,transcrib]'s ,note ,:5 italics 7 us$ 9 ! orig9al book1 ! correspond+ text has be5 surr\nd$ by und]scores ,mix$ fractions h be5 display$ ) a hyph5 betwe5 :ole numb] & fraction = cl>ity4 ,sup]script$ *>act]s are prec$$ by & :5 m ?an "o "* is sup]script$1 !y are surr\nd$ by 4 ,subscript$ *>act]s are prec$$ by an und]score & surr\nd$ by 4 ,"s corrections h be5 made to ! pr9t$ text4 ,^! are li/$ 9 a second transcrib]'s note at ! end ( ! text4 ,,on ,,molecul> ,,& ,,microscopic ,,sci5ce ,,volume ,,! ,,fir/ ,by ! same ,au?or4 ,,on ! ,,connection ( ! ,,physical ,,sci5ces4 #i? ,edition4 ,portrait4 ,po/ #hvo4 #is4 ,,physical ,,geography4 ,new ,edition1 ?or\ghly revis$4 ,portrait4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,9 ! press4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi1 p4 #bj4 ,,eucyrtidium ,,cranoides4 ,frontispiece to ,vol4 ,i4 ,,on ,,molecul> ,,& ,,microscopic ,,sci5ce ,,by ,,m>y ,,som]ville ,,au?or ,,( #8,,! ,,me*anism ,,( ,,! ,,heav5s' #8,,physical ,,geography' #8,,connection ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces' ,,etc4 ,deus magnus 9 magnis1 maximus 9 m9imis--,/4 ,augu/9e ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes--,,vol4 ,i4 ,,) ,,illu/rations ,,london ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albem>le ,,/reet #ahfi ,! "r ( translation is res]v$ ,,london3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,& ,,co41 ,,new-,,/reet ,,squ>e ,,& ,,p>liam5t ,,/reet ,,preface4 ,,microscopic ,,inve/igation ( organic & inorganic matt] is s peculi>ly *>act]i/ic ( ! actual /ate ( sci5ce1 t ! ,au?or has v5tur$ to give a sket* ( "s ( ! mo/ prom95t discov]ies 9 ! life & /ructure ( ! l[] vegetable & m>9e animals 9 addition to a few ( ^? reg>d+ in]t matt]4 ,! ,au?or feels b\nd to return h] be/ ?anks to k9d fri5ds--,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 ,mr4 ,hugg9s1 ,mr4 ,gwyn ,jeffrey1 ,pr(4 ,tyndall1 & ,mr4 ,t4 ,moore ( ,*elsea1 :o h aid$ 9 revis+ "s ( ! %eets = press1 & h ?us c\nt]act$ ! disadvantage "u :i* %e lab\rs1 ( a resid5ce abroad1 & at a di/ance f libr>ies ( ref]5ce4 ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,! ,,fir/ ,,volume4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,atoms ,,& ,,molecules ,,( ,,matt]4 ,,sect4 ,,page ,i4 ,,elem5t>y ,,con/itution ,,( ,,matt] #a ,,ii4 ,,on ,,=ce1 ,,& ,,! ,,relations ,,betwe5 ,,=ce ,,& #bc ,,matt] ,,iii4 ,,atomic ,,!ory1 ,,analysis ,,& ,,syn!sis ,,( ,,matt]1 #ic ,,utility ,,( ,,wa/e ,,sub/ances--,,coal-,,t> ,,col\rs1 ,,etc4 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,sol> ,,spectrum1 ,,spectrum ,,analysis1 ,,spectra ,,( #abi ,,gases ,,& ,,volatiliz$ ,,matt]1 ,,inv]sion ,,( ,,col\r$ ,,l9es1 ,,con/itution ,,( ,,sun ,,& ,,/>s ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,vegetable ,,organisms4 ,i4 ,,microscopic ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,vegetable ,,_w #afg ,,ii4 ,,alg #agi ,,iii4 ,,fungi #bfj ,,iv4 ,,li*5s #bih ,v4 ,,*>ace #cab ,,vi4 ,,hepatic1 ,,or ,,liv]worts #caf ,,vii4 ,,musci1 ,,or ,,mosses #cbc ,,viii4 ,,filices1 ,,or ,,f]ns #cce ,,ix4 ,,equisetace1 ,,or ,,horsetails #cfg ,x4 ,,m>sileace1 ,,or ,,rhizosp]m #cga ,,xi4 ,,lycopodiace1 ,,or ,,club ,,mosses #cgc ,,xii4 ,,g5]al ,,/ructure ,,( ,,fl[]+ ,,plants #cgh ,,xiii4 ,,monocotyl$on\s1 ,,or ,,endog5\s ,,plants #chc ,,xiv4 ,,dicotyl$on\s1 ,,or ,,exog5\s ,,plants #djd ,,illu/rations ,,to ,,! ,,fir/ ,,volume4 7,! ,au?or is indebt$ to ! works ( ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,b]keley1 ,mr4 ,gosse1 & ,mr4 ,d>w91 = ! l>g] "p ( ^! ,illu/rations47 ,,fig4 ,,page #hi4 ,eucyrtidium cranoides frontispiece #a4 ,=m ( /ratifi$ dis*>ge 9 a vacuum tube #gi #b4 ,=m ( /ratifi$ dis*>ge 9 a vacuum tube1 z #ha affect$ by an electro-magnet #c4 ,developm5t ( ,ulva #aga #d4 ,v]tical section ( ! cuticle ( ,iris g]manica #agc #e4 ,longitud9al section ( /em ( ,italian re$ #agf #f4 ,palmogla macrococca #ahb #g4 ,protococcus pluvialis #ahd #h4 ,volvox globator #ahi #i4 ,v>i\s species ( ,/aura/rum #aib #aj4 ,economy ( ,clo/]ium ,lunula #aic #aa4 ,diatoma vulg>e & ,grammatophora s]p5t9a #aig #ab4 ,biddulphia pul*ella #aih #ac4 ,pleurosigma angulatum #aii #ad4 ,act9ocyclus undulatus #bjj #ae4 ,m]idion circul>e #bja #af4 ,bacill>ia p>adoxa #bjc #ag4 ,cell multiplication 9 ,conf]va glom]ata #bjg #ah4 ,zoospores #bjh #ai4 ,?reads ( ,rivul>ia nitida #bae #bj4 ,tri*odesmium ery?rum #baf #ba4 ,conjugation ( ,zygnema qu99um #bag #bb4 ,ulva latissima #bbe #bc4 ,polyides rotundus & ,furcell>ia fa/igiata #bbi #bd4 ,v]tical sections ( conceptacles ( ,gracil>ia #bcj armata1 ,gr9nelia am]icana1 & ,corall9a (fic9alis #be4 ,calli?amnion corymbosum #bcb #bf4 ,rhabdonia ,c\lt]i1 ,sphrococcus coronopifolius1 #bcf ,wrangelia p5icillata1 & ,cruoria pellita #bg4 ,dictyurus purpurasc5s #bdb #bh4 ,polyzonia cuneifolia #bdc #bi4 ,fruit ( v>i\s species ( ,ectoc>pus #bde #cj4 ,dictyota di*otoma #bdg #ca4 ,v]tical section ( receptacle ( ,fucus #bed platyc>pus #cb4 ,v>i\s species ( ,pucc9ii #bgf #cc4 ,pucc9ia ,gram9is #bhj #cd4 ,v>i\s species ( ,muc$9es #bhf #ce4 ,torula ,c]evisi1 %[+ successive /ages ( #bhg cell-multiplication #cf4 ,v>i\s species ( ,sphriacei #bid #cg4 ,v>i\s species ( ,li*5s #bii #ch4 ,sporopodium ,leprieurii1 ,coccoc>pia sm>agd9a1 #cjj & ,lecanora aff9is #ci4 ,paulia p]=ata1 ,calicium tympanellum1 & #cja ,graphis ,leprevo/ei #dj4 ,nitella flexilis #cjb #da4 ,an!ridia ( ,*>a fragilis #cad #db4 ,fur!r developm5t ( an!ridia ( ,*>a #cae fragilis #dc4 ,m>*antia polymorpha #cag #dd4 ,anatomy ( frond ( ,m>*antia polymorpha #cah #de4 ,ar*egonia ( ,m>*antia polymorpha #cai #df4 ,elat] & spores ( ,m>*antia #cai #dg4 ,fun>ia hygrometrica #cbd #dh4 ,polytri*um commune1 gr\p ( an!ridia #cbe #di4 ,polytri*um commune1 developm5t ( sp]matozoids #cbe #ej4 ,microscopic /ructure ( leaves ( mosses #ccj #ea4 ,developm5t ( spores ( ,pt]is s]rulata #ccf #eb4 ,an!ridium & sp]matozoids ( ,pt]is s]rulata #cch #ec4 ,ar*egonium ( ,pt]is s]rulata #cch #ed4 ,section ( foot/alk ( f]n frond #cda #ee4 ,p9nule ( ,polypodium be>+ sori #cdb #ef4 ,sporangia ( ,polypodiace\s f]ns #cdc #eg4 ,p9nule ( ,la/rea ,filix-mas ) sori #cdf #eh4 ,sorus & indusium ( ,poly/i*um or ,aspidium #cdg #ei4 ,p9na ( ,poly/i*um ,lon*itis #cdh #fj4 ,sorus & cup-%ap$ indusium ( ,dep>ia prolif]a #cej #fa4 ,scolop5drium vulg>e #cea #fb4 ,a?yrium ,filix-fm9a #cec #fc4 ,aspl5ium ,ruta-mur>ia #cec #fd4 ,cet]a* (fic9>um #cee #fe4 ,ble*num ,spicant #ceg #ff4 ,pt]is aquil9a #ceg #fg4 ,adiantum ,capillus-,v5]is #cei #fh4 ,tri*omanes radicans #cfa #fi4 ,hym5ophyllum tunbridg5se #cfb #gj4 ,equisetum giganteum #cfh #ga4 ,pilul>ia m9uta #cga #gb4 ,or*is mascula1 side view ( fl[] #chi #gc4 ,or*is mascula1 front view ( fl[] #cij #gd4 ,or*is mascula1 poll9ium #cia #ge4 ,or*is mascula1 poll5 gra9s #cia #gf4 ,or*is mascula1 poll9ia #cib #gg4 ,or*is pyramidalis1 front view ( fl[] #cic #gh4 ,or*is pyramidalis1 side view ( fl[] #cid #gi4 ,or*is pyramidalis1 disc ) "o poll9ium #cie #hj4 ,or*is pyramidalis1 poll9ia1 atta*$ to disc #cie #ha4 ,or*is pyramidalis1 poll9ia1 ) disc contract$ #cie #hb4 ,or*is pyramidalis1 poll9ia1 )drawn #cie #hc4 ,epipactis palu/ris1 side views ( fl[] #cig #hd4 ,epipactis palu/ris1 side view & dissection ( #cih fl[] #he4 ,li/]a ovata1 side view ( fl[] #cii ,errata4 ,page #c1 l9e #e f bottom1 ins]t ! be=e e>? #ei1 l9e #ai1 dele ! #ei1 l9e #ba1 dele ! #ei1 l9es #bj & #bb1 = "p read p>ts #ajj1 ,9 ! ,table ( ,atomic ,weights1 read ,copp] #cb2 ,z9c #cbe2 ,rubidium #hf2 ,csium #acc #aja1 l9es #aj & #cc1 = #cb read #cbe #ajd1 l9e #ab f bottom1 = #bi read #cb ,,molecul> ,,& ,,microscopic ,,sci5ce4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,atoms ,,& ,,molecules ,,( ,,matt]4 ,,section ,i4 ,,elem5t>y ,,con/itution ,,( ,,matt]4 ,,! ,,inve/igations :i* h reveal$ ! mo/ ref9$ & wond]ful relations betwe5 light1 heat1 electricity1 & highly ela/ic m$ia2 ! relation ( ^! p[]s to ! p>ticles ( solid & liquid matt]1 new me?ods ( analysis1 & ! microscopic exam9ation ( t m>vell\s creation1 animal & vegetable1 :i* is invisible to ! unaid$ eye ( man1 h br\ght a new accession to ! indef9itely small )9 ! limits ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,:]ev] ! a/ronom] has p5etrat$ into ! dep?s ( space1 lum9\s po9ts are visible2 & s9ce light m]ely consi/s 9 ! undulations ( ! e!real m$ium1 matt] mu/ exi/ 9 e "p ( ! univ]se ( :i* man is cognizant1 = al?\gh ! lum9if]\s e!r is s att5uat$ t its v exi/5ce is almo/ an hypo!sis1 its atoms are n m inconceivably small ?an ^? ( highly ela/ic pond]able matt] on e>?4 ,atoms are ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( homog5e\s simple sub/ances2 molecules1 or gr\ps ( het]og5e\s atoms unit$ 9 def9ite proportions1 con/itute su* z are comp\nd4 ,high pressure /eam is invisible z x issues f ! boil]1 yet ea* ( its molecules conta9s two atoms ( hydrog5 & "o ( oxyg54 ,! p]fume ( a fl[] is a comp\nd invisible sub/ance =m$ ( molecules4 ,we "k no?+ ( ! =ms ei!r ( atoms or ( ^? gr\ps ( atoms :i* we call molecules2 b we _c suppose !m o!rwise ?an z excessively h>d1 s9ce conceive !m h[ we w1 we are sure t an atom1 :atev] be its =m or nature1 is ev] ! same4 ,x nev] we>s1 x nev] *anges1 ?\gh x may h =m$ "p ( ?\s&s ( bodies & ent]$ into ?\s&s ( comb9ations1 organic & inorganic2 :5 set free by _! dissolution1 x is ready to ent] into a new s]ies2 x is inde/ructible ev5 by fire1 ! same n[ z :5 creat$4 ,nor has ! quantity ( matt] 9 our t]re/rial abode ev] be5 increas$ or dim9i%$2 liable to p]petual *ange ( place & comb9ation1 ! am\nt rema9s ! same3 ! b$ ( ! seas may be *ang$ to dry l&1 & ! ocean may aga9 cov] ! l(ty m\nta9s1 b ! absolute quantity ( matt] *anges n4 ,all sub/ances1 :e!r solid1 liquid1 or ari=m1 are suppos$ to consi/ ( h>d sep>ate atoms or p>ticles1 & 9 con=mity ) t supposition to be surr\nd$ by ! e!real m$ium1 o!rwise !y c\ld n transmit light & heat1 :i* are m]ely vibrations ( t m$ium4 ,ev5 ! h>de/ & mo/ compact sub/ances are capable ( compression1 & h be5 compress$ to an enorm\s degree by ! hydraulic press2 b x probably transc5ds me*anical =ce to br+ _! atoms into contact3 9 fact1 no kn[n sub/ance is imp]vi\s to bo? light & heat1 h[ev] ?94 ,by f> ! great] numb] ( t]re/rial sub/ances consi/ ( het]og5e\s atoms *emically comb9$ into atomic sy/ems or molecules2 b !re are sixty-f\r :i* h nev] yield$ to *emical analysis1 & are !re=e believ$ to be respectively =m$ ( only "o k9d ( atoms4 ,?irty-five ( ^! are metals f\nd ei!r pure or z ores1 & sixte5 are metals exi/+ naturally 9 *emical comb9ation ) alkalies1 alkal9e e>?s1 or e>?y bases1 t is z salts1 f :i* !y h be5 obta9$ by ! analytical p[] ( electricity or o!r means4 ,! ?irte5 rema9+ simple sub/ances are non-metallic3 "s are ari=m1 "s solid1 "o liquid4 ,! alkal9e metals are sodium1 potassium1 li?ium1 csium1 rubidium1 & ?allium4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ by _! en]getic aff9ities =1 & ! simplicity ( _! comp\nds )1 non-metallic elem5ts4 ,!y are nev] met ) native1 & are among/ ! mo/ difficult metals to r$uce f _! ores1 & _! spectra are rem>kable = simplicity4 ,sodium & potassium--:i* h be5 su* important ag5ts 9 spectrum sci5ce--7 r$uc$ f _! alkalies ( soda & pota% by ,sir ,humphry ,davy by means ( ! voltaic batt]y1 a discov]y :i* l$ ! way to ! r$uction ( _m ( ! o!rs4 ,li?ium is a :ite metal :i* burns brilliantly 9 air & oxyg52 x swims 9 naph?a1 & is ! lighte/ solid body kn[n4 ,csium is ! mo/ en]getic ( all metals 9 its *emical aff9ities4 ,! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s are b>ium1 /rontium1 calcium1 & magnesium4 ,!y possess1 l ! prec$+1 en]getic aff9ities = ! non-metallic elem5ts1 & are r$uc$ ) difficulty f _! ores4 ,b>ium is obta9$ f e>? b>yta3 x is p[]fully alkal9e1 & its salts are col\rless & poison\s4 ,calcium is obta9$ f lime/one1 *alk1 m>ble1 & gypsum1 :i* are among/ ! mo/ abundant con/itu5ts 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?2 x is a bright ductile metal ( a bronze col\r4 ,magnesium1 :i* is a brilliant silv]-:ite h>d brittle metal1 is obta9$ f magnesium lime/one or dolomite4 ,al?\gh ! ores ( calcium & magnesium cov] va/ areas ( ! globe1 ! metals =m a v small comp>ative proportion ( !m4 ,! metals d]iv$ f non-alkal9e e>?s are gluc9um1 yttrium1 ?or9um1 zirconium1 & alum9ium1 :i* is ! only "o ( any int]e/3 x is n[ becom+ a v useful metal4 ,x comb9es readily ) oxyg5 to =m clay4 ,! ruby1 sapphire1 & ori5tal topaz are m]ely col\r$ v>ieties ( corundum1 :i* is no?+ b cry/allis$ clay4 ,rubidium1 csium1 & ?allium 7 discov]$ by spectrum analysis4 ,! avidity ( "s ( ^! metals = oxyg5 is q rem>kable3 potassium & rubidium inflame :5 !y t\* ice or cold wat]2 !y decompose ! wat] & comb9e ) its oxyg54 ,calcium becomes lum9\s 9 w>m wat]1 & burns ) int5se light :5 heat$ to r$ness2 b a magnesium wire burns ) su* int5se brilliancy t x has be5 employ$ = photography1 & w probably become useful = h\sehold purposes1 z two ounces & a half ( magnesium wire :5 burnt give a light equal to t ( tw5ty p\nds' weight ( /e>9e c&les4 ,! metals ^: oxides are n r$ucible by heat )\t ! aid ( "s =m ( c>bon include ne>ly all ! useful metals4 ,!y are all polyatomic1 t is1 !y comb9e ) o!r elem5ts 9 ! numb] ( atoms v>y+ f two to eight1 & are divid$ into sev5 gr\ps 9 reg>d to ?is prop]ty4 ,= in/ance1 z9c1 copp]1 & cadmium are diatomic4 ,z9c is invaluable z a s\rce ( electric light & heat 9 ! voltaic batt]y1 & its vap\r burns brilliantly4 ,copp] is "o ( ! mo/ useful ( metals1 :ile cadmium is ( no value at all4 ,nickel1 cobalt1 & uranium =m ! triatomic gr\p2 !y are rem>kable = _! complex spectra4 ,nickel is usually an +r$i5t 9 meteorites2 cobalt is employ$ 9 pigm5ts & 9 sympa!tic inks2 & ! oxide ( uranium is us$ to /a9 glass1 & gives x "s v peculi> prop]ties1 z w be %[n4 ,! preci\s metals h a feeble aff9ity = oxyg5 at any temp]ature1 & _! oxides are decompos$ by heat alone1 & sometimes ev5 by ! undulations ( light4 ,metals are excell5t conductors ( heat1 b !y v>y exce$+ly 9 t respect2 bo? !ory & exp]im5t prove t ! be/ conductors are inv>iably ! wor/ radiators4 ,9 fact ^? atoms :i* transf] ! greate/ am\nt ( motion to ! e!real m$ium1 t is1 :i* radiate mo/ p[]fully1 are ! lea/ compet5t to communicate motion to ea* o!r1 t is1 to conduct ) facility4 ,silv] & copp] are ! be/ conductors ( heat1 b ! wor/ radiators4 ,^! two metals are ! be/ conductors ( electricity1 b x is influ5c$ by temp]ature2 = ,,mm4 ,mat?iess5 & ,von ,bose's exp]im5ts h prov$ t all pure metals 9 a solid /ate v>y 9 conduct+ p[] to ! same ext5t betwe5 z]o & #ajj ,c5t41 & t ! alkal9e metals conduct electricity bett] :5 heat$ ?an :5 cold4 ,all metals are capable ( be+ vaporiz$1 b at v diff]5t degrees ( temp]ature4 ,plat9um requires ! heat ( ! oxy-hydrog5 bl[pipe1 :i* by e/imation am\nts to #hhja ,c5t4 ,?is prop]ty makes x valuable = t]m9al po9ts to ! conduct+ wires ( ! voltaic batt]y & magneto-electric induction ma*9e :]e great heat c be employ$ )\t fus+ ! plat9um t]m9als4 ,copp] is always employ$ = ! conduct+ wire on acc\nt ( its sup]ior conductive p[]4 ,! coil ( wire 9 ! magneto-electric ma*9e1 :i* is (t5 miles long1 is insulat$ by a coat+ g5]ally ( gre5 silk ?read4 ,b 9 exp]im5ts ( extreme delicacy :]e magnetism might vitiate ! results1 p]fectly pure copp] wire :i* is diamagnetic is us$ = ! conduct+ wires 9 ! !rmo-electric pile ( ! goniomet]1 & ! wires are coat$ ) :ite silk ?read1 s9ce x 0 discov]$ t ! gre5 dye conta9s "s magnetic metal4 ,! mass ( ! metals h[ev] con/itutes comp>atively b a small "p ( ! t]re/rial globe1 :i* is =m$ ( *emical comb9ations ( only ?irte5 simple elem5t>y sub/ances1--a wond]ful manife/ation ( creative p[] t c\ld =m a _w ( su* v>iety & beauty by means ( atoms s little div]sifi$2 /ill m wond]ful is x t f\r simple elem5ts alone con/itute ! basis ( ne>ly ! :ole organic fabric4 ,! air we brea!1 wat]1 ! bodies ( m5 & liv+ creatures1 & ! vegetation t adorns ! e>?1 are *iefly comb9ations ( ?ree invisible gases1 oxyg51 hydrog5 & nitrog51 ) c>bon1 ! pure/ amorph\s =m ( coal4 ,oxyg5 gas =ms ?ree-f\r?s ( ! sup]ficial cru/ ( ! t]re/rial globe1 its productions & its inhabitants4 ,at lea/ a ?ird "p ( ! solid cru/ ( ! e>? is oxyg5 9 comb9ation2 x con/itutes eight p>ts out ( n9e 9 wat]1 & wat] cov]s ?ree-f\r?s ( ! surface ( ! globe2 x =ms m ?an tw5ty p>ts out ( a hundr$ ( atmosph]ic air1 & 9 ! organic k+dom x is an ess5tial con/itu5t4 ,except 9 ! atmosph]e1 oxyg5 is nev] uncomb9$1 b may be obta9$ by di/ill+ *lorate ( pota%1 by ! decomposition ( wat] by voltaic electricity1 & by o!r means4 ,:5 pure x is a col\rless1 ta/eless1 inodor\s1 invisible gas2 x is incombu/ible at ord9>y temp]atures1 yet absolutely ess5tial to combu/ion2 no animal c live long 9 x1 & none c exi/ )\t x4 ,9 ! atmosph]e oxyg5 is highly magnetic2 its magnetism increases ) cold & decreases ) heat2 h5ce its int5sity v>ies ) night & day1 w9t] & summ]1 b its magnetic prop]ty vani%es :5 x ent]s into composition4 ,oxyg5 is p]fectly quiesc5t & passive z a gas 9 ! atmosph]e1 & z a con/itu5t ( wat] & solid bodies1 yet t inactivity conceals ! mo/ int5se en]gy1 :i* only requires to be call$ into action4 ,?us combu/ion ( extreme int5sity takes place :5 ignit$ sulphur is put into a vessel conta9+ oxyg5 gas2 ! metal potassium is in/antly inflam$ by x on t\*+ wat]2 "s ( its comb9ations ) *lor9e are highly explosive1 & phosphorus burns 9 x ) dazzl+ spl5d\r4 ,?us a /up5d\s am\nt ( en]gy is lat5t 9 oxyg5 "u ! mo/ tranquil appe>ance4 ,m4 ,s*nbe9 ( ,basle discov]$ t oxyg5 exi/s 9 ano!r /ate1 :i* has nei!r ! extreme quiesc5ce on ! "o h&1 nor ! int5se viol5ce on ! o!r1 ( its ord9>y =m2 & to express t int]m$iate condition1 9 :i* its activity is less 9 am\nt & diff]5t 9 quality1 x has be5 call$ by ano!r "n1 viz4 ozone1 f ! foll[+ peculi>ity4 ,x _h long be5 obs]v$ t !re is a peculi> smell :5 an electric ma*9e is 9 activity1 & :5 objects are /ruck by lightn+2 t smell ,pr(essor ,s*nbe9 asc]ta9$ to arise f ! *ange ( oxyg5 into ozone1 & actually produc$ ozone by pass+ electric sp>ks ?r\gh t gas4 ,ozone diff]s f oxyg5 9 hav+ a /rong smell & p[]ful blea*+ prop]ty2 x purifies ta9t$ air1 *anges vegetable col\rs1 & /a9s />* prep>$ by iodide ( potassium blue1 :i* ?us becomes a te/ ( its pres5ce2 yet x c]ta9ly is oxyg5 9 an allotropic or *ang$ /ate1 = x readily oxidizes or ru/s silv] & o!r metals1 & :5 ozoniz$ gas is s5t ?r\gh a r$-hot tube1 x comes out pure oxyg54 ,accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,messrs4 ,tait & ,&rews1 oxyg5 gas loses six eigh?s ( its volume1 & becomes f\r times m d5se by ! *ange2 x contracts m readily ) obscure electricity ?an ) ! sp>k4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,pr(essor ,tyndall on ! absorption ( radiant heat by gases give reason to believe t ozone is produc$ by ! pack+ ( ! atoms ( elem5t>y oxyg5 into oscillat+ gr\ps1 & t heat+ dissolves ! bond ( union & re/ores ! ozone to ! =m ( oxyg54 ,ozone *iefly exi/s 9 air t has pass$ ov] a great expanse ( sea1 & ! quantity is increas$ dur+ ! aurora1 :i* alone might lead to a surmise ( t ph5om5on be+ electric4 ,! *ange ( oxyg5 into ozone is n ! only in/ance ( ,allotropism1--t is to say1 ! exi/5ce ( ! same sub/ance 9 two /ates diff]+ f ea* o!r 9 e respect1--= ozone itself is allotropic4 ,pr(essor ,s*nbe9 has discov]$ t !re are two k9ds ( ozone /&+ to "o ano!r 9 ! relation ( positively & negatively active oxyg52 namely ozone & antozone1 :i* neutralize ea* o!r into common oxyg5 :5 br\ght into contact4 ,9 ?is respect !y are analog\s to electricity1 &1 l electricity too1 "o k9d _c be produc$ )\t a simultane\s developm5t ( ! o!r4 ,:5 a metal1 su* z silv] = example1 is oxidiz$ or ru/s1 x gives pol>ity to ! atoms ( oxyg5 9 ! atmosph]e & divides !m into ! opposite /ates ( ozone & antozone2 ! ozone comb9es ) ! silv] & ru/s or oxidizes x1 at ! same "t t ! antozone is dissolv$ 9 ! moi/ure or aque\s vap\r 9 ! air & =ms p]oxide ( hydrog54 ,! oxidiz$ or ru/$ silv]1 z well z e o!r oxidiz$ sub/ance1 is an ozonide1 :ile ! p]oxide ( hydrog5 is an antozonide4 ,s9ce bo? k9ds ( ozone are produc$ dur+ ! decomposition ( wat] by electricity1 & z sea air is always f\nd to conta9 m or less free ozone1 ! ocean is probably an antozonide1 = all ! antozone =m$ by electricity dur+ ?und]/orms mu/ be ei!r dissolv$ 9 ! sea-wat]1 or c>ri$ into x 9 ! =m ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 by ! ra94 ,ozone mu/ be exce$+ly abundant 9 ! zone ( calms & light breezes ne> ! equator kn[n z ! v>iables1 :i* is subject to heavy ra9s & viol5t ?und]/orms1 & also 9 ! regions ( ! monsoons4 ,on l& "o ( ! b5efits aris+ f ^! =midable ph5om5a is ! production ( ozone1 :i* oxidizes decompos+ organic matt] & ha/5s its decay1 :ile ! antozone1 :i* is dissolv$ 9 ! atmosph]ic vap\r1 =ms ! p]oxide ( hydrog5 & frees ! air f ! antagoni/ pr9ciple4 ,! p]oxide ( hydrog5 ?us produc$ is a transp>5t col\rless inodor\s liquid ) a metallic ta/e1 & conta9s "o equival5t ( hydrog5 & two ( oxyg54 ,x reta9s its liquid /ate "u a great degree ( cold1 & mixes ) wat] 9 any proportion4 ,x has a /rong blea*+ prop]ty1 in/antly de/roy+ vegetable col\r4 ,if expos$ sudd5ly to a temp]ature ( boil+ wat] x is decompos$ ) viol5t explosion1 & readily gives (f oxyg5 at #ei ,fahr4 ,! m]e t\* ( an oxidiz$ metal1 z ! oxide ( silv]1 completely & in/antane\sly decomposes x1 & oxyg5 gas is evolv$ by ! union ( ! ozone & antozone s rapidly z to produce a k9d ( explosion att5d$ by an int5se evolution ( heat4 ,dur+ ! combu/ion ( phosphorus 9 ! atmosph]e bo? k9ds ( ozone appe>1 & ,pr(essor ,s*nbe9 consid]s ! sl[ combu/ion ( t sub/ance1 :i* unites ) ! ozone & sets ! antozone free1 z ! type ( all ! sl[ oxidations :i* organic & inorganic bodies und]go 9 moi/ atmosph]ic air2 t true oxidation is always prec$$ by ! appe>ance ( ! p]oxide ( hydrog51 & t ?is comp\nd acts an important "p 9 sl[ oxidations1 & is deeply conc]n$ 9 animal respiration1 & 9 _m o!r *emical actions go+ on 9 nature4 ,9 confirmation ( ^! views1 x is c]ta9 t ozone is a p[]ful m9i/] 9 ! "w ( decay4 ,if wood be made explosive l gun-cotton by a simil> process1 x becomes pulv]ul5t aft] a "t1 & burns )\t explod+1 ?\gh x /ill reta9s its %ape4 ,9 ! natural /ate ( ! wood ! oxyg5 is passive & quiesc5t1 = oxyg5 is a con/itu5t ( wood2 9 its second /ate x is explosive1 & aft] a "t t is succe$$ by ! semi-active /ate ( ozone1 :i* by a sl[ imp]ceptible combu/ion causes ! wood to decay4 ,mr4 ,f>aday obs]ves t ! =ce :i* w\ld h be5 explosive _h x be5 conc5trat$ into "o ef=t1 exp5ds itself 9 a long cont9u$ progressive *ange4 #8,! maje/ic ph5om5a ( combu/ion bespeak our admiration & rivet our att5tion because ( _! impos+ gr&eur2 yet ^! are b spasmodic ef=ts 9 ! gr& economy ( ! mat]ial _w1 occurr5ces ( n[ & !n4 ,! sl[] b cont9u\s progress ( ! elem5ts to _! appo9t$ re/+-place1 ! sil5t1 tranquil1 ev] progress+ metamorphic *anges involv$ 9 ! ph5om5a ( decomposition & decay1 ^! we c\nt = no?+ & pass unhe$$ by4 ,yet ) all _! maje/y1 ) all _! brilliancy1 all _! developm5t ( trem5d\s en]gy1 :at are ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion 9 ! gr& s*eme ( ! univ]se comp>$ ) ^!8 ,:5 ! l\d cra% ( ! ?und] or ! lightn+'s fla% awak5s u f our ?\ghtless ab/ractions or our rev]ies1 our feel+s become impress$ ) ! gr&eur ( ,omnipot5ce & ! might ( ! elem5ts he wields1 yet ! :ole fury ( ! ?und]/orm--:at is t 9 comp>ison ) ! electric en]gies :i* sil5tly & cont9ually ex]t !mselves 9 e *emical *ange8 ,:y1 ! electric =ce 9 a s+le drop ( wat]1 & di/urb$ :5 t wat] is decompos$1 is ( itself great] ?an 9 ! electricity ( a :ole ?und]/orm4 ,^? ( u :o limit our appreciation ( ! p[]s ( oxyg5 to ! en]gies display$ by ?is elem5t 9 its feebly active /ate1 =m b a v inadequate idea ( ! aggregate results accompli%$ by x 9 ! economy ( ! _w4' ,oxyg5 is ! only kn[n gas t is allotropic1 & is ! only kn[n sub/ance t is d\bly allotropic1 t is exi/+ 9 ?ree diff]5t /ates simil> to oxyg51 ozone1 & antozone4 ,hydrog5 :5 pure is an invisible gas )\t smell or ta/e2 x is a con/itu5t ( v>i\s acids & alkalies1 b is itself nei!r acid nor alkal9e4 ,x is highly inflammable1 burn+ ) a pale light1 &1 z already m5tion$1 a comb9$ jet ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 produces heat ( #hhja1 :i* is s int5se t no?+ c )/& x4 ,x is ! lighte/ sub/ance kn[n4 ,a balloon hav+ ! =m ( a globe t5 feet 9 diamet]1 w\ld hold #cb-a_/b p\nds weight ( common air1 :ile two p\nds weight ( hydrog5 gas w\ld fill x4 ,associat$ ) ?is small quantity ( pond]able matt]1 hydrog5 has an enorm\s p[] ( comb9ation1 b its activity is only call$ =? by "s ext]ior & excit+ cause4 ,a mixture ( two measures ( hydrog5 & "o ( oxyg5 gas w\ld rema9 in]t = ev]1 b ! in/ant an electric sp>k is s5t ?r\gh x1 a bright fla% & an explosion takes place1 & ! result is wat]3 ?us a trem5d\s =ce lies quiesc5t 9 t bl& elem5t4 ,hydrog5 gas is introduc$ into ! atmosph]e by imp]fect combu/ion1 b x is in/antly diffus$ & becomes h>mless1 = ari=m fluids are capable ( rapid & p]fect diffusion ?r\gh "o ano!r1 ea* hav+ a capacity peculi> to itself1 :i* "u ! same circum/ances is great] z its d5sity is less2 !re=e hydrog5 ! lighte/ ( gases n only rises 9 ! air on acc\nt ( its levity1 b is m quickly & completely diffus$ ?an oxyg5 :i* is ! support ( life4 ,?\gh hydrog5 is inf]ior 9 d5sity to e o!r gas1 x surpasses !m all 9 conduct+ electricity1 j z silv] & copp] conduct electricity bett] ?an plat9um1 ?\gh f> less d5se4 ,! great refrig]at+ p[] ( hydrog5 is ow+ to its extreme mobility & consequ5t rapid convection ( heat1 9 :i* x surpasses all o!r gases4 ,x is z p]meable to radiant heat z atmosph]ic air1 has a v high refractive p[]1 a specific heat ( #cbicf1 & may be sub/itut$ 9 _m *emical =mul = a metal1 )\t alt]+ _! "*3 h5ce x is sometimes call$ a metalloid4 ,! quantity ( nitrog5 gas or azote t exi/s 9 nature is enorm\s4 ,x con/itutes f\r-fif?s ( ! atmosph]e1 :5ce x may be _h 9 a pure /ate1 z well z by *emical means4 ,l oxyg51 ?is gas is p]man5tly ela/ic1 )\t smell1 ta/e1 or col\r2 x is nei!r acid nor alkal9e1 x does n *ange vegetable col\rs1 x nei!r burns nor supports combu/ion1 & is incapable :5 brea!d ( support+ animal life4 ,x ab\nds 9 organic bodies1 9 all p>ts ( ! animal texture1 9 ! blood1 muscles1 n]ves1 ev5 9 ! bra92 & is ei!r a highly nutriti\s or poison\s pr9ciple 9 ! vegetable k+dom4 ,nitrog5 gas is altoge!r passive2 x has no aff9ity = ! metals1 & _c be lib]at$ f any ( its comp\nds ev5 by electricity4 ,except+ boron & titanium1 x w n comb9e directly or spontane\sly ) any simple elem5t1 ev5 "u ! highe/ temp]ature1 b its indirect comb9ations are num]\s & viol5t3 ^? ) hydrog5 are ei!r noxi\s or poison\s1 ^? ) oxyg5 are all deadly poison\s4 ,_h nitrog5 comb9$ spontane\sly ) ei!r ( ^! gases1 especially ) oxyg51 life w\ld h be5 impossible z ! organiz$ creation is con/itut$2 its in]tness r5d]s its mixture ) oxyg5 9 atmosph]ic air innocu\s4 ,h[ev]1 comb9ations ( nitrog5 & hydrog51 =m+ nitrate ( ammonia1 h be5 discov]$ 9 ! atmosph]e by ,pr(essor ,s*nbe91 ! union ( evaporation1 heat & air be+ ! cause2 & z evaporation is cont9ually go+ on1 he concludes t nitrate ( ammonia1 nitrates & o!r salts are g5]at$ 9 ! moi/ air1 & are spe$ily wa%$ d[n 9 our ra9y climates into ! spr+s & riv]s4 ,he consid]s ! =mation ( nitrates out ( wat] z highly important = vegetation1 because ea* plant becomes a g5]ator ( a portion at lea/ ( its azotiz$ food1 :ile ! ra9 furni%es ! gr\nd on :i* x /&s ) a supply ( ! same4 ,9 ! atmosph]e1 nitrog5 has all ! me*anical prop]ties ( common air1 b ) a great] refractive p[]1 & its specific gravity is ne>ly ! same ) t ( oxyg54 ,s9ce ! atmosph]ic gases are ! mo/ p]meable to radiant heat1 ! e>? is 9 ! mo/ fav\rable circum/ances = be+ w>m$ by ! sol> rays1 & ?us ! prop]ties ( ! elem5t>y gases are admirably adapt$ = our com=t1 n\ri%m5t1 safety1 & pleasure4 ,c>bon1 :i* comb9$ ) ! ?ree elem5t>y gases =ms ! basis ( ! organic creation1 is widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! globe1 9 enorm\s coal =mations1 ! vegetation ( =m] ages4 ,diamond is its pure/ cry/all9e =m2 & *>coal1 :i* is wood :5ce ! volatile matt]s h be5 driv5 (f by heat1 is its pure/ amorph\s /ate4 ,to ?is simple sub/ance & to hydrog51 we are indebt$ = t]re/rial light & heat1 :e!r our fuel be coal or wood1 our light a c&le or a lamp4 ,! products ( combu/ion are c>bonic acid gas1 :e!r pure or mix$ ) smoke1 = a%es are ! incombu/ible e>?y matt] mix$ ) coal or wood1 & smoke is unconsum$ c>bon aris+ f ! bad con/ruction ( our *imneys2 s t ! wa/e is enorm\s 9 a great city l ,london :]e coal is ! only fuel4 ,light is giv5 out by inc&esc5t solid p>ticles1 :i* become lum9\s soon] ?an gas1 = all gases h a feeble illum9at+ p[]1 & heat results f ! *emical comb9ation ( ! c>bon ) oxyg51 a process 9 :i* ! *emical =ce m]ges into its correlative heat4 ,mr4 ,f>aday obs]ves1 t _h ! result ( ! comb9ation ( c>bon & oxyg5 be5 a gas only1 we %\ld h _h v little light1 & _h x be5 a p]man5t solid1 ! _w w\ld h be5 buri$ 9 its own a%es4 ,diamond & pure c>bon leave no residuum :5 consum$2 !y comb9e ) ! oxyg5 ( our atmosph]e into c>bonic acid gas1 :i* is invisible1 poison\s1 & s heavy1 t x may be p\r$ f "o vessel to ano!r l wat]1 !reby %[+ h[ mu* c>bon x conta9s 9 an invisible /ate4 ,! quantity ( c>bonic acid gas ?r[n into ! atmosph]e 9 ?is invisible yet pond]\s /ate is imm5se1 s9ce six tons weight ( atmosph]ic air ru%es h\rly ?r\gh an av]age size bla/ furnace1 c>ry+ ) x m ?an half a ton ( c>bon 9 ! =m ( t gas1 ^: con/itution & prop]ties are always ! same1 :e!r x arises f combu/ion1 f]m5tation1 or respiration1 :i* latt] may be reg>d$ z a sl[ combu/ion1 consum+ u to ! bones if n suppli$ ) c>bon by means ( food4 ,x has be5 comput$ t two ?\s& million p\nds weight ( oxyg5 gas is daily conv]t$ into c>bonic acid gas by ^! op]ations1 & giv5 into ! atmosph]e1 :i* w\ld soon be contam9at$ by its poison & suffocat+ quality1 7 x n = vegetables :i* decompose x1 assimilate ! c>bon & set ! oxyg5 free to m+le ) ! air & make x aga9 fit = respiration4 ,c>bon has a great] p[] ( comb9ation ?an any o!r simple sub/ance except hydrog54 ,mr4 ,f>aday compress$ c>bonic acid gas into a liquid by ! pressure ( its own ela/icity :5 dis5gag$ f comb9ation 9 close vessels1 a =ce equal to ! weight ( ?irty-five times t ( our atmosph]e2 & ! liquid 0 r$uc$ to a solid by ,m4 ,?ilori] by rapid evaporation1 dur+ :i* ! heat 0 giv5 out s quickly by "o "p ( ! liquid1 t ! rema9d] 0 cond5s$ into a sub/ance l sn[1 :i* c\ld be t\*$ ) impunity1 b :5 mix$ ) sulphuric e!r its temp]ature 0 r$uc$ to #aff bel[ z]o ( ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]4 ,c>bon appe>s naturally "u a great v>iety ( =ms1 & exhibits "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ in/ances ( allotropism1 ! same sub/ance %[+ ! greate/ contra/ 9 appe>ance & physical prop]ties4 ,! diamond1 ! mo/ respl5d5t1 transp>5t1 & h>de/ ( gems1 is id5tical ) c>bon1 :i* is black1 dull1 opaque1 & brittle4 ,bo? are combu/ible2 c>bon is easily ignit$1 b x requires a heat ( #ahfj to consume ! diamond4 ,h[ev] num]\s ! cry/all9e =ms assum$ by sub/ances ei!r naturally or artificially may be1 !y are all capable ( be+ gr\p$ into geometrical sy/ems2 ea* sy/em possess+ its own alli$ & d]ivative =ms capable ( mutual v>iations among !mselves1 b ! =ms ( "o sy/em nev] assum+ ^? ( ! o!r4 ,) t law1 h[ev]1 c>bon & a few o!r sub/ances are completely at v>iance4 ,! diamond cry/allizes 9 octoh$rons1 :ile graphite1 :i* is also c>bon1 cry/allizes 9 six-sid$ plates1--two =ms t belong to diff]5t sy/ems q irreconcilable ) "o ano!r3 & ?us c>bon possesses ! prop]ty ( be+ dimorph\s4 ,sulphur is a simple inflammable m9]al ab\nd+ 9 volcanic c\ntries1 ei!r 9 a cry/all9e or amorph\s /ate1 & =m+ a con/itu5t 9 organic sub/ances1 animal & vegetable4 ,x is readily dissolv$ by bisulphide ( c>bon1 by b5z9e1 & by a mod]ate heat2 & copp] fil+s expos$ to its vap\r spontane\sly take fire1 ! *emical =ce ( comb9ation m]g+ into light & heat4 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 gas1 a comb9ation ( sulphur & hydrog51 =ms naturally dur+ ! putrefaction ( organic matt]1 & ,mr4 ,f>aday obs]ves ) reg>d to ! aff9ities ( sulphur1 #8s num]\s are its relations1 s ext5sive its range ( comb9ations1 t we mu/ consid] x to be ! v f\ndation on :i* *emical manufacture is built up4' ,?\gh a simple sub/ance1 sulphur exhibits ! two rem>kable ph5om5a ( dimorphism & ! allotropic prop]ty4 ,:5 r$uc$ by heat to vap\r & cool$ sl[ly1 x cry/allizes 9 rhombic octoh$rons2 :5 m]ely melt$ & all[$ to cool sl[ly1 x takes ! =m ( oblique rhombic prisms4 ,"h ! same atoms :5 9 vap\r & 9 a liquid /ate are act$ ^u by diff]5t =ces2 b h[ev] t may be1 sulphur is ano!r s+ul> exception to ! law ( ! immutability ( ! cry/all9e sy/ems4 ,sulphur becomes allotropic by ! cont9u$ application ( heat2 t is to say1 x entirely *anges its appe>ance & "*1 ?\gh x rema9s *emically ! same4 ,naturally x is yell[ & brittle1 b :5 fus$1 x is a col\rless pellucid fluid :i* by cont9u$ heat is *ang$ into a black t5aci\s sub/ance t becomes l ,india rubb] or gutta p]*a :5 ?r[n into wat]4 ,9 ?is allotropic /ate x is end[$ ) prop]ties m p[]ful1 en]getic1 & exalt$2 its t5d5cies to act *emically be+ increas$ l ^? ( ozone4 ,t ?is black t5aci\s sub/ance is *emically ! same ) common sulphur !re c be no d\bt1 = :5 x is expos$ to great] heat1 x aga9 becomes a col\rless pellucid fluid1 :i* ?r[n into wat] resumes ! =m ( brittle yell[ sulphur4 ,^! new arrangem5ts among atoms ( ! same k9d %[ t ! immutability ( matt] is n )\t exceptions4 ,! animal k+dom is ! great res]voir ( phosphorus1 a simple sub/ance t is nev] f\nd uncomb9$4 ,x is sp>+ly met ) 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 & /ill less 9 ! m9]al1 b may be procur$ abundantly f calc9$ bones4 ,:5 pure x is col\rless1 transp>5t1 solid1 extremely poison\s1 & s inflammable t x mu/ be kept 9 wat]4 ,9 air x is 9 cont9ual combu/ion ) oxyg51 dur+ :i* ozone is produc$4 ,:5 burnt 9 a curr5t ( air phosphorus leaves a residuum consi/+ ( two sub/ances1 ( :i* "o is an acid1 ! o!r is r$ allotropic phosphorus1 :i* has be5 ext5sively us$ 9 ! manufacture ( lucif] mat*es1 because its fumes are n delet]i\s1 & because x inflames less easily ?an common phosphorus1 to :i* x is r$uc$ by heat or friction1 :i* g5]ates heat4 ,silicon is a simple sub/ance1 nev] f\nd alone1 b :5 =ty-eight p>ts ( x are comb9$ ) fifty-two p>ts ( oxyg5 gas x =ms rock cry/al1 ! pure/ =m ( silica or qu>tz4 ,silica is s abundant t x may be said to con/itute ! basis ( ! m9]al _w4 ,! s& on ! sea-%ore1 :i* is ! debris ( qu>tz rocks1 %[s h[ univ]sally x prevails4 ,x is ev5 abundant 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 giv+ /r5g? to ! /alks & leaves ( ! grasses1 & may be felt 9 ! h>%ness ( ! be>ds ( :eat & b>ley4 ,silicon exi/s 9 ?ree diff]5t /ates--! amorph\s1 :i* has no =m2 ! graphic1 :i* takes ! =m ( small hexagonal plates2 & t ( octoh$ral silicon3 h5ce ?is sub/ance is dimorph\s4 ,a s+ul> analogy obta9s betwe5 silicon & c>bon3 ! amorph\s =m ( silicon corresponds to *>coal1 ! graphic =m ( silicon corresponds to ! graphic =m ( c>bon1 & ! octoh$ral =m ( silicon to ! diamond2 yet ! *emical relations betwe5 ! two sub/ances are v small4 ,silica has hi!rto be5 consid]$ to be insoluble 9 pure wat]2 at lea/ ,m4 ,bis*(f /ates t only "o "p ( silica dissolves 9 #gfi1bcj p>ts ( wat]2 b by a me?od h]eaft] to be expla9$1 ,pr(essor ,graham has actually obta9$ a limpid solution ( silica 9 pure wat]4 ,boron is a con/itu5t ( boracic acid1 a natural production 9 ,?ibet & ,monte ,corbalo 9 ,tuscany4 ,x is a gre5i%-br[n solid1 insoluble 9 wat]1 b :5 heat$ to ab\t #fjj x burns 9 op5 air ) a vivid flame4 ,fluor9e is a con/itu5t ( a v beautiful m9]al1 well kn[n z fluor sp>1 :i* is f\nd 9 cubic cry/als ( a gre51 yell[1 or purple col\r4 ,hydr(luoric acid obta9$ *emically f ! m9]al is highly volatile & extremely corrosive4 ,?ree ( ! non-metallic simple sub/ances1 *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e1 are connect$ by ! mo/ rem>kable analogies4 ,!y are m>9e productions1 = *lor9e is obta9$ f common sea-salt & 9 great] purity f rock-salt1 bo? ( :i* are comp\nds ( *lor9e & ! metal sodium4 ,:5 sea-wat] is evaporat$1 salt & a sub/ance call$ bitt]n rema91 :i* conta9s a salt :5ce brom9e is sep>at$4 ,aga91 :5 kelp1 ! a%es ( burnt seawe$s1 is purifi$ f ! c>bonate ( soda & ! *loride ( potassium1 a salt is left :i* is ! iodide ( potassium1 :5ce iod9e is obta9$4 ,iod9e is also f\nd 9 sponges1 oy/]s1 & o!r l[ sea animals1 z well z 9 c]ta9 m9]al spr+s1 & sometimes 9 comb9ation ) silv]4 ,^! ?ree elem5tal bodies h little aff9ity = "o ano!r1 b !y comb9e p[]fully ) o!r sub/ances4 ,*lor9e is a yell[i%-gre5 gas1 twice z heavy z atmosph]ic air1 ) a noxi\s suffocat+ smell & a/r+5t ta/e4 ,x has a p[]ful blea*+ prop]ty1 & :5 comb9$ ) wat]1 :i* absorbs twice its volume ( ! gas1 x is us$ = blea*+ l951 9 calico-pr9t+1 & o!r arts4 ,! cle> solution ( *loride ( lime is /ill m 9 use = ! same purpose1 z well z = an antidote aga9/ contagion & un:olesome smells4 ,c>bon does n burn 9 *lor9e gas1 yet x is capable ( support+ combu/ion1 = oil ( turp5t9e1 phosphorus1 ?9 leaves ( t9 & copp]1 & p[d]$ antimony1 take fire spontane\sly 9 x4 ,?is gas %[s its p[] by ! developm5t ( int5se heat1 b n by brilliant light1 because ! results ( its combu/ion are mo/ly vap\rs1 or su* gases z h a feeble illum9at+ p[]2 s *lor9e diff]s mat]ially f oxyg5 9 ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion4 ,mr4 ,f>aday obs]ves1 h[ev]1 t ! blea*+ p[d] is analog\s to ozone 9 be+ an int]m$iate /ate1 = *lor9e is p]nici\s & viol5tly de/ructive z a gas1 p]fectly innocu\s & quiesc5t 9 common salt & 9 its o!r natural comb9ations1 :ile 9 ! blea*+ sub/ances its en]gy is subdu$ by art1 s z to make x an important ag5t 9 v>i\s manufactures4 ,provid5tially1 *lor9e is nev] f\nd free2 b 9 a comb9$ /ate x exi/s 9 enorm\s quantities 9 ! salt ( ! ocean1 9 salt lakes1 br9e spr+s1 & 9 ext5sive deposits ( rock-salt1 z well z 9 organic liquids4 ,x has a /rong aff9ity = hydrog51 & =ms muriatic acid4 ,a mixture ( ^! two gases rema9s inactive 9 ! d>k1 b explodes 9 sun%9e4 ,by *emical means *lor9e is made to comb9e ) oxyg5 s z to produce f\r sub/ances1 two ( :i* are gases ( su* un/able equilibrium & weak aff9ity t ! slighte/ cause makes !m detonate viol5tly2 ! o!r two are m /able1 ?\gh !y conta9 a great] quantity ( oxyg54 ,! only comb9ation ( *lor9e ) nitrog5 is ! mo/ p[]ful & dang]\s explosive comp\nd kn[n4 ,*lor9e comb9es naturally ) sulphur1 & ) ! metals s z to =m ores4 ,common salt af=ds a rem>kable in/ance ( *ange ( volume by *emical comb9ation4 ,tw5ty-f\r p>ts 9 bulk ( salt conta9 #bjg p>ts ( sodium & #bcc p>ts ( liquid *lor9e2 h5ce by *emical comb9ation a bulk ( #dd is compress$ into a bulk ( #bd1 yet t great compression is consi/5t ) p]fect transp>5cy1 cry/alliz$ salt be+ p]fectly transp>5t to light1 & m s z reg>ds radiant heat ?an any o!r sub/ance4 ,?us *emical aff9ity does :at no me*anical p[] c\ld accompli%4 ,at an ord9>y temp]ature & b>ometric pressure1 brom9e is an orange r$1 extremely volatile fluid1 :i* congeals & becomes brittle at a temp]ature a little bel[ ! z]o ( ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]1 & if comb9$ ) wat] at t degree ( cold x cry/allizes 9 octoh$ral cry/als :i* are p]man5t ev5 at #ej ,fahr4 ,brom9e is v poison\s1 corrodes ! sk91 has a disagreeable ta/e1 & a smell simil> to t ( *lor9e1 b m pung5t & hurtful4 ,x possesses a p[]ful blea*+ prop]ty1 does n conduct electricity1 & l *lor9e a tap] w n burn 9 its gas1 ?\gh x spontane\sly sets fire to phosphorus1 & "s ( ! metals4 ,reason+ f analogy ,pr(essor ,s*nbe9 believes t *lor9e & brom9e are n simple sub/ances2 he consid]s !m to be ozonides analog\s to ! p]oxides ( manganese1 lead1 c4 ,he believes *lor9e to be ! p]oxide ( murium1 & brom9e to be ! p]oxide ( bromium4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall's exp]im5ts on ! absorption & radiation ( gases %[ t ! action ( ^! two sub/ances is v diff]5t f t ( ! simple gases4 ,iod9e is a d>k purple solid1 cry/alliz$ 9 scales or elongat$ octoh$ral plates4 ,x sl[ly evaporates at ord9>y temp]atures1 & at t ( #cej ,fahr4 x is volatiliz$ into a beautiful violet col\r$ gas :i* *anges />* into a bright blue1 & = t reason a little />* w detect ! million? ( a gra9 ( iod9e 9 composition4 ,iod9e is slightly soluble 9 wat]1 has a hot acrid ta/e1 & al?\gh us$ 9 m$ic9e x is poison\s :5 tak5 9 l>ge doses4 ,its blea*+ prop]ties are inf]ior to ^? ( its cong5]s1 b its *emical comb9ations are ! same4 ,) hydrog5 x =ms a highly explosive comp\nd1 :i* detonates ) ! slighte/ pressure4 ,^! ?ree simple sub/ances are analog\s 9 almo/ e respect4 ,!y all possess a blea*+ prop]ty1 _m ( _! comp\nds are exce$+ly explosive1 combu/ible sub/ances d n burn 9 _! gases1 :ile _! gases set fire spontane\sly to sub/ances g5]ally reckon$ incombu/ible4 ,h5ce1 ?\gh n combu/ible1 !y support combu/ion1 b 9 a v diff]5t mann] f oxyg54 ,*lor9e & ! gases ( brom9e & iod9e dilut$ ) common air1 d n transmit blue & violet light2 t is to say1 ! spectrum ( a sunbeam transmitt$ ?r\gh !m is depriv$ ( its mo/ refrangible col\r$ rays1 & t :i* rema9s is cross$ by m ?an a hundr$ equidi/ant d>k l9es2 _! spectral prop]ties h[ev] w be giv5 h]eaft]4 ,!y resemble oxyg5 9 "o respect--t :5 a curr5t ( electricity is pass$ cont9u\sly ?r\gh a glass tube fill$ ) any ( ^! ?ree gases1 mu* att5uat$1 !y sl[ly comb9e ) ! plat9um wire ( ! negative pole ( ! batt]y ins]t$ 9 ! tube4 ,! electricity by degrees passes 9 dim9i%$ quantity1 & at la/ ceases altoge!r1 %[+ t matt]1 h[ev] att5uat$1 is requisite to conduct x4 ,accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,dumas1 ! volatility ( a comp\nd is 9 ! inv]se ratio ( ! cond5sation ( ! sub/ances compos+ x1 & simple bodies come "u ! same law4 ,= example1 *lor9e is m volatile ?an brom9e1 & brom9e is m volatile ?an iod9e2 h5ce accord+ to t law1 *lor9e is ! lea/ d5se ( ! ?ree1 brom9e is int]m$iate1 & iod9e is ! mo/ d5se1 :i* is actually ! case3 = *lor9e is a gas1 brom9e a liquid1 & iod9e a solid at ord9>y temp]atures1 :i* proves t !re is a sequ5ce 9 ! int5sity ( ! cohesive =ces 9 ?is triad4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,on ,,=ce1 ,,& ,,! ,,relations ,,betwe5 ,,=ce ,,& ,,matt]4 ,,=ce is only kn[n to u z a manife/ation ( div9e p[] :i* c nei!r be creat$ nor de/roy$4 ,! /ore ( =ce or en]gy 9 nature is ev] *ang+ its =m ( action1 its am\nt nev]4 ,x may be disp]s$ 9 v>i\s directions1 & subdivid$ s z to become evanesc5t to our p]ceptions2 x may be balanc$ s z to be 9 abeyance1 or x may become pot5tial z 9 /atic electricity2 b ! in/ant ! imp$im5t is remov$ ! p[] is manife/$ by motion4 ,:atev] =m =ce may assume x has inv>iably a comp5sation or equival5t1 :e!r 9 ! heav5s or on ! e>?4 ,! total sum ( ! liv+ =ces1 vis viva1 or actual en]gy ( ! planets is ! same e "t !y return to ! same relative positions ) reg>d to "o ano!r1 to _! orbits & to space1 :atev] may h be5 _! velocities or mutual di/urbances4 ,9 ! ocean1 ! en]gy by :i* #be1jjj cubic miles ( wat] fl[ ov] a qu>t] ( ! globe 9 six h\rs1 is exactly equal to ! =ce or en]gy t makes x ebb dur+ ! succe$+ six h\rs4 ,a body acquires heat 9 ! exact proportion t ! adjac5t sub/ances become cold2 & :5 heat is absorb$ by a body1 x becomes an expansive en]gy at ! exp5se ( ^? ar\nd x1 :i* contract4 ,*emical action _m miles di/ant f ! electro-magnet1 z 9 telegraphs1 is p]fectly equival5t to ! dom9ant *emical action 9 ! batt]y4 ,! two electricities1 positive & negative1 are develop$ 9 equal proportions1 :i* may be comb9$ s z to produce _m *anges 9 _! respective relations1 yet ! sum ( ! en]gy ( ! "o k9d c nev] be made 9 ! smalle/ degree ei!r to exce$ or to come %ort ( ! sum ( ! o!r4 ,! me*anical en]gy ( ma*9]y or work+ p[] is exhau/$ by ! v act ( work+1 & _c be re/or$ except by ! action ( o!r =ces4 ,9 clockwork1 ! weight mu/ s9k to move ! :eel1 & :5 ! weight is d[n1 ! /ore ( en]gy is gone1 & c only be re/or$ by rais+ ! weight ?r\gh ! exp5diture ( en]gy 9 ! human arm1 & ! exp5diture ( human en]gy mu/ be re/or$ by food & re/4 ,! heat giv5 (f f ! bodies ( m5 & animals is re/or$ by ! combu/ion ( ! oxyg5 inhal$ dur+ respiration & ! c>bon ( ! food1 & ! light & heat giv5 out by ! combu/ion ( fuel1 :e!r 9 ! =m ( coal or wood1 is comp5sat$ by ! light & heat ( ! sun /or$ up 9 liv+ vegetables4 ,x is ?is equival5t = =ce or en]gy :i* prevails 9 e dep>tm5t ( nature t con/itutes ! univ]sal & inv>iable law ( ! ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy1 #8a pr9ciple 9 physics z l>ge & sure z t ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt] or ! inv>iability ( gravity4 ,no hypo!sis %\ld be admitt$ nor any ass]tion ( a fact cr$it$1 t d5ies ?is pr9ciple4 ,no view %\ld be inconsi/5t or incompatible ) x4 ,_m ( our hypo!ses 9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce may n compreh5d x1 & may be unable to sugge/ its consequ5ces1 b none %\ld oppose or contradict x4'#a ,?us1 #8!re is a def9ite /ore ( en]gy 9 ! univ]se1 & e natural *ange or te*nical "w is produc$ by a "p only ( ?is /ore1 ! /ore itself be+ et]nal & un*angeable4'#b ,cohesion is a =ce :i* act+ at inappreciably small di/ances unites atoms & molecules ( ! same k9d into solids1 liquids1 & ari=m fluids1 exactly accord+ to ! law ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy2 = x requires ! v same am\nt ( =ce to dissolve _! union z to =m x4 ,cohesion v>ies ) temp]ature bo? 9 simple & comp\nd bodies1 = metals c be fus$ & vaporiz$ by artificial heat1 & ice becomes wat] & aque\s vap\r z ! seasons *ange f w9t] to summ]4 ,9 solids ! =ce ( cohesion is s /rong1 t _! atoms & molecules always reta9 _! respective places2 t p[] is s weak 9 liquids1 t _! atoms & molecules are capable ( motion among !mselves1 & 9 gases & ! e!real m$ium ! atoms are free & h no cohesion :atev]4 ,! resi/ance (f]$ by sub/ances to compression is an equal & contr>y =ce4 ,! reciprocal attraction betwe5 solids & liquids 9 capill>y tubes is a case ( cohesion4 ,if a glass tube ( extremely f9e bore be plung$ into a glass ( wat] or alcohol1 ! liquid w imm$iately rise 9 ! tube above ! level ( t 9 ! cup1 & ! surface ( ! little susp5d$ column w be a holl[ hemisph]e4 ,if on ! contr>y m]cury be ! liquid1 x w n rise s high 9 ! glass tube1 & ! surface ( ! little column w be a convex hemisph]e4 ,!re is a reciprocal attraction betwe5 ! glass tube & ! liquid1 & ano!r betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! liquid itself2 & ! effect is produc$ by ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! attraction ( ! glass is great] ?an t ( ! liquid1 & 9 ! second x is less2 h5ce ! wat] rises high] 9 ! tube ?an ! m]cury1 & its surface is concave1 :ile t ( ! m]cury is convex4 ,! elevation or depression ( ! same liquid 9 diff]5t tubes ( ! same matt] is 9 ! inv]se ratio ( _! int]nal diamet]s1 & altoge!r indep5d5t ( _! ?ickness2 :5ce x foll[s t molecul> action is ins5sible at s5sible di/ances1 = :5 tubes ( ! same bore are wett$ ?r\gh\t _! :ole ext5t ) wat]1 m]cury w rise to ! same height 9 all ( !m :atev] be _! ?ickness or d5sity1 ! film ( wat] be+ suffici5t to int]cept ! molecul> action1 & to supply ! place ( a tube by its own capill>y attraction4 ,! action ( ?is =ce is daily se5 9 ! absorption ( wat] by sponges1 sug>1 salt & o!r por\s bodies1 & x is a mo/ important ag5t 9 ! circulation ( fluids 9 animals & vegetables4 ,e atom ( matt] is subject to ! =ce ( gravitation1 b ea* sub/ance has its own peculi> weight ( specific gravity1 t is to say1 ! same bulk ( diff]5t sub/ances conta9s diff]5t quantities ( matt]4 ,s9ce no?+ is kn[n ( absolute weight x is necess>y to h "s /&>d ( comp>ison1 & = t purpose pure wat] at ! temp]ature #ci ,fahr4 7t ( its maximum d5sity7 is *os5 = solids & liquids2 :ile = gases & vap\rs atmosph]ic air at ! temp]ature ( sixty degrees ( ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]1 & a b>ometric pressure ( ?irty in*es1 is assum$ z ! unit ( specific gravity4 ,! foot-p\nd1 :i* is ! unit ( me*anical =ce z e/abli%$ by ,mr4 ,j\le1 is ! =ce t w\ld raise "o p\nd ( matt] to ! height ( "o foot2 or x is ! impetus or =ce g5]at$ by a body ( "o p\nd weight fall+ by its gravitation ?r\gh ! height ( "o foot4 ,n[ impetus or vis viva is equal to ! mass ( a body multipli$ by ! squ>e ( ! velocity ) :i* x is mov+3 x is ! true measure ( "w or me*anical lab\r4 ,= if a weight be rais$ t5 feet1 x w require f\r times ! lab\r to raise an equal weight to =ty feet4 ,if bo? ^! weights be all[$ to fall freely by _! gravitation1 at ! end ( _! desc5t1 _! velocities w be z "o to two1 t is z ! squ>e roots ( _! heights1 b ! effect produc$ w be z _! masses multipli$ by "o & f\r2 b ^! are ! squ>es ( _! velocities4 ,h5ce impetus or vis viva is equal to ! mass multipli$ by ! squ>e ( ! velocity4 ,?us impetus is ! true measure ( ! lab\r employ$ to raise ! weights1 & ( ! effect ( _! desc5t1 & is entirely indep5d5t ( "t4 ,x is well kn[n t iron becomes r$-hot by p]cussion or impetus4 ,! atoms ( ! iron are ?r[n into vibration1 & ^! m9ute motions communicat$ to ! n]ves produce ! s5sation ( heat4 ,n[ ! me*anical lab\r requir$ to raise ! hamm] to any numb] ( feet is equal to ! weight ( ! hamm] multipli$ by t numb] ( feet2 b ! impetus or me*anical effect ( ! fall ( ! hamm] is equal to its mass multipli$ by ! squ>e ( ! velocity1 t is to ! vis viva3 h5ce ! quantity ( heat g5]at$ is proportional to ! vis viva4 ,! circum/ances be+ ! same1 if ! mass be d\bl$ ! am\nt ( heat is d\bl$2 & if ! velocity be d\bl$ ! am\nt ( heat is quadrupl$4 ,if ! weight & ! p]p5dicul> height ?r\gh :i* a body has fall5 be kn[n1 ! quantity ( heat g5]at$ may be det]m9$4 ,! same am\nt ( heat is g5]at$ by ! same am\nt ( =ce1 :atev] t =ce may be1 :e!r impetus1 friction1 or any o!r4 ,dr4 ,?omson has put 9 a /rong po9t ( view ! quantity ( heat t might be g5]at$ by p]cussion or impetus4 ,he comput$ t if by any sudd5 %ock ! e>? 7 arre/$ 9 its orbit1 ! heat g5]at$ by ! impulse w\ld be equal to #aa1bjj degrees ( ! c5tigrade !rmomet]1 ev5 if ! capacity ( our planet = heat 7 z l[ z t ( wat]2 x w\ld !re=e be mo/ly r$uc$ to vap\r1 & %\ld ! e>? !n fall to ! sun z x c]ta9ly w\ld d1 ! quantity ( heat develop$ by /rik+ on ! sun w\ld be #djj times great]4 ,x is ev5 suppos$ t ! light & heat ( ! sun are ow+ to %[]s ( bodies fall+ on ! surface ) impetus proportionate to 8 attraction1 = _h he be5 9 combu/ion he w\ld h be5 burnt out ages ago4 ,! masses ( meteoric iron & /one t occasionally fall on ! e>? %[ t matt] may be w&]+ 9 space2 ! va/ zone ( small] bodies t 9 _! annual revolutions r\nd ! sun come )9 ! e>?'s attraction 9 ,augu/ & ,novemb]1 :5 ?\s&s ( !m take fire & are consum$ on ent]+ our atmosph]e1 %[ t a great am\nt ( matt] ( small dim5sions exi/s )9 our own sy/em4 ,mu* may be beyond x :i* drawn by ! sun's attraction may fall on 8 surface4 ,:5 a body is heat$1 x absorbs "o "p ( ! heat2 ! o!r "p raises its temp]ature4 ,! "p absorb$ increases ! bulk or volume ( ! body1 ! expansion be+ ! exact measure1 or me*anical equival5t ( ! heat absorb$4 ,9 fact ! coeffici5t ( expansion is ! fractional "p ( ! expansion 9 l5g?1 surface1 or volume ( ! body :5 its temp]ature is rais$ "o degree4 ,:5 ! body is cool$1 its volume is dim9i%$1 & !n ! contraction is an exact measure1 or me*anical equival5t ( ! heat giv5 out1 & ?us expansion & contraction are correlatives ) & repres5t heat & cold4 ,specific heat is ! quantity ( heat requir$ to raise a giv5 bulk or a giv5 weight ( a body a giv5 numb] ( degrees4 ,9 ! "o case x is di/+ui%$ z ! specific heat = a con/ant volume1 9 ! o!r = a con/ant weight4 ,al?\gh ! specific heat ( a sub/ance rema9s ! same1 its s5sible & absorb$ heat may v>y reciprocally to a great ext5t4 ,z !re c be no direct measurem5t ( heat indep5d5t ( matt]1 its mutations & action on matt] are ! sole means we h ( =m+ our judgm5t conc]n+ its ag5cy 9 ! mat]ial _w4 ,mr4 ,j\le has prov$ t ! quantity ( heat requisite to raise ! temp]ature ( a p\nd ( wat] "o degree ( ! c5tigrade !rmomet] is equival5t to ! me*anical "w or =ce t w\ld raise ! same mass ( wat] to ! height ( #a1chi feet4 ,?is is ! unit1 or me*anical equival5t ( heat4 ,9 fact1 = e unit ( =ce exp5d$ 9 p]cussion1 friction1 or rais+ a weight1 a def9ite quantity ( heat is g5]at$2 & conv]sely1 :5 "w is p]=m$ by ! consumption ( heat1 = ea* unit ( =ce ga9$1 a unit ( heat disappe>s4 ,= s9ce heat is a dynamical =ce ( me*anical effect1 !re mu/ be an equival5ce betwe5 me*anical "w & heat z betwe5 cause & effect4 ,t equival5ce is a law ( nature4 ,! me*anical =ce ex]t$ by ! /eam eng9e is exactly 9 proportion to ! consumption ( heat1 nei!r m nor less2 = if we c\ld produce a great] quantity ?an its equival5t we %\ld h p]petual motion1 :i* is impossible4 ,:5 /eam is employ$ to p]=m any "w1 ! temp]ature ( ! /eam is l[]$2 ! heat t disappe>s is trans=m$ into ! =ce t p]=ms ! "w1 & is exactly proportional to ! "w done1 & vice v]s4 ,! heat :i* is ! motive =ce 9 ! /eam eng9e is due to ! *emical comb9ation ( ! c>bon ( ! fuel ) ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e4 ,a p\nd weight ( coal :5 consum$ 9 "o ( our be/ /eam eng9es produces an effect equal to rais+ a weight ( a million ( p\nds a foot high1 yet m>vell\s z t is1 ! inve/igations ( rec5t ye>s h demon/rat$ ! fact1 t ! me*anical en]gy resid5t 9 a p\nd ( coal & lib]at$ by its combu/ion is capable ( rais+ to ! same height t5 times t weight4#c ,! quantity ( coal exi/+ 9 ! :ole globe is believ$ to be inexhau/ible1 h5ce ! en]gy 9 abeyance is incalculable4 ,! *emical en]gy cont9ually & actually ex]t$ 9 ! great laboratory ( nature is great] ?an t :i* ma9ta9s ! planets 9 _! orbits4 ,! act ( ! comb9ation ( ! atoms ( c>bon & oxyg5 9 combu/ion is #8n[ reg>d$ exactly z we reg>d ! cla%+ ( a fall+ weight aga9/ ! e>?1 & ! heat produc$ 9 bo? cases is ref]able to ! same cause2'#d s *emical comb9ation 9 combu/ion is only a p>ticul> case ( fall+ bodies4 ,drummond's light1 ! mo/ brilliant ( artificial illum9ations1 is produc$ by a simultane\s %[] ( ! atoms ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 gas ^u lime2 & plat9um1 ! lea/ fusible ( metals1 is vaporiz$ by a simil> %[] f ! oxy-hydrog5 bl[pipe1 & ?us impetus g5]ates bo? light & heat1 = al?\gh ! atoms are too small to admit ( an e/imation ( _! individual vis viva1 !re c be no d\bt t l causes produce l effects4 ,9 :at mann] or "u :at =m magnetism & electricity exi/ :5 quiesc5t 9 matt] we "k n1 b ! compass ne$les %[ t num]\s l9es ( magnetic =ce1 subject to p]iodic & secul> v>iations1 p]petually trav]se ! e>? & ! ocean2 & t waves ( magnetic =ce occasionally sweep rapidly ov] great tracts ( ! globe4 ,^! ph5om5a w\ld seem to /& 9 "s p]iodic connection ) ! sol> spots4 ,pr(essor ,lamont ( ,muni* has discov]$ t a p]man5t & regul> curr5t ( electricity is propagat$ p>allel to ! equator all ov] ! e>?1 & ano!r simil> to x 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,besides ^!1 !re are curr5ts ( electricity 9 ! surface ( ! e>?1 sometimes 9 "o direction & sometimes 9 ano!r1 :i* decrease ) ! dep?2 & ,m4 ,lamont conceives t ?is electric sy/em is ! cause ( t]re/rial magnetism4 ,electricity ( int5se p[] & inappreciable quantity c]ta9ly exi/s 9 abeyance 9 ! atmosph]e & 9 all t]re/rial matt] till ! equilibrium betwe5 ! antagoni/ =ces be di/urb$1 & !n x bur/s =? ) t]rific viol5ce 9 ! lightn+ fla% & /unn+ cra% ( ?und]4 ,s9ce x requires electricity equival5t to t 9 activity dur+ a ?und]/orm to =m "o drop ( wat]1 :at mu/ t p[] h be5 :i* ! ,omnipot5t wield$ :5 he creat$ t deep ov] ! face ( :i* #8d>kness brood$4' ,electricity1 ?\gh ! mo/ =midable p[] 9 nature1 is made available to man by ! voltaic batt]y1 & by ! electro-magnetic induction app>atus1 9 ! batt]y ( :i* x is g5]at$ by ! *emical action ( dilute sulphuric acid on z9c4 ,! positive & negative electricities ?us produc$ pass 9 opposite directions ?r\gh ! two conduct+ wires ( ! ma*9e by a cont9u\s transmission ( =ce or vibration f atom to atom1 a circulation t is accompani$ by a cont9ual developm5t ( heat 9 ov]com+ ! resi/ance x meets ) 9 ! wires4 ,! electricity decreases z ! heat increases1 & vice v]s2 ! action is reciprocal4 ,?us electricity is m]ely a transmission ( =ce4 ,mr4 ,j\le has prov$ t ! quantity ( heat produc$ 9 a unit ( "t is proportional to ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t1 :atev] may be its direction1 & t its p[] to ov]come resi/ance is z ! squ>e ( ! =ce ( ! curr5t4 ,! =ce is exactly 9 proportion to ! *emical action :i* produces x1 & t is measur$ by ! quantity ( z9c consum$ 9 ! batt]y4 ,?us *emical action produces electricity1 & conv]sely electricity is a p[]ful ag5t 9 ! *emical composition & decomposition ( matt]4 ,! light & heat ( ! electric sp>k are int5se ?\gh in/antane\s2 b a p[]ful induction app>atus l ,ruhmkorff's gives s rapid a succession ( sp>ks t ! light & heat are s5sibly cont9u\s & ( great int5sity4 ,! light & heat1 p[]ful z lightn+ itself1 are produc$ by ! comb9$ curr5ts ( two batt]ies1 ea* consi/+ ( fifty ,buns5 elem5ts ( mod]ate size4 ,?is =midable unit$ curr5t passes ?r\gh a circuit ( ?ick copp] wire coat$ ) silk ?read1 ) an int5sity ( p]petually r5ew$ heat t no sub/ance c resi/4 ,:5 ! copp] conduct+ wires are fitt$ ) *>coal t]m9als & br\ght ne> to "o ano!r1 ! dazzl+ lights emanat+ f ea* pole comb9e 9 "o blaze ( insupportable brilliancy4 ,! mo/ refractory sub/ances1 silica1 alum9a1 iron & plat9um1 :5 plac$ betwe5 ! poles1 imm$iately melt l wax1 & volatilize4 ,*>coal is s good a conductor ( electricity t :5 ! t]m9als are 9 contact !y complete ! circuit1 & nei!r light nor heat appe>4 ,air & glass are non-conductors1 yet ! sp>k has pass$ ?r\gh sev]al in*es ( air & p]=at$ a mass ( glass two in*es ?ick4 ,a long electric sp>k comb9es or decomposes a great] quantity ( gas or vap\r ?an a %ort "o1 & = a giv5 induction app>atus & induction curr5t1 ,m4 ,p]rot has %[n t !re exi/s a l5g? ( sp>k correspond+ to a maximum *emical action4 ,pr(essor ,seebeck ( ,b]l9 discov]$ t electric curr5ts are produc$ by ! p>tial application ( heat to a circuit =m$ ( two solid conduct+ sub/ances z antimony & bismu? sold]$ toge!r1--ano!r pro( ( ! correlation ( heat & electricity4 ,!re _c be a d\bt t ! atoms ( a conduct+ wire are 9 motion1 & t !y successively take def9ite & mom5t>y positions dur+ ! passage ( an electric curr5t1 aft] :i* !y return successively to _! normal /ate4 ,:5 electricity is inv>iably s5t f ! same pole ( an inductive app>atus ?r\gh ! wire ( a telegraph1 9 a v %ort "t ! wire is torn or divid$ into small sections1 :i* de/roy its cont9uity2 b :5 ! electricity is s5t f ea* pole alt]nately1 ! conduct+ wire is n injur$4 ,z ea* atom ( ! wire has its own electricity1 ?is seems to indicate t dur+ ! successive transits ( ! same k9d ( electricity1 ! pole ( ea* individual atom is attract$ m & m 9 ! same direction1 till at la/ !y no long] return to _! normal /ate1 ! cohesive =ce is ov]come1 & a rupture takes place1 ! m readily if !re be any imp]fection 9 ! wire4 ,s9ce ! electricity f ! o!r pole ( ! ma*9e w\ld h ! same effect1 b 9 ! contr>y direction1 an alt]nate motion 9 ! atoms mu/ ma9ta9 ! cont9uity ( ! wire4 ,a clos$ curr5t ( electricity or magnetism is accompani$ by a simultane\s curr5t ( ! opposite =ce 9 ! tang5tial direction equal 9 quality & int5sity4 ,?us ! electric & magnetic curr5ts1 :i* are m]ely transmissions ( en]gy1 diff] by mov+ at "r angles to "o ano!r2 _! effects are alike1 yet !y are n id5tical4 ,! am\nt ( ! *emical action ( light has be5 det]m9$ by ,pr(essor ,roscoe to be directly proportional to ! int5sity ( ! light2 & :5 ! light is con/ant ! am\nt ( action is exactly proportional to ! "t ( exposure4 ,x appe>s t equal volumes ( *lor9e & hydrog5 explode 9 sun%9e1 b comb9e sl[ly 9 %ade2 & z ! comb9$ gases are absorb$ by wat] z soon z comb9$1 ! gradual dim9ution ( ! volume ( ! mix$ gases dur+ ! "t ( absorption is a measure ( ! am\nt ( action ex]t$ by ! light4 ,pr(essor ,wm4 ,?omson has comput$1 by ! aid ( ,p\llet's data ( sol> radiations & ,mr4 ,j\le's me*anical equival5t ( heat1 t ! me*anical value ( ! :ole en]gy1 active & pot5tial1 ( ! di/urbances kept up on ! e!real m$ium by ! vibrations ( ! sol> light 9 a cubic mile ( our atmosph]e1 is equal to #ab1jej times ! unit ( me*anical =ce3 t is to say1 twelve ?\s& & fifty times ! =ce t w\ld raise a p\nd weight ( matt] to ! height ( "o foot4 ,! s5sible height ( ! atmosph]e is ab\t =ty miles1 :5ce "s idea may be =m$ ( ! va/ am\nt ( =ce ex]t$ by ! sun's light )9 ! limits ( ! t]re/rial atmosph]e4 ,! gre5 mantle :i* clo!s ! e>? proves "u a beautiful =m ! influ5ce ( light on ! organic _w4 ,x has be5 prov$ t at any giv5 fix$ temp]ature ! am\nt ( light & heat absorb$ & t :i* is emitt$ rema9s con/ant = all bodies4 ,! great] ! am\nt absorb$1 ! great] ! am\nt radiat$4 ,! molecules or atoms ( ! bodies 9 consequ5ce ( ! law ( resonance emit ^? e!real undulatory motions :i* h be5 previ\sly impress$ ^u !m1 z a musical in/rum5t res\nds 9 answ] to ! note impress$ ^u x4 ,! :ole is ref]able to molecul> or atomic motion1 = 9 absorption ! vibrations ( ! e!r are communicat$ to ! atoms1 & 9 radiation1 ! vibrations are return$ aga9 to ! e!r4 ,?is pr9ciple is kn[n z ! law ( ex*ange4#e ,matt] has a decompos+ & an elective p[] ) reg>d to bo? radiant light & heat2 mo/ col\r$ bodies1 su* z fl[]s1 gre5 leaves1 dy$ clo?1 c41 ?\gh se5 by reflection1 owe _! col\r to absorption4 ,! light by :i* !y are se5 is reflect$1 b x is n 9 reflection t ! selection ( ! rays is made :i* causes ! objects to appe> col\r$4 ,:5 light falls ^u r$ clo?1 a small portion is reflect$ at ! out] surfaces ( ! fibres1 & ?is portion1 if x c\ld be obs]v$ alone1 w\ld be f\nd to be col\rless4 ,! great] portion ( ! light p5etrates into ! fibres1 :5 x imm$iately beg9s to suff] absorption on ! "p ( ! col\r+ matt]4 ,on arriv+ at ! second surface ( ! fibre1 a portion is reflect$ & a portion passes on1 to be aft]w>ds reflect$ f1 or absorb$ by1 fibres ly+ m deeply4 ,at ea* reflection ! v>i\s k9ds ( light are reflect$ 9 z ne>ly z possible ! same proportion1 b 9 pass+ across ! fibres :ile go+ & return+ !y suff] v unequal absorption on ! "p ( ! col\r+ matt]2 s t 9 ! aggregation ( ! light p]ceiv$ ! diff]5t compon5ts ( :ite light are pres5t 9 proportions widely diff]5t f ^? !y be> to ea* o!r 9 :ite light itself1 & ! result is a vivid col\r+4 ,9 c]ta9 sub/ances h[ev]1 z gold & copp]1 ! diff]5t compon5ts ( :ite light are reflect$ ) diff]5t degrees ( int5sity1 & ! light becomes col\r$ by ^! reflections4 ,gold is yell[ by reflection2 r$ clo? is r$ by absorption4 ,9 ! same s5se1 physically speak+1 9 :i* ! r$ clo? is r$1 gold is n yell[ b blue or gre52 su* is 9 fact ! col\r ( gold by transmission ?r\gh gold leaf1 & !re=e gold is gre5i% blue by absorption4 ,9 ?is case we see t :ile ! sub/ance copi\sly reflects & int5sely absorbs rays ( all k9ds1 x m copi\sly reflects ! less refrangible rays ) respect to :i* x is m int5sely opaque4 ,9 g5]al absorption & radiation are indep5d5t ( col\r4 ,!re is a va/ div]sity 9 ! prop]ty :i* sub/ances possess ) reg>d to ! transmission ( radiant light & heat2 glass1 = in/ance1 transmits light abundantly1 b is imp]vi\s to heat f non-lum9\s s\rces2 :ile o!r sub/ances1 :i* are altoge!r opaque to light1 transmit heat copi\sly1 z ! bisulphide ( c>bon1 :i* ( all liquids is ! mo/ dia!rmic1 :ile wat] 9 all its =ms is almo/ imp]vi\s to heat4 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el discov]$ t invisible rays ( high heat+ p[] exi/ beyond ! r$ end ( ! sol> spectrum1 & ,mr4 ,tyndall has %[n t ! reason ( a sub/ance be+ imp]vi\s to ! light ( ! mo/ brilliant flame & at ! same "t p]vi\s to ^! extra r$ rays is1 t ! int]cept$ rays ( light are ^? ^: p]iods ( recurr5ce co9cide ) ! p]iods ( oscillation possible to ! atoms ( ! sub/ance 9 "q4 ,! ela/ic =ces :i* sep>ate ^! atoms are su* z to compel !m to vibrate 9 def9ite p]iods1 & :5 _! p]iods syn*ronize ) ^? ( ! e!real waves1 ! latt] are absorb$4 ,?us transp>5cy 9 liquids z well z 9 gases is synonym\s ) discord1 :ile opacity is synonym\s ) accord betwe5 ! p]iods ( ! waves ( e!r & ^? ( ! body on :i* !y imp+e4 ,all ord9>y transp>5t & col\rless sub/ances owe _! transp>5cy to ! discord :i* exi/s betwe5 ! oscillat+ p]iods ( _! molecules & ^? ( ! waves ( ! :ole visible spectrum4 ,! g5]al discord ( ! vibrat+ p]iods ( ! molecules ( comp\nd bodies ) ! light-giv+ waves ( ! spectrum may be inf]r$ f ! preval5ce ( ! prop]ty ( transp>5cy 9 comp\nds1 :ile _! great] h>mony ) ! extra r$ p]iods is to be inf]r$ f _! opacity to ! extra r$ rays4 ,wat] illu/rates ?is transp>5cy & opacity 9 ! mo/ /rik+ mann]4 ,x is highly transp>5t to ! lum9\s rays1 :i* demon/rates ! incapacity ( its molecules to oscillate 9 p]iods :i* excite vision4 ,x is z highly opaque to ! extra r$ oscillations1 :i* proves ! syn*ronism ( its p]iods ) m ( ! long] waves4 ,if1 !n1 to ! radiation f any s\rce wat] %[s itself to be em95tly or p]fectly opaque1 x is a pro( t ! molecules :5ce ! radiation emanates mu/ oscillate 9 extra r$ p]iods4 ,x has be5 already m5tion$ t _m sub/ances :i* transmit radiant heat freely radiate badly1 & vice v]s4 ,rock-salt is extremely p]meable to radiant heat b radiates feebly2 ! reason accord+ to ,mr4 ,tyndall is1 t ! motion ( ! molecules ( ! salt1 in/ead ( be+ exp5d$ on ! e!r betwe5 !m & !n communicat$ to ! e!r ext]nal to ! mass1 is transmitt$ freely f molecule to molecule4 ,alum is exactly ! rev]se4 ,mr4 ,balf\r ,/ew>t prov$ t alum is an excell5t radiator1 & ,mr4 ,tyndall prov$ x to be a v bad conductor1 imp>t+ freely & ) ease ! motion ( its molecules to ! ext]nal e!r1 & #8= t v reason x f9ds difficulty 9 transf]r+ ! motion f molecule to molecule4 ,! molecules are s con/itut$ t :5 "o ( !m approa*es its neighb\r1 a swell is produc$ 9 ! int]v5+ e!r2 ?is motion is imm$iately communicat$ to ! e!r outside1 & is ?us lo/ = ! purposes ( conduction4'#f ,melloni _h inve/igat$ ! laws ( ! radiation & absorption ( radiant heat 9 solid & liquid matt]2 b its radiation & absorption by gases & vap\rs 0 unkn[n previ\s to ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr4 ,tyndall4 ,! app>atus employ$ 0 a horizontal brass tube f\r feet long1 betwe5 two & ?ree in*es 9 diamet]1 poli%$ inside1 & clos$ air-tight at ea* end by a plate ( rock-salt1 :i* transmits m heat ?an any o!r sub/ance4 ,! air c\ld be pump$ out ( ! tube by "o pipe1 & ! gas or vap\r = ! exp]im5t introduc$ by ano!r4 ,close to "o end ( ! brass tube !re 0 a !rmo-electric pile connect$ ) its goniomet]4 ,on ea* side ( ?is arrangem5t !re 0 a vessel ( wat] kept at ! boil+ po9t4 ,^! two vessels 7 s plac$ t :5 ! rays ( heat f "o ( !m pass$ ?r\gh ! exhau/$ tube1 & fell ^u "o face ( ! !rmo-electric pile1 _! effect 0 s neutraliz$ or balanc$ by ! rays ( heat fall+ on ! opposite face ( ! pile f ! o!r1 ?us ! ne$le ( ! goniomet] 0 /eadily ma9ta9$ at z]o1 & its deflection in/antly %[$ ! absorb5t effect produc$ by any gas or vap\r t 0 admitt$ into ! exhau/$ tube4 ,s9ce aque\s vap\r has a v exalt$ absorb5t p[]1 a gas or vap\r 0 r5d]$ p]fectly dry be=e its absorb5t capacity 0 det]m9$4 ,= t purpose ! pipe t introduc$ x into ! brass exp]im5tal tube 0 s con/ruct$ t ! gas _h fir/ to pass ov] fragm5ts ( pumice-/one wet ) /rong sulphuric acid1 :i* absorb$ its moi/ure & dri$ x4 ,common atmosph]ic air1 h[ev]1 0 n only dri$ 9 ?is mann]1 b x 0 depriv$ ( its c>bonic acid by pass+ ov] cau/ic pota%1 & _m o!r precautions 7 tak5 to prev5t ! possibility ( error4 ,"u ! ord9>y pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 :5 ! exp]im5tal tube 0 exhau/$1 ! ne$le ( ! goniomet] /ood at z]o1 b z soon z pure dry atmosph]ic air 0 introduc$ into ! tube its absorption caus$ ! ne$le to move f z]o to #a4 ,! tube 0 aga9 exhau/$2 ! ne$le /ood at z]o1 b 0 deflect$ f z]o to #a z soon z ! tube 0 fill$ ) oxyg54 ,a simil> exp]im5t 0 made ) nitrog5 & hydrog5 ) ! same result4 ,?us1 dry air & ! elem5t>y gases1 oxyg51 nitrog51 & hydrog51 h ! same absorptive p[]1 & consequ5tly !y all deflect$ ! ne$le ( ! goniomet] "o degree4 ,! :ole am\nt ( radiant heat t pass$ ?r\gh ! exhau/$ tube produc$ a deflection ( #ga #e2 h5ce tak+ z unit ( heat ! am\nt t w\ld deflect ! ne$le "o degree1 ! numb] ( units express$ by #ga #e is #cjh1 consequ5tly ! absorption ( ea* ( ^! f\r gases am\nts to #ajj_/cjh or #jc p] c5t4 ,! mo/ delicate te/s c\ld n %[ any diff]5ce betwe5 ! ?ree fir/1 b ,pr(essor ,tyndall _h reason to believe t hydrog5 has ! l[e/ absorptive p[] ( all gases & vap\rs1 ?\gh he 0 unable to express ! am\nt4 ,! absorptive p[] ( all f\r is v mu* less ?an t ( e o!r gas or vap\r1 & inv>iably deflects ! ne$le to #a1 :i* ?us becomes ! unit ( comp>ison4 ,olefiant gas1 ! mo/ lum9\s ( ! con/itu5ts ( coal gas1 possesses ! highe/ absorptive p[] ( ! p]man5t gases4 ,:5 s5t into ! exhau/$ tube x deflect$ ! ne$le ( ! goniomet] f #j to #gj #c1 :i* is equival5t to #bij units4 ,! :ole heat t pass$ ?r\gh ! exhau/$ tube be=e ! gas 0 admitt$ produc$ a deflection ( #ge or #cfj units1 consequ5tly m ?an #g_/aj?s or #ha p] c5t4 ( ! :ole heat 0 cut (f by ! olefiant gas4 ,su* opacity to heat 9 s transp>5t a gas is q m>vell\s4 ,a curr5t ( x 0 s5t into ! op5 air betwe5 ! !rmo-electric pile & "o ( ! s\rces ( heat1 & al?\gh x 0 p]fectly invisible1 x in/antly deflect$ ! ne$le ( ! goniomet] f #j to #da4 ,9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! relation betwe5 ! d5sity ( ! gas & ! quantity ( heat ext+ui%$ or absorb$1 an ord9>y m]curial gauge 0 atta*$ to ! air-pump4 ,! exp]im5tal tube 0 exhau/$1 & ! ne$le ( ! goniomet] /ood at z]o4 ,!n1 f a graduat$ glass vessel1 measures ( olefiant gas1 ea* am\nt+ to ! #a_/ej? ( a cubic in*1 7 successively s5t ?r\gh ! dry+ pipe into ! exhau/$ tube4 ,! am\nt ( ! heat absorb$ & ! depression ( ! m]curial column correspond+ to ea* measure ( gas z x 0 introduc$1 0 regi/]$ f "o to fifte5 measures4 ,?is exp]im5t %[$ t = v small quantities ( gas1 ! absorption is exactly proportional to ! d5sity or t5sion4 ,"o measure ( ! gas only produc$ a depression ( ! m]curial column am\nt+ to ! #a_/cfg? "p ( an in*1 or ab\t ! #a_/ae? ( a millimetre4 ,9 _m ( ! vap\rs ( volatile liquids1 ! prec$+ law only prevails to a c]ta9 am\nt ( pressure diff]+ 9 ea* case1 beyond :i* increase ( t5sion produces dim9i%$ effects4 ,9 sulphuric e!r ! *ange beg9s at ! elev5? t]m4 ,9 bisulphide ( c>bon ! law *anges aft] ! six? measure1 c4 ,9 ord] to adapt ! app>atus = exp]im5ts on col\r$ gases1 a glass exp]im5tal tube #b ft4 #i 94 long1 & #b ft4 #d 94 9 diamet]1 0 sub/itut$ = ! brass tube1 &1 in/ead ( boil+ wat]1 s\rces ( radiant heat hav+ a con/ant temp]ature ( #bgj ,c5t4 7 adopt$4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! absorption ( a numb] ( gases at a common pressure or t5sion ( "o atmosph]e4 ,dry air #a ,oxyg5 #a ,nitrog5 #a ,hydrog5 #a ,*lor9e #ci ,hydro*loric acid #fb ,c>bonic oxide #ij ,c>bonic acid #ij ,nitr\s oxide #cee ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 #cij ,m>% gas #djc ,sulphur\s acid #gaj ,olefiant gas #igj ,ammonia #aaie ,! absorptive p[] ( ammonia is s great1 t al?\gh z transp>5t 9 ! glass tube z if x _h be5 a vacuum1 a l5g? ( ?ree feet ( x w\ld be p]fectly imp]vi\s or black to ! heat "h employ$1 yet ev5 ?is does n express ! en]gy :i* x exhibits "u "o in* ( pressure4 ,:5 ! relative absorptive actions ( gases & vap\rs is comp>$1 x mu/ be "u ! same am\nt ( pressure4 ,h5ce1 = "o in* ( t5sion1 ! absorptive action ( ,dry air #a ,oxyg5 #a ,nitrog5 #a ,hydrog5 #a ,*lor9e #fj ,brom9e #afj ,hydro*loric acid #ajje ,c>bonic oxide #gej ,nitric oxide #aeij ,nitr\s oxide #ahfj ,sulphide ( hydrog5 #bajj ,ammonia #gbfj ,olefiant gas #giej ,sulphur\s acid #hhjj ,?us1 = a t5sion ( an in* ( m]cury1 ! absorption ( ammonia exce$s t ( air m ?an #gjjj times2 ! action ( olefiant gas is #giej times1 & t ( sulphur\s acid #hhjj times1 great] ?an ! absorption ( air4 ,! effect produc$ by #a_/cj? ( an in* ( t5sion ( air & ! elem5t>y gases is equival5t to t produc$ by "o in* 9 ! o!rs1 s ! unit repres5t+ ! absorption ( ^! f\r gases is only ! #a_/cj? "p ( ! unit 9 ! prec$+ table4 ,x appe>s f ! prec$+ tables ( comp>ative absorption t *lor9e1 a highly-col\r$ gas ) a specific gravity ( #bde1 has an absorptive p[] express$ by #ci "u ! pressure ( "o atmosph]e1 :ile1 at ! same t5sion1 hydro*loric acid1 a *emical comp\nd ( *lor9e & hydrog5 :i* is p]fectly transp>5t1 ) a specific gravity ( only #abf1 has an absorptive action am\nt+ to #fb1 :5ce x appe>s t ! *emical *ange :i* r5d]s *lor9e m transp>5t to light1 makes x m opaque to obscure heat4 ,aga91 brom9e1 :i* is f> less p]meable to light ?an *lor9e1 & has a specific gravity ( #eed1 has an absorptive p[] ( #afj "u a t5sion ( "o in*2 :ile hydrobromic acid1 :i* is p]fectly transp>5t to light1 has an absorptive action = obscure heat am\nt+ to #ajje4 ,?is is a /rik+ in/ance ( transp>5cy to light & opacity to heat be+ produc$ by ! v same *emical art4 ,! enorm\s diff]5ce betwe5 ! absorptive p[] ( comp\nd & simple gases & vap\rs is ascrib$ to _! atomic /ructure2 9 fact ! radiant & absorptive p[]s augm5t z ! numb] ( atoms 9 ! comp\nd molecule augm5ts4 ,! ?ree elem5t>y gases are =m$ ( simple atoms1 ! comp\nd gases & vap\rs consi/ ( diff]5t k9ds ( atoms *emically unit$ into gr\ps4 ,bo? are free to receive ! vibratory motions ( ! e!r :i* con/itute heat2 b s+le atoms mu/ produce a less effect ?an :5 a numb] ( !m are unit$ into a molecule4 ,! atoms are load$ by _! *emical union1 :i* (f]s a great] surface ( resi/ance to ! vibrations ( heat1 & r5d]s ! motion ( ! molecule m sluggi% & m fit to accept ! sl[ly recurr5t waves ( ! obscure heat t /rike ^u x4 ,?us :5 atoms ( hydrog5 & nitrog5 are mix$ 9 ! proportion ( ?ree to "o1 ! absorption ( ! mixture is repres5t$ by unity2 b :5 !y are *emically unit$ 9 ammonia1 ! absorption is #aaij times z great4 ,atoms ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 mix$ 9 ! proportion ( two to "o absorb v feebly2 :5 *emically unit$ into a molecule ( aque\s vap\r ! absorptive p[] is enorm\s4 ,! absorptive p[] ( nitr\s oxide1 a *emical comp\nd ( oxyg5 & nitrog51 exce$s t ( dry air #bej times2 a conv9c+ pro( t ! atmosph]e is a mixture & n a comp\nd gas4 ,olefiant gas at five in*es ( t5sion absorbs #ajjj times t ( its con/itu5t hydrog54 ,9 fact all ! comp\nd gases & vap\rs f> surpass ! simple elem5t>y gases & dry atmosph]ic air 9 _! capacity = absorption4 ,*lor9e & brom9e1 :i* h s _m s+ul> prop]ties 9 common1 h ?is peculi>ity also1 t ?\gh simple sub/ances respectively =m$ ( homog5e\s atoms1 _! absorptive p[]s are simil> to ^? ( comp\nd sub/ances1 = ! absorptive p[] ( *lor9e is #fj times t ( ! elem5t>y gases1 & t ( brom9e #afj times4 ,?is high absorptive p[] is ascrib$ by ,pr(essor ,tyndall to _! atoms be+ unit$ into gr\ps :i* act p[]fully z oscillat+ sy/ems1 in/ead ( ! feeble action ( s+le atoms4 ,ozone is an analog\s in/ance ( ! presum$ union ( homolog\s atoms into oscillat+ gr\ps4 ,by comp>+ ! absorptive effect ( ozoniz$ oxyg5 obta9$ f ! electric decomposition ( wat] ) t ( ! same oxyg5 depriv$ ( its ozone by pass+ x ov] a v /rong solution ( iodide ( potassium1 ,pr(essor ,tyndall f\nd t ozoniz$ oxyg5 possesses an absorption =ce #acf times great] ?an t ( pure oxyg54 ,! quantity ( ozone produc+ ?is a/oni%+ effect 0 too small ev5 to admit ( e/imation1 f> less ( measurem5t4 ,?is result induc$ ,pr(essor ,tyndall to believe t ozone is produc$ by ! pack+ ( ! atoms ( elem5t>y oxyg5 into oscillatory gr\ps2 & t heat+ dissolves ! bond ( union & all[s ! atoms to sw+ s+ly1 ?us disqualify+ !m f ei!r int]cept+ or g5]at+ ! motion :i* z sy/ems !y 7 compet5t to int]cept & g5]ate4 ,! indef9itely small & invisible con/itu5ts ( p]fumes ( plants & fl[]s are prov$ to be comp\nd bodies by _! absorptive & radiat+ prop]ties4 ,! dri$ leaves ( a fl[] or aromatic plant su* z ?yme 7 /uff$ into a glass tube #ah in*es long & a qu>t] ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,x 0 !n ins]t$ betwe5 ! dry+ pipe ( ! ma*9e & ! exp]im5tal glass tube1 :i* 0 exhau/$1 & ! ne$le ( ! goniomet] /ood at z]o4 ,!n :5 ! air admitt$ into ! dry+ pipe pass$ ov] ! ?yme & c>ri$ its aroma into ! exp]im5tal tube1 ! ne$le 0 deflect$1 & f !nce ! absorption ( ! ?yme 0 comput$ to be #cc times great] ?an t ( ! air :i* c>ri$ x4 ,by ! same process x 0 f\nd t ! absorption ( pepp]m9t 0 #cd times1 spe>m9t #ch times1 lav5d] #cb times1 & wormwood #da times great] ?an t ( ! dry air1 :i* 0 unity z usual4 ,:5 small equal squ>es ( bibul\s pap] roll$ into cyl9d]s & moi/5$ ) an aromatic oil1 7 sub/itut$ = ! dri$ h]bs1 ! absorption correspond+ to ! deflection ( ! ne$le 0 = dry air1 equal to #a1-- ,pat*\li #cj ,s&al wood #cb ,g]anium #cc ,oil ( cloves #cce ,otto ( roses #cfe ,b]gamot #dd ,lav5d] #fj ,lemon #fg ,orange #fg ,?yme #fh ,rosem>y #gd ,oil ( laurel #hj ,*amomile fl[]s #hg ,spik5>d #cee ,anise se$ #cgb ,! absorption ( ?yme & lav5d] %[s h[ mu* aroma is lo/ :5 plants are dri$4 ,s great is ! absorption ( heat1 t ! p]fume ( a fl[]-b$ may be m efficaci\s ?an ! entire oxyg5 & nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e above x4 ,! enorm\s absorption & consequ5tly radiat+ p[] ( ! p]fumes ( plants & fl[]s is a pro( t _! con/itu5t p>ts are molecules & n simple atoms1 incr$ible z x may seem4 ,! absolute weight ( ! sub/ances produc+ ^! wond]ful effects is unkn[n1 b !re mu/ be great diff]5ces3 "s p]fumes are c>ri$ to va/ di/ances1 o!rs are less volatile1 & t ( mignonette 0 rem>k$ by ,dr4 ,wolla/on to be absolutely s heavy t x 0 q z p[]ful bel[ a balcony conta9+ a box ( t plant1 z 9 ! balcony itself4 ,! p]fumes dur+ ! exp]im5ts adh]$ to all p>ts ( ! app>atus s p]t9aci\sly1 t aft] a cont9u$ /ream ( dry air _h be5 pump$ ?r\gh ! tube till ! exhau/ion seem$ to be complete & ! ne$le /ood at z]o1 aft] a few m9utes' repose1 ! residue ( ! p]fume came out s p[]fully f ! crannies ( ! app>atus z almo/ to re/ore ! orig9al deflection4 #8,! quantities ( ^? residues mu/ be left to ! imag9ation to conceive4 ,if !y 7 multipli$ by billions !y probably w\ld n obta9 ! d5sity ( ! air4' ,! absorptive p[] ( ! od\r ( musk 0 #gb or #gd times t ( ! air t convey$ x into ! exp]im5tal tube2 ! quantity t produc$ x 0 q inappreciable1 yet ! p]fume 0 s p]si/5t t ! pieces ( ! app>atus ?r\gh :i* x _h pass$ _h to be boil$ 9 a solution ( soda be=e !y 7 fit = o!r exp]im5ts4 ,! absorption ( _m gases & vap\rs hav+ be5 det]m9$1 _! radiation 0 measur$ by a v simple arrangem5t4 ,! !rmo-electric pile 0 rais$ on a /& ) a scre5 ( poli%$ t9 9 front ( x4 ,a heat$ copp] ball 9 a p]=at$ r+ on a l[ /& 0 plac$ beh9d ! scre52 all direct radiation f ! ball 0 ?us cut (f1 b ! heat$ air ris+ 9 a column above ! scre5 radiat$ its heat on ! pile & deflect$ ! ne$le ( ! goniomet] #fj :5 ! ball 0 r$-hot2 b ! radiation ( ! hot air 0 neutraliz$ by ano!r s\rce ( radiant heat on ! opposite side ( ! pile :i* kept ! ne$le /eadily at z]o4 ,!n a purifi$ gas or vap\r convey$ by a pipe into ! p]=at$ r+ :i* held ! ball rose mix$ ) ! heat$ air above ! scre51 b ! radiation ( ! gas or vap\r alone 0 %[n by ! deflection ( ! ne$le1 because t ( ! air 0 comp5sat$4 ,) ?is app>atus ,pr(essor ,tyndall prov$ t ! am\nt ( ! absorption ( ea* gas & vap\r is exactly equal to ! am\nt ( its radiation4 ,he has %[n t ?is result is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! dynamical nature ( heat4 ,= z no atom or molecule is capable ( exi/+ 9 vibrat+ e!r )\t accept+ a portion ( ! motion1 ! v same quality :atev] x may be t enables x to d s1 mu/ enable x to imp>t its motion to /ill e!r :5 plung$ into x4 #8,h5ce f ! exi/5ce ( absorption we may on !oretic gr\nds infallibly inf] a capacity = radiation2 f ! exi/5ce ( radiation we may ) equal c]ta9ty inf] a capacity = absorption1 & ea* ( !m mu/ be reg>d$ z ! measure ( ! o!r4' ,?is reason+1 f\nd$ simply on ! me*anical relations ( ! e!r & ! atoms imm]s$ 9 x1 is completely v]ifi$ by exp]im5t4 ,hi!rto ! absorption & radiation ( heat by ! same ?ickness ( diff]5t gases & vap\rs h be5 comp>$ ) ea* o!r1 b 9 a rec5t s]ies ( exp]im5ts ,mr4 ,tyndall has comp>$ ! action ( diff]5t ?icknesses ( ! same gas or vap\r on radiant heat4 ,! exp]im5ts ext5d f a ?ickness ( #jja ( an in* to t ( #did in*es4 ,! in/rum5t employ$ = asc]ta9+ ! action ( ! small] ?ickness 0 a horizontal holl[ cyl9d] clos$ at "o end by a plate ( rock-salt4 ,a second cyl9d] 0 fitt$ into ?is ) its end also clos$ by a plate ( rock-salt4 ,?is cyl9d] mov$ )9 ! o!r l a pi/on1 s t ! two plates ( rock-salt c\ld be br\ght into flat contact ) "o ano!r1 or c\ld be sep>at$ to any requir$ di/ance1 & ! di/ance betwe5 ! plates 0 measur$ by a v]ni]4 ,at "o end ( ! cyl9d] !re 0 a s\rce ( con/ant heat1 & ! diff]5tial goniomet] already describ$ at ! o!r4 ,) ?is app>atus ,mr4 ,tyndall f\nd t olefiant gas ma9ta9s its great sup]iority ov] ! o!r gases 9 absorptive p[] at all ?icknesses4 ,a lay] ( t gas n m ?an #jja ( an in* ?ick int]cept$ ab\t "o p] c5t4 ( ! total radiation4 ,?is great absorption correspond$ to a deflection ( #aa ( ! ne$le ( ! goniomet]1 & su* 0 ! delicacy ( ! app>atus t x w\ld be possible to measure ! action ( a lay] ( ?is gas ( less ?ickness ?an a %eet ( writ+ pap]4 ,a lay] ( olefiant gas two in*es ?ick int]cepts ne>ly #cj p] c5t4 ( ! entire radiation4 ,a %ell ( olefiant gas two in*es ?ick surr\nd+ our globe w\ld (f] no appreciable h9drance to ! sol> rays 9 com+ to ! e>?1 b x w\ld int]cept1 & 9 great "p return1 #cj p] c5t4 ( ! t]re/rial radiation2 "u su* a canopy ! surface ( ! e>? w\ld probably be rais$ to a /ifl+ temp]ature4 ,! app>atus = measur+ ! action ( ! great] ?icknesses ( gas 0 a holl[ brass cyl9d] #did in*es long1 clos$ at bo? ends by plates ( rock-salt1 & divid$ int]nally into two comp>tm5ts or *amb]s by a ?ird plate ( rock-salt movable 9 ! int]ior2 ! s\rce ( heat be+ at "o end & ! diff]5tial goniomet] at ! o!r4 ,c>bonic oxide & c>bonic acid are p]vi\s to a va/ majority ( ! rays ( radiant heat4 ,:5 ! cyl9d] 0 fill$ ) c>bonic oxide gas & s divid$1 by mov+ ! int]nal plate ( rock-salt1 t a /ratum ( ! gas #h in*es long 0 next to ! s\rce ( heat1 & t #dad in*es long f>!/ f x1 ! #h in*es ( gas int]cept$ #f p] c5t4 ( ! :ole radiation4 ,b :5 ! plate ( rock-salt 0 mov$ till ! column #dad in*es long 0 next to ! s\rce ( heat1 & t ( #h in*es f>!/ f t s\rce1 or beh9d ! long "o1 ! absorption ( ! #h in*es 0 s5sibly z]o4 ,9 l mann] eight in*es ( c>bonic acid gas :5 9 front ( a column ( #dad in*es ( ! same gas absorb$ #f-a_/d p] c5t4 ( ! :ole radiation1 :ile plac$ beh9d t column ! effect 0 ne>ly z]o4 ,! reason is t :5 ! #h in* /ratum is 9 front1 x /ops ! ma9 portion ( ! rays :i* give x its !rmal col\rs1#g :ile plac$ beh9d ^! same rays h be5 almo/ :olly )drawn1 & to ! rema9+ #id p] c5t4 ( ! radiation ! gases are s5sibly p]meable4 ,x is inf]r$ f an ext5sion ( ?is reason+ t ! sum ( ! absorptions ( ! two *amb]s tak5 sep>ately mu/ always be great] ?an ! absorption effect$ by a s+le column ( ! gas ( a l5g? equal to ! sum ( ! two *amb]s2 ?is conclusion is illu/rat$ 9 a /rik+ mann] by ! exp]im5ts4 ,x is also f\nd t :5 ! mean ( ! sums ( ! absorptions is divid$ by ! absorption ( ! sum1 ! quoti5t is s5sibly ! same = all gases4 ,x may f>!r be inf]r$ t ! sum ( ! absorptions mu/ dim9i% & approximate to ! absorption ( ! sum z ! two *amb]s become m unequal 9 l5g?1 & t ! sum ( ! absorptions ( ! two *amb]s is a maximum :5 ! m$ial plate ( rock-salt divides ! long tube into two equal p>ts4 ,:5 air ent]s an exhau/$ tube x is heat$ dynamically by ! collision ( its p>ticles on ! sides ( ! tube z x ru%es 9 to fill ! vacuum2 & :5 ! tube is exhau/$ aga9 by ! air pump1 *ill+ is produc$ by ! application ( a portion ( ! heat ( ! air to g5]ate vis viva4 ,?is dynamic pr9ciple occurr$ 9 "s ( ! exp]im5ts1 & 0 dext]\sly adopt$ & appli$ to ! solution ( a /rik+ & unprec$5t$ problem3 #8,to det]m9e ! radiation & absorption ( gases & vap\rs )\t any s\rce ( heat ext]nal to ! gase\s body itself4' ,! two ext]nal s\rces ( heat be+ !re=e disp5s$ ) 9 ! absorptive app>atus1 ! !rmo-electric pile 0 pres5t$ to ! cold glass tube :i* 0 exhau/$1 & ! ne$le ( ! goniomet] /ood at z]o4 ,nitr\s acid on ent]+ ! exhau/$ tube became heat$ & radiat$ its heat ^u ! adjac5t face ( ! pile :i* deflect$ ! ne$le ( ! goniomet] ?r\gh #bh 9 ! direction t indicates absorption4 ,z ! heat ( ! gas became gradually exhau/$1 ! ne$le return$ sl[ly to z]o4 ,! pump 0 n[ work$1 ! r>efi$ gas 9 ! tube 0 *ill$1 & ! adjac5t face ( ! pile gradually p\r$ its heat on ! *ill$ tube till ! temp]ature ( ! pile 0 s mu* l[]$1 t ! ne$le 0 deflect$ #bj on ! negative side ( z]o1 t is on ! side d5ot+ radiation4 ,:5 olefiant gas ent]$ ! exhau/$ tube1 ! ne$le %[$ an absorption ( #fg1 & :5 ! gas 0 pump$ out aga91 ! ne$le %[$ a radiation am\nt+ to #da4 ,:5 ! gas 0 !n pump$ out1 v dry atmosph]ic air 0 introduc$ into ! tube1--! ne$le po9t$ to #ei indicat+ absorption2 & :5 x 0 pump$ out aga9 ! ne$le swung to ne>ly #dj on ! o!r side ( z]o1 indicat+ radiation4 ,rememb]+ t ! radiation & absorption ( dry air only produce a deflection ( #a1 x is evid5t t ! prec$+ great deflection ( ! ne$le is entirely ow+ to ! action ( ! small residue ( olefiant gas t rema9$ 9 ! exhau/$ tube4 ,9 ord] to asc]ta9 h[ mu* ! quantity ( a gas or vap\r might be r$uc$ be=e its action became ins5sible1 ! vap\r ( boracic e!r1 :i* has ! greate/ absorptive en]gy1 0 *os54 ,! m]curial gauge = measur+ ! pressure or t5sion ( ! vap\r already m5tion$ rema9$ atta*$ to ! app>atus4 ,:5 "o-t5? ( an in* ( ! vap\r ( boracic e!r 0 admitt$ into ! exhau/$ tube1 ! b>omet] /ood at #cj in*es3 h5ce ! t5sion ( ! vap\r )9 ! tube 0 ! #a_/cjj? "p ( an atmosph]e4 ,dynamically heat$ by dry air ! radiation ( ! vap\r produc$ a deflection ( #ef4 ,aga9 ! tube 0 exhau/$ to #jb ( an in* & ! quantity ( vap\r 0 !reby r$uc$ to #a_/aej? ( its fir/ am\nt2 ! ne$le 0 all[$ to come to z]o1 & ! residue ( ! vap\r produc$ a deflection ( #db4 ,! pump 0 aga9 work$ till a vacuum ( #jb ( an in* 0 obta9$1 ?is residue conta9+ ( c\rse ! #a_/aej? ( ! quantity ( e!r pres5t 9 ! tube2 & on dynamically heat+ ! residue1 its radiation produc$ a deflection ( #bj4 ,?us x is evid5t t ! t5sion ( ! e!r 9 ^! exp]im5ts 0 cont9ually dim9i%$ by ! #jb ( an in*1 consequ5tly its quantity 0 cont9ually dim9i%$ by its #a_/aej? "p1 accompani$ by a correspond+ decrease 9 ! deflections ( ! ne$le4 ,! f9al result ( ?is process %[$ t ! radiation ( an am\nt ( vap\r 9 ! tube possess+ a t5sion ( less ?an ! ?\s& million? ( an atmosph]e is p]fectly measurable4 ,! temp]ature imp>t$ to ?is inf9itesimal quantity ( matt] did n exce$ #jge ( a c5tesimal degree4 ,! molecules :i* con/itut$ ?is int5sely att5uat$ vap\r1 ?\gh inconceivable1 _h z true an exi/5ce z ! suns :i* con/itute ! />-du/ ( ! nebul4 #8,a plat9um wire rais$ to :it5ess 9 a vacuum by an electric curr5t1 becomes comp>atively cold 9 a second aft] ! curr5t has be5 int]rupt$2 yet t wire1 :ile ignit$1 0 ! repository ( an imm5se am\nt ( me*anical =ce4 ,:at has become ( ?is8 ,x has be5 convey$ away by a sub/ance s att5uat$ t its v exi/5ce mu/ = ev] rema9 an hypo!sis4 ,b "h is matt] t we c weigh1 measure1 ta/e1 & smell2 t we c r$uce to a t5uity :i*1 ?\gh expressible by numb]s1 defeats ! imag9ation to conceive ( x4 ,/ill we see x compet5t to arre/ & orig9ate quantities ( =ce :i* on comp>ison ) its own mass are almo/ inf9ite1 a small fraction ( ?is =ce caus+ ! d\ble ne$le ( ! galvanomet] to sw+ ?r\gh consid]able arcs4 ,:5 we f9d pond]able matt] produc+ ^! effects1 we h less difficulty 9 inve/+ ! lum9if]\s e!r ) ^? me*anical prop]ties :i* h long excit$ ! int]e/ & wond] ( all :o h reflect$ ^u ! circum/ances involv$ 9 ! undulatory !ory ( light4' ,! dynamical pr9ciple 0 next appli$ to det]m9e ! radiation ( a gas ?r\gh itself2 or ?r\gh any o!r gas hav+ ! same p]iod ( vibration4 ,= t purpose ,mr4 ,tyndall made use ( ! holl[ cyl9d] #did in*es long already m5tion$1 clos$ at bo? ends by plates ( rock-salt1 & divid$ int]nally into two *amb]s by a movable plate ( ! same sub/ance4 ,all s\rces ( heat be+ disp5s$ )1 ! *amb] next ! voltaic pile conta9$ ! gas :i* 0 to act z an absorb]1 & ! m remote z a radiator4 ,heat is evolv$ 9 air :5 its motion is arre/$2 on ent]+ an exhau/$ tube1 ! m rapid ! motion ! great] ! heat4 ,bo? *amb]s ( ! cyl9d] 7 at fir/ fill$ ) ! vap\r to be exam9$1 ! usual pressure be+ ! #a_/fj "p ( an atmosph]e4 ,b ! vap\r ent]$ s sl[ly1 & ! quantity 0 s small t ! radiation due to ! w>m+ ( ! vap\r by its own collision 0 ins5sible4 ,! ne$le ( ! goniomet] be+ at z]o1 dry air 0 all[$ to ent] ! *amb] mo/ di/ant f ! pile2 ?is air became heat$ dynamically by ! collision ( its p>ticles aga9/ ! sides ( ! tube1 communicat$ its heat to ! vap\r1 & ! vap\r imm$iately dis*>g$ ! heat ?us communicat$ to x aga9/ ! pile4 ,?is case n only resembles1 b is actually ( ! same me*anical "* z1 t 9 :i* a vibrat+ tun+ =k is br\ght into contact ) a surface ( "s ext5t4 ,! =k1 :i* be=e 0 inaudible1 becomes at once a copi\s s\rce ( s\nd4 ,:at ! s\nd+ bo>d is to ! =k1 ! comp\nd molecule is to ! elem5t>y atom4 ,! tun+ =k vibrat+ alone is 9 ! condition ( ! atom radiat+ alone2 ! s\nd ( ! "o & ! heat ( ! o!r be+ ins5sible4 ,b 9 association ) sulphuric or acetic e!r vap\r ! elem5t>y atom is 9 ! condition ( ! tun+ =k appli$ to its s\nd+ bo>d1 communicat+ motion to ! lum9if]\s e!r ?r\gh ! molecules1 z ! =k ?r\gh ! bo>d communicates its motion to ! air4 ,mr4 ,tyndall's exp]im5ts %[ ! great opacity ( a gas to radiations f ! same gas1 & may likewise %[ ! rem>kable influ5ce ( att5uation 9 ! case ( vap\r4 ,! individual molecules ( a vap\r may be p[]ful absorb]s & radiators1 b 9 _! /rata !y con/itute an op5 sieve ?r\gh :i* a great quantity ( radiant heat may pass4 ,9 su* ?9 /rata1 !re=e1 ! vap\rs z us$ 9 ! exp]im5ts 7 g5]ally f\nd f> less en]getic ?an ! gases1 :ile 9 ?ick /rata ! same vap\rs %[$ an en]gy greatly sup]ior to ! same gases1 b ! gases 7 always employ$ at a pressure ( "o atmosph]e4 ,la/ly ,mr4 ,tyndall exam9$ ! dia!rmancy ( ! liquids f :i* 8 vap\rs 7 d]iv$1 & ! result leaves n a d\bt t bo? absorption & radiation are ph5om5a irrespective ( aggregation4 ,if any vap\r is a /rong absorb] & radiator1 ! liquid f :5ce x comes is also a /rong absorb] & radiator4 ,p]fectly dry pure air is z p]vi\s to light & heat z a vacuum itself2 consequ5tly1 if ! atmosph]e 0 q pure & dry1 ! rays ( ! sun w\ld fall on ! e>? ) unmitigat$ =ce dur+ ! day1 & w\ld be radiat$ back aga9 & dissipat$ 9 space dur+ ! night to ! de/ruction ( vegetation4 ,b ! e>? is protect$ f ^! extremes by ! absorptive p[] ( aque\s vap\r1 :i* is always pres5t m or less 9 ! atmosph]e2 ev5 :5 ! air is s transp>5t t di/ant objects seem to be ne>1 x is load$ ) vap\r 9 an ela/ic invisible /ate1 :i* a *ange ( temp]ature may cond5se into cl\d or precipitate 9 ra94 ,! absorptive p[] ( aque\s vap\r 0 det]m9$ by plac+ tubes conta9+ fragm5ts ( glass moi/5$ ) wat] betwe5 ! dry+ app>atus & ! exp]im5tal glass tube ( ! in/rum5t1 s t p]fectly pure dry air 9 pass+ ov] ! wet fragm5ts ( glass c>ri$ a portion ( aque\s vap\r ) x into ! exhau/$ exp]im5tal tube1 & ! deflection ( ! ne$le ( ! goniomet] %[$ t ! absorptive p[] ( ! aque\s vap\r exce$$ t ( ! dry air #hj times4 ,n[ s9ce 9 ! atmosph]e !re is "o molecule ( aque\s vap\r ) an absorptive p[] ( #hj = e #bjj atoms ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 ^: absorptive p[] is #a l t ( "o ( its con/itu5t atoms1 x foll[s by comp>ison t ! absorptive p[] ( ! molecule is #af1jjj times great] ?an t ( an atom ( ei!r oxyg5 or nitrog54 ,f ?is enorm\s opacity to obscure heat #8x is c]ta9 t m ?an t5 p] c5t4 ( ! t]re/rial radiation f ! soil ( ,engl& is /opp$ )9 t5 feet ( ! surface ( ! soil2 remove = a s+le summ] night ! aque\s vap\r f ! air :i* ov]spreads ! c\ntry1 & y w\ld assur$ly de/roy e plant capable ( be+ de/roy$ by a freez+ temp]ature4' ,! quantity ( vap\r 9 ea* place v>ies ) ! latitude1 ! season1 & o!r circum/ances2 b :5ev] ! am\nt ( heat radiat$ f ! e>? surpasses ! absorption1 ! rema9d] passes ?r\gh ! vap\r into space1 & = ! same reason ! residue ( t com+ f ! sun passes ?r\gh ! vap\r & comes to ! e>?1 s t :atev] may be ! local diff]5ces x has be5 decid$ly prov$ ) reg>d to ! :ole globe1 t ! quantity ( heat annually receiv$ f ! sun is annually radiat$ into space2 ! latt] is a =ce lo/ to ! e>?1 nev]!less x does n int]f]e ) ! law ( ! cons]vation ( =ce :i* ext5ds to ! univ]se4 ,by obs]vations made dur+ t5 sci5tific asc5ts 9 a balloon to v great altitudes1 ,mr4 ,glai%] has prov$1 t ! !ory ( ! uni=m decrease ( temp]ature ) increase ( elevation is no long] t5able4 ,s9ce ! absorptive =ce ( aque\s vap\r is #af1jjj times t ( dry air1 ! :ole ( ! heat radiat$ by ! full moon is int]cept$ by our atmosph]e4 ,x raises ! temp]ature ( ! high] regions1 dissolves ! vap\r1 dissipates ! cl\ds1 prev5ts ! =mation ( m1 & all[s ! heat radiat$ f ! e>? to pass freely into space3 ?us confirm+ ! common1 & almo/ univ]sal1 belief t ! full moon dispels ! cl\ds4 ,! absorptive p[] ( aque\s vap\r is s enorm\s t ev5 ! planet ,m]cury may be habitable %\ld 8 atmosph]e conta9 a suffici5t quantity ( x to mitigate ! heat ( ! sun4 ,no d\bt all ! heat f ! />s mu/ be absorb$ by ! atmosph]e1 b _! photographs %[ t x is p]vi\s to ! *emical rays4 ,^? f ,sirius1 ! ne>e/ & brighte/ ( ! />s1 travell+ ?r\gh #ahj millions ( millions ( miles & decreas+ 9 quantity inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 /ill h suffici5t en]gy to give a p]fect photographic impression ( its spectrum2 b ,sirius is sixty times l>g] ?an ! sun1 & is _m times m lum9\s4 ,a photograph ( ! spectrum ( ,capella has be5 tak51 ?\gh ?ree times m di/ant ?an ,sirius4 ,photographs ( d\ble />s ( ! six? & sev5? magnitude %[ t act9ic rays f immeasurable di/ances 9 space h p[] suffici5t to decompose matt] 9 un/able equilibrium on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,! *emical p[] ( ! moon's light only surpasses t ( ,jupit] 9 ! ratio ( #f to #d or #e1 & ,jupit]'s light has twelve times m act9ic en]gy ?an t ( ,saturn4 ,= su* comp>isons a /&>d ( photographic int5sity is requisite4 ,a pap] coat$ ) *loride ( silv] c be prep>$ :i* has a con/ant degree ( s5sitiv5ess1 & ,dr4 ,roscoe has prov$ t a con/ant d>k t9t is produc$ on ?is /&>d pap] by a con/ant quantity ( light1 ! t9t be+ ! same1 :e!r light ( ! int5sity repres5t$ by #a acts = ! "t repres5t$ by #ej1 or light repres5t$ by #ej acts = ! "t repres5t$ by #a2 or 9 o!r words ! am\nt ( ! *emical action ( light is directly proportional to ! int5sity ( ! light1 & :5 ! light is con/ant1 ! am\nt ( action is exactly proportional to ! "t ( exposure4 ,! ratio ( ! *emical action ( ! rays ( light fall+ directly f ! sun to ! *emical action ( ! light diffus$ ov] ! :ole sky c be det]m9$ by means ( an in/rum5t1 9 :i* ! %ad[ ( a little ball is made to fall on a s5sitive pap] s z to int]cept ! direct rays ( ! sun1 & all[ x to be impress$ by an action ( ! light diffus$ ov] sky alone2 ?is comp>$ ) a simil> pap]1 on :i* bo? ! direct & indirect light has fall51 gives ! ratio requir$4 ,f ?is x appe>s1 t ! relative am\nt ( *emically active light :i* comes directly f ! sun1 is v mu* less ?an ! am\nt ( 8 direct visible light4 ,= :ile ,pr(essor ,roscoe 0 mak+ exp]im5ts at ,man*e/] on ! maximum effect ( ! *emical action ( light1 he f\nd :5 ! sun _h an altitude ( #bj1 t ( #ajj *emical rays :i* fell on a piece ( /&>d pap]1 only ab\t #h came f ! direct light ( ! sun2 :ile on ! contr>y1 ( #ajj rays ( visible light1 #ff came directly f ! sun1 & only #dj f ! light diffus$ ov] ! :ole sky1 s t ! diffus$ light is ri*] 9 *emical rays ?an ! direct sol> beam1 #8a />tl+ result1' b borne out by obs]vations n only made at ,man*e/] & 9 its vic9ity1 b at ,kew1 ,heidelb]g1 & at ,p> on ! ,amazon ne>ly "u ! equator4 ,on acc\nt ( ! increas+ r>ity ( ! atmosph]e1 ! great] ! height above ! level ( ! sea1 ! less ! am\nt ( diffus$ light & consequ5tly ( act9ic p[]4 ,h5ce photograph]s h to expose _! plates = a mu* long] "t to ! light on ! sn[y peaks ( ! ,alps & o!r great heights ?an 9 ,engl& or at ! level ( ! sea4 ,dur+ ,mr4 ,glai%]'s t5? balloon asc5t simultane\s obs]vations 7 made at ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory & 9 ! balloon1 :5 at m ?an ?ree miles above ! surface ( ! e>?1 ! /&>d pap] expos$ to ! full rays ( ! sun 0 n z mu* col\r$ 9 half an h\r z ! correspond+ pap] at ,gre5wi* 9 "o m9ute4 ,by a s]ies ( obs]vations at ,heidelb]g1 ,kew1 & ,man*e/]1 x has be5 prov$ t ! v small relative *emical action ( ! sun's direct light decreases rapidly ) 8 altitude1 & at ^! ?ree places ( obs]vation1 x has frequ5tly happ5$ :5 ! sun's altitude 0 v l[1 z at #ab1 t 8 direct light made no impression on a s5sitive pap]4 #8,! sun's light _h be5 robb$ ( its *emical p[] 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! air4' ,?is s+ul> result is ascrib$ by ,pr(essor ,roscoe to :at he calls ! opalesc5ce ( ! atmosph]e4 ,opalesc5t glass1 slightly milky liquids1 pure wat] ) p>ticles ( sulphur float+ 9 x1 are imp]vi\s to ! *emical rays1 :5ce ,pr(essor ,roscoe inf]s t ! atmosph]e1 m especially its l[] regions1 possesses t prop]ty 9 consequ5ce ( multitudes ( solid p>ticles float+ 9 x4 ,:at !y are is unkn[n1 b inf9itesimal p>ticles ( soda seem to be ev]y:]e1 & no d\bt p>ticles ( o!r sub/ances mix$ ) !m may be (t5 se5 z motes danc+ 9 ! sunbeams4 ,besides1 x is cle>ly prov$ t myriads ( ! eggs & g]ms ( organiz$ be+s1 ?\gh invisible to ! nak$ eye1 are cont9ually float+ 9 ! air1 & t !y are m abundant 9 ! l[] ?an 9 ! high] /rata ( ! atmosph]e4 ,s9ce opalesc5t matt] reflects ! blue rays ( light & transmits ! r$1 ,pr(essor ,roscoe ascribes ! blue col\r ( ! sky & ! bright t9ts at sunrise & sunset to ! opalesc5t prop]ty ( ! air4 ,! atmosph]e is p]meable to e k9d ( *emical rays1 :i* is f> f be+ ! case ) bodies on e>?1 "s ( :i* ?\gh transp>5t to all ! visible rays1 v>y greatly 9 _! transp>5cy to ! *emical rays4 ,! atoms & molecules ( matt] n only h ! p[] ( turn+ ! rays ( ! sol> beam out ( _! rectil9e> pa?1 b ( *ang+ _! refrangibility4 ,! myriads ( e!real waves or rays ( light t con/itute ! sev5 col\rs ( ! sol> spectrum1 decrease 9 refrangibility & increase 9 rapidity ( vibration & l5g? ( wave f ! extreme violet to ! end ( ! r$2 ea* ray hav+ its own rate ( vibration1 its own l5g? ( wave1 & its own col\r4 ,f ! middle ( ! yell[1 :i* is ! lum9\s "p ( ! spectrum1 ! *emical spectrum ext5ds invisibly1 b ) increas+ refrangibility & increas+ velocity ( vibration1 to a po9t f> beyond ! violet4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! heat spectrum1 :i* may also be said to beg9 9 ! yell[ light1 ext5ds invisibly b ) decreas+ refrangibility1 & decreas+ velocity ( vibration to "s di/ance beyond ! visible r$4 ,! rays ( heat are absorb$ by ! hum\rs ( ! eye1 b 7 !y to rea* ! ret9a we %\ld see t !y diff] f "o ano!r z mu* z ^? ( ! lum9\s spectrum2 ! *emical spectrum f its great] l5g? is /ill m div]sifi$4 ,! :ole ( ! sol> spectrum1 visible & invisible1 is cross$ at "r angles to its l5g? by innum]able d>k rayless l9es1 diff]+ 9 bread? & int5sity4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el discov]$ vacant spaces 9 ! extra-lum9\s "p ( ! heat spectrum1 & m rec5tly ,m4 ,ed\>d ,becqu]el1 by ?r[+ ! sol> spectrum ^u a dagu]reotype plate1 discov]$ t ! *emical spectrum giv5 by a glass prism1 f its beg9n+ 9 ! yell[ to its extreme po9t beyond ! violet1 is cross$ by rayless l9es1 & t ! l9es 9 ! "p pass+ ?r\gh ! visible spectrum co9cide exactly ) ! rayless l9es 9 ! lum9\s "p4 ,?is co9cid5ce 0 confirm$ by ! indep5d5t rese>*es ( ,dr4 ,drap] at ,new ,york4 ,by means ( ! rayless spaces or black l9es 9 ! visible spectrum1 ,m4 ,kir*h(f has prov$ t ?irte5 t]re/rial sub/ances are con/itu5ts ( ! sun's atmosph]e4 ,! l5g? ( ! undulations ( ! e!r :i* produce ! impression ( ! extreme violet rays ( ! sol> spectrum on our eyes1 is ! sev5te5 million? "p ( an in*2 ! l5g? ( ! e!real undulation t produces ! s5sation ( ! extreme r$ is ! tw5ty-six million? "p ( an in*2 ! e!real undulations beyond ^! limits are invisible to human eyes4 ,nev]!less c]ta9 sub/ances h ! p[] ( increas+ ! l5g? ( ! vibrations1 & r$uc+ ! rays ( ! spectrum to a l[] grade 9 ! scale ( refrangibility1 s t ! invisible rays ( ! *emical spectrum h ?us be5 br\ght )9 ! limit ( human vision4 ,= example1 ! *emical rays %9e z visible light :5 !y fall on glass t+$ ) ! oxide ( uranium4 ,:5 ^! d>k rays fall ^u ! glass1 !y put ! :ole ( its molecules into vibrations1 ! same ) _! own1 :ile at ! same "t !y give a m rapid vibration to a c]ta9 numb] ( ! same molecules4 ,! :ole ( ! molecules re/ore _! vibrations to ! surr\nd+ e!r4 ,^? hav+ ! same velocity ) ! *emical rays make no s5sible impression on our eyes2 b ! m rapid vibrations come )9 ! limits ( ! visible spectrum2 !y h consequ5tly a l[] refrangibility1 & %9e z visible light4 ,x is call$ degrad$ light on acc\nt ( its l[] position 9 ! prismatic scale1 b m frequ5tly fluoresc5t light1 because fluor sp> 0 ! fir/ solid kn[n to possess ! prop]ty4 ,a numb] ( sub/ances are fluoresc5t1 bo? solid & liquid1 organic & inorganic4 ,if 9 a d>k room a non-fluoresc5t body be illum9at$ by a sunbeam pass+ ?r\gh glass /a9$ deep blue by cobalt1 x w reflect blue light2 b x w appe> to be p]fectly black if x be view$ ?r\gh glass t+$ yell[ by silv]2 :ile a piece ( can>y glass1 :i* is highly fluoresc5t1 w %9e ) a vivid light "u ! same circum/ances4 ,all ! molecules ( ! can>y glass give back to ! e!r ! undulations t h be5 impress$ on !m by ! blue light2 :ile a c]ta9 numb] ( !m possess ! p[] ( receiv+ & giv+ back m rapid vibrations to ! e!r4 ,! yell[ glass held be=e ! eye is imp]vi\s to ! undulations ( ! blue rays1 b transmits ^? ( ! fluoresc5t light1 :i* emanate f ! small] numb] ( molecules1 & :i* ?us become 9 reality new c5tres ( light1 diff]5t f ! sun's light1 ?\gh dep5d5t ^u x3 ! "o t]re/rial1 ! o!r cele/ial4 ,s9ce ! vibrations ( ! fluoresc5t light are m rapid ?an ^? ( ! blue light _! col\r is l[] 9 ! prismatic scale4 ,! vibrations ( ! molecules 9 a fluoresc5t sub/ance are analog\s to ^? ( a musical cord1 :i* give ! fundam5tal note or pit* & its h>monics1 = ! :ole ( ! musical cord :ile vibrat+ ! fundam5tal note divides itself spontane\sly into p>ts hav+ m rapid vibrations1 :i* give ! h>monics4 ,pr(essor ,/okes ( ,cambridge1 :o made ?is beautiful exp]im5t1 comput$ t ! vibrations :i* produc$ ! fluoresc5t light 7 a major or m9or ?ird bel[ ! pit* or vibrations ( ! blue light4 ,"o ( ! fir/ discov]ies ( fluoresc5ce 0 made by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el--c]ta9ly ! fir/ :o obs]v$ ! prop]ty 9 a liquid4 ,he f\nd t ! blue light :i* emanates f all p>ts ( a solution ( ! sulphate ( qu99e1 especially f its surface1 is fluoresc5t1 & t ! light transmitt$ ?r\gh ! liquid1 ?\gh s5sibly l ! incid5t :ite light1 is no long] capable ( produc+ fluoresc5ce2 x has be5 depriv$ ( its *emical rays by absorption4 ,! *emical rays hav+ be5 r5d]$ visible by an increase 9 ! l5g? ( ! p]iods ( vibration1 unsuccessful attempts h be5 made to *ange ! p]iods ( ! rays ( heat beyond ! r$ end ( ! spectrum s z to br+ !m )9 ! limits ( vision4 ,! idea ( effect+ su* a *ange by employ+ a sub/ance opaque to light1 b p]vi\s to heat1 is due to ,dr4 ,ak92 b x has s9ce be5 accompli%$ by ,dr4 ,tyndall1 :o1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 exp]im5ts on radiant heat1 f\nd t a solution ( iod9e 9 ! bisulphide ( c>bon excludes ! mo/ dazzl+ light1 b transmits ! rays ( heat freely4 ,he employ$ a mirror1 l9$ 9 front ) silv]1 to conc5trate ! rays emitt$ f ! *>coal po9ts ( ! electric lamp1 & int]pos$ a vessel conta9+ ! solution 9 "q1 s t ! rays ( heat alone 7 br\ght to a focus almo/ undim9i%$4 ,:5 ! sol> spectrum 0 exam9$1 ! po9t ( maximum heat 0 f\nd to be z f> beyond ! extreme r$ on "o side z ! gre5 rays on ! o!r4 ,9 ! spectrum ( ! electrical light ! po9t ( maximum heat 0 also f\nd to lie beyond ! extreme r$1 b ! augm5tation ( int5sity 0 s sudd5 & enorm\s z f> to exce$ ! maximum heat ( ! sun previ\sly det]m9$ by ,pr(essor ,mll]4 ,aque\s vap\r p[]fully absorbs radiant heat2 s a sol> spectrum beyond ! e>?'s atmosph]e might probably exhibit z great int5sity z ! electrical light4 ,) ! app>atus describ$ oxidizable sub/ances bur/ into ! flame ( common combu/ion :5 put into ! focus2 b :5 ! *emical action ( ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e 0 exclud$ by ignit+ sub/ances 9 vacuo by ! invisible rays ( heat1 _! p]iods ( vibration 7 s *ang$ z to br+ !m )9 ! limits ( vision4 ,:5 ! electric light is v p[]ful1 a plate ( plat9iz$ plat9um 9 vacuo is rais$ to :ite heat at ! focus ( invisible rays2 & :5 ! inc&esc5t plat9um is look$ at ?r\gh a prism1 its light yields a complete & brilliant spectrum4 #8,9 all ^! cases we h a p]fectly invisible image ( ! *>coal po9ts =m$ by ! mirror2 & no exp]im5t illu/rates ! *ange ( heat into light' m /rongly ?an ! foll[+3--,:5 ! plate ( plat9um or "o ( *>coal is plac$ 9 ! focus1 ! invisible image raises x to inc&esc5ce1 & ?us pr9ts itself visibly on ! plate4 ,on draw+ ! coal po9ts ( ! lamp ap>t1 or caus+ !m to approa* ea* o!r1 ! !rmograph foll[s _! motion4 ,by cutt+ ! plate ( c>bon along ! b\nd>y ( ! !rmograph1 a second pair ( coal po9ts may be =m$ ( ! same %ape z ! orig9al ones1 b turn$ upside d[n2 & ?us by ! rays ( ! "o pair ( coal po9ts :i* are incompet5t to excite vision1 we may cause a second pair to emit all ! rays ( ! spectrum4 ,fluoresc5ce & caloresc5ce act 9 contr>y directions4 ,fluoresc5ce causes ! molecules ( a fluoresc5t sub/ance to oscillate 9 sl[] p]iods ?an ! incid5t light1 :ile caloresc5ce causes ! molecules ( a sub/ance to oscillate 9 long] p]iods ?an ! incid5t light4 ,! refrangibility ( ! rays is l[]$ 9 ! fir/ case1 & rais$ 9 ! second4 ,sub/ances diff] z mu* 9 _! transmission ( ! *emical rays z ^? ( light & heat4 ,glass is imp]vi\s to ! mo/ highly refrangible *emical rays1 :ile rock cry/al transmits !m ) ! greate/ facility2 & on t acc\nt ! absolute l5g? ( ! spectrum 0 n kn[n till ! light 0 refract$ by prisms ( rock cry/al4 ,besides1 ! numb]1 position1 & int5sity ( ! *emical rays v>y ) ! s\rce ( light4 ,"s flames h sc>cely any *emical rays2 t ( ! oxy-hydrog5 bl[pipe1 ?\gh int5sely hot1 has v few1 & ev5 ! sol> light is inf]ior 9 t respect to electricity4 ,! electric sp>k f ! prime conductor ( a common electrify+ ma*9e1 or ! dis*>ge ( a ,leyd5 j>1 emits rays ( v high refrangibility1 f> surpass+ ^? :i* emanate f ! sun4 ,=1 :5 ! electric light f a highly *>g$ ,leyd5 j> 0 refract$ by two qu>tz prisms & ?r[n by ,pr(essor ,/okes on a plate ( uranium glass1 ! *emical spectrum 0 highly lum9\s1 & six or eight times z long z ! visible spectrum4 ,an equally ext5sive spectrum 0 obta9$ f ! voltaic arc tak5 betwe5 copp] po9ts2 x consi/$ entirely ( bright l9es4 ,! long spectrum also appe>$ on ! uranium glass :5 ! sp>k refract$ by qu>tz prisms 0 obta9$ f ! second>y t]m9als ( an induction coil 9 connection ) ! coat+s ( a ,leyd5 j>4 ,x consi/$ ( bright l9es1 b 0 n s lum9\s z t f a p[]ful voltaic batt]y4 ,on *ang+ ! metals ( ! po9ts betwe5 :i* ! sp>ks pass$1 ! bright l9es 7 *ang$1 :i* %[$ t !y 7 due to ! p>ticul> metals4 ,! heat ( ! electric sp>k volatilizes ! metals :i* =m ! po9ts ( ! conduct+ wires2 & all volatiliz$ metals give *>act]i/ic spectra1 bo? visible & *emical4 ,! visible "p diff]s f t ( ! sol> spectrum 9 be+ cross$ by bright l9es in/ead ( d>k ones2 b ! numb]1 int5sity1 & position ( bo? ! visible & invisible l9es *ange ) ea* metal4 ,! *anges 9 ! invisible "p "u consid]ation may be readily obs]v$ by ?r[+ ! spectra ei!r on a fluoresc5t or collodion plate4 ,= example3 9 ! spectrum f ! sp>k betwe5 ?allium po9ts ?r[n on ! latt]1 ,dr4 ,mill] f\nd t !re 7 two /rong gr\ps ( l9es 9 ! lea/ refrangible "p ( ! spectrum2 at a little di/ance f ^! !re 7 ?ree gr\ps1 ! two fir/ less int5se ?an ! ?ird2 sev]al r[s ( feeble dots foll[$1 & ! *emical spectrum t]m9at$ r abruptly ) f\r ne>ly equidi/ant gr\ps4 ,?is spectrum be>s a resemblance to ^? ( z9c & cadmium1 less /rongly to t ( lead4 ,dr4 ,mill] f\nd t ! photographic spectra ( iron1 cobalt1 & nickel1 also h a /rong analogy1 b t ! metals ars5ic1 antimony1 & t9 %[$ z great a diff]5ce 9 ! invisible z 9 ! visible "p ( _! spectrum4 ,! fluoresc5t spectra ( sev5te5 metals 7 exam9$ by ,pr(essor ,/okes ( ,cambridge2 sev]al ( !m %[$ lum9\s l9es ( extraord9>y /r5g?1 especially z9c1 cadmium1 magnesium1 alum9ium1 & lead1 :i* 9 a spectrum n g5]ally rem>kable conta9s "o l9e surpass+ p]haps all o!r metals 9 brilliancy4 ,"s o!r metals exhibit 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( _! spectra l9es t are bo? bright & num]\s2 on ! :ole "s p>ts ( ! spectra are /rong & tol]ably cont9u\s1 :ile 9 o!rs !y are weak4 ,?is gr\p+ ( ! l9es is mo/ rem>kable 9 copp]1 nickel1 cobalt1 iron1 & t94 ,( all ! metals exam9$1 magnesium gave ! %orte/ spectrum1 end+ 9 a v bright l9e1 beyond :i* h[ev] excessively fa9t light ext5d$ to a di/ance equal to t ( ! long spectra4 ,alum9ium1 on ! o!r h& exce$$ all ! o!r metals 9 ri*ness ( ! rays ( ! v highe/ refrangibility4 ,all ! /rong l9es m5tion$ lie 9 t "p ( ! spectra4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! exp]im5ts ,pr(essor ,/okes obs]v$ t ev5 qu>tz ( a c]ta9 ?ickness is n transp>5t to invisible l9es ( ! highe/ refrangibility1 = ! highe/ alum9ium l9e1 :i* is d\ble1 c\ld only be se5 by rays pass+ ?r\gh ! edge ( ! prism4 ,?is leads to ano!r bran* ( ! subject1 namely1 ! absorption ( ! invisible rays by solids1 liquids & gases4 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,all5 ,mill] has %[n f 8 own exp]im5ts t bodies p]vi\s to ! *emical rays 9 ! solid =m1 are s also 9 ! liquid & gase\s =m2 t col\rless transp>5t solids :i* absorb ! photographic rays1 absorb !m m or less also 9 _! liquid & gase\s /ates4 ,he has moreov] f\nd t ! foll[+ sub/ances h ! same maximum transp>5cy3--rock cry/al1 ice1 & fluor sp> among solids1 wat] among liquids1 ! ?ree elem5t>y gases & c>bonic acid among gase\s sub/ances4 ,! mo/ opaque to ! invisible rays are1 nitrate ( pota%1 bisulphide ( c>bon1 & sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,x appe>s t a ?9 plate ( mica is int5sely opaque to all ! invisible rays except a small portion ( !m ( ! l[e/ refrangibility4 ,! absorptive prop]ty h[ev] is p>tial3 an absorptive sub/ance ei!r cuts (f a portion ( ! light ( a fluoresc5t spectrum or /ripes x ) d>k l9es3 ea* sub/ance absorbs rays peculi> to itself4 ,^? employ$ by ,pr(essor ,/okes 7 ! alkaloids & glucosides1 & he assum$ ! spectrum ( t9 = _! exam9ation because x has a long int]val ( cont9uity4 ,! fluoresc5t prop]ty ( yell[ uranite 0 discov]$ by ,pr(essor ,/okes "s ye>s ago1 & n[ he has add$ ano!r fluoresc5t m9]al 9 adul>ia or moon/one2 f its natural faces & planes ( cleavage alike a beautiful blue fluoresc5ce emanat$ "u ! induction sp>k4 ,z ! same 0 obs]v$ 9 col\rless felsp>s g5]ally1 ,pr(essor ,/okes conclud$ t fluoresc5ce is an inh]5t prop]ty 9 ! silicate ( alum9a & pota% con/itut+ ! cry/al ( moon/one4 ,! blue fluoresc5ce ext5d$ to a v s5sible ?\gh small dep? )9 ! sub/ance4 ,a p>ticul> v>iety ( fluor sp> f\nd at ,al/on ,moor 9 ,cumb]l&1 :i* is v pale by transmitt$ light1 %[s a /rong blue fluoresc5ce1 & is em95tly phosphoresc5t on exposure to ! electric sp>k4 ,x is ! same k9d ( cry/al 9 :i* ,sir ,david ,brew/] orig9ally discov]$ ! prop]ty ( fluoresc5ce4 ,on pres5t+ su* a cry/al to ! sp>k pass+ betwe5 alum9ium t]m9als1 besides ! usual blue fluoresc5ce1 !re 0 ano!r ( a r$di% col\r ext5d+ n ne> s f> into ! cry/al1 produc$ by ! rays belong+ to ! /rong l9es ( alum9ium ( extreme refrangibility4 ,! cube ( fluor sp> :i* %[$ ^! effects 0 ext]nally col\rless to ! dep? ( #a_/bj ( an in*2 !n came "o or two /rata p>allel to ! faces ( ! cube %[+ ! ruddy fluoresc5ce1 :ile ! blue fluoresc5ce ext5d$ to a mu* great] dep? & _h a /ratifi$ appe>ance4 ,?is cry/al 0 em95tly phosphoresc5t1 its blue phosphoresc5ce be+ arrang$ 9 /rata p>allel to ! face ( ! cube l ! blue fluoresc5ce1 b x 0 n p]ceptible beyond a v mod]ate di/ance bel[ ! surface at :i* ! excit+ cause ent]$1 t cause be+ ! photographic rays ( extremely high refrangibility ( ! electric sp>k--tak51 z 9 all ^! exp]im5ts1 betwe5 ! second>y t]m9als ( an induction coil 9 connection ) ! coat+s ( a ,leyd5 j>1 & refract$ by qu>tz prisms4 ,mr4 ,/okes has employ$ fluoresc5ce z a means ( trac+ sub/ances 9 impure *emical solutions4 ,:5 a pure fluoresc5t sub/ance is exam9$ 9 a pure spectrum x is f\nd t on pass+ f ! extreme r$ to ! violet & beyond1 ! fluoresc5ce comm5ces at a c]ta9 po9t ( ! spectrum1 v>y+ f "o sub/ance to ano!r1 & cont9ues f !nce onw>ds m or less /rongly 9 "o "p or ano!r accord+ to ! p>ticul> sub/ance4 ,! col\r ( ! fluoresc5t light is f\nd to be ne>ly con/ant ?r\gh\t ! spectrum4 #8,h5ce :5 9 a solution exam9$ 9 a pure spectrum we notice ! fluoresc5ce tak+ z x 7 a fre% />t ) a diff]5t col\r1 we may be pretty sure t we h to deal ) a mixture ( two fluoresc5t sub/ances4' ,exp]i5ce z well z !ory %[s t rapid absorption is accompani$ by copi\s fluoresc5ce4 ,b exp]i5ce has hi!rto also %[n :at c\ld n h be5 pr$ict$1 & may n be univ]sally true1 t conv]sely absorption is accompani$ 9 ! case ( a fluoresc5t sub/ance by fluoresc5ce4 ,! phosphoresc5t light ( insects1 fi%1 & plants is ow+ to *emical action1 :i* produces _m lum9\s ph5om5a2 b a great numb] ( inorganic & organic sub/ances %9e 9 ! d>k ) a phosphoresc5ce :i* is ne>ly alli$ to fluoresc5ce4 ,x is produc$ by exposure to ! sun1 by heat1 electricity1 insulation1 cleavage1 friction1 & motion4 ,= if a bottle conta9+ nitrate ( uranium be %ak51 x %9es spontane\sly ) a vivid light2 ev5 ! h& %[s phosphoresc5ce 9 ! d>k aft] be+ expos$ to ! sun4 ,! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 fluoresc5ce & phosphoresc5ce consi/s 9 ! "t dur+ :i* ! light la/s4 ,fluoresc5ce ceases almo/ imm$iately aft] ! excit+ cause is )drawn1 :ile a phosphoresc5t body :e!r excit$ by heat1 sol> light1 or electricity1 la/s a mu* long] "t2 besides1 ! fluoresc5t rays are g5]ally ( l[] refrangibility4 ,light & heat are tempor>ily absorb$ & giv5 out aga9 by e body on ! surface ( ! e>?1 m or less1 t are expos$ to ! sun's light4 ,! nights w\ld be mu* d>k] ev5 :5 illum9at$ by ! />s 7 x n = e>? light1 = ! molecules re/ore to ! e!r1 9 ! =m ( phosphoresc5ce1 ! undulations !y h receiv$ f ! sun's light dur+ ! day4 ,! sn[ & ice bl9k ( ! sailors is a /rik+ in/ance2 g5]ally1 h[ev]1 x is ( mu* %ort] duration4 ,! phosphoresc5t prop]ty is ne>ly alli$ to electricity1 = bodies t are bad conductors are apt to become phosphoresc5t1 :ile good conductors ( electricity r>ely if ev] %[ x4 ,ozone mu/ be phosphoresc5t1 = oxyg5 exhibits p]si/5t light :5 electric dis*>ges are s5t ?r\gh x1 & ,mr4 ,f>aday saw a fla% ( lightn+ leave a lum9\s trace on a cl\d :i* la/$ = a %ort "t4 ,9 ! sol> spectrum ! *emical or act9ic rays produce phosphoresc5ce1 :i* ! r$ rays h ! p[] to ext+ui%4 ,m4 ,nipce de ,/-,victor f\nd t sol> light impresses its vibrations s /rongly on sub/ances expos$ = a %ort "t to its influ5ce t !y n only %9e 9 ! d>k1 b t ! phosphoresc5t light !y radiate has *emical en]gy en\gh to decompose sub/ances 9 un/able equilibrium1 & leave dagu]reotype impressions ( great delicacy & beauty4 ,! pol>ization ( light & heat af=ds a rem>kable in/ance ( ! elective p[] ( matt]4 ,light & heat are said to be pol>iz$1 :i*1 hav+ be5 once reflect$1 are r5d]$ incapable ( be+ aga9 reflect$ at c]ta9 angles4 ,= example1 a ray incid5t on a plate ( fl9t glass at an angle ( #eg is r5d]$ totally incapable ( be+ reflect$ at t same angle f ano!r plate ( fl9t glass 9 a plane at "r angles to ! fir/4 ,at ! incid5ce ( #eg ! :ole ( ! ray is pol>iz$3 x is ! maximum ( pol>ization = fl9t glass1 b !re is a p>tial pol>ization = e o!r angle2 ! portion ( ! ray pol>iz$ increases gradually up to ! maximum1 z ! incid5ce approa*es to #eg4 ,all reflect+ surfaces are capable ( pol>iz+ light & heat1 b ! angle ( incid5ce at :i* ! ray is totally pol>iz$ is diff]5t 9 ea* sub/ance4 ,?us1 ! angle ( incid5ce = ! maximum pol>ization ( cr[n glass is #ef #ee1 & no ray c be totally pol>iz$ by reflection f ! surface ( wat] unless ! angle ( incid5ce is #ec #aa4 ,z ea* sub/ance has its own maximum pol>iz+ angle1 ! effect is evid5tly ow+ to ! action ( ! molecules ( matt]1 & n to any peculi>ity 9 ! light or heat4#h ,light & heat are also pol>iz$ by refraction1 = c]ta9 sub/ances1 especially irregul>ly cry/allis$ m9]als l ,icel& sp>1 possess ! prop]ty ( divid+ a ray ( light or heat pass+ ?r\gh !m 9 c]ta9 directions into two p5cils1 namely1 ! ord9>y & extraord9>y rays4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is refract$ accord+ to ! same law z 9 glass or wat]1 nev] quitt+ ! plane p]p5dicul> to ! refract+ surface1 :ile ! second does quit t plane1 be+ refract$ accord+ to a diff]5t & m complicat$ law4 ,h5ce1 if a cry/al ( ,icel& sp> be held to ! eye1 two images ( ! same object w g5]ally be se5 ( equal brightness4 ,b :5 !y are view$ ?r\gh a plate ( t\rmal9e x w be f\nd t :ile ! sp> rema9s 9 ! same position ! images v>y 9 relative brightness z ! t\rmal9e is made to revolve 9 ! same plane2 "o increases 9 int5sity till x arrives at a maximum1 at ! same "t t ! o!r dim9i%es till x vani%es1 & s on alt]nately at ea* qu>t] revolution ( ! t\rmal9e1 prov+ bo? rays to be pol>iz$4 ,= 9 "o position ! t\rmal9e transmits ! ord9>y ray & reflects ! extraord9>y1 & aft] revolv+ #ij1 ! extraord9>y ray is transmitt$ & ! ord9>y ray is reflect$4 ,! undulations ( ! e!real m$ium :i* produce ! s5sation ( common light1 are p]=m$ 9 e plane at "r angles to ! direction 9 :i* ! ray is mov+1 b ! case is v diff]5t aft] ! ray has be5 pol>iz$ by pass+ ?r\gh a sub/ance l ,icel& sp>1 = ! light !n proce$s 9 two p>allel p5cils ^: undulations are /ill inde$ transv]se to ! direction ( ! rays1 b !y are accompli%$ 9 planes at "r angles to "o ano!r4 ,! ray ( common light is l a r\nd rod1 :]eas ! p>allel pol>iz$ rays resemble two long flat rul]s1 "o ( :i* lies on its broad surface1 & ! o!r on its edge4 ,by a simple me*anical law1 ea* vibratory motion ( ! common light is resolv$ into vibratory motions at "r angles to "o ano!r4 ,! pol>ization ( light & heat by refraction is n ow+ to ! *emical composition1 b to a want ( homog5eity 9 ! molecul> /ructure ( ! sub/ances ?r\gh :i* !y pass2 = regul> cry/als & sub/ances :i* are ?r\gh\t ( ! same temp]ature1 d5sity1 & /ructure1 are incapable ( d\ble refraction4 ,! effect ( molecul> /ructure is /rik+ly exhibit$ by ! circul> pol>isation 9 ! dimorphic cry/als ( qu>tz4 ,9 "o =m ! plane ( pol>ization revolves f "r to left1 & 9 ! o!r t plane revolves f left to "r1 al?\gh ! cry/als !mselves diff] app>5tly by a v slight & (t5 almo/ imp]ceptible v>iety ( =ms4 ,?us pol>ization =ms ! mo/ admirable connection betwe5 light1 heat1 & cry/all9e /ructure2 %[+ peculi> arrangem5ts ( ! molecules 9 regions o!rwise unapproa*able1 & too ref9$ = our p]ceptions4 ,besides1 ! gorge\sly col\r$ images display$ by depol>ization are spl5did examples ( ! p[] ( matt] 9 decompos+ light4 ,! p]fect correspond5ce ( ! prop]ties ( ! symmetrical1 ela/ic1 & optical axes ( cry/als ) light & heat is ano!r in/ance ( ! connection betwe5 ! latt] & cry/all9e =m4 ,! axis ( symmetry is t direction or imag9>y l9e )9 a cry/al1 r\nd :i* all ! p>ts or p>ticles are symmetrically arrang$4 ,a m$ium is said to be ela/ic :i* returns to its orig9al =m ) a resili5t =ce aft] be+ reliev$ f compression1 & ! axis ( ela/icity ( a cry/al is t direction 9 :i* x is mo/ ela/ic4 ,! optic axis is t l9e or direction ?r\gh :i* light passes 9 "o beam accord+ to ! law ( ord9>y refraction4 ,cry/als may h "o1 two or m optical axes accord+ to _! =m4 ,d\bly refract+ cry/als su* z ,icel& sp> h only "o pr9cipal optic axis 9 :i* ! :ole beam passes accord+ to ! ord9>y law2 9 e o!r direction ! beam ( light is divid$ into two pol>iz$ rays1 "o ( :i* call$ ! ord9>y ray passes accord+ to ! ord9>y law1 :ile ! o!r1 kn[n z ! extraord9>y ray1 trav]ses ! cry/al 9 a diff]5t direction1 ) m rapidity & accord+ to a diff]5t & m complicat$ law4 ,! velocity ( ?is extraord9>y ray is a maximum :5 at "r angles to ! pr9cipal optical axis1 & a m9imum :5 p>allel to x4 ,9 p]fectly regul> cry/als l ! cube or die1 ! octoh$ron1 c41 !re are ?ree axes ( symmetry & ( equal ela/icity at "r angles to "o ano!r4 ,9 ^! regul> cry/als all ! axes are optical1 s t !y h no d\ble refraction4 ,"r squ>e prisms h two equal rectangul> axes ( symmetry1 two axes ( equal ela/icity1 & "o optical axis4 ,all cry/als ( ! pyramidal & rhomboidal sy/ems h "o axis ( symmetry1 two axes ( ela/icity1 "o optical axis2 & =m col\r$ circul> r+s trav]s$ by a black cross :5 view$ by depol>iz$ light4 ,la/ly oblique prismatic cry/als :i* h ?ree unequal axes ( symmetry h ?ree axes ( unequal ela/icity1 two optical axes2 & by depol>ization give col\r$ lamnescata1 t is col\r$ figures hav+ ! =m ( ! figure #h :i* are trav]s$ by a black cross 9 two opposite quadrants1 & :5 ! cry/al is made to revolve1 ! same figure1 b 9 ! complem5t>y col\rs & trav]s$ by a :ite cross1 appe>s 9 ! o!r two quadrants4 ,! "r & left-h&$ circul> pol>ization ( qu>tz1 accord+ z c]ta9 facettes ( ! cry/al are turn$ to ! "r or left1 & ! prop]ty ( d\ble refraction be+ exclusively possess$ by cry/als ( ! rhomboidal =m1 are /rik+ in/ances ( ! connection betwe5 ! geometrical arrangem5t ( ! molecules ( matt] & ! optical & !rmal =ces1 = ! pol>ization ( heat & all its consequ5ces are 9 e respect analog\s to ^? ( light1 & simil> ph5om5a w\ld be se5 7 heat visible4 ,heat *anges ! position ( ! optical axes ( cry/als4 ,:5 appli$ to a cry/al ( sulphate ( lime1 ! two optical axes gradually approa* to ea* o!r & at la/ co9cide2 if ! heat be cont9u$ & increas$1 ! axes op5 aga91 b 9 a direction at "r angles to _! =m] position4 ,?us ! =ce ( heat ?r[s e molecule 9 ! body into correlative motion4 ,! angles ( all cry/als t are n ( ! octoh$ral gr\p are *ang$ by heat & v>y ) ! int5sity2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! l5g? ( ! greate/ & lea/ optic axes 9 su* cry/als dim9i%es z ! temp]ature is rais$1 increases :5 x is l[]$1 & is con/ant at a giv5 heat4 ,9 ,icel& sp> heat indirectly affects ! d\bly refract+ p[]1 = ! expansion ( ! cry/al 9 ! direction ( its axis is accompani$ by contraction at "r angles to x1 :i* br+s ! cry/al ne>] to ! cubical =m1 & consequ5tly dim9i%es its d\bly refract+ p[]4 ,accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,m4 ,ang/rm1 9 cry/als ) diff]5t axes ( ela/icity ! velocity ( ! molecul> vibrations is diff]5t 9 diff]5t directions :5 !y are heat$4 ,9 rock cry/al & t\rmal9e ! heat radiates f a surface cut p>allel to ! axis ( ! cry/al2 9 felsp> ! radiat+ surface is at "r angles to ! symmetrical axis4 ,! optical axes ( cry/als are also affect$ by pressure4 ,d\bly refract+ cry/als ) "o pr9cipal axis acquire two :5 ! pressure is p]p5dicul> to x4 ,! new pr9cipal axis co9cides ) ! l9e ( pressure or is at "r angles to x accord+ z ! cry/al is positive or negative1 t is1 accord+ z ! extraord9>y ray is refract$ to or f ! optic axis ( ! cry/al4 ,! col\rs produc$ by pol>ization are affect$ by compression & dilatation accord+ z ! cry/al is positive or negative4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] is ( op9ion t all ! prop]ties ( d\ble refraction & ! gorge\s ph5om5a ( pol>ization1 :e!r by cry/als or produc$ 9 v>i\s sub/ances p]man5tly or transi5tly by heat1 cold1 rapid cool+1 compression1 dilatation1 & induration1 are :olly ! result ( ! =ces by :i* ! atoms are held toge!r2 b ^! ph5om5a may r be said to dep5d ^u a reciprocal action betwe5 an irregul> molecul> /ructure & ! ag5cy ( light & heat3 :i* inde$ seems to be confirm$ by ! transit ( ^! two =ces ?r\gh "r & left-h&$ qu>tz1 = !re is no reason to believe t !re is any diff]5ce 9 ! =m ( ! p>ticles 9 ^! two cry/all9e sub/ances4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,becqu]el %[ t electricity is a p[] :i* makes ! atoms ( matt] aggregate 9 cry/all9e =ms2 = he has succe$$ 9 =m+ cry/als ( gold1 silv]1 cobalt1 nickel1 plat9um1 & a v>iety ( ! gems undi/+ui%able f ^? 9 nature1 by expos+ saturat$ solutions ( ^! sub/ances = a v long "t to feeble voltaic electricity2 & cry/als ( e>?y matt] h be5 obta9$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,! electric & magnetic /ate ( m9]al ve9s 9 m9es :i* conta9 a va/ v>iety ( cry/als1 metallic & non-metallic1 /rongly fav\rs ?is view ( ! orig9 ( cry/all9e =m4 ,m4 ,regnault has prov$ t ! ratio betwe5 ! specific heat & ! weight ( ! atoms ( matt] is intimately connect$ ) ! mode ( _! aggregation2 & inde$ if x be consid]$ t ! atoms h n only specific heat & weight1 b specific aff9ity1 electricity1 magnetism1 consequ5tly pol>ity1 & probably specific =ms1 ^! peculi> =ces mu/ necess>ily influ5ce ! /ructure ( cry/als accord+ z !y comb9e ) or oppose ! natural or artificial =ces act+ ^u !m1 or ^u _! dissimil> faces1 & ?is may be ! cause ( ! great v>iety ( =ms t matt] appe>s "u4 ,c>bonate ( lime alone assumes m ?an #a1bjj diff]5t modifications ( its primitive type1 b :atev] be ! v>iety ( =ms :i* any "o sub/ance may take1 !y are f\nd to be all compatible ) & d]ivative f a common type4 ,! circum/ances :i* h caus$ dimorph\s cry/als to deviate f ! g5]al law h n yet be5 expla9$4 ,x is v s+ul> t :5 *lorate ( soda is dissolv$ 9 wat] ! solution does n possess ! prop]ty ( circul> pol>ization1 b :5 evaporat$ & all[$ to cry/allise1 "s ( ! cry/als turn light to ! "r1 & o!rs to ! left4 ,n[ if all ! cry/als t h ! same prop]ty be pick$ out & dissolv$ 9 wat] a second "t1 ! liquid w /ill h no circul> pol>ization1 b :5 all[$ to cry/allise1 "s ( ! cry/als make light revolve ?r\gh !m to ! "r & o!rs to ! left z be=e4 ,f ?is x is suppos$ t ! atoms ( liquids1 :i* are free to move 9 e direction1 already possess "p ( ! *>act]s :i* ! *ange to solidity r5d]s evid5t & p]man5t4 ,al?\gh ! relations betwe5 ! =ce ( magnetism & ! atoms ( matt] d n exhibit su* brilliant ph5om5a z light does1 !y are nev]!less mo/ int]e/+ & wond]ful4 ,mr4 ,f>aday discov]$ t all sub/ances1 :e!r solid1 liquid1 or ari=m1 are ei!r magnetic l iron1 or diamagnetic l bismu?1 ! latt] be+ by f> ! mo/ num]\s4 ,?us if a b> ( iron be freely susp5d$ betwe5 ! poles ( an extremely p[]ful magnet or electro-magnet1 x w be attract$ by bo? poles & w re/ or sit axially1 t is1 ) its l5g? betwe5 ! poles or 9 ! l9e ( magnetic =ce2 :]eas an equal & simil> b> ( bismu? s susp5d$ w be repell$ by bo? poles & w re/ or sit equatorially1 t is ) its l5g? p]p5dicul> to ! l9e ( magnetic =ce4 ,magnetism & diamagnetism are bo? dual =ces1 b !y are 9 complete anti!sis to "o ano!r1 :i* is /rik+ly illu/rat$ by _! action on cry/all9e matt]4 ,a sph]e ( amorph\s sub/ance freely susp5d$ "u magnetic influ5ce is indiff]5t1 t is to say x has no t5d5cy to set "o way m ?an ano!r2 b a sph]e cut out ( a cry/al :e!r magnetic or diamagnetic1 is m p[]fully attract$ or repell$ 9 "o direction ?an 9 any o!r1 :i* %[s a connection betwe5 ! magnetic =ces & cry/all9e /ructure4 ,cry/als ( c>bonate ( iron & c>bonate ( lime are isomorph\s1 t is1 !y h exactly ! same cry/all9e =m1 b ! c>bonate ( iron be+ highly magnetic is mo/ p[]fully attract$ 9 ! direction ( its greate/ optical axis :i* !re=e sets axially1 t is1 9 ! l9e ( magnetic =ce2 :ile ! pr9cipal optic axis ( ! c>bonate ( lime1 :i* is diamagnetic1 is mo/ p[]fully repell$ & !re=e sets equatorially4 ,9 bo? cases ! anti!tic =ces foll[ ! same law ( decrease 9 int5sity f ! greate/ optical axis to ! lea/4 ,a b> ( s(t iron sets ) its longe/ dim5sions axially1 b a b> ( highly compress$ iron-du/1 ^: %orte/ dim5sions co9cide ) ! l9e ( pressure1 sets equatorially1 because x is mo/ p[]fully attract$ 9 ! l9e ( greate/ d5sity4 ,a b> ( bismu? sets equatorially1 b a b> ( highly compress$ bismu? du/1 ^: %orte/ dim5sions co9cide ) ! l9e ( pressure1 sets ) its l5g? axially1 because x is mo/ /rongly repell$ 9 ! direction ( its greate/ d5sity4 ,h5ce ! action ( magnets ^u matt] is mo/ p[]ful 9 ! l9e ( maximum d5sity1 ! =ce be+ attractive or repulsive accord+ to ! k9d ( magnetism possess$ by ! atoms4 ,x foll[s !re=e t ! d5sity is greate/ 9 ! l9e ( ! pr9cipal optical axis1 & gradually decreases to ! lea/ optical axis1 :]e x is a m9imum4 ,! position :i* cry/als take ) reg>d to ! magnetic =ce dep5ds also ^u _! natural jo9ts ( cleavages1 & ^u _! p[] ( transmitt+ electricity4 ,! diamagnetic =ce is inv]sely z ! conduct+ p[] ( bodies1 & ! conduct+ p[] ( cry/als is a maximum 9 ! planes ( _! pr9cipal natural jo9ts4 ,h5ce ! action ( ! diamagnetic p[] is lea/ 9 ! natural jo9ts1 & conv]sely ! magnetic =ce is greate/4 ,9 fact1 ! magnetic ph5om5a ( cry/als dep5ds ^u unequal conductibility 9 diff]5t directions1 & _! set is det]m9$ by ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! =ces ( attraction & repulsion ( ! poles1 = "o pole ( ! magne-cry/allic axis is attract$ & ! o!r repell$4 ,x is unnecess>y to give m examples to %[ ! action ( ! magnetic =ces ^u ! atomic /ructure ( cry/als4#i ,magnetism *anges ! relations & di/ances betwe5 ! ultimate atoms ( matt]1 a circum/ance :i* probably dep5ds ^u _! pol>ity4 ,x *anges /eel p]man5tly1 iron tempor>ily1 & x elongates a b> ( iron1 :i* loses 9 bread? :at x ga9s 9 l5g?2 & z heat is develop$ 9 "o direction & absorb$ 9 ! o!r1 ! temp]ature ( ! b> rema9s ! same4 ,heat be+ an expansive =ce1 dim9i%es ! magnetism ( iron & nickel 9 proportion z x increases ! di/ance betwe5 _! atoms1 till at l5g? !y lose _! cohesive =ce altoge!r4 ,b !re seems to be a temp]ature at :i* ! magnetic =ce is a maximum1 above & bel[ :i* temp]ature x dim9i%es4 ,?us ! magnetism ( cobalt increases ) ! temp]ature up to a c]ta9 po9t2 x !n decreases z ! temp]ature increases1 & x loses its magnetism altoge!r :5 ! heat am\nts to #aiif4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy & ,m4 ,arago notic$ t ! voltaic arc takes a rotatory motion on ! approa* ( a magnet2 & ! effect ( magnetism on ! /ratifi$ appe>ance ( ! electric light 9 highly r>efi$ air %[s h[ p[]ful its action is4 ,9 ! ye> #aheh1 ,mr4 ,gassiot publi%$ a s]ies ( obs]vations on /ratifi$ light2 subsequ5tly v>i\s publications appe>$ on ! subject bo? by ,mr4 ,gassiot & by ,pr(essor ,plck]1 :o made a s]ies ( v int]e/+ obs]vations on ! nature ( ! /ratifications1 b m especially on ! effects produc$ :5 !y are "u ! influ5ces ( magnetism4 ,s9ce t "t1 ,mr4 ,gassiot has publi%$ sev]al pap]s on ! subject1 & /ill cont9ues 8 exp]im5ts on ! /ratifications ( electric light1 :i* give a visible pro( ( ! connection betwe5 electricity & magnetism4 ,he fir/ %[$ t ! /ratifi$ "* ( ! electric dis*>ge ?r\gh highly att5uat$ m$ia is rem>kably develop$ 9 ! ,torricellian vacuum2 latt]ly he has made 8 exp]im5ts by pass+ electricity ?r\gh clos$ glass tubes ( v>i\s l5g?s & int]nal diamet]s1 fill$ ) highly att5uat$ gases & vap\rs4#aj ,two among ! _m brilliant exp]im5ts ( ?is g5tleman may be select$ z illu/rations ( ! prop]ty ( electric light4 ,"o ( ^! clos$ glass tubes conta9+ a highly att5uat$ gas 0 #ch in*es long ) an int]nal diamet] ( ab\t an in*1 & _h ! extremities ( two plat9um wires fus$ into ! same side #cb in*es ap>t4 ,:5 ^! wires 7 put 9 connection ) ! wires ( an induction batt]y & br\ght into contact1 & ! electricity pass$ ?r\gh ! tube1 ! lum9\s appe>ances at ! extremities or poles ( ! plat9um wires 7 v diff]5t1 b simultane\s4 ,a gl[ surr\nd$ ! negative pole1 & 9 close approximation to ! gl[1 a well def9$ black space appe>$1 :ile f ! positive pole !re issu$ 9 rapid succession a s]ies ( alt]nate d>k & brilliantly lum9\s curv$ /rata1 :i* =m$ a column ( /ratifi$ light1 ! concavities ( ! /rata be+ turn$ to ! positive pole4 ,! /ratifications d n ext5d to ! black b& r\nd ! negative wire or ball1 :i* is q diff]5t to ! d>k int]v5+ space betwe5 ! /ratifi$ dis*>ge & ! lum9\s negative gl[4 ,on mak+ & break+ ! electric circuit1 ! /ratifi$ dis*>ge emanates f ea* pole alt]nately1 ! concavities ( ! /rata turn+ alt]nately 9 diff]5t directions2 9 fact ! :ole ph5om5a are rev]s$1 b n *ang$4 #8,! /ratifi$ dis*>ge arises f ! impulses ( a =ce act+ on highly att5uat$ b resi/+ m$ia1' a new pro( ( ! wond]ful p[] inh]5t 9 highly att5uat$ gases2 ! numb] ( /ratifications giv5 out at ea* dis*>ge1 dep5d+ ^u ! int5sity ( ! electricity & r>ity ( ! gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #a repres5ts ! =m :i* ! /ratifi$ dis*>ge assumes 9 a vacuum tube "o in* diamet] & #ch in*es 9 l5g?1 & - repres5t+ plat9um wires atta*$ to ! t]m9als ( a ,ruhmkorff's induction coil4 ,:5 ! tube1 ) its /ratifications j describ$1 0 laid horizontally on ! pole ( a magnet1 ! /ratifi$ column %[$ a t5d5cy to rotate z a :ole r\nd x4 ,accord+ to ! !ory ( ,ampre1 ! pol>ity ( a magnet is ow+ to a sup]ficial curr5t ( electricity p]petually circulat+ 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to its axis2 & he also %[$ t curr5ts ( electricity fl[+ 9 ! same direction attract "o ano!r1 :ile curr5ts fl[+ 9 opposite directions repel ea* o!r4 ,h5ce1 s9ce ! curr5ts ( electricity 9 ! magnet & tube 7 fl[+ 9 ! same direction on "o side ( ! magnet1 & 9 opposite directions on ! o!r side1 ! /ratifi$ column 0 attract$ at "o end & repell$ at ! o!r1 s z to take ! =m sideways ,s1 9 consequ5ce ( its t5d5cy to rotate z a :ole r\nd ! pole ( ! magnet4 ,:5 n>r[ b&s ( t9 foil wrapp$ r\nd ! glass tube ne> ! plat9um wires 7 put 9 communication ) ! poles ( ! induction batt]y1 brilliant /ratifications fill$ ! :ole tube betwe5 ! t9 coat+s e "t ! electric circuit 0 brok5 or r5ew$2 & :5 ! tube 0 plac$ horizontally on ! pole ( a magnet1 ! /ratifications no long] %[$ a t5d5cy to rotate z a :ole1 !y 7 divid$ into two p>ts t5d+ to rotate 9 opposite directions2 :5 ! tube 0 plac$ betwe5 ! poles ( a p[]ful electro-magnet1 "o half ( ! /ratifications 7 repell$ & ! o!r half attract$4 ,:5 ! tube 0 plac$ on ! nor? pole1 ! divid$ /ratifications arrang$ !mselves on ea* side ( ! tube1 *ang+ _! respective positions :5 plac$ on ! s\? pole1 b 9 e case ea* half 0 concave 9 opposite directions4 ,fig4 #b 7p4 #ha7 repres5ts ! =m :i* ! induc$ /ratifi$ dis*>ges assume :5 ! vacuum tube is plac$ on or betwe5 ! poles ( a p[]ful electro-magnet--! t9 foil coat+s ,c ,c- be+ atta*$ by wires to ! t]m9als ( an induction coil4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,if a vacuum tube ) or )\t wires or t9 coat+s be laid ^u ! induction coil ( a batt]y1 or ^u ! prime conductor ( an electrify+ ma*9e1 /ratifications are produc$ by induction :i* are divid$ by a magnet4 ,?us !re are two di/9ct =ms ( ! /ratifi$ dis*>ge1 "o direct1 ! o!r induc$4 ,:5 ,pr(essor ,plck] ( ,bonn s5t an induc$ curr5t ( electricity f ,ruhmkorff's coil ?r\gh a vacuum tube hav+ a plat9um wire fus$ into ea* extremity1 & ext5d+ a little way into ! int]ior ( ! tube1 electric light radiat$ f e po9t ( ! negative wire1 & :5 expos$ to ! action ( an electro-magnet ! :ole tube 0 fill$ ) a lum9\s atmosph]e4 ,b :5 all ! negative plat9um wire except its extreme po9t 0 insulat$ by a coat+ ( glass1 ! rays ( electric light :i* radiat$ f ! po9t 7 unit$ into "o s+le & p]fectly regul> magnetic curve1 ^u ! approa* ( an electro-magnet2 :5 ! negative plat9um wire 0 p>tially insulat$ by glass coat+1 electric light emanat$ f e expos$ "p1 & assum$ ! =m ( magnetic curves "u electro-magnetic action4 ,:5ce ,pr(essor ,plck] conclud$ t ! lum9\s atmosph]e 9 ! fir/ exp]im5t 0 ! locus ( an inf9ite numb] ( magnetic curves1 & consequ5tly t magnetic light emanates f ! negative or w>m? pole1 & electric light f ! positive or light pole4 ,^! magnetic curves ( light are precisely simil> to ^? assum$ by iron fil+s f magnetic action4 ,! mo/ rem>kable ( ^! exp]im5ts is ! absolute ext9ction ( a p[]ful electric dis*>ge by magnetic action4 ,mr4 ,gassiot s5t a dis*>ge f a voltaic wat] batt]y1 conta9+ #c1ebj insulat$ cells1 into a tube fill$ ) att5uat$ c>bonic acid gas4 ,! dis*>ge 0 s /rong t x 0 capable ( pass+ ?r\gh m ?an six in*es ( ! gas1 yet1 on ! approa* ( a v p[]ful electro-magnet1 ! /ratifications 7 arre/$ z soon z !y appe>$1 z if bl[n out1 & f9ally ext+ui%$4 ,a /ratifi$ dis*>ge1 9 vacuo1 f #djj insulat$ cells ( a nitric acid batt]y1 0 ext+ui%$ by ! l>ge electro-magnet ( ! ,royal ,in/itution2 ! lum9\s /rata ru%$ f ! positive pole ( ! batt]y1 b "u ! magnetic =ce !y retreat$2 cl\d foll[$ aft] cl\d ) delib]ate motion1 appe>+ z if swall[$ up by ! positive t]m9al4 ,! am\nt ( electricity t pass$ ?r\gh ! tube appe>$ to be mat]ially increas$ by excit+ ! electro-magnet2 ! dis*>ge 0 s int5se on "o occasion z to fuse half an in* ( ! positive t]m9al4 ,a v p[]ful magnet is also capable ( ext+ui%+ a /ratifi$ dis*>ge4 ,9 fact1 accord+ to ! law ( ! reciprocal action ( magnetism1 ! =ces are equal 9 int5sity & opposite 9 direction4 ,! electric dis*>ge f an induction coil is discont9u\s1 or eruptive sp>ks ( high t5sion are giv5 out produc+ /ratifi$ dis*>ges4 ,! dis*>ge ( ! voltaic batt]y _h hi!rto be5 consid]$ absolutely cont9u\s2 & s x is = *emical action1 :e!r ( analysis or comb9ation2 nev]!less c]ta9 ph5om5a gave reason to d\bt its cont9uity4 ,mr4 ,gassiot has prov$ t ! t5sion ( a s+le cell ( a galvanic batt]y increases 9 =ce accord+ to ! *emical en]gy ( ! excit+ liquid1 & 9 all 8 exp]im5ts he f\nd t #8! high] ! *emical aff9ities ( ! elem5ts us$1 ! great] 0 ! developm5t ( evid5ce ( t5sion4' ,^! obs]vations induc$ him to in/itute a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ) galvanic batt]ies ( diff]5t *emical aff9ities1 & to comp>e ! result+ ph5om5a ) ^? produc$ by ! induction coil1 ^: sp>ks are ( high t5sion4 ,! same c>bonic acid vacuum tubes 7 made use ( 9 all ! exp]im5ts2 a copp] wire =m$ ! positive t]m9al1 & a copp] plate 0 fix$ at ! extremity ( ! negative t]m9al4 ,9 o!r tubes plat9um t]m9als ext5d$ into ! int]ior1 coat$ ) glass1 except ! po9ts1 to :i* *>coal balls 7 fix$4 ,"o end ( ! tubes 0 ( small diamet] & conta9$ cau/ic pota%4 ,:5 a dis*>ge f an induction coil 0 s5t ?r\gh ^! tubes1 !re 7 ei!r m9ute lum9\s spots1 n>r[ /ratifications1 or a well def9$ cl\d-l dis*>ge at ! positive pole1 accord+ to ! size & /ructure ( ! t]m9al1 b ! *>act]i/ic ph5om5on 9 all ! tubes 0 a l>ge cl\d-l lum9osity or circul> gl[ on ! brass plate or *>coal ball at ! negative t]m9al4 ,) #eab insulat$ cells ( copp] & z9c ( ,daniell's con/ant batt]y1 ! excit+ liquid be+ dilute sulphuric acid1 a brilliant gl[ appe>$ r\nd ! *>coal ball ( ! negative t]m9al on ! passage ( ! electric dis*>ge ?r\gh ! tube1 ) v trifl+ lum9osity ( ! positive pole4 ,two copp] plates t c\ld be sep>at$ or clos$ by a screw1 7 plac$ betwe5 ! poles ( a nitric acid batt]y1 s t ! circuit c\ld be made or brok5 gradually1 & sp>k dis*>ges 7 obta9$ betwe5 !m4 ,! vacuum tubes 7 plac$ betwe5 "o ( ^! plates & a pole ( ! batt]y2 "o ( ^! tubes 0 #bd in*es long1 #ah 9 circumf]5ce1 & _h a circul> copp] disc #d in*es 9 diamet] on its negative t]m9al4 ,on complet+ ! circuit1 ! dis*>ge ( ! batt]y pass$ ) a display ( magnific5t /rata ( dazzl+ brightness2 on sep>at+ ! plates by ! screw1 ! lum9\s dis*>ges pres5t$ ! same appe>ance z :5 tak5 f an induction coil1 b bright]4 ,on ! copp] disc )9 ! vacuum tube1 !re 0 a :ite lay]1 !n a d>k space ab\t an in* broad1 & !n a blui% atmosph]e curv$ l ! disc1 evid5tly ?ree negative envelopes on a great scale4 ,:5 ! disc 0 made ! positive pole1 ! effect 0 feeble4 ,9 vacuum tubes #f in*es long & #a in* diamet]1 ) c>bon balls on ! t]m9als1 ! dis*>ge ( ! nitric acid batt]y elicits extreme heat4 ,9 "o ( ^! ! dis*>ge pres5t$ a /ream ( light ( intol]able brightness1 b :5 view$ ?r\gh a plate ( gre5 glass /rata c\ld be se54 ,?is soon *ang$ to a sph]e ( light on ! positive ball1 :i* became r$ hot1 ! negative be+ surr\nd$ by magnific5t envelopes2 ) a horse-%oe magnet ! positive light 0 drawn out into /rata4 ,! ne$le ( a galvanomet] 9 circuit 0 viol5tly deflect$ & ! pol>ity rev]s$4 ,:5 ! cau/ic pota% 0 heat$1 ! dis*>ge bur/ into a sunlike flame1 subsequ5tly subsid+ into ?ree or f\r l>ge /rata ( a cl\d-l %ape1 b int5sely bright4 ,?is is call$ ! arc dis*>ge3 x occurs 9 vacuum tubes ) *>coal balls2 :5 ! pota% is heat$ int5sely1 dazzl+ /ratifications sudd5ly emanate f ! positive ball1 & p[]ful *emical action takes place 9 ! batt]y1 aft] :i* ! dis*>ge ceases4 ,?is process facilitates ! dis*>ge & assi/s ! dis9tegration ( ! c>bon p>ticles1 & ^! 9 a m9ute /ate ( division are subsequ5tly f\nd atta*$ to ! sides ( ! glass4 ,x is ^! p>ticles :i* produce ! arc dis*>ge ) its int5se vivid light s sudd5ly obs]v$ ) f> m brilliant effects ?an ! usual /ratifi$ dis*>ge4 ,dur+ its passage ! conduct+ p[] ( ! vacuum tube is greatly enhanc$4 ,x 0 already m5tion$ t a /ratifi$ dis*>ge 0 obta9$ f #c1ebj insulat$ cells ( a wat] batt]y1 :i* diff]s b little 9 int5sity f #djj cells ( ! nitric acid batt]y4 ,on "o occasion ! electricity seem$ to pass ?r\gh ! vacuum tubes 9 a cont9u\s /ream1 b :5 exam9$ ) ,mr4 ,:eat/one's revolv+ mirror x 0 decid$ly /ratifi$4 ,mr4 ,gassiot nev] c\ld obta9 a cont9u\s dis*>ge 9 air1 :e!r betwe5 ! po9ts or metallic plates ( ! wat] batt]y4 ,! dis*>ge 0 inv>iably 9 ! =m ( m9ute cle>ly def9$ & sep>ate sp>ks4 ,?us x 0 prov$ by ! prec$+ exp]im5ts t a sp>k dis*>ge c\ld be obta9$ 9 air f bo? ! nitric acid & wat] batt]y2 & t :5 ^! dis*>ges 7 pass$ ?r\gh ! highly att5uat$ matt] conta9$ 9 c>bonic acid vacua1 ! same lum9\s & /ratifi$ appe>ance 0 produc$ z by an induction coil2 a pro( t :atev] may be ! cause ( ! ph5om5a x c\ld n arise f any peculi> action ( t app>atus4 ,mr4 ,gassiot f9ally concludes t ! cause ( ! /ratifi$ dis*>ge aris+ f ! impulses ( a =ce act+ ^u highly att5uat$ b resi/+ m$ia is also applicable to ! dis*>ge ( ! voltaic batt]y 9 vacuo2 :ile ! fact ( ?is dis*>ge ev5 9 its full int5sity hav+ be5 n[ asc]ta9$ to be also /ratifi$ leads to ! conclusion t ! ord9>y dis*>ge ( ! voltaic batt]y1 "u e condition1 is n cont9u\s b int]mitt5t1 t x consi/s ( a s]ies ( pulsations or vibrations ( great] or less velocity1 accord+ to ! resi/ance 9 ! *emical or metallic elem5ts ( ! batt]y or ! conduct+ m$ia ?r\gh :i* ! dis*>ge passes4 ,cau/ic pota% absorbs ! c>bonic acid gas by degrees1 & at la/ s completely exhau/s a vacuum tube t electricity _c be conduct$4 ,air is a non-conductor1 & an electric dis*>ge t w n pass ?r\gh an in* ( air1 w pass ?r\gh m ?an #cj or #dj in*es ( att5uat$ gas4 ,x has already be5 m5tion$ t ! /ratifi$ dis*>ge c be obta9$ by a s+le dis*>ge ( ! prim>y curr5t ( an inductive coil1 h[ev] long may be ! vacuum tube ?r\gh :i* ! dis*>ge is pass$4 ,if no addition be made to ! batt]y & no alt]ation be made 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! coil s z to increase or dim9i% ! int5sity ( ! dis*>ge1 ! /ratifications w always pres5t ! same appe>ance & =m1 occupy+ ! same spaces & positions 9 ! vacuum tube2 b if any *ange be made s z to alt] ! int5sity1 !n a correspond+ alt]ation w appe> 9 ! dis*>ge1 ! /ri assum+ a diff]5t %ape1 & ! bright & d>k divisions occupy+ diff]5t positions4 ,9 ord] to try :at effect a *ange ( int5sity w\ld produce1 ?ree sep>ate insulat$ voltaic batt]ies1 9 :i* ! excit+ liquid 0 br9e1 =m$ an electric circuit :i* 0 complet$ by two long wires4 ,x 0 s arrang$ t ! dis*>ge ( "o1 two1 or all ! ?ree batt]ies c\ld be sep>ately employ$4 ,9 ord] to v>y ! resi/ance at pleasure1 two tubes #ah in*es long conta9+ di/ill$ wat] & connect$ at _! base 7 introduc$ into ! circuit4 ,by v>y+ ! dep? to :i* ! t]m9al wires ( ! circuit 7 plung$ into ! wat]1 ! resi/ance c\ld be regulat$ at pleasure1 & x 0 immat]ial 9 :at "p ( ! circuit ! vacuum tube 0 introduc$ provid$ ! circuit 0 complet$4 ,! fir/ exp]im5ts 7 made ) a c>bonic acid vacuum tube #bj in*es long & #d in*es 9 diamet]4 ,! negative t]m9al at "o extremity ( ! tube 0 ( alum9ium1 cup-%ap$1 ab\t #c in*es 9 diamet]2 ! positive t]m9al 0 a wire ( ! same metal fus$ into ! o!r extremity ( ! tube2 ! po9t ( ! wire & cup 7 ab\t f\r in*es & a half ap>t4 ,) ?is tube & #b1bdj cells ( ! batt]y ! dis*>ge :5 ! resi/ance 0 introduc$ _h ! appe>ance ( a positive & negative dis*>ge1 imp++ on & int]m+l+ ) ea* o!r1 )\t any d>k space int]v5+4 ,ar\nd ! negative t]m9al ! lum9osity ext5ds to ! sides ( ! tube & tap]s to ! po9t ( ! positive wire4 ,! light r\nd ! negative t]m9al becomes bright]1 a d>k space appe>s next to x :5 ! resi/ance is dim9i%$1 & increases z ! resi/ance decreases1 by ! roll+ back ( ! light 9 bright cl\ds to ! po9t ( ! positive t]m9al4 ,^! *anges c be p]fectly regulat$ by ! resi/ance1 & v>i\s lum9\s ph5om5a occur at ea* /age4 ,) #b1bdj cells di/9ct s\nds 7 he>d 9 ! tube2 ) ! :ole batt]y ( #c1cfj s]ies ! s\nds 7 n he>d till a magnet 0 appli$ to ! /ri1 :5 !y aga9 became audible & ! /ri 7 spread ov] ! surface ( ! tube4 ,a c>bonic acid vacuum tube ) plat9um t]m9als fus$ into ! same side f> ap>t 0 n[ put into ! circuit1 ! "p ( ! wires t p5etrat$ )9 ! tube be+ coat$ ) glass up to ! c>bon balls 9 :i* !y t]m9at$4 ,:5 a dis*>ge f all ! ?ree batt]ies pass$ ?r\gh ! tube1 *anges occurr$ 9 ! =m & numb] ( ! /ri correspond+ to ! great] or less am\nt ( ! resi/ance (f]$ 9 ! circuit4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! exp]im5ts !re 7 #ah in*es ( wat] 9 ea* ( ! tubes1 :i* =m$ ! maximum resi/ance4 ,! wires atta*$ to ! t]m9al wires ( ! batt]y 7 plac$ inside ( ^! tubes1 & z soon z !y t\*$ ! surface ( ! wat] a fa9t lum9\s dis*>ge 0 se5 at ea* ball 9 ! vacuum tube4 ,z ! wire atta*$ to ! negative end ( ! batt]y 0 sl[ly depress$1 ! two lum9\s dis*>ges appe>$ to travel t[>ds or attract ea* o!r1 & at times a portion ( ! positive lum9osity pass$ ov] & m+l$ ) ! negative2 9 ?is /ate ! dis*>ge 0 ext+ui%$ by a magnet4 ,:5 ! wire 0 press$ f>!r into ! wat] a d>k space ab\t an in* 9 l5g? divid$ ! light into two p>ts1 ! positive gl[ be+ %>ply def9$1 ! negative gl[ hav+ an irregul> edge4 ,:5 ! wire _h be5 ab\t ?ree in*es deep 9 ! wat]1 ! positive & negative gl[s became m brilliant1 & a s+le cle>ly def9$ lum9\s disc bur/ f ! positive side & occupi$ ! middle ( ! d>k space4 ,:5 ! wire 0 press$ d[n till #ac in*es ( x 7 9 ! wat]1 a second lum9\s disc travell$ f ! positive side1 & !n ! two lum9\s discs or /ri occupi$ ! d>k space at a little di/ance f "o ano!r4 ,z ! wire 0 press$ m into ! wat]1 ?ree p>allel lum9\s /ri appe>$1 !n f\r1 !n five1 & s on till z _m z ?irte5 or f\rte5 /rip$ ! d>k c5tral space4 ,) ! full p[] ( ! batt]y1 ! adjac5t disc imp+$ on ! gl[ t surr\nd$ ! negative ball4 ,?is disc 0 ( a pale gre51 ^? adjac5t 7 r$di%1 :ile ! negative gl[ 0 ( a blui% :ite2 m9ute bright sc9tillations emanat$ f ! negative ball1 :ile di/9ct lum9\s fla% dis*>ges took place ?r\gh ! /ri4 ,?us by ! am\nt ( resi/ance introduc$ into ! circuit1 ! numb] ( /ri c be regulat$1 _! position fix$1 sep>at+ or clos+ up ! d>k space betwe5 ! lum9\s gl[s r\nd ! balls4 ,9 ^! exp]im5ts !re is indication ( a =ce emanat+ f ! negative wire4 ,! actual disruption ( ! p>ticles f ! negative t]m9al also indicates a =ce1 & ! disruption is z freely obta9$ by ! cont9u\s dis*>ge ( ! batt]y z x is by ! int]mitt5t dis*>ge ( ! induction coil4 ,besides1 :5 ,mr4 ,gassiot s5t dis*>ges f ! induction coil ?r\gh ,torricellian vacua1 he sev]al times obs]v$ t :ile a cl\d-l dis*>ge issu$ f ! positive t]m9al1 a long tongue ( ! mo/ brilliant blue phosphoresc5t light emanat$ f ! upp] "p ( ! negative t]m9al1 & a brilliant :ite tongue ( light 0 also se5 close to ! negative wire3 s !re is reason to believe t =ce emanates f bo? t]m9als4 ,"s ( ! prec$+ /riat$ dis*>ges #8pres5t an appe>ance some:at analog\s ) ! /ation>y undulations 7or nodes7 :i* exi/ 9 a column ( air :5 iso*ron\s progressive undulations meet "o ano!r f opposite directions1 & on ! surface ( wat] by me*anical impulses simil>ly int]f]+ ) ea* o!r4'#aa #8,may n ! d>k b&s be ! nodes ( undulations aris+ f simil> impulses proce$+ f positive & negative dis*>ges8 or c ! lum9\s /ratifications :i* we obta9 9 a close circuit ( ! second>y coil ( an induction app>atus1 & 9 ! circuit ( a voltaic batt]y1 be ! repres5tations ( pulsations :i* pass along ! wire ( ! =m]1 & ?r\gh ! batt]y ( ! latt]1 impulses probably g5]at$ by ! action ( ! dis*>ge along ! wires8' ,! action ( magnetism & electricity on light is simil>ly illu/rat$ by ! rotation ( ! plane ( pol>ization4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 0 ! fir/ :o tri$ to rotate ! plane ( pol>ization ( a ray ( light by surr\nd+ x ) a spiral wire electriz$ by ! great batt]y ( two enorm\s plates ( copp] & z9c at ! ,london ,in/itution1 b he obta9$ no evid5ce ( any su* action4 ,long aft]w>d ,pr(essor ,f>aday succe$$ by s5d+ a ray ( light ?r\gh a piece ( silico-borate ( lead1 :i* =m$ ! core ( a magnetic helix4 ,! silico-borate took on a quasi-cry/allis$ /ate dur+ ! passage ( ! electric curr5t r\nd x1 giv+ x = ! mom5t ! prop]ty ( circul> pol>ization1 analog\s to t ( glass 9 a /ate ( t5sion or compression4 ,sub/ances v>y exce$+ly 9 ! facility ) :i* !y transmit electricity2 ev5 ! same sub/ance "u ano!r =m diff]s rem>kably 9 t prop]ty3 *>coal1 :i* next to ! metals is ! be/ conductor kn[n1 :5 "u ! =m ( diamond is q imp]vi\s to electricity4 ,9 g5]al1 sub/ances t are ! be/ conductors ( heat are also ! be/ conductors ( electricity1 z = example ! metals1 :i* h[ev]1 possess ! transmissive prop]ty 9 v diff]5t degrees4 ,silv] & copp] are ! be/ conductors1 lead "o ( ! wor/2 its resi/ance to ! passage ( electricity is twelve times great] ?an t ( silv] & copp]1 consequ5tly x becomes twelve times z hot1 = :5 a curr5t ( electricity is imp$$ x is *ang$ into heat4 ,s great is ! resi/ance (f]$ by a f9e plat9um wire1 t ! heat am\nts to #cbhj & ! wire is melt$1 a /rik+ in/ance ( ! correlation ( electricity & heat1 & ( ! p[] ( ! cohesive =ce4 ,:5 electricity is pass+ ?r\gh conduct+ sub/ances or :5 x is /atic1 x induces an electric /ate 9 bodies at a di/ance by transmission ?r\gh non-conduct+ sub/ances or air1 = x gives pol>ity & t5sion to ! adjac5t atoms1 & ^! to ! next1 & ! next 9 succession1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole int]v5+ mass1--a /rong pro( ( ! individuality & pol>ity ( ! atoms ( matt]4 ,motion1 :i* is ! result ( all ! physical p[]s1 has itself a /rong action ^u ! ultimate elem5ts ( matt]2 9 cases ( un/able equilibrium x accel]ates & ev5 det]m9es _! *emical union4 ,"s sub/ances w rema9 m]ely mix$ z long z !y are at re/1 b no soon] is _! in]tia di/urb$ by a slight motion ?an !y ru% into p]man5t comb9ation4 ,9 newly sublim$ iodide ( m]cury ! vibration impress$ by ! scrat* ( a p9 is s rapidly transmitt$ ?r\gh ! mass t its col\r is imm$iately *ang$ f yell[ to bright r$4 ,by a new arrangem5t ( ! molecules _! action on light is alt]$4 ,catalysis or ! *emical decomposition & composition ( sub/ances by ! contact ( a =eign body1 is well illu/rat$ by ! *loride ( nitrog51 t explodes :5 t\*$ by sub/ances :i* at ord9>y temp]atures w\ld nei!r comb9e ) ! *lor9e nor ) ! nitrog54 ,! iodide ( nitrog5 explodes if t\*$ by a fea!r1 & ,m4 ,becqu]el decompos$ ! iodide ( nitrog5 by ! vibrations ( s\nd4 ,:5 sub/ances only exi/ 9 consequ5ce ( ! in]tia ( _! atoms1 ! in/ability ( _! *emical attractions & repulsions is only increas$ by an ext]nal ag5t1 s t a great effect is produc$ by a slight cause1 z 9 an avalan*e1 ! sn[y mass is on ! po9t ( fall+1 & ! smalle/ motion1 a brea? ( w9d1 hurls x d[n4 ,9 su* cases ! pot5tial en]gy ( ! un/able mass is 9 a mom5t *ang$ into vis viva or impetus4 ,dagu]reotype impression %[s ! p[] ( ! *emical rays on sub/ances 9 un/eady equilibrium1 & ! l5g? ( "t requir$ to make ! impression "u ! same circum/ances is a measure ( ! in/ability4 ,mo/ ( ! fulm9ates are comp\nds ( nitrog52 ( t ! fulm9ate ( anil9e is a rec5t in/ance1 s9ce x is =m$ by ! sl[ action ( nitr\s acid on anil9e4 ,explosion takes place on ! sudd5 evolution ( gas1 or ! sudd5 *ange ( a solid into vap\r4 ,9 ^! cases fire or p]cussion are ! =eign causes ( *ange4 ,!y are all p>ticul> in/ances ( ! g5]al pr9ciple ( catalysis1 :i* is ! *emical comb9ation ( het]og5e\s atoms by ! action ( a sub/ance t does n p>ticipate 9 ! *ange4 ,?us x has long be5 kn[n t :5 plat9um is plung$ into a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 x comb9es ^! gases into wat]4 ,acids 9 "s cases seem to h ! same effect2 = :5 rags or />* are dissolv$ 9 an acid ! />* is *ang$ to dextr9e & ! liquid has acquir$ ! p[] ( turn+ ! plane ( pol>is$ light to ! "r4 ,! acid has und]gone no alt]ation1 b x has *ang$ ! prop]ties ( ! />* ?\gh n its *emical composition4 ,aft] a "t1 a second trans=mation takes place1 ! liquid ceases by degrees to turn ! plane ( pol>isation to ! "r1 & ends by turn+ x to ! left4 ,! acid is /ill un*ang$1 b ! dextr9e has n[ disappe>$3 x has comb9$ ) ! wat] & is trans=m$ into glucose or sug> ( grapes4 ,! quantity ( ! physical p[]s1 active & lat5t1 is inappreciably great4 ,! quantity ( heat or pot5tial en]gy g5]at$ by *emical comb9ation alone is enorm\s4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,atomic ,,!ory1 ,,analysis ,,& ,,syn!sis ,,( ,,matt]1 ,,utility ,,( ,,wa/e ,,sub/ances--,,coal-,,t> ,,col\rs1 ,,etc4 ,,! *emical comb9ation :i* =ms ! inf9ite v>iety ( sub/ances 9 ! organic & inorganic creation consi/s 9 an intimate union ( _! ultimate atoms :i* produces sub/ances diff]+ f _! con/itu5t p>ts 9 e respect except gravitation1 ! sum ( ! weights ( _! con/itu5t p>ts be+ inv>iably equal to ! weight ( ! result+ sub/ance4 ,?us ! *emical union ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 =ms wat]1 & ! weight ( ! wat] s =m$ is exactly equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! two gases4 ,all *emical *anges :e!r ( analysis or composition are subject to def9ite unalt]able laws ( weight1 measure & numb]2 no?+ is by *ance or casual1 ! relative weights ( ! invisible atoms ( matt]1 & _! comb9ation 9 def9ite proportions reveal ! laws :i* prevail$ 9 ! primeval /ructure ( creat$ ?+s4 ,by ! wond]ful discov]y ( ^! laws ,dr4 ,dalton has plac$ *emi/ry on a /rictly num]ical basis4 ,! *emical union ( diff]5t k9ds ( atoms & volumes ( matt] 9 ! def9ite proportions ( :ole numb]s entirely *anges _! "* & prop]ties1 z = example ! *emical comb9ation ( "o atom ( hydrog5 & "o atom ( oxyg5 into wat]4 ,! cond5sation is (t5 unexpect$ & wond]ful2 two diff]5t liquids are (t5 cond5s$ into a solid1 & ! result ( ! *emical comb9ation ( two diff]5t gases or vap\rs 9 quantitative proportions may be solid1 liquid or ari=m1 a fact :i* c\ld only h be5 discov]$ by exp]im5t4 ,! p[]s ( ! atoms are *ang$ & (t5 highly exalt$ by *emical union z 9 ammonia1 a *emical comp\nd ( ?ree atoms ( hydrog5 & "o ( nitrog51 :i* absorbs #a1aie times m radiant heat ?an its con/itu5ts :e!r simple or mix$4 ,dur+ *emical comb9ation light & electricity are (t5 evolv$1 heat always4 ,! quantity giv5 out is exactly proportional to ! en]gy ( ! *emical action1 & is (t5 s great & s rapidly evolv$ z to produce an explosion by ! sudd5 expansion ( ! air ar\nd4 ,:atev] ! temp]ature may be1 :i* is giv5 out dur+ ! union ( ! atoms1 ! v same quantity ( heat is requisite to dissolve _! union1 & ! atoms are sep>at$ 9 ! same def9ite proportions 9 :i* !y 7 comb9$4 ,voltaic electricity bo? comb9es & resolves sub/ances into _! compon5t p>ts1 /rictly accord+ to ! law ( def9ite proportions4 ,x comb9es eight p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 & "o "p by weight ( hydrog5 into wat]2 & aga9 :5 x decomposes wat]1 "o "p by weight ( hydrog5 is giv5 out at ! negative pole ( ! batt]y1 & eight p>ts by weight at ! positive or z9c pole4 ,= an electric curr5t weak5s or neutralizes ! =ce ( aff9ity 9 "o direction & /r5g!ns x 9 ! o!r1 s t ! het]og5e\s atoms ( ! sub/ance "u its influ5ce h a t5d5cy to g 9 diff]5t directions & appe> at opposite poles4 ,mr4 ,f>aday has e/abli%$ z a g5]al law1 t ! quantity ( electricity requisite to unite ! atoms ( matt]1 is precisely equal to ! quantity requisite to sep>ate ! same atoms aga94 ,electro-*emical action1 or ! p[] ( electricity to comb9e & sep>ate ! het]og5e\s atoms ( matt]1 is 9 direct proportion to ! absolute quantity ( electricity t passes 9 ! curr5t4 ,h5ce ! sup]ior analytical p[] ( voltaic ov] /atic electricity1 :i* has enorm\s int5sity1 b is v small 9 quantity4 ,! electric curr5t sep>ates molecul> comb9ations :i* yield to no o!r means3 x is ! mo/ p[]ful in/rum5t ( analysis2 light is ! mo/ delicate4 ,two simple sub/ances are only capable ( a c]ta9 numb] ( *emical comb9ations1 :i* =m a regul> s]ies ( new sub/ances2 z = example oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,two measures ( nitrog5 gas w unite ) "o measure ( oxyg5 to =m ! protoxide ( nitrog52 ) two measures ( oxyg5 x unites to =m ! b9oxide ( nitrog52 ) ?ree measures ( oxyg5 x =ms ! hyponitr\s acid2 ) f\r x =ms nitr\s oxide2 & ) five measures ( oxyg5 x =ms nitric acid4 ,?us !re are five comp\nds ( nitrog5 & oxyg51 no m4 ,aff9ity ( k9d is m]ely ! attraction ( "o elem5t or atom ( matt] = ano!r2 aff9ity ( degree consi/s 9 ! grades & limits ( comb9ation2 ! prec$+ s]ies is ( ! fif? degree2 ! limit is ! la/ t]m1 = no fur!r comb9ation ( ^! two gases c take place1 & ^! are accompli%$ by art4 ,all ! five sub/ances are delet]i\s1 mo/ ( !m deadly poisons1 = ! protoxide ( nitrog51 :i* is ! laugh+ gas1 c\ld n be long inhal$ ) impunity4 ,= a long "t ! middle t]m ( ! prec$+ s]ies 0 want+1 b ,gay-,lussac =m$ x by att5d+ to ! laws ( def9ite proportion & sequ5ce4 ,! atoms ( diff]5t k9ds ( matt] possess an aff9ity1 or attractive =ce1 :i* b9ds !m toge!r *emically 9 diff]5t & v unequal degrees4 ,two sub/ances may unite & =m a ?ird diff]+ f bo?1 z wat] does f oxyg5 & hydrog52 b if a new sub/ance be add$ :i* has a great] attraction = "o ( ! sub/ances ?an = ! o!r1 x w dissolve _! union1 comb9e ) t = :i* x has ! /ronge/ attraction1 & set ! o!r free4 ,?us ! metal potassium1 :i* has a great] attraction = oxyg5 ?an x has = hydrog51 decomposes wat]1 comb9es ) ! oxyg51 & sets ! hydrog5 free4 ,bo? *lor9e & ozone h ! prop]ty ( lib]at+ ! iod9e 9 a weak solution ( ! iodide ( potassium2 ! liquid /a9s />* blue1 a pro( ( ! free iod9e4 ,! facility ) :i* acids & alkalies comb9e af=ds ! means ( elim9at+ ei!r ! "o or ! o!r f a comp\nd s z to lib]ate :at rema9s4 ,! con/itu5ts ( comp\nd sub/ances may be sep>at$ f "o ano!r by a v>iety ( means dep5d+ ^u _! great] or less fusibility1 volatility1 & o!r prop]ties4 ,wat]1 acids1 alcohols & o!r liquids hot or cold1 diff]5t degrees ( temp]ature1 sublimation1 solution1 di/illation1 evaporation1 toge!r ) /atic & voltaic electricity1 are ! mo/ p[]ful means ( analysis4 ,b ! animal & vegetable creation re> _! fabrics by a syn!tic process4 ,a plant aft] hav+ absorb$ c>bonic acid & wat]1 decomposes ! c>bonic acid1 returns ! oxyg5 to ! atmosph]e1 & comb9es ! c>bon & wat] into wood1 leaves1 & a v>iety ( organic sub/ances4 ,n[ ,,mm4 ,b]!lot1 ,whl]1 & o!r di/+ui%$ *emi/s1 by foll[+ ?is example ( nature1 h e/abli%$ a sy/em ( syn!tic *emi/ry1 by :i* !y h produc$ f ! *emical comb9ation ( ! ?ree elem5t>y gases & c>bon alone m ?an #a1jjj complete organic sub/ances1 precisely ! same ) ^? =m$ )9 ! liv+ plants & animals4 ,yet we are z f> z ev] f any explanation ( ! my/]y ( life1 :e!r animal or vegetable4 ,c>bon & hydrog5 w n comb9e at any artificial heat h[ev] great2 b :5 ! electric arc betwe5 highly purifi$ *>coal t]m9als passes ?r\gh hydrog5 gas1 acetyl5e1 a new c>buret ( hydrog51 is =m$1 consi/+ ( f\r equival5ts ( c>bon & two ( hydrog54 ,?is sub/ance1 :i* no organiz$ be+ is capable to =m1 0 discov]$ by ,m4 ,b]!lot1 & be+ assum$ z a base1 yield$ an ext5sive s]ies ( organic sub/ances4 ,?us :5 two atoms ( c>bon are add$ to acetyl5e x becomes olefiant gas2 :5 two equival5ts ( oxyg5 are add$ to olefiant gas1 ! result is alcohol1 :i* is trans=m$ into acetic acid by ! addition ( two atoms ( oxyg51 & f ?is by a simil> process h be5 obta9$ ! malic1 t>t>ic1 succ9ic1 & ! o!r acids2 glyc]9e also1 :i* is ! sweet pr9ciple ( ! oils1 wax1 ess5tial oils1 ! p]fumes ( fruit & fl[]s1 ! pr9ciple ( ! balms1 ! ess5tial oil ( mu/>d1 & num]\s o!r organic sub/ances1 simply f c>bon1 oxyg5 & hydrog52 b nitrog5 0 introduc$ by comb9+ alcohol ) ammonia1 an inorganic sub/ance consi/+ ( ?ree equival5ts ( hydrog5 & "o ( nitrog51 f :5ce a va/ numb] ( nitrog5iz$ sub/ances 7 d]iv$1 bo? animal & vegetable4 ,*emical comb9ation1 :i* has f ! beg9n+ ( creat$ ?+s1 & /ill is1 build+ up organic & inorganic matt] 9 ! e>?1 9 ! air1 & ! ocean1 ex]ts =ces ( transc5d5t p[]1 ?\gh sil5t1 unp]ceiv$1 & = ! mo/ "p unkn[n4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall has giv5 a /rik+ in/ance ( ?is 9 wat]1 ! mo/ simple comp\nd ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 a con/itu5t alike ( organic & inorganic nature4 #8,9 ! combu/ion ( ! two gases to =m a gallon ( wat] weigh+ t5 p\nds1 an en]gy is exp5d$1 ! atoms cla% toge!r ) a =ce1 equal to t ( a ton weight let fall f a height ( #bc1geg feet2 & 9 ! *ange f ! /ate ( vap\r to wat]1 an en]gy is ex]t$ equal to t ( a ton weight fall+ f a height ( #c1gjj feet1 or ( a hundr$weight fall+ f a height ( #gd1jjj feet4 ,! mov+ =ce ( ! /one avalan*es ( ! ,alps is b z t ( sn[flakes comp>$ ) ! en]gy involv$ 9 ! =mation ( a cl\d4 ,9 pass+ f9ally f ! liquid to ! solid /ate1' t is f wat] to ice1 #8! atoms ( t5 p\nds ex]cise an en]gy equal to t ( a ton weight fall+ d[n a precipice ( #eej feet ( p]p5dicul> height4' ,f ,mr4 ,j\le's inve/igation ( ! relation exi/+ betwe5 *emical aff9ity & me*anical =ce1 x appe>s t :5 aff9ity is feeble x c be ov]come me*anically4 ,he =m$ amalgams ( diff]5t metals1 t is he comb9$ !m ) m]cury1 by electricity4 ,! aff9ity ( iron = m]cury is s feeble t ! amalgam is spe$ily decompos$ :5 left undi/urb$ by ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 & if a great] pressure be add$1 almo/ all ! m]cury is driv5 out4 ,! efficacy ( me*anical =ce to ov]come feeble *emical aff9ities is /rik+ly illu/rat$ by ! amalgam ( t91 out ( :i* ne>ly ! :ole ( ! m]cury is driv5 by long cont9u$ pressure4 ,9 ^! cases ! =ce ( aff9ity did n am\nt to *emical equival5cy1 o!rwise ! m]cury c\ld n h be5 driv5 out by s small a =ce4 ,in/ances f ! weake/ to ! /ronge/ aff9ity %[ t x is only :5 ! p[] rea*es a def9ite po9t t ! law ( *emical equival5ts comes 94 ,! int5se en]gy :i* !n beg9s to be ex]t$ has j be5 %[n4 ,x is va9 to hope = a k ( ! absolute weight ( ! ultimate atoms ( matt]1 & no?+ seems to be m beyond ! p[] ( man ?an to det]m9e ev5 _! relative weights2 yet ! def9ite proportions 9 :i* !y comb9e h enabl$ him to d s4 ,?us1 an atom ( oxyg5 unites ) an atom ( hydrog5 to =m wat]2 b z e drop ( wat]1 h[ev] small1 conta9s eight p>ts by weight ( oxyg51 & "o "p by weight ( hydrog51 x foll[s t an atom ( oxyg5 is eight times heavi] ?an an atom ( hydrog54 ,n[1 s9ce hydrog5 gas is ! lighte/ body kn[n1 its atom has be5 assum$ z ! unit ( comp>ison4 ,h5ce1 if ! unit ( hydrog5 be repres5t$ by #a1 t ( oxyg5 may be repres5t$ by #h4 ,aga91 c>bonic acid gas conta9s six p>ts by weight ( c>bon1 & eight p>ts by weight ( oxyg51 & z an atom ( oxyg5 is eight times heavi] ?an an atom ( hydrog51 !re=e an atom ( c>bon is six times heavi] ?an an atom ( hydrog51 & consequ5tly may be repres5t$ by #f4 ,9 ?is mann] ! relative weights ( _m sub/ances h be5 det]m9$4 ,b ! prop]ty ( isomorphism also af=ds ! means ( asc]ta9+ ! atomic weights ( c]ta9 sub/ances ) un]r+ c]ta9ty4 ,x is exactly ! contr>y ( dimorphism1 = 9 ! latt] sub/ances are *emically ! same "u diff]5t =ms2 :]eas isomorphic bodies are *emically diff]5t "u ! same =m4 ,n[ ! p]oxide ( manganese conta9s "o atom ( oxyg5 = "o atom ( metal2 b 9 #ajj p>ts ( ! protoxide !re are #baid p>ts ( oxyg5 & #ghjf ( manganese4 ,comp>+ ^! numb]s ) #h ! atomic weight ( oxyg51 ! result is #bh ! weight ( an atom ( manganese4 ,! same numb] is obta9$ f two o!r isomorphic comp\nds ( oxyg5 & manganese1 :i* proves ! accuracy ( ?is result4 ,! atomic weights ( _m bodies h be5 det]m9$1 ( :i* ! foll[+ are ! mo/ important4 ,atomic ,weights1 an ,atom ( ,hydrog5 be+ ! ,unit4 ,hydrog5 #a ,c>bon #f ,oxyg5 #h ,nitrog5 #ad ,sulphur #af ,phosphorus ,sodium #bc ,iron ,nickel #bh ,manganese ,brom9e #hj ,copp] #cb ,z9c #cbe ,*lor9e #cee ,potassium #ci ,rubidium #hf ,csium #acc ,iod9e #abg ,?allium #bjd ,9 ! det]m9ation ( atomic weights a few cases h occurr$ ( fractional numb]s1 & al?\gh x _c yet be affirm$ t no su* cases exi/1 yet x seems to be e/abli%$ by ! new & m p]fect analyses ( ,,mm4 ,dumas1 ,isidore1 ,williamson1 & o!rs1 t ! atomic weights ( sub/ances comp>$ ) an atom ( hydrog5 are 9 :ole numb]s4 ,?is law leads to v important results4 ,= example1 ! equival5t weights ( ! *emical elem5ts ( bodies d]iv$ f _! specific gravities are ei!r id5tical )1 or simple multiples or sub-multiples (1 _! relative weights4 ,?us ! specific gravity ( hydrog5 is #jjfic1 & t ( oxyg5 is #aaaa2 h5ce tak+ hydrog5 z ! unit ( comp>ison1 x is easy to see t #jjfic 3 #aaaa 33 #a 3 #af1 ! simple multiple ( #h1 ! relative atomic weight ( oxyg54 ,9 fact s9ce ea* sub/ance has its own specific gravity or weight1 t weight mu/ dep5d ^u ! weight ( its atoms1 s t ! weights ( equal bulks ( diff]5t sub/ances are proportional to ! weights ( _! atoms1 & ?us a relation is e/abli%$ betwe5 ! atomic weights & specific gravities ( bodies1 s t "o be+ giv5 ! o!r may be f\nd4 ,atoms l _! sub/ances h _m diff]5t capacities = heat & electricity4 ,x 0 prov$ by ,,mm4 ,petit & ,dulong1 t specific heat1 or ! quantity ( heat requir$ to raise a simple sub/ance to a giv5 temp]ature1 is inv]sely z ! weight ( its atoms1 s t ! specific heat or repulsive =ce ( simple sub/ances multipli$ by _! atomic weights is a con/ant quantity4 ,su* is ! condition requisite = ! equilibrium or equality ( =ce2 or ! law may be ?us express$3 ,a giv5 quantity ( heat w raise to ! same numb] ( degrees a portion ( e simple sub/ance repres5t$ by its atomic weight4 ,= in/ance1 ! atomic weight ( sulphur is #af1 t ( z9c #cbe2 h5ce x requires twice z mu* heat to raise a p\nd ( sulphur t5 degrees z x does a p\nd ( z9c4 ,x has also be5 prov$ t ! atoms ( comp\nd bodies ( analog\s composition are end[$ ) ! same capacity = heat1 s t !re is a p]fect correspond5ce betwe5 ! weight ( atoms & _! specific heat4 ,! numb]s repres5t+ ! atomic weights d]iv$ f ! specific heat ( bodies are connect$ ) _! equival5t atomic weights by ! simple ratios ( equality1 multiples or sub-multiples4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,croll has made exp]im5ts %[+ t ! specific heat ( comp\nd gases & liquids is g5]ally less1 & ^? ( solids m1 ?an t ( _! compon5t elem5ts1 :i* is contr>y to ! hi!rto receiv$ op9ion4 ,moreov] x appe>s t ! *anges 9 ! specific heat ( bodies :i* occur dur+ comb9ation are n only due to *emical action1 b also to molecul> *anges2 ! real specific heat ( a simple atom probably rema9+ ! same "u all conditions4 ,mr4 ,f>aday has prov$ t ! specific electricity ( diff]5t sub/ances is also 9 proportion to _! atomic weights1 t is to say1 a giv5 quantity ( electricity w sep>ate comb9$ sub/ances into p>ts repres5t$ by _! atomic weights4 ,= example1 #cbe p>ts ( z9c w g5]ate voltaic electricity en\gh to sep>ate n9e p>ts ( wat] into eight p>ts ( oxyg5 & "o "p ( hydrog5 gas4 ,! weights ?us d]iv$ f decomposition are exactly ! same ) ^? det]m9$ by composition1 & ?us ! atomic weights d]iv$ f electro-decomposition accord exactly ) ^? obta9$ f *emical composition4 ,moreov]1 ,mr4 ,f>aday1 z already m5tion$1 prov$ t ! v same quantity ( electricity necess>y to decompose a body into its elem5t>y atoms1 is requisite to unite !m aga94 ,! analysis & syn!sis ( comp\nd matt]1 solid or fluid1 %[ a con/ant & def9ite proportion ( ! compon5t elem5ts express$ by numb]1 & by an equival5t or multiple ratio ( p>ts 9 e *emical *ange4 ,! atomic !ory unites1 by a common bond1 specific gravity1 *emical aff9ity1 heat1 & electricity4 ,tak+ atmosph]ic air at ! temp]ature ( #fj ,fahr4 & a b>ometric pressure at #cj in*es z ! /&>d unit ( specific gravity2 ! quantity ( heat requir$ to raise a volume ( wat] #a ,fahr4 z ! unit ( specific heat2 hydrog5 gas z ! unit ( atomic weight2 & atomic electro-*emical electricity z ! unit ( specific electricity1 ! foll[+ numb]s h be5 e/abli%$3 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,specific ,equival5t ,specific ,specific gravity atomic heat electricity weight ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,hydrog5 #jjfic #a #jbicf #ajjj ,oxyg5 #aaaa #h #jbcfa #abe ,c>bon #acb #f #jbfca ,nitrog5 #jigh #ad #jbgej ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,! di/ances betwe5 ! atoms ( ! gases are equal1 h5ce ! atomic weights ( simple gases are proportional to _! d5sities2 & = ! same reason1 equal volumes ( ! same fluid conta9 an equal numb] ( atoms1 & ! numb] ( atoms 9 ! same volume ( diff]5t fluids is 9 ! simple ratio ( "o to "o1 "o to two1 "o to ?ree1 c4 ,x foll[s f ! atomic !ory t ! numb] ( atoms 9 equal weights ( any two solid sub/ances1 is 9 ! inv]se ratio to ! weights ( ^! atoms4 ,n[ s9ce ! bodies t h ! greate/ specific gravities are ! heavie/1 if ! specific gravities & atomic weights ( equal bulks ( two simple sub/ances be kn[n1 ! relative numb] ( atoms !y conta9 may be f\nd4 ,= ! d5sity divid$ by ! atomic weight ( ! "o1 is to ! d5sity divid$ by ! atomic weight ( ! o!r1 z ! numb] ( atoms 9 ! fir/ to ! numb] ( atoms 9 ! second4 ,by ! prec$+ law x is f\nd t 9 equal bulks ( ! ?ree metals1 sodium1 plat9um1 & potassium1 plat9um conta9s five times z _m atoms z sodium1 & t5 times z _m z potassium4 ,:5 sub/ances :i* h /rong analog\s qualities are comp>$ 9 ?is mann]1 ! results are ei!r equality1 or a simple ratio4 ,x has already be5 m5tion$ t ! protoxides ( iron1 copp]1 z9c1 nickel & manganese1 h ! same =m1 & conta9 ! same quantity ( oxyg51 b diff] 9 ! respective metals t are comb9$ ) x2 & by ! prec$+ law x appe>s t equal bulks ( ^! isomorph\s bodies conta9 also ! same numb] ( atoms4 ,mr4 ,h]mann ,kopp has prov$ t ! atomic weight ( a sub/ance divid$ by ! specific gravity1 t is to say1 its atomic volume1 is ! same = all isomorphic bodies simple & comp\nd1 & z a g5]al law t ! atoms ( isomorph\s sub/ances are n only ! same 9 =m1 b equal 9 dim5sions4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t any "o ( ! prec$+ metals might be sub/itut$ = any o!r 9 ! respective protoxides1 & on t acc\nt1 accord+ to ! mod]n !ory1 !y are ! *emical equival5ts ( ea* o!r1 = t expression is us$ n[ 9 a diff]5t s5se f :at x =m]ly _h4 ,*emical equival5cy betwe5 two or m sub/ances consi/s 9 _! capacity = be+ ex*ang$ "o = ! o!r4 ,direct or indirect sub/itution =ms ! basis ( ! mod]n doctr9e ( *emical equival5ts4 ,sub/ances :i* are capable ( replac+ "o ano!r 9 comp\nds1 & :i* are end[$ ) qualities mutually analog\s1 are said to be isom]ic4 ,_m isom]ic comp\nds are =m$ ( ! same mat]ials1 9 ! same proportions1 & yet diff] ess5tially bo? 9 _! physical & *emical prop]ties2 :5ce ,m4 ,daniel obs]ves1 t a specific & def9ite arrangem5t ( ! con/itu5t molecules 9 space appe>s to be no less ess5tial to ! individual con/itution ( bodies ?an a c]ta9 proportion betwe5 _! het]og5e\s +r$i5ts4 ,successive sub/itution 9 isom]ic bodies does n alt] ! "* ( ! *emical =mul ( ^! bodies2 ?us *lor9e1 brom9e & iod9e1 are *emically equival5t ) an atom ( hydrog51 = !y may be put = "o or m atoms ( hydrog5 9 v>i\s comp\nds )\t *ang+ ! "* ( ! *emical =mul ( ^! comp\nds4 ,! p]oxide ( hydrog5 consi/s ( "o atom ( hydrog5 & two ( oxyg52 h5ce if #cbe p>ts ( z9c1 #bh ( manganese1 & #cb ( copp] be successively put = ! atom ( hydrog51 ! result w be ! p]oxides ( z9c1 manganese & copp] respectively4 ,"h ! "* ( ! *emical =mula ( ! orig9al comp\nd rema9s ! same1 & ! ?ree metals are *emically equival5t to "o ano!r1 & to ! atom ( hydrog54 ,9 _m comp\nds organic & inorganic1 "o or m atoms ( hydrog5 may be replac$ by an equal numb] ( atoms ( sodium1 potassium1 z9c1 c41 )\t alt]+ ! "* ( ! *emical =mula ( ! comp\nd4 ,olefiant gas1 olefiant oil & p>aff91 =m an isom]ic s]ies ( a gas1 a liquid & a solid1 consi/+ ( c>bon & hydrog54 ,! gas conta9s #hf p>ts 9 #ajj ( c>bon1 & =ms ! mo/ lum9\s "p ( coal gas4 ,m4 ,dumas has prov$ x to be a g5]al law1 t :5 ?ree isom]ic bodies are arrang$ 9 ! sequ5ce ( _! *emical prop]ties1 !re w also be a sequ5ce 9 _! respective atomic numb]s1 & t :5ev] ?is symmetry ( *emical prop]ties & atomic weights obta9s1 any "o ( ^! sub/ances may be sub/itut$ = ! o!r )\t *ang+ ! *emical "* ( ! =mula4 ,sulphur1 sel5ium1 & tellurium1 =m an isom]ic gr\p2 t is1 !y =m a sequ5ce1 ) analog\s qualities1 = sulphur is ! mo/ volatile2 sel5ium1 a simple sub/ance f\nd 9 iron pyrites 9 ,sw$51 is less volatile2 & tellurium is ! lea/ volatile & ) reg>d to _! atomic sequ5ce1 ! atomic weight ( sulphur is #af1 t ( tellurium is #fd1 & half ! sum ( ^! numb]s is #dj1 ! atomic weight ( sel5ium1 ! mean t]m4 ,h5ce sel5ium might be put 9 any comp\nd = ! sulphur1 & ! tellurium = ! sel5ium1 )\t *ang+ ! *emical "* ( its =mula4 ,! metallic gr\p ( calcium1 /rontium1 & b>ium1 are end[$ ) analog\s prop]ties1 p]fect h>mony 9 _! *emical qualities1 & 9 ! numb]s express+ _! atomic weights4 ,t ( calcium is #bj1 t ( b>ium is #fh1 & ! half sum is #dd1 ! atomic weight ( /rontium4 ,s calcium might be put = /rontium1 & /rontium = b>ium1 9 any comp\nd )\t alt]+ ! "* ( its =mula4 ,pr(essors ,johnson & ,all5 h %[n t ! new metalloids csium & rubidium =m an isom]ic triad ) potassium1 = ! atomic weight ( csium is #acc1 t ( rubidium #hf1 & t ( potassium #ci4 ,transmutations ( "o isom]ic sub/ance = ano!r may also be made 9 organic bodies1 b *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e =m an exception to ,m4 ,dumas's law1 because ! ari?metical relation is want+4 ,!re are c]ta9 gr\ps ( sub/ances1 especially among ! metals1 ^: atomic weights are 9 regul> ari?metical s]ies1 z ^? ( titanium1 t91 & tantalum1 :i* are #be1 #ei1 & #ib1 ! common diff]5ce be+ #cd4 ,c]ta9 gr\ps ( comb9$ atoms call$ comp\nd radicles are mu* m important ?an ! prec$+4 ,!y unite *emically ) "o ano!r1 & ) o!r sub/ances 9 def9ite proportions1 precisely z if !y 7 ultimate atoms4 ,!y are ev5 capable ( be+ sub/itut$ "o = ! o!r1 =m+ gr\ps ( inf9itely v>i$ prop]ties1 & ?us *emical equival5cy ext5ds to !m4 ,cyanog51 amidog51 & ! p]oxide ( hydrog5 are comp\nd radicles :i* comb9e ) o!r sub/ances & ) simple atoms z if !y !mselves 7 simple elem5ts2 ?\gh ! fir/ is a *emical comp\nd ( two atoms ( c>bon & "o ( nitrog51 ! second a *emical comp\nd ( "o atom ( nitrog5 & two ( hydrog51 & ! p]oxide conta9s z be=e m5tion$ two atoms ( oxyg5 & "o ( hydrog54 ,all ?ree are capable ( replac+ hydrog51 *lor9e1 & metals by equival5t sub/itutions4 ,= example1 ! *lorate ( pota% consi/s ( "o atom ( pota%1 an atom ( *lor9e1 & five atoms ( oxyg52 if !n an atom ( cyanog5 ^: weight is #bf1 be put = ! atom ( *lor9e1 ! result w\ld be ! cyanate ( pota%4 ,cyanog51 =m$ by pass+ nitrog5 ov] r$-hot c>bon1 consi/s ( two equival5ts ( c>bon & "o ( nitrog54 ,x is a frequ5t con/itu5t ( organic & inorganic comp\nds1 & travels 9 ! voltaic circuit z if x 7 a simple sub/ance4 ,ammonia consi/s ( ?ree equival5ts ( hydrog5 & "o ( nitrog52 n[1 :5 ! radical ph5yle1 :i* consi/s ( twelve equival5ts ( c>bon & five ( hydrog51 is put 9 ! ammonia = "o equival5t ( hydrog51 ! result is anil9e1 :5ce mo/ ( ! coal t> col\rs are obta9$4 ,9 l mann] c>bazotic acid1 a beautiful yell[ dye f coal t>1 is c>bolic acid1 ?ree ( ^: equival5ts ( hydrog5 h be5 replac$ by ?ree equival5ts ( an oxide ( nitrog54 ,comp\nd radicles1 consi/+ ( c>bon & ! ?ree elem5t>y gases1 h be5 discov]$ :i* ent] into comb9ation 9 def9ite proportions z simple atoms1 & all comp\nd radicles travel 9 ! galvanic circuit z equival5ts to ! elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,hi!rto !y h be5 reg>d$ z repres5tatives or equival5ts ( "o atom ( hydrog54 ,n[ x is g5]ally admitt$ t ea* has ! prop]ty ( replac+ two1 ?ree1 or m atoms ( hydrog5 by equival5t sub/itution4 ,?is multiple equival5cy among comp\nd radicals =ms ! basis ( :at is call$ ! polyatomic !ory1 n[ s mu* employ$ by ,,mm4 ,h(mann1 ,b]!lot1 & o!r great mod]n *emi/s4 ,wat] is ! mo/ common radicle bo? 9 ! inorganic & organic _w4 ,?\gh a comp\nd ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 x ent]s1 accord+ to ! law ( def9ite proportion1 into ! composition ( v>i\s amorph\s bodies 9 a dry /ate1 t is 9 ! =m & proportion ( its gases4 ,x is an ess5tial elem5t 9 ! great] numb] ( cry/als1 & ab\nds 9 organic matt]4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ! same sub/ance cry/allizes at diff]5t temp]atures1 unites ) diff]5t quantities ( wat] "u ! =m ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 & assumes correspond+ =ms4 ,= example1 ! sel5iate ( z9c unites ) ?ree diff]5t portions ( wat] & takes ?ree diff]5t =ms1 accord+ z its temp]ature is hot1 lukew>m1 or cold4 ,?us ea* p>ticle ( wat]1 conta9+ "o atom ( oxyg5 & "o ( hydrog51 comb9es ) "o atom ( z9c 9 ?ree diff]5t proportions z if x 7 a simple atom4 ,! wat] ( cry/allization may be driv5 (f f _m sub/ances by heat1 z f ! hydrates ( lime1 iron1 copp]1 c41 b :5 comb9$ ) ! oxides ( c]ta9 metals1 potassium = in/ance1 x _c be driv5 (f by any means :atev]4 ,9 g5]al a heat ( #bab ,fahr4 is suffici5t1 b "s cry/als lose _! wat] ( cry/allization at ! ord9>y atmosph]ic temp]ature4 ,cry/als ^: atoms are 9 un/able equilibrium1 are readily alt]$ bo? ext]nally & int]nally by a v mod]ate degree ( heat4 ,arragonite & calc>e\s sp> are isom]ic1 t is1 !y are *emically ! same b diff] 9 =m & h>dness1 :i* %[s t _! molecules are gr\p$ diff]5tly4 ,:5 ! arragonite is heat$1 ! in]tia ( its atoms is ov]come1 ! cry/al explodes ) =ce1 & becomes a mass ( cry/als ( calc>e\s sp>4 ,! expansive =ce ( ! heat sudd5ly ov]com+ ! =ce ( cohesion causes ! explosion1 & at ! same "t di/urbs ! un/able repose ( ! atoms1 :i* imm$iately obey _! natural attractions & assume ! /able =m ( calc>e\s sp>4 ,dialysis is a me?od ( sep>at+ & analys+ sub/ances by means ( _! diffusion 9 alcohol or wat]4 ,if a wide-m\!d vial ne>ly full ( a solution ( common salt be plac$ 9 a j> ( wat]1 aft] a few days x w be f\nd t ! p>ticles ( salt h come out ( ! vial & h diffus$ !mselves ?r\gh ! sup]9cumb5t wat]1 ev5 to its surface4 ,n[ ,pr(essor ,graham1 ,ma/] ( ! ,m9t1 ) :om ?is subject orig9at$1 made ?ree arrangem5ts precisely l t describ$2 ! ?ree vials 7 exactly simil> & equal1 ! ?ree j>s exactly ! same 9 size & =m1 & conta9$ ! same quantity ( wat]2 b ! fir/ vial conta9$ a solution ( gum arabic1 ! second a solution ( ,epsom salt1 & ! ?ird a solution ( common salt4 ,aft] f\rte5 days ! diffusion ( ! gum _h ris5 ?r\gh "o half ( ! sup]9cumb5t wat]1 :ile ! p>ticles ( bo? ! salts _h ris5 to ! surface4 ,h[ev] ! common salt w\ld h ris5 mu* high]1 = :5 ! /rata ( wat] at ! two surfaces 7 drawn (f by a siphon & evaporat$ to dryness1 !re 0 fifte5 times z mu* common salt z ,epsom salt4 ,! ?ree solutions are heavi] ?an wat]1 yet !y rise not)/&+ _! gravitation1 :5ce ,mr4 ,graham ?9ks t !re is probably an attraction betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! dissolv$ sub/ances & ^? ( ! wat]4 ,! =ce ( molecul> attraction is m p[]ful ?an gravitation1 h5ce ! p>ticles mu/ rise by ! diff]5ce ( ! two =ces4 ,aft] _m comp>ative exp]im5ts ! pr(essor conclud$ t mo/ sub/ances diff] 9 diffusibility1 & t cry/alloids or cry/all9e sub/ances su* z salts1 sug>s1 c41 are mu* m diffusible ?an colloids or amorph\s /icky bodies1 su* z gum1 c>amel1 jellies1 & sub/ances t comb9e ) ! hydrog5 ( ! wat] to =m gelat9\s hydrates4 ,! p>tial decomposition ( def9ite *emical comp\nds may be effect$ by diffusion4 ,alum1 :i* is a d\ble sulphate ( ! two metals potassium & alum9ium1 furni%es an example2 :5 all[$ to diffuse itself f its aque\s solution1 ! diffusive t5d5cy ( potassium comp\nds is s mu* great] ?an ! diffusive prop]ty ( alum9ium comp\nds1 t a portion ( ! sulphate ( potassium actually breaks away f ! sulphate ( alum9ium ) :i* x 0 comb9$1 9 ord] to diffuse itself 9 ! sup]9cumb5t ext]nal wat] m freely ?an ! sulphate ( alum9a c d4 ,common salt diffuses itself 9 a solid mass ( jelly almo/ z easily & ext5sively z 9 ! same bulk ( free wat]4 ,?us colloid bodies d n int]f]e ) ! diffusion ( cry/alloids su* z salts1 b !y almo/ entirely arre/ ! diffusion ( "o ano!r4 ,solutions ( salts1 sug>s1 & o!r cry/alloids pass freely ?r\gh colloid sub/ances1 su* z p>*m5t-pap]1 vellum1 & membrane into wat]1 al?\gh !y h no pores1 because ! p>ticles ( ! cry/als unite diffusively ) ! wat] comb9$ 9 ^! sub/ances1 :i* solutions ( gum1 c>amel1 & o!r colloids _c d4 ,^! colloid sub/ances are p]meable to solutions ( cry/alloids1 imp]meable to solutions ( colloids4 ,?is con/itutes ,dialysis4 ,! in/rum5t us$ by ,mr4 ,graham 0 a little tray =m$ ( vellum or membrane /ret*$ tightly ov] a hoop ( gutta-p]*a & capable ( hold+ a liquid & float+ on wat]4 ,:5 a mix$ solution ( equal p>ts ( salt & gum is put into ! tray1 aft] a "t all ! salt w h pass$ into ! wat] bel[1 leav+ no?+ 9 ! tray b an aque\s solution ( gum4 ,! foll[+ is "o ( ! mo/ extraord9>y results ( dialysis4 ,mr4 ,graham took a silicate ( soda1 a soluble cry/all9e salt =m$ by fus+ qu>tz ) c>bonate ( soda at a r$ heat1 :i* diffuses readily4 ,he acidulat$ ! aque\s solution ( ! salt ) hydro*loric acid1 :i* *anges ! con/itu5t silica f be+ a cry/alloid sub/ance into a colloid =m4 ,:5 ! liquid 0 p\r$ into ! tray float+ on wat]1 aft] f\r days1 ! :ole ( ! acid & ! *loride ( sodium _h be5 diffus$ 9 ! wat] & no?+ rema9$ 9 ! tray b an aque\s solution ( qu>tz4 ,!re rema9$ 9 fact1 a solution ( s& 9 wat]1 a sub/ance s h>d t no pure aque\s solution ( x _h ev] be5 obta9$4 ,_m o!r cry/all9e sub/ances besides qu>tz c exi/ bo? 9 ! colloid & cry/alloid /ates4 ,all colloid sub/ances are *>act]iz$ by non-cry/all9e habits1 l[ diffusibility1 *emical in]tness1 high atomic weight1 & above all by _! mutability4 ,! aque\s solution ( qu>tz is limpid & liquid1 ev5 if x conta9s #ad p] c5t4 ( silica1 b aft] a "t x becomes opalesc5t1 visc\s1 & ultimately sets into a firm insoluble jelly1 capable h[ev] ( solution by *emical means4 ,?is jelly gradually %r9ks1 exudes pure wat]1 & :5 p]fectly dry x =ms a glassy1 transp>5t1 b n anhydr\s sub/ance1 & ! residue left by ignition has a specific gravity ( #bb1 t ( cry/alliz$ silica be+ #bf4 ,mr4 ,graham has obta9$ _m pure aque\s solutions ( organic & inorganic matt]1 mo/ ( !m be+ un/able4 ,ice ne> or at its melt+ po9t is believ$ to be a colloid body1 consequ5tly x is un/able & resembles a firm jelly1 hav+ a t5d5cy to r5d & recomb9e4 #8,! con/ant int]v5tion ( colloid septa 9 s _m ( ! ph5om5a ( animal & vegetable life gives to ! subject ( dialysis a high physiological int]e/1 & x w d\btless ex]cise an important influ5ce on ! progress ( physiological rese>*4'#ab ,subsequ5tly to ^! rese>*es ,mr4 ,graham publi%$ a memoir on a new me?od ( analys+ gases :i* he _h call$ atmolysis4 ,! memoir may be reg>d$ z consi/+ ( f\r p>ts1 ! fir/ ( :i* is prelim9>y1 be+ on ! reciprocal diffusion ( gases ?r\gh por\s plates4 ,! next ?ree p>ts relate to effusion1 or ! passage ( gases "u con/ant pressure ?r\gh a m9ute op5+ 9 a v ?9 plate into a vacuum2 transpiration1 or ! passage ( gases ?r\gh capill>y tubes into vacuo2 & la/ly atmolysis1 :i* is ! p>tial sep>ation ( a mixture ( gases & vap\rs ( diff]5t degrees ( diffusibility by p]mitt+ !m to diffuse !mselves ?r\gh a por\s plate into a vacuum3 a new k9d ( analysis1 :i* possesses a practical "* ( ext5sive application4 ,! diffus+ in/rum5t employ$ by ,mr4 ,graham 0 a cyl9drical glass tube ab\t an in* 9 diamet]1 t5 in*es long1 ) "o end clos$ by a v ?9 por\s disc ( compress$ artificial graphite fix$ by a res9\s cem5t4 ,:ile ! tube 0 be+ fill$ ) hydrog5 gas ov] a tr\gh ( m]cury1 ! escape ( ! gas 0 prev5t$ by cov]+ ! graphite v c>efully ) a ?9 %eet ( gutta p]*a4 ,z soon z ! gutta p]*a 0 remov$1 ! reciprocal diffusion ( ! gases began1 & 9 f =ty to sixty m9utes ! :ole ( ! hydrog5 _h escap$ f ! tube1 & a quantity ( atmosph]ic air am\nt+ to ab\t "o f\r? ( ! volume ( hydrog5 _h ent]$ ! tube & tak5 its place1 accord+ to ! ord9>y law ( ! diffusion ( gases4 ,dur+ ?is "t ! m]cury rises 9 ! tube s z to =m a column sev]al in*es high1 a fact :i* is a /rik+ demon/ration ( ! int5sity ( ! =ce ) :i* ! reciprocal p5etration ( diff]5t gases effect$4 ,natural plumbago or graphite has little or no porosity & _c be us$ 9 ^! exp]im5ts1 b ! pores ( artificial graphite ( :i* p5cils are made1 appe> to be s m9ute t only isolat$ molecules ( gas are able to pass1 )\t h[ev] be+ at all imp$$ by friction2 = ! smalle/ pores t we c suppose to exi/ 9 ! graphite mu/ be real tunnels comp>$ ) ! m9ut5ess ( ! ultimate atoms or molecules ( a gase\s body4 ,! cause ( motion appe>s to reside solely 9 t int]nal movem5t ( molecules :i* is n[ g5]ally admitt$ z an ess5tial condition ( matt] 9 a gase\s /ate4 ,! molecules & atoms are assum$ to be p]fectly ela/ic & to move 9 all directions ) diff]5t velocities accord+ to ! nature ( ! gas4 ,enclos$ 9 a por\s vessel ! mov+ atoms con/antly /rike aga9/ its walls & aga9/ "o ano!r1 b 9 consequ5ce ( _! p]fect ela/icity1 no loss ( movem5t results f ! collision4 ,:5 ! gases inside & outside ( ! tube are ( ! same d5sity & molecul> movem5t1 an ex*ange takes place )\t any p]ceptible *ange ( volume2 b :5 ! two gases are ( diff]5t d5sities & molecul> velocities1 !n ! reciprocal p5etration ceases to be equal on ! two sides4 ,reciprocal diffusion ( gases is accel]at$ by heat & ret>d$ by cold2 ! t5sion ( ! gases is increas$ 9 ! fir/ case1 & dim9i%$ 9 ! second4 ,9 ,mr4 ,graham's exp]im5ts relat+ to effusion1 a gas "u a con/ant pressure 0 on "o side ( a m9ute op5+ 9 a v ?9 plate1 & a vacuum on ! o!r4 ,! rapidity ) :i* air or gases ent] ! vacuum dep5ds ^u _! specific gravity4 ,a gas ru%es into a vacuum ) ! spe$ acquir$ by a heavy body 9 fall+ f ! height ( an atmosph]e ( ! gas 9 "q suppos$ to be ev]y:]e ( ! same d5sity4 ,! height ( ?is uni=m atmosph]e w be 9 an inv]se ratio to ! d5sity ( ! gas4 ,an atmosph]e ( hydrog51 = example1 w be #af times high] ?an "o ( oxyg54 ,b ! velocity acquir$ by a heavy body n be+ 9 direct proportion to ! height1 b to ! squ>e root ( ! height1 x foll[s t ! rate ( fl[ ( diff]5t gases into a vacuum w be 9 an inv]se ratio to ! squ>e root ( _! respective d5sities4 ,! rate ( fl[ ( oxyg5 be+ repres5t$ by #a1 t ( hydrog5 w be repres5t$ by #d ! squ>e root ( #af4 ,?is law has be5 v]ifi$ by exp]im5t1 & is q analog\s to t :i* regulates molecul> diffusion1 b ! ph5om5a are ess5tially diff]5t4 ,x is ! gas en masse :i* p>takes ( ! movem5ts ( effusion1 :il/ only ! molecules or atoms ( a gas are affect$ by ! movem5ts ( diffusion4 ,= t reason ! swiftness ( ! effusion ( a gas is _m ?\s& times great] ?an t ( diffusion4 ,! swiftness ( ! efflux ( atmosph]ic air is z rapid z ! velocity ( s\nd4 ,! rate ( ! fl[ ( diff]5t gases "u con/ant pressure ?r\gh capill>y tubes into a vacuum1 con/itutes ! capill>y transpiration ( gases4 ,^! rates be> a con/ant proportion to "o ano!r1 b !y are s+ul>ly unlike ! rates ( effusion4 ,!y are indep5d5t ( ! mat]ial ( ! tube2 !y are n gov]n$ by specific gravity2 & #8!y appe> to be 9 con/ant relation ) no o!r kn[n prop]ty ( ! same gases2 & !y =m a class ( ph5om5a rem>kably isolat$ f all else at pres5t kn[n ( gases4' ,! pores ( graphite are s f9e t x is incapable ei!r ( effusion or transpiration1 b x is readily p5etrat$ by means ( ! molecul> or diffusive movem5ts ( gases1 z appe>s on comp>+ ! "t requisite = ! passage ( equal volumes ( diff]5t gases "u con/ant pressure into a vacuum4 ,= oxyg51 hydrog5 & c>bonic acid gas1 ! times are ne>ly z ! squ>e roots ( _! d5sities4 ,! atmolysis or p>tial sep>ation ( mix$ gases & vap\rs ( unequal diffusibility1 c be effect$ by all[+ ! mixture to p5etrate ?r\gh a graphite plate into a vacuum4 ,! am\nt ( sep>ation is 9 proportion to ! pressure1 & atta9s its maximum :5 ! gases pass into a p]fect vacuum4 ,"o ( ! results ( atmolysis 0 ! conc5tration ( oxyg5 9 atmosph]ic air4 ,:5 a portion ( air conf9$ 9 a vessel 0 all[$ to p5etrate into a vacuum ?r\gh graphite or unglaz$ e>!nw>e1 ! nitrog5 pass$ m rapidly ?an ! oxyg5 9 ! ratio ( #ajffh to #a1 & ! portion ( oxyg5 is proportionally increas$ 9 ! air left beh9d 9 ! vessel4 ,! increase ( oxyg5 actually obs]v$ :5 ! air 9 ! vessel 0 r$uc$ f #a volume to #je 0 #jdh p] c5t4 ,! diffusion 0 cont9u$ till ! air 9 ! vessel 0 r$uc$ to #jjfbe & ! conc5tration ( ! oxyg5 9 x am\nt$ to #bjb p] c5t4 ,! molecul> or diffusive mobility ex]cises a c]ta9 influ5ce on ! heat+ ( gases by contact ) heat$ liquid or solid sub/ances4 ,! m rapid ! molecul> movem5t ( a gas is1 ! m frequ5t w be ! contact ( ! molecules & ! quick] w be ! communication ( heat4 ,! great] cool+ p[] ( hydrog5 comp>$ ) t ( oxyg5 or air is probably ow+ to t cause4 #8,oxyg5 & hydrog5 gas h ! same specific heat = equal volumes2 b a hot object plac$ 9 hydrog5 is really t\*$ #ch times m frequ5tly ?an x w\ld be if plac$ 9 oxyg5 gas4 ,dalton _h already ascrib$ ?is peculi>ity ( hydrog5 to ! high mobility ( ! gas4'#ac ,x appe>s t isomorphic sub/ances su* z *loride1 bromide1 & iodide ( sodium1 h a simil> diffusibility1 ano!r ( ! _m analogies betwe5 ^! s+ul> m>9e sub/ances4 ,modem *emi/ry is ess5tially exp]im5tal2 ! unprec$5t$ magnitude to :i* ,briti% manufactures h ris5 is *iefly ow+ to exp]im5ts conduct$ ) consummate skill & dext]ity4 ,9 ^! inve/igations1 accid5tal circum/ances h sometimes occurr$ :i* l$ to o!r rese>*es q diff]5t f t orig9ally 9 view1 :i* h _h unexpect$ & invaluable results4 ,al?\gh ! simple elem5ts are few1 !y are capable ( an inf9ite v>iety ( comb9ations1 s t by analysis & new comb9ations1 ! mo/ useful & valuable mat]ials are n[ obta9$ f obnoxi\s or useless sub/ances1 =m]ly ?r[n away4 ,! in/ances are num]\s2 b sawdu/ may be m5tion$ z "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable4 ,x 0 n ev5 fit = fuel1 b n[ oxalic acid1 a blea*+ pr9ciple mo/ ext5sively us$ 9 ! v>i\s processes ( calico pr9t+1 is procur$ f x2 ! quantity requir$ may be imag9$1 s9ce ! cotton clo? annually pr9t$ 9 ,great ,brita9 previ\s to ! ,am]ican w>1 w\ld surr\nd ! e>?'s equator n9ete5 times4 ,oxalic acid1 :i* is a vegetable sub/ance1 f\nd comb9$ ) pota% 9 wood sorrel or ,oxalis acetosella1 us$ to be made f sug> or />*1 by ! action ( nitric acid4 ,n[ />*1 sug>1 & woody fibre or fibr9e1 all conta9 twelve p>ts ( c>bon & diff]5t portions ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 always 9 ! proportions t =m wat]2 h5ce ! "n ( c>bohydrates4 ,_! composition is s simil> t ! "o may be *ang$ into ! o!r by ! addition or subtraction ( "o or two atoms ( wat] "u its atomic =m2 ?us :5 fruits rip51 ! />* !y conta9 is *ang$ into sug> by ! addition ( "o atom ( wat] "u its dry =m4 ,n[ sawdu/ is woody fibre1 & might be *ang$ by nitric acid into oxalic acid l ! o!rs4 ,b a less exp5sive me?od is actually employ$4 ,:5 sawdu/1 mix$ ) two equival5ts ( ! hydrate ( soda & "o equival5t ( ! hydrate ( pota%1 is expos$ to a heat ( #djj = a few h\rs1 ! sub/ances are fus$1 & :5 rais$ to a /ill high] temp]ature ! hydrates are decompos$3 hydrog5 is evolv$1 & ! c>bon comb9es ) ! oxyg5 to =m ! oxalate ( soda & ! oxalate ( pota%4 ,9 ord] to sep>ate ^! oxalates !y are put into a filt]1 a solution ( c>bonate ( soda is pass$ ?r\gh x2 ! oxalate ( soda rema9s 9 ! filt]1 ! c>bonate ( pota% passes ?r\gh x2 & :5 lime is add$ to ! oxalate ( soda1 ! soda is lib]at$1 passes ?r\gh ! filt]1 & ! oxalate ( lime rema9s4 ,sulphuric acid is !n add$ to ! oxalate ( lime1 sulphate ( lime is =m$1 & oxalic acid mix$ ) wat] rema9s1 & by evaporation =ms into beautiful cry/als ( oxalic acid4 ,?is is an in/ance ( a complicat$ *emical process2 nev]!less x is c>ri$ on to a va/ ext5t 9 ,man*e/]1 n9e tons a week be+ furni%$ by "o manufactory alone4 ,two p\nds ( sawdu/ yield "o p\nd ( oxalic acid4 ,9 ord9>y di/illation a volatile sub/ance su* z wat]1 by absorb+ ! heat appli$ to x1 becomes conv]t$ into vap\r2 by ab/ract+ ! absorb$ heat f ! vap\r1 x is reconv]t$ into ! orig9al sub/ance4 ,de/ructive di/illation1 on ! contr>y1 consi/s ( an entire de/ruction ( ! orig9al sub/ance & a simultane\s production ( new sub/ances4 ,( ?is ! de/ructive di/illation ( coal furni%es ! mo/ int]e/+ illu/ration1 & %[s at ! same "t ! success ( mod]n *emi/ry 9 utiliz+ wa/e sub/ances4 ,coal _h be5 di/ill$ = ye>s to furni% gas = ! illum9ation ( our cities be=e x 0 discov]$ t ! refuse conta9$ pr9ciples ( ! greate/ value4 ,! products ( ! di/illation are ?reefold3 gas1 coal wat]1 & coal t>4 ,coal gas is a comb9ation ( v>i\s gases1 ^: illum9at+ prop]ties dep5d ^u1 & are exactly 9 proportion to1 ! quantity ( c>bon !y conta94 ,! p>ticles ( c>bon rais$ to a :ite heat give ! light1 = ! gase\s "p has a feeble flame1 & requires a high] temp]ature ?an solid matt]1 :i* becomes lum9\s at ab\t #gjj 9 ! d>k1 & at f #ajjj to #bjjj 9 bright daylight4 ,coal gas consi/s ( a comb9ation ( illum9ants3 olefiant gas1 :i* conta9s #hf p] c5t4 ( c>bon1 c>burett$ hydrog5 or m>% gas1 :i* conta9s #ge p] c5t41 c>bonic oxide1 c>bonic acid gas1 hydrog51 sulphurett$ hydrog51 & a v small quantity ( nitrog51 besides ! bisulphide ( c>bon1 & b5zol1 a pure hydro-c>bon1 consi/+ ( #ab equival5ts ( c>bon & #f ( hydrog54 ,! poison\s quality ( coal gas is ow+ to ! c>bonic oxide1 :i* is fatal to life1 & its explosive quality to c>burett$ hydrog51 :i* also is g5]at$ by decomposition ( vegetable matt] 9 /agnant pools & m>%es2 & 9 ! fir$amp ( m9es x /ill be>s te/imony to ! vegetable orig9 ( coal4 ,t fatal gas increases 9 explosive =ce z x mixes ) atmosph]ic air1 & is at a maximum :5 x am\nts to #ab p] c5t4 ,hydrog51 c>burett$ hydrog51 & c>bonic oxide d n add mu* to ! light1 on acc\nt ( ! feeble flame ( hydrog5 & ! small quantity ( c>bon !y conta91 b !y =ce ! *ief illum9at+ gases out ( ! iron retorts 9 :i* ! coal is di/ill$ be=e ! heat has _h "t to decompose !m1 & !y also enable !m to burn )\t smell or smoke4 ,c>bonic acid1 bisulphide ( c>bon1 & sulphurett$ hydrog5 are impurities f :i* coal gas is fre$ be=e x is fit = use4 ,by pass+ ! gas ov] lime1 ! lime absorbs bo? ! c>bonic acid & ! sulphurett$ hydrog52 "o p] c5t4 ( c>bonic acid dim9i%es ! illum9at+ p[] six p] c5t41 & ! sulphurett$ hydrog5 has an abom9able smell4 ,! bisulphide ( c>bon1 consi/+ ( "o equival5t ( c>bon & two ( sulphur1 is got rid ( by pass+ ! gas ov] hot lime4 ,! wat] ( ! lime is decompos$1 & c>bonic oxide & sulphurett$ hydrog5 are produc$2 b ! latt] may be absorb$ by pass+ ! gas aga9 ov] lime1 or ?r\gh a mixture ( sawdu/ & ! oxide ( iron4 ,! oxide ( iron decomposes ! sulphurett$ hydrog51 =ms wat] & sulphide ( iron1 !n ! air re/ores ! sulphide to oxide1 & ! sulphur is deposit$ 9 ! mixture4 ,aft] pass+ ! gas ?r\gh x till none ( t impurity rema9s1 ! gas is fit = use4 ,! te/ is ! nitro-prusside ( sodium1 :i* ! gas /a9s purple if any ( ! impurity rema9s4 ,p>aff91 already m5tion$ z isom]ic1 is a pure hydroc>bon1 col\rless1 transp>5t1 & ( cry/all9e texture4 ,x melts at a heat ( #abj or #acj1 burns l wax )\t smell or smoke1 & makes beautiful c&les1 :i* give a brilliant light on acc\nt ( ! #hf p] c5t4 ( c>bon !y conta94 ,p>aff9 oil is mu* us$ = lamps2 ! manufacture ( ^! two sub/ances at ,ba?gate is "o ( ! l>ge/ *emical e/abli%m5ts 9 ! _w4 ,! black ftid gas wat] result+ f ! di/illation ( coals1 =m]ly ?r[n away1 is s ri* 9 ! salts ( ammonia1 t x has become ! *ief s\rce f :i* ^! mat]ials s important 9 ! arts are obta9$4 ,ammonia is well kn[n to be a col\rless gas1 ) an acrid pung5t smell1 consi/+ ( "o equival5t ( nitrog5 & ?ree ( hydrog54 ,x has an alkal9e "*1 comb9+ ) acids1 & is extremely soluble 9 wat]4 ,n[ ! gas wat] conta9s c>bonate ( ammonia & sulphide ( ammonium1 & :5 any acid /rong en\gh to decompose ^! sub/ances is put into ! liquid1 ! c>bonic acid & sulphurett$ hydrog5 be+ volatile are driv5 (f1 & ! acid comb9es ) ! ammonia to =m a salt4 ,= example1 :5 muriatic acid is put into ! liquid1 x drives (f ! volatile gases & comb9es ) ! ammonia 9 solution to =m muriate ( ammonia1 :i* is dissolv$ 9 wat] & evaporat$ till x cry/allises2 !n x is vaporiz$ & sublim$ to free x f impurities4 ,:5 ammonia & muriatic acid are sep>ately vaporiz$1 ! two col\rless transp>5t vap\rs1 :5 mix$1 comb9e into solid muriate ( ammonia1 a result s unexpect$ t z ,mr4 ,playfair ju/ly obs]ves1 x c\ld only h be5 taught by exp]im5t4 ,ab\t #d1jjj tons ( muriate ( ammonia are annually made f gas wat] 9 ,engl& = sold]+1 & = mak+ alum4 ,sulphate ( ammonia to ! ext5t ( #e1jjj tons is annually made by add+ oil ( vitriol to ! liquid4 ,x is also us$ = mak+ alum1 z well z = manure2 x supplies our gra9 ) nitrog51 an important article ( vegetable food4 ,to ^! may be add$ #b1jjj tons ( c>bonate ( ammonia1 s t a sub/ance t 0 consid]$ to be good = no?+ yields #aa1jjj tons ( valuable mat]ials1 b ev5 ?is quantity =ms only "p ( ! enorm\s am\nt annually consum$ 9 ! manufactures ( ,great ,brita94 ,coal t> is ( complicat$ nature1 conta9+ a v>iety ( sub/ances1 _m ( :i* are m or less volatile4 ,:5 x is di/ill$ by s5d+ a curr5t ( /eam ?r\gh x1 ! /eam collects ! volatile p>ts1 cond5ses !m into naph?a2 ! fir/ product is cond5s$ /eam or wat] ) naph?a swimm+ on its surface1 ! next product is dead oil1 & ! rema9d] is pit*4 ,by ! aid ( ! crude naph?a ?us produc$1 ,indian rubb] is dissolv$ & wat]pro( clo!s are made4 ,:5 purifi$ by sulphuric acid1 x =ms a sub/ance l t> :i* is ?r[n away1 & ! rema9+ products :5 cl>ifi$ are acid oils & neutral hydro-c>bons4 ,! c>bolic & cressylic acids are ! mo/ important ( ^! acid oils4 ,! c>bolic acid1 :i* has ! prop]ty ( arre/+ ! putrefaction & decay ( organic matt]1 consi/s ( #ab equival5ts ( c>bon1 #f ( hydrog51 & #b ( oxyg54 ,! cressylic acid only diff]s f ! prec$+ by hav+ two m equival5ts ( hydrog5 & two ( oxyg5 9 its *emical composition4 ,creosote is a mixture ( ^! two acids4 ,^? va/ beams ( wood t are driv5 z piles into ! s& or mud at ! bottom ( ! sea1 z well z ! timb]s t =m m>9e sup]/ructures1 are saturat$ ) x to a c]ta9 dep? to pres]ve !m f ! attacks ( m>9e insects1 especially ,limnoria t]ebrans1 an isopod cru/acean1 :i* is s de/ructive 9 "s ( our h>b\rs4 ,! wood is depriv$ ( its air by heat & ! creosote easily ent]s4 ,c>bolic acid is liquid1 b becomes solid :5 purifi$ & dri$2 & z already m5tion$ ! brilliant yell[ dye1 c>bazotic acid1 "o ( ! coal t> col\rs1 is a comp\nd radical1 9 :i* ! p]oxide ( nitrog5 has replac$ ?ree equival5ts ( hydrog54 ,! o!r coal t> col\rs are obta9$ f ! neutral hydro-c>bons1 t is to say1 comp\nds ( hydrog5 & c>bon1 su* z b5zol1 toluol1 & o!r analog\s sub/ances4 ,b5zol1 :i* consi/s ( #ab equival5ts ( c>bon & #f ( hydrog51 is v volatile1 boil+ at #aag ,fahr41 & :5 act$ ^u by nitric acid1 x =ms a comp\nd radicle 9 :i* "o equival5t ( oxide ( nitrog5 takes ! place ( "o ( hydrog54 ,x smells /rongly ( bitt] almonds1 & may be us$ ) safety in/ead ( !m4 ,:5 wat] & iron are mix$ ) nitro-b5zol1 ! iron comb9es ) ! oxyg5 & =ms oxide ( iron1 & ! result is ru/$ iron & anil9e1 :i* is ! orig9 & f\ndation ( ! coal t> col\rs4 ,n[ anil9e consi/s ( #ab equival5ts ( c>bon1 #g ( hydrog51 & #a ( nitrog54 ,x is a comp\nd radical3 x is ammonia 9 :i* "o equival5t ( hydrog5 has be5 replac$ by ! radical ph5yle1 consi/+ ( #ab equival5ts ( c>bon & #e ( hydrog54 ,x may be rem>k$ t 9 all ^! *emical op]ations ! quantity ( c>bon has rema9$ ! same4 ,anil9e is a col\rless liquid1 &1 be+ an analogue ( ammonia1 x readily comb9es ) ! diff]5t acids to =m ! beautiful coal t> dyes1 = :i* ! _w is indebt$ to ! brilliant rese>*es ( ,dr4 ,h(mann1 pr(essor ( *emi/ry4 ,by comb9+ a solution ( ! *loride ( lime ) ! col\rless liquid anil9e1 he obta9$ ! beautiful col\r mauve1 b x c\ld n be us$ z a dye till x 0 r5d]$ p]man5t by 8 pupil1 ,mr4 ,p]k9s4 ,8 next discov]y 0 ! ri* crimson cry/all9e dye mag5ta1 :i* ,m4 ,v]gu9 fir/ introduc$ into trade at ,lyons z a dye+ ag5t4 ,x may be produc$ by mix+ ! anhydr\s bi*loride ( t9 ) anil9e & !n driv+ (f ! excess ( anil9e by heat4 ,o!r metallic *lorides1 nitrates1 & _m oxidiz+ ag5ts1 h ! p[] ( conv]t+ anil9e into mag5ta2 z = example :5 ! two col\rless liquids acetic acid & anil9e are mix$ & heat$1 a *emical comb9ation takes place 9 :i* ?ree atoms ( ammonia h coalesc$ into "o1 a salt is =m$ :i* is ! acetate ( anil9e or mag5ta4 ,"h two liquids unite to =m a solid & z 9 _m o!r in/ances ! result+ sub/ance has ! p[] ( decompos+ light :i* nei!r ( its con/itu5ts c d4 ,mag5ta has a r$d] t9t ?an mauve1 & on t acc\nt x is sometimes call$ anil9e r$4 ,pr(essor ,h(mann has discov]$ q rec5tly t pure anil9e has n ! prop]ty ( produc+ ^! col\rs1 b t !y orig9ate 9 an impurity ( ! anil9e call$ toluid9e4 ,rosanil9e or rose9e1 a :ite sub/ance1 is ! base ( anil9e4 ,x is a p[]ful alkali1 readily comb9+ ) acids to =m highly col\r$ salts1 _m ( :i* h a t5d5cy to cry/allize1 l mag5ta4 ,?is base is mo/ easily extract$ f ! acetate ( anil9e4 ,! boil+ solution ( t salt decompos$ by a l>ge excess ( ammonia1 yields a cry/all9e precipitate ( a r$di% col\r1 & :5 ! col\rless liquid is sep>at$ by filtration f ! precipitate1 x deposits on cool+ p]fectly :ite ne$les & tablets ( pure rosanil9e4 ,?is sub/ance unites to acids 9 ?ree diff]5t proportions =m+ ?ree k9ds ( salts4 ,! salts t conta9 "o equival5t ( acid are extremely /able comp\nds2 = ! mo/ "p !y h a gre5 metallic reflection l "s insects' w+s2 by transmitt$ light !y are r$1 & _! solutions 9 alcohol h ! magnific5t crimson col\r ( mag5ta4 ,a bright purple dye is furni%$ by mix+ equal weights ( mag5ta & anil9e4 ,:5 ?is mixture is kept at ! temp]ature ( #cbi = "s h\rs & !n mix$ ) wat] & hydro*loric acid to remove any excess ( mag5ta or anil9e1 ! result is an insoluble purple residuum or precipitate1 b :i* :5 well wa%$ ) wat] becomes soluble 9 alcohol & boil+ wat] slightly acidulat$ ) acetic acid4 ,:5 ! insoluble purple residue is boil$ sev]al times ) dilute hydro*loric acid1 a f9e blue dye is =m$2 azul9e1 ! mo/ beautiful ( ! blue dyes1 :i* resi/s ! action ( ! /ronge/ acids1 & :i* is produc$ by oxidiz+ anil9e "u high pressure4 ,x 0 fir/ prep>$ at ,lyons f ph5ic acid1 a product ( ! di/illation ( coal2 :5 pure x appe>s "u ! =m ( copp] bronze-col\r$ cry/als soluble 9 alcohol1 to :i* !y communicate a magnific5t blue col\r t+$ ) r$2 b mo/ ( ! blue dyes are d]iv$ f c>bolic acid & f creosote4 ,a blood-r$ col\r is ! direct result ( mix+ ! muriatic & ph5ic acids4 ,anil9e1 ! great s\rce ( ! coal t> col\rs1 yields also a f9e yell[4 ,a va/ deal ( tal5t has be5 employ$ 9 ! rese>* ( col\r+ dyes bo? at home & abroad1 9 :i* ! manufactur]s !mselves h %[n great sci5tific k4 ,attempts h be5 unsuccessfully made to obta9 a gre5 dye f *lorophyll1 ! gre5 col\r+ matt] ( plants4 ,! want 0 = a %ort "t suppli$ by ,lo-hao1 a ,*9ese dye1 b be+ un/able x 0 giv5 up4 ,h[ev] ! v same sub/ance has be5 procur$ f ! ,rhamnus ca?>tica 7,buck?orn71 "o ( ! commone/ ,european trees4 ,m4 ,*>w9 ( ,lyons1 :o made ! discov]y1 has utiliz$ a wa/e sub/ance1 & r5d]$ x p]man5t z a dye4 ,x is ! only kn[n sub/ance :i* ) prop] reag5ts is capable ( produc+ all ! sev5 col\rs ( ! spectrum4#ad ,! coal t> col\rs h ne>ly sup]s$$ ^? f li*5s :i* incru/ rocks1 walls & /ems ( ag$ trees ) brilliant col\rs1 :i* d n h[ev] furni% dyes directly2 !y yield a col\rless cry/all9e sub/ance :i* comb9es ) alkalies to furni% v beautiful dyes2 x is exactly ! opposite ( rosanil9e1 :i* is a base4 ,! ,v>iol>ia dealbata yields litmus or or*il1 f :i* ! beautiful ,fr5* purple is made4 ,! ,rocella t9ctoria & fusi=mis give blue & purple1 & ! pale yell[ li*51 ,p>melia p>col]9a furni%es a bright yell[ dye1 :i* a little ammonia *anges to a ri* r$1 incl9+ to purple4 ,mauve 0 fir/ made f or*il1 b 0 n p]man5t4 ,! f9e dyes1 aliz>9e blue1 ,turkey r$ & g>anc9e1 are /ill mu* 9 use4 ,!y are d]iv$ f madd]1 ! dri$ roots ( ! ,rubia t9ctorum2 ! madd] dyes mo/ ext5sively employ$ are aliz>9e & fl[] ( madd]4 ,mauve & o!r dyes are d]iv$ f guano1 ! (fal ( seabirds1 :i* is import$ 9 l>ge quantities = manure4 ,! coal t> col\rs are manufactur$ on a highly sci5tific plan & mo/ ext5sive scale 9 ,great ,brita91 to supply ! enorm\s quantity annually consum$ 9 dye+ silk & pr9t+ cotton4 ,9 g5]al1 animal sub/ances su* z silk & wool c be p]man5tly dy$ at once1 because !y h a /rong aff9ity or attraction = col\r$ dyes4 ,if silk is de/9$ to be a moir1 ! silk be=e x is wov5 und]goes a *emical process 9 ord] to introduce fatty matt] into x :i* gives a s(tness to ! silk :5 wov5 & r5d]s x fit to receive ! moir by int5se pressure4 ,cotton clo? has no aff9ity = dyes1 :i* are wa%$ out at once if n fix$ by art1 because cotton fibre consi/s ( m9ute tubes g5]ally op5 at ! extremity1 :i* imbibe ! dye by capill>y attraction1 b _c reta9 x unless fix$ by a mordant1 su* z ! :ite ( a raw egg1 :i* readily absorbs any dye t is mix$ ) x1 & be+ !n laid on ! clo? 9 any patt]n x is absorb$ by ! tubul> fibres1 & :5 coagulat$ by /eam or any o!r application ( heat x is immovably fix$4 ,bo? animal & vegetable sub/ances af=d a v>iety ( mordants4 ,case9e or *eese1 ! curd ( milk1 :i* may also be obta9$ f pease & beans1 is ! mordant mo/ us$ by calico pr9t]s2 = if case9e be dissolv$ 9 twice ! quantity ( alkali necess>y = its solution1 x coagulates l :ite ( egg & may be us$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,skimm$ milk *eese f ,scotl& & ,holl& :5 purifi$ is ext5sively us$ 9 calico pr9t+4 ,! quantity ( mordants requir$ is v great1 = ( all ! cotton t 0 import$ into ,brita9 be=e ! late ,am]ican civil w>1 "o sev5? only 0 manufactur$ into musl9 & pr9t$ calico1 yet z already m5tion$ t 0 suffici5t to envelope ! e>?'s equator n9ete5 times1 & tw5ty-sev5 millions ( pieces 7 export$ annually4 ,atmosph]ic electricity & ozone affect ! process ( dye+1 & ea/ w9d has a ret>d+ & injuri\s effect4 ,! ,lyons manufactur]s1 n less celebrat$ = _! sci5tific skill & ta/e ?an = ! brilliancy ( ! col\rs1 h an advantage 9 _! f9e climate & bright sun4 ,x is a s+ul> circum/ance t petroleum has exi/$ 9 enorm\s quantities ?r\gh\t ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,/ates & a great "p ( ,canada1 unnotic$ & neglect$ till ! ye> #ahei1 :5 its value 0 discov]$1 & x almo/ imm$iately =m$ a new & ext5sive bran* ( comm]ce1 = dur+ ! succe$+ ye> at lea/ #a1jjj wells 7 dug1 "s ( :i* enri*$ ! proprietors2 o!rs 7 a failure4 ,petroleum f ! f\nta9s ( ,is1 on ! banks ( ! ,euphrates ab\t #abj miles f ,babylon1 furni%$ ! asphaltic mort> = build+ ,n9eveh #b1jjj ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,!re are _m s\rces ( naph?a1 petroleum1 & asphalt 9 ,europe & ,asia1 :i* l ^? 9 ,tr9idad & ,v5ezuela occur = ! mo/ "p 9 rocks ( ! new]1 second>y & t]ti>y =mations1 ?\gh sometimes 9 ! l[]4 ,b 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada ^! sub/ances occur 9 rocks ( all ages f ! l[] silurian to ! t]ti>y p]iod inclusive2 !y are usually f\nd 9 ! lime/ones & m r>ely 9 ! s&/ones & %ales4 ,petroleum collects 9 ! fissures ( ! rocks1 *iefly 9 ^? t h a t5d5cy d[nw>ds2 9 wells dug = x ne> "o ano!r1 an abundant supply is furni%$ at all dep?s f #gj to #cjj feet4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ,ohio & ,canada ! gr\nd is saturat$ ) petroleum1 s t x is believ$ !re is en\gh 9 ,nor? ,am]ica to supply ! _w = ages4 ,9 #ahfa no less ?an #db1jjj1jjj gallons ( petroleum 7 s5t to ,engl&4 ,! wells are n )\t dang]1 = :5 !y pass ?r\gh ! coal /rata1 ! petroleum is accompani$ by a highly inflammable gas :i* on "o occasion 0 accid5tally set on fire2 x ignit$ ! petroleum1 :i* 0 =c$ out z f ! m\? ( a volcano1 & cov]$ ! gr\nd ) liquid fire f> ar\nd2 at ! same "t ! burn+ gas =m$ an inc&esc5t atmosph]e :i* ext5d$ to a /ill great] di/ance4 ,! di/illation ( petroleum yields sub/ances = ! mo/ "p id5tical ) ^? aris+ f ! di/illation ( coal4 ,! crude petroleum is put into an iron retort connect$ ) a coil ( iron pipes surr\nd$ by cold wat]1 call$ ! cond5s]4 ,heat is appli$ to ! retort1 & f ! op5 extremity ( ! cond5s]1 a pale col\r$ liquid ) a /rong smell fl[s1 :i* is v volatile & explosive naph?a4 ,aft] ! naph?a has pass$ ov]1 an oil ( excell5t illum9at+ quality is di/ill$ ov]4 ,/eam is !n =c$ into ! retort1 & a heavy oil is driv5 ov]1 & !re rema9s a black1 oily1 t>ry matt]1 & a black cake us$ = fuel4 ,aft] ! naph?a has be5 repeat$ly di/ill$1 b5zol is =m$1 & :5 ! heavy oil is cool$ to #cj ,fahr41 cry/als ( p>aff9 appe>1 :i* are sep>at$ f ! oil by pressure1 & :5 !y are purifi$ by alt]nate pressure & agitation 9 a melt$ /ate1 !y are m\ld$ into c&les4 ,?is p>aff9 is id5tical ) t f coal4 ,among ! products ( ! di/illation ( petroleum are naph?al9 :5ce anil9e is obta9$1 :i* yields mauve1 mag5ta1 & ! o!r coal t> col\rs1 also solf]9o :i* yields dian?9e & o!r dyes & has be5 propos$ z a sub/itute = *lor(orm & e!r4 ,_m o!r sub/ances h be5 sep>at$ f petroleum :i* l "s f coal h n yet be5 *emically exam9$4 ,mo/ ( ! sub/ances obta9$ f petroleum & ! di/illation ( coal are common also to di/ill$ peat1 & n[ x is propos$ to utilize sea we$s1 9 :i* ! nor!rn coa/s ( ,scotl& & ,irel& are s ri*4 ,!y 7 burnt = _m ye>s *iefly to furni% soda1 b z t sub/ance is obta9$ at a *eap] rate f salt1 kelp or sea we$ a%es has only be5 made lately to obta9 iod9e = m$ical purposes1 & m ?an "o half is wa/$ 9 ! process4 ,besides iod9e & six o!r sub/ances g5]ally procur$ f kelp1 ,mr4 ,/an=d has discov]$ t x conta9s naph?a1 p>aff9 oil & volatile oil ri* 9 b5zol1 :i* yields anil9e & mag5ta dyes & %[s t m>9e vegetation z well z t]re/rial ab\nds 9 col\r+ matt]4 ,e sub/ance is n[ ( use1 no sub/ance is )\t its value1 b x w\ld be a va9 attempt to m5tion ! innum]able discov]ies made by exp]im5tal *emi/ry1 :i* is daily ext5d+ its empire ov] ! ?ree k+doms ( organic & inorganic nature4 ,composition ( "s ( ! prec$+ ,sub/ances4 ,acetyl5e ,c#b;,h#b ,olefiant gas ,c#b;,h#d ,ammonia ,h#c,n ,b5zol ,c#ab;,h#f ,ph5yle ,c#ab;,h#e,n ,anil9e ,c#ab;,h#g,n#c ,rosanil9e ,c#dj;,h#i,n#c ,c>bolic acid ,c#ab;,h#f,o#b ,cressylic acid ,c#ad;,,ho#b ,,section ,,iv4 ,,! ,,sol> ,,spectrum1 ,,spectrum ,,analysis1 ,,spectra ,,( ,,gases ,,& ,,volatiliz$ ,,matt]1 ,,inv]sion ,,( ,,col\r$ ,,l9es1 ,,con/itution ,,( ,,sun ,,& ,,/>s4 ,,to ! unrivall$ g5ius ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton we owe ! sol> spectrum1 & ! laws ( col\r$ r+s1 by aid ( :i*1 ,dr4 ,?omas ,"y prov$ & e/abli%$ ! undulatory !ory :i* =ms ! basis ( ! :ole sci5ce ( light4 ,! visible "p ( ! sol> spectrum =m+ a b& ( sev5 col\rs 0 suppos$ to be cont9u\s till ! ye> #ahjb1 :5 ,dr4 ,wolla/on look+ ) a prism ^: axis 0 p>allel to a n>r[ slit 9 a w9d[ %utt]1 at a sunbeam pass+ ?r\gh x1 discov]$ sev5 d>k l9es cross+ ! col\r$ b&1 at "r angles to its l5g?4 ,twelve ye>s aft]w>ds1 ,fraunh(] ( ,muni*1 a celebrat$ optician1 magnifi$ ! spectrum ( a v]tical l9e ( light pass+ ?r\gh an upright prism by receiv+ x ^u ! object glass ( a telescope1 & discov]$ #fjj d>k l9es4 ,hav+ asc]ta9$ t ! position ( ! l9es 9 ! spectrum1 & _! di/ances f "o ano!r1 are inv>iable "u e circum/ance1 he det]m9$ _! places accurately & drew ! diagram kn[n z ,fraunh(]'s l9es1 :i* is univ]sally ref]r$ to z a /&>d ( comp>ison4 ,= t purpose1 ! pr9cipal l9es are designat$ by lett]s2 ?us ! d>k l9e ,a is 9 ! r$ ne> ! lea/ refrangible end ( ! spectrum1 ,b & ,c are 9 ! orange1 ! v rem>kable d\ble l9e ,d is 9 ! yell[1 b & ,e are 9 ! gre51 ,f is at ! limit betwe5 ! gre5 & ! blue1 ,g is 9 ! blue1 & ! d\ble l9e ,h is 9 ! violet4 ,! in/rum5t us$ by ,,mm4 ,buns5 & ,kir*h(f1 ?\gh m complicat$1 is con/ruct$ on ! same pr9ciple z ! prec$+4 ,a sunbeam transmitt$ by a v n>r[ v]tical slit passes ?r\gh f\r prisms1 :i* disp]se x s mu*1 t if drawn on ! scale se5 ) ! magnify+ telescope :i* receives x1 ! spectrum w\ld ext5d ov] tw5ty feet4 ,by means ( a micromet] screw1 ! telescope c be turn$ r\nd a v]tical axis1 & z ! d>k l9es come successively "u ! cross wires 9 its eye-glass !y are se5 to pass ov] a graduat$ scale1 s t ! di/ances betwe5 two ?\s& ( !m h be5 measur$ 9 millimetres ) un]r+ accuracy1 b t is only a small "p ( ! :ole4 ,:5 view$ ?r\gh ! telescope1 ! ret9a ( ! eye is ! scre5 on :i* ?is wond]ful spectrum falls1 cross$ by innum]able d>k rayless l9es ( v>i\s bread?s & int5sities4 ,black b&s giv5 by ! inf]ior refraction ( "o prism are "h resolv$ into num]\s d>k l9es z f9e z a spid]'s ?read4 ,mr4 ,glai%] dur+ 8 t5? sci5tific balloon asc5t devot$ 8 att5tion = a "t almo/ entirely to ! d>k l9es on ! sol> spectrum4 ,at a height ( ab\t f\r miles & a half1 !y 7 almo/ innum]able2 all he _h se5 on ! e>? 7 !re1 & _m m4 ,! nebul\s l9es ,h 7 bo? se51 ! spectrum 0 a good deal l5g!n$ at ! violet end1 & at ! r$ end ! l9e ,a 0 visible4 ,! light f ! sky ne> ! sun gave a %ort] spectrum2 ! l9es 7 only visible f ,b to ,g4 ,besides ^! cosmical or p]man5t l9es1 ,sir ,david ,brew/] obs]v$ t c]ta9 d>k b&s & l9es 9 ! r$ & gre5 p>ts ( ! spectrum are only visible :5 ! sun is ne> ! horizon1 :5ce he conclud$ t !y are occasion$ by ! absorption ( ! sol> light :ile trav]s+ a ?ick] /ratum ( air ?an :5 ! sun is 9 ! z5i?4 ,v>i\s gr\ps ( ^! absorption b&s are to be se5 at times on ! sol> spectrum1 especially a rem>kable "o ne> ,fraunh(]'s l9e ,d1 & ,dr4 ,mill] obs]v$ t tempor>y d>k l9es appe>$ dur+ a heavy %[]1 :i* vani%$ :5 ! ra9 ceas$4 ,:5 ! sun 0 high1 ,m4 ,kir*h(f m5tions t he _h notic$ traces ( l9es & nebul\s b&s 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! spectrum1 :i* he ?9ks might be resolv$ by a great] numb] ( prisms ?an ^? 9 8 app>atus4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] 0 l$ to 8 discov]y ( atmosph]ic b&s by obs]v+ t ! br[ni% r$ vap\r ( nitr\s oxide has ! prop]ty ( absorb+ sol> light1 resolv+ ! spectrum into a s]ies ( bright & d>k b&s1 alt]nat+4 ,pr(essors ,daniel & ,mill] f\nd t brom9e1 iod9e1 & *lor\s acid d ! same1 & ,sir ,john ,h]s*el obs]v$ a multitude ( simil> b&s 9 ! flame ( cyanog52 b ,dr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,mill]1 :o has p>ticul>ly /udi$ ! ph5om5a ( absorption b&s1 has prov$ t ! col\r ( a vap\r does n necess>ily det]m9e ! position or ev5 ! exi/5ce ( d>k b&s4 ,he has %[n t "s simple sub/ances :i* d n occasion d>k b&s produce !m abundantly by ! absorptive p[] !y acquire :5 9 composition1 :ile l9es t are produc$ by a simple vap\r1 vani% :5 x is 9 comb9ation4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,mill] has prov$ also t none ( ! prec$+ vap\rs exi/ 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,he comput$ t if free brom9e con/itut$ only "o 9 a ?\s& million p>ts ( atmosph]ic air1 x w\ld betray its pres5ce by absorptive b&s2 nev]!less he suspects t !re may be "s sub/ance 9 ! air t occasions c]ta9 unacc\ntable *anges4 ,possibly ozone1 s intimately connect$ ) atmosph]ic electricity1 may produce "s unkn[n effect4 ,! spectra f gl[+ solids & liquids1 su* z ,drummond's light1 :i* is inc&esc5t lime1 ! /ill m brilliant flame ( ! electric arc betwe5 *>coal po9ts1 gl[+ solid & fus$ metals1 & coal-gas flame1 are cont9u\s2 ! spectra exhibit ! sev5 col\rs1 b !y are n cross$ by d>k rayless l9es1 because su* inc&esc5t sub/ances give (f light ( all refrangibility4 ,b solids & liquids r$uc$ to gl[+ vap\rs1 & inc&esc5t gases1 only give out rays ( c]ta9 refrangibilities1 :i* cross _! spectra at "r angles1 z bright l9es ( v>i\s col\rs & int5sities4 ,ea* gl[+ vap\r & gas has bright l9es on its spectrum peculi> to itself4 ,9 ord] to comp>e ^! bright l9es ) ,fraunh(]'s d>k l9es1 sol> light is transmitt$ ?r\gh "o half ( ! v]tical slit 9 ,kir*h(f's app>atus1 & ! light ( ! lum9\s vap\r or gas ?r\gh ! o!r half4 ,!n by prismatic refraction two spectra are se5 9 look+ ?r\gh ! telescope1 ! gase\s "o imm$iately bel[ ! sol> "o1 & only divid$ f x by an almo/ imp]ceptible d>k l9e4 ,s t ! bright l9es appe> to be cont9uations ( ! d>k l9es if !y occupy ! same position 9 ! two spectra2 if n1 ! deviation is at once visible4 ,! co9cid5ce or deviation ( ! bright l9es on ! spectra ( two volatiliz$ sub/ances may be det]m9$ by ! same me?od4 ,! col\r$ light t has s beautiful an effect 9 fire-works is ow+ to ! combu/ion ( ! salts ( diff]5t metals3 z soda1 or common salt1 :i* gives a p]fectly pure homog5e\s yell[2 pota% gives a violet light1 /rontia r$1 b>yta gre54 ,! col\r is giv5 out by ! gl[+ atoms ( ! vaporiz$ metals sodium1 potassium1 /rontium1 & b>ium 9 a /ate ( viol5t ignition2 = z ! salt & its metal give ! same col\r & ! same spectrum :5 ignit$1 x is evid5t t ! col\r is indep5d5t ( ! oxyg5 ( ! alkali4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ :o analys$ col\r$ light ) a prism2 & 9 #ahbb ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 besides hav+ made a s]ies ( obs]vations on col\r$ flames1 _h det]m9$ ! spectra ( ! muriates ( /rontia & lime1 ! *lorides & nitrate ( copp] & boracic acid2 & obs]ves t #8! col\rs ?us communicat$ by diff]5t bases to flame af=d1 9 _m cases1 a ready & neat way ( detect+ extremely m9ute quantities ( !m4'#ae ,! same op9ion 0 aft]w>ds =m$ by ,mr4 ,fox ,talbot1 :o aft] _m exp]im5ts on metallic salts1 says 9 8 pap]1#af t a glance at ! prismatic spectrum ( a flame may %[ x to conta9 sub/ances :i* x w\ld o!rwise require a labori\s *emical analysis to effect4 ,9 t pap] ?is g5tleman notic$ t ! gl[+ salts ( li?ium & /rontium give a crimson or r$ col\r to flame s exactly ( ! same t9t t if ^! metals 7 9 comb9ation x w\ld be impossible to decide to :i* metal ! col\r is due4 ,b :5 he pass$ _! respective lights ?r\gh a prism1 he f\nd t ! bright l9es on _! spectra are entirely diff]5t4 #8,! /rontia flame1' he obs]ves1 #8exhibits a great numb] ( r$ rays well sep>at$ f ea* o!r by d>k int]vals1 n to m5tion an orange1 & a v def9ite bright blue ray4 ,! li?ia exhibits "o s+le r$ ray1' ,:5ce ,mr4 ,fox ,talbot obs]ves1 #8,i hesitate n to say t optical analysis c di/+ui% ! m9ute/ portions ( ^! two sub/ances f ea* o!r ) z mu* c]ta9ty1 if n m1 ?an any o!r kn[n me?od4' ,?us ,sir ,john ,h]s*el & ,mr4 ,fox ,talbot laid ! f\ndation ( a spectrum analysis ( unrivall$ delicacy & beauty1 s9ce c>ri$ to p]fection by ,messrs4 ,buns51 ,kir*h(f & o!r exp]im5t]s1 pres5tly to be m5tion$4 ,m4 ,buns5 detect$ ! *>act]i/ic crimson li?ium l9e 9 ! spectra ( num]\s sub/ances2 9 granite1 9 ! e>lie/ geological /rata1 9 meteoric /ones1 9 ! a%es ( mo/ l& plants1 9 blood & o!r animal matt]2 s t in/ead ( be+ "o ( ! r>e/ metals1 x exi/s 9 all ! ?ree k+doms ( nature4 ,9 ! ye> #aheg ,mr4 ,swan gave an in/ance ( ! extreme m9ut5ess ( spectrum analysis1 by detect+ ! #a_/b1cjj1jjj? "p ( a gra9 ( salt by its yell[ light2 b by ! same reaction ,m4 ,buns5 n only recognis$ ! #ahj million? "p ( a gra9 ( sodium1 b f\nd t !re is h>dly any sub/ance t does n conta9 x4 ,x exi/s 9 ! du/ on our clo!s & furniture1 p>ticles ( x float 9 ! air we brea!1 s t :ile exam9+ ! spectra ( o!r inc&esc5t sub/ances1 fla%es ( yell[ light appe> z ^! atoms are volatiliz$ & in/antly burnt up1 :i* %[s t common salt is p]haps m univ]sally diffus$ ?an any o!r k9d ( matt]4 ,by spectrum analysis1 ,m4 ,buns5 has discov]$ ! two new metals1 rubidium & csium4 ,:ile exam9+ ) a prism ! spectrum ( ! hundr$? "p ( a gra9 ( an alkal9e sub/ance sep>at$ f ! residuum ( ! ,durckheim m9]al wat]1 he saw col\r$ l9es1 :i* he _h nev] se5 be=e on ! spectrum ( any o!r alkali1 & at once conclud$ t !y belong$ to a new metal2 & hav+ obta9$ ab\t #bjj gra9s ( ! sub/ance by ! evaporation ( =ty tons ( ! wat]1 he f\nd t !y conta9$ ! *lorides ( ! two new metals 9 "q4 ,moreov] he p]ceiv$ t ^! metallic *lorides resemble ! *loride ( potassium s ne>ly 9 spectrum & *emical "*1 t a ref9$ prismatic analysis c\ld alone det]m9e ! diff]5ce4 ,he ?us asc]ta9$ t ! spectra ( all ! ?ree h two r$ l9es 9 ! r$ "p ( _! spectrum1 & two violet l9es 9 ! indigo1 :ile ! middle "p is occupi$ by a cont9u\s diffus$ light4 ,! only diff]5ce is t ! two r$ l9es 9 ! rubidium spectrum are less refrangible ?an ! r$ l9es 9 ! potassium spectrum1 & t ! csium spectrum is di/+ui%$ by two bright blue l9es 9 ! diffuse middle "p4 ,rubidium receiv$ its "n f rubidus1 on acc\nt ( ! d>k r$ ( its l9es1 & csium f its sky-col\r$ blue l9es4 ,m4 ,buns5 ?9ks t !re c h>dly be a d\bt ( rubidium hav+ be5 mi/ak5 = potassium1 b he has %[n t !y may be di/+ui%$ by ! diff]5ce 9 ! solubility ( ! d\ble salts :i* ! *lorides ( ^! two metals =m ) ! *loride ( plat9um4 ,an aque\s solution ( ! bi*loride ( plat9um & potassium gives an insoluble yell[ precipitate1 consi/+ ( ! bi*lorides ( plat9um & potassium4 ,an aque\s solution ( ! bi*lorides ( plat9um & rubidium gives an insoluble yell[ precipitate ( ! bi*lorides ( plat9um & rubidium4 ,^! two precipitates are undi/+ui%able to ! eye4 ,n[ if a solution ( plat9um be add$ to ! fir/1 no fur!r precipitate c take place1 b if a solution ( rubidium be add$ to x1 a yell[ precipitate is =m$ consi/+ ( ! bi*loride ( rubidium & potassium1 because ! *loride ( rubidium resolves ! precipitate1 comb9es ) ! *loride ( potassium1 & sets ! *loride ( plat9um free4 ,?us ! precipitate ( ! bi*loride ( rubidium & potassium is ! lea/ soluble ( ! two4 ,! yell[ col\r is evid5tly due to ! potassium4 ,csium may be di/+ui%$ f potassium by ! same process4 ,! c>bonates1 hydrates1 & o!r salts ( ! two metals 7 det]m9$2 _! c>bonates 7 %[n to be readily sep>at$1 because ! c>bonate ( csium is soluble 9 alcohol1 :i* ! c>bonate ( rubidium is n1 & f9ally ! metal rubidium 0 sep>at$4 ,x has an extreme avidity = oxyg51 & burns 9 wat] l potassium1 & possesses _m o!r analog\s qualities4 ,x melts at ! temp]ature ( #che ,c5t41 & has a specific gravity ( #aeaf4 ,rubidium is abundant 9 ! m9]al lepidolite 9 _m p>ts ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ,m4 ,gr&eau has detect$ x 9 ! a%es ( beetroot1 tobacco1 c(fee1 tea1 & grapes by spectrum analysis4 ,x exi/s 9 v>i\s m9]al wat]s1 & 9 fact is v g5]al4 ,traces ( v>i\s metals are met ) 9 ! same vegetable2 ?us ! spectrum ( tobacco gives l9es *>act]i/ic ( li?ium1 potassium1 rubidium1 & lime4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,crookes discov]$ ! new metal ?allium by means ( its spectrum1 :i* diff]s f e o!r 9 hav+ "o bright gre5 l9e ^u a d>k gr\nd4 ,he obta9$ its v>i\s salts1 & ! metal itself1 :i* he describes z be+ heavy1 d5se1 & v l lead1 b ( great] specific gravity4 ,its fre% surface has a bright metallic lu/re1 n s blue z t ( lead1 b x t>ni%es m easily4 ,x is s s(t t x c be ind5t$ by ! nail1 yet x c be drawn into wire1 & 9 *emical prop]ties x resembles m]cury1 lead1 & bismu?4 ,altoge!r x is m l a metal ?an a metalloid1 p]haps some?+ betwe5 ! two4 ,?allium is completely volatiliz$ at a temp]ature bel[ r$ heat1 :e!r s+le or 9 composition4 ,if ! quantity be small1 ! gre5 l9e appe>s 9 a sudd5 fla%1 la/+ b ! fraction ( a second4 ,if a l>g] quantity ( ! metal be gradually put into ! flame1 x la/s a little long]1 appe>+ z a s+le gre5 l9e ( extraord9>y purity & int5sity1 %>ply def9$ on a black gr\nd4 ,) respect to volatility1 ?allium is analog\s to ! non-metallic elem5t sel5ium1 :i* is s volatile t its beautiful blue light only la/s a few seconds4 ,! gre5 light ( ?allium comes out m rapidly1 & ) less ( ! sub/ance1 ?an ! blue light ( sel5ium1 a quantitative di/9ction :i* accords ) ,dr4 ,mill]'s obs]vation t ! rapidity ) :i* a result is obta9$1 & ! m9ut5ess ( ! quantity requir$ = ! exam9ation1 gives ?is me?od a sup]iority ov] e o!r = ! qualitative analysis ( ! alkalies & alkal9e e>?s4 ,?allium has be5 detect$ 9 m9]al wat]s1 w9e1 treacle1 tobacco1 & *icory4 ,drs4 ,rei* & ,ri*t] discov]$ a f\r? new metal 9 ! z9c-bl5de at ,freib]g 9 ,saxony1 :i* has be5 call$ indium1 f two beautiful indigo-blue l9es 9 its spectrum1 :i* h a great] refrangibility ?an ! blue l9es 9 /rontium4 ,! *emical relations ( indium resemble ^? ( z9c1 ) :i* x is associat$ 9 nature4 ,! metal c be r$uc$ be=e ! bl[pipe into a bead1 :i* m>ks pap] & has ! col\r ( t94 ,! practical importance ( spectrum sci5ce has be5 beautifully illu/rat$ by ,pr(essor ,roscoe by its application to ov]come a difficulty 9 ,bessem]'s process = ! manufacture ( /eel4 ,accord+ to t process1 /eel is made by s5d+ a bla/ ( air ?r\gh a quantity ( melt$ iron2 ! difficulty 0 :5 to /op ! bla/1 = if /opp$ too soon1 ! metal reta9s s mu* c>bon t x crumbles "u ! hamm]2 if cont9u$ a few m9utes too long1 ! molt5 metal is s viscid t x _c be p\r$ into ! m\lds4 ,exp]i5ce _h hi!rto enabl$ ! manufactur] to judge ( ! "r "t f ! appe>ance ( ! flame :i* issu$ f ! m\? ( ! conv]t+ vessel1 b n[ ,pr(essor ,roscoe has det]m9$ ! exact mom5t = cutt+ (f ! bla/ by a spectral exam9ation ( ! flame1 ! light ( :i* is mo/ int5se4 ,! flame spectrum 9 its v>i\s phases reveal$ complicat$ masses ( d>k absorption b&s & bright l9es1 %[+ t a v>iety ( sub/ances 7 pres5t 9 ! flame 9 a /ate ( inc&esc5t gas2 & by a simultane\s comp>ison ( ^! ) well-kn[n spectra ( c]ta9 elem5t>y bodies1 ,mr4 ,roscoe asc]ta9$ ! pres5ce ( sodium1 potassium1 li?ium1 iron1 c>bon1 phosphorus1 hydrog51 & nitrog5 9 ! flame4 ,bo? ,dr4 ,wolla/on & ,fraunh(] notic$ t ! spectrum ( ! electric sp>k 0 cross$ by bright-col\r$ l9es2 & 9 ! ye> #ahce1 ,pr(essor ,:eat/one det]m9$ ! spectra ( ! electric sp>k tak5 f fus$ z9c1 cadmium1 t91 bismu?1 lead1 & f m]cury1 & f\nd t ea* is cross$ by bright l9es diff]+ 9 numb]1 position1 & col\r1 b :i* are ! same :e!r ! electric sp>k be f a /atic1 voltaic1 or magneto-electric ma*9e4 ,hav+ giv5 a plate %[+ ! col\rs ( ^! bright l9es on ! respective spectra1 he prov$ t !y are n ow+ to ! electricity1 b to ! inc&esc5t atoms ( ! metals1 = by us+ diff]5t metals z t]m9als to ! conduct+ wires1 he det]m9$ ! spectra ( ^! metals 9 vacuo1 :i* prov$ t !y 7 due alone to ! volatilization ( ! metallic t]m9als1 & conclud$ t any "o metal may be di/+ui%$ f ano!r by ! appe>ance ( ! sp>k4 ,:eat/one discont9u$ 8 spectrum rese>*es1 = he _h inv5t$ ! electric telegraph1 & 0 busy 9 ext5d+ ! fir/ telegraphic wire t ev] c>ri$ ! ?\ght ( man to man betwe5 ,london & ,man*e/]4 ,soon aft] he laid ! fir/ aquatic l9e across ! ,?ames1 & he has liv$ to see 8 telegraphic l9es spread ov] ! surface ( ! e>? & ! bottom ( ! ocean4 ,mr4 ,:eat/one _h p]ceiv$ t ! bright l9es on ! spectra ( ! metals are diff]5t & m complicat$ :5 tak5 9 air ?an 9 vacuo1 & ,pr(essor ,ang/rm made ! important rem>k t ! electric sp>k gives two sup]pos$ spectra1 "o due to any metal t may be "u exam9ation1 ! o!r to ! inc&esc5ce ( ! air ?r\gh :i* ! sp>k passes4 ,h5ce ! importance ( ! spectrum analysis ( gase\s sub/ances1 especially ( ^? :i* con/itute our atmosph]e1 a subject t has be5 ably & successfully inve/igat$ by ,pr(essor ,plck]4 ,= t purpose he made use ( ! ,geissl] or vacuum tubes1 simil> to ^? he us$ 9 8 exp]im5ts on ! /ratification ( electric light4 ,:5 electricity 0 s5t ?r\gh a tube conta9+ oxyg5 gas1 ! gas comb9$ s rapidly ) ! plat9um ( ! negative t]m9al ( ! batt]y t !re 0 little "t to exam9e ! spectrum4 ,! electral light 9 ! tube 0 too r$ at fir/1 b z ! att5uat$ gas gradually disappe>$ x *ang$ ?r\gh fle%-col\r to gre51 !n ?r\gh blue to r$di%-violet1 & at l5g? !re 0 too little gas to convey ! electricity4 ,h[ev]1 ! oxyg5 spectrum has a rem>kably bright r$ b& at its r$ extremity1 two bright orange l9es divid$ by a black "o 9 ! orange1 & "s bright b&s 9 ! gre54 ,! electric light ( att5uat$ hydrog5 is r$1 & almo/ ! :ole light 9 its spectrum is conc5trat$ into six bright b&s ( ne>ly equal bread?s4 ,!re is a dazzl+ r$ b& ne> ! r$ end ( ! spectrum1 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n co9cide ) ! oxyg5 b&2 !n comes a v beautiful yell[ b&1 9 :i* ! :ole ( ! yell[ rays seem to be conc5trat$1 foll[$ by a grey int]val :i* sep>ates ! yell[ f ?ree bright l9es 9 ! gre51 ! fir/ ( :i* is yell[i% gre51 ! la/ a beautiful gre5i% blue2 a black & a d>k space sep>ates ! latt] f ! violet 9 :i* !re is a bright l9e4 ,! electric light 9 a tube conta9+ highly r>efi$ aque\s vap\r is r$1 ! vap\r is resolv$ into its simple elem5ts by ! electricity1 ! oxyg5 comb9es ) ! plat9um ( ! negative or heat pole1 & ! spectrum is t ( pure hydrog5 ) ! ?ree mo/ prom95t b&s only4 ,! nitrog5 spectrum is brilliant ) all ! sev5 col\rs2 !re are no broad d>k spaces l ^? :i* divide ! bright b&s 9 ! hydrog5 spectrum1 b x is cross$ by num]\s v f9e black & grey l9es4 ,fifte5 ( ! latt] /ripe ! r$ & orange2 ! gre5 is sep>at$ f ! yell[ by a black n>r[ b&2 x is t]m9at$ by two bright blue l9es1 & v f9e d>k l9es cross x & ! re/ ( ! spectrum4 ,! tube light is yell[i% r$4 ,! spectrum ( highly r>efi$ atmosph]ic air is *iefly t ( nitrog51 = ! oxyg5 comb9es ) ! plat9um ( ! negative t]m9al1 & is 9 too small a quantity to transmit ! electricity ?r\gh ! tube4 ,! r>efi$ vap\rs ( *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e are s rapidly comb9$ ) ! plat9um ( ! negative t]m9al1 t x is difficult to det]m9e _! spectra2 b !y h peculi>ities 9 common1 :i* di/+ui% !m f all o!r spectra4 ,! bright l9es t cross !m are fir/ at re/1 b soon become flick]+4 ,9 ! iod9e spectrum1 five ( ^? l9es ( flick]+ light ( great beauty are 9 ! gre51 two ( !m close toge!r4 ,! brom9e spectrum %[s a great] numb]1 :i* ext5d across ! col\rs ( its middle "p1 accompani$ by d>k l9es2 & 9 ! *lor9e spectrum !re are _m l9es1 bo? ( flick]+ light & d>kness4 ,new l9es are br\ght out 9 ! iod9e spectrum by increase ( temp]ature4 ,at a l[ heat x is cross$ by a numb] ( d>k l9es1 b ) a high] temp]ature ! vap\r has a gre5i% hue1 :i* is resolv$ by ! prism into gre5 l9es at "s di/ance f "o ano!r1 & fa9t] blue light1 cross$ by gr\ps ( lum9\s b&s4 ,r>efi$ comp\nd gases are resolv$ by ! electricity into _! compon5t p>ts1 & ! result is sup]pos$ spectra1 "o belong+ to ea* elem5t4 ,m4 ,segu9 consid]s ! aspect ( ! electric sp>k to be a sure indication ( *emical action1 = :ile ! decomposition is 9 progress1 ! electric sp>k is encompass$ by a halo1 & ! bright l9es ( ! d\ble spectrum are less di/9ct2 b :5 ! reaction is f9i%$1 ! sp>k becomes sl5d]1 & ! spectrum b&s di/9ct4 ,9 ! decomposition ( highly c>burett$ & att5uat$ hydrog5 gas1 ! sp>k resembles a flame1 & ! spectrum is l t ( :ite light4 ,:5 ! gas is decompos$1 ! hydrog5 is dis5gag$1 & ! c>bon deposit$ on ! extremities ( ! conduct+ wires2 ! sp>k becomes sl5d]1 & !n ! l9es ( ! hydrog51 ! l9es belong+ to ! hydro-c>bon & to c>bon itself may be se5 on ! spectrum4#ag ,! bright & col\r$ l9es on ! spectra ( ! gases1 & ! vap\rs ( a great numb] ( ! metals & metallic salts1 7 kn[n be=e ,,mm4 ,buns5 & ,kir*h(f began _! sy/ematic rese>*es1 dur+ :i* !y add$ _m m1 "s s difficult & analog\s1 t x requir$ all _! skill & exp]i5ce to make !m out4 ,( all ! spectra t h be5 det]m9$1 ^? ( sodium & iron are ! mo/ important & int]e/+4 ,9 t ( sodium1 ! only light is ( ! pure/ yell[ cond5s$ into a d\ble l9e ( int5se brilliancy on a d>k gr\nd4 ,! iron spectrum on ! contr>y is cross$ by bright l9es ( all int5sities & col\rs 9 su* multitudes1 t _! numb] has n be5 asc]ta9$4 ,! calcium spectrum has "o v bright gre5 b& 9 ! orange1 a r$ l9e 9 ! yell[1 & a well-def9$ yell[ l9e 9 ! indigo4 ,z already m5tion$1 ! r$ & orange p>ts ( ! /rontium are cross$ by _m r$ l9es sep>at$ by d>k int]vals2 !re is a bright blue l9e betwe5 ! orange & yell[1 & an orange l9e 9 ! blue4 ,"o int5se crimson b& 9 ! orange *>act]ises ! li?ium spectrum4 ,sev5 broad gre5 b&s /ripe ! yell[ & a "p ( ! gre51 9 ! b>ium spectrum1 & t ( magnesium has _m gre5 b&s & l9es4 ,all ( ^! 7 det]m9$ by ! heat ( :ite coal gas flame1 :i* am\nts to #bcej ,c5t41 & at ! "t ,,mm4 ,buns5 & ,kir*h(f 7 n aw>e t by an increase ( temp]ature new bright l9es 7 add$ to "s ( ! spectra4 ,t discov]y 0 made by ,pr(essor ,tyndall1 :ile exam9+ ! spectrum ( *loride ( li?ium1 :i* ) ! l[ temp]ature has only "o crimson b& 9 ! orange1 b ) ! hott] flame ( hydrog5 gas1 am\nt+ to #cbei ,c5t41 an orange l9e appe>$ 9 ! yell[1 & :5 ,mr4 ,tyndall employ$ ! electric lamp1#ah ! spectrum acquir$ a broad brilliant blue b& betwe5 ! orange & yell[1 :ile ! crimson b& rema9$ un*ang$4 ,pr(essors ,roscoe & ,clifton confirm$ ,tyndall's discov]y1 & ^u comp>+ ! spectra ( /rontium & li?ium1 !y f\nd :]e only "o prism 0 employ$ t ! blue l9e ( li?ium appe>$ to co9cide ) ! blue l9e1 delta1 ( /rontium2 b ) an app>atus hav+ sev]al prisms l t ( ,kir*h(f1 !y saw t ! two blue l9es diff]$ by "o division ( ! measur+ scale1 ! li?ium l9e be+ ! mo/ refrangible4 ,a great *ange 0 produc$ on ! /rontium spectrum by increas$ electric temp]ature3 ?ree ( ! r$ b&s vani%$1 & new bright l9es appe>$1 t 7 n co9cid5t ) ^? !y replac$2 ! blue l9e 0 n affect$1 b f\r new violet l9es 7 add$4 ,) ! int5se heat ( ! electric sp>k1 ! broad gre5 b& ( ! calcium spectrum is replac$ by five gre5 l9es ( less refrangibility1 ! well-def9$ yell[ l9e vani%es1 & in/ead ( ! r$ b& ?ree r$ or orange l9es appe>1 ( great] refrangibility ?an ^? t h vani%$4 ,six ( ! bright gre5 b&s 9 ! spectrum ( b>ium entirely vani%1 & bright new non-co9cid5t l9es appe>4 ,?us1 n only new l9es appe> at v high temp]ature1 b ! broad b&s1 *>act]i/ic ( ! metal or metallic comp\nd at a l[ temp]ature ( ! flame or a weak sp>k1 totally disappe> at ! high] temp]ature4 ,! new bright l9es1 :i* supply ! "p ( ! broad b&s1 are g5]ally n co9cid5t ) any "p ( ! b&1 sometimes be+ less & sometimes be+ m refrangible4 ,! g5tlem5 :o made ^! exp]im5ts add1 t possibly ! cause ( ! disappe>ance ( ! broad b&s & ! production ( ! bright l9es may be1 t at ! l[] temp]ature ( ! flame or weak sp>k1 ! spectrum obs]v$ is produc$ by ! gl[+ vap\r ( "s comp\nd1 probably ! oxide ( ! difficultly r$ucible metal1 :]eas1 at ! enorm\sly high temp]ature ( ! int5se electric sp>k1 ^! comp\nds are split up1 & ! true spectrum is obta9$1 namely1 ! n>r[ bright l9es4 ,no su* *anges take place 9 ! easily r$ucible metals1 potassium1 sodium1 or li?ium1 :i* rema9 unalt]$ by *ange ( temp]ature4 ,9 ^! exp]im5ts1 a bead ( ! metallic salt on a plat9um wire 0 plac$ betwe5 ! plat9um t]m9als1 f :i* ! sp>k ( a p[]ful inductive coil c\ld be pass$1 b 9 ord] to h a m int5sely hot sp>k ! coat+ ( a ,leyd5 j> 0 plac$ 9 communication ) ! t]m9als ( ! second>y curr5t respectively4 ,by ?is addition ( /atic electricity1 ! int5sity ( ! curr5t 0 increas$ f\r-fold1 & mu/ h be5 beyond e/imation4 ,by high temp]ature ! csium spectrum has be5 s *ang$1 t = numb]1 col\r & di/9ctness ( its l9es1 x is ! mo/ beautiful ( ^? ( ! alkal9e & e>?y metals1 = besides its *>act]i/ic blue l9es1 x has six r$ & an orange-r$ l9e 9 ! r$ "p ( its spectrum1 a f9e yell[ l9e1 & n9e gre5 l9es1 ! la/ co9cid+ ) ,fraunh(]'s ,e4 ,! ?allium spectrum also acquires m l9es :5 evaporat$ by electricity1 = besides ! rem>kable gre5 l9e 9 ! gre51 x acquires a fa9t "o 9 ! orange1 two ( ne>ly equal int5sity 9 ! gre51 a ?ird fa9t]1 & a fif? 9 ! blue4 ,,mm4 ,plck] & ,hittorf1 9 rec5t exp]im5ts1 prov$ t _m non-metallic bodies1 su* z nitrog5 & sulphur1 give two di/9ctly diff]5t spectra on *ange ( temp]ature1 & t ! transition f "o spectrum to ! o!r is sudd54 ,! *ange is p>ticul>ly /rik+ 9 sulphur1 = at ! mom5t ! fir/ spectrum atta9s its maximum brightness1 x disappe>s1 & gives place to ! second or high temp]ature spectrum1 :i* is "o ( ! ri*e/ 9 brilliant rays kn[n4 ,:5 ! temp]ature is l[]$ ! fir/ spectrum reappe>s4 ,^! *anges ,m4 ,plck] ascribes to ! exi/5ce ( ! elem5ts 9 two allotropic conditions4 ,m4 ,plck] has also f\nd t ea* metalloid possesses a peculi> & *>act]i/ic spectrum3 z hydrog51 :i* has ?ree bright l9es1 all ( :i* are co9cid5t ) d>k sol> l9es1 & nitrog51 :i* exhibits a complicat$ s]ies ( b&s4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ! ,rev4 ,dr4 ,rob9son on a v>iety ( gases & vap\rs1 inclos$ 9 glass tubes1 %[ t a great] *ange is produc$ by pressure ?an by heat4 ,at ! ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure1 ! spectra %[ a numb] ( bright l9es on a col\r$ gr\nd1 ! light ( :i* is1 9 g5]al1 /rong] t[>ds ! r$ ?an ! violet end1 & /ronge/ 9 ! gre54 ,9 "s ! gr\nd is s bright z to efface all b ! mo/ lum9\s l9es4 ,?is is especially ! case ) hydrog54 ,on gradually exhau/+ ! tube 9 :i* ! vap\r is conta9$1 ! spectra r sudd5ly fade away1 leav+ only a suspicion ( "o or two l9es1 b ^u exhau/+ ! tube /ill m1 ^! transition spectra become bright aga91 fre% l9es appe>1 & !y are *ang$ into new spectra :i* are nev] s bright z ^? at ord9>y pressure4 ,few] l9es are visible 9 ! r>efi$ spectra1 & ( ^! f\r-t5?s are n f\nd 9 ! spectra ( atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! common pressure spectra1 ! transition1 & ! r>efi$ spectra %[s1 t ! "* & ev5 ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 l9es dep5d ^u ! m]e d5sity ( ! m$ia1 ! *emical circum/ances rema9+ un*ang$4 ,dr4 ,rob9son also obs]v$ t spectra are n sup]pos$ )\t a *ange2 ! spectrum ( atmosph]ic air does n always exhibit all ! l9es ( oxyg5 & nitrog51 & occasionally !re are "s l9es n visible 9 ei!r ( !m4 ,x appe>s also t = c]ta9 l9es ! actions ( bodies may be antagoni/ic4 ,metals d n always give ! same spectrum1 :atev] may be ! comb9ations 9 :i* !y are f\nd4 ,among v>i\s in/ances ,m4 ,mits*]li* m5tions t ! spectra ( copp] & ! *loride & iodide ( copp] pres5t ess5tial diff]5ces1 & ,mr4 ,roscoe has f\nd t a simil> diff]5ce prevails 9 ! spectra ( c>bon comp\nds :5 9 a /ate ( inc&esc5t gas1 :i* h hi!rto be5 suppos$ to yield ! same spectrum4 #8,! spectrum obta9$ f ! flame ( olefiant gas is diff]5t f t obta9$ by ! electric dis*>ge ?r\gh a vacuum ( ! same gas2 :ile ! sp>k pass+ ?r\gh a cyanog5 vacuum produces a spectrum id5tical ) t ( ! olefiant gas flame1 & ?r\gh ! c>bonic oxide vacuum a spectrum co9cid5t ) t ( ! sp>k ?r\gh olefiant gas vacuum4' ,! *lorides1 bromides1 & iodides are ! mo/ easily vaporiz$ ( all ! metallic salts1 & give ! mo/ brilliant flames & ! mo/ int5se spectra1 especially ! *lorides4 ,a small piece ( ! *loride ( b>ium volatiliz$ by a col\rless gas flame t+es ! flame gre51 & ! r$ & gre5 l9es on ! spectrum /& out ) extreme brilliancy4 ,! scatt]$ yell[ light on ! spectrum ( ! *loride ( sodium is comp>atively d>k by contra/ ) ! bright l9es1 & ^u %ad+ (f ! m lum9\s "p ( x1 traces ( l9es are visible 9 ! m refrangible portion4 ,*loride ( li?ium gives ! r$ & orange l9es on its spectrum2 ! brilliant blue b& discov]$ by ,mr4 ,tyndall1 & ano!r m refrangible blue l9e is se5 :5 ! ignition is at its greate/ int5sity4 ,*loride ( calcium gives a blue b& v brightly1 & sev]al o!r l9es4 ,! light ( ! *loride ( copp] is v vivid1 & its spectrum is rem>kable = *ang+ its appe>ance ) ! decomposition ( ! *loride4 ,! *lorides ( lead & cadmium1 also1 give v bright & def9ite spectra1 & *loride ( bismu? %[s num]\s brilliant r$ & blue rays :i* quickly disappe>4 ,?us ! *lorides give spectra ) l9es1 su* z ! blue li?ium & /rontium l9es1 hi!rto only br\ght out by an int5se electric sp>k4#ai ,m4 ,buns5 produc$ a beautiful effect by vaporiz+ a mixture ( equal p>ts ( ! *lorides ( sodium1 potassium1 li?ium1 calcium1 /rontium1 & b>ium1 & pass+ ! light ?r\gh ! slit ( 8 app>atus4 ,= on look+ ?r\gh ! telescope ! spectrum ( ea* sub/ance ) its *>act]i/ic col\r$ l9es 9 all _! brilliancy came successively into view1 & gradually fad$ away z ea* sub/ance 0 volatiliz$ & driv5 (f4 ,! sequ5ce %[$ ! "t requir$ to vaporize ea* metal1 & by spectrum analysis ea* metal c\ld be recogniz$1 al?\gh ! mixture only conta9$ ! #a_/ajjj "p ( a gra9 ( ea* *loride4 ,! position1 col\r1 & nature ( ! bright l9es on ! spectra ( m ?an ?irty metals h be5 det]m9$1 besides ^? ( ! elem5t>y gases & t ( ! electric sp>k4 ,to ^! ,m4 ,l\is ,gr&eau has add$ ! spectrum ( lightn+4 ,by a p>ticul> arrangem5t ! light pass$ at once ?r\gh ! slit 9 ! in/rum5t1 & a glass tube conta9+ nitrog5 & ! vap\r ( wat]4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ! lightn+ spectrum at fir/ recall$ t ( ! electric sp>k1 b on a clos] exam9ation1 ,m4 ,gr&eau notic$ 9 ! spectrum ( almo/ e fla% ! co9cid5ce ( a c]ta9 numb] ( ! rays ( ! lightn+ spectrum ) ^? ( ! spectra ( nitrog5 & hydrog54 ,m4 ,gr&eau rem>ks t ?is result is n surpris+1 s9ce all admit ! production ( ammonia & nitric acid "u ! influ5ce ( electrical dis*>ges4 ,besides ! rays ( nitrog5 & hydrog51 ! lightn+ spectrum conta9s ! ubiquit\s yell[ ray ( sodium4 ,fraunh(] _h notic$ a co9cid5ce betwe5 ! d\ble yell[ sodium l9e & ! d\ble d>k l9e ,d ( ! sol> spectrum1 ?\gh he 0 n aw>e to :at x 0 due4 ,?is co9cid5ce1 obs]v$ by ,m4 ,kir*h(f _m ye>s aft]w>ds1 0 fully appreciat$ by him1 & became ! f\ndation ( "o ( ! mo/ brilliant discov]ies ( mod]n times4 ,dur+ a sy/ematic comp>ison betwe5 ! spectra ( volatiliz$ sub/ances & ! sol> spectrum1 he discov]$ a p]fect co9cid5ce betwe5 ,fraunh(]'s d>k l9es & all ! bright & col\r$ l9es on ! spectra ( ! volatiliz$ sub/ances1 sodium1 calcium1 magnesium1 *romium1 iron1 & nickel4 ,to ^! ,m4 ,ang/rm has add$ alum9ium & manganese1 & ,m4 ,plck] has v rec5tly f\nd t all ! ?ree bright l9es 9 ! hydrog5 spectrum are co9cid5t ) d>k sol> l9es1 & t none ( ! potassium l9es correspond ) any sol> l9es4 ,draw+s h be5 made ( ,fraunh(]'s spectrum plac$ above ! spectra ( ! pr9cipal metals & metallic salts1 9 :i* ! co9cid5ce ( ! bright & d>k l9es is %[n f ! l9e ,a 9 ! extreme r$ to ! l9e ,g 9 ! indigo1 & z ! l5g? ( an undulation ( ! extreme violet light ( ! sol> spectrum is ! #ag_/a1jjj1jjj ( an in*1 & ! l5g? ( an undulation ( ! extreme r$ is ! #bf_/a1jjj1jjj ( an in*1 ! l5g? ( ! undulations ( ! int]m$iate rays c be comput$ by ! undulatory !ory ( light4 ,! l5g? ( ! waves correspond+ to ,fraunh(]'s sev5 pr9cipal l9es & _m ( ! int]m$iate ones h be5 comput$1 s t :5 a bright or col\r$ l9e is co9cid5t ) any ( ^!1 ! l5g? ( its waves is at once kn[n4 ,!re are o!r tables ( ,fraunh(]'s l9es1 & ! co9cid5t bright ones 9 :i* ea* d>k l9e is m>k$ by its own numb]1 z ! two pr9cipal l9es 9 ! d\ble l9e ,d1 :i* are express$ by ! numb]s #ajjbh & #ajjfh1 & s ) ! o!rs2 ?us ! co9cid5ce ( ! spectra ( volatiliz$ sub/ances ) ! sol> l9e =ms a regul> sy/em4 ,pr(essor ,j4 ,p4 ,cooke1 junior1 has rec5tly con/ruct$ a spectroscope :i* %[s t ! l9es ( ! sol> spectrum are z innum]able z ! />s ( heav51 t at lea/ t5 times z _m are di/9ctly se5 z are giv5 by ,kir*h(f 9 8 *>t1 besides an inf9itude ( nebul\s b&s j on ! po9t ( be+ resolv$4 ,yet ev5 ) ?is greatly increas$ p[]1 ! co9cid5ces betwe5 ! bright l9es ( ! metallic spectra & ! d>k l9es ( ! sol> spectrum rema9 p]fect4 ,m4 ,kir*h(f _h se5 a f9e yell[ l9e betwe5 ! d\ble l9es ,d ( ! sodium spectrum4 ,m4 ,m]z ( ,muni* f\nd f\r additional l9es1 b ,pr(essor ,cooke has discov]$ t !re are 9 all sev5 int]m$iate l9es & a nebul\s b&4 ,al?\gh ! two memb]s ( ! sodium l9e ,d c\ld be spread s f> ap>t t ! #a_/bjjj "p ( ! int]m$iate space c\ld be readily di/+ui%$1 yet ! co9cid5ce ) ! two d>k ,fraunh(] l9es 0 absolute4 ,! spectroscope #8%[s t _m ( ! b&s ( ! metallic spectra are broad col\r$ spaces cross$ !mselves by bright l9es4 ,?is is ! case ) ! orange b& ( ! /rontium spectrum1 & ) ! :ole ( ! calcium & b>ium spectra to a rem>kable ext5t4'#bj ,z e>ly z ! ye> #ahdi1 ,m4 ,f\cault discov]$ t ! sun's light :5 %9+ ?r\gh ! electric light gives black b&s on t "p ( ! spectrum :]e ! electric light alone w\ld h produc$ bright b&s1 s t ! black & bright b&s c\ld be produc$ alt]nately by admitt+ or exclud+ ! sol> light2 :5ce he conclud$ t ! electric arc emits ! same l9es :i* x absorbs :5 !y come f ano!r lum9\s s\rce4 ,m4 ,ang/rm also obs]v$ t ! bright l9es on ! spectra ( volatiliz$ metals c\ld be rev]s$ by a /rong] light %9+ ?r\gh _! flames4 ,nei!r ( ^! g5tlem5 0 aw>e ( ! importance ( a discov]y :i* enabl$ ,m4 ,kir*h(f to apply 8 delicate & ref9$ analysis ( t]re/rial matt] to ! sun & />s4 ,he _h already det]m9$ ! co9cid5ce ( ! d\ble yell[ sodium l9e ) ,fraunh(]'s d>k l9e ,d1 b :ile look+ ) a prism at a bright sol> beam pass+ ?r\gh a yell[ sodium flame1 he 0 surpris$ to see a /rong & well-def9$ d\ble d>k l9e in/ead ( ! d\ble yell[ sodium l9e :i* he expect$4 ,he obta9$ ! v same result1 m /rongly1 ) ,drummond's lime light1 :i* is bright] ?an ! flame ( any volatiliz$ metal1 & z he f\nd t he c\ld produce ! d>k & yell[ l9es alt]nately1 by admitt+ & %utt+ out ! bright] light1 he conclud$ t ! sodium flame is subject to ! law ( ex*ange1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* x absorbs rays ( ! same refrangibility ) ^? t x emits4 ,9 fact1 ! soda flame is p]vi\s to all ! rays 9 sol> light & ,drummond's flame1 except ^? ( ! same refrangibility ) its own2 ^! x absorbs & x may be suppos$ *anges !m into heat4 ,h5ce ,m4 ,kir*h(f came f9ally to ! conclusion1 t ! d\ble d>k l9e 9 ! sol> spectrum is ! rev]se or negative ( ! d\ble yell[ l9e se5 on ! spectrum ( ! sodium flame4 ,q rec5tly1 ,m4 ,fizeau has discov]$ t ! spectrum ( sodium burn+ 9 air is rev]s$ dur+ ! combu/ion4 ,at fir/ x is black1 ) ! usual d\ble yell[ l9e2 at la/1 :5 ! light is at its maximum1 ! d\ble yell[ l9e becomes black on a cont9u\s spectrum ) all ! sev5 col\rs4 ,aft] ,m4 ,kir*h(f _h asc]ta9$ t ! bright l9es 9 ! spectra ( calcium1 *romium1 magnesium1 iron & nickel co9cide ) d>k l9es 9 ! sol> spectrum1 he rev]s$ !m by s5d+ ,drummond's light ?r\gh _! respective flames1 ?us prov+ t ! col\r$ flames ( ^! six metals are subject1 l ! sodium light1 to ! law ( ex*anges4 ,m4 ,kir*h(f inf]s by analogy t ! vap\rs ( all ^! six metals exi/ 9 ! lum9\s atmosph]e ( ! sun1 & t !y absorb & *ange into heat su* rays ( ! cont9u\s light ( ! inc&esc5t sol> globe z h ! same refrangibility ) _! own1 s t ! correspond+ d>k rayless l9es on ! sol> spectrum are ! rev]ses ( ! bright l9es 9 ! spectra :i* ^! vap\rs w\ld give 7 x n = ! bright] light ( ! sun %9+ ?r\gh 8 lum9\s atmosph]e4 ,! dazzl+ :ite light ( ! inc&esc5t body ( ! sun conta9+ rays ( all refrangibilities w\ld give a cont9u\s spectrum %ad$ ) all ! sev5 col\rs1 b = 8 lum9\s absorb5t atmosph]e1 :i* comes l a veil betwe5 him & ! e>?1 & crosses 8 spectrum ) ?\s&s ( d>k l9es1 :i* are ! rev]ses or negatives ( ! bright l9es 9 ! spectra ( ! innum]able vap\rs x conta9s1 all ( :i* mu/ d\btless be ! gases ( sub/ances exi/+ 9 ! sol> mass itself & vaporiz$ by 8 int5se heat4 ,e metal1 & almo/ e elem5t>y sub/ance 9 a /ate ( gase\s combu/ion1 gives its own peculi> lum9\s l9es to its spectrum1 b no volatiliz$ matt] c be prov$ to exi/ 9 ! sun's atmosph]e except su* z h bright l9es 9 _! spectra co9cid5t ) "s ( its d>k l9es4 ,! bright l9es 9 ! spectrum ( iron1 co9cid5t ) ! d>k l9es ( ! sol> spectrum1 are s num]\s t _m yet rema9 unkn[n4 ,m4 ,kir*h(f c\nt$ sev5ty 9 ! small space betwe5 ,fraunh(]'s l9es ,d & ,f1 9 :i* ! co9cid5ce ext5ds ev5 to %ade1 ! deepe/ d>k l9es correspond+ to ! mo/ brilliant bright ones1 & he comput$ t ! *ances are z #a to ! n9? p[] ( #aj1 t ! co9cid5ce ( ^! sev5ty l9es is n =tuit\s1 b ow+ to a def9ite cause1 :5ce he conclud$ t ! pres5ce ( iron vap\r 9 ! sol> atmosph]e is prov$ ) z mu* c]ta9ty z c be atta9$ 9 any "q ( natural sci5ce4 ,9 a lat] publication1 ,m4 ,ang/rm obs]ves t1 al?\gh ! co9cid5t iron l9es betwe5 ,d & ,f are n s num]\s z ,m4 ,kir*h(f affirm$1 !y are q suffici5t to e/abli% beyond a d\bt ! pres5ce ( iron 9 ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,! iron l9es are ! mo/ *>act]i/ic 9 ! :ole sol> spectrum1 & if a magnify+ p[] be us$1 or if ! light be refract$ ?r\gh sev]al prisms1 ^! l9es1 or at any rate ! /rong] ones among !m1 appe> to be p]fectly black4 ,m4 ,ang/rm notic$ t on a c>eful exam9ation ( ! sol> spectrum1 c]ta9 l9es c be discov]$1 imb$d$ 9 a mass ( fa9t] ones1 :i*1 ) increas$ illum9ation1 seem to )draw !mselves & disappe>1 :ile ! fir/ m5tion$ l9es1 on ! contr>y1 only /& out 9 a /rong] relief4 ,^! are metallic l9es ( high fusion temp]ature2 ! mo/ rem>kable among !m almo/ inv>iably belong to iron4 ,! sub/ances common on e>? t h _! vap\rs 9 ! atmosph]e ( ! sun1 ?\gh !y h few] bright l9es 9 _! spectra ?an t ( iron1 are q z *>act]i/ic1 & q z di/9ctly co9cid5t ) _! rev]ses1 :e!r !y be s+le1 9 gr\ps1 or d\ble1 z ! sodium l9e1 :i* is bright] & its rev]ses d>k] ?an t ( any o!r sub/ance1 because volatiliz$ sodium gives out a great] quantity ( light1 & consequ5tly absorbs a great] quantity4 ,m4 ,ang/rm has add$ alum9ium & manganese to ! sev5 metals ^: vap\rs ,m4 ,kir*h(f has %[n to exi/ 9 ! atmosph]e ( ! sun1 b he ?9ks x d\btful :e!r b>ium1 z9c1 or copp] are sol> metals1 = al?\gh _! bright] l9es correspond ) di/9ct d>k sol> l9es1 _! weak] l9es d n4 ,/rontium is d\btful also1 = "o ( its /ronge/ bright l9es is n co9cid5t ) any d>k l9e4 ,?\gh bo? iron & nickel are decid$ly sol> metals1 yet z cobalt is d\btful1 x _c be presum$ t meteorites are ( sol> orig94 ,! spectrum ( lum9\s magnesium has _m gre5 l9es p]fectly co9cid5t ) ^? 9 ! sol> spectrum1 s !re is no d\bt ( t metal be+ a con/itu5t ( ! sun's atmosph]e4 ,b !re are magnesium rays z well z "s ( iron ( su* high refrangibility t 9 ,mr4 ,/okes's long spectrum !y are situat$ t5 times z f> f ,h z ! :ole l5g? ( ! visible spectrum f ,a to ,h4 ,^! highly refrangible rays only become visible at ! exalt$ temp]ature ( ! electric sp>k1 & z !y are n f\nd 9 ! sol> spectrum1 x is inf]r$ t ! heat ( ! sun is inf]ior to t ( ! electric sp>k4#ba ,mr4 ,roscoe obs]ves t ?is conclusion w\ld only be legitimate if we knew t ^! rays ( high refrangibility are n absorb$ 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! atmosph]e4 ,^! are "s ( ! mo/ /rik+ results ( ! num]\s inve/igations t h be5 made s9ce ,m4 ,kir*h(f publi%$ 8 discov]ies1 = ! subject is any?+ b exhau/$4 ,! int5sely vivid light ( a magnesium flame is ri* 9 violet & extra-violet rays1 p>tly due to ! inc&esc5t vap\r ( magnesium1 & p>tly to ! int5sely heat$ magnesia =m$ by ! combu/ion4 ,! prop]ties ( ?is light hav+ be5 exam9$ & comp>$ ) ^? ( ! sun by ,pr(essors ,roscoe & ,buns51 ) a view to photographic purposes1 !y came to ! conclusion t #8! /eady & equable light evolv$ by magnesium wire1 burn+ 9 ! air1 & ! imm5se *emical action ?us produc$1 r5d] ?is s\rce ( light valuable z a simple means ( obta9+ a giv5 am\nt ( *emical illum9ation1 & t ! combu/ion ( ?is metal con/itutes a def9ite & simple s\rce ( light = ! purpose ( photo*emical measurem5t4' ,bright l9es ( two diff]5t metals sometimes co9cide ) ! same black l9e1 t is1 !y appe> to h ! same rev]se z an iron & a magnesian l9e1 an iron & a nickel l9e1 & "s o!rs2 b x is n kn[n :e!r ! co9cid5ce be real or app>5t4 ,m4 ,kir*h(f has prov$ t nei!r gold1 silv]1 t91 lead1 antimony1 ars5ic1 m]cury1 li?ium1 cadmium1 & "s o!rs are con/itu5ts ( ! sun1 because none ( _! bright l9es are co9cid5t ) any ( ! d>k l9es ( ! sol> spectrum4 ,?is negative discov]y does no less hon\r to ,m4 ,kir*h(f ?an ! pro( ( s _m sub/ances be+ common to ! e>? & sun4 ,s9ce all inc&esc5t solid & liquid bodies give a cont9u\s spectrum :i* exhibits no d>k l9es1 ,m4 ,kir*h(f conceives t ! sun consi/s ( a solid or liquid nucleus1 heat$ to ! temp]ature ( ! mo/ dazzl+ :it5ess1 & t x is surr\nd$ by a lum9\s gase\s atmosph]e ( some:at l[] temp]ature1 end[$ ) ! law ( ex*anges4 ,! spectra ( ,arcturus1 ,capella1 & _m o!r fix$ />s are cross$ by d>k l9es simil> to1 & (t5 co9cid5t )1 ! d>k l9es 9 ! sol> spectrum2 !re=e1 x may be conclud$ t _! /ructure is to a c]ta9 ext5t ! same ) t ( ! sun4 ,num]\s obs]vations h be5 made on ! spectra ( ! fix$ />s1 bo? 9 ,brita9 & on ! ,cont95t4 ,9 ,engl&1 ,mr4 ,hugg9s & ,pr(essor ,w4 ,a4 ,mill] h publi%$ tables ( ! measures ( ab\t n9ety d>k l9es 9 ! spectrum ( ,aldeb>an1 ne>ly eighty 9 t ( ,orionis or ,betelgeux1 & fifte5 9 t ( ,pegasi1 ) diagrams ( ! two fir/ :i* include ! results ( a comp>ison ( ! spectra ( v>i\s t]re/rial elem5ts ) ^? ( ! />s4 ,?us col\r$ l9es ( sodium1 magnesium1 calcium1 hydrog51 iron1 bismu?1 tellurium1 antimony & m]cury 7 f\nd to be co9cid5t ) "s ( ! d>k l9es 9 ! spectrum ( ,aldeb>an1 & besides ^! !re are num]\s l9es 9 ! spectrum ( ?is /> :i* are probably due to =ms ( matt] unkn[n to u4 ,col\r$ l9es ( sodium1 magnesium1 calcium1 iron & bismu?1 co9cid$ ) d>k l9es 9 ! spectrum ( ,orionis2 & ,pegasi _h a spectrum closely resembl+ t ( ,orionis1 b mu* fa9t]4 ,betwe5 =ty & fifty />s 7 exam9$1 & x 0 obs]v$ t ! sol> l9es ,c & ,f correspond+ to hydrog51 :i* are pres5t 9 ! spectra ( ne>ly all ! />s1 are want+ 9 ^? ( ,orionis & ,pegasi4 ,) a few exceptions1 ! t]re/rial elem5ts hydrog51 sodium1 magnesium1 & iron1 :i* appe> to be mo/ widely diffus$ ?r\gh ! />s1 are precisely ^? :i* ) ! exception ( magnesium are ess5tial to life z x exi/s ^u ! e>?4 ,besides1 ! elem5ts hydrog51 sodium1 & magnesium1 repres5t ! ocean1 :i* is an ess5tial "p ( a _w simil> to ! e>?4 ,%\ld any planets revolve r\nd ,orionis & ,pegasi1 !y probably w\ld h no hydrog51 consequ5tly1 no ocean & no wat]3 !re=e1 !y c\ld n be inhabit$ by be+s con/itut$ z we are4 ,padre ,sec*i1 ! ,roman a/ronom]1 divides ! />s into ?ree types2 ! fir/ & mo/ dom9ant type includes ,sirius1 ,lyr1 & o!r :ite />s1 :i* inv>iably conta9 hydrog5 ( high temp]ature1 & are d5ot$ by a black l9e 9 _! spectra1 :i* co9cides ) ! sol> l9e ,f2 & !re is ano!r b& also probably due to hydrog5 9 ! violet half ( ! />s visible to ! nak$ eye belong+ to ?is gr\p4 ,a s+ul> modification ( ?is gr\p1 h[ev]1 occurs 9 ! />s ( ! con/ellation ,orion1 :i* s r>ely %[ any deviation f "o type1 t1 ) ! exception ( ,orionis or ,betelgeux1 !y may be said to =m a family di/+ui%$ f all ! o!r />s 9 ! sky2 _! spectra are cross$ by f9e l9es1 fa9t 9 ! violet1 ) a b& m or less visible 9 ,f4 ,cassiopei & ,lyr diff] f ! />s ( ! fir/ type 9 hav+ a bright b& ne> ! sol> l9e ,f1 in/ead ( a black "o4#bb ,padre ,sec*i's second type includes ,orionis1 ,tauri1 ,ant>es1 ,pegasi1 c41 :i* h col\r$ b&s 9 ! r$ & orange4 ,accord+ to ,m4 ,sec*i1 ! mo/ rem>kable /> 9 ?is section is ,h]culis4 ,x gives a spectrum :i* has ! appe>ance ( columns illum9at$ on "o side2 #8! /]eoscopic effect ( ! convexity ( ^! b&s due to ! %ad+ is s surpris+1 t x _c be beheld )\t a/oni%m5t4' ,! spectrum ( ! /> #b ,lyr has a simil> appe>ance1 only in/ead ( convex x has concave b&s4 ,! ?ird type consi/s ( />s ^: spectra are cross$ by f9e l9es1 z ,arcturus1 ,capella & our own sun4 ,! col\rs ( ! />s are produc$ by vap\rs exi/+ 9 _! atmosph]es1 "o col\r pr$om9at+ ov] ! o!rs1 :i* are absorb$ by ! numb] ( d>k l9es4 ,messrs4 ,hugg9s & ,mill] obta9$ extraord9>y results f ! exam9ation ( tempor>y & p]iodic />s4 ,tempor>y />s sudd5ly %9e =? ) great brilliancy & soon vani% or ne>ly vani%4 ,a tempor>y /> :i* sudd5ly appe>$ on ! night ( ,may #ab1 #ahff1 :5 exam9$ ) a spectroscope1 _h two spectra1 %[+ t its light emanat$ f two di/9ct s\rces4 ,"o spectrum1 analog\s to t ( ! sun1 0 =m$ by ! light ( an inc&esc5t solid or liquid photosph]e1 :i* suff]$ absorption by ! vap\rs ( an envelope cool] ?an itself4 ,! second spectrum consi/$ ( a few bright l9es1 indicat+ t ! light by :i* x 0 =m$ 0 emitt$ by lum9\s gas3 ! position ( "s ( ! l9es d5ot$ hydrog52 :5ce ! obs]v]s believ$ ! ph5om5a to result f ! burn+ ( hydrog5 ) "s o!r elem5t1 & t ! photosph]e 0 heat$ to inc&esc5ce by ! result+ temp]ature4 ,! v>iation 9 ! brightness ( p]iodic />s has by "s be5 suppos$ to be due to an opaque body p]iodically obscur+ ! light4 ,%\ld t body be surr\nd$ by an atmosph]e l our planet's1 its pres5ce w\ld be reveal$ by ! abs5ce or pres5ce ( additional l9es ( absorption 9 ! spectrum ( ! />4 ,n[ ?ree l9es det]m9$ 9 ! spectrum ( ,betelgeux 7 no long] f\nd :5 ! /> arriv$ at its maximum ( brightness1 indicat+ x may be ! pres5ce ( an atmosph]e r\nd ! opaque body4 ,) reg>d to our own planets1 ,jupit] has l9es 9 8 spectrum :i* indicate ! exi/5ce ( an absorptive atmosph]e2 "o b& indicates ! pres5ce ( vap\rs simil> to ^? exi/+ 9 our atmosph]e1 ano!r b& has no c\nt]p>t among ! l9es ( absorption ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e1 & tells ( "s gas :i* x does n conta94 ,9 ! feeble spectrum ( ,saturn !re are l9es simil> to ^? 9 ! spectrum ( ,jupit]4 ,^! l9es are less /rongly m>k$ 9 ! ans ( ! r+s1 & %[ t ! absorptive p[] ( ! atmosph]e ab\t ! r+s is less ?an t ( ! atmosph]e :i* surr\nds ! ball4 ,m4 ,jans5 has f\nd l9es d5ot+ aque\s vap\r 9 ! atmosph]es ( bo? ,jupit] & ,saturn4 ,"s v rem>kable l9es h be5 se5 9 ! m refrangible "p ( ! spectrum ( ,m>s suppos$ to be connect$ ) 8 r$ col\r4 ,?\gh ! spectrum ( ,v5us is brilliant1 & ! d>k l9es di/9ct1 no additional l9es indicate ! exi/5ce ( an atmosph]e diff]+ f our own4 ,! ph5om5a result+ f an exam9ation ( ! nebul are mo/ wond]ful2 _! light is v feeble1 ev5 t ( ! brighte/4 #8,! total light ( ! :ole nebula 9 ,orion1 ! l>ge/ & brighte/ ( !m1 makes s small an impression on ! nak$ eye1 t y may look tw5ty times at its place & n p]ceive any nebul\s light at all4'#bc ,besides1 ! brightness ( a surface _c be increas$ by a telescope1 h[ev] good4 ,not)/&+ difficulties :i* seem to be almo/ insurm\ntable1 ,mr4 ,hugg9s 9 ,engl&1 & ,padre ,sec*i at ,rome1 h be51 & /ill are1 engag$ 9 ^! rese>*es4 ,! planet>y nebul are beautiful objects2 !y are l planets ) a r\nd or oval disc1 equable1 slightly mottl$ & ( enorm\s magnitude2 "o ne> ,aqu>ii is tw5ty seconds1 & ano!r is twelve seconds 9 diamet]4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el comput$ t if ^! objects be z f> f u z ! ne>e/ ( ! fix$ />s1 _! magnitude1 on ! l[e/ e/imation1 w\ld fill ! orbit ( ,uranus4 ,he discov]$ tw5ty-eight or tw5ty-n9e ( !m1 "s ( a beautiful blue t9t1 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e2 & f ! uni=mity ( ! discs 9 bo? hemisph]es1 & _! app>5t want ( cond5sation1 he presum$ t !y may be holl[ %ells emitt+ a feeble light f _! surfaces only4 ,! spectrum analysis ( t light1 by ,mr4 ,hugg9s1 9 six ( ! planet>y nebul1 %[$ t _! /ructure is utt]ly unlike any?+ else 9 creation1#bd = in/ead ( an ord9>y spectrum he f\nd1 to 8 inf9ite surprise1 t ! spectra ( ! feeble light ( ^! bodies consi/ only ( ?ree bright l9es1 su* z ^? :i* proce$ f an int5sely heat$ gas1 & t ! l9es exhibit$ "s ( ^? ( ! hydrog5 & nitrog5 spectra & an unkn[n gase\s sub/ance3 :5ce he draws ! a/\nd+ conclusion1 t planet>y nebul are probably compos$ ( hydrog51 nitrog51 & "s unkn[n gas1 )\t any solid nucleus :atev]4 ,! annul> nebula 9 ,lyra1 :i* is probably ne>e/ to ! e>?1 & ! dumb-bell nebula1 gave a spectrum indicat+ matt] 9 a gase\s =m4 ,! annul> nebula appe>s to be a holl[ elliptical r+ ( nebul\s matt] ( enorm\s magnitude4 ,! int]ior op5+ ( ! r+ is n entirely d>k1 b fill$ ) a fa9t hazy light1 l f9e gauze /ret*$ ov] a hoop4 ,! dumb-bell nebula 9 ! con/ellation ,vulpecula is l an h\r-glass ( bright matt] surr\nd$ by a ?9 hazy atmosph]e1 :i* gives ! :ole ! =m ( an oblate sph]oid4 ,bo? ( ^! nebul :5 view$ ) a v high telescopic p[] seem to consi/ ( m9ute clu/]+ />s1 b ! spectra ( ^! two nebul h "o bright l9e1 ! /ructure ( bo? be+ ( ! same gase\s con/itution4 ,! great nebula on ! sword h&le ( ,orion 0 !n exam9$4 ,! spectrum ( ! light f ! brighte/ p>ts ( ?is nebula1 ne> ! trapezium1 0 cross$ by ?ree bright l9es1 9 all respects simil> to ^? on ! spectra ( ! planet>y & o!r nebul4 ,o!r portions ( ! great nebula 7 !n br\ght successively "u exam9ation1 b ! spectra ( ! :ole ( ^? portions :i* /ill 7 suffici5tly bright = ?is me?od ( obs]vation rema9$ un*ang$1 & exhibit$ ! ?ree bright l9es only4 ,! :ole ( ! great nebula1 z f> z x lay )9 ! p[] ( ,mr4 ,hugg9s' in/rum5t1 emits light :i* is id5tical 9 its *>act]s2 ! light f "o "p diff]s f ! light f ano!r "p 9 int5sity alone4 ,! bright] portions ( ?is nebula h be5 to a c]ta9 ext5t resolv$ into />s1 by ! p[]ful telescopes ( ,"l ,rosse & ,pr(essor ,bond1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica2 ! :ole1 or ! great] "p1 ( ! light f t portion ( ! nebula mu/ !re=e be reg>d$ z ! unit$ radiation ( num]\s /ell> po9ts4 ,! spectrum ( ?is radiation be+ cross$ by ! ?ree bright l9es reveals its gase\s s\rce2 ,mr4 ,hugg9s !re=e inf]s t at lea/ "s ( ^! /ell> po9ts are m]ely d5s] p>ts ( a gase\s matt]1 & t ! nebul :i* he exam9$ are enorm\s gase\s sy/ems4 ,! spectrum ( ! great nebula 9 ,orion 0 subsequ5tly exam9$ by ,padre ,sec*i4 ,he describes ! light ( ! spectrum z ( a uni=m gre51 cross$ by ?ree bright l9es2 "o tol]ably wide & p]fectly %>p1 a v sl5d] "o close to x1 & ! ?ird at a little di/ance f ! latt]4 ,?is spectrum af=d$ a /rik+ contra/ to ! spectra ( ! small />s 9 ! bright] p>ts ( ! nebula4 ,z soon z ! light f "o ( ^! />s ent]$ ! slit ( ! in/rum5t1 its cont9u\s spectrum 0 se5 to fla% across ! field ( vision 9 a long col\r$ b&4 ,?is %[s t ! mass ( matt] 9 ?is imm5se nebula is 9 a diff]5t /ate f t ( ! />s !mselves1 z ,mr4 ,hugg9s _h already obs]v$4 ,padre ,sec*i does n draw any inf]5ce f 8 obs]vations z to ! /ructure ( nebul 9 g5]al1 probably ?9k+ x premature1 b he expresses a/oni%m5t at _! results4 ,s9ce ! prec$+ l9es 7 writt51 ,mr4 ,hugg9s & ,pr(essor ,w4 ,a4 ,mill] h cont9u$ _! rese>*es on ! con/itution ( ! cele/ial bodies by a me?od ( direct simultane\s comp>ison ( ! l9es 9 _! spectra ) ! l9es 9 ! spectra ( _m ( ! t]re/rial elem5ts4 ,! spectra = comp>ison 7 obta9$ f ! sp>k ( ! induction coil tak5 betwe5 po9ts ( v>i\s metals2 & sometimes a plat9um wire 0 us$1 surr\nd$ ) cotton1 moi/5$ ) a solution ( ! sub/ance requir$4 ,! telescope ( ! in/rum5t 0 m\nt$ equatorially1 & foll[$ ! /> by clockwork4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! spectrum ( ! />1 & ! spectrum ( ! metal comp>$ ) x1 are se5 9 juxtaposition2 & ! co9cid5ce or relative position ( a d>k l9e 9 ! /ell> spectrum ) a bright l9e 9 ! metallic spectrum c be det]m9$ ) great precision4 ,x 0 f\nd t ,jupit]'s atmosph]e has a mu* great] absorptive p[] ?an ! t]re/rial atmosph]e2 t !y h "s gases or vap\rs 9 common1 b t !y are n id5tical4 ,"s ( ! l9es se5 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,saturn appe> to be id5tical ) ^? se5 9 ! spectrum ( ,jupit]4 #8,! l9es *>act]iz+ ! atmosph]es ( ,jupit] & ,saturn are n pres5t 9 ! spectrum ( ,m>s4 ,gr\ps ( l9es appe> 9 ! blue portion ( ! spectrum2 & ^!1 by caus+ ! pr$om9ance ( ! r$ rays1 may be ! cause ( ! r$ col\r :i* di/+ui%es ! light ( ?is planet4'#be ,all ! /rong] l9es ( ! sol> spectrum 7 se5 9 ! brilliant light ( ,v5us2 b no additional l9es indicat+ an absorptive action ( ! planet's atmosph]e4 ,! au?ors are ( ! op9ion t 9 mo/ ( ! planets ! light is probably reflect$ f cl\ds float+ at "s di/ance f ! surface1 s t x is n subject to ! /rong absorptive action ( ! l[] & d5s] /rata ( ! planet's atmosph]e1 :i*1 l our own1 are mo/ effective 9 produc+ atmosph]ic l9es4 ,! results ( ! obs]vations on ! fix$ />s are exce$+ly int]e/+1 = !y %[ t _! elem5t>y con/itu5ts are simil>1 b n id5tical2 & t al?\gh !y conta9 _m ( ! sixty-five t]re/rial elem5ts1 !re are probably new unkn[n sub/ances also4 ,:5 sev5ty d>k l9es on ! spectrum ( ! /> ,aldeb>an1 & eighty on t ( ,orionis 7,betelgeux7 7 comp>$ ) ! bright l9es on ! spectra ( ! vap\rs ( a v>iety ( ! t]re/rial simple elem5ts1 x 0 f\nd t ,aldeb>an conta9$ n9e t]re/rial sub/ances & ,orionis five3 t is1 !re 7 only n9e out ( sev5ty ( ! d>k l9es ( ,aldeb>an co9cid5t ) bright l9es1 & five out ( eighty ( ^? ( ,orionis4 ,yet ! sev5ty & eighty d>k l9es t 7 comp>$ repres5t$ "s ( ! /ronge/ only ( ! num]\s l9es :i* 7 se5 on ! spectra ( ^! />s4 ,"s ( ^? rema9+ 7 probably due to ! vap\rs ( o!r t]re/rial elem5ts :i* 7 n comp>$ ) ^! />s1 b ,mr4 ,hugg9s concludes t _m ( ^? d>k l9es are due to new unkn[n elem5ts exi/+ 9 ^! />s1 & t we _c assume t ! sixty-five simple t]re/rial elem5ts con/itute ! entire prim>y mat]ial ( ! univ]se4 ,a community ( matt]1 h[ev]1 exi/s ?r\gh\t ! visible creation2 = ! />s conta9 _m ( ! elem5ts common to ! sun & e>?4 #8,x is rem>kable t ! elem5ts mo/ widely diffus$ ?r\gh ! ho/ ( />s are "s ( ^? mo/ closely connect$ ) ! liv+ organism ( our globe1 includ+ hydrog51 sodium1 magnesium & iron4 ,may x n be t1 at lea/1 ! bright] />s are l our sun1 ! uphold+ & en]giz+ c5tres ( sy/ems ( worlds adapt$ to ! abode ( liv+ be+s8' ,) reg>d to ! nebul ,mr4 ,hugg9s's obs]vations %[ t n9e are gase\s1 ! spectra ( six exhibit+ ?ree bright l9es1 "o %[s an additional fa9t l9e also1 :ile ! spectra ( ! dumb-bell nebula & ! annul> nebula 9 ,lyra %[ ! brightness ( ?ree gre5 l9es only4 ,! spectra ( eight o!r nebul 7 cont9u\s1 %[+ t _! light has n und]gone any modification on its way to u4 ,mr4 ,hugg9s has be5 able to discrim9ate betwe5 ! light ( ! nucleus ( a comet & t ( its tail4 ,! nucleus is self-lum9\s1 & its sub/ance is 9 ! =m ( ignit$ gas4 ,! coma %9es by reflect$ light z cl\ds d1 & obs]vations ( ! spectra give reason to believe t comets *iefly consi/ ( nitrog5 & ano!r elem5t>y body diff]5t f nitrog5 comb9$ ) x4 ,! t]re/rial elem5ts f\nd 9 ! fix$ />s %[ t1 l ! sun1 !y h an int5sely lum9\s nucleus3 b if x be tak5 = grant$ t highly heat$ gases are non-lum9\s int]nally1 ! planet>y nebula & ! great nebula 9 ,orion itself be+ ?us consid]$ to be gase\s1 mu/ emit _! feeble light f _! surfaces alone4 ,all ! true clu/]s ( />s :i* are resolv$ by ! telescope into di/9ct bright po9ts ( light1 give a spectrum :i* does n consi/ ( sep>ate bright l9es1 b is app>5tly cont9u\s 9 its light4 ,! great nebula 9 ,&rom$a1 :i* is visible to ! nak$ eye1 has an app>5tly cont9u\s spectrum1 b ! :ole ( ! r$ & orange "p is want+1 & ! bright] p>ts h a mottl$ appe>ance4 ,! easily resolvable clu/] 9 ,h]cules has a simil> spectrum2 ,"l ,rosse discov]$ d>k /reaks or l9es 9 bo?4 ,!re is a /rik+ correspond5ce betwe5 ! results ( prismatic & telescopic obs]vations2 half ( ! nebul :i* h a cont9u\s spectrum h be5 resolv$ into />s1 :ile none ( ! gase\s nebul h be5 resolv$ ev5 by ,"l ,rosse's telescope4 ,?us x appe>s probable t primordial nebul\s matt] does exi/1 accord+ to ! !ories ( ,sir ,william ,h]s*el & ,la ,place4 ,! /ructure ( ! sun himself1 :i* =ms "o amid/ ! multitude ( />s :i* con/itute ! ,milky ,way2 & ! ma9t5ance ( 8 light & heat )\t app>5t wa/e1 are /ill 9 v>i\s respects involv$ 9 my/]y4 ,! lum9\s gase\s atmosph]e ( ! sun is ( great ext5t & ( l[] temp]ature1 at lea/ 9 its upp] regions1 ?an ! photosph]e on :i* x re/s4 ,mr4 ,de la ,rue's photographs ( ! sun %[ t ! light f ! bord] ( ! sol> disc is less int5se ?an t f ! equator1 on acc\nt ( ! great] dep? ( sol> atmosph]e x has to pass ?r\gh be=e x rea*es ! e>?1 by :i* a l>g] portion ( ! light is absorb$4 ,! photosph]e ( ! sun has a mottl$ appe>ance1 exhibit+ m9ute masses1 :i* mu/ be ( enorm\s magnitude to be visible at su* a di/ance4 ,!y h be5 exam9$ ) a v high telescopic p[] by ,mr4 ,nasmy?1 :o describes !m z l5s-%ap$ bodies ( wond]ful uni=mity1 & lik5s !m to will[ leaves cross+ ea* o!r 9 all directions1 & mov+ irregul>ly among !mselves4 ,mr4 ,de la ,rue & ,padre ,sec*i say !y h se5 some?+ simil>1 & o!rs lik5 !m to rice gra9s4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el#bf is ( op9ion t !y consi/ ( inc&esc5t matt] su/a9$ at a level correspond+ to _! d5sity 9 ! sol> atmosph]e1 an atmosph]e :i* he consid]s z v>y+ f a liquid /ate bel[ to ! highe/ t5uity ( a r>efi$ gas above4 ,9 a memoir read at ! ,in/itute ( ,p>is1#bg by ,m4 ,faye1 some?+ ( ! same k9d is sugge/$4 ,!re are comp>atively bright] waves ( ! sun's disc1 call$ facul1 :i* are portions ( ! sun's photosph]e ?r[n up into ! high] regions ( 8 atmosph]e2 = ,mr4 ,de la ,rue took a /]eoscopic impression ( a sol> spot & "s facul1 9 :i* ! spot appe>$ to be a holl[ & ! facul elevat$ ridges4 ,be+ elevat$ above ! photosph]e1 _! light is less absorb$ by ! sun's atmosph]e1 & by contra/ !y are bright] at ! less lum9\s bord] ( ! sol> disc ?an at ! equator4 ,x appe>s t ! r$ flames & protub]ances se5 r\nd ! edge ( ! sun dur+ a total eclipse are gase\s or vapor\s lum9\s bodies :i* c]ta9ly belong to ! sun2 = dur+ ! total eclipse 9 #ahfj x 0 obs]v$1 t z ! moon mov$ ov] ! sun's disc1 ! r$ flames & "p ( ! corona discov]$ !mselves at ! side :i* %e _h left1 & 7 cov]$ by h] disc at ! side t[>ds :i* %e 0 approa*+4 ,besides1 ! illum9at+ effect ( ! r$ light ( ^! flames is s inf]ior to its photographic p[]1 t ,mr4 ,de la ,rue photograph$ "o ( ! protub]ances1 al?\gh x 0 invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,! sun spots :i* are situat$ 9 t region ( ! sun :i* lies bel[ ! photosph]e consi/ ( a c5tral d>kness or umbra1 surr\nd$ by a p5umbra :i* is less d>k4 ,pr(essor ,wilson1 ( ,glasg[1 prov$ t ! spots are cavities1 ( :i* ! umbra or d>ke/ "p =ms ! bottom1 & ! p5umbra ! slop+ sides1 by obs]v+ t ! umbra encroa*es on t side ( ! p5umbra :i* is next to ! visual c5tre ( ! sun4 ,h5ce ! umbra ( a spot is at a l[] level ?an ! p5umbra2 & s9ce lum9\s ridges & sometimes deta*$ portions ( lum9\s matt] cross ov] ! spots1 x is conclud$ t ! :ole ph5om5on is bel[ ! surface4 ,! spots h an app>5t motion f ea/ to we/1 due to ! rotation ( ! sun2 & ,mr4 ,c>r+ton discov]$ t !y h a prop] motion also f ea/ to we/1 ^? ne>e/ ! sol> equator mov+ fa/e/4 ,!y are conf9$ to ! equatorial regions4 ,no reason has yet be5 assign$ = ! p]iodicity ( ! spots1 :i* g ?r\gh a cycle ( maxima & m9ima e t5 ye>s ne>ly4 ,!y are s+ul>ly connect$ ) t]re/rial magnetism2 ! maximum ( ! spots co9cides ) ! p]iod ( ! greate/ di/urbance ( t]re/rial magnetism4 ,! spots seem to be influ5c$ by ! planet ,v5us 9 su* a mann] t :5 a spot comes r\nd by rotation to ! ecliptical neighb\rhood ( ?is planet1 x has a t5d5cy to dissolve2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 z ! sun's surface rec$es f ! planet x has a t5d5cy to break out into spots4#bh ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,vegetable ,,organisms4 ,,section ,i4 ,,microscopic ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,vegetable ,,_w4 ,,! ,,/udy ( ! indef9itely small 9 ! vegetable & animal creation1 is z int]e/+ z ! relation betwe5 ! p[]s ( nature & ! p>ticles ( matt]4 ,! intimate organic /ructure ( ! vegetable _w consi/s ( a great v>iety ( diff]5t textures indet]m9able by ! nak$ eye1 & = ! mo/ "p requir+ a v high magnify+ p[] to discrim9ate4 ,b ultimate analysis has %[n t vegetables are *emical comb9ations ( a few v simple sub/ances4 ,c>bon & ! ?ree elem5t>y gases con/itute ! bases ( all4 ,no "p conta9s few] ?an ?ree ( ^! univ]sal elem5ts1 h5ce ! great uni=mity obs]v$ 9 ! *emical /ructure ( vegetables4 ,! elem5ts unite accord+ to ! same laws )9 ! liv+ plant z 9 ! inorganic creation1 & ! *emical laws act+ ^u !m are ! same4 ,=1 z already m5tion$1 ,m4 ,b]!lot hav+ comb9$ c>bon & hydrog5 into acetyl5e1 :i* no plant is capable ( do+1 he assum$ x z a base f :i* he d$uc$1 by ! common laws ( syn!tic *emi/ry1 hundr$s ( sub/ances precisely simil> to ^? produc$ by vegetables4 ,al?\gh x may be inf]r$ f ?is t *emical action is ! same )9 ! vegetable z x is 9 ! inorganic _w1 yet x is accompli%$ )9 ! plant "u ! control ( ! occult pr9ciple ( plant-life4 ,no m]e physical p[]s are capable ( =m+ directly out ( inorganic elem5ts1 ! liv+ organism ^: passage ?r\gh ! cycle ( g]m9ation1 gr[?1 reproduction & decay1 s]ves s pre-em95tly to di/+ui% betwe5 x & in]t matt]4 ,plants1 inde$1 borr[ mat]ials f ! inorganic1 & p[]s f ! physical _w1 to m\ld !m into liv+ /ructures1 b bo? are return$ at dea? to ! great /oreh\se ( nature4 ,all o!r circum/ances be+ ! same1 ! vig\r & ri*ness ( vegetation are proportionate to ! quantity ( light & heat receiv$4 ,! functions ( light & heat are diff]5t1 b _! comb9$ & cont9u$ action is indisp5sable = ! p]fect developm5t ( vegetation4 ,light enables plants to decompose1 *ange into liv+ matt]1 & consolidate1 ! inorganic elem5ts ( c>bonic acid gas1 wat]1 & ammonia1 :i* are absorb$ by ! leaves & roots1 f ! atmosph]e & ! e>?2 ! quantity ( c>bon consolidat$ be+ exactly 9 proportion to ! int5sity ( ! illum9ation1 :i* acc\nts = ! d>k] gre5 t9t ( ! tropical =e/s4 ,light act+ 9 its *emical "* is a deoxidiz+ pr9ciple1 by :i* ! num]\s neutral comp\nds common to vegetables are =m$4 ,x is ! pr9cipal ag5t 9 prep>+ ! food ( plants1 & 9 all ! comb9ations & decompositions ! law ( def9ite quantitative proportions is ma9ta9$4 ,x is dur+ ^! *emical *anges t ! specific heat ( plants is sl[ly evolv$1 :i*1 ?\gh g5]ally feeble1 is sometimes v s5sible1 especially :5 ! fl[]s & fruit are =m+1 on acc\nt ( ! increase ( *emical en]gy at t "t4 ,to ! same cause1 ! phosphoresc5ce ( c]ta9 fl[]+ plants & a few fungi1 is suppos$ to be due4 ,! action ( heat is manife/$ ?r\gh ! :ole c\rse ( vegetable life1 b its manife/ations take v>i\s =ms suit$ to ! p]iod & circum/ances ( gr[?4 ,^u x dep5ds ! =mation ( prote9 & nitrog5\s sub/ances1 :i* ab\nd 9 ! se$s1 buds1 ! po9ts ( ! roots1 & all ^? organs ( plants :i* are ei!r 9 a /ate ( activity1 or are de/9$ to future developm5t4 ,! heat receiv$1 act+ ?r\gh\t ! entire organism ( a plant1 may augm5t its /ructure to an indef9ite ext5t1 & ?us supply new in/rum5ts = ! *emical ag5cy ( light1 & ! production ( new organic comp\nds4 ,! :ole en]gy ( vegetable life is manife/$ 9 ?is production1 &1 9 effect+ x1 ea* organ is n only draw+ mat]ials1 b p[]1 f ! univ]se ar\nd x4 ,! organiz+ p[] ( plants be>s a relation ( equival5ce to ! light & heat :i* act ^u !m4 ,! same annual plant f g]m9ation to ! maturation ( its se$ receives ab\t ! same am\nt ( light & heat1 :atev] be ! latitude1 its rate ( gr[? be+ 9 an inv]se ratio to ! am\nt x receives 9 any giv5 "t4 ,= "o ( ! same species1 ! m rapid ! gr[?1 ! %ort] ! life4 ,! liv+ m$ium :i* possesses ! m>vell\s prop]ty ( be+ r\s$ into en]gy by ! action ( light & heat1 & :i* ei!r =ms ! :ole or ! greate/ "p ( e plant1 is 9 its simple/ =m a m9ute globe consi/+ ( two col\rless transp>5t conc5tric cells 9 ! close/ contact1 yet diff]+ ess5tially 9 "* & prop]ties4 ,! ext]nal "o1 :i* is ! /ronge/1 is =m$ ( "o or m conc5tric globul> lay]s ( cellulose1 a sub/ance ne>ly alli$ to />*1 be+ a *emical comp\nd ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg5 9 ! proportions ( #ab1 #aj1 & #aj1 respectively4#bi ,x =ms ! univ]sal framework or skeleton ( ! vegetable _w1 b x has no %>e :atev] 9 ! vital functions ( vegetation4 ,x only s]ves z a protection to ! globul> cell )9 x1 :i* is call$ ! primordial cell because x is fir/ =m$1 & because x pre-em95tly con/itutes ! liv+ "p1 s9ce ! :ole ph5om5a ( gr[? & reproduction dep5d ^u x4 ,9 its e>lie/ /age ! primordial cell is a globul> mass ( an azotiz$ col\rless organizable liquid1 call$ protoplasm1 ! life blood ( vegetation1 conta9+ album9\s matt] & dextr9e or />*-gum4 ,x is suffici5tly viscid to ma9ta9 its globul> =m1 b its surface becomes slightly consolidat$ into a delicate s(t film4 ,! viscid album9\s liquid )9 x is mix$ ) highly col\r$ semi-transp>5t p>ticles conta9+ />*2 besides cavities or vacuoles full ( a wat]y vegetable sap ( highly refractive p[] are imb$d$ 9 x4 ,by degrees ! col\r$ p>ticles become m & m cond5s$ )9 a globule ( mucus1 :i* con/itutes ! nucleus ( ! primordial cell4 ,! wat]y sap 9 ! cavities increases s mu* z ultimately to fill ne>ly ! :ole ( ! cell at ! exp5se ( ! viscid protoplasm1 :i* !n m]ely =ms a l9+ to ! cell ei!r col\r$ or hyal9e4 ,! primordial cell !n secretes & envelopes itself ) ! /rong protect+ coats ( cellulose already describ$4 ,on acc\nt ( its high col\r1 :i* is *iefly gre51 ! :ole cont5ts ( ! primordial cell are call$ ! endo*rome4 ,! m9ute globul> nucleus conta9s a liquid ( high refractive p[]1 & is coat$ ) a delicate film4 ,its /ructure1 :i* is be/ se5 9 ! hairs & "y p>ts ( plants1 is n always ! same1 nor is x always 9 ! c5tre ( ! primordial cell1 be+ sometimes atta*$ to ! int]nal cell wall4#cj ,on ! m9ute b complicat$ organ1 ! primordial cell1 vegetable life dep5ds4 ,x w be %[n aft]w>ds t ! primordial cell sometimes con/itutes ! :ole plant1 ) or )\t its cellul> coat4 ,by its cont9ual bisection :5 s coat$1 l9e> plants1 su* z ! conf]v1 are =m$ & l5g!n$ 7fig4 #c74 ,:5 bisection is ab\t to take place1 ! cell increases 9 l5g?2 ! nucleus1 :i* always plays an important "p 9 cell =mation1 spontane\sly divides into halves2 at ! same "t ! cell wall becomes con/rict$ 9 ! middle & gradually folds betwe5 !m1 & divides ! orig9al cell into two new ones1 9 :i* ! nuclei become p]fect & assume _! normal position4 ,! t]m9al cell may und]go ! same process1 s t ! plant may be l5g!n$ indef9itely4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,developm5t ( ,ulva3--,a1 isolat$ cells2 ,b1 ,c1 clu/]$ subdivid$ cells2 ,d1 ,e1 conf]void filam5ts2 ,f1 ,g1 frond-l expansions4 ,plants :i* spread 9 two directions are =m$ & increas$ by ! successive division ( ! cells into f\r equal p>ts1 z 9 "s ( ! fuci1 & ! solid vegetable mass is =m$ & augm5t$ ^u ! same pr9ciple1 s t x consi/s ( a cong]ies ( primordial cells or globules coat$ ) cellulose1 :i* by mutual pressure take a _m-sid$ cellul> =m4 ,six or eight sides are mo/ common2 :5 six-sid$1 a section ( ! solid is l honeycomb1 b x frequ5tly resembles a v irregul> f9e lace or network4 ,! =m ( ! cells1 :i* n only dep5ds ^u ! numb] ( sides b on ! direction ( ! pressure1 v>ies exce$+ly 9 diff]5t plants1 & 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! same plant4 ,! size ( ! cells av]ages f ! ?ree to ! five hundr$? "p ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,"s are v l>ge1 z 9 ! pulp ( ! orange & lemon2 b 9 ! poll5 ( fl[]+ plants1 & o!r cases1 !y are n m ?an ! ?\s&? "p ( an in* 9 diamet]1 consequ5tly invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,occasionally ! cells are elongat$ 9 ! direction ( lea/ pressure1 z 9 ! /ems & hairs ( plants1 or sometimes !y h a /ell> =m4 ,9 ! loos] & fle%y p>ts !y reta9 _! globul> =m & only t\* "o ano!r1 leav+ triangul> spaces betwe5 !m fill$ ) air 9 wat] plants2 b 9 g5]al ! cells are held toge!r by a viscid liquid4 ,:5 ^! int]cellul> spaces1 :e!r left by globul> or polyangul> cells1 are plac$ ! "o ov] ! o!r = "s di/ance1 !y con/itute int]cellul> passages or *annels1 & sometimes !y =m lacun or l>ge empty spaces4 ,not)/&+ its great v>iety ( =ms1 ?is solid cong]ies ( cells1 call$ cellul> tissue1 is ! univ]sal basis ( vegetable /ructure2 x =ms ! pr9cipal "p ( all plants1 & ! entire mass ( _m4 ,?\gh (t5 highly col\r$1 z 9 fl[]s1 gre5 leaves & "y %oots1 x is frequ5tly hyal9e & col\rless4 ,! d>k cells 9 fig4 #d repres5t ! gre5 "p ( a leaf1 ! :ite ones are ^? ( ! col\rless sk94 ,s9ce ! primordial cell is ! m$ium 9 :i* light & heat act1 cellul> tissue is pres5t :]ev] gr[? is 9 progress1 = all ! vital op]ations take place )9 its cells4 ,all ! organs ( plants 9 _! e>lie/ /age consi/ entirely ( cellul> tissue1 & ev5 9 full gr[n trees ! b>k & pi? ( ! /em1 z well z ! s(t p>ts ( leaves & fl[]s1 are g5]ally compos$ ( ! cells ( ?is tissue1 :i* ?\gh assum+ a great v>iety ( =ms nev] deviates f> f ! orig9al type4 ,e important *ange 9 ! /ructure ( ! cell dim9i%es or de/roys its p[] ( contribut+ to ! n\ri%m5t ( ! plant1 z appe>s 9 all ! tissues d]iv$ f x1 & :i*1 accord+ to ,m4 von ,mohl1 is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! disappe>ance ( ! vital "p ( ! primordial cell f ^? p>ts ( ! cellul> tissue de/9$ to und]go ! *ange4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,v]tical section ( ! cuticle ( ,iris g]manica3--a1 cells ( ! cuticle2 b1 cells at ! sides ( ! /omata2 c1 small gre5 cells plac$ )9 ^!2 d1 op5+s ( ! /omata2 e1 lacun ( ! p>5*yma2 f1 cells ( ! p>5*yma4 ,! fibro-vascul> bundles :i* con/itute ! wood ( trees1 & =m consecutive cyl9d]s r\nd ! /em betwe5 ! pi? & ! b>k1 consi/ ( vascul> ducts & woody fibre4 ,! vascul> ducts are =m$ ( l>ge wide cells ea* /&+ ^u ! o!r's flatt5$ end1 _! cavities be+ ?us sep>at$ f ea* o!r by septa or p>titions direct$ at "r angles to _! longitud9al axis4 ,?is vascul> tissue :5 "y conveys ! sap f ! roots ?r\gh ! /em & bran*es to ! leaves4 ,x =ms "p ( ! /ems ( all climb+ & quick-gr[+ plants1 9 :i* ! circulation ( ! sap is rapid1 & ! p]spiration great4 ,! sap 9 ?is crude /ate passes freely ?r\gh ! p>titions1 be+ probably a dialysable liquid2 b 9 ! autumn1 :5 ! sap ceases to rise1 ! septa are ei!r absorb$ or de/roy$1 z appe>s f ! fragm5ts ( !m t sometimes rema91 & !n ! ducts become fill$ ) air1 :i* !y convey to mature ! sap 9 ! leaves & all p>ts ( ! plant4 ,"s ( ! vascul> ducts h v n>r[ p>allel fibres ( a blui% col\r twi/$ 9 a m or less ela/ic spiral f end to end ( _! int]nal surface1 :i* 9 by f> ! great] numb] ( cases turns 9 ! same direction z a left-h&$ screw4 ,9 "s ducts !y m]ely cross ! inn] wall ( ! cell at regul> di/ances z circles4 ,! reticulat$ =m f ! cross+ ( "r & left-h&$ spirals is /ill m frequ5t ?an ! simple spiral2 !re is sc>cely a plant1 f ! mosses upw>ds1 9 :i* t /ructure _c be f\nd4 ,9 a va/ majority ( cases ! second>y int]nal membrane ( "s ( ! ducts is p]=at$ by orifices ( num]\s =ms1 sometimes irregul>ly1 & sometimes 9 a regul> patt]n l a sieve1 & on t acc\nt !y are call$ ! pitt$ tissue4 ,9 ! /em ( a tree ! vascul> cyl9d]s alt]nate ) cyl9d]s ( woody fibre1 z may be se5 9 a section p]p5dicul> to ! axis1 9 :i* ! two tissues =m a s]ies ( alt]nate r+s4 ,! woody or ligne\s tissue1 :i* gives /r5g? & solidity to all vegetable /ructures1 consi/s ( bundles ( ne>ly p>allel sp9dle-%ap$ tubul> fibres1 hav+ _! att5uat$ extremities appli$ end to end to ! extremities ( ^? above & bel[ !m1 s t !y =m gr\ps ( ne>ly /raight l9es2 b al?\gh ! ends ( ^! tubul> fibres ov]lap ea* o!r !y d n prev5t a free circulation ( ! sap4 ,! diff]5t lay]s ( ^! comb9$ tissues :i* =m ! wood d n convey ! ris+ sap 9 equal quantity4 ,! out]mo/ lay]s t are ne>e/ ! b>k1 :i* are always ! la/ =m$ or y\nge/1 convey x 9 greate/ quantity1 & on t acc\nt are call$ ! sap-wood3 ! old] ! lay]s ! less !y convey1 because ! int]ior walls ( ! cells ( bo? tissues are coat$ ) successive lay]s ( a mucilag9\s sub/ance :i* is ! col\r+ matt] ( ! wood 7lign971 & is call$ scl]og51 :i* becomes h>d1 is ultimately unit$ to ! cell walls1 & fills or ne>ly fills ! tubul> fibres & vascul> ducts1 s t ^? ne>e/ ! c5tre ( ! tree lose or ne>ly lose ! p[] ( conduct+ ! sap1 z 9 h>d wood l ! oak1 ?\gh 9 s(t] wood1 z ! lime tree1 x is n entirely lo/4 ,ligne\s tissue =ms ! *ief "p ( ! /ems1 bran*es1 & %oots ( trees & %rubs2 x gives firmness to leaves1 fl[]s1 & all _! p>ts1 & /r5g? to ! /ems & sk9s ( h]bace\s plants2 x is f\nd 9 ! b>k ( all trees1 & con/itutes ! /rong fibre ( hemp1 flax1 ! agave1 & _m o!r plants1 :5ce l951 canvas1 & cordage are made4 ,cells l9$ ) scl]og5 =m ! %ells ( nuts1 cocoa-nuts1 & walnuts1 z well z *]ry1 pea*1 & plum /ones1 ! br[n coat ( apple & pe> se$s1 ! gritty p>ticles 9 ! he>t ( ! pe>1 ! :ite coats ( ! pips ( ! orange & lemon1 ! husks ( peas1 c4 ,all ! tissues are repres5t$ 9 fig4 #e1 :i* is a longitud9al section ( ! ,italian re$1 mu* magnifi$4 ,x consi/s ( ?ree p>ts3 at a ! cellul> tissue ( ! pi? is repres5t$2 b is a fibro-vascul> bundle conta9+ annul> ducts 7#a71 spiral ducts 7#b71 a pitt$ duct 7#c71 besides ! long sp9dle-%ap$ ?reads ( woody fibre2 c is ! ext]ior "p ( ! re$1 :i* consi/s ( cellul> tissue1 ! two surface r[s be+ r compress$ & fill$ ) col\r$ p>ticles4 ,besides ! spiral vessels t are atta*$ to ! int]ior walls ( ! vascul> ducts1 !re are gr\ps ( indep5d5t spiral vessels ( great beauty & ela/icity1 ( :i* ! se$s ( ! wild cl>y af=d a rem>kable in/ance4 ,!y consi/ ( cyl9drical tubes ) conical extremities twi/$ into a "r or left-h&$ screw1 :i* c be unroll$ )\t break+4 ,!y are f\nd 9 ! leaves ( almo/ all plants1 9 ! petals & /am5s ( fl[]s1 9 ! /alks ( all fruits1 ev5 9 ! m9ute/ se$s2 l>ge p>allel bundles ( !m imb$d$ 9 hexagonal cellul> tissue may be se5 9 ! ve9s ( ! k]nel ( ! hazel nut1 & !y con/itute ! m$ull>y %ea? :i* surr\nds ! pi? 9 trees4 ,!y are all holl[1 & capable ( conduct+ liquids4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,longitud9al section ( /em ( ,italian re$3--a1 pi?2 b1 fibro-vascul> bundles2 c1 cuticle4 ,! laticif]\s vessels or vasa propria1 ^? :i* conta9 ! prop] juices ( plants :e!r milky or col\r$1 are exce$+ly v>i$ 9 _! =ms & arrangem5t 9 diff]5t plants1 & 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! same plant4 ,9 ! leaves !y g5]ally =m a delicate capill>y network1 9 ! b>k !y con/itute a sy/em ( long vascul> ducts =m+ an elongat$ irregul> network p]vi\s to ! prop] juices ?r\gh\t2 sometimes !y are =m$ ( cells jo9$ end to end1 & frequ5tly !y are ?9 bran*+ flexu\s tubes1 me&]+ ?r\gh ! passages or int]/ices ( ! cellul> tissue1 & occasionally fill+ ! lacun4#ca ,e "o ( ! prec$+ tissues may be f\nd 9 _m ( ! highe/ class ( vegetables--^? :i* are di/+ui%$ by hav+ se$s ) two lobes or se$ leaves1 su* z our common trees1 %rubs1 & mo/ ( ! h]bace\s plants4 ,palms1 ! c]eals1 grasses1 canes1 & all plants hav+ se$s ) b "o lobe1 :i* =m ! second class1 consi/ ( cellul> tissue mix$ ) fibro-vascul> bundles2 :il/ 9 ! ?ird or fl[]less spore-be>+ class1 !re is a g5]al t5d5cy to a m & m simple /ructure1 f ! tree f]n to ! li*5s & alg1 :i* la/ consi/ ( cellul> tissue alone1 & conta9 ! l[e/ g]ms ( vegetable life4 ,9 se$s ! m9iature plant is enclos$ betwe5 ! two lobes1 z 9 peas & beans1 or 9 a cavity ( a lobe1 z 9 a gra9 ( :eat or b>ley2 & all ! p>ts ( ! embryo are m]ely develop$ into ! p]fect plant dur+ ! progress ( vegetation4 ,a spore1 on ! contr>y1 :i* is ! se$ ( a ,cryptogam1 or fl[]less class ( plants1 is a mo/ m9ute globul> cell1 full ( granul> matt]1 9 :i* no embryo has yet be5 discov]$1 s t ! p>ts ( ! future plant are suppos$ to be =m$ dur+ ! progress ( vegetation1 in/ead ( be+ develop$4 ,se$s1 & spores also1 sometimes produce new v>ieties1 :ile buds & (fsets only transmit ! p>5t plant1 ) all its peculi>ities4 ,9 ! high] classes1 ! organs ( nutrition & reproduction are always sep>ate2 9 ! l[e/ grades ( vegetable life !y are (t5 ! same4 ,se$s be> no proportion to spores ei!r 9 size or numb]2 ! latt] are (t5 s extremely small t !y are invisible to ! unaid$ eye1 & are n to be c\nt$ ev5 by ?\s&s4 ,x appe>s t be+s1 :e!r animal or vegetable1 are prolific 9 ! inv]se ratio ( _! size4 ,! incr$ible multitudes ( ! l[e/ grades ( vegetable life1 ! rapidity ( _! gr[?1 ! %ortness ( _! exi/5ce1 & _! enorm\s fruitfulness1 make !m p[]ful ag5ts 9 prep>+ soil = ! high] classes :i* are n\ri%$ by _! decay4 ,b no soon] d ev5 ! mon>*s ( ! =e/ fall ?an ! "w ( de/ruction beg9s2 ! light & heat :i* 9 _! *emical =m br\ght !m to maturity1 n[ 9 _! physical "* accel]ate _! decay2 ! moss & ! li*5 resume _! empire1 & live at ! exp5se ( ! dy+ & ! dead1 a cycle :i* p]petuates ! gre5 mantle ( ! e>?4 ,not)/&+ ! important "p ^! inf]ior be+s p]=m 9 ! economy ( nature1 !y 7 imp]fectly kn[n till !y became a te/ = ! p[] ( ! microscope4 ,!n inde$ n only 7 ! mo/ wond]ful organisms discov]$ 9 ! o/5sible tribes ( ! ,cryptogamia1 b a new & unse5 creation 0 br\ght "u mortal eye1 s v>i$1 a/oni%+1 & inexhau/ible1 t no limit c be assign$ to x4 ,?is invisible creation teems 9 ! e>?1 9 ! air1 & 9 ! wat]s1 innum]able z ! s& on ! sea%ore4 ,^! be+s h a beauty ( _! own1 & are adorn$ & f9i%$ ) z mu* c>e z ! creatures ( a high] ord]4 ,! deep] ! rese>*1 ! m does ! inexpressible p]fection ( ,god's works appe>1 :e!r 9 ! maje/y ( ! heav5s1 or 9 ! inf9itesimal be+s on ! e>?4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,alg4 ,,! pr9cipal objects 9 ! /udy ( plant-life are ! organs by means ( :i* !y obta9 & assimilate sub/ances t are ess5tial = _! n\ri%m5t & gr[?1 & ^? by :i* ! p]petuity ( _! race is ma9ta9$ & _! type transmitt$ f age to age4 ,9 ! l[e/ gr\p ( plants1 repres5t$ by ! ,alg1 :i* come fir/ into consid]ation1 ! two prop]ties are comb9$2 9 ! highe/ !y are di/9ctly diff]5t1 b ! progress f "o to ! o!r may be trac$ ?r\gh an asc5d+ s]ies ( vegetable /ructure4 ,9 ! simple grades ( vegetables1 ! primordial cell frequ5tly con/itutes ! :ole plant2 x appe>s fir/1 & !n envelopes itself ) a coat ei!r ( cellulose or ( a gelat9\s sub/ance4 ,_m in/ances ( ?is are to be f\nd among/ ! ,alg1 :i* are all aquatic plants1 & are f\nd gr[+ ei!r atta*$ to o!r bodies1 or float+ indep5d5tly1 & live1 "s species 9 fre% wat]1 & o!rs 9 ! sea & its e/u>ies4 ,! ,alg absorb c>bonic acid & give out oxyg51 "u ! influ5ce ( sun-light1 exactly z d ! fl[]+ plants2 & ! quantity ( oxyg5 dis5gag$ by !m is said to be enorm\s4 ,be=e proce$+ to trace ! /ructure & developm5t ( ! ,alg1 x may be desirable to indicate some?+ ( ! classification ( ?is curi\s gr\p ( plants4 ,z already /at$1 !y are )\t exception aquatic plants4 ,!y comprise ?ree di/9ct ord]s1 ! ,*lorosp]me1 hav+ gre5 spores2 ! ,rhodosp]me1 hav+ r$ spores2 & ! ,melanosp]me1 hav+ olive-col\r$ spores4 ,^! gr\ps embrace all ! v>i$ plants kn[n z sea-we$s1 z well z ! cellul> plants :i* are develop$ 9 fre% wat]4 ,! ,*lorosp]me are sep>able into ?ree gr\ps1 namely1 ^? :i* are simply cellul>1 includ+ ! ,palmelle1 ! gre5 ,desmidiace1 & ! yell[-br[n silici\s-coat$ ,diatomace2 ^? :i* are filam5t\s1 call$ g5]ally conf]vas1 & includ+ ! true ,conf]vace1 9 :i* ! ?reads h no comp\nd axis1 ! ,batra*osp]me1 9 :i* ! ?reads are p>tially incorporat$ ) an axis1 ! ,no/o*9e1 9 :i* ! sl5d] monili=m ?reads are inve/$ ) a muc\s or gelat9\s mass1 ! ,oscillatori1 & "s o!rs2 & ^? :i* are foliace\s1 compris+ ! ,ulvace4 ,all ^! are monci\s plants1 ^: reproductive bodies are zoospores provid$ ) cili>y app5dages1 or motionless cy/s fill$ ) endo*rome1 true sp]matozoids be+ r>ely pres5t4 ,! ,rhodosp]me divide prim>ily into two gr\ps def9$ by ! nature & position ( _! spores3 "o hav+ ! spores indef9ite1 produc$ )9 "m cells2 ! o!r hav+ ! spores s+le 9 ! upp] jo9ts ( ! ?reads ( ! nucleus4 ,! fir/ gr\p includes ! ,c]amiace1 :i* are fili=m articulate plants1 ) ! nucleus nak$1 & ! ,rhodym5iace1 :i* are comp\nd in>ticulate plants1 ) ! spores g5]at$ )9 ! cells ( monili=m ?reads4 ,! second gr\p includes1 among/ o!rs1 ! ,rhodomeliace & ! ,laur5ciace1 ! =m] articulate1 ! latt] in>ticulate1 & bo? be>+ t]m9al spores1 & hav+ ! nucleus conceptacul>4 ,to ?is gr\p also belong ! calc>e\s ,corall9ace & ! c>tilag9\s or membranace\s ,sphrococcoide4 ,! plants ( ?is gr\p are dici\s1 ) two k9ds ( fruit1 spores & tetraspores1 & !y be> an!ridia fill$ ) active sp]matozoids4 ,! ,melanosp]me divide into two s]ies1 ! articulate & in>ticulate4 ,! =m] comprise ! ,ectoc>pe1 :i* are fili=m plants ) ext]nal cy/s1 & ! ,*ord>i1 :i* are int]lac$ cyl9drical plants ) imm]s$ cy/s4 ,! latt] include ! ,lam9>i1 flat1 (t5 /rap-%ap$1 sometimes gigantic plants1 hav+ ! spores sup]ficial & indef9ite1 & ! ,fucace1 :i* con/itute a l>ge proportion ( ! %ore-we$s ( our seas & e/u>ies1 & :i* be> _! spores 9 elliptic or sph]ical conceptacles sunk 9 ! frond4 ,! ,melanosp]me are ei!r monci\s or dici\s1 & sp]matozoids are g5]al among/ !m1 ?\gh occasionally propagation is effect$ by means ( zoospores resembl+ ! sp]matozoids4 ,hav+ ?us indicat$ ! sev]al gr\ps ( ! great ,algal family1 _! /ructure & developm5t w n[ be trac$1 comm5c+ ) ! mo/ simple =ms1 :i* occur among ! ,,*lorosp]me4 ,spr+ wat] absorbs oxyg51 nitrog51 & a l>ge proportion ( c>bonic acid gas f ! e>? & ! atmosph]e1 )\t los+ its limpidity1 b not)/&+ ?is app>5t purity1 if expos$ = a "t to ! sun1 gre5 slime appe>s1 & ?is ! microscope %[s to be full ( globules or vesicles fill$ ) gre5 matt]--! primordial cell 9 its e>lie/ =m4 ,no gre5 slime is =m$ 9 spr+ wat] if kept 9 d>kness1 s sol> light is ! pr9cipal ag5t 9 ?is gr[?1 :i* is by no means a spontane\s bir?2 x is m]ely ! developm5t ( "o or m ( ! _m k9ds ( g]ms1 invisible to ! nak$ eye1 t exi/ 9 ! e>?1 air1 & wat] 9 myriads1 wait+ till fav\rable circum/ances enable !m to g]m9ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,palmogla macrococca3--,a1 full gr[n cell2 ,b-,e1 successive /ages ( b9>y division2 ,f1 r[ ( cells produc$ by a succession ( subdivisions2 ,g-,i1 cells treat$ by iod9e2 ,k-,m1 cells 9 conjugation4 ,! slime t cov]s damp walls or /ones1 & moi/ cliffs or rocks 9 ! sea1 also ! slime or mucus t sometimes swims on ! surface ( wat]1 are said by ,m4 ,bory de ,/4 ,v9c5t to be provisional creations wait+ to be organiz$4 ,( ?is ! conf]va1 ,palmogla macrococca 7fig4 #f71 is an example4 ,x is a gre5 slime cov]+ damp places1 consi/+ ( microscopic primordial cells1 ea* ( :i* is surr\nd$ by a gelat9\s envelope1 & fill$ ) gre5 granul> matt] occasionally conc5trat$ into a nucleus4 ,?is s+ul> plant is propagat$ 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,! endo*rome or gre5 matt] )9 ! cell spontane\sly divides into two equal p>ts1 ! ?9 coat ( ! cell b5ds r\nd ! two ends1 sep>ates !m1 !n ea* half takes a globul> or ovoid =m1 & secretes a gelat9\s sub/ance r\nd itself :i* completes ! sep>ation1 s t !y =m two di/9ct & indep5d5t plants1 9 e respect simil> to t f :5ce !y 7 d]iv$4 ,aft] a little "t1 ea* ( ^! plants und]goes a simil> bisection1 s t f\r new plants are =m$ ) _! gelat9\s envelopes2 by ! same process eight are produc$ & s on indef9itely1 ! organ ( nutrition be+ ! same ) t ( reproduction4 ,aga91 ! membrane or film t cov]s ea* ( ^! primordial cells is s ?9 & s(t1 t occasionally two adjac5t cells ( ! s]ies unite into "o mass by a fusion ( _! sides & int]nal matt]1 :i* is !n coat$ by a membrane1 & aft] v>i\s int]nal *anges becomes a spore :i* t]m9ates a g5]ation4 ,by & by ! spore g]m9ates1 produces a gre5 primordial cell :i* secretes a gelat9\s coat1 & becomes by ! process ( bisection ! p>5t ( a new g5]ation1 :i* t]m9ates by ! union ( two adjac5t cells to produce a spore1 a cycle ( alt]nate modes ( reproduction t may be cont9u$ till end$ by "s ext]nal circum/ance1 z ! cold ( w9t]4 ,:5 ! matt] 9 two adjac5t cells jo9s to =m a spore1 x becomes granul>1 & mix$ ) m9ute p>ticles ( oil1 :i* unite 9 a drop2 & ! spore1 :i* is at fir/ gre51 gradually assumes a yell[ br[n col\r2 conv]sely :5 ! spore beg9s to gr[1 ! oil disappe>s1 & ! gre5 matt] takes its place4 ,?is is a frequ5t occurr5ce dur+ ! =mation ( spores 9 ?is class ( plants1 = ! endo*rome or int]nal matt]1--:i* consi/s ( a small v>iety ( elem5ts probably 9 a /ate ( un/able equilibrium or *ange1--is easily decompos$ & recomb9$ into new sub/ances by *emical action1 b ! bisection ( ! cells ( ! ,palmogla s z to =m new individuals is probably ow+ to heat alone4 ,!re is no app>5t diff]5ce betwe5 ! cells select$ to produce spores by _! union1 & ! o!rs4 ,x seems t 9 e plant c]ta9 cells are res]v$ = c]ta9 purposes4 ,pr(essor ,k>/5 conceives ! nucleat$ cells to be res]v$ = reproduction1 :ile ^? de/itute ( nuclei are design$ = secretion4 ,! ,protococcus pluvialis 7fig4 #g71 "o ( ! unicellul> ,conf]v1 is frequ5tly met ) 9 ra9-wat] ci/]ns4 ,! spore ( ! plant 7fig4 #g ,a7 is a globul> primordial cell inve/$ ) a d\ble coat ( cellulose1 sometimes sep>at$ by an aque\s fluid1 sometimes n4 ,! cell is fill$ ) protoplasm1 a col\rless wat]y liquid 9 :i* r$ & gre5 p>ticles are scatt]$4 ,:5 ?is spore beg9s to gr[1 ! endo*rome1 or solid matt] 9 ! primordial cell1 divides spontane\sly into two simil> & equal p>ts1 r\nd at "o end1 & tap]+ to a po9t or beak at ! o!r1 ea* be+ coat$ by a v ?9 film ( ! transp>5t col\rless protoplasm4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,protococcus pluvialis3--,a1 ency/$ cell2 ,b1 ,c1 cells divid$ into two2 ,d1 cell divid$ into f\r2 ,e1 cell divid$ into eight2 ,f1 cell divid$ into ?irty-two2 ,g1 escap$ motile gonidia2 ,h-,l1 primordial utricles furni%$ ) cilia4 ,aft] v>i\s *anges1 ! gre5 matt] ) sev]al r$ spots is cond5s$ into ! ?ick r\nd half1 :ile ! tap]+ beak$ "p is left transp>5t1 be+ only fill$ ) ! wat]y liquid4 ,bo? bodies are !n coat$ ) cellulose1 & two vibratile filam5ts call$ cilia1 f _! resemblance to eye-la%es1 proce$ f a po9t ne> ! beak4 ,! :ole ( ^! *anges take place :ile ! two bodies are /ill )9 ! common cellulose cov]+2 ! mom5t !y come out ( x1 by a rupture 9 ! cell-wall1 !y swim ab\t ) ! greate/ velocity by means ( _! cilia1 :i* la% ! wat] s rapidly t !y are invisible ev5 ) a microscope4 ,! activity ( ^! zoospores1 z !y are call$1 cont9ues = ab\t an h\r & a half2 ! motion !n becomes gradually less rapid2 ! cilia may n[ be se51 & soon fall (f2 !n ! bodies acquire a firm] coat ( cellulose1 & s9k to ! bottom ( ! wat]1 :]e !y rema9 at re/ z /ill1 or w9t] spores4 ,!re is great v>iety 9 ! ,protococcus1 = ! matt] 9 ! primordial cell sometimes divides n only into two equal & simil> p>ts1 b into #d1 #h1 #af1 #cb equal & simil> p>ts consecutively2 ea* brood is develop$ into zoospores1 :i* ultimately become re/+ spores4 ,:5 a spore is to be =m$ 9 a primordial cell1 ! />* & gre5 matt] cond5se into a nucleus 9 its c5tre1 & a membrane envelopes ! liquid & ! nucleus )9 x1 s t a spore 9 its fir/ /age is a free & indep5d5t cell conta9+ azotiz$ matt] swimm+ 9 a =mative liquid4 ,if ! spore is to be motile x rema9s ( a gre5 col\r1 & gets cilia2 b if x is to be a w9t] spore1 ! int]nal matt] =ms into granules1 mix$ ) p>ticles ( r$ oil1 :i* coalesce into a drop1 & x g5]ally und]goes ! same trans=mations z ^? :i* take place aft] ! conjugation or union ( two adjac5t cells into "o z already describ$4 ,! zoospores may lose _! cilia1 fall to ! bottom ( ! wat] z gre5 spores1 & reproduce a facsimile ( ! p>5t plant z buds d1 or !y may acquire a cellulose coat1 und]go ! trans=mations & *ange ( col\r m5tion$1 & s9k to ! bottom ( ! wat] z r$ w9t] spores4 ,"u c]ta9 circum/ances :i* d n seem to be p]fectly kn[n1 x happ5s t dur+ ! =mation ( "s ( ! zoospores ! gre5 matt] is gradually *ang$ into a r$ oily sub/ance2 !y lose _! cilia1 acquire by secretion _! cell-walls & a muc\s envelope1 & float on ! wat] z w9t] spores4 ,%\ld !y be left dry1 !y may rema9 9 t /ate = an indef9ite l5g? ( "t )\t los+ _! vitality1 & z !y are extremely small1 !y are c>ri$ by curr5ts ( air into ! atmosph]e1 f :5ce !y are br\ght d[n 9 ! ra91 & hav+ fall5 occasionally 9 places :]e !y 7 nev] se5 be=e1 h giv5 rise to ! idea ( spontane\s g5]ation4 ,_m cycles may be accompli%$ f ! /ill cell to ! zoospores1 & back aga91 produc+ num]\s g5]ations f ! same plant be=e x returns to ! r$ ?ick-wall$ cell1 :i* may aga9 be dormant = an unlimit$ "t4 ,^! cycles1 h[ev]1 d n f9i% ! hi/ory ( ! plant1 = !re c be little d\bt t1 9 "s /age ( its exi/5ce1 a conjugation ( two cells occurs1 z 9 ! ,palmogla4 ,sometimes :5 ! division ( ! endo*rome ( ! spore ( ! ,protococcus is successively divid$ into sixte5 p>ts1 or ev5 soon]1 ! new cells ?us produc$ get two long cilia1 z 9 fig4 #g ,h1 & are lib]at$ be=e !y acquire _! cellulose coat4 ,?is motile primordial cell soon acquires a bag-l inve/m5t 7fig4 #g ,i1 ,k1 ,l17 ( cellulose1 ?r\gh :i* ! cilia pass1 & ?read-l ext5sions ( ! protoplasm are n unfrequ5tly se5 to radiate f ! primordial cell to ! surr\nd+ bag1 z 9 fig4 #g ,i1 %[+ t ! transp>5t space is only occupi$ by a wat]y liquid4 ,! v>ieties ( ?is plant are v num]\s1 & all relat$ to "o ano!r4 ,sometimes ! :ole ( ! matt] )9 ! primordial cell ( ! spore divides at once into #d1 #h1 or #af p>ts1 giv+ rise to z _m m9ute primordial cells4 ,! cilia are ext5sions ( ! col\rless transp>5t film :i* cov]s ! zoospores1 & _! vibrations are g5]ally believ$ to be a consequ5ce ( ! vital contractibility ( t film1 & intimately relat$ to ! *anges tak+ place 9 ! cell on :i* !y are borne4 ,! p]si/5ce ( _! motions aft] a cell is deta*$ f a comp\nd body cov]$ ) !m1 be+ l ! p]si/5ce ( ! contractibility ( muscle fibre aft] be+ deta*$ f a liv+ animal1 proves t we mu/ look to a contractile en]gy 9 ! film ( protoplasm = ! ma9t5ance ( ^! curi\s op]ations4 ,x appe>s t a cell _c p]=m two functions at ! same "t1 & t "o mu/ ei!r prec$e or foll[ ! o!r4 ,?us1 ! zoospores h two di/9ct p]iods ( action2 ! fir/ is t ( me*anical motion alone1 :i* is foll[$ by "o ( gr[? & multiplication1 manife/ations :i*1 ?\gh v dissimil>1 are really modes ( action ( ! same vital en]gy t =m$ ^! bodies :ile !y 7 yet 9 _! p>5t cell4 ,9 fact1 x seems to be a g5]al law1 t ea* cell is end[$1 altoge!r or = a "t1 ) its own mode ( action1 & is incapable ( any o!r4 ,( ! ,volvoc9e1 by "s reg>d$ z fre%-wat] microscopic plants1 ! ,/ephanosphra pluvialis may be tak5 z a type4 ,?is plant consi/s ( a col\rless transp>5t globe n m ?an ! #dh_/ajjj? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 conta9+ eight gre5 primordial cells arrang$ 9 a circle 9 its equator4 ,ea* primordial cell is furni%$ ) a pair ( cilia2 ^! #af cilia pi]ce ?r\gh ! hyal9e globe1 & by _! vibrations1 !y make x rotate ab\t an axis p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( its equator1 & move actively ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,ea* ( ! primordial cells1 :i* are gre5 ) a spot ( r$ 9 ! c5tre1 secretes a cellul> cov]+1 & !y swim ab\t 9 ! int]ior ( ! globe z free cells4 ,ev5tually !y escape ei!r by fissure ( ! globe1 or by its gradual dissolution4 ,aft] swimm+ ab\t = a %ort "t !y become motionless1 lose _! cilia1 & s9k to ! bottom z gre5 /ill spores4 ,if1 aft] be+ dri$1 wat] be p\r$ on "o ( ^! gre5 /ill spores1 x takes up ! wat]1 its cont5ts become closely granul>1 & fill ! :ole membrane ( ! spore4 ,!n x divides1 fir/ into halves1 !n into quadrants or he>t-%ap$ segm5ts1 meet+ 9 a po9t 9 ! c5tre ( ! membrane4 ,^! quadrants are ultimately divid$ into #h w$ge-%ap$ segm5ts1 ^: cont\r l9es1 l ! spokes ( a :eel1 meet 9 ! c5tre1 & ea* gets a pair ( cilia4 ,! col\r$ matt] is driv5 back 9 ea* individual t[>ds ! ?ick end ( ! w$ge z if by c5trifugal =ce1 & a col\rless plasm rema9s 9 ! po9ts or beak4 ,^! disappe>1 a cavity is =m$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! disc1 ! eight bodies assume ! =m ( a wrea? 9 close contact1 & ! orig9al cilia1 :i* cont9ue to vibrate1 cause ! rotatory & progressive motion ( ! :ole organism4 ,sometimes ! eight globul> bodies h be5 se5 to divide into a numb] ( extremely m9ute motile cells1 :ile yet )9 ! p>5t globe4 ,^! gonidia1 z !y are call$1 are1 ) a few exceptions :i* may reproduce ! plant1 believ$ to p]i% :5 !y come into ! wat]4 ,! division ( ! primordial cell ( ?is plant is conf9$ to a c]ta9 "t ( day2 x beg9s t[>ds ev5+1 & is complet$ ! foll[+ morn+1 & accord+ to ,mr4 ,f4 ,currey1 ! exact "t is ! same 9 ,lapl&1 :]e !re is no night1 & at ,b]l9 9 spr+ :5 ! day & night are almo/ equal4 ,! f]tility is enorm\s4 ,x is calculat$ t 9 eight days1 "u fav\rable circum/ances1 #af1ggg1baf families ( ! ,/ephanosphra pluvialis may be =m$ f "o re/+ spore4 ,! transmutation ( *lorophyll 9 ! ,protococcus & ,volvoc9e1 f gre5 to r$ & vice v]s1 :i* s frequ5tly occurs 9 ! l[e/ class ( plants1 %[s t its molecules mu/ be unit$ by v feeble aff9ities1 & easily conv]t$ into new comb9ations ei!r by direct *emical action1 or by o!r sub/ances also 9 a /ate ( *ange4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,volvox globator4 ,! ,volvoc9e consi/ ( v>i\s species accord+ z ! int]nal matt] ( ! primordial cell divides into #b1 #d1 #h1 #cb1 or a great] numb] ( equal p>ts1 =m+ respectively z _m free cells :i* ultimately become ciliat$ spores1 by means ( :i* ! globe ei!r rotates on ! spot1 or 9 /raight l9es4 ,! ,volvox globator f\nd 9 fre%-wat] pools is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ^!1 bo? = its peculi>ity & beauty ( /ructure & = its comp>atively l>ge size1 s9ce 9 "s lights x is visible to ! nak$ eye :ile swimm+ 9 a drop ( wat]4 ,:5 view$ ) a microscope1 x is a pellucid sph]e ^: surface is /udd$ ) gre5 spots1 (t5 connect$ by gre5 ?reads2 ea* ( ! spots has two cilia1 s t ! surface is bri/l$ ) ^! filam5ts1 ^: vibrations give ! sph]e ei!r a roll+ or smoo? motion1 or make x sp9 l a top 9 ! same place4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ! sph]e !re are f two to tw5ty d>k gre5 globes ( diff]5t sizes2 ! small] are atta*$ to ! int]nal surface1 :ile ! l>g] rotate freely by _! cilia 9 ! int]nal cavity4 ,aft] a "t ! sph]e bur/s op5 & its inhabitants swim =?1 & soon assume ! =m & "* ( t :i* gave !m bir?4 ,! gr[? & developm5t ( ! ,volvox globator are peculi>1 = 9 ! primordial cell ! r$ & gre5 endo*rome breaks up into num]\s angul> masses1 & a c5tral globe r l>g] ?an ! re/4 ,! angul> masses are connect$ by gre5 ?reads1 ! int]/ices betwe5 all ! bodies are fill$ ) a hyal9e sub/ance secret$ f _! surfaces1 & ! :ole is enclos$ 9 a di/9ctly membran\s globul> envelope4 ,z ?is "y ,volvox increases gradually 9 size1 ! hyal9e matt] is increas$1 ! gre5 ?reads l5g!n1 & ! angul> masses assume ! =m ( a flask ! #a_/cjjj? ( an in* 9 diamet] exactly z 9 ! ,protococcus2 = ! gre5 matt] ) a few r$ spots is collect$ 9 ! ?ick end1 :ile ! hyal9e beak is turn$ t[>ds ! circumf]5ce ( ! sph]e1 :i* is pi]c$ by _! long cilia4 ,ea* ( !m is inve/$ ) a pellucid envelope ( consid]able ?ickness1 ! bord]s ( :i* are flatt5$ aga9/ ^? ( simil> envelopes4 ,:ile ^! ciliat$ bodies are approa*+ maturity _! endo*rome exhibits vacuoles or app>5tly empty cavities ( a sph]ical =m ab\t "o-?ird ( its own diamet]4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,busk discov]$ t ^! vacuoles exp& & contract at regul> int]vals ( ab\t =ty seconds4 ,! contraction1 :i* almo/ oblit]ates ! cavity ( ! vacuole1 is rapid & sudd52 ! dilatation is sl[ & gradual4 ,?is action ceases :5 ! body comes to maturity4 ,:5 ?is mass ( zoospores connect$ by gre5 ?reads is immature & beg9s to exp& into a holl[ sph]e1 !n ! c5tral globe is cont9ually bisect$ s z to =m #d1 #h1 #af1 #cb1 #fd1 or a great] numb] ( equal & simil> p>ts1 ea* ( :i* is ultimately develop$ into a zoospore exactly ! same ) ! matur$ gre5 zoospores on ! surface ( ! prim>y sph]e1 s t ! #8,volvox globator is a composite fabric made up ( a repetition ( organisms 9 all respects simil> to ea* o!r1' :i* ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g ! fir/ to discov]1 ?\gh he did n inve/igate ! developm5t ( ! plant4 ,x appe>s t c]ta9 sph]es ( ! ,volvox are monci\s1 t is1 ea* sph]e conta9s male & female cells1 ?\gh ! great] numb] ( cells are neutral4 ,! g]m or female cells are l>g] & ( a deep] gre5 ?an ! o!rs2 ! male cells resemble !m1 b ! endo*rome )9 !m breaks up symmetrically into a multitude ( l9e> p>ticles aggregat$ into discoid bundles beset ) vibratile cilia1 :i* move ab\t )9 _! cells & soon become decompos$ into _! compon5t corpuscles4 ,ea* ( ^! corpuscles has a l9e> body1 ?ick] at its po/]ior end1 & furni%$ ) two long cilia4 ,! female cell1 :5 f]tiliz$1 gets a smoo? envelope1 & !n a ?ick] "o1 beset ) conical-po9t$ processes1 & ! conta9$ *lorophyll gives place1 z 9 ,palmogla1 to />* & a r$ or orange col\r$ oil4 ,x appe>s t ! ,volvox /ellatus & ,v4 aureus are only phases ( ! ,volvox globator4 ,! ,desmidiace are m9ute gre5 alg inhabit+ fre%-wat] pools or sl[ runn+ /reams1 nev] ^? t are muddy4 ,!y are free unicellul> plants1 sometimes triangul>1 sometimes cyl9drical1 cresc5t or b[-%ap$1 smoo? or sp9$4 ,s v>i$ are _! microscopic =ms t a description w\ld be t$i\s4 ,9 plants ( su* extreme m9ut5ess1 ! only means ( asc]ta9+ ! nature ( _! compon5t mat]ials is by *emical te/s4 ,a solution ( iod9e turns />* blue1 & cellulose br[n1 & ?us x is f\nd t ! int]ior ( ! ,desmidiace is occupi$ by a mass ( />* granules1 cov]$ ) *lorophyll1 & mix$ ) a =mative fluid4 ,?is mass1 enclos$ 9 a delicate membrane1 con/itutes ! primordial cell2 x has an ext]ior coat ( firm cellulose1 & ! :ole is m or less envelop$ 9 a gelat9\s sub/ance4 ,l o!r plants1 :5 9 bright sun%9e1 ! ,desmidiace decompose c>bonic acid gas1 give (f ! oxyg51 & assimilate ! c>bon into *lorophyll4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,v>i\s species ( ,/aura/rum3--,a1 ve/itum2 ,b1 aculeatum2 ,c1 p>adoxum2 ,d1 ,e1 bra*iatum4 ,^! plants are frequ5tly di/+ui%$ by projections f _! cellulose coat above _! surface1 ^! be+ sometimes %ort & conspicu\s1 b (t5 project$ 9 sp9es1 :i* =m a beautiful symmetrical hyal9e bord] r\nd ! gre5 int]nal cell1 z %[n 9 fig4 #i4 ,ano!r peculi>ity ( ! ,desmidiace is ! appe>ance ( _! be+ divid$ into two symmetrical p>ts by a satural l9e1 z ! "n implies1 ?\gh !re is no real division4 ,_m ( ! ,desmidiace1 b m especially ! g5us ,clo/]ium1 are rem>kable = hav+ a d\ble circulation ( ! int]nal fluid 9 opposite directions1 ma9ta9$ by a vital contractile en]gy4 ,"o curr5t fl[s betwe5 ! cellulose horny coat1 & ! ?9 film cov]+ ! *lorophyll1 :ile ! o!r spreads 9 a broad /ream 9 ! contr>y direction betwe5 ! ?9 film & ! *lorophyll mass1 c>ry+ f ! latt] "s ( its col\r$ p>ticles to ! extremities ( ! frond1 :]e !re seems to be a connection betwe5 ! two /reams4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,economy ( ,clo/]ium ,lunula3--,a1 frond %[+ c5tral sep>ation2 ,d1 frond 9 a /ate ( self-division4 ,! type ( ! ,desmidiace is cont9u$ by v>i\s modes ( bisection1 dep5d+ ^u ! g5us & species ( ! plant4 ,9 ! ,clo/]ium ,lunula1 :i* has an elongat$ cresc5t %ape1 z 9 fig4 #aj ,a1 ! endo*rome or int]nal matt] divides into two equal p>ts1 :i* retreat f "o ano!r at ! middle l9e2 & a con/riction ( ! cellulose coat takes place betwe5 !m1 :i* increases till x closes entirely r\nd ! extremities1 z 9 fig4 #aj ,d2 !n "o ( ! halves rema9s at re/ :ile ! o!r moves f side to side1 & f9ally deta*es itself f ! o!r ) a j]k4 ,9 ea* ( ^! halves a con/riction ( ! endo*rome may be se51 divid+ x into an obtuse & an elongat$ "p1 & = "s "t ! circulat+ fluid fl[s r\nd ! obtuse end1 b ! latt] gradually assumes ! =m ( ! elongat$ end1 ! regul> circulation ( ! fluid is e/abli%$1 & 9 five or six h\rs aft] ! sep>ation1 two "y desmids are =m$ precisely simil> to _! p>5t1 ! ,clo/]ium ,lunula4 ,! ,cosm>ium1 ano!r ,desmid1 consi/s ( a cell ( two lobes unit$ by a n>r[ i/hmus4 ,:5 ab\t to multiply1 ! i/hmus swells into two globul> expansions1 sep>at$ f ea* o!r & f ! two lobes ( ! cell1 by a n>r[ neck4 ,^! enl>gem5ts increase & assume ! appe>ance ( half segm5ts ( ! orig9al cell4 ,9 ?is /ate ! plant consi/s ( f\r segm5ts ly+ end to end1 ! two old ones =m+ ! extremes1 ) ! two new ones 9 ! middle4 ,at la/1 ea* ( ! middle segm5ts gets a new half1 :i* soon acquires ! full size & *>act]i/ics ( ! old "o4 ,?is process1 :i* is accompli%$ 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 is repeat$ ere long1 & be+ cont9u$ indef9itely1 ! extreme lobes ( ! r[ are ?ru/ f>!r & f>!r asund]1 & ! :ole con/rict$ ?read or *a9 ( ,cosm>ia is enclos$ 9 a gelat9\s %ea?4 ,! la/ two c5tral lobes conta9 no portion ( ! orig9al frond or plant1 & may ?us be consid]$ to be entirely new individuals4 ,_m ( ! ,desmidiace multiply by ! subdivision ( _! endo*rome into a multitude ( granul> p>ticles call$ gonidia1 :i* are set free by ! rupture ( ! cell wall1 & ( :i* e "o may develop itself into a new cell4 ,! gonidia may be zoospores ) cilia & active locomotion1 or !y may be enclos$ 9 a firm envelope1 & become re/+ spores4 ,! movem5t ( ! zoospores at fir/ )9 ! cavity ( ! cell :i* gave !m _! orig91 & aft]w>ds ext]nally to x1 has frequ5tly be5 obs]v$ 9 ! v>i$ species ( ! g5us ,cosm>ium1 & has be5 describ$ "u ! "n ( ! #8sw>m+ ( ! granules1' f ! resemblance ( ! mov+ mass to a sw>m ( bees4 ,_! subsequ5t hi/ory is unkn[n4 ,9 ! ,p$ia/rum1 a plant consi/+ ( a clu/] ( cells1 ! zoospores are n emitt$ sep>ately1 b ^? =m$ by ! subdivision ( ! endo*rome ( "o cell into #d1 #h1 #af1 #cb1 or #fd p>ts1 escape f ! p>5t plant /ill enclos$ 9 ! inn] tunic ( ! cell1 & x is )9 ?is t !y develop !mselves into a clu/] resembl+ t 9 :i* !y orig9at$4 ,mr4 ,?waites discov]$ t ! ,desmidiace are also propagat$ by conjugation1 :i* w\ld be impossible if ! h>d coat ( ! adjac5t cells ab\t to unite did n split op52 !n ! :ole endo*rome 9 "o cell passes into & bl5ds ) t 9 ! o!r cell1 s z to =m "o mass1 :i* soon acquires a delicate membranace\s envelope4 ,at fir/ ! mass consi/s ( granul> gre5 matt]1 b :5 ! membrane becomes ?ick]1 x *anges to br[n or r$4 ,?is body1 :i* is call$ a sporangium1 is sometimes smoo?1 sometimes granul>1 cov]$ ) tub]cles or r\gh ) sp9es1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! orig9al plants4 ,! filam5tal species are propagat$ by conjugation1 b ! subsequ5t hi/ory ( ! produce is /ill obscure1 ?\gh !re is reason to believe t !y give rise to plants ( diff]5t =ms1 :ile all ! o!r modes ( increase only reproduce a facsimile ( ! p>5t4 ,desmidiace exi/ 9 ,am]ica1 b _! di/ribution is little kn[n4 ,9 ,europe1 _! maximum seems to be 9 ! s\? ( ,engl&4 ,!y ab\nd 9 small %all[ pools t d n dry up 9 summ]1 & also on boggy moors4 ,! l>g] k9ds are spread out z a ?9 gelat9\s /ratum at ! bottom ( wat]1 or collect$ 9 little tufts2 o!rs =m a dirty cl\d ^u ! /ems & leaves ( aquatic plants4 ,!y h be5 f\nd 9 a fossil /ate 9 fl9t1 _! spores h be5 discov]$ 9 ! grey *alk at ,folke/one1 & ! cells ( v>i\s species ( ,clo/]ium & ,eua/rum are imb$d$ 9 ! m>ls ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ,diatomace1 or ,brittleworts1 are unicellul> microscopic plants s num]\s t !re is h>dly a spot on ! face ( ! e>?1 f ,spitzb]g5 to ,victoria ,l&1 :]e !y may n be f\nd4 ,!y ab\nd 9 ! ocean1 9 /ill & runn+ fre% wat]1 & ev5 on ! surface ( ! b>e gr\nd4 ,!y ext5d 9 latitude beyond ! limits ( all o!r plants1 & c endure extremes ( temp]ature1 be+ able to exi/ 9 !rmal spr+s1 & 9 ! pancake ice 9 ! s\? pol> latitudes4 ,?\gh mu* too small to be visible to ! nak$ eye1 !y occur 9 su* c\ntless myriads z to /a9 ! b]g & pancake ice :]ev] !y are wa%$ by ! swell ( ! sea2 & :5 enclos$ 9 ! congeal+ surface ( ! wat] !y imp>t to ! bra% & pancake ice a pale o*re\s col\r4 ,al?\gh ! diatoms h a va/ v>iety ( =ms1 !y all consi/ ( a simple primordial cell ^: ext]nal coat ( cellulose is s deeply int]p5etrat$ ) silex t x is inde/ructible1 a /ructure :i* con/itutes ! peculi> *>act]i/ic ( ! tribe4 ,?is primordial cell1 z 9 o!r plants1 conta9s organizable liquid or protoplasm1 ?r\gh :i* gold5-br[n granules are pretty regul>ly di/ribut$1 except 9 ! c5tre1 :]e !y are collect$ into a nucleus4 ,r\nd ?is nucleus !y commonly =m a r+ f :i* radiat+ l9es ( granules div]ge to ! int]ior wall ( ! cell4 ,9 ea* ( ^! !re is a d\ble curr5t ( granules1 simil> to ! circulation 9 ! ,desmidiace2 x 0 discov]$ by ,pr(essor ,smi? 9 "s ( ! comp>atively l>ge diatoms4 ,at times oil globules are se5 9 ! protoplasm4 ,! gold5-br[n matt] is suppos$ to be *lorophyll1 ^: gre5 t9t has be5 *ang$ by ! pres5ce ( iron1 :i* is assimilat$ 9 ?is gr\p4 ,su* is ! int]nal /ructure ( a race ( plants altoge!r invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,_! ext]nal =ms1 reproduction & movem5ts1 are no less wond]ful4 ,! silici\s envelope ( ! simple cell ( a ,diatom or fru/ule1 z a s+le plant is usually call$1 consi/s ( two valves or plates1 commonly ( ! mo/ p]fect symmetry1 closely appli$ to ea* o!r along a l9e ( junction l ! two valves ( a bivalve %ell1 & ea* valve be+ m or less concavo-convex1 a cavity is left betwe5 ! two :i* is occupi$ by ! gold5-br[n cell describ$ above4 ,! =m ( ! cavity diff]s greatly1 = sometimes ea* valve is hemisph]ical1 s t ! cavity is globul>2 sometimes x is a small segm5t ( a sph]e1 resembl+ a wat*-glass1 s t ! cavity is l5ticul>2 9 %ort1 ! =m ( ! cavity dep5ds ^u t ( ! valves1 :i* may be he>t-%ap$1 or mu* elongat$1 squ>e1 triangul>1 boat-%ap$1 or furni%$ ) outgr[?s1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is r>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,a1 ,diatoma vulg>e3--a1 side view ( fru/ule2 b1 fru/ule und]go+ self-division4 ,b4 ,grammatophora s]p5t9a3--a1 front & side view ( s+le fru/ule2 b1 front & end view ( divid$ fru/ule2 c1 fru/ule ab\t to und]go division2 d1 fru/ule completely divid$4 ,! diatom or fru/ule is consid]$ to pres5t its front view :5 ! jo9t or suture ( ! valves is turn$ to ! eye1 z 9 fig4 #aa ,b1 b1 :il/ ! side view is se5 :5 ! c5tre ( ei!r valve is directly b5ea? ! eye1 z 9 fig4 #aa ,a1 a4 ,:5 ! diatoms are "y ! valves are 9 close contact1 b z !y increase 9 size by a secretion r\nd _! edges1 ! valves sep>ate f "o ano!r1 & ! cell membrane :i* is left expos$ is imm$iately consolidat$ by silex1 & =ms a k9d ( hoop betwe5 ! valves1 z 9 fig4 #ab4 ,?is hoop increases 9 bread? z ! cell increases 9 l5g?4 ,:5 ! two valves are circul> discs1 !y are sep>at$ by a circul> hoop1 r\nd ! edges ( :i* wat] is admitt$ to n\ri% ! plant2 b :5 ! diatom has an elongat$ =m1 ! wat] ent]s ?r\gh depress$ po9ts 9 its extremities :i* are free f silex4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,biddulphia pul*ella4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,pleurosigma angulatum4--,a1 entire fru/ule2 ,b1 its hexagonal areolation2 ,c1 ! same m highly magnifi$4 ,num]\s z ^! plants are1 ! valves ( ea* g5us h _! own peculi> ornam5ts1 consi/+ ( ! mo/ beautiful & symmetrical designs1 :i* are impress$ ^u ! "y valves :5 !y are 9 a pla/ic /ate4 ,! g5us ,navicula & o!rs are m>k$ ) ! f9e/ /ri1 "s diagonally1 o!rs transv]sely4 ,r[s ( r\nd or oval spots dispos$ 9 p>allel l9es are peculi> to "s2 ! valves ( o!rs are cov]$ ) hexagonal =ms ( ! mo/ p]fect /ructure1 z ^? ( ! ,pleurosigma angulatum1 fig4 #ac1 :]e ,a is ! magnifi$ diatom1 & ,b & ,c its hexagonal areolations1 se5 "u high] & high] microscopic p[]s2 b ! figures on ! discoid g5]a are ! mo/ beautiful ( all4 ,!re is g5]ally a small ornam5t$ circul> space 9 ! c5tre ( ! valves1 f :5ce rays ext5d to ! circumf]5ce1 divid+ ! surface ( ! valves into eight1 t51 or m equal p>ts1 ! alt]nate segm5ts be+ diff]5tly & highly ornam5t$1 z 9 ! ,act9ocyclus undulatus 7fig4 #ad71 :]e ,a is ! side view1 & ,b is ! front view4 ,! ,ara*noidiscus ,ehr5b]gii takes its "n f ! lik5ess ( ! figures on its circul> valves to a spid]'s web4 ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,%adbolt1 ea* valve is =m$ ( two sup]pos$ lay]s2 on ! upp]mo/ ( ^!1 :i* is a ?9 horny transp>5t sub/ance1 ! spid]'s web is engrav52 & ! und]mo/ silici\s lay]1 :i* =ms ! support+ frame-"w1 is l a circul> ,go?ic w9d[4 ,! g5us ,tric]atium1 ne>ly alli$ to ! prec$+ 9 g5]al *>act]s1 ?\gh diff]+ 9 hav+ a triangul> %ape1 has _m species 9 a fossil /ate1 :ile o!rs are /ill exi/+ 9 ! ocean1 & 9 tidal riv]s4 ,! ,tric]atium favus1 "o ( ! l>ge/ & mo/ beautifully m>k$1 occurs 9 ! mud ( ! ,?ames1 & t ( ! e/u>ies ( o!r riv]s on our coa/s2 x is also frequ5tly f\nd on ! surface ( unclean$ %ells4#cb ,f ! few examples giv51 a fa9t idea only c be =m$ ( ! v>iety & beauty ( ! engrav+s on ! diatoms4 ,x _h long be5 d\bt$ :e!r ^? on ! valves ( ,cosc9odiscus1 ,tric]atium & o!rs1 7 elevations or depressions1 b ,pr(essor ,rood ( ,new ,york1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 has prov$ !m to be depressions by an optical arrangem5t :i* w be useful = ! inve/igation ( microscopic =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,act9ocyclus undulatus4 ,diatoms increase by spontane\s bisection1 by conjugation1 & by ! resolution ( _! endo*rome into m9ute spores1 call$ gonidia4 ,:5 bisection is ab\t to take place ! cell elongates1 ! hoop increases 9 bread?1 ! endo*rome divides into two equal p>ts1 & ! coat+ ( ! cell b5ds 9 betwe5 !m1 :i* gives ! diatom ! appe>ance ( an h\r-glass4 ,at la/ !y sep>ate1 & ^u ea* ( ! new surfaces a new silici\s half is =m$1 usually ! exact c\nt]p>t ( ! old "o1 s t !re are two diatoms in/ead ( "o2 & ! process may be cont9u$ indef9itely4 ,9 mo/ cases1 ! new diatoms ?us produc$ are free & indep5d5t4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 !y adh]e to "o ano!r by a fragm5t or connect+ membrane1 & if !y happ5 to be sl5d] & rectangul>1 & atta*$ side by side1 !y =m a sl5d] filam5t1 or if atta*$ by alt]nate angles !y =m a zigzag *a91 z 9 fig4 #aa4 ,! ,m]idion circul>e 7fig4 #ae7 is a diatom ( exquisite beauty1 millions & millions ( :i* cov] e subm]g$ /one1 twig1 or blade ( grass1 & ev5 =m ! mud at ! bottom ( ! /reams at ,we/ ,po9t1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,its fru/ule or s+le diatom is long1 sl5d]1 & rectil9e>1 b be+ broad] at "o end ?an at ! o!r1 by cont9u$ bisection & adh]+ to "o ano!r !y =m a circul>1 spiral1 or flatt5$ helical screw ( sev]al turns4 ,! individual fru/ules ( "s m>9e diatoms h a precisely simil> =m1 be+ rectil9e> & broad] at "o end ?an ! o!r1 b ea* fru/ule is atta*$ by its n>r[ end to ! extremity ( bran*+ cellulose /ems fix$ to sea-we$s or /ones1 & by a cont9u\s subdivision ( :i* ! /em does n p>take1 !y are spread out at _! free ends l a fan4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,m]idion circul>e4 ,by cont9ual bisection a diatom is propagat$ ?r\gh _m g5]ations1 b at "s /age or o!r1 ow+ to an unkn[n cause1 propagation by conjugation takes place4 ,:5 two fru/ules are ne> to ea* o!r1 two little swell+s arise 9 "o1 :i* meet two little swell+s 9 ! o!r opposite to x4 ,^! soon unite & elongate1 ! septum or division betwe5 !m is absorb$ s t !y =m two tubes 9 :i* ! endo*rome ( ! two fru/ules becomes mix$1 & a spore is =m$ 9 ea* ( ! two connect+ tubes1 :i* increase 9 size & *ange 9 =m till !y resemble 9 e respect ! p>5t1 except 9 be+ mu* l>g]4 ,z ^! "y diatoms swell1 !y split ! two p>5t fru/ules1 become free1 & lay ! f\ndation ( a tw9 s]ies ( g5]ations4 ,9 ! ,fragill>ia only a s+le spore is =m$4#cc ,9 ,surirella & ,epi!mia ! mann] ( conjugation is some:at diff]5t4 ,9 ! =m] ! valves ( two free adjac5t fru/ules sep>ate f ea* o!r at ! suture or l9e ( junction & ! two endo*romes are dis*>g$2 !y coalesce & =m a s+le mass1 :i* becomes enclos$ 9 a gelat9\s envelope1 & 9 "t ?is mass %apes itself into a fru/ule resembl+ t ( its p>5t1 b l>g]4 ,9 ,epi!mia1 h[ev]1 ! endo*rome ( ea* ( ! conjugat+ fru/ules divides at ! "t ( its dis*>ge into two halves2 ea* half ( ! "o coalesces ) ea* half ( ! o!r1 & two fru/ules are =m$ :i* become inve/$ ) a gelat9\s envelope & gradually assume ! =m & m>k+s ( ! p>5t fru/ules1 b gr[ to a mu* l>g] size1 = ! spore masses h ! p[] ( self-increase up to ! "t t _! envelopes are consolidat$4 ,?is d\ble conjugation seems to be ! ord9>y type ( ! process among ! diatoms4#cd ,b ^! plants multiply also by gonidia4 ,x is ?\ght probable t z long z ! vegetative processes are 9 full activity diatoms multiply by self-bisection1 b :5 a defici5cy ( w>m?1 ( moi/ure1 or ( "s o!r condition1 gives a *eck to ^!1 t !y increase by gonidia1 "s ( :i* becom+ ency/$1 possess a great] p[] ( resi/+ unfav\rable circum/ances1 & ?us ! species is ma9ta9$ 9 a dormant /ate till a *ange enables !m to g]m9ate4 ,x is ev5 ?\ght !y may be ! orig9 ( di/9ct species4 ,a peculi> spontane\s locomotion is exhibit$ by "s diatoms ( a long n>r[ =m1 z ! ,navicul1 :i* by a succession ( j]ks 9 ! direction ( _! l5g?1 g to a c]ta9 di/ance1 & !n return ne>ly by ! same pa?4 ,! motion ( ! ,bacill>ia cursoria is /ill m unprec$5t$4 ,! fru/ules1 :i* are n>r[1 lanceolate1 & acute1 are jo9$ end to end 9 a long l9e by "s highly ela/ic invisible m$ium4 ,"o ( ! t]m9al fru/ules rema9s at re/ :ile all ! o!rs slide ov] x till ! l9e is s mu* /ret*$ t !y are ne>ly deta*$ f "o ano!r2 !n !y all slide back aga9 9 ! same mann]1 & ?is alt]nate motion is cont9u$ indef9itely at regul> int]vals ( "t4 ,! velocity ( ! diatoms at ! free end ( ! r[ is v consid]able2 9 ! ,bacill>ia p>adoxa x is #a_/bjj? ( an in* 9 a second2 ! impetus ( "o has be5 obs]v$ to upset & ev5 to pu% aside a plant z mu* z ?ree times its size :i* ob/ruct$ its pa?4 ,if ! fru/ule at ! free end gets entangl$1 ! fix$ fru/ule takes ! lead & cont9ues ! motion till ! o!r is free4 ,m9ute p>ticles 9 ! vic9ity are sometimes attract$ & dragg$ aft] ! fru/ules1 sometimes !y are repell$1 possibly by "s invisible organs2 b ! :ole motion ( ! diatoms !mselves may p]haps be attribut$ to ! action ( light & heat ^u ! highly contractile sub/ance1 :atev] x may be1 :i* connects _! fru/ules1 s9ce _! motion is exactly 9 proportion to ! quantity ( light & heat receiv$1 = x ceases dur+ d>kness1 & is r5ew$ on ! return ( light2 ultimately x may disp]se ! individual fru/ules1 :i* are n m ?an betwe5 ! #bh_/aj1jjj? & ! #hd_/aj1jjj? ( an in* 9 l5g? & ! #d_/aj1jjj? ( an in* 9 bread?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,bacill>ia p>adoxa ,?is ,bacill>ia p>adoxa 7fig4 #af7 diff]s f ! prec$+ species 9 its motion2 ea* half ( ! r[ ( fru/ules moves 9 an opposite direction on ea* side ( a c5tral /ation>y fru/ule1 & ! alt]nate motion is s regul> z to "t1 t if 9 advanc+1 ! fru/ules meet ) an imp$im5t1 !y wait till ! prop] "t comes = _! retreat4 ,! j]k+ motions ( ! ,navicul are ascrib$ by ,pr(4 ,w4 ,smi? to =ces act+ )9 ! plants1 orig9at+ 9 ! vital op]ations ( gr[?1 by :i* ! surr\nd+ wat] is drawn 9 at "o end ( ! fru/ule1 & expell$ at ! o!r4 ,"s species ( diatoms are s univ]sal t !y are f\nd 9 e region ( ! globe2 o!rs are local1 b ! same species does n inhabit bo? fre% & salt wat]1 ?\gh "s are f\nd 9 bracki% pools4 ,! ocean teems ) !m4 ,?\gh invisible z individuals to ! nak$ eye1 ! liv+ masses ( ! pelagic diatoms =m col\r$ fr+es on l>g] plants1 & cov] /ones or rocks 9 cu%ion-l tufts2 !y spread ov] ! surface z delicate velvet1 9 filam5tal /rata on ! s&1 or mix$ ) ! scum ( liv+ or decay$ vegetable matt] float+ on ! surface ( ! sea2 & !y exi/ 9 imm5se pr(usion 9 ! op5 ocean z free =ms4 ,! numb]s 9 :i* !y exi/ 9 all latitudes1 at all seasons1 & at all dep?s--ext5d+ f an in* to ! l[e/ limit to :i* ! mo/ att5uat$ ray ( light c p5etrate1 or at :i* ! pressure p]mits--are immeasurably 9 excess ( :at we h be5 9 ! habit ( assum+4 ,temp]ature has little to d ) ! di/ribution ( diatoms 9 ! tropics2 x decreases ) ! dep? at a tol]ably fix$ rate till x becomes /ation>y4 ,x increases 9 ! pol> regions ) ! dep?1 & approa*es ! /&>d1 :i* is probably univ]sal1 ne> ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,no?+ c exce$ ! vividness ( col\r or massiv5ess ( ! endo*rome or s(t int]nal matt] ( ! float+ diatoms1 t matt] :i* dim9i%es _! specific gravity & makes ! plant buoyant :i* o!rwise w\ld be weigh$ d[n by its silici\s coat4 ,at ^? p]iods 9 :i* ! /ructural & reproductive ph5om5a proce$ mo/ vigor\sly1 _! position 9 dep? mu/ be fluctuat+2 h5ce !y approa* & vani% f ! surface4 ,_! gr[? is p]fect$ by ! heat & light :i* p5etrates ! sea 9 calm wea!r4 ,diatoms are social plants cr[d$ toge!r 9 va/ multitudes4 ,dr4 ,walli* met ) an enorm\s assemblage ( a filam5tal species ( ,rhizosel5ia1 :i* is f six to tw5ty times z long z x is broad1 aggregat$ 9 tuft$ yell[ masses1 :i* cov]$ ! sea to ! dep? ( "s feet1 & ext5d$ ) little int]ruption ?r\gh\t six degrees ( longitude 9 ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,!y 7 mix$ ) gli/5+ yell[ cyl9drical species ( su* comp>atively gigantic size z to be visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,o!r g5]a con/itute ! only vegetation 9 ! high latitudes ( ! ,ant>ctic ,ocean4 ,dr4 ,hook] obs]ves1 t )\t ! univ]sal diffusion ( diatoms 9 ! ,s\? ,pol> ,ocean1 !re w\ld nei!r be food = ! aquatic animals1 nor w\ld ! wat] be purifi$ f ! c>bonic acid :i* animal respiration1 & ! decomposition ( matt]1 produce4 ,^! small plants af=d an abundant supply ( food to ! h]bivor\s mollusca & o!r inhabitants ( ! sea1 = !y h be5 f\nd 9 ! /oma*s ( oy/]s1 :elks1 crabs1 lob/]s1 scallops1 c4 ,ev5 ! ,noctiluci1 ^? lum9\s specks t make ! wake ( a boat %9e l silv] 9 a w>m summ] night1 live on ! float+ pelagic diatoms1 & c\ntless myriads are dev\r$ by ! enorm\s %oals ( salpi & o!r social m>9e animals4 ,! silici\s %ells ( ! diatoms =m ext5sive fossil deposits 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! globe1 conta9+ species :i* h long ceas$ to exi/1 & o!rs t are id5tical ) ^? /ill alive ev5 9 _! mo/ m9ute & delicate engrav+s4 ,! poli%+ slate ( ,bil9 9 ,bohemia1 :i* occurs 9 b$s #ad feet ?ick1 & ! ,tripoli & ,phonolite /ones on ! ,rh9e consi/ entirely ( ! silici\s coats ( diatoms1 :ile ! city ( ,ri*mond 9 ,virg9ia /&s ^u a m>9e deposit ( ! debris ( diatoms #ac feet ?ick1 & ( unkn[n ext5t4 ,ne> ! ,m$it]ranean1 v ext5sive /rata1 consi/+ almo/ entirely ( m>9e ,diatomace1 alt]nate ) calc>e\s /rata *iefly =m$ ( ,=am9if]a1 ! latt] be+ a race ( microscopic mollusca4 ,! fossil ,diatomace at ,oran 9 ,alg]ia are p>ticul>ly p]fect & beautiful4 ,9 _m ( ^! deposits exi/+ species are f\nd4 ,! trade w9ds br+ ov] l>ge quantities ( du/ mix$ ) diatoms1 :i* s9ks ?r\gh ! upp] into ! l[] curr5t1 bl[+ ov] ,am]ica1 & at la/ falls 9 ,europe4 ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g f\nd t ?is du/ conta9$ *iefly true ,am]ican species1 _m ( :i* 7 id5tical ) =ms exi/+ at ! bottom ( ! ,ant>ctic ,ocean1 :]e an area ( #d1hjj squ>e miles 0 discov]$ by ,sir ,james ,ross skirt+ ! volcanic coa/ ( ,victoria ,l&1 consi/+ ( ! rema9s ( ^! microscopic plants1 :i* h deposit$ _! silici\s valves at dea? = c\ntless g5]ations1 produc+ geological *anges ( enorm\s magnitude2 :ile a /ill great] area ( sea-b$ 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic is ! p]petual grave-y>d ( myriads ( microscopic mollusca4 ,?us ! ,supreme ,be+1 ^: p[] is /up5d\sly manife/$ 9 ! motions ( ! cele/ial bodies1 creates g5]ations ( inf9itesimal creatures1 adorns !m ) exquisite beauty1 & makes !m ,8 ag5ts to =m future cont95ts4 ,! ,conf]vace are a num]\s tribe ( pretty little plants1 usually ( a gre5 col\r1 gr[+ 9 fre% & salt wat]1 on moi/ gr\nd1 wet rocks1 & !rmal spr+s4 ,!re is sc>cely a g5tly runn+ /ream 9 :i* !y may n be se51 l bun*es ( gre5 ?reads1 atta*$ to /ones & wav+ 9 ! curr5t2 "s are s s(t z to become almo/ a mass ( jelly :5 tak5 out ( ! wat]4 ,!y are sometimes bran*$1 b m frequ5tly simple1 =m$ ( cyl9drical cells1 jo9$ 9 a s+le long r[ by _! flat ends1 & !y increase 9 l5g? by ! bisection ( _! t]m9al cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,cell multiplication 9 ,conf]va glom]ata3--,a1 portion ( filam5t ) incomplete sep>ation at a1 complete p>tition at b2 ,b1 ! sep>ation complet$2 ,c4 =mation ( additional lay]s ( cellulose wall4 ,9 unicellul> plants bisection is an act ( reproduction2 9 ! multicellul> ,conf]v x is an act ( gr[? & ext5sion :i* is accompli%$ z foll[s3--,! t]m9al cell ( ! plant gr[s to twice its l5g?1 ! matt] )9 ! primordial cell spontane\sly divides into two equal p>ts1 & bo? ! film & cellulose coat :i* cov] x1 b5d r\nd1 & =m a d\ble lay] or cellulose division betwe5 !m4 ,?is cellulose lay] ext5ds ov] ! :ole ext]ior ( ! primordial cell1 s t ! new cellulose division or septum becomes cont9u\s ) a new lay] :i* is =m$ ?r\gh\t ! int]ior ( ! cellulose wall ( ! orig9al cell4 ,9 ?is mann] two p]fect cells are =m$ out ( "o1 & z ! extreme cell may und]go ! same process1 ! gr[? ( ! plant may be cont9u$ indef9itely4 ,bran*es are sometimes =m$ by buds spr++ f any "p ( ! /em2 ?\gh app>5tly s diff]5t1 x results f ! subdivision ( ! cell :i* produces ! bud4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,zoospores4 ,! ,conf]vace are g5]ally reproduc$ by zoospores4 ,9 mo/ cases ! endo*rome )9 a cell divides itself into num]\s segm5ts1 ea* ( :i* becomes a m9ute zoospore1 & escapes into ! wat] ?r\gh a rupture 9 ! cell wall4 ,?is is ! case 9 a v graceful g5us ( ,conf]v1 ( :i* ! ,*tophora elegans is a species4 ,x consi/s ( filam5tal /r+s ( cells1 end+ 9 a capill>y bri/le1 ) lat]al bran*es l n>r[ fronds4 ,x is reproduc$ by zoospores4 ,"o half ( ea* zoospore is r\nd1 opaque1 & full ( matt]2 ! o!r half hyal9e1 & tap]+ to a beak furni%$ ) f\r cilia4 ,x frequ5tly happ5s 9 ?is g5us ( ,conf]vace1 :]e ! filam5ts are divid$ at equal di/ances into little jo9ts or comp>tm5ts1 t ! zoospores issue f ! t]m9al cell fir/1 !n f ! next1 & s on 9 succession till ! upp] "p ( ! bran* is left empty1 :ile ! l[] "p is /ill =m+ zoospores4 ,aft] mov+ 9 wat] = a "t1 ! zoospores retreat to a %ady place1 fix !mselves to "s sub/ance1 & beg9 to gr[4 ,^! plants rapidly cov] a l>ge surface ( wat]2 = ea* individual cell may produce #ajj zoospores1 & z ! developm5t & dissem9ation ( !m cont9ues dur+ ! :ole summ]1 "o plant may yield an enorm\s numb]4 ,! ,sphroplea annul9a is a r>e & v rem>kable ,conf]va1 ^: c9nab>-col\r$ spores make ! surface ( ! wat] 9 :i* x floats1 l a pool ( blood4 ,x has no root1 be+ m]ely a filam5t ) capill>y extremities1 =m$ ( elongat$ cells jo9$ end to end4 ,! spores only gr[ on ! filam5ts t are expos$ to ! sun & air2 ! filam5ts t are bel[ ! wat] are gre5 & b>r54 ,! spores are fill$ ) r$ matt]1 gra9s ( />*1 & r$ oil1 ! out] or cellulose coat be+ s plait$1 t ! spore looks l a r$ /> ) :ite rays4 ,:5 a spore g]m9ates1 x produces a m9ute cell end+ 9 capill>y fibres1 :i* increases 9 l5g? by ! cont9ual bisection ( its c5tral cells1 :ile ! o!r ,conf]v gr[ by ! bisection ( ^? t are t]m9al4 ,dur+ ?is gr[?1 ! r$ cont5ts ( ! spore are s *ang$ by a rem>kable succession ( *emical processes1 t ! primordial cells 9 ! filam5t ( ! "y plant are fill$ ) a col\rless visc\s matt]1 an aque\s liquid1 granules ( />*1 & *lorophyll4 ,9 "s ( ! cells ! />* disappe>s1 :ile ! gre5 matt] & ! o!r mat]ials arrange !mselves into a s]ies ( r+s1 alt]nat+ ) empty spaces or vacuoles4 ,aft] a "t1 ! gre5 *anges to a yell[i% r$1 & !n ea* r+ 9 succession resolves itself into a multitude ( m9ute active p>ticles1 :i* move ) incr$ible velocity 9 ! void spaces ( ! cell1 till at la/ ! :ole cell sw>ms ) !m4 ,!y are analog\s to ! poll5 ( fl[]+ plants1 & !nce are call$ sp]matozoids4 ,_! =m is cyl9drical1 ?ick1 broad1 & yell[ at "o end1 %>p at ! o!r1 ) a col\rless beak1 & long cilia4 ,! p>5t cell is at la/ pi]c$ by _! unit$ ef=ts1 & out !y ru% 9 great confusion into ! wat]2 "s :irl r\nd _! c5tres1 o!rs swim 9 a circle1 _m describe cycloidal curves by a s]ies ( leaps1 & a few swim 9 /raight l9es4 ,dur+ ! prec$+ *anges ano!r process is 9 progress1 )9 :at may be call$ female cells4 ,9 ^! ! />*1 mix$ ) gre5 matt] & a pla/ic sub/ance1 arrange !mselves also into gre5 & vacant r+s1 & aft] v>i\s & complicat$ *anges1 ea* gre5 r+ =ms itself into a k9d ( pla/ic primordial free cell1 :i*1 aft] be+ f]tiliz$ by ! mov+ bodies1 gets a /rong] coat4 ,! gre5 matt] becomes fir/ ( a r$-br[n col\r1 !n r$2 & aft] leav+ ! p>5t cell x is inve/$ ) a plait$ cellulose coat1 & becomes a />-l re/+ spore :i* may produce a new plant4 ,no cryptogamic plant exhibits a great] v>iety 9 ! modes ( action ( ! vital =ces1 none m activity 9 ! motile p[]s4 ,9 "s ( ^! ,conf]v1 ! mov+ male filam5ts1 or sp]matozoids1 in/ead ( escap+ s+ly f _! prison cell 9 confusion into ! wat]1 are dis*>g$ 9 a mass enclos$ 9 a capsule furni%$ ) cilia1 :i* moves ) its lively burd5 l a zoospore1 till a lid falls (f :i* sets !m free4 ,"s pretty plants alli$ to ! ,conf]v are call$ ,batra*osp]me1 f ! resemblance :i* _! bead$ filam5ts be> to ! spawn ( a frog4 ,!y are all inhabitants ( fre% wat]1 *iefly ( g5tly fl[+ /reams1 & are s flexible t !y yield to e movem5t ( ! wat]1 & :5 tak5 out ( x are l a mass ( jelly4 ,_! col\r is usually a br[ni%-gre51 b sometimes x is ( a r$di% or blui% purple4 ,! c5tral /em ( ! plant1 ?\gh orig9ally =m$ ( a s+le r[ ( l>ge cyl9drical cells plac$ end to end1 gets an inve/m5t ( cells1 or r bran*es1 :i* ultimately becomes a ?ick cyl9drical /em1 be>+1 at ne>ly regul> int]vals1 :orls ( %ort radiat+ bran*es1 ea* compos$ ( r\nd$ cells1 arrang$ 9 a bead-l r[1 & sometimes bran*+ aga94 ,"s ( ! radiat+ bran*es gr[ out into transp>5t po9ts1 :i* may possibly be an!ridia1 & conta9 motile bodies2 = )9 c]ta9 cells 9 o!r bran*es re/+ spores are f\nd1 :i* are agglom]at$ & =m ! l>ge d>k globul> masses t are se5 9 ! mid/ ( ! :orls4 ,! ,hydrodictyon utriculatum is ano!r alli$ plant ( s+ul> /ructure1 :i* gr[s 9 fre%-wat] pools 9 ! midl& & s\!rn c\nties ( ,engl&4 ,x resembles a regul>ly reticulat$ gre5 purse1 f f\r to six in*es long1 & is compos$ ( a va/ numb] ( tubul> cyl9drical cells1 :i* adh]e to "o ano!r by _! r\nd$ extremities1 ! po9ts ( junction correspond+ to ! knots or int]sections ( ! network4 ,ea* ( ^! cells may =m )9 itself f #g1jjj to #bj1jjj gonidia1 :i* at a c]ta9 /age ( _! developm5t are obs]v$ to be 9 active motion 9 its int]ior2 subsequ5tly1 by mutual adhesion1 !y =m into gr\ps :i* lay ! f\ndation ( new net-plants1 :5 set free by ! dissolution ( _! envelope4 ,besides ^! gr\ps1 !re are c]ta9 cells :i* produce f #cj1jjj to #ajj1jjj m m9ute bodies ( a long] %ape1 ea* ( :i* is furni%$ ) f\r long cilia1 & a r$ spot4 ,^! escape f _! cell 9 a sw>m1 move freely 9 ! wat] = a "t1 !n come to re/1 & s9k to ! bottom1 :]e !y rema91 heap$ toge!r 9 gre5 masses4 ,_! future fate is unkn[n1 b !y are believ$ to be male filam5ts simil> to ^? describ$1 & are g5]ally call$ sp]matozoids4 ,! ,no/o*9e are ei!r an assemblage ( cells loosely unit$ into num]\s gre5 *aplets1 or di/9ctly bead$ filam5ts1 g5]ally twi/$1 & occasionally bran*$2 !y are imb$d$ 9 a firm gelat9\s frond ( diff]5t =m1 sometimes globul>1 sometimes spread+ 9 bran*$ masses1 (t5 ( consid]able size4 ,!y are frequ5tly se5 on damp %ady walks 9 g>d5s3 !y %r9k to a film 9 dry wea!r1 & reappe> s sudd5ly 9 ra9 t !y h be5 call$ fall5 />s4 ,!y are reproduc$ by spontane\s division ( _! filam5ts2 ! segm5ts escape f ! gelat9\s mass1 move sl[ly 9 ! direction ( _! l5g?1 aft] a "t come to re/1 secrete a gelat9\s envelope1 & n only gr[ 9 l5g? by transv]se bisection1 b split longitud9ally into new filam5ts :i* are sep>at$ by _! gelat9\s secretions4 ,^! movem5ts1 discov]$ by ,m4 ,?uret1 are evid5tly int5d$ to disp]se ! plant4 ,vesicul> cells1 de/itute ( endo*rome1 sometimes furni%$ ) cilia1 & ( a l>g] size ?an ! o!rs1 are occasionally se5 at ! end or middle ( a filam5t ( ! ,no/ocs1 sometimes situat$ at int]vals along _! l5g?2 & ne> to ^! are sporangial cells1 a little l>g] ?an ! ord9>y cells4 ,f analogy1 x is believ$ t ! vesicul> cells are an!ridia1 & t ! sporangial cells conta9 g]ms :i*1 aft] be+ f]tiliz$ by ! sp]matozoids1 are set free & become re/+ spores4 ,9 "s species1 ! sporangial cells are oblong1 & conta9 vividly gre5 matt]2 9 o!rs1 ! cells are elliptical & br[n4 ,! species are widely di/ribut$4 ,hormosiphon arcticus1 a species consi/+ ( a modification ( cellulose1 ab\nds to su* a degree 9 ! h]bless pol> regions1 t x af=ds a welcome v>iety ( food4 ,ea* plant lies on a small depression ( ! sn[1 :i* cov]s ! s(t & almo/ boggy slopes bord]+ ! arctic seas1 b x is c>ri$ by ! w9ds 9 e direction1 roll+ ov] ! sn[ & ice to a di/ance ( sev]al miles4 ,two nor!rn species ( ,no/oc 7 f\nd by ,dr4 ,hook] 9 ,k]guel5's ,l&1 gr[+ on wet rocks ne> ! sea2 "o ( !m 0 ! common ,no/oc commune4 ,o!r species occur 9 ! w>m spr+s 9 ,india1 z well z 9 ! arctic & ant>ctic regions1 & an aquatic species is mu* us$ 9 ,*9a z a :olesome food4 ,! g5us ,monormia =ms float+ masses ( jelly on ! surface ( bracki% wat]4 ,! necklaces are ( va/ l5g?1 &1 toge!r ) ! jelly 9 :i* !y are imb$d$1 wave ) ! slighte/ motion ( ! wat]4 ,float+ masses gr[ on l>ge ponds or lakes1 :i* give ! wat] a gre5 t9t4 ,! /ructure ( ! ,oscillatori is microscopic4 ,!y are m9ute fili=m plants closely alli$ to ! ,no/ocs2 & consi/ ( transp>5t col\rless tubul> filam5ts conta9+ col\r cells ( v>i\s =ms1 m or less sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 & visible ?r\gh _! transp>5t tubes2 ! col\r is usually "s %ade ( gre51 yell[i%1 or purple4 ,9 ! g5us ,rivul>ia ^! tubul> filam5ts h a globul> transp>5t cell at ! base1 & are closely pack$ into little balls1 ei!r =m+ small gr\ps1 z 9 ! ,rivul>ia nitida1 or s+ly atta*$ to /ones & rocks4 ,9 ,rivul>ia nitida1 ! filam5ts radiate f a c5tre4 ,"s ,oscillatori =m velvety cu%ion-l pat*es ^u rocks1 o!rs are atta*$ 9 tufts z p>asites to o!r sea we$s1 :ile _m are arrang$ 9 free or atta*$ /ratifi$ bundles4 ,l+bya furni%es a beautiful specim5 ( ! latt]4 ,! filam5ts 9 ! /ratifi$ gr\p are usually mu* twi/$ & int]wov51 & "s ( !m exhibit s+ul> oscillat+ motions1 z ! ,oscillatoria littoralis & spiralis1 ,spirul9a t5uissima & o!rs2 "o end ( ! filam5ts rema9s at re/1 :ile ! o!r extremity is 9 con/ant vibration4 ,) a microscope ! movem5t 9 "s species is se5 to be f side to side l a p5dulum1 9 o!rs x is spiral or twi/+1 & :5 a fragm5t ( ! plant is set free :5 vibrat+ ! movem5t is progressive4 ,if a fragm5t be put into a glass ( wat]1 its edge 9 a little "t becomes fr+$ ) %ort filam5ts radiat+ f c5tral po9ts ) _! tips outw>ds4 ,!y soon deta* !mselves f ! fragm5t by _! oscillations1 & z _! vibrations cont9ue aft] !y are free1 !y swim ) a spiral motion to ! edge ( ! wat]1 & ev5 asc5d ! glass till arre/$ by ! dry "p above4#ce ,dur+ ^! motions !re is a correspond+ alt]ation 9 ! =m ( ! filam5tal tubes believ$ to arise f rhy?mical p]iods ( vital contractibility1 :i* are affect$ by light & heat1 because ! motions are m rapid 9 sun%9e ?an 9 %ade2 besides1 !y are *eck$ by /rong *emical ag5ts4 ,"s ( ! species h a tuft ( delicate cilia at ! extremities ( _! filam5ts4 ,! free /ratifi$ bundles conta9 ! simple/ =m ( ! ,oscillatori4 ,ea* filam5t is a /raight or slightly curv$ *a9 ( cells1 full ( col\r$ matt]1 & enclos$ 9 a common transp>5t col\rless tube4 ,multiplication takes place 9 ^! by division2 :5 ab\t to multiply1 two adjac5t col\r$ cells1 or ! two halves ( a divid$ cell1 rec$e f "o ano!r1 & ! out] tube contracts at ! po9t ( division1 & sep>ates !m into two di/9ctly new filam5ts4 ,sometimes ! transp>5t out] tube does n yield1 s t ! divid$ p>ts reta9 _! places 9 ! tube1 :i* dilates :5 ^! new p>ts are aga9 divid$4 ,! mann] ( division v>ies ) ! species1 & ! g5]ic *>act]s ( ! ,oscillatori dep5d ^u ! diff]5t conditions ( ! ext]nal tube1 & ! =m & arrangem5t ( ! col\r$ cells )9 x4 ,! tube (t5 contracts to ! f9e/ po9t dur+ division1 & frequ5tly consi/s ( di/9ct coats1 ! numb] ( :i* increases upw>ds1 sometimes ) su* regul>ity z to produce a beautiful /reak$ effect4 ,l _! allies1 ! ,oscillatori are reproduc$ by zoospores4 ,:ile ^! p>ts are gr[+1 b especially dur+ _! dissolution1 ! endo*rome und]goes v>i\s *anges ( col\r1 /a9+ ! wat] !y die 91 & r5d]+ x putrid2 "s ( ! common k9ds emit a /rong od\r ( sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,9 ! comp\nd gelat9\s ,oscillatori1 ! jelly is ( v diff]5t degrees ( t5acity4 ,! mass ( ! ,dasygla is s slipp]y t x c sc>cely be tak5 hold (2 ,rivul>ia nitida 7fig4 #ai7 is equally s1 its tubes be+ s ?ick & t5d]4 ,_m species ( ! g5us ,rivul>ia h a peculi> mode ( oblique alt]nate bran*+2 species ( t g5us gr[ on ! /ems ( aquatic plants1 on rocks 9 rapid /reams1 on cliffs :5 wa%$ by cat>acts1 or sometimes 9 calc>e\s wat]1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* cry/als ( c>bonate ( lime are deposit$ on _! sub/ance4 ,! ,rivul>ia nitida occurs among ,alg expos$ at l[ tides1 & a species ( ano!r g5us floats on fre%-wat] lakes l gre5 />s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,?reads ( ,rivul>ia nitida4 ,! ,oscillatori are f\nd 9 e "p ( ! _w1 mo/ abundantly 9 ! temp]ate zones4 ,!y *iefly inhabit fre% wat]1 b ^! m9ute plants atta9 _! greate/ size 9 ! sea4 ,num]\s species gr[ 9 w>m spr+s1 & "o species1 ,tri*odesmium ery?rum 7fig4 #bj71 spreads = _m squ>e miles ov] ! surface ( ! ,indian seas 9 faggots ( r$-br[n ?reads1 l fragm5ts ( *opp$ hay2 ! same species is said to ab\nd 9 ! ,r$ ,sea also4#cf ,! ,conjugat are fre%-wat] plants ( num]\s species1 :i* h almo/ ! same /ructure z ! ,conf]v1 b ! gre5 endo*rome )9 ! cells ( _! articulat$ ?reads is m highly organiz$1 & ! mann] ( reproduction is altoge!r diff]5t & v peculi>4 ,^! plants consi/ ( /r+s ( cyl9drical cells jo9$ end to end by _! flat ends1 & g5]ally float freely on or ne> ! surface ( /ill wat]1 especially :5 buoy$ up by ! bubbles ( gas :i* are lib]at$ f !m by ! heat & light ( ! sun4 ,9 ! e>ly /age ( _! life1 :ile z yet ! cells are und]go+ multiplication by self-division1 ! endo*rome is diffus$ pretty uni=mly 9 ea* cell2 b z ! plant approa*es t[>ds maturity1 x und]goes v>i\s modifications1 accord+ to ! species4 ,9 "s x consi/s ( l>ge granules dispos$ 9 r[s2 9 o!rs x is =m$ into broad spiral b&s ) l>ge granules 9 b9>y or /ell> gr\ps plac$ at int]vals on x2 &1 9 ! dogonium capill>e & o!rs1 ! granules are unit$ 9 spiral l9es :i* cross "o ano!r & =m a network4#cg ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,tri*odesmium ery?rum4 ,! act ( conjugation by :i* spores are =m$1 usually takes place betwe5 ! cells ( two di/9ct p>allel filam5ts :i* happ5 to be adjac5t to ea* o!r1 & all ! cells ( ! two filam5ts g5]ally take "p 9 x at once4 ,! cells t are opposite to "o ano!r put out little protub]ances1 :i* come into contact ) ea* o!r2 ! int]v5+ p>titions disappe>1 s t a tube is =m$ :i* e/abli%es a free communication or passage betwe5 ! cavities ( ! conjugat+ cells4 ,9 ! g5us ,mesoc>pus & o!rs1 ! conjugat+ cells p\r _! endo*romes into a dilatation ( ! passage t has be5 e/abli%$ betwe5 !m1 & x is !re t ! matt] m+les to =m a spore or embryo cell4 ,b 9 ! ,zygnema 7fig4 #ba71 :i* is ! commone/ =m ( ^! plants1 ! endo*rome ( "o cell passes entirely ov] into ! cavity ( ! o!r1 & )9 ! latt] ! two endo*romes coalesce into a s+le mass1 r\nd :i* a firm coat is develop$1 & x becomes a spore4 ,all ! cells ( "o filam5t are ?us left empty1 :ile spores are =m$ 9 all ! cells ( ! o!r4#ch ,sometimes cells 9 ! same filam5t conjugate1 & occasionally ! endo*rome 9 a cell divides into two p>ts1 ea* ( :i* becomes a spore4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,conjugation ( ,zygnema qu99um3--,a4 two filam5ts 9 ! fir/ /age ( conjugation2 ,b1 completion ( ! act ( conjugation4 ,"s ( ! spores are quiesc5t1 o!rs h cilia & are motile1 b bo? aft] a "t become atta*$ at "o end by two or ?ree root-l fibres1 & gr[ into filam5ts by repeat$ bisection4 ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,m4 ,itzigsohn1 ! endo*rome 9 c]ta9 filam5ts ( ,spirogyra breaks up be=e conjugation into little sph]ical aggregations1 :i* are gradually conv]t$ into ne>ly col\rless spiral filam5ts1 hav+ an active spontane\s motion1 & !re=e correspond+ precisely to an!rozoids4 ,) ! exception ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! ,conjugat are widely disp]s$ 9 w>m & temp]ate climates4 ,! g5us ,vau*]ia may be assum$ z a type ( ! ,siphone1 ^: ess5tial "* is1 t ! plant consi/s ( "o s+le tubul> cell1 h[ev] bran*$ & complicat$ its =m may be4 ,! ,vau*]ias =m tuft$ masses ( bran*+ tubes1 fill$ ) bright gre5 granul> matt]1 on mud & damp soil2 !y ab\nd 9 fre%-wat] pools1 & "s gr[ 9 ! sea4 ,:5 ab\t to produce fruit1 ! extremities ( "s ( ! tubes swell out 9 ! %ape ( a club1 9 :i* a portion ( ! gre5 matt] collects1 takes a d>k] hue1 & is sep>at$ f ! re/ by a transp>5t space & a new envelope4 ,aft] v>i\s *anges1 ! d>k] gre5 matt] =ms itself into a zoospore1 :i* is s active t x breaks op5 ! top ( its club-%ap$ cell1 & comes into ! wat]2 sometimes sev]al come1 "o aft] ano!r4 ,!y are egg-%ap$1 ) a col\rless beak1 & z _! :ole body is bri/l$ ) cilia1 !y leave a long curr5t 9 _! wake :5 !y swim1 :i* !y d ) su* impetus t !y are flatt5$ aga9/ any ob/acle !y meet )1 ev5 to ! dis*>ge ( _! gre5 endo*rome4 ,!y escape f _! cell ab\t eight 9 ! morn+1 move = two h\rs1 !n come to re/1 & beg9 to gr[ into a new plant4 ,m4 ,pr+%eim discov]$ ano!r mode ( reproduction 9 ! ,vau*]ias1 :i* are monci\s plants1 t is to say1 ! same plant produces snake-l f]tiliz+ sp]matozoids & female g]m cells4 ,= example1 ! ,vau*]ia sessilis consi/s ( "o long bran*$ cell2 on ! same side ( x two swell+s appe> ne> to ea* o!r1 "o ( :i* elongates1 curls r\nd l a horn1 & is soon fill$ ) snake-%ap$ filam5ts hav+ long cilia at _! ?9 end1 ) :i* !y move rapidly bo? )9 ! horn1 & aft] !y come out ( x into ! wat]4 ,!y are p]fectly col\rless1 & correspond to ! poll5 ( fl[]+ plants4 ,! o!r protrusion :i* swells into a globose g]m cell1 & :i* corresponds to ! pi/il ( a fl[]1 conta9s a mass ( gre5 endo*rome1 :i*1 aft] be+ f]tiliz$ by ! snake-l filam5ts1 becomes a primordial cell :i* has no motion1 b aft] hav+ secret$ a /rong coat+ ( cellulose1 x s9ks to ! bottom ( ! wat]1 becomes a w9t] or re/+ spore1 & lays ! f\ndation = a new g5]ation ( plants4 ,! re/+ spores produce new =ms1 :ile ! zoospores1 l buds1 only multiply ! type ( ! individual plant ) all its peculi>ities4 ,! m>9e g5us ,bryopsis gr[s 9 ,new ,zeal&1 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 & ! seas ab\t ,cape ,horn4 ,! species are mo/ly p>asites on o!r ,alg1 & produce innum]able zoospores4 ,! g5us ,codium is f\nd 9 high latitudes1 & appe>s "u f\r diff]5t =ms on ! ,briti% coa/s2 "o ( ^! inhabits turfy banks expos$ to ! spray ( ! sea1 ! o!rs gr[ 9 deep wat]1 or on rocks nev] uncov]$ b at spr+ tides4 ,species ( ?is g5us are f\nd z f> s\? z ,k]guel5's ,l&1 & 9 mo/ ( ! int]v5+ latitudes4 ,! ,caul]pas inhabit ! w>m] di/ricts 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & furni% five species 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,! num]\s species af=d almo/ ! :ole food ( turtles on _m coa/s1 & o!r g5]a furni% nutrim5t to a ho/ ( small] animals4#ci ,! ,a*lya prolif]a is also a unicellul> plant1 mu* small] ?an ! ,vau*]ia1 b :e!r an ,alga or a ,fungus is n v cle>ly settl$4 ,to ! nak$ eye x appe>s z a clu/] ( col\rless ?reads on dead flies float+ 9 wat]1 on ! gills ( fi%es1 & sometimes on frogs4 ,) a microscope ! tufts are se5 to consi/ ( tubes ext5d+ 9 all directions1 fill$ ) a ne>ly col\rless granul> matt]1 ! p>ticles ( :i* are se5 to move sl[ly 9 /reams along ! walls ( ! tubes1 ! curr5ts sometimes ana/omos+ ) ea* o!r4 ,:5 ! plant is ab\t ?irty-six h\rs old1 ! endo*rome beg9s to accumulate 9 ! dilat$ ends ( ! tubes1 & is cut (f f ! rema9d] by a transv]se division1 ! motion ( ! p>ticles be+ /ill visible 9 ! "p cut (f4 ,! endo*rome breaks up into a numb] ( long masses1 ea* ( :i* acquires a cell wall & two cilia1 & beg9s to move ab\t )9 ! p>5t cell2 :5 mature !y are set free by ! rupture 9 its wall1 & g]m9ate1 & produce a facsimile ( ! p>5t4 ,x appe>s t1 9 "s species1 ! transv]se divid+ film becomes convex z soon z ! motile bodies are dis*>g$1 a new f]tile articulation is =m$ & new motile spores are set free1 & ?is process is cont9u$ till ! vital p[]s ( ! plant are exhau/$4 ,! ,a*lya has re/+ spores1 :i* may rema9 long 9 ! wat] )\t *ange1 b if a dead insect be put into x1 !y fix on x & g]m9ate imm$iately4 ,x is suppos$ t ^! re/+ spores are f]tiliz$ by filam5tal bodies4 ,! ,a*lya prolif]a goes ?r\gh all its *anges 9 an h\r & a half or two h\rs4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! !rmal spr+s at ,vi*y1 ,nevis1 & ,vaux1 :]e x conta9s an alkal9e iodide4 ,! :ole ( ! plants :i* h be5 describ$ 9 ! prec$+ pages belong to ! gr\p ( gre5 ,alg1 al?\gh _m are inhabitants ( fre% wat]4 ,! /ructure ( ! m>9e ,alg is entirely cellul>4 ,depriv$ ( vascul> tubes1 !y c h no circulation ( sap1 consequ5tly !y d]ive _! n\ri%m5t by absorption ?r\gh\t _! :ole surface f ! m$ium 9 :i* !y live1 = _! root1 or r fulcrum1 only s]ves to fix !m to ! rocks & /ones to prev5t !m f be+ buffet$ by ! waves4 ,s9ce sol> light & heat decrease rapidly ) ! dep?1 ea* family ( ,alg has a zone peculi> to itself4 ,! fir/ zone ext5ds f high to l[ wat] m>k1 & is inhabit$ by plants p]iodically expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 to ! direct light & heat ( ! sun1 & occasionally to ra94 ,"s ( ! ,alg t are long left dry are believ$ to d]ive "s n\ri%m5t f ! sub/ances to :i* !y are fix$4 ,! second zone1 :i* ext5ds f l[ wat] m>k to a dep? ( fifte5 fa?oms1 is ! region ( ! great m>9e =e/s :i* encircle ! globe 9 bo? hemisph]es4 ,o!r two zones foll[ at great] & great] dep?s1 b all are divid$ into v>i\s m9or regions1 bel[ ! la/ ( :i* ! ,alg decrease z ! dep? increases1 till1 z f> z we "k1 vegetation ceases altoge!r2 t dep?1 h[ev]1 mu/ be v great1 z diatoms are sometimes f\nd1 & 9 great quantities1 ?ree hundr$ fa?oms deep4 ,! m>9e ,conf]vas1 l ^? gr[+ 9 fre% wat]1 are sl5d]-jo9t$ filam5ts =m$ ( "o s]ies ( cells jo9$ end to end4 ,! cells become m or less flatt5$ on ! surface ( contact1 :ile ! side walls reta9 _! natural curvature1 :i* may be cyl9drical or oval4 ,! filam5t may1 !re=e1 be cyl9drical or bead$4 ,! cells are almo/ always long] ?an !y are broad1 & = ! mo/ "p equal & simil> 9 ! same plant1 al?\gh !re are exceptions to uni=mity ( size4 ,! cells conta9 a transp>5t liquid ?r\gh :i* m9ute solid p>ticles ( v>i\s %ades ( gre5 are pretty ev5ly scatt]$4 ,! conv]sion ( ^! p>ticles into zoospores has already be5 describ$4 ,s9ce ^! ,alg h no roots1 & ! cell wall no op5+1 ea* cell ( a ,conf]va elaborates indep5d5tly ! nutrim5t x absorbs f ! wat]4 ,"s species =m a fleecy lay] ov] rocks1 & on ! bottoms ( salt-wat] pools & e/u>ies1 o!rs ext5d 9 bundles 9 salt-wat] dit*es1 & "s are f\nd on rocks1 betwe5 tide m>ks1 ris+ 9 long1 /raight1 /iff1 & wiry tufts1 f ?ree to eight or twelve in*es high4 ,! g5us ,hormotri*um1 :i* =ms tufts sev]al in*es long1 ( bright grass gre51 diff]s f ! ,conf]vas 9 be+ s(t & gelat9\s1 & ev5 m by its mode ( increase1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is /ill by zoospores4 ,! ,h4 collab5s may be tak5 z ! type ( ?is g5us4 ,x =ms a long & l>ge tuft ( s(t gelat9\s & slipp]y filam5ts ( glossy gre54 ,! jo9ts ( ! filam5ts are once1 or once & a half1 long] ?an !y are broad1 & ! gre5 granul> matt] )9 !m is collect$ into a r\nd sac or sporidium 9 ! c5tre ( ea*1 & aft] be+ conv]t$ into zoospores1 ! sac comes ?r\gh a rupture 9 ! jo9t into ! wat]1 op5s1 & sets ! zoospores free4 ,! g5us ,cladophora1 :i* has tw5ty-five species 9 ! ,briti% seas alone1 =ms tufts ( jo9t$ filam5ts f f\r to eight1 t51 or ev5 tw5ty in*es high4 ,9 "s species ! filam5ts are rigid1 bri/ly1 & wiry2 9 o!rs !y are s(t & silky2 b !y are always ri*ly1 v>i\sly1 & sometimes d5sely1 bran*$ & rebran*$4 ,9 "s ! bran*es & bran*lets are =k$1 9 o!rs trip>tite2 ! ,cladophora pellucida1 :i* is a rigid1 wiry plant1 comb9es bo? ^! =ms4 ,! g5us ,bangia consi/s ( purple filam5t\s jo9t$ & unbran*$ ,alg1 :i* are di/+ui%$ f all o!rs by ! microscopic arrangem5t ( _! endo*rome1 :i* is enclos$ 9 little cells plac$ accord+ to a def9ite plan )9 ! transp>5t & tubul> jo9ts ( ! filam5ts4 ,9 ! ,bangia fuscopurpurea1 ^: blacki% purple tufts1 sev]al in*es long1 cl+ closely to ! rocks ne> high-wat] m>k1 ! tubul> jo9ts conta9 r[s ( m9ute col\r cells radiat+ f a c5tre4 ,9 ! n>r[ filam5ts !re is b "o col\r cell 9 a jo9t1 b 9 ! broad] filam5ts !re are f ?ree to five1 =m+ a tesselat$ l9e across x4 ,9 ?is plant "o spore is produc$ 9 ea* jo9t4 ,! ,bangia cili>is =ms a sc>cely p]ceptible rosy p9k fr+e ( hair-l jo9t$ filam5ts on ! ,zo/]a m>9a1 & also on o!r ,alg4 ,! filam5ts are n m ?an ! t5? or fif? ( an in* long1 consequ5tly _! jo9ts are mo/ m9ute1 yet ! microscope %[s t !y conta9 f two to ?ree col\r cells set z if radiat+ f a c5tre1 & t ! granul> endo*rome 9 ea* cell is conv]t$ into two zoospores4 ,! ,bangia c]amicola1 :i* =ms purpli% p9k tufts on small ,alg 9 rock pools1 diff]s f bo? ( ! prec$+4 ,! jo9ts ( its filam5ts are once or twice z long z !y are broad1 & conta9 col\r cells l long upright l9es4 ,by aid$ vision zoospores are se5 to be =m$ )9 ! l9e> col\r cells1 !n ! cells run toge!r into a globul> mass1 :i* bur/s ?r\gh ! cell wall1 leav+ ! jo9t empty4 ,! :ole g5us is s(t & sometimes gelat9\s4 ,! ,ent]omorpha g5us is *>act]iz$ by a cyl9drical & tubul> /em & bran*es4 ,^! plants =m two gr\ps1 "o ^: filam5ts & bran*es swell f a n>r[ base upw>ds & t]m9ate 9 a blunt extremity1 :ile 9 ! o!r gr\p ! tips ( ! bran*es are po9t$4 ,! ,ent]omorpha inte/9alis1 :i* is an inhabitant ( _m seas1 has a ?9 membran\s1 tubul>1 cyl9drical1 & unbran*$ /em1 inflat$ upw>ds into a broad r\nd head1 be+ m or less wr9kl$ & curl$ ?r\gh\t4 ,d[nw>ds x tap]s to a f9e ?read1 & al?\gh atta*$ at fir/1 at la/ x becomes float+4 ,sev]al ( ^! plants rise f ! same root1 sometimes to ! height ( two feet1 at o!rs n m ?an an in*1 & !y are ( e wid?1 f ! t5? ( an in* to ?ree in*es1 _! col\r be+ grass gre54 ,! typical =m ( ! o!r gr\p is mu* bran*$1 & all ! bran*lets are f9ely po9t$4 ,! ?ree g5]a ,codium1 ,bryopsis1 & ! m>9e ,vau*]ias are all s(t plants *>act]iz$ by _! filam5ts be+ tubul>1 h[ev] mu* !y may be bran*$4 ,!y agree also 9 be+ reproduc$ by zoospores develop$ f ! gre5 matt] )9 little sacs atta*$ to ! ext]ior ( _! filam5ts4 ,! species ( ! g5us ,codium diff] mu*1 al?\gh =m$ ( simil> elem5ts4 ,9 ! ,c4 tom5tosum1 :i* is f ?ree to twelve in*es long1 ! d>k gre5 /em is ?ick] ?an a cr['s quill & mu* bran*$2 :ile ,codium ,bursa1 on ! contr>y1 is a d>k gre5 r\nd spongy lump ( tubul> filam5ts1 d5sely int]wov5 & matt$ toge!r4 ,^! masses1 :i* are f "o to eight in*es 9 diamet]1 become holl[ :5 old1 & diff]5t sizes & ages gr[ toge!r 9 a gr\p4 ,! ,bryopsis is a yell[i% gre5 tubul> plant1 f two to f\r in*es high1 plum$ l a fea!r1 & sometimes replum$4 ,x is a r>e plant 9 ,engl&1 & gr[s on ! l>g] ,alg 9 deep wat]4 ,! ,vau*]ia m>9a =ms s(t limp tufts ( hair-l filam5t fill$ ) bright gre5 matt]1 :i* (t5 runs p>tially out4 ,x is f "o to ?ree in*es high1 & has a few long upright bran*es1 to :i* are atta*$ small /alk$ pe>-%ap$ sacs conta9+ zoospores4 ,bo? ?is plant & ! ,vau*]ia velut9a1 gr[ on muddy %ores4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,ulva latissima3 a1 portion ( ord9>y frond2 b1 cells 9 :i* ! endo*rome is beg9n+ to break up2 c1 cells f ! b\nd>y betwe5 ! col\r$ & col\rless portion1 "s conta9+ zoospores2 d1 ciliat$ zoospores2 e1 developm5t ( zoospores4 ,! ,ulvas1 :i* are ! grass gre5 lay]s se5 on all our coa/s1 orig9ate 9 ! simple vegetable cell1 :atev] =m _! foliace\s fronds may ultimately assume4 ,:5 ! cell is divid$ 9 "o direction only1 a conf]void filam5t is ! result2 & if ! filam5t %\ld increase 9 bread? z well z l5g?1 accord+ to a det]m9ate law1 a ribbon-%ap$ frond may be produc$2 b :5 ! orig9al cell is divid$ into f\r cells1 & ea* ( ^! f\r & all _! successors und]go simil> division1 ! increase be+ z ! s]ies #a1 #d1 #af1 #fd1 c41 a membran\s expansion is =m$1 9 :i* all ! cells are firmly atta*$ to "o ano!r1 & e portion is ! exact c\nt]p>t ( ano!r4 ,! cells ( ! ,ulvas frequ5tly exhibit an imp]fect sep>ation ( ! granul> endo*rome into f\r p>ts prep>atory to multiplication by d\ble division1 & ! entire frond or leaf %[s ! gr\ps ( cells arrang$ 9 clu/]s conta9+ "s multiple =m ( f\r1 z 9 fig4 #c1 page #aga4 ,! frond membrane ( ! true ,ulvas1 z t ( ! ,ulva lactuca1 is =m$ ( b "o lay] ( cells2 ! frond itself is ?9 z cambric pap]1 almo/ transp>5t1 & ( a pretty light gre54 ,:5 "y x is a puck]$ inflat$ bag1 :i* aft]w>ds bur/s & op5s into a flat1 ribless1 wavy1 m or less r\nd$ expansion1 ?ree to six in*es long1 & z _m broad4 ,?is plant1 :i* is atta*$ to ! rocks betwe5 ! tide m>ks on our %ores1 is r>e 9 ! ,m$it]ranean2 nor is x s common 9 ,brita9 z ! ,ulva latissima 7fig4 #bb71 :i* is cosmopolite1 & abundant ev]y:]e4 ,x is f\nd z a ribless irregul> expansion ( a full bright gre5 9 deep wat]1 & ( a yell[ apple gre5 :5 9 %all[ wat]1 & expos$ to ! light4 ,! base & /em are v %ort1 & ! frond1 :i* ! microscope %[s to be =m$ ( two lay]s ( cell membrane1 spreads s rapidly into crisp wide-lob$ foliations1 t ! p>ts (t5 ov]lap ea* o!r 9 /iff bulg+ folds4 ,x is f six in*es to a foot 9 height1 & f ?ree to twelve in*es wide4 ,! frond ( ! ,ulva ,l9za is also =m$ ( two lay]s ( cells1 b s small & s closely press$ toge!r t ! two lay]s c only be detect$ by ! microscope4 ,?is plant1 :i* is f six in*es to two feet long1 is a ribless1 n>r[1 ribbon-%ap$ expansion ) curl$ wavy edges tap]+ to a base1 & ei!r blunt or po9t$ at ! top4 ,its col\r is ! same z t ( ! ,ulva lactuca4 ,9 ! ,ulvas1 :i* are multilocul> plants1 "s cells are select$ to be> fruit1 & o!rs n4 ,! granul> endo*rome ( ^! *os5 cells divides into sev]al p>ts1 :i* are at fir/ 9 close contact & at re/2 !n !y become re/less1 acquire f\r or a great] numb] ( cilia1 & pass ?r\gh a fracture 9 ! cell wall into ! wat]1 9 :i* !y swim freely z zoospores4 ,aft] a "t !y come to re/1 atta* !mselves to "s object1 & beg9 to gr[4 ,! walls ( ! cells :i* h ?us dis*>g$ _! endo*rome 9 ! =m ( zoospores1 rema9 z col\rless spots on ! frond4 ,! :ole col\r+ matt] ( a portion ( ! frond may escape z zoospores1 leav+ beh9d x no?+ b a :ite membrane4 ,) a microscope1 ?is process may sometimes be obs]v$ 9 all ! diff]5t /ages ( its progress4 ,e full-gr[n ,ulva has its own precise & def9ite =m1 b :atev] t may be1 ! "y plants on _! fir/ appe>ance f ! %ore are 9 all respects simil> to ,conf]vas2 ! top cells soon divide1 & a plane or sac-l frond is =m$4 ,c]ta9 ,ulvas1 :i* h a yell[ t9t1 produce small zoospores ) only two cilia1 b 9 ! ,ulva bullosa & ! ,ulva latissima f\r zoospores are produc$ 9 ! same cell1 ea* hav+ f\r cilia4 ,! same fructification prevails also 9 ! purple ,ulvas--,porphyra lac9iata & vulg>is4 ,! latt] is se5 9 w9t] & ! e>ly spr+1 cov]+ ! rocks ne> high wat] m>k1 ) its t9y bright purple lanceolate leaves4 ,lat] 9 ! season x gr[s into a flat n>r[ ribless frond ) a po9t$ end1 & ab\t two feet long1 ! m>g9 ( ! frond becom+ wav$ & plait$ z ! plant increases 9 gr[?4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 x is se5 mix$ ) ! ,porphyra lac9iata1 :i* is a ribless flat frond ( a dull purple2 sometimes x is v ?91 divid$ or torn1 & occasionally gr[+ 9 a circle r\nd its root4 ,bo? =ms are sold z lav]4#dj ,! ,,rhodosp]me1 ,floride1 or ,rosetangles1 are ! mo/ beautiful ( ! m>9e vegetation4 ,no sea plant surpasses !m 9 delicacy & grace ( =m or ri*ness ( col\r+1 b ! mo/ beautiful are seldom se51 because !y gr[ bel[ ! l9e ( ebb tides1 or "u ! %elt] ( o!r sea we$s 9 ! rock pools left at l[ wat]1 _! crimson t9ts be+ deepe/ :5 %elt]$ f /rong light4 ,! ,rhodosp]ms1 :i* h repres5tatives 9 e sea1 are mu* m num]\s ?an ! gre5 ,alg bo? 9 g5]a & species4 ,?irte5 ord]s1 compris+ sixty-sev5 g5]a1 inhabit ! ,briti% coa/s4 ,_m are exce$+ly m9ute1 =m+ pat*es & velvety cu%ions on rocks & o!r ,alg2 a va/ numb] h jo9t$ filam5t\s fronds1 :ile o!rs consi/ ( tubul> filam5ts1 & _m exhibit a %rub-l collection ( firm bran*es2 "s are flat & foliace\s expansions )\t a midrib1 ei!r ?9 & delicate1 or ?ick & /rong1 :ile a v brilliant gr\p ( bo? n>r[ & spread+ fronds possess a midrib z a di/+ui%+ "*4 ,! /ructure ( ! frond v>ies f a simple membran\s to a c>tilag9\s or ev5 horny sub/ance1 caus$ by a great] developm5t ( ! cellul> tissue1 :i* 9 ! high] k9ds ( ,floride divides ! epid]mal lay] or sk9 f ! p>5*yme or spongy matt] )94 ,! mode ( reproduction by tetraspores1 z well z by simple spores1 di/+ui%es ! ,rhodosp]ms f ! o!r two great divisions ( ! m>9e ,alg4 ,^! bodies are produc$ by ! division ( ! r$ or crimson endo*rome into f\r p>ts1 :i* rema9 9 ! cells till !y acquire an envelope2 _! =m1 :i* is mu* v>i$1 dep5ds ^u t ( ! endo*rome4 ,"s are produc$ by ! break+ up ( a globe ( endo*rome f ! c5tre into f\r pyramidal segm5ts2 or %\ld ! endo*rome be elliptical1 by divid+ x into f\r by ?ree p>allel segm5ts1 or a mass may be divid$ into f\r by horizontal & v]tical sections4 ,"s ( ^! are repres5t$1 greatly magnifi$1 9 fig4 #bc4 ,! tetraspores are lodg$ 9 w>t-l excresc5ces1 imm]s$ ei!r p>tially or :olly 9 "s "p ( ! frond4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,a1 ,polyides rotundus3--a1 ?9 slice %[+ ! w$ge-%ap$ spores2 b1 tetraspores4 ,b1 ,furcell>ia fa/igiata3--c1 ?9 slice %[+ a nucleus ) ! divid+ spores2 d1 "o ( ! l>ge cells2 e1 a tetraspore4 ,! simple spores are produc$ )9 col\rless tub]cules call$ nuclei1 v>i\sly situat$ ^u ! plant1 z at fig4 #bc a1 c4 ,^! nuclei conta9 _m microscopic spores4 ,sometimes ! nuclei are enclos$ 9 conceptacles or ovate sacs1 :i* are ei!r p]=ate or n at ! apex4 ,^! conta9 _m microscopic /r+s ( cells l jo9t$ ?reads1 & ! endo*rome 9 ea* jo9t ( ^! ?reads is conv]t$ into a spore successively f ! summit d[nw>d4 ,sometimes ! endo*rome 9 "o or two jo9ts only1 becomes a spore :e!r t]m9al or c5tral1 & :5 ! spores break ?r\gh ! jo9t wall & fall (f f ! ?reads1 !y are collect$ )\t any def9ite ord] into a mass )9 ! nuclei4 ,sometimes new jo9ts or cells are produc$ on ! ?reads :5 ! old ones h yield$ _! fruit4 ,occasionally a globose nucleus conta9s sev]al second>y nucleoli full ( spores4 ,9 e in/ance1 ! p]fect spore is a d5se grum\s mass surr\nd$ by a hyal9e sub-gelat9\s coat consi/+ ( at lea/ two membranes4 ,! situation1 mode ( gr[?1 & /ructure ( ! nuclei v>y almo/ inf9itely1 & toge!r ) ! /ructure ( ! frond af=d ! di/9ctive m>ks by :i* ! g5]a are sep>at$ f ea* o!r4 ,! spores & tetraspores are equally capable1 l buds1 ( reproduc+ _! species2 b ! spores are believ$ to be 9 "s cases f]tiliz$ by sp9dle-%ap$ p>ticles1 & consequ5tly are consid]$ to be ! true fruit4 ,an!ridia1 or sacs conta9+ ^! p>ticles1 h be5 discov]$ 9 v>i\s g5]a ( ,rhodosp]ms4 ,al?\gh1 z a rule1 ! r$ ,alg h two modes ( vegetative reproduction1 yet !re are v>i\s species 9 :i* tetraspores only h hi!rto be5 met )4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,v]tical sections ( conceptacles3--a1 ,gracil>ia armata2 b1 ,gr9nelia am]icana2 c1 ,corall9a (fic9alis1 ! membrane ( :i*1 m highly magnifi$1 is %[n at d4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ! high] ,rhodosp]ms is di/+ui%$ f ^? possess+ ! prec$+ mode ( fructification by ! int]nal /ructure ( _! reproductive nuclei4 ,9 "s ( ^! ,alg ! nuclei are divid$ into two equal *amb]s by a fibro-cellul> sub/ance to :i* ! spores are atta*$2 9 o!rs1 pe>-%ap$ spores radiate f a fibro-cellul> sub/ance at ! base ( ! nucleus4 ,!re are1 moreov]1 ,alg :i* h nuclei conta9+ conical spores ^: broad bases radiate f ! c5tre1 & o!r arrangem5ts occur4 ,! ,rhodosp]ms are comp>atively small plants4 ,"s :i* =m velvety cu%ions on /ones1 or m9ute tufts on small ,alg1 are only ! fraction ( an in* high1 b ! l>g] k9ds range f "o to f\r1 six1 t51 or tw5ty in*es2 probably none exce$ two feet4 ,9 ?ickness1 "s fronds are f9e1 l jo9t$ & bran*$ hairs1 :ile o!rs are ?ick1 l hog's bri/les or cr[ quills4 ,num]\s z ! =ms are1 ! simple jo9t$ filam5t\s frond is connect$ by a s]ies ( =ms ) ! highe/ ord] ( ! class4 ,a great portion ( ! ,rhodosp]ms on ! ,briti% coa/s is compos$ ( ! exquisitely beautiful ord] ( ! ,c]amiace4 ,!y ab\nd 9 e rocky pool1 on e piece ( wood t has be5 long expos$ to ! waves1 on rocks & /ones1 &1 above all1 !y fr+e ! ,zo/]a m>9a1 or sea wrack1 z well z ! firm] ,alg1 ) e %ade ( r$ f bright crimson to purple4 ,!y are articulat$ fili=m plants1 approa*+ 9 simplicity ( =m to ! ,conf]vas4 ,! g5us ,calli?amnion1 :i* has ?irty species 9 ! ,briti% seas1 consi/s ( cyl9drical jo9t$ ?reads m or less pr(usely bran*$1 & di/+ui%$ by hav+ ! divisions betwe5 ! jo9ts opaque & ( v>i\s %ades ( r$ & purple1 :ile ! jo9ts !mselves are transp>5t & col\rless1 s t ! /em & bran*es appe> to be /rip$ across by alt]nately :ite & col\r$ b&s :i* are (t5 visible to ! nak$ eye1 not)/&+ ! smallness ( ! plants & ! delicacy ( _! filam5ts1 z ! ,c4 sp>sum1--:i* is a s(t purple tuft ( jo9t$ ?reads sc>cely "o-t5? ( an in* high4 ,! ,calli?amnion corymbosum has a s(t jo9t$ filam5t\s /em1 hair-l bel[1 f9e z a cobweb above1 & excessively bran*$1 ) di*otom\s bran*es4 ,9 fig4 #be a repres5ts a ?read ( ?is plant ) tetraspores1 mu* magnifi$2 b1 a portion ( ! same1 m highly magnifi$2 c1 a ?read ) nak$ nuclei1 gongylosp]m\s1 t is1 fill$ ) a mass ( spores1 magnifi$2 & d1 a spore1 magnifi$ m highly4 ,! nuclei are nak$ 9 all ! ,c]amiace4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,calli?amnion corymbosum4 ,! g5us ,c]amium1 "s species ( :i* h sp9ulose bran*lets1 is *>act]iz$ by ! tips ( ! =ks ( its t]m9al bran*lets be+ hook$ inw>ds1 & by ! /ems & bran*es be+ /rip$ by alt]nate hyal9e & col\r$ b&s z 9 ! prec$+ g5us1 ?\gh ! arrangem5t ( ! col\rs is some:at diff]5t4 ,! ,c]amium ciliatum1 :i* is a d5se tuft ( capill>y jo9t$ filam5ts1 f two to six in*es long1 repeat$ly & regul>ly =k$1 has ! tips ( ! la/ =ks s mu* hook$ inw>ds1 t ! extremities ( ! bran*lets look z if !y 7 he>t-%ap$4 ,x has m9ute spores 9 globul> nuclei1 sessile on ! bran*es ) two or ?ree bran*-l hairs b5ea? !m1 & tetraspores set 9 ! col\r$ p>ts ( ! jo9ts ) a ?orn betwe5 ea*1 = 9 ?is plant ! c5tre ( ! jo9t is hyal9e1 ! re/ col\r$4 ,! g5us ,griffi?sia conta9s v>i\s species ( bright rose-col\r$ plants1 :i* become blea*$ :5 put into fre%wat]1 & =m a circle :5 spread out4 ,s(t1 t5d]1 & gelat9\s1 !y =m d5se tufts ( jo9t$ & bran*$ filam5ts on rocks at l[ wat] m>k4 ,! filam5ts are sl5d] bel[1 capill>y & =k$ above1 & ! jo9ts conta9 "o l9e> upright rose-col\r$ tube1 :i* is se5 ?r\gh\t _! transp>5t walls3 a di/+ui%$ m>k ( ! g5us4 ,tetraspores are borne on ! hair-l jo9t$ ramuli1 & spores are amass$ 9 coat$ r\ndi% sessile nuclei1 surr\nd$ by m9ute hair-l fibres4 ,sev]al species once call$ ,griffi?sia diff] s mu* f ! o!rs1 t !y are by "s ref]r$ to ,halurus1 :i* has ! /ems & bran*es ?ick5$ by ov]lapp+ :orls ( t9y =k$ jo9t$ & curv$ ramuli4 ,!y are propagat$ by spores1 enclos$ 9 clu/]s ( nuclei borne on ! tips ( %ort bran*es1 ) a mass ( curv$ ramuli fold+ ov] !m1 & by tetraspores atta*$ to ! inside ( ano!r set ( curv$ ramuli4 ,an!ridia h be5 discov]$ 9 sev]al g5]a ( ! gr\p ,c]amiace1 especially 9 ,c]amium1 ,calli?amnion1 ,griffi?sia1 & ,halurus4 ,!y consi/ ( little clu/]s ( cells v>i\sly arrang$1 9 :i* ! active p>ticles kn[n z sp]matozoids are g5]at$4 ,! ,polysiphonia are ,alg1 se5 9 tufts f t5 to twelve in*es long1 ( usually mu* bran*$ jo9t$ filam5ts1 on rocks1 corall9es1 & ! small] ,alg at l[ wat] m>k4 ,! jo9ts ( ! filam5ts conta9 upright tubes1 full ( purple or r$di% br[n matt]1 :i* is se5 ?r\gh _! transp>5t walls4 ,! numb] ( ^! col\r tubes v>y f f\r to t51 eighte51 or ev5 tw5ty1 & =m ! *>act]i/ic ( ! g5us4 ,?us !re is a simil>ity ( /ructure betwe5 ! ,polysiphonia1 a g5us ( ! highe/ ord] among/ ,rhodosp]ms1 & ! ,griffi?sia1 :i* is "o ( ! l[e/4 ,! ,polysiphonia elongata1 :i* is f six to twelve in*es high1 has f\r prim>y & sev]al second>y col\r tubes 9 ! transp>5t jo9ts ( its filam5ts4 ,l _m ( its cong5]s1 ?is plant does n come to p]fection or be> fruit till ! second spr+4 ,9 its y\?1 x resembles ! full gr[n plant b is small]1 & ! col\r tubes are n =m$ 9 ! capill>y ?reads ( ! tufts1 :i* ) _m ( its bran*lets are decidu\s1 leav+ ! plant 9 its nak$ w9t] /ate4 ,) return+ w>m?1 x assumes its p]fect =m1 & 9 ,m>* & ,april be>s fruit1 :i* consi/s ( nuclei 9 conceptacles1 sessile on ! bran*es1 ei!r clu/]$ or scatt]$4 ,! spores are at ! top ( jo9t$ ?reads ris+ f a sub/ance at ! base ( ! nuclei4 ,9 "s species ( ?is g5us1 tetraspores only h be5 f\nd4 ,! ,cryptonemiace are ! mo/ num]\s & div]sifi$ ( all ! ord]s ( ! ,rhodosp]ms4 ,?irty-five g5]a are widely disp]s$ ?r\gh\t ! _w1 *iefly 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e2 tw5ty-f\r g5]a at lea/ occur on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 & fifte5 g5]a h repres5tatives 9 ! ,briti% seas4 ,?is multitude ( g5]ic =ms is divid$ into two gr\ps ( gelat9\s /ructure1 ! "o hav+ in>ticulate fronds compos$ ( articulate ?reads closely incorporat$1 ! o!r membranace\s1 =m$ ( cells closely incorporat$ into a foliace\s expansion4 ,mo/ ( ^! plants h a /ratum ( cellul> tissue1 int]pos$ betwe5 a spongy matt] 9 ! int]ior ( ! frond1 & ! epid]m or ext]nal sk91 :i* = ! mo/ "p consi/s ( a simple lay] ( m9ute cells firmly unit$ by _! sides1 g5]ally =m+ a m]e film2 b x may be ?9 & flexible1 ?ick1 t\gh1 or lea!ry1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,! ,furcell>ia fa/igiata 7fig4 #bc ,b7 has an int]m$iate lay] ( cellul> tissue betwe5 its sk91 & a pulpy int]ior4 ,! frond is cyl9drical1 smoo?1 /rong1 & opaque1 repeat$ly =k$ ) long n>r[ =k+s4 ,! root is fibr\s1 & ! /em %ort & tap]+4 ,masses ( spores ne/le "u ! sk9 & swell out ! upp] =k+s1 & oblong tetraspores are deeply imb$d$ 9 ! same4 ,9 ! ,dumontia fili=mis ! simple undivid$ /em & bran*es are fill$ ) a wat]y jelly4 ,! /em ( ! ,*ylocladia kali=mis is a cyl9drical tube1 f f\r to eighte5 in*es high1 con/rict$ at int]vals ( half an in* or m into long holl[ jo9ts2 bran*es ( ! v same con/ruction b small] spr+ f ea* con/riction ei!r opposite to "o ano!r or 9 :orls2 ^! aga9 h less] bran*es1 all tap]+ m or less to ea* end4 ,! plant1 :i* is ( a p9k col\r fad+ to gre5i% yell[1 is propagat$ by tetraspores imb$d$ 9 ! bran*es1 & by transp>5t conceptacles sessile on ! bran*lets1 enclos+ nuclei conta9+ pyramidal spores4 ,we nei!r possess ! ,con/ant9ea rosa m>9a1 nor ! ,c4 sit*5sis1 "s ( ! l>ge/ & f9e/ plants ( ! gr\p1 bo? be+ inhabitants ( high latitudes1 b !re are "s v pretty species on ! ,briti% coa/s4 ,!y are suppos$ to be annuals4 ,! r$ dulses belong to ! foliace\s & gelat9\s "p ( ?is ord]4 ,! ,*ondrus crispus1 or ,iri% moss1 sold z ,c>rige51 is v common on rocky coa/s 9 ! nor!rn seas4 ,x is f ?ree to eight in*es high1 & exce$+ly v>i$ 9 =m4 ,! frond is ?icki%1 firm1 & ela/ic1 ) a /ratum ( cellul> tissue "u ! sk91 :i* is probably mu* develop$1 z ! plant becomes horny :5 dri$4 ,x is reproduc$ by tetraspores1 9 l>ge oval gr\ps scatt]$ all ov] ! surface1 (t5 prom95t on "o side only1 &1 9 "s r>e in/ances1 spores 9 prom95t oval conceptacles are imm]s$ 9 ! less] frond divisions4 ,besides ^! are w>ts compos$ ( radiat+ ?reads1 possibly an!ridia1 b n made out4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,a1 ,rhabdonia ,c\lt]i1 portion ( nucleus4 ,b1 ,sphrococcus coronopifolius2 portion ( nucleus & s+le spore4 ,c1 ,wrangelia p5icillata1 spore ?reads4 ,d1 ,cruoria pellita1 tetraspores4 ,! ,rhodym5iace are sometimes fili=m1 b = ! mo/ "p !y are compress$ flat cellul> fronds1 spread+ widely f a %ort delicate /em4 ,!y are usually ( a blood r$1 b ,rhodym5ia palmata1 or common ,scot* dulse1 is ( a d>k purple4 ,! tetraspores are v>i\sly dispos$1 & simple or comp\nd globul> conceptacles conta9+ nuclei are ei!r atta*$ ext]nally to ! fili=m fronds1 or p>tly imm]s$ 9 ^? t are foliace\s4 ,! spores are produc$ 9 ! jo9ts ( monili=m ?reads )9 ! nuclei1 :i* are sometimes divid$ into two *amb]s by ?reads runn+ f wall to wall4 ,rhabdonia 7fig4 #bf ,a7 belongs to ?is gr\p4 ,! ,wrangeliace are fili=m1 _m species consi/+ ( a c5tral ?read coat$ m or less ) small] ones1 sometimes s dispos$ z to =m a mo/ elegant lacework4 ,ea* jo9t ( ! /em1 bran*es1 & bran*lets is beset ) :orls ( %ort sl5d] =k$ & jo9t$ ramuli4 ,!y h clu/]s ( spores 9 /alk$ capsules4 ,! spore ?reads ( ,wrangelia p5icillata 7fig4 #bf ,c7 are surr\nd$ by a :orl ( ramuli compos$ ( radiat+ pyri=m spores aris+ f ! endo*rome ( t]m9al cells4 ,! ,squam>i resemble li*5s 9 spread+ !mselves 9 a r$ cru/ ov] /ones & rocks4 ,!y h roots bel[1 & w>ts1 on _! upp] surface1 9 :i* !re are tufts ( monili=m spore-be>+ ?reads4 ,! tetraspores ( ,cruoria pellita are %[n 9 fig4 #bf ,d2 its repeat$ly =k$ filam5ts tap] upw>ds1 & ! tetraspores are =m$ 9 ! swoll5 c5tre cell ( ! filam5ts4 ,! ,peyssonnelia gr[s on %ells & o!r m>9e objects1 & ext5ds f ! ,m$it]ranean to ,irel&1 & ! ea/ coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ,polyides rotundus 7fig4 #bc ,a71 repres5t+ ! only g5us ( ! ,spongioc>pe1 has a d>k purple solid gri/ly cyl9drical /em1 repeat$ly & regul>ly =k$1 all be+ ( ! same ?ickness4 ,! tips ( ! la/ =k+s1 :i* are small & equal1 give ! top ( ! plant a r\nd$ =m4 ,! microscope %[s t ! /em & bran*es are compos$ ( a c5tral column ( int]lac$ ?reads & radiat+ cells2 x %[s1 moreov]1 t hyal9e nuclei conta9+ a clu/] ( conical spores ^: broad bases radiate 9 all directions f a c5tre1 z 9 fig4 #bc a1 are scatt]$ among ! articulat$ ?reads ( oblong irregul> spongy w>ts :i* clasp or embrace ! /em & bran*es4 ,! tetraspores are buri$ 9 ! ends ( ! la/ =ks4 ,?is plant is s l ! ,furcell>ia fa/igiata 7fig4 #bc ,b71 t x af=ds a rem>kable in/ance ( simil>ity ( =m & total div]sity ( fructification1 n only 9 ! spores & _! arrangem5ts1 b 9 ! =m ( ! tetraspores2 = 9 ! ,polyides !y are =m$ by two sections1 "o v]tical & ! o!r horizontal1 :ile 9 ! ,furcell>ia ! endo*rome is divid$ by ?ree annul> sections1 z 9 fig4 #bc ,e4 ,! ,gelidium corneum1 common 9 ,brita9 & almo/ ev]y:]e1 repres5t+ ! gr\p ,gelidiace1 is opaque1 firm1 & ( a d>k purple4 ,! axis ) its alt]nate & repeat$ bran*es ly+ all 9 "o plane1 is compos$ ( conf]void ?reads4 ,?is plant is di/+ui%$ by hav+ its spore-cases or nuclei divid$ into two *amb]s by a fibro-cellul> sub/ance2 ! spores are ei!r atta*$ to ?is or to a network ( ?reads2 ^! bodies & ! tetraspores are lodg$ 9 ! tips ( ! bran*lets4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ v>iable ( all ,alg4 ,! ,sphrococcoide comprise "s ( ! mo/ common & beautiful ,alg1 rem>kable = _! brilliant rose & purple t9ts4 ,?is section consi/s ( ^? r$ ,alg :i* h _! nuclei lodg$ 9 an ext]nal subglobose conceptacle1 ! spores be+ =m$ at ! tips ( jo9t$ ?reads ris+ f a sub/ance at ! base ( ! nucleus4 ,a portion ( a nucleus ( ,sphrococcus coronopifolius1 & a s+le spore magnifi$1 is %[n at fig4 #bf b4 ,! tetraspores are v>i\sly dispos$4 ,! fronds 9 ?is family are ei!r gri/ly or membranace\s1 & totally diff]5t f ^? :i* foll[4 ,!y (t5 assume a leafy aspect f ! regul>ity ( ! n]ves1 :i* sometimes p]=m ! functions ( a /em :5 ! membrane\s bord] has decay$1 & !n !y give rise 9 turn to new fronds4 ,t happ5s 9 "s species ( ,nitophyllum3 a v %ort /em rises f a m9ute disc1 & spreads widely into a flat ribless expansion1 m or less deeply slit into broad r\nd$ divisions4 ,wavy n]ves f ! top ( ! /em spread ?r\gh ! fronds1 :i* are left b>e 9 w9t]1 & give rise to new fronds 9 spr+4 ,! leaves ( ! ,deless]ia sangu9ea1 f two to eight in*es long & f "o to six in*es broad1 are ( ! ri*e/ col\r & mo/ delicate /ructure1 ) ev5ly curl$ edges1 & a firm solid /em1 ) prom95t midrib & n]ves4 ,9 w9t] globose /alk$ spore conceptacles are borne on ! skeleton midribs ( ! summ]'s leaves f :i* ! m>g9 has decay$1 :i* ?us become ! /ems ( ! next ye>'s plant4 ,9 ?is plant tetraspores 9 small special /alk$ leaflets fr+e ! skeleton midribs2 9 ! ,nitophyllums !y are ei!r scatt]$ 9 dots ov] ! frond1 conf9$ to ! c5tre1 or 9 l9es r\nd ! m>g94 ,z reg>ds ! int]nal /ructure ( ?is ord]1 no?+ c be m v>i\s1 b !y nev] acquire a truly articulate =m4 ,! g5]a & species ( ?is gr\p are widely di/ribut$2 !y h _m repres5tatives 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4#da ,! g5us ,sphrococcus is conf9$ to ,europe1 :ile num]\s g5]a are exclusively t5ants ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,! ,gracil>ia li*5oides1 ! ,ceylon moss1 is celebrat$ = its gelat9\s qualities2 & ! ,gracil>ia compressa on our own %ores is excell5t z a pickle or pres]ve1 & v ornam5tal4 ,"o ( ! mo/ beautiful ,alg kn[n is ! ,gr9nelia am]icana1 :i* ab\nds on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 fig4 #bd b1 is a v]tical section ( its conceptacle1 %[+ ! rudim5t>y plac5ta & spore ?reads4 ,x diff]s s+ul>ly f ! ,deless]ia sangu9ea1 ( :i* x is an exact analogue1 9 ! capsules be+ scatt]$ ov] ! surface ( ! frond in/ead ( be+ situat$ on ! midrib4#db ,! ,deless]ia sangu9ea is n[ kn[n z ! ,wormskioldia sangu9ea4 ,! ,corall9es are florid ,alg1 :i* absorb su* a quantity ( c>bonate ( lime f ! surr\nd+ wat]1 t !y become rigid1 h>d1 & (t5 /ony4 ,!y are purple or p9k :5 fre%1 :ite & sometimes brittle :5 dry1 & are propagat$ by /r+s ( spore ?reads ris+ f ! base ( ! nuclei :i* are enclos$ 9 conceptacles or spore cases1 op5 at ! top4 ,"s are articulate1 compos$ ( closely compact$ ?reads1 z ! ,corall9a (fic9alis1 a pretty little bran*$ & bu%y plant1 mo/ luxuriant 9 deep wat]1 & p>ticul>ly abundant 9 ! rocky pools4 ,its urn-%ap$ spore sacs are atta*$ to ! tips or sides ( ! bran*es2 fig4 #bd c is a v]tical section ( "o ( !m magnifi$1 & d is a membrane ( ! same1 m highly magnifi$1 ) impressions ( ! ext]nal cells4 ,! jo9ts ( ! articulate corall9es1 :i* are flexible & v>y mu* 9 l5g?1 are ei!r free f c>bonate ( lime1 or ornam5t$ ) calc>e\s plates2 x is ?r\gh ^! op5 spaces t ! plant is believ$ to obta9 n\ri%m5t4 ,! =ms ( ! corall9es are v>i$ beyond description2 _m are m]e amorph\s cru/s on /ones & sea we$s1 increas+ f ! c5tre outw>ds z 9 ! li*5s1 o!rs are lob$ & bran*$ l real corals4 ,corall9es asc5d to v high latitudes1 b ab\nd mo/ 9 w>m & tropical seas3 ei!r free1 or coat+ pebbles at va/ dep?s1 !y =m ! la/ zone ( vegetable life4 ,! ,laur5ciace h fronds :i* are s(t & ?read-l1 or solid1 fle%y1 & in>ticulate2 bo? are repeat$ly bran*$4 ,! col\r ( ^! plants is purple or a dulli% r$1 b !y are extremely s5sitive to ! influ5ce ( light & air1 *ang+ ?r\gh e %ade ( orange1 yell[1 or gre51 accord+ to ! exposure1 & l _m o!r florid ,alg !y lose _! col\r 9 fre% wat]4 ,!y are among/ our commone/ sea we$s4 ,! ,laur5cia p9natifida is ! pepp] dulse ( ,scotl&1 & is also native on ! ea/]n & we/]n coa/s ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,species h be5 f\nd at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 ,au/ralia1 & ,new ,zeal&4 ,! fructification 9 ?is section is q peculi>4 ,!y h tetraspores lodg$ 9 ! bran*lets2 & egg-%ap$ conceptacles ) a t]m9al pore1 enclos+ nuclei ) pe>-%ap$ spores radiat+ f a fibro-cellul> mass at _! base4 ,! an!ridia1 :i* diff] 9 ! diff]5t species1 atta9 a great] degree ( complication ?an 9 o!r tribes4 ,9 ,laur5cia t5uissima !y =m curi\s lat]al twi/$ plates ( a greyi% t9t1 bord]$ ) l>ge cells4 ,! plate is occupi$ by ! productive cells ( a mu* small] size1 evid5tly spr++ f a cellul> bran*$ axis4 ,9 ,laur5cia p9natifida in/ead ( a plate !re is a some:at holl[ cup-%ap$ disc1 =m$ ( d>t-l v]tical gr\ps ( pale cells surm\nt$ by two or ?ree l>g] oily-look+ sacs fill$ ) yell[ pigm5t4 ,^! bodies are sometimes =k$1 & appe> to %oot out f ! mass4 ,l4 dasyphylla pres5ts a ?ird modification1 ! an!ridium be+ a sac1 & ! d>t-l gr\ps ( cells be+ eject$ f ! m9ute t]m9al orifice4 ,! mov+ p>ticles produc$ 9 ! cells ( ^! ?ree =ms1 diff] a little 9 %ape1 & z !y d n g]m9ate !y are believ$ to be sp]matozoids1 ?\gh no cilia h be5 f\nd on !m4 ,! ,rhodomelace1 ! la/ & highe/ family ( florid ,alg1 are1 z ! "n implies1 ( a ri* r$ br[n col\r4 ,none ( ! o!r ,rhodosp]ms c vie ) !m 9 peculi>ity or v>iety ( /ructure4 ,! fronds may be areolate or reticulate1 fili=m or v>i\sly leafy1 articulate or in>ticulate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,dictyurus purpurasc5s4 ,"s g5]a1 z = example ,dasya1 h sl5d]1 (t5 elegantly bran*$ ?reads1 :ile su* g5]a z ,amansia & ,odon?alia h in/ead a flat & p9natifid frond4 ,! latt]1 :i* has a v conspicu\s cellul> reticulation1 is a g5us ( high latitudes1 b is common on "s p>ts ( ! ,scot* & ,nor? ,am]ican coa/s4 ,! ,briti% seas are ri* 9 _m g5]a ( ?is ord]1 & analog\s =ms occur 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :]e !re are at lea/ tw5ty-?ree g5]a4 ,_m are rem>kable = _! s+ul>ity ( /ructure3 ! ,claudea = example1 :i* is "o ( ! mo/ elegant ( ! ,alg1 has a cancellat$ frond & is ! ornam5t ( w>m seas2 ! ,amansia & ,leveillea :i* are di/+ui%$ by ! beautiful reticulation ( _! fronds caus$ by l>ge hexagonal cells2 & ! ,dictyurus1 9 :i* ! net =ms a spiral web r\nd ! pr9cipal /em4 ,fig4 #bg %[s a portion ( ! network ( ,dictyurus purpurasc5s magnifi$4 ,all ! g5]a ( ?is ord] possess free areolate holl[ conceptacles p]=at$ above1 & conta9+ nuclei1 f ! base ( :i* %ort tufts ( ?reads arise1 ea* be>+ a l>ge obovate spore at its apex4 ,! tetraspores are arrang$ 9 s]ies ei!r )9 ! frond1 or 9 di/9ct pod-l receptacles call$ /i*idia4 ,fig4 #bh %[s ! ,polyzonia cuneifolia ) its tetraspores arrang$ 9 r[s 9 _! pod-l /i*idia1 toge!r ) ! areolat$ conceptacle & spores1 all highly magnifi$4 ,! an!ridia diff] 9 =m 9 ! diff]5t g5]a4 ,9 ! ,dasya !y assume t ( pods full ( cells1 9 :i* ! motile p>ticles are g5]at$2 9 ! ,rytiphla t9ctoria ! an!ridia resemble ^? ( ! ,dasya except 9 be+ elliptical1 & 9 ! ,rytiphla p9a/roides !y are cellul> bodies1 )\t any inve/+ membranes1 clo!d ) delicate hairs4 ,! =m ( ! ,rhodosp]ms1 z well z ! limits ( ! species1 l ^? ( o!r ,alg1 are affect$ by _m circum/ances kn[n & unkn[n1 su* z ! dep?1 temp]ature1 saltness1 & curr5ts 9 ! wat]4 ,! ,gelidium corneum v>ies to su* an ext5t t its =ms may n only be consid]$ z di/9ct species1 b ev5 z belong+ to diff]5t g5]a4 ,! ,deless]ia alata is sometimes de/itute ( its m>g91 & !n its midribs alone be+ left1 x has ! =m ( ! ,deless]ia angu/issima4 ,sev]al species ( ! florid ,alg1 :i* 9 _! natural /ate h ! tips ( _! fronds ev5 & /raight1 occasionally produce hook$ & clasp+ tips4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,polyzonia cuneifolia4 ,bracki% wat] is (t5 a cause ( *ange4 ,! ,iri% moss1 ,*ondrus crispus1 :5 expos$ to ! fre% wat] ( an e/u>y acquires great bread? & ?ickness1 :ile at l[ wat] m>k x is ?9 & has n>r[ =k$ bran*es1 & !re are _m int]m$iate =ms4 ,! fruit r>ely v>ies ) ^! *anges2 its disposition & intimate /ructure1 z well z t ( ! frond1 are ! po9ts ( prime importance = ! det]m9ation ( g5]a & species 9 ! ,alg4 ,! ,,melanosp]me1 or ,melanosp]ms1 are olive-gre5 ,alg1 sometimes incl9+ to br[n4 ,!y h few] species ?an ! ,rhodosp]ms1 b ! individuals exce$ 9 abundance & 9 magnitude all ! o!r ,alg4 ,^! l>ge ,melanosp]m\s ,alg1 :i* =m m>9e =e/s 9 bo? hemisph]es1 are excessively /rong & t\gh on ! ext]ior b ( a loos] texture )91 s t ! cells ( _! tissue are ( diff]5t sizes & =ms1 accord+ to ! degree ( pressure4 ,! /ems & bran*es are m d5se ?an ! leaves4 ,?is highe/ ord]1 h[ev]1 has small & delicate ,alg unit$ to ! l>ge/ by _m int]m$iate =ms4 ,! ,melanosp]ms are ei!r monci\s or dici\s1 & be> _! olive-gre5 spores 9 cases1 t is cy/s1 v>i\sly dispos$ on ! plants4 ,_m h two k9ds ( zoospores diff]+ 9 no?+ b size2 !y are produc$ 9 diff]5t organs2 9 "s species bo? are f]tile1 9 o!rs only "o1 &1 9 ^! cases1 ! o!r is !re=e suppos$ to be a f]tiliz+ body1 b h[ev] t may be1 !re are c]ta9ly an!rozoids 9 ?is gr\p ( ,alg1 especially 9 ! ord] ,fucace4 ,! ,ectoc>pe h _m repres5tatives on our coa/s1 all ( :i* are tufts ( articulat$ ?reads f "o to eighte5 in*es long1 bran*$ or simple4 ,!y are g5]ally s(t1 "s s flaccid t !y cl+ toge!r1 b sometimes !y are firm & /iff4 ,! cy/s :i* are atta*$ to ^! ?reads h v>i\s =ms2 !y are sph]ical1 siliquose 7t is1 l long pods71 or ( o!r %apes1 accord+ to ! species2 b :atev] =m !y may assume1 !y are fill$ ) a d5se endo*rome4 ,besides ^! !y h active granules conta9$ 9 o!r di/9ct organs4 ,m4 ,?uret has decid$ beyond a d\bt t ! latt] are small zoospores1 & x is presum$ t ! endo*rome 9 ! cy/s is resolv$ into zoospores1 b ( a diff]5t ord]1 z 9 ! ,ulvas4 ,^! two organs are = ! mo/ "p situat$ on diff]5t individuals2 9 ,ectoc>pus pusillus 7fig4 #bi b7 !y are on ! same4 ,! diff]5t =ms ( fruit c>pels are repres5t$ magnifi$ 9 fig4 #bi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,fruit ( ,ectoc>pus3--a1 ,e4 sphrosporus2 b1 ,e4 pusillus2 c1 ,e4 f5e/ratus2 d1 ,e4 fasciculatus4 ,! ,ectoc>pe conta9 little or no gelat9e1 :]eas ! g5]a ( ! gr\p ,*ord>i h s(t gelat9\s fronds ( _m =ms1 ei!r incru/ations1 convex lumps1 or tub]s1 l ! ,lea!sia s common on our coa/s2 small plants z ! ,mesogloias1 :i* h s(t slipp]y fili=m /ems beset ) myriads ( monilif]\s worm-l bran*es2 or la/ly ! ,*orda filum1 a simple unbran*$ slimy cyl9drical cord1 v>y+ f a qu>t] ( an in* to ! ?ickness ( a p5cil1 & f "o to tw5ty or ev5 =ty feet 9 l5g? 9 deep wat]4 ,! cord is tubul>1 divid$ into *amb]s by transv]se p>titions1 =m$ ( int]lac$ v]tical & horizontal articulat$ ?reads4 ,x tap]s at ea* extremity1 & ! ext]ior1 :i* is br[n1 is clo!d ) pellucid hairs4 ,v]tical spores are imm]s$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole surface ( ! cord1 & ,dr4 ,h>vey says t1 mix$ ) ^!1 !re are num]\s n>r[1 elliptical1 transv]sely /riat$ cells1 :i* accord+ to ,m4 ,?uret produce zoospores4 ,ea* plant rises solit>y f its own little disc1 b z ! ,*orda filum is a social plant1 va/ assemblies ( x cov] ext5sive areas ( s& & mud1 & =m d5se ?ickets 9 our nor!rn seas4 ,!re are b&s ( x 9 ! ,nor? ,sea #ae to #bj miles long1 & m ?an #fjj feet wide2 !re is a subm>9e =e/ ( x 9 ,skapta ,bay1 ,orkney2 & 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! s\nds ( ! we/]n isl&s1 z betwe5 ,k]r]a & ! ma9l&1 !re are o!rs4 ,! long cords always lean 9 ! direction ( ! tide1 & mu/ oscillate betwe5 two zones ( re/1 "o at ! turn ( ! flood1 & ano!r at ! turn ( ! ebb4 ,:5 dri$ ! p use !m = fi%+ l9es4 ,9 ! ,*ord>ia div>icata bo? k9ds ( spore cy/s are ext]nal1 & give rise to zoospores4 ,9 ! prec$+ divisions ( ! ,melanosp]ms ! fronds consi/ ( articulat$ ?reads2 9 ! succe$+ divisions ! fronds are in>ticulate4 ,! latt] comprise f\r v rem>kable gr\ps1 ( :i* ! ,dictyote are di/+ui%$ by a lea!ry or membran\s frond1 sometimes cyl9drical1 b mo/ly flat1 ! surface ( :i* is reticulat$ & spr9kl$ ) gr\ps or little pat*es ( nak$ spores or cy/s4 ,! endo*rome 9 ! cy/s is sometimes quadrip>tite1 or ev5 divid$ into eight p>ts4 ,9 "o ( ! g5]a only1 any?+ l an!ridia h be5 f\nd4 ,! zoospores produc$ f ! quadrip>tite endo*rome are l>ge1 ( a d>k col\r1 & h two lat]al cilia1 :ile ! bodies 9 ! fili=m mu* divid$ an!ridia seat$ v>i\sly 9 ! tuft$ ?reads are f> m m9ute & pale1 b ) simil> cilia4 ,?is ord] obta9s its maximum ( developm5t 9 ! tropical & subtropical regions2 sev]al species are f\nd 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 :ile a few occur on our coa/s1 & on ^? ( ,nor? ,am]ica4#dc ,! g5us ,dictyota beg9s ! zon>ioid gr\p1 ^: /ructure is v curi\s4 ,e b& 7lac9ia7 ( ! frond t]m9ates 9 a s+le cell1 by ! con/ant division ( :i* at ! l[] side1 ! o!r cells ( ! frond are =m$1 ! t]m9al cell ( ! frond be+ ?us cont9ually pu%$ onw>ds4 ,h5ce x results t ! longitud9al l9es ( sup]ficial cells conv]ge1 ?us af=d+ a ready me?od ( asc]ta9+ ! g5us 9 default ( fructification4 ,:5 a new c5tre ( gr[? is to be made1 t is1 :5 ! frond is to become =k$1 ! t]m9al cell divides longitud9ally & !n ea* half-cell gr[s accord+ to its own law4 ,fig4 #cj %[s ! tip ( ! frond ( ! ,dictyota di*otoma magnifi$2 ! cells on its surface are squ>e1 & ! int]ior ( ea* has a spiral /ructure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,dictyota di*otoma3--a1 tip ( "y frond2 b1 cell %[+ spiral /ructure2 c1 ?reads f m>g9al cells2 d1 sorus ( spores2 e1 f1 t]m9al cells divid+ into new c5tres ( gr[?4 ,! ,pad9a ,pavonia1 or ,peacock's-tail lav] ( our s\!rn coa/1 & ^? ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ! ,m$it]ranean1 is sometimes includ$ 9 ! g5us ,zon>ia4 ,! species is rem>kable = its w$ge-%ap$ fronds1 :i* are olive gre5 %ad$ ) ru/ col\r1 &1 :5 9 fruit1 !y are /rip$ across ) d>k conc5tric zones1 :i* are m]ely l9es ( spores imm]s$ 9 ! frond & se5 ?r\gh its transp>5t sup]ficial membrane4 ,ea* zone is ornam5t$ ) a fr+e ( orange-col\r$ hairs4 ,p>allel to1 or r conc5tric )1 ! spores1 is a r[ ( articulat$ ?reads1 :i* be> s /rong a resemblance to ! an!ridia ( ! ,cutl]ia t a simil>ity ( function is suspect$ by ,mr4 ,b]keley4 ,species ( ,zon>ia1 ,pad9a1 & ,halis]is1 :i* is ! mo/ highly develop$ ( ! ,dictyote1 are mo/ abundant 9 tropical & l[ latitudes4 ,! ,cutl]ia multifida is a small plant n exce$+ eight in*es 9 l5g?1 ( an olive gre5 v>i$ ) ru/y t9ts4 ,! frond is a flat ribless expansion _m times v>i\sly slit 9 ! upp] "p4 ,x is beautifully m>k$ by prom95t dot-l tufts ( fructification scatt]$ ov] bo? sides ( ! frond1 & gr[s on rocks & %ells 9 f f\r to fifte5 fa?oms wat]4#dd ,! great ,lam9>i =m ! pr9cipal "p ( ^? va/ subm>9e =e/s :i* encircle ! globe 9 ! arctic & ant>ctic oceans4 ,none ( ^! gigantic ,alg are to be met ) 9 l[ latitudes1 b !re are sev]al small] species4 ,! ,lam9>ia debilis ( ! ,m$it]ranean is n m ?an five in*es high1 & we h "s ribbon-%ap$ species also ( small size4 ,besides1 _m small individuals ( ! l>ge species gr[ on our coa/s at l[ wat] m>k or bel[ x2 b ! l>ge/ individuals are only f\nd at dep?s suit$ to _! size1 s t ! great ,lam9>ia1 or tangle =e/s1 ext5d f l[ wat] m>k to a dep? ( fifte5 fa?oms4 ,! fronds ( ^! ,alg are = ! mo/ "p lea!ry & ( a fibro-cellul> consi/5ce4 ,! ,lam9>ia bulbosa is ! l>ge/ ( our sea we$s4 ,mr4 ,b]keley says t individuals are sometimes f\nd :i* are a suffici5t load = a man to c>ry4 ,a flat /em1 (t5 m ?an a foot long1 rises ) a twi/ f a r\nd holl[ bulb a foot 9 diamet]1 ?r[+ out num]\s /\t fibr\s roots bel[2 ! /em is bord]$ by a ?9 wavy membrane1 :5ce ^! plants are commonly call$ sea furbel[s4 ,at ! top ( ! /alk !re is a broad leafy expansion cut into /raps or segm5ts1 twelve or m feet long1 & f "o to two feet wide4 ,! ,lam9>ia digitata1 commonly call$ ! great tangle1 o> we$1 or sea girdle1 has a fibr\s root1 a /em six or m feet long1 ) a wide expansion at its top cut into v long n>r[ segm5ts4 ,! fronds ( "s ,lam9>i are decidu\s2 ! /em increases 9 size ye> by ye>1 a new frond spr++ f ! apex & replac+ ! old "o1 :i* at la/ sep>ates f ! po9t ( junction ) ! new frond1 to :i* x is atta*$ till ! latt] has atta9$ its natural =m & dim5sions4 ,! ,lam9>ia sac*>9a1 call$ ! devil's apron on our nor!rn coa/s1 is ( a gre5i% olive :5 "y1 br[ni% :5 old4 ,x has a fibr\s root1 a /em sev]al feet long1 end+ 9 a flat ribless ribbon-l expansion1 always v mu* long] ?an ! /em1 & t]m9at+ 9 a po9t4 ,! m>g9 ( ! frond is ev51 b wavy or puck]$4 #8,! fruit ( ^! ?ree great ,lam9>i is imb$d$ "h & !re 9 ! surface ( ! frond1 ?ick5+ x & =m+ cl\dy pat*es4'#de ,x consi/s ( ?ick club-%ap$ p]p5dicul> cells 9 :i* ! endo*rome is ultimately divid$ into f\r p>ts4 ,?is is c]ta9ly ! case 9 ! ,lam9>ia bulbosa1 & also 9 ! ,al>ia ,pylaii1 a species ( :i* latt] g5us1 ! ,al>ia escul5ta ( our own coa/s1 is a mu* e/eem$ ,briti% dulse4 ,abundance ( colossal ,alg are f\nd 9 ! ,nor? ,pacific1 ab\t ! ,kurile & ,aleutian ,isl&s1 & along ! deeply ind5t$ & *annel-furr[$ nor?we/]n coa/ ( ,am]ica4 ,! ,n]eocy/is ,lutkeana =ms d5se =e/s 9 ,norfolk ,bay1 & all ab\t ,sitka4 ,its /em resembles :ipcord1 & is sometimes #cjj feet long4 ,x is exce$+ly sl5d] at ! top1 :]e x t]m9ates 9 an enorm\s air-bladd] six or sev5 feet long1 & ab\t f\r feet & a half 9 diamet] at its wide/ "p1 ! l[] extremity pass+ into ! /em4 ,?is huge air-vessel1 :i* is ! usual seat ( ! sea ott]1 is cr[n$ ) a tuft ( tw9 leaves mo/ly ris+ on five /alks4 ,^! leaves1 :i* are membran\s & lanceolate :5 "y1 & f "o to two feet long & two in*es broad at ! c5tre1 are only m>k$ ) a few fa9t n]ves1 b !y ultimately split l5g?wise1 cov] a l>ge space1 & atta9 a l5g? ( tw5ty-sev5 or ?irty feet1 or ev5 m4 ,! gr[? ( ! ,n]eocy/is mu/ be enorm\sly rapid1 s9ce x is an annual1 & mu/ !re=e develop its :ole gigantic proportions 9 "o summ]4#df ,boats _c pass ?r\gh ! float+ masses ( ?is plant1 ^: /em is us$ = fi%+ l9es1 & ^: cyl9drical air-vessel s]ves z a siphon = pump+ wat] out ( boats4 ,! ,?alassiophyllum ,cla?rus is also an inhabitant ( ! ,russian coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,x is ab\t six feet high1 v bu%y & bran*$1 ea* bran* be>+ a broad leaf at its extremity :i* unfolds spirally1 & by ?is gradual developm5t produces ! /em ) its bran*es & lat]al divisions4 ,a spiral bord] w\nd r\nd ! /em indicates ! gr[? ( ! frond1 :i* pres5ts a l>ge convex b5t lam9a )\t n]ves1 or a leaf ( :i* "o-half is want+4 ,num]\s long n>r[ p]=ations1 arrang$ 9 a radiat+ =m1 give x ! appe>ance ( a cut fan4 ,! ,macrocy/is pyrif]a & ! ,lam9>ia radiata are ! mo/ rem>kable ( m>9e plants1 = _! gigantic size & ! ext5t ( _! range4 ,!y are met ) on ! ant>ctic coa/s two degrees ne>] ! pole ?an any o!r vegetable1 except ! ,diatomace4 ,! /em ( ! ,macrocy/is is sl5d]1 smoo?1 r\nd1 & slimy1 ris+ f a fibr\s root1 l o!r ,lam9>i1 & be>+ at its tip a lanceolate or oblong lanceolate frond4 ,?is frond divides at ! base2 ! fissures ext5d upw>ds s z to =m two petioles1 ea* ( :i* swells into an oblong or pyri=m air-vessel4 ,ano!r fissure is =m$ 9 a simil> way a little above1 & s on1 till a s+le frond may at ! same "t h eight or t5 fissures1 ea* ( :i* w ultimately ga9 ! common apex4 ,! m>g9s ( ! fissures are at fir/ p]fectly smoo?1 b !y soon become ciliat$ l ! out] edge4 ,! cont9uity ) ! fibr\s base is at la/ brok51 & ! divisions ( ! leaves go+ on indef9itely1 ! :ole rea*es ! l5g? ( "s hundr$ feet1 =m+ enorm\s float+ masses :i* are waft$ by ! waves hundr$s ( miles f _! orig94 ,fructification only takes place 9 "y plants2 consequ5tly 9 su* z are /ill atta*$ to _! native rocks4 ,ev5 9 t y\?ful /ate1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 m5tions t su* is ! buoyancy ( ?is p[]ful we$1 t !re is sc>cely a loose block ( /one on ! coa/s ( ,cape ,horn t is n buoy$ up by x4#dg ,! ,macrocy/is is native on ! %ores ( ! ,atlantic1 f ,cape ,horn to #dc ,s4 latitude2 b on ! ,pacific coa/1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,hook]1 x ext5ds to ! riv] ,san ,francisco 9 ,cali=nia1 & p]haps to ,kams*atka4 ,! plant is reproduc$ by pyri=m cells1 full ( endo*rome1 9 ne>ly p>allel r[s imb$d$ 9 ! fronds4 ,! rocky coa/s ( ! ,falkl& ,isl&s are cov]$ ) a va/ gr[? ( ! gigantic ,macrocy/is mix$ ) =e/s ( ! arboresc5t ,lessonia1 :i* =ms l>ge di*otom\s trees ) a /em f eight to t5 feet high & a foot 9 diamet]4 ,! leaves are two or ?ree feet long1 droop+ f ! =k$ bran*es l weep+ will[s4 ,9 ! ,lessonia nigresc5s ! quadrip>tite endo*rome1 ultimately resolv$ into spores1 is conta9$ 9 ?ick5$ club-%ap$ cells spr++ v]tically betwe5 ! surfaces ( ! frond4 ,a transv]se section ( ! /em ( _m ( ! l>g] sea we$s pres5ts zones1 =m$ p]iod by p]iod1 correspond+ ) ! developm5t ( ! lam91 roots1 & bran*es4 ,! /em ( ! ,lessonia be>s a /rong analogy to t ( dicotyl$ons 9 hav+ r+s ( gr[?1 ?\gh !re is a great diff]5ce4 ,z increase 9 ,lessonia takes place by ! con/ant division ( a flat leaf1 ! basil> portion ( :i* becomes ! petiole & ultimately swells into a bran*1 ! /ems h always a m or less elliptical =m1 & _! section exhibits an elliptical core4 ,?is =m ( ! core is n h[ev] peculi>1 b exi/s 9 o!r ,alg4 ,x is probable t ! ,lessoni1 al?\gh atta9+ s l>ge a size1 are really ( rapid gr[?4#dh ,! ,ecklonia is ess5tially a s\!rn g5us1 ?\gh "o species asc5ds to ,spa9 & ! ,can>ies4 ,! frond is p9natifid1 ! segm5ts aris+ f ! evolution ( m>g9al tee?4 ,! /em ( ! ,ecklonia bucc9alis1 :i* is ?ree or f\r in*es ?ick & /rongly inflat$ above1 exhibits r+s ( gr[? ) an orbicul> c5tral pi?4 ,! gr\p ( ! ,fucace exhibits ! highe/ /ructure ( all ! olive-gre5 ,alg1 & =ms a l>ge portion ( ! sea we$s on our coa/s1 b !y ab\nd m 9 individuals ?an 9 ! numb] ( g5]a & species4 ,a few h cyl9drical /ems & bran*es swell+ out at int]vals into l>ge oblong inflat$ air-vessels1 :i* gives !m buoyancy 9 ! wat]4 ,! re/ h a flat1 ribbon-l /em1 & = ! mo/ "p di*otom\s bran*es ) a decid$ midrib1 b no air-vessels1 because !y *iefly gr[ at half-tide level1 & are expos$ twice e tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! mo/ common ( our fuci1 ! ,fucus vesiculosus1 or bladd]-wrack1 has a midrib ) air-vessels1 g5]ally 9 pairs on ea* side ( x1 =m$ by ! inflation ( ! frond2 ^! vessels1 h[ev]1 are frequ5tly want+1 = x is ! mo/ v>iable 9 =m & mo/ widely spread ( ! ,fuci4 ,! fructification ( ?is gr\p is conta9$ 9 l>ge clavate receptacles or expansions ( an orange or gre5i% yell[ col\r situat$ at ! extremities or bord]s ( ! bran*es4 ,,mm4 ,?uret & ,decaisne discov]$1 by microscopic inve/igation1 t ! fuci h a truly sexual fructification1 consi/+ ( male & female cells inclos$ 9 ^! receptacles4 ,9 ! common ,fucus vesiculosus x 0 f\nd t ! male & female cells are ei!r 9 diff]5t individuals1 or 9 diff]5t conceptacles on ! same individual2 :il/ 9 ! ,fucus platyc>pus1 bo? ! male & female cells 7 f\nd to be conta9$ 9 a globul> cavity enclos$ 9 ! flatt5$ receptacles :i* gr[ at ! extremities ( ! bran*es4 ,! cavity is l9$ ) jo9t$ hair-l filam5ts =m$ ( cells1 "s ( :i* are s long z to project ?r\gh a pore on ! surface ( ! receptacle 9 a spread+ bru% 7see fig4 #ca1 :]e ! :ole is highly magnifi$74 ,t[>ds maturity1 ! cells ( "s ( ^! filam5ts assume an ovoid =m2 ! :ite visc\s1 granul> matt] 9 _! int]ior acquires an orange hue1 & is divid$ into a multitude ( hyal9e p>ticles1 ea* hav+ an orange spot & two cilia ( unequal l5g?s1 :i* enable ^! sp]matozoids to swim ) great vivacity 9 ! wat] z soon z !y are set free by ! rupture ( ! cell 9 :i* !y are inclos$4 ,besides ^!1 d>k olive-gre5 female cells1 ( a l>ge pyri=m %ape1 are fix$ to ! walls ( ! same cavity by v %ort /ems2 _! cont5ts spontane\sly divide into eight spore cells1 nev] m2 ea* conta9s a col\rless visc\s liquid1 :i* is mix$ ) prote9 & yell[-gre5 matt]1 & is inclos$ 9 a d\ble coat4 #8,! coats are unit$ at ! base1 & :5 ! spores are ready = disp]sion1 ! inn] coat bur/s ?r\gh ! apex ( ! out] "o1 dragg+ ) x a portion ( ! latt] 9 ! =m ( a little p$uncle4 ,! imm$iate cov]+ ( ! spores at l5g? bur/s1 & !y are set free4'#di ,9 ,fucus s]ratus1 vesiculatus1 & nodosus1 sw>ms ( sp]matozoids are produc$1 b ,m4 ,?uret has prov$ by exp]im5t t !y nev] come to any?+ ( !mselves1 & ! unf]tiliz$ spores p]i%4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,v]tical section ( receptacle ( ,fucus platyc>pus4 ,:5 a f]tiliz$ spore beg9s to gr[1 x assumes a pe> %ape1 & s5ds out f its n>r[ end filam5ts or foot/alks conta9+ solid yell[ gra9s at _! extremities1 :]e a hook or claw is =m$ by :i* x fixes itself to rocks or /ones4 ,! spore !n divides itself into f\r equal cells ( a br[n col\r1 & by ! cont9u$ subdivision ( ^! into f\r1 ! plant increases 9 size1 & assumes a =m correspond+ to ! g5us & species ( ! spore4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] m5tions t 9 ! ,fucace !re is also a multiplication by zoospores4 ,^! bodies are produc$ )9 c]ta9 ( ! cells t =m ! sup]ficial lay] ( ! frond1 & swim ab\t freely = a "t 9 ! wat] aft] _! emission1 until !y fix !mselves & beg9 to gr[2 b ^! are m]ely gemm4 ,all ! ,fucace are t\gh lea!ry plants4 ,?is is ev5 *>act]i/ic ( ! g5us ,cy/oseira1 v>i\s species ( :i* may be se5 on our coa/s at l[ wat] m>k1 or 9 ! tide pools4 ,!y are little %rub-l & some:at ?orny plants1 n m ?an ?ree feet high1 ) a cyl9drical /em & _m bran*es1 ne> ! extremities ( :i* !re are inflat$ air-vessels1 sometimes two or ?ree toge!r2 9 "s species !y are l[] d[n4 ,long sp9y conceptacles are situat$ at ! tips ( ! bran*es1 b ! endo*rome does n divide 9 ! g]m cells z x does 9 ! ,fuci1 s t ea* cell produces b "o spore4 #8,?r\gh\t all latitudes ! two divisions ( ,fucace--,fucoide & ,cy/oseire1 =m ! prevail+ m>9e vegetation to :i* ! "n ( sea-we$ is commonly appli$1 & ! diff]5t g5]a s arrange !mselves z to pres5t1 ) a few exceptions1 a mo/ h>moni\s assemblage4' #8,none ( ^! approa* ! tropics2 ! ,fucoide ab\nd t[>ds ! poles1 & !re atta9 _! greate/ bulk1 dim9i%+ rapidly t[>ds ! equator1 & ceas+ "s degrees f ! l9e itself2 :ile ! imm5se g5us ,s>gassum f9ds its maximum 9 l[] latitudes & "u ! equator itself4 ,9 ! opposite cold & frigid zones ! wat]s are inhabit$ by c]ta9 g5]a ( ,fucoide1 :i* are 9 a great measure repres5tatives ( "o ano!r4'#ej ,! huge ,d',urvilla & ! ,s>cophycus 9 ! ,ant>ctic ,ocean repres5t ! ,himan?alia & ,fucus prop] 9 ! nor?1 & ! ,cy/oseire & ,halidrys ( ! nor!rn seas are repres5t$ by ! ,blossevillea & ,scyto?alia 9 ! s\!rn4 ,! frond ( ! ,himan?alia lorea is a knob ab\t an in* high1 some:at l a small mu%room2 by degrees ! top ( ! knob s9ks 91 & ! frond becomes cup-%ap$4 ,9 ! second ye> ( gr[? x ?r[s out f its c5tre /rap-%ap$ receptacles f two to ?ree feet long & ! six? ( an in* wide2 !y are slimy1 =k$1 & entirely cov]$ ) fruit4 ,! true frond sometimes becomes holl[ & swells into a bladd]4 ,?is s+ul> plant1 :i* gr[s on our coa/s1 ext5ds f ,norway to ,spa94 ,9 ! ,d',urvilla1 its repres5tative 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ! frond & receptacle are unit$1 = ! plant1 :i* is ( l>ge dim5sions1 has di*otom\s fronds t5 feet long1 & an in* or m 9 bread?4 ,_! surface is ornam5t$ ) l>ge cavities l a honeycomb1 & ! fruit imb$d$ )9 !m consi/s ( an!ridia & club-%ap$ g]m cells ) f\r spores 9 ea*4 ,^! plants =m a l>ge portion ( ! wrack & also ( ! liv+ ,alg :i* surr\nd ! ,falkl& ,isl&s & ,cape ,horn2 & !y ext5d to ,we/]n ,*ili1 :]e ! poor] class make a sweet mucilag9\s s\p ( !m4 ,! ,s>cophycus potatorum1 ! only species ( its ord]1 is ne>ly alli$ to ! ,d',urvilla by ! /ructure ( its fruit1 & is s nam$ f pieces ( its frond be+ us$ to c>ry wat]4 ,_m o!r olive-gre5 ,alg are peculi> to ! s\!rn hemisph]e--among !m ! ,hormoseira1 9 :i* ! frond1 at fir/ ev5 & fili=m1 becomes inflat$ s z to produce monili=m *a9s ( vesicles1 p>ts ( :i* are at l5g? r\gh ) ! ap]tures ( ! conceptacles2 ?is plant has bladd]-l air-vessels =m$ by swoll5 p>ts ( ! frond1 l _m ( our ,fucace4 ,^? g5]a :i* h di/9ct organs conta9+ air1 z ! ,s>gassum1 ( :i* !re are num]\s species1 are ei!r ( l[ latitudes or tropical1 b are sometimes drift$ by curr5ts to ! extra-tropical %ores4 ,! ,s>gassum vulg>e1 h[ev]1 gr[s on ! rocks 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! :ole plant is ( a transluc5t r$di% br[n2 ! /em has alt]nate bran*es1 be>+ lanceolate s]rat$ leaves ) a midrib1 & g5]ally dott$ ) d>k pores4 ,! air-vessels are small transluc5t r\nd balls ab\t ! size ( a currant1 borne on flat /alks 9 ! axils ( ! bran*es1 & ! spores are 9 conceptacles borne on ! bran*lets j above ! air-vessel4 ,9 "o v>iety ( ?is mo/ v>iable plant1 ! ,uva di m>e1 ! ma9 /em ends 9 a loose bun* ( ^! little air-balls4 ,! ,s>gassum baccif]um is (t5 f\nd 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 b only z a w&]] drift$ 9 f ! ,atlantic1 :]e masses ( x1 l float+ mead[s1 occupy an area we/ ( ! ,azores equal 9 ext5t to t ( ,france1 :i* has nev] *ang$ its position s9ce ! "t ( ,columbus1 on acc\nt ( ! surr\nd+ curr5ts4 ,fields ( x cov] ! seas ne> ! ,bahama ,isl&s1 & ano!r p]man5t area ( ,s>gassum ( great ext5t occurs 9 ! ,s\? ,pacific4 ,! ,s>gassum baccif]um is ( a pale transluc5t olive col\r1 hav+ bran*$ /ems1 ) lanceolate1 midribb$1 & s]rat$ leaves1 de/itute ( pores1 & little /alk$ air-balls 9 ! axils ( ! bran*es4 ,! same individual cont9ually produces new bran*es & leaves1 & ?us multiplies its species1 b x nev] produces fruit2 consequ5tly its habits exactly resemble ^? ( ! ,macrocy/is1 & z t plant becomes deta*$ & floats aft] fructification1 x is suppos$ t ! ,s>gassum baccif]um may gr[ on rocks at ! bottom ( ! ,atlantic1 betwe5 ! p>allels ( =ty degrees nor? & s\? ( ! equator1 & :5 deta*$ aft] fructification t x is uni=mly drift$ to p>ticul> spots :i* nev] v>y4 #8,multiplication is s rapid 9 ! float+ b$s ( ! ,s>gassum & ,macrocy/is1 z to r5d] fruit ne$less2 & ev5 ! common ,fucus vesiculosus occurs 9 ! ,m$it]ranean "u a peculi> =m consi/+ entirely ( specim5s d]iv$ f sea borne we$ c>ri$ 9 by ! curr5t :i* sets 9 t[>ds ! ,m$it]ranean f ! ,atlantic4'#ea ,kelp1 ! a%es ( sea we$s1 is ! comm]cial s\rce ( iod9e4 ,alg gr[+ 9 deep wat] conta9 mo/ ( t sub/ance2 consequ5tly ! kelp made at ,gu]nsey1 consi/+ *iefly ( ! a%es ( ,lam9>ia digitata1 is ri*] 9 iod9e ?an t made else:]e4 ,m>9e vegetation v>ies bo? horizontally & v]tically ) ! dep?1 & x seems to be a g5]al law ?r\gh\t ! ocean1 t ! light ( ! sun & vegetation cease toge!r4 ,x consequ5tly dep5ds ^u ! p[] ( ! sun1 & ! transp>5cy ( ! wat]2 s t diff]5t k9ds ( sea we$s affect diff]5t dep?s1 :]e ! weight ( ! wat]1 & ! quantity ( light & heat1 suit !m be/4 ,"o great m>9e zone lies betwe5 high & l[ wat] m>ks1 & v>ies 9 species ) ! nature ( ! coa/s1 b exhibits simil> phnom5a ?r\gh\t ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,9 ! ,briti% seas ?is zone does n ext5d deep] ?an ?irty fa?oms1 b x is divid$ into two di/9ct prov9ces1 "o to ! s\? & ano!r to ! nor?4 ,! =m] includes ! s\!rn & ea/]n coa/s ( ,engl&1 ! s\!rn & we/]n coa/s ( ,irel&1 & bo? ! ,*annels2 :ile ! nor!rn flora is conf9$ to ! ,scotti% seas1 & ! adjac5t coa/s ( ,engl& & ,irel&4 ,! second ,briti% zone beg9s at l[ wat] m>k1 & ext5ds bel[ x to a dep? ( f sev5 to fifte5 fa?oms4 ,x conta9s ! great tangle sea we$s or m>9e =e/s mix$ ) fuci1 & is ! abode ( a ho/ ( animals4 ,a coral-l sea we$ is ! la/ plant ( ?is zone & ! l[e/ 9 ^! seas1 :]e x does n ext5d bel[ ! dep? ( sixty fa?oms2 b 9 ! ,m$it]ranean x is f\nd at sev5ty or eighty fa?oms1 & is ! l[e/ plant 9 t sea4 ,! same law prevails 9 ! ,bay ( ,biscay1 :]e "o set ( sea we$s is nev] f\nd l[] ?an tw5ty feet bel[ ! surface1 ano!r only 9 ! zone betwe5 five & ?irty feet1 ano!r betwe5 fifte5 & ?irty-five feet4 ,9 ^! two la/ zones !y are mo/ num]\s2 at a great] dep? ! k9ds cont9ue to v>y1 b _! numb]s decrease4 ,! di/ribution 9 ! gean sea 0 f\nd by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes to be p]fectly simil>1 only t ! vegetation is diff]5t & ext5ds to a great] dep? 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ?an 9 m nor!rn seas4 ,he also obs]v$ t sea we$s gr[+ ne> ! surface are m limit$ 9 _! di/ribution ?an ^? t gr[ l[] d[n1 & t ) reg>d to vegetation1 dep? corresponds ) latitude1 z height does on l&4 ,?us ! flora at great dep?s 9 w>m seas is repres5t$ by k9dr$ =ms 9 high] latitudes4 ,!re is e reason to believe t ! same laws ( di/ribution prevail n only ?r\gh\t ! ocean1 b 9 e sea4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,fungi4 ,,! ,fungi are enorm\sly num]\s4 ,no less ?an #b1jjj ( ! highe/ & mo/ conspicu\s ( ^! plants h be5 figur$2 _m m h be5 describ$2 multitudes ( ^? inhabit+ ! torrid zone are unkn[n2 & ! microscopic & p>asitic tribes are innum]able4 ,?\gh ) a few exceptions entirely =m$ ( cellul> tissue1 ! fungi resemble animals 9 respiration & *emical con/itution4 ,!y conta9 m azote ?an any o!r ( ! ,cryptogamia1 & obta9 x *iefly f _! food1 :i* consi/s ( animal & vegetable sub/ances alive1 dead1 or decompos$4 ,!y inhale oxyg51 & exhale c>bonic acid gas1 s t !y nev] =m true *lorophyll4 ,no plants are m dep5d5t on heat & moi/ure2 _m p]=m all ! functions ( life & reproduction indep5d5tly ( light1 pref]r+ d>k & %ady places to sun%9e4 ,! ,fungi =m two pr9cipal gr\ps1 di/+ui%$ by _! mode ( fructification4 ,9 ! high] gr\p1 ,sporif]i1 ! fungus produces nak$ spores ei!r s+le or comp\nd1 by means ( :i* x may be multipli$4 ,9 ! l[] gr\p1 ,sporidiif]i1 ! fructification consi/s ( sporidia1 enclos$ 9 a di/9ct sac4 ,! ,sporif]i include ! foll[+ ord]s1 ,hym5omycetes1 ,ga/]omycetes1 ,coniomycetes1 & ,hyphomycetes4 ,! ,sporidiif]i include ! ,ascomycetes & ! ,physomycetes4 ,^! v>i\s gr\ps we may n[ proce$ to exam9e4 ,! mo/ important family ( ,fungi is1 )\t "q1 t ( ! ,,hym5omycetes1 ! species ( :i* f> excel all o!rs 9 _! ri*ness ( col\r+1 & beauty ( =m4 ,9 ?is gr\p ! hym5ium is free & mo/ly expos$4 ,x comprises six ord]s1 ( :i* ! ,ag>ic9i hold ! fir/ place4 ,! g5us ,ag>icus alone comprises #a1jjj di/9ct species1 :i* assume z _m diff]5t =ms & col\rs1 ) only slight modifications ( sub/ance1 & x surpasses 9 numb] ( species all ! o!r g5]ic gr\ps kn[n4 ,! ,ag>icus campe/ris1 or common mu%room1 is a type ( t va/ gr\p2 x consi/s ( two di/9ct p>ts1 ! nutritive & reproductive4 ,! nutritive "p is ! mycelium or mu%room spawn ( g>d5]s1 :i* resembles a mass ( :ite spid]'s ?reads mix$ 9 inextricable confusion1 & c>ries on = a "t all ! functions ( ! plant4 ,mycelia may exi/ = ye>s )\t be>+ ! reproductive "p1 b fruit nev] c be produc$ )\t spawn4 ,! mu%room itself1 :i* spr+s f ! spawn1 is ! fruit-be>+ "p1 9 :i* ! spores are =m$ & rip5$4 ,x is di/+ui%$ by a k9d ( hat or bonnet call$ ! pileus1 support$ by a /em4 ,! pileus is l9$ by a numb] ( gill-%ap$ plates or lamell radiat+ f a common c5tre2 !y are ! reproductive organs 9 :i* ! spores are produc$ by free cell =mation1 a process always prec$$ by a conc5tration ( ! matt] )9 ! p>5t cell1 :i* is !n divid$ into z _m nuclei z !re are to be spores4 ,9 ! high] fungi1 ! numb] ( spores ?us =m$ is def9ite2 9 ! ,ag>ics !y are 9 gr\ps ( f\r plac$ at ! extremity ( a /em1 spr++ f ! summits ( ^! reproductive gills4 ,mo/ ( ! ,ag>ics rise f ! gr\nd )\t any cov]2 ! pileus or cap may %[ e v>iety f a smoo? poli%$ surface to hairs or %aggy scales1 b "s ( ! m highly organiz$ h a g5]al wrapp] or volva1 :i* encloses ! :ole plant1 & bur/+ at la/1 x leaves "s traces beh9d4 ,9 o!rs1 ! pileus is at fir/ clo!d ) fibres1 :i* vani% or leave traces on its m>g9 =m+ a veil or curta94 ,"s h a membrane atta*$ to ! /em1 ei!r connect$ ) ! volva1 or spread "u ! gills :5 "y1 &1 :5 m or less p]si/5t1 x is call$ a r+4 ,! spawn1 :i* is ! e>lie/ product ( ! spore1 has a great v>iety ( =ms4 ,sometimes x is filam5t\s1 sometimes tubul>1 creep+ ext5sively1 or conc5trat$ 9 a felt$ mass1 sp>+ly develop$1 or produc$ 9 abundance4 ,besides1 x is develop$ 9 a great v>iety ( situations (t5 difficult to detect4 ,! fructification is alone evid5t1 "u innum]able =ms1 :i* are z rapid 9 _! gr[? z !y are = ! mo/ "p ephem]al 9 _! duration4 ,"s species h be5 kn[n to acquire sev]al squ>e in*es ( surface 9 a s+le night2 ! plant1 h[ev]1 is (t5 f> advanc$ be=e x appe>s above gr\nd4 ,"s ,ag>ics gr[ mo/ readily aft] ?und] /orms & abundant ra9s2 c]ta9 species are always s+le2 o!rs gr[ 9 d5se aggregations2 :ile 9 sev]al species !re is a t5d5cy to assume a circul> arrangem5t1 & t n m]ely :5 ! spawn is p]5nial1 b :5 ! :ole exi/5ce ( ! fungus is conf9$ to a few days or weeks4 ,a mass ( spawn is n always produc$ by a s+le spore1 b by a collection ( spores1 f :5ce x spreads 9 e direction1 & =ms a common belt4 ,9 ! ,ag>icus arv5sis1 ,m>asmius ,oreades1 c41 x spreads 9 a circle & be>s fruit2 &1 z x cont9ues to spread1 ! same process takes place at ea* circumf]5ce4 ,9 ?is way are =m$ ! ,fairy ,r+s s frequ5tly se5 9 pa/ure l&s4 ,! fairy r+s are sometimes ( v anci5t date1 & atta9 enorm\s dim5sions1 s z to be di/9ctly visible on ! side ( a hill f a consid]able di/ance4 ,x is believ$ t !y orig9ate f a s+le fungus1 ^: gr[? r5d]s ! soil imm$iately b5ea? unfit = its reproduction4 ,! spawn1 h[ev]1 spreads all ar\nd1 & 9 ! second ye> produces a crop1 ^: spawn spreads outw>ds aga91 = ! soil beh9d =bids its return 9 ! opposite direction4 ,?us ! circle is cont9ually increas$1 & ext5ds indef9itely till "s =eign cause de/roys x4 ,! manure aris+ f ! dead fungi ( ! =m] ye>s makes ! grass vigor\s ar\nd1 s z to r5d] ! circle visible ev5 :5 !re is no ext]nal appe>ance ( ! fungus2 & ! contra/ is (t5 ! /rong] f t imm$iately beh9d x be+ kill$ by ! old spawn4 ,?is mode ( gr[? is f> m common ?an x is suppos$ to be4 ,! dep? to :i* spawn p5etrates & ! rapidity ( its gr[? ev5 9 ! h>de/ timb] if expos$ to damp is q a/oni%+4 ,in/ances occur 9 :i* ! spawn ( dry rot n only ent]s wood1 b p5etrates solid /ructures ( brick4 ,x ov]comes an imm5se resi/ance4 ,! g5]a ( ! ,ag>ic9i diff] 9 sub/ance2 "s are almo/ ligne\s1 o!rs lea!ry or t\gh1 occasionally !y are delicate & deliquesc5t1 & al?\gh mo/ ( !m are entirely =m$ ( cellul> tissue1 ! ,lact>ii & ,russul =m rem>kable exceptions 9 hav+ laticif]\s vessels mix$ ) _! cellul> /ructure4 ,^! vessels exi/ 9 all p>ts ( ! plants1 especially 9 ! gills1 :]e !y give out ! liquid on ! slighte/ t\*4 ,9 ! ,russul x is wat]y2 b 9 ! ,lact>ii1 9 :i* x is ei!r mild or acrid1 accord+ to ! species1 x is also ( diff]5t col\rs1 :i* sometimes *ange _! t9t ^u exposure to ! air1 probably f ozone4 ,9 all fungi !re is a small am\nt ( poison\s matt]1 & ! quantity 9 any giv5 species is extremely unc]ta91 s t ! same fungus :i* may be eat5 ) safety 9 "o c\ntry1 is delet]i\s 9 ano!r4 ,9 ! d>k coal m9es at ,dresd51 lum9\s ,fungi cov] ! ro( & pill>s ) ! mo/ dazzl+ phosphoresc5t light1 :i* increases ) ! temp]ature ( ! m9e4 ,ag>icus ,g>dn]i1 a species p>asitic on ! ,p9tado palm 9 ,brazil1 is highly lum9\s2 & ! ,ag>icus ole>ius 9 ! s\? ( ,france also possesses t r>e quality4 ,! gills "u ! pileus %9e z brightly z a gl[-worm1 9 ! d>k crevices ( ! olive /ems 9 ,novemb] & ,decemb]4 ,m4 ,tulasne f\nd t ! light 0 ext+ui%$ 9 vacuo or non-respirable gases1 :5ce he concludes t x is due to a sl[ combu/ion )\t heat1 aris+ f a *emical comb9ation ( ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e1 inhal$ by ! fungus1 ) a sub/ance peculi> to ! plant4 ,9 a few ,ag>ics ! cells are s connect$ by ve9s or lat]al bran*es1 t !y assume ! "* ( pores1 z 9 ! ,*ant>elle1 a sweet-sc5t$ lemon-col\r$ fungus1 ^: gills pass into m]e ve9s1 & its inf]ior fruit-be>+ surface is all b ev5 & uni=m1 s t x =ms a connection betwe5 ! ,ag>ics & ! ,polyporei1 a mo/ ext5sive ord] ( ! high] fungi1 ess5tially di/+ui%$ by hav+ a multitude ( pores 9 ! smoo? "u-surface ( ! pileus1 in/ead ( gills4 ,! pores are g5]ally small2 9 "s species !y are hexagonal1 & s l>ge t !y look l a honeycomb4 ,9 all1 !y are ! m\?s ( cellul> tubes1 pack$ closely toge!r side by side1 or m closely connect$1 sometimes easily sep>at$1 sometimes insep>able4 ,!y con/itute ! fructif]\s surface or hym5ium ( ! fungus1 & conta9 ! spores4 ,?is /ructure gives ! pileus a ?ick heavy appe>ance1 & a va/ v>iety ( *>act]s2 besides1 ! sub/ance itself v>ies 9 d5sity & col\r4 ,! /em also may be long or %ort1 sometimes want+ altoge!r1 :5 ! pileus or cap is atta*$ to ! surface on :i* ! fungus is gr[+4 ,! gr[? ( individual fungi1 :e!r ,polyporei or ,ag>ics1 is c5trifugal1 t is1 !y spread f ! c5tre ( ! pileus1 z 9 ! ,polyporus frax9eus1 :i* involves e /ick & blade ( grass x meets ) z x increases 9 diamet]1 & cont9ues to increase = ye>s1 till x is occasionally a y>d across4 ,! fructif]\s surface 9 ! high] fungi is ess5tially turn$ away f ! light1 yet1 al?\gh 9 _m ( ! l[] ,ag>ics x is upp]mo/ & expos$1 su* is ! t5d5cy to produce ! fructification on ! l[] side1 especially 9 ! ,polyporei1 t if ! position ( ! plant be rev]s$ ! hym5ium or fructif]\s surface is gradually oblit]at$ & a new "o is =m$ on ! o!r side4 ,! ,polyporei ab\nd 9 ! tropical =e/s1 b species are f\nd 9 all latitudes4 ,! high] fungi are m or less pl5tiful 9 =e/s ev]y:]e1 & e g5us ( trees seems to h "o or m species ( fungus peculi> to itself4 ,! ,boleti1 a g5us ( ! ,polyporei1 :i* are ?ick fle%y fungi ( v>i\s =ms1 & = ! mo/ "p brilliantly col\r$1 gr[ "u trees 9 ! temp]ate zones1 sometimes 9 conspicu\s circles4 ,:5 a slice ( ! ,boletus luridus1 cyanesc5s1 or o!r species is expos$ to ! air1 ! :ite fle%y "p acquires a blue t9t 9 consequ5ce ( ! action ( ozone ^u ! acetate ( anil9e1 :i* 0 asc]ta9$ by ,dr4 ,phipson to be a con/itu5t ( ^! fungi4 ,accord+ to ,m4 ,dutro*et m heat is evolv$ by ! ,boletus neus ?an by any o!r vegetable except ! ,arum4 ,! ,polyporei de/roy decay+ trees & timb]1 & ! ,m]ulius lacrymans or common h\se fungus1 attacks & induces ! decay ( timb] previ\sly s\nd4 ,! cap is l>ge1 fle%y1 spongy & moi/1 b delicate & velvety on ! "u-side1 ) wide por\s d5tate folds4 ,! plant is yell[ ) a :ite woolly m>g94 ,x gr[s 9 a circle1 & its mycelium attracts moi/ure f ! atmosph]e1 :i* falls d[n 9 drops f ! pileus4 ,! decay ( wood induc$ by ! attacks ( ?is mis*iev\s fungus1 is :at is call$ dry rot4 ,! f\r pr9cipal sub-ord]s ( ! ,hym5omycetes1 or highe/ fungi1 h a cap or pileus1 & an inf]ior fructif]\s surface *>act]iz$ by gills1 pores1 or tub]cles1 & are connect$ by int]m$iate species2 b ! o!r two sub-ord]s are q diff]5t4 ,! ,clav>iei are club-%ap$1 upright1 bran*+ fungi1 ) ! fructification surr\nd+ ! upp]mo/ extremity ( "s ( ! /ems4 ,! f9e/ species gr[ 9 ! ,swiss =e/s :]e !y =m an article ( food2 "s are edible 9 ,brita91 b ( small] size4 ,! ,tremell9i consi/s ( plants =m+ a gelat9\s mass ( a bright orange1 purple1 or d>k br[n col\r1 :i* may be se5 on rott5 /icks 9 h$ges1 & 9 enorm\s masses resembl+ ! convolutions ( an animal's bra9 on ! /umps ( dead trees1 or at ! base ( liv+ ones4 ,!y are mo/ly plants ( temp]ate climates1 b ! ,exidia ,auricula ,jud1 or ,jew's e>1 is univ]sal4 ,all fungi h a mycelium1 b 9 ?is ord] x is n app>5t4 ,! /ructure ( ! fruit1 z det]m9$ by ! microscopic obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,b]keley & ( ,m4 ,tulasne1 is unusual4 ,! fructif]\s "p is v ext5sive1 be+ upp]mo/ & spread ov] ! surface ( ! gelat9\s mass1 s z to foll[ all its inequalities4 ,?reads rise f ?is fructif]\s surface be>+ on _! extremities globul> cells exhibit+ a conc5tration ( col\r$ matt] g5]ally divid$ into f\r lobes1 & f ! upp] surface ( ^! globul> bodies1 a numb] ( flexu\s ?reads spr+1 c>ry+ on _! tips cymbi=m spores4#eb ,9 ! prec$+ family 7,hym5omycetes7 ! fruit-be>+ surface has free access to ! air1 b 9 ! gr\p ( ! ,,ga/]omycetes1 :i* consi/s ( five or six sub-ord]s1 x has nei!r access to air or light till ! fruit is ripe1 = ! fructification is enclos$ 9 a r9d ( "o or two coats1 & spr+s )\t a /em f a gelat9\s ?ready1 or cellul> mycelium4 ,! mo/ important gr\p1 ,tri*oga/res1 includes ! puff-balls1 :i* gr[ on ! gr\nd4 ,( ^! ! ,lycop]don1 f\nd ev]y:]e on pa/ure gr\nds & mead[s1 is a famili> in/ance4 ,:5 "y x has a milk-:ite coat fill$ ) closely pack$ cells1 "s ( :i* be> nak$ spores set ^u spicules4 ,:5 mature1 ! :ole ( ! int]ior vani%es1 leav+ no?+ b a mass ( ?reads & fruit2 ! coat becomes br[n1 bur/s op5 at ! top1 & gives v5t to a cl\d ( microscopic spores l ! f9e/ du/4 ,9 g5]al ! ball is sessile1 or x has m]ely ! rudim5t ( a /em4 ,! ,lycop]don giganteum1 an exce$+ly l>ge species1 is a native ( a w>m climate4 ,! tops ( "s ( ! bran*$ ?reads ( its hym5ium swell into pe>-%ap$ cells surm\nt$ by %ort spicules end+ 9 spores2 :5 "y x is edible1 :5 dry x is us$ = t9d] & z a /yptic1 & :5 ignit$ its fumes possess a prop]ty simil> to t ( *lor(orm4 ,! ,bat>rea =ms a contra/ to ! common puff-balls1 be+ m\nt$ on a /em sometimes a foot & a half high4 ,x has sev]al coats enclos+ a ?ick gelat9\s sub/ance 9 :i* ! ?reads c>ry+ ! spores are di/9ctly spiral & closely twi/$4 ,! sub-ord] ,hypogi is subt]ranean1 z ! "n implies4 ,! ext]ior coat ( ^! fungi is insep>able f ! int]nal matt]1 :i* is = ! mo/ "p fle%y4 ,9 "s species x is dry1 9 o!rs x ab\nds 9 milky juice2 b 9 all ! fruit is =m$ 9 holl[s excavat$ 9 ! int]ior mass4 ,9 "s species ^! cavities are trav]s$ by ?reads1 & 9 _m species ! spores accumulate 9 su* multitudes )9 ! cavities1 z to make x c]ta9 t ! spicules1 on :i* ! spores are borne1 produce successive crops4 ,!y are set free by ! rupture ( ! r9d4 ,a species ( ! g5us ,melanoga/]1 abundant 9 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 is edible & sold z ! r$ truffle ( ,ba?2 b x is f> inf]ior to ! real truffle4 ,! ord] ,phalloidei has a club-%ap$ or globose head1 compos$ 9 ! int]ior ( l>ge cells mix$ ) fruit-be>+ cavities4 ,?is head has a coat consi/+ ( a jelly inclos$ betwe5 two het]og5e\s /rata4 ,! :ole int]ior ( ! fungus deliquesces1 *anges to a mucilage1 & drips out ( ! ext]ior coat 9 drops d>k ) microscopic spores4 ,! col\r ( ^! fungi is (t5 beautiful1 b _! smell is mo/ loa?some1 ta9t+ ! air to a consid]able di/ance2 yet ! gelat9\s volva ( m ?an "o species--an ,ileodictyon--is eat5 by ! ,new ,zeal&]s "u ! "n ( ?und] dirt1 & ,phallus ,mokus9 is an article ( food 9 ,*9a4 ,c]ta9 species ( ^! fungi h a rudim5t>y /em 9 _! e>ly /ages1 b x becomes full ( deep pits or cavities & sudd5ly acquires an enorm\s developm5t :5 ! plant approa*es maturity4 ,! cavities are at fir/ /rongly compress$1 b z ! /em increases1 !y acquire a r\nd] =m1 till at l5g? _! v]tical t5d5cy is s /rong t ! coat or volva ( ! fungus is ruptur$1 :i* c\ld only be effect$ by a v /rong =ce4 ,moreov]1 ! /em is fix$ to ! base by s small a po9t t ! plant c\ld n rema9 erect 7 x n = ! tubes ( ! volva :i* contract on ! /em & act z a su/a9+ =ce4 ,?us ^! v revolt+ fragile plants af=d a v /rik+ in/ance ( me*anical p[] ex]t$ by vegetable matt]4 ,! ,myxoga/res are an anomal\s gr\p ( fungi :i* (t5 appe> z black or col\r$ spots on dead leaves & twigs4 ,sometimes _! mycelium or spawn is l>ge & conspicu\s1 z t ( ! ,reticul>ia maxima1 :i* ov]runs cucumb] b$s1 *ok+ up ! brea?+ pores1 & kill+ ! plants4 ,species ( ^! fungi are f\nd ^u m9]al & vegetable sub/ances dead & alive1 & ! same species gr[s ^u plants ( v diff]5t aff9ities1 s t !y dep5d ^u ! atmosph]e = _! n\ri%m5t1 & n on _! matrix4 ,l ! puff-balls !y end _! lives 9 myriads ( microscopic du/ spores1 b !y beg9 x z a gelat9\s mass1 sometimes sp>kl+ z a gem1 brilliant ) ! metallic t9ts ( gold1 silv]1 /eel1 or copp]4 ,! gelat9\s or creamy mucilage ( :i* ^! fungi consi/1 =ms a mycelium :i* is ei!r diffuse1 or creeps ov] ! matrix on :i* x gr[s 9 ana/omos+ filam5ts l a network1 or x is arrang$ )\t any def9ite ord]4 ,?is spawn gives rise to _m bodies hav+ an envelope ( "o or m conc5tric membranes1 te*nically call$ a p]idium1 enclos+ a gelat9\s f]tile sub/ance :i*1 :5 mature1 becomes a mass ( scales or ?reads mix$ ) spores2 ! spores are mo/ly atta*$ to %ort ?reads s+ly or 9 gr\ps1 sometimes surr\nd$ by a firm coat or cy/4 ,^! bodies are ei!r sessile on ! mycelium or /alk$1 & are ei!r free or conflu5t4 ,9 _! s(t /ate ! tissues are s delicate t !y exhibit no /ructure1 b j z !y are pass+ f ! puffy to ! dry du/y /ate !re are indications ( x4 ,x w\ld be t$i\s to describe ! v>iety ( =ms assum$ by ! fruit-be>+ bodies 9 ! diff]5t g5]a ( ^! fungi1 or ! mann] 9 :i* !y are ruptur$ to give egress to ! spores1 :i* diff] 9 col\r accord+ to ! species1 ?\gh !y are = ! mo/ "p r$4 ,! =ms ( ! *affy scales & ?reads are equally div]sifi$3 9 ! species ( ,tri*ia1 ! ?reads conta9 "o or m spiral filam5ts1 a =m peculi> to ! vegetable k+dom4 ,botani/s are n[ g5]ally ( op9ion t ! ,myxoga/res are vegetables1 al?\gh ! s+ul> ,amba-l motions "s ( !m exhibit1 & ! nature ( ! motile bodies !y produce1 seem$ to assign !m a place 9 ! animal k+dom2 inde$1 ev5 n[ little is kn[n ( ! reproduction & f9al life-hi/ory ( ^! s+ul> fungi4 ,motions precisely simil> to ^? ( ! ,amb1 ! l[e/ class ( animal exi/5ces1 7 obs]v$ by ,,mm4 ,h(fmann & ,tulasne1 & m especially by ,m4 de ,b>y1#ec 9 ! ?alium septicum4 ,x is a yell[ pulpy mass1 produc$ ^u a spawn or mycelium consi/+ ( semi-fluid gelat9\s ana/omos+ filam5ts1 (t5 widely spread ?r\gh ! moi/ tan 9 ho?\ses4 ,m4 de ,b>y describes ! filam5ts ( ! mycelium z full ( a multitude ( small col\rless corpuscles mix$ ) l>ge yell[ ones2 moreov] ! bran*es ( ?is muc\s network are describ$ z cont9ually *ang+ _! =m1 9 a mann] closely resembl+ ! pseudopodia ( ! animal ,amba4 ,!y pu% out new bran*es1 o!rs are )drawn1 & ! :ole mycelium frequ5tly advances ) a creep+ motion ( translation4 ,! yell[ pulpy mass produc$ by ! mycelium is entirely compos$ ( simil>ly con/itut$ s(t filam5ts ab\t ! ?ickness ( a bri/le closely int]lac$4 ,!y ana/omose 9 all directions1 9 long or %ort me%es1 & _! upp] free extremities =m gr\ps ( projections :i* bri/le ! ext]ior surface ( ! pulpy mass4 ,:5 t mass is ab\t to =m spores1 all ! asp]ities on its surface are )drawn & replac$ by a bright yell[ network ( irregul>ly int]lac$ filam5ts1 :i* con/itutes an envelope to ! int]ior spore-=m+ "p1 consi/+ ( a :ite c5tral liquid or plasma conta9+ an innum]able multitude ( col\rless granules4 ,bo? ( ^! p>ts are =m$ at ! exp5se ( ! filam5ts :i* are decompos$1 ! yell[ granules are absorb$ 9 ! envelope1 :ile ! col\rless granules retire ) ! gelat9\s matt] t[>ds ! c5tre to con/itute ! plasma1 :i* is ! fruit-produc+ "p4 ,transp>5t globul> cells conta9+ nuclei are g5]at$ simultane\sly 9 e po9t ( ! plasma1 r\nd ea* ( :i* a portion ( ! granul> matt] is consolidat$2 x takes a d>k purple col\r & con/itutes a spore1 myriads ( :i*1 f9e z du/1 are ?us g5]at$4 ,! :ole ( ! plasma is consum$ 9 ! spores1 except a v small quantity1 :i* =ms ! ?reads f\nd mix$ ) ! spore du/4 ,accord+ to ,m4 de ,b>y ! complete developm5t ( ! ?alium1 f ! in/ant x appe>s above ! tan 9 a ho?\se ( high temp]ature to ! maturity ( ! spores1 is accompli%$ 9 ab\t fifte5 h\rs4 ,! rapidity ( gr[? ( ?is fungus is !re=e a/oni%+4 ,mr4 ,b]keley m5tions t a mass ( x two feet long1 =m$ ( _m conflu5t individuals1 0 =m$ ^u a piece ( iron t _h be5 r$-hot twelve h\rs be=e--a pro( among _m o!rs ( ! meteoric nature ( ^! fungi1 ! atmosph]e af=d+ !m a suffici5t supply ( food4 ,! motions ( ! pla/ic matt] conta9$ )9 ! du/-l spores ( ! ?alium septicum exhibit amban motions ( ! same "* z its mycelium4 ,= :5 ,m4 de ,b>y plac$ ripe spores ( t fungus 9 wat]1 _! sk9 bur/ op5 & ! pla/ic granul> matt] 0 set free "u ! =m ( a coh]5t globul> mass )\t any ext]ior membrane4 ,^! globul> corpuscles exhibit$ amba-l *anges ( =m2 processes 7 pu%$ out1 & !n drawn 91 till at la/ !y assum$ an elongat$ cyl9drical %ape r\nd at "o end1 prolong$ at ! ant]ior end into a long cilium ) :i* !y turn$ convulsively r\nd _! axis4 ,at ! same "t vacuoles 7 frequ5tly se5 to exp& & contract alt]nately 9 ! r\nd extremity4 ,ultimately ^! bodies lo/ _! middle1 & at la/ 7 divid$ into two equal p>ts1 ea* ( :i* w5t ?r\gh ! same *anges z ! prim>y globule1 & at l5g? assum$ ! ciliat$ active =m4 ,besides ^! active bodies1 !re 7 o!rs :i* nev] acquir$ cilia4 ,! motile bodies 7 also discov]$ 9 o!r species ( ^! fungi by ,m4 ,h(fmann2 !re c be no d\bt t !y are ei!r zoospores1 or ( ! same nature z ! eel-%ap$ motile bodies 9 "s ( ! ,alg2 possibly ! bodies :i* nev] acquire cilia may be g]m cells4 ,!re is /ill mu* obscurity ) reg>d to ! ,myxoga/res1 inasmu* z ! orig9 ( _! mycelium is unkn[n1 :il/ 9 all o!r fungi mycelium or spawn are produc$ by ! g]m9ation ( ! spores4 ,! spiral vessels f\nd 9 ! ?reads ( ! ,tri*ia prove t ! memb]s ( ?is s+ul> family are truly vegetables4 ,pr(essor ,fries places ! geographical maximum or c5tre 9 ! temp]ate zone1 b diff]5t species are f\nd f ,new ,zeal& to high nor!rn latitudes4 ,! ,nidul>iacei con/itute a beautiful ord] ( ?is family ( fungi4 ,! plants are exactly l a bird's ne/ ) eggs1 sometimes ) a /em1 sometimes )\t4 ,at fir/ ! ne/ or cup has a cov] consi/+ ( sev]al coats1 :i* ei!r bur/ op5 ) a /ellate or irregul> figure1 or by ! sep>ation ( a little lid2 !n ! holl[ ( ! cup or ne/ is expos$1 & at ! bottom are se5 "o or m sporangia1 t is spore cases1 (t5 imm]s$ 9 jelly & ei!r free or fix$ to ! ne/ by an ela/ic /r+4 ,! spore-coats at fir/ conta9 a compact circul> mass1 b a cavity is aft]w>ds =m$ 9 ! c5tre1 & ! cells :i* t]m9ate 9 ! walls ( ! cavity be> spores on _! tips4 ,:5 ripe ! spore cases are eject$ by ela/ic p[]4 ,! =ce ) :i* ! sporangium ( ! species ( ,sphrobolus is eject$1 f> exce$s 9 proportion ! =ce ) :i* a %ell is project$ f a l>ge mort>2 ?is fungus sometimes gr[s 9 damp ho?\ses4#ed ,_m ,nidul>i are widely spread1 b !y ?rive be/ 9 w>m climates4 ,! intimate /ructure & fructification ( ! high] fungi are = ! mo/ "p microscopic b an innum]able mass ( ! l[] fungi are !mselves invisible to ! nak$ eye1 liv+ ^u all k9ds ( vegetable & animal sub/ances1 dead1 alive1 fre% or putrid4 ,!y vegetate ^u decay$ l951 flannel1 lea!r1 & ev5 on metallic & poison\s solutions4 ,!y yield myriads ( m9ute spores waft$ by e breeze4 ,!y float 9 ! air we brea!1 seek+ a nidus 9 any?+ t w supply !m ) suitable food4 ,!re is sc>cely a spot on ! e>? :]e ^! m9ute spores may n exi/1 & be+ insoluble1 !y wait :]e !y fall = ! gr[? or decay ( ! plant or animal :i* suits !m4 ,z p>asites !y are mo/ de/ructive1 produc+ dis9tegration1 disease1 & ev5 dea?1 bo? 9 vegetables & animals4 ,x is ! mycelium or spawn :i* does ! mis*ief1 by supply+ ! fungus ) food at ! exp5se ( ! victim4 ,! spores ( ! ,botrytis ,bassiana f9d a nidus 9 ! brea?+ pores :i* op5 into ! tra*ea ( ! silkworm2 !y develop _! mycelium 9 ! air-tubes1 :i* are soon fill$ up2 x !n ext5ds into ! fatty matt] "u ! sk91 :i* n\ri%es ! worm dur+ its dormant /ate1 &1 z soon z t matt] is exhau/$1 ! victim dies4 ,9 autumn1 ! common fly1 ?\gh q dead1 may be se5 adh]+ to _m p>ts ( a room1 especially to ! w9d[ glass1 z if x 7 alive4 ,9 ?is /ate x is always surr\nd$ by a halo ab\t an in* 9 diamet] ( :iti% du/1 consi/+ ( ! spores ( ! ,empusa ,musc1 or fly fungus4 ,! body ( ! fly is mu* di/5d$1 ! r+s ( its abdom5 are sep>at$ by ! gr[? ( ! mycelium f )91 & all ! cont5ts ( ! body hav+ be5 consum$ by ! p>asite1 no?+ rema9s b a holl[ %ell ) a ?9 felt-l lay] ( ! int]lac$ mycelia ( innum]able fungi1 = ! fly fungus increases ) wond]ful rapidity )9 ! insect4 ,mr4 ,b]keley believes ! fly fungus to be m]ely a condition or phase ( "o ( ^? anomal\s m\lds :i* gr[ on dead fi%1 mak+ !m conspicu\s z !y float on ! surface ( ! wat]1 by ! foggy halo :i* surr\nds !m4 ,diff]5t k9ds ( p>asitic fungi may exi/ at ! same "t4 ,dr4 ,leidy f\nd a v>iety 9 ! /oma* ( ! ,passalus cornutus1 a beetle t lives ^u decay$ wood4 ,fungi d n attack ! c>nivor\s beetles4 ,man is n exempt f ^! p>asites4 ,f\rte5 diff]5t species ( fungi 7 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,hogg 9 z _m cutane\s diseases4 ,!re _c be ! smalle/ d\bt ( cutane\s disease be+ induc$ by inoculation ) fungi2 m]ely rubb+ c]ta9 species on ! sk9 is suffici5t4 ,fungi cause baldness by fix+ !mselves on ! roots ( ! hair1 & de/roy+ ! int]nal /ructure ( ! bulb4 ,our eyes are n exempt f attacks ( ^! p>asites1 = 9 p]=m+ an op]ation ^u a diseas$ eye ,dr4 ,hannov] f\nd sev]al species ( fungi 9 x2 "o ( !m 0 globul>1 & /rongly refract$ ! light4 ,!re is a fungus consi/+ ( f f\r to sixty-f\r cells unit$ 9 squ>e gr\ps1 :i* infe/s ! /oma*s ( m5 & animals1 ev5 9 a heal?y /ate2 b al?\gh fungi produce c]ta9 cutane\s diseases1 !re is no pro( z yet t fev]1 *ol]a1 or any o!r epidemic1 is ow+ to ! spores ( ! fungi :i* we inhale f ! atmosph]e4 ,! family ( ,,coniomycetes consi/s ( six gr\ps1 two ( :i* are p>asites on liv+ vegetables1 ! o!r f\r gr[+ on ^? :i* are dead1 decay+1 or dy+4 ,!y are microscopic plants1 & _! mycelium is filam5t\s1 or vesicul>1 (t5 obsolete2 %ort ?reads ris+ f x be> on _! tips ei!r septate spores1 or spores l f9e du/1 inclos$ 9 oval or bottle-%ap$ cases1 call$ p]i!cia1 or 9 cells unit$ 9 a cell1 l a necklace ( beads4 ,we are *iefly indebt$ to ,m4 ,tulasne & 8 bro!r = ! obscure & extraord9>y life-hi/ory ( ^! fungi4 ,! p>asites on liv+ plants =m ! two va/ gr\ps ( ,epiphytes & ,entophytes4 ,! ,epiphytes exhibit _! fructification on ! surface ( ! plant1 :ile _! mycelium p5etrates ! moi/ texture ( its int]ior1 :i* fe$s !m4 ,all p>ts are liable to be attack$ by ^! fungi2 !y may ins9uate _! mycelium into ! leaves1 /em1 fl[]s1 /am5s1 an!rs1 & ! v he>t ( ! se$s4 ,! mycelium is g5]ally annual1 b sometimes x is p]5nial1 & leaves a crop ( fungi ye> aft] ye>2 x dis9tegrates ! tissues ( ! plant on :i* x fe$s1 & di/orts or kills x4 ,occasionally1 ! *lorophyll 9 ! leaves is oxidiz$1 & becomes yell[ by ! oxyg5 :i* ! p>asite absorbs4 ,! ,entophytes1 :i* con/itute ! second gr\p ( p>asites on liv+ plants1 =m microscopic congregations 9 ! int]ior ( ! leaves & t5d] %oots1 ! only indication ( _! exi/5ce be+ a :ite1 r$1 or orange col\r$ spot1 :i* usually becomes black or br[n :5 ! fungus atta9s maturity4 ,x appe>s t ! same individual ( ^! entophytes may assume two or m diff]5t =ms dur+ ! c\rse ( its life1 & be> two or m totally dissimil> types ( fructification4 ,( ^!1 ! sub-ord]s ,pucc9i & ,ur$9es furni% _m examples4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,pucc9ii3--a1 ,aregma speciosum2 b1 ,x5odo*us p>adoxus2 c1 ,pucc9ia ,amorph2 d1 ,triphragmium dub5s2 e1 ,"y spores ( an unkn[n ,pucc9ia2 f1 ,pucc9ia lat]ipes4 ,fig4 #cb repres5ts v>i\s species ( ,pucc9ii1 :i* consi/ ( a ?read end+ 9 club-%ap$ or elongat$ cells call$ asci1 conta9+ a def9ite or indef9ite numb] ( septate conidia or spore du/ cells4 ,ea* ord] ( plants1 z ! ,rosace1 has its own =m ( ^! entophytes4 ,9 ! tissue ( a rose leaf1 imm$iately b5ea? a bright gold5 col\r$ surface spot1 ,m4 ,tulasne f\nd two di/9ct =ms ( fungi1 liv+ toge!r 9 a small cavity4 ,! =ms 7 exactly ^? ( a ,pucc9ia & ,ur$o4 ,! ,pucc9ia consi/$ ( a %ort col\rless /em1 end+ 9 a club-%ap$ cell1 conta9+ two conidia or spore cells4 ,^! fungi 7 cr[d$ toge!r 9 multitudes 9 a small space s z to =m a solid r\nd$ mass1 ) _! broad tops imm$iately "u ! sk9 ( ! upp]-side ( ! leaf1 b sometimes !y 7 arrang$ 9 conc5tric circles4 ,! ,ur$9es1 on ! contr>y1 _h col\rless bran*+ /ems1 l ?reads1 be>+ on _! tops po9t$ spore sacs4 ,9 "s species ^! ,ur$9es are scatt]$ ?r\gh ! mass ( ,pucc9ia1 9 o!rs dispos$ 9 a circle r\nd x1 or 9 ! c5tre ( ! conc5tric r+ :]e ! ,pucc9ia takes t =m4 ,x 0 long believ$ t ^! two =ms ( fungi liv+ toge!r 9 ! same cavity 7 totally diff]5t plants1 b z 9 v>i\s in/ances ,m4 ,tulasne p]ceiv$ t ! ,ur$o _h sprung up1 %$ its spores1 & vani%$ be=e its companion _h rip5$ its fruit1 he conclud$ t ! two diff]5t =ms are m]ely two /ates ( ! same plant1 t ! l>g] spores ( ! ,ur$o ?us e>ly matur$1 imm$iately g]m9ate & produce ! ,pucc9ia1 ^: f9e du/-l spores are m]ely ! second>y fruit ( ! ,ur$o4 ,^! m9ute spores issue ?r\gh a pore 9 ! conidia or du/ cell & a puncture 9 ! upp] sk9 ( ! leaf into ! air1 :5ce !y are waft$ 9 myriads by ! w9ds2 &1 if n too late 9 ! season1 !y ent] into ! pores ( ! leaves & t5d] p>ts ( ! same or o!r plants t may suit !m1 & )9 ^! !y =m a mycelium1 & produce a "y ,ur$o4 ,ev5 if ! autumnal leaves fall 9 a moi/ place be=e ! spores h g]m9at$1 ! entophyte w gr[ on ! approa* ( spr+1 & ultimately s5d its du/ spores to ent] into "y leaves1 & gr[ ) _! gr[?4 ,al?\gh !re _c be a d\bt ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,ur$9es z a num]\s natural family1 ,m4 ,tulasne consid]s ! species ( c]ta9 g5]a to be only second>y =ms ( c]ta9 g5]a ( ,pucc9i4 ,_m ( ^! m9ute fungi h a ?ird & ev5 a f\r? ord] ( fruit2 ! pr9ciple be+ c>ri$ to a maximum 9 ! ord] ,comacei4 ,^! entophytes h a delicate mycelium1 :i* gives rise to %ort or obsolete f]tile ?reads1 t]m9at$ by s+le spores or *a9s ( spores4 ,^! spores :5 !y g]m9ate produce a second ord] ( spores2 ^! occasionally produce a ?ird ord]1 & s on successively ev5 to a f\r? or a fif? ord]4 ,x is always ! la/ & smalle/ spores :i* reproduce ! plant4 ,! object ( ! successive ord]s seems to be to dim9i% ! size ( ! spores & to increase _! numb]1 t !y may m easily ent] ! /omates ( ! plants !y live ^u1 & be m easily & widely disp]s$ by ! w9ds4 ,! ,ur$o c&ida1 or ,cy/opus c&idus1 :i* takes its "n f ! :ite spot x =ms on ! leaves ( ! cabbage & o!r vegetables1 is f\nd to produce bo? female or g]m cells & sp]matozoids4 ,long be=e ! :ite spot is =m$ on ! leaf1 ! pres5ce ( ! abundant spawn may be p]ceiv$ by swell+s & de=mities 9 ! victim plant4 ,its filam5ts1 :i* creep exclusively 9 ! int]cellul> canals ( ! cellul> tissue1 are tubul>1 ( unequal diamet]1 & exce$+ly bran*$1 & are always =m$ ( cellulose1 ei!r ?ick-wall$ & gelat9\s1 or ?9-wall$ & membran\s4 ,f ?is mycelium1 little ?reads hang d[n1 end+ 9 globul> vesicles conta9+ a ne>ly homog5e\s col\rless matt]1 & ultimately an aque\s liquid2 !y are suppos$ to fix ! mycelium to ! cells ( ! victim4 ,accord+ to ! exam9ation ( ,mr4 ,b]keley1 ,m4 ,tulasne1 & o!rs1 ! bran*es ( ! mycelium accumulate 9 a holl[ imm$iately "u ! :ite spot 9 ! sk9 ( ! leaf ( ! plant attack$4 ,f ^! bran*es spr+ bundles ( club-%ap$ tubes1 direct$ p]p5dicul>ly t[>ds ! upp] sk9 ( ! leaf1 & =m+ a tuft or little cu%ion ( v>iable ext5t4 ,! summit ( ea* ( ^! club-%ap$ tubes is =m$ into a conidium1 or spore du/ cell1 :i* sep>ates itself f t bel[ x by tak+ a globul> =m4 ,9 ! upp] end ( ! rema9d] ( ! tubes1 new spore du/ cells are =m$1 & s on indef9itely4 ,^! conidia rema9 atta*$ to "o ano!r 9 a /r+ by sl5d] con/rictions :i* become ?9n]1 & at la/ give way f above d[nw>ds1 & !y escape 9 succession ?r\gh a crack 9 ! sk9 ( ! leaf4 ,! quantity ( spores t are g5]at$ by ! d5se mass ( ^! club-%ap$ tubes mu/ be enorm\s4 ,! ,cy/opus has female reproductive cells1 :i* _h escap$ notice f be+ hid 9 ! pla/ic matt] :i* n\ri%es !m4 ,!y appe> be=e ! spore du/ be>+ cells1 & are =m$ by t]m9al or int]/itial swell+s 9 ! tubes ( ! mycelium1 :i* become l>ge oval cells1 sep>at$ ultimately by a closure f ! re/ ( ! tube t be>s !m2 !y are fill$ ) a granul> liquid mix$ ) l>ge granules ( a col\r$ fatty matt]4 ,! tips ( "s bran*es ( ! mycelium swell into oval or club-%ap$ cells conta9+ sp]matozoids1 :i* f]tilize ! female cells2 !n ! matt] )9 ! latt] assumes a globul> =m1 gets a coat ( cellulose1 & becomes ! true fruit ( ! ,cy/opus4 ,z e>ly z ! ye> #ahjg1 ,m4 ,b4 ,prvo/ _h se5 t ! sporangia1 or spore cells ( ! entophytes produc$ zoospores1 & rec5tly ,m4 de ,b>y has se5 !m produc$1 dur+ ! g]m9ation ( ! spores1 collect$ )9 a sporangium ( ! ,cy/opus4 ,:5 !y came into ! wat] !y _h two cilia1 "o ( :i* 0 %ort & w5t fir/1 ! o!r 0 long & trail$ aft] ! zoospore4 ,nei!r ,m4 de ,b>y nor ,m4 ,tulasne h ev] se5 zoospores 9 ! fungus itself1 b if ! drops ( ra9 or dew r\nd ! :ite spot on ! leaf ( a plant be exam9$1 empty sporangia are g5]ally f\nd1 & spores 9 diff]5t /ates ( developm5t4 ,! ,pucc9ia ,fab1 an entophyte on ! common bean1 has b "o spore 9 its cyl9drical case1 & is consid]$ id5tical ) ! ,uromyces app5diculatus4 ,besides male organs l ^? ( ! cidium1 ,m4 de ,b>y f\nd t ! bean entophyte has f\r k9ds ( reproductive organs1 ( :i* "o alone reproduces ! orig9al =m1 :ile ! o!rs pres5t a well-m>k$ alt]nation ( g5]ations4 ,! ,pucc9ia =ms a pro?allus on :i* conidia1 or second>y spore du/ cells1 arise2 ^! second>y spores =m a mycelium1 on :i* an cidium appe>s1 ^: orange-col\r$ fruit gives rise to a ,ur$o1 & ! du/ spores ( ! ,ur$o ent] ! leaves ( beans or peas1 & gr[ into a ,pucc9ia4 ,all ! species ( cidium are simil> to "o ano!r1 & ,m4 ,tulasne is ( op9ion t !y d n con/itute a di/9ct g5us1 b t1 l _m ( ! ,ur$9es1 !y are m]ely a second>y =m ( "s o!r fungus1 & inhabit ! same cavity1 z 9 ! case ( cidium cyp>issi & ,uromyces scutellatus1 cidium leucosp]mum & ,pucc9ia ,anemones1 & o!rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,pucc9ia ,gram9is4 ,! ord] ,pucc9ii comprises epiphytes1 z well z entophytes4 ,! mildew on :eat is caus$ by ! ,pucc9ia ,gram9is 7fig4 #cc71 :i* attacks ! /em ( ! plant1 & appe>s on its ext]ior 9 a circul> clu/] ( pe>-%ap$ septate spore cases4 ,^! spore cases spr+ f a filam5tal mycelium1 ^: ?reads int]weave !mselves among ! s(t tissue ( ! /em ( ! :eat1 & ! f]tile ?reads make _! way ?r\gh ! /omates to ! surface4 ,pr(essor ,h5sl[ has prov$ t ! ru/ :i* appe>s on ! leaves & *aff scales ( :eat is ow+ to ! ,ur$o l9e>is1 a second>y =m ( ! ,pucc9ia ,gram9is1 & t ru/ is only an e>li] =m ( mildew2 s t ! ,pucc9ia ,gram9is is a dimorph\s & epiphytic fungus4 ,x may be a "q :e!r ! ,ur$o segetum1 :i* de/roys ! blossom ( :eat1 & r$uces ! e> to ! sooty mass ( p[d] call$ smut1 may n be ! =m ( "s o!r fungus4 ,! epiphytes ( ! ord] ,pucc9ii (t5 appe> on ! ext]ior ( plants 9 tufts ( br[n1 yell[1 orange-col\r$1 or :ite sporangia4 ,fungi are ext5sively propagat$ by fragm5ts ( _! spawn1 & ! ?reads ( ! mycelia are sometimes dim9i%$ 9 ?ickness 9 ord] t !y may m easily p5etrate into ! /omates ( ! plant !y invade4 ,?is 0 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,b]keley :ile inve/igat+ ! g]m9ation ( ! spores ( bunt1 a ftid ru/ :i* attacks :eat & o!r grasses4 ,x is p]fectly analog\s to ! dim9ution ( ! size ( ! du/ spores 9 ! successive ord]s ( fructification4 ,x is ?\ght probable t 9 _m ( ! p>asitic fungi1 new spores are =m$ at ! tips ( ! fructif]\s ?reads ( ! mycelium z fa/ z ! ripe spores fall (f1 :5ce t enorm\s mass ( m9ute spores :i* a s+le individual is capable ( produc+4 ,among ! multitudes ( kn[n p>asitic fungi1 !re is n "o t does n =m a mycelium m or less di/9ct4 ,!y d n arise f a disease 9 ! plant !y attack1 ?\gh !y ultimately cause disease & (t5 dea?4 ,ea* p>asite has its own mode ( p5etrat+ into ! tissues1 & its own mann] ( vegetat+2 !y attack c]ta9 plants1 & avoid o!rs ?\gh ne>ly alli$4 ,du/ spores1 s+le or septate1 ooz+ out ( a d>k or col\r$ fung\s mass is *>act]i/ic ( ! gr\p ,melanconiei1 :i* is m rem>kable 9 reg>d to ! mode ( fructification ?an any ( ! prec$+ ,coniomycetes1 = in/ead ( successively assum+ ! =m & fructification ( two g5]a1 or two ord]s1 ! plants successively assume ! =m & fructification ( two di/9ct families4 ,! family ( ! ,,hyphomycetes takes its "n f its filam5t\s "*4 ,! mycelium gives rise to :ite1 d>k br[n1 or bright col\r$ ?reads1 simple or comp\nd1 be>+ nak$ spores on _! extremities4 ,( ^! !re are five sub-ord]s & _m g5]a4 ,! sub-ord] ,is>iacei has f\r g5]a f\nd on ! pup ( mo?s1 on dead spid]s1 dead fungi1 & dead plants respectively4 ,! gr\p is *>act]iz$ by comp\nd ?reads end+ 9 pulv]esc5t spores4 ,mo/ ( ! cat]pill>s ( ! ,bombyx ,rubi1 or bramble mo?1 fall victims to a species ( ,is>ia1 :i* has sev]al di/9ctly diff]5t p]iods & modes ( fructification1 & at la/ assumes ! =m ( a v beautiful fungus belong+ to a diff]5t family4 ,ne> ,p>is1 9 ! mon? ( ,octob]1 :5 ! cat]pill>s ( ! bramble mo? seek = %elt] f ! cold1 9 ! e>?1 or "u long grass & )]$ leaves1 ,m4 ,tulasne & 8 bro!r f\nd t mo/ ( !m 7 surr\nd$ by tufts ( a :iti% d[n1 :i* increas$ s rapidly t x kill$ ! cat]pill>s & cov]$ ! :ole ( _! body except ! bri/ly hairs1 & assum$ *>act]s simil> to ! musc>d9e fungus t kills ! silkworm4 ,?is d[n is a mycelium compos$ ( extremely f9e bran*$ filam5ts felt$ toge!r1 ! upright f]tile bran*es ( :i* be> :orls ( bran*lets ea* t]m9at$ by *aplets ( f t5 to fifte5 equal & sph]ical cells fill$ ) du/ spores4 ,^! mo/ m9ute spores g]m9at$1 & put out fili=m creep+ g]ms :i* quickly emitt$ _m bran*es end+ 9 long *aplets ( f]tile du/-be>+ cells4 ,po9ts "h & !re on ! felt$ envelope ( ! cat]pill>s became ( an orange col\r1 took ! =m ( a mycelium1 & produc$ little orange col\r$ club-%ap$ cells :i* %$ abundance ( reproductive du/ spores f a r+ ( :ite hairs on _! summit4 ,ea* cat]pill> _h f t5 to fifte5 ( ^! col\r$ clubs on its sides1 :i* lo/ _! brightness :5 !y grew old1 & _h %$ _! du/ spores4 ,^! fungi possess$ all ! *>act]s ( ! ,is>ia crassa1 or ,is>ia f>9osa ( ,fries4 ,lat] 9 ! season o!r cat]pill>s on :i* ?is club-%ap$ ,is>ia _h n be5 produc$1 b :i* 7 swoll5 & :ite ) ! felt$ spawn ( ! p>asite1 gave out orange r$ club-%ap$ vessels ( a l>g] size & deep] t9t ?an ^? ( ! nasc5t ,is>iacei4 ,!y _h no t]m9al r+ ( hairs1 b "s ( !m _h a r$ spore du/-be>+ felt at _! base4 ,ultimately !y assum$ all ! *>act]s ( ! ,sphria milit>is ( ,ehr5b]g or ,cordyceps milit>is ( ,fries1 :i* is a bright sc>let fungus half an in* high ) a fle%y upright /em end+ 9 a cup-%ap$ head conta9+ long cyl9drical sacs call$ asci1 9 :i* ! spore cells are s num]\s z to resemble /r+s ( beads4#ee ,?is fungus1 !re=e1 beg9s z a memb] ( ! family ,hyphomycetes1 & ends z a memb] ( ! family ,ascomycetes4 ,! ord] ,/ilbacei are little globose fungi ) or )\t a /alk1 cov]$ ) semi-gelat9\s spores4 ,!y are unit$ 9 cu%ion-l masses1 on decay$ wood & dead twigs4 ,! little sc>let masses on dead currant bran*es s (t5 se5 9 g>d5s1 are examples4 ,! ord] ,dematiei are ! black m\lds f\nd on damp pap]1 old damp l951 dead wood & plants4 ,_! spawn is seldom mu* develop$1 ! f]tile ?reads are erect1 rigid1 d>k br[n approa*+ to black1 sometimes ( an olive gre54 ,! spores on _! tops are ei!r simple1 9 :orls1 or collect$ into heads1 :i* are l>ge1 septate1 & ev5 spiral4 ,! ,muc$9es are beautiful microscopic objects bo? z to =m & col\r2 !y are v num]\s bo? 9 g5]a & species & are well kn[n z r$1 blue1 or gre5 m\lds4 ,^! fungi spr+ f _m po9ts ( a g5]ally abundant mycelium1 9 erect col\r$ ?reads1 be>+ on _! tips simple nak$ spores1 spores collect$ into little tufts1 or spores /rung toge!r l beads =m+ ?reads ei!r bran*$ or simple4 ,9 ?is ord] ( fungi !re are1 moreov]1 in/ances ( dualism1 ! second ord] ( fruit be+ t ( ! family ( ! ,ascomycetes4 ,! ,botrytis1 or ,p]onospora infe/ans1 :i* causes ! murra9 9 potatoes1 %[s h[ de/ructive ! ,muc$9es c be4 ,l o!r entophytes1 its spores ent] ! /omates 9 ! leaves ( ! potato1 & fill ! cavities ( ! leaves ) spawn1 ! ramifications ( :i* are said to be v beautiful4 ,?is creep+ spawn !n ins9uates itself into ! /em & tub]1 & f !nce x f9ds its way to ! ext]ior ( ! plant1 or to "s int]nal cavity1 :]e x fructifies1 be>+ l>ge globose sessile bodies yield+ fruit ( ! second ord]1 & spores on ! tips ( its f]tile bran*es4 ,! spawn ( ! ,botrytis spreads rapidly 9 a circle1 & soon de/roys ! texture ( ! leaves & /em1 b al?\gh x attacks ! tub] or potato g5]ally s call$1 x does n p5etrate deeply4 ,! de/ruction ( ! potato is aid$ & complet$ by ! ,fusisporium ,solani1 a microscopic fungus1 :i* takes v>i\s =ms accord+ to its age & *ang+ conditions1 ! la/ ( :i* seems to be p>tly gelat9\s2 x sometimes h>d5s ! tissues ( ! potato1 b sometimes causes rapid & loa?some decay4 ,! ?read-l fibres ( ! spawn ( ! ,p]onospora p]meate ev5 ! bran*es & wood ( trees4 ,wasps are frequ5tly se5 to frequ5t holl[ trees1 probably 9 se>* ( ! mycelia ( "s ( ^! p>asitic fungi1 :i* is id5tical 9 /ructure ) ! mat]ial ( :i* _! ne/s are built4 ,signore ,panc]i1 pr(essor ( comp>ative anatomy 9 ! univ]sity ( ,naples1 has discov]$ sev5 species ( ,muc$9es 9 ! album5 ( h5s' eggs4 ,*emical *anges 9 pres]v$ animal & vegetable sub/ances af=d suitable food = ! ,p5icillia m\ld1 if inde$ !y are n ! imm$iate cause ( ^! *anges4 ,! ?reads ris+ f ! mycelium ( ^! m\lds t]m9ate 9 bundles ( bran*lets c>ry+ at _! summits /r+s ( spores1 l necklaces ( small beads collect$ into bun*es l tassels1 :ite1 yell[i%1 blue or r$ accord+ to _! age or k9d4 ,figure #cd repres5ts v>i\s species ( ,muc$9es1 9 :i* c is ! ,p5icillium arm5iacum1 & f is a spore ( ,helm9?osporium ,h(fmanni2 all are magnifi$4 ,diff]5t species ( ! ,p5icillia =m ! blue & brick-r$ m\lds on *eese1 & ! gre5i% & grey m\lds on jam & pres]v$ fruit4 ,!y appe> z dry rot1 z orange col\r$ spots on long kept potatoes1 z mildew on clo?1 silk1 sug>1 meat1 & ev5 on wea!r-beat5 w9d[ glass4 ,!y c exi/ 9 metallic & poison\s solutions by decompos+ ! *emical comb9ation1 reject+ ! metal or poison1 & liv+ on :atev] nutrim5t may be f\nd 9 ! rema9d]4 ,l ! l>g] fungi1 ^! m9ute plants are sometimes poison\s2 ! fatal effects occasionally produc$ by sausages & spoilt meat are suppos$ to be ow+ to poison\s m\lds4 ,! ,muc$9es con=m to ! law prevail+ 9 o!r l[ organizations ( hav+ _! species widely di/ribut$4 ,! ,p5icillium glaucum is f\nd 9 all c\ntries1 especially 9 ! vic9ity ( man2 x inevitably appe>s 9 all sac*>9e sub/ances1 &1 accord+ to ,m4 ,fries1 x is met ) alike 9 ! alps ( ,lapl& & 9 ! oasis ( ,jupit] ,ammon 9 ! ,lybian des]t1 an example :i* has no p>allel 9 ! geographical di/ribution ( ! high] plants4#ef ,f]m5t1 t is to say1 ! yea/ plant1 is a peculi> condition ( c]ta9 fungi1 includ+ ! pres5t species1 & is capable ( unlimit$ propagation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,muc$9es3--a1 ,asp]gillus glaucus2 b1 ,asp]gillus dubius2 c1 ,p5icillium arm5iacum2 d1 ,sep$onium mycophilum2 e1 ,helm9?osporium nodosum2 f1 ,helm9?osporium ,h(fmanni1 spore2 g1 ,zygodesmus fuscus4 ,! real spore-be>+ filam5ts ( ! ,p5icillium glaucum are only develop$ 9 air1 = :5 ! spores ( t fungus are kept subm]g$ 9 a liquid fav\rable = _! gr[?1 z 9 a sac*>9e solution1 or ! juice ( ! grape1 !y =m an aquatic mycelium on ! filam5ts ( :i* cells are produc$1 & c>bonic acid gas is giv5 out4 ,^! cells increase by budd+ or division into *a9s ( f]m5t1 easily sep>at$ into s+le cells4 ,! ,p5icillium glaucum is ?us develop$ 9 all k9ds ( liquids1 & 9 almo/ all k9ds ( conditions2 ev5 ! peculi> knotty filam5ts obs]v$ 9 its subm]g$ mycelium are n con/ant 9 diff]5t liquids4 ,m4 ,h(fmann has obs]v$ ) c]ta9ty ! passage ( ,p5icillium glaucum into ,p5icillium c&idum1 into a sulphur-col\r$ ,p5icillium1 &1 la/ly1 into ! ,coremium glaucum1 s t ?is fungus is polymorph\s1 al?\gh ! conditions "u :i* ! *anges take place are unkn[n4#eg ,x appe>s t sub/ances & liquids d n f]m5t spontane\sly1 = ^u exam9+ ) a microscope ! du/ obta9$ by scrap+ ! ext]ior ( gooseb]ries1 plums1 v9e leaves1 potatoes1 c41 ,m4 ,h(fmann f\nd ! %ort *a9s ( ! ,torula1 ! necklace-l f]m5ts ( ! ,muc$9es1 & ! *aplets ( o!rs4 ,"s _h already begun to g]m9ate1 & 7 develop$ readily :5 put into wat]4 ,!y _h no d\bt be5 c>ri$ by ! w9d f ! dry refuse ( f]m5t$ sub/ances :i* are ?r[n away4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,torula ,c]evisi1 %[+ successive /ages ( cell multiplication4 ,! yea/ ( be] 0 at "o "t consid]$ to consi/ entirely ( ! cells & *a9s ( ! ,torula ,c]evisi 7fig4 #ce74 ,?is1 :i* is "o ( ! ,coniomycetes ( ! ord] ,torulacei1 is 9 its e>ly /age a col\rless transp>5t globe capable ( endless increase by budd+4 ,:5 9 a liquid fav\rable to its gr[?1 z ! wort ( malt1 buds 9 ! =m ( "y cells spr+ f ! walls ( ! globes2 ^! soon become p]fect & acquire buds also1 s t 9 a few h\rs ! p>5t cells develop !mselves into r[s ( f\r or five globes1 :i* rema9 9 contact :ile ! plant is gr[+1 b sep>ate if any?+ *ecks ! f]m5tation4 ,! full developm5t ( ! plant only takes place :5 ! f]m5tation is all[$ to cont9ue = "s "t1 & !n x is capable ( produc+ a v>iety ( =ms1 :i* %[ t x has o!r modes ( reproduction besides budd+4#eh ,9 fact1 :5 ! f]m5tation is active 9 ! upp] p>ts ( ! liquid x appe>s 9 *aplets ( f f\r to twelve articulations1 or sometimes x ramifies into little bran*es4 ,m rec5t obs]vations %[ t yea/ is a peculi> /ate ( ! mycelium ( v>i\s fungi1 ( :i*1 z already /at$1 a l>ge proportion is believ$ to consi/ ( ,p5icillium glaucum1 ?\gh x is kn[n t o!r k9ds ( m\ld also ent] into its composition4 ,^! plants gr[ naturally 9 a /ate ( exposure to ! atmosph]e1 b !y h ! prop]ty ( also develop+ !mselves :5 subm]g$2 & z 9 ?is unnatural condition1 :i* !y be> :5 develop$ z yea/1 !y _c produce _! prop] fruit1 !y propagate !mselves by means ( %oots f ! alt]$ mycelium4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ t me*anical injury de/roys ! vitality ( ,g]man yea/1 :i* consi/s ( yea/ globules 9 a dri$ /ate4 ,?us a fall on ! gr\nd1 or a bruise caus$ by a bl[ or by c>eless h&l+1 w kill ! plant1 & su* dead yea/ becomes d>k-col\r$ & glut9\s1 & soon acquires an (f5sive smell4 ,! =m ( ,p5icillium glaucum :i* produces acetic f]m5tation1 kn[n z ! v9eg> plant1 has a filam5tal subm]g$ in/ead ( a vesicul> mycelium4 ,f]m5ts may be =m$ 9 ! wort ( be]1 9 ! solutions ( grape & cane sug>1 9 ! juice ( gooseb]ries1 currants1 c41 by means ( ! subm]g$ spores ( ! ,ur$9es segetum & ,ros1 ( ,ascophora elegans1 ,mucor ,muc$o1 ,p]iconia hyal9a & o!rs4 ,!re are active ex*anges cont9ually go+ on betwe5 ! cont5ts ( ! globules ( f]m5ts & ! ext]ior liquid1 & !re=e a cont9ual *emical action4#ei ,m4 ,pa/eur's exp]im5ts on ! n\ri%m5t ( ! ,muc$9es concur ) ! obs]vations ( o!rs 9 %[+ t ^! plants are ! orig9 ( all f]m5tation prop]ly s call$4 ,:5 he put a m]e trace ( ! be] yea/ fungus into pure wat] hold+ 9 solution ! ?ree cry/allizable sub/ances1 sug> c&y1 an ammoniacal salt1 & "s phosphates1 ! globules ( yea/ 7 se5 to multiply1 d]iv+ _! nitrog5 f ! ammoniacal salt1 _! c>bon f ! sug>1 & _! m9]al mat]ial f ! phosphates2 at ! same "t ! sug> f]m5t$4 ,! same results 7 obta9$ f lactic yea/4 ,m4 ,pa/eur n[ s[$ ! spores ( ! ,p5icillium1 or ( "s o!r muc$9\s fungus 9 pure di/ill$ wat] hold+ 9 solution ! same +r$i5ts1 except t an acid salt ( ammonia 0 employ$ to prev5t ! developm5t ( infusoria1 :i* w\ld soon h /opp$ ! progress ( ! microscopic plant by absorb+ ! oxyg5 )\t :i* fungi _c live4 ,! result 0 ! same z 9 ! prec$+ case4 ,!re is consequ5tly a complete analogy betwe5 ! f]m5ts1 ! muc$9es1 & plants ( m complex /ructure4 ,if 9 ^! exp]im5ts any "o ( ! pr9ciples 9 ! solution be omitt$1 ! vegetation is arre/$4 ,! quantities ( ^! sub/ances 9 ! air1 ! wat]1 or 9 ! spores !mselves1 are n suffici5t to make up = ! suppression ( any "o ( !m4 ,= example1 ! c>bonic acid 9 ! air or wat] does n make up = ! omission ( ! sug>4 ,! muc$9es & fungi g5]ally obta9 _! c>bon f _! food & f ra9 wat]1 = ra9 wat] holds 9 solution nitrates & ammoniacal salts toge!r ) salts ( pota% & lime1 & ,m4 ,b>ral has asc]ta9$ ! exi/5ce ( phosphates also4 ,m4 ,b>ral f\nd t ! nitrates & ammonia disappe> "u ! influ5ce ( cryptogamic plants4#fj ,9 ! g5us ,oidium1 belong+ to ! ,muc$9es1 ! %ort ?reads h a /r+ ( spores1 l a necklace ( beads1 on _! tops4 ,species ( ?is g5us are f\nd on damp pap] & honeycombs2 also on decay$ oranges1 & o!r spoilt fruits4 ,! family ( ! ,,ascomycetes produces spore-be>+ cells1 call$ sporidia1 enclos$ 9 long cyl9drical sacs or asci1 9 ! def9ite numb]s two1 f\r1 eight1 sixte51 ?irty-two1 c4 ,! great *>act]i/ic ( ?is l>ge gr\p1 consi/+ ( six ord]s1 is ! fle%y s(t texture & ! m or less complete exposure ( ! fructif]\s surface4 ,9 "o division ! asci are p]si/5t2 ?is includes ! ,elvellacei1 ! ,tub]acei1 ! ,phacidiacei1 & ! ,sphriacei4 ,9 ! o!r division ! asci are (t5 evanesc5t1 & ?is includes ! ,p]isporiacei & ! ,onyg5ei4 ,! g5]a ,peziza & ,helvella are ! pr9cipal fungi belong+ to ! ord] ,elvellacei4 ,! ,peziz are a v num]\s race1 & consi/ ( brilliantly col\r$ little cups1 ) or )\t /ems1 & m or less concave4 ,!y gr[ 9 ! cool] "p ( ! temp]ate zone1 _m %[ !mselves 9 spr+1 & "s ( ! l>ge/ & mo/ beautiful appe> dur+ ! melt+ ( ! sn[4#fa ,a few are subt]ranean1 & #abh species inhabit ,great ,brita91 _m gr[+ on ! gr\nd1 o!rs on /umps ( trees1 dead /icks & timb]1 on liv+ plants1 damp walls1 c4 ,!y are s+ul>ly beautiful1 includ+ #8_m ( ! mo/ elegant fungi1 f ! little :ite & r$ ,peziza elegans1 :i* is spr9kl$ ov] almo/ e fall5 twig ( ! l>* & o!r conif]s2 ! pale too!d cups ( ! ,p4 coronata1 :i* ab\nds on ! dead /ems ( h]bace\s plants2 ! sc>let ,p4 scutellata ) its edge fr+$ ) tawny hairs1 & ! graceful m\se-grey ,p4 macropus1 to ! gorge\s ,p4 cocc9ea1 :i* attracts att5tion f its elegant =m & bright col\rs2 ! m irregul>1 b n less brilliant ,p4 aurantia1 & ! font-%ap$ ,p4 acetabulum1 :i* might =m an elegant patt]n = an ar*itect or silv]smi?4 ,fifty o!rs might be m5tion$ ( equal pret5sions to grace ( =m & brilliancy ( col\r+4'#fb ,"s ( ! g5us are peculi> 9 _! fructification1 = 9 sev]al plants ( ?is gr\p1 besides asci conta9+ eight sporidia1 ,m4 ,tulasne met ) cells full ( eel-%ap$ p>ticles l ^? 9 ! ,alg1 & al?\gh )\t motion he consid]$ !m to be analog\s to ! poll5 ( fl[]+ plants4 ,9 ! ,peziza aurantia1 h[ev]1 ! p>ticles 7 /aff-%ap$ & motile4 ,! g5us ,helvella may be reg>d$ z ,peziza ) ! cup inv]t$2 consequ5tly1 x assumes ! "* ( a pileus or hat1 l a common mu%room1 ?\gh (t5 v diff]5t 9 %ape1 &1 in/ead ( spore-be>+ gills1 x has asci conta9+ eight sporidia sunk 9 its fle%y texture4 ,! pileus is ovate or mitre-%ap$ 9 "s species & ! m>g9 free1 9 o!rs x is m or less atta*$ to ! /em4 ,:5 ! pileus & /em are p]fectly sold]$ toge!r1 we get ! club-%ap$ species ( ! gr\p4 ,"s obscure =ms ( ?is gr\p1 =m+ ! g5us ,ascomycetes1 cause ! leaves ( ! pea*1 walnut1 & pe> to bli/]4 ,!y consi/ ( little m ?an asci1 accompani$ by %ort necklace-%ap$ ?read4 ,! ,mor*ella escul5ta1 :i* is ! morel1 is s pl5tiful 9 "s p>ts ( ,engl&1 t x is us$ = mak+ katsup2 :ile ! ,cytt>ia1 :i* is indig5\s 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 is ! /aple food ( ! ,fuegians dur+ _m mon?s ( ! ye>2 its subgelat9\s consi/5ce indicates a nutriti\s pr9ciple4 ,?is species has ! peculi>ity ( gr[+ ^u liv+ bran*es1 aft] ! mann] ( ! jelly-l fungus ( ! junip]4 ,m4 ,tulasne has discov]$ 9 ,peziza1 & 9 ! g5us ,bulg>ia & o!rs1 c]ta9 m9ute bodies1 :i* he consid]$ to be ( ! nature ( ! eel-%ap$ p>ticles or an!rozoids 9 ! ,alg4 ,besides1 he has %[n t sev]al species ( ,peziza h a second =m ( fruit4 ,fries _h long be=e po9t$ out ! id5tity ( ,fus>ium tremelloides & ! orange col\r$ ,peziza common on nettle /ems4 ,_m ( ! l>g] ,peziz & ,helvell eject _! sporidia ) great ela/ic =ce4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly rem>kable 9 ! ,peziza vesiculosa1 common 9 hot-b$s1 :5 ! sun is %9+2 ! lea/ agitation raises a visible cl\d ( sporidia l vap\r4 ,! motions ( ! sporidia 9 ! g5us ,vibrissea1 :i* gr[s on twigs p>tly imm]s$ 9 wat]1 is v peculi>4 ,!y are exce$+ly long & sl5d]1 &1 :5 p>tly eject$1 !y wave ab\t 9 ! sun%9e till !y are expell$4 ,! fungi ( ! ord] ,tub]acei are ne>ly all subt]ranean1 & _! fruit-be>+ surface1 z 9 ! truffle1 is int]nal4 ,! asci are ei!r irregul>ly deposit$ 9 cavities1 or 9 ! d5s] tub]s !y are spr9kl$ ?r\gh a d>k sub/ance :i* is mottl$ ) a pal] tissue4 ,! truffle1 :i* is ! mo/ important & be/ kn[n ( ! ord]1 has a d>k corrugat$ ext]ior1 & ! asci are repres5t$ by l>ge pyri=m sacs conta9+ sporidia cov]$ ) a reticulat$ or sp9ose coat2 b ^! sp9es are only ! angles ( cont9u\s cells1 & are beautiful microscopic objects4 ,truffles pref] calc>e\s soil1 & a temp]ate climate4 ,9 ,engl&1 !y are f\nd 9 ,rutl&%ire1 & num]\s species gr[ 9 ,nor?ampton%ire1 b !y are small] ?an ! cont95tal truffles1 :i* increase 9 abundance & size t[>ds ! s\?1 & h _! maximum 9 ,italy1 :]e !y gr[ on ! roots ( trees & v9es1 & are hunt$ by dogs1 or trac$ by ! pres5ce ( a peculi> fly1 & dug up = sale4 ,sometimes ! dogs dig !m up1 to ! annoyance ( ! proprietors ( v9ey>ds1 f ! mis*ief !y d to ! roots ( ! v9es4 ,! ,sphriacei1 ano!r ord] ( ,ascomycetes1 are enorm\sly num]\s4 ,!re are #a1jjj well kn[n species ( ?is ord]1 & probably twice z _m undet]m9$2 = !re is sc>cely a twig or dry bran* 9 ! =e/s1 h$ges1 or g>d5s on :i* !y may n be f\nd4 ,! rose tree1 ! oak1 & o!r plants h>b\r m ?an "o species at a "t4 ,! g5us ,cordyceps & _m s-call$ species ( ,sphria are only ! ultimate developm5t ( fungi ( o!r families4 ,! ,cordyceps purpurea1 discov]$ by ,m4 ,tulasne on ! ergot ( :eat1 has a %ort1 upright1 sl5d] /em1 ) a m9ute pale purple globose fruit-be>+ head4 ,9 ?is ergotiz$ /ate ! :ite sub/ance ( ! gra9 is conv]t$ into a firm mass )\t any appe>ance ( meal1 & hav+ v p[]ful prop]ties4 ,:5 s[n1 x is f\nd to produce ! ,cordyceps4 ,mr4 ,currey f\nd ! same plant on ! ergot ( ! common re$1 & !re are sev]al o!r species ( ,cordyceps1 all ( :i* are only ! second =m ( ergot4 ,to ^! may be add$ ! ,cordyceps milit>is ( ,ehr5b]g1 already %[n 7p4 #bhc7 to be ! ultimate developm5t ( ! ,is>ia1 :i* attacks ! cat]pill>s ( ! bramble mo?2 & ! ,cordyceps ,rob]tsii1 :i* gr[s l a bun* ( ru%es f ! head ( ! ,hepialus viresc5s ( ,new ,zeal&2 :il/ a k9d ( wasp 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 :i* cont9ues to fly ab\t aft] x is attack$1 is at la/ kill$ by bran*+ ,cordyceps1 :i* project f its head l a pair ( antl]s4 ,b ! l>ge/ ( all ^! p>asites gr[s on an enorm\s l>va f\nd on ! banks ( ! riv] ,murrumbidgee 9 ,au/ralia4 ,x appe>s t species ( ,sphri are p>asitic on insects ( v diff]5t aff9ities 9 ,*9a1 ,am]ica1 & ,europe4 ,x may be presum$ t1 l ! ,cordyceps milit>is1 !y are ! ultimate developm5t ( fungi belong+ to o!r families4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,sphriacei3--,sphria ,desmazi]ii2 a1 ascus2 b1 sporidia2 c1 mycelium ) conidia4 ,muc$9es3--d1 ,botrytis curta4 ,9 ! g5us ,sphria ! fungus spr+s at once f its mycelium1 & consi/s ( a p]i!cium or ext]nal case1 to ! int]nal walls ( :i* ! asci are fix$4 ,ea* ascus conta9s eight sporidia or spore cells1 & :5 ! fruit is ripe ! asci are emitt$ ?r\gh a pore or slit 9 ! p]i!cium or ext]nal coat4 ,fig4 #cf repres5ts ! fructification ( ,sphria ,desmazi]ii4 ,sphria bomb>da is l an assemblage ( m9ute black beads ly+ flat & cr[d$ toge!r ^u decay$ wood2 ea* bead is an oblong vesicle pi]c$ at ! apex = ! emission ( ! microscopic sporidia1 or spore cells4 ,! ,sphria aquila1 f\nd ^u decay$ wood1 has its fruit-be>+ vessels seat$ ^u ?ickly matt$ f9e ?reads4 ,9 "s species !y are 9 tufts2 o!rs h bottle-%ap$ p]i!cia sunk into ! /ems ( ! b]b]ry1 laburnum1 & decay$ oak pal+s2 & la/ly ! c&le snuff ,sphria may frequ5tly be se5 l pat*es ( soot at ! bottom ( /akes or gate po/s4 ,m ?an two hundr$ well asc]ta9$ species ( ! g5us ,sphria are native 9 ,great ,brita9 alone4 ,! g5us ,nectria1 :i* =ms a connect+ l9k betwe5 ! g5]a ,peziza & ,sphria1 has sev]al int]e/+ species1 z ! ,nectria ,peziza1 :i* gr[s 9 a cong]ies ( mo/ m9ute cups =m+ a bright orange-col\r$ pat* on decay$ /umps ( trees4 ,9 ! ord] ,p]isporacei ! p]i!cia1 or ext]nal cases1 are free & become dehisc5t at la/1 b :5 "y ^! fungi consi/ ( cellul> jo9t$ filam5ts l necklaces1 ris+ upright f _! mycelia1 & be>+ reproductive bodies4 ,9 ?is /ate !y con/itute ! mildew on ! v9e1 rose tree1 turnip1 hop1 pea1 c4 ,!y are true p>asites1 appropriat+ ! juices1 & fill+ up ! brea?+ pores ( ! leaves1 s z to cause disease & (t5 dea?4 ,! v9e mildew1 :i* has be5 call$ ,odium ,tuck]i1 b :i* is n[ suppos$ to be an imp]fect /ate ( ,erysiphe1 nev] advances beyond ?is /ate1 consequ5tly x nev] has m ?an "o =m ( fruit4 ,mr4 ,b]keley has discov]$ t1 on ! contr>y1 ! hop & pea mildews1 :i* belong to ! g5us ,erysiphe1 h five diff]5t modes ( reproduction4 ,! de/ructive p[] ( ^! fungi is /rongly illu/rat$ by ! extraord9>y en]gy ( _! mycelia 9 dra9+ ! vital juices ( ! plants on :i* !y live 9 ord] to =m su* v>i\s k9ds ( fruit2 & ! quantity ( fruit produc$ is s enorm\s1 t if ! :ole 7 to g]m9ate no g5us ( plants = :i* !y h an aff9ity c\ld escape annihilation4 ,o!r species ( ,erysiphe h at lea/ ?ree diff]5t modes ( reproduction4 ,! p]i!cia ( "s ( ^! fungi are beautiful objects = ! microscope4 ,! ,physomycetes1 :i* =m ! six? & la/ ord] ( ! great fungus family1 h bladd]-l f]tile cells scatt]$ on ?reads1 ! numb] ( sporidia )9 ! cells be+ indef9ite4 ,! ,ant5n>iei are d>k col\r$ felt-l fungi :i* run ov] ! leaves ( liv+ trees1 & h fruit on black ?reads1 :i* 9 "s species1 :5 magnifi$1 resemble ! ant5n ( c]ta9 beetles4 ,! species ( ?is ord] are n common 9 ,brita91 & !y are suppos$ to be only a condition ( "s o!r fungi4 ,!y are c]ta9ly spore-be>+ plants1 yet ! fruit-be>+ cells ( ! ,ant5n>ia ,rob9sonii sometimes conta9 a ready =m$ m9iature ( ! p>5t plant wait+ to be set free1--a s+ul> analogy betwe5 ^! microscopic fungi & fl[]+ plants4 ,! ord] ,mucor9i1 or m\lds1 has ?reads spr++ f ! spawn1 be>+ on _! extremities l>ge vascul> sacs conta9+ asci ) spore cells4 ,! g5us ,ascophora conta9s sev]al rem>kable species1 z ,ascophora elegans1 :i* has two k9ds ( fruit1 & attacks bread :ile yet hot f ! ov53 h[ev]1 ! spores 7 probably 9 ! d\gh1 = x has be5 asc]ta9$ t ! spores ( "s ( ! l[] fungi reta9 _! vitality aft] be+ expos$ to ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]4 ,! ,mucors are probably f\nd on decay$ & decay+ matt] all ov] ! _w2 !y gr[ on fat1 on greasy walls1 & on decay+ fruit & vegetables4 ,! extreme m9ut5ess ( ! reproductive bodies ( ! microscopic fungi1 _m ( :i* are n m ?an ! #bj1jjj? "p ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & _! extraord9>y & v>i$ =ms ev5 9 ! same plant1 h made ^! fungi "o ( ! mo/ difficult /udies 9 ! :ole sci5ce ( botany4 ,!re is /ill "s obscurity ) reg>d to ^? m9ute motile bodies suppos$ to be male p>ticles1 & _! analogues1 :i* h n be5 se51 or h r>ely be5 se5 to g]m9ate4 ,^! bodies h be5 obs]v$ 9 comp>atively few g5]a1 & no?+ m ?an m]e molecul> motion has be5 obs]v$ 9 !m4 ,"o ( ! mo/ unacc\ntable circum/ances 9 ! hi/ory ( ! l[] fungi is _! sudd5 appe>ance 9 imm5se numb]s1 & ! rapid ext5sion ( disa/r\s & de/ructive epidemics caus$ by !m among plants & animals1 z ! potato murra9 & ! v9e disease1 :i*1 ?\gh widely spread ?r\gh ,europe & ,madeira1 leaves ! ,nor? ,am]ican v9es unsca!d1 :e!r gr[n at home or abroad4 ,! black mildews at "o "t rag$ s mu* 9 ! ,azores & ,ceylon z to ?reat5 ! complete annihilation ( ! orange & c(fee plantations4 ,_! ravages h be5 sc>cely less among ! olive trees 9 "s p>ts ( ,europe2 & ! ,lanosa nivalis1 :i* gr[s 9 ! melt+ sn[ 9 spr+1 is suppos$ to be ! cause 9 _m in/ances ( ! dea? ( ! g]ms ( ! spr\t+ rye4 ,! de/ructive c\rse ( mo/ ( ^! has abat$1 b ! silkworm disease /ill cont9ues4 ,! fungi require w>m? & a mod]ate degree ( moi/ure = _! developm5t1 b ! unwont$ multitudes 9 :i* ! p>asites occasionally appe>1 possibly indicate "s meteoric influ5ces ( :i* we are ignorant4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,li*5s4 ,,li*5s are ess5tially air plants1 be+ n\ri%$1 l ! ,alg1 by ! m$ium 9 :i* !y gr[4 ,!y v>y f a pulv]ul5t or dry papillose cru/1 to a lea!ry or horny expansion1 & ev5 acquire an erect /em4 ,!y are indep5d5t ( ! matrix to :i* !y are atta*$4 ,h5ce !y spread _! col\r$ frond1 or ?allus1 9 circul> or indef9ite pat*es on old walls1 ! tiles ( h\ses1 /ones1 & rocks4 ,!y appe> 9 l>ge expansions ( r$1 gold5 yell[1 grey or :ite1 on b>r5 hea?s1 "u plantations1 & on ! /ems ( ag$ trees2 :ile o!rs ( !m (t5 hang f ! bran*es l long %aggy grey hair1 & _m =m =e/s ( m9iature bu%es on ! nor!rn pla9s4 ,! li*5 is ! la/ trace ( vegetation on ! tops ( ! m\nta9s1 & on ! arctic des]ts4 ,"s li*5s are pati5t ( sev]e cold1 yet 9 g5]al !y pref] heat & mod]ate w>m?1 & !y love bright light s mu*1 t !y are usually b>r51 or else yield little fruit "u %ade4 ,?\gh diff]+ greatly f fungi 9 sl[ness ( gr[?1 l5g? ( life1 & ! p[] ( =m+ *lorophyll1 !y resemble !m 9 hav+ a mycelium 9 _! y\?1 & 9 _! ascig]\s fructification4 ,a p]fect li*5 )\t an ascus w\ld be an anomaly1 = ! asci conta9 ! true fruit1 associat$ ) v]tical ?reads or elongat$ cells call$ p>aphyses1 :i* sometimes be> second>y spores on _! summit4 ,! asci ) _! p>aphyses inclos$ 9 vessels ( v>i\s %apes1 call$ p]i!cia1 are aggregat$ 9 discs or %ields1 :i* =m projections on ! surface ( ! plant4 ,"s ( ^! discs are clos$1 & give egress to ! spores ?r\gh a fracture or pore on _! surface2 o!rs are op5 cups ( v>i\s =ms1 ei!r ) /alks or sessile on ! frond1 & ?r\gh ^! ! spores h egress4 ,h5ce ! :ole ord] ( li*5s is naturally divid$ into two gr\ps1 accord+ z _! discs are op5 7,gymnoc>pei71 or clos$ 7,angioc>pei71 ! fir/ be+ incomp>ably ! mo/ important4 ,fig4 #cg %[s op51 & sections ( clos$ cups1 or p]i!cia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,li*5s3--a1 ,trype!lium ,spr5gelii1 pu/ules1 ) sporidia2 b1 ,v]ruc>ia v>iolosa1 section ( p]i!cium ) sporidium2 c1 ,endoc>pon lacteum1 ?allus ) section & fruit2 d1 ,/egobolus ,b]keleianus1 portion ( plant ) ascus1 & sporidia4 ,! highe/ type ( horizontal li*5s1 ( :i* fig4 #cg b is a p]p5dicul> section1 has a firm1 spread+1 sup]ficial cru/ or surface1 =m$ ( oblong col\r$ cells1 or ( col\r$ filam5ts closely aggregat$1 & :i* cov]s two di/9ct lay]s ( cellul> tissue4 ,9 ! lay] imm$iately bel[ ! surface1 ! cells are globul> & ( a pal] col\r2 ! second lay]1 or m>r[1 :i* is ! orig9 ( fructification1 consi/s ( lax1 deta*$1 bran*+ r[s ( elongat$ cells & gelat9\s matt]4 ,^! bran*es ( cells spr+ up f a f\r? lay]1 :i* is ! base ( ! plant4 ,x is ( a /rong1 firm1 & t\gh nature1 compos$ ( int]lac$ filam5ts & is (t5 ribb$ on ! "u-side4 ,:ite fibres fix ! base ( ! plant to ! surface on :i* x is spread2 !y are ! rema9s ( a mycelium or matt$ mass ( fibres1 f :5ce li*5s spr+1 :i* vani%es :5 ! plant is full gr[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 a1 ,sporopodium ,leprieurii1 ascus2 b1 ,coccoc>pia sm>agd9a1 section2 c1 ,lecanora aff9is1 section4 ,globul> bodies ( vegetable gre5 call$ gonidia1 l ^? at ! base ( fig4 #ci a1 are arrang$ 9 regul> p>allel r[s1 & plac$ betwe5 ! surface & ! base ( ! li*51 z 9 fig4 #ch b & c2 !y are said to proce$ f ! m$ull>y lay]1 ?\gh ,mr4 ,b]keley has se5 !m spr++ f ! ?reads ( ! mycelium ( ,p>melia p>iet9a4 ,! gonidia f9d _! way to ! air ?r\gh r5ts 9 ! surface ( ! plant1 & are wa%$ (f by ! ra9s1 aft] los+ a little ( _! gre5 col\r4 ,:5 !y g]m9ate !y only produce a facsimile ( ! "m plant1 z buds d 9 ! highe/ classes4 ,b accord+ to ! microscopic obs]vations ( ,m4 ,tulasne1 ! true fruit diff]s little if at all f ! asci-be>+ fungi4 ,?r\gh ! op5 discs ( ! high] li*5s1 sporidia are dis*>g$ f p]p5dicul> septate asci :i*1 ) _! p>aphyses1 are imb$d$ 9 ! sub/ance bel[4 ,! asci are =m$ by ! elongation ( "s ( ! cells ( t lay] into cyl9drical septate vessels1 g5]ally conta9+ f f\r to eight sporidia1 ! ultimate result ( z _m free cells4 ,9 :atev] "p ( a li*5 ! p]i!cia may be plac$1 ! asci & p>aphyses inv>iably orig9ate 9 ! m$ull>y lay]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 a1 ,paulia p]=ata1 gonidia1 p>aphysis1 & asci2 b1 ,calicium tympanellum1 p]i!cium & sporidia2 c1 ,graphis ,leprevo/ei1 ) excipulum1 asci1 & sporidium4 ,! ?allus or frond ( _m ( ^! li*5s is irregul>ly cov]$ ) ?ick convex scales1 9 ea* ( :i* are conceal$ :ite or grey bodies1 :i* become flask-%ap$1 ) pores 9 _! extremities4 ,:5 mature1 !y exactly resemble ! bottle-%ap$ p]i!cia 9 ! g5us ,sphria among fungi4 ,!y are l9$ ) bran*+ filam5ts or o!r supports1 end+ 9 m9ute ovoid p>ticles1 :i* escape 9 myriads f ! flask-%ap$ vessels long be=e ! spores appe>4 ,!y are motile1 ?\gh n provid$ ) cilia1 & are suppos$ to be f]tiliz+ p>ticles l poll51 s9ce !y d n g]m9ate z spores d4 ,9 ?is va/ family ( op5-%ield$ li*5s1 :i* comprises e =m & habit ( ! plant1 ! prec$+ type1 :i* is ! highe/1 und]goes _m modifications2 b ! ess5tial "* rema9s ! same1 & ! gr\p is s natural1 t ! species run into "o ano!r s z to leave no v /rik+ di/9ction4 ,comm5c+ ) ! ,,gymnoc>pei1 ! ,p>meliacei fir/ claim notice z conta9+ ! highe/ types :i* li*5s are capable ( assum+1 & z ab\nd+ 9 species4 ,! disc1 :i* is ! hym5ium1 is orbicul> or kidney-%ap$1 & surr\nd$ by ! frond1 )\t any prop] excipulum or cortical cov]+4 ,a l>ge portion ( our mo/ widely diffus$ li*5s1 :e!r gr[+ on ! gr\nd or atta*$ to rocks & trees1 belong to ?is tribe2 !y =m pat*es two or ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 :i* are (t5 ( m>vell\s antiquity1 & !y gr[ s sl[ly t ev5 small pat*es are ( great age4 ,?is tribe consi/s ( ?ree di/9ct gr\ps3 9 two ( ^! ! plants are horizontal & sometimes foliace\s2 9 ! ?ird !y are v]tical1 (t5 bran*$1 & occasionally p5dul\s4 ,! latt] gr\p ( ?is l>ge division ( li*5s comprises ! g5]a alli$ to ,usnea1 :i* are erect1 c5tripetal li*5s1 t is to say1 _! body or ?allus is an upright & g5]ally cyl9drical /em1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* ! lay] ( m>r[1 ! orig9 ( fructification1 is cond5s$1 & ! op5 discs1 or hym5ia1 are 9 connection ) x1 :e!r !y be situat$ at ! ends ( ! bran*es1 or on ! surface ( ! upright /ems4 ,! ,usne h ?ree =ms1 ! p5dul\s1 ! inflat$ & erect1 & ! bran*$ or %rubby4 ,! ,ev]nia jubata is an example ( ! fir/1 & rem>kable = its long1 p5dul\s1 cyl9drical bran*es hang+ d[n l bun*es ( blui% grey hair4 ,x is (t5 atta*$ to ! bran*es ( ag$ l>* trees1 & is exce$+ly picturesque4 ,) ! exception ( ,ev]nia vulp9a & flavicans1 :i* are brightly col\r$1 all ! re/ ( ! g5us h dull t9ts4 ,! g5us ,ramal9a has ! dull t9ts ( ! ,ev]nia1 & "s species approa* v ne>ly 9 =m to t g5us4 ,! ,ramal9a polymorphum & ,r4 scopulorum ab\nd 9 dyes1 :ile ! ,r4 calic>is is ri* 9 glut54 ,li*5s h lo/ mu* ( _! importance s9ce ! discov]y ( ! coal t> col\rs2 nev]!less !y af=d dyes /ill 9 use4 ,9 _m species ! dy+ pr9ciple is col\rless l anil9e2 b x yields ! mo/ brilliant col\rs by means ( alkalies4 ,! ,p>melia p>iet9a1 common on walls & ! ro(s ( h\ses1 gives ! *rysophonic acid1 a col\rless liquid :i* becomes bright yell[ :5 treat$ ) an alkali2 & 9 l mann] ! vulp9ic acid1 giv5 by ,ev]nia vulp9a1 gives a br[n dye4 ,not)/&+ ! quiet greyi% gre5 t9ts ( ! ,rocella fuci=mis & ,r4 t9ctoria1 no li*5s are ri*] 9 ! purple sub/ance kn[n z or*il1 f :i*1 by means ( soda or pota%1 ! valuable blue sub/ance litmus is manufactur$1 s important z a te/ = acidity4 ,_m ( ! small moss-l li*5s yield or*il1 b none 9 su* abundance z ! ,r4 fuci=mis1 :i* gr[s 9 ,madeira1 ,angola1 ,madagasc>1 & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,oxalic & usnic acids are produc$ by li*5s2 inde$ ! usnic acid comb9$ ) gre5 & yell[ res9s seems to be m or less a con/itu5t ( v>i\s li*5s4 ,x is evid5t t ! col\r ( ! dyes is altoge!r indep5d5t ( ! col\r ( ! li*5 f :5ce !y are obta9$4 ,^! arial plants h a m>vell\s p[] ( decompos+ ! light1 & adorn+ !mselves 9 brilliant hues4 ,9 our own c\ntry1 :]e ! col\r+ is (t5 cold f ! excess ( v]dure1 ! li*5 af=ds a happy relief by giv+ a little w>m? to ! l&scape4 ,ev5 at ,rome1 :]e nature is s gorge\sly col\r$1 ! ru9s owe mu* ( _! picturesque beauty to ! r$1 :ite1 & gold5 li*5s ) :i* !y are clo!d4 ,! ,usne are p]haps ! mo/ beautiful ( ! li*5s1 ! col\rs be+ sometimes brilliant1 ! =ms elegant1 & :5 ! broad discs are amply ciliat$1 ! appe>ance is v /rik+4 ,! same species are widely diffus$1 b ! col\rs are bright] 9 exotic specim5s4 ,usnea melaxan?a & ,usnea ,taylori are spl5did productions4#fc ,! ,usne are cosmopolitan 9 g5]a & species4 ,! g5us ,cetr>ia1 ( :i* ! ,icel& moss is a well kn[n species1 =ms a connection betwe5 ! v]tical & horizontal li*5s2 its ?allus is nei!r cyl9drical nor q erect1 ?\gh x becomes m s t[>ds maturity4 ,! ,cetr>ia tri/is has only t degree ( incl9ation :i* arises f its cr[d$ mode ( gr[?1 & spr+s l a sea-we$ f a little peltate disc4 ,! mo/ typical species ( li*5s occur 9 ! second gr\p ( ,eup>meliace1 or ,p>meliacei prop]1 9 :i* ! disc is at fir/ clos$1 & surr\nd$ aft] expansion by a bord] aris+ f ! ?allus or frond4 ,! ?allus is always horizontal1 & exp&s f ! c5tre t[>ds ! circumf]5ce4 ,! g5us ,/icta1 belong+ to ?is gr\p1 is (t5 highly foliace\s1 & is n excell$ by any horizontal li*5 9 brightness ( col\r+ or elegance ( =m4 ,ev5 9 our own c\ntry ! ,/icta pulmonacea spreads ov] a wide area1 & is rem>kable = its pitt$ frond4 ,9 ?is g5us ! "u-side ( ! plant is cov]$ ) a delicate velvety d[n1 amid/ :i* are scatt]$ r\nd :ite spots1 :i* p5etrate to ! m$ull>y /rata4 ,! erratic li*5s are among ! peculi>ities ( ! g5us ,p>melia4 ,! ,p>melia saxatilis1 common on /ones & b\ld]s ( ! prim>y & metamorphic =mation1 curls up into a ball1 only fix$ to its matrix by a sl5d] ?read1 :i* soon gives way1 & ! ball be+ dry & z light z a balloon1 is driv5 b\nd+ by ! w9ds1 ov] ! %eep walks & d[ns ( ,engl&4 ,! globul> ,lecanora escul5ta sometimes sudd5ly cov]s l>ge tracts 9 ,arm5ia1 ,p]sia1 & ,t>t>y1 :]e ! plants are eat5 by ! cattle & by ! nomade tribes4 ,?is species1 ) ,lecanora aff9is1 is l>gely us$ by ! inhabitants ( ! c\ntries ea/ ( ! ,levant1 & 9 "s p>ts ( ,africa is mix$ ) :eat 9 gr9d+4 ,^! species are f\nd1 scatt]$ ov] ! gr\nd )\t any atta*m5t1 9 ! =m ( rugg$ truffle-l objects ( ! size ( walnuts4 ,sometimes !y are pil$ toge!r 9 /rata a few in*es ?ick1 by ! :irlw9ds1 aft] trav]s+ ! air = _m miles1 :i* gives rise to ! hi/ories ( ! miracul\s desc5t ( food4 ,dur+ a sc>city1 a %[] ( ^! li*5s fell at ,erz]\m1 & !re are o!r well-au!nticat$ in/ances record$4#fd ,! ,peltig]i1 or ! ?ird gr\p ( ,p>meliacei1 are s nam$ f ! t>get-l discs on _! surface1 cov]$ by a veil1 :i* aft]w>ds disappe>s4 ,! species frequ5tly spread _! beautifully foliace\s fronds ^u ! gr\nd1 & z ! fruit is m>g9al1 x gives ! ?allus a digitate appe>ance4 ,!y are (t5 spott$ by a little r$ fungus4 ,! g5us ,solor9a has ! fruit scatt]$ ov] ! frond2 9 ! ,solor9a saccata x is at fir/ sup]ficial1 b a numb] ( fibres are =m$ on ! "u-side ( ! discs1 :i* p5etrate ! soil1 & draw !m d[n bel[ ! g5]al surface--a v peculi> /ructure1 9 /rong contra/ ) t ( ! ,solor9a crocea1 :i* has ve9s on ! "u-surface b no fibres1 & z no rootlets are s5t out f ! base ( ! disc1 x rema9s sup]ficial4 ,m4 ,tulasne discov]$ f]tiliz+ p>ticles 9 sev]al species ( ?is gr\p4 ,! ord] ( ! ,lecid9ei conta9s num]\s species ( ! mo/ v>i$ habits4 ,!re is a di/9ct & regul> s]ies upw>ds 9 ! g5us ,lecidea1 ! species ( :i* are always cru/ace\s1 & (t5 =m m]ely a ?91 close1 adh]5t fibr\s /ratum on ! h>de/ fl9t or qu>tz4 ,"s ( !m dis9tegrate ! h>d rocks on :i* !y spread1 possibly by ! action ( "s acid :i* !y conta94 ,f ?is l[ type1 ! g5us rises to ! exalt$ =ms ) erect bran*+ /ems clo!d ) foliace\s scales1 & brightly col\r$4 ,! ord] is di/+ui%$ by an orbicul> disc1 conta9$ 9 a di/9ct excipulum or cortical envelope1 :i* is op5 f ! e>lie/ age2 b x is frequ5tly oblit]at$ aft]w>ds by ! developm5t ( t "p ( ! m$ull>y /ratum :]e ! fruit is =m$1 ! disc 9 consequ5ce becom+ convex & capitate4 ,?is trans=mation takes place 9 ! highe/ =ms ( ! g5us ,lecidea4 ,! g5us ,bomyces has rose or *e/nut col\r$ convex discs1 support$ on a /em call$ a podetium4 ,! g5us ,cladonia has a foliace\s ?allus produc+ free scale-l fronds1 f ! mid/ ( :i* spr+ cyl9drical or cup-%ap$ podetia1 :i* are spr9kl$ ) leaves4 ,! m>g9s ( ! cups or tips ( ! bran*es be> an abundant crop ( convex1 irregul> br[n1 or deep r$ discs1 (t5 z brightly col\r$ z seal+ wax4 ,! species ( ,lecidea be> sev]e cold1 & are wond]fully long liv$4 ,mr4 ,b]keley m5tions t !re are pat*es ( ! ,lecidea geographica :i* probably date f almo/ fabul\s p]iods4 ,! fronds ( ! ord] ,collemacei are gelat9\s2 ! m$ull>y /ratum seems to occupy ! :ole1 ?\gh 9 two species ( ! g5us !re is a di/9ct epid]mic cellul> coat4 ,!re are monili=m /r+s ( m9ute gonidia 9 ! gelat9\s matt]1 & o!rs t are s+le1 aris+ f ! division ( ea* gonidium & its support+ ?read into two3 bo? k9ds diff] f ! gonidia 9 o!r li*5s4 ,! fruit-be>+ discs on ! surface are op54 ,memb]s ( ?is ord] occur 9 ,europe1 ,africa1 & ,au/ralia4 ,! ord] ,coccoc>pei is ma9ly di/+ui%$ by hav+ orbicul> discs entirely depriv$ ( ! cortical envelope call$ an excipulum1 or1 if x does exi/1 x is conf\nd$ ) ! ?9 membranace\s ?allus4 ,! discs spr+ at once f ! m$ull>y /ratum1 & conta9 asci & sporidia1 simil> to ^? ( m9ute fungi 7,sphri74 ,"s species ( ! g5us ,coccoc>pia only diff] f ,lecidea 9 ! total abs5ce ( an excidium4 ,! ord] is *iefly p>asitic1 & 9 "s cases ! :ole plant is little m ?an a mass ( fructification1 p>asitic ^u & cont9u\s ) ! sub/ance ( o!r li*5s1 at ^: exp5se !y live1 ?us =m+ an exception to ! g5]al habit ( li*5s1 :i* are f$ by ! atmosph]e alone4 ,m4 ,tulasne has discov]$ t ! g5]a ,abro?allus & ,scutula1 ?\gh consi/+ almo/ entirely ( fruit1 produce second>y spores--!y are ! only li*5s 9 :i* !y occur2 :ile ,phacopsis & ,celidium be> sp]matogonia1 :i*1 analog\s to an!ridia1 conta9 m9ute f]tiliz+ p>ticles4 ,! p>asitic g5]a occur 9 mo/ p>ts ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ,pyx9ei are horizontal foliace\s li*5s1 = ! mo/ "p fix$ by ! c5tre4 ,!y h orbicul> discs1 & =m "o ( ! mo/ s+ul> gr\ps1 bo? ) reg>d to ! sup]ficial fruit1 & ! curi\s convolutions ( ! p]i!cia4 ,! fruit-cup1 or excipulum1 is at fir/ clos$1 & 9 ! g5us ,gyrophora ! disc produces a numb] ( p>tial fructif]\s discs on ! orig9al fruit-be>+ surface4 ,z usual ! cells f :5ce ! asci spr+ belong to ! m$ull>y /ratum2 ! bord] on ! contr>y is cortical4 ,! ?allus is always foliace\s1 & m or less peltate1 b x becomes dry & brittle :5 expos$ to dr\ght4 ,sev]al ( ! species h tufts ( /rong rootlets by :i* ! frond is fix$ to rocks1 & "s h deep pits1 ) correspond+ swell+s on ! upp]-surface1 f :5ce !y h _! popul> "n ( ,tripe de ,ro*e4 ,^! li*5s1 toge!r ) "s species ( ,gyrophora1 af=d$ a mis]able su/5ance to ,sir ,george ,back & 8 companions dur+ _! j\rney along ! froz5 regions ( ,arctic ,am]ica 9 que/ ( ! nor?-we/ passage4 ,x is evid5t t plants :i* d]ive _! su/5ance solely f ! m$ium 9 :i* !y live1 :e!r air or wat]1 c nev] become a p]man5t & :olesome food = man1 ?\gh erratic li*5s & lav] may be eat5 f necessity1 c]ta9ly n f *oice4 ,9 ! ,gyrophora ! p]i!cia are convolute1 9 ! ,umbilic>ia !y are n2 b bo? ( ^! g5]a1 :i* h _! seat 9 ,arctic ,europe & ,am]ica1 possess f]tiliz+ p>ticles l mo/ ( _! class4 ,9 ! ord] ,graphidei ! disc is l9e>1 simple1 or bran*$1 ) or )\t an excipulum1 :i* is c>bonace\s4 ,_m ( ^! li*5s are cru/ace\s1 & 9 mo/ ( ! g5]a ! p]i!cia are mu* elongat$1 po9t$ at bo? ends4 ,:5 !y are p>allel1 or plac$ at diff]5t angles to ea* o!r1 !y =m gr\ps l ,japanese or ,*9ese *>act]s1 :5ce _! "n4 ,! g5]a are det]m9$ by ! position ( ^! p]i!cia1 :i* are mu* v>i$4 ,m4 ,tulasne has f\nd l9e> male p>ticles imm]s$ 9 ! cru/ ( "s ( ^! li*5s4 ,!y h _! pr9cipal seat 9 tropical ,am]ica1 ?\gh a few species occur 9 ! frigid & temp]ate zones ( bo? hemisph]es4 ,! ord] ,glyphidei has no true excipulum2 ! col\r$ discs are at fir/ imm]s$ 9 ! m$ull>y /ratum ( a cru/ace\s ?allus1 ! cru/ !n rises into di/9ct expansions1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* ! col\r$ discs are set l gems 9 a mosaic4 #8,!re is 9 fact no true bord] to ! disc1 ! p]i!cium be+ r$uc$ to a ?ick conical base1 f :i* proce$ imm$iately ! asci & p>aphyses2 ea* individual hym5ium be+ surr\nd$ by ! int]v5+ m$ull>y matt] inject$1 z x 71 into ! int]/ices4' ,! :ole surface ( ,*iodecton mono/i*um is productive1 & 9 t g5us ,m4 ,tulasne f\nd vessels 9 ! =m ( little scatt]$ p]i!cia1 conta9+ fili=m curv$ f]tiliz+ p>ticles4 ,! species ( ?is ord] are almo/ :olly tropical1 ?\gh ! ,*iodecton myrticola has be5 f\nd 9 ,irel&4 ,! ord] ,caliciei consi/s ( horizontal li*5s1 ) g5]ally an ill-develop$ cru/2 ! discs1 :i* are at fir/ cov]$ by a veil1 are conta9$ 9 a /alk$1 or m r>ely sessile1 excipulum1 look+ l little flat-head$ p9s /uck into ! cru/2 ! veil at l5g? vani%es1 & exposes a pulv]ul5t mass ( spores1 :i* adh]e s loosely 9 ! ,calicium inqu9ans1 t !y soil ! f+] if t\*$2 9 o!r cases !y come out ( _! ascus l little necklaces4 ,! species ( ^! li*5s are almo/ entirely conf9$ to ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ! second division ( ,li*5ace1 ! ,,angioc>pei1 ! discs are enclos$ 9 an excipulum1 :i* projects f ! surface ( ! plant1 & ultimately dis*>ges ! spores f a rupture or pore 9 its surface4 ,besides ! fructification consi/+ ( p]i!cia conta9+ p>aphyses & asci ) _! enclos$ sporidia1 !re is a nucleus 9 ea* disc1 ei!r ( firm or deliquesc5t matt]4 ,"s ( ! li*5s ( ?is gr\p are p>asitic1 o!rs are aquatic4 ,! ord] ,limboriei1 l p>asitic fungi1 beg9 _! exi/5ce "u ! ?ick sk9 ( ! leaves ( tropical plants1 spread _! cru/ace\s ?allus ov] _! surface1 & de/roy _! beauty1 by /opp+ up _! pores1 & prev5t+ ! admission ( light to _! tissues4 ,! excipulum & p]i!cia are black1 & ! latt] bur/ 9 an irregul> fissure1 & are 9 mo/ cases cov]$ by a beautifully sculptur$ cru/4 ,! cru/ace\s fronds ( ! ,v]ruc>iei are (t5 s ?9 z to be insep>able f ! sub/ance ov] :i* !y spread4 ,! excipula are clos$1 ! walls ( ! p]i!cia are (t5 black1 & 9 "s species m or less cr[d$ r\nd a columella4 ,9 ! ,v]ruc>ia muralis f]tiliz+ p>ticles h be5 discov]$4 ,! plants are widely di/ribut$1 & at lea/ "o species spreads its cru/ ov] ! smoo? /ones 9 runn+ /reams4 ,9 ! gr\p ,endoc>pei1 ! p]i!cia are imm]s$ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! plant1 :i* has1 = ! mo/ "p1 a foliace\s horizontal cru/1 & a gelat9\s nucleus4 ,"s species gr[ on /ones1 p]petually or p]iodically subm]g$1 or1 if n "u wat]1 cont9ually wet ) its spray4 ,! ,li*9a1 a g5us ( ! gr\p ,li*9ei1 lives on m>9e rocks1 & is (t5 dripp+ ) salt-wat]1 & (t5 sudd5ly dri$ up4 ,! ,sphrophorei1 or sph]e-be>+ li*5s1 h upright /ems be>+ globul> fruit at ! extremity ( _! num]\s bran*es4 ,at fir/1 ! fruit is only indicat$ by a swell+1 b 9 "t ! out] b>k bur/s1 & exposes ! cont5ts ( ! p]i!cium1 :i* consi/ ( asci & p>aphyses seat$ on a c5tral columella4 ,! sporidia are beautiful objects "u ! microscope on acc\nt ( _! sph]ical =m1 :i* is r>e among li*5s1 & _! m or less deep blue t9t--a col\r by no means peculi> to ! sporidia ( ?is ord] ( plants1 = 9 o!r ord]s !y are bright sc>let1 olive1 gold5 yell[1 or br[n4 ,,section ,v4 ,,*>ace4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,nitella flexilis4 ,,! ,*>ace are subm]g$ annual wat] plants1 gr[+ 9 /agnant pools & dit*es r ?an 9 runn+ /reams4 ,x is a small ord] conta9+ b ?ree g5]a1 b ! num]\s species are disp]s$ all ov] ! _w1 especially 9 temp]ate climates4 ,! g5]a f\nd 9 ?is c\ntry are ,nitella & ,*>a4 ,! ,nitella flexilis 7fig4 #dj7 may be tak5 z a repres5tative ( ! ord]4 ,its /em or axis is =m$ ( v long cyl9drical transp>5t tubes1 jo9$ by _! flat ends1 & surr\nd$ at ea* junction by a :orl ( long tubes :i* are =k$ or trifid at _! extremities4 ,9 "s species ! bran*es are jo9t$1 & h :orls precisely l ^? on ! ma9 axis4 ,on ! int]nal surface ( ! tubes1 :i* are sometimes sev]al in*es 9 l5g?1 !re are f\r longitud9al b&s p>allel to ! axis ( ! tubes1 :i* are occasionally twi/$3 two ( ^! b&s are broad & cov]$ ) oval gre5 p>ticles2 :ile ! o!r two are n>r[1 transp>5t1 & col\rless4 ,ea* tube is fill$ ) a limpid semifluid liquid1 9 :i* pale gre5 p>ticles & jelly-l globules ( a />*y nature float2 & :5 ^! p>ticles are wat*$ ) a microscope1 !y %[ t1 9 e tube ( ! plant1 a cont9ual curr5t ( t liquid1 ) its p>ticles1 asc5ds "o ( ! gre5 b&s & desc5ds by ! o!r1 ev5 :5 ! /em & bran*es are twi/$2 b !y nev] fl[ 9 ! col\rless b&s1 ?\gh !re is no?+ to h9d] !m4 ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( microscopi/s !re is probably a gyration ( an azotiz$ viscid fluid 9 all plants orig9at+ 91 & ma9ta9$ by1 vital contractility ( /ructure1 b 9 none is x s evid5t z 9 ! ,*>ace4 ,its rate is increas$ by heat & dim9i%$ by cold1 l ! circulation ( ! blood 9 animals1 because ! activity ( ! vital en]gy be>s a precise relation to ! quantity ( heat receiv$4 ,! gyration is in/antly arre/$ by a %ock ( electricity4 ,! reproductive organs ( ! ,*>ace are ( two k9ds1 bo? gr[+ 9 ! axils ( ! bran*lets1 namely1 d>k-r$ globules1 :i* are an!ridia1 & nucules or pi/illidia1 :i* conta9 g]m cells4 ,sometimes !y are f\nd 9 diff]5t individuals1 b 9 mo/ ( ! ,nitellas !y are 9 ! same individual1 ! globules be+ plac$ closely bel[ ! nucules1 z 9 fig4 #da1 ,a1 ,b4 ,! envelope ( ! ne>ly sph]ical globules is =m$ ( eight sph]ico-triangul> valves4 ,f ! middle ( ! int]ior surface ( ^! valves1 a p]p5dicul> orange-col\r$ column ext5ds to ! c5tre ( ! globule1 :]e its summit is cr[n$ ) a mass ( conf]void filam5ts1 :i* are =m$ ( a l9e> succession ( m9ute cells2 :ile f ! base ( ! column1 b&s ( orange-col\r$ sph]ules imb$d$ 9 gelat9e radiate along ! int]ior surface ( ! valve to its m>g9 z %[n at ,c1 9 ! same figure4 ,aft] successive *anges 9 ! matt] )9 ! conf]void filam5ts1 7fig4 #db1 ,d-,g71 ! microscope %[s t #89 e "o ( ! cells !re is =m$ a spiral ?read ( two or ?ree coils1 :i*1 at fir/ motionless1 aft] a "t beg9s to move & revolve )9 ! cell2 at la/ ! cell wall gives way1 & ! spiral ?read makes its way out1 p>tially l5g!ns itself1 & moves actively ?r\gh ! wat] 9 a tol]ably det]m9ate direction1 by ! la%+ action ( two long & v delicate filam5ts ) :i* x is furni%$'#fe 7fig4 #db ,h74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,an!ridia ( ,*>a fragilis3--,a1 an!ridium develop$ at base ( nucule2 ,b1 d41 ! nucule enl>g$1 & ! an!ridium laid op5 by ! sep>ation ( its valves2 ,c1 "o ( ! valves1 ) its gr\p ( an!ridial filam5ts4 ,! nucule is an ovoid sac ) five long cells spirally twi/$ r\nd x1 ! sac be+ full ( a visc\s fluid conta9+ globules ( />* & oil4 ,?is nucule falls (f :5 f]tiliz$ by ! spirally-coil$ ciliat$ bodies1 & !n g]m9ates4 ,! ,*>ace may also be artificially reproduc$ by cutt+s2 :ile "u fav\rable circum/ances !y are reproduc$ by nodul> bodies ri* 9 />* gra9s1 :i* arise f ! creep+ root1 & also by clu/]s ( cells call$ bulbils fill$ ) />* gra9s1 :i* arise f a modification ( ! nodes4 ,! ,*>as1 prop]ly s call$1 are monci\s or dici\s1 m or less opaque & brittle1 _! _m-jo9t$ tubul> /ems be>+ :orls ( long sl5d] awl-%ap$ bran*lets4 ,! fruit1 accompani$ by a clu/] ( %ort bracts or ramuli1 is plac$ at int]vals 9 ! holl[ side ( ! bran*lets1 "o at ea* jo9t4 ,9 ! bri/ly ,*>a ! awl-%ap$ bran*lets are simple1 po9t$ at ! extremity1 & compos$ ( ab\t sev5 jo9ts1 ) a :orl ( f f\r to sev5 %ort bracts1 & hav+ fruit at ea* articulation4 ,_m ( ! species ( ,*>ace are ?ickly incru/$ ) lime1 & ! :ole ord] is exce$+ly fetid4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,an!ridia ( ,*>a fragilis3--,d1 ,e1 ,f1 successive /ages ( =mation ( sp]matozoids 9 ! l9e> cells ( ! an!ridial filam5ts2 ,g1 escape ( mature sp]matozoids1 :i* are %[n deta*$ at ,h4 ,,section ,,vi4 ,,hepatic1 ,,or ,,liv]worts4 ,,! ,hepatic are ! small h]bace\s plants1 :i* con/itute ! ?ree di/9ct natural ord]s call$ respectively ,ricciace1 ,m>*antiace1 & ,jung]manniace4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ prim>ily by ! fir/ hav+ ! sporangia valveless1 )\t elat]s2 by ! second hav+ dep5d5t valvate or irregul>ly bur/+ sporangia2 & by ! ?ird hav+ ! sporangia valvate & erect4 ,bo? ! latt]1 moreov]1 h ! spores mix$ ) elat]s4 ,! ,ricciace1 popul>ly call$ ,cry/alworts1 :i* =m ! l[e/ grade ( ,hepatic1 are inconspicu\s plants1 gr[+ 9 mud1 or float+ on wat]4 ,!y h spread+1 horizontal fronds1 ( a delicate cellul> /ructure & ( indef9ite =m4 ,_! fructification consi/s ( valveless sph]ical sporangia1 or spore sacs1 imb$d$ 9 ! frond2 cells are =m$ )9 ^! sporangia1 ea* ( :i* cells is divid$ into f\r p>ts1 :i* become spores1 &1 :5 ripe1 ! surface ( ! sporangia is fractur$ to give !m egress4 ,9 "s species !re are _m air passages 9 ! cavities :]e ! sporangia are produc$4 ,! "u-surface ( ! frond is (t5 beset ) scales4 ,! g5us ,riella diff]s f all ! o!r g5]a 9 hav+ an upright bran*less /em ) a di/9ct w+ or limb =m+ a cont9u\s spiral r\nd x4 ,9 ! male plant1 ! edge ( ! frond be>s ! an!ridia conta9+ sp]matozoids2 9 ! female plant ! sporangia spr+ f ! /em2 !y h a sep>ate envelope1 & ! spores are e*9ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,m>*antia polymorpha3--a1 gemmip>\s conceptacles2 b1 lob$ receptacles be>+ pi/illidia4 ,! ,m>*antiace rank z high] =ms ( ,hepatic4 ,9 ! ,m>*antia polymorpha 7figs4 #dc1 #dd71 :i* may be tak5 z an illu/ration ( ! gr\p1 ! /ructure ( ! horizontal frond is complicat$1 =1 besides ! col\rless transp>5t sk91 !re are ?ree di/9ct lay]s1 ! upp]mo/ ( :i* consi/s ( cells fill$ ) gre5 matt]1 ! l[]mo/ 7or base ( ! frond7 be+ =m$ ( close-set cells full ( v solid matt]1 :ile betwe5 ! two !re is a cavity fill$ ) air & loosely bran*+ filam5ts1 :i* spr+ f ! base1 & consi/ ( gre5 cells fix$ end to end1 z 9 fig4 #dd ,b4 ,! surface ( ! plant appe>s to be smoo? & %9+1 b :5 magnifi$ x is f\nd to be m>k$ ) num]\s n>r[ elevat$ gre5 b&s1 cross+ "o ano!r diagonally s z to m>k out ! surface into a numb] ( small loz5ge-%ap$ divisions 7fig4 #dd ,a74 ,^! elevat$ b&s are m]ely ! tops ( v solid walls :i* desc5d p]p5dicul>ly to ! base ( ! plant1 consequ5tly !y divide ! int]nal air *amb] into a numb] ( loz5ge-%ap$ comp>tm5ts1 ea* ( :i* communicates ) ! ext]nal atmosph]e by means ( *imneys op5+ 9 ! c5tre ( ea* comp>tm5t on ! surface ( ! plant4 ,^! *imneys are s con/ruct$ ( f\r or five sup]pos$ r+s ( cells 7see fig4 #dd ,b71 t by ! expansion & contraction ( ! cells ( ! l[]mo/ r+1 m or less air c be admitt$ into ! cavity bel[4 ,?is is a v beautiful in/ance ( ! contractile vital en]gy act+ = ! production ( motion1 its object be+ to supply air1 s ess5tial to ! heal? ( all plants4 ,:ite filam5ts f ! base at once fix ! ,m>*antia to ! e>?1 & supply x ) food4 ,?is is ! y\?ful /ate ( ! ,m>*antia polymorpha1 b aft] a "t gre5 po9ts appe> f "u little r$di% scales on ! surface1 & ^! are develop$ into /alks an in* or less 9 height1 :i* t]m9ate diff]5tly1 "s 9 lob$ %ields1 o!rs 9 spok$ :orls1 l a c>riage :eel )\t ! rim 7fig4 #dc74 ,! lob$ %ields are r concave & cov]$ ) little elevations1 9 ea* ( :i* !re is a flask-%ap$ cavity ) a long neck op5+ on ! surface ( ! %ield4 ,9 all ( ^! holl[s !re is a mass ( cells full ( an amorph\s sub/ance1 :i* is *ang$ into sp]matozoids1 hav+ ! =m ( delicate spiral filam5ts1 ?ick] at "o end1 & furni%$ ) two cilia1 ) :i* !y revolve 9 a spiral )9 _! cell4 ,at la/ !y em]ge f x1 & come ?r\gh ! neck ( ! flask-%ap$ holl[ to ! surface ( ! %ield4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,m>*antia polymorpha3--,a1 portion ( frond se5 f above1 %[+ loz5ge-%ap$ divisions 7a71 ) c5tral /omata 7b72 ,b1 v]tical section1 %[+ ! lay]s ( tissue1 & "o ( ! /omata 7g74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,m>*antia polymorpha3--ar*egonia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,elat] & spores ( ,m>*antia4 ,9 ! companion female receptacles at an e>ly age1 c]ta9 objects call$ ar*egonia 7fig4 #de7 are f\nd to be conceal$ betwe5 membranes :i* connect ! spokes ( ! :orl at _! orig94 ,^! ar*egonia are %ap$ l flasks ) long necks1 & ea* has a g]m cell 9 its int]ior1 into :i* a canal leads d[n f ! extremity ( ! neck4 ,:5 ?is embryo or g]m cell is f]tiliz$ by ! sp]matozoids1 in/ead ( produc+ a new plant resembl+ its p>5t1 ! embryo cell developes itself into a sporangium conta9+ spores1 :i* are isolat$ cells enclos$ 9 firm yell[ envelopes & elat]s1 or ovoidal cells1 ea* conta9+ a d\ble spiral fibre coil$ up 9 its int]ior4 ,?is fibre is s ela/ic1 t :5 ! surr\nd+ pressure is )drawn by ! bur/+ ( ! sporangium at maturity1 ! spires sudd5ly ext5d !mselves ) su* =ce z to te> op5 ! cell membrane1 & j]k =? ! spores :i* may be adh]+ to _! coils1 & ?us to assi/ 9 _! disp]sion4 ,! spores1 :5 !y g]m9ate1 develope !mselves into little collections ( cells1 :i* gradually assume ! =m ( a flatt5$ frond4#ff ,x is only :5 expos$ to light & air t ! ,m>*antias h regul> fructification2 9 %ady places !y are reproduc$ by buds plac$ 9 op5 conceptacles1 :i* are =m$ out ( gre5 globules t appe> 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! frond1 & aft] a "t split op5 at ! summit & exp& into s+ul>ly graceful cups or baskets1 ^: edges are %>ply & regul>ly ind5t$ s z to =m a gli/5+ fr+e ( tee?1 :ile ea* too? is adorn$ ) a n>r[ fr+e4 ,:5 mature1 ! basket conta9s a numb] ( little gre5 r\nd or oval discs rais$ on foot/alks1 & compos$ ( two or m r[s ( cells4 ,z soon z ^! objects1 call$ gonidia1 are ripe1 !y are deta*$ f _! /alks1 & be+ wa%$ out ( _! basket by ! ra91 !y quickly gr[ on ! moi/ e>? ar\nd2 sometimes !y g]m9ate be=e !y leave _! ne/1 & =m irregul> lobes on ! p>5t plant4 ,! ,m>*antia polymorpha1 s admirably con/ruct$1 occurs 9 all temp]ate climates1 & c be> consid]able heat provid$ x has abundant moi/ure4 ,! ,m>*antiace are divid$ into ?ree gr\ps1 conta9+ fifte5 g5]a1 :i* are di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by ! "* ( _! fructification4 ,!y are m9utely describ$ 9 ,mr4 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany2' & are widely disp]s$ bo? 9 temp]ate & tropical c\ntries1 mo/ ( ! g5]a be+ repres5t$ 9 ,europe4 ,! ,jung]manniace1 or ,scale ,mosses1 9 _! l[e/ =ms be> ! same resemblance to ,li*5s t _m ( ! o!r ,liv]worts d4 ,^! li*5oid =ms are lob$1 leaf-l masses1 sometimes ribb$ & sometimes n4 ,!re are =ty g5]a ( ?is gr\p ( plants1 di/ribut$ among/ fifte5 tribes1 & exhibit+ great v>iety ( =m & /ructure2 b 9 ext]nal aspect !y are s closely connect$1 t a graduat$ s]ies may be trac$ f ! flat-lob$ frond to ! high] =ms ( erect-/emm$ foliace\s plants1 approa*+ 9 size & /ructure to "s ( ! small] mosses4 ,! high] gr\ps h a di/9ct upright /em ) symmetrical leaves1 :i* leaves1 h[ev]1 9 ! l[] g5]a1 are m]ely fle%y fronds )\t ve9s1 ( num]\s & sometimes grotesque =ms1 :ile 9 ! high]1 !y are g5]ally oval1 & dispos$ 9 spiral imbricat$ r[s on ea* side ( ! /em & bran*es1 e leaf ov]lapp+ "p ( t :i* is adjac5t to x l a r[ ( tiles4 ,!y are dispos$ aft] two di/9ctly diff]5t plans4 ,9 "o1 ! leaves are arrang$ 9 a spiral1 :i* turns f left to "r2 consequ5tly1 ! ant]ior bord] ( ea* inf]ior leaf is cov]$ by ! po/]ior bord] ( t imm$iately above x4 ,?is con/itutes ! succub\s gr\p ( frondose ,jung]mannie1 :i* embraces five tribes4 ,9 ! second case1 ! spiral ( ! leaves turns f "r to left1 & ! ant]ior bord] ( ea* inf]ior leaf cov]s ! po/]ior bord] ( t imm$iately above x4 ,?is con/itutes ! incub\s gr\p embrac+ ?ree tribes ( ! frondose ,jung]mannie4 ,besides ! imbricat$ spiral leaves1 !re are small leaves alt]nat+ ) !m1 & appli$ directly on ! /em betwe5 !m4 ,! male fruit ( ! ,scale ,mosses consi/s ( an!ridia1 :i* =m ovoid masses ( cells v>i\sly dispos$2 9 ea* ( ^! cells1 !re is a fili=m sp]matozoid coil$ 9 a circle 9 active motion1 :i* is ma9ta9$ aft] leav+ ! cell4 ,! female fruit consi/s ( ar*egonia1 conta9+ embryo cells1 :i* ultimately develope into sporangia2 b ! plants arrive at _! full developm5t be=e ! ar*egonia appe>4 ,! same plant may produce m ?an "o crop ( ^! objects1 :i* are occasionally abortive4 ,! /alk ( ! sporangium is fir/ surr\nd$ by ! sac ( ! ar*egonium1 !n by an involucre or circle ( bracts1 plac$ 9 a rosette ( leaves4 ,! sporangia conta9 cells :i* ultimately become spores mix$ ) long cells conta9+ elat]s1 t is1 ela/ic spiral filam5ts4 ,:5 ! fruit is ripe1 ! sporangia split into f\r equal p>ts1 :i* =m a cross on ! top ( _! /ems1 & ! elat]s spr+ out ( _! cells1 & disp]se ! spores4 ,! plants ( ?is ord] are also reproduc$ by gonidia1 b 9 su* num]\s g5]a & species ! arrangem5t ( ! reproductive bodies & _! m9ute details are exce$+ly v>i$4 ,!y are *iefly di/+ui%$ by ! ins]tion ( ! fruit1 & ! =m ( ! diff]5t organs :i* surr\nd x4 ,!y are pretty little plants1 occasionally ( a bright gre51 b (t5] incl9$ to r$1 purple1 & *ocolate col\r2 a few are fragrant1 b !y are ( no kn[n utility4 ,!y are f\nd 9 %ady woods & moi/ situations1 ?r\gh\t all regions ( ! globe1 b are mo/ abundant 9 damp1 tropical =e/s4 ,9 all ! families ( ! leafy ,cryptogamia z well z 9 ! ,hepatic1 an!ridia exi/2 !y diff] mu* 9 =m & /ructure1 b !y collectively agree 9 develop+ 9 ! int]ior ( delicately wall$ cells1 an amorph\s sub/ance1 col\r$ yell[ by iod9e1 9 place ( :i*1 at ! epo* ( maturation1 sp]matozoids appe>1 ?ick at "o end & runn+ to a v f9e po9t at ! o!r1 & display+ sev]al spiral convolutions4 ,:5 roll$ up l a wat*-spr+ ! motion is m or less rot>y1 b if x be coil$ 9 ! =m ( a corkscrew1 ! movem5t is at ! same "t advanc+4 ,! ?9 end ( ! filam5t always goes fir/ bo? )9 ! cell & aft] x comes out4#fg ,! :ole /ructure ( ! ,hepatic is full ( objects ( int]e/ to ! microscopic obs]v]4 ,,section ,,vii4 ,,musci1 ,,or ,,mosses4 ,,mosses approa* ! high] classes ( vegetable life 9 hav+ roots1 & a m or less upright /em or axis ( gr[?4 ,l all o!r plants1 !y are *iefly =m$ ( cellul> tissue1 yet1 9 ! /ems1 !re is an indication ( a sep>ation betwe5 ! b>k & pi? by ! int]v5tion ( a circle ( elongat$ cells approa*+ to woody fibre1 :i* pass+ into ! bran*es & leaves =m a k9d ( midrib1 ei!r ext5d+ to ! extremity ( ! leaf or n4 ,! delicate little leaves1 :i* are arrang$ ) great regul>ity1 consi/ ( a s+le or d\ble lay] ( cells unit$ by _! flatt5$ sides1 & r>ely exhibit+ any epid]m or sk94 ,gre5 is ! prevail+ col\r 9 ?is ord] ( beautiful little plants1 b1 :5 expos$ to ! sun & mu* moi/ure1 !y sometimes become r$4 ,! urn-l vessels 7fig4 #dg ,b71 conta9+ ! spores1 are ei!r t]m9al or lat]al on ! /em ( ! moss1 & rise on a sl5d] /alk f a rosette ( n>r[ leaves possess+ a sk9 p]=at$ by /omata or brea?+ pores ( simple /ructure4 ,?is is ! ultimate result ( fructification2 = at a v e>ly p]iod1 :ile ! rosettes ( n>r[ leaves are m]ely buds1 !y conta9 an!ridia & ar*egonia1 ! latt] or female organs be+ ei!r inclos$ 9 ! same bud1 or 9 diff]5t buds plac$ on ! same or on diff]5t plants2 b h[ev] t may be1 ! buds are inv>iably plac$ at ! base ( ! leaves1 close to ! axis ( ! plant4 ,:5 a male bud is develop$1 ! an!ridia are f\nd to be globul>1 ovoid1 or elongat$ hyal9e bodies1 set 9 a clu/] ( hairs & p>aphyses1 or /]ile cellul> filam5ts4 ,fig4 #dh repres5ts ! an!ridia ( ,polytri*um commune1 ) ! p>aphyses & hairs1 f ! microscopic obs]vations ( ,dr4 ,c>p5t]4 ,! c5tral an!ridium is dis*>g+ its sp]matozoids2 ! "o on ! "r is empty1 t on ! left immature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,a1 plant ( ,fun>ia hygrometrica3--f1 leaves2 u1 urns or capsules2 ,s1 seta or foot-/alk2 o1 op]culum2 c1 calyptra4 ,b1 sporangia ( ,encalypta vulg>is3--u1 urns2 o1 op]cula2 c1 calyptra2 p1 p]i/ome2 s1 seta4 ,! an!ridia are fill$ ) a mass ( mucilage conta9+ a multitude ( cells1 9 ea* ( :i* !re is a spiral filam5t furni%$ ) cilia1 z 9 fig4 #di4 ,z soon z ! filam5ts are mature1 ! cells op52 ! mobile filam5ts1 or sp]matozoids1 are free1 & come out ?r\gh a pore 9 ! an!ridia1 9 multitudes l poll5 out ( an an!r4 ,:ile ! an!ridia are 9 process ( =mation1 ! female buds exp& & exhibit flask-%ap$ ar*egonia1 simil> to t 9 fig4 #de1 seat$ 9 a rosette ( leaves4 ,:5 ?is ar*egonium is f]tiliz$ by ! sp]matozoids1 its int]nal g]m cell is develop$ by cell division into a conical body elevat$ ^u a /alk2 & ?is at l5g? te>s across ! walls ( ! flask-%ap$ ar*egonium by a circul> fissure1 c>ry+ ! high] "p upw>ds z a calyptra or hood 7fig4 #dg c7 ^u its summit1 & leav+ ! l[] "p to =m a k9d ( coll> r\nd ! base ( ! /alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,polytri*um commune3--gr\p ( an!ridia mix$ ) hairs & /]ile filam5ts 7p>aphyses71 ! c5tral "o dis*>g+ its cont5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,polytri*um commune3--,b1 cellul> cont5ts ( an an!ridium previ\sly to ! developm5t ( ! sp]matozoids2 ,c1 ! same1 %[+ ! fir/ appe>ance ( ! sp]matozoids2 ,d1 ! same1 mature & dis*>g+ ! sp]matozoids4 ,! urn-%ap$ organ or sporangium has a d\ble wall1 & 9 its c5tre a fusi=m or deeply w+$ columella4 ,betwe5 ^! two !re is a tissue ( a mo/ delicate texture1 divid$ into sph]ical cells1 ea* ( :i* usually produces f\r unripe spores1 :i* get an ext]ior coat :5 f]tilis$1 & !n x is t ! /alk l5g!ns1 & ! flask-%ap$ ar*egonium is torn across4 ,! urns are clos$ by a lid or op]culum ( a flat1 convex1 or po9t$ =m1 :i* falls (f :5 ! spores are ripe to give !m egress4 ,! m\? ( ! urn 9 mo/ ( ! mosses is surr\nd$ by a decidu\s annulus ( two or ?ree r[s ( ela/ic cells1 :i* are suppos$ to aid 9 scatt]+ ! spores1 = ! mosses h no elat]s4 ,al?\gh ! sep>ation ( ! lid may at once expose ! spores1 !y may be cov]$ ) a membrane entire or too!d at ! circumf]5ce1 or !re may be "o or two r[s ( tee? surr\nd+ ! m\? ( ! urn l a fr+e2 ^! tee? =m ! p]i/ome1 & _! numb] is always a multiple ( #d1 v>y+ f #d to #fd 7see fig4 #dg p74 ,sometimes !y are divid$ half way d[n1 sometimes !y are prolong$ into /raight twi/$ hairs4 ,! tee? arise f ! ?ick5+ ( ! walls ( two contigu\s cells2 :5 !re are two r[s ( tee?1 ! out] r[ frequ5tly arises f ! lay] ( cells :i* l9e ! out] wall ( ! urn1 ! inn] r[ f ! out]mo/ lay] ( ! spore sac2 sometimes1 :5 ! p]i/ome is d\ble1 ?ree /rata ( cells are requisite to =m ! tee?4 ,! urns ( ! ,encalypta vulg>is are repres5t$ at fig4 #dg ,b2 "o is cov]$ ) ! hood or calyptra1 :ile f ! o!r ! lid has fall5 (f1 %[+ ! m\? ( ! urn ) its too!d p]i/ome4 ,:5 a spore beg9s to gr[1 its out] coat is ruptur$1 its inn]mo/ coats protrude & =m a project+ extremity1 :i* becomes develop$ into a conf]void pro-embryo1 analog\s to ! mycelium ( fungi1 b is di/+ui%$ by ! *lorophyll conta9$ 9 its cells4 ,_m spores may concur or n 9 its =mation2 b ! pro-embryo ( ea* spore is capable ( trans=m+ "o or m ( ! cells seat$ ^u its v>i\s ramifications imm$iately into buds1 :i* gr[ up into leafy /ems1 z ! ,fun>ia hygrometrica1 s t "h we h ! peculi> condition ( "o spore giv+ rise to ! developm5t ( a numb] ( plants4#fh ,9 process ( gr[? ea* ( ^! plants w\ld produce an!ridia & ar*egonia1 &1 by ! process describ$1 a full-gr[n ,fun>ia hygrometrica ) its urns & hoods1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #dg ,a1 w\ld be ! result4 ,if ! moss be annual or bi5nial x dies aft] be>+ fruit2 if p]5nial1 two or m successive crops ( ar*egonia are =m$4 ,! mode ( fructification1 !re=e1 resembles t ( fl[]+ plants1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t ! fructification ( ! latt] produces a "y plant f ea* embryonic cell1 :ile 9 mosses ! fructification ( "o embryonic cell produces a sporangium or urn conta9+ spores1 t is1 a multitude ( reproductive bodies1 :i* h no trace ( cotyl$ons or axis4#fi ,mosses are also propagat$ by gemm or buds4 ,!y are produc$ 9 _m situations1 sometimes on di/9ct organs1 sometimes on ! tips ( ! leaves1 or on rootlets :i* gr[ on v>i\s p>ts ( ! plants1 & :i* 9 "s ( ! mosses =m a d5se woolly or silky mass ( a bright yell[ or br[n col\r v>y+ to purple4 ,on ! fibres ( ?is mass1 gre5 cells appe>1 :i* are develop$ into reproductive buds4 ,almo/ e cell on ! surface ( a moss is capable ( =m+1 by cont9u$ division1 a cellul> nodule1 :i* falls (f & gives rise to a g]m :i* gr[s into a new plant4 ,^! nodules are g5]ally situat$ at ! extremity ( ! leaves1 or on ! leaves !mselves1 :ile pro-embryo fibres spr+ f ! leaf cells ( _m mosses4 ,m4 von ,mohl obs]ves t s9ce ! cells 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( mosses are capable ( be+ develop$ into a bud or embryonic conf]void /ructure produc+ a bud1 x foll[s t 9 ^! plants1 not)/&+ _! r complex /ructure1 ! subord9ation ( ! individual cell to ! purposes ( ! :ole plant is /ill b small2 & ev5 "h individual life readily acquires ! prepond]ance4 ,?is facility ( reproduction possess$ by ! v>i\s individual p>ts ( ! plants1 acc\nts = ! ext5sive tracts ov] :i* mosses spread !mselves2 moreov]1 "s are dici\s1 & z ! spores might n always be f]tiliz$1 ! gemm ensure ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! species4 ,mosses are divid$ into five pr9cipal gr\ps1 diff]+ exce$+ly 9 importance1 & 9 comp>ative numb]s4 ,!y are *iefly di/+ui%$ by ! position ( _! fruit4 ,! ,pleuroc>pi h _! fruit lat]al1 :e!r on ! /em or bran*es4 ,!y comprise ?irte5 tribes2 _m ( !m are f\nd 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 b a consid]able numb]1 especially ( ! ,hypnei1 ,drepanophyllei1 & ,hook]iei1 are ,european4 ,! ,cladoc>pi are *>act]is$ by hav+ _! urns seat$ on ! tops ( v %ort lat]al bran*es1 & by _! d\ble axis ( gr[?4 ,! ,acroc>pi are di/+ui%$ by _! ma9 /ems end+ 9 fruit4 ,!y comprise tw5ty-sev5 tribes1 & embrace g5]a & species hav+ a wide geographical range4 ,9 ! ,syncladei ! bran*es ( ! plant are fasciculate2 ?is gr\p comprises ! ,sphagnums4 ,! ,s*i/oc>pi are rem>kable = _! fruit splitt+ into valves1 & consi/ ( ! tribe ,&race4 ,! v>i\s tribes dep5d on ! /ructure ( ! urns & leaves1 z well z on ! natural habits ( ! plants4 ,9 ?is num]\s class ( plants only a few rem>kable = peculi>ity ( /ructure c be m5tion$4 ,! species ( ! acroc>p\s tribe ,phascei are exce$+ly num]\s1 & conta9 ! simple/ ( all mosses2 !y gr[ on newly turn$-up soil1 & are *iefly annual4 ,_! leaves g5]ally h n]ves1 & are bord]$ by l>ge cells4 ,! urns1 :i* are ei!r sessile1 or ^u a %ort /alk1 h n a trace ( p]i/ome1 & sometimes h a columella1 sometimes n4 ,! spores are l>ge comp>$ ) ^? ( o!r mosses4 ,! tribe ,dicranei conta9s num]\s species1 "s ( :i* are ! commone/ ( mosses 9 ,europe4 ,!y are easily kn[n by _! s+le p]i/ome ( sixte5 tee? divid$ half-way d[n4 ,! leaves are extremely crisp & convolute1 & ! hood is spoon-%ap$4 ,! ,leucobryum is rem>kable = pallid leaves2 x has ?ree lay]s ( cells1 a n>r[ lay] ( gre5 cells emb$d$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! leaf ) a broad] lay] ( col\rless cells on ea* side1 ^: cell walls are p]=at$ ) l>ge r\nd op5+s1 z 9 fig4 #ej b4 ,! mosses ( ?is ord] live on s&/one rocks1 %ady banks1 & trunks ( trees4 ,fig4 #ej %[s ! microscopic /ructure ( ! leaves ( v>i\s mosses4 ,9 ! tribe ,grimmiei we h frequ5tly a sessile urn1 ) a s+le p]i/ome1 & a mitre-%ap$ hood4 ,! leaves1 :i* are d>k gre51 h m9ute hexagonal p]=at$ cells on _! upp] surface1 & a :ite n]ve project+ f _! extremity4 ,9 ! tribe ,polytri*ei ! m\? ( ! urn is mo/ly clos$ by a flat membrane & a hood r\gh ) silky hairs4 ,! leaves are %ea?+ at _! base & spread+ at _! tips2 except 9 a few cases !y are rigid2 & ! n]ve (t5 exhibits lamelli=m folds4 ,! ,polytri*um d5droides conta9s scal>i=m ducts1 & />* granules4 ,! ,bryei are ( v>iable size1 b a numb] ( ,european species are among ! f9e/ ( mosses1 on acc\nt ( _! l>ge leaves & beautiful d\ble-too!d p]i/ome1 ! great di/9ction ( ! gr\p4 ,! leaves are m>g9$1 too!d1 & compos$ ( a loose reticulation ( l>ge rhomboidal cells2 9 ! g5us ,timmia !y clasp ! /em at ! base & spread widely at ! tip4 ,!re are ?irty-?ree ,briti% species ( ! g5us ,bryum1 _m ( :i* ) _! abundant urns are extremely ornam5tal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,microscopic /ructure ( leaves ( mosses3--a1 ,octobleph>um albidum2 b1 ,leucobryum glaucum2 c1 ,sphagnum latifolium2 d1 ,hypopt]ygium ,smi?ianum2 e1 ,eucamptodon p]i*tialis2 f1 ,&ra subulata2 g1 ,campylopus lamell9]vis4 ,! tribe ,spla*nei conta9 _m ( ! mo/ s+ul> & beautiful ( ! :ole class ( mosses4 ,!y h l>ge-cell$ diaphan\s leaves & a /raight urn1 ) ! spores radiat+ f ! columella4 ,! urn has a swell+ at its base1 (t5 ( great] dim5sions ?an ! urn itself4 ,9 ! ,spla*num vasculosum x is purple & v l>ge1 b no?+ 9 comp>ison ( t organ 9 ,s4 luteum & rubrum1 :i* are ! pride ( hyp]borean ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,! enorm\s size ( ! swell+1 ! v>iety ( col\r+1 ! s+ul>ity & elegance ( =m1 & 9 "s cases ! unusual dim5sions1 make ! species objects ( great int]e/4 ,! common ,s4 ampullaceum1 :5 gr[+ 9 abundance on ! %all[ peaty banks ( "s m\nta9 /ream :]e cattle come to dr9k1 is sc>cely exce$$ 9 beauty by any cryptogam4 ,species ( ?is ord] are abundant 9 ! two hemisph]es1 b ! same species r>ely occur 9 bo?4 ,_! habits1 too1 are diff]5t1 = :ile ^? 9 ! nor? only gr[ on manure1 ^? 9 ! s\? gr[ on ! trunks ( fall5 trees4 ,?ree g5]a occur 9 ,great ,brita94 ,gemm are f\nd 9 ! axils ( ! leaves 9 mo/ species ( ?is gr\p4 ,! tribe ( ,s*i/o/egei consi/s ( b a s+le mo/ elegant species4 ,x inhabits %ady cav]ns1 :i* are sometimes light$ by a gold5 gleam f ! refractions ( ! conf]void %oots ( its mycelium-l pro-embryo1 :i* is p]5nial1 & produces a new crop ye> aft] ye>4 ,! urn is subglobose )\t a p]i/ome1 & :5 "y ! spore cells radiate f ! columella z 9 ! ,spla*na4 ,! leaves %[ v>i\s int]m$iate /ages betwe5 a v]tical & horizontal ins]tion1 & are sometimes p]fectly free1 :ile at o!r times !y are unit$4 ,?is moss is sc>ce1 & conf9$ to ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,!re are v>i\s g5]a ( aquatic mosses 9 ! diff]5t tribes1 mo/ ( !m float+ plants4 ,( ^! are ! pleuroc>p\s ,font9alei1 :i* inhabit ! nor!rn hemisph]e2 _! urn1 ) its d\ble p]i/ome ( sixte5 tee?1 =ms a beautiful microscopic object1 on acc\nt ( ! lattic$ "w 9 ! inn] r[1 & ! cross b>s on ! out] tee?1 :i* are unit$ at _! tips by two & two4 ,! common species h %>p-angl$ triangul> /ems1 & keel$ leaves :i* clasp ! /em at _! base1 & are sometimes cleft along ! keel4 ,! synclade\s ,sphagnei are aquatic bog mosses ( a pale yell[i% gre5 col\r4 ,!y =m b "o g5us1 ,sphagnum1 :i* consi/s ( "s eight or t5 species & sev]al v>ieties4 ,! species ( ,sphagnum1 or common bog moss1 hold an important place 9 ! economy ( nature4 ,!y are float+ mosses1 entirely de/itute ( roots4 ,! /alk ( ! full gr[n plant1 l t ( l& mosses1 is con/ruct$ ( ?ree k9ds ( cells2 "o =ms ! ext]ior or cortical lay]1 ano!r =ms ! c5tral pi? or axial sy/em1 :ile ! ?ird1 :i* is col\r$ & some:at ligne\s1 comes betwe5 ! o!r two4 ,! leaves1 :i* h _! orig9 9 ! cortical lay] :ile x is yet s(t1 consi/ ( two k9ds ( cells1 "o k9d be+ l>ge1 elongat$1 & col\rless1 & conta9+ spiral fibres loosely coil$ 9 _! int]ior4 ,! membran\s walls ( ^! cells h l>ge r\nd ap]tures by :i* _! cavities h free communication2 = c]ta9 animalcules1 :i* sometimes live 9 ! cells1 h be5 se5 to pass f "o to ! o!r4 ,betwe5 ^! col\rless cells are "s ?ick-wall$1 n>r[1 elongat$ gre5 cells1 :i* give ! leaf firmness & col\r4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,wilson1 ! fascicles1 or bundles ( bran*es1 are dispos$ r\nd ! /em 9 imbricat$ spirals1 s t1 = e complete spiral =m$ by five ( ^! fascicles1 !re are eight spirals =m$ ( tw5ty leaves1 f\r leaves be+ ins]t$ betwe5 ea* pair ( fascicles4 ,! fructification 9 all ^! float+ mosses is imm]s$ 9 ! leaves ( ! /em1 ! an!ridia be+ globose1 & ! sp]matozoids hav+ spiral motions1 bo? )9 ! cells ( ! an!ridia & :5 !y come out4 ,! urns1 :i* are ! product ( fructification1 & are borne at ! top ( :at appe>s to be a long foot/alk1 b is 9 reality a p$unculate vag9ula1 are globul>1 & _! lids h be5 obs]v$ to be driv5 (f :5 ! spores are ripe1 ) su* =ce z to give a di/9ctly audible report4 ,! common bog moss gr[s s rapidly t1 rootless z x is1 x soon cov]s a pool ) its matt$ bundles ( bran*es1 & z 9 a few ye>s x has no room to spread1 ! l[] /ems & bran*es decay1 s9k to ! bottom1 & beg9 to =m a peat moss1 :ile ! upp] p>ts gr[ on1 s t new /ems & bran*es are p]petually produc$4 ,multitudes ( spores no d\bt g]m9ate1 &1 9 ?is way1 ! pool is fill$ up1 & a peat moss is at l5g? =m$4 ,! ,sphagnum moss has su* a p[] ( absorb+ moi/ure f ! atmosph]e1 t x =ms & ma9ta9s ! peat mosses & quagmires 9 ! m\nta9s :i* fe$ ! /reams at _! feet4 ,mosses 9 g5]al are almo/ z mu* indebt$ = moi/ure to ! absorb+ nature ( _! leaves z to _! roots2 b ! loose1 l>ge cell$1 & p]=at$ leaves ( ! ,sphagnum suck up wat] l a sponge2 ev5 dur+ ! heat ( summ]1 a quantity ( wat] may be squeez$ out ( a h&ful ( !m4 ,9 fact ! plant is a p]fect hydraulic ma*9e1 = a small /em ( x put into a glass ( wat] ) its droop+ t]m9al bran* hang+ ov] ! edge1 acts l a syphon1 & soon empties ! glass1 p\r+ ! wat] out ?r\gh its b5d+ top4 ,?\gh ! peat f ,sphagnum is (t5 too spongy = fuel at pres5t1 yet t little moss n[ gr[+ on our m\nta9s w yield anil9e1 mag5ta1 p>aff91 & o!r illum9at+ gases to remote g5]ations1 al?\gh n 9 su* quantities z ! ri*] vegetation ( ! coal measures1 ! products ( a w>m] p]iod4 ,l all cryptogams ! mosses are exce$+ly v>iable & difficult to di/+ui%4 ,n only does ! same species %[ great diff]5ces 9 size1 b ev5 9 o!r respects ! *>act]s v>y on acc\nt ( climate1 soil1 & exposure4 ,beyond t ( becom+ conv]t$ into peat1 ! uses ( ! moss family are n ( any great importance4 ,brooms1 mats1 & o!r dome/ic articles are sometimes =m$ f ,polytri*um1 & 9 ,lapl& ,sphagnum n only sometimes ent]s into ! composition ( bread1 b is us$ 9 place ( clo?+ = new-born babes4 ,,section ,,viii4 ,,filices1 ,,or ,,f]ns4 ,,( all ! spore-be>+ families1 ! ,f]ns are ! mo/ univ]sally kn[n4 ,!y may easily be recogniz$ by ! coil+ inw>ds ( _! "y leaves 9 spr+ previ\s to expansion1 & by ! arrangem5t ( ! fruit on _! und]sides :5 exp&$4 ,! ,f]ns are exce$+ly num]\s bo? 9 g5]a & species1 & v>y f l[ h]bace\s plants ( an in* high1 to trees ) upright trunks =ty or fifty feet or m 9 height1 be>+ a graceful coronet ( leaves at _! extremity4 ,! tree f]ns come to ! utmo/ p]fection 9 ! w>m1 moi/ isl&s ( ! tropical oceans4 ,_! boreal limit is ab\t ! ?irty-sev5? p>allel ( nor? latitude1 b1 on acc\nt ( ! va/ ext5t ( ocean 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 !y rea* ! =tie? or fiftie? p>allel ( s\? latitude1 ! m copi\s evaporation1 & ! consequ5tly moi/] air & soil1 be+ specially cong5ial to ! f]n tribe4 ,= t reason a mo/ luxuriant f]n vegetation prevails 9 ,juan ,f]n&ez1 ,we/]n ,*ili1 & ,new ,zeal&4 ,9 ! latt] !re are "o hundr$ & tw5ty species1 "s ( :i* are sub>boresc5t1 :ile o!rs =m tree f]ns ( consid]able altitude4 ,%ade is n absolutely requisite to f]ns1 = _m ( !m gr[ luxuriantly :5 expos$ to ! sun1 provid$ ! soil be damp4 ,! range ( ! non-arboresc5t f]ns is v ext5sive4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,hook]1 tw5ty-"o species h be5 f\nd 9 ,fuegia & ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 & "o gr[s 9 matt$ tufts 9 ,k]guel5's ,l&4 ,9 ! nor? ! ,cytopt]is fragilis has be5 f\nd 9 ! sev5tie? p>allel ( latitude at ,m9to ,inlet1 & bo? x & ,poly/i*um ,lon*itis h be5 ga!r$ at ,disco1 on ! we/ side ( ,gre5l&1 & ,aspidium fragrans on ! ea/]n side4 ,on acc\nt ( ! extremes ( heat & cold 9 ,nor? ,am]ica !re are only fifty species 9 all t enorm\s ext5t ( c\ntry2 :ile 9 ,brita9 we are indebt$ to ! humidity ( our climate = a ri* vegetation ( ?irty-six species1 :i* adorn our woodl&s1 our valleys & m\nta9s 9 wild pr(usion4 ,"o-half ( our f]ns are also native 9 ! ,himalaya m\nta9s1 :]e multitudes ( ,briti% plants are indig5\s4 ,! f]n floras ( ,great ,brita9 & ,new ,zeal& are ! ri*e/ 9 species ( _! respective latitudes1 & h sev]al species 9 common4 ,! f]ns ( ,tasmania are1 ) few exceptions1 id5tical ) ^? ( ,new ,zeal&2 & ! occurr5ce ( ! r common ,au/ralian & ,new ,zeal& ,gymnogramma rutfolia 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 & no :]e else 9 ! :ole _w1 s f> z is kn[n1 is a rem>kable fact 9 ! di/ribution ( plants4#gj ,:atev] ! size ( a f]n may be1 its spores 7fig4 #ea ,a7 are microscopic4 ,!y are produc$ )9 ! sporangium by cell division1 & are !re=e free & v>i\sly %ap$4 ,!y consi/ ( a grum\s mass enclos$ 9 a d\ble coat2 & :5 ! spore beg9s to gr[1 x s5ds out f ! cell wall ( its inn] coat a :ite tubul> projection or root fibre 7fig4 #ea ,b71 :i* passes ?r\gh ! cell wall ( its out] coat4 ,?is root sucks up liquid till x exp&s ! inn] coat suffici5tly to bur/ op5 ! out] "o1 & !n x beg9s to increase by ! subdivision ( its cells1 till ! prim>y gre5 leaf or m>*antioid pro?allus 7fig4 #ea ,d7 is =m$4 ,?is pro?allus lies flat on ! gr\nd1 & is furni%$ on ! "u-side ) fibr\s roots to fix x1 & supply x ) food4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,developm5t ( spores ( ,pt]is s]rulata3--,a1 spore2 ,b1 ,c1 e>ly /ages ( developm5t2 ,d1 ! pro?allus ) radical fibres 7a1 b7 & an!ridia 7h1 h74 ,two sets ( organs are subsequ5tly develop$ on ! "u-side ( ?is pro?allus2 "o ( ^! is a /alk$ cell call$ an an!ridium1 & is situat$ ne> ! roots2 ! o!r is an ar*egonium conta9+ a g]m cell1 :i* is sunk 9 ! cellul> tissue4 ,9 ea* ( ! an!ridia1 :i* are num]\s1 a cell is =m$1 :i* becomes fill$ ) a mass ( mucilage mix$ ) a numb] ( free cells1 conta9+ a flat ribbon-%ap$ filam5t1 or sp]matozoid1 coil$ 9 a spiral mann]1 :i*1 z soon z set free by ! rupture ( ! cell1 revolves rapidly by means ( sev]al long cilia plac$ close to ! l>ge end4 ,fig4 #eb %[s ! globul> an!ridium & ! sp]matozoids ( ,pt]is s]rulata4 ,! ar*egonia are few] 9 numb]1 & conta9 ! g]m cell1 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ec1 z view$ f above1 & sidewise2 x is plac$ at a little di/ance f ! an!ridia1 & aft] be+ f]tiliz$ by ! active filam5ts or sp]matozoids1 & matur$1 x conta9s ! primordial cell ( ! "y f]n1 :i* soon s5ds =? leaves roll$ up & curl$ inw>ds previ\s to expansion1 & a root1 :i* be+ suffici5t to fe$ ! plant1 ! flat pro-embryo1 :i* 0 ! fir/ /age ( developm5t1 p]i%es4 ,?us 9 ! family ( f]ns !re are two di/9ct p]iods ( gr[?1 & "o only ( f]tilization4 ,9 fl[]+ plants1 f]tilization & its products are ! f9al result ( vegetation1 & ! maturation ( ! fructification is frequ5tly foll[$ by dea?4 ,9 ! f]ns1 on ! contr>y1 f]tilization prec$es ! developm5t ( ! plant1 :i*1 if p]5nial1 cont9ues to be> f]tiliz$ fruit ye> aft] ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,an!ridium & ,sp]matozoids ( ,pt]is s]rulata3--,a1 projection ( "o ( ! cells ( ! pro?allus %[+ ! an!ridial cell 7b72 ,b1 an!ridium fully develop$1 conta9+ sp]m-cells1 ea* enclos+ a sp]matozoid2 ,c1 "o ( ! sp]matozoids magnifi$1 %[+ ! cilia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,ar*egonium ( ,pt]is s]rulata3--,a1 z se5 f above2 ,b1 side view1 %[+ at ,a ! cavity conta9+ ! g]m cell2 at ,b1 ! walls ( ! ar*egonium made up ( f\r lay]s ( cells2 & at ,c1 ! sp]matozoids )9 ! cavity4 ,x is evid5t t !re is an ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! ar*egonium ( ! ,m>*antia1 & t ( ! f]ns4 ,! ar*egonium ( ! ,m>*antia m]ely produces a sporangium1 :ile t ( ! f]ns produces a new plant1 & is !re=e1 9 "s s5se1 analog\s to ! se$ ( "o ( ! high] vascul> plants1 ?\gh !re is no aff9ity betwe5 ! two4 ,! roots ( f]ns1 l ^? ( =e/ trees1 are delicate fibres1 :i* desc5d ei!r f a woody /em call$ a rhizome1 f rhiza1 a root1 or f a caudex1 s nam$ f ! ,lat91 caudex1 a trunk4 ,?us ! /ems ( f]ns are ( two di/9ct types4 ,! rhizome g5]ally gr[s horizontally1 & creeps along ! surface ( ! soil or rock1 or tree trunk to :i* x is affix$1 b x is sometimes subt]ranean4 ,9 ?is1 ! gr[+ po9t is 9 advance ( ! fronds1 :i* appe> at int]vals along ! expos$ side or sides1 & aft] !y h rea*$ maturity drop (f1 leav+ a clean sc> or cicatrix4 ,! caudex v>ies f ! size ( a small wire-l ?read to ! size ( a tree trunk4 ,x is sometimes elongat$1 z 9 ! sup]f9e wiry ?read-l /ems ( ,hym5ophyllum1 ! sc&5t ivy-l root+ /ems ( ,/5o*lna1 & ! subt]ranean1 horizontal1 widely-creep+ /ems ( ,pt]is aquil9a1 all ( :i* develop s+le fronds at int]vals1 b fronds :i* adh]e p]man5tly to ! /em1 & :i* d n fall (f1 leav+ a sc>1 z d ! fronds borne by ! rhizome4 ,! m frequ5t =m ( caudex1 h[ev]1 is t ( a %ort /ocky /em produc+ fronds on all sides f its apex3 v frequ5tly ?is is a globose or oblong mass gr[+ erect1 yet sc>cely rea*+ above ! surface ( ! soil2 b sometimes x is m l5g!n$1 %[+ a m or less elevat$ /em1 or turn+ sideways1 & tak+ a decumb5t position1 ! "y fronds1 h[ev]1 always ris+ f its apex4 ,x is on ! latt] plan1 by a cont9u\s erect & upw>d gr[?1 t ! trunks ( tree f]ns1 :i* rise sometimes sixty or eighty feet high1 are =m$4 ,! common ,lady ,f]n1 ,a?yrium ,filix-fm9a1 furni%es an example ( ! ord9>y h]bace\s caudex2 z also does ! ,male ,f]n1 ,la/rea ,filix-mas4 ,9 ! ,h>t's-tongue1 or ,scolop5drium1 ! caudex is g5]ally compact1 & increases by ! =mation ( new cr[ns or c5tres ( gr[? ar\nd ! old] "o1 till ! :ole becomes an almo/ sph]ical mass ( consid]able size4 ,! /ipes or leaf-/alk ( a f]n is (t5 ( consid]able l5g?1 & 9 its upp] "p1 call$ ! ra*is1 :i* be>s ! leafy portion1 is commonly m or less bran*$1 z well z furr[$ on its upp] surface4 ,! fronds1 or p>ts analog\s to leaves1 are sometimes simple1 z 9 ! ,h>t's-tongue1 ! ra*is ( :i* has a symmetrical limb or w+ on ea* side1 s z to =m a long1 ev5-m>g9$1 n>r[1 tongue-%ap$ frond4 ,if ! limb on ea* side ( ! ra*is be deeply divid$1 z 9 ! ,polypodium vulg>e1 ! frond is said to be w+-cleft1 or p9natifid1 & ! divisions are call$ segm5ts or lobes4 ,9 mo/ f]ns1 h[ev]1 ! frond is once1 twice1 or ?ree times w+$ or p9nate1 & 9 su* cases ! fir/ divisions are call$ p9n1 & ! second>y or subsequ5t ones :5 pres5t1 p9nul or p9nules4 ,! leafy portion1 :e!r simple1 p9natifid1 or p9nate1 is always trav]s$ by ve9s arrang$ on "s def9ite plan1 a mo/ important circum/ance1 s9ce ! sori or fructification ( ! f]ns is always produc$ 9 connection ) ! ve9s4 ,! f]tile fronds1 9 c]ta9 gr\ps1 diff] 9 =m f ! /]ile1 g5]ally by ! great] or less contraction ( _! p>ts4 ,9 mo/ f]ns ! full-gr[n fronds are flat1 t is1 ) all _! p>ts ly+ 9 "o plane2 b1 dur+ _! v]nation1 t is1 :5 !y fir/ rise f ! /em1 !y are circ9ate or curl$ inw>ds1 l a crosi]4 ,:5 a f]n acquires a consid]able /em1 z 9 ,tree ,f]ns1 x consi/s ( a c5tral or m$ull>y "p1 consi/+ ( cellul> tissue1 & an ext]nal or cortical portion1 =m$ ( ! consolidat$ bases ( ! fronds1 9 :i* may be se51 on cutt+ a section ( a trunk1 an irregul> zone1 =m$ ( fibro-vascul> bundles1 scal>i=m ducts1 & woody fibre4 ,prolongations f ?is zone pass into ! leaf-/alks1 & !nce into ! midrib ( ! leaf1 :5ce !y spread into its lat]al bran*es1 & ultimately appe> 9 ! leafy p>ts 9 ! =m ( ve9s4 ,x is ! arrangem5t ( ^! bundles ( col\r$ woody tissue 9 ! cellul> tissue ( ! leaf-/alks ( ! h]bace\s f]ns1 :i* give rise to ^? peculi> figures on _! transv]se sections1 su* z a />1 ! lett] ,t1 & ! h]aldic spread eagle1 f :i* latt] ! common ,brake ,f]n 7,pt]is7 takes its botanical specific "n ( aquil9a4 ,fig4 #ed %[s an oblique section ( ! foot/alk ( a f]n leaf ) its bundles ( scal>i=m ducts1 z det]m9$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s microscopic obs]vations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,section ( foot/alk ( ,f]n frond %[+ scal>i=m ducts4 ,! fructification ( ! f]ns is arrang$ ) ! mo/ p]fect symmetry1 usually on ! "u surface ( ! leaf1 b sometimes at ! m>g91 & assum+ a great v>iety ( =ms & positions4 ,x consi/s ( sori1 t is1 gr\ps ( ne>ly globul> spore cases or sporangia1 sometimes sessile on ! frond1 sometimes ) a foot/alk4 ,!y are always situat$ on a ve9 or its bran*es1 or at ! extremity ( ! ve9s on ! m>g9 ( ! frond4 ,9 fact ! sporangia orig9ate 9 ! cellul> tissue imm$iately 9 contact ) a ve91 b5ea? ! epid]mis or sk9 ( ! leaf1 :i* is =c$ up z ! sporangia increase 9 size1 9 ! =m ( a :iti% membrane1 :i* con/itutes ! indusium1 or protect+ cov] ( ! sori4 ,:ile ! fruit is advanc+ to maturity1 ! indusium sep>ates p>tly or :olly f ! surr\nd+ sk9 or epid]m1 & subsequ5tly ei!r %rivels or falls (f altoge!r4 ,9 "s few species ! op5+ is 9 ! c5tre ( ! indusium1 & !n x surr\nds ! sori l a cup2 9 o!r f]ns1 ! sk9 f bo? surfaces ( ! leaf ext5ds beyond ! m>g91 includes ! sori betwe5 x1 & fulfils ! (fice ( an indusium4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,p9nule ( ,polypodium be>+ sori4 ,! sori1 z already not$1 take a v>iety ( =ms1 & are v>i\sly situat$4 ,"s are r\nd & dot-l1 "s are oblong & /raight1 "s are hippocrepi=m or horse-%oe-%ap$1 :ile "s are cont9u\s 9 a l9e-l b&4 ,! indusium1 :5 pres5t1 takes m or less exactly ! =m ( ! sorus4 ,^! peculi>ities are s well m>k$ t !y are tak5 advantage ( 9 ! discrim9ation ( g5]a4 ,! sporangia or spore-cases are = ! mo/ "p ( globul> =m1 & are ne>ly or q surr\nd$ by a /rong ela/ic r+1 :i* 9 "s cases is cont9u$ s z to =m a /alk4 ,:5 ! spores are ripe1 ?is r+1 by its ela/ic =ce1 te>s op5 ! sporangia1 & gives free egress to _! cont5ts4 ,! r+ assumes v>i\s =ms4 ,9 "o l>ge gr\p x passes v]tically up ! back ( ! sporangium1 & is cont9u$ to a po9t call$ ! /oma1 :]e ! horizontal bur/+ takes place4 ,?is =m is se5 9 fig4 #ef1 a1 b4 ,9 o!r gr\ps x is1 ?\gh v]tical1 some:at oblique1 z 9 fig4 #ef c4 ,sometimes1 ?\gh m r>ely1 x is transv]se & complete2 9 :i* case ! rupture is v]tical1 z 9 fig4 #ef d4 ,9 a few cases x is apical1 fig4 #ef e2 & 9 a few o!rs x is obsolete1 fig4 #ef f4 ,^! are ! true ,f]ns4 ,9 "o or two small gr\ps1 sometimes call$ ,pseudo-,f]ns1 ! r+ is altoge!r want+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,sporangia ( ,polypodiace\s ,f]ns3--a1 b1 ,polypodiace2 c1 ,cya!9e2 d1 ,glei*59e2 e1 ,s*izine2 f1 ,osmund9e4 ,! sy/ematic arrangem5t ( ! ,f]ns is *iefly f\nd$ on peculi>ities ( ! sori & sporangia1 *>act]s :i* are q intelligible by ! aid ( a good magnify+ l5s1 ^! spore-cases be+ v pretty opaque objects "u ! microscope4 ,?us "s ( ! prim>y divisions are f\nd$ on ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! r+ or annulus on ! spore-case4 ,ano!r s]ies ( divisions are f\nd$ ma9ly on ! nature ( ! r+ 9 ^? cases :5 x is pres5t2 &1 = ! re/1 ! =m & position ( ! sori come 9 z discrim9at+ *>act]s4 ,9 ?is way ! ma9 gr\ps are m>k$ out1 b1 9 ! case ( ! g5]a1 /ill fur!r rec\rse is _h to ! sori & its cov]+1 & by "s mod]n au?ors supplem5t>y *>act]s d]iv$ f ! v5ation are br\ght into use4 ,! foll[+ is ! arrangem5t adopt$ by ,mr4 ,moore1#ga & :i* agrees 9 its g5]al features ) t ( mo/ mod]n obs]v]s4 ,! two lead+ gr\ps are ! ,annulate & ! ,exannulate ,f]ns1 ! fir/ be+ mu* ! l>g] division1 & consi/+ ( ! ord] ,polypodiace1 :i* comprises ! ,true ,f]ns1 :ile ! second includes ! two ord]s ,m>attiace & ,ophioglossace1 :i* are "s times call$ ,pseudo-,f]ns4 ,! ,,polypodiace1 di/+ui%$ by ! r+ or annulus1 :i* m or less completely girts ! sporangia1 (f] s mu* v>iety ( /ructure t x becomes necess>y to subdivide !m2 & = ?is purpose *>act]s d]iv$ f ! =m1 numb]1 or position ( ! sporangia1 or ! /ructure or developm5t ( ! r+1 are *iefly reli$ on4 ,?is gives sev]al gr\ps1 e4g4 ,polypod9e1 ! mo/ compreh5sive ( all1 includ+ "s t5 or twelve m9or gr\ps1 9 :i* ! sporangia are almo/ equally convex1 & h a v]tical & ne>ly complete r+1 & 9 :i* ! dehisc5ce is transv]se at a "p call$ ! /oma1 :]e ! /ri ( ! r+ are elongat$1 & app>5tly weak]2 ,cya!9e1 9 :i* ! spore-cases are sessile or ne>ly s1 seat$ on an elevat$ receptacle1 ) ! ne>ly complete r+ m or less obliquely v]tical1 t is1 v]tical bel[1 curv+ lat]ally t[>ds ! top1 & ! dehisc5ce transv]se2 ,maton9e1 a s+le species only1 9 :i* ! sporangia are sessile1 bur/+ horizontally1 n v]tically1 ! r+ be+ broad1 suboblique1 & ne>ly complete1 & ! dorsal sori oligoc>p\s1 cov]$ by umbonato-hemisph]ical indusia1 affix$ by a c5tral /alk2 ,glei*59e1 ) ! r+ complete1 transv]se1 ei!r truly or obliquely horizontal1 ! sporangia globose-pyri=m1 =m+ oligoc>p\s sori1 i4e4 sori consi/+ ( b few spore-cases 7two or f\r to t5 or twelve71 situat$ at ! back ( ! frond1 sessile or ne>ly s1 & bur/+ v]tically1 ! fronds1 moreov]1 be+ rigid & opaque1 & usually di*otom\sly-bran*$2 ,tri*oman9e1 ) ! r+ resembl+ t ( ! ,glei*59e1 b ! sporangia l5ticul>1 num]\s1 clu/]$ on an exs]t$ receptacle1 :i* is a prolongation ( ! ve9 beyond ! ord9>y m>g9 ( ! frond1 s t ! sori become extrorse m>g9al1 or project$ outw>ds z well z op5+ outw>dly1 :ile ! fronds are pellucid-membranace\s2 ,s*izine1 ) ! r+ horizontal or transv]se1 situat$ q at ! apex ( ! oval sporangia1 :i* is1 9 consequ5ce1 said to be radiate-/riate at ! apex2 ,c]atopt]id9e1 "o or two aquatic species1 ! sporangia sometimes furni%$ ) a v rudim5t>y r+1 r$uc$1 z 9 ,osmund9e1 to a few p>allel /ri1 sometimes furni%$ ) a v broad & m l5g!n$ r+2 & ,osmund9e1 ) ! spore-cases two-valv$1 bur/+ v]tically at ! apex1 ! r+ v rudim5t>y1 r$uc$ to a few p>allel v]tical /ri on "o side ne> ! apex4 ,9 all b ! la/ ( ^! gr\ps1 ! sporangia are n valvate1 & consequ5tly1 :5 !y op5 = ! lib]ation ( ! spores1 !y bur/ p>tially or irregul>ly2 b 9 ! ,osmund9e !y split at ! top 9 two equal divisions4#gb ,a l>ge portion ( ! ,polypod9e are ei!r tropical or subtropical4 ,! g5us ,polypodium itself is "o ( ! mo/ ext5sive & div]sifi$ g5]a ( ! gr\p4 ,x is *iefly di/ribut$ ov] ! tropical regions ( ! we/]n hemisph]e1 b f\r species are indig5\s 9 ,brita91 & ( ^! ! ,polypodium vulg>e1 or ,common ,polypody1 is abundant ab\t ! trunks ( moss-gr[n trees1 on banks1 rocks1 & old ?at*$ ro(s4 ,! "y fronds appe> 9 ,may1 & rise f five or six to twelve or eighte5 in*es 9 height4 ,!y are lanceolate1 deeply p9natifid1 ) obtuse1 l9e>1 lanceolate1 indi/9ctly s]rat$ segm5ts4 ,! g5us is di/+ui%$ by its nak$ globul> sori1 :i* 9 ?is species are regul>ly dispos$ 9 a l9e on ea* side ( ! mid ve91 half way betwe5 x & ! m>g9 ( ! leaf4 ,:5 "y1 !y are ( a yell[ or bright orange col\r1 :i* *anges to br[n :5 !y are ripe4 ,! rhizome1 :i* bran*es 9 all directions1 is at fir/ clo!d ) a sk9 d5sely cov]$ ) yell[i% br[n membranace\s lanceolate scales1 :i* at l5g? fall or become oblit]at$1 leav+ ! surface ne>ly smoo?4 ,! ,polypodium vulg>e has _m v>ieties1 sev]al ( :i* are well m>k$1 especially t call$ cambricum1 :i* is twice p9natifid4 ,! plant is common 9 temp]ate climates4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,p9nule ( ,la/rea ,filix-mas ) sori4 ,! ,aspidie =m an ext5sive & widely di/ribut$ gr\p1 embrac+ sev]al ( our common ,briti% species4 ,"o ( ^! is ! g5us ,la/rea1 :i* has1 = ! mo/ "p1 lanceolate fronds1 bip9nate or trip9nate 9 division1 ) l9e> lanceolate1 & usually p9natifid p9n4 ,! sori are ne>ly circul>1 seat$ ^u ! back ( ! ve9s1 & cov]$ by a r5i=m indusium1 :i* is atta*$ by its s9us4 ,9 ,la/rea ,filix-mas 7fig4 #eg71 "o ( our commone/ f]ns1 ! fronds spr+ up 9 a r spread+ mass1 f ! extremity ( a long scaly caudex1 & (t5 pres5t a vase-l tuft holl[ 9 ! c5tre4 ,! ra*is1 leafy ?r\gh a ?ird or a f\r? ( its l5g?1 is m or less clo!d ) ?9 membranace\s scales1 ( a pale (t5 br[ni%-gold5 hue1 a peculi>ity common to ! o!r ,la/re4 ,la/rea ,!lypt]is1 ! ,m>% ,f]n1 h[ev]1 has !m n1 & diff]s also f mo/ ( its cong5]s 9 hav+ its sori subm>g9al4 ,its rhizome has a widely creep+ habit ( gr[?4 ,! ,la/rea mula has globul> gl&s1 sessile ov] ! :ole "u-surface ( ! fronds1 :i* secrete a p]fume l new-made hay4 ,f a simil> cause1 ,la/rea rigida 0 botanically kn[n z ,polypodium fragrans4 ,?is c\m>9e od\r is possess$ by sev]al o!r f]ns1 notably by ,*eilan!s odora4 ,! ,ole&ra1 :i* is a =eign g5us1 has simple fronds articulat$ ne> to ! rhizome1 & its sori are plac$ on ! tips ( ! p>allel ve9lets4 ,! ,ole&ra n]ii=mis1 :i* gr[s on op5 spots1 has an erect rhizome1 & assumes q a %rubby habit1 ris+ to f f\r to six feet1 & be>+ at int]vals :orls ( fronds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,sorus & ,indusium ( ,poly/i*um or ,aspidium4 ,9 ! g5us ,poly/i*um1 ! fronds spr+ 9 tufts f a %ort sl[-gr[+ caudex4 ,!y are rigid1 l9e> or lanceolate1 & ei!r p9nate1 bip9nate1 or trip9nate4 ,! upp] t]m9ations ( ! fronds are %>p & sp9\s1 :ile ! p9n are auriculate at _! base above1 & oblique bel[4 ,circul> sori are seat$ on ! ant]ior bran*es ( ! p>allel ve9s1 & ^! are cov]$ by circul> indusia1 op5+ all r\nd & rema9+ atta*$ by a %ort c5tral /alk4 ,! free v5ation & ?is peculi> =m ( ! sorus & indusium are ! di/+ui%+ *>act]s ( ! g5us4 ,fig4 #eh %[s a sorus & indusium ( ,poly/i*um or ,aspidium1 :i* diff] only 9 v5ation4 ,"o ( ! sp9\s1 s]rat$ p9n ( ! ,holly f]n1 ,poly/i*um ,lon*itis1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ei2 x is auriculate at its base above & oblique bel[1 ) its sori dispos$ 9 regul> s]ies on ea* side ! mid-ve92 ^! (t5 become conflu5t at maturity4 ,?is beautiful ,alp9e f]n1 :i* is ( a deep glossy gre51 has l9e> lanceolate1 & simply p9nate fronds4 ,! p9n are %ort1 arrang$ alt]nately & obliquely on ! ra*is1 & ext5d ne>ly to its base1 :i* is r d5sely clo!d ) r$di%-br[n *affy scales4 ,! o!r ,briti% f]ns ( ?is g5us are bip9nate4 ,p4 aculeatum is rigid1 b ,p4 angul>e is lax1 & droop+4 ,"o ( its v>ieties1 nam$ prolif]um1 is abundantly vivip>\s1 produc+ small bulbils ab\t ! bases ( ! l[] p9n & p9nules1 :i* readily reproduce ! plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,p9na ( ,poly/i*um ,lon*itis4 ,all ! prec$+ g5]a1 f ,la/rea inclusive1 belong to ! ,aspidie1 an enorm\s tribe1 ab\nd+ 9 species1 & almo/ cont]m9\s ) ! old g5us ,aspidium4 ,! ,nephrolepis tub]osa & o!r species be> sub-transluc5t tub]s on ! rhizome4 ,!y are subt]ranean1 ovoid1 an in* & a half long1 & fill$ ) a ne>ly transluc5t mucus4 ,! tub]s h a circle ( vascul> bundles =m+ a sort ( balloon1 proce$+ f a common base bel[1 & conv]g+ to ! apex4#gc ,mo/ ( ! species are tropical1 b ,la/rea & ,poly/i*um include sev]al ,european species1 "s ( :i* are extremely v>iable4 ,! ,onoclea is a rem>kable g5us f ! p9n be+ contract$ into b]ry-l globes4 ,onoclea s5sibilis is a h&some free-gr[+ ,am]ican species & appe>s to h be5 nam$ s5sibilis1 f ! p>ticul>ly rapid )]+ ( ! fronds aft] be+ ga!r$4 ,! g5us ,cy/opt]is1 :i* has species 9 bo? hemisph]es1 is ! type ( ! ,cy/opt]ide1 a small gr\p :i* approa*es ,aspidie ?r\gh ,nephrolepis & ,acrophorus4 ,! ,briti% species ( ,cy/opt]is are small1 fragile f]ns1 gr[+ on walls & rocks 9 ,alp9e & ,subalp9e di/ricts4 ,_! fronds are = ! mo/ "p erect1 lanceolate or deltoid1 & bip9nate or trip9nate4 ,!y are g5]ically di/+ui%$ by hav+ ea* r\nd sorus cov]$ by a hood-%ap$ indusium1 :i* is holl[ & atta*$ by its base1 & op5s t[>ds ! apex ( ! segm5t1 its free m>g9 be+ elongat$ & fr+$2 9 ?is respect x be>s "s resemblance to ,woodsia1 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 ! indusium projects f b5ea? ! spore-cases equally on all sides1 becom+ incurv$ 9 a cup-l =m4 ,! ,cy/opt]is fragilis1 or ,brittle ,bladd] f]n1 fl\ri%es 9 mo/ %ady m\nta9\s & rocky di/ricts1 b is also f\nd 9 ! l[l&s4 ,x has a decumb5t caudex1 :i* ext5ds sl[ly1 bran*+ & =m+ new cr[ns ar\nd ! old "o1 (t5 to ! numb] ( sev]al dur+ ! summ] & autumn4 ,! fronds rise 9 tufts f ^! cr[ns 9 ,april1 rapidly atta9 _! maturity1 & die away 9 succession z _! place is suppli$ by o!rs1 till ! fro/ comes & de/roys !m all4 ,! tufts v>y 9 height f two or ?ree in*es to a foot or m4 ,! fronds diff] mu* 9 =m & division ev5 9 ! same cr[n1 b bo? !y & ! p9n are usually lanceolate2 ! p9nules are ovoid or oblong1 always deeply p9natifid1 & hav+ ! segm5ts %>ply too!d or s]rat$4 ,! ,dicksonia gr\p1 ,dicksonie1 conta9s "s ( ! f9e/ tree f]ns4 ,! ,dicksonia ant>ctica sometimes atta9s a uni=m gir? ( twelve feet ?r\gh\t its height ( =ty feet4 ,9 ! /em ( ?is f]n1 ! vascul> bundles are symmetrically dispos$ r\nd ! axis s z to =m a clos$ cyl9d]4 ,! ,new ,zeal&]s slice ! fibr\s coat+ ( ! trunk1 & use x = con/ruct+ _! h\ses4 ,d4 squ>rosa rea*es ! f>!/ s\? ( ! tree f]ns4 ,! ,d4 lanata sometimes =ms a di/9ct /em b n always1 = tree f]ns v>y mu* ) reg>d to ! dim5sions & elevation ( _! /em4 ,! caudex ( ,cibotium ,b>ometz is cov]$ ) long tawny hair2 ea* has its own peculi>ity4 ,! species ( ,dicksonie belong pr9cipally to ! tropics & s\!rn isles4 ,! f]ns ( ?is gr\p h globose sori1 :i* are subm>g9al1 seat$ at ! tip ( a ve9 or ve9let4 ,! indusium is lat]al1 p]si/5t1 & bivalv$2 ! l[] valve is =m$ by ! true indusium1 ! upp] by ! alt]$ too? ( ! frond fold$ back4 ,9 ,d5n/dtia ! indusium is cup-%ap$1 & curi\sly deflex$2 :ile 9 ,dep>ia1 ano!r section ( ! gr\p1 ! cup-%ap$ indusium conta9+ ! sorus is extrorse m>g9al1 z %[n 9 fig4 #fj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,sorus & cup-%ap$ indusium ( ,dep>ia prolif]a4 ,! gr\p ,p]aneme1 or ,woodsie1 is repres5t$ 9 ! ,briti% ,flora by two species ( ,woodsia1 :i* are among/ ! r>e/ & mo/ curi\s ( our f]ns1 & inhabit ! crevices 9 our highe/ m\nta9 tops4 ,_! tufts ( fronds are n m ?an two or ?ree in*es high1 sometimes less1 & ! fronds !mselves are lanceolate1 & p9nate2 9 ,woodsia ilv5sis !y h oblong & usually opposite deeply lob$ p9n1 ^: "u-surface is clo!d m or less ) jo9t$ hairs & long att5uat$ scales4 ,! sori 9 bo? species are circul>1 & situat$ at ! extremity ( ! lat]al ve9s4 ,:5 "y !y are cov]$ ) an indusium1 :i* op5s at ! c5tre1 & =ms a cup r\nd ! sori2 aft]w>ds x is divid$ into num]\s jo9t$ & usually incurv$ ?reads4 ,! ,davallie are mo/ly tropical & subtropical f]ns4 ,_! sori are subm>g9al1 plac$ ^u ! tip ( a ve9 or ve9let1 & enclos$ )9 a tubul> indusium1 :i* is ei!r %ort & approa*+ to cup-%ap$1 or m or less elongat$4 ,9 ?is gr\p ! /em assumes ! =m ( a rhizome1 (t5 creep+ ext5sively1 & ! fronds are articulat$1 fall+ (f ) a clean sc> :5 !y p]i%4 ,davallia can>i5sis is cultivat$ 9 mo/ cons]vatories1 & is kn[n z ! ,h>e's-foot f]n1 f ! /\ti% scaly rhizomes resembl+ ! foot ( a h>e4 ,some:at alli$ to ^! are ! ,l9dse1 includ+ ,l9dsa & its allies2 ^! h l9e> m>g9al sori1 = ! mo/ "p cont9u\s1 b sometimes regul>ly int]rupt$1 9 :i* /ate !y approa* "s ( ! ,davallie1 ,microlepia to wit4 ,! indusium op5s t[>ds ! m>g9 ( ! frond1 & ! sori m or less connect ! tips ( ! ve9s & ve9lets4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,scolop5drium vulg>e4 ,! gr\p ( ,aspl5ie is a v compreh5sive "o1 includ+1 besides ! ext5sive typical g5us ,aspl5ium1 ! cognate subdivisions ( ,diplazie & ,scolop5drie4 ,! latt] is repres5t$ by ,scolop5drium vulg>e1 ! ,h>t's-tongue f]n1 9 :i* ! sori are l9e>1 & situat$ 9 pairs on two p>allel ve9s1 s closely approximate t1 ?\gh really d\ble1 !y seem to =m b "o /raight l9e2 !y are n cov]$ ) "o indusium splitt+ d[n ! middle1 b ea* has its own indusium op5+ 9 opposite directions4 ,on ! "u-surface ( ! long /rap-%ap$ entire fronds ( ! common ,h>t's-tongue1 :i* is a type ( ! g5us1 ! d\ble sori ) _! opposite indusia =m p>allel equidi/ant /raight l9es1 div]g+ on ea* side f ! mid-ve9 ( ! frond1 z 9 fig4 #fa4 ,! fronds are cordate at ! base2 sometimes !y are =k$1 & occasionally crisp$ & wavy1 & ! leaf-/em is %aggy ) n>r[ membranace\s scales4 ,! caudex is v compact & deep-root$2 x does n mu* elongate1 b increases sl[ly by ! =mation ( new cr[ns r\nd ! old]1 atta9+ consid]able bulk4 ,f ?is ! fronds rise 9 circul> tufts to ! height ( a foot or m1 & atta9 f two to ?ree feet1 9 fav\rable %ady localities4 ,at fir/ ! tufts are /raight1 b ultimately !y radiate & b5d outw>ds4 ,?is plant is exce$+ly v>iable2 hundr$s ( v>ieties h be5 f\nd or rais$ 9 ,great ,brita94 ,?\gh tw9 sori are *>act]i/ic ( ! ,scolop5drie1 !y div]ge some:at 9 ,camptosorus1 a ,nor? ,am]ican g5us1 sometimes call$ ! ,walk+ f]n1 f its habit ( ?r[+ =w>d a bud on a ?read-l prolongation ( ! po9t ( ! frond1 :i* becomes e/abli%$ z a new gr[+ c5tre1 & ?us c>ries ! plant onw>ds4 ,! gr\p ( f]ns call$ ,diplazie1 ano!r section ( ! ,aspl5ie1 typifi$ by ! g5us ,diplazium1 is altoge!r tropical4 ,! sori are bilat]al or d\ble1 b plac$ back to back on ! ve91 exactly ! opposite ( ,scolop5drie2 s t ! indusia1 in/ead ( op5+ face to face1 op5 9 opposite directions4 ,! species are r num]\s1 & embrace mu* v>iety ( =m & "*4 ,to ! ,aspl5ie prop] belongs "o ( our commone/ species1 ! ,a?yrium ,filix-fm9a1 or ,lady ,f]n1 :i*1 :5 gr[+ 9 moi/ %ady places1 is "o ( ! mo/ elegant ( ,briti% f]ns4 ,its bip9nate frond v>ies f a broad almo/ ovate outl9e to a l9e> lanceolate =m4 ,! num]\s fronds (t5 spr+ f ! caudex 9 a vase-l arrangem5t1 to ! height ( f\r or five feet1 ^? 9 ! c5tre ne>ly erect1 b ! out] ones1 droop+ ar\nd 9 all directions1 =m+ a tuft ( lovely fea!ry foliage4 ,! sori h commonly a semilun> outl9e1 z 9 fig4 #fb2 b !y are occasionally s mu* curv$ z to acquire a horse-%oe =m1 & m r>ely !y are l9e>1 & !y become at l5g? reflect$ by ! gr[? ( ! sporangia4 ,9 "s v>ieties !y are di/9ct1 9 o!rs s close z to become ev5tually conflu5t & completely cov] ! surface4 ,! ,filix-fm9a is di/+ui%$ by ! l9e> junction ( ! indusium ) ! frond4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ v>iable ( all ! kn[n f]ns1 & is rem>kably prolific1 s t new =ms may be rais$ f ! spores4 ,!re are a v l>ge numb] f\nd 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,a?yrium ,filix-fm9a4 ,all ! ,aspl5ie h l9e> sori atta*$ to ! side ( ! ve91 s t !y are said to be lat]al4 ,! indusium op5s on its inw>d side1 & is sometimes ciliat$4 ,!re are _m tropical f]ns ( ?is gr\p1 b ! g5us ,aspl5ium1 :i* has repres5tatives 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 yields eight or n9e species 9 ,great ,brita94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,aspl5ium ,ruta-mur>ia4 ,! ,aspl5ium ,ruta-mur>ia1 or ,wall ,rue1 is an indig5\s m\nta9 plant gr[+ 9 tufts six or eight in*es high 9 ! clefts ( ! rocks1 b has dim9i%$ mu* 9 size 9 migrat+ to ! pla9s1 :]e x is f\nd on old brick walls & ou?\ses4 ,! fronds are deltoid & bip9nate1 ! p9nules are w$ge-%ap$ & not*$1 or too!d1 on _! upp] m>g92 _! col\r is deep gre51 b 9 expos$ situations !y are always cov]$ ) a glauc\s secretion4 ,! ve9s div]ge f ! foot/alk at ! base ( ! p9nules1 bran* out above1 & ext5d to ! tee? or s]ratures1 z 9 fig4 #fc4 ,! sori1 :i* are produc$ on ! inn] side ( ! ve9s1 are l9e>1 elongat$1 & ev5tually become conflu5t1 cov]+ ! :ole "u-surface ( ea* f]tile p9nule4 ,! indusium1 :i* is only traceable 9 ! e>li] condition ( ! fructification1 is :ite1 & ! free inn] m>g9 is some:at jagg$4 ,*anges z rem>kable take place 9 ! sori ( ! ,aspl5ium lanceolatum4 ,at fir/1 :5 ! sori are cov]$ by _! :ite indusium1 !y are oblong1 b !y become circul> z !y enl>ge1 & ev5tually (t5 conflu5t1 s z to =m a l9e r\nd ! :ole "u-m>g9 ( ! %>ply too!d p9nule4 ,?is f]n1 :i* is indig5\s 9 ! ,atlantic isl&s1 & is f\nd 9 ! ,*annel ,isl&s1 z well z 9 ! m>itime c\nties ( ,engl& & ,wales1 gr[s 9 ! crevices ( rocks & old walls1 or clo!s ! sides ( wells & des]t$ m9es4 ,x belongs to ! section :i* has a mid-ve94 ,! g5us ,cet]a* app>5tly belongs to t section ( f]ns :i* h a v]tical r+1 & no indusium2 b its aff9ities ally x closely ) ,aspl5ium4 ,its want ( an indusium is suppli$1 p]haps occasion$1 by ! abundance ( *affy scales :i* cov] ! back ( ! fronds4 ,! lat]al ve9s are alt]nate & irregul>ly bran*$1 ) ! bran*es ana/omos+ t[>ds ! m>g94 ,! sori are oblong or l9e>1 atta*$ to ! upp] side ( ! ant]ior bran*es except ! la/1 :i* is on ! opposite side ( ! l[] bran*4 ,! ,briti% species1 ,cet]a* (fic9>um1 or ,scaly ,sple5-wort 7fig4 #fd71 has deeply p9natifid1 lanceolate fronds1 ) oblong1 obtuse1 alt]nate segm5ts1 & l9e> sori4 ,! :ole ( ! "u-surface is d5sely clo!d ) br[n1 po9t$1 imbricat$ scales1 f9ely s]rat$ at _! m>g9s1 ! out]mo/ ( :i* ext5d beyond ! edges ( ! segm5ts4 ,!y completely cov] ! sori1 & at fir/ hide !m entirely f view4 ,on ! unexp&$ fronds1 ! scales are :ite & silv]y4 #8,?is plant has an obscure indusium1 only p]ceptible at an e>ly /age ( fructification1 & subsequ5tly z a ne>ly erect membrane1 atta*$ to ! back ( ! ve94 ,x is r5d]$ unnecess>y by ! arrangem5t ( ! scales1 :i* are dispos$ 9 regul> s]ies along ea* side ( ! ve9s & ve9lets1 po9t+ outw>ds1 & conceal+ ! sori ) _! broad bases1 :i* completely ov]lap !m 9 _! immature condition4' ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,cet]a* (fic9>um4 ,x is well kn[n t ! se$s ( tropical plants h be5 br\ght to ! we/]n coa/s ( ,scotl& & ,irel& by ! great ,atlantic curr5ts2 x might !re=e be expect$1 t ! spores ( ,cryptogams br\ght to our %ores by ! same means1 & f9d+ a cong5ial climate1 %\ld become naturaliz$1 z appe>s to h be5 ! case 9 anci5t times1 ) reg>d to ! ,cet]a* & ,aspl5ium m>9um1 f _! migrations1 z trac$ by ,mr4 ,johnson4 #8,! c\ntries bord]+ on ! bas9 ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ! isl&s & ea/]n %ores ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic appe> to h be5 ! orig9al /ations ( ?is rem>kable f]n4 ,9 ! ,briti% isl&s its di/ribution is too p>tial to admit ( its be+ reg>d$ z /rictly indig5\s1 ?\gh probably naturaliz$ "h at a p]iod little subsequ5t to ! arrival ( ,aspl5ium m>9um4 ,x occurs "h on lime/one-rocks1 b m frequ5tly on old walls & ru9s1 root$ deeply 9 ! decay+ mort>1 & (t5 accompany+ ,aspl5ium ,ruta-mur>ia & ,aspl5ium ,tri*omanes4 ,l o!r natural importations f ! s\?1 x is f\nd mo/ abundantly on ! we/]n m>itime c\nties t receive ! m direct fl[ ( ! tide1 & has progress$ sl[ly t[>ds ! nor!rn & c5tral p>ts ( ! k+dom4 ,9 ,scotl& x has n yet trav]s$ beyond ,p]?1 & is /ill reg>d$ z a r>e species2 :ile 9 ,irel& its copi\s di/ribution seems to indicate an e>li] arrival4' ,! gr\p ,vitt>ie1 consi/+ ma9ly ( ,vitt>ia & ,tniopsis1 is ess5tially equatorial or sub-equatorial4 ,! plants h n>r[ ribbon-l fronds1 ) nak$ sori imm]s$ 9 ! v m>g9 ( ! frond1 9 a m or less sunk5 furr[1 !re be+ no indusium4 ,! ,ble*num ,spicant1 :i* may be tak5 z a type ( ! ,lom>ie1 is a v ornam5tal f]n1 ) its d>k gre51 l9e>-lanceolate fronds1 ( two =ms2 ! f]tile ones erect1 pect9ate1 p9nate1 ) di/9ct n>r[ l9e> & acute p9n1 :ile ! b>r5 ones are smoo?1 spread+1 & p9natifid1 ) broad l9e>1 blunt1 approximate lobes4 ,! ra*is is g5]ally smoo?1 & ( a d>k purple hue1 its leafless portion be+ %aggy ) membranace\s scales4 ,! b>r5 fronds lie on ! gr\nd 9 ! w9t]1 :ile ! f]tile ones are erect1 be> fruit f ,may to ,octob]1 & )] :5 !y h %$ _! spores4 ,9 ! f]tile fronds ! lat]al ve9s are alt]nate1 & ext5d obliquely upw>ds1 ab\t half way t[>ds ! m>g9 ( ! lobe1 :51 by a sudd5 turn1 ea* runs p>allel to ! mid-ve91 & ana/omoses ) ! "o above x1 ?us =m+ an app>5tly longitud9al ve9 on :i* ! sorus is plac$1 s z to =m a l9e on ea* side ( ! mid-ve92 ?is is cov]$ ) a cont9u\s indusium l a hem1 :i* op5s on ! int]ior side 7fig4 #fe74 ,9 ! b>r5 fronds ! ve9s d n ana/omose at ! m>g9s ( ! lobe4 ,?is species is common 9 almo/ e "p ( ,great ,brita91 & ext5ds on ! ,cont95t f ,sw$i% ,lapl& to ! bord]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! species ( ,lom>ia are m>k$ by hav+ ! f]tile fronds contract$1 s t ! sorus is q m>g9al2 b !re are _m species ( ,ble*num 9 :i* ! elongat$ sorus1 plac$ p>allel to ! midrib1 is q di/ant f ! m>g91 mu* m s ?an 9 ,ble*num ,spicant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,ble*num ,spicant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,pt]is aquil9a4 ,! g5us ,pt]is is ! type ( ano!r gr\p1 ! ,pt]ide1 9 :i* ! sori =m a cont9u\s m>g9al l9e cov]$ by ! att5uat$ edge ( ! frond fold$ ov] x1 & =m+ an indusium4 ,?is is ! /ructure 9 mo/ ( ! species ( ,pt]is1 a l>ge family ab\nd+ 9 ! tropics1 & v widely di/ribut$ 9 almo/ e "p ( ! globe4 ,9 ! ,pt]is aquil9a1 or ,brack5 7fig4 #ff71 h[ev]1 9 :i* ! lat]al ve9s ( ! leaf are divid$ two or ?ree times be=e !y rea* ! m>g91 & ! extremities ( ! bran*es ana/omose & =m a ve9 at ! ext]ior or extreme m>g9 ( ! leaf1 ! sporangia are produc$ on ! upp]-surface ( ! m>g9al ve91 & are enclos$ by an ext5sion ( ! sk9 f bo? surfaces ( ! leaf2 s t ! fructification1 :i* is fold$ back on ! "u-surface ( ! leaf1 is 9 ! e>lie/ /age ( its developm5t enclos$ betwe5 two ?9 membranes1 bo? ( :i* h _! m>g9s ciliat$ ) jo9t$ hairs1 :ile1 "u ! microscope1 _! cellul> /ructure w be f\nd to diff] 9 accordance ) t ( ! upp] & "u epid]mis1 f :i* !y are individually ext5sions4 ,?is f]n is s univ]sal 9 ,brita91 z to exclude 9 "s places almo/ e o!r k9d ( vegetation1 & is s well kn[n1 t x may appe> sup]flu\s to m5tion t ! fronds are deltoid1 ) an elongat$1 /em-l petiole two or ?ree times divid$1 ! prim>y p9n opposite1 ! ultimate segm5ts oblong1 obtuse1 & conflu5t4 ,!re are exotic =ms ( ,pt]is 9 e "p ( ! _w1 :i* are m]e v>ieties ( ! ,pt]is aquil9a1 s t ! ,brack5 may be said to rank z ! mo/ univ]sally di/ribut$ ( all vegetable productions1 ext5d+ f ,we/ to ,ea/1 ov] bo? cont95ts & isl&s1 9 a zone rea*+ f ,nor!rn ,europe & ,sib]ia to ,new ,zeal&1 :]e x is repres5t$ by1 & p]haps id5tical )1 ! well kn[n ,pt]is escul5ta4 ,! ,allosorus crispus1 ,p>sley f]n1 or ,curl$ ,rock ,brack51 :i* may be tak5 z a type ( its g5us1 is by "s au?ors ref]r$ to ! same gr\p ( ,pt]ide1 ?\gh o!rs reg>d x z "o ( ! ,polypodie4 ,x is a pretty little f]n1 gr[+ 9 tufts 9 %elt]$ crevices ( m\nta9 rocks1 f ,lapl& to ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! fronds are deltoid1 twice or ?ree times p9nate1 & ( two k9ds4 ,! ultimate divisions ( ! b>r5 fronds are w$ge-%ap$1 cut1 & too!d2 ^? ( ! f]tile fronds are l9e>1 oblong1 & entire4 ,al?\gh ! sori are at fir/ circul>1 & situat$ ne> ! extremities ( ! lat]al ve9s1 !y become conflu5t 9 maturity1 & be+ cov]$ by ! reflex$ m>g9 ( ! p9nules ( ! contract$ b sc>cely alt]$ f]tile frond1 in/ead ( by an indusium1 !y be> "s resemblance 9 fructification to ,pt]is aquil9a4 ,! ,adiantie =m an exce$+ly num]\s & mo/ly tropical gr\p ( f]ns1 9 :i* ! rhizome is creep+ or globose4 ,_! sori are l9e> or oblong1 /raight or curv$1 & gr[+ on ! "u-side ( ! edges ( ! leaf1 :i* are fold$ ov] ) !m1 & ?us s]ve z an indusium4 ,adiantum has a free v5ation1 b ,hew>dia1 a relat$ g5us1 has a reticulat$ v5ation4 ,! ,adiantie h l9e>1 oblong or lunate sori1 seat$ on ! m>g9 ( ! leaf4 ,( ! sev5ty species ( ,adiantum1 only ,a4 p$atum & ,a4 ,capillus-,v5]is1 ! fir/ ,am]ican1 ! latt] ,briti%1 are inhabitants ( a cold climate4 ,! ,a4 ,capillus-,v5]is1 :i* is univ]sally di/ribut$ 9 w>m latitudes1 is believ$ to h migrat$ 9 anci5t times to ! mild & damp s\?-we/]n c\nties ( ,engl& & ,irel&4 ,! ,adiantum ,capillus-,v5]is1 or ,maid5's ,hair1 has a sl5d]1 black1 scaly1 creep+1 & bran*+ rhizome1 f ! extremities ( :i* spr+ lax tufts ( fronds gr[+ f a few in*es to a foot high4 ,! /ems ) _! alt]nate bran*es & bran*lets are sl5d]1 hair-l1 & ( a blacki% purple t9t4 ,! capill>y bran*lets be> at _! extremities ?91 bright1 b glauc\s gre51 w$ge-%ap$ leaves1 s]rat$ at _! edges4 ,! fibro-vascul> bundles :i* trav]se ! /ems & bran*es1 on rea*+ ! leaves1 spread into a palmate v5ation1 :i* t]m9ates at ! m>g9 9 bifurcations2 & ^u ^!1 9 ! f]tile leaves1 r\ndi% sori are plac$1 & cov]$ by ! transv]se oblong folds ( ! edge ( ! leaf1 z 9 fig4 #fg4 ,^! delicately graceful f]ns fl\ri% almo/ exclusively 9 damp %ady crevices ( rocks "u ! spray ( cascades1 & /ill m luxuriantly 9 deep tropical =e/s1 :]e ! air is load$ ) w>m vap\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,adiantum ,capillus-,v5]is4 ,! ,acro/i*e are among ! mo/ rem>kable ( f]ns 9 hav+ ! :ole "u-surface ( ! frond indiscrim9ately cov]$ ) nak$ sori1 & 9 a few species ! upp]-surface also4 ,!y are situat$ on ! ve9s & ve9lets1 f :5ce !y ext5d into ! int]/ices ( ! f]tile fronds1 :i* are sometimes mu* contract$4 ,! species are almo/ all tropical or subtropical4 ,a ,new ,zeal& species ( ,lom>iopsis climbs high trees by means ( its /\t root+ caudex1 & has diff]5t leaves on diff]5t p>ts ( ! plant4 ,! ,cya!9e are *iefly arboresc5t f]ns1 &1 ) ! exception ( "s fossil species1 conta9 ! noble/ repres5tatives ( ! cryptogamic flora4 ,_! fructification consi/s ( dot-l sori1 9 :i* ! usually compress$ oblique sporangia are plac$ on an elevat$ receptacle1 :i* =ms a rais$ po9t on ! surface ( ! fronds :5 ! sporangia are remov$4 ,( ^! ! ,alsophile are )\t true indusia1 :ile ! ,cya! h a sph]ical indusium1 bur/+ above or bel[1 & =m+ a cup r\nd ! sorus4 ,! pulpy sub/ance ( ! /em ( ,cya!a m$ull>is 0 a common article ( food ) ! ,new ,zeal&]s4 ,! ,glei*59e h a creep+ or climb+ rhizome1 & globose or trigonal sporangia1 few 9 numb]1 & dispos$ 9 a radiat+ mann]1 s t ! n>r[ end is int]nal4 ,!y are (t5 seat$ 9 a little cavity1 & are highly decidu\s4 ,! fronds are g5]ally =k$ or trifid1 ! middle division be+ sometimes suppli$ ) a little bulb-l body4 ,!y are mo/ly tropical or subtropical plants1 b "s species gr[ 9 ,*ili1 ,new ,zeal&1 & ,japan4 ,! ,tri*oman9e are pretty well di/+ui%$ f o!r f]ns by _! pellucid membranace\s texture4 ,z reg>ds _! te*nical *>act]s1 !y h an oblique & complete r+ to ! sporangia1 :i* are ( a l5ticul> =m1 & are collect$ ab\t a m or less elongat$ receptacle1 :i* is free )9 ei!r an urn-%ap$ cup or a two-valv$ indusium1 project+ f ! edge ( ! frond4 ,!y are *iefly inhabitants ( ! moi/ tropical =e/s1 or extra-tropical regions ( damp & mild temp]ature4 ,great ,brita9 only owns "o species ( ! g5us ,tri*omanes1 & two ( ! g5us ,hym5ophyllum1 :ile species ( ^! two g5]a con/itute "o-fif? ( ! f]n vegetation ( our antipode isl&s ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,x is m ?an d\btful ev5 t ! ,tri*omanes radicans1 or ,bri/le f]n1 is indig5\s1 z x is f\nd 9 no o!r "p ( ,great ,brita9 except ! ,iri% c\nties ( ,cork & ,k]ry1 gr[+ on dripp+ rocks & wat]falls1 or dep5d+ f ! walls & ro(s ( cav]ns2 & z x is also f\nd 9 ! ,we/ ,indies & ! ,nor? ,atlantic isl&s its transit may be acc\nt$ =1 z 9 o!r cases4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,tri*omanes radicans4 ,! fronds ( ! ,bri/le f]n1 ,tri*omanes radicans1 are some:at deltoid1 or ( a m elongat$ =m1 flimsy1 & beautifully reticulat$ :5 view$ ) a microscope4 ,!y rise at int]vals f a creep+ rhizome1 bri/ly1 ) n>r[ articulate scales1 :i* (t5 cov]s ! mo/ precipit\s rocks on :i* x gr[s ) a d>k-col\r$ network4 ,! ra*is is bran*$ & rebran*$ ?ree or f\r times1 & ! :ole be+ di/9ctly w+$ on bo? sides 9 ! plane ( ! frond1 ! successive bran*es & bran*lets runn+ ?r\gh ! leafy "p become ! ve9s ( ^? p>ts1 s t a segm5t ( ! frond is m]ely a w+$ ve91 ! w+s on ! bran*es be+ h[ev] broad] ?an ^? on ! ra*is4 ,! ve9s1 :i* divide alt]nately1 are h>d1 woody1 & wire-l1 &1 :5 b>r51 t]m9ate be=e rea*+ ! ends ( ! segm5ts2 b1 :5 f]tile1 !y ext5d beyond ! segm5t1 ! tissue ( :i* sep>ates & di/5ds 9 ! =m ( a m or less elongat$ cup ar\nd ! prolong$ ve94 ,at ! base ( t ve9 ! sporangia =m a small globul> clu/]2 &1 z !y advance t[>ds maturity1 ! ve9 ext5ds 9 ! =m ( a bri/le1 f> beyond ! m\? ( ! cup 7fig4 #fh74 ,! cup is w+$ 9 ! m luxuriant =m ( ! plant1 9 consequ5ce ( ! d\ble lay] ( tissue compos+ ! segm5t to :i* x belongs n sep>at+ ?r\gh its :ole bread?4 ,! cup-l cyl9d] be+ slightly compress$ 9 ! plane ( ! frond is indicative ( its orig94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,hym5ophyllum tunbridg5se4 ,a slight diff]5ce 9 fructification sep>ates ! ,hym5ophyllum tunbridg5se1 or ,film f]n 7fig4 #fi71 f ! ,tri*omanes1 = bo? h a creep+ rhizome1 f :i* s+le fronds spr+ at %ort int]vals4 ,! leafy p>ts ( ! fronds are m]ely w+$ ve9s1 & ! w+s consi/ ( two lay]s ( cellul> tissue f9ely reticulat$4 ,! ,hym5ophyllum is di/+ui%$ f ! ,tri*omanes by a two-valv$ cup sp9\sly s]rat$1 :i* completely conceals ! fruit-be>+ ve91 :ile1 9 ! ,tri*omanes1 ! cup is m cyl9drical1 smoo?-edg$1 ) ! f]tile ve9 project+ f> beyond x 7fig4 #fh74 ,! beautiful little ,film f]n1 ) its semi-transp>5t fronds n m ?an two or ?ree in*es high1 gr[s on %ady wet rocks1 among ! moss on ! bran*es & roots ( old trees1 & on ! gr\nd ne> lakes & rivulets4 ,x is h>dy en\gh to live 9 ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&2 b ! ,h4 unilat]ale1 a f> less beautiful plant1 has its limit 9 ,un/1 ! mo/ nor!rn ( ! ,%etl& ,isl&s4 ,! fructification 9 ! latt] plant1 ?\gh ! same 9 position1 is /alk$ in/ead ( be+ sessile4 ,! involucre is r\nd$ & ovate1 in/ead ( be+ cup-%ap$1 ) mu* swoll5 convex valves1 meet+ by _! edges b n compress$ t[>ds ! apex4 ,! ,s*izine are _m ( !m climb+ f]ns1 & = ! mo/ "p tropical4 ,lygodium articulatum climbs trees 9 ,new ,zeal& to ! height ( fifty or "o hundr$ feet1 & its t\gh wiry /ems are us$ = cordage4 ,9 "o gr\p ( ?is ord]1 repres5t$ by ,lygodium1 ! sporangia are dispos$ at ! back ( ! frond 9 imbricat$ m>g9al spikes1 =m$ by a trans=mation ( ! ultimate p9n4 ,9 ! o!r division1 repres5t$ by ,s*iza1 ! fruitful spikes are really on ! "u-side ( ! frond1 b ! frond be+ rev]s$ !y seem to be on ! upp]4 ,! ,c]atopt]id9e1 sometimes call$ ,p>k]iace1 are tropical aquatic f]ns1 ^: /]ile fronds1 :i* are membranace\s1 ) a ?ick vascul> foot/alk1 float on ! surface ( ! wat]1 & by ! "t ^! are ne>ly decay$ ! f]tile fronds are p]fect$4 ,! latt] are m erect1 repeat$ly divid$ & =k$1 ! divisions be+ l9e>4 ,!re is only a s+le g5us1 ,c]atopt]is1 :i* has cont9u\s sori occupy+ ! longitud9al ve9s at ! edge ( ! frond1 & cov]$ by ! indusioid m>g94 ,! sporangia h a v broad incomplete r+1 & connect ! r+less f]ns ) ! gr\p :i* possess !m4 ,! spores are triangul>1 & m>k$ ) ?ree sets ( conc5tric ridges4 ,! ord] ,osmund9e conta9s ! ,osmunda regalis1 consid]$ to be ! f9e/ ( all ,european f]ns1 :i* is common ?r\gh\t ,great ,brita9 9 wet spongy soils1 & appe>s to be ! only species ( ! gr\p t is ,european4 ,! fronds gr[ 9 tufts f a ?ick woody caudex1 :i* bran*es & ext5ds widely by ! =mation ( lat]al cr[ns1 b1 if imp$$1 x elongates & rises 9 an erect position to ! height ( two or ev5 ?ree feet above ! soil4 ,! b>r5 fronds ( ! l>ge luxuriant tufts are highly develop$1 & are f six to n9e or ev5 elev5 feet high2 ! f]tile fronds are %ort] & few] 9 numb]4 ,! bip9nate "* prevails ?r\gh\t2 ! prim>y divisions are opposite1 ! second>y alt]nate1 & ! p9nules are oblong & opposite4 ,! sculptur$ sporangia h a v rudim5t>y r+1 &1 9 ! fruit-be>+ fronds1 f\r or five ( ! l[] pairs ( p9nules h ! leafy "*1 :ile ! rema9d] develop clu/]s ( sporangia 9 place ( p9nules4 ,! sporangia on ! fruitful bran*es are at fir/ pale gre51 b gradually become r$di% br[n1 h5ce ! "n ( ,fl[]+ f]n4 ,! ,leptopt]is section ( ! g5us ,todea1 almo/ peculi> to ,new ,zeal&1 has beautiful transp>5t fronds1 ) nak$ sporangia plac$ ^u ! ve9s1 =m+ v mu* scatt]$ sori4 ,! ,,m>attiace may be p>tly kn[n by _! huge globose rhizome project+ above ! gr\nd1 & r\gh ) ! processes f :i* ! leaf-/alks h fall54 ,?is s5ds out a few l>ge fibr\s roots1 & consi/s ( cellul> tissue ab\nd+ 9 />*1 ) small bundles ( fibro-vascul> tissue regul>ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh x4 ,! /ipes h a pair ( /ipule-l organs at _! base2 & ! sori are ei!r oblong fronds ( a d\ble r[ ( sporangia1 :i* 9 "s cases is concrete1 or !y are circul> ) ! sporangia annul>ly concrete1 or !y are connate ?r\gh\t ! f]tile portions4 ,^! peculi>ities respectively di/+ui% ! small] gr\ps ( ,m>att9e1 ,kaulfuss9e1 & ,danine1 :ile ! gr\p ,m>attiace itself is di/+ui%$ f ,ophioglossace by hav+ its sori dorsal1 t is1 set on ! back1 or "u-surface1 ( flat leafy fronds4 ,! leaves ( ,angiopt]is evecta are us$ z a p]fume 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 & its rhizome s]ves = food1 z t ( ! ,m>attia salic9a does 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,! ,,ophioglossace1 or ,add]'s ,tongue f]ns1 are few 9 numb]1 & pres5t comp>atively little diff]5ce 9 /ructure4 ,!y are kn[n among ! exannulate s]ies1 f ! ,m>attiace1 by hav+ _! f]tile fronds contract$1 be>+ _! sporangia at ! m>g91 s t be+ entirely occupi$ by sporangia1 ! f]tile fronds appe> z if !y 7 an infloresc5ce di/9ct f ! foliace\s organs1 z inde$ !y are analogically4 ,9 ?is gr\p !re is ! fur!r diff]5ce t ! fronds are n circ9ate1 b /raight1 9 _! /ivation4 ,^! ,add]'s ,tongue f]ns are dw>f h]bace\s plants1 diff]+ greatly 9 /ructure f ! true f]ns1 ?\gh !re is "s simil>ity to !m 9 ! fructification4 ,!y are divid$ into f\r g5]a1 ( :i* ,ophioglossum & ,botry*ium are be/ kn[n4 ,! base ( ! /em is ?ick & bulbi=m1 & s5ds (f spread+ succul5t roots4 ,! species ( ! g5us ,ophioglossum are *iefly plants ( a w>m climate1 b ,ophioglossum vulgatum1 or common ,add]'s ,tongue1 is di/ribut$ 9 almo/ e "p ( ! globe4 ,9 ,engl& x is exce$+ly abundant 9 mead[s & pa/ures1 & v>ies 9 height f a few in*es to a foot1 9 moi/ soil4 ,x has "o b>r5 ovate & "o f]tile l9e> frond4 ,! b>r5 frond1 :i* is ( a yell[i%-gre5 col\r1 inve/s ! /em ( ! f]tile frond l a spa!2 its =m is ovate1 v>y+ to ovate lanceolate1 & m or less obtuse1 ) a complicat$ network ( ana/omos+ ve9s4 ,bivalv$ sporangia =m two p>allel s]ies on ! m>g9s ( ! club-l t]m9ations ( ! f]tile frond4 ,soon aft] ! fruit is %$ ! fronds die1 b "o or two buds are previ\sly =m$ at ! base ( ! plant1 :i* rema9 dormant till ! foll[+ spr+4#gd ,! g5us ,botry*ium has few species1 ab\t half ( :i* gr[ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,botry*ium ,lun>ia1 or ,moonwort1 is ! only species indig5\s 9 ,great ,brita94 ,?is plant1 :i* is f five to six in*es high1 has a r long succul5t /em1 inve/$ at ! base by ! d>k-col\r$ membran\s rema9s ( )]$ leaves4 ,x has "o b>r5 frond1 ! base ( ^: /em is a %ea?1 ?r\gh :i* ! tall1 f]tile frond rises4 ,! b>r5 frond has f ?ree or f\r to sev5 pairs ( opposite smoo? p9n1 ( a lunate %ape & glauc\s gre5 col\r1 ov]lapp+ ea* o!r2 !y are smoo?1 cr5at$ on ! m>g91 & occasionally lob$1 :i* gives !m a fan %ape4 ,! f]tile frond is long] ?an ! b>r5 "o1 & ends 9 a panicle or ?yrse4 ,! sporangia1 :i* are l>ge & bivalv$1 are dispos$ 9 two regul> s]ies ^u ! divisions ( ! panicle1 & direct$ t[>ds ! upp] or inn] face ( ! frond4 ,?is fructification be>s a /rong resemblance to t ( ,osmunda regalis1 ! ,fl[]+ f]n4 ,! /em ( ?is plant has be5 assum$ to be solid & bran*$1 :i* is by no means ! case2 =1 ^u dissection1 x is f\nd to be holl[1 & at its base ! fronds ( ! foll[+ ye> may be detect$ m or less p]fectly =m$1 & ! rudim5t>y bud ( ! succe$+ ye> )9 ! latt]2 ! position ( ! b>r5 & f]tile fronds be+ rev]s$ 9 ! successive developm5ts4 ,,section ,,ix4 ,,equisetace1 ,,or ,,horsetails4 ,,! ,equiseta are leafless1 h]bace\s plants1 annually r5ew$ f a creep+ rhizome1 & gr[+ 9 m>%y l&1 9 pools & dit*es1 on ! banks ( rivulets1 & 9 riv]s1 f ,lapl& & ,sib]ia to )9 ! tropics4 ,!re is b "o g5us1 & few species4 ,! l>ge/ ( ! t5 or elev5 species1 :i* are indig5\s 9 ,great ,brita91 is n m ?an five or six feet high1 b !y are ( great] size 9 w>m climates4 ,! ,horsetails beg9 _! lives precisely l ! ,f]ns2 =1 :5 a spore beg9s to g]m9ate1 x =ms a m>*antioid leaf or pro?allus ly+ flat on ! gr\nd1 ^u :i* are produc$ an!ridia1 full ( cells1 9 ea* ( :i* !re is a sp]matozoid ) num]\s cilia4 ,ar*egonia are also =m$ on ! pro?allus4 ,^!1 aft] f]tilization1 give rise to ! p]fect plant1 :i* ?r[s out a rhizome1 :5ce new %oots are produc$4 #8,! /ructure ( ! rhizome is v diff]5t f t ( f]ns4 ,9 an e>ly /age x consi/s ( a c5tral column ( cellul> tissue1 s5d+ (f ab\t eight radiat+ plates1 :i* connect x ) an ext]nal cyl9d] ( ! same tissue1 & opposite to ea* ( :i* !re is1 9 ! c5tral column1 a vascul> bundle consi/+ ( annul> vessels pass+ into spiral4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 tissue gr[s f ! walls into ! cavities1 9 su* wise t !y are m or less p]fectly oblit]at$4'#ge ,f ! rhizome1 :i* (t5 ext5ds to a great l5g?1 ! /ems ( ! ,equisetums rise 9 ! =m ( r\gh1 rigid1 holl[ cyl9d]s1 /riat$ longitud9ally1 & articulat$ at int]vals by sep>able jo9ts4 ,ea* articulation is inve/$ at its base by a too!d membranace\s %ea?1 f b5ea? :i*1 9 ! great] numb] ( ! species1 :orls ( bran*es spr+1 jo9t$ l ! /em1 & simil> to x ev5 to ! numb] ( tee? 9 ! %ea?s & /ri on ! surface1 b unbran*$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,equisetum giganteum3--a1 fragm5t ( /em ) bran*es2 b1 cone or spike ( fructification2 c1 "o ( ! scales ( ! cone2 d1 spore ) its ela/ic filam5ts4 ,! fructification is occasionally on sep>ate /ems1 :i* make _! appe>ance be=e ! b>r5 ones1 & are 9 g5]al unbran*$ & succul5t1 be>+ a cone on _! apex4 ,! surface ( ! cone is at fir/ smoo? or indi/9ctly reticulat$1 b x ev5tually splits into num]\s octagonal1 br[n1 %ield-l discs1 spirally arrang$1 :i*1 sep>at$ f ! /em1 are f\nd to h a /alk1 & to be> on ! "u-side f\r or eight p5d5t sac-l bodies ( a :iti% hue4 ,^! are ! sporangia1 :i* op5 on ! inside by a slit = ! dis*>ge ( ! spores4 ,! inn] coat ( ! cells ( ! sporangium is compos$ ( beautifully spiral tissue4 ,! spores arise by cell division1 ea* be+ cov]$ by a sep>ate membrane1 :i* ultimately =ms a pair ( ela/ic fibres atta*$ by _! middle1 closely coil$ r\nd ! spore1 z x is =m$ )9 ! cell2 b1 :5 ! spore is lib]at$1 !y ext5d2 ! lea/ moi/ure1 h[ev]1 ev5 ! brea?1 makes !m contract4 ,! ,equisetace diff] f ! ,f]ns 9 hav+ spiral in/ead ( scal>i=m vessels 9 _! /ructure2 b !y agree 9 hav+ only "o p]iod ( f]tilization1 aft] :i* !y produce a crop ( spores ye> aft] ye>1 & ^!1 :5 s[n1 give rise to ! prim>y leaf ) its an!ridia & ar*egonia--a p]petual cycle4 ,! :ole sub/ance ( ! /ems ( ! ,equisetums is s completely p5etrat$ ) silex1 t a silici\s skeleton rema9s aft] ! h]bace\s "p is de/roy$1 & 9 "s species z mu* z ?irte5 p] c5t4 ( ! :ole plant1 & fifty p] c5t4 ( its a%es are f\nd to be pure silex4 ,on acc\nt ( ! cry/allization ( ! silex1 ! ,horsetails =m "s ( ! mo/ beautiful ( microscopic objects4 ,if a fragm5t ( ! cuticle is magnifi$ & view$ by pol>iz$ light1 ! col\rs are se5 to be int5se & vivid1 & ! arrangem5t ( ! silici\s p>ticles s elaborate & symmetrical z to resemble necklaces ( diamonds & col\r$ gems4 ,! r[s ( cry/als run 9 l9es p>allel to ! axis ( ! /em1 ! great] numb] be+ s dispos$1 b ! re/ are gr\p$ s z to =m ovals jo9$ toge!r by a *a9 ( p>ticles =m+ a sort ( curvil9e> quadrangle1 ^! r[s ( oval comb9ations be+ arrang$ 9 pairs4 ,! effect is brilliant :5 !y are se5 9 pol>iz$ light4 ,accord+ to ,sir ,david ,brew/] e p>ticle has a regul> axis ( d\ble refraction2 b ,pr(essor ,bailey1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 /ates t ! effect "u pol>iz$ light is n produc$ by ! silici\s p>ticles1 b by ! organiz$ tissues1 s9ce1 aft] ^! h be5 de/roy$1 ! silex %[s no d\ble refraction4 ,! vascul> tissue ( ! ,equisetums %[s !m to be ( a high] class ?an ! ,f]ns4 ,! rec5t =ms v>y mu* 9 size1 b ev5 ! ,equisetum giganteum ( ,brazil1 :i* is eighte5 feet high & ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* 9 diamet]1 is incomp>ably less ?an ! ,calamites & o!r fossil ,equiseta1 :i* appe> 9 ! coal measures & new r$ s&/one4 ,rec5t species are f\nd 9 ,icel& & ! high nor!rn latitudes ( ,am]ica1 9 ! tropics1 & 9 mo/ p>ts ( ! _w1 except ,au/ralia & ,new ,zeal&4 ,,section ,x4 ,,m>sileace1 ,,or ,,rhizosp]m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,pilul>ia m9uta3--a1 mature plant1 natural size2 b1 receptacle1 slightly magnifi$4 ,,! ,m>sileace1 a natural tribe ( small p]5nial aquatic h]bs1 h a fili=m creep+ rhizome ) alt]nate erect leaves1 curl$ 9 v]nation l ^? ( ! f]ns4 ,! sporangia are enclos$ 9 oval or sph]ical lea!ry capsules1 or receptacles1 :i* conta9 two dissimil> =ms ( reproductive organs--sporangia & an!ridia1 & are sessile1 or ne>ly s1 on ! rhizome at ! base ( ! leaves1 :5ce ! g5]al "n ( ,rhizosp]m4 ,! ,pilul>ia globulif]a1 or ,pillwort1 ! only ,briti% species ( its g5us1 may be tak5 z a type4 ,its rhizome creeps ov] s& or mud1 at ! m>g9s ( lakes & pools1 :]e x is always subm]g$1 or 9 s&y or gravelly places1 :i* are only occasionally ov]fl[$4 ,at regul> int]vals ! rhizome s5ds (f a tuft ( roots & a tuft ( leaves opposite to !m2 ! leaves are smoo?1 erect1 & v sl5d]1 9 deep wat] almo/ hair l1 v>y+ f f\r to five in*es 9 height4 ,! solit>y globul> receptacles1 br[n1 hairy1 & ab\t ! size ( a small pepp]corn1 spr+ f ! axils ( ! leaves1 support$ on s %ort a /em t !y appe> to be sessile4 ,fig4 #ga %[s an ,alg]ian species ( its natural size4 ,! receptacles are divid$ by cross p>titions into two or m cells1 & sep>ate at maturity into f\r equal valves4 ,ea* cell has a sort ( plac5ta to :i* ! sporangium & an!ridia are atta*$2 & its upp] half is l9$ ) ?ree m9ute1 sessile1 obovate1 yell[i% bodies1 :i* are ! an!ridia2 ! o!r half is occupi$ by a l>g]1 r\ndi%1 or oblong sessile sporangium1 conta9+ "o spore1 :i* has a firm out] coat1 tap]+ to a po9t1 & leav+ a cavity at ! top ( ! nucleus4 ,accord+ to ,h(mei/]1 ?is cavity becomes fill$ ) cellul> tissue1 con/itut+ a conical pro?allus conflu5t ) ! nucleus4 ,a s+le ar*egonium is =m$ 9 ! c5tre1 ! orifice ( :i* corresponds ) ! apex ( ! pro?allus4 ,! an!ridia conta9 num]\s granules1 f :i* long spiral delicate sp]matozoids are ultimately develop$4#gf ,! embryos ( ! "y plants pu% =? _! radicle 9 "o direction to fix !m to ! soil1 & a frond or leaf 9 ! opposite direction4 ,?us ^! m9ute plants1 approa*+ s ne>ly to a monocotyl$on1 exhibit a high organization1 only inf]ior to t ( ! ,lycopods4 ,! gr\p conta9s ! g5]a ,m>silea1 :i* has leaves made up ( cunei=m lobes1 & resembl+ ^? ( "s legum9\s plant2 & ,salv9ia & ,azolla1 bo? ( :i* consi/ ( small float+ plants1 :i* mo/ly occur 9 tropical or subtropical c\ntries4 ,,section ,,xi4 ,,lycopodiace1 ,,or ,,club ,,mosses4 ,,! ,club ,mosses are mo/ly p]5nial plants1 ) sl5d] creep+ /ems1 (t5 sev]al feet or y>ds 9 l5g?1 occasionally erect1 & clo!d by small1 sessile1 closely set1 (t5 imbricat$ leaves )\t ve9s4 ,!y h 9 "s in/ances a habit resembl+ t ( ,conif]s4 ,! /ems consi/ ( a mass ( ?ick-wall$1 (t5 dott$ cells1 enclos+ "o or _m bun*es ( scal>i=m tissue1 :i* s5ds (f bran*es to e leaf & bud4 ,! scal>i=m tissue is accompani$ by f9e1 elongat$1 & sometimes r co>s] cells1 :i* are occasionally reticulat$4 ,! /em approa*es to t ( f]ns1 b ! bundles ( vascul> tissue are conf9$ to ! c5tre4 ,! bran*es ( ! /ems are (t5 bifurcate1 & t]m9ate 9 "o or a pair ( cone-l spikes1 :i* are ei!r sessile or /alk$4 ,! sporangia are sessile 9 ! axils ( ! imbricat$ leaves or bracts t cov] ! cones4 ,two k9ds gr[ on ! same plant1 "o ( !m bivalv$1 conta9+ a p[d]y sub/ance1 ^: p>ticles a high magnify+ p[] %[s to be globul> sp]matozoids3 ^! d n g]m9ate2 & ! o!r ?ree-valv$1 enclos+ comp>atively l>ge1 ne>ly sph]ical granules1 m>k$ ) ?ree prom95t ridges1 radiat+ f "o extremity4 ,^! c]ta9ly g]m9ate1 =m+ by cell-division a pro?allus ( hexagonal cellul> tissue1 adh]5t to & conflu5t ) ! spores1 z 9 ,m>sileace1 or p5etrat+ _! cavity1 b )\t ! protrusion ( ?reads1 z 9 f]ns or mosses4 ,on ?is pro?allus1 ar*egonia are soon produc$1 ! embryo be+ =m$ f a cell at its base2 ?is s5ds d[n roots on "o side1 & a m9ute /em ) ! two prim>y leaves ( ! "y plant at ! o!r4 ,! plant ?us be>s a close resemblance to a "y plant ( ! dicotyl$ons1 & exhibits1 ) reg>d to fructification1 ! highe/ organization ( :i* ! ,cryptogams are capable1 al?\gh 9 _! tissues ! ,lycopods are inf]ior to ! ,equisetace & ,m>sileace4 ,!re are f\r g5]a ( ?is ord]1 v widely disp]s$1 mo/ abundant & l>g] 9 ! hot moi/ p>ts ( ,india & ! ,indian isl&s1 b l>ge tracts are cov]$ ) !m )9 ! arctic circles & 9 temp]ate latitudes4 ,!re are #bjj species ( ! g5us ,lycopodium1 or ,wolfs-claw1 & ( ^!1 six only are indig5\s 9 ,brita92 !y gr[ 9 v expos$ situations1 z 9 ! case ( ,l4 clavatum1 :i* lives on upl& hea?s & pa/ures1 & :i* has a procumb5t /em1 creep+ = _m feet or y>ds1 s5d+ out bran*es 9 all directions1 ) a pair ( cones at _! extremities1 & /rong roots at int]vals to fix x to ! gr\nd4 ,lycopodium inundatum =ms l>ge pat*es on ! m>%es 9 ! s\? ( ,engl&4 ,new ,zeal& has _m m species ( ?is g5us ?an ,brita91 & "s ( ! noble/ specim5s4 ,! dri$ spores ( ! ,l4 clavatum are s inflammable1 t !y h be5 us$ on ! /age to produce ! effect ( lightn+4 ,"s ,club ,mosses yield a blue dye1 a col\r :i* is n[ obta9$ ( a bett] quality f coal t>4 ,o!rs possess ca?>tic prop]ties1 b al?\gh !y h be5 us$ z m$ic9e1 !y are v dang]\s f ! viol5ce ( _! effects4 ,! g5us ,selag9ella has a moss-l habit4 ,! /em is g5]ally creep+1 & flat-look+ f be+ clo!d ) di/i*\s leaves2 b sometimes x is tall & erect1 hav+ fea!ry bran*es clad ) leaves4 ,! sporangia are sacs1 ) two or ?ree valves conta9+ l>ge spores & sub-globose an!ridia1 conta9+ orange-col\r$ or m9ute sc>let bodies1 ultimately develop$ into sp]matozoids4 ,! species are v num]\s & greatly v>i$1 & mo/ly tropical4 ,f a comp>ison ( ! /ructure ( ! /ems ( ! fossil plants1 ,sigill>ia & ,lepidod5dron1 ,dr4 ,hook] concludes t !y are highly develop$ ,lycopods1 approa*+ closely 9 /ructure to ! highe/ class ( plants4 ,! /ems ( ! =m] diff] *iefly 9 size f ^? ( ! ,lycopodium1 & ! cones ( ! ,lepido/robus diff] 9 _! great] developm5t & 9 ! ?ickness ( _! scales f ^? ( ! ,conif]s4 ,! spores ( ! ,lepido/robus ornatus too are sph]icotetrah$ral1 l ^? ( ! ,lycopodium4 ,b inf]ior z ! exi/+ ,lycopods are to _! fossil ance/ors1 _! analogy to ! ,conif]s gives !m a m exalt$ position 9 ! vegetable _w ?an _! tall & graceful allies1 #8! tree f]ns4' ,! gradual *ange ( /ructure f ! l[e/ to ! highe/ cryptogamic =m is accompani$ by a s+ul> v>iety 9 ! mode ( reproduction1 & a degree ( vital en]gy sc>cely to be expect$1 at lea/ 9 be+s ( su* l[ organization z ! yea/ plant1 :i* produces gemm 9 va/ & rapid pr(usion1 ea* gem or bud be+ only a facsimile ( ! p>5t cell4 ,9 l mann] ! "m plant is reproduc$ by ! g]m9ation ( ! gre5 zoospores1 ! gre5 globul> cells 9 ! fronds ( ! li*5s1 ! motile gonidia1 & ! discs 9 ! baskets ( ! ,m>*antia1 especially ^? ( ! ,m>*antia polymorpha1 :i* h su* vigor\s vegetation t !y =m /omates on :i*ev] side is turn$ to ! light1 & roots on ! o!r4 ,! result ( all ^! is an individual p]fectly simil> to its p>5t1 l t produc$ by a bud & cutt+ ( a tree1 or ! axill>y fruit buds ( ! ,begonia4 ,! leaves ( t fl[]+ plant1 z well z ^? ( ! ,a*im5es & ,glox9ia1 possess ! prop]ty ( reproduc+ ! p>5t plant1 =1 :5 laid on moi/ e>? & slit 9 diff]5t places1 a "y plant rises f ! upp] side ( ! fracture1 & roots %oot d[n f ! "u4 ,al?\gh ?is mann] ( gr[? resembles ! g]m9ation ( ! embryo ( an ar*egonium1 x is widely diff]5t1 = ! embryonic cell is f]tiliz$ by ! sp]matozoids1 s !re is a c]ta9 analogy b n ! smalle/ aff9ity4 ,! highe/ vegetable classes c reproduce ! "m plant 9 _m ways1 b !y h no?+ ak9 to ! alt]nation ( g5]ations exhibit$ by _m ( ! l[] tribes1 nor yet to conjugation l ! ,desmidiace & ,diatoms4 ,possibly ! spores result+ f ^! two modes ( reproduction1 z well z ! re/+ spores1 may produce new species2 c]ta9ly ^? result+ f fructification d occasionally yield new v>ieties4 ,_m spores produce ! plant directly1 o!rs indirectly1 z mo/ ( ! fungi2 b if ! def9ition ( a p]fect plant be t :i* be>s ! fructification1 ! mycelium ( a mu%room con/itutes ! plant1 = ! mu%room itself is only a k9d ( sporangium or spore-case4 ,nev]!less1 ! spores ( ! ,pucc9ia & o!r microscopic fungi1 :i* are ! cause ( ! ru/ & mildew 9 :eat1 give rise to a k9d ( pro?allus1 #8a slight =e-%ad[+' ( ! pro?allus ( ! ,m>*antia & ,mosses1 :i* only produce sporangia1 & ^? ( ! ,f]ns1 ,horsetails1 & ,club ,mosses1 ^: ar*egonia conta9 ! embryo ( ! plant itself4 ,! fructification ( ! ,lycopods is ! highe/ ( :i* ! ,cryptogamia are capable1 & br+s !m into a s+ul> analogy ) ! fl[]+ class4 ,= 9 ! ovule1 or se$-vessel ( ! fl[]-be>+ race1 a l>ge cell is =m$1 conta9+ mucilag9\s matt]1 :i*1 soon aft] fructification1 is conv]t$ into a mass ( cellul> tissue1 :i* gives rise to ! cell conta9+ ! embryo1 j z ! pro?allus ( a ,lycopod gives rise to ! ar*egonium conta9+ ! embryo ( ! plant4 ,! l9e> leaves ( exi/+ ,lycopods & ! cones ( _! fossil allies1 are simil> to ! leaves & cones ( ! ,conif]3 !re is no aff9ity1 b an analogy exi/+ betwe5 ^! two gr\ps suffici5t to make !m =m l9ks betwe5 ! two great divisions ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,! ,lycopodiace probably may be reg>d$ z ! highe/ ( ! ,cryptogamia1 & ,conif] z ! l[e/ ( ! fl[]-be>+ class4 ,,section ,,xii4 ,,g5]al ,,/ructure ,,( ,,fl[]+ ,,plants4 ,,9 "s ( ! ,cryptogamic families f]tilization takes place be=e ! plant itself is develop$4 ,9 ! two highe/ classes1 ^? conta9+ ! great gr\ps ( ,fl[]+ ,plants1 on ! contr>y1 x is ! ultimate result ( ! infloresc5ce1 :i* consi/s ( calyx1 corolla1 /am5s1 & pi/ils1 all :i* are ! lat] expansions ( ! cellul> tissues & gr\ps ( vessels :i* h 9 e>li] /ages ( developm5t =m$ ! leaves4 ,!y conta9 ! same mat]ials1 & 9 fact !y are leaves modifi$ 9 =m1 /ructure1 & function4 ,al?\gh ! almo/ innum]able div]sities 9 ! =m ( leaves mu/ produce correspond+ div]sities 9 ! infloresc5ce1 yet ! g5]al *>act]i/ics are ! same or simil> 9 bo? ( ! great botanical classes4 ,! /ructure ( ! calyx & corolla :i* =m ! floral envelope ( ! fructification1 is simil> to t ( leaves4 ,! calyx consi/s1 9 its e>ly /age1 ( sev]al p>ts call$ sepals1 :i* h all ! *>act]s ( leaves2 subsequ5tly !y are sometimes unit$ by _! edges1 s z to =m a tube1 or are o!rwise modifi$4 ,! corolla only diff]s f a leaf by great] delicacy ( organization2 x has few] /omates or brea?+ pores1 & ! ve9s h less woody fibre & sometimes _m spiral vessels2 ! ve9s 9 ! petals ( *ickwe$ & "s o!r plants are entirely compos$ ( spiral vessels4 ,! calyx & corolla protect ! fructify+ organs consi/+ ( /am5s ) _! an!rs1 & ! pi/il or pi/ils4 ,! /am5s are =m$ ( v f9e filam5ts1 & ! an!rs1 :5 "y & /ill enclos$ 9 ! unexp&$ fl[]1 are full ( a liquid :i* is aft]w>ds *ang$ into a delicate homog5e\s1 cellul> tissue4 ,!n ! int]nal "p ( t tissue becomes divid$ into two k9ds ( cells1 "o ( :i* goes to =m ! walls ( two lat]al & p>allel *amb]s or loculi1 sep>at$ by a "p m or less cont9u\s ) ! filam5t4 ,! o!r k9d ( cells are develop$ into poll5 gra9s )9 ! *amb]s4 ,!y gradually =m a cyl9drical assemblage ( "m cells4 ,)9 ea* ( ^!1 f\r cells are ultimately =m$1 ea* conta9+ a s+le poll5 cell4 ,9 all plants1 except ! aquatic1 ! poll5 cells are soon clo!d by ! deposition ( "o or m lay]s ( cells1 :i* =m ! out] membrane1 on :i* are impress$ figures or m>k+s peculi> to ea* species ( plant1 su* z slits1 po9ts1 papill1 %>ply def9$ circles1 pores1 c4 ,! col\r ( ! ext]nal lay] is g5]ally yell[1 r>ely gre51 blue1 or r$2 ! ?read is usually :ite1 except 9 ! fu*sia & "s o!rs4 ,:5 ! poll5 is ripe ! *amb]s dehisce to emit x4 ,! op5+ is usually a slit betwe5 ! valves :i* close ! *amb]s4 ,! l5g? ( ! slit is v>iable1 & ! =m ( ! poll5 gra9s is equally s2 !y are commonly ellipsoidal1 & att5uat$ at ! extremities2 b 9 all cases !y are beautiful microscopic objects4 ,! cont5ts ( ! poll5 gra9s consi/ ( a liquid conta9+ mucilag9\s granules1 :i* is 9 circulation4 ,! granules increase 9 numb] t[>ds ! p]iod ( maturation1 m+l$ ) oil globules1 & frequ5tly />*4 ,! circulation ( ! fluid ceases long be=e maturation 9 all cases1 except ! ,zo/]a2 b ! granules ( ! cont5ts exhibit an active molecul> motion (t5 )9 ! poll5 cell1 & always aft] expulsion ev5 9 poll5 tak5 f dri$ specim5s4 ,aft] ! liquid ceases to circulate1 x becomes conc5trat$ & contract$2 & :5 ! poll5 is only enclos$ 9 "o delicate membrane1 x simply bur/s ! vesicle2 b1 z mo/ poll5 gra9s h a d\ble coat1 !y bur/ op5 at ! slits1 or pores1 on _! surface1 & ?r\gh ^! ! int]nal membrane1 9 ! =m ( a tube1 is protrud$1 & emits its cont5ts2 b x may be project$ to a consid]able di/ance )\t bur/+4 ,! pi/il 9 a v "y /ate is a gre5i% concave body sc>cely to be di/+ui%$ f a nasc5t leaf2 x becomes m concave2 & f9ally ! bord]s meet & unite1 s t a holl[ body is =m$1 :i* ultimately becomes a p]fect pi/il consi/+ ( ?ree p>ts1 ! apex or /igma1 ! /yle1 & ! ov>y1 9 :i* ! ovules1 or unripe se$s1 are =m$ & f]tiliz$1 ! latt] aft]w>ds becom+ ! fruit4 ,! ov>y is compos$ ( an outw>d sk9 conta9+ cellul> tissue & vascul> bundles ( spiral vessels1 :i*1 runn+ upw>ds1 conv]ge t[>ds ! /yle2 !y v>y 9 numb]1 & are sometimes ramifi$4 ,a s+le ovule1 :i* is an unripe se$1 may be produc$ )9 ! ov>y1 or ! ov>y may be divid$ into two or m comp>tm5ts1 9 ea* ( :i* an ovule may be =m$ & atta*$ to ! ov>y by a mass ( cellul> tissue1 & n unfrequ5tly by a s+le ?read4 ,! /yle1 :5 exam9$ ) a microscope1 is a holl[ tube1 or canal1 ext5d+ f ! cavity ( ! ov>y to ! /igma4 ,x consi/s ( cellul> tissue ) vascul> bundles ne> ! circumf]5ce1 :i* pass upw>ds 9 /raight l9es1 & end bel[ ! summit4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ! canal is op52 9 o!rs x is ob/ruct$ by lax cellul> tissue hav+ _m gaps4 ,! /igma is an expansion ( t lax tissue at ! po9t :]e ! canal op5s ext]nally4 ,at ! "t ( fructification1 ! canal ( ! /yle is occupi$ by s(t humid elongat$ cells mix$ ) a visc\s fluid1 :i* exudes ^u ! surface ( ! /igma1 r5d]+ x moi/ & glut9\s4 ,:5 ! poll5 gra9s adh]e to t humid sub/ance1 ! tubul> ext5sion ( _! inn] l9+1 ) its cont5ts1 passes d[n ! /yle & f]tilizes ! unripe se$s4 ,aft] fructification ! an!rs1 /igma1 & conduct+ tissues )]1 yet1 9 _m fruits1 additions are made to ! ov>y & its cont5ts by ! rema9s ( "s ( ! o!r p>ts ( ! infloresc5ce4 ,9 ! apple1 :i* is a simple fruit1 ! sk9 ( ! calyx =ms ! sk9 ( ! apple1 & ! fle% or edible "p is develop$ out ( ! ov>y & ! rema9d] ( ! calyx1 :ile ! inn] lay] ( ! ov>y =ms ! horny cells conta9+ ! ripe se$s4 ,9 ! /rawb]ry1 :i* is a comp\nd fruit1 ! pulp is ! enl>g$ fle%y receptacle be>+ ! simple fruit on its surface4 ,9 ! orange1 ! membran\s p>titions ( its segm5ts are ! l9+s ( ! ov>y1 & ! pulp is =m$ ( lax l>ge-cell$ cellul> tissue develop$ )9 x4#gg ,all fruits h ! m>k ( ! /yle2 x is v evid5t 9 ! apple & orange4 ,simple fruits are =m$ by a s+le fl[]2 multiple fruits1 l ! ananas1 or p9e-apple1 & fir cone1 are =m$ ( masses ( infloresc5ce 9 a /ate ( adhesion4 ,spiral vessels are frequ5tly f\nd pass+ f ! fle%y "p ( fruits into ! se$s2 !y are v num]\s 9 ! se$s ( ! ,collomia gr&iflora & o!rs1 coil$ up & compress$ by ! out] sk92 b !y />t to _! full l5g? z soon z releas$4 ,! coats ( ! se$s ( v>i\s plants1 :5 se5 ?r\gh a microscope1 are beautifully m>k$4 ,t ( ! ,bignonia is surr\nd$ by a fr+e ( elongat$ spiral vessels1 ! se$ ( ! poppy has a reticulat$ surface1 & _m h w+s l ^? ( ! a% tree1 or d[n l ! ?i/le1 t !y may be disp]s$ by ! w9d4 ,! t5d5cy ( roots to /rike d[nw>ds is s great1 t se$s "r !mselves :i*ev] way !y may fall4 ,,section ,,xiii4 ,,monocotyl$on\s1 ,,or ,,endog5\s ,,plants4 ,,! /ructure1 gr[?1 & reproduction ( ! fl[]-be>+ vegetation (f] objects ( ! highe/ int]e/1 ?\gh v diff]5t f ^? furni%$ by ! fl[]less class4 ,! plants ^: se$s h b "o lobe =m a transition f ! l[e/ to ! highe/ class ( vegetables1 & include ^? :i* furni% ! pr9cipal articles ( food to man & animals4 ,!y are all fl[]-be>+1 & consi/ ( num]\s families ( l& & wat] plants4 ,! mo/ important are ! palms1 :i* s]ve = food 9 tropical c\ntries1 ! grasses1 :i* are cosmopolite & social1 cov]+ ext5sive tracts ( c\ntry ) ri* v]dure1 & includ+ ! ,c]ealia1 :i* h be5 cultivat$ f su* remote antiquity1 t ! grasses f :5ce !y 7 d]iv$ are unkn[n4 ,?is monocotyl$on\s class includes1 besides ! palms & c]eals already m5tion$1 ! sug>-cane1 ! bamboo & o!r canes1 toge!r ) re$s1 ru%es1 screw p9es1 mo/ g>d5 bulbs1 ! s+ul> & beautiful race ( ,or*ids1 & a multitude ( o!r ornam5tal & useful plants4 ,! se$s ( ?is class consi/ ( a ?9 sk9 cov]+ a mass ( :ite or gre5 matt]1 :i*1 :5 ripe1 con/itutes ! />* & fl\r 9 ! ,c]ealia4 ,)9 t matt] lies a fle%y lobe ) ! infant plant imb$d$ 9 "o corn]4 ,! same g5]al /ructure may be trac$ ?r\gh\t ! class1 ?\gh ! lobe ) its embryo 9 ! surr\nd+ matt] may be cov]$ ) a h>d coat1 z 9 ! cocoa-nut1 or inclos$ 9 a %ell cov]$ ) a ri* fruit1 z 9 ! date4 ,! infant plant1 z x lies 9 its se$ lobe1 has a /em ) a leaf bud or plumule at "o end1 & an embryo root at ! o!r2 &1 z soon z ! se$ beg9s to g]m9ate1 x is n\ri%$ by ! conv]sion ( ! />* ( ! surr\nd+ matt] into sug>4 ,at fir/ ! :ole "y plant is ( cellul> tissue1 b1 z soon z ! se$ leaf appe>s above ! soil1 x decomposes ! c>bonic acid ( ! atmosph]e1 absorbs ! oxyg51 & consolidates ! c>bon4 ,!n cords ( fibro-vascul> tissue are =m$ )9 x1 :i* conv]ge at its base1 & unite ) ! radicle ( ! "y plant to =m ! solid c5tre ( ! und]gr\nd /em1 f :5ce ! real roots desc5d1 l sl5d] :ite cords1 :i* supply ! plant ) food4 ,! se$ lobe hav+ set ! curr5t ( ! cell sap 9 motion disappe>s1 & ! arial or above-gr\nd /em1 :i* n[ consi/s ( pi?1 sap1 wood1 & sk9 or b>k1 gr[s rapidly 9 l5g? to its fir/ node1 or ?ick5$ "p1 :]e ! fir/ leaf or leaves appe>1 = ! fir/ leaves g5]ally appe> at ! top ( ! /em 9 ?is class1 & are annually succe$$ by o!rs ris+ above !m f ! top ( ! elongat$ /em1 z 9 ! palms & grasses4 ,! /em or axis ( a palm is a cyl9d] ) a graceful plume ( leaves at its summit1 & a cone ( :ite roots at its base4 ,a section ( ! /em p]p5dicul> to its axis exhibits a mass ( cellul> tissue ) a numb] ( d>k-col\r$ spots irregul>ly scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ) ! exception ( an envelope ( d5se cellul> tissue1 :i* =ms a k9d ( b>k4 ,! d>k spots are ! sections ( bundles consi/+ ( two or ?ree v wide & l>ge vascul> ducts enclos$ 9 extremely f9e woody fibre & spiral vessels closely press$ toge!r4 ,^! bundles aft] hav+ =m$ ! ribs & foot/alks ( ! leaves1 ent] ! upp] "p ( ! /em1 approa* t[>ds its c5tre1 b5d d[n = a %ort di/ance1 !n turn t[>ds ! ext]ior1 int]lace ) ! bundles ( ! previ\s ye>1 :i* h foll[$ a simil> c\rse1 & make a circle ( r\gh m>ks on ! surface ( ! /em4 ,! /em !n increases 9 l5g?1 & a new plume ( leaves cr[ns its top2 ! same process is repeat$2 &1 z ?is goes on indef9itely1 ! l[] "p ( ! /em is r\gh1 & sometimes ev5 rugg$1 z t ( ! ,palmyra palm4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is mann] ( gr[?1 a p]p5dicul> section ( a /em %[s a s]ies ( curves int]sect+ ea* o!r & orig9at+ 9 po9ts gradually asc5d+ z ! palm gr[s 9 height4 ,^! curves proce$ f e po9t ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! /em1 pres5t _! convexities to ! c5tre1 & b5d r\nd1 & ent] ! leaves1 :i* are long1 lanceolate1 & (t5 p9nate ) ve9s runn+ ?r\gh !m longitud9ally4 ,9 "s palms ! great] "p ( ! c5tre ( ! trunk is altoge!r cellul> tissue1 b ea* species has an arrangem5t ( its own4 ,"s palms1 z ! date palm1 are dici\s1 "o plant be>+ male1 ! o!r female fl[]s4 ,9 ^! cases1 ! poll5 is c>ri$ f "o tree to ! o!r by ! w9d or by insects1 &1 z mu* is lo/ 9 ! transit1 !re is always m produc$ ?an is requir$ to f]tilize ! female fl[]s4 ,! ,gram9ace are v num]\s1 b ! g5]al /ructure is virtually ! same1 :e!r x be a simple h]bace\s grass1 a sug> cane1 or a bamboo4 ,! /em ( ! grasses is jo9t$1 & furni%$ ) long lanceolate leaves1 spr++ alt]nately to ! "r & left ( ea* successive jo9t1 & ! p>ts ( ! /em betwe5 ! jo9ts are embrac$ & ne>ly surr\nd$1 z by a %ea?1 ) ! exp&$ bases ( ! leaves2 =1 9 ?is class ( plants1 "o gr[? always spr+s f ! int]ior ( t :i* prec$es x4 ,9 y\? ! /ems ( ! grasses are solid1 & ! bundles ( woody tissue :i* surr\nd ! pi? are p>allel to "o ano!r & to ! axis ( ! /em2 b1 at ! jo9ts1 !y are turn$ aside & are cond5s$ into a node or jo9t1 :]e !y ent] into a new arrangem5t1 & pass into ! lanceolate leaf1 to =m its longitud9al ribs4 ,! compression ( ! fibro-vascul> tissue is s great z to =m a septum across ! int]ior ( ! /em z ! node4 ,?is is ! case 9 all ! grasses2 = ! pi?1 :i* is ( moi/ gre5 cellul> tissue :5 !y are "y1 soon disappe>s1 s t a full gr[n grass is a holl[ /em articulat$ at int]vals by solid jo9ts1 f :5ce ! long n>r[ leaves spr+ alt]nately1 & z ! bases ( ! leaves are cont9u\s ) ! /em1 !y d n fall (f :5 !y )]4 ,9 ! majority ( cases1 ! infloresc5ce ( ! ,gram9ace consi/s ( a pi/il & ?ree an!rs2 b 9 ! ,an?oxan?um odoratum1 or sweet-sc5t$ v]nal grass1 & "s o!rs1 !re are b two an!rs1 :ile "s few species h m ?an ?ree4 ,9 g5]al1 ! fl[]s are h]maphrodite2 b 9 c]ta9 g5]a !y are monci\s1 z 9 ,zea & ,zizania2 & 9 o!rs !y are polygam\s1 z 9 ,&ropogon & ,sorghum4 ,! grasses are1 = ! mo/ "p1 l[ & h]bace\s2 b ! ,arundo ,donax ( ,s\!rn ,europe1 & ! sug> cane & bamboo ( ! tropics are l(ty /rong-gr[+ plants1 ! latt] rea*+ z mu* z #ej or #fj feet 9 height4 ,! /ems & leaves ( ! grass family are /r5g!n$ by silex2 _m ( !m are s entirely coat$ ) x1 t _! leaves are z %>p z ! edge ( a knife4 ,x gives h>dness to ! be>ds ( :eat & b>ley1 & is (t5 f\nd 9 concrete masses1 call$ taba%e]1 9 ! jo9ts ( bamboos1 :i* 9 ! ,indian jungles h be5 set on fire by ! friction ( _! silici\s coats dur+ a gale ( w9d4 ,z no solid matt] c ent] ! roots ( a plant1 ! silex mu/ be absorb$ 9 a /ate ( solution2 &1 z x coats ! surface1 :i* is full ( pores1 ! liquid is remov$ by p]spiration1 & ! silex is consolidat$4 ,! :ole ( ?is family ab\nds 9 sug>1 & its f>9ace\s products are too well kn[n to require any notice4 ,! grasses seem to h be5 ! means ( reveal+ ! e>lie/ dawn ( plant life1 = ! ,hon4 ,sidney ,osborne discov]$ t ! col\rless protoplasm1 or organizable liquid extract$ f ! roots ( "y :eat1 produc$ spontane\sly & simultane\sly d\ble ovate vesicles1 or cells1 su* z are f\nd 9 ! roots !mselves2 & 9 t liquid1 ?\gh h]metically seal$ 9 glass tubes1 ! =mation ( ^! vesicles or cells 0 z active aft] six mon?s z 9 ! liquid fre%ly tak5 f ! "y plant4 ,mr4 ,osborne believ$ ^! vesicles to be ! e>lie/ organisms ( plant life1 & t ?is is ! direct & prevail+ mode ( production ( ! embryo4 ,?is accords ) ! obs]vations ( ,messrs4 ,w5ham & ,devey4 ,_m o!r v rem>kable plants belong+ to ! ,monocotyl$ons might be m5tion$1 z ! ,dracna ,draco1 or ,dragon tree ( ,t5]iffe1 "o ( ! mo/ anci5t trees exi/+2 ! ,p&anus1 or screw p9e1 ) its arial roots1 indig5\s 9 ! isl&s ( ,oceania2 & ! ,zo/]a1 or sea wrack1 ! only fl[]-be>+ plant except "o t inhabits ! ocean2 _! fl[]s are m9ute & bisexual1 are r>ely produc$1 b !y cov] l>ge areas ) long grassy leaves4 ,bulb\s plants1 & ! ,or*idace1 ! mo/ spl5did ornam5ts ( our g>d5s & ho?\ses1 are memb]s ( ?is class4 ,( ! =m]1 ! sn[drop1 crocus1 col*icum1 arum1 hyac9?1 n>cissus1 tulip1 & lily =m a gr\p ( s+ul> beauty4 ,a bulb is m]ely a subt]ranean /em rema9+ p]man5tly 9 ! condition ( a bud4 ,x consi/s ( a disc1 or conical plate1 :i* is ! po9t ( gr[? :5ce ! fl[]-be>+ /em & ! leaves spr+4 ,^! are surr\nd$ by leafy scales ( a fle%y "* ov]lapp+ "o ano!r4 ,! ,liliace & ! ,am>yllidace conta9 _m ( ! mo/ rem>kable & beautiful bulb\s plants kn[n 9 g>d5s4 ,to ! =m] ord] belong ! hyac9?1 tulip1 & onion1 9 :i* ! gr[+ po9t is surr\nd$ by a s]ies ( fle%y tunics1 ea* ( :i* encloses its pr$ecessor2 z also ! lily itself1 9 ! bulb ( :i* ! gr[+ po9t is enclos$ 9 fle%y scales imbricat$ 9 r[s "o above ! o!r4 ,"o or two circles ( roots desc5d f ! circumf]5ce ( ! disc 9 ! =m ( sl5d]1 s(t1 :ite cords or ?reads1 ) a spongy t]m9ation ( cellul> tissue to imbibe wat] & o!r liquids = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! plant4 ,^! bulbs are reproduc$ by buds1 or (fsets1 develop$ 9 ! axils ( ! fle%y scales1 :i* fall (f ei!r ! fir/ or second ye> ( gr[?4 ,(fsets are also produc$ by ! arum1 crocus1 & mead[ saffron or col*icum1 ^: bulbs =m a solid mass1 & are call$ corms4 ,^! (fsets m]ely reproduce a facsimile ( ! p>5t4 ,9 ^! & all fl[]+ plants fructification mu/ take place be=e a new =m or v>iety c be expect$4 ,! ,or*ids surpass e plant 9 ! vegetable _w1 = ! v>iety ( means employ$ by nature to cont9ue ! race4 ,! blossoms are1 = ! mo/ "p1 at once bo? male & female1 ?\gh "s plants are dici\s1 b1 except 9 r>e in/ances1 z 9 t ( ! ,bee ,or*is1 n a blossom c be f]tiliz$ )\t ! aid ( insects4 ,! fl[]s ( ! ,or*ide are con/ruct$ ^u a fix$ plan1 :i* c be trac$ ?r\gh ! innum]able v>iety ( beautiful1 s+ul>1 & (t5 grotesque =ms :i* !y assume4 ,a correspond+ v>iety is exhibit$ 9 ! admirable contrivances & adaptations :i* enable insects to deta* ! poll5 f "o blossom1 & c>ry x to f]tilize ano!r blossom4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,or*is mascula3--,a1 side view ( fl[]1 ) a portion cut away2 ,b1 section ?r\gh "o side ( ro/ellum1 ) includ$ disc & caudicle ( poll9ium2 a1 an!r2 r1 ro/ellum2 d1 disc4 ,! ,briti% ,or*ide belong ma9ly to ?ree natural gr\ps3 ! ,ophre1 :i* comprise ! ,or*is1 ,ophrys1 & o!r common ,or*ids2 ! ,neotte1 compris+ ,epipactis1 ,neottia1 ,spiran!s1 c42 & ! ,malaxe1 repres5t$ by ,malaxis4 ,or*ids h :ite1 fibr\s roots1 & _m ( !m a pair ( fle%y tub]cles4 ,f !nce a /raight /em spr+s up1 end+ 9 a spike ( blossoms1 ea* ( :i* is atta*$ to ! /em by a twi/$ /alk1 conta9+ ! ov>ium1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #gb4 ,ribb$ lanceolate leaves rise f ! roots1 & "s are atta*$ sp>+ly to alt]nate sides ( ! /em4 ,! calyx is =m$ ( ?ree po9t$ sepals1 "o p]p5dicul>1 ! o!rs horizontal4 ,in/ead ( be+ gre5 !y are usually col\r$4 ,sometimes ! :ole plant is gre54 ,"o petal 7fig4 #gb7 is mu* l>g] ?an ! o!rs1 occasionally assum+ ! mo/ extraord9>y =ms4 ,x is call$ ! labellum1 or l[] lip2 x secretes nect>1 a sweet juice1 to attract insects1 & is (t5 produc$ into a long1 holl[1 spur-l nect>y1 z 9 fig4 #gb n4 ,on t side ( ! spur :i* is opposite to ! labellum1 ! organs ( reproduction are s plac$1 t an insect alight+ ^u ! labellum _c ins]t its proboscis into ! nect>y tube to eat ! honey1 )\t t\*+ !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,or*is mascula3--,front view ( fl[]1 ) sepals & petals remov$2 a1 an!r2 r1 ro/ellum2 s1 /igma2 l1 labellum4 ,mr4 ,d>w91 9 8 admirable "w on ! #8,f]tilization ( ,or*ids1' assumes ! ,or*is mascula z a type = expla9+ ! me*anism ( ! reproductive organs ( ! ,or*idace g5]ally4 ,fig4 #gc repres5ts a front view ( ! fl[] ) all ! sepals & petals cut (f1 except ! labellum1 or lip2 & fig4 #gb is a side view ( ! same1 ) ! ne> half ( ! labellum cut away1 z well z ! upp] portion ( ! ne> side ( ! nect>y1 or spur4 ,9 all common ,or*ids !re is only "o /am51 :i* is conflu5t ) ! ?ree pi/ils1 to =m :at is call$ ! column4 ,! edges ( ! labellum are atta*$ to ! sides ( ! column1 leav+ a space kn[n z ! *amb] or m\? ( ! nect>y1 & ?us ! m\? has ! column on "o side1 & ! labellum on ! o!r4 ,al?\gh ! ?ree pi/ils are unit$ into "o1 ! ?ree /igmas are n2 = ! /igma ( ! upp] pi/il is trans=m$ into a p\*-%ap$ visc\s mass 7r1 fig4 #gc71 call$ ! ro/ellum1 be>+ no resemblance :atev] to a /igma1 :ile ! o!r two /igmas =m a bi-lob$ conflu5t mass or /igma bel[ x1 ?r\gh :i* ! poll5 gra9s f]tilize ! ov>y1 :i* latt] =ms ! app>5tly twi/$ /alk1 by :i* ! blossom is atta*$ to ! /em4 ,9 fact1 ! ro/ellum 7r7 projects into ! m\? ( ! nect>y1 & ov]hangs ! conflu5t /igmas 7s s74 ,! l[e/ & n>r[e/ "p ( a hood-%ap$ an!r 7fig4 #gc a a17 is atta*$ to ! back ( ! ro/ellum1 & consi/s ( two r widely sep>at$ oblong cells1 :i* op5 longitud9ally 9 front4 ,ea* cell conta9s a poll5-mass1 or poll9ium4 ,fig4 #gd repres5ts "o ) its club-%ap$ mass ( poll5 gra9s1 its /alk1 & viscid disc4 ,^! objects are se5 9 situ 9 fig4 #gc4 ,a poll9ium consi/s ( a numb] ( w$ge-%ap$ packets ( poll5 gra9s held toge!r by exce$+ly ela/ic f9e ?reads1 z 9 fig4 #ge2 ! packets unite into ! club-%ap$ head1 & ! ?reads =m ! /em2 ! viscid discs are =m$ by ! ro/ellum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,poll9ium ( ,or*is mascula3--p1 poll9ium2 c1 caudicle2 d1 disc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,poll5 gra9s ( ,or*is mascula4 ,at an e>ly p]iod ( gr[? ! ro/ellum consi/s ( a mass ( polygonal cells full ( br[ni% matt]1 :i* soon resolve !mselves into two balls ( an extremely viscid semifluid sub/ance void ( /ructure4 ,^! two discs are flat on ! top1 & r\nd$ bel[4 ,!y lie q free )9 ! ro/ellum1 except at ! back1 :]e ea* viscid disc firmly adh]es to a small portion ( ! ext]ior membrane ( ! ro/ellum4 ,! ends ( ! two /alks ( ! poll9ia1 or granul> masses1 are /rongly atta*$ to ^! little discs1 or balls4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,poll9ia ( ,or*is mascula1 %[+ front view ( ! discs & caudicles )9 ! ro/ellum3--r1 ro/ellum2 c1 caudicle2 d1 disc4 ,at fir/ ! membrane =m+ ! ext]ior surface ( ! ro/ellum is cont9u\s2 b z soon z ! fl[] op5s1 ! slighte/ t\* causes x to rupture 9 su* a mann] z to set free f x1 & f "o ano!r1 ! little discs1 :ile at ! same "t ! an!r cells !mselves split 9 a longitud9al direction f top to bottom4 ,9 ?is /ate none ( ! organs are *ang$2 !y are m]ely set free1 & ready = *ange1 yet ma9ta9+ _! normal positions4 ,! labellum1 :i* is ! l>ge/ petal ( ! fl[]1 lies on "o side ( ! nect>y tube1 & ! ro/ellum projects into x on ! o!r2 h5ce1 if an insect alights on ! labellum1 & pu%es its head into ! tube1 9 ord] to rea* ! honey 9 ! nect>y ) its proboscis1 x _c fail to t\* & depress ! ro/ellum 7see fig4 #gf71 s t "o or bo? ( ! viscid discs c>ry+ ! poll9ia w /ick to x1 & z ! an!r cells are op5 9 front1 :5 ! insect )draws its head1 "o or bo? ( ! poll9ia are drawn out ( _! cells1 & /ick upright on x l horns4 ,9 t position !y nev] c\ld f]tilize any blossom :i* ! insect might aft]w>ds visit2 b ,mr4 ,d>w9 has %[n t _! position is *ang$ by a contrivance t is n surpass$ 9 beauty 9 ! :ole vegetable _w4 ,:ile a poll9ium is upright on ! head ( ! insect1 ! little viscid disc :i* supports x contracts on be+ expos$ to ! air1 s z to cause ! poll9ium to sweep ?r\gh n9ety degrees t[>ds ! apex ( ! insect's proboscis1 & ?is is accompli%$ 9 ab\t ?irty seconds1 ! "t an insect w\ld take to fly to ano!r fl[]4 ,! poll9ium 9 ?is position w\ld exactly /rike ! surface ( ! /igma :5 ! insect ins]ts its proboscis into ! nect>y ( a fl[]4 ,x 0 long ago notic$ by ,rob]t ,br[n1 t ! /igma is v viscid1 b n s viscid z :5 t\*$ to pull ! :ole poll9ium (f ! insect's head1 yet suffici5tly viscid to break ! ela/ic ?reads by :i* ! packets ( poll5 gra9s are ti$ toge!r1 & leave "s ( !m on ! /igma4 ,h5ce a poll9ium atta*$ to an insect c be appli$ to _m /igmas1 & f]tilize !m all4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 m5tions hav+ se5 ! poll9ium ( ,or*is pyramidalis adh]+ to ! proboscis ( a mo? ) ! /alks alone left1 all ! packets ( poll5 hav+ be5 left glu$ to ! /igma ( ! fl[]s successively visit$4 ,x appe>s t insects1 = ! mo/ "p1 only remove "o poll9ium at a "t1 & t ! ro/ellum returns to its normal position to prev5t ! viscid matt] ( ! discs ( ! rema9+ poll9ia f be+ expos$ to ! air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,or*is pyramidalis3--,front view ( fl[] ) upp] sepal & petals remov$2 a1 an!r2 s1 /igma2 r1 ro/ellum2 l1 labellum4 ,! ,or*is pyramidalis is consid]$ by ,mr4 ,d>w9 to be ! mo/ highly organiz$ species ( ! ,briti% ,or*ids he has exam9$4 ,x has %>p leaves1 & a close pyramid ( :ite or rose-col\r$ blossoms4 ,! upp] sepal & ! two upp] petals =m a hood1 protect+ ! an!r & /igmatic surfaces f ! wea!r4 ,9 fig4 #gg1 a front view ( a blossom1 ^! are cut (f z well z 9 fig4 #gh a1 :i* repres5ts a side view ( ! same blossom depriv$ ( half ! labellum1 & ! upp] "p ( ! nect>y1 or spur4 ,! labellum is long1 ) ?ree equal entire lobes1 & is produc$ into an awl-%ap$ spur1 or nect>y4 ,x has a small ridge on ea* side ( its n>r[ base to guide ! proboscides ( insects to ! m\? ( ! nect>y1 :i*1 besides be+ small1 is p>tially clos$ by ! p\*-%ap$ ro/ellum1 :i* is plac$ v l[ 9 ?is species1 & is flank$ on ea* side by a di/9ct /igmatic r\nd$ surface 7fig4 #gg s s74 ,! ro/ellum 7r7 is holl[$ out on its "u-side 9 ! middle1 & is fill$ ) a fluid4 ,in/ead ( two little viscid discs or balls1 z 9 ! ,or*is mascula1 !re is b "o :i* is saddle-%ap$ 7figs4 #gh1 #gi71 c>ry+ on its ne>ly flat top or seat1 ! two /alks ( ! poll9ia1 ( :i* ! two truncat$ ends firmly adh]e to its upp]-surface4 ,be=e ! membrane ( ! ro/ellum ruptures1 ! saddle-%ap$ disc =ms "p ( its cont9u\s surface4 ,! upp] membrane ( ! disc is r ?ick2 x is l9$ ) a lay] ( highly adhesive matt] =m$ )9 ! ro/ellum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,or*is pyramidalis3--,side view ( fl[]1 ) a portion cut away2 a1 an!r2 r1 ro/ellum2 l1 labellum2 n1 nect>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,disc ( ,or*is pyramidalis se5 f above1 ) "o poll9ium1 flatt5$ by =ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,poll9ia ( ,or*is pyramidalis1 atta*$ to saddle-%ap$ disc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,poll9ia ( ,or*is pyramidalis ) ! disc contract$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,poll9ia ( ,or*is pyramidalis3--a1 z )drawn by ! ins]tion ( a ne$le2 b1 z aft] ! second contraction4 ,:5 ! fl[] op5s1 ! saddle-%ap$ disc is set free by ! rupture ( ! membrane ( ! ro/ellum4 ,!n ! ro/ellum1 :i* projects into ! m9ute r\nd orifice ( ! nect>y1 is easily depress$ by ! proboscis ( a mo?1 & z ! n[ nak$ & /icky "u-surface ( ! saddle-%ap$ disc is uncov]$1 x adh]es to ! proboscis1 & is )drawn ) x into ! air1 c>ry+ ! two poll9ia 7fig4 #hj7 on its ext]ior surface4 ,almo/ in/antly ! saddle is expos$ to ! air1 a rapid movem5t takes place4 ,! two flaps curl inw>ds 7fig4 #ha71 & embrace ! proboscis1 & ! poll9ia1 at fir/ p>allel1 become div]g5t4 ,a second movem5t n[ takes place1 :i* causes ! div]g5t poll9ia 7fig4 #ha71 :i* are at "r angles to ! proboscis1 to sweep ?r\gh n9ety degrees t[>ds ! tip ( ! proboscis1 s z to become depress$1 & lie on ea* side ( x4 ,h5ce1 :5 a mo? pu%es its proboscis betwe5 ! guid+ ridges ( ! labellum into ! nect>y ( ano!r fl[]1 ! two ?ick ends ( ! poll9ia w exactly /rike aga9/ ! two /igmas4 ,^! /igmas are s viscid t !y hold & rupture ! ela/ic ?reads :i* b9d ! packets ( poll5 gra9s toge!r1 & "s d>k gre5 gra9s are se5 ev5 ) ! nak$ eye rema9+ on ! two :ite /igmatic surfaces4 ,9 ! ,or*ids1 z 9 all o!r fl[]+ plants1 tubes s5t out by ! poll5 gra9s p5etrate ?r\gh ! /igmas1 & f]tilize ! ovules 9 ! twi/$ ov>y4 ,! d\ble movem5t ( ! poll9ia1 :ile on ! mo?'s proboscis1 is ow+ to ! rapidity ) :i* ! viscid matt] contracts & dries4 ,bo? butt]flies & mo?s frequ5t ?is ,or*is4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 enum]ates tw5ty-?ree species ( ^! insects :i* he _h se5 ) ! poll9ia ( ! ,or*is pyramidalis atta*$ to _! proboscides4 ,_m _h two or ?ree pairs2 ! proboscis ( ! ,a*]ontia _h sev51 & t ( ! ,c>adium _h no less ?an elev5 ( ^! saddles atta*$ at regul> di/ances f top to bottom ( its proboscis4 ,few ( ! species ( ,or*is are visit$ by bees4 ,on acc\nt ( "s resemblance 9 =m1 ! ,ophre are nam$ aft] insects4 ,! ,fly ,ophrys diff]s 9 no mat]ial respect f ! o!r ,or*ids4 ,! /em or caudicle ( ! poll9ium1 in/ead ( be+ /raight1 z 9 ! ,or*is mascula1 is d\bly & almo/ rectangul>ly b5t4 ,! upp] membrane ( ! disc to :i* ! /alk ( ! poll9ium is fix$1 be+ ! summit ( ! ro/ellum1 is expos$ to ! air1 & becomes dry :5 ! fl[] op5s1 consequ5tly ! disc1 ?\gh viscid en\gh on its "u-side to /ick to an insect's head1 is incapable ( %r9k+1 & caus+ t depression ( ! poll9ium1 *>act]i/ic ( all ! species ( ,or*is4 ,! labellum has no spur1 b at its base1 j bel[ ! /igma1 !re is a deep depression repres5t+ ! nect>y2 & z ! poll9ia1 :i* _c be %ak5 out ( _! cells1 or p\*es1 are c]ta9ly1 ?\gh r>ely1 extract$1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 conceives t small insects crawl along ! labellum to its base1 /rike aga9/ "o ( ! p\*es1 extract a poll9ium1 & fly ) x /ick+ on _! head to ano!r blossom1 & t :ile b5d+ _! heads into ! holl[ at ! base ( ! labellum1 ! poll9ium1 ow+ to its d\bly b5t /alk1 /rikes ! /icky /igmatic surface1 & leaves poll5 gra9s on x4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ?is plant is visit$ occasionally by insects1 z x _c be fructifi$ )\t !m2 b x is sc5tless1 & z no nect> has z yet be5 f\nd 9 x1 _! motive = visit+ x is unkn[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,epipactis palu/ris3--,side views ( fl[]1 ) l[] sepals cut away3 ,a1 ) lip 9 natural position2 ,b1 ) lip depress$ z by an insect4 ,! fructification ( ! ,ophrys apif]a1 or ,bee ,ophrys1 is indep5d5t ( insects1 = ! /alks ( ! poll9ia are extremely long1 ?91 & flexible2 & al?\gh _! viscid discs /ill rema9 9 _! p\*es1 z soon z ! fl[] exp&s1 & ! an!r cells or p\*es op51 ! heavy ?ick ends ( ! poll9ia fall out ( _! cells1 & hang freely d[n 9 ! air exactly opposite to ! /igmatic surface4 ,a brea? ( air is suffici5t to make !m vibrate1 /rike ! /igma ) _! poll5 mass1 & leave poll5 gra9s on its /icky surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,epipactis palu/ris3--,c1 side view ( fl[]1 ) sepals & petals & half ! labellum remov$3 ,d1 front view ( column3 a1 an!r2 r1 ro/ellum2 s1 /igma2 l1 labellum4 ,! great tribe ( ,briti% ,neotte is *>act]iz$ by a free an!r /&+ l a hood beh9d ! /igma2 ! poll5 gra9s are ti$ toge!r ) ?reads1 & atta*$ to a visc\s cap ly+ on ! top ( ! ro/ellum4 ,! ,epipactis palu/ris is a type ( ?is gr\p ( or*ids4 ,its spike is %ort1 & ! p9k blossoms /& out horizontally f ! /em on long ribb$ foot/alks1 :i* conta9 ! ov>ies4 ,fig4 #hc ,a is a side view ( ! fl[] 9 its natural position1 ) ! l[] sepals alone remov$4 ,! labellum1 or l[e/ petal1 is int]rupt$ 9 ! middle by a k9d ( flexible h+e3 ! basal "p is a cup-%ap$ tr\gh1 at times ab\nd+ 9 nect>2 ! extreme "p is a wavy leaf 7fig4 #hc ,b74 ,! entrance to ! nect>y cup is ne>ly clos$ by ! hood & ! l>ge an!r2 b1 on acc\nt ( ! ela/icity ( ! h+e1 ! weight ( an insect is suffici5t to give access to ! nect>2 b no soon] is ! labellum reliev$ ( ! weight1 ?an x spr+s up into its natural position1 & ! insect creeps backw>ds & comes out at ! top ( ! fl[] ) ! visc\s cap clasp$ r\nd its proboscis1 & ! poll5 gra9s atta*$ to x ready to f]tilize ano!r blossom4 ,9 fig4 #hd1 ,c repres5ts a section ( ! ,epipactis1 & ,d is a front view ( ! column4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,li/]a ovata3--,side view ( fl[]1 ) sepals & petals cut away3 a1 an!r2 col1 summit ( column2 p1 poll52 r1 ro/ellum2 s1 /igma2 l1 labellum2 n1 nect>-secret+ furr[4 ,( all ! ,briti% ,or*ids1 ! ,li/]a ovata1 or ,twayblade 7fig4 #he71 has ! mo/ curi\s /ructure4 ,x gr[s 9 woods & pa/ures1 has a creep+ root1 oval leaves1 a d[ny /em1 & yell[i% gre5 fl[]s4 ,fig4 #he repres5ts a lat]al view ( a blossom1 ) all ! sepals & petals remov$1 except ! labellum4 ,9 ?is plant ! ro/ellum 7r7 is l>ge1 ?91 convex 9 front1 concave beh9d1 & ar*es ov] 7s7 ! /igmatic surface4 ,:5 ! fl[] is full bl[n1 ! an!r cells 7a7 are already op51 & ! nak$ & friable poll5 gra9s unit$ by a few ?reads1 :i* =m ! po9t$ tips ( ! poll9ia1 re/ ^u ! concave back ( ! ro/ellum4 ,! labellum1 :i* is contract$ at ! base1 is exce$+ly long1 hang+ d[n l a n>r[ ribbon4 ,x is divid$ half-way up1 & furr[$ along ! middle1 f ! bifurcation close up to ! base ( ! /igmatic surface 7s74 ,! bord]s ( ! furr[ are globul>1 & secrete mu* nect>4 ,! ro/ellum is int]nally divid$ into a s]ies ( longitud9al cells1 or *amb]s1 :i* conta9 & expel viscid matt] ) viol5ce on ! slighte/ t\*1 & ! viscid matt] sets h>d 9 two or ?ree seconds1 & soon assumes a purpli% br[n t9t4 ,s exquisitely s5sitive is ! ro/ellum1 t a t\* f ! ?9ne/ human hair suffices to cause ! explosion4 ,z ! po9t$ tops ( ! loose poll9ia lie on ! cre/ ( ! ro/ellum1 !y are always caught by ! explod$ drop4 ,?is nev] fails4 ,s rapid is ! explosion1 & s viscid ! fluid1 t x is difficult to t\* ! ro/ellum ) a ne$le quick en\gh n to cat* ! poll9ia already atta*$ to ! p>tially h>d5$ drop1 & consequ5tly ! slighte/ t\* ( any small insect :i* ent]s ! fl[]1 suffices to explode ! ro/ellum1 & ! poll9ia :i* atta* !mselves to its proboscis are c>ri$ by x to ! next fl[] to adh]e to ! viscid /igma & f]tilize x4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 has se5 two ,hym5opt]\s insects retreat f "o ( ^! plants ) bright yell[ poll9ia on _! heads1 & ,mr4 ,c4 ,k4 ,spr5gel saw an insect ( t k9d leave poll5 ^u a /igma4 ,! action & /ructure ( ,neottia ,nidus-avis is almo/ id5tically ! same z t ( ,li/]a ovata4 ,! ,malaxis paludosa1 or ,bog ,malaxis1 ! smalle/ ( ,briti% ,or*ids1 is a r>e plant1 & diff]s f all ( !m 9 hav+ its labellum turn$ upw>ds in/ead ( d[nw>ds4 ,its l[] m>g9 clasps ! column1 mak+ ! entrance into ! fl[] tubul>4 ,9 ?is or*is ! upp] sepal & two upp] petals are reflex$1 to all[ insects freely to visit ! fl[]4 ,9 _m or*ids ! labellum is prop]ly direct$ upw>ds1 b assumes its usual position z ! l[] lip by ! twi/+ ( ! ov>ium1 or p$icel1 ( ! fl[]4 ,9 ! ,malaxis paludosa1 h[ev]1 ! twi/+ has be5 c>ri$ to su* an excess1 t ! fl[] occupies ! same position x w\ld h held if ! ov>ium _h n be5 twi/$ at all1 & :i* ! /alk ultimately assumes :5 ripe by ! process ( gradual untwi/+4 ,?is little plant belongs to a g5us di/+ui%$ by hav+ a movable & decidu\s an!r1 & is "o ( ! ,briti% or*ids t h alli$ =ms among ! exotic g5]a4 ,all ,dr4 ,l9dley's va/ tribes ( ,epid5dre1 & ! /ill m num]\s & spl5did ,v&e1 h n a s+le ,briti% repres5tative4 ,! /ructure ( ! exotic or*ids is (t5 v complicat$1 & !y possess _m prop]ties unkn[n 9 ! ,briti% g5]a4 ,_! labellum1 or l[] lip1 is s v>i$1 & sometimes s s+ul>1 t x baffles description2 besides1 x (t5 possesses peculi> motions1 sometimes f /ructure1 at o!r times f irritation4 ,9 ! ,bolbophyllum ,rhizophor1 ! labellum is atta*$ to ! column by a v n>r[ ?9 /rap1 ela/ic z india rubb]1 :i* oscillates 9 a s+ul> mann]2 :ile t ( ! ,b4 b>big]um has a be>d ( f9e hairs 9 almo/ con/ant agitation4 ,! irritability ( ! labellum 9 _m ( ! alli$ =ms ( ! or*ids is "o ( _! rem>kable prop]ties2 ! slighte/ t\* sets !m into motion4 ,! ,au/ralian g5us ,caleana possesses x 9 ! highe/ degree2 = :5 an insect settles on its labellum1 x sudd5ly %uts up aga9/ ! column1 & encloses x1 z x 71 9 a box4 ,"s ( ! exotic or*ids h a pseudo-dici\s "*4 ,?us "s species ( ,catasetum h two long horns1 or ant5n1 atta*$ to ! ro/ellum1 :i* /& ov] ! labellum1 & ! p$icels ( ! an!rs are fa/5$ d[n 9 a curv$ position2 s1 :5 an insect alights ^u ! labellum & t\*es ! ant5n1 ! excitem5t is convey$ by !m to ! ro/ellum1 ! atta*$ edge ( ! disc ( ! an!rs is ruptur$1 & !y /raight5 !mselves ) su* =ce1 t n only d !y drag ! balls ( poll5 & an!r cells f _! places ( atta*m5t1 b ! :ole poll9ium is j]k$ =w>d ov] & beyond ! tips ( ! horns1 to ! di/ance ( two or ?ree feet4 ,! insect1 di/urb$ by s %>p a bl[1 or aft] hav+ eat5 its fill1 flies ) ! poll5 adh]+ to x to f]tilize ! female plant1 :i* diff]s f ! male 9 hav+ no ant5n4 ,?us ! ag5cy ( insects is z requisite to f]tilize ^! semi-dici\s z h]maphrodite or*ids4 ,! ,vanilla1 :i* is cultivat$ = its aromatic pods 9 ,tahiti1 ,b\rbon1 & ! ,ea/ ,indies1 does n be> fruit )\t artificial aid1 :i* %[s t ! ,am]ican insect1 :i* f]tilizes x 9 its own native home1 is n indig5\s 9 ! places m5tion$4 ,x appe>s t _m exotic or*ids require a less elevat$ temp]ature ?an has hi!rto be5 suppos$4 ,! =m & position ( ! nect>y are exce$+ly v>i$4 ,9 c]ta9 species1 bo? ( ! native & tropical or*ids1 !y are always dry2 b ,mr4 ,d>w9 has discov]$ t1 9 ^! cases1 ! walls ( ! nect>ies are ?ick & =m$ ( two coats1 & t a liquid is conta9$ betwe5 !m1 to :i* ! insect p5etrates by pi]c+ ! inn] wall4 ,! exotic or*ids are1 = ! mo/ "p1 l>g]1 & require l>g] insects to f]tilize !m ?an our small ones1 ^: organs are g5]ally microscopic4 ,a curi\s in/ance1 bo? ( ?is & ( ! extraord9>y =m ( ! nect>y1 is f\nd 9 ! ,angrcum sesquip$ale1 a ,madagasc> or*id1 ) l>ge six-ray$ fl[]s1 l />s =m$ ( sn[-:ite wax4 ,x has a gre5 :ip-l nect>y1 sometimes z mu* z a foot long1 &1 f ! /ructure ( ! plant1 x appe>s t ! poll9ia nev] c\ld be )drawn1 until a l>ge mo?1 ) a wond]fully long proboscis1 attempts to dra9 ! la/ drop ( nect> f ! bottom ( ! nect>y4 ,not)/&+ ! va/ div]sity 9 ! =m ( ! or*ids1 !y are homolog\s 9 _! g5]al /ructure4 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,br[n 0 ! fir/ to obs]ve1 t an or*id fl[] consi/s ( fifte5 organs1 arrang$ alt]nately1 ?ree )9 ?ree1 9 five :orls4 ,?is accords p]fectly ) a sy/em ( spiral vessels develop$ at an e>ly age 9 all or*ids4 ,mr4 ,br[n & ?ree ( ! greate/ liv+ botani/s#gh h ea* trac$ ! spirals f six bundles surr\nd+ ! ov>y 9 ! foot/alk to ! diff]5t organs ( ! fl[]1 & h f\nd t !y consi/ ( fifte5 bundles correspond+ to ! fifte5 organs ( ! fl[]2 namely1 ?ree sepals1 ?ree petals1 six an!rs 9 two :orls 7?ree ( :i* are rudim5t>y71 & ?ree pi/ils1 ) _! /igmas3 ^! are arrang$ 9 alt]nate :orls1 & und]go _m modifications4 ,! pi/ils & an!rs are conflu5t1 & =m ! column2 ! upp]mo/ /igma becomes ! ro/ellum2 ! ?ree inn] an!rs are rudim5t>y1 "o =m+ ! front ( ! column1 & ! o!r two =m+ ! membran\s sides ( ! hood :i* protects ! poll52 &1 la/ly1 ! two l[] an!rs are unit$ to ! sides ( ! l[e/ petal1 & =m ! labellum1 :i* acc\nts = its great size1 frequ5t trip>tite =m1 & peculi> mann] ( atta*m5t4 ,?is sy/em has be5 wond]fully modifi$ to produce ! v>i$ gr\ps ( extra-tropical & brilliant =ms ( exotic or*ids1 yet x c be trac$ 9 all4 ,,section ,,xiv4 ,,dicotyl$on\s1 ,,or ,,exog5\s ,,plants4 ,,9 ,endog5\s plants ! se$s h b "o lobe1 & ! gr[? is inv>iably f ! int]ior4 ,9 ! ,exog5\s class1 on ! contr>y1 ! se$s h two lobes1 & ! increase 9 gr[? is ext]nal3 h5ce ! botanical di/9ction ( ,exog5\s plants4 ,al?\gh ! di/9ctive "* ( ! highe/ class ( vegetables is to h se$s ) two lobes1 yet ! /ructure & position ( ! se$s are extremely div]sifi$4 ,_m h horny coats1 su* z ! pips ( apples & oranges2 or h>d ones1 z nuts1 & ! /ones ( plums & *]ries4 ,!y are sometimes on ! outside ( ! fruit1 z 9 /rawb]ries1 b (t5] )9 x1 z 9 ! melon1 ! pe>1 & a v>iety ( o!rs4 ,^! succul5t sub/ances n\ri% ! "y se$s = a "t1 b1 :5 !y are matur$1 ! light & heat :i* rip5$ ! fruits n[ comb9e to accel]ate _! decay & decomposition1 9 ord] to set ! se$s free4 ,:atev] be ! size or =m ( ! se$s1 :e!r l>ge or microscopic1 !y inv>iably conta9 two se$ lobes or prim>y leaves1 consi/+ ( cellul> tissue1 betwe5 :i* ! m9iature plant1 ) its radicle1 /em1 & t]m9al bud lies conceal$4 ,at ! end ( ! fir/ ye> !re is little diff]5ce 9 ! /ructure ( a "y woody plant1 :e!r f a "o or two lob$ se$2 ! di/9ction beg9s ! second ye>4 ,9 h]bace\s plants1 ! /em1 :i* is 9 g5]al annual1 is ( loose cellul> tissue1 ) sep>ate bundles ( fibro-vascul> tissue runn+ f ! roots upw>ds1 & pass+ at la/ into ! leaves1 :]e !y =m ! ribs or ve9s4 ,_m ( ! high] =ms ( plants h fle%y und]gr\nd /ems1 z in/ances ( :i* may be nam$ ! ,corm1 z se5 9 ! crocus & col*icum1 ! ,tub]1 z 9 ! potato1 ! ,rhizome1 z 9 ! fle%y root/ock ( ,iris flor5t9a1 :i* yields ! violet p[d] ( ! %ops1 & inde$ mo/ bulbs may be consid]$ z modifications ( /ems1 ?\gh !y are m /rictly analog\s to buds4 ,! edible p>ts ( ! c>rot1 turnip1 p>snip1 & radi% are n /ems1 b highly develop$ succul5t roots1 ! unusual developm5t ( :i* is a direct result ( cultivation4 ,a "y tree1 at ! end ( ! fir/ ye> ( its gr[?1 has subt]ranean roots1 ) _! bran*es & fibrils1 & an arial /em1 (t5 m or less bran*$1 =m$ ( b>k1 wood1 & pi?1 ) a few leaves at its extremity1 all exce$+ly t5d]4 ,e succe$+ ye> a new cyl9d] ( woody fibre & vascul> tissue is =m$ betwe5 ! wood & ! b>k1 bo? 9 ! /em & bran*es4 ,x foll[s f ?is mann] ( gr[?1 t ! /em ( a tree1 consi/+ ( b>k1 wood1 & pi?1 is =m$ ( a s]ies ( cyl9d]s or extremely elongat$ conc5tric cones closely unit$1 s t a transv]se section exhibits a s]ies ( conc5tric circles or zones f ! surface ( ! b>k to ! c5tral pi?4 ,! /ructure ( ! bran*es is simil>1 b ! numb] ( zones dep5ds ^u ! age4 ,s9ce all ! tissues t h be5 describ$ are comb9$ to =m ! organs ( nutrition & reproduction 9 a full-gr[n tree1 x af=ds ! be/ g5]al illu/ration ( ! organization ( ! highe/ class ( vegetables4 ,e "p ( a tree or plant1 except ! top ( ! /igma & extremity ( ! roots1 is cov]$ by an extremely delicate film ( cellulose1 closely press$ d[n ^u "o1 two1 or ?ree lay]s ( transp>5t col\rless cellul> tissue compress$ into a tubul> =m1 :i* con/itutes ! cuticle4 ,^! flatt5$ cells1 :i* are firmly unit$ to "o ano!r by _! edges1 diff] 9 %ape 9 almo/ e tribe ( plants4 ,9 ! monocotyl$ons !y are elongat$ 9 ! direction ( ! p>allel ribs ( ! leaves2 9 ! highe/ class !y diff] little f circul> discs1 b !y h l>ge s9uosities 9 _! edges1 :i* make _! junction v irregul>4 ,! upp] cells ( ! cuticle are l9$ ) a waxy sub/ance1 :i* protects ! plant f damp2 & 9 _m cases x conta9s m or less silex4 ,?is g5]al cov]+1 or cuticle1 is p]=at$ by num]\s pores1 especially on ! "u-side ( ! leaves1 & ! gre5 t5d] p>ts ( ! bran*es2 !y are ! organs ( respiration4 ,^! pores1 or /omata1 are usually =m$ ( two cresc5t-%ap$ cells1 jo9$ toge!r by _! po9ts or horns1 s z to leave an op5 space l a m\?1 ?r\gh :i* ! plant brea!s4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are only ! gu>dians3 ! op5+ betwe5 !m leads into a cavity full ( air1 :i* is ! ante*amb] to an int]ior cavity4 ,! valves ( ! /omata op5 & %ut accord+ to ! humidity or dryness ( ! atmosph]e4 ,all plants ( bo? classes1 woody or h]bace\s1 h /omates1 except wat] plants1 fungi1 fuci1 & o!rs ( ! l[e/ class4 ,!y are g5]ally v abundant on ! "u-surface ( leaves4 ,!y are sometimes 9 va/ numb]s on bo? sides ( ! leaves1 & are ess5tial to ! life ( ! plant4 ,accord+ to ,,mm4 ,pay5 & ,liepn]1 silex & azote1 toge!r ) calc>e\s & alkal9e salts1 are inv>iably f\nd 9 ! cells =m+ ! sk9 ( ! roots1 /ems1 leaves1 fruits1 hairs1 & sp9es4 ,! /rong cohesion ( ! sk91 toge!r ) ! pres5ce ( ^! sub/ances1 becomes a def5ce aga9/ ! we>+ effect ( ! wea!r1 )\t dim9i%+ ! transp>5cy ( ! tissues4 ,! b>k is divid$ into ?ree regions1 or zones4 ,! ext]nal coat1 ly+ imm$iately "u ! sk91 is =m$ ( "o or _m lay]s ( cubical or oblong cells1 elongat$ horizontally4 ,!y are transp>5t & col\rless at fir/1 b become br[n & opaque ) ! col\r+ matt] ( cork z !y gr[ old]4 ,on t acc\nt x is call$ ! sub]\s zone1 & sometimes acquires great ?ickness1 z 9 ! ,qu]cus ,sub]1 or cork tree4 ,! gre5 cellul> envelope comes next to ! corky lay]1 & consi/s ( prismatic cells & laticif]\s tubes1 :i* =m an irregul> wide-me%$ network1 elongat$ 9 ! direction ( ! axis ( ! tree1 & sometimes con/itut+ ! *ief ?ickness ( ! b>k4 ,?is zone1 z well z ! succe$+1 increases imp]ceptibly by new lay]s add$ to its int]ior1 :ile ! ext]ior coats ( ! b>k p]i% annually4 ,9 "s trees !y are annually ca/ (f 9 plates & l>ge flakes1 z 9 ! ,ori5tal plane1 ^: /em & bran*es look z if !y _h be5 peel$ 9 autumn4 ,! lib]1 :i* is ! ?ird & inn]mo/ zone ( ! b>k1 g5]ally consi/s ( sev]al lay]s ( cellul> tissue1 trav]s$ longitud9ally by bundles ( woody fibre & laticif]\s tubes4 ,! g5]at+ lay] ( cambium1 9 :i* all ! ph5om5a ( gr[? takes place1 is a semi-fluid mucilag9\s sub/ance1 :i* comes betwe5 ! lib] & ! wood4 ,x is mo/ abundant 9 ! spr+1 & is ! orig9 ( all horizontal gr[?4 ,?is mucilage is really made up ( a va/ multitude ( cells1 ) cell-walls z delicate z ^? ( a soap bubble1 :i* gradually und]go trans=mation into woody fibre1 laticif]\s ducts1 spirals1 c41 !nce call$ ! cambium zone4 ,! :ole ( ?is matt] spontane\sly divides into two p>ts3 "o =ms a new lay] ( lib] on ! int]ior ( all ^? :i* prec$e x1 & ! o!r a new r+ ( "y sap-wood1 ext]ior to all its pr$ecessors4 ,a portion ( ! cambium1 9 its un*ang$ or liquid /ate1 always rema9s betwe5 ! wood & ! b>k1 :i* are nev] 9 absolute contact4 ,z a new cyl9d] ( wood enclos+ all its pr$ecessors is annually =m$1 ! section ( a /em p]p5dicul> to its axis exhibits a r+ ( woody fibre1 alt]nat+ ) a r+ ( spott$ & ray$ vascul> tubes1 :i* con/itute ! silv] gra9 ( ! wood4 ,! r+s are m & m cr[d$1 & n>r[] t[>ds ! c5tre1 & at la/ become imp]vi\s to ! sap1 :i* only rises ?r\gh ! y\ng] "p ( ! sap wood4 ,9 fact1 a l>ge portion ( ! solid fibres ( mo/ plants h ceas$ to take any active %>e 9 ! p]=mance ( vital functions1 &1 l ! solid he>t ( an oak1 reta9 _! integrity simply because !y are n expos$ to influ5ces :i* w\ld cause _! decomposition4 ,a vegetable tissue expos$ to ord9>y *emical action1 c only rema9 entire s long z x is p]=m+ vital functions4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! woody fibre & ducts 9 ! diff]5t ord]s & g5]a is mu* v>i$4 ,! bread? ( ! r+s ( wood %[s ! effect ( good & bad seasons2 & 9 extra-tropical latitudes1 :]e !re is alt]nately a p]iod ( gr[? & repose1 _! numb] frequ5tly indicates ! numb] ( ye>s' gr[?2 s t ! age ( a tree may be approximately1 if n exactly1 le>n$ f a critical exam9ation ( a section ( its /em4 ,! inn]mo/ cyl9d] ( wood is l9$ by ! m$ull>y canal or tube conta9+ ! pi?4 ,x is a delicate membrane1 entirely =m$ ( holl[ spiral tubes4 ,! pi?1 :i* fills ! canal1 is ( gre5i% cellul> tissue :5 "y1 full ( sap1 & occasionally1 ?\gh r>ely1 mix$ ) vascul> & spiral tissue4 ,x passes un9t]rupt$ly to ! end ( e bran*1 leaf bud1 & fl[]4 ,p]p5dicul> plates1 call$ m$ull>y rays1 radiate f ! m$ull>y %ea? & end at ! b>k1 divid+ ! :ole mass ( ! wood into triangul> or w$ge-%ap$ sections4 ,!y are ?9 plates ( cellul> tissue1 /ret*$ horizontally betwe5 ! c5tral pi? & ! b>k4 ,9 ea* family ( trees & %rubs !y h a diff]5t arrangem5t1 b 9 all !y keep up a horizontal communication betwe5 ! c5tre & ! circumf]5ce1 ?\gh !y d n all ext5d ?r\gh\t ! :ole l5g? ( ! /em2 "s d1 o!rs d n4 ,?us ! cellul> tissue =ms a horizontal sy/em1 :ile ! fibro-vascul> ducts con/itute a p]p5dicul> sy/em ( tissues4 ,9 "s trees ! pi? is sc>cely p]ceptible1 & 9 o!rs x dim9i%es or vani%es ) age1 z 9 ! oak4 ,9 ! ald] & o!r plants x dries up1 breaks into pieces1 & ! canal is fill$ ) air4 ,9 ! /em & bran*es ( ! ,conif]1 !re is sc>cely any mixture ( vessels among/ ! woody fibre1 ! vascul> sy/em g5]ally consi/+ exclusively ( gl&ul> woody tissue1 except 9 ! m$ull>y %ea?1 :]e spiral vessels are f\nd 9 small numb]s4 ,! subt]ranean gr[?1 or desc5d+ axis ( trees consi/s ( l>ge bran*es1 sometimes t5d+ d[nw>ds1 b m frequ5tly spread+ 9 ext5sive ramifications1 n f> f ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,_! gr[? & /ructure are simil> to ^? ( ! /em1 b ! cyl9d]s ( wood are less app>5t2 !y h m$ull>y rays1 b no pi?2 !y m]ely connect ! active roots ) ! /em1 & fix ! plant firmly 9 ! gr\nd1 = !y h few or no pores1 & contribute little to ! n\ri%m5t ( ! plant1 except by convey+ liquids f ! fibr\s roots to ! upp] gr[?4 ,! active fe$+ roots spr+ f !m 9 ! =m ( bun*es ( :ite fibres1 l cords or ?reads1 :i* s9k /raight d[n into ! gr\nd4 ,^! real roots are ( cellul> tissue enclos$ 9 vascul> tubes & spiral vessels1 :i* t]m9ate at a little di/ance f ! extremity1 leav+ a po9t ( loose spongy cellul> tissue1 call$ ! spongiole1 :i* absorbs f ! gr\nd ! liquids t n\ri% ! plant4 ,^! root fibrils are tempor>y organs2 !y die on ! old] p>ts ( ! subt]ranean bran*es1 & are succe$$ by o!rs on ! new4 ,! v>i\s tissues :i* =m ! /em ( a tree =m1 9 ! same mann]1 ?\gh 9 dim9i%$ numb]s1 ! complicat$ ramifications ( ! bran*es & ! leaf-/alks1 & t]m9ate 9 ! leaves !mselves4 ,"u ! transp>5t film :i* =ms ! sk9 on ! upp]-surface ( a leaf1 !re is a lay] ( s(t ?9-wall$ cyl9drical or prismatic cells1 closely press$ toge!r1 & full ( gre5 vegetable matt]1 or *lorophyll4 ,sev]al lay]s ( ?ick-wall$ cells foll[1 ea* m loosely aggregat$ ?an t :i* prec$es x1 & full] ( void spaces1 till 9 ! la/ gre5 lay] on ! "u-side ( ! leaf ! cells are globul>1 ) num]\s l>ge irregul> void spaces1 unit$ 9 a reticulat$ sy/em fill$ ) air1 & 9 direct communication ) ! atmosph]e by means ( ! innum]able /omata1 :i* are to be f\nd 9 ! "u-surface ( ! leaves ( all l& plants ( ! high] classes1 & :i* are _! organs ( respiration4 ,! =m ( ! leaf is det]m9$ by ! arrangem5t ( ! vascul> bundles1 :i* are 9 communication ) ^? 9 ! int]ior ( ! /em1 & bran* out 9 v>i\s directions ?r\gh ! gre5 lay]s3 ^! bran*es unite aga91 & =m ! skeleton ( ! leaf1 :i* is (t5 a delicate maze ( ! f9e/ lacework ( n]ves4 ,! vascul> sy/em is d\ble1 consi/+ ( an asc5d+ & desc5d+ portion4 ,! asc5d+ portion1 :i* is cont9u\s ) ! m$ull>y %ea?1 becomes cont9u\s at ! apex ( ea* n]ve ( ! leaf ) ! desc5d+ portion1 :i* is b5ea? & 9 contact ) x ?r\gh\t its ramifications4 ,?is desc5d+ portion at ! base ( ! leaf-/alk1 or petiole1 becomes cont9u\s ) ! bundles ( ! lib]4 ,9 ! upp] "p ( ! n]ves ( ! leaf !re are spott$ vascul> ducts1 9 ! l[] "p !re are laticif]\s vessels4 ,^? on ! upp] side c>ry ! ris+ sap to ! gre5 matt]1 :]e x is elaborat$ & matur$1 & !n x passes into ! vessels on ! "u-side ( ! n]ves or ve9s1 :i* c>ry x d[n ! lib]4 ,buds are g5]ally =m$ ( scales closely imbricat$ r\nd ! "y leaves1 :i* are v>i\sly fold$ & firmly pack$2 !y conta9 ! rudim5ts ( ! :ole plant1 & z 9 a l>ge tree !y are r5ew$ e ye>1 ! s\rces ( life are all b inf9ite4 ,! sp9es ) :i* _m plants are arm$ are ( two k9ds2 "o is p]man5t1 be+ an excresc5ce f ! wood1 z 9 ! black?orn2 ! o!r proce$s f ! b>k1 & may be /ripp$ (f1 z 9 ! rose2 bo? conta9 silex1 & are cov]$ by ! sk9 common to ! :ole plant4 ,few plants ( any k9d are )\t hairs1 :i* are *iefly f\nd on ! "y %oots1 & on ! "u surface ( ! leaves4 ,!y are ei!r =m$ ( a transp>5t elongat$ holl[ cell1 or consi/ ( a numb] ( transp>5t col\rless sup]impos$ cells1 sometimes jo9t$1 b m frequ5tly rectil9e>4 ,:5 !y /+1 z 9 ! nettle1 !y are set ^u a k9d ( bulb compos$ ( cells :i* secrete ! acrid col\rless liquid :i* causes ! irritation1 & :5 slightly press$ s5d x ?r\gh ! hair1 ! po9t ( :i* breaks (f z x ent]s ! sk9 ( ! h&4 ,! hairs are s transp>5t t ! gyration ( ! azotiz$ liquid1 call$ protoplasm !y conta91 has be5 di/9ctly trac$1 a motion s univ]sal 9 "s "p ( ! /ructure ( plants t accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,w5ham1 ! difficulty is to f9d a plant1 aquatic or t]re/rial1 9 :i* x does n take place at "s p]iod ( its gr[?4 ,! gyration 9 any giv5 cell pres]ves a uni=m direction2 9 diff]5t cells ! direction is diff]5t4 ,x w p]si/ 9 a deta*$ "p ( a plant = sev]al days or ev5 sev]al weeks4 ,x is arre/$ by cold1 & recomm5ces its gyration :5 ! temp]ature is rais$4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ t 9 ! primordial cell ! solid col\r$ p>ticles (t5 =m a nucleus 9 ! c5tre ( ! viscid liquid call$ protoplasm1 :i* is cont9ually dim9i%$ by ! increase ( ! wat]y vegetable sap4 ,at l5g? ! protoplasm 9 ! hairs is r$uc$ to m]e ?reads ext5d+ f ! cell wall to ! nucleus1 s t ! latt] looks l a spid] 9 ! middle ( its web4 ,^! ?reads are really /reams ( ! viscid protoplasm fl[+ ?r\gh ! m liquid cell sap f ! nucleus to ! cell wall1 :]e !y turn & fl[ back aga9 9 ano!r ?read4 ,:5 !re are sev]al curr5ts 9 ! same cell1 ! nucleus1 :i* is ! common po9t ( dep>ture & return1 is ! c5tre ( ! vital activity ( ! cell1 ?\gh x does n always ma9ta9 a c5tral position2 9 ! cells ( ! leaves ( ! ,vallisn]ia spiralis ! nucleus ev5 foll[s ! protoplasm1 :i* fl[s 9 a broad /ream up "o side ( ! cell & d[n ! o!r1 z 9 ! ,*>a4 ,9 mo/ plants ! gyration is transitory1 = ! nucleus :i* always exi/s 9 "y cells is dissolv$ z ! cell advances 9 age1 & ! protoplasm is s mu* dim9i%$ 9 quantity1 t its motion is imp]ceptible4 ,!re are exceptions1 h[ev]1 z 9 ! hairs ( ! nettles & "s o!r plants1 :]e x is p]si/5t4 ,! motion is 9 g5]al v sl[4 ,! ?9ness & m9ut5ess ( ! curr5ts may be imag9$1 s9ce !y & ! cells conta9+ !m are microscopic objects1 & ! solid p>ticles c>ri$ by ! liquid1 :i* af=d ! means ( trac+ its c\rse1 are n m ?an betwe5 ! ?ree & ! five ?\s&? "p ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,m4 ,s*leid5 ascribes ! motion to *anges 9 ! =m ( ! cells produc$ by an int]nal vital action1 :ile ,pr(essor ,k>/5 believes1 f obs]vations he made on ! rotation ( liquids 9 ! hairs ( ! common nettle1 t x is a ph5om5on ( diffusion1 dep5d+ ^u ! *emical *anges tak+ place 9 ! cells ( ! hairs indep5d5t ( any contractibility1 n ref]able to !m4 ,! :ole ( ! tissues t exi/ 9 a well-gr[n tree are n to be met ) 9 ea* ( ! num]\s woody & h]bace\s plants ( ! fir/ class2 "s may be want+1 & ^? t d exi/ may be1 & g5]ally are1 mu* modifi$ bo? 9 =m & size4 ,all ! trees 9 ! temp]ate zone1 & mo/ ( ^? 9 ! tropics1 belong to ! class ( ,exog5s2 b ! annual r+s ( wood are less di/9ct 9 ! latt]1 ! p]iods ( repose & activity dep5d+ ^u ! dry & wet seasons n be+ s decid$ z our w9t] & summ]4 ,! leaves ( tropical plants h a ?ick] sk9 ?an 9 cold] climates1 to def5d !m f an ard5t sun4 ,! /ructure ( h]bace\s plants 9 all c\ntries is lax & juicy1 !y h abundance ( pi?1 l>ge m$ull>y rays1 & zones ( fibro-vascul> tubes1 :i* sep>ate ! pi? f ! b>k4 ,9 fact1 ea* h]bace\s & ligne\s family has a /ructure & prop]ties peculi> to itself2 b al?\gh !re is almo/ an inf9ite div]sity ( =m & "*1 ! g5]al type ( ! class may be trac$ 9 all4 ,vegetable matt] consi/s ( c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg51 & nitrog51 yet no plant c comb9e ^! simple elem5ts into organic sub/ances2 !y imbibe !m by _! roots & leaves "u ! =m ( c>bonic acid1 wat] & ammonia3 ^! !y h ! p[] ( decompos+1 & recomb9+ _! simple elem5ts into new comp\nds4 ,c>bon =ms ! h>d "p ( plants1 & ent]s ext5sively into _! mo/ delicate /ructure2 b x is nev] f\nd free4 ,comb9$ ) hydrog5 & oxyg5 x n only con/itutes ! cell wall cellulose1 :i* may be reg>d$ z ! skeleton ( ! vegetable _w1 b hundr$s ( comp\nds diff]+ decid$ly 9 _! prop]ties1 yet consi/+ only ( ^! ?ree elem5ts unit$ ) "o ano!r 9 diff]5t quantities & proportions4 ,prote9e1 a comp\nd ( all ! f\r simple elem5ts1 is a mucilag9\s sub/ance1 :i* l9es ! primordial cell1 is homog5e\s at fir/1 & aft]w>ds m or less granulat$4 ,x is pres5t :]ev] ! vital en]gy is 9 activity4 ,al?\gh ^! f\r prim>y elem5ts =m ! basis ( vegetation1 plants require o!r sub/ances :i* !y absorb f ! gr\nd 9 a /ate ( solution1 su* z silex1 or r silici\s salts hav+ a base ( pota% or soda1 ! c>bonates1 sulphates1 & phosphates ( lime1 ! phosphate ( manganese1 & ! oxides ( manganese & iron1 ) v>i\s o!r metals & sub/ances 9 a /ate ( comb9ation & solution4 ,a few are univ]sal con/itu5ts1 z ! e>?s & alkalies2 9 g5]al ea* race ( plants only absorbs su* z are peculi> to itself4 ,soda ab\nds 9 ! ,alg & is f\nd 9 ! ,liliace1 ,crucif]1 & o!r plants t are indig5\s on ! sea-coa/1 or 9 bracki% m>%es4 ,pota% exi/s 9 l& plants1 & _c be replac$ by soda1 = h[ev] ri* ! soil may be 9 soda1 !y d n ?rive 9 x4 ,! a%es ( l& plants consequ5tly conta9 ! metal potassium1 :ile mo/ ( ! ,alg yield sodium2 !y also yield *lor9e1 iod9e1 & brom9e 9 a /ate ( comb9ation4 ,x is prov$ by spectrum analysis1 t e plant1 ) ! exception ( ! v l[e/1 conta9s a v>iety ( metals 9 inf9itesimal quantities1 z li?ium1 rhodium1 & o!rs2 b !y are n ess5tial to ! welf>e ( ! plants4 ,iron is ! mo/ frequ5t con/itu5t 9 v small quantities2 !re are also occasional deposits ( soda1 lime1 & a little manganese4 ,all ! v>i\s sub/ances :i* ent] ! vegetable sy/em1 are comb9$ 9 def9ite proportions into an inf9ite v>iety ( organic comp\nds 9 diff]5t plants1 & 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! same plant1 = ! decompos$ matt] is c>ri$ by ! asc5d+ sap to e "p ev5 ( ! highe/ trees4 ,?r\gh\t ! :ole process ! law ( ! division ( lab\r prevails2 to ea* "p ( a plant1 & to ea* gr\p ( cells1 its own duty is allott$4 ,! vegetable sap1 consi/+ ( wat]1 c>bonic acid1 ammonia1 & o!r sub/ances1 :i* ent] ! spongy extremities ( ! roots 9 a liquid /ate1 rises 9 ! =m ( a crude fluid ?r\gh ! :ole loose texture ( h]bace\s plants1 ?r\gh bo? ! wood & pi? ( trees "u two ye>s' gr[?1 & 9 old] trees & %rubs x rises ?r\gh ! sap-wood ( ! /em into ! bran*es1 & !nce into ! leaves1 ! limit ( asc5t 9 all plants1 s t 9 spr+1 all ! cells are full ( sap4 ,! vascul> ducts are capill>y tubes1 & ! cellul> tissue is an assemblage ( clos$ cells or sacs1 ^: wall or cell-membrane is p]meable by liquids2 h5ce ! imbibition ( ! roots & ! rise ( sap 9 ! plant are ess5tially due to capill>y attraction act+ contr>y to gravitation4 ,! asc5sion ( ! liquid is inv]sely z ! diamet] ( ! capill>y tubes & cells 9 ! /em & bran*es2 ! quantity rais$ is ! same at all heights1 & ! velocity ( asc5t is inv]sely z ! height4#gi ,z soon z ! leaves are exp&$1 !y evaporate a quantity ( wat] ?r\gh _! /omata dur+ ! day1 s t 9 a tree or any plant1 an enorm\s ext5t ( evaporat+ surface aids 9 rais+ ! sap by creat+ a vacuum 9 all ! upp] cells & vessels1 by :i* ! =ce ( suction & ! rapidity ( asc5t are increas$4 ,x appe>s t ! wat] evaporat$ by ! leaves is 9 exact proportion to t tak5 up by ! roots to supply its place2 b z soon z ! "y bran*es are =m$1 ! buds = ! foll[+ ye> produc$1 & :5 ! leaves are full ( ! *lorophyll :i* !y h consolidat$ dur+ ! summ]1 ! evaporation is less1 ! sap ceases to rise1 ! spirals & vascul> ducts 9 ! m$ull>y canal & sap-wood are left dry1 & fill ) air1 :i* !y convey to e "p ( ! plant except ! b>k1 to assi/ 9 assimilation1 t is1 9 ! =mation ( organic comp\nds4 ,dur+ ! :ole ( ?is process ! leaves & o!r gre5 p>ts1 :i* are ! organs ( vegetable respiration1 are mo/ active4 ,!y absorb c>bonic acid gas f ! atmosph]e by day1 & exhale oxyg54 ,= by ! direct action ( sol> light ! c>bonic acid gas & ammonia 9 ! crude sap are decompos$1 "p ( ! oxyg5 is set free & exhal$1 & ! re/1 ) "p ( ! rema9+ elem5ts1 comb9e to =m *lorophyll1 :i* is a comp\nd ( />* & a little nitrog54 ,! oxyg5 inhal$ by plants dur+ ! night1 comb9$ ) o!r elem5ts 9 ! sap1 =ms oxidiz$ vegetable comp\nds4 ,m4 ,kosmann1 ( ,/rasburg1 obs]v$ t bo? ! leaves ( plants & _! corollas give out a pond]able quantity ( ozoniz$ oxyg51 mu* m ?an t :i* exi/s 9 ! air1 & t ! quantity is less 9 ! night4 ,all p>ts ( plants t are n gre5 exhale c>bonic acid gas1 & inhale oxyg51 l animals1 night & day2 if prev5t$ f inhal+ oxyg5 !y lose _! vital p[]1 are soon suffocat$1 & ! plant dies4 ,! expiration ( oxyg5 by ! leaves is connect$ ) ! n\ri%m5t ( a plant1 ! inspiration ( t gas is connect$ ) its life4 ,:5 ! sap is completely organiz$ by respiration1 evaporation1 & ! *emico-vital ag5cy ( light1 x desc5ds *iefly ?r\gh ! cambium1 ly+ betwe5 ! lib] & ! wood4 ,f ?is lay] ! sap di/ributes to ea* organ capable ( increase1 ! requisite nutriti\s liquids1 deposits v>i\s organic comp\nds1 & annually r5ews ! cambium4 ,"p ( ! sap 9 its desc5t runs into ! wood ?r\gh ! horizontal m$ull>y rays1 9 ! cells ( :i* x deposits />*4 ,! desc5t ( ! sap is no d\bt due to gravitation4 ,! latex is a g5]al "n = ^? :ite or col\r$ juices peculi> to "s plants4 ,x is sep>at$ 9 ! leaves f ! desc5d+ sap1 :i* is always col\rless1 & consi/s ( a cle> liquid1 ?ick5$ & col\r$ by :ite1 yell[1 r$di%-br[n1 or gre5 globules float+ 9 x2 x does n turn blue "u ! action ( iod9e1 !re=e x does n conta9 />*4 ,^! prop] juices diff] z mu* 9 quality z 9 col\r2 "s conta9 fatty matt]s1 o!rs sub/ances ( a totally diff]5t nature1 z ca\t*\c2 a few are bl& & nutriti\s1 _m acrid & poison\s2 "s conta9 alkaloids1 o!rs h none4 ,^! juices are by no means ess5tial to ! life ( ! plant1 = sometimes !y are want+ 9 _! mo/ ess5tial p>ts1 & !y are f\nd 9 c]ta9 species & n 9 o!rs mo/ ne>ly alli$4 ,c]ta9 x is1 t tropical lactesc5t plants :i* d n produce _! prop] juices :5 br\ght to a cold climate1 /ill produce _! milk vessels4 ,^! vessels foll[ ! ramifications ( ! ve9s ( ! leaves 9 ! highe/ class1 & also 9 "s ( ! monocotyl$ons4 ,9 ! /em ! milk vessels belong especially to ! lay]s ( ! b>k1 :]e !y take ! =m ( long reticulat$ p]p5dicul> ducts1 ?r\gh :i* ! prop] juices desc5d t[>ds ! roots4 ,ea* plant has its own sy/em ( milk vessels1 & ,m4 ,le/ib\dois has f\nd t ! col\r$ liquids h a rapid motion2 ! movem5ts are v complicat$1 n f po9t to po9t1 b 9 su* a mann] t ! granules are c>ri$ by ! liquid into all ! ramifications ( a complicat$ network4 ,! septa1 or divisions betwe5 ! primordial cells1 ex]t a p[]ful influ5ce ^u ! sub/ances conta9$ 9 ! sap z x p]meates ?r\gh !m1 no d\bt act+ z a dialys+ membrane1 :i* sep>ates ! gelat9\s f ! cry/alloid matt]4 ,! latex is probably sep>at$ f ! sap by ! septa 9 ! cells ( ! leaves1 & s5t into ! vessels peculi> to x1 & !n1 :ile ! sap is desc5d+ & pass+ ?r\gh ! cambium1 x is likely to be dialys$ by ! septa betwe5 ! cells ( t lay]1 arre/+ ! prote91 & o!r gelat9\s sub/ances1 & all[+ sug>1 />*1 & o!r cry/alloid matt] to pass freely1 & =m deposits ( organic comp\nds = ! foll[+ ye>4 ,= p]5nial plants 9 extra-tropical c\ntries rema9 9 a dormant /ate dur+ ! w9t]2 _! cells are !n full ( organic comp\nds "u ! =m ( prote91 z well z sug>1 gum1 c41 b especially />*1 :i* is conv]t$ into sug> or dextr9e1 :5 spr+ awak5s ! plants to r5ew$ life & activity4 ,! composition ( inorganic matt] is v simple2 !re are comp>atively few radicals1 & ! sub/ances are comp\nd$ ( few equival5t atoms1 at mo/ eight or t51 sometimes only two or ?ree4 ,c>bonic oxide is =m$ ( "o atom ( c>bon & "o ( oxyg52 c>bonic acid is =m$ ( "o atom ( c>bon & two ( oxyg52 & acetyl5e1 ,m4 ,b]?olet's base ( syn!tic comp\nds1 conta9s two atoms ( c>bon & two ( hydrog51 *emically unit$2 b no organic comp\nd conta9s less ?an ?ree equival5t atoms1 g5]ally a great _m m4 ,= example1 citric acid1 :i* is lemon juice1 conta9s #ab atoms ( c>bon1 #e ( hydrog51 & #aa ( oxyg52 :ile /ry*n9e conta9s #dd atoms ( c>bon1 #bc ( hydrog51 #d ( oxyg51 & #b ( nitrog54 ,exp]im5t has prov$ t ! p[]s :i* ma9ta9 /ability among ! num]\s & complex con/itu5ts ( organic sub/ances decrease 9 en]gy z ! numb] ( ! equival5t atoms augm5ts2 h5ce su* comp\nds are 9 less /able equilibrium ?an ^? ( inorganic bodies1 & are m liable to be di/urb$ & *ang$ into new & m /able =ms4 ,z ! *emical functions are n ! same 9 all ! cells1 situat$ z !y are 9 diff]5t p>ts ( a plant1 !y elaborate diff]5t sub/ances f ! same mat]ials4 ,besides1 new sub/ances are introduc$ ) ! gr[? ( ! plant1 to be act$ ^u by ! light & heat ( ! diff]5t seasons1 s t num]\s comp\nds may be =m$ out ( a giv5 numb] ( ! prim>y elem5ts4 ,= example1 ! ultimate elem5ts ( :eat5 fl\r1 or a gra9 ( ripe :eat1 are c>bon1 ! ?ree elem5t>y gases1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 calcium1 magnesium1 & silex2 b dur+ ! g]m9ation & gr[? ( ! plant1 its fl[]+1 =m+ ! se$1 & rip5+ ! gra91 c]ta9 portions ( ^! elem5ts *emically comb9e 9 def9ite proportions to =m cellulose1 />*1 sug>1 gum1 glut51 fibr91 album51 case91 & fat1 all ( :i* are f\nd 9 :eat5 fl\r4 ,h[ev] mu* plants may diff] 9 _! organic products1 !y all agree 9 produc+ prote91 :i* takes an active "p 9 ! =mation ( cells2 & all produce neutral hydrates ( c>bon1 su* z cellulose1 />*1 sug>1 gum1 c41 :i* consi/ ( c>bon1 comb9$ ) hydrog5 & oxyg5 9 ! exact proportion t =ms wat]4 ,_m ( !m h precisely ! same quantity ( c>bon1 & only diff] 9 ! quantity ( ! aquatic elem5t1 z = example1 lign91 />*1 & cane-sug>1 :i* consi/ ( #ab p>ts ( c>bon1 9 a /ate ( comb9ation ) #h1 #aj1 & #aa p>ts ( wat] respectively2 inde$ ! aff9ity betwe5 _m ( ^! neutral hydrates is ( a mo/ intimate "*4 ,"s ( _! v>ieties are isom]ic1 t is to say1 !y conta9 ! same +r$i5ts 9 ! same proportions1 & yet !y diff] ess5tially 9 reg>d to _! prop]ties4 ,next to cellulose1 />* is ! mo/ univ]sal & di/9ctive ( vegetable productions1 be+ a con/itu5t ( all plants1 except ! fungi4 ,x ab\nds 9 ! gra9s & o!r se$s1 & supplies ! "y plant ) food till x c fe$ itself4 ,9 bo? ( ! fl[]+ classes x occurs 9 small col\rless transp>5t gra9s1 ei!r float+ 9 ! sap1 atta*$ to ! walls ( ! cells1 or accumulat$ )9 !m4 ,/>* globules ( v small size are imb$d$1 ei!r s+ly or 9 gr\ps1 9 ! granules ( *lorophyll1 or leaf gre52 ! mann] 9 :i* ! gre5 coat+ takes place is unkn[n4 ,/>* is an organic sub/ance1 v>y+ f gra9s ( inappreciable m9ut5ess to su* z are visible to ! nak$ eye1 & ( su* a v>iety ( =ms t x c be asc]ta9$ ) tol]able c]ta9ty by :at plant a gra9 ( />* has be5 produc$4 ,! small gra9s are g5]ally globul>1 b :atev] ! =m may be1 ea* consi/s ( a s]ies ( sup]impos$ lay]s ( diff]5t d5sities1 :i* exhibit col\r$ r+s & a black cross 9 pol>iz$ light4 ,/>* is an e>ly & transi5t product ( "y plants1 :i* is de/9$ to be *ang$ into nutriti\s sub/ances at a lat] p]iod1 b be+ insoluble 9 cold wat] x is unfit to travel ) ! sap4 ,h[ev] a f]m5t call$ dia/ase produc$ dur+ ! incipi5t g]m9ation ( ! gra9s & se$s1 9 ! tub]s ( potatoes1 c41 be+ 9 a /ate ( *ange1 imp>ts t /ate to ! />*1 & conv]ts x into a sweet soluble matt] kn[n z dextr9e or />*-gum :i* is capable ( be+ c>ri$ ?r\gh\t ! plant ) ! sap1 & :i* is itself ultimately *ang$ into sug>4 ,dextr9e is an +r$i5t 9 ! primordial cell4 ,/>*1 dextr9e1 & cellulose are isom]ic3 consi/+ ( ! same elem5ts ) diff]5t *>act]s4 ,! woody "p ( trees & %rubs1 ! fibres ( hemp1 flax1 ( ! ,agave1 & _m o!r plants1 are =m$ ( cellulose1 ! pure/ =m ( t sub/ance be+ blea*$ flax & l954 ,dur+ ! progress ( vegetation1 ! cells ( ! ligne\s tissue ( trees1 also ^? ( woody & fibr\s plants1 :i* are transp>5t & col\rless :5 "y1 become int]nally coat$ or fill$ ) scl]og51 ! col\r+ matt] ( wood1 a sub/ance ( v>i\s hues4 ,9 extra-tropical c\ntries x is g5]ally "s %ade ( br[n1 sometimes d>k1 sometimes s pale z to be almo/ :ite ) a yell[i% or r$di% t+e2 & occasionally x is beautifully m>k$ z 9 ! wood ( ! olive4 ,9 tropical c\ntries ! col\rs are m vivid & v>i$1 deep] & ev5 black1 z 9 ebony4 ,?is col\r+ matt] has ! same quantity ( oxyg5 z cellulose1 b x conta9s hydrog5 & m c>bon1 h5ce wood is combu/ible 9 proportion to ! quantity ( scl]og5 x conta9s4 ,9 bee* x =ms half ( ! wood1 9 oak two ?irds1 & 9 ebony n9e t5?s1 s x is ! mo/ highly combu/ible ( ! ?ree4 ,! additional c>bon is obta9$ by increas$ respiration1 ! hydrog5 by decomposition ( wat] 9 ! sap4 ,sug> is almo/ z univ]sal a con/itu5t ( ! high] classes ( plants z cellulose & />*1 = besides ! sac*>9e juice ( innum]able plants1 />*1 ! acids ( unripe plants1 & ev5 ! acrid juice ( ! fig & o!r plants1 is turn$ into sug> z ! plant advances to maturity1 & ! fruits rip54 ,manna & o!r sac*>9e exudations f ! leaves or /ems ( trees1 z ! lime tree1 are probably int]cept$ by ! dialys+ septa ( ! cells1 & exude to ! ext]ior ?r\gh ! pores ( ! sk94 ,! sweet juice f\nd 9 ! nect>ies ( fl[]s is =m$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ! plant1 & r>ely fl[s to ! fl[] be=e x is full bl[n2 ! quantity is at its maximum dur+ ! emission ( ! poll51 & ceases :5 ! fruit is =m$4 ,9 dici\s plants & t s+ul> & beautiful race ! ,or*ide1 x is evid5tly int5d$ to attract insects = _! aid 9 f]tilization4 ,vegetable oils1 res9s1 & wax1 consi/+ ( ! same simple elem5ts z ! hydrates1 =m a l>ge class ( inflammable organic sub/ances 9 :i* hydrog5 pr$om9ates4 ,olive oil is a r>e in/ance ( a fix$ oil be+ obta9$ f a fruit2 "s laurels h t prop]ty also1 b ! fix$ oils are *iefly f\nd 9 se$s1 z ! walnut1 hazel nut1 & ! almond1 9 :i* ! pr9ciple ( oil is 9 its greate/ purity4 ,x is p>ticul>ly abundant 9 hemp se$1 & 9 a great v>iety ( plants ! />* 9 ! se$ is *ang$ into oil to n\ri% ! embryo1 till ! se$ lobes are above ! gr\nd1 & ! true lobes appe>4 ,res9s1 gums1 & wax1 be+ colloid sub/ances1 are dialys$ & eject$ f ! sy/em ei!r ?r\gh ! fissures 9 ! b>k1 or by pores 9 ! leaves4 ,! res9s exude ?r\gh ! b>k f canals t run betwe5 ! cells ( ! plant1 9 solution1 & are consolidat$ by ! oxyg5 on com+ into ! air4 ,! h]bace\s zone 9 ! b>k ( ! fir & p9e family furni% an abundant supply ( res9s & balsams2 ! camphor tribe & ! ,amyrids are ri* 9 !m1 z frank9c5se1 myrrh1 balm ( ,mecca1 & ! ,olibanum1 suppos$ to be ! frank9c5se ( scripture4 ,wax is a frequ5t vegetable production1 especially 9 ! torrid zone1 :]e _m ( ! wax-be>+ plants supply ! natives ) light4 ,an exudation ?r\gh ! pores ( _m plants coats _! surfaces ) res9 or wax4 ,"y buds are (t5 cov]$ ) res9 to protect !m f cold & wet dur+ ! w9t] & e>ly spr+1 z ^? ( ! horse-*e/nut & balsam popl>4 ,x is wax t gives ! bloom to ! plum1 *]ry1 & grape1 & ! ra9 drops lie on ! waxy surface ( ! cabbage leaf1 l balls ( diamond1 f ! total reflection ( light at _! po9t ( contact4 ,wax protects plants f damp 9 a ra9y climate1 & prev5ts too /rong p]spiration f ! fle%y leaves ( ! aloe1 cactus1 & o!r inhabitants ( ! p>*$ & hot regions 9 ! tropics4 ,! vegetable sub/ances hi!rto "u consid]ation are neutral1 b ! rem>kable comp\nds album51 fibr91 & case91 already m5tion$ z con/itu5ts ( :eat5 fl\r1 n only conta9 c>bon & hydrog5 ) a little oxyg51 b azote & small quantities ( sulphur & phosphorus4 ,ea* ( ^! ?ree organic comp\nds is ! same1 :e!r d]iv$ f animal or vegetable matt]4 ,?us album5 is *emically ! same1 :e!r obta9$ f :eat & o!r gra9s1 f arr[root1 dahlia roots1 ! s]um ( blood1 or ! :ite ( an egg4 ,z x con/itutes ! film or ?9 coat+ ( ! primordial cell1 & comb9es ) dextr9e 9 its int]nal viscid l9+1 x n only =ms an +r$i5t 9 all vegetable organisms1 b plays an important "p 9 ! gr[? ( ! :ole vegetable _w4 ,fibr9 is *emically ! same 9 ! juice ( plants & 9 blood1 9 :i* x exi/s z a liquid dur+ ! life ( ! animal1 & z a fibre aft] dea?4 ,x =ms ! basis ( ! muscul> sy/em 9 animals1 & t extract$ f ! juice ( plants coagulates spontane\sly l blood4 ,case9 is *emically id5tical1 :e!r d]iv$ f ! curd ( milk1 or f peas & beans4 ,azote is a v important pr9ciple 9 ^! sub/ances z well z 9 ! gelat9\s sub/ance glut54 ,x =ms an ess5tial "p ( ! animal /ructure1 & is ei!r highly nutriti\s or delet]i\s 9 ! vegetable1 be+ at once "o ( ! mo/ valuable1 contradictory & p[]ful ag5ts 9 nature4 ,*emi/s h =m$ by syn!sis comp\nds id5tical ) all ! fix$ & ess5tial oils1 = confection]s c n[ give ! flav\r ( ! pe>1 orange1 qu9ce1 p9e apple & o!r fruits by means ( artificial *emical comp\nds4 ,all ! sac*>9e sub/ances h n yet be5 artificially obta9$1 nor ! album9\s sub/ances1 album51 fibr91 & case94 ,x _c be a matt] ( surprise1 :5 *emi/s =m organic sub/ances out ( inorganic elem5ts1 t !y %\ld succe$ 9 trans=m+ comp\nds produc$ by liv+ plants into new comp\nds1 z t ( *ang+ ! vegetable acids into alcohols1 :i* is n[ done4 ,b "s ( ! acids !mselves are syn!tically =m$ out ( inorganic elem5ts2 z = example ! oxalic1 ! mo/ common ( all ! vegetable acids1 :i* is f\nd mo/ abundantly 9 ! ,oxalis or wood sorrel1 & is a frequ5t con/itu5t ( ! highe/ & l[e/ plants4 ,! =mic acid1 :i* is ! acrid /++ pr9ciple 9 ants1 is also syn!tically =m$2 x is f\nd 9 ! juice ( ! /++ nettle & 9 decay+ p9e leaves1 & conta9s hydrog5 l all ! o!r vegetable acids4 ,^! acids result f an augm5tation ( oxyg5 dur+ nocturnal respiration1 :i* p5etrates deeply into ! vegetable /ructure4 ,octah$ral1 prismatic1 & /ell> microscopic cry/als =m$ by ! *emical comb9ation ( ! natural acids ) bases imbib$ by ! roots1 are deposit$ 9 ! cells "u ! sk91 & 9 all p>ts ( plants4 ,h[ev]1 !y appe> mo/ frequ5tly z bundles ( ne$le-%ap$ cry/als ( c>bonate ( lime1 ly+ side by side 9 ! holl[ ( a cell4 ,!y are kn[n z raphides1 f raphis a ne$le1 & may be easily se5 "u ! sk9 ( ! m$ic9al squill4 ,l>ge s+le cry/als ( oxalate ( lime1 octah$ral or prismatic1 are f\nd 9 ! cells "u ! sk9 ( ! onion & o!r plants2 & /ell> cry/als ( ! same sub/ance ab\nd s mu* 9 ! common rhub>b t ! be/ specim5s ( ! dry m$ic9al root conta9 z mu* z ?irty-five p] c5t4 ( !m2 :ile c]ta9 ag$ plants ( ! cactus tribe h _! tissues s load$ ) !m z to become q brittle4 ,! calc>e\s base 9 "s in/ances is comb9$ ) t>t>ic1 citric1 or malic acid4 ,! cry/als ( "s raphides are #a_/dj? ( an in* long1 o!rs are n m ?an ! hundr$?2 !y are br\ght into view by pol>iz$ light4#hj ,sph]ical raphides betwe5 ! #a_/bjjj? & #a_/djjj? ( an in* 9 diamet] h be5 discov]$ scatt]$ pr(usely ?r\gh ! tissues ( ! leaves1 & ^? p>ts ( plants :i* are modifications ( ! leaves2 !y may be se5 "u ! sk9 ( ,pel>goniums & o!r plants1 & x is suppos$ t few if any ord]s ( plants are )\t !m4#ha ,al?\gh azote =ms #ghh ?\s&? p>ts ( ! atmosph]e1 none1 or at lea/ no appreciable quantity ( x1 is absorb$ by ! vegetable _w2 t great pr9ciple ( n\ri%m5t is entirely suppli$ by ammonia & nitric acid1 imbib$ by ! roots1 & decompos$ by ! *emico-vital p[]4 ,"h x %[s its caprici\s "* by comb9+ ) o!r simple elem5ts 9 ! b>k1 to produce ! mo/ preci\s m$ic9es 9 "s plants1 & 9 o!rs ! mo/ deadly poisons1 :ile no vegetable sub/ance is p]fectly nutriti\s )\t x4 ,! milk sap1 :5 expos$ to ! air1 coagulates into a t5aci\s viscid solid4 ,! :ite juice is g5]ally acrid1 or n>cotic1 or bo?1 & = ! mo/ "p extremely poison\s1 ?\gh exhibit+ /rong contra/s ev5 9 ne>ly alli$ species4 ,9 ! ord] ,euphorbiace or ,spurgeworts1 compris+ ne>ly #a1ejj species1 a l>ge proportion are hurtful2 b !re is a gradation f m]e /imulants to ! mo/ =midable poisons4 ,?is ord] furni%es ! ,e?iope & ! native ,brazilian ) poison = _! arr[s4 ,x conta9s ! ,man*9eel1 & ,excc>ia ,agallo*a1 ! mo/ poison\s ( plants2 ev5 ! smoke f ! burn+ bran*es ( ! ,excc>ia affects ! eyes ) insuff]able pa94 ,! :ite juice ( ! ,fig1 "o ( ! ,morad ord]1 is viol5tly poison\s2 9 _m1 z 9 ! common fig1 x is acrid & irritat+4 ,! ,anti>is toxic>ia1 ! celebrat$ ,upas-tree ( ,java1 :i* is ( ! ,artoc>pe or ,bread-fruit ord]1 owes its virul5ce to its milky juice1 :i* conta9s /ry*nia1 ! mo/ fatal ( drugs4 ,dang]\s & acrid z ^! ord]s are1 ! ,bread-fruit1 ab\nd+ 9 />*1 supplies ! inhabitants ( ! ,ea/ ,indian isl&s ) excell5t food2 ! milky juice ( ! ,c[-trees1 *iefly ( ! ,bread-fruit & ,fig ord]s1 furni%es a :olesome bev]age to ! ,s\? ,am]icans2 & ! ,manihot or ,cassava1 a poison\s spurgewort :5 raw1 yields :5 roa/$ nutriti\s food to :ole nations1 ! heat driv+ (f ! dang]\s pr9ciple4 ,ca\t*\c1 a mo/ h>mless sub/ance1 is ! solid produce ( _m ( ! mo/ acrid & virul5t juices ( plants belong+ to ! prec$+ ord]s2 ! poison is probably left 9 ! liquid4 ,! *emico-vital p[] is /rik+ly illu/rat$ by ! numb] ( safe & excell5t fruits produc$ by trees full ( ! mo/ delet]i\s juices1 :e!r milky or n4 ,"s ( ! f9e/ fruits 9 ! ,indian ,ar*ipelago are products ( em95tly dang]\s species ( ! ,sap9dace or ,soapworts4 ,! acrid juices ( ! leaves & bran*es1 are s mu* dilut$ ) wat] 9 ! fruits1 t !y become innocu\s1 or !y may be *ang$ into sug>1 z 9 ! common fig4 ,no?+ c surpass ! virul5ce ( ! juice ( ! ,upas-tree1 yet its nuts are eat5 ) impunity1 & ! pulpy cont5ts ( ! fruit ( ! ,/ry*nos nux vomica is food = birds4 ,! leaves & b]ries ( ! potato are s /rongly n>cotic1 t an extract f !m is int]m$iate 9 p[] betwe5 t f deadly night%ade & hemlock1 yet ! potato itself1 l ! cassava1 is r5d]$ :olesome by be+ boil$ or roa/$4 ,! alkaloids are alkal9e sub/ances =m$ 9 ! b>k & milky juices ( plants1 always comb9$ ) an acid dur+ ! life ( ! plant4 ,! *emical /ructure ( ?is class ( sub/ances is v mu* alike1 & *emi/s h succe$$ 9 =m+ _m ( !m syn!tically2 !y all conta9 azote1 & h a great aff9ity = acids4 ,! b>k ( ! diff]5t species ( ,c9*one1 especially ! ,c9*ona cordifolia & ,c4 ,condam9ea1 yield ?ree alkaloids--namely1 c9*on9e1 qu99e1 & cuscon9e--!y are all =m$ ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & azote 9 ! same proportions2 b ! fir/ has "o atom ( oxyg5 9 addition1 ! second has two atoms 9 addition1 & ! ?ird has ?ree2 s t 9 ^! alkaloids ! c>bon1 hydrog51 & azote comb9e to =m an organic radical1 :i* is oxidiz$ 9 ?ree diff]5t degrees4 ,six ( ! alkaloids h be5 obta9$ f opium1 :i* is ! solid portion ( ! milk juice ( ! poppy2 ( ^!1 morph9e seems to be ! n>cotic pr9ciple2 & ! orange-col\r$ milk sap ( ! ,*elidonium1 a v poison\s & acrid plant ( ! poppy ord]1 has furni%$ *elidon9e4 ,! ,col*icum ord]1 conta9+ ! mead[ saffron or autumnal crocus1 & ,v]atrum album or :ite hellebore1 z well z _m o!r plants1 yield alkaloids1 all ( :i* are m$ic9al or poison\s1 accord+ to ! dose4 ,!re is sc>cely a p1 h[ev] savage1 t has n discov]$ "s excit+ n>cotic4 ,opium is almo/ univ]sally smok$ or eat5 among ,ea/]n nations2 & bhang1 a /rong n>cotic1 obta9$ f ! leaves ( ,indian hemp1 is 9 equally univ]sal use among ! ,brazilian savages & ,hott5tots1 b especially among ! ,malays1 :o are excit$ to madness :5 !y smoke x too freely4 ,! same intoxicat+ effect is produc$ by a /rong liquor prep>$ f ! ,datura sangu9ea1 a species ( /ramonium2 & its cong5] tobacco1 n[ all b a necess>y ( life among civiliz$ mank9d1 0 smok$ by ! natives ( ! ,am]ican cont95t1 be=e ! arrival ( ! ,europeans1 z a relief f hung]4 ,c(fee has be5 long 9 use on acc\nt ( its /imulat+ pr9ciple caffe9e1 :i* is n[ discov]$ to be ! same ) !9e1 ! latt]1 h[ev]1 be+ less excit+1 unless ! tea plant gr[s 9 a v hot climate4 ,9 c\ntries :]e nature furni%es few n>cotic pr9ciples1 w9e1 be]1 & spirits supply _! place1 especially 9 ! f> nor?1 :]e animal heat is rapidly c>ri$ (f by ! cold1 & c>bon mu/ be furni%$ to satisfy ! all-dev\r+ oxyg5 :i* we draw 9 at e brea?4 ,caffe9e1 ! highly azotiz$ pr9ciple ( c(fee1 obta9$ f tea leaves & c(fee beans1 is "o ( ! sub/ances kn[n z neutral cry/allisable pr9ciples4 ,simil> sub/ances are f\nd 9 asp>agus1 pepp]1 almonds1 ! b>k on ! roots ( ! apple1 pe>1 plum1 & *]ry trees1 z well z 9 ! b>k ( ! will[4 ,! two la/ are especially analog\s1 & conta9 no azote1 z ! o!rs d4 ,! col\r+ matt] ( fl[]s is a fluid conta9$ 9 cells1 situat$ imm$iately "u ! sk91 :i* itself is p]fectly transp>5t & col\rless4 ,! :it5ess ( ! :ite ,camellia1 rose1 lily1 & o!r fl[]s1 is suppos$ to be ow+ to ! total reflection ( light f ! cells imm$iately bel[ ! sk91 :i* are ei!r full ( air1 or ( a col\rless liquid4 ,! pr$om9at+ col\rs are yell[1 r$1 & blue1 ) ! v>i\s int]m$iate t9ts4 ,sometimes ^! col\rs are conv]t$ "o into ano!r 9 ! petal aft] f]tilization1 at :i* p]iod ! col\rs are brighte/4 ,! *emical nature ( ^! liquids1 ! cause ( _! v>iety1 & _! def9ite arrangem5t 9 "o & ! same petal1 d n seem z yet to be asc]ta9$4 ,! p>ts ( plants t are n gre5 inhale oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e1 & exhale c>bonic acid gas exactly l animals4 ,dur+ ! *emical comb9ations ( ! oxyg5 ) ! c>bon d]iv$ f ! nutrim5t to =m ! c>bonic acid gas1 heat is necess>ily evolv$1 especially 9 ! fl[]1 ! po9t ( maximum heat v>y+ ) its expansion4 ,! blossoms ( ! ,aroide1 or ,arums1 are rem>kable = ! evolution ( heat4 ,accord+ to ,saussure1 a blossom ( ! common ,arum maculatum consumes five times its volume ( oxyg5 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs previ\s to its evolution ( fruit1 s x is n wond]ful t ! *emical comb9ation ( su* a quantity ( oxyg5 %\ld produce a /rong developm5t ( specific temp]ature4 ,by ,m4 ,dutro*et's obs]vations1 ! heat evolv$ by ! ,arum maculatum has a maximum 9 ! day & a m9imum 9 ! night1 & he f\nd t x exce$$ ! heat ( ! surr\nd+ air by betwe5 #be & #bg4 ,! heat ( ! ,colocasia odorata1 ano!r ,arad1 0 det]m9$ by sev]al obs]v]s to be ev5 #ej above ! w>m? ( ! air4 ,! heat evolv$ by g]m9at+ se$s :5 9 a heap is n f f]m5tation2 x is ow+ to _! consumption ( oxyg5 & expiration ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,! temp]ature ( all vegetat+ p>ts ( plants1 ! roots1 leaves1 "y juicy %oots1 c41 is f> sup]ior to t ( _! fl[]s4 ,x arises f ! nutritive process1 & has a maximum at noon1 & a m9imum at midnight1 l t ( ! fl[]4 ,! gr[? ( plants is mo/ vigor\s at noon2 consequ5tly !re is !n a great] evolution ( heat4 ,wat] 9 small quantities is secret$ night & morn+ f ! po9ts ( ! leaves ( _m plants1 probably to relieve !m f a sup]abundance ( liquid1 :i* evaporation is insuffici5t to c>ry (f4 ,! arums are rem>kable = ! quantity !y eject4 ,x falls 9 drops f ! po9ts ( ! leaves4 ,ab\t half a p9t is giv5 out e night by ! enorm\s leaves ( ! ,caladium di/illatorium1 a species ( ,arad4 ,9 t plant1 & 9 ! ,colocasia1 ! wat] fl[s 9 canals along ea* rib into a g5]al duct1 :i* runs along ! bord] ( ! leaf1 & t]m9ates 9 an orifice ^u ! surface4 ,s9ce electricity is develop$ by *emical action 9 unorganiz$ matt]1 x may be inf]r$ t x is also develop$ )9 ! vegetable cell :]e s _m organic comp\nds are =m$2 b x is probably giv5 (f f ! po9ts ( ! leaves or by evaporation f _! surfaces4 ,pr(essor ,flem+ asc]ta9$ by actual exp]im5t1 t ! sap ( a leaf1 & its surface1 are 9 diff]5t electric /ates2 he also f\nd t ! surface ( ! spongioles ( ! roots ( plants & ! asc5d+ sap h opposite electricities4 ,bo? ( ! prec$+ cases ! ,pr(essor ascribes1 9 "p at lea/1 to organic *anges :i* take place dur+ vegetation4 ,slight curr5ts ( electricity 7 obta9$ f ! petioles ( fl[]s1 b fruits & tub]s give p[]ful electrical curr5ts due to ! reaction ( diff]5t vegetable juices ^u "o ano!r4 ,! tub]ose is said to emit sc9tillations & d>t small sp>ks ( light 9 a hot electric ev5+1 & g>d5]s h long be5 aw>e t mu%room spawn is mo/ prolific 9 /ormy wea!r4 ,! irritability ( ! tissues ( plants :i* r5d]s !m liable to be act$ ^u by ext]nal causes1 has occupi$ ! att5tion ( _m celebrat$ botani/s4 ,f exp]im5ts by ,pr(essor ,f]d9& ,cohn & 8 pupil ,m4 ,krabs* ^u ! irritability ( ! /am5s 9 ! florets on ! discs ( composite fl[]s1 m especially ! ,c5taureas1 !y h come to ! conclusion t susceptibility to ! excitem5t ( light1 z well z to t ( me*anical & probably electrical impulse1 is possess$ by all "y vigor\s tissues1 & ^u comp>+ ! ph5om5a ( ^! ) ^? ( animal irritability1 !y fur!r conclude t ! faculty ( respond+ to ext]nal irritation by int]nal movem5ts & *ange ( =m1 belongs to cells1 & holds good 9 ! vegetable z 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,to be irritable1 to *ange its normal =m z a vessel ( excitation1 & to rev]t to ! normal =m aft] a :ile by its int]nal ela/icity1 are *>act]i/ics ( ! liv+ cell4 ,9 plants ^! prop]ties are met ) only :5 ! vital processes are 9 full activity1 & !re=e are p>ticul>ly notic$ dur+ ! p]iod ( fl[]+1 :5 ! processes are at ! maximum4 ,& x may be rem>k$ t ! /am5s1 9 :i* irritability is mo/ frequ5tly notic$1 are ! only organs 9 :i* an elevation ( temp]ature measurable by ! !rmomet] occurs1 al?\gh a c]ta9 degree ( heat is g5]at$ 9 all plant cells by ! *emical process go+ on )9 !m4 ,x is to be suppos$ t irritable prop]ties belong to all p>ts ( plants1 b t !y exi/ 9 an int5sifi$ degree1 & = a c]ta9 epo*1 9 ^? p>ts :]e _! results arre/ att5tion1 z 9 ! /am5s ( ! ,c5taurea1 b]b]ry1 cactus1 ,ci/us1 nettle1 c41 & 9 ! an!rs ( ! ,/ylide1 ! leaves ( ,diona muscipula1 & _m o!rs1 all ( :i* are m or less affect$ by ! ext]nal action ( me*anical =ce & electricity2 = x is sc>cely possible t plants %\ld n be "u ! influ5ce ( atmosph]ic electricity1 s9ce e %[] ( ra9 =ms a p]fect conductor betwe5 ! cl\ds & ! e>?4 ,! motion does n always imm$iately foll[ ! excitem5t2 plants (t5 require to be rudely %ak5 be=e ! movem5t beg9s4 ,m4 ,h(mei/] has obs]v$ t all "y %oots & leaves become curv$ by me*anical %ak+4 ,light is ! mo/ univ]sal & important excit+ cause 9 ! vegetable _w4 ,! m\?s ( ! /omata are op5$ by ! influ5ce ( light4 ,! leaves1 "y %oots1 & t5drils turn to ! light2 x regulates ! sleep ( plants1 z well z ! diurnal motions ( ! daisy & sunfl[]4 ,! op5+ ( blossoms & ( fold$ leaves :i* _h be5 clos$ 9 sleep dur+ ! night1 %[s ! susceptibility ( _! tissues to ! influ5ce ( light1 an influ5ce beautifully exhibit$ by ! orange-col\r$ ,es*s*oltzia1 :i* %uts its gold5 blossoms "u e pass+ cl\d4 ,all ,m4 ,cohn's exp]im5ts prove t 9 ! ,mimosa pudica1 :i* is highly s5sible to ! action ( light1 heat1 electricity1 & t\*1 #8! propagation ( ! ext]nal excitem5t1 proce$s 9 ! same mode z 9 animals1 & !re is little d\bt t ! vascul> tissue 7:i* conta9 spiral vessels7 con/itute ! special bundles adapt$ = ! purpose1 & t ! ph5om5a ( contractibility dep5d ^u a muscul> tissue4'#hb ,f ,pr(essor ,frankl9's exp]im5ts x appe>s t #8! motions result+ f ext]nal causes are ow+ to vital contractibility1 & t !y are gov]n$ by ! same laws :i* regulate simil> action 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,_! en]gies v>y ) ! vig\r ( ! plant2 !y are exhau/$ by ov] ex]cise1 & require re/2 & l animals !y are lull$ & put to sleep by *lor(orm & n>cotics4' ,,end ,,( ,,! ,,fir/ ,,volume4 ,,london3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,& ,,co41 ,,new-,,/reet ,,squ>e ,,& ,,p>liam5t ,,/reet ,footnote #a3 ,pr(essor ,f>aday4 ,footnote #b3 ,pr(essor ,helmholtz4 ,footnote #c3 ,! address ( ! presid5t1 ,sir ,william ,arm/rong1 ,c4,b41 to ! ,briti% ,association at ,newca/le-on-,tyne1 #bf? ,augu/1 #ahfc4 ,footnote #d3 ,j4 ,tyndall1 ,esq41 on ,=ce4 ,footnote #e3 ,! ,law ( ,ex*ange 0 indep5d5tly prov$ by ,messrs4 ,tyndall1 ,kir*h(f1 ,ang/rm1 & ,balf\r ,/ew>t4 ,footnote #f3 ,tyndall on ,heat4 ,footnote #g3 ,analog\s to transp>5t m$ia :i* receive _! col\r by /opp+ or absorb+ "s ( ! col\rs ( :ite light & transmitt+ o!rs4 ,footnote #h3 #8,connection ( ! ,physical ,sci5ces4' ,footnote #i3 #8,connection ( ! ,physical ,sci5ces4' ,footnote #aj3 ,!y are call$ vacuum tubes1 & are fill$ :ile op5 by putt+ "o end 9 communication ) ! vessel 9 :i* ! gas is g5]at$1 & ! o!r end 9 communication ) an air pump4 ,z soon z ! atmosph]ic air is pump$ out1 ! gas ru%es 9 & fills ! tube1 ! communication ) ! vessel conta9+ ! gas is cut (f by fus+ up t end ( ! tube1 & z soon z ! gas is suffici5tly r>efi$ ! o!r end is fus$ up also4 ,an electrical dis*>ge t w n pass ?r\gh "o in* ( air1 w pass ?r\gh ?irty or =ty in*es 9 a vacuum tube4 ,footnote #aa3 #8,connection ( ! ,physical ,sci5ces4' ,footnote #ab3 ,lectures ( mu* int]e/ by ,dr4 ,william ,odl+ 9 ! ,*emical ,news ( #ahfb4 ,footnote #ac3 ,m4 ,h4 ,kopp4 ,footnote #ad3 ,lectures by ,dr4 ,crace ,calv]t on improvem5t & progress ( calico pr9t+ & dye+ s9ce #ahea4 ,footnote #ae3 ,?is pr$iction1 made 9 8 ,treatise on ,light publi%$ 9 #ahbf1 has be5 completely fulfill$ by ! discov]y ( f\r new metals by spectrum analysis4 ,footnote #af3 ,phil4 ,mag4 vol4 iv4 #ahcd1 p4 #aad4 ,footnote #ag3 #8,on ! ,spectrum ( ! ,electric ,sp>k 9 ,comp\nd ,gases1' by ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,segu94 ,comptes ,r5dus4 ,footnote #ah3 ,! light ( ! electric lamp is produc$ by an app>atus :i* successively makes & breaks an electric curr5t1 :]eby ! t]m9al *>coal po9ts become r$-hot4 ,footnote #ai3 #8,on ! ,means ( ,increas+ ! ,int5sity ( ,metallic ,spectra4' ,by ,mr4 ,w4 ,crookes4 ,footnote #bj3 ,! ,*emical ,news & ,j\rnal ( ,physical ,sci5ce = ,july #d1 #ahfc4 ,footnote #ba3 ,dr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,mill] has %[n t ^! invisible highly refrangible rays exi/ 9 ! vap\rs ( all metals1 & has obta9$ photographs ( _! spectra 7see ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahfb1 p4 #hgf71 :i* correspond to ! spectra ( fluoresc5ce4 ,footnote #bb3 ,9 ,cassiopei1 ,mr4 ,hugg9s has detect$ a second bright l9e 9 ! r$ "p ( ! spectrum4 ,he has also f\nd t ^! two bright l9es agree 9 position ) ! two brighte/ l9es ( ! spectrum ( hydrog51 & may !re=e be consid]$ due to lum9\s hydrog54 ,footnote #bc3 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 :o is ( ! highe/ au?ority ) reg>d to ! nebul 9 bo? hemisph]es4 ,footnote #bd3 ,s9ce ?is obs]vation1 ,mr4 ,hugg9s discov]$ t two small comets give an analog\s spectrum4 ,footnote #be3 ,f fur!r obs]vations ,mr4 ,hugg9s is ( op9ion t ! r$ col\r ( ?is planet is n due to its atmosph]e1 b is peculi> to c]ta9 p>ts ( its surface4 ,footnote #bf3 #8,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1' ,april #ahfd4 ,footnote #bg3 ,jan4 #g1 #ahfe4 ,footnote #bh3 ,on ! late/ discov]ies conc]n+ ! sun's surface1 by ,balf\r ,/ew>t1 ,esq41 9 ! #8,*emical ,news & ,j\rnal ( ,physical ,sci5ce' ( ,april #ahfe4 ,footnote #bi3 ,accord+ to ,pay54 ,l />*1 x is /a9$ blue by iod9e4 ,footnote #cj3 #8,on ! ,functions ( ! ,nitrog5\s ,matt] ( ,plants4' ,by ,m4 ,l4 ,g>reau1 #8,annales des ,sci5ces naturelles1' t4 xiii4 #ahfj4 ,footnote #ca3 #8,rem>ks on ! ,vessels ( ! ,latex1 ! ,vasa ,propria1 & ! ,receptacles ( ! elaborat$ ,juices ( ,plants4' ,by ,m4 ,le/ib\dois1 #8,comptes r5dus1' #ahfc4 ,footnote #cb3 ,! au?or is indebt$ ?r\gh\t _m p>ts ( ?is section to ! excell5t "w ( ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 & to ! #8,cryptogamic ,botany' ( ! ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,b]keley1 f :i* also _m ( ! cuts are d]iv$4 ,footnote #cc3 ,mr4 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #cd3 #8,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s ,microscope4' ,footnote #ce3 ,^! motions 7 discov]$1 & are describ$ by ,dr4 ,h>vey1 9 8 #8,manual ( ,briti% ,m>9e ,alg4' ,footnote #cf3 #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,by ! ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,b]keley4 ,footnote #cg3 #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,by ! ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,b]keley4 ,footnote #ch3 #8,! ,microscope4' ,by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]4 ,footnote #ci3 #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,by ! ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,b]keley4 ,footnote #dj3 #8,briti% ,seawe$s4' ,by ,mrs4 ,alfr$ ,gatty4 ,footnote #da3 #8,flora ,italica ,crypta4' ,footnote #db3 ,mr4 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #dc3 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #dd3 ,mrs4 ,gatty's #8,briti% ,sea ,we$s4' ,footnote #de3 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #df3 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #dg3 #8,voyage ( ! ,adv5tur] & ,beagle1' by ,mr4 ,d>w94 ,footnote #dh3 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #di3 ,9 ! ,fuci ea* k9d ( fruit is dis*>g$ on ! surface ( ! receptacle be=e fructification4 ,footnote #ej3 ,hook]'s #8,flora ,ant>ctica4' ,footnote #ea3 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #eb3 ,b]keley's #8,introduction to ,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #ec3 #8,des ,myxomycetes1' p> ,m4 ,anto9e de ,b>y2 et ,mmoires p> ,,mm4 ,tulasne et ,h]mann ,h(fman1 #8,annales des ,sci5ces ,naturalles1' #dme sries4 ,footnote #ed3 #8,introduction to ,cryptogamic ,botany1' by ! ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,b]keley4 ,footnote #ee3 #8,sur des ,is>ia et ,sphria ,entomog5s1' p> ,,mm4 ,l4 et ,h4 ,tulasne1 de l',in/itut1 #8,annales des ,sci5ces ,naturelles1' #dme srie1 #aheg4 ,footnote #ef3 #8,on ! ,geographical ,di/ribution ( ,fungi1' by ,m4 ,e4 ,p4 ,fries1 ( ,upsala1 ,sw$54 ,footnote #eg3 ,memoir by ,m4 ,h]mann ,h(fmann1 ^u ,f]m5tation1 9 ! #8,ann4 des ,sci5ces ,naturelles1' #dme srie1 #ahfj4 ,footnote #eh3 #8,! ,microscope1' by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]4 ,footnote #ei3 ,m4 ,h(fmann4 ,footnote #fj3 #8,comptes r5dus1' ,nov4 #ab1 #ahfj4 ,footnote #fa3 #8,geographical ,di/ribution ( ,fungi1' by ,m4 ,fries4 ,footnote #fb3 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #fc3 ,b]keley's #8,introduction to ,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #fd3 ,b]keley's #8,introduction to ,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #fe3 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s #8,microscope4' ,footnote #ff3 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s #8,microscope' ,footnote #fg3 #8,anatomy & ,physiology ( ! ,vegetable ,cell1' by ,m4 ,hugo von ,mohl4 ,footnote #fh3 ,m4 von ,mohl1 on ! #8,vegetable ,cell4' ,footnote #fi3 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #gj3 ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,hook] on ! #8,di/ribution ( ,f]ns1' 9 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #ga3 #8,index ,filicum1' by ,?omas ,moore1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,footnote #gb3 ,moore1 9 #8,treasury ( ,botany4' ,footnote #gc3 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #gd3 ,*>les ,johnson1 ,esq4 ,footnote #ge3 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #gf3 ,b]keley's #8,cryptogamic ,botany4' ,footnote #gg3 ,infloresc5ce & fructification are fully expla9$1 & appli$ to a va/ numb] ( plants1 9 #8,/ructural & ,physiological ,botany1' by ,ar?ur ,h5frey1 ,esq41--a "w ( great rese>* & m]it4 ,footnote #gh3 ,messrs4 ,hook]1 ,d>w91 & ,brongni>t4 ,footnote #gi3 ,pr(essor ,matteucci4 ,footnote #hj3 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 #8,microscope4' ,footnote #ha3 ,annals ( ,natural ,hi/ory = #ahfc4 ,footnote #hb3 ,annals & ,magaz9es ( ,natural ,hi/ory = #ahfc4 ,transcrib]'s ,note ,?is book uses inconsi/5t spell+ & hyph5ation1 :i* 7 reta9$ 9 ! ebook v]sion4 ,"s corrections h be5 made to ! text1 includ+ correct+ ! errata & normaliz+ punctuation4 ,fur!r corrections are not$ bel[3 p4 #bi heat ind$5d5t matt] - heat indep5d5t matt] p4 #aff next ! visual c5t]- next to ! visual c5t] p4 #agi 9 dep5d5tly - indep5d5tly p4 #bea isr eproduc$ - is reproduc$ p4 #cdc ig #ef - ,fig #ef p4 #cea ! fonds are articul$ - ! fonds are articulat$