,illustration3 ,a ,,native ,,of ,,jamaica ,,island ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,spices ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,know ,,them ,,by ,w4 ,m4 ,,gibbs ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,mcmix ,,composition1 ,,presswork1 ,,and ,,binding ,,by ,,the ,,matthews-,,northrup ,,works ,,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,copyright1 #aiji1 by ,w4 ,m4 ,,gibbs1 ,,dunkirk1 ,n4 ,y4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,to ,,the ,,progressive ,,planter ,,and ,,honest ,,miller ,,of ,,spices1 ,,to ,,the ,,scrupulous ,,and ,,conscientious ,,wholesale ,,and ,,retail ,,dealer1 ,,to ,,the ,,earnest ,,commercial ,,man1 ,,and ,,to ,,the ,,consumer ,,who ,,is ,,particular3 ,,this ,,book ,,is ,,respectfully ,,dedicated4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents ,,introduction1 #e1 #f ,,chapter ,i4 ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,spices1 #g-i ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,adulteration ,,of ,,spices #aj-ad ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,how ,,to ,,detect ,,adulterations ,,in #ae-cd ,,spices--,,their ,,formation ,,and ,,analysis1 ,potato ,starch1 #ba ,maranta ,starch1 #bb ,circuma1 #bb ,leguminous ,starches1 #bc ,nutmeg ,starch1 #bc ,capsicum ,starch1 #bc ,pepper ,starch1 #bc ,cinnamon ,starch1 #bd ,buckwheat ,starch1 #bd ,maize or ,corn ,starch1 #bd ,rice ,starch1 #bd ,wheat ,starch1 #bd ,barley ,starch1 #be ,rye ,starch1 #be ,oat ,starch1 #be ,reagents and ,apparatus1 #cj ,the ,determination1 #cb ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,black ,,pepper1 #ce-eh ,,chapter ,v4 ,,white ,,pepper1 #ei-fa ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,long ,,pepper1 #fb-fe ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,capsicum1 ,,or ,,cayenne1 #ff-gd ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,pimento1 ,,or ,,allspice1 #ge-hj ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,cinnamon ,,and ,,cassia1 #ha-ajg ,chemical ,composition of #ajg ,cassia and ,cinnamon1 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,cloves1 #ajh-aba ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,ginger1 #abb-ace ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,nutmegs1 #acf-aea ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,mace1 #aeb-aef ,the ,chemical ,composition of #aee ,mace ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,mustard1 #aeg-afh ,wet ,mustard or ,french #afa ,mustard ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,herbs1 #afi-agi ,sage1 #afi ,marjoram1 #aga ,parsley1 #agb ,savory1 #agc ,thyme1 #agd ,seed1 #agf ,caraway1 #agf ,coriander1 #agg ,cardamom1 #agh ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,introduction ,,it is with a certain feeling of helplessness and loneliness that ,i am venturing upon the attempt to trace out the history of spices1 as ,i have not a spice grove or garden to step into for my information2 but ,i must depend upon a far-distant country1 where intelligence is but little above what it was five hundred years ago1 where may be found the lair of the lion and the jungles of the tiger1 where the elephant is used as a beast of burden1 where the people file their teeth and color them black because they think natural white teeth too much like dogs' teeth4 ,the fact that such ignorance is general in the ,spice ,islands obviously makes my information the more difficult to obtain4 ,moreover1 the camera and its uses are not known among the ,malays1 and the painter's art is not among their imaginings4 ,for these reasons1 the illustrations ,i have obtained have been secured only at great cost1 but they are as true to nature in color as it is possible for printer's ink to make them4 ,i hope they will aid me in realizing my purpose of making dealers in spices more familiar with their goods4 ,it was not until after long and careful consideration of the fact that the mass of people know but little about the condiments which are to be found on almost every table1 and of the further fact of the 8inhumanity of man to man0 in adulterating1 that ,i was bold enough to attempt to write upon a subject never before written upon1 except in a meager way4 ,and although ,i do not expect to interest all who may read my pages1 ,i hope to create a wish in some to know more of the flavors which so tickle the palate1 the fruits of that far-distant county1 the ,straits ,settlement1 and neighboring regions4 ,if ,i succeed in creating a desire among the retail dealers in spices to know the goods better1 and to sell only those which are pure and wholesome1 ,i shall feel that my work has not been a failure4 ,in placing the same before the public1 ,i believe it to be the most complete work ever written upon the subject with which it deals4 ,,the ,,author4 ,i am much indebted to the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin #ac1 by ,clifford ,richardson1 for information in ,chapter #c1 on ,adulterations and ,analysis of ,spices4 ,also to the ,united ,states ,consulates of the cities of ,penang1 ,singapore1 and ,colombo1 to whom ,i extend thanks4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,i ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,spices 8,be still6 oh ,north winds1 and come1 oh ,southern breezes1 and blow upon my garden1 that the spice trees therein may blossom and bear fruit60 8,his cheeks are as a bed of spices1 of sweet flowers40 --,the ,song of ,solomon4 ,,the terms spices and condiments are applied to those articles which1 while possessing in themselves no nutritious principles1 are added to food to make it more palatable and to stimulate digestion4 ,they are of an exclusively vegetable origin1 and occupy an important position in the diet of the human race4 ,a ride of thirty-five days by ocean steamer from ,new ,york ,city brings us to the city of ,singapore1 situated on a small island of that name1 the principal exporting city and the metropolis and capital of ,malaysia1 the ,straits ,settlement1 ,india4 ,the islands that constitute the ,straits ,settlement are crowned with spice forests4 ,here the noonday sun is truly vertical twice each year1 and for many days it passes so near the zenith that change is scarcely perceptible4 ,here the grand constellation ,orion passes overhead1 while the ,great ,bear and ,pole ,star lie low down in the horizon4 ,to the south may be seen the ,southern ,cross1 and the planets high in the zenith4 ,illustration3 ,,asiatic ,,archipelago ,no autumn tints1 like those of our ,northern woods1 deck the spice forests4 ,there is no purple and yellow dying foliage which rivals1 and even excels1 the expiring dolphin in splendor1 and the long1 cold sleep of winter and the first gentle touch of spring are unknown4 ,but instead1 we behold a ceaseless round of active life1 which weaves the fair scenery of the tropics into one monotonous whole1 the component parts of which exhibit in detail untold variety and beauty2 and no one component part impresses us more forcibly than the spice trees4 ,it is said that sailors1 several miles at sea1 in favorable weather1 with a gentle land breeze1 can tell they are nearing land long before they come in sight of the islands by the fragrance of the spice gardens4 ,singapore has a population of only #bjj1jjj1 and the small island on which it is built contains but #ade1jjj acres1 yet the city does a business of #bjj1jjj1jjj a year and can count its millionaires by the score4 ,eighty years ago1 the place where it stands was simply a jungle for tigers4 ,singapore has ships from every port of the world going in and out of its harbor1 and its streets are as lively as those of ,new ,york4 ,you can go from it to the continent in a rowboat in one-half hour4 ,close connections are also made at ,singapore for ,siam1 ,borneo1 ,australia1 ,china1 ,japan1 ,sumatra1 and ,ceylon1 and it is the half-way station of the voyage around the world4 ,the ,island of ,ceylon1 with ,colombo as its capital and chief city of export1 also produces many fine spices4 ,what could ,india do without her ,spice ,forests8 ,this is a question which remains unanswered4 ,we might as well ask what the ,united ,states could do without its wheat fields4 ,the different grades of spices take their names from the country or city from which they are exported1 each different kind having a flavor of its own4 ,our best grades come mostly from ,penang1 and are called 8,penang ,spice10 while spice of nearly as good a quality comes from parts of ,malabar4 ,other chief cities of export are ,bombay1 ,batavia1 ,calcutta1 and ,cayenne1 ,south ,america2 but the most important is ,singapore1 as has been before mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,plantation ,,on ,,jamaica ,,island ,illustration3 ,a ,,plantation ,,in ,,india ,the declared value of all spices shipped direct to this country averages about #ab1jjj1jjj worth annually4 ,among the cities that import spices ,new ,york stands first1 probably receiving more than three-quarters of all importations4 ,in #ahih1 #e1jjj1jjj pounds of ginger were received at ,new ,york--#ai1jjj bags being from ,calcutta1 #i1jaj from ,africa1 #fe1jjj from ,cochin1 #c1fjh barrels from ,jamaica4 ,there were #f1jjj1jjj pounds of pepper received at ,new ,york1 and probably nearly as much more at other ports4 ,this may seem a large amount1 but when we consider the quantity used in prepared meats and pickles1 and the fact that pepper is on every table which can afford a pepper-box or caster1 and that pepper enters into some of our food at nearly every meal1 the above amount1 which gives less than one-sixth of a pound per capita1 is not large4 ,a larger sum is paid for pepper than for any other spice4 ,the amount paid for spices in this country annually does not fall much short of one dollar per capita at retail prices4 ,four and one-half days by ocean steamer from ,new ,york brings us to the ,island of ,jamaica2 and this chapter would not be complete if ,i did not mention that gem of the ,west ,indies1 the home of the ,pimento and the famous ,jamaica ,ginger4 ,xaymaca 7the ,indian name for ,jamaica7 is like a huge mountain standing alone in the ,caribbean ,sea1 with its hard1 white coral beach and ideal climate4 ,the ride from ,kingston1 the capital of the island1 with its #ej1jjj population of picturesque folks 7,americans1 ,europeans1 ,west ,indies women1 gorgeously arrayed1 and the coolie women loaded with ornaments71 to beautiful ,montego ,bay and ,port ,antonio is an experience never to be forgotten4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,ii ,,adulteration ,,of ,,spices ,,the ,dutch at one time tried to control much of the spice trade but were frustrated by the birds which carried the seeds and planted them in other countries4 ,we are strongly inclined to look upon the scheming ,dutchman with contempt for this selfish act1 but there is to-day hovering over spice products a greater evil1 which makes one feel almost like shedding tears of shame for the acts of men who adulterate spices4 ,if they would stop in their work long enough to ponder on the following appropriate words1 they might receive new light in their attempt to mock ,nature3 8,thou great first cause1 and only cause direct1 ,all else existing1 only in effect2 ,cause and effect must harmonize and blend1 ,to doubt the cause1 we need but doubt the end4 ,perfection altered1 would produce a flaw4 ,god cannot err1 hence1 cannot change ,his law4 ,first1 follow ,nature1 and your judgment frame ,by her just standard which is still the same4 ,unerring ,nature1 still divinely bright1 ,one clear1 unchanged and universal light4 ,life1 force1 and beauty must all impart2 ,at once the source1 and end1 the test of ,art40 ,when the spice grinder will consider how hard it is to hide the spark of ,nature1 whoever yields reward to him who seeks and loves her best1 and when the retail dealer of spices will remember that there is another man on the other side of the counter who is entitled to his money's worth1 then1 and not until then1 will the evil of the adulteration of spices be done away with4 ,a merchant who will1 knowingly1 sell to his customer adulterated spices at the value of pure goods is worse than a thief1 because he not only robs them of their money but gives them poison for their stomach4 ,spice millers should not be counterfeiters6 ,how can they afford to imperil their reputation by advertising 8scheme goods08 ,let them grind their spices to give ,nature's flavors as they grow in the balmy forests of the ,east ,indies4 ,let them not mix these spices to suit the price of the retail dealer1 but grind them pure1 to please the tongue and the palate1 and then hang out their sign1 as their business would suggest1 as spice millers or grinders1 instead of 8spice manufacturers40 ,if the retail dealer of adulterated spices trusts a customer who will not pay his indebtedness1 he calls the man a rogue1 but forgets that the greater rogue is himself2 that his customer has the law on his side1 and that his best witness is the adulterated goods which were sold him2 furthermore1 this dealer is teaching to the clerk whom he has taken into his employ1 with a promise to teach the young man the trade and good business principles of an honest merchant1 the trade of a thief1 and as such teaches him to rob his employer4 ,if the merchant breaks his part of the contract1 can he expect the clerk to keep his8 ,if the clerk1 trained by the dealer in dishonesty1 steals from the cash-drawer1 would it be right to discharge him with a tarnish on the good name he had when he entered such employ8 ,let the dealer keep pure goods1 and teach his clerk their merit4 ,by so doing1 he can be twice armed when he is selling in competition with a dealer of adulterations4 ,let not the merchant profess to seek after the prosperity of the country2 let him wonder not that business is dull2 that labor is unemployed2 that enterprise is dead1 when he is doing all he can to destroy business and commercial prosperity by undermining the public confidence1 which is the foundation upon which all commercial enterprise rests4 ,nothing is more essential to business prosperity than a confidence that prosperous1 existing conditions will remain unchanged4 ,he who is helping to destroy that confidence makes himself a stumbling block in the public highway of humanity and1 as such1 is a detriment to mankind4 ,he is the greatest enemy to self that humanity can produce4 ,he is like a vine which climbs the tree and obtains its life by sucking the life of that to which it clings4 ,no man can be a good citizen who will wrong his fellow man simply because the laws of the country will protect him or1 in other words1 will not punish him for such wrongdoing4 ,a miller or retail dealer of mixed or adulterated spices is as much a criminal as the man who has ingenuity enough to shape a coin from alloy and stamp it as a legal standard1 or as one who counterfeits a bank note1 for all are guilty of illegal acts to obtain wealth4 ,the government punishes the counterfeiter of money1 but the dealer in adulterated goods is allowed freedom4 ,the government will grant a patent for the latest improvement in machinery for mixing spices1 but it will not grant a patent for a die to counterfeit bank notes4 ,the dealing in adulterations is not confined to the poorer dealers4 ,among those who are guilty of this wrong we find the wealthy and those professing to be ,christians--men who shudder at a dishonest act1 but they apparently forget their duty to ,god and man4 ,is not such conduct mockery8 ,is it not offensive to ,god8 ,if not1 where could we find that which would be8 ,let men dare to do right if they wish to be successful and respected4 ,let them dare to do right for the sake of their fellow man who is striving for an honest living4 ,let them dare to do right and not wait for the law to compel them4 ,let them remember that there is something in an honest name which they cannot afford to lose6 ,to the consumer of spices1 this should be said3 ,be willing your grocer should live and obtain a profit for his work4 ,do not compel him to handle adulterated goods by quoting him the price of his neighbor dealer who sells the adulterated stock4 ,spices of high order are more costly1 but are cheap to the consumer by reason of excess of flavor and strength4 ,let your dealer know you can appreciate a good article and1 if he handles adulterated goods1 remind him 8that he may fool all the people some of the time1 and some of the people all of the time1 but he can't fool all of the people all of the time40 #a;,as an illustration of the extent of the adulteration of spices1 the fact may be cited that one firm in ,new ,york ,city used and put upon the market in their spices more than #e1jjj pounds of cocoanut shells4 ,to show how bold the custom has become1 the following quotation is copied from a journal devoted to spices3 8,all necessary information for spice manufacturing supplied40 ,and the following advertisements appear3 8,manufacturers of spice mixtures and mustard4 ,goods made to order for wholesale40 8,grocers' spice mixtures and cayenne pepper a specialty40 ,another reads3 8,manufacturers of all kinds of spice mixtures4 ,my celebrated brand of ,p4 ,d4 pepper is superior to any made2 samples sent on application4 ,goods shipped to all parts of the ,united ,states4 ,spice mixtures a specialty40 ,out of all samples obtained at random from the miller or retail dealer1 one-half to two-thirds have been found to be adulterated4 ,such a state of affairs is simply barbarous4 ----- ,footnote #a3 ,since the words on adulterations were written1 the pure food laws of the different states have been greatly enforced1 which has reduced adulterating almost to an entirety2 but enough yet remains to make them of value4 ,cloves were prepared with the volatile oil extracted1 and with the cloves there were ground clove stems1 roasted shells1 wheat flour1 peas1 and minerals4 ,allspice is ground with burnt shells and crackers1 spent clove stems and charcoal and mineral color4 ,ginger1 with corn flour1 mustard hulls1 coloring1 and yellow corn meal4 ,mace1 with flour buckwheat1 wild mace1 and corn meal4 ,cayenne1 with rice flour1 stale shipstuff1 yellow corn meal1 tumeric1 and mineral red4 ,cassia1 with ground shells and crackers1 tumeric1 and minerals4 ,cinnamon1 with cassia1 peas1 starch1 mustard hulls and tumeric1 mineral cracker dust1 burnt shells1 or charcoal4 ,pepper1 with refuse of all kinds1 ground crackers1 cocoanut shells1 cayenne1 peas1 beans1 yellow corn meal1 buckwheat hulls1 nutmegs1 cereal1 starch1 mustard hulls1 rice flour1 charcoal1 and pepper dust4 ,mustard1 with tumeric for color1 and cayenne to tone it up1 cereal starch1 peas1 yellow corn meal1 ginger1 and gypsum4 ,by comparing prices in the following table of ground and whole spices1 we may see to what extent adulteration is carried on4 ,this adulteration is so largely practiced that it has given rise to a branch of the manufacturing industry of great magnitude1 which has for its sole object the manufacture of articles known as 8spice mixtures10 or 8pepper dust10 which are known to the trade by such technical abbreviations as 8,p4 ,d40 ,this is a venerable fraud1 which has expanded with rapidity4 ,,table ,,kinds ,,of ,,spice ,,ground ,,whole ,,product ,,price ,cassia1 ,batavia1 #g to #g cents #aj cents ,cassia1 ,china1 #e cents #db cents ,cassia1 ,saigon1 #cf to #dj cents ,cloves1 ,amboyna1 #bg cents #cb cents ,ginger1 ,african1 #e cents #h cents ,ginger1 ,cochin1 #ac cents #ab cents ,mace1 #ej cents ,nutmegs1 #aajs1 #dh cents ,pepper1 black1 #ah cents #ah cents ,singapore1 ,pepper1 black1 ,west #af cents #ae cents ,coast1 ,pepper1 white1 #bi cents #cb cents ,penang1 ,pepper1 red1 #i cents #aj cents ,zanzibar1 ,pimento1 #e cents ,mustard1 yellow1 #d cents #ab cents ,mustard1 brown1 #e cents #ab cents ,of course1 the above prices are standard for the year when the comparison was made1 but it is well to examine the figures as given and compare the price of the whole spice with the ground4 ,such comparison affords good indications of the extent of adulteration1 since the meal is sold below the cost of the whole spice4 ,we now find this article put up in barrels1 as 8,p4 ,d4 ,pepper10 8,p4 ,d4 ,ginger10 8,p4 ,d4 ,cloves10 and so on through the entire aromatic list4 ,different cities use different material for their pepper dust1 using that which is most easily and1 therefore1 most cheaply obtained in their locality4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,capsicum ,fig4 #ch4 ,,linseed ,fig4 #ci4 ,,palm ,,seed ,fig4 #dj4 ,,exterior ,,husk ,,of ,,rape ,,seed ,fig4 #dd4 ,,pure ,,cayenne ,,pepper ,fig4 #de4 ,,cayenne ,,pepper1 ,,adulterated ,,chapter ,,iii ,,how ,,to ,,detect ,,adulterations ,,in ,,spices--,,their ,,formation ,,and ,,analysis ,,as far as its practical use to the merchant or consumer of spices is concerned1 it would be as well1 perhaps1 if this chapter remained unwritten1 and yet this treatise would be far from complete without it1 as much of that which is herein contained is of the utmost importance1 could it be put into practice4 ,in this chapter ,i attempt to give ways to detect adulterations1 but the lamentable fact is that the general merchants have neither the time nor the facilities at hand to discover the foreign substance4 ,there are two principal ways of detecting adulterations in spices1 which depend upon the difference in the structure of the cells between the adulterants and the true spice to which they are added1 and also on their proximate composition4 ,the former difference is recognized by the mechanical separation and by the use of the microscope1 and the latter by chemical analysis4 ,the adulterations found in spices may be classed in four grades3 ,first4 ,integuments of grains of seeds1 such as bran of wheat and buckwheat1 hulls of mustard seed1 flax seed1 etc4 ,second4 ,farinaceous substances of low price1 as spice damaged in transportation or by long storage1 middlings1 corn meal1 and stale ship bread4 ,third4 ,leguminous seeds1 as peas and beans1 which contribute largely to the profit of the mixer4 ,fourth4 ,various articles chosen with reference to their suitableness to bring up the mixtures1 as nearly as possible1 to the required standard color of the genuine article2 various shades from light colors to dark brown may be obtained by skillful roasting of the farinaceous and leguminous substances1 and a little tumeric goes a long way to give a rich yellow color to real mustard made from pale counterfeit of wheat flour and terra-alba1 or the defective paleness of artificial black pepper is brought to the desired tone by judicious sifting in of a finely pulverized charcoal4 ,from what has been said of the different foreign substances used for adulterations of spices and condiments1 the necessity of knowing the structure and formation of the molecules of both principal and foreign elements which constitute the principal tissues of the particular plant-parts used for the adulterations is apparent1 while in the chemical examination the principle of proximate analysis must be understood and applied4 ,it is also necessary that the analyst should be thoroughly acquainted with the application of the microscope1 to determine the cellular structure1 to make determinations of proximate principles in the substances under examination1 since a mechanical separation by the microscope is more expeditious and is more at the command of the majority of persons searching for adulterations4 ,for a mechanical analysis of food separations1 a powerful microscope of good workmanship is required4 ,it is better if it is supplied with a substance condenser and ,nical prisms for the use of polarized light4 ,objectives of an inch and half inch1 and1 for some starches1 one-fifth inch1 equivalent focus1 are sufficient4 ,one eye-piece of medium depth1 one-fourth to one-sixth1 adjusted at #afj degrees is enough1 with plenty of good light4 ,the analyst should also have plenty of sieves of #dj to #fj meshes to the inch to be used for separation1 which will furnish means of detecting adulterants and selecting particles for investigation1 and will often reveal the presence of foreign material without further examination1 since many adulterants are not ground so fine as the spices to which they are added1 and by passing the mixtures through the sieves the coarser particles remaining will be either recognized at once by an unaided educated eye or with a pocket lens4 ,in this way1 tumeric is readily separated from mustard and yellow corn meal2 mustard hulls and cayenne1 from low-grade pepper4 ,where a pocket lens is insufficient1 the higher power of the microscope is confirmatory4 ,it is also desirable to be provided with a dissecting microscope for selecting particles for examination from large masses of ground spice1 and for this a large ,zeiss stand1 made for that purpose1 is best1 but simpler forms1 or even a hand lens1 will answer the purpose4 ,for smaller apparatus1 a few beakers1 watch crystals1 stirring rods1 and specimen tubes1 with bottles for reagents1 will be sufficient1 in addition to the ordinary glass slides and covers for glasses4 ,the reagents required for chemical analysis 7if no great amount is used7 are as follows3 ,strong alcohol1 ,ammonia1 ,chloral-hydrate solution--#h parts to #e of water1 ,glycerine1 ,iodine solution--water #ae parts1 iodide of potash #bj parts1 iodine #e parts2 water distilled4 ,balsam in benzol and glycerine jelly are desirable for mounting media1 and some wax sheets will be needed for making cells4 ,in addition1 the analyst should supply himself with specimens of whole spices1 starches1 and known adulterants1 which may be used to become acquainted with the forms and appearances to be expected2 it is easier to begin one's study in this way on sections prepared with the knife1 and afterwards the powdered substance may be taken up4 ,to study the physiological structure in the spices and their adulterants is quite difficult1 as the vegetable tissues which make up the structure of the spices and the materials of a vegetable origin which are added as adulterations consist of cells of different forms and thickness2 those which are most prominent and common are the parenchyma1 the sclerenchyma fibrous tissue1 and the fibro-vascular bundles4 ,spiral and dotted vessels are also common in several of the adulterants1 and in the epidermis are other forms of tissue which it is necessary to be well acquainted with1 though not physiologically4 ,the parenchyma is the most abundant tissue in all material of vegetable origin1 making up the largest proportion of the main part of the plant4 ,it is composed of thin wall cells which may be recognized in the potato and in the interior of the stems of maize4 ,in the latter plant1 also1 the fibro-vascular system is well exemplified1 running as scattered bundles between the nodes or joints4 ,fibrous tissue consists of elongated thick-walled cells of fibers which are very common in the vegetable kingdom and are well illustrated in flax1 but they are not so commonly used for adulterating purposes4 ,they are optically active1 and in the shorter forms they somewhat resemble the cells next described4 ,they are seen in one of the coats of buckwheat hulls and in the outer husks of the cocoanut4 ,the sclerenchyma is found in the shells of many nuts and in one or two of the spices1 the cells being known as stone cells1 from the great thickening of their walls4 ,to them is due the hardness of the shell of the cocoanut1 the pits of the olive1 etc4 7,see ,fig4 #a47 ,spiral and dotted vessels are common in woody tissue and are readily recognized4 ,all these forms an analyst should make himself familiar with4 ,in pepper and mustard the parenchyma cells are prominent in the interior of the berry1 while those constituting the outer coats are indistinct in the pepper1 because of their deep color2 but in the mustard are characteristics of this particular species4 ,in fact1 in many of the spices1 and especially those which are seeds1 the forms of the epidermal cells are very striking1 and1 if no attempt is made to classify them their peculiarities must be carefully noted1 as the recognition of the presence of foreign husky matter depends upon a knowledge of the normal appearance in any spice4 ,the fibro-vascular bundles are most prominent in ginger and in the barks1 while in the powdered spices they are found as stringy particles4 ,the sclerenchyma1 or stone cells1 as shown in ,fig4 #a1 are common in the adulterant1 especially in cocoanut shells1 where may also be seen numerous spiral cells1 and in the exterior coats of fibrous tissue4 ,as to aids to distinguish these structures1 the following peculiarities may be cited3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,stone ,,cells ,fig4 #b4 ,,starch ,,stained ,,with ,,iodine ,fig4 #c4 ,starch1 plain ,fig4 #d4 ,,potato ,,starch ,fig4 #e4 ,potato ,the stone cells and fibrous tissue are optically active1 and are1 therefore1 readily detected with polarized light1 shining out in the dark field of the microscope as silver-white or yellowish bodies4 ,the fibro-vascular bundles are stained deep orange brown with iodine1 owing to the nitrogenous matter which they contain1 while parenchyma is not affected by this reagent1 aside from the cell contents1 nor has it any action on polarized light1 remaining quite invisible in the field with crossed prisms4 ,next to cellular tissue1 starch is the most important element for consideration in the plant1 which possesses an organized structure and is distinguished by its reaction with iodine solution1 which gives it a deep blue or blackish-blue color1 varying somewhat with different kinds of starch and with the strength of the reagent1 and its absence is marked by no blue color under the same circumstances4 ,heat1 however1 as in the process of baking1 so alters starches1 converting them into dextrine and related bodies1 that they give a brown color with iodine1 instead of a blue-black2 they are no longer starch1 however2 their form1 not being essentially changed1 permits of their identification1 with a study of the size and shape of the granules of the hilum1 or central depressions of nucleus1 and the prominence and position of the rings4 ,by polarized light and selenite1 the starches of tubers showed a more varied play of colors than the cereal and leguminous starches which are produced above ground4 ,the starches we are to consider are those of a limited number to be met with in spices and their adulterants1 and one must be able readily to recognize the following3 ,,starch ,,natural ,,to ,,spices ,,and ,,condiments ,ginger1 ,pepper1 ,nutmegs1 ,cassia1 ,pimento1 ,cinnamon1 ,cayenne4 ,,starches ,,of ,,admixtures ,wheat and other ,cereals3 ,corn1 ,oats1 ,barley1 ,potato4 ,maranata and other arrowroots3 ,rice1 ,beans1 ,peas1 ,sago1 ,buckwheat4 ,no one of these is complete in itself1 but from the characters given1 and with the aid of illustrations1 the starches which commonly occur in substances which are here considered may usually be identified without difficulty4 ,for the benefit of those who have had no experience with the microscope1 ,i will give the following directions3 ,take a small portion of the starch or spice to be examined upon a clean camel's hair brush and dust it upon a common slide1 blow the excess away and moisten that retained with a drop of a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and water1 or with glycerine and camphor water1 and cover with a glass4 ,it is well to have a small supply of the common starches in a series of tubes which can be mounted at any moment and used for comparison4 ,they may be permanently mounted by making with cork borers1 of two sizes1 a wax cell ring equal to the diameter of the cover glass and1 after cementing the cell to the slide with copal varnish thinned with turpentine and introducing the starch and glycerine mixture1 fixing the cover glass on after running some of the cement over the top of the ring4 ,a little experience will enable one to put the right amount of liquid in the cell and to make a preparation that will keep for some time4 ,after several months1 however1 it is hard to distinguish the rings which mark the development of the granule1 and it is better to keep it fresh4 ,for other purposes1 the starches should be mounted in prepared ,canada ,balsam1 or by well-known methods in which they may be preserved indefinitely1 but they are scarcely visible with ordinary illumination and must be viewed by polarized light1 which will bring out distinctive characters not seen as well1 or not at all1 in the other mounts4 ,when mounted in the manner described1 in glycerine and water1 or in water alone1 if for temporary use1 under a microscope with one objective of equivalent focus of one-half to one-fifth inch1 and with means for oblique illumination1 the starches will display characteristics which are illustrated in ,figs4 #b1 #c1 and #d4 ,the illustrations have been drawn from ,nature2 ,fig4 #b gives starch stained with iodine2 ,fig4 #c gives shape and size of plain starch1 and presence or absence of a nucleus1 or hilum1 and of the rings and their arrangements which can be made out4 ,the starch is classed in its proper place4 ,if mounted in balsam1 their appearance is scarcely visible under any form of illumination with ordinary light1 the index refraction of the granules and the balsam being so similar1 but when polarized light is used the effect is a striking one4 7,see plates of ginger1 where it is easy to distinguish all the characteristics1 except the rings1 the center of the cross being at the nucleus of the granule47 ,the principal starches which are met with may be described as follows in connection with illustrations given1 beginning with those of the arrowroot class1 including potato1 ginger1 and tumeric4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #g4 ,,potato ,,starch ,fig4 #h4 ,,marunta ,,starch ,fig4 #i4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,marunta ,,potato ,,starch ,potato starch grains are very variable in size1 being found from 4#je to 4#aj millimeter in length1 and in shape from oval and allied forms to irregular1 and even round in the smallest2 these variations are illustrated in ,fig4 #d1 but the frequency of the smaller granules is not as evident as in ,figs4 #e and #f4 ,the layers in some granules are very plain and in others are hardly visible4 ,they are rather more prominent in the starch obtained from a freshly cut surface4 ,the rings are more distinct near the hilum1 or nucleus1 which in this1 as in all tuberous starches1 is eccentric1 shading off toward the broader or more expanded portion of the granules4 ,the hilum appears as a shadowy depression 7,fig4 #d7 and1 with polarized light1 its position is well marked by the junction of the arms of the cross4 ,it will be found by comparison of ,fig4 #f and ,fig4 #g1 that in the potato it is more often at the smaller end of the granules1 and that in the arrowroot it is at the larger4 ,with polarized light and a selenite plate a beautiful play of colors is obtained4 ,the smaller granules1 by their nearly round shape1 may be confused with other starches1 but their presence at once serves to distinguish them from ,maranta or ,bermuda arrowroot starch4 ,rarely1 compound granules are found composed of two or three single ones each within its own nucleus4 ,of the same type as the potato starch are various arrowroots4 ,the only ones commonly met with in this country are the ,bermuda1 the starch of the rhizome of ,maranta arundinacea1 and the starch of tumeric4 ,,maranta ,,starch ,the granules are not usually so varied in size or shape as those of the potato1 as may be seen in ,figs4 #h1 #i1 and #aj4 ,they average about 4#jg millimeters in length4 ,they are about the same size as the average of those of the potato1 but are never found as large or as small4 ,this fact1 together with the fact that the end at which the nucleus appears is broader in the ,maranta and more pointed in the potato1 enables one to distinguish the starches without difficulty4 ,with polarized light1 the results are similar to those seen with potato starch1 and1 by this means1 the two varieties may be readily distinguished by displaying1 in a striking way1 the forms of the granule and the position of the hilum1 as is illustrated in ,figs4 #h and #i4 ,,circuma ,circuma1 or tumeric starch 7,fig4 #aa71 though of the arrowroot class1 is quite distinct in appearance from these we have described1 being most irregular in outline1 so that it is impossible to define its shape or to do more than to refer to the illustration4 ,many of the granules are long and narrow and drawn out to quite a point4 ,the rings are distinct in the larger1 and the size is about that of ,maranta4 ,ginger starch 7,figs4 #ab1 #ac1 and #ad7 is of the same class as potato and ,maranta and several others which are of underground origin4 ,in outline1 it is not oval like those named1 but is more rectangular1 having more obtuse angles in the larger granules and being cylindrical or circular in outline in the smaller2 its average size is nearly the same as ,maranta starch1 but it is much more variable in size and form1 the rings being scarcely visible even with most favorable illuminations4 ,fig4 #ab shows ginger adulterated4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,,beans ,fig4 #af4 ,beans ,fig4 #ag4 ,,peas ,fig4 #ah4 ,peas4 ,fig4 #df4 ,,cinnamon ,,adulterated ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,pepper ,fig4 #bg4 ,,rice ,,starch ,fig4 #bh4 ,,rice ,,starch ,fig4 #bi4 ,rice ,fig4 #db4 ,p4 ,d4 ,,pepper ,fig4 #dc4 ,,pepper ,,adulterated ,,leguminous ,,starches ,such as those of beans and peas 7,figs4 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 and #ah71 produce but a slight effect under polarized light2 the rings are scarcely visible1 and the hilum is stellate or much cracked along a median line4 ,this characteristic is more marked in the bean than in the pea4 ,in the latter it resembles fresh dough kneaded again into the center as in making rolls1 and in the former the shape assumed by the same after baking4 ,in both it varies in size from 4#jbe to 4#aj millimeter in length4 ,,nutmeg ,,starch ,fig4 #ai has rings scarcely visible and not iridescent with polarized light4 ,it is smaller in size than the preceding1 which it resembles1 being at times as long as 4#je millimeter down to smaller than 4#jje millimeter1 and of extremely irregular form1 having angular depressions and angular outlines4 ,it is distinguished by a budded appearance caused by the adherence of small granules to the larger4 ,,capsicum ,,starch ,fig4 #bj is nearly circular or rounded polyhedral in forms with scarcely visible rings1 and in most cases a depressed hilum1 resembling in size and shape corn starch1 but having peculiar irregularities which distinguish it1 such as rosette-like formation on a flattened granule1 or a round depression at one end4 ,it does not polarize as actively as maize starch and can be distinguished from rice by the greater angularity of the latter4 ,,pepper ,,starch ,fig4 #ba is the most minute starch which is usually met with1 not averaging over 4#jja millimeter nor exceeding 4#jje4 ,it is irregularly polyhedral and polarizes very well1 but requires a high power to discover any detail when a hilum is found4 ,it cannot be confused with other starches4 ,,cinnamon ,,starch ,figs4 #bb and #bc have an extremely irregular polyhedral or distorted granules1 often united in groups with smaller granules and adherent to the larger ones4 ,in size1 it varies from 4#jja to 4#jbe millimeter1 averaging nearly the latter size4 ,in some granules the hilum can be distinguished1 but no rings2 it is readily detected with polarized light4 ,,buckwheat ,,starch ,fig4 #bd is very characteristic4 ,it consists of a chain or groups of angular granules with a not very evident circular nucleus and without rings4 ,the outline is strikingly angular and the size not very variable1 being about 4#ja to 4#jae millimeter4 ,,maize ,,or ,,corn ,,starch ,figs4 #be and #bf have granules largely of the same size from 4#jb to 4#jc millimeter in diameter1 with now and then a few which are much smaller2 they are mostly circular in shape or1 rather1 polyhedral with rounded angles4 ,they form very brilliant objects with polarized light1 but with ordinary illumination show but the faintest signs of rings and a well-developed hilum1 at times star-shaped and at others more like a circular depression4 ,,rice ,,starch ,figs4 #bg1 #bh1 and #bi1 is very similar to corn starch1 and is easily confused with it1 being about the same size4 ,it is1 however1 distinguished from it by its polygonal form and its well-defined angles4 ,the hilum is more prominent and more often stellate1 or linear1 and several grains are at times united4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,,pure ,,cinnamon ,fig4 #bc ,cinnamon ,fig4 #be4 ,,maize ,,starch ,fig4 #bf ,corn ,fig4 #da4 ,,pure ,,cassia ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,,wheat ,,starch ,fig4 #ca ,wheat ,fig4 #cb4 ,,barley ,,starch ,fig4 #cc ,barley ,,wheat ,,starch ,figs4 #cj and #ca are quite variable in size1 varying from 4#je to 4#jab millimeter in diameter1 and this starch belongs to the same class as barley and rye2 the hilum is invisible and the rings are not prominent2 the granules are circular disks in form1 and there are now and then contorted depressions1 resembling those in the pea starch2 it is the least regular of the three starches and does not polarize actively4 ,,barley ,,starch ,figs4 #cb and #cc are quite similar to that of wheat1 but barley starch does not vary so much in size1 averaging 4#je millimeter4 ,it has rings more distinct and very small granules adhering to the largest in bud-like forms4 ,,rye ,,starch ,fig4 #cd is more variable in size1 many of the granules not exceeding 4#jb millimeter while the largest reach 4#jf to 4#jg millimeter4 ,it lacks distinctive characteristics entirely1 and is the most simple in form of all starches described4 ,,oat ,,starch ,figs4 #ce and #cf1 is unique1 being composed of large compound masses of polyhedral granules from 4#ab to 4#jb millimeter in length1 the single granules averaging 4#jb to 4#jae millimeter4 ,it does not polarize actively1 as may be seen in the figures1 and displays neither rings nor hilum4 ,the first sign of maize or corn meal as an adulterant is the thin outer coat which becomes detached in milling and is not readily crushed4 ,in yellow corn it has a pinkish color1 and simple1 longitudinal cells4 ,broken rice is sometimes used as a dilutant2 it may be recognized by the brilliant appearance of the hard white particles which may be picked out of the spice under a hand lens4 ,the two cereals named 7broken rice and maize corn7 are the only ones which are commonly met with that introduce starch4 ,wheat bran 7,fig4 #cg7 is occasionally added1 which can be recognized by its distinctive structural character and is better understood from an authentic specimen1 which should be soaked in chloral-hydrate4 ,as modified cereals1 we find refuse bread1 cracker dust1 and stale ship bread1 in which the wheat starch is much changed from its original form by the heat and moisture1 so that at times it might be confused with leguminous starch1 but the softness of the particles and the ease with which they fall to pieces in water reveal their true name4 ,oil seed1 oil cake1 and husk 7,figs4 #ch1 #ci1 and #dj7 are very commonly used and are readily recognized by the peculiar structure of the outer coats of the seed4 ,the particles1 which can be usually found and selected with a dissecting microscope1 should be examined in alcohol or glycerine1 or a mixture of the two1 as the outer coats of some seeds1 such as mustard1 are swollen by water and become indistinct4 ,many varieties of the cruciferous seeds resemble it very much1 so that it is difficult to distinguish them1 but it is generally recognized by the outer layer of hexagonal cells and a middle and inner coating1 which consists of peculiar angular cells1 the latter being much larger than the former1 which are the most characteristic feature1 and should be compared with seeds of known origin4 ,after soaking in chloral-hydrate1 the remaining interior layers are1 perhaps1 more easily made out1 in some cases1 after moderate bleaching with nitric acid and chlorate2 the interior of this seed is not blued by iodine4 ,peanut1 or ground nut cake1 is recognized by the characteristic structure of the red-brownish coat1 which surrounds the seed1 and consists of polygonal cells with peculiar saw-toothed thickening of the walls4 ,the seed itself consists of polygonal cells full of oil and starch granules1 which are globular in form and not easily confused with pepper starch4 ,the structure of the brown membrane is best made out in chloral-hydrate1 which removes the red color and leaves the fragments of a bright yellow4 ,linseed cake is distinguished by the fact that its husk is made up of one or two characteristic elements4 ,the outer coat1 or epidermis1 is colorless and swells up in water1 forming a mucilage1 like the mustard seed4 ,beneath this is a layer of thin1 round1 yellow cells1 while the third is very characteristic and consists of narrow and very thick-walled dotted vessels2 next to these is an inner layer of compact polygonal cells1 with fairly thin1 but still thickly dotted1 white walls and dark-brown contents containing tumeric4 ,the endogen and embryo are free from starch and will not color yellow by potash1 as is the case with mustard and rape seed cake4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,,oat ,,starch ,fig4 #cf4 ,oats ,fig4 #cg4 ,,wheat ,,bran ,fig4 #df4 ,,powdered ,,allspice ,,showing ,,port ,,wine ,,cells4 7,a7 ,,starch ,cocoanut shells are often used1 and have numerous1 both long and short1 stone cells and spiral vessels from this fibrous tissue2 the long stone cells having thinner walls than the shorter cells1 all of which are readily seen after bleaching4 ,when the shells are roasted1 they refuse to bleach1 and it is then only possible to class the particles1 on which the reagents do not act1 as roasted shells or charcoal1 which are frequently used in pepper to give desired color to material rendered too light by white adulterants4 ,buckwheat1 after bleaching1 shows a preponderance of tissue made up of long1 slender1 and pointed sclerenchyma cells and a smaller amount of reticulated tissue1 resembling the cereals somewhat and cayenne pepper4 ,portions of the interior of the seed are also visible and consist of an agglomeration of small hexagonal cells which originally contained starch4 ,the starch is readily recognized by its peculiar characteristics4 ,the sclerenchyma is1 of course1 optically active and forms a beautiful and distinctive object with polarized light4 ,sawdust of various woods may be recognized by the fragments of various spiral and dotted vessels and fibrous material which are not found in spices or in other adulterants4 ,rice bran is made up prominently of two series of cells at right angles to each other1 which make up the outer coats of grain1 the structure being best made out after soaking in chloral-hydrate2 the cells of one series are long1 small1 and thin-walled1 and are arranged in parallel bundles2 the others have very much thicker walls and are only two or three times as long as they are broad4 ,clove stems are distinguished by their peculiar yellow dotted vessels and their large and quite numerous cells1 neither of which is seen prominently in the substances which are adulterated4 ,the peculiarities of adulterants should be carefully confirmed and the eye trained by practice so as to become accustomed to recognizing their structure by a study of the actual substance4 ,take one gram of powdered spice which will pass a #fj-mesh sieve and dry at #aej degrees to #aaj degrees ,c4 in an air bath provided with a regulator1 until a successive weighing shows a gain1 which denotes that oxidization has begun1 which takes about #ab hours1 or over night2 the loss is water1 together with the largest part of volatile oil4 ,deduction of the volatile oil1 as determined in the ether extract1 will give a close approximation of water4 ,the ash portion is determined by incineration at a very low temperature1 such as may be attained in a gas muffle1 which is the most convenient arrangement for work of this kind4 ,the proportion of ash insoluble in acid may be determined where there is a reason to believe that sand is present4 ,to find the amount of volatile oil by ether extract3 ,two grains of substance are extracted for twenty-four hours in a siphoning extraction apparatus1 being first placed in a test tube1 which is inserted into a continuous extraction apparatus of the intermittent siphon class1 the tube used being an ordinary test tube1 the bottom of which has been blown out4 ,a wad of washed cotton of sufficient thickness is put in the lower end of the tubes to prevent any solid particles of the sample from finding their way into the receiving flask2 another wad of cotton is packed on top of the sample1 and the apparatus is then so adjusted that the condensed ether drops into the tube and percolates through the sample siphons into the receiving flask4 ,in this way the operation is continued the length of time named4 ,the best ether should be used to avoid extracting substances other than oil soluble in alcohol1 and to continue the extraction for at least the time named1 as piperine and several other proximate principles are not extremely soluble in ether4 ,on stopping the extraction1 the extract is washed into a light1 weighed1 glass dish1 and the ether is allowed to evaporate spontaneously1 but not too rapidly1 for the reason that water1 which is difficult to remove1 might be condensed into the dish4 ,in a short time the ether will disappear1 and the dish is placed in a dessicator with pumice and sulphuric acid1 not with chloride of calcium1 which has been shown to be useless4 ,it is allowed to remain over night to remove any moisture2 the loss of oil by this process is scarcely appreciable4 ,the dish is next weighed and afterward heated to #aaj degrees ,c4 for some hours1 to drive off the volatile oil1 beginning at a low temperature1 as the oil is easily oxidized1 and then is not volatile oil4 ,the residue is weighed1 the difference being calculated to volatile oil and examined as to its composition of purity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,tumeric ,fig4 #ab4 ,,ginger ,,adulterated ,fig4 #ac4 ,,pure ,,ginger ,fig4 #ad4 ,ginger ,fig4 #ai4 ,nutmeg ,fig4 #bd4 ,buckwheat ,fig4 #cd4 ,rye ,alcohol extract is made in the same manner as the ether extract1 using1 of course1 the substance extracted4 ,the solvent may be either absolute alcohol--that of #ie per cent4 by volume1 or #hj per cent4 by weight1 the latter being preferable in most cases1 as there is no definite point with the stronger spirit at which the extraction is completed4 ,the amount of reducing material produced by boiling the spices with dilute acids serves with several as an index of purity4 ,in the case of pepper1 which contains a large amount of starch1 the addition of fibrous adulterants reduces the equivalent of reducing sugar1 which are indicated in the solution after boiling with acid4 ,tumeric is always found in spices1 such as cloves and pimento of good quality4 ,it has been said that preliminary extractions of the material with the best ether is necessary to remove oil and other substances1 not tannin on which permanganate may act2 ordinary ether will not answer1 as it contains so much alcohol and water as to dissolve some of the tannin4 ,the substance freed from ether should be extracted with boiling water and the extract made up to such dilution that #aj ,,cc4 is equal to about #aj ,,cc4 of the thirtieth normal1--permanganate solution used4 ,the titration must be performed slowly to insure accuracy1 the permanganate being run in at the rate of not more than a drop in a second1 or three drops in two seconds4 ,the eye must become accustomed to the bleaching of the indigo used1 and select some one tint of yellow1 as the end of reaction is then possible to duplicate4 ,that part of the material analyzed1 which is insoluble in acid and alkali of certain strength after treatment for a definite length of time1 at a definite temperature1 is called crude fiber1 and it may be described as follows3 ,select two grains of substance #bjj ,,cc4 of #e per cent4 hydrochloric acid2 steam bath two hours1 raising the liquid to a temperature of #ij degrees to #ie degrees ,c4 filtration on linen cloth1 washing back into beaker with #bjj ,,cc4 #e per cent4 sodic-hydrate2 steam bath two hours1 filtration on asbestos1 washing with hot water1 alcohol1 and ether1 drying at #abj degrees1 weighing1 ignition and crude fiber from loss in weight4 ,,reagents ,,and ,,apparatus 7#a74 ,hydrochloric acid whose absolute strength has been determined4 7a74 ,by precipitating with silver nitrate and weighing the silver chloride4 7b74 ,by sodium carbonate1 as described in ,fresenius ,quantitative ,analysis1 second ,american edition1 page #fhj4 7c74 by determining the amount neutralized by the distillate from a weighed quantity of pure ammonium-chloride boiled with an excess of sodium-hydrate4 7#b74 ,standard ammonia whose strength relative to the acid has been accurately determined4 7#c74 ,c4 ,p4 sulphuric acid specific gravity #a4hc1 free from nitrates1 and also from ammonium sulphates1 which are sometimes added in the process of manufacture to destroy oxides of nitrogen4 7#d74 ,mercuric-oxide1 ,hg,o1 prepared in the wet way4 ,that prepared from mercury nitrate cannot safely be used4 7#e74 ,potassium permanganate tolerably finely pulverized4 7#f74 ,granulated zinc4 7#g74 ,a solution of #dj grams of commercial potassium-sulphide in one liter of water4 7#h74 ,a saturated solution of sodium-hydrate1 free from nitrates which are sometimes added in the process of manufacture to destroy organic matter and improve the color of the product4 7#i74 ,solution of cochineal1 prepared according to ,fresenius ,quantitative ,analysis1 second ,american edition1 page #fgi4 7#aj74 ,burettes should be calibrated in all cases by the user4 7#aa74 ,digestion flasks of hard1 and moderately thick1 well-annealed glass1 which should be about #i inches long1 with a round1 pear-shaped bottom1 having a maximum diameter of #b inches and tapering out gradually in a long neck1 which is three-fourths of an inch in diameter at the narrowest part and flared a little at the edge4 ,the total capacity is #bbe to #bej cubic centimeters4 7#ab74 ,distillation flasks of ordinary shape1 #eej cubic centimeters capacity1 and fitted with rubber stoppers1 and a bulb tube above to prevent the possibility of sodium-hydrate being carried over mechanically during distillation2 this is adjusted to the tube of the condenser by a rubber tube4 7#ac74 ,a condenser with tube of block tin is best1 as glass is decomposed by steam and ammonia vapor1 and will give up alkali enough to impair accuracy2 the tank should be made of copper1 supported by wooden frame1 so that its bottom is #aa inches above the workbench on which it stands4 ,it should be about #af inches high1 #cb inches long1 and #c inches wide1 gradually widening #f inches toward the top2 the water-supply tube should extend to the bottom1 and there should be a larger overflow pipe above4 ,the block tin condensing tubes should be about of an inch inner measure and seven in number1 entering the tank through holes in the front side of it near the top above the level of the overflow1 and pass down perpendicularly through the tank and out through the rubber stoppers1 tightly fitted into holes in the bottom2 they should project #a inches below the bottom of the tank1 and connect by short rubber tubes1 with glass bulb tubes1 of the usual shape1 which dip into glass precipitating beakers4 ,these beakers should project about #f inches high by #c inches in diameter below1 gradually narrowing above1 and should be about #ejj cubic centimeters capacity4 ,the titration can be made directly in them4 ,the seven distillation flasks should be supported on a sheet-iron shelf attached to the wooden frame which supports the tank at the front2 where each flask is to stand1 a circular hole should be cut with three projecting lips to support the wire gauze under the flask1 and three other lips to hold the flask in place1 and to prevent its moving laterally out of place while distillation is going on4 ,below the sheet-iron shelf should be a metal tube carrying seven ,bunsen burners1 each with a stopcock like those of a gas combustion furnace4 ,these burners are of larger diameter at the top1 which prevents smoking when covered with fine gauze to prevent the flame from striking back4 7#ad74 ,the stand for holding the digestion flask should consist of a pan of sheet iron1 #bi inches long by #h inches wide1 on the front of which is fastened a shelf of sheet iron as long as the pan1 #e inches wide and #d inches high4 ,in this are cut six holes #a inches in diameter4 ,at the back of the pan is a stout wire running lengthwise of the stand1 #h inches high1 with a bend or depression opposite each hole in the shelf4 ,the digestion flask rests with its lower part over a hole in the shelf and its neck in one of the depressions in the wire frame1 which holds it securely in position1 and heat should be supplied with ,bunsen burners below the shelf4 ,,the ,,determination ,one gram of the substance to be analyzed is brought into a digestion flask with approximately #j4g grams of mercuric-oxide1 and #bj cubic centimeters of sulphuric acid1 and the flask is placed on the frame described in an inclined position1 and heated below the boiling point of the acid for from five to fifteen minutes1 or until frothing has ceased4 ,the heat is then raised until it boils briskly4 ,no further attention is required until the contents of the flask have become a clear liquor1 which is colorless1 or1 at least1 has only a very pale straw color4 ,the flask is then removed from the flame1 held upright1 and1 while yet hot1 potassium permanganate is dropped in carefully and in small quantities at a time until1 after shaking1 the liquid remains of a green or purple color4 ,after cooling1 the contents of the flask are then transferred to the distilling flask with water1 and to this #be cubic centimeters of potassium-sulphide solution are added1 #ej cubic centimeters of the soda solution1 or sufficient to make the reaction strongly alkaline1 and with a few pieces of granulated zinc4 ,the flask is at once connected with the condenser and the contents of the flask are distilled until all of the ammonia has passed over into the standard acid contained in the precipitating flask previously described and the concentrated solution can no longer be safely boiled4 ,this operation usually requires from #bj to #dj minutes4 ,the distillate is then titrated with standard ammonia4 ,the use of the mercuric-oxide in this operation greatly shortens the time necessary for digestion1 which is rarely over an hour and a half in the case of substances most difficult to oxidize1 and is more commonly less than an hour4 ,in most cases the use of potassium permanganate is quite unnecessary1 but it is believed that in exceptional cases it is required for complete oxidation1 and1 in view of the uncertainty1 it is always used4 ,potassium-sulphide removes all mercury from solutions and so prevents the formation of mercuro-ammonium compounds which are not completely decomposed by soda solution4 ,the addition of zinc gives rise to an evolution of hydrogen and prevents violent bumping4 ,previous to use1 the reagents should be tested by a blank experiment with sugar1 which will partially reduce any nitrates that are present which might otherwise escape notice4 ,this method cannot be used for the determination of nitrogen substances which contain nitrate or certain albumenoids4 ,these methods of analysis are suitable to all spices and have been used with them4 ,they are but a general process1 however1 and are dependent for their value on uniformity in the way they are carried out and the manner in which peculiarities of proximate composition in different spices are considered in drawing conclusions2 determinations of particular substances1 such as piperine1 require1 however1 modifications1 which must be described when discussing the analysis of each separate spice4 ,the chemical composition of olive stones and cocoanut shells is about as follows3 ,water1 #e4fc #f4ae ,ash1 #d4bh #b4ae ,fiber1 #da4cc #cg4ae ,albumenoids1 #a4ef #a4be ,nitrogen1 4#be 4#bj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,black ,,pepper 7,piper ,nigrum7 #a ,malabar #b ,acheen or ,sumatra #c ,mangalore #d ,singapore #e ,white1 from ,penang1 with all three coats removed #f ,white1 with one coat removed #g1 #h ,parts of spikes #i1 #aj ,fruit #ab ,ovary with stamens #ac ,stamens #ad ,portion of spike #ae ,a flowering twig ,,chapter ,,iv ,,black ,,pepper ,,french1 ,poivre2 ,german1 ,pfeffer2 ,italian1 ,pepe ,nero2 ,spanish1 ,pimienta2 ,portuguese1 ,pimenta2 ,cyngalese1 ,gammaris2 ,javanese1 ,maricha2 ,persian1 ,filfll-,seeah2 ,hindoostanse1 ,gol-mirch4 ,pepper 7,piper7 ,nigrum1 a name employed by the ,romans1 and derived by them from the ,greek word peperi2 the ,greeks in their turn must have derived it from the ,hindoos4 ,botanically it is applied to the typical genus plant of the natural order piperaceae4 ,of all the varieties of spices used as a condiment1 pepper is the only one which grows on a climbing vine1 and there is no kind of spice better known or more esteemed or more extensively used than pepper4 ,its consumption is enormous4 ,black pepper is one of the earliest spices known to mankind1 being of extreme antiquity4 ,choice spices and rare gums were among the precious treasures of the kings of ,egypt more than two thousand years before the ,christian era4 ,the history of its development from earliest times is well brought out by the account given in the ,pharmacopia4 ,according to ,fluckiger and ,hanbury the spice was well known as early as the fourth century ,b4 ,c4 ,arrian1 the author of ,periplus of the ,frythrean ,sea1 which was written about ,a4 ,d4 #fah1 states that pepper was then imported from ,barake1 the shipping place of ,nelkunda localities1 which have been identified with points on the ,malabar coast4 ,to this spice1 ,venice1 ,genoa1 and other commercial cities of central ,europe are indebted for much of their wealth4 ,the caravan of trading ,midianites1 who purchased ,joseph from his brethren and sold him into ,egypt were bearers of 8spices and balm0 for the ,egyptian market1 and when the sons of ,jacob were making preparations to visit the land the second time to propitiate the lord of the realm1 their father said to them3 8,take of the best fruits of the land and carry down a little balm1 and a little honey1 spice1 and myrrh1 nuts and almonds40 ,during the palmy days of ,egypt1 when they embalmed all of their distinguished dead1 precious gums and fragrant pungent spices were largely called into requisition4 ,even the ,israelites in their ritualistic worship held in such high esteem many of these rare gums and oils that their law forbade their use for any other purpose4 ,pepper received mention in the epic poems of the ancient ,hindoos4 ,theophrastus differentiated between round and long pepper1 ,diascarides mentioned long pepper1 white pepper and black pepper1 and ,pliny1 the naturalist1 expressed his surprise that it should come into general use considering its want of flavor1 and he states that the price of pepper in his time at ,rome was nine shillings and four pence per pound1 ,english money4 ,both he and ,diascarides1 as well as ,hippocrates1 write of the medicinal virtues of spices and of their use in medicine4 ,pepper has been so scarce at times and so expensive that one pound was considered a royal present1 and was used like money as a medium of exchange1 while at other times its market value has been very low4 ,in its frequent mention by ,roman writers of the ,augustan age we are told that it was used by them to pay tribute4 ,one of the articles demanded by ,alaric1 the daring ruler of the barbaric ,visigoths in #daj ,a4 ,d41 of this conquered and greatly humiliated race was #c1jjj pounds of pepper4 ,during this dark middle age pepper was so costly that rents were paid in pepper corn1 the amount being about one pound at stated times4 ,even now in places this custom still continues4 ,it is not1 therefore1 surprising that during the first centuries of the ,christian era the common black pepper was prized as highly in the city of ,rome as its weight in gold4 ,black pepper is found in the ,east ,indian ,islands1 among which may be mentioned the ,malay ,archipelago1 ,java1 ,sumatra1 ,rhio1 ,johore4 ,it is also a native of ,siam and ,cochin ,china1 and it grows wild in the forests of ,malabar and ,travancore4 ,it is cultivated in some parts of the ,united ,states and in the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,the early history of the pepper trade is similar to that of other ,eastern spices4 ,the ,dutch for a long time confined the cultivation of it to the ,island of ,java4 ,to accomplish this they forced its cultivation with so much earnestness that they defeated their own purpose and a more enlightened system has prevailed for the past thirty years4 ,since it is no longer under government monopoly1 and entire freedom is allowed in the raising of this spice1 its cultivation has been greatly increased4 ,the king of ,portugal contracted with middlemen in each of his forts on the coast of ,malabar for an annual supply of #cj1jjj quintals of pepper1 and bound himself to send five ships every year to export that amount4 ,all risk was held by the middlemen or farmers 8who landed it in ,portugal40 ,as a compensation for this risk1 the middlemen obtained the price of twelve ducats a quintal and had great and strong privileges3 8,first1 that no man of what estate or condition soever he be1 either ,portingall or of any place in ,india1 may deale or trade in pepper1 but they upon paine of death which is very sharply looked into4 ,and although the pepper were for the king's own person1 yet must the farmers pepper be first laden to whom the ,viceroy and other officers and ,captains of ,india must give all assistance1 helpe and favour with watching same and all other things whatsoever that shall by said farmers be required for the safetie and benefite of the said pepper40 ,in fact1 it was because the price of pepper was so high during the ,middle ,ages that the ,portuguese were led to seek a sea route to ,india4 ,after the passage around the ,cape of ,good ,hope had been discovered1 about #adif1 there was a considerable reduction in the price of pepper1 and when it began to be cultivated in the ,islands of the ,malay ,archipelago1 another reduction was made4 ,it1 however1 remained a monopoly of the ,portuguese crown for many years1 even as late as the eighteenth century4 ,the earliest reference to a trade in pepper in ,england is ,a4 ,d4 #igh-ajaf1 when it was enacted that traders bringing their ships to ,billingsgate should pay at ,christmas and ,easter1 with other tributes1 ten pounds of pepper4 ,great ,britain derived a duty from it for centuries1 and as late as #afbc this duty was five shillings1 or about #a4bj per pound4 ,english grocers were known as 8,peppers40 ,even in #ahbc the duty was two shillings and six pence per pound4 ,the pepper alluded to by ,pliny at his time in ,rome must have been the product of ,malabar1 the nearest part of ,india to ,europe1 and must have cost in ,malabar about #b;d4 per pound4 ,it probably went to ,europe by crossing the ,indian and ,arabian oceans with the easterly monsoon1 sailing up the ,red ,sea1 crossing the desert1 and then going down the ,nile1 and making its way along the ,mediterranean4 ,this voyage in our time can be made in one month2 at that time it probably took eighteen months4 ,transit and custom duties must have been paid over and over again and there must have been plenty of extortion4 ,these facts will explain how pepper could not be sold in the ,roman market under fifty-six times its prime cost4 ,immediately previous to the discovery of the route to ,india by the ,cape of ,good ,hope we find that the price of pepper in the market of ,europe had fallen to #fs4 a pound1 or #cs4 #d;d4 less than in the time of ,pliny4 ,what probably contributed to this fall in price was the superior skill in navigation of the now converted ,mohammedan ,arabs1 ,turks1 and ,venetians1 and the extension of their commerce in the ,eastern ,archipelago1 which abounded in pepper4 ,black pepper was then for many years considered a very choice article and1 like gold1 silver1 and precious stones1 it was possessed only by persons of wealth1 and was for generations found only on royal tables and those of the rich and noble who aspired to rank with the rulers of the realm4 ,the ,british gave up the chief pepper ground of the world1 which was the grand ,island of ,sumatra1 to the ,dutch for the small ,dutch colony in ,western ,africa1 which has involved both nations in little wars and has cost the ,dutch more lives and money than it is worth2 but prestige must also be sustained1 and general after general returned with a shattered reputation from the 8,atyeh10 as the ,dutch called ,acheen4 ,when the ,east ,india ,company first formed a settlement on the coast of ,sumatra1 it directed its attention to produce large growths of pepper4 ,a stipulation was made with some of the native chiefs1 binding them to compel their subjects each to cultivate a certain number of pepper vines1 and the whole product was to be delivered to the company's agents at a price far below the actual cost of cultivation and harvesting4 ,the chiefs for a long time enforced obedience to this arbitrary measure and their success in this was supposed to be permanently assured by granting them an allowance proportionate to the quantity of pepper delivered4 ,this arbitrary practice was too keenly felt by the natives to be endured1 and1 the influence of the chiefs soon declining and the people becoming negligent in the cultivation1 the annual supply fell off4 ,the chiefs1 unable longer to maintain their despotic practice1 abandoned to the agents of the company the task of obliging the people to labor that others might reap4 ,now the rights of the people are more respected and the injustice of the methods formerly used are fully acknowledged2 the cultivation of pepper in ,sumatra1 as well as elsewhere1 is free4 ,perhaps the earliest writer to describe the extent of the cultivation of pepper was ,linschoten4 ,he speaks of its coming from ,mala or ,malabar1 and his friend and commentator of pepper1 ,paludanus1 enters into a long account of its medicinal virtues4 8,it warmeth the mawe10 he writes1 8and consumeth the cold slymenes thereof to ease the payne in the mawe which proceedeth of rawnesse and winde1 it is good to eat fyve pepper cornes everie morning4 ,he that hath a bad or thick sight1 let him use pepper cornes with annis fennel seed and cloves for there by the mystinesse of the eyes which darken the sight is cleared and driven away40 ,but in modern medicine it is very little used1 being rarely prescribed except indirectly as an ingredient of some compound4 ,black pepper is the dried fruit of the piper nigrum1 a perennial climbing shrub indigenous to the forests of ,travancore1 a native state in ,india1 province of ,madras1 and of ,malabar1 a province of ,india1 from which it has been introduced into the other countries mentioned4 ,two species of piper will be found under drugs1 8,cubebs0 and a third falls within the range of the articled drugs 8,kava-,kava10 and ,narcotics2 and two others are dealt with under 8,narcotics40 ,there remain then for description as spice1 black pepper1 white pepper1 long pepper1 and ,ashantee pepper4 ,in planting a new garden where no wild pepper vines are to be had1 level land is selected which borders on a river or small stream without much sloping1 but not so low as to be liable to any overflow from the stream1 as the land must be kept well drained4 ,pepper is a hardy plant and will grow on almost any soil1 but not on old1 worn-out plantations or on poor sandy or clay soil1 as more depends on the soil than on the cultivation4 ,it should not be planted on hillsides because the earth will wash from the roots in time of rains4 ,the best soil for pepper culture is a well-drained vegetable loam2 swamp lands are very good in a hot climate with heavy rains4 ,the vine may be propagated either from the seed or by cuttings4 ,when berries are selected for seed they are first soaked for three days1 when the outer coat can be removed4 ,the seed is then dried in the shade1 after which it is sown by drills in nursery beds1 which are made in the usual manner in good moist soil in a shady locality4 ,frequent watering will be necessary1 if it be a dry time1 until the plants have four leaves1 when they will be ready for planting4 ,the land to be planted is to be cleared of underbrush4 ,sometimes large trees are burned by setting fire to their trunks4 ,the tree will then decay and will be attacked by insects and will become a heap of rotten dust4 ,this dust is washed by the rain around the roots of the vines1 making a good fertilizer4 ,the land cleared is next well planted and hoed and is lined out #g #g feet1 and holes are dug two feet square and fifteen inches deep1 which are filled with good soil or leaf mold if it can be secured4 ,in filling these holes they should not be heaped1 as depressions are better for the plant1 but care should be taken that all that portion of the plant underground in the nursery should be buried in the garden4 ,the land is fenced by mud walls made into terraces4 ,the vines need support1 for if they are not supported they will spread over the ground with the result that there will be much loss of fruit4 ,when posts are used1 as is the case on the ,island of ,borneo1 they should be twelve feet long and eight inches square1 with the lower end tarred for two feet1 to prevent decaying in the ground4 ,the plantation will then have the appearance of a hop field4 ,but there are many disadvantages in connection with the post support1 as the posts must be reset at intervals 7much oftener than the vines7 and the removing of the post disturbs the aerial roots of the vine1 which cling to them4 ,even if the vine be trained to its new post1 it will take some time for it to attach sufficiently to receive any support or nourishment4 ,as the poles furnish little or no shade1 a severe drought will largely ruin the plants4 ,for these reasons the use of posts has not proved a success4 ,different countries use different growing trees for the support1 thus securing shade protection as well4 ,many kinds of trees are used4 ,one of these is the mango or the bread tree1 which will yield the planter one crop of fruit each year in addition to the pepper crop2 but the bread tree 7artocarpus-incioa71 being of slow growth1 should not be used for a support until it is twelve years old4 ,the ,jack tree 7artocarpus-integrifolia7 is sometimes used in ,malabar as a second choice1 but its fruit is diminished in quantity and quality by the pressure of the pepper1 and sometimes the monkeys will pull them out or the crickets nip off the tops4 ,the erythrina-,indica 7erythrina coroilodendron71 a thorn tree called by the natives chingkariang1 is much used in ,sumatra for an early support4 ,it grows quickly and is easily started by simply sticking a large branch in the ground in the rainy season4 ,it will be capable of supporting the vine in one year1 but it will soon be killed by the growing vine1 not lasting more than twelve years4 ,for this reason the mango or bread tree is planted beside it and when the erythrina-,indica tree dies out the first choice mango tree 7manganifera-,indica7 is ready to take its place and will furnish support for the vine for twenty years4 ,moreover1 the fruit of the tree will not be affected by the growing vines4 ,plantations are set on the tilled land from ,july to ,august about twelve paces apart4 ,in ,february and ,march the supporting trees are planted forty feet apart4 ,they are kept well watered during the dry season1 and when ten feet high are topped and kept trimmed or the leaves are picked off so as not to shade the plant too much4 ,if the pepper garden is small1 the vines may be planted near the trees already growing4 ,plants raised from the seed in nurseries are transplanted in ,may or ,june1 being placed in the prepared holes five feet apart with their root end from the tree and with the growing perennial vine top directed towards its support4 ,the root should be as far distant as possible from the support4 ,if the plants are of slow growth1 manure may be applied to the surface of the ground4 ,in ,china burnt earth and rotten fish are used4 ,the land must be kept free from weeds and the plants must be kept well watered on alternate days in the dry season4 ,the pepper vines are trained to their support in ,october and ,november4 ,they may begin to bear fruit the first year1 but do not yield much until the third or fourth year4 ,the hoeing1 training1 and fertilizing are kept up twice each year in ,october and ,november and ,july and ,august4 ,the moist earth should be heaped up and well tramped down about the plant4 ,when the vines are six feet high they will cling to the trees without further training4 ,the vines will bear for about fourteen years and even thirty years sometimes in extra good soil1 but when past fourteen years they will usually decline in vigor and fruitfulness4 ,the vine1 after topping1 is from eight to ten feet long1 but if left to grow its full length will be from twenty to thirty feet long and will go to wood and bear less fruit1 and the fruit would be difficult to gather4 ,when cuttings are to be used for planting1 at least three should be placed in each hole with six inches under ground or four inches above ground1 the portion above ground to be directed towards the support4 ,the plantation is next covered with leaves1 dried grass1 or weeds as a protection from the sun and to keep the earth moist and cool4 ,the vines grow rapidly if it is wet weather4 ,when they have run up the support two feet1 the ends are nipped off so as to cause lateral branches to start out4 ,in some places1 when the vines are from a year to eighteen months old and have grown five feet up the support1 they are carefully detached and the ends1 having been coiled up in a spiral form1 are buried in a hole dug in the ground close to its roots1 except a small surface of the stem4 ,this process is called letting down4 ,it insures a large crop1 producing seven or more vines to one supporting tree4 ,plants raised from cuttings will only bear from seven to eight years1 but the quantity and quality of the pepper is far superior to that raised from the seed4 ,the planting of the cuttings in baskets is often carried on in the following manner3 ,the cuttings1 which are about eighteen inches long1 are put half a dozen in a basket2 at higher altitudes more are used1 sometimes as many as ten or twelve4 ,the basket is then filled with earth and is buried at the foot of the supporting tree1 care being taken that they do not touch4 ,in ,october and ,november the ground around the baskets is dug up and the vines are manured with cow dung and leaves4 ,the baskets are said to be a great protection to the young vines and they insure much better results4 ,the end of the vine makes the best cutting1 as it is a growing terminal bud4 ,vines growing wild1 such as are indigenous to the forests of ,malabar and ,travancore1 are left planted with the forest trees for their support4 ,the surplus shade and underbrush are cut out and the ground is weeded1 old vines being replaced by young ones4 ,the product raised in this way is about as good as the cultivated4 ,a pepper garden is generally planted with plenty of room for roads1 so as to secure easy access to all parts of it and with the least possible grade1 which should not be more than one foot in twenty4 ,the garden contains anywhere from five to fifteen acres and is divided into plots by hedges of shrubs1 each plot containing from five hundred to one thousand plants4 ,the plants are pruned or thinned by hand as they grow bushy at the top1 when the flexible stems generally entwine at the top of their support and then bend downward1 having their extremities as well as their branches loaded with fruit4 ,it matters not how many stalks grow from the same root until the vine begins to bear fruit1 but when fruit bearing begins only one or two stems should be left1 as more would weaken the root and it would not1 for that reason1 bear as abundantly4 ,all suckers and side shoots must be carefully removed4 ,trenches are cut to the neighbor props where the vines have failed1 and through these trenches superfluous shoots are conducted1 where they soon ascend around the adjacent tree4 ,by this means the plantation is of a uniform growth1 and1 since the ground is kept well weeded and is elevated1 and since there is an open border of twelve feet wide around each garden1 there is given to the plantation an admirable symmetry and neatness of appearance4 ,illustration3 ,,harvesting ,,of ,,black ,,pepper ,illustration3 ,,coast ,,near ,,mangalore ,the pepper vine or climbing shrub is mentioned by ,sir ,john ,mandeville in his travels of #acbb to #acef as follows3 8,the pepper growethe in manere as doth a wylde vine that is planted fast by the trees of the woodee for to susteynen it by1 as doth the vyne and fruyt thereof hangethe in manere as ,reysinges2 and the tree is so thikke charged that it semethe that it wolde breke1 and when it is ripe it is all grene as it were ivy berryes2 and then men kytten them as men doe the vynes and then they putten it upon an owven and there it waxeth blak and crisp40 ,this simple description will in some respects answer our purpose at the present time4 ,the leaf of the pepper vine is entire1 simple1 alternate1 without stipules1 broad1 and fleshy1 or oval or heart-shaped4 ,the leaves are arranged in clusters of five to seven in number1 opposite the flower stalk1 and the flowers1 which are glossy-white1 are very insignificant in appearance upon a long slender pendulous spadix4 ,they are for the most part uni-sexual1 either mancious or dicious2 that is1 the staminate 7male flower7 and pistillate 7female7 flowers are separate either upon different branches of the same plant 7mancious7 or upon different plants 7dicious74 ,the leaves are four to six inches long1 and they partake strongly of the aromatic and peculiar smell and pungent taste of the berry4 ,the small fruit grows loosely on the pendulous fruit stalks or spikes4 ,a single vine will bear from twenty to thirty fruit spikes and each spike contains twenty to forty berries4 ,if they were allowed to ripen1 the berries would lose some of their pungency and would gradually fall off4 ,the pepper vine produces two crops annually1 the first in ,december and ,january1 at the time of the first monsoon4 ,the flowers of the second crop appear in ,march and ,april1 at the time of the little monsoon1 and the crop is gathered in ,july and ,august4 ,the second crop is inferior both in quality and quantity1 probably on account of lack of moisture4 ,the pepper berry is a small1 round1 sessile1 fleshy fruit1 which at first appears green1 next red1 and finally yellow when fully ripe4 ,when one or two berries at the base of the spike begin to turn red the entire spike is pinched off4 ,in gathering the fruit1 the natives make use of a small triangular ladder made of bamboo1 with which they go around the tree and reach all the fruit as they go4 ,the fruit is put in small baskets slung over the shoulder 7see illustrations7 of the gatherer4 ,it is then taken by those who work on the ground to a smooth1 level spot of clean1 hard ground and spread on mats or platforms to dry 7mat drying is said to give heavier returns71 care being taken to carry it in at night so as to escape the dews4 ,after three days1 as the drying proceeds1 the berries are removed by rubbing with the hands and are picked clean or winnowed in large round sieves4 ,in some eastern localities mills operated by hand facilitate the work4 ,after the berries have become dry they will shrivel and turn black or chocolate4 ,those gathered too soon will after being dried become dust4 ,the berries after drying are spherical and about one-fifth of an inch in diameter and are wrinkled on the surface1 indistinctly pointed below by the remains of a very short pedical and crowned by three or four lobed stigmas4 ,the thin pericarp tightly encloses a single seed1 the embryo of which1 on account of the premature gathering is not fully developed and is replaced by the cavity below the apex4 ,the seed itself contains within the thin red-brown testa a shining albumen of angular1 radically arranged1 large-celled parenchyme1 gray and horny without and mealy within4 ,the transverse section of a grain of pepper exhibits a soft1 yellowish epidermis covering2 the outer pericarp is formed of a closely packed yellow layer of large and most radically arranged thick-walled cells1 most of which are colorless and loaded with starch2 others contain a soft1 yellowish1 amorphous mass1 each containing in its minute cavity a quantity of dark-brown resin1 while the middle layer of the pericarp consists of starch and oil1 the shrinkage of which causes the deep wrinkles on the surface of the berry4 ,the next inner layer of the pericarp exhibits its circumference tangentially arranged soft parenchyme1 the cells of which possess either spiral striation or spiral fibers1 but towards the interior lose parenchyme free from starch and containing very large oil cells4 ,the testa is formed in the first place of a row of small yellowish thick-walled cells1 next to which follows the true testa as a dense1 dark-brown layer of lignified cells1 the individual outlines of which are indistinguishable4 ,if thin slices are kept under glycerine for some time these masses are slowly transformed into needle-shaped crystals of piperine4 ,the angular cells of the interior of the seed are1 of course1 the more prominent and1 when once seen1 their characteristic form and contents are easily recognized again4 ,the structure of the outer coats is made out with more difficulty1 and before attempting to do so on ground pepper it is best to soften some whole black and white pepper corns in glycerine and cut sections from various parts of the exterior of the berry4 ,white pepper1 since it is allowed to ripen fully1 has the most distinctness1 and1 since it lacks the wrinkles1 it will not be found difficult to pick out three layers of different cells from a section from it mounted in glycerine1 composing the outer coat of the corn1 besides angular large cells of the interior which are filled with starch and piperine1 the latter being yellow in color4 ,the first of these layers1 the outer one1 is made of colorless1 large1 loosely arranged cells with some fibers toward the exterior more compact than those toward the interior of the layer and carrying globules of oil4 ,this layer makes up the principal part of the husk of the white pepper4 ,the second layer is a part of what is generally called the testa and consists of small yellow cells1 thick walled and closely oppressed4 ,next comes the third layer and second portion of the testa1 which consists of lignified brown cells1 which in their transverse appearance resemble some of the cells of mustard hulls4 ,the individuality of these cells is not made out easily1 owing to the thickness of the walls4 ,after the observer has become thoroughly familiar with these appearances of the white pepper he should examine ground pepper1 which will be found to differ in the way in which these coats are to be presented2 they can be recognized1 however1 and must be studied until thoroughly understood4 ,the black pepper is not as simple in its arrangement as the white1 the maturity of the white giving it distinctness1 while the shrunken character of the black berry makes the recognition of its various tissues difficult4 ,in a section from the exterior of a softened black pepper1 the interior coats1 after what has been learned of the white1 will be quickly recognized1 but they are not plainly developed4 ,the coats of the outer pericarp1 which in the white pepper were wanting1 will be found to be darker colored1 shrunken and confused1 so that it requires much study to discover the forms of the cells1 which may be more easily found in the powdered black pepper2 there the structure already recognized in the ground white pepper will be seen and in addition dark-brown particles1 portions of the outer coats4 ,careful examinations of different particles will reveal some which consist of the elongated1 vertical exterior cells containing resin1 while others are the shrunken parenchyme cells of the second layer1 whose structure is indistinct4 ,the colored portion of a ground black pepper divides itself into two classes1 the dark particles which have just been mentioned and the deep reddish ones which are made up of the testa of the seed and its adherent parenchyme4 ,the two will be readily recognized and distinguished from adulterants by investigation4 ,there are in all about forty different species of pepper plant1 consisting of herbs1 shrubs1 and trees4 ,they are generally named from the city or country of export4 ,the differences in appearance of the product coming from various sources are sufficiently marked to be readily noticed when samples of each are at hand side by side1 but otherwise it is almost impossible to distinguish between some of them4 ,the goodness of the pepper depends more on the quality of the soil than on the cultivation1 although cultivation will increase the yield4 ,the fine ,tellicherry pepper together with the ,alleppy are considered the best varieties4 ,tellicherry is named from the city of ,tellicherry of ,british ,india1 province of ,maladar1 district of ,madras4 ,alleppy is named from the city of ,alleppy1 which is the capital of the native state ,travancore in the district of ,madras4 ,these are closely followed by the ,malabar pepper from the district of ,malabar1 ,india4 ,these varieties are sun-dried4 ,next comes the fine ,penang pepper1 named from the city of ,penang1 meaning 8betalnut0 7see illustration7 in the ,straits ,settlement4 ,this is followed by the ,singapore1 named from the city of ,singapore1 and meaning ,city of the ,lion 7see illustration71 which is also in the ,straits ,settlement1 and is the largest export city of spice in the world1 being the center of export for spices grown in the ,malay ,peninsula as well as in ,java and ,sumatra and of that rich state known as ,johore1 in the southern extremity of the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,illustration3 ,,acheen ,illustration3 ,,tellicherry ,,coast ,,from ,,old ,,fort1 ,,looking ,,north ,singapore pepper1 by reason of its dark color and fairly uniform quality1 is a good-looking pepper1 and for that reason it is esteemed1 but for grinding purposes it has not been heretofore so highly regarded1 because of its smoky odor1 as it is dried over smoke4 ,the pepper plantation and the gambier plantation of ,johore are usually under one management1 and in boiling down the gambier to make the vegetable extracts there are suspended over the kettle mats on which are placed quantities of the ,singapore pepper4 ,the smoke from the furnace dries and at the same time blackens the pepper and gives it the unmistakable smoky smell which is characteristic of ,singapore pepper4 ,this smoky odor is retained to a considerable degree after the pepper is ground1 and it is one of the tests by which pepper merchants determine whether a given sample is ,singapore or not4 ,the ,singapore pepper from ,borneo is divided into1 first1 the ,mullacca1 which is the best and heaviest2 second1 the ,caytongee2 and third1 the poorest sort1 ,negara1 which is most abundant1 and which is small and usually falls to dust4 ,mangalore pepper1 named from the city of ,mangalore 7,fig4 #c71 is the largest pepper corn grown4 ,it is nearly twice the size of ordinary pepper1 is of a deep black color1 very clean1 and of uniform size4 ,when ground it yields a powder of a characteristic greenish appearance4 ,lampong pepper takes its name from a district bordering on the east end of the ,island of ,sumatra near the ,straits of ,sunda where it grows4 ,there is also a city in the district by the name1 ,lampong 7meaning bobbing in water71 where all the men and women meet at a central market house to transact their business matters4 ,the ,lampong pepper corns are less uniform in size than those of the other varieties before mentioned1 and are also of a lighter color1 and the surface contains much dirt4 ,acheen1 ,sumatra1 or ,west ,coast1 are names applied to the pepper found on the great wild island of ,sumatra1 visited by ,marco ,polo in #abia4 ,the island is divided into semi-independent states1 each being ruled by its own prince or chief1 who may be called ,sultan1 ,rajah1 or ,datto4 ,the interior of ,sumatra is inhabited by the lion and the tiger1 and by bands of savage ,malays mixed with ,dyaks of ,borneo and ,hindoos1 some of whom are very savage4 ,among these are the head-hunters1 or cannibals1 who impose as a penalty for certain crimes that the guilty one is to be cut to pieces and eaten1 and sometimes is to be eaten alive4 ,this class of people are found in the south of ,achin4 ,acheen pepper 7,fig4 #b7 takes its name from the district by that name1 or from the city of ,acheen 7native dialect1 ,atkeh7 7see illustration7 and the district of ,acheen1 which exported in the year #aijd1 #fj1jjj piculs 7#acf lbs4 each72 ,telak ,betang 7,south ,sumatra7 exported #ej1jjj piculs 7#acf lbs4 each72 ,padang1 ,sumatra 7meaning an open plain71 produces much pepper of good quality1 and the ,bataks1 of ,north ,sumatra1 have long been devoted to its cultivation4 ,the designation ,east and ,west ,coast1 as formerly used1 have been 7as have also the three names it was known by on the island1 8,iada-,iawor0 or 8,lampoon10 8,iada ,manna10 and 8,iada ,jambee07 lost track of1 and the pepper is now designated according to its specific gravity as ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 or ,d grade4 ,a grade weighs at least #d lbs41 #ac oz4 to the imperial gallon 7#dha grams per liter74 ,b grade weighs at least #d lbs41 #e oz4 to the imperial gallon 7#dca grams per liter74 ,c grade weighs at least #c lbs41 #ac oz4 to the imperial gallon 7#cha grams per liter74 ,d grade weighs at least #c lbs41 #e oz4 to the imperial gallon 7#ehf grams per liter74 ,there has probably not been any of the ,a grade of ,acheen black pepper in this country for several years1 for the reason that it is this grade of pepper that is preferred by the manufacturers of ,penang white pepper2 and since it is used up in that way it does not reach our market except in the form of white pepper1 ,fig4 #e4 ,the best way to test the quality of the whole pepper is by weight1 the heavier being the best4 ,it takes #f1ihd ,singapore pepper corns 7,fig4 #d7 to weigh one pound1 while the finer grades of ,tellicherry or ,malabar 7,fig4 #a7 require but #f1djj4 ,illustration3 ,,central ,,market ,,lompong 7,bobbing in ,water7 ,,telah ,,bentong ,illustration3 ,a ,,home ,,in ,,alleppy ,pepper is sometimes graded by putting it in water1 when the heavy sinks and the light swims2 the water also removes the dirt that might adhere to it4 ,shot pepper is the heavier black pepper put through a soaking and hardening process4 ,afterwards it is oiled to give it a better appearance1 but as the water is injurious to the berry it is now generally separated in a column of air4 ,the better appearance thus given to the shot pepper makes it more in demand and gives it a higher market value4 ,from what has been said1 we can readily understand that the quality of pepper differs in the different localities4 ,pepper will hold its strength longer than any other spice4 ,it has been found by mixing ,malabar for weight1 ,penang for strength1 and ,sumatra for color1 we get the most desirable powdered article4 ,malabar pepper has about twice the strength of ,singapore1 which has twice the strength of ,sumatra4 ,the ,atjeh1 ,atchin or ,acheen1 pepper from the northeastern part of ,sumatra1 and that from the province of ,batak in the more central eastern part of ,sumatra ,island1 as received in this country1 contain much earthy matter1 and the ,east ,archipelago pepper culture1 including the islands of ,johore and ,rhio1 is so widely spread as to give us large and various qualities4 ,the city of ,penang1 in the ,straits ,settlement1 exported in the year #aijd1 #ec1fac bags of black pepper and #bb1dae bags of white pepper1 being about half of the entire supply1 and the ,island of ,ceylon exported in #aijd1 #b1gdf cwt4 of pepper valued at #cgi4hc4 ,saigon1 ,china1 has also many acres under cultivation4 ,of course1 when the price of pepper is high1 there is more profit for the grower1 and the laborer is given more employment1 since the acreage is increased4 ,advances of money are made to the ,chinaman by the merchants1 who take security on the growing pepper at a rate fixed much below its actual value4 ,the ,chinaman on this advance money erects a small building required as a home1 and purchases his farming implements and has two dollars monthly for food and for opium1 and at the end of the third year the plantation is equally divided between the contracting parties4 ,one man can take care of about #c1jjj plants after they come into bearing4 ,ashantee pepper or ,west ,african 7and as it is sometimes called1 ,african ,cubebs7 is the fruit of the piper1 7,cubeb7 8,clusii10 and is principally from ,niam-,niam1 a district in ,guinea bordering on the ,gulf of ,guinea in ,africa1 and is locally used as a substitute for black pepper1 but has a hollow berry1 much smaller and less wrinkled4 ,in the southwest of ,india1 where pepper grows wild1 it is found in rich1 moist soil1 usually in narrow valleys4 ,it propagates itself by running along on the ground and throwing off shoots every few feet4 ,the natives1 in caring for it1 merely tie the ends of the vines to trees at distances at least six feet apart1 and especially to those having a rough bark1 as the vine readily clings to the rough surface of the tree4 ,in ,india the berries of 7,embelia7 7,samara7 ,ribes are often mixed with pepper4 ,there is also a fruit called ,melegueta pepper1 known also as 8,guinea ,grains10 ,grains of ,paradise1 or ,alligator pepper1 which is the seed of ,amomum ,mele ,gueta1 a plant of the ginger family1 which contains seeds which are exceedingly pungent and are used as a spice through ,central and ,northern ,africa4 ,the cultivation of the pepper plant in the ,western ,hemisphere has been attended with fair success where it has been perseveringly pursued1 but there is little probability that it can successfully compete even in the ,west ,india islands with that of those countries where the plant is indigenous4 ,jamaica pepper1 which is a native of the ,island of ,jamaica1 belongs more to the fruit of pimenta1 an account of which is given under a separate chapter4 ,the yield of pepper varies in different localities and may be from one and one-half to eight or ten pounds to a single vine4 ,the third year the yield is one catty2 fourth year1 one and one-half catty2 the fifth year1 three and one-half catties1 a catty being one and one-third pounds4 ,four thousand pounds is a good average to one acre4 ,ten pounds of green berries make only four to five pounds when dried and bagged for the market4 ,illustration3 ,,singapore 7,city of the ,lion7 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,in ,,harbor ,,of ,,penang ,,from ,,steamer ,,looking ,,northwest ,copyright by ,underwood and ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4 ,it is hard to estimate the amount of black pepper used each year1 but it is very great4 ,the ,united ,states consumes more spices pro rata than any other country4 ,this fact is well known by exporters after long experience1 and now many spices are shipped direct to the ,united ,states ports instead of by the way of ,london4 ,the chief use of pepper is that of a spice added principally to meats1 but also to other food substances4 ,pepper is sometimes used for medicinal purposes1 as it stimulates the stomach on account of the piperine it contains1 and thus aids in digestion4 ,in removing ringworms it has few equals4 ,the native doctors of ,india consider it a stimulant1 and they prescribe an infusion of the toasted berries in cases of cholera morbus2 it will check violent vomiting in that disease when many other remedies fail4 ,they also prepare a liniment from pepper which they think has sovereign virtue in chronic rheumatism4 ,in ,europe it is sometimes used as a stimulant in gout and palsy1 and the watery infusion has proved a useful gargle in relaxation of the uvula4 ,the dose of black pepper should be about six grains4 ,the chief enemies of the pepper vine are white ants1 the black bug and white bug1 the borer1 male crickets1 and the ,cinchana caterpillar4 ,a strong solution of tuba root is sufficient to keep away white ants1 and tuba root mixed with juice of common tobacco will prevent the black and white bug work1 and in mild cases ashes or sulphur and lime applied early in the morning will be found sufficient4 ,the borer begins by attacking the joints of the branches and its presence is known by the light yellowish color of the bark4 ,there is no known preventive for the borer1 except to catch it before it has gone too far4 ,it always works around the joints1 and when it has completed the circle1 it commences to bore down the center of the branch1 and sometimes1 but very seldom1 the stem4 ,the male cricket goes for the roots1 but does the least damage2 if it has gone too far to be dug out1 the best way is to plug up its hole as far as possible with clay4 ,the green ,cinchana caterpillar attacks the leaves only1 but may destroy many of them2 the only plan to make way with it is to send a coolie around to collect and destroy the insects4 ,whole pepper is seldom or never adulterated1 although much is uncleaned4 ,old1 water-soaked stock is at times found on the market4 ,several years ago two thousand bags were thrown into the ,thames ,river from a wharf which was on fire1 and was later offered for sale at auction4 ,the powdered article1 however1 is adulterated more than any other condiment used as a table spice4 ,the adulteration is made by almost any cheap1 foreign article attainable and in a most ridiculous and not only unlawful but inhuman way4 ,the probable reasons why pepper is selected for this more extensive abuse are found in the fact that adulteration is more easily covered up and in the further fact that1 owing to the large amount of pepper used1 the gain is much greater4 ,the quality of a ground pepper can be told by an expert from its weight and color1 and on examination with a lens of low magnifying power4 ,the particles are not coarsely ground1 and it is not difficult to pick out pieces of husk1 yellow corn1 and rice2 if necessary1 a more careful investigation under a microscope of higher power will serve for confirmation4 ,black pepper is much more liable to be adulterated than the white1 although it is perfectly easy to dilute the latter with broken rice or cracker dust1 or with long pepper4 ,there is a disposition many times on the part of those who can afford it to have the best that can be made1 in appearance at least1 and it is thought by some that the whiter the color of the pepper the purer the quality4 ,this is a great mistake4 ,the removing of the outer covering of the black in order to make white pepper removes the most pungent part of the fruit4 ,this work is sometimes carried so far that1 while the fruit1 when ground1 is nearly as white as starch1 there is little left but starch4 ,it is questioned whether this practice is not as much an adulteration as the skimming of milk1 as it takes away the most valuable part of the fruit4 ,long pepper is also used to adulterate pepper1 but the taste and smell of the long pepper cannot be disguised1 and its starch is nearly double the size of that of ordinary black pepper4 ,not only are the pepper shells used to adulterate ground pepper1 but also other by-products1 such as middlings1 wheat1 corn1 ground olive stones1 cocoanut shells1 almond shells1 mustard hulls1 long pepper1 ,cayenne pepper1 sago1 and linseed4 ,these are sold to the spice grinders under the name of 8,p4 ,d40 pepper4 ,pepper adulterants and pepper mixtures1--,p4 ,d41 pepper dust2 ,h4 ,p4 ,d41 hot pepper dust2 ,w4 ,p4 ,d41 white pepper dust--consist of such products as the grinder has at hand or can obtain at the lowest price1 the mixer requiring only that the colors shall be such as are suitable for his trade4 ,in ,london1 the olive stones are much used1 put up in colors of both black and white4 ,pepper mixtures are sold under the name of 8,poivrette or ,pepperette40 ,their natural color is pale buff1 much resembling the middle layer of the pepper berry when ground1 and they cannot be distinguished from the pepper by the eye1 even with the use of a hand lens1 when mixed with a powdered pepper1 but with the aid of the microscope with one-sixth or one-eighth objective1 it is seen that they consist of pale1 dense1 lignous cells1 being entire and marked with linear air spaces2 some are torn and indistinct4 ,other substances examined showed finely ground clay and brick dust4 ,the presence of pepper husks and charcoal is generally known by the immensely increased proportion of black particles in the field1 as appears in ,fig4 #dc1 opposite page #be1 ,chap4 ,,iii4 ,the true pepper powder1 and one in which rice starch is present1 is given in ,fig4 #ba and in ,fig4 #db1 which also gives us an idea of the size of the pepper starch1 which is very small as compared with any other kind of starch4 ,much authority might be quoted on the adulterations of pepper1 but enough has been written to give the reader an idea of its vastness4 ,i will next endeavor to give the method of examining peppers microscopically4 ,first1 the sieve examination of those particles left upon a forty to sixty-mesh sieve is of value4 ,this examination will frequently reveal the nature of the adulterant or the too large portion of pepper husk4 ,next1 by the aid of a good dissecting microscope1 fifteen to thirty power1 the frequency of the occurrence of the coarse particles1 after a little experience1 will not be difficult to sort out1 and the presence of sand or a notable excess of ,p4 ,d4 may be detected and estimated4 ,backgrounds of white and black with reflected light and afterwards transmitted light may be used in the manner so conveniently afforded by ,zeiss's stand made for this purpose4 ,a portion of the powdered pepper or the separated coarse particles should also be treated with a chloral-hydrate solution for twenty-four hours1 to render it more transparent for examination with higher powers1 and in the meantime a part of the coarse particles collected from the sieve may be examined under a one and one-half inch objective and then crushed and re-examined1 using both plain and polarized light4 ,in this way husky matter may be distinguished and foreign starches rejected4 ,polarized light is then the means of bringing out more plainly the starches1 the proportion of which iodine will reveal4 ,due allowance should be made for the smaller granules of pepper starch and all optically active tissue1 such as the fibers and sclerenchyma or stone cells1 which are found in olive stones and cocoanut shells4 ,the chloral-hydrate preparation should now be examined1 much of which disappears1 and the starch is found much swollen4 ,the structure of the pepper itself has already been explained and is supposed to be so well understood that it cannot be confused with the foreign matter1 as the husky matter present is rendered so much clearer that its identification and differentiation are much easier4 ,experience with half a dozen samples of cheap1 in comparison with a pure1 pepper will soon teach one the best means of making out what has been briefly described4 ,it has been found most valuable to digest about a gram of pepper with nitric acid1 specific gravity #a4a1 and chlorate of potash for several hours1 or until the color is bleached1 when it is then possible to distinguish the denser cellular structure more easily than in any other way4 ,this is particularly true of the stone cells1 which make up the larger part of the cocoanut shells and ground olive stones1 especially when polarized light is used4 ,care should be taken not to confuse the stone cells of the pepper husk with those of olive stones or other adulterants4 ,charcoal at the same time remains unbleached4 ,the analyst will find many variations in the samples met with and should always be on guard for something new4 ,chemical composition of black pepper4--,the analysis of the pure ground pepper shows the amount of water to be between #h and #aj per cent41 but1 of course1 it varies with surrounding conditions4 ,the ash in black peppers does not exceed from #d-aj to #g-aj per cent41 and in white1 #d-aj per cent42 it is fair to believe that anything above #e per cent4 for black and #b per cent4 for white is suspicious4 ,the volatile oil1 to which pepper owes its flavor1 varies in black pepper from #a4fi to 4#gj1 and in white #a4bf to 4#eg are found1 but this determination is not of great value as a means of detecting adulterations4 ,piperine1 which is a neutral crystalline substance1 and resin1 to which the pepper owes its pungency1 of which it yields about two per cent4 in its composition1 are similar to oil of turpentine as well in specific gravity as in the boiling point4 ,these substances furnish a most valuable check on the purity of both white and black pepper4 ,pepper contains from #g4ij to #g4bd per cent4 of these substances1 showing a great constancy in amount1 and on addition of adulterants1 this is plainly affected1 which seems better than a determination of pure piperine1 which is difficult and causes much loss4 ,it has also proved impossible to make determinations of piperine by the combustion1 or ,k4 ,jeldahl1 methods by application of ,stutzer's copper-hydrate process1 the percentage of nitrogen being so small1 #d4iab in piperine1 as to make the error very large when converting the former to the latter1 the necessary factor being #bj4cf4 ,the determination of starch or its equivalent in reducing sugars has been looked into with care1 and a preliminary extraction with alcohol and water is necessary to obtain results which are fairly constant1 which determination shows black pepper to contain from #cd to #ch per cent4 of starch1 or #db to #dg per cent4 of substances of reducing sugar equivalent1 calculated on dry ash free substance4 ,white pepper contains in the same way from #dj to #dc per cent4 starch and gives from #ej to #ee per cent4 of reducing sugar equivalent on dry ash free substance4 ,the crude fiber in black pepper does not vary far from #aj per cent41 but in the white pepper is much reduced1 depending to a certain extent on the perfection of the decortication4 ,four to #h per cent4 are probably fair limits1 and this determination is quite necessary in revealing the presence of foreign woody or fibrous matter4 ,albuminoids do not vary widely1 #aj per cent4 being the average1 with extremes of #g4fi and #aa4ej4 ,the addition of nitrogenous seeds1 of course1 increases the amount1 and of fibrous or woody matter diminishes it4 ,we have the following result as a standard3 ,water1 #h4j to #aa4j ,ash1 #b4ge to #e4j ,volatile ,oil1 4#ej to #a4ge ,pepperine and ,resin1 #g4j to #h4j ,starch1 #cb4j to #ch4j ,crude ,fiber1 #h4j to #aa4j ,albuminoids1 #g4j to #ab4j ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,v ,,white ,,pepper ,,white pepper is thought by many to be produced by a separate plant1 but it is the fruit of the black pepper vine1 the change in appearance being brought about by artificial preparation4 ,the poor natives are said to collect for market some white berries1 which have been left on the vines until fully ripe and then have fallen to the ground and1 by their exposure to the sun1 have lost the outer black coating4 ,that which remains is called the 8genuine0 white pepper4 ,this collection of the white pepper corns by the natives has given rise to the story that a small bird called ballaree1 feeding on the black pepper1 digests nothing but the outer husks and1 the balance1 having passed whole through the organs of the bird1 becomes white4 ,the pepper vines are injured by allowing the berry to ripen before gathering to make white pepper4 ,for this reason the unripe fruit is often used1 and some manufacturers make it a business to prepare or make the white pepper4 ,the unripe black pepper is robbed of its outer coat1 to make white pepper1 in several ways1 according to the extent to which the decorticating process is carried4 ,thus1 we may have decorticated pepper from which all three coats are removed1 or only one or two of them4 ,all of these kinds are called factitious white pepper4 ,thus we have ,tellicherry1 which is particularly fine1 and1 second1 the 8coriander white10 so called from its close resemblance to the seed of that name4 ,this is also a fine grade4 ,it is made in imitation of the coriander seed by cutting off from the end of each corn a piece of the outer hull1 so that the dark-colored inner portion shows4 ,the ordinary white follows next1 which is made from the ,singapore1 ,penang1 etc4 ,this is often bleached to imitate the first two1 but it makes a sad imitation4 ,the ,tellicherry and coriander are packed in cases of about #bjj pounds1 each with marked tare on every case4 ,the ordinary white is packed in bags of about #aej pounds1 with #b per cent4 tare1 with an allowance of one pound to each package4 ,the process is as follows3 ,the black pepper may be kept in the house for several days and then bruised or washed in a basket to remove the stalk and pulpy matter1 after which it is dried in the sunshine before shipping4 ,it is also prepared by steeping in water in which it has been allowed fully to ripen and then removing the outer coat by friction4 ,the natives also remove the outer layer by placing the ripest red grains in running water or in pits made near the river bank or in stagnant pools4 ,sometimes it is only buried in the ground1 and when it has been under this treatment for about one week it will swell and burst the outer husk1 which is then easily removed by rubbing with the hands while it is drying in the sunshine4 ,after being winnowed it is ready for export4 ,another way of preparing white pepper1 often used1 is to place the black pepper in a solution of chloride of lime water to remove the dark coating1 after which it is rubbed and dried as in the other preparation4 ,although the white pepper has the name of being a superior article1 it is not4 ,it is very true that only the marrow of the black pepper berries can be used to make white pepper1 and the product does have an exquisite flavor2 but since the greater strength lies in the outer cover1 there is some doubt as to the quality of the white pepper4 ,moreover1 the real goodness of the pepper is1 in fact1 not improved by this process1 as the water injures its strength1 the outer husk contains more of the aroma1 and the quality of the pepper removed is almost proportionate to the weight of the pepper corn4 ,the only gain obtained is in the appearance1 and this process is but another way of meeting the public demand for something to please the eye1 instead of the palate4 ,white pepper brings a higher price to the grower1 but when the waste and extra labor are considered it is seen that the grower's profits are largely reduced4 ,white pepper corns allowed to ripen fully are larger than black and can be reduced to a powder more readily1 and will present a more uniform appearance4 ,china and the ,straits ,settlement export much of the cheaper white pepper found in our market and much of it comes from the island of ,rhio1 and it is imported in the whole4 ,chemical composition of white pepper3 ,water1 #h4j to #aa4j ,ash1 #a4j to #b4j ,volatile ,oil1 4#ej to #a4ge ,piperine and ,resin1 #g4j to #h4j ,starch1 #dj4j to #dd4j ,crude ,fiber1 #d4aa to #h4j ,albuminoids1 #h4j to #aj4j ,by mixing one part ground white pepper with two parts of slacked lime and a sufficient quantity of water1 and evaporating the solution to dryness in a water bath1 the powder being exhausted with commercial ether1 piperine can be obtained nearly pure in large crystals of a faint straw color4 ,to obtain it perfectly pure1 it must be dissolved in alcohol and recrystallized4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,long ,,pepper 7,piper ,longum7 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,long ,,pepper ,long pepper is the fruit spike of a wild plant of ,piper longum 7,chavica ,roxburghii7 and of ,piper 7,c4 officinarum71 there being two species--,french1 ,poivre longue2 ,german1 ,langer ,pfeffer2 ,italian1 ,pepe lungo2 ,spanish1 ,pimienta larga2 ,javanese1 ,chabi-,jawa2 ,hindostan1 ,pipel2 ,cyngalese1 ,tipilie1 elephant pepper2 ,cochin ,chinese1 ,caylot4 ,,long pepper 7,piper officinarum7 is a perennial plant and has oblong leaves attenuated at the base1 and is a native of ,indian ,archipelago1 ,nepaul1 and ,java4 ,it is found growing along the streams of the ,east ,indies1 ,sumatra1 ,celebes1 and ,timor1 and is also found in ,malabar1 ,ceylon1 and ,east ,bengal1 and in the ,philippines1 being indigenous to most of these countries4 ,it is distinguished from the former by having cordate or heart-shaped leaves at the base1 which are pinnate and five-veined4 ,in ,bengal the plants are raised from suckers and are set five feet apart in rich1 high1 dry soil4 ,its stem is smooth with a slender branch and scandent leaves1 cordate pointed and nerved1 and of a deep-green color4 ,the flowers are dicious and small1 in short1 dense1 terminal solitary spikes1 which are nearly cylindrical and opposite to the leaves4 ,they are very similar to black pepper1 with some characteristic differences4 ,long pepper appears to have been known by the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 and in the tenth century mention is made of long pepper or ,macro-piper4 ,the minute baccate fruit1 which is closely packed around the central axis1 is at first green1 becoming red when ripe4 ,the peppers are hottest in their immature state and are then gathered and dried in the sunshine1 when they change to a dark gray color4 ,they are imported in the spikes which have the appearance of being limed4 ,they are about one and one-half inches in length by one-fourth inch thick1 but vary in size and are indented on the surface4 ,the yield from an acre is three maunds of eighty pounds the first year1 twelve the second year1 and eighteen the third year1 after which the yield diminishes4 ,the roots are finally grubbed up and dried and sold as 8pi pli mul10 which is a favorite medicine of the ,hindoos1 who use it for palsy and apoplexy4 ,the infusion of the powdered fruit mixed with a little honey is said to be good in catarrhal affection1 when the chest is loaded with phlegm4 ,in structure it does not bear a close resemblance to black pepper1 as its pepper corns1 or berries1 and husks all harden together on a long1 central1 irregular1 climbing stem1 much in the same way that in the pines the seed and covering are all hardened into one cone4 ,it not only has more woody fiber but brings with it much more sand1 which is found imbedded in the crevices of the irregular fruit1 than is found in ordinary pepper4 ,long pepper is a spice often called for during the fall season for pickling4 ,it imparts a flavor to pickles which causes a demand for it for preserving purposes4 ,there is much old stock on the market1 which is poor4 ,this is often used to adulterate ordinary pepper1 but it can be readily detected by its disagreeable odor1 which warmth will develop1 and by its slaty color and the amount of sand it contains4 ,although grinders try to destroy the odor by bleaching1 and the slaty color by sifting out the husk to make it lighter1 its characteristics cannot be covered up in the true pepper4 ,in gathering the long pepper1 the native1 being paid by the weight for what he brings to the market1 takes care not to less the weight of dirt1 but rather to increase it1 and in consequence we find that it has always from #c to #g per cent4 of insoluble sand and clay in addition to the proper ash of the fruit4 ,it is impossible to clean it as pepper should be cleaned for grinding1 except with difficulty and by hand4 ,the pepper is harvested in ,january and when thoroughly dry is put up in piculs of #ace pounds each4 ,the ash of the long pepper contains a very large proportion of salts insoluble in hydrochloric acid1 and when ground the hard husk and woody centers1 as well as the dirt1 are necessarily ground along with the minute berries4 ,although it contains more sand and more woody fiber than genuine ground pepper of the corresponding shade1 it does not contain as much cellulose as the most husky black pepper4 ,long pepper is always cheaper than the best black pepper and may be sold as long pepper on the market without offense1 but it has no more right to a place on the market as black pepper than has any other admixture1 and as such is as fraudulent as buckwheat meal and is just as objectionable4 ,a sure test for long pepper as an adulterant in ground black pepper is to heat a piece of cold meat between two plates and sprinkle some of the suspected fresh long pepper on it1 when the smell and flavor will be so offensive that one will feel obliged to reject the meat4 ,the presence of long pepper may be determined by the following characteristics3 #a4 ,if much long pepper is used1 its peculiar slaty color will show1 although sifting and bleaching will partly hide the color2 but the odor of the mixture when warmed is unmistakable to an educated olfactory sense1 even if the amount of mixture be moderate4 ,the odor cannot be destroyed by bleaching1 for that has been tried1 and even the ethal as well as the alcoholic extracts from which the solvent has been evaporated at a low temperature yields1 when warmed1 the characteristic odor very plainly4 ,admixture of long pepper would also introduce much sand in the powdered black pepper1 and in white pepper it would be much more noticeable1 as white pepper does not contain #b per cent4 of sand and more would mean an admixture4 ,there being also much woody matter in powdered long pepper1 arising from the smallness of the berries as well as the hardened setting and from the central woody tube1 this may be detected either by chemical analysis or by microscope1 and some of it by the naked eye or with the aid of a large hand lens4 ,if the sample be spread out in a smooth1 thin layer on strong paper by means of an ivory paper knife1 pieces of fluffy woody fiber will be detected1 especially if the thin layer be tapped lightly from below4 ,these pieces come from the central part of the indurated catkin1 which cannot be completely ground fine as genuine pepper stalks are ground4 ,much of this matter is removed by the grinder's sieves1 but enough pass through the meshes of the silk to be useful as a corroborative indication1 and if any particles of husk pass through they can be told from those of the genuine pepper husks4 ,a proportion of the starch granules of long pepper is of larger size1 about 4#jjjb inch1 and of angular shape1 very slightly smaller than rice granules and more loosely aggregated in clusters or isolated4 ,here it is necessary to notice that the statement is made in books that genuine pepper starch is round in form4 ,pepper starch is doubtless round in the main1 but not invariably4 7,see illustration47 ,the loose granules of the interior are spherical1 but in the dense portions of the berry they become more angular by pressure on each other4 ,chemical composition of long pepper3 ,total ash1 #h4ia ,sand and ash matter converted into #a4b sugar1 ,h4 ,c4 ,l41 ,total matter soluble in #aj per #fg4hc cent4 of ,h4 ,c4 ,l41 ,starch and matters convertible into #dd4jd sugar1 ,albuminous matter soluble in #ae4dg alkali1 ,cellulose1 #ae4gj ,extracted by alcohol1 #g4g ,extracted by ether1 #e4e ,nitrogen1 #b4a ,long pepper also contains piperine1 resin1 and volatile oil4 ,the principal cities of export are ,singapore and ,penang1 the annual amount of export being from #b1jjj to #c1jjj piculs of #ace pounds each from each city at a ,london market value of #cg to #des4 a cwt4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,capsicum ,,or ,,cayenne #a ,zanzibar #b ,bombay #c ,sierra ,leone #d1 #e1 #f and #g ,common ,garden ,,chapter ,,vii ,,capsicum1 ,,or ,,cayenne ,,cayenne pepper1 ,guiana pepper1 ,spanish pepper1 ,mexican chilli1 as it is often called1 more commonly spoken of as red pepper1 is a genus of herbs or shrubs of the nightshade family 7,salanaceoe7 the fruit of any species of capsicum4 ,the name capsicum is of uncertain origin1 perhaps from kato1 to bite--all of them having a strong1 pungent flavor1 or from ,l4 capso1 box or chest1 from the shape of the fruit2 the latter name being given to it by ,broconna4 ,,annuum ,,herbaceous ,,or ,,suffrutescent ,the true peppers are members of a totally distinct order1 the ,piperaceoe4 ,french1 ,piment or ,corail des ,jardins ,poivra d',inde or ,guinee2 ,german1 ,spanisher ,oderkerscher ,pfeffer4 ,cayenne takes its name from the city of ,cayenne 7,koyen or ,kien7 7see illustration71 or from the island and river1 both of same name1 on which it is located1 or from the province of ,cayenne in ,french ,guiana1 ,south ,america4 ,the city of ,cayenne is a ,french penal station1 and exports large quantities of ,cayenne1 which we call ,guiana pepper4 ,probably the first known history of ,cayenne pepper in ,europe is that given by ,martyr1 who writes of ,columbus bringing it home with him in #adic1 and speaks of it as being more pungent than that from ,caucasus1 probably referring to the ,oriental black pepper4 ,about a century later1 ,gerarde writes of its being brought into ,europe from ,africa and ,southern ,asia and being grown in ,european gardens4 ,probably the first record of its use is that given by ,doctor ,chauca1 who was physician with ,columbus's fleet in #adid1 and who alludes to it as a condiment used in dressing meats1 dyeing1 and other purposes1 as well as a medicine4 ,cayenne pepper is supposed to have first been brought to ,america by the ,portuguese1 who found it growing in a wild state4 ,our greater supply now comes from ,zanzibar1 ,nepaul1 ,bombay1 and ,penang4 ,almost every gardener knows the red pepper plant4 ,the plants are generally started in a nursery or hot-house in early spring1 from the seed1 and are transplanted when a few inches high1 as soon as the weather will permit1 in the prepared garden1 about four feet apart4 ,when about six inches high1 a little rich fertilizer should be worked in the soil about the plants4 ,the ,cayenne pepper plant is an annual and is a slow grower1 and it seldom rises higher than four feet4 ,it has a rough stem1 nearly globulous1 with branches diffused and often scandent2 the leaves are lancelate1 quite entire and repand1 small1 smooth1 petioled1 alternate in pairs or near each other1 greenish-white flowers1 seldom violaceous2 solitary or in twos and threes with rotate five1 rarely six or seven1 cleft corolla2 stamens1 five1 and rarely six or seven1 with five bluish anthers 7connivent and dehising longitudinally7 and an obtuse stigma1 calyx usually embracing base of ovary1 which soon becomes a pod1 consisting of a fleshy envelope at first and afterwards a leathery1 oblong1 linear1 juiceless pod or fruit1 in which are the spongy pulp and seeds4 ,these fruit pods are of several varieties1 varying in shape and color1 and being long or short1 podded and oval1 round or heart-shaped4 ,the pods are bright red or yellow1 divided into two or three cells full of small white seeds1 known as pod pepper4 ,the pods which are of a green color1 when full grown1 commence to change first to a lovely canary yellow and then to a rose pink1 and so on through the different shades until they are intense scarlet when ready for harvesting in ,august and ,september 7see illustration74 ,don gives a list of thirty-three varieties in his ,general ,system of ,gardening and ,botany1 which are used to make ,cayenne pepper1 but there are ninety different species of capsicum known1 and ranging in height from a small plant of six inches to ornamental plants six feet in height1 and of many varieties or species of capsicum too contribute to that found in commerce4 ,the ,c4 frutescens of the ,fastigiatum 7perennial7 sometimes reaches to a height of several feet with branching and spreading tops1 sometimes decumbent1 leaves broadly ovate1 fruit of various shapes and colors1 usually small and very pungent1 borne on long peduncles and is the species which is officinal in both the ,british and ,united ,states ,pharmacopias4 ,it grows in tropical ,africa and ,america and is called ,zanzibar pepper1 and often by the name of ,mexican chillies1 and is of a high grade of ,cayenne 7,fig4 #a74 ,its pods are very small1 being from one-half to three-fourths inch long and very bright red1 containing white seeds1 the skin of the pods being tender and very pungent4 ,the color of its powder is lighter yellow than ,c4 annum1 has a fibrous root system4 ,potato and tomato belonging to the same family1 it is found growing in the ,united ,states and ,europe and has been growing in ,english gardens since #aedh and1 although indigenous to ,south ,america1 is now cultivated in ,india1 ,hungary1 ,italy1 and ,turkey4 ,nepaul capsicum 7or ,nepal and ,nipal71 as it is sometimes called1 has an odor and flavor resembling orris and a pod the color of amber when dried4 ,it is most esteemed as a condiment1 being aromatic and appetizing1 and not so acrid or biting as is most ,cayenne4 ,it is found cultivated on the mountain side in ,hindoostan4 ,cayenne of the ,african variety comes from ,sierra ,leone in the east and from ,natal1 southeast of ,cape ,colony1 including ,zululand and ,tangaland1 or from a territory that has a coast line of #cjj miles4 ,it grows to a height of five or six feet producing long1 kidney-shaped1 orange-colored pods4 ,it is shipped from the port of ,natal4 ,it is considered the best for fluid extract4 ,that from ,sierra ,leone 7,fig4 #c7 has pods that are small1 conical-pointed1 and less than one inch in length4 ,it is very pungent1 and when reduced to powder is a light brownish yellow with a peculiar odor and somewhat aromatic4 ,it is stronger in the powder than in the dry fruit1 and to the taste is bitterish1 acrid1 and burning1 producing1 a fiery sensation in the mouth1 which continues for a long time4 ,there is a new ,cayenne on the market of recent date1 called ,mombassa1 from the city of the same name in ,africa4 ,illustration3 ,,cayenne ,bombay ,cayenne 7,fig4 #b7 has large pods1 from two to three inches long1 which when dry become flat in shape and of a pale-red color4 ,it is not so fine flavored or pungent as the ,zanzibar and is of less value4 ,the true ,mexican chillies are grown mostly in ,frantera de ,tabasco1 ,mexico1 the name being much used for ,cayenne chillies from other countries1 as has been mentioned4 ,the smaller varieties 7,c4 baccatum7 have been known in the ,english gardens since #agca2 plants1 small and very erect1 and slender branches1 fastigiate1 flexous2 corolla1 small1 spreading about one-half an inch1 and has a globular fruit called cherry or berry capsicum1 and are usually known as the 8chillies0 or 8bird pepper40 ,they are not more than one-half to three-quarters of an inch while the ,c4 annuum is two to three inches long4 ,c4 fastigiatum 7minimum7 which is usually termed the shrubbery capsicum and by ,rheede is called capo-malago1 is found growing wild in ,south ,india and is extensively cultivated in tropical ,africa and ,america4 ,it is three to six feet high with prominently angled or somewhat channeled stem and loosely spreading or trailing branches2 leaves broadly ovate and acuminate1 three to six inches long and two to three and one-half inches wide2 peduncles1 slender and one to two inches long in pairs1 usually longer than the fruit2 calyx1 cup-shaped1 embracing base of fruit2 corolla1 often with acherous markings in the throat2 fruit1 red1 obtuse or oblong1 acuminate1 three-fourths to one and one-fourth inches long1 and one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in diameter1 and very acrid4 ,c4 annuum 7,longum crossum71 bell-shaped1 of ,algeria1 which are often spoken of as herbaceous1 and by ,rheede as vallia capo-malago1 the difference being chiefly in the nature of the stem4 ,it is two feet high with few branches and very large leaves1 often three to five inches long1 and sometimes caricous1 lower ones usually pendant petioles1 deeply channeled2 peduncles1 about one inch long2 corolla1 large and spreading seven-eighths to one and one-fourth inches2 fruit1 large1 oblate1 oblong or truncated1 three to four-lobed1 usually with basal depressions1 more or less sulcate and rugose2 flesh1 thick1 firm and mild flavor4 ,the ,minimum in ,hindoostan is named 8,dhan ,nurich40 ,the ,c4 grossum bears fruit as large as a small apple and is called by the ,english in ,india coffrie chillie4 ,it is preferred for pickling1 the seed being first removed4 ,the skin is fleshy and tender4 ,c4 fasciculatum has few branches and clustered leaves or crowded in branches about the summit1 elliptical1 lanceolate1 pointed at both ends2 fruit clustered erect1 slender1 about three inches long1 one-fourth inch in diameter1 very acrid and is the red cluster pepper4 ,acuminatum 7,c4 chilense71 herbaceous1 very branchy1 about two and one-half feet high1 becoming a dense mass of foliage2 flowers1 medium size1 spreading one-half to three-fourths inch2 fruit1 larger than ,c4 fasciculatum4 ,c4 cerasiforme has leaves medium ovate1 oblong1 acuminate1 about one and one-fourth to three and one-half inches long2 calyx seated on base of fruit2 corolla1 large and spreading seven-eighths to one and one-half inches2 fruit1 one-half to one-eighth inch thick1 spherical1 subcordate1 oblate or occasionally obscurely pointed1 or slightly elongated1 smooth1 or1 rarely1 minutely rugose or sulcate2 extremely pungent1 and cherry yellow4 ,tetragomum1 or bonnet pepper1 is a species much esteemed in ,guiana1 which bears very large1 handsome1 fleshy fruit1 two colors1 scarlet and golden yellow2 and ,c4 frutescens 7spur or goat pepper7 has been growing in the ,english gardens since #ahef1 is said to yield most of the ,cayenne pepper which comes from the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america2 largely used in salads4 ,a kind called tobacco pepper is said to possess the most pungent properties of any of the species4 ,it yields a small red pod generally less than an inch in length1 and is longitudinal in shape1 mostly borne above the leaves1 and is so exceedingly hot that a small quantity of it is sufficient to season a large dish of any food4 ,owing to its oleaginous character it has been found impossible to preserve it by drying1 but by pouring strong boiling vinegar on it a sauce or decoction can be made which will possess in a concentrated form all the essential qualities of the vegetable1 a single drop being enough to flavor a whole plate of soup or food4 ,the chilli plant is the ,lat-tsiao of ,cochin ,chinese4 ,it is constantly found in its wild state in the eastern islands4 ,these varieties are enumerated by botanists2 their fruits differ in degrees of pungency4 ,all capsicum is a low grade of ,cayenne4 ,it requires but the simplest culture1 and cultivation appears to increase the size of the fruit1 but it diminishes its pungency4 ,several varieties of ,c4 annuum have little or no pungency4 ,one of these is abundantly grown in ,austria-,hungary1 from which we obtain ,paprika of the ,magyars4 ,another kind is imported into this country from ,spain in a powder for feeding birds to improve the colors of their feathers and to make them sing4 ,there are growing in the botanical gardens of ,calcutta six species of capsicum1 viz1 annuum1 grossum1 frutescens1 baccatum1 purpureum1 and minimum4 ,the grossum in ,hindoostan is called 8,kaffrie ,murich0 and of the frutescens there are two varieties1 the red and the yellow1 called by the ,bengalese 8lall-lunka10 8,murich0 and 8huldi-lunka0 ,murich4 ,the ,cyngalese name for frutescens is ,casnairis4 ,there is said to be a black pod as well as a red and yellow known on the ,island of ,ceylon4 ,the consumption of chillies in ,india is immense1 as they are used by both rich and poor and constitute the principal seasoning for the poor in their rice4 ,the natives of the ,west ,indies1 ,africa1 and ,mexico use them very extensively4 ,west ,india stomachic man-drum is prepared by washing a few pods of bird's pepper and mixing them with sliced cucumber and shallots1 to which add a little lime juice or ,madeira wine4 ,a great quantity of agri or ,guiana pepper is grown in ,peru1 a variety which the natives are very fond of as a condiment4 ,it is not uncommon for an ,american ,indian to make a meal of twenty to thirty pods of capsicum and a little salt and a piece of bread washed down with chica1 their popular beverage4 ,the wort1 or ,cayenne pottage1 may be termed the national dish of the ,abyssinians1 as that1 or its basis1 8dillock10 is almost always eaten with their ordinary diet4 ,equal parts of salt and well-powdered red ,cayenne pod are mixed together with a little pea or bean meal to make a paste which is called dillock4 ,this mixture is made in quantities at a time1 being preserved in a large gourd shell1 generally suspended from the roof4 ,the wort is merely a little water added to the paste1 which is boiled over the fire with the addition of a little fat meat4 ,more meal is added to make a kind of porridge1 to which sometimes are also added several warm seeds1 such as the common cress or black mustard4 ,sometimes the larger peppers are harvested when full grown1 while yet green in color1 to be used for mangoes by removing the seeds and stuffing with chow-chow pickles4 ,cayenne may be considered one of the most useful vegetables in hygiene as a stimulant and auxiliary in digestion and has been considered invaluable in warm climates4 ,it is used medicinally for various ailments in form of tinctures1 as a rubefacient and stimulant1 especially in case of ulcerated sore throat and also dropsy1 colic1 and toothache2 when mixed with honey and applied externally is a good remedy for quinsy4 ,it is also used for tropical fevers1 for gout and paralysis4 ,it acts on the stomach as an aromatic condiment and when preserved in acetic acid it forms chilli vinegar4 ,when the seed of the chillies or capsicum is fresh it has a penetrating1 acrid smell1 and this irritant property which prevails obscures the narcotic action4 ,its acridity is owing to an oleaginous substance called capsicine1 and this extremely pungent principle produces a most painful burning in the mouth4 ,capsicum or chillies is generally imported in bales of #acj pounds each and occasionally is bottled in vinegar when green or ripe4 ,in the large factories a special mill is usually reserved for powdering ,cayenne exclusively1 instead of burr-stone mills with the ordinary shaking sifter4 ,a high-speed iron plate mill is often used1 and in connection with this a large revolving reel is required for sifting the spice as it is ground4 ,the coarse part or tailings are returned to the mill automatically by means of a suitable1 connected-bucket elevator4 ,a special grinding outfit of this kind can be arranged so that it does not require much attention from the workman1 a device which is very essential1 as the fine powder works into the skin and great care must be used in handling the goods4 ,small grinders prefer to buy it powdered from the large factories4 ,sometimes the powdered ,cayenne pepper is adulterated by mixing with wheat flour and made into cakes with yeast and baked hard like biscuit1 then they are ground and sifted4 ,illustration3 ,,public ,,buildings1 ,,bombay ,illustration3 ,a ,,madras ,,family ,as the children marry1 they build an addition to the old home ,the pericarp consists of two layers1 the outer being composed of yellow1 thick-walled cells2 the inner layer is twice as broad and exhibits a soft1 shrunken parenchyma1 traversed by their fibro-vascular bundles4 ,the cells of the outer layer are especially the seat of the fine granules of coloring matter1 which contain a fat or oily substance1 as may be found if they are removed by alcoholic solution of potash4 ,the structural details of this fruit afford interesting subjects for microscopical investigation4 ,the peculiarities described are so distinctive that the presence of foreign matter is easily detected4 ,the cells of the pericarp or epidermis are of a peculiar flattened and chain-like angular form1 which are characteristic of ,cayenne4 ,the other structures are not as prominent1 but are not liable to be confounded with those of any adulterants4 ,diagrammatic representatives of this structure are given in ,fig4 #de1 ,chap4 ,,iii1 and the appearance of the pure ground ,cayenne under polarized light in ,fig4 #dd4 ,the portions of the seed in the powder are not readily distinguished without careful examination4 ,they are1 however1 characteristic and contain starch1 the form of which is shown in ,fig4 #bj1 ,chap4 ,,iii4 ,the adulterants used are mineral coloring matter to hide the loss of color1 which takes place on exposure of ,cayenne to light1 and for added weight ground rice1 tumeric1 husk of mustard1 etc4 ,rice and corn flour adulterations are shown in ,fig4 #de1 which cannot be confused with the few starch grains found in the lower layer of the pericarp or in the seed4 ,the tumeric and mustard are recognized by their peculiar structure4 ,the chemical composition of capsicum is 7#a7 a fixed oil without sharp smell or taste and which is almost entirely in the seed2 7#b7 a camphor-like substance which tastes and smells sharp1 and which contains the peculiar principle of ,cayenne 7capsicine72 this principle is found both in the pod and in the seeds1 but in greater quantity in the pod2 7#c7 a resinous body1 the red coloring matter 7capsicum red71 which is found only in the pod4 ,in the detection of the adulterations of ,cayenne by chemical methods1 determination of water and ash1 ether extracts and albuminoids are of value1 and as a rule when combined with a microscopic examination will reveal the means and amounts of adulterations without difficulty4 ,chemical composition of ,capsicum annum1 water at #ajj degrees3 ,seed ,pod ,whole ,fruit ,water at #ajj deg41 #h4ab #ad4ge #aa4id ,albuminoids1 #ah4ca #aj4fi #ac4hh ,fat 7ether extract71 #bh4ed #e4dh #ae4bf ,nitrogen1 free extract #ba4cc #ch4gc #cb4fc by difference ,crude ,fiber1 #ag4ej #bc4ge #ba4ji ,ash1 #c4bj #f4fb #e4bj ,total1 #ig4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,nitrogen1 #b4ic #a4ga #b4bb ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,pimento ,,or ,,allspice #a ,garden ,allspice #b ,wild ,allspice ,,chapter ,,viii ,,pimento1 ,,or ,,allspice ,,what',s in a name8 ,that which we call allspice by any other name would have as fine a flavor4 ,pimento officinalis 7,myrtus ,eugenia pimenta71 an order of ,jamaica ,pepper 7,icasandria ,monogyia74 ,pimenta vulgaris myrtaceae4 7,these are names applied to the immature fruit of pimento47 ,spanish name1 ,pimento4 ,french1 ,piment des ,anglais ,toute epice ,poivre de la ,jamiaque4 ,german1 ,nelkenpfeffer1 ,nelkenkopfe1 ,neugewurz4 ,the pimento tree belongs to the myrtle family and is one of the most beautiful trees known as an evergreen4 ,it grows to a height of from twenty to thirty feet and occasionally it reaches a height of forty feet4 ,it is slender1 straight1 and upright1 with many branches at its top4 ,the trunk is covered by a smooth1 gray1 or ashen-brown aromatic bark which peels off in flakes as the tree grows4 ,the leaves are opposite1 stalked from four to six inches long1 and are oblong1 lanceolate1 and somewhat tapering4 ,the petioles are blunt and rather emarginated at the apex1 and entire1 smooth on both surfaces1 with deep-green1 pale1 and minute glands1 dotted beneath1 with the midrib prominent4 ,they are particularly aromatic when fresh1 abounding in essential oil which is the aromatic property of all kinds of fragrant fruits4 ,this tree is a native of the ,west ,indies1 and is found most abundantly on the limestone hills on the ,island of ,jamaica4 ,it is the only common spice having its origin in the ,new ,world4 ,it is found1 but not in abundance1 in most of the ,west ,india ,islands1 as well as in ,mexico1 ,costa ,rica1 and ,venezuela4 ,it takes its name1 pimento1 from the ,spanish word for pepper4 ,this name was given to it by early explorers of the ,new ,world because of its resemblance to pepper corn4 ,it is called allspice because of the combination1 or of the supposed combination1 of various flavors4 ,some writers have claimed that it is a child of ,nature1 and that it defies cultivation1 but this is a mistake1 as may be seen by comparing the illustrations of the garden berry 7,fig4 #a7 with those of the wild berry 7,fig4 #b74 ,it is seldom cultivated1 however1 and it is found at its best growing wild #f1jjj feet above the sea and very near the coast line1 on a poor rocky lime or chalky soil1 with a very shallow surface mold4 ,the tree will not do well in a clay or sandy or marshy soil1 but the soil must be kept well drained1 and a hot1 dry climate is the best4 ,since the pimento seeds are scattered by birds1 the trees are found in greater or less numbers in many parts of the ,island of ,jamaica4 ,they sometimes are found in groups of from five to twenty1 and again in great forests4 ,it is the predominating tree on the island and is seldom found alone4 ,after the tree has obtained a certain growth the underbrush and other wood1 with some of the pimento trees1 are cut out1 leaving the trees from twenty to twenty-five feet apart1 as they will not yield so well if left closer4 ,it is in this way that the beautiful pimento walks 7,pi-men-to-wak7 are formed which we read of in ,jamaica4 ,the pimento tree flowers twice each year1 in ,july and ,april1 but it bears only one crop annually and begins to bear when three years old1 and arrives at maturity at seven years1 when it abundantly repays the patience of the planter4 ,in ,july the tree is covered with small greenish-white fragrant flowers of four reflected petals4 ,the flowers are in bunches or trichotomous panicles at the extremities of the branches with a calyx divided into four roundish segments4 ,the filaments are numerous and longer than the corolla1 spreading1 and of the same color as the petals1 supporting roundish white anthers4 ,the style is short and single and erect with an obtuse stigma4 ,as the tree branches symmetrically1 and has a very luxuriant foliage1 its rich green leaves and profusion of small white flowers give a very handsome appearance4 ,the air is freighted with its fragrance for quite a long distance1 and every breeze which disturbs its branches conveys the delicious odor4 ,the fruit which appears soon after the blossoms1 is a smooth1 glossy1 succulent1 globular berry1 from two-tenths to three-tenths of an inch in diameter1 or about the size of a small pea4 ,planters do not allow the berries to ripen fully1 because in that case they would be difficult to cure and would become black and tasteless1 losing their aromatic property4 ,when the berries have their full size in the month of ,august1 though yet green in color1 they are gathered4 ,the harvesting is done by hand1 by breaking off the twigs and stems which bear the berries4 ,these are placed on a raised wooden floor or terrace to dry on mats for from seven to twelve days in the sunshine4 ,great care should be taken to turn them1 so as to expose them fully to the sun1 to prevent their quality being injured by moisture4 ,some planters dry them in kilns4 ,the one who removes the berries from the trees keeps three persons busy gathering them below1 who are usually women or children4 ,care must be taken to separate1 as far as possible1 all ripe berries from those which are green1 as otherwise the crop will be made of inferior quality4 ,the fruit1 which necessarily ripens on the tree1 before the bulk of the crop is harvested1 falls to the ground and is of no commercial value1 as it has lost its aromatic properties4 ,the problem which the planter has to contend with of harvesting his crop before it ripens is a serious one1 for the harvesting often must be done rapidly1 and it is often difficult to obtain help enough among the indolent natives to pick the crop4 ,thus many thousand pounds often go to waste4 ,in wet weather the system of smoking is sometimes adopted for drying4 ,the proper degree of dryness is ascertained by the wrinkled appearance and by the dark or reddish-brown color of the spice and the rattling noise made by the seeds when they are shaken4 ,when the berries begin to dry they are frequently laid in cloths to preserve them from the dews4 ,they are exposed to the sun's rays every day and removed under cover every evening until sufficiently dry4 ,they lose one-third of their weight in drying4 ,the breaking of the branches in gathering the fruit answers to a rude kind of pruning4 ,the crop is very abundant1 some trees yielding as high as #aej pounds of green or #ajj pounds of dried berries4 ,illustration3 ,,island ,,of ,,jamaica ,,west ,,indies ,pimento is exported chiefly from ,kingston1 ,jamaica1 in #abj to #acj-pound bags4 ,about one-third of the crop comes to the ,united ,states2 most of the balance goes to ,england1 whence it is exported to other countries4 ,the pimento del tobasco tree1 a native of ,mexico1 produces a larger berry than the true pimento1 but it is less aromatic and is often used to adulterate the allspice of commerce1 but the true pimento is so cheap that it is adulterated but very little4 ,the pimento is ground on common burr stones4 ,it is used for medicinal purposes to prevent the taste of nauseous drugs1 and it stimulates and gives tone to the stomach4 ,it is sometimes used in tanning some kinds of leather4 ,the small trees are used for walking-sticks and for umbrella handles4 ,the berry is crowned with a persistent calyx of a black or dark-purple color when ripe1 and when the four short thick sepals are rubbed off a scar is left like an elevated ring4 ,at the other extremity of the fruit there is a shorter stalk attached4 ,the berry has a brittle1 woody shell or pericarp1 easily cut1 of a dark ferruginous-brown color externally4 ,the roughness on the surface is caused by the small essential oil receptacles4 ,the berry is less aromatic than the pericarp4 ,its hull consists of a delicate epidermis of large thin-walled cells with light or dark red contents which are called portwine cells 7see illustrations74 ,fig4 #df1 ,chap4 ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,,harvesting ,,of ,,allspice ,the fruit is two-celled1 each cell containing a single flattish or kidney-shaped berry4 ,the embryo is large and spirally curved1 and the berry1 when ripe1 is filled with a sweetish pulp1 which has then partly lost the aromatic property which it contained in the unripe state4 ,the aroma is supposed to be a mixture of the aromas of nutmegs1 cloves1 and cinnamon4 ,the microscope shows that the outer layer of the pericarp just beneath the epidermis contains1 with its collection of brown cells1 an interior mass of fibro-vascular bundles traversing a mass of tissues of constructed parenchymous-walled cells1 containing resin and tannin and small crystals of calcic oxalates4 ,the seed contains much starch in minute grains1 and yields from #c per cent4 to #d per cent4 of volatile oil1 by distillation4 ,this oil is composed mainly of eugenol ,c#aj;,h#ab1 and very closely resembles the oil of cloves in all respects1 but in odor1 the difference being in the nature of the sesquialteral accompanying the eugenol4 ,its specific gravity is #a4jd to #a4je at #ae degrees ,c4 ,the yield of oil from the leaves is nearly #a per cent4 ,polarized light is a most important aid in examining powdered allspice1 as it brings out strongly the stone cells and ligneous tissue 7,fig4 #a1 ,chap4 ,,iii71 and differentiates these from the great mass of other matter4 ,it also makes the oil cavities distinct4 ,it is hard to give a true chemical composition of pimento1 but a good understanding of the tannin should be known1 and especially a good estimation of the volatile oil4 ,the amount of ash found in pimento is about #f per cent4 in the whole and #e per cent4 in the powdered state4 ,the chemical composition of a sample of whole pimento was found to be as follows3 ,water1 #f4ai ,ash1 #d4ja ,volatile ,oil1 #c to #d ,fixed ,oil1 #f4ae ,crude ,fiber1 #ad4hc ,undetermined1 #ei4bh ,albuminoids1 #d4ch ,nitrogen1 4#gj ,tannin ,equivalent1 #aj4ig ,oxygen ,required1 #b4ha ,the best adulterant is baked barley4 ,the specific gravity of the volatile oil is #a4jd to #a4je at #ae degrees ,c4 ,pimento meal loses its aromatic flavor very rapidly4 #b,the taste of allspice is warm1 aromatic1 pungent1 and slightly astringent1 and it imparts its flavor to water and all its virtue to alcohol4 ,the infusion with water is of a brown color1 and reddens litmus paper4 ,allspice yields volatile oil by distillation1 a green fixed oil1 a fatty substance in yellowish flakes1 and tannin1 gum1 resin1 sugar1 coloring matter1 malic and galic acids1 saline matter1 moisture and lignin4 ----- ,footnote #b3 ,state of ,michigan1 ,dairy and ,food ,commission4 ,the green oil has the burning1 aromatic taste of pimento1 and is supposed to be the acrid principle4 ,upon this1 therefore1 together with the volatile oil1 the active properties of the berries depend4 ,the shell contains #aj per cent4 of volatile oil1 and perhaps a little chlorophyl4 ,allspice is reported to contain an alkaloid having the odor of caneine4 ,the volatile oil1 which is used as a flavoring in alcoholic solution1 is of a brownish-red1 clear appearance1 and has the odor and taste of pimento1 but is warmer and more pungent4 ,it is readily soluble in alcohol1 and if two drops of the oil be dissolved in one fluid drachm of alcohol1 and a drop of ferric chloride test solution be added1 a bright-green color will be produced4 ,if one ,c4 ,c4 of the oil be shaken with twenty ,c4 ,c4 of hot water it should not give more than a scarcely perceptible acid reaction with litmus paper4 ,if1 after cooling1 the liquid be passed through a wet filter1 the clear filtrate will produce1 with a drop of ferric chloride test solution1 only a transient greyish green1 but not a blue or violet color1 a fact which indicates the absence of carbolic acid4 ,pimento oil consists1 like the oil of cloves1 of two distinct oils1 a light and heavy oil1 separated by distilling the oil from caustic potassa4 ,the light oil passes over1 leaving the heavy oil behind1 combined with the potassa4 ,the heavy oil may be recovered by distilling the residue with sulphuric acid4 ,the heavy oil has the acid property of combining with the alkalides1 forming crystallized compounds1 which is identical with the eugenol from the oil of cloves1 from which is prepared the vanillin of commerce4 ,powdered allspice is often adulterated with clove stems1 peas1 almond shells1 cracker dust1 etc4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,cinnamon ,,and ,,cassia #a ,ceylon #b ,batavia #c ,cassia ,liguea #d ,java #e ,saigon #f ,cassia ,liguea bud #g ,leaf stalk or flowering twig ,,chapter ,,ix ,,cinnamon ,,and ,,cassia ,robbed of your bark in masses large1 ,it's sent abroad by ship and barge2 ,and ,india's fragrance you bestow1 ,in summer climes and frigid snow4 ,,the cinnamon tree has been known to live two hundred years and its history is nearly as old as the history of man4 ,it appears to have been the first spice sought after in all ,oriental voyages1 and is one of the few condiments that has been honored with a price that only the wealthy can buy4 ,both cinnamon and cassia are mentioned as precious odoriferous substances in the ,masonic writings4 ,bible history mentions cinnamon at a very early date in ,exodus1 ,chap4 ,,xxx1 #bc2 in ,proverbs1 ,chap4 ,,vii1 #ag2 in ,song of ,solomon1 ,chap4 ,,iv1 #ad1 being then introduced by the ,phnicians4 ,it was likewise known to the ,greeks and ,romans under the name of kinnamomun4 ,vespasian1 on his return from ,palestine1 dedicated to the ,goddess of ,peace1 in one of the temples of the ,capitol1 garlands of cinnamon enclosed in polished gold1 and in the temple built on ,mount ,palatine by the ,empress ,augusta in honor of ,augustus ,csar1 her husband1 was placed a root of the cinnamon tree set in a golden cup4 ,it is recorded that two hundred and ten burthens of spice were consumed on the funeral pile of ,sylla1 and that ,nero burnt at the obsequies of his wife1 ,poppa1 a quantity of cinnamon and cassia exceeding the whole importation of one year4 ,dr4 ,carl ,schumann's ,kritische ,untersuchungen ber die ,zimtlnder1 published as a supplement to ,petermann's ,geographische ,mitteilungen1 is a most erudite contribution to history of geography and commerce4 ,the author carefully examines the notices on cinnamon and cassia to be found in the writings of the ancients and of the ,arabs1 and critically examines these by the light of modern research4 ,the ancient ,egyptians procured their cinnamon from punt1 which is identified with the ,rego ,cinnamonifera at the promontory of ,garadafiri of the modern ,somaliland4 ,but neither cinnamon nor cassia was a product of this region1 nor are they at the present time1 which is amply proved and illustrated by a consideration of the geographical distribution of the ,louracea4 ,arabian merchants intentionally shrouded in mystery their manner or place of obtaining cinnamon and1 in consequence1 the ancients entertained the most preposterous ideas on the subject4 ,the 8,khisit0 of the inscriptions of the temple of ,doral ,bahari is correctly translated cinnamon or cassia4 ,the latter word and the gizi of ,galen and the ,keziah of the ,hebrew are derived from it1 but it is of itself a corruption of ,kei-shi1 the ,chinese name for cassia4 ,from this fact1 the author concludes that ,china supplied the ancient world with most1 if not all1 of its cinnamon1 but did so through traders settled in parts of ,arabia or the ,somali coast1 who maintained their monopoly until the discovery of cinnamon in the ,island of ,ceylon4 ,herodotus relates that cassia grew in ,arabia1 but that cinnamon was brought there by birds from ,india1 the fabled birthplace of ,bacchus4 ,this writer states that cassia grew in a shallow lake1 the borders of which were infested with winged animals resembling bats2 that these were powerful creatures and uttered piercing cries2 but that the ,arabs made war against them for the purpose of obtaining the spice and1 defending their eyes from the attack of the monsters1 drove them from their stronghold for a brief period and then1 unmolested1 collected the cassia4 ,illustration3 ,,ceylon ,a still more marvelous account was given by a ,grecian historian of the manner in which cinnamon was obtained1 which is as follows3 8,the ,arabs themselves were perfectly ignorant of the situation of the favored spots which produced this spice2 some1 however1 asserted with much appearance of probability that it grew in the country where ,bacchus was born1 and they gave the following account of the plan resorted to for obtaining cinnamon3 ,some very large birds collected together a quantity of the shoots and small branches of the cinnamon and built their nests with it on the lofty mountains inaccessible to man2 and the inhabitants of the country placed large pieces of carrion flesh near the haunts of the birds who bore it to their nests which1 not being made strong enough to hold the additional load1 gave way1 falling to the valley below1 where it was gathered up by the natives and exported to foreign lands40 ,it was exported into ,india in the time of the authors of the ,periplus of the ,erythran ,sea1 and even long before it was much used among masters of the ancient world4 ,celsius recommends that it should be given 8perparationem40 ,it is mentioned in the herb book of the ,chinese ,emperor ,shen-nong1 and was known in ,china #b1gjj ,b4 ,c4 under the name of 8,kwei0 and was introduced into ,egypt about #a1fjj or #a1ejj ,b4 ,c41 and ,china maintained her monopoly until the discovery of cinnamon on the ,island of ,ceylon4 ,it would appear that cinnamon was not confined to ,asia1 much less to ,ceylon1 in former times4 ,ibn-,batuta is credited with having first mentioned the ,island of ,ceylon as a cinnamon region1 for the ,sayalan of ,kazwini and ,yakut is not ,ceylon1 as supposed by ,colonel ,yale and others1 but ,rami or ,sumatra4 ,the ,romans were supplied by the ,arabs1 the cinnamon being carried up the ,nile in ships1 then across the desert on camels to the ,red ,sea1 which they crossed to a port of ,arabia1 where ,india merchants were met and exchanges took place1 the cinnamon being the most important article of commerce from ,india1 and in this way the odors of the far-famed cinnamon spice came1 by poetical liberty1 to be associated with 8,araby the ,blest0 by the system of transit by caravans overland through ,arabia4 ,the ,romans communicated with ,india only once each year during the reign of ,augustus1 and at such times invested about #djc1jjj in the trade of cinnamon4 ,they figured on about #ajj per cent4 profit4 ,history tells us it was at one time sold in ,rome at #be per pound4 ,even in comparatively modern times the products of the more eastern parts of ,asia were chiefly imported into ,europe by way of ,egypt4 ,the ,venetians almost entirely controlled this lucrative branch of commerce1 and through their hands these articles were supplied to the rest of ,europe4 ,but when the passage around the ,cape of ,good ,hope was discovered by the ,portuguese1 in #adih1 ,indian commerce was turned into a different channel and the ,portuguese soon supplanted the ,venetians in the traffic of ,indian commodities4 ,early in the sixteenth century they obtained permission from the powers of ,ceylon to establish a factory on that island4 ,although the ,europeans had obtained license from the ruling authorities to pursue this trade1 the ,arab merchants did not submit without a struggle to the intrusion4 ,they vigorously opposed the landing of the strangers who were taking their trade away from them1 but the ,portuguese built the fort of ,colombo and soon after made a treaty with the king of ,kandy1 by the terms of which the ,portuguese agreed to assist the king of ,kandy and his successors in all their wars and in return were to receive out of the ,kandyan territory an annual supply of #abd1jjj pounds of cinnamon4 ,the ,dutch viewed with a jealous eye the rich and thriving ,portuguese1 and soon after they established themselves in the ,east ,indies1 and became desirous of monopolizing the cinnamon trade1 they tried to undermine the ,portuguese by showing favors to the king of ,kandy1 and in this way tried to have him drive the ,portuguese from the island4 ,the ,dutch were partly successful in their bold attempt1 as the king of ,kandy1 in #afab1 agreed to sell the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company all the cinnamon that he could collect in his kingdom4 ,the ,portuguese1 however1 would not quietly submit1 but after a long contesting of the matter it ended in #afde in a treaty of peace with the ,dutch1 by which both nations were to share equally4 ,during the time this treaty was in force both nations employed native cinnamon cutters to cut and prepare the aromatic bark1 and all that was collected on either side was deposited in a central situation upon the river ,dondegam1 near ,negombo4 ,when the cinnamon harvest was completed an equal division of the quantity obtained was made1 each party paying half the cost of harvesting4 ,this amicable arrangement was not1 however1 of very long continuance1 and in #afeb a fresh war proved more disastrous to the ,portuguese1 who were finally expelled from the ,island of ,ceylon in #afeh4 ,the ,dutch now made strenuous efforts to obtain a monopoly of the cinnamon trade1 and they also tried for the exclusive commerce of the ,malabar coast4 ,this was very expensive to the ,dutch1 as merchants of other countries1 by paying a good price1 were always able to obtain it from the natives notwithstanding the decrees of the princes of the country4 ,all through the ,portuguese and ,dutch periods1 cinnamon was the principal source of wealth4 ,the ,dutch first tried cultivating it in #agfg1 thereby occasioning much fear on the part of the native ,sinhalese that the cultivation would ruin the cinnamon forest4 ,previous to this time1 in #aejf1 large trees were found by the ,portuguese growing wild and scattered through the interior of ,ceylon4 ,the ,dutch1 after many attempts to restrict the cultivation of it to the ,island of ,ceylon1 passed a law making the removal of the seed from the island a crime punishable by death4 ,the law also provided that persons should be compelled to care for the tree1 even if it were on their property1 and it further provided that any person discovered in cutting a shrub of cinnamon on the island should have his right hand cut off4 ,this law so retarded planting that up to #ahjh or #ahji only #ae1jjj acres were cultivated4 ,exportation was restricted to #h1jjj bales of #ajj pounds each4 ,in #agif1 ,ceylon was captured by the ,english4 ,they put an end to these barbarous laws1 but a monopoly was continued until #ahcb4 ,afterwards the cultivation of the tree was introduced by the ,dutch into their own islands and the ,malay ,peninsula1 an act which would have been much more creditable to the ,dutch had they tried this means earlier1 instead of warring with other countries4 ,it is estimated that the world's production of true cinnamon does not exceed #djj1jjj1jjj pounds1 while an equal amount of cassia is collected chiefly in ,china and the ,east ,indies4 ,cinnamon is not an article which enters into the daily food of the masses of the people1 and the consumption does not increase with a low price or decrease when the price is high4 ,the present consumption does not equal one pound to each #ejj inhabitants of the earth4 ,cinnamon and cassia blume are the barks of several species of genus cinnamomum 7natural order lauroce7 and the true cinnamon1 with which cassia is often compounded1 is produced by cinnamomum ,zeylanicum1 formerly called ,laurus1 which is a member of the laurel family 7,french1 ,cannele de ,ceylon2 ,german1 ,zimmt ,ceylon1 ,zimmt ,kaneel2 ,arabic name1 ,kinsman74 ,the true cinnamon tree1 if left in its natural states1 varies in height and dimensions in different sections1 growing to the height of twenty to forty feet with a straight trunk1 and is from twelve to eighteen inches in diameter4 ,it is the hardiest of any of the spice trees1 and in its natural climate grows on almost any soil and at almost any elevation1 with an average temperature of #he degrees and an inch of rainfall for every degree4 ,it may be grown by cultivation in any place where it is found growing wild4 ,when sheltered from the wind and the direct rays of the hot sun1 it will grow from #a1ejj to #h1jjj feet above the sea level4 ,it is found in those angles of the mountains which face the monsoons4 ,where it is cultivated1 it is cut back when six years old to about fifteen feet and every two years thereafter1 and then has the general appearance of an orange tree4 ,it is an evergreen with a beautiful scarlet foliage which changes to a dark glossy green4 ,the leaf and leaf stalk are globous and are nearly opposite1 oblong1 ovate1 obtuse1 the largest being from eleven to twelve centimeters in length and from five to seven centimeters in width4 ,the leaf is coriaceous and shining bright green above and glaucous beneath4 ,besides the middle vein there are also two other veins on each side starting from the stalk1 rounded to the shape of the edge of the leaf nearly to its extremity4 ,the leaves on drying acquire a reddish-brown color due to the oxidation of the essential oil which they contain4 ,small1 dingy1 white or greenish blossoms disposed in terminal panicles appear in ,january or ,february1 their strong and unpleasant odor resembling a mixture of lilac and rose4 ,in color they resemble mignonette4 ,by ,may they develop into small1 purplish1 brown-colored berries enclosed at the base by a calyx and shaped like an acorn4 ,the berry contains a soft brown pulp and has but one seed1 which ripens in ,august and is gathered by the natives for the fragrant oil it contains4 ,the entire tree contains an aromatic flavor of cinnamon and no part of it is lost1 as the entire tree is used for some purpose1 every part of it having a distinct flavor4 ,it is impossible to discover the cause or causes by means of which different qualities are produced from the same branch1 since the shoots and the same tree are found to yield cinnamon of different qualities4 ,the quality of a cinnamon tree is often determined by the size of the leaves1 as well as by tasting the inner bark2 the larger the leaf the better bark the tree will afford4 ,the quality of the bark varies very much with local conditions1 some being so inferior as to be harvested only for the purpose of adulterations4 ,two of these inferior varieties are the korahedi and the velli1 the latter growing more quickly than any other cinnamon known1 being often at two years' growth four to five inches in girth and eight to ten feet high4 ,it has a very coarse bark and takes its name from sand velli because it grits under the teeth4 ,the bark is often so hard that it will turn the edge of a peeling knife4 ,there are several varieties of cinnamon4 ,next in order after ,ceylon are the following3 #a4 ,penne or ,rosse ,kuroondu 7which signifies honey or sweet cinnamon74 #b4 ,naya ,kuroondu 7or snake cinnamon74 #c4 ,kapooru ,kuroondu 7or camphor74 #d4 ,kabatte ,kuroondu 7or astringent cinnamon74 #e4 ,sevel ,kuroondu 7or mucilaginous cinnamon74 #f4 ,dowool ,kuroondu 7flat or drum cinnamon74 #g4 ,nika ,kuroondu 7or wild cinnamon1 whose leaf resembles that of nicaso or vitex negundo74 #h4 ,mal ,kuroondu 7or bloom or flower cinnamon74 #i4 ,tompat ,k4 7or trefoil cinnamon74 ,only the first four are strictly varieties of the ,laurus ,cinnamomum1 and as the names given are only known by the planters of cinnamon or by the native ,sinhalese1 ,i will not refer to them again except by the names known to commerce4 ,the true cinnamon is a native of the ,island of ,ceylon and it adds sweetness to the breezes which 8blow softly o'er ,ceylon's ,isle10 and nowhere else has it been found growing so well or so spontaneously4 ,the large trees scattered through the older forests of the interior are every year gorgeous in bloom of every shade of pink from a faint rose to blood red4 ,the ,ceylon variety is the best in the world1 and the product in #aijd was #i1baf hundreds1 valued at #bgh1dcj4 ,it grows up six or seven feet1 like willows1 and the twigs are cut down for exportation2 the smaller the twigs the finer the quality4 ,the farm plantation is called a 8,cinnamon ,garden40 ,in ,ceylon these gardens are the most famous in the world1 the owners living like princes4 ,some of the carved wood in these homes are literally worth their weight in gold4 ,there are certain trees and species that are taken in charge by the royal surgeons4 ,such have the official stamp indicating what their medical value is4 ,this cinnamon commonly sells at #ae to #be per pound and sometimes as high as #ajj4 ,while the ordinary ,china cassia1 handled by our grocers1 sells at wholesale at six or seven cents a pound4 ,the medicinal cassia1 however1 has about the value for cooking purposes that the ordinary ,saigon cassia has4 ,many cinnamon gardens are being rooted up and planted to tea1 however1 as tea culture is more profitable4 ,a sandy loam soil mixed with humus matter is favorable for the culture of cinnamon1 and old1 worn1 coffee estates are often used in ,ceylon for cinnamon plantations4 ,illustration3 ,,colombo1 ,,ceylon ,illustration3 ,a ,,plantation ,,in ,,ceylon ,the cinnamon crop has few enemies4 ,cattle1 goats1 and squirrels eat the growing shoots while tender4 ,the principal insect enemy is a minute beetle that breeds in the leaves and sometimes does injury by retarding the growth and rendering the wood unpeelable1 as well as unhealthy4 ,a red worm1 about two inches long1 eats its way up the center of some old and unhealthy sticks growing on partially decayed roots1 but the injury from the insect is scarcely worth considering4 ,white ants eat dead roots but seldom injure living wood1 and they are to some extent enemies of all other insects which prey upon cinnamon trees4 ,they build their nests around live branches1 but this does not interfere with their growth4 ,crows and wood pigeons devour the berries with great eagerness1 but in the process of digestion the productive qualities of the seed are not injured and by this means the seed is scattered over a large extent of country4 ,plants may be raised from the seed or by 8laying40 ,the culture of the best kind1 which is the true ,c4 ,zeylanicum1 a cultivated ,curanda or honey cinnamon 7called penne rasse ,kuroondu by the ,sinhalese7 is from the ,kadirona1 ,ekla and ,muradana gardens1 between ,colombo and ,negunbo1 which occupy a tract of country upwards of ten miles in length and in a winding circuit2 as well as from the ,maratuwa and ,beruwala gardens1 and those of ,galle and ,matara4 ,there is also a ,cingalese bark found in the archipelago1 which is very pungent and much resembles the true bark from ,ceylon4 ,it brings a fair price on the market1 and is more aromatic than that of ,ceylon4 ,there are several kinds of it1 some of it bringing an exorbitant price1 and it is cultivated solely for royal use4 ,the outer bark is never removed from it and for that reason it has the dark ,java color4 ,it1 like the ,saigon1 is exported in #ejj-pound bundles4 ,no system was first regarded in planting cinnamon groves in ,ceylon4 ,this neglect greatly hindered cultivation4 ,the usual way of establishing a garden is first to cut down all the brush and small trees on new ground1 leaving the tall trees at intervals of from fifty to sixty feet1 as a protection from the wind and from the strong hot rays of the sun4 ,the fallen brush is next burned and the plat ,v,e,seared is lined out4 ,the soil is turned up for hills in squares of about one to four feet at intervals of from six to ten feet1 according to the richness of the soil4 ,the longer intervals being provided with the richer soil4 ,the ash from the burned brush mixed with the broken ground and vegetable matter1 and from four to five of the berries are sown in each hill4 ,branches of trees are placed over the earth where the seed is planted to protect them from the sun and to keep the earth from parching4 ,care should be taken in selecting the seed1 as that from trees ten years old and up is best4 ,seed from old trees with coarse wood produces coarse and unpeelable bark1 which helps to increase the chips4 ,if the tree is to be raised from shoots1 the youngest1 or those not containing more than three leaves1 must be selected1 for if older they will surely die4 ,the method of raising plants from layers is very good1 because the numerous side branches which issue from the bottom of the trunk also furnish an abundant supply1 well adapted for the purpose intended4 ,the transplanting of the divisions of old roots or stumps is also much approved1 as they yield shoots of useful size twelve months after planting4 ,great care must be taken in planting or removing the roots or the divisions of the parent stump1 for should any of the rootlets become bruised1 even to the tenth part of an inch in diameter1 the injured part will certainly perish4 ,care must also be taken when removing the roots or stumps to keep as much earth on them as possible1 or as can be carried with them4 ,the dirt originally taken from the holes should not be returned1 but there should be used1 instead1 that from the surface which has been burned and contains ashes mixed with vegetable manure4 ,when old cinnamon trees are cut down and burned on their stumps1 the roots will later produce a superior quality of cinnamon4 ,planting of seed is least advantageous as it requires greater attention than other modes1 and the trees are longer reaching perfection4 ,as they are planted four to five seeds in a hill1 and as they are quite sure to germinate1 the plants grow in clusters4 ,should no rain fall after planting on either the roots or stumps1 they must be kept watered every morning and evening until the sprouts shoot out fresh buds4 ,this will be in about two weeks from the planting and is an indication that they have taken root4 ,in a month the shoots will be from three to four inches high4 ,when seed is sown and dry weather follows1 the seedlings will perish4 ,it will be necessary1 therefore1 to plant the ground anew4 ,it is wise1 therefore1 to raise plants in a nursery to supply the vacancies in the hills4 ,illustration3 ,,galle ,,harbor ,illustration3 ,,negombo ,,canal ,for a nursery1 a plat of rich soil is selected1 free from stone and cleared from brushwood1 except the tall trees1 which are left for shade4 ,the ground is dug over and formed into beds from three to four feet wide and the seed is sown nine to twelve inches apart and shaded at eight to twelve inches above ground1 by a pendall of leaves4 ,the plants are kept watered on alternate days until they have one pair of leaves1 but the shade should not be removed until the plants are six to eight inches high and are able to bear the sun4 ,the seed will germinate in from two to three weeks4 ,the planting takes place in autumn when the seed is gathered fully ripe4 ,the seeds are heaped up in shady places1 as the sun would crack and spoil them2 the outer red coating will rot1 turn black1 and come off easily2 the seed is then washed and dried in the air1 but not in the sun2 that which will float on water is rejected4 ,the plants are taken from the nursery in ,october and ,november1 and under favorable situations they will grow from five to six feet high in from six to seven years4 ,a healthy bush will then afford two or three shoots ready for peeling1 but should unfavorable results occur they will not yield for from eight to twelve years4 ,after the plants are fully established in the field1 very little cultivation is required1 except to keep them free from the weeds4 ,in a good soil from four to seven shoots may be cut every two years4 ,sometimes thriving plants may be cut first in four years and sometimes even in two years4 ,the quality of the bark depends upon its position on the branch2 that from the middle is the best1 that from the top second1 and that from the base1 which is the thicker part of the branch1 the third grade4 ,shoots exposed during growth to the direct rays of the sun have their bark more acrid and spicy than the bark of those which grow in the shade4 ,a marshy soil rarely produces good cinnamon1 its texture being cross-grained and spongy1 with little aroma4 ,the quality is determined by the thinness of the bark--the thinner and more pliable the finer4 ,the finest quality of bark is smooth and somewhat shiny and of a light yellow color4 ,the shoot bends before it breaks1 and when the fracture occurs it is generally in the form of a splinter which has an agreeable1 warm1 aromatic taste with a slight degree of sweetness4 ,two crops are gathered each year--the first from ,april to ,august and the second from ,november to ,january4 ,these particular seasons are selected for harvesting on account of their coming just after the heavy rains1 just as the young1 red leaf assumes the normal dark green4 ,the sap then is more active and the bark is more easily detached4 ,if there is not sufficient rain the garden may have to be cut over several times4 ,in harvesting1 the shoots are not all cut at one time1 but by degrees as they arrive at the required maturity4 ,those sticks which promise to peel at the next cutting are left4 ,in pruning1 with plenty of help1 every stick older than two years is cut1 whether it will peel or not4 ,a grayish1 corky appearance is an indication of the fitness of the shoots for cutting4 ,a certain amount is marked off for each day's cutting1 and it is an offense to go outside of that limit1 but within the limit every one is allowed to go where he pleases4 ,when fifteen or twenty persons are allowed to scramble as they please1 the trees are agitated as by a whirlwind passing over them and in less than forty minutes the best sticks are cut and appropriated4 ,then systematic work begins4 ,every stick is then tested before cutting1 and1 if the wood is in a fair condition for peeling1 it will take about two hours to finish a plat of #dhd square feet4 ,there are four such plats to an acre4 ,they yield from twenty-eight to forty-eight pounds each4 ,when called off1 no one is allowed to cut another stick4 7,see illustration47 ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,cinnamon ,as long as the seed is on the bushes1 which is nearly till the end of the year1 the sticks carrying them do not peel1 owing possibly to the growth being checked and with it the free flow of sap in the effort to mature the seed4 ,if1 therefore1 this seed is allowed to remain great loss results1 as by the time the seed-bearing bushes are peelable they will have grown so much as to yield coarse bark1 fit only to quill coarse cinnamon1 or not fit to be quilled at all4 ,to avoid this loss the seed is stripped from the limb1 when it will peel in its proper time4 ,a plantation should not be expected to bring large returns for eight or nine years4 ,after the crop1 which is taken from four to six inches above ground1 has been cut1 the stumps should be covered with fresh earth gathered from the space between the rows and formed into a heap around the base4 ,sometimes a fire is made on the old stump4 ,the next year two or three times as large a crop may be gathered1 and so on year after year1 until at length the bushes will become so thick as to admit only the weeders and peelers4 ,the only manure required is the weeds1 which three or four times a year are placed between the rows and covered with earth4 ,when the shoots are harvested from old stumps1 they should be cut with one stroke of the heavy knife1 in order to avoid splitting the stems4 ,as the cutting takes place twice each year1 there is a succession of young wood of different ages on the tree4 ,the branches are cut off from three to five feet long when tipped at the ends by means of a long knife in shape of a hook or sickle 7catty74 ,the shoots1 after they have been cut and the tops have been removed1 are tied into bundles and carried to the 8wadi or peeling shed10 where they are allowed to sweat for the preparation of the bark4 ,the leaves1 side branches1 and outer bark are next removed from the shoots4 ,the peeler 7,chaliyas1 ,sinhalese caste of cinnamon peelers71 sits on the ground beside his bundle and with his left hand cuts the inner bark in two pieces 7and sometimes three if very heavy and thick71 longitudinal slits the entire length of the stick4 ,it is then easily removed by means of a peeling knife 7mama71 which is round-pointed and has a projecting point on one side for ripping and running beneath the bark and lifting it about one-half inch on both sides4 ,the bark will usually come off in halves eight to nine inches wide4 ,the assortment is made at the same time4 ,the coarse peelable bark is for coarse cinnamon1 and that which is not peelable goes as chips4 ,if the bark adheres firmly1 the separation is facilitated by friction with the handle of the knife rubbed dextrously down it or with some smooth1 hard piece of wood of convenient length4 ,when the day's work is finished the assorted bark is piled in a small enclosure made by sticks driven in the ground and is covered with the day's scrapings and with a mat4 ,this treatment is called 8fermenting10 but it is rather to hold the moisture and soften the bark for the next operation4 ,after remaining twenty-four hours1 or on the morning of the second day1 three sticks are driven into the ground at such an angle that they will cross each other about one foot high4 ,they are tied firmly at the point of crossing and are used for supporting the end of a fourth stick1 the other end of which rests upon the ground4 ,before this support the native sits upon the ground and taking a strip of the bark places it on the stick and holds the upper end firm with his foot4 ,then with a small curved knife1 having a slightly serrated edge1 he scrapes off the cuticle1 for if any remains it will create a bitterness4 7,see illustration47 ,while it is yet moist with sap1 it is placed with concave side downward to dry and it then contracts and curls into tubes or quills4 ,the pipe maker1 as he is called1 is furnished with a board about one yard in length1 a measuring stick1 and a pair of scissors4 ,he takes a bundle of the prepared sticks and sorts them into three or four grades1 according to quality4 ,slips for the outer covering are then selected1 the ends being cut square with the scissors4 ,placing this on the boards1 he proceeds to pack within it as many of the smaller pieces 7see illustration7 as it will close over when dry1 which is called piping4 ,when the day's work is finished the pipes are arranged on parallel lines stretched across the shed4 ,they are then placed on hurdles covered with mats to dry in the sunshine until firm enough for handling4 ,afterwards1 if necessary1 the outer edges are pressed in and the ends are dressed and they are tied into bundles of about thirty pounds each4 ,three bundles are tied together to form a bale4 ,this bale is covered with canvas4 ,in this form the product is put on the market ready for export1 where it appears in long brittle sticks of a pale yellow-brown color or white to lightish yellow 7,fig4 #a74 ,the best grade is nearly as thin as paper1 not being more than one-eighth to one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness4 ,it has a very delicate flavor and is very superior in aroma and strength to the ordinary ,chinese variety4 ,it lacks the strength of ,saigon1 however1 and is seldom called for except for medicinal use1 for which in many cases it is highly valuable4 ,a well-made cinnamon pipe1 as it is called1 will be of uniform thickness and quality2 the edges will be neatly joined and in a straight line from end to end with the appearance of a tight roll of paper1 which will feel firm under pressure of the thumb and finger1 and the size of the pipes will vary according to the quality of the spice4 ,in the finer sorts there are from fifteen to twenty-four pipes to the pound4 ,in the next grade there are from ten to twelve4 ,the coarser are stuck together without regard to appearance4 ,in ,ceylon the yield is about #aej pounds per acre1 but on good soil and with careful tillage and manuring larger returns are obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,and ,,quilling ,,cinnamon ,illustration3 ,,peeling ,,and ,,quilling ,,cinnamon ,following the ,ceylon in value are the ,saigon1 ,java1 and ,batavia and ,china4 ,the ,saigon 7,fig4 #e7 comes from ,cochin ,china1 taking its name from the city of ,saigon4 7,see illustration47 ,the thinner-quilled ,saigon bark1 which is from selected twigs and smaller branches1 is known as ,java 7,fig4 #d74 ,it has a very dark color and possesses an aroma and strength superior to these qualities in the ,saigon4 ,the ,java is sold chiefly in the whole state 7the outer rind is never removed7 and in a variety of packages known as piculs1 containing #ace pounds each1 mostly in cases1 sometimes valued higher than ,ceylon4 ,the ,tellicherry and ,malabar are from ,bombay and the province of ,malabar4 ,the ,tellicherry is equal to the ,ceylon in appearance1 but the interior surface is more fibrous and the flavor is inferior and the bark thicker4 ,it is superior to the ,malabar1 which is the true cinnamon introduced into ,india by the ,english4 ,the ,malabar contains nearly all the qualities of the ,ceylon1 but is paler in color with a feeble and less permanent odor4 ,the sticks after piping are in length equal to those of the ,ceylon1 but the bark is shorter and the length of the stick is due to the method of telescoping the sticks of bark into one another4 ,batavia bark 7,fig4 #b7 has a pale straw color and is a heavy bark superior to ,china ,cassia ,lignea 7,fig4 #c74 ,it is exported in rolls of about fifty pounds each4 ,the bark of the larger or coarser shoots cannot be quilled and is removed in thick pieces4 ,when mixed with the bark of the prunings and with those sticks which do not peel well it is known as chips4 ,it brings a low price on the market and is used for grinding2 and1 although it does not have the delicate flavor of the quilled1 what is lacking in delicacy is made up in pungency and1 therefore1 in many cases1 it is preferred4 ,chips bring so low a price in the market that they may be purchased by the miller of spices and sold in the pure powdered state at a price much below what he can sell the bark at4 ,this fact may account in a measure for prices given in the table in chapter ,,ii1 page #g1 on adulteration4 ,the exporting of cinnamon chips is carried on by the planters to a great extent and at a great detriment to themselves4 ,by doing this there is shortsightedness on their part1 as the chips are bought by the miller at a low price in place of the high-priced bark1 which necessarily must partly go begging for a market4 ,thus1 the more valuable product so depreciates as to leave but little profit for the grower2 his margin of profit is so small that he does not give his cinnamon grove proper attention and many times cuts it for wood4 ,if the planter would distill his waste pruning and coarse chips for the oil which they contain he would be well paid for his labor4 ,illustration3 ,,batavia ,illustration3 ,,saigon #cbbc1 ,,cochinchine--,sagon ,avenue devant is ,palais du ,lieutenant ,gouverneur ,the cultivators of cinnamon give employment to a large number of people1 several thousand being now engaged in the cultivation of the trees and the preparation of the bark4 ,the pruning immediately follows the cutting and consists in cutting out all wood of more than two years' growth and reducing all stumps left too high and removing all weak and crooked shoots and superfluous branches4 ,this waste material1 with the weeding1 is buried near the outer roots1 as it is found that organic matter is an excellent fertilizer for cinnamon1 as the shoots reach out in all directions and permeate the decaying matter and so bring much benefit to the tree4 ,it will not do to raise a mound around the base of the trunk1 as the roots are thereby forced against their natural course and throw themselves into the mound4 ,when this is once done they must be allowed to remain1 as any disturbance would injure the tree4 ,when the ,ceylon cinnamon tree becomes too old to produce good growth it is cut down and the bark removed from the larger branches and the trunk1 and is called mate cinnamon4 ,although the finest bark is obtained from the cultivated trees there is much bark obtained from the uncultivated1 of which ,c4 multiflorum and ,c4 ovalufolium are used for purposes of adulteration4 ,cassia bark 7,fig4 #c71 ,french cassia and ,german cassia1 are the dried bark of a tree which grows twenty to forty feet high1 sometimes even sixty feet high1 irregular and knotty1 with large spreading horizontal branches1 outer bark thick1 rough and scabrous1 with ash color1 speckled inner bark reddish with dark green and light orange color4 ,it is known to commerce as cassia lignea or ,china cinnamon1 and is from the ,cinnamomum aromaticum4 ,it is found in ,south ,china and is a native of ,ceylon1 ,cochin ,china1 ,east ,india1 and ,java1 and has been brought from ,china since the earliest days of history4 ,it is produced by an undescribed tree of several species of cinnamomum1 differing from each other in foliage and in inflorescence and aromatic properties1 and has about as many names in ,chinese as there are provinces in which it is found growing4 ,it is found most abundantly in the province of ,kwangsi in the south of ,china1 large quantities being brought to ,canton annually from 8,kwei lin ,foo0 7literally the ,city of the ,forest of ,cassia ,trees71 deriving its name from the forests of cassia around it1 and is the capital and principal city of the province4 ,the exact botanical source of ,china ,cassia lignea was not known until #ahhd1 although it was generally attributed to the tree now proved to yield it 7,cinnamomum cassia74 ,it is cultivated in the three following districts of ,china3 ,taiwu1 ,kwangsi province1 and ,lukpo and ,loting1 both in ,kwang-tung province4 ,taiwu is about #ahj miles west of ,canton and from four to five miles from the ,west ,river1 but the nearest cassia plantations are from twenty-five to thirty miles farther1 in a southern or southwestern direction4 ,the ,loting district commences from eight to ten miles from ,loting ,city4 ,after leaving the ,west ,river about eighty miles of the ,loting ,river and the ,nam-,kong must be traversed before reaching the city1 and from there the distance is made overland4 ,in these plantations there are #eb1fjj acres which have been under cultivation for about forty years4 ,lukpo is least important4 ,the city of ,lukpo is situated on the northern bank of the ,west ,river4 ,the nearest plantation is about fifteen miles distant from ,lukpo ,city4 ,cassia is also found in the following provinces3 ,hunan1 ,shensi1 ,hupeh1 and ,eonsu1 and under the following ,chinese names3 ,yuk-quai-she1 ,toro-,tsao1 ,chu-eh or ,tsao1 ,chu-eh1 ,eh-,ming or ,chueh ,mings2 for drugs--fungus1 ,huei-hua1 ,mu-erh4 ,the ,chinese have varieties which they cultivate under special circumstances1 almost sacred1 and by their long familiarity with different kinds and their expertness in determining its value they use it in many ways of which we are ignorant4 ,the thick bark of the old uncultivated trees found growing near the ,annam frontier is very highly valued by the ,chinese on account of its supposed medicinal purposes1 especially a dark bark called ,ching ,fa ,kwei from the trees growing on the ,ching ,fa ,mountains in ,annam4 ,the bark is stripped from the limbs as are the other grades of cinnamon4 ,it is only about sixteen inches in length1 has a dark-brown color and dull flavor1 is not so sweet as true cinnamon and has a bitter taste4 ,the bark is thick and heavy and not uniform in size4 ,it is not enclosed or quilled and is brittle1 with a less fibrous texture4 ,it is less pungent and has a more mucilaginous or gelatinous quality4 ,the outer1 corky bark is of a deeper color and is the kind mixed with much coarser bark1 known as 8,cassia ,vera10 which is ground by our spice grinders in place of the true cinnamon4 ,this bark is imported in mats of from three to four pounds each1 bound up in bamboo splints1 and is shipped in bales of about eighty pounds4 ,inferior cinnamon trees are found scattered over a large tract of country in the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,c4 ,tamala ,nees1 and ,eberm1 extending into ,silhet1 ,sikkin1 ,nepaul1 ,kumaon1 and even into ,australia4 ,there are two species of ,archipelago ,c41 ,cassia ,blume and ,c4 ,burmanii ,blume1 the last being a ,chinese variety found growing in ,sumatra and ,java1 and the ,philippines furnish 8,cassia ,vera40 ,several other cassia ,cingalese species of cinnamon cassia bark are found in their respective localities4 ,in the ,khasia ,mountains of ,east ,bengal there is the bark of ,abtusifolium ,nees1 and ,c4 ,pauciflorum ,nees1 and ,c4 ,tamala ,nees1 and ,eberm found growing at #a1jjj to #d1jjj feet elevations1 shipped from ,calcutta4 ,cinnamomum iners reinw is a kind found in ,india1 ,ceylon1 ,java1 and ,sumatra1 and other islands in a variable state and has a paler and thinner and different veined leaf than the true cinnamon4 ,young branches of the tree are collected and tied up in fagots constituting cassia twigs1 which form a large article of commerce4 ,in order to powder cinnamon bark1 it must first be passed through a cracker machine1 as it is called1 to reduce it to a proper size for feeding in a mill4 ,the mill consists of a roller provided with very coarse teeth1 which revolve through similar stationary teeth4 ,the material is retained by a semi-circular1 perforated plate1 until it is reduced to the size of the perforation1 or about the size of a coffee bean1 when it is then ready for the burr stones4 ,true ground cinnamon 7see ,figs4 #bb and #bc1 ,chap4 ,,iii7 consists of long cells of woody fiber which represent the thin layers found in the bark and scattered through it1 consisting of a little starch in stellate cells4 ,there is nothing more distinct between cinnamon and cassia than the amount of volatile oil the bark contains1 and yet some of the inferior cinnamon bark does not contain as much volatile oil as does good cassia1 but cinnamon oil is of a much higher and more delicate aroma4 ,it is hard to detect cassia 7see ,fig4 #da1 ,chap4 ,,iii2 adulterated1 ,fig4 #df7 in ground cinnamon1 as the flavor is so similar1 but the cassia contains but little wood fiber and few stellate cells and the presence of starch is more marked4 ,to test cinnamon1 experts are required4 ,the usual test is by chewing1 but this method soon makes the mouth sore4 ,the most inferior ground cassia1 however1 bears such a close resemblance to the best cassia and to the true cinnamon that it may be substituted for it or used as an adulterant without being easily detected4 ,the following instructions are useful in examining powdered cinnamon4 ,make a decoction of pure ground cinnamon1 also a decoction of the suspected mixture1 and filter both2 when cold add to thirty grams of each one or two drops of iodine1 when the decoction of pure cinnamon will be but slightly affected while the mixture will assume a blackish-blue coloration4 ,although much depends upon the age of the oils1 the greater the age of the oil the smaller the quantity of iodine solution absorbed by it4 ,the cheap sort of cassia1 or 8,cassia ,vera10 can be distinguished from ,china cassia and from true cinnamon by its richness in mucilage1 which can be extracted by cold water as a thick glary liquid1 which on the addition of corrosive sublimate or neutral acetate of lead yields a dense viscous precipitate4 ,the most reliable test for cassia in true cinnamon is to obtain the proportion of ash in each1 the ash in cinnamon being #d4ei and #d4gh per cent41 cassia lignea giving but #a4hd and 8,cassia ,vera0 nearly the same as cinnamon1 #d4jh4 ,another test is to ascertain the amount of ash soluble in water4 ,the quantities are #be4jd1 #bh4ih per cent4 in whole cinnamon1 about #ah per cent4 in chips1 and #h4ae in 8,cassia ,vera10 and #bf4dj in cassia lignea4 ,again the proportion of oxide of manganese is never more than #a per cent4 7#j4ac-j4ig7 in cinnamon1 but it is over 7#a4ac-a4ec7 in 8,cassia ,vera0 and #c4fe-e4aa in cassia lignea4 ,the cinnamon ash will always be found white or nearly so1 while both the cassia ashes are gray or brown and yield an abundance of chlorine on heating with hydrochloric acid4 ,the cinnamon or cassia in the bark is easily distinguished1 as the inferior kinds are thicker and appearance coarser and their color darker brown and duller and have a more pungent taste1 which is less sweet than the true cinnamon1 succeeded by a bitter taste4 ,the ,ceylon bark is characterized by being cut obliquely at the bottom of the quill while other kinds are cut transversely4 ,ground cinnamon will deteriorate very rapidly4 ,cinnamon is so singularly sensitive in the bark that great care has to be taken in regard to its surroundings in shipping aboard vessels to prevent loss4 ,recourse has been made to various expedients1 but it is found that the only effective safeguard is to pack bags of pepper between the bales4 ,ceylon alone exports #f1jjj pounds of bark to this country annually in gunny bags of about #ajj pounds each4 ,colombo 7see illustration71 which has one of the largest botanical gardens and the largest cinnamon grove in the world1 is the principal city of export4 ,cassia ,buds 7flores cassi immature clavelli cinnamomi7 are the calyces of the immature flowers of the cassia tree which yields cassia lignea4 ,the cassia buds of commerce bear a resemblance to cloves but are smaller and have the odor and flavor of cassia lignea or cinnamon4 ,they are gathered in an unripe state at about one-fourth their normal size and are exported from ,canton in piculs of #aej pounds each4 ,canton exported about #ajj1jjj pounds in the first quarter of #aije1 and ,canton exports #ai1jjj piculs of cassia cinnamon of #acc pounds each and #ejj piculs of twigs annually1 and it is the principal city of export in the world for cassia barks4 ,in ,southern ,india the cassia buds are gathered from a variety of wild ,cinnamomum iners reinw in a mature state1 but they are inferior to the ,chinese cassia buds4 ,they have the appearance of nails with roundish heads of various sizes1 and if completely dried the receptacle is nearly dark1 firmly embracing the embryo seed1 which protrudes4 ,seeds which are used for seeding are obtained from trees ten years old and upward1 which are not cut back but are allowed to grow naturally from fifty to sixty feet apart1 while the balance of the orchard is cut down every six years for the bark4 ,the seed trees are cut only in cases of necessity to supply a great demand for the thick bark on the trunks1 when some can be sacrificed4 ,the ,chinese frequently adulterate the oil of cassia with colophony1 which may be easily detected1 as it has a greater specific gravity4 ,extra pale colophony has a specific gravity of #a4jgj and the pale colophony has a specific gravity of #a4aaj4 ,any oil heavier than #a4jgj should be handled with suspicion4 ,the darker the sample and the higher the specific gravity1 the greater the adulteration4 ,the tips of the branches and the other trimming which collects are carefully dried and distilled and sold as cinnamon oil4 ,oil of cinnamon or cassia depends entirely upon the amount of cinnamyl aldehyde it contains4 ,oil of the true cinnamon bark 7cinnamomum ,zeylonicum7 is the finest essential oil to be had4 ,it is worth #e per pound1 while common cassia is worth only about seventy cents4 ,true cinnamon oil is obtained in ,ceylon and is of a golden color when fresh1 with an aromatic odor1 and is very pungent1 being powerful enough to blister the tongue1 but varies by age from cherry to yellow-red1 the paler varieties being the most esteemed4 ,cinnamon leaf is redistilled in ,london to obtain the desired color1 although at a loss of about #aj per cent4 7formula ,c#aj;,h#ad71 with a small quantity of benzoic acid4 ,fine cinnamon oil has a taste of intense sweetness1 far sweeter than sugar1 and a clove-like taste is at first developed4 ,it is largely used in perfumery and medicine4 ,ceylon ships about #ae1jjj to #dj1jjj ounces annually4 ,china exports as much4 ,after a time it loses its sweetness and is no better than cassia oil4 ,the tree yields essential oils from the leaves1 bark1 and root1 each oil differing in composition and value1 which accounts for the many different grades or prices for cinnamon oil found on the market4 ,cinnamon and cassia oils are of the same chemical compositions1 their value being estimated by the amount of cinnamyl aldehyde they contain4 ,that obtained from the roots is light1 while that obtained from the leaves is so heavy as to sink in water4 ,there is but a small amount of oil in the bark1 the yield being but #a to #a4e per cent42 six and one-half ounces of heavy oil and two and one-half ounces of light oil to eighty pounds of bark4 ,it consists chiefly of cinnamyl aldehyde or the hydride of cinnamyl and a variable quantity of hydrocarbon4 ,the oil derived from the coarser bark is a dark-brownish color4 ,the oil distilled from the true bark is worth about eighteen times as much as the oil distilled from the leaves or leaf stalk or flower stalk4 ,the latter oil is chiefly of eugenol1 a hydrocarbon having an odor of cymene1 a little benzoic acid and cinnamyl aldehyde4 ,when mixed with the young twigs and cassia buds of cassia shrubs1 this oil becomes a beautiful bright oil of excellent taste--characteristics which denote a higher percentage of aldehyde4 ,twigs show a familiar sweet cinnamon taste1 but they yield a smaller percentage of essential oil than is distilled from the leaves1 and has a specific gravity of #a4de at #ae degrees ,c41 showing #ij per cent4 of aldehyde4 ,the leaves yield sweet oil at #ae degrees ,c41 specific gravity #a4jef1 aldehyde #ic4 ,cassia buds yield essential oil #a4eej per cent41 specific gravity #a4jbf1 aldehyde #hj4d per cent4 ,stalk of cassia leaves1 leaf stalk1 and young twigs mixed yield essential oil #j4gg per cent41 gravity #a4jee1 aldehyde #ic per cent4 ,the oil from the root contains cinnamyl aldehyde1 hydrocarbon and ordinary camphor1 and is lighter than water1 both the oil of the bark and of the leaves being heavier4 ,oil from cinnamon bark and shoots is seldom exported4 ,the oil is obtained in ,ceylon by macerating the powdered bark or roots with a saturated solution of common salt for two days1 after which the whole is distilled4 ,cinnamyl aldehyde1 which is a very pleasant smelling colorless liquid1 may be separated from hydrocarbon1 which is also found in the oil1 by bringing the oil in contact with concentrated nitric acid4 ,the crystals1 which separate in long rhombic prisms or small plates1 are decomposed by water into nitric acid4 ,free cinnamyl aldehyde may be prepared by allowing a mixture of ten parts benzolaldehyde1 fifteen parts acetaldehyde1 #ijj parts of water1 and ten parts of a #aj per cent4 solution of caustic soda to stand eight or ten days1 at a temperature of #cj degrees1 the whole being frequently agitated4 ,finally the aldehyde is extracted by means of ether4 ,the pure ,chinese cassia lignea bark1 essential oil #a4e per cent41 has a specific gravity of about #a4jce to #a4jfj2 aldehyde1 #hi4i per cent41 and at #ae ,c4 should have a specific gravity of #a4jej to #a4jgj4 ,on distilling1 about #ij per cent4 of pure cassia oil should pass over1 and the balance1 #aj per cent4 residue1 must not become solid in cooling1 must not be brittle but must be in a semifluid state4 ,if the oil contains less than #gj per cent4 of cinnamyl aldehydes it may be considered adulterated1 and at #ge per cent4 should be handled with suspicion4 #ad to #i years old1 #gi per cent4 ,cinnamyl aldehyde #ae years old1 #gj per cent4 ,cinnamyl aldehyde #af years old1 #gc per cent4 ,cinnamyl aldehyde ,cinnamic acid occurs in the flowers of cinnamon and forms in small quantities by oxidation of the cinnamyl aldehyde when it comes in contact with the open air4 ,it will dissolve in #c1ejj parts of water at #ag degrees and is more readily soluble in boiling water and crystallizes from it in lustrous plates4 ,from the cassia buds1 refuse bark1 young shoots and roots a fragrant volatile substance is obtained which floats on water1 and when removed and allowed to cool1 it becomes a suet1 giving a delicious odor in burning1 called a cinnamon suet1 or wax1 which is used largely by the ,catholics and ,buddhists in worship and at high native weddings4 ,it was formerly used in ,ceylon for making candles4 ,when true ground cinnamon and cassias are examined microscopically with polarized light1 differences are revealed at once which are characteristic enough to distinguish the specimens1 as shown in ,figs4 #da and #bc1 ,chap4 ,,iii4 ,but of the proximate chemical composition of any of the barks but little is known4 ,numerous determinations and analyses of the ash have been made with a view to detecting peculiarities or the addition of mineral matter4 ,the percentage of ash is extremely variable1 depending on the age and quality of the bark4 ,saigon chips have been known to have #h4bc per cent41 while unknown cassia bark has been found with but #a4ge per cent4 ,cinnamon bark will be likely to average less than cassia4 ,fiber-like ash is very variable1 ,saigon yielding #bf4bi per cent41 true cinnamon #cc4jh per cent41 while unknown cassia gives #ad4bj2 that containing the least fiber contains the smallest amount of lime4 ,the albuminoids are also variable2 the ,batavia and ,saigon barks appear to contain the most4 ,the presence of over #d per cent4 is an indication of an inferior quality4 ,the amount of the tannin runs extremely small1 any addition of which can be readily detected4 ,one-fourth of the ash of cinnamon is soluble in water1 but less of 8,cassia ,vera10 and less yet of cassia lignea4 ,little has been learned which would form a sound basis for distinguishing these barks4 ,the presence of manganese cannot be considered as indicating that substance an essential element of the ash1 nor is the fact one from which such definite conclusions could be drawn as to serve as the basis of legal testimony1 but it is what gives to the different barks their different colors4 ,true cinnamon contains less than #a per cent4 of oxide of manganese2 8,cassia ,vera0 more than #a per cent41 and cassia lignea as high as #e per cent4 ,the essential oil is but #j4e to #a per cent4 of the bark of cinnamon and much less in inferior cassia4 ,we also find the presence of mucilage1 coloring matter1 resin1 acid1 starch1 and lignea as well as volatile oil4 ,aside from the determination of volatile oil upon which the properties of cassia bark depends1 chemical analysis seems to be of little value2 the principal dependence must1 with our present knowledge1 be placed on the mechanical and microscopic examination4 ,to detect the adulteration of oil of cassia by oil of cloves1 a drop of the oil should be heated on a watch glass4 ,genuine cassia evolves a fragrant vapor possessing but a little acridity4 ,when1 however1 clove oil is present1 the vapor is very acrid and excites coughing4 ,with fuming nitric acid1 cassia merely crystallizes2 but if cloves be present it swells up1 evolves a large quantity of red vapor and yields a thick reddish-brown oil4 ,pure cassia oil solidifies with concentrated potash but will not when mixed with clove oil4 ,a good test for cassia oil substituted for oil of cinnamon is to add nitric acid1 specific gravity #a4cf1 to oil of cinnamon 7one part of the latter to two parts of acid71 and shake the mixture4 ,a bright orange-colored liquid is first obtained1 upon the surface of which floats an orange1 resinous substance1 slowly becoming deeper in color1 until a beautiful cherry-red color is visible1 by which time it has changed to a liquid that floats on a lighter-colored substratum1 which also in a short time becomes nearly of the same tint4 ,bubbles then commence to appear and shortly afterwards spontaneous ebullition occurs1 with the evolution of nitrous fumes and vapors of benzoic aldehyde4 ,by the time this ebullition has ceased the amber-colored liquid commences to clear itself and finally a clear amber liquid is left with orange globules floating on its surface4 ,upon oil of cassia1 nitric acid1 specific gravity #a4cf1 has a different action1 as1 after mixing one part of oil of cassia with two of nitric acid1 a dirty green supernatant resinous mass 7slowly turning brown7 is seen floating on a yellowish liquid1 and no further change takes place4 ,if a large excess of the acid be added after the first addition1 the resinous mass changes to a deep reddish brown and the subnascent liquid takes a cherry-red color4 ,the same reaction occurs if a large excess of nitric acid be added to oil of cassia at first1 but in neither of these cases is there any spontaneous ebullition or evolution of the nitrous fumes and benzoic aldehyde vapors4 ,if oil of cassia be mixed with oil of cinnamon1 the reaction with nitric acid takes place as with oil of cinnamon1 but more tardily1 according to the amount of cassia oil present2 and1 at the end of the process1 a turbid subnascent liquid is seen1 instead of a clear one1 as is the case with pure oil of cinnamon4 ,spirits of nitrous ether can also be used to distinguish between these oils1 as it forms a clear solution with that of cinnamon1 but a turbid one with cassia4 ,,chemical ,,composition ,,of ,,cassia ,,and ,,cinnamon ,samples examined1 ash of the whole being about #h per cent4 and powdered #e per cent43 ,ash ,saigon1 #h4bc ,unknown ,cassia1 #a4ge1 extreme ,fiber ,saigon1 #bf4bi ,fiber of ,cassia #ad to #bj1 extreme ,cinnamon1 ,fiber ,true ,cinnamon1 #cc4jh ,albuminoids ,saigon1 #d4ee ,albuminoids ,unknown #b4de1 extreme ,cassia1 ,lime ,true ,cinnamon1 #dj4ji1 #cf4ih1 #dj4ci1 in three specimens ,lime ,cassia ,lignea1 #be4bi ,lime 8,cassia ,vera10 #eb4gb ,magnesia1 ,true #b4fe1 #c4cj1 #c4hf1 in three specimens ,cinnamon1 ,magnesia1 ,cassia #e4dh ,lignea1 ,magnesia1 8,cassia #a4aj ,vera10 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,cloves 7,eugenia ,caryophyllata of ,caryophyllus ,aromaticus7 #a ,zanzibar #b ,amboina #c ,penang #d ,bencoolen #e ,calyx #f ,calyx #g ,flowering stem with leaves ,,chapter ,x ,,cloves ,your unexpanded flower buds fair ,hold for us flavors fine and rare1 ,welcome your petals in our home1 ',though ,nature choose you should not bloom4 ,,cloves are the unexpanded flower buds of ,eugenia ,caryophyllata of ,caryophyllus ,aromaticus1 a tree belonging to the natural order ,myrtacca1 and are named from the ,french word clou1 signifying nail1 which it sometimes resembles4 ,the ,french word1 ,girofle ,cloux de ,girofle2 ,german1 ,gewurzuelken2 ,persian1 ,meykuk2 ,sanskrit1 ,lavunga2 ,arabia1 ,kerunful2 ,bengalle1 ,lung2 ,malay1 ,chankee1 ,lawang2 ,portuguese1 ,cravos da ,india2 ,chinese1 ,thenghio2 ,java1 ,wohkayu1 ,lawang2 ,hindoo1 ,laung4 ,it is indigenous to the ,molucca or1 as they are frequently called1 the 8,spice ,islands40 ,it was originally confined to five of these islands1 viz3 ,tidor1 ,ternate1 ,motir1 ,batian1 and ,kian1 but chiefly to the last4 ,these constitute a string of islands westward of the large island ,gilalo and1 strange to say1 the clove tree does not appear to do well on the large islands1 such as ,gilalo and ,ceram and ,celebes4 ,it is probable that ,booro and the ,xula ,isles constitute about the western limit of the successful culture of the clove4 ,although it is a native of small islands1 it will not do well too near the sea where it receives much moisture1 or at a high elevation where it is cold4 ,sloping loam land is best1 where there is no stagnant water1 #a1jjj feet elevation being the limit4 ,the clove tree is found outside the ,moluccas and ,amboina1 ,haruka1 ,saparua1 and ,naesalaut in the following places3 ,guiana1 ,zanzibar1 ,pemba1 ,java1 ,sumatra1 ,reunion1 and ,west ,indies islands4 ,there are five varieties of cloves as follows3 #a4 ,the ordinary cultivated clove4 #b4 ,the female clove with pale stem1 which natives call poleng4 #c4 ,the keriak or leory cloves4 #d4 ,the royal clove 7which is very scarce74 #e4 ,the wild clove4 ,the first three are about equally valuable as spices1 the female being considered best for distillation of essential oil1 while the wild clove has very little aromatic flavor and no value but for adulteration4 ,the royal clove is a curious monstrosity1 which formerly had a great reputation as the ,caryophyllum regium1 by reason of its rarity1 and the curious observations which are made respecting it4 ,it is a very small clove and is distinguished by an abnormal number of sepals and by large bracts at the base of the tubes of the calyx4 ,the corolla and internal organs are imperfectly developed4 ,in commerce the cloves are known and named from the places of growth and are graded in value in the order named--,penang 7,fig4 #c71 ,bencoolen 7,fig4 #d71 ,amboina 7,fig4 #b71 ,zanzibar 7,fig4 #a74 ,they do not exhibit any very decided structural difference1 but it takes #d1ejj ,penang cloves to weigh one pound and #e1jjj ,zanzibar for same weight4 ,there also enters into commerce as a secondary product clove stalks and mother's cloves1 the latter being the dried ripe fruit4 ,cloves were one of the principal ,oriental spices1 being the basis of a rich trade from an early part of the ,christian era1 and the spice was well known to the ancients and certainly formed an article of commerce1 during the ,middle ,ages1 when ,alleppo was the grand mart of ,eastern trade4 ,the ,portuguese discovered cloves growing abundantly on the ,molucca ,islands about the year #afjj and they held possession of the principal clove trade for nearly a century4 ,previous to this time1 cloves were brought to ,europe from ports in the ,mediterranean1 where they had been brought by ,arabians1 ,persians1 and ,egyptians4 ,about #afje1 the ,portuguese were driven from the ,moluccas by the ,dutch1 who endeavored to control the clove trade by attempting to extirpate all the clove trees growing in their native islands1 and to confine the culture of the entire production to the islands of ,amboina and ,ternate1 paying the kings of the islands of ,ternate1 ,tidor1 and ,batian a tribute to permit and assist in the extirpation of the trees4 ,in the years #agfi and #agga1 the ,french1 under ,m4 ,poivre1 made two expeditions to the ,moluccas and found the clove tree growing in some small islands which had been overlooked by the ,dutch4 ,from one of these 7,guebi7 they obtained plants and transplanted them to the ,isle of ,france4 ,in #aghe1 there were already between #aj1jjj and #aa1jjj clove trees growing in this island4 ,at the end of the seventeenth century1 an ,arab carried the clove seed from ,baurbou and planted the plantation in ,zanzibar at ,miltoni1 on the road to ,cheuni1 and plants were conveyed from the ,isle of ,france to ,cayenne1 ,dominica1 and to ,mauritius4 ,about #aggj1 the ,english put such a high duty on spices in ,dominica that they ruined the trade there1 and although ,m4 ,buee planted the clove tree there over #ajj years ago1 one tree is yet living4 ,meanwhile the ,dutch1 who favored the one principal isle1 ,amboina1 selecting that part of it called ,leytimeer and the adjoining ,uliasser ,islands1 divided ,amboina into #d1jjj allotments4 ,each of these divisions was expected to afford sufficient space for the growth of #abe trees1 and it was ordered that this number should be cultivated4 ,in #agbj1 a law was passed rendering it compulsory on the natives to make up the full complement1 and accordingly #ejj1jjj clove trees flourished within the limit of the small island1 their annual aggregate product amounting to more than #a1jjj1jjj pounds of cloves4 ,one can scarcely imagine the beauty of these immense groves with their pinkish-white1 snowdrop blossoms1 the sweet perfumes of which are carried by the gentle breezes far out to sea4 ,the clove tree1 owing to its noble height1 fine form1 and luxuriant foliage1 is attractive in appearance4 ,its bark is thin and smooth and its wood exceedingly hard1 but it has a grayish color1 which unfits it for cabinet work4 ,it is an evergreen and in its natural state grows to a height of from thirty to forty feet1 with a straight trunk1 making it the most beautiful of all known trees4 ,when four feet high1 the tree spreads into several branches with fork stems1 on which leaves grow directly opposite each other4 ,the leaves are long1 ovate and smooth1 narrow and indented on the edge1 pointed and of a thick consistency4 ,the color of the upper surface inclines to red1 as also does the stalk1 while the under surface is green4 ,the entire tree is strongly aromatic and the petioles of the leaves have nearly the same pungency as the calyces of the flowers4 ,in cultivating cloves1 the mother cloves are best selected fresh1 as they soon lose their vitality4 ,the fruit seed 7called by the natives paleny71 which have become fertilized by remaining and ripening on the trees1 are first soaked in water three days1 or until they begin to germinate1 and are next planted in a nursery of rich mold with bud end above ground in shaded beds1 six inches apart if many plants are needed1 twelve inches apart for few4 ,two seeds are planted in each hill in the trenches1 to provide for the failure of a part of the seed to germinate1 and care must be taken not to plant the seed more than two inches below the surface4 ,the nursery beds are made about six feet wide and of any length desired1 and are shaded by a flat framework of sticks three to three and one-half feet high1 over which is placed grass or cocoanut leaves4 ,the ground is watered every morning and evening by taking water in the hand from the watering pot until the seeds have developed4 ,when the plants appear above ground they are watered every other day1 and when about six inches high every ten days4 ,the plants are kept in the shaded beds for nine months or one year1 when they will be about one foot high4 ,after this they are gradually left to the exposure of the sun by removing the framework for one or two months1 when they are transplanted4 ,great care is taken in moving the plants4 ,the transplanting takes place in the rainy season4 ,the soil is first cut around the plant by a knife or triangular-shaped spade called 8moaa10 8jembe10 or hoe1 and the plant is lifted with as much soil adhering to it as possible and is placed across two banana strips of fiber1 which are three to four inches wide and one to two feet long4 ,the four ends of these strips are wrapped around the plants and firmly tied together1 and in that way the plants are carried to the place for planting4 ,before planting1 the pieces of fiber are cut beneath at each corner and the plant is placed in holes dug for them1 which are about thirty feet apart2 the earth is heaped around them and the balance of the fiber at the top is removed4 ,the plant is watered every day if it is very dry weather1 and at intervals for a year1 or until it is about eighteen inches high4 ,a great many plants usually die out and continually replanting is necessary4 ,for this reason1 a nursery is kept for about five years4 ,after the clove garden is planted there is no need of shading1 but as the trees have only a slight hold in the ground1 they are easily destroyed4 ,they should be planted in sheltered situations4 ,for example1 a hurricane which visited ,zanzibar in #ahgb destroyed nine-tenths of the clove groves1 but the adjoining island of ,pemba did not suffer nearly so much1 especially on the west side of the island1 which was fairly well protected4 ,for this reason the clove trees are protected by belted double rows of casuarina and cerbera trees4 ,cocoanut trees are also planted at irregular places among the clove trees4 ,the slaves1 who have their own small orchards1 often plant cassava1 cocoanut1 and mangoes with the clove not only for shelter but to secure extra crops from the other trees4 ,in ,amboina the young trees are planted in old clove orchards for shelter1 and when the young trees grow up the old trees are cut down4 ,a clayey substratum1 dark yellow or volcanic earth1 intermingled with gravel and dark loam1 with a small amount of sand to reduce its tenacity1 is the best soil4 ,marshy soil is fatal4 ,plants obtained from a garden of self-sown seeds are the best1 but sometimes young branches are laid down and kept moist1 when they will take root in about six months4 ,clove trees after being well rooted require but little care1 and as the clove tree attracts much moisture1 little other herbage will grow beneath it1 but they must be kept well weeded or the trees will run into wild cloves4 ,new leaves form in the wet season in ,may1 the old leaves dropping off as new ones come1 and soon after the leaves are out the germ of fruit is discovered and the tree begins to bear4 ,the clove tree needs no pruning with the exception of topping1 and no manuring except by leaves which fall from the trees1 which are very good fertilizers4 ,the flowers are of a delicate pink color and grow at the extremity of the branches4 ,there are from nine to fifteen flowers in a cluster4 ,these clusters1 or branched peduncles1 are arranged in tricahatomous terminal cymes1 jointed to the branches4 ,the unexpanded corolla forms a ball on the top of the bud between four of the calyces4 ,the calyx is elongated and to it the ovary is united4 ,it tapers downward and is the cup of the unripe fruit seed1 giving the seed the resemblance of the clove 7garafa1 which is no doubt a corruption of the ,french word girofle74 ,as soon as the corolla begins to fade the calyx changes its color1 first to yellow and green 7,fig4 #f71 and then to red 7,fig4 #e71 and1 together with the embryo seed1 which is about the size of a small pea1 is at this stage of its growth the clove of commerce and is ready for harvesting4 ,if it is allowed to remain on the tree three weeks longer it will gradually swell1 forming an oblong berry containing one or two cells and as many seeds4 ,it is then ripe1 and is known as the mother clove 7by the native1 paleng74 ,it has then lost the pungent property of the clove and will have entirely lost its value as a spice1 and is valuable only for seed4 ,the clove1 then1 we find composed of two parts4 ,the part we use is the flower clove4 ,it is about six-tenths of an inch in length4 ,it has a long cylindrical calyx1 dividing above into four pointed spreading sepals1 which surround four petals or leaves that are the unexpanded flowers4 ,thus the filaments are rolled into a globular bud or head of the clove1 which is about two-tenth of an inch in diameter4 ,the parts may be seen by soaking the clove in water1 when the leaves will soften and unroll4 ,the petals are of a light color on account of their numerous oil cells1 which spring from the base of a four-sided epigynous disc with angles directed towards the lobes of the calyx4 ,the stamens are very numerous1 being inserted at the base of the petals and arched over the style1 which is short and sublate and rises from depressions in the center of the disc4 ,immediately below it1 and united with the upper portion of the calyx1 is the ovary1 which is two-celled and contains many ovules4 ,the lower end of the calyx 7hypanthium7 has a compressed form1 is solid1 but has internal tissues which are far more porous than the walls1 the whole calyx being of a deep1 rich brown color4 ,it has a dull1 wrinkled surface and dense1 fleshy texture1 and abounds in essential oil which exudes on a simple pressure of the finger nail4 ,the clove tree is not subject to any fungoid disease1 but it suffers from a caterpillar which often strips the leaves in dry weather1 but the tree will soon recover after the rain sets in4 ,the white ant also attacks the root4 ,no remedy is undertaken for either of these pests4 ,a worm also insinuates itself into the wood and thousands of trees sometimes perish from its work4 ,harvesting should begin as soon as the fruit is at the proper stage and should be rushed with as much haste as is possible1 or much of the crop may be lost by over-ripening4 ,as all buds do not mature at one time1 it takes about three weeks to complete the harvest4 ,cloths are first spread on the ground beneath the tree4 ,the fruit must be picked mostly by hand4 ,although the twigs are easily broken1 the harvesting is very tedious4 ,four-sided ladders or movable stages are used for the lower limbs and seed poles for beating the fruit from the upper branches1 which cannot be reached from the ladders4 ,the limbs of the tree are so brittle that great care must be taken not to break them1 lest the crop for the next year be injured4 ,boys and girls from ten to fourteen years old1 are the best help for gathering the fruit4 ,the clove and clove stems are both gathered at the same time1 and are dried on mats to prevent fermentation4 ,those which fall from the tree are dried in the sunshine4 ,they have a shriveled appearance1 dull color1 little essential oil1 and are of inferior value4 ,the flowers are next dried1 when they assume the brown color of the clove4 ,the finest cloves are dark-brown with a full1 perfect head free from moisture4 ,the inferior are smaller and poorer in essential oil4 ,the drying process is usually by simple exposure to the sun for several days on mats1 but in some places the flowers are smoked on hurdles covered with matting near a slow fire4 ,in a few cases they have been scalded in hot water before smoking4 ,after the drying process1 they are ready for packing1 if they are brittle or readily break between the fingers4 ,illustration3 ,,harvesting ,,cloves ,cloves are now exported in large amounts from ,zanzibar and its neighboring island ,pemba1 twenty miles distant4 ,they are cultivated there by all classes1 from the ,sultan to the humblest of his subjects4 ,zanzibar cloves1 being very dry1 do not lose much in weight by drying and may be stored for some time and will not mold1 but the ,pemba production arrives in a damp condition and must be sold or milled at once to save loss from shortage4 ,the ,zanzibar cloves are larger than the ,pemba variety and have a reddish head by which they may be known1 while the dry ,pemba cloves1 by reason of the greater amount of moisture they contain1 have a darker color4 ,the ,zanzibar cloves1 being well cultivated1 are very fine1 but the ,pemba1 having more rains1 have an advantage over the ,zanzibar in quantity1 but they are lacking in quality4 ,zanzibar ,island is fifty miles long by twenty miles wide1 and alone produces #g1jjj1jjj pounds of cloves annually1 and ,pemba a much larger quantity4 ,pemba is divided into two districts1 ,weti in the north and ,chaki in the south4 ,the two islands produce #ij per cent4 of all the cloves raised in the world4 ,whole cloves have a great affinity for water4 ,some exporters have taken advantage of the fact by attempting to place their sacks in a position aboard vessels where they may imbibe water and increase their weight1 much to the detriment of the clove4 ,cloves in their natural state lose from #ej to #fj per cent4 in drying4 ,one frasila of thirty-five pounds of freshly gathered cloves is equal to but half a frasila when dried4 ,the difference in shortage between cloves at ,zanzibar and on their arrival in ,europe is about #h per cent4 ,only about two-thirds of a clove garden is depended on for bearing1 one-third being allowed for barren young trees4 ,the tree in its native islands begins to bear when from four to five years old and is at its prime at twelve years2 but in ,amboina and other ,molucca islands1 ,haruka1 ,saparua1 and ,naesalaut1 it does not bear much until it is from ten to twelve years old1 and it requires much more attention4 ,the tree yields but one crop each year1 which1 on an average1 is about seven pounds4 ,a good healthy orchard at maturity produces about #cge pounds to the acre1 less one-third for young trees1 or about #cjj pounds4 ,the yield is often fifteen to twenty pounds to a tree1 and we have records of trees which bore as high as seventy-five pounds at the age of #aej years4 ,the ordinary life of a tree is from twenty to thirty years1 though it varies much in different localities4 ,when the clove tree becomes old and worthless for bearing it will have a ragged appearance4 ,cloves are shipped to native ports in hides and are sometimes exported in sacks made from split cocoanut leaves1 containing #acc pounds each1 called 8piculs10 also in twenty-two-pound packages called 8kilos40 ,they are more often exported in double mats in bags called 8frales10 of eighty to #ajj pounds 7called by the natives 8mankunda074 ,these bags are preferred to gunny sacks1 though there is more shortage1 a fact which is strangely marked1 since the mats1 though double1 admit a large amount of dampness4 ,illustration3 ,,city ,,of ,,zanzibar ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,zanzibar ,,harbor ,the average annual consumption of cloves throughout the world has been estimated at #aa1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,no cloves were exported from ,singapore in the year #aijd1 but the city of ,penang exported in that year #g1cgc4ia worth1 and ,colombo1 ,ceylon1 exported #aae hundred weight of cloves and mace in the same year4 ,a transverse section of the lower part of a clove shows a dark rhomboid zone1 the tissue on either side of which is of a lighter hue1 which is chiefly made up of about thirty fibro-vascular bundles1 another stronger bundle traversing the center of the clove4 ,the outer layer of this1 beneath the epidermis and belonging to it1 we find to be a debris of no apparent structure1 consisting of numerous cells and fibro-vascular bundles within their spiral vessels1 with deep shreds of brown cellular matter attached4 ,there are also tissues bordering on the oil cells4 ,these cells are frequently as many as #cjj micro-millimeters in diameter4 ,about #bjj oil cells may be counted in one transverse section1 so that the large amount of essential oil in the drug is well shown by its microscopic character4 ,pollen grains and sometimes whole anthers are present and concretions of oxalate of lime4 ,the fibro-vascular bundles1 as well as the tissues bordering on the oil cells1 assume a greenish-black hue on coming in contact with alcoholic perchloride of iron4 ,oil cells are largely distributed in the leaves and petals but no starch is found in them4 ,the clove is very rich in essential oil1 containing a greater proportion than any other plant4 ,the oil has a greater specific gravity than water and1 therefore1 sinks in it4 ,water extracts very little of the flavor of cloves4 ,the oil combined with resinous matter in cloves gives them their pungency1 and their aromatic property depends on the amount of oil they contain4 ,in studying the structure of both the whole or the powdered cloves1 an examination for starch in the powder should first be made in water1 as the starch granules swell by the use of the chloral-hydrate solution4 ,this solution must be used1 however1 as the sections and fragments will not be transparent without it4 ,cloves are ground on common burr stone1 but great care must be taken in grinding since they contain so much oil4 ,the best powdered cloves present a rich meal of reddish-brown color and are a good preventive of moths1 but they deteriorate very rapidly4 ,the natives of ,china and ,india use cloves to flavor their rice2 the oil is also used for medicinal purposes4 ,cloves1 stems1 and leaves are shipped in large quantities from ,zanzibar for adulterating the powdered clove and are called 8vikunia02 by the native1 8swahil02 ,french1 8griffers de girofle10 8peduncles de girofle02 ,italy1 8fustiand bastoreni02 ,latin1 8stiptes caryophylli40 ,they form a dull1 gray-colored powder and yield only #e to #f per cent4 of volatile oil1 and1 of course1 have only a corresponding percentage of the strength or value of the true clove 7the root yields #j4jd per cent474 ,on account of their near appearance in color and flavor to the powdered clove1 and particularly for their cheapness1 they are much sought for by the miller of spices1 as he can thus sell his mixture at a price much below the market value of the true powdered clove4 ,this adulterant may be easily detected by the microscope1 which will reveal their thick-walled1 hard1 flinty stone cells and long1 yellow1 fibrous tissue1 as similar structures are not found in the cloves in such abundance4 ,the fruit of the clove1 if added1 contains starch granules1 which are not present in the meal of the leaves and stems4 ,often the essential oil is pressed from the whole cloves and they are then rubbed in oil between the hands and mixed with cloves which drop from the trees2 both are then mixed with good cloves1 and all are sold as prime stock4 ,they are1 however1 easily detected by their pale color and shrunken appearance and lack of pungency4 ,on one occasion several bags of artificial whole cloves arrived in ,london from ,zanzibar1 neatly manufactured by machinery from soft deal wood stained a dark color and soaked in a solution of essence of cloves to give them the required scent4 ,upon investigation it was found that this manufactured article had been imported into ,zanzibar from ,america4 ,a great many flowers of plants contain the flavor or perfumes of cloves4 ,among these are the flowers of the lettsomia bana-nox1 called by the natives of ,bangal 8kulmiluta40 ,the flowers which are produced in rainy seasons are large and pure white1 expanding at sunset with a strong flavor of cloves1 but they wither at sunrise4 ,sometimes the flower buds of ,dicypellium caryophyllatum of ,brazil1 which has a bark called clove cassia1 are used as substitute for cloves 7also called ,brazilian clove bark74 ,cloves are largely adulterated with roasted rye and when the price of cloves is high1 pimento or ,jamaica pepper is often used as a mixture4 ,this adulterant may be detected by the microscope by reason of the thick walls of the cells1 which are not present in cloves1 as well as by the quantity of starch granules which are not visible in the ground clove4 ,the essential oil of cloves is a mixture of two oils1 one a hydrocarbon isomeric with oil of turpentine and the other an oxygenated oil eugenol or eugenic acid1 which possesses the taste and odor of cloves1 depending on the amount of eugenol it contains4 ,this amount may be estimated by separation as follows3 ,shake three parts of the oil with a solution composed of one part caustic potash or soda in ten parts of water2 press the crystalline paste of eugenol alkali which forms2 take off the press residue with water2 decompose with hydrochloric acid2 wash the liberated eugenol with water1 dry it with calcium chloride and then rectify4 ,clove oil is often adulterated with phenol4 ,this adulterant may be detected by shaking the oil with fifty times its volume of hot water2 after cooling1 it is decanted and concentrated at a gentle heat to a small bulk2 then a drop of liquid ammonia and a pinch of chloride are dropped on the surface2 if phenol is present the liquor will assume a green color1 which changes to a blue shade1 which will remain for a number of days2 if not adulterated1 no coloration will be produced4 ,clove oil is first colorless1 or yellow1 and darkens with age and by exposure to the air4 ,it consists of sesquialteral and an oxygenated oil1 the first passing over with vapor of water1 called 8light oil of cloves40 ,when the crude oil is distilled with strong potash of lye1 its composition is ,c#ae;,h#bd1 specific gravity #j4aij at #ae degrees ,c41 its boiling point #bea degrees to #bed degrees ,c41 its optical power being very light4 ,the other1 which is the eugenol1 is the chief constituent4 ,its composition is ,c#aj;,h#ab,o#b4 ,this constituent exists to the extent of #gf to #he per cent41 while very fine may contain #ij4fd per cent4 in the oil of cloves1 in direct proportion to the quality of the product4 ,good oil of cloves should have a specific gravity of #a4jfg at #ae degrees ,c41 and should be freely soluble in alcohol at #ij per cent4 ,an adulteration by turpentine would lower the specific gravity and diminish the solubility in alcohol4 ,eugenol is a strongly refractive liquid with the characteristic smell and the burning taste of cloves1 and by exposure to the air it becomes brown2 on fusion with caustic potash it yields protocatechuic acid convertible into vanillin by action of potassium permanganate4 ,eugenol is also found in pimento and in the leaves of cinnamon and of many other trees and has been artificially produced by the action of sodium amalgam on coniferyl alcohol4 ,pure eugenol has a specific gravity of #a4jgb at #ae degrees2 its boiling point is #bec degrees to #bdc degrees ,c41 and it forms a clear solution in #a per cent4 of caustic potash solution4 ,clove oil has been found to contain some salicylic acid1 which gives the greenish blue coloration when it is brought in contact with an alcoholic solution of perchloride of iron1 and produces the intense violet color when it is agitated with metallic reduced iron4 ,this acid may be isolated by agitating the oil with a solution of carbonate of ammonia4 ,caryophyllin 7,c#aj;,h#ah,o71 a neutral1 tasteless1 inodorous substance1 isomeric with common camphor1 crystallizable in prismatic needles1 has also been found in cloves by extracting with ether cloves previously deprived of the greater part of their essential oil by a little alcohol4 ,cloves also contain #af per cent4 of a peculiar tannic acid1 #ac per cent4 of gum1 and about #ah per cent4 of water and extractive matter4 ,the chemical composition of cloves differs to quite an extent in the different countries where they grow--,amboina1 #ai per cent42 ,zanzibar1 #ag4e per cent4 ,water1 #aa4jj to #b4ge ,ash1 #ac4jj to #e4jj ,volatile ,oil1 #ba4jj to #i4jj ,fixed ,oil and ,resin1 #aa4jj to #d4jj ,crude ,fiber1 #aj4jj to #f4jj ,albuminoids1 #h4jj to #d4jj ,coffee oil is least volatile of any essential oil and is obtained from the flower buds and the flower stalks of cloves by aqueous distillation4 ,this distillation is largely carried on in ,england1 and the proportion of oil may amount to #af or #bj per cent41 but1 to extract the whole1 distillation must be long continued2 the water being returned to the same material4 ,the oil is a colorless or yellowish liquid like all clove oil1 with a powerful odor and flavor of cloves1 varying in specific gravity from #a4jdf to #a4jeh4 ,it combines well with grease1 soap1 and spirits1 and is largely used in perfumery1 and in ,germany it is often adulterated with carbolic acid 7phenol74 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,ginger4 7,amomum ,zingiber7 #a ,leaf stalk #b ,flowers #c ,cochin ginger #d ,african #e ,jamaica ,,chapter ,,xi ,,ginger ,ginger black or ginger white ,will furnish warmth in coldest night4 ,without ginger how many would miss ,a ginger cookie for little ,sis4 ,,ginger 7officinale 7,roscoe7 amomum zingiber1 national order zingiberaceoe ,linn41 monandria monogynia74 ,french1 ,gingembre2 ,german1 ,ingwer2 ,latin1 ,zingiber2 ,italian1 ,zenzevero2 ,spanish1 ,gengibre2 ,portuguese1 ,gengiuare4 ,as a rule1 spices grow above ground1 but ginger is an exception1 it being the roots or rhizomes of ,zingiber4 ,the root is herbaceous and creeping1 tuberous1 and of a somewhat flattened roundish form1 marked with rings4 ,it is difficult to fix the original habits of the ginger plant1 and it appears to be an unsettled question as to its native country1 whether it be ,asia or ,brazil1 but in its wild state it would suggest ,asia4 ,its history dates back to a very early period4 ,vincent's 8,commerce and ,navigation of the ,ancients0 speaks of the imports of it from the ,red ,sea into ,alexandria in the second century4 ,it has been known in ,india from a very remote period1 the ,greek and ,latin names for ginger being derived from the ,sanskrit4 ,the ,greek name for ginger is conceded to have been taken from its ,persian application4 ,ginger is indigenous to ,china1 and many leading authorities aver that it derives its name ginger in ,china1 where it formerly grew abundantly1 and that the plant was first called gingi at that place4 ,it was common in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and was next in value to pepper1 which was most common of all spices4 ,it was thought by the ,greeks and ,romans to have been a product of ,southern ,arabia and was received by them by way of the ,red ,sea4 ,pliny describes it as coming from ,arabia4 ,the ,romans fixed a duty on ginger1 which is mentioned among other ,indian spices1 and ginger is mentioned in the lists of dutiable goods of the ,middle ,ages1 showing that it constituted an important item of commerce between ,europe and the ,east4 ,this duty was levied in ,paris in #abif2 ,barcelona1 #abba2 ,marseilles1 #abbh4 ,ginger appears to have been well known in ,england before the ,norman conquest1 since it is often referred to in the ,anglo-,saxon books of the eleventh century4 ,marco ,polo appears to have seen the ginger plant1 both in ,india and ,china1 about #abhj1 and some of the missionary friars who visited ,india about #abib give a description of the plant and refer to it as being dug up and transplanted4 ,the ,venetian merchants in the early part of the fifteenth century describe the plant as seen by them in ,india1 and1 though the ,venetians received ginger by way of ,egypt1 some of the superior kinds were taken from ,india overland via ,afghanistan1 ,persia1 and ,turkey1 and the ,black ,sea1 then through the ,dardanelles to the ,mediterranean and to the ,european market4 ,francis de ,mendoza is said to have first introduced it into ,america in #aedg1 bringing it from the ,east ,indies4 ,there is good proof of its having been shipped for commercial purposes from ,san ,domingo in #aehe1 and as early as #aedg considerable quantities were sent from the ,west ,indies to ,spain4 ,the plant endures a wide range of climate4 ,it may be grown at the sea level or in high mountain regions1 providing the rainfall be abundant or irrigation be adapted4 ,it is found cultivated from the ,himalaya ,mountains1 #e1jjj feet above sea level1 to ,cape ,comorin4 ,it is now found in ,southeastern ,asia1 in some of the islands of the ,malayan ,archipelago1 on the west coast of ,africa1 in ,south ,america1 and the ,west ,indies1 and1 in fact1 almost all warm countries1 including ,china and ,japan1 which are large exporters of ginger4 ,the city of ,calcutta 7,city of ,palaces71 from two words1 ,kali-ghatta1 signifying the landing place of the ,goddess ,kali1 in ,bengal ,india1 exports more than any other city in the world4 ,the finest white ginger1 which is most in demand1 comes from ,jamaica4 ,the acreage is not large1 amounting to only #cej acres in #ahia2 it probably does not now much exceed #djj acres1 but improved methods of cultivation have increased the average yield per acre to a large amount4 ,ginger is found in the following districts of ,india3 ,mahur1 ,massa1 ,patra1 ,darra1 ,kothi1 ,kotahi1 ,bagal1 and ,jayal4 ,it is found throughout the ,kwang-tung province1 ,china4 ,the district of ,nan-hai1 which belongs to the city of ,canton1 produces a greater quantity and better quality than any other of the neighboring districts4 ,the independent tribes of the ,miso-tsu1 in the mountains of the northwestern border of the same province1 produce much ginger1 as does also ,cochin ,china1 from which the famous ,cochin ginger derives its name4 ,in the district of ,hsin-hsing1 about thirty miles south of the city of ,chao-,ching1 on the ,west ,river1 three-tenths of the flatland and seven-tenths of the cultivated soil in the hills are planted with ginger4 ,a distinction is made between flatland ginger 7in ,canton dialect ten-keung7 which is generally soft and tender1 and mountain ginger 7shan keung7 which is brittle and pungent4 ,three kinds of ginger were known among the merchants of ,italy about the middle of the fourteenth century4 ,the first was belledi or baladi 7an ,arabic name71 which1 as applied to ginger1 would signify 8country0 or 8wild10 and denotes common ginger4 ,second3 ,calombina1 which refers to ,calumbum1 ,kolam or ,quilon1 a port in ,travancore1 frequently mentioned in the ,middle ,ages4 ,third3 ,micchino1 a name which denoted that the spice had been brought from or by way of ,mecca4 ,illustration3 ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view ,,of ,,cochin ,illustration3 ,,clean ,,and ,,airy ,,chowringhee ,,road 7,esplanade at ,left7 ,,looking ,,north ,,over ,,calcutta1 ,,india ,copyright by ,underwood and ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4 ,it is inferred from the examination of specimens of preserved ginger that are sent abroad from ,china that the ,chinese have a species unknown in other countries4 ,this inference is in harmony with the well-known ,chinese secretiveness1 a characteristic of this strange people which is not only inbred but also inborn4 ,it is possible1 however1 that some other plant which is not true ginger may be used in making the celebrated ,canton preserved ginger1 but1 while this possibility is suspected1 it has not been proven4 ,the ,british and ,american markets derive their supply of ginger from various parts of the world4 ,the principal kinds found in commerce are ,jamaica 7,fig4 #e71 ,cochin 7,fig4 #c71 and ,african 7,fig4 #d71 the ,sierra ,leone district producing the bulk of the ,african4 ,although each of these in its turn has several varieties and qualities1 the best and most valued kind of all is ,jamaica 7,fig4 #e71 and next to it is the ,cochin 7,fig4 #c74 ,the ,cochin when bleached resembles ,jamaica to some extent4 ,ginger is classified into several species1 as the narrow leaf1 the broad leaf1 and the ,japanese red leaf2 the narrow leaf being the most esteemed4 ,ginger thrives best on rich clay or cool loam soil that is well drained4 ,new land which has been plowed but two or three times is best adapted to its cultivation4 ,the ground should be dug up and cleared of weeds4 ,the plant will not grow in dry sand or hard clay soil4 ,ginger1 being an underground stem of tuberous-appearing roots1 takes its botanical name1 rhizome1 from the ,spanish word rais1 a root4 ,these roots are known in commerce as races1 and in ,jamaica as hands1 from their irregular palmate form4 ,the real roots are the fibers thrown off the rhizomes4 ,it is a perennial1 reed-like plant1 similar in appearance to our iris or flag root1 two aerial stems being thrown up from each of the underground roots 7,fig4 #a71 which soon rise above ground to the height of three or four feet4 ,the first of the shoots thrown up bears the leaves1 and the second or shorter stem1 the flowers1 which blossom in ,august 7rhodon7 or ,september4 ,at this time the ground will be covered by the spread of the leaves which wither and fade at the close of the year1 when the root is in a ripe state and is ready for harvesting4 ,the leaves are alternate1 bright-green1 smooth1 and tapering or lanceolate at both ends1 with very short petioles which gradually diverge from the stem until they are nearly horizontal1 seven or eight inches in length4 ,the flowers are borne on the shorter separate stem 7,fig4 #b71 averaging from six to twelve inches high at the apex of the stems4 ,they appear in dense1 ovate1 oblong1 cane-like spikes from two to three inches long1 composed of obtuse1 strongly imbricated bracts or scales with membranous margins between each bract1 enclosing a single small yellowish-white sessile flower with purple or blue marking1 and have an agreeable fragrance4 ,the ginger planting takes place in ,march and ,april when the rainy season begins4 ,the cleared lands are made into beds with a little raised edge which forms trenches between the beds 7see illustration71 with openings between to allow the water to run off1 for1 if allowed to stand on the beds1 it will cause the tubers to rot1 and sometimes the beds are raised between the rows to eighteen-inch squares1 two rows being planted on each ridge1 the sides being perpendicular4 ,propagation is effected by divisions of the protuberances of the roots which are broken in small pieces1 one or two inches in length1 care being taken to leave at least one short bud on each cutting2 they are then planted in well-broken beds four inches deep1 in the manured holes in the trenches made in the beds which are nine to twelve inches apart and are shaded with bushes1 which are replaced in ten days by twigs4 ,the land must be kept well weeded during ,may1 ,june1 and ,july4 ,it is well to cover the land half an inch deep with a mold of dead leaves1 and when it rains the water will be impregnated with manure which filters readily through the leaves to the roots1 and they must be kept watered in dry times4 ,the rhizome sometimes grows to a great size2 often a single root will weigh one pound4 ,it is a great impovisher of land and the same ground should not be used more than two consecutive years1 and it is better to use it but one year4 ,the yield is #d1jjj pounds and upwards to an acre1 each plant producing about eight tubers1 and eight to ten times more in weight than the amount planted4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,a ,,ginger ,,garden ,illustration3 ,,hoeing ,,ginger ,the ginger of commerce varies in form from single joints an inch or less in length to flattish1 irregularly branched pieces of several joints from three to four inches long4 ,each branch has a depression at its summit1 showing the former attachment of a leafy stem4 ,the color in its natural state is a pale buff4 ,it has a somewhat rough or fibrous appearance1 breaking with a short1 mealy fracture1 and presenting on the surface of the broken parts numerous short1 bristly fibers4 ,when young1 it has a light color1 internally soft1 and changing to greenish4 ,as it grows older it becomes grey outside and reddish internally4 ,when ready for digging the texture becomes fibrous and firm and heavy1 and when dried it is covered with wrinkled striated brown integuments which give it a crude appearance1 which is less developed on the flat surface and1 internally1 it is less bright and delicate than ginger from which the cuticle part has been removed4 ,the best pieces of ginger root are collected at the harvest and thrown into heaps and covered with cow manure to keep the roots from drying for the next planting4 ,the scraped ginger1 or marrow1 has a pale hue and breaks readily and moderately short1 the younger and terminal portions appearing pale yellow1 being soft and starchy1 while the longer transverse sections of the more perfect and outer parts are hard1 flinty1 and resinous1 surrounding a farinaceous center which has a speckled appearance from the cut extremities of the fibers and ducts4 ,the external layer of coated ginger is separated1 about one millimeter broad1 by a fine line from the whitish mealy interior portion1 through the tissue of which numerous vascular bundles and resin cells are irregularly scattered4 ,the external tissue consists of loose outer layer and an inner composed of tubular cells4 ,these are followed by peculiar short parenchymatous cells1 the walls of which are sinuous on a transverse section1 and partially thickened1 imparting a horny appearance4 ,this delicate1 felted tissue forms the striated surface of scraped ginger and is the principal seat of the resin and volatile oil1 which here fill large spaces1 the principal constituents being of the parenchymatous cells loaded with starch and resin4 ,the volatile oil gives ginger its odor2 the resin1 pungency4 ,the starch granules are irregularly spherical in form1 attaining at the utmost forty millimeters in diameter4 ,certain varieties of ginger1 owing to the starch having been rendered gelatinous by scalding1 are throughout horny and translucent4 ,the circle of vascular bundles which separates the outer layers and the central portion is narrow and has the structure of the corresponding circle or nucleus sheath of tumeric4 7,see illustrations #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 ,chap4 ,,iii2 illustration #ab shows ginger adulterated2 #ac and #ad pure47 ,coated ginger has usually a less bright1 delicate hue than ginger from which the cuticle part has been removed1 much of it being dark1 horny1 and resinous4 ,ginger differs in quality and in commercial value in different localities4 ,it is also influenced by the cultivation1 harvesting1 and preparation1 but all true ginger has the same starchy1 fibrous rhizome2 the best quality is plump1 with little or no epidermis1 while the inferior quality is frequently coated and is not so plump4 ,borneo or ,cochin 7,fig4 #c7 7or bleached ginger7 is said to be produced by submitting the root to the action of the fumes of burning sulphur or by washing it in chloride of lime1 but by chemical analysis it has been found that the bleached appearance is due to the application of common whitewash to the root1 which is dusted over while wet with marble dust4 ,this treatment1 of course1 injures the quality of the root4 ,illustration3 ,,kingston1 ,,jamaica ,the ,cochin ginger is what is called the white ginger4 ,it is prepared by washing and scraping the roots one at a time4 ,this process takes much time1 and the only benefit to be derived from it is that it makes the root more agreeable to the eye1 and for that reason causes it to bring a much higher price4 ,at the time of digging the rhizomes boiling is kept in the field with frequent changing of water1 and the roots intended for market are plunged into the boiling water and allowed to remain for about ten minutes4 ,this process injures the aromatic spirits of the ginger4 ,at the first of the year1 in ,january or ,february1 the harvesting takes place4 ,the form in which ginger is harvested differs in different countries4 ,in some countries the ginger is dried with the epidermis removed4 ,this is known as scraped ginger4 ,in other countries the ginger is harvested without removing the epidermis4 ,these two forms of the product are known commercially as coated and uncoated ginger4 ,the scraped ginger is exported mostly from ,cochin and ,brazil1 the coated from ,africa and from a district of ,india1 and is known as ,malabar ginger4 ,it is exported from the city of ,calcutta4 ,when the roots are first dug they are placed in baskets suspended by ropes and are pulled by two men with ropes at each end of the basket for two hours each day for two days1 giving them a good shaking up to remove the scales and rootlets4 ,the rhizomes are next spread on a raised platform to dry for eight days and are then shaken1 when two more days' drying puts them in keeping state for the market4 ,they are put up in parcels of one hundred pounds each4 ,the product is known as black ginger4 ,with proper care much money might be made by cultivating ginger in ,india1 but since this crop receives but little care it has but a small market value4 ,the roots many times are cared for by simply smearing with cow manure4 ,they are hung about huts to dry and become shriveled and dirty1 and although they may be well smoked1 they will be badly bored by the bamboo insects4 ,india ginger is quite similar to ,african and is known in commerce as ,calcutta 7not shown in illustration71 from the city of export and is largely used for flavoring4 ,it also is superior for ginger snaps1 ginger beer1 and ginger wine4 ,the ,african and ,barbadoes differ from the ,india by the epidermis being less shriveled4 ,they are not so hard or dark1 and are sometimes scraped and bleached and made white by the chemical process of chloride of lime1 a process which impairs the quality of the product but increases its market value4 ,the bleaching and coating with gypsum or carbonate of lime is a process often applied to old and inferior roots to make them salable by making them more attractive to the eye4 ,the ,jamaica is the best ginger and is always told by its pale1 bright-yellow color4 ,the real marrow or white ginger 7,zingiber album7 is obtained from the scraped ,jamaica ginger1 which is free from resin and will give up properties to water very readily1 a fact which makes it very valuable for medicinal use4 ,china preserved ginger has a more agreeable aromatic flavor than that of the ,west ,indies1 and the celebrated ,canton preserved excels all other preserved ginger4 ,the syrup waters drawn off are used for cool drinks4 ,canton exported for the first quarter of the year #aije #fej piculs of preserved ginger of #acc pounds each4 ,when the tubers are intended for sugar-pressed ginger1 they are dug in early spring1 while green1 to obtain that which is young1 tender1 and full of juice4 ,the soft1 succulent1 perennial rhizomes at such times rarely exceed five to six inches in length and are known as green ginger4 ,they are buried in another place for a month and are then dried in the sunshine for one day1 after which they are fit for green ginger4 ,illustration3 ,,canton1 ,,china ,illustration3 ,,mandeville1 ,,jamaica ,preserved ginger 7,condition ,zangibaris7 is prepared by cleaning the green root1 which is dug when young and tender and full of sap1 before it is hard and woody1 and scalding it until it is sufficiently tender4 ,it is next put into cold water and peeled and scraped gradually1 an operation which may last three or four days1 the water being changed often4 ,after this it is put into glass jars and covered with a thin or weak syrup which1 in two or three days1 is changed for a richer syrup4 ,sometimes even a third syrup is poured off for the fourth and yet thicker syrup1 but not often4 ,the syrup will be very thick and the ginger will be bright and nearly transparent4 ,the following rule for making preserved ginger is infallible3 ,let the young tubers boil for twenty-four hours1 then peel off the discolored and hard parts4 ,next boil one pound loaf sugar in six pints of water and pour the syrup over twelve pounds of the cooked ginger in a jar4 ,let it stand for one week1 when the syrup is drawn off and the ginger is again boiled and treated to another syrup like the first and left to stand another week1 when again the syrup should be drawn off through a fine sieve4 ,return the ginger to the stone jar and pour over it the final syrup1 made of twelve pints of boiling water and twelve pounds of loaf sugar1 boiled and stirred until it is as thick as good honey1 and will drop slowly from a silver spoon1 the ginger having been previously covered with boiling water and allowed to remain until cool4 ,it is next placed in the bottles or jars for which it is intended1 in small pieces1 as closely as they will pack1 up to the cork1 so that there will be no room for air4 ,it is then corked with a good1 new cork4 ,candied ginger is dried1 sprinkled with sugar1 and is imported in boxes4 ,in order to powder ginger root it must first be passed through a cracker machine1 as it is called1 to reduce it to a proper size for feeding in a mill4 ,the mill consists of a roller provided with very coarse teeth1 which revolve through similar stationary teeth2 the material is retained by a semi-circular perforated plate until it is reduced to the size of the perforation1 or about the size of a coffee bean1 when it is then ready for the burr stones4 ,in ground ginger little of its structure is seen beyond the starchy grains which can readily be distinguished by their shape and by their fibrous1 vascular bundles which are easily traceable4 ,in the unscraped ginger the outer horny layer is to be seen1 but not distinct in its character at any time1 and when scalding of the rhizomes takes place1 the starch grains are swollen and it is more difficult to find the foreign particles4 ,good powdered ginger should have the fibers taken out by sifting4 ,the best ginger cuts pale1 but bright1 with a varied color1 both outside and inside4 ,its consistency is ascertained by cutting1 and varies from hard to soft or1 as is termed in the trade1 flinty1 the soft being the best4 ,the popular medicinal stimulant known as ,jamaica ginger extract is an alcoholic extract of ginger root1 and is often resorted to by old topers who can no longer be satisfied with whiskey4 ,salable essence of ginger is made by taking one pint of strong tincture of the finest ,jamaica1 to which add in small portions at a time finely powdered slacked lime1 shaking vigorously after each addition1 until the tincture ceases to lose color1 then throw the whole upon a filter and pass through the residue proof spirit until the product will measure two pints4 ,next add1 drop by drop1 diluted sulphuric acid until the rich yellow of the tincture suddenly disappears4 ,let it stand twenty-four hours1 dilute with water to four pints1 and shake with a little powdered pumice or silica and filter at #j degrees ,c41 if possible4 ,ginger lozenges are used as a confectionery which frequently benefits dyspepsia and generally encourages flesh4 ,ginger-beer powders are made by mixing two ounces of white sugar with twenty-six grains of bicarbonate of soda1 five grains of powdered ginger1 and one drop of essence of lemon1 put in white paper4 ,in blue paper put half ounce of tartaric acid4 ,in drinking use in the same way as seidlitz powder4 ,the following is a good recipe for making ginger beer1 and it has a high medical authority as yielding a very superior beverage1 and one that will keep for several months3 ,white sugar1 twenty pounds2 lemon juice1 eighteen fluid ounces2 honey1 one pound2 bruised ginger1 twenty-two ounces2 water1 eighteen gallons4 ,boil the ginger in three gallons of water for half an hour1 then add the sugar1 the lemon juice1 and the honey with the remainder of the water1 and strain through a cloth2 when cold1 add the white of one egg and half an ounce of essence of lemon2 after standing for four or five days1 bottle4 ,the bottles should be laid on their sides in a cellar1 and the beer is ready for use in about three weeks4 ,if a little yeast has been used the beer is ready in about two days1 but in this case the beer does not keep well4 ,illustration3 ,,montego ,illustration3 ,,port ,,royal1 ,,jamaica ,the principal consumption of ginger is not only as a useful aromatic spice1 but when applied to the nostrils it acts as an irritant and produces sneezing4 ,the native doctors prize it highly as a stimulant4 ,it is especially valued for paralytic and rheumatic troubles1 and also for intermittent fevers4 ,europeans often use infusions of ginger for delicate nerves in place of tea4 ,the green root cut into strips and steeped is thought to be superior to the dried root4 ,rhizome chewed relieves toothache and powerfully increases the flow of saliva1 and to the stomach it operates as a stimulant1 first to the alimentary canal and1 secondly1 to the body in general1 especially the organs of respiration4 ,in enfeebled and relaxed habits1 especially of old and gouty individuals1 it promotes digestion and relieves flatulency and spasms of the stomach and bowels4 ,it checks and prevents nausea and griping1 which is sometimes produced by some drastic purgative1 and a ginger plaster when applied to the forehead will relieve headache4 ,when powdered and used with hot water and applied externally it produces a sensation of intense heat1 and slight redness1 and adds cordial qualities to the tonic4 ,powdered ginger may be taken in doses of ten grains or more in the form of a pill or in tea4 ,when used to excess1 however1 it is very dangerous1 as it slowly destroys the lining of the stomach and causes lingering pain and agonizing death4 ,ginger contains a great deal of alcohol4 ,this fact accounts for the formation of the so-called ginger habit to which the victim becomes a slave as to the whiskey1 opium1 or tobacco habit4 ,indulgence in this habit is more dangerous because ginger is supposed to be harmless4 ,a careful qualitative examination of the character of the extracts at times may reveal the presence of an adulterant1 but the chief dependence is examination under the microscope4 ,the microscope1 however1 will not reveal the presence of exhausted ginger1 and a careful study of the effect of exhaustion on the proximate composition of the ground root is1 therefore1 desirable4 ,it would naturally increase the relative percentage of fiber and albuminoids and starch1 and diminish that of the extract matter4 ,there is a variety of ginger known and cultivated by the ,chinese under the name of ,galangal ,a4 officinarom4 ,it is very thick and slightly flattened and is prized by the ,siamese and ,chinese as a substitute for ginger4 ,in ,siam it is known as ,alpinia4 ,there is also a variety found and cultivated in ,siam similar to ,alpinia allughas1 called luk reu or bastard cardamom1 which has the cardamom-like fruit4 ,ginger usually comes to ,new ,york in #aaj to #abj-pound bags and #acj-pound barrels4 ,the yield of oil from ginger is from #a4i to #b4g per cent41 having a specific gravity at #ae degrees ,c4 of #j4hhj to #j4hhe1 and an optical rotation of #be to #dj degrees in a #ajj-millimeter tube4 ,the chemical composition of ginger oil remains unknown1 but it is known to contain camphene and other ingredients2 its complex nature is indicated by the wide range of its boiling point4 ,when distilled1 after drying over ,ca,cl#b1 the boil begins to pass over at #adj degrees ,c41 accompanied by a few drops of aqueous fluid1 the temperature constantly and rapidly rising to about #bdj degrees1 the chief portion of the oil coming over between #bdj degrees and #bgj degrees ,c4 and a little passes over between #bgj degrees and #cjj degrees1 but evidently accompanied by decomposition products1 a transparent1 brown1 tenacious1 semi-solid residue remaining in flask4 ,the lower boiling products retain the ginger aroma1 which is noted when diluted with spirits1 and are much more soluble in rectified spirits than higher fractions4 ,oil of ginger is yellow in color and its odor is intensely like that of the root2 that of ,jamaica is the most fragrant1 but has not the burning1 pungent taste of ginger1 which is due to gingerol1 the active pungent principle of the root4 ,gingerol exists in the dried rhizomes to the extent of from #j4fjj to #a4dej per cent4 ,it is of a pale straw color and odorless1 with a pungent1 bitter taste4 ,it is soluble in alcohol in even #ej per cent4 dilution2 it is also soluble in benzene1 volatile oils1 carbon disulphide1 solution of potash and ammonia1 and glacial acetic acid1 and very slightly soluble in petroleum ether1 consisting of resin1 starch1 mucilage1 and paraffine1 organic acids1 oxalic acids as ,ca,c#b;,c#d cellulose albuminoids1 etc41 which constituents of ginger are found to be odorless and tasteless4 ,the alcoholic solution is neutral in reaction and gives no precipitate with the acetates of lead nor with lime1 and does not yield glucose when treated with diluted sulphuric acid4 ,strong sulphuric acid dissolves it with the production of a brown color2 hydrochloric acid does not affect it4 ,nitric acid converts it into a blood-red resinous substance4 ,adulterants of ginger are sago1 tapioca1 flour of rice1 wheat1 and potatoes1 ,cayenne and mustard hulls1 and tumeric and exhausted ginger4 ,the foreign starches1 ,cayenne1 and mustard hulls are easily detected1 but the tumeric 7,east ,india arrowroot7 cells1 from their resemblance to the resin globules of the ginger1 are most confusing4 ,for detection of exhausted ginger recourse must be had to proximate analysis4 ,chemical composition of ginger3 ,ash may vary from #c4d to #h per cent42 fiber1 #a4g to #i per cent4 ,the white ginger has less ash than the dark1 as is also the case in regard to the percentage of fiber4 ,water1 #aa4jj to #i4aj ,ash1 #g4jb to #c4ci ,volatile ,oil1 #b4ed to 4#if ,fixed ,oil1 #d4eh to #b4bi ,starch1 #ec4cc to #df4af ,crude ,fiber1 #g4fe to #a4gj ,albuminoids1 #aj4he to #e4be ,it is said that the water and starch extract from the weight of the newly dug root #ge to #he per cent41 and yet the dried root retains all the valuable aromatic qualities4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,nutmeg4 7,myristica7 #a ,nutmeg with ,mace and part inner shell #b ,brown ,pedang #c ,long ,macassar with ,mace #d ,singapore or ,batavia #e ,flowering twig with leaf #f ,burr just opening showing the ,mace ,,chapter ,,xii ,,nutmegs ,though all your parts we rashly grate ,to particles most fine1 ,you yet return for cruel strokes1 ,tears filled with perfume fine4 ,,nutmegs are the fruit of ,myristica fragrans 7natural order ,myristicaceoe7 maschata officinalis4 ,myristica is founded upon the ,greek word myrrh1 myristikas1 sweet smelling1 and belongs to the custard family4 ,italian1 ,nace moscada2 ,french1 ,muscades et macis or ,naix muscade2 ,portuguese1 ,noiz mascada2 ,german1 ,muskatnusse and ,muskatbluther4 ,the nutmeg was known by the ,persians 7as jouzbewa7 and by the ,arabians 7jowzalteib7 in the eighth century4 ,there are about forty different species4 ,although the name myristikas 7sweet smelling7 was given to the genus on account of the odor of its fruit1 there is a material difference in the several species1 the commercial value of the fruit depending upon the degree in which the essential oil producing this perfume is present4 ,the true nutmeg is the kernel1 mostly consisting of the albumen of the fruit or the seed of a dicious evergreen tree1 which in some countries1 as in ,new ,guinea1 grows from fifty to sixty feet high4 ,it is a native of the ,molucca ,islands4 ,the nutmeg gardens of the world are the ,banda ,islands belonging to the ,east ,indies1 but the nutmeg is also found in the ,west ,indies on the ,island of ,jamaica1 which is quite noted for its nutmeg plantations4 ,nutmegs are also found in ,bengal1 ,singapore1 ,penang1 and ,french ,guinea and ,brazil1 in the west peninsula of ,new ,guinea1 ,damma1 ,amboina1 ,ceram1 ,boro1 ,boero or ,bouro1 ,gilolo1 ,sumatra1 and they have been successfully introduced in ,ternate1 ,menando1 in the ,celebes group1 and in ,java and ,bourbon or ,reunion1 but not in the ,philippines4 ,they do not do well except between #ab degrees north and #e degrees south of the equator4 ,they are found growing wild in the ,banda ,islands1 to which they are indigenous4 ,three of these islands are noted for their nutmeg gardens1 viz43 ,great ,banda or ,lantor 7,lantor ,banda71 ,pulo ,nera1 and ,goenong ,api4 ,the three islands together contain thirty-four parks1 of which ,great ,banda has twenty-five1 ,goenong ,api six1 and ,pulo ,nera three4 ,these parks contain #cai1hjd bearing trees1 which produce annually about #d1jjj piculs of #aci pounds each of nutmegs1 and #a1jjj pounds of mace4 ,this yield gives about one and one-half catties of #aci pounds each of spice to each tree per annum4 ,but much of the fruit is lost on account of the height of the trees1 and the inaccessible places in which many of the nuts fall4 ,many drop into the streams and float away1 and many are lost by being worm-eaten1 also many are eaten by field rats4 ,the entire group of ,banda ,islands is comprised within a space seven miles long and three miles wide2 in fact1 these are the dimensions of the ,island of ,lantor itself4 ,the islands are of a light volcanic soil1 and the great moisture1 due to the numerous rains1 makes them most favorable for nutmeg raising1 and seems almost perfectly to suit the requirements of the tree4 ,the only cultivation required is to keep the grass and weeds and underbrush cut1 no manuring or artificial stimulus being needed4 ,almost the entire surface of the islands is planted with nutmeg trees4 ,the labor is performed by ,dutch convicts1 who are banished to these islands1 there being no native population4 ,plants which spring up spontaneously from the seed are taken up and transplanted by simply heeling in the ground of the required vacancy4 ,in some places clumps of trees are found growing not more than ten to twelve feet apart under the shade of the canarium commune4 ,in fact1 the nutmeg is more collected than cultivated in the ,banda ,islands4 ,the trees grow from fifty to sixty feet high1 while those of the ,straits are but a shrub in comparison1 and in other countries they grow only from twenty to forty feet high1 and need much manuring and very careful cultivation4 ,it would appear as if the trees were overshaded in the ,straits1 and yet they require much shade to protect them from the strong winds which prevail there4 ,when a nutmeg plantation is to be started1 great care must be taken to select a good1 rich1 virgin soil1 formed of a deep loam with good drainage1 as the plants will not thrive on a sandy soil4 ,the rainfall should be at least from sixty to seventy inches per annum4 ,although the nutmeg plant is essentially a lowland plant1 flourishing from two hundred to four hundred feet above sea level1 and not proving successful at a higher elevation than fifteen hundred feet1 it must be kept free from stagnant water about its roots1 for this would surely kill it4 ,virgin forest lands1 with a soil covered with a layer of leaf mold or rotten wood1 is well adapted to the cultivation of the plant1 and a hot1 moist climate is requisite4 ,plenty of shade is necessary to protect the trees from the prevailing winds which would scatter the flowers and uproot the trees1 as the roots take but a slender hold in the ground4 ,large trees should not be allowed to grow with spice trees1 as they would exclude the vivifying rays of the sun and arrest the fall of the night dews1 which are necessary for quantity as well as quality of the nutmegs4 ,large trees would also rob the soil of its richness4 ,a double row of cassuarina littorea and cerbera manghas planted at the windward side of the plantations will afford ample shade and protection from the winds1 and trees with these advantages will give good crops4 ,plants are raised from the largest1 round1 fresh nuts before they will rattle in the shell1 care being taken that they are not more than two months old4 ,they may be planted and staked in the field intended for the plantation1 about eight feet apart4 ,if they are kept well watered and manured1 such planting is preferred to sowing in a nursery4 ,plants raised in a nursery are usually sown in bottomless baskets about one inch below the surface in a place well sheltered from the winds4 ,the nurseries must be kept free from weeds and well watered every day in dry weather1 especially when the seeds are planted in bamboo baskets1 for should the earth become hard and dry the nuts will not germinate4 ,if the land has been well tilled the seedlings will appear in about sixty days4 ,when they are from three to four feet high they may be transplanted to a permanent situation4 ,this should be done during wet weather and the trees must be kept well manured4 ,they must be watered on alternate days and protected from the sun4 ,they must be cultivated for five years4 ,care must be taken not to strike the roots of the tree in cultivating1 for if the tap root is broken the tree is sure to die4 ,when any roots become exposed they should be covered with leaf mold or with dirt mixed with cow manure4 ,when well started1 the trees should be thinned out1 leaving them from twenty to thirty feet apart1 according to the richness of the soil2 the richer the soil the wider the space4 ,before the transplanting of the seedlings from the nursery1 holes are first dug and left open for a time and filled with surface soil consisting of cow dung mixed with burnt earth1 but if the ground is very rich the manure may be dispensed with4 ,the holes prepared in this way give the young plants a good start4 ,the trees are planted in prepared holes in the bamboo baskets as they are taken from the nursery1 slit down at one side4 ,banana plants make good shade for young trees and return good profit until they have to be cut down to give room for the growing tree4 ,when the trees are backward in growing they should have extra care4 ,the soil about the roots should be loosened and manuring should be done with farmyard compost lightly scattered around the trees close to the stem1 so that it may work its way into the soil4 ,to dig holes would injure the roots and might cause the tree to die4 ,in very dry weather it is well to cover the ground around the trees with dry leaves to protect them from the sun's rays and to keep the moisture in the ground4 ,on poor soil the trees must be kept manured until they are fifteen years old4 ,they need as many as ten large baskets to a tree4 ,the manure should be at first spread in the sunshine to kill all the insects it may contain4 ,all parasitic and epiphytic plants which may attach themselves to the stem and branches should be removed at once1 as they would have a most injurious effect4 ,the pruning operations are very simple4 ,all suckers should be cut away and the lower branches should be removed gradually until there is sufficient space for working under the trees4 ,the nutmeg trees are moncious as well as dicious4 ,the sex of a tree cannot be told until it flowers1 which will be in about seven years1 when1 on cutting the flower open longitudinally with a sharp pen-knife1 the sex may be determined4 7,see illustration47 ,the staminate flowers are from three to five1 or sometimes more1 on a peduncle1 and the pistillate flowers are often solitary1 both kinds of flowers being small and of a yellow color 7without calyx71 and the perianth is bell-shaped with three or four teeth at the top4 ,the anthers are set around a central column1 and if the flowers be fully open the yellow pollen may be easily seen in the pistillate or female flowers1 in the form of a little red disk knob4 ,soon after the fecundation of the embryo the female flower drops off and the little knob expands1 gradually increasing in growth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,a1 verticle section of male flowers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,b1 verticle section of female flowers4 ,it will be noticed that the pistil is shorter than the perianth and is swollen at the base and crowned with the stigma which is indistinctly cut into lobes4 ,it is a good plan to plant two nuts or transplant two seedlings in one hole about two feet apart1 and when the flowers appear it will seldom happen that both trees will be male trees4 ,after determining the sexes the cutting out of the surplus male trees should take place4 ,those which are to remain should be left as much on the windward side of the plantation as possible1 so that the pollen may be carried by the wind to the pistils of the female trees4 ,in this respect the parks are similar to our apple orchards4 ,if a surplus number of male trees be left growing1 they are topped1 or headed down and grafted with scions from the female tree4 ,the parkineers#c on the ,banda ,islands do not expect a yield above #cj per cent4 of male trees from the planted seed1 and seldom so many1 and they think #b per cent4 enough male trees to leave growing1 while other countries look for a yield anywhere from #h per cent4 to #ge per cent4 of male trees1 and they estimate one male tree to eight or ten female the right proportion4 ----- ,footnote #c3 ,the parkineers is a term used in the ,banda ,islands4 ,the nutmeg tree is a handsome1 bushy evergreen with straight and lofty undivided trunk1 and with reddish-brown bark and verticillate branching head1 much resembling our apple tree4 ,it is cut back in the ,straits to about twenty feet4 ,the bark on the young branches is bright green1 the dark1 shining leaves1 glossy on the upper surface and whitish below1 are alternate1 simple1 and entire and oblong and obliptic and very aromatic4 ,they are strongly veined1 the petiolate being devoid of stipules or having very short foot stalks4 ,the nutmeg tree will begin to bear when from five to six years old and will then produce from five to six pounds of nutmegs and half a pound of mace to a tree4 ,the yield is more profitable when the tree is ten years old4 ,the tree will continue to produce fruit at sixty years of age1 and has been known to bear a crop when one hundred years old4 ,the male tree has a much shorter life than the fruit-bearing trees4 ,the flowers are very small and are clustered in the axils of the leaves4 ,they are a pale yellow and have a fragrance much like that of the lily of the valley4 ,the nuts will often split before reaching maturity1 by reason of cold1 damp weather and sudden changes4 ,the nutmeg tree1 like the orange1 is a constant bearer1 producing two crops in one year1 and sometimes three1 in the ,east4 ,a much larger crop1 however1 is harvested in the later months of the year1 and the smaller crops in ,april1 ,may1 and ,june1 and even in ,july4 ,some are harvested every month of the year1 as is the case to some extent on the ,banda ,islands1 and they are delivered every month to the government boats4 ,but the months especially devoted to harvesting are the same on the ,banda ,islands as in the ,straits ,settlement4 ,from the ,straits the shipments are made quarterly4 ,the nutmeg fruit is about three inches long and about two inches in diameter1 and is found intermingled with the flowers of the tree1 it requires from six to nine months to mature2 fruits all the year around in a hot1 moist climate4 ,in the ,banda ,islands the fruit hangs upon longer and more slender stalks than is the case in the ,straits ,settlement4 ,the fruit hangs pendulous from the tree and is fleshy and firm4 ,at first it is round or oval and smooth1 much like a damson plum1 but it soon takes on the marked longitudinal1 dented line and pale green color--characteristics that give it more the appearance of a peach or an apricot4 ,it finally changes to a golden or yellow color and to the shape of a pear when ripe4 ,this outer covering1 which is at first thin1 gradually grows fleshy1 abounding in an astringent mass which becomes dry and leathery1 at which time it bursts open into two valves from the apex1 disclosing a brilliant scarlet aril or net-like membrane1 revealing the nutmeg kernel1 which is closely invested in a thin brown shell1 which separates the kernel from the aril or mace which envelopes both4 ,in the early days the ,dutch owned the ,banda ,islands4 ,they attempted to control the nutmeg trade4 ,accordingly1 they used to heat or lime the kernels before shipping1 to keep them from sprouting and so to prevent the propagation of the trees4 ,at one time they burned three piles of nutmegs1 each as large as a church1 to keep up the price4 ,but ,nature did not fancy this kind of business and a large pigeon1 called the 8nutmeg pigeon10 also known by the name of walor and nut eater 7species of carpophoga71 was attracted by the bright color of the mace and1 feeding on it extensively1 swallowing the mace and rejecting the nutmegs1 accomplished what the ,dutch tried to prevent1 by planting the nuts in all the surrounding countries of ,penang1 ,china1 ,ceylon1 and ,india4 ,thus the world at large was benefited4 ,illustration3 ,,harvesting ,,nutmegs ,the brown shell which covers the nutmeg has about one-fourth the weight of the nutmeg kernel4 ,when the nutmegs are exported without removing the shell they keep better1 but the cost of freight to the importers is increased4 ,the nutmeg fruit includes1 first1 the outer or fleshy membranous part2 second1 the substance covering the inner shell of the nutmeg1 known as mace2 next1 the inner shell2 and1 finally1 the kernel or nutmeg4 ,the native women and children gather the fruit twice each day1 except ,sundays1 from under the trees and carry them into the boucan1 barn1 or sheds1 made of brick with terraced roofs1 rejecting the outer shell or husk4 ,in the ,straits ,settlement1 if the trees are not too high 7the highest tree not being over thirty-five feet on ,penang ,island71 the nuts are beaten off by means of long bamboo poles4 ,in the ,banda ,islands the fruit is gathered by the use of a neat oval bamboo basket1 partly open at the top1 furnished with a couple of prongs4 ,with these prongs the harvester catches the fruit stalk and by a gentle pull causes the nuts to fall into the basket1 which will hold three or four4 ,by using this method the mace will not be bruised as it would be by falling to the ground1 and they have a skin more free from blemish1 and it is thinner compared with the fruit and of a well-uniformed proportion4 ,the outer shell or husk1 which is harder than that of a filbert1 is removed by one man placing the nuts on a sort of a drum head and another beating them with a flat board1 a process which will not bruise the nuts4 ,one man will beat out as many in this way as six men can do in the way which is employed at the ,straits4 ,after the envelope of the curious1 red-colored network 7mace7 is taken off the nutmegs are placed in receptacles which have fine wire-mesh bottoms1 made of splints1 called by the natives neebongs1 to allow the air to pass through1 or1 by being elevated above each other1 they are kept before a fire for a month or more1 the first elevated being about ten feet from the ground4 ,after this they are exposed to the sun two hours each day for two or three days until they rattle inside the shell when shaken4 ,they cannot be removed when green without damage to the nut4 ,they are then cracked by beating with great care1 as hard blows would cause a black spot on the nuts1 affecting the sale4 ,they are then assorted into three grades1 the finest are exported1 the second are reserved for home consumption1 and the third grade1 made up of small1 damaged1 or unripe stock1 are burned or used for nutmeg butter4 ,nutmegs are often affected by black spots or gangrene on the outer covering1 caused by an insect1 which deposits its larv on it in the husk and feeds on the saccharine matter of the outer covering until it bursts1 when it makes its way into the soft nut itself4 ,the number one nutmegs are put up in half piculs 7heavy-made boxes7 containing sixty to sixty-five pounds4 ,the ovate nutmeg seed is marked with impressions like the lobes or arillus 7mace7 which covers it1 one side being of a paler hue and slightly flattened1 and having the shape of the outer shell1 with corresponding dimensions in size1 the largest being about one inch long by eight-tenths of an inch broad4 ,four such nuts will weigh one ounce4 ,they are of a grayish or brown color1 but they are coarsely furrowed and longitudinally veined1 and are marked on the flatter side with a shallow groove4 ,there are only three kinds of nutmegs generally known to the trade4 ,the darker brown1 which is the fruit of the myristica fragrans1 is cultivated in ,penang and is known as the ,penang nutmeg4 ,it is exported from the city of ,penang 7,betel-nut ,city1 ,fig4 #b74 ,the pale-brown1 lined1 ,singapore or ,batavian 7,fig4 #d71 is named from the city of ,batavia1 on the ,island of ,java1 from which this variety is exported4 ,the long1 slender1 wild nutmegs 7,fig4 #c7 are known as ,macassars1 from the city of ,macassar 7called by the natives ,mangkasara7 on the ,island of ,celebes1 the principal city of export4 ,but the three kinds are distinguished by the planters as male or barren2 second1 the round female 7nux myristica fmina or green7 7nux maschata fructo rotundo71 and the royal4 ,the royal nutmeg is no larger than a peanut 7nux maschata rigia7 and produces the long nut which has the aril or mace much longer than the nut1 while the true queen or female1 which is the more valuable round nutmeg1 has its mace extending only half way down the nut4 ,the average yield at six or seven years1 at which time the trees begin to bear1 is five to six pounds1 and a ten-year-old tree will produce from ten to fifteen pounds1 and will cover an area of about five hundred square feet4 ,this yield1 at forty cents per pound1 including the mace1 would bring #cjj per acre1 besides the other ingredients yielded1 which are valuable4 ,the older the tree the greater the yield1 and1 of course1 the tree is valued accordingly4 ,there is a tree on the ,island of ,jamaica which bears over #d1jjj nutmegs every year4 ,nutmegs vary greatly in size1 running from #fj's to #abj's as follows3 large1 #fj's to #hj's to the pound2 medium1 #he's to #ie's2 small1 #ajj's to #acj's4 ,there are probably more of the #aaj size used than of all other sizes combined4 ,nutmegs are assorted into the several sizes found on the market by passing them over different mesh sieves4 ,this process is called garbling4 ,the ,penang nutmeg1 the fruit of the myristica fragrans1 called by the ,hindustanee and ,bengalee jaiphal1 or true nutmeg1 as its name implies1 which is the finest1 is of a brown color and shaped like a damson plum4 ,it is furrowed on the interior and grayish inside1 with veins of red running through it1 and possesses a fine1 delicate aroma of great strength and flavor4 ,the ,penang nutmegs are not to be found in the spice-mill stock because the poorer ,batavia or the wild ,macassars will grind better1 their worm holes will not show in the meal1 and they are not difficult to powder4 ,liming nutmegs by the ,dutch to prevent their sprouting has lead to misunderstanding and many vices4 ,some think limed nutmegs the best1 taking them in preference to the fine1 brown ,penang1 and are willing to pay higher prices for them4 ,such buyers seem to know nothing about the convincing1 easy tests that may be made by weighing1 the pure nutmegs being heavier on account of the oil they contain1 and by scraping the nut with the finger nail to note if the oil starts4 ,although there are only four kinds of nutmegs known to the trade there are more than twenty-five 7many give as many as forty7 different varieties4 ,those known to commerce1 when found in the order of their quality1 are as follows3 ,the ,penang1 of which there were exported in #aijd1 #b1hbh piculs1 valued at #age1eib1 which are unlimed and are brown2 second1 ,dutch limed or ,batavians2 third1 ,singapore1 which are a rougher1 unlimed1 narrower kind1 and of somewhat less value than the ,dutch ,batavia2 fourth1#d 8long0 or 8wild0 or 8male nutmeg10 nux myristicamas1 ,clusius 7nux maschata fructo oblongo ,c4 bouchin71 which is the product of myristica fatua4 ,in addition to these1 we have the ,malabar1 found in the district of ,malabar1 province of ,madras1 ,british ,india1 which is the product of myristica ,malabarica4 ,it resembles a date in size and shape1 and is closely allied to the long nutmeg1 but has less flavor4 ,it is called by the ,hindustanee and ,bengalee jaiphal1 and those of myristica ,malabarica1 8ran jaiphal10 and 8ramphal10 and in the native ,malabar dialect1 8panam palka10 and is largely used as an adulterant for powdered true nutmeg4 ----- ,footnote #d3 ,j4 ,c4 ,sawyer's ,odorographia1 ,second ,series4 ,illustration3 ,,harbor ,,of ,,macassar1 ,,celebes ,,islands ,illustration3 ,a ,,forest ,the wild nutmeg 7myristica argentea7 tree grows very high with a leaf equal in size to the horse chestnut1 with a silvery top1 and in ,germany it is called the 8horse nutmeg40 ,it is found in ,new ,guinea1 ,amboina1 and the ,banda ,islands4 ,the nuts1 when fresh from the trees1 are about four and one-half centimeters to six and one-half centimeters in length1 and four and one-half centimeters to five and one-half centimeters in diameter4 ,they are first of a bright red1 but later scattered yellow-brown veins or specks appear which contain the aroma4 ,after the husk is removed1 the nut is about three and one-half to four and one-half centimeters long and from two to two and one-half centimeters in diameter1 and the testa is nearly one millimeter thick4 ,they abound in a disagreeable oil1 which1 of course1 will rob them of the pleasant nutmeg flavor which is found in the cultivated nut4 ,the thick pericarp or outer covering is hard and brittle4 ,the mace which covered it is insipid1 is of a reddish color1 has a disagreeable odor and it generally consists of four stripes which are united above and below4 ,it is broadest at the base1 gradually narrowing toward the end4 ,the fruit is elongated1 or ellipsoidal1 rusty1 tomentose1 in shape like a date1 and differs from the true nutmeg in being less marked by the arillus furrows4 ,the cotyledons are joined in a disc swelled at its edges to five millimeters diameter1 and the endosperm contains much starch4 ,myristica argentea nutmegs are sometimes used medicinally for dysentery1 headache1 and other ailments1 and those long nutmegs 7male71 wild myristica tomentosa 7myristica fatua71 are next in flavor to the true myristica fragrans1 and are the kind sold in the market as ,macassars4 ,another kind scarcely worthy of mention is the myristica succedanea1 a variety found on the ,island of ,tidor1 which is very similar to the myristica fragrans4 ,other so-called nuts which rarely figure in our market except as a substitute to adulterate are the ,american1 ,jamaicans1 or ,calabash 7monodora myristica71 ,brazilian 7cryptocarya maschata71 ,californian or stinking 7torreya myristica71 ,madagascar or clove 7agathophyllum aromaticum71 ,peruvian 7laurelia semperviren71 ,plume 7atherosperma maschata71 ,sante ,fe 7myristica otoba7 of ,new ,granada and the myristica sebifera virola sebifera aublet1 the seed of which furnishes an abundance of aromatic yellow tallow which has a crystalline appearance and is suitable to manufacture into candles4 ,all of these varieties are not much better than the wooden nutmegs from the ,nutmeg ,state1 or the one made by the heathen ,chinese out of sawdust and clay4 ,batavia nutmegs are often attacked by beetles or are worm eaten4 ,in this case they are pickled in lime water made from calcined shell-fish and mixed with water until it is of a semi-fluid consistency4 ,into this mixture they plunge the nutmegs 7which have been put in bamboo baskets7 two or three times until they are completely covered with it4 ,next they are put in heaps and are allowed to sweat4 ,after this they are packed in boxes or barrels made of the best ,java teak for exportation1 with the worm holes plugged up4 ,sometimes it is thought quite necessary to lime the ,batavia nuts 7the kind most commonly used7 before shipping1 not only to protect them from the ravages of the beetles or worms which attack them1 but also to prevent germination4 ,but it has been proven that this process is perfectly unnecessary1 as a simple exposure of the nuts to the action of the sun is sufficient to destroy the vitality of the embryo4 ,it is also proven to be unnecessary1 since the true brown ,penang is shipped without liming4 ,if lime is used1 however1 it should be in a dry state4 ,after all that has been said1 it is evident that the dealer or the consumer must be either foolish or ignorant who will reject the fancy1 round1 brown ,penang nutmegs for the limed ,batavia because it pleases the eye1 and will for no other reason buy old worm-eaten nuts with plugged-up holes1 relimed to give them a new appearance4 ,the new coat of lime costs but little1 but when the case is empty there is found from one to two pounds of lime in the bottom1 not covered by tare1 which has cost the purchaser the price of good nutmegs4 ,just so long as the trade will demand this class of stock1 just so long will deception be practiced and inferior stock will be found on the market4 ,all nutmegs have a market value and must be sold4 ,in selecting stock1 pick out of a lot the most inferior looking nut and cut it into two parts4 ,if it cuts firm like wood and has plenty of oil and no worm holes1 there is not apt to be any danger of inferior nuts in the balance of the stock4 ,in using nutmegs always grate from the flower end instead of the stem end4 ,good1 fresh nutmegs cannot be ground by an ordinary burr stone1 such as is used in spice mills1 but must first be broken or cracked in a cracking machine4 ,this machine consists of a roller provided with coarse teeth which revolve through similar stationary teeth1 the material being retained by a semi-circular perforated plate until it is reduced to the size of the perforation or about the size of a coffee bean4 ,after this it is pulverized by pounding or by stamps1 as they are called1 in the same way that mustard seed is pulverized4 ,sometimes the nuts are extensively mixed with some dry1 foreign material1 in which case they may be ground on the burr stone by an experienced miller4 ,one or two stamps may be used in powdering nutmegs and mace1 two being about all one man can well handle4 ,powdered nutmegs soon lose their flavor by standing1 on account of the loss of oil1 but as they have the consistency of tallow1 the flavor is for a time preserved4 ,nutmeg butter or balsam of nutmeg is often obtained by powdering the broken nuts1 when fresh1 to a fine powder or paste1 and then steaming them for five or six hours4 ,the substance is then put into bags1 placed between heated iron wedges or plates and is subjected to a strong pressure1 which presses out the fluid 7though this is sometimes extracted by ether or alcohol71 which is about #bj to #be per cent4 of the mass4 ,ten to #ab per cent4 of this fluid is an orange-colored oil1 which gives it an agreeable odor4 ,when it is cold it becomes somewhat spongy and has a marbled or mottled appearance4 ,it becomes hard with age and is exported in small bricks1 ten inches by two and one-half inches1 wrapped in palm leaves4 ,it is known under several names1 as nutmeg butter1 balsam of nutmeg1 concrete oil1 or the mace oil of commerce 7,french1 beurre de mascade2 ,german1 masket butter1 muskatnussal71 and as ,banda soap1 sometimes made from the distilled nutmeg leaves4 ,it has an agreeable odor and a greasy taste1 melts at #de degrees ,c41 and dissolves in four times its volume of warm alcohol1 #h per cent4 pure1 or in two parts warm ether4 ,the ,banda soap is soft to the touch1 has a yellow color1 and is sometimes counterfeited by using a foreign fatty substance1 as palm oil1 suet1 wax1 and animal fat1 boiled with powdered nutmeg and flavored with sassafras1 which gives it the right color and flavor4 ,the best nutmeg oil is imported from ,india1 often adulterated by the distillation of the leaves of the eucalyptus alba1 which has a nutmeg odor and flavor4 ,the fleshy part of the nutmeg fruit is often preserved in sugar and eaten as sweetmeats4 ,london's annual import of nutmegs is #djj1jjj to #hjj1jjj pounds1 and of mace from #fj1jjj to #hj1jjj pounds4 ,an amusing incident is told of an ,english governor sent to the ,isle of ,ceylon who1 noting the statistics that nutmegs were very abundant and cheap1 and mace was scarce and high1 called his council together and said3 8,we must raise less nutmegs and more mace40 ,the tissue of the seed can be cut with equal facility in any direction4 ,by the microscopic study of a transverse section of a cut nutmeg we find the testa consists mainly of long1 thin1 radially arranged1 rigid cells1 which are closely interlaced and do not exhibit any distinct cavities4 ,the endopleora1 which forms the adhering coat of the kernel and penetrates into it1 consists of soft-walled1 red-brown tissue1 with small scattered bundles of vessels1 thereby imparting the peculiar marbled appearance so familiar in a cut nutmeg4 ,in the outer layer the endopleora exhibits small collapsed cells1 but the tissue which fills the folds that dip into the interior consists of much larger cells4 ,the tissue of the albumen is formed of soft-walled parenchyma which is densely filled with conspicuous starch grains and with fat partly crystallized4 ,among the prismatic crystals of fat1 large1 thick1 rhombic or six-sided tables may often be observed4 ,with these are associated grains of albuminoid matter1 partly crystallized4 ,in carefully made preparations from the whole nutmeg1 the structure above described may be made out by care and patience1 but in the ground only the interior parenchyma cells with their starch contents can be seen when mounted in water1 with the alternate use of common and polarized light4 ,the fatty crystals are not observed and the fragments of the endopleora1 or red-brown tissue1 are only detected by their colors4 ,in chloral-hydrate the starch cells and grains are swollen1 but the red-brown tissue is much more transparent1 sufficiently so1 in fact1 to reveal any differences between it and any adulterant which might bear a resemblance4 ,there are but few bundles of fibers to be found1 and the structure as a whole will be found so simple that the addition of any foreign material can be readily detected4 ,the nutmeg owes its flavor and aroma to the oil it contains1 which is soluble in alcohol and may be obtained by distillation of the pulverized nuts1 the yield being from #h to #aj per cent4 ,the oil is straw colored1 with a specific gravity of #j4jic1 consisting principally of a hydrocarbon1 ,c#aj;,h#af1 boiling at #afe degrees ,c4 ,this appears by research to be a mixture of at least two hydrocarbons--one a terpene1 boiling at #afc degrees2 the other1 ordinary cymene1 the cymene being extracted by treating the mixture of hydrocarbons with sulphuric acid1 whereby the terpene becomes resinized and1 on distillation with water1 the cymene passes over unaltered2 when purified1 this was found to be identical with all the other known cymenes4 ,oil of nutmegs also contains an oxygenated constituent1 termed myristicol1 whose assigned formula is ,c#aj;,h#ad,o1 boiling near #bab degrees4 ,examined by polarized light in a #bjj-millimeter tube1 oil of nutmeg1 distilled1 was found to deviate the ray #ae4c degrees to the right1 and oil of long nutmeg #bh4g degrees to the right4 ,a more minute analysis might be given1 but enough has been said to meet all requirements for distinguishing between the pure and the adulterated nutmegs4 ,to add more might be confusing1 and1 since at present nutmegs are almost entirely sold whole and grated in the kitchen1 attempts at adulteration have been very few4 ,chemical composition of nutmegs3 ,water1 #f4jh ,ash1 #c4bg ,volatile ,oil1 #b4hd ,fixed ,oil or ,fat1 #cd4cg ,starch1 etc41 #cf4ih ,crude ,fiber1 #aa4cj ,albuminoids1 #e4af ,nitrogen1 4#hc ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,mace ,with your colors shining bright1 ,you stopped the pigeons in their flight2 ,from ,dutchmen's fields they planted seed1 ,which brought forth wealth in time of need4 ,,although nutmegs and mace are the fruit of the same tree1 and although they have similar properties1 they are yet so different in growth and flavor as to justify giving to them separate chapters4 ,the fleshy scarlet mantle or arillus which envelopes the nutmeg 7illustration under nutmeg71 or the coat between the outside pericarp and the seed of the nutmeg1 is called mace 7,latin1 ,macis2 ,french1 ,macis2 ,german1 ,maker74 ,it is not a continuous coat1 but a network which varies in amount in different localities1 as well as on the several species of nuts1 being from #j4be per cent4 in the ,bandas to #aj per cent4 in ,jamaica4 ,it would1 therefore1 require from ten to #djj pounds of nutmegs to produce one pound of mace4 ,planchon says of this laciniate envelope that it is nothing more than an expansion of the exostome and1 therefore1 an arillode or false aril4 ,mace is harvested at the same time as the nutmegs and sometimes it is removed from the nutmeg by scraping with a knife1 but removing it by hand is considered the better way4 ,this is done by commencing at the base of the nut1 for the reason that there the interlacing or lining becomes more expanded and at the same time flattened4 ,in this condition it is placed on mats or trays to dry in the sunshine4 ,the modern drier1 however1 is now largely used and is preferable1 even when the weather is clear for a sufficient time to cure the mace1 as sunshine seems to absorb some of its substantial qualities4 ,the modern drier also prevents it from drying too rapidly4 ,mace1 in drying1 is first crimson1 then blood red1 but in process of drying it loses this tinge1 and after a few months1 when properly cured1 it is of a yellowish or golden-brown color1 preferred by the dealers4 ,it is then firmly packed in bags 7called by the ,germans in the ,straits ,settlements1 sok kols74 ,the ,banda mace is usually packed in one-half piculs of sixty-five pounds and in barrels or casks containing about #bhj pounds each1 the pressure being about equal to the weight of the mace4 ,when driers are not used and the weather is wet1 mace is dried by being smoked1 care being taken not to blacken it4 ,sometimes the base of the mace is cut off and it is dried in double layers--a process which many think has a tendency to keep worms from working into it1 but this is not true1 as it1 instead1 furnishes a place in which they can hide4 ,true mace is the product of the true nutmeg1 which is round and covered with single and double blades of flat and somewhat irregular smooth slits4 ,these are slightly flexible or brittle membrane of a golden-yellow color1 and1 in the odor and taste1 analogous to the odor and taste of the nutmeg4 ,they are rich in fixed and essential oils and in aroma4 ,while each is a part of the same fruit1 the nutmeg and mace are entirely different in outward appearance and are separated for commercial purposes1 as well as for their separate uses4 ,the ,penang mace is most esteemed because it is flaxy and spreads4 ,penang exported #a1adc piculs1 valued at #aje1jcb1 in #aijd4 ,the ,dutch or ,batavian is more fleshy and cheaper4 ,the ,singapore is inferior to both the ,penang and the ,dutch1 while the wild or false mace from the long nutmegs is dark red and has a coarse1 strong flavor1 which is very different from that of the true mace4 #e,myristica ,malabarica1 known under the name of ,bombay mace1 used to adulterate the true powdered mace1 is much larger and more cylindrical than the arillus of the true nutmeg and has several flaps united at the apex1 forming a conical structure4 ,the anatomical structure is also different1 as may be seen by the aid of a microscope4 ,when moistened with hydrochloric acid1 the ,bombay mace presents the marked peculiarity of assuming a greenish color4 ,bombay mace may be detected by boiling the suspected samples with alcohol and filtering through a white filter2 if the mace is pure the filter is stained a faint yellow1 but if ,bombay mace is present the filter1 especially the edge1 is colored red4 ,a rather more delicate test is to add 8,goulard's0#f extract to the alcoholic filtrate2 with pure mace only a white turbidity is occasioned1 but when ,bombay mace is present a red turbidity is obtained4 ,the reaction given by tumeric is similar1 but it may be distinguished from that of ,bombay mace in the following manner3 ,a strip of filter paper is saturated with the alcoholic solution1 the excess of fluid removed1 and the strips drawn through a cold1 saturated solution of boric acid4 ,when ,bombay mace is present the paper remains unchanged1 but in the presence of tumeric it turns orange brown4 ,if a drop of potassium-hydrate solution is now placed on the strip of paper1 it causes a blue ring if tumeric be present1 and a red ring if the adulterant is ,bombay mace4 ----- ,footnote #e3 ,tamk ,bedd1 ,g4 ,l41 ,sylv4 t#bfi2 ,rheede1 ,hort41 ,m#ba1 iv1 t#e4 ----- ,footnote #f3 ,pharmacographia ,indica4 ,the myristica argentea produces a dirty-brown colored mace1 and the arillus generally consists of four broad stripes which are united above and below4 ,in selecting mace care should be taken to select the orange-colored with a transparent-like appearance4 ,when it has a tendency to crumble to dust it is considered of poor quality4 ,dull-looking parcels should be avoided1 as such is never genuine mace1 but is obtained from concrete virtue or expressed oil of bruised or broken nutmegs4 ,although pure mace has a flavor quite similar to that of the nutmeg1 it has a peculiarity of its own which most people prefer4 ,it is extensively used for medicinal purposes4 ,ground mace1 which is powdered by stamps or by pounding1 the same as nutmegs or mustard1 loses its flavor very rapidly and when distilled yields a reddish1 buttery oil1 which can be obtained by process of distillation4 ,this oil is strong and volatile and contains an oxygenated body1 the properties of which have not been determined4 ,this buttery oil1 mixed with other substances1 is known as nutmeg balsam4 7,see nutmegs47 ,the uniform1 small-celled1 angular parenchyma of mace contains numerous brown cells of large size and the inner parts contain thin1 brown vascular bundles4 ,the cells of the epidermis on either side are colorless1 containing thick walls1 longitudinally extended1 and covered with a peculiar cuticle of broad1 flat1 ribbon-like cells as a continuous film which cannot be removed4 ,the parenchyma also contains many small granules to which a red color is imparted by means of a solution of meracious nitrate and an orange hue by use of iodine4 ,this result shows that they consist of albuminous matter without starch4 ,the chemical characteristics are so marked and the structure is so closely carried out that the adulteration of ground mace is very easily detected4 ,all the details of structure in the ground powder of mace are readily made out by chloral-hydrate preparation with the polarized light1 as the brown vascular bundles1 the ribbon-like and epidermal cells are all polarizing substances1 while the large mass of granular parenchymous cells are not4 ,the ribbon-like cells are particularly interesting in the varied forms they assume4 ,,the ,,chemical ,,composition ,,of ,,mace ,the nature of the principal constituent of mace can be found from the following experiments3 ,seventeen grammes of finely pulverized mace were entirely exhausted by boiling ether and the solvent left to spontaneous evaporations4 ,the residue1 amounting to #e4eg grammes after dessications at #ajj degrees ,c41 was reduced in weight to #d4ag1 the loss #a4dj grammes being the essential oil1 which was #h4b per cent4 ,the residue1 amounting to #bd4e per cent41 was thick1 aromatic balsam in which we can find no trace or presence of fat1 but1 instead1 it consisted of resin and semi-resinified aromatic oil4 ,alcohol extracts from this #a4d per cent4 of uncrystallizable sugar1 which may be reduced by cupric oxide4 ,the drug after this treatment with alcohol and ether yields scarcely anything to cold water1 but boiling water extracts #a4h per cent4 of mucilage1 which takes a blue color if treated with iodine1 or a reddish-violet if previously dried4 ,this test shows that it has qualities quite different from those of nutmegs4 ,this substance is not soluble in an ammoniacal solution of cupric oxide2 it seems rather to be an intermediary body between gum and starch1 and may be called amylodextrin4#g ,it is distinguished from the true starch by being stained reddish brown instead of blue by an aqueous solution of iodine2 the grains of amylodextrin#g do not appear to contain even a nucleus of starch4 ,as seen under the microscope1 they have usually somewhat the form of a rod and are often curved or coiled2 less often they are roundish or disc-shaped2 they do not usually exhibit any evident stratification4 ----- ,footnote #g3 ,amyloceous1 starchy4 ,chemical composition3 ,water1 #e4fg ,ash1 #d4aj ,volatile ,oil1 #d4jd ,resin1 #bg4ej ,undetermined1 #da4ag ,crude ,fiber1 #h4ic ,albuminoids1 #d4ee ,nitrogen1 4#gc ,the city of ,macassar1 ,celebes1 exported during the first nine months of the year #aije1 #d1ebj4fa worth of mace2 and ,padang1 ,sumatra1 exported #a1fag4ag during the same time4 ,the city of ,singapore exported #bb1gaj4ab worth during the year #aijd4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,mustard #a ,flowering stem with leaves #b ,flower #c ,pod #d ,yellow seed #e ,black seed ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,mustard ,you are an appetizer prime1 ,and a friend in time of pain4 ,what did they do without you1 pray1 ,before ,old ,lady ,clements' time8 ,,french1 ,moutarde2 ,german1 ,senf2 ,portuguese1 ,mustarda2 ,spanish1 ,maszaza4 ,the mustard of commerce is the seed1 whole or powdered1 of the several species of the genus brassica 7or sinapis7 of the mustard family4 ,they are 7cruciferous7 plants which grow wild1 or cinnamon charlock1 and are cultivated under various conditions4 ,mustard dates back through a number of centuries1 and the mustard tree1 spoken of in ,luke ,,xiii1 #ai1 which attains a height of ten or even fifteen feet in ,palestine1 was probably the true mustard1 brassica 7sinapis7 nigra1 according to ,ragle and others4 ,the tree meant is ,salvadora ,persica1 a small tree bearing minute berries with pungent seeds which bear the name in ,arabic of mustard4 ,hippocrates used it in medicine under the name of vanuit4 ,in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth1 the ,dutch were employed to throw out the earth from the eighty-foot dyke to drain the farms of ,lincolnshire1 ,norfolk1 and ,cambridgeshire1 which were covered with water and had been the habitation of wild fowls4 ,this dirt was found to contain small brown seeds which1 on being exposed to the sun and air1 sprouted and grew into plants1 producing a yellow blossom which proved to be mustard4 ,the two common varieties are the black or brown mustard1 known as 7brassica sinapis nigra71 and the white seed1 as it is called1 although of a yellow color 7brassica sinapis alba71 usually found in whole mixed spices4 ,the ,indian wild brown mustard seed 7rai or charlock juncea ,sarepta brassica71 taking the name ,sarepta from the city of that name in ,russia1 in the government of ,saratov1 is sometimes offered as the black mustard4 ,sinapis glauca and sinapis ramosa yield a white seed found in ,south ,russia and in the steppes northeast of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,mustard is known by every farmer and is an annual herb 7see illustration71 from three to six feet high1 with lyrate leaves1 yellowish flower1 and slender pods containing round seed2 it may be grown almost anywhere4 ,as only a few kinds of mustard seed are known to commerce1 we will confine our history principally to the black seed1 which is yellow within 7brassica nigra71 and which furnishes the most aroma4 ,the seeds are very small and do not weigh more than one-fiftieth of a grain1 while the seed of brassica alba1 or the white seed1 as it is called1 is three times as large as the black4 ,mustard seed is found in almost all of ,europe1 except the most northern part1 in ,northern ,africa1 ,asia ,minor1 the ,united ,states1 ,mesopotamia1 the ,west ,indies1 ,south ,siberia1 and ,china4 ,it is naturalized in ,north and ,south ,america1 and is cultivated to a great extent in ,bohemia1 ,holland1 and ,italy1 and in ,lincolnshire and ,yorkshire1 ,england4 ,it is generally put up for market in bags of #bjj pounds each4 ,much of the black seed 7,fig4 #e7 comes from ,california1 and is brought to the ,eastern market by railroads2 much comes also from ,kentucky4 ,each of these ,states produce large crops1 and the ,new ,york ,spice ,mills use large quantities of it on account of its being cheaper than the imported4 ,it does not contain as much flour as the yellow seed1 but it is sweeter4 ,the best dark seed comes from ,italy and is exported from the city of ,trieste1 ,austria1 and is called ,trieste mustard4 7,see illustration47 ,it is often sent by the ,mediterranean ,sea to ,london1 and from there is transferred to ,new ,york vessels1 although some comes direct from ,bombay and ,sicily4 ,the yellow or large1 plump1 straw-colored1 rough1 hairy seed 7,fig4 #d7 is much less remunerative than the black1 smooth seed2 is white inside1 and1 though a native of ,asia1 is found in ,russia and ,africa4 ,the best of it comes from ,england1 and is often called ,english mustard4 ,illustration3 ,,trieste1 ,,austria ,the ,dutch seed is considered next grade in quality to the ,english4 ,in ,china and some parts of ,europe a species is cultivated for greens for the table1 which are prepared in the same way as spinach4 ,the great aim of the grower is to produce reddish-brown seed1 without any intermixture of gray4 ,the gray color of the seed is attributed to the influence of the rains during the ripening4 ,the presence of this color greatly lowers the value of the seed4 ,the crop requires very little tillage4 ,the seed is sown broadcast1 in the month of ,april1 at the rate of one bushel to an acre4 ,the harvesting will take place in ,june and ,july4 ,the land is sufficiently seeded to produce two crops1 which are sometimes gathered in one year4 ,a yield of forty bushels to an acre is not uncommon4 ,the seed weighs sixty pounds to the bushel4 ,mustard was first introduced as a table condiment in the year #agbj by an old lady named ,clements1 residing in ,durham4 ,it is from this fact that the well-known ,durham mustard takes its name4 ,she prepared it in a crude form by grinding the seed in a small hand mill4 ,the product was nothing more than the crushed seed4 ,this was passed through mesh sieves to separate the bran from the husk4 ,the secret of this process she kept for many years4 ,mustard was used as a medicine by the ancients and is spoken of in history by ,theophrastus and ,galen and others4 ,its use as a condiment is spoken of by ,shakespeare in 8,taming of the ,shrew10 ,act ,,iv1 ,scene ,,iii4 ,the mustard which was made in the time of ,king ,george1 who gave it his approval1 was made from the wild charlock ,s4 arvensis and was prepared by ,lady ,clements4 ,but as manufacturing gradually developed1 in order to cater to public taste1 the seed meal has been changed to the genuine mustard of to-day1 which is the farina or flour of the black or white mustard seed1 made from the interior of the seed1 which is separated from the outer coat or shell4 ,mustard seed contains so much oil that it cannot be ground on common burr stones4 ,it is prepared for market by first passing it through a winnowing machine to remove the dust and any other foreign material2 it is next crushed by passing it between rollers2 then it is placed in silk bags made for that purpose1 and the volatile oil is extracted by hydraulic pressure4 ,after the cake is dried it is put into pots and is stamped or pounded by a system of battery pounding1 or by means of roller mills1 in which the pounders vary in number from two to four1 eight1 twelve1 or sixteen4 ,the pounding or stamping continues until the cake is reduced to the consistency of soft middlings1 or to the required powder4 ,it is next scooped out into a trough and more cake is put into the pots4 ,the stamping continues until all the cake is used up4 ,then it is scooped for bolting on sieves made of silk cloth of fine or coarse mesh1 as required1 which are set in frames and given a shaking motion by an upright shaft1 the meal falling into a receptacle below4 ,the quality of powdered mustard varies much1 according to the quality of the mustard seed4 ,prime seed yields #ej to #fj per cent4 of flour1 and poor seed will run as low as #bh per cent4 ,it does not pay to prepare poor seed1 as the time lost in its preparation would not make up for the cheapness of it4 ,the operation of properly reducing mustard seed requires expert handling1 and it can easily be ruined by incompetent operators4 ,more than #ej or #fj per cent4 of meal might be taken out at the first sifting1 but to do so the bran would have to be chopped up so fine that some would pass through the sieve and spoil the appearance of the flour4 ,the flour which is taken out at the first sifting is called superfine4 ,if no more could be obtained from the seed than the superfine flour1 it is very clear that the mustard flour would cost nearly or quite twice as much as the cake1 with all the labor added4 ,but to save this extra cost the miller often adds to the remaining bran or tailings an equal quantity of good wheat flour1 and also #a per cent4 of good ,cayenne pepper1 and sufficient color 7tumeric7 to give the same tinge as that of pure mustard4 ,pound this as before and by the same process1 the flour remaining is separated from the bran and united with the wheat flour4 ,in passing through the sieve1 #ge per cent4 of the compound may be extracted4 ,this product1 which is better than most of the adulterated1 is called fine4 ,nearly all of the wheat flour will pass through the sieves1 and about #be per cent4 of the mustard and this #be per cent4 of bran is treated as before4 ,as the wheat flour is increased1 the hulls or bran will be less apt to affect the appearance of the mustard4 ,this is called seconds4 ,it is admitted that much of the good property of the mustard is in the bran1 and1 after all1 it is only necessary to extract it to satisfy a popular prejudice as to what a fine1 yellow color pure mustard ought to have4 ,this notion is often wrong1 just as coloring butter to please the eyes is wrong4 ,these mixtures may all be mixed and powdered together1 if rightly colored1 and again bolted to make various grades1 or1 with experience in the use of a mill and an acquaintance with the nature of the particular kind of seed or the quality of the pressed cake1 it may be powdered from the start1 if sufficient adulteration is added to the cake4 ,thus a grade combining all the qualities may be made at one operation4 ,this process reduces the labor to a minimum4 ,after the sifting is completed there will remain a residue in the sieves1 which is called dressing4 ,this is used in wet mustard or ,french mustard1 as it is known to the consumer4 ,it is sometimes used by pickle manufacturers4 ,,wet ,,mustard ,,or ,,french ,,mustard1 ,consists of a compound of crushed mustard seed and vinegar1 the seed having been passed between rollers and then washed into a cask or vat4 ,with it there is often mixed garlic and such spice or flavoring material as the fancy or experience of the manufacturer will determine4 ,this compound is ground two or three times through a stone mill or through a line of several mills1 the material being fed from one to the other until it is received in a final reservoir1 from which it is put up in bottles4 ,it is of a consistency of paste1 which contains all the mustard1 the oil1 the flour1 and the bran4 ,it may be compounded with an indefinite variety of material1 and the refuse bran of dry mustard may also be added4 ,its use is steadily increasing1 and a very satisfactory article may be made at home by thoroughly pounding the seed and mixing it with good vinegar4 ,in this way the maker can be sure that his compound has the virtue of purity and also of cheapness4 ,as the fixed oil has no pungency or mustard taste1 it adds nothing to the flavor of the flour1 but1 instead1 injures its keeping qualities1 and1 if left in1 makes the seed very difficult to be pulverized4 ,it is used as a salad and there is a ready market for it1 as there is a great demand for it by the ,jewish people4 ,since hydraulic presses are expensive1 costing from #b1jjj to #d1jjj each1 but a small number of the spice millers press their own mustard seed4 ,they either buy the mustard cake1 which has been prepared by special mustard mills1 or buy the pure or adulterated flour1 already prepared for the market4 ,some spice millers are suspicious of the cake1 fearing it may be adulterated or be made up of partially poor seed1 or of the refuse of previous workings1 and they have good reasons for their fears1 as such adulteration might occur1 but as the pure article is to be judged by the flavor and pungency it may possess1 it is as easy to test the cake as the seed4 ,mustard is not only very popular as a condiment but is a medicinal rubefacient1 as it has many stimulating properties4 ,the use of mustard plasters every household is familiar with2 mustard also promotes digestion1 and it is a splendid emetic in case of poisoning4 ,a good story is told of a quack doctor who advertised electric belts for sale4 ,he had received many testimonials from those who had bought them1 his patrons speaking very highly of the benefit they had received from their use1 but as the belts became worn and were ripped open it was found that the electricity they contained was made up of mustard flour4 ,in the ground mustard or mustard meal1 as has been explained1 we have only the interior of the seed1 with the exception of the few small portions of the husk1 which may have escaped in the operation of bolting4 ,the presence of these fragments enables us to recognize the source from which the flour is derived1 and also to detect the use of mustard hulls as an adulterant of other food materials4 ,the farina or black and white mustard differs but little in appearance4 ,the brown1 however1 is slightly darker4 ,the outer colorous epidermis consists of angular plates1 or hexagonal tabular cells1 with a center of different brilliancy4 ,it swells up and becomes slimy in water1 and1 therefore1 must be observed in glycerine4 ,at the best it requires some manipulation to see it well1 and it is far less prominent in the black seed4 ,the next coat1 denominated the subepidermal1 is not prominent and can only be seen at all easily in the white seed4 ,the third layer is an important one1 and in it is found the coloring matter of the brown seed4 ,its absence is the cause of the lack of color in the white variety4 ,by this layer one is able to tell whether the flour is a mixture of both the black and white seed or if it is derived from one only4 ,fragments of this layer are common in powdered mustard4 ,it is distinguished by the thick or colorless brown cell walls and their irregular dotted appearance4 ,between the third and second layers are numerous cells containing some color in the brown seed1 but of little importance4 ,within these comes the important layer1 denominated the inner tunic or plasma layer4 ,it separates readily from the other parts of the husk and is often found by itself in the powdered mustard4 ,as its contents are broken up by water or chloral-hydrate1 it is necessary to use glycerine or oil in mounting4 ,the cells and their contents of this layer are large and much alike in both the black and white seed4 ,the interior of the mustard seed is made up of small1 soft parenchyma cells1 containing the oil and the other constituents of the mustard1 but without any trace of starch--a fact which makes adulterations easily detected4 ,the peculiar pungency and odor of the black seed are due to an essential or fixed oil1 myronic acid1 which is developed by the action of cold water 7hot water will not answer7 on two peculiar chemical substances which it contains1 which form a compound1 termed by the discoverers myronate of potash1 but since called synanthrin1 an acid with formula ,c#aj;,h#ai,,ns#b,o#aj4 ,this acid is converted into the volatile oil of mustard or sulphocyanide of allyl ,c#d;,h#e,,ns1 or ,c ,n ,s4 ,c#c;,h#e ,through the agency of the myrosin1 another constituent of brown seed1 when the two are brought in contact through the medium of water1 we have vegetable albumen1 a bitter principle1 a little gum and sugar1 and a peculiar green substance1 cellulose1 and mineral water1 called sulphocyanide of sinapine4#h ,the aqueous extract of yellow mustard seed yields with a solution of ferric chloride a deep1 blood-red coloration1 which is scarcely perceptible with similar extract of black mustard4 ,the aqueous extract of white mustard acquires a powerful odor of sulphurated hydrogen in a few hours1 while that of the black seed smells only of the pungent mustard oil4 ----- ,footnote #h3 ,sinapaline sincaline4 ,white mustard seed contains from #be per cent4 to #ce per cent4 of an inodorous fixed oil with a little tendency to become rancid and of little pungency1 which it will not give up in water4 ,in place of myronic acid converted into volatile oil of mustard1 it contains a non-volatile1 bitter and acrid salt termed sulphocyanide of sinapine 7,c#ag;,h#bd,n#b,,so#e or ,c#af;,h#bc,,no#e;,,cnhs71 myrosin gum cellulose and mineral matter4 ,now1 as it is on the volatile oil and the acrid and somewhat bitter salt that the pungency and acridity of mustard depend1 we can see a strong reason why in the mustard of commerce the farina of the two species1 black and white seed1 should be blended together1 in the proportion of two parts of white to one of black4 ,the black seed does contain some of the acrid principle as well as the volatile oil1 as has been verified by the action of nitric acid1 caustic potash1 and ferric chloride1 on the alcoholic extract4 ,it is1 therefore1 the most valuable of the two seeds on account of the little volatile oil in the yellow seed4 ,the acrid principle of white mustard appears to possess but little stability1 although it has been said to bear a temperature of #acj degrees ,c4 ,we find that it is readily affected by heat and that it is not safe to evaporate the alcoholic solution containing it at a higher temperature than about #cj degrees ,c41 for1 if subjected to a much higher temperature1 it quickly loses its acridity and acquires a bitter1 caramel-like taste4 ,the oil extracted by ether from the brown seed is of a bright and beautiful emerald-green color1 owing to the peculiar green principle described as one of its constituents4 ,so deep and remarkable is the color of the oil that it would be easy by means of a graduated scale of tints to determine with very tolerable certainty the percentage of brown mustard contained in any sample of mixed mustard4 ,specific gravity1 #a4jag2 boils at #adh degrees4 ,myronate of potash decomposes under the influence of the nitrogenous matter contained in brown mustard into volatile oil1 glucose1 and acid sulphate of potash4 ,the quantity of each of these products of decomposition gives1 therefore1 by simple calculation1 the quantity of myronic acid2 one hundred parts of this acid yield #bc4he parts of volatile oil4 ,place forty to fifty grammes of mustard farina in a flask of about one-half liter capacity2 #bej cubic centimeters of tepid water should be poured over it1 then close the flask with a cork and shake well4 ,after twenty-four hours' standing connect the flask with a ,liebig's condenser and heat to boiling4 ,pour thirty cubic centimeters strong ammonia into the receiver1 the end of the condenser being dipped below the surface of the liquid4 ,water and the volatile oil will pass over1 the oil at first floating in the shape of oily drops on the surface of the liquid1 which soon sinks to the bottom1 especially when the liquid is gently agitated4 ,when no more oil globules pass over1 the distillation has finished4 ,the receiver should be closed with a cork and allowed to stand twenty-four hours2 at the end of this time all the oil will be dissolved and is now contained in the liquid in the form of thiosinamine 7,c#d;,h#h,n#b74 ,this solution is evaporated on the water bath in a weighed platinum basin1 the residue dried and weighed1 and the quantity of thiosinamine obtained1 minus one molecule of ammonia1 represents the amount of volatile oil4 ,to estimate the amount of myrosin or albumen and sulphocyanide of sinapine1 the amount of nitrogen and sulphur in the mustard should first be obtained1 the former by combustion with soda lime in the well-known manner1 and the latter by deflagration of the mustard and oxidation of its sulphur in a mixture of nitrate of soda and carbonate of potash4 ,first1 dissolve the mass in water or diluted acid1 and the sulphuric acid contained in the solution is estimated by means of chloride of barium1 and1 from this data the amount of the myrosin and of the sulphocyanide of sinapine1 the acrid principle is calculated4 ,as much sulphur and nitrogen are first deducted from the totals of these substances obtained as is contained in the quantity of myronic acid previously determined4 ,next1 the whole remaining sulphur1 and as much of the nitrogen as is required1 are estimated in the acrid principle1 and1 lastly1 the surplus nitrogen is calculated into myrosin1 which has the same formula as vegetable albumen4 ,but now1 having the amount of the acrid principle and of the myrosin1 a further calculation has to be made1 since myrosin contains about #a per cent4 of sulphur1 and this can be deducted from the total acrid principle1 a corresponding quantity of nitrogen being in turn calculated into myrosin4 ,chemical composition of white mustard3 ,moisture1 #i4cb with variations ,fat1 #be4ef ,cellulose1 #aj4eb ,sulphur1 #j4ii ,nitrogen1 #d4ed ,albuminoids1 #bh4cg ,myrosin #e4bd ,albumin1 ,soluble ,matter1 #bg4ch ,volatile ,oil1 #j4jjf ,ash1 #d4eg ,soluble1 #j4ee ,chemical composition of brown mustard seed3 ,moisture1 #h4eb ,fat1 #be4ed ,cellulose1 #i4ja ,albuminoids1 #be4ej ,myrosin and ,albumin1 #e4bd ,soluble ,matter1 #bd4bb ,nitrogen1 #d4ch ,sulphur1 #a4bh ,ash1 #d4ih ,fixed ,oil1 #cf4jj ,volatile ,oil1 #j4dgc ,potassium ,myronate1 #a4fib ,soluble1 #a4aa with some variations ,mustard is1 no doubt1 adulterated more than any other of the condiments1 unless it be black pepper4 ,tumeric is the great agent used to bring out the desired color in the adulteration1 and ,cayenne pepper is used to give it a tonic flavor4 ,in fact1 tumeric has been so extensively used in adulterating the mustard flour that many consumers have become so accustomed to it that1 in judging the prepared mustard meal with the eye1 they prefer it on account of its yellow color to the genuine mustard4 ,it is claimed by some that tumeric is desirable in toning down the pungency of mustard and in adding to its keeping quality1 but if it was too pungent more yellow seed might be used in place of an admixture4 ,tumeric is treated more as a constituent of the mustard than as a foreign substance--a fact which makes it appear almost a commercial necessity4 ,this should not be allowed4 ,the natural color of a pure meal is grayish or ashen1 more like that of corn meal1 and accordingly corn meal is considered a very good article to use as an adulterant2 turnip1 radish1 and rape seed1 and broken crackers are also often used4 ,they are mixed with mustard seed and milled with it to increase the bulk and obtain more value from the cake4 ,tumeric1 whose coloring matter is called curcumin1 is a root containing starch4 ,it resembles ginger and is ground in the same way as ginger4 ,it is more generally used in preference to ocher or yellow earth4 ,as mustard flour does not contain any starch1 the fraudulent tumeric and starch are readily detected in the farina by the use of iodine and ammonia4 ,place a little of the suspected sample1 which has been previously heated and afterwards allowed to cool1 on a piece of glass and add the ammonia or iodine1 when the brown coloring principle of the tumeric will be brought out4 ,it may also be detected by its action with borax or boric acid and ,martin yellow 7dinitronapthol7 by the use of #ie per cent4 of alcohol4 ,if capsicum be present the test would best be observed by treating the dry mustard with strong alcohol by percolation1 which would develop the peculiar pungency of the capsicum when concentrated4 ,the microscope is the best aid to detect it4 ,wheat flour1 if used to adulterate1 contains but #a4b to #b4a per cent41 and reduces the natural yellow color of mustard1 which must then be toned up with tumeric or some other coloring matter4 ,in the discussion of the analysis of mustard seed we may add that the flour is fairly constant in its composition2 water is present in small amounts1 varying between #c and #g per cent42 ash varies between #d and #f per cent41 and so foreign mineral matter is easily detected4 ,volatile oil is present in the seed in small amounts1 varying from #b4jf in one to as little as #j4ee in another4 ,fixed oil is one of the most prominent constituents of the seed4 ,it varies in amount from #ca to #cg per cent4 ,starch is entirely absent in the whole seed4 ,crude fiber varies1 depending on the care and method of milling4 ,the amount should not be more than #f to #g per cent4 ,albuminoids make up a large part of the seed1 varying from #be to #cj per cent4 ,if they are below #bj per cent4 this fact points to dilution with material poor in nitrogen4 ,the undetermined matter consists of gum and some unidentified substances soluble in alcohol1 whose estimation is of no particular value1 as a means of detecting adulterations4 ,as a whole1 for general reference1 the following table may be used3 ,water1 #c to #g per cent4 ,ash1 #d to #f per cent4 ,volatile ,oil1 to #b per cent4 ,fixed ,oil1 #ca to #cg per cent41 from entire seed ,fixed ,oil1 #af to #ah per cent41 from cake ,starch1 ,none ,crude ,fiber1 #e to #ah per cent4 ,albuminoids1 #be to #cb per cent4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,sage #a ,flower #b ,flower without stamens ,,chapter ,,xv ,,herbs ,,nearly every one is familiar with the subject of this chapter4 ,the sweet and aromatic herbs for culinary purposes are found in both hemispheres1 and little1 therefore1 need be said about them4 ,of those who know them1 none are better acquainted or more familiar with their use than the farmer's wife4 ,the herbs we are to consider are the few having that peculiar property of imparting to fresh meats a flavor1 so much esteemed1 which brings them into general use4 ,they are also used for medicinal purposes of which we have the following kinds3 ,sage1 marjoram1 savory1 parsley1 and thyme4 8,herbs to still the summer40 8,the knowledge of stilling is one of pretty feat10 but it is a lost art4 ,the stilling room was also a drying room1 and in breezy shadows throughout the long summer days were drying leaves and sprigs of many aromatic plants4 ,the branches were often made up into small bunches1 the size to be used for a kettle of soup or for the basting of a single roast4 8,these were the fagots of herbs so often ordered in old recipes1 and were a not unimportant part of household supplies4 ,there is no spice comparable for herbs use in rosemary40 ,pliny says that the serpents sought the shade of the fennel to strengthen their sight4 ,culpepper noted the starry influence under which each plant grew4 ,,sage ,sage 7,salvia officinalis7 is the common sage4 ,sage1 sauge1 swage1 natural order ,laminaceoe4 ,french1 ,sauge2 ,portuguese1 ,salva2 ,italian and ,latin1 ,salvia1 ,salvas 7,culpepper74 ,it is governed by ,mars4 ,salvia1 from salvo1 to save or heal4 ,the most extensively used of the herbs is the sage4 ,its high reputation as a medicine lasted for years4 ,the ,arabians valued it1 and the medical school of ,salerno summed up its surpassing merits in the line1 8,cur morietor homo cui salvia cresit in horto80 7,how can a man die who grows sage in his garden87 ,perhaps this originated the ,english saying1 8,who eats sage in ,may shall live for aye40 ,parkinson says3 8,it maketh the hayre blacke1 it is good for woundis4 ,for lethargy and forgetfulness bathe the back of the head with a decoction of sage and smallage40 ,pepys notes that in churchyards between ,gasport and ,southampton1 ,england1 the custom prevailed of sowing the graves with sage4 ,evelyn sums up its noble properties by its assiduous use as making man immortal4 8,we cannot1 therefore1 but allow the tender summities of the young leaves but principally the flowers in our sallet40 ,salvia officinalis and ,s4 grandiflora4 ,the first is the common garden sage1 a native of southern ,europe1 and has been naturalized for many years in this country as a garden plant4 ,it is a perennial shrub1 seldom more than two feet high and sometimes treated as an annual4 ,the plant has a pubescent four-sided stem with erect branches1 hoary with down1 and leafy at the base1 those bearing flowers being about a foot or a foot and a half long4 ,the flowers are in racemes of blue variegated with purple 7rarely red71 arranged in spiked whorls4 ,the flowers have but two perfect stamens1 the filaments of which bear at their summit a cross thread4 ,a much-elongated connective is fastened by a point and has one cell of the anther at the upper end and the other1 but imperfect1 cell at the other end4 ,the seeds of many species1 when steeped in water1 become covered with a mucilaginous slime1 like that of quince seeds4 ,the leaves are ovate1 oblong1 lanceolate1 finely notched1 are curiously wrinkled or rough1 hairy or tomentose1 and of a whitish-green color4 ,the leaves and tops are gathered and dried during the flowering seasons1 which is in ,june and ,july4 ,sage is slightly tonic with a peculiar1 strong1 astringent1 aromatic1 camphorous odor1 and a sharp1 warm1 slightly bitter taste4 ,these properties are owing to its volatile oil 7sage oil71 which may be obtained by distilling the plant with water infusion1 but more especially in alcohol4 ,formerly it had a high reputation as a sudorific and as an antiseptic1 and was so esteemed by the ancients1 especially by the ,chinese1 but at present1 though officinal1 it is little used as a remedy except in domestic practice1 and it has no place in the pharmacopia4 ,but the infusion is much valued in cases of gastric debility as a gargle1 checking flatulency with speed and certainty4 ,it is a good astringent and nerve tonic as well as a good remedy for use in cases of rheumatism4 ,but its great use is as a condiment in flavoring dress1 sausage1 cheese1 etc4 ,sage grows best in dry soil and is found growing on sunny mountain slopes and rocks4 ,it has long been in general cultivation in gardens1 and it is easily raised from the seed or from cuttings or divisions of the root4 ,roots should be planted about six inches apart4 ,sage brush 7,carteunissia hidenlata7 is found on ,western table lands4 ,the apple-bearing sage 7,s4 pomifera7 is a native of ,southern ,europe and is remarkable for its reddish or purple bracts and large gall nuts growing on the branches as on the leaves of the oak4 ,these are known as sage apples4 ,they have an agreeable aromatic taste and are edible4 ,both these species are used to adulterate4 ,illustration3 ,,marjoram #a ,leaf and flower stem #b ,bract of flower #c1 #d ,different views of flower #e ,stamens #f ,seed ,the ,salvia longiflora of ,peru sometimes attains the height of twenty feet1 with flowers six to eight inches long4 ,several kinds are found fifteen feet in height4 ,there are said to be nearly #cjj varieties of sage1 among which are the following3 ,s4 splenden1 with large spiked1 scarlet flowers1 from ,mexico1 which is esteemed by florists2 ,s4 coccinea1 with smaller1 but handsome flowers2 the open-corolled ,s4 patens1 with tall1 open spikes1 with large blue flowers2 the bracteated ,s4 involucrata1 with thick obtuse spikes of reddish-purple flowers2 the ,clory ,s4 sclarea1 with large1 beautiful1 purplish-green deciduous bracts4 ,,marjoram ,marjoram 7,origanum marjorum74 ,origanum 7meaning in ,greek1 joy of the mountains74 ,sweet marjoram1 a genus of the natural order of plants labiat or mint family4 ,it is chiefly a native of ,greece and the countries bordering on the ,mediterranean4 ,it is an annual shrubby plant with a stem about one foot high1 and has a ten-ribbed1 five-toothed calyx1 loose spikes1 and broad bracts4 ,it is peculiarly aromatic and fragrant1 and is much used1 as other mint plants are used1 in common cooking4 ,it has nearly an entire ovate1 or egg-shaped1 grayish or green1 leaf1 covered on both sides with a thin down1 situated about three roundish heads of small purplish flowers crowded in cylindrical or oblong spikes1 which are imbricated with colored bracts4 ,it flowers in ,august4 ,the flowers are very small and inconspicuous4 ,marjoram contains a yellowish essential oil 7oil of marjoram or oil of origanum71 which is obtained from some species by distillation4 ,it yields fifteen ounces from one hundred and fifty pounds of the recent-cut plants4 ,this oil will become solid by standing4 ,it is used for toothache and for cancers4 ,an infusion of it is a stimulant and is a good remedy for nervousness4 ,it is mixed with olive oil to make a stimulating liniment1 which is used as a remedy for rheumatic complaints and for baldness1 and in case of sprains and bruises4 ,the common marjoram1 wild 7,o4 vulgare71 is found on dry hilly1 bushy places4 ,illustration3 ,,parsley #a ,ripening fruit #b ,ripening fruit1 more developed #c ,flower #d ,stamen #e ,pistil #f ,seed ,,parsley ,parsley 7,carum petroselinum sativum74 ,french1 ,persil 7,culpepper74 ,it is governed by ,venus4 ,parsley is a biennial plant1 with a fleshy1 spindle-shaped root and a rough1 erect1 smooth-branching stem4 ,it is a native of the ,eastern ,mediterranean region4 ,it is now widely cultivated in all parts of the civilized world as a culinary vegetable1 and it sometimes runs wild1 the root being one of the principal parts4 ,it is a great favorite on account of its much-divided1 finely cut1 crisped1 aromatic leaves1 which are used in flavoring soups and other dishes and for garnishing4 ,the leaves of the wild parsley are plain4 ,parsley has a white or greenish-yellow flower and from the seed an essential oil is obtained1 named apial1 which is used as a drug in place of quinine in intermittent fevers4 ,its leaves are often chewed to neutralize the scent of onions4 ,parsley wreaths were twined for the victors of the ,nemean games1 but now it has fallen from its high estate to flavor or to garnish some lordly dish4 ,the seed was formerly mixed in cheese curds with fennel and thyme and other fragrant herbs4 ,the roots were also used as a relish1 as noted in the words of ,wynkyn1 8de worde in the ,boke of ,keriynge says #8quinces and peres ,ciryppe with parcelery rate4 ,bight to begyn your mele4'0 ,parsley seeds germinate imperfectly and the disappointment of the sower was explained by the belief that the devil took his tithe thereof4 ,many dire evils1 belief in which can scarcely now be understood1 were attached to the sowing1 gathering1 and even dreaming of parsley seed4 ,these beliefs may have originated in the fact that the ,greeks strewed it upon newly made graves4 ,to be in need of parsley was a colloquialism which expressed the imminence of death4 ,herrick said3 8,dear ,perenna1 ,prithee come and with ,smallage dressmy tomb40 ,illustration3 ,,savory #a ,flower #b ,flower without stamens #c ,leaf #d ,flower cut1 showing stamens #e ,corolla #f ,leaves of an axil #g ,pistil #h ,stamen #i ,seed ,,savory ,satureia ,hortensis1 a genus of the natural order labiat1 belonging to the mint family4 ,french1 ,savorae4 ,it is said to be governed by ,mercury 7,culpepper7 and was supposed to belong to the satyrs4 ,the summer savory is chiefly of two kinds--,s4 ,hortensis1 the summer savory1 and ,s4 ,montana1 the winter savory4 ,both kinds are natives of ,southern ,europe4 ,savory is mentioned in the ,old ,testament 7,genesis1 ,chap4 ,,xxvii1 #dth verse73 8,and make me savoury meet such as ,i love1 and bring it to me that ,i may eat1 that my soul may bless thee before ,i die40 ,savory was probably introduced into ,britain by the ,romans1 as we find it spoken of in a ,latin treatise1 8,husbandrie of ,pallodius10 at the fifteenth century1 translated about #adbj4 ,it is a common herbaceous plant1 from ten inches to one foot high1 being half shrubby1 with numerous stalks1 which are very hard and woody near the bottom4 ,the leaves are narrow1 oblong or linear or lanceolate1 entire1 acute at the end1 with resinous dots and short axillary1 standing two at each joint1 with a quantity of young ones in their axils4 ,the flowers1 which grow on the upper part of the stalk among the leaves1 are white with a tinge of blue or red4 ,the whole plant of the common summer savory 7,s4 ,hortensis71 as our cultivated garden herb is known1 has an agreeable pungent taste and aromatic odor1 and is analogous to those of thyme 7thymus71 differing from it in the regular five-toothed or fine-cleft calyx and having the stamens bent together into an arch under the upper lip of the corolla1 both being in common use as a seasoning in cooking1 either fresh or dried1 for flavoring dishes1 and especially for flavoring beans1 and is cultivated for these culinary purposes in ,europe and ,america4 ,its tea is used as a remedy for colic and as a cathartic4 ,winter savory 7,s4 ,montana7 is used in the same way as the summer savory4 ,illustration3 ,,thyme #a ,plant #b ,root #c ,leaf #d1 #e ,stamens #f ,fruit #g ,seed #h ,stamen #i ,seed ,,thyme ,garden thyme 7,thymus vulgaris74 ,french1 ,thym2 ,german1 ,thyman4 ,thyme teucrium marum and ,thyme pallium4 ,it is a plant of the genus thymus1 a humble1 half-shrubby plant of the natural order labiat 7mint family72 ,latin1 thymus incense1 thus indicating its former use on sacrificial altars4 ,it is said to have made the bed in the stable at ,bethlehem and was used in many charms and incantations4 8,it is ever the bee's alluring time10 and it was wild thyme which gave the famed flavor to the honey of ,mount ,hymettus4 ,among the ,greeks thyme denoted graceful elegance of the ,attic style4 ,to smell of thyme was an expression of praise applied to those whose style was admirable4 ,in the days of chivalry1 peradventure1 very highly noted ladies used to embroider their knightly heroes' scarfs with the figure of a bee hovering about a sprig of thyme1 the bees as the belles of thyme4 ,early lists of ,english plants give no name with which it can certainly be identified4 ,it grows from six inches to one foot high and has a two-lipped calyx and four diverging stamens and is clothed with a hoary down1 with narrow1 almost elliptical leaves with edges turned in4 ,it may have many stems slightly indented in pairs1 standing erect upon short petioles or decumbent at the base1 which bear very small ovate leaves1 which are sharp-pointed1 while those of the whorls are blunt4 ,the flowers are of a pale purple or whitish or reddish color1 which grow in separate whorls1 six in a whorl4 ,it flowers from ,may until ,august and is a native of ,europe and especially of ,southern ,france4 ,it is commonly found growing on dry hills and is cultivated in gardens on account of its fragrance4 ,it has a pungent1 aromatic property and is largely used as a seasoning for soups1 sauces1 etc4 ,from it is also distilled the oil of thyme1 which is considerably used in veterinary practice and for perfumery1 and often passes as oil of organum4 ,the tea of thyme is also used for nervous habits4 ,the wild creeping thyme1 or mother of thyme1 is ,t4 serpillum1 a less erect plant which has a procumbent stem with many branches from two to three feet long1 small entire oval leaves and purplish flowers1 arranged in whorls1 which are united in a dense terminal leafy head4 ,this variety is abundant on hills and mountains in ,great ,britain and in all parts of ,europe and the north of ,asia1 between forty and fifty varieties being described4 ,it is less fragrant than garden thyme1 but both species have the same aromatic essential oil4 ,t4 serpillum has procumbent stems1 numerous short ascending branches1 ending in short1 loose1 leafy1 whorled flower spikes1 the leaves being egg-shaped and narrow and more or less fringed toward the bottom1 those of the flower spikes being similar but smaller4 ,there are two forms--,t4 en serpillum1 with flowering branches1 ascending from shoots1 which are barren at the tip in one head1 and the upper lip of the corolla oblong2 and ,t4 chamoedrys1 in which all the branches ascend from the crown of the root stalk with whorls in many axillary heads and a short and broad upper lip to the corolla4 ,the flowering branches1 herba thymi and herba serpylli1 are used in medicine as a powerful stimulant4 ,the lemon thyme1 or lemon-scented thyme of our gardens1 is regarded as a variety of thyme serpyllum known as citratus or citriodrus1 which is generally a hardy and very dwarfed traveling evergreen1 of lower growth than the common garden thyme4 ,no species of thyme is indigenous in ,america4 ,seed should be sown in drills or broadcast in ,march or ,april1 in light1 fine earth and raked in lightly4 ,the young plants are transplanted in the summer when from two to three inches high4 ,after they are from three to five inches in growth1 they should be thinned out to about ten inches apart4 ,thyme is also propagated by slips of the branching shoots in the spring or early autumn1 but more especially by sections of the brush or by removing rooted branches4 ,the harvesting takes place in ,august by cutting the plants rather closely down with a very sharp sickle4 ,the seed should be dried on cloth1 rubbed out clean1 and preserved in a dry place for sowing the following year4 ,in using the herb for distillation it should not be dried1 but the crop gathered each day should be put in the still at once4 ,,seed ,in addition to the seed before mentioned which are used in connection with spices are the caraway1 or carum carui4 ,coriander or the dried fruit of the ,cariandrum salivum1 and the cardamom or the dried capsules of ,elettaria cardamomum4 ,,caraway ,caraway 7,carum carui74 ,the common name1 caraway or carraway1 is given to the dried fruits carum carui1 which is a biennial umbelliferous plant4 ,the ,english name caraway and the ,spanish name alcarahuega are derived from the name given to the fruit by the ,arabians1 8karawya40 ,it is a native of ,great ,britain1 growing on very low ground with a root much like the parsnip4 ,the seeds are sown in drills in the autumn soon after they are ripe1 and must be thinned out the same as carrots and other similar plants1 and must be kept free from weeds4 ,they will flower in ,june and are ready for harvesting in ,july4 ,the plant grows two or three feet high4 ,the leaves are long and subdivided into numerous pinnul or segments which are narrow-pointed and of a dark color4 ,the flowers grow in terminal umbels4 ,the seeds are two1 naked1 brown1 striated1 and of an oblong shape1 hot and acrid but pleasant to the taste4 ,the seed abounds in essential oil containing gummy and resinous parts4 ,its tincture is used as a stomachic and carminative4 ,it is used as a flavoring in cooking4 ,,coriander 7,kariandrum47 ,the product known as coriander seed consists of the dried ripe fruit of cariandrum salivum1 which is the only specie of the genus umbellifer4 ,it is an annual herb cultivated in ,france and ,germany for its seed4 ,it grows about two feet high with branching stems4 ,the stalks are round and erect and hollow1 but have a pith within4 ,the leaves are bipinnate1 the lower ones divided into broad or wedge-shaped1 deeply cut segments1 while the upper ones are divided into narrow parts and more finely cut4 ,the flowers grow in clusters of a white or reddish color upon its branches4 ,the umbels have five to eight rays without a general involucre and the partial ones consists of a few small bracts4 ,the seeds follow1 two after each flower4 ,they are half round and are the only part of the plant used4 ,the most characteristic feature is this globular fruit1 which is of a chamois or pale-yellow color and is about the size of the white pepper corn1 which is crowned by the teeth of the calyx and contains no oil channels on the outer surface1 but has two on the inner face of each half of the fruit4 ,the ridges are five in number and very indistinct4 ,as the two carpels1 of which the fruit is composed1 do not readily separate one from the other1 they being protected by the ligneous pericarp1 the fruit must be broken before submitting them to distillation4 ,the unripe fruit possesses the intensely disgusting odors of the other parts of the plant1 and for that reason it should be allowed to ripen fully before gathering4 ,when they are dry they are sweet and fragrant4 ,they dispel wind and warm and strengthen the stomach1 and assist in digestion1 and are good for pains in the head4 ,they are also used in whole mixed spices1 used for pickling4 ,,cardamom ,cardamom1 ,kardamom 7,amomum cardamomum74 ,cardamom is the fruit of various ,east ,india or ,chinese plants of the genera elettari of the ginger family 7,zingiberaceoe74 ,especially the most esteemed are those contained in the dried capsules1 ,e4 cardamomum of ,malabar1 which differs from the genus amomum by its elongated filiform tube of the corolla1 by the presence of internal lateral lobes in the shape of very small tooth-like processes and by the filaments not being prolonged beyond the anther4 ,all the species are natives of the tropical parts of ,india4 ,small or ,malabar cardamoms1 as they are known commercially1 are the rhizomes which are thick1 fleshy1 or woody and ridged with scars of the attachments of previous leaves1 giving off fibrous roots below4 ,stems1 perennial1 erect1 smooth1 jointed1 enveloped in the spongy sheaths of the leaves1 from six to nine feet high and about one inch thick1 round and green and hollow1 but with pith within1 and resemble our reeds in many respects4 ,the leaves are a half yard long1 alternate1 sessile in their sheath1 entire lanceolate1 fine-pointed1 pubescent above1 silky beneath1 sheaths slightly villous with a roundish ligule rising from the mouth1 and as broad as a man's hand4 ,besides these stalks1 there rises from the same root others which are weak and tender and about eight inches high1 which produce the flowers1 which are small and greenish4 ,following every flower comes one of the fruits called the great cardamom1 which is a light1 dry1 hollow fruit of a whitish color1 and somewhat triangular in shape1 and of the size of a small bean1 and of a dry substance on the outside1 but with several small seeds within1 which are reddish in color and very acrid but pleasant to the taste4 ,these fruits are called the lesser cardamoms or cardamom seeds1 and they are excellent to strengthen the stomach and to assist digestion4 ,they also are good for disorders of the head and are equal to anything to be had for colics1 and are best used by chewing4 ,they are used in whole mixed spices4 ,there are two other kinds of cardamoms known as the middle cardamom1 a long fruit1 seldom met with1 and the great cardamom1 generally called 8,grain of ,paradise40 ,in the home market three kinds of cardamoms are found under the curious names of 8shorts10 8short-longs10 and 8long-longs40 ,shorts are capsules from a quarter to half an inch long and a quarter of an inch broad1 and the longest of the long-longs is about one inch in length4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,missing or obscured punctuation was corrected4 ,in several places the punctuation of numbers were undecided in meaning4 ,they were changed to have the most-likely meaning4 7,pages #eg - 8#a #d-aj01 #aaf - 8#acc #a-c074 ,on page #gd1 the table 8,chemical composition of ,capsicum annum0 was reformatted so that 8,seed01 8,pod0 and 8,whole ,fruit0 were column headings4 ,in the illustration facing page #bd1 the caption 8,fig4 #bc4 ,,maize ,,starch0 was corrected to 8,fig4 #be4 ,,maize ,,starch04 ,on page #aeh1 the reference to 8rough1 hairy seed 7,fig4 #e70 was corrected to 87,fig4 #d704 ,in the illustration facing page #hj1 the caption 8#e ,sargon0 was corrected to 8#e ,saigon04 ,typographical errors were silently corrected4 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book4 ,text in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics72 text in bold by 8equal0 signs 7bold74 ,chemical formul are written with a notation that indicates some numbers are subscripts4 ,for example3 in ,h#b,o the #b part means the #8#b' is a subscript4