1 revised and enlarged1 translated from the ,german1 with the special permission of the author1 by ,,moritz ,m,,ller4 ,plates1 #hvo1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,a ,pocket-,book for ,boiler ,makers and ,steam ,users1 comprising a variety of useful information for ,employer and ,workman1 ,government ,inspectors1 ,board of ,trade ,surveyors1 ,engineers in charge of ,works and ,slips1 ,foremen of ,manufactories1 and the general ,steam-using ,public4 ,by ,,maurice ,,john ,,sexton4 ,second edition1 royal #cbmo1 roan1 gilt edges1 #es4 ,the ,strains upon ,bridge ,girders and ,roof ,trusses1 including the ,warren1 ,lattice1 ,trellis1 ,bowstring1 and other ,forms of ,girders1 the ,curved ,roof1 and ,simple and ,compound ,trusses4 ,by ,,thos4 ,,cargill1 ,c4,e4,b4,a4,t41 ,c4,d41 ,assoc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,member of the ,society of ,engineers4 ,with #fd illustrations1 drawn and worked out to scale1 #hvo1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on the ,steam ,engine1 containing ,plans and ,arrangements of ,details for ,fixed ,steam ,engines1 with ,essays on the ,principles involved in ,design and ,construction4 ,by ,,arthur ,,rigg1 ,engineer1 ,member of the ,society of ,engineers and of the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain4 ,demy #dto1 copiously illustrated with woodcuts and #if plates1 in one ,volume1 half-bound morocco1 #bl4 #bs42 or cheaper edition1 cloth1 #bes4 ,this work is not1 in any sense1 an elementary treatise1 or history of the steam engine1 but is intended to describe examples of ,fixed ,steam ,engines without entering into the wide domain of locomotive or marine practice4 ,to this end illustrations will be given of the most recent arrangements of ,horizontal1 ,vertical1 ,beam1 ,pumping1 ,winding1 ,portable1 ,semi-portable1 ,corliss1 ,allen1 ,compound1 and other similar ,engines1 by the most eminent ,firms in ,great ,britain and ,america4 ,the laws relating to the action and precautions to be observed in the construction of the various details1 such as ,cylinders1 ,pistons1 ,piston-rods1 ,connecting-rods1 ,cross-heads1 ,motion-blocks1 ,eccentrics1 ,simple1 ,expansion1 ,balanced1 and ,equilibrium ,slide-valves1 and ,valve-gearing will be minutely dealt with4 ,in this connection will be found articles upon the ,velocity of ,reciprocating ,parts and the ,mode of ,applying the ,indicator1 ,heat and ,expansion of ,steam ,governors1 and the like4 ,it is the writer's desire to draw illustrations from every possible source1 and give only those rules that present practice deems correct4 ,barlow's ,tables of ,squares1 ,cubes1 ,square ,roots1 ,cube ,roots1 ,reciprocals of all ,integer ,numbers up to #aj1jjj4 ,post #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 ,camus 7,m47 ,treatise on the ,teeth of ,wheels1 demonstrating the best forms which can be given to them for the purposes of ,machinery1 such as ,mill-work and ,clock-work1 and the art of finding their numbers4 ,translated from the ,french1 with details of the present practice of ,millwrights1 ,engine ,makers1 and other ,machinists1 by ,,isaac ,,hawkins4 ,third edition1 with #ah plates1 #hvo1 cloth1 #es4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on the ,science of ,land and ,engineering ,surveying1 ,levelling1 ,estimating ,quantities1 etc41 with a general description of the several ,instruments required for ,surveying1 ,levelling1 ,plotting1 etc4 ,by ,h4 ,s4 ,,merrett4 ,third edition1 #da plates with illustrations and tables1 royal #hvo1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,principal ,,contents3 ,part #a4 ,introduction and the ,principles of ,geometry4 ,part #b4 ,land ,surveying2 comprising ,general ,observations -- ,the ,chain -- ,offsets ,surveying by the ,chain only -- ,surveying ,hilly ,ground -- ,to ,survey an ,estate or ,parish by the ,chain only -- ,surveying with the ,theodolite -- ,mining and ,town ,surveying -- ,railroad ,surveying -- ,mapping -- ,division and ,laying out of ,land -- ,observations on ,enclosures -- ,plane ,trigonometry4 ,part #c4 ,levelling -- ,simple and ,compound ,levelling -- ,the ,level ,book -- ,parliamentary ,plan and ,section -- ,levelling with a ,theodolite -- ,gradients -- ,wooden ,curves -- ,to ,lay out a ,railway ,curve -- ,setting out ,widths4 ,part #d4 ,calculating ,quantities generally for ,estimates -- ,cuttings and ,embankments -- ,tunnels -- ,brickwork -- ,ironwork -- ,timber ,measuring4 ,part #e4 ,description and ,use of ,instruments in ,surveying and ,plotting -- ,the ,improved ,dumpy ,level -- ,troughton's ,level -- ,the ,prismatic ,compass -- ,proportional ,compass -- ,box ,sextant -- ,vernier -- ,pantagraph -- ,merrett's ,improved ,quadrant -- ,improved ,computation ,scale -- ,the ,diagonal ,scale -- ,straight ,edge and ,sector4 ,part #f4 ,logarithms of ,numbers -- ,logarithmic ,sines and ,co-,sines1 ,tangents and ,co-,tangents -- ,natural ,sines and ,co-,sines -- ,tables for ,earthwork1 for ,setting out ,curves1 and for various ,calculations1 etc41 etc41 etc4 ,saws3 the ,history1 ,development1 ,action1 ,classification1 and ,comparison of ,saws of all kinds4 ,by ,,robert ,,grimshaw4 ,with #bbj illustrations1 #dto1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,a ,supplement to the above2 containing additional practical matter1 more especially relating to the forms of ,saw ,teeth for special material and conditions1 and to the behaviour of ,saws under particular conditions4 ,with #abj illustrations1 cloth1 #is4 ,a ,guide for the ,electric ,testing of ,telegraph ,cables4 ,by ,capt4 ,v4 ,,hoski,r1 ,royal ,danish ,engineers4 ,with illustrations1 second edition1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,laying and ,repairing ,electric ,telegraph ,cables4 ,by ,capt4 ,v4 ,,hoski,r1 ,royal ,danish ,engineers4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,a ,pocket-,book of ,practical ,rules for the ,proportions of ,modern ,engines and ,boilers for ,land and ,marine purposes4 ,by ,n4 ,p4 ,,burgh4 ,seventh edition1 royal #cbmo1 roan1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,table of ,logarithms of the ,natural ,numbers1 from #a to #ajh1jjj4 ,by ,,charles ,,babbage1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4 ,stereotyped edition1 royal #hvo1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,to ensure the correctness of these ,tables of ,logarithms1 they were compared with ,callett's1 ,vega's1 ,hutton's1 ,briggs'1 ,gardiner's1 and ,taylor's ,tables of ,logarithms1 and carefully read by nine different readers2 and further1 to remove any possibility of an error remaining1 the stereotyped sheets were hung up in the ,hall at ,cambridge ,university1 and a reward offered to anyone who could find an inaccuracy4 ,so correct are these ,tables1 that since their first issue in #ahbg no error has been discovered4 ,the ,steam ,engine considered as a ,heat ,engine3 a ,treatise on the ,theory of the ,steam ,engine1 illustrated by ,diagrams1 ,tables1 and ,examples from ,practice4 ,by ,,jas4 ,h4 ,,cotterill1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,professor of ,applied ,mechanics in the ,royal ,naval ,college4 #hvo1 cloth1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,practice of ,hand ,turning in ,wood1 ,ivory1 ,shell1 etc41 with ,instructions for ,turning such ,work in ,metal as may be required in the ,practice of ,turning in ,wood1 ,ivory1 etc42 also an ,appendix on ,ornamental ,turning4 7,a book for beginners47 ,by ,,francis ,,campin4 ,second edition1 with wood engravings1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 ,,contents3 ,on ,lathes -- ,turning ,tools -- ,turning ,wood -- ,drilling -- ,screw ,cutting -- ,miscellaneous ,apparatus and ,processes -- ,turning ,particular ,forms -- ,staining -- ,polishing -- ,spinning ,metals -- ,materials -- ,ornamental ,turning1 etc4 ,health and ,comfort in ,house ,building1 or ,ventilation with ,warm ,air by ,self-,acting ,suction ,power1 with ,review of the mode of ,calculating the ,draught in ,hot-,air ,flues1 and with some actual ,experiments4 ,by ,j4 ,,drysdale1 ,m4,d41 and ,j4 ,w4 ,,hayward1 ,m4,d4 ,second edition1 with ,supplement1 with plates1 demy #hvo1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,treatise on ,watchwork1 ,past and ,present4 ,by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,l4 ,,nelthropp1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,with #cb illustrations1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,contents3 ,definitions of ,words and ,terms used in ,watchwork -- ,tools -- ,time -- ,historical ,summary -- ,on ,calculations of the ,numbers for ,wheels and ,pinions2 their ,proportional ,sizes1 ,trains1 etc4 -- ,of ,dial ,wheels1 or ,motion ,work -- ,length of ,time of ,going without ,winding up -- ,the ,verge -- ,the ,horizontal -- ,the ,duplex -- ,the ,lever -- ,the ,chronometer -- ,repeating ,watches -- ,keyless ,watches -- ,the ,pendulum1 or ,spiral ,spring -- ,compensation -- ,jewelling of ,pivot ,holes -- ,clerkenwell -- ,fallacies of the ,trade -- ,incapacity of ,workmen -- ,how to ,choose and ,use a ,watch1 etc4 ,spons' ,engineers' and ,contractors' ,illustrated ,book of ,prices of ,machines1 ,tools1 ,ironwork1 and ,contractors' ,material2 and ,engineers' ,directory4 ,third edition1 #dto1 cloth1 #fs4 ,algebra ,self-,taught4 ,by ,w4 ,p4 ,,higgs1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc41 ,,ll4,d41 ,assoc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,author of #8,a ,handbook of the ,differential ,calculus1' etc4 ,second edition1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,contents3 ,symbols and the ,signs of ,operation -- ,the ,equation and the ,unknown ,quantity -- ,positive and ,negative ,quantities -- ,multiplication -- ,involution -- ,exponents -- ,negative ,exponents -- ,roots1 and the ,use of ,exponents as ,logarithms -- ,logarithms -- ,tables of ,logarithms and ,proportionate ,parts -- ,transformation of ,system of ,logarithms -- ,common ,uses of ,common ,logarithms -- ,compound ,multiplication and the ,binomial ,theorem -- ,division1 ,fractions1 and ,ratio -- ,continued ,proportion -- ,the ,series and the ,summation of the ,series -- ,limit of ,series -- ,square and ,cube ,roots -- ,equations -- ,list of ,formul1 etc4 ,,just ,,published4 ,in super-royal #hvo1 #aafh pp41 with #bdjj illustrations1 in #c ,divisions1 cloth1 price #acs4 #f;d4 each2 or #a vol41 cloth1 #bl42 or half-morocco1 #bl4 #hs4 ,a ,,supplement ,,to ,,spons' ,,dictionary ,,of ,,engineering1 ,civil1 ,mechanical1 ,military1 and ,naval4 ,,edited ,,by ,,ernest ,,spon1 ,,memb4 ,,soc4 ,,engineers4 ,the success which has attended the publication of #8,,spons' ,,dictionary ,,of ,,engineering' has encouraged the ,publishers to use every effort tending to keep the work up to the standard of existing professional knowledge4 ,as the ,book has now been some years before the public without addition or revision1 there are many subjects of importance which1 of necessity1 are either not included in its pages1 or have been treated somewhat less fully than their present importance demands4 ,with the object1 therefore1 of remedying these omissions1 this ,supplement is now being issued4 ,each subject in it is treated in a thoroughly comprehensive way2 but1 of course1 without repeating the information already included in the body of the work4 ,the new matter comprises articles upon ,abacus1 ,counters1 ,speed ,indicators1 and ,slide ,rule4 ,agricultural ,implements and ,machinery4 ,air ,compressors4 ,animal ,charcoal ,machinery4 ,antimony4 ,axles and ,axle-boxes4 ,barn ,machinery4 ,belts and ,belting4 ,blasting4 ,boilers4 ,brakes4 ,brick ,machinery4 ,bridges4 ,cages for ,mines4 ,calculus1 ,differential and ,integral4 ,canals4 ,carpentry4 ,cast ,iron4 ,cement1 ,concrete1 ,limes1 and ,mortar4 ,chimney ,shafts4 ,coal ,cleansing and ,washing4 ,coal ,mining4 ,coal ,cutting ,machines4 ,coke ,ovens4 ,copper4 ,docks4 ,drainage4 ,dredging ,machinery4 ,dynamo--,electric and ,magneto-,electric ,machines4 ,dynamometers4 ,electrical ,engineering1 ,telegraphy1 ,electric ,lighting and its practical details1 ,telephones4 ,engines1 ,varieties of4 ,explosives4 ,fans4 ,founding1 ,moulding and the practical work of the ,foundry4 ,gas1 ,manufacture of4 ,hammers1 ,steam and other ,power4 ,heat4 ,horse ,power4 ,hydraulics4 ,hydro-geology4 ,indicators4 ,iron4 ,lifts1 ,hoists1 and ,elevators4 ,lighthouses1 ,buoys1 and ,beacons4 ,machine ,tools4 ,materials of ,construction4 ,meters4 ,ores1 ,machinery and ,processes employed to ,dress4 ,piers4 ,pile ,driving4 ,pneumatic ,transmission4 ,pumps4 ,pyrometers4 ,road ,locomotives4 ,rock ,drills4 ,rolling ,stock4 ,sanitary ,engineering4 ,shafting4 ,steel4 ,steam ,navvy4 ,stone ,machinery4 ,tramways4 ,well ,sinking4 ,,now ,,complete4 ,with nearly #aejj illustrations1 in super-royal #hvo1 in #e ,divisions1 cloth4 ,divisions #a to #d1 #acs4 #f;d4 each2 ,division #e1 #ags4 #f;d42 or #b vols41 cloth1 #c #ajs4 ,,spons' ,,encyclop,,dia ,,of ,,the ,,industrial ,,arts1 ,,manufactures1 ,,and ,,commercial ,,products4 ,,edited ,,by ,c4 ,g4 ,,warnford ,,lock1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,among the more important of the subjects treated of1 are the following3-- ,acids1 #bjg pp4 #bbj figs4 ,alcohol1 #bc pp4 #af figs4 ,alcoholic ,liquors1 #ac pp4 ,alkalies1 #hi pp4 #gh figs4 ,alloys4 ,alum4 ,asphalt4 ,assaying4 ,beverages1 #hi pp4 #bi figs4 ,blacks4 ,bleaching ,powder1 #ae pp4 ,bleaching1 #ea pp4 #dh figs4 ,candles1 #ah pp4 #i figs4 ,carbon ,bisulphide4 ,celluloid1 #i pp4 ,cements4 ,clay4 ,coal-tar ,products1 #dd pp4 #ad figs4 ,cocoa1 #h pp4 ,coffee1 #cb pp4 #ac figs4 ,cork1 #h pp4 #ag figs4 ,cotton ,manufactures1 #fb pp4 #eg figs4 ,drugs1 #ch pp4 ,dyeing and ,calico ,printing1 #bh pp4 #i figs4 ,dyestuffs1 #af pp4 ,electro-,metallurgy1 #ac pp4 ,explosives1 #bb pp4 #cc figs4 ,feathers4 ,fibrous ,substances1 #ib pp4 #gi figs4 ,floor-cloth1 #af pp4 #ba figs4 ,food ,preservation1 #h pp4 ,fruit1 #h pp4 ,fur1 #e pp4 ,gas1 ,coal1 #h pp4 ,gems4 ,glass1 #de pp4 #gg figs4 ,graphite1 #g pp4 ,hair1 #g pp4 ,hair ,manufactures4 ,hats1 #bf pp4 #bf figs4 ,honey4 ,hops4 ,horn4 ,ice1 #aj pp4 #ad figs4 ,indiarubber ,manufactures1 #bc pp4 #ag figs4 ,ink1 #ag pp4 ,ivory4 ,jute ,manufactures1 #aa pp41 #aa figs4 ,knitted ,fabrics--,hosiery1 #ae pp4 #ac figs4 ,lace1 #ac pp4 #i figs4 ,leather1 #bh pp4 #ca figs4 ,linen ,manufactures1 #af pp4 #f figs4 ,manures1 #ba pp4 #cj figs4 ,matches1 #ag pp4 #ch figs4 ,mordants1 #ac pp4 ,narcotics1 #dg pp4 ,nuts1 #aj pp4 ,oils and ,fatty ,substances1 #abe pp4 ,paint4 ,paper1 #bf pp4 #bc figs4 ,paraffin1 #h pp4 #f figs4 ,pearl and ,coral1 #h pp4 ,perfumes1 #aj pp4 ,photography1 #ac pp4 #bj figs4 ,pigments1 #i pp4 #f figs4 ,pottery1 #df pp4 #eg figs4 ,printing and ,engraving1 #bj pp4 #h figs4 ,rags4 ,resinous and ,gummy ,substances1 #ge pp4 #af figs4 ,rope1 #af pp4 #ag figs4 ,salt1 #ca pp4 #bc figs4 ,silk1 #h pp4 ,silk ,manufactures1 #i pp4 #aa figs4 ,skins1 #e pp4 ,small ,wares1 #d pp4 ,soap and ,glycerine1 #ci pp4 #de figs4 ,spices1 #af pp4 ,sponge1 #e pp4 ,starch1 #i pp4 #aj figs4 ,sugar1 #aee pp4 #acd figs4 ,sulphur4 ,tannin1 #ah pp4 ,tea1 #ab pp4 ,timber1 #ac pp4 ,varnish1 #ae pp4 ,vinegar1 #e pp4 ,wax1 #e pp4 ,wool1 #b pp4 ,woollen ,manufactures1 #eh pp4 #ci figs4 ,london3 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #af1 ,charing ,cross4 ,new ,york3 #dd1 ,murray ,street4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,depending on the hard- and software used and their settings1 not all elements may display as intended2 some of the larger tables are best viewed on a wide screen in a wide window4 ,inconsistent spelling1 hyphenation1 lay-out and use of accents and thousands separators have been retained except as listed below4 ,the 7inconsistent7 use of spaces1 underscores1 hyphens etc4 to indicate blanks where names1 data etc4 need to be inserted has not been standardised4 page #d1 ,dr4 ,ackland3 possibly ,henry ,acland4 page #acg1 #hee dcicarcel-cubes3 probably the decimal point is missing4 page #cgb1 ,ranson's3 should possibly be ,ransom's 7cf4 ,table of ,contents7 or vice versa4 ,index3 not all items are given in alphabetical order1 this has not been corrected4 ,changes made3 ,footnotes have been moved to the end of each chapter4 ,some obvious minor punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected silently4 ,vide has been standardised to ,vide4 ,some tables have been re-arranged or split to fit the available space4 page xv3 ,leichenhauser changed to ,leichenhaus page #a3 c4 #fc s4 #cg changed to c4 #fc s4 #cg page #ad3 closing quotes removed from after 444 instructions thereon4 page #af3 opening quotes removed from before ,syllabus of ,subjects 444 page #ch3 closing quote removed from after 444 finished pavement4 page #eb3 ,ellisons changed to ,ellison's page #he1 footnote #gc3 ,henry ,allnut changed to ,henry ,allnutt page #ic3 #e #j changed to #ej page #acg3 dcicarcel-tubes changed to dcicarcel-cubes page #afd3 closing quote removed from after 444 is broken up4 page #ahd3 nor exceeding changed to not exceeding page #bcc3 depot changed to dept as elsewhere page #bdg1 footnote #agb3 ,beaum changed to ,baum page #cbb3 ,oilantus changed to ,ailantus page #ccd3 7#b47 added before ,the slaughter-houses4 page #ceg3 footnote anchor #bbg inserted page #cfh3 ,,leichenhauser changed to ,,leichenhaus page #cga3 closing quote added after 444 ss4 #abj and #aba4 page #cgi3 closing quotes added after 444 nor any name4 and after 444 one of their inspectors4 catalogue page #aa3 ,lord ,lindsay changed to ,,lord ,,lindsay as other authors catalogue page #ae and #af3 several list items moved to new lines as the other list items4