7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a41 by ,john ,whiteside7 ,,cover3 ,redondo ,peak1 from ,jemez ,canyon ,scenic ,trips to the ,geologic ,past ,series3 ,no4 #a--,santa ,fe1 ,new ,mexico ,no4 #b--,taos--,red ,river--,eagle ,nest1 ,new ,mexico1 ,circle ,drive ,no4 #c--,roswell--,capitan--,ruidoso and ,bottomless ,lakes ,state ,park1 ,new ,mexico ,no4 #d--,southern ,zuni ,mountains1 ,new ,mexico ,no4 #e--,silver ,city--,santa ,rita--,hurley1 ,new ,mexico ,no4 #f--,trail ,guide to ,geology of the ,upper ,pecos1 ,new ,mexico ,no4 #g--;,high ,plains ,northeastern ,new ,mexico1 ,raton--,capulin ,mountain--,clayton ,no4 #h--,mosaic of ,new ,mexico's ,scenery1 ,rocks1 and ,history ,no4 #i--;,albuquerque--,its ,mountains1 ,valleys1 ,water1 and ,volcanoes ,no4 #aj--,southwestern ,new ,mexico ,no4 #aa--;,cumbres and ,toltec ,scenic ,railroad ,no4 #ab--,the ,story of ,mining in ,new ,mexico ,no4 #ac--;,espaola--,chama--,taos ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a41 by ,robert ,w4 ,talbott7 ,whitewater ,canyon near ,glenwood ,,scenic ,,trips ,,to ,,the ,,geologic ,,past ,,no4 #h ,mosaic of ,new ,mexico's ,scenery1 ,rocks1 and ,history edited by ,,paige ,w4 ,,christiansen and ,,frank ,e4 ,,kottlowski ,,new ,,mexico ,,bureau ,,of ,,mines ,,and ,,mineral ,,resources #aigb ,,new ,,mexico ,,institute ,,of ,,mining ,,technology ,kenneth ,w4 ,ford1 ,president ,,new ,,mexico ,,bureau ,,of ,,mines ,,mineral ,,resources ,frank ,e4 ,kottlowski1 ,director ,george ,s4 ,austin1 ,deputy ,director ,,board ,,of ,,regents ,ex ,officio ,bruce ,king1 ,governor of ,new ,mexico ,leonard ,de,layo1 ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction ,appointed ,steve ,torres1 ,president1 #aifg-aihe1 ,socorro ,dave ,rice1 ,secretary-,treasurer1 #aigb-aihc1 ,carlsbad ,william ,g4 ,abbott1 #aifa-aihe1 ,hobbs ,judy ,floyd1 #aigg-aihg1 ,las ,cruces ,owen ,lopez1 #aigg-aihc1 ,santa ,fe ,,bureau ,,staff ,full ,time ,marla ,d4 ,adkins1 ,assistant ,editor ,orin ,j4 ,anderson1 ,geologist ,ruben ,archuleta1 ,technician ,i ,robert ,a4 ,bieberman1 ,senior ,petrol4 ,geologist ,steve ,blodgett1 ,assistant ,editor ,lynn ,a4 ,brandvold1 ,chemist ,james ,brannan1 ,drafter ,corale ,brierley1 ,chemical ,microbiologist ,ron ,broadhead1 ,petroleum ,geologist ,brenda ,r4 ,broadwell1 ,assoc4 ,lab ,geoscientist ,jane ,a4 ,calvert1 ,assistant ,editor ,frank ,campbell1 ,coal ,geologist ,richard ,chamberlin1 ,economic ,geologist ,charles ,e4 ,chapin1 ,senior ,geologist ,jeanette ,chavez1 ,admin4 ,secretary ,i ,richard ,r4 ,chavez1 ,assistant ,head1 ,petroleum ,ruben ,a4 ,crespin1 ,laboratory ,technician ,,ii ,lois ,m4 ,devlin1 ,director1 ,bus4-,pub4 ,office ,amelia ,dondero1 ,metallurgist ,kathy ,c4 ,eden1 ,editorial ,technician ,robert ,w4 ,eveleth1 ,mining ,engineer ,k4 ,babette ,faris1 ,x-ray ,lab4 ,manager ,rousseau ,h4 ,flower1 ,sr4 ,emeritus ,paleontologist ,john ,w4 ,hawley1 ,senior ,env4 ,geologist ,cindy ,howell1 ,staff ,secretary ,robert ,w4 ,kelley1 ,editor ,geologist ,arleen ,lindsey1 ,staff ,secretary ,mark ,logsdon1 ,industrial ,minerals ,geologist ,david ,w4 ,love1 ,environmental ,geologist ,wess ,mauldin1 ,driller ,virginia ,mc,lemore1 ,geologist ,lynne ,mc,neil1 ,staff ,secretary ,norma ,j4 ,meeks1 ,department ,secretary ,david ,menzie1 ,geologist ,teresa ,mueller1 ,drafter ,robert ,m4 ,north1 ,mineralogist ,keith ,o',brien1 ,hydrologist ,jo,anne ,c4 ,osburn1 ,coal ,geologist ,glenn ,r4 ,osburn1 ,volcanologist ,barbara ,r4 ,popp1 ,lab4 ,biotechnologist ,marshall ,a4 ,reiter1 ,senior ,geophysicist ,jacques ,r4 ,renault1 ,senior ,geologist ,james ,m4 ,robertson1 ,mining ,geologist ,gretchen ,h4 ,roybal1 ,coal ,geologist ,amy ,shacklett1 ,asst4 ,lab ,biotechnologist ,jackie ,h4 ,smith1 ,laboratory ,technician ,,iv ,william ,j4 ,stone1 ,hydrogeologist ,samuel ,thompson ,,iii1 ,senior ,petrol4 ,geologist ,judy ,m4 ,vaiza1 ,executive ,secretary ,debra ,vetterman1 ,drafter ,robert ,h4 ,weber1 ,senior ,geologist ,betsy ,wilson1 ,receptionist_/,clerk ,typist ,donald ,wolberg1 ,vertebrate ,paleontologist ,michael ,w4 ,wooldridge1 ,scientific ,illustrator ,part ,time ,christina ,l4 ,balk1 ,geologist ,howard ,b4 ,nickelson1 ,coal ,geologist ,beverly ,ohline1 ,acting ,director1 ,info4 ,services ,thomas ,e4 ,zimmerman1 ,chief ,security ,officer ,graduate ,students ,danny ,bobrow ,james ,t4 ,boyle ,gerry ,w4 ,clarkson ,mike ,davidson ,david ,r4 ,guilinger ,terry ,jensen ,douglas ,l4 ,heath ,adrian ,hunt ,ingrid ,klich ,ione ,lindley ,curtis ,verpleough ,john ,m4 ,wakefield ,mary ,lynne ,yates ,john ,young ,plus about #ej undergraduate assistants ,third edition1 #dth printing ,published by ,authority of ,state of ,new ,mexico1 ,,nmsa #aiec ,sec4 #fc-a-d ,printed by ,university of ,new ,mexico ,printing ,plant1 ,albuquerque1 ,april #aihb ,available from ,new ,mexico ,bureau of ,mines ,mineral ,resources1 ,socorro1 ,,nm #hghja #d4jj ,contents #c ,of ,indians1 ,spaniards1 and ,americans1 ,paige ,w4 ,christiansen #af ,the exotic plants of ,new ,mexico1 ,ross ,calvin #bf ,dwellers in the hills and plains1 ,levon ,lee #cc ,rocks that shape the enchanting landscapes1 ,frank ,e4 ,kottlowski #ed ,before ,coronado1 ,robert ,h4 ,weber #fd ,frontier forts of ,new ,mexico1 ,robert ,a4 ,bieberman #ge ,our ,national ,heritage #ge ,new ,mexico's big share of the ,national ,park ,system1 ,h4 ,v4 ,reeves1 ,jr4 #ic ,forest lands above the desert1 ,ruth ,bush ,jones #ajd ,the ,state ,also ,preserves #ajd ,new ,mexico ,state ,monuments1 ,museum of ,new ,mexico ,staff #ajg ,new ,mexico ,state ,parks1 ,the ,editors #aac ,angling in the desert's waters1 ,fred ,a4 ,thompson #aai ,the ,indians of ,new ,mexico1 ,paige ,w4 ,christiansen #acc ,reminders of the past1 ,paige ,w4 ,christiansen #ade ,derricks and mines1 ,george ,b4 ,griswold #aed ,enchanting landscapes1 ,frank ,e4 ,kottlowski #afe ,index ,illustration3 ,new ,mexico ,preface ,previous ,scenic ,trips to the ,geologic ,past have emphasized scenic tours of local areas in ,new ,mexico4 ,this book lays out a mosaic of facts and fancies concerning the state's landscapes1 the rocks that underlie and make up the landscapes1 and the history of the people now living or who have lived amid ,new ,mexico's exciting and varied scenery4 ,we hope these short articles will help you enjoy our state1 whether you are a tourist driving through at seventy miles an hour1 a visitor with a little time to explore1 or an old-timer who remembers the cattle drives4 ,the idea for this publication grew out of a booklet1 ,new ,mexico ,mosaic of ,science and ,history1 that was written for the #aifc ,national ,science ,fair-,international held in ,albuquerque4 ,the ,national ,science ,fair booklet was directed specifically to the ,fair participants and emphasized their tours to famous scientific installations in ,new ,mexico1 areas of scenic geologic wonders1 and points of historic and archeologic importance4 ,the booklet had only limited distribution2 subsequent interest in this kind of publication about ,new ,mexico led to the preparation of this book4 ,scenic ,trips ,no4 #h is in two major parts4 ,first1 there are articles of general statewide interest to acquaint visitor and resident alike with the ,land of ,enchantment--its history1 flora and fauna1 geology1 and scenic beauty4 ,second1 there are articles describing specific scenic1 geologic1 historic1 and recreational places to give a depth of understanding and a more intimate view of ,new ,mexico4 ,the entire mosaic of ,new ,mexico thus presented is a permanent record to recall vistas of ,new ,mexico's enchanting land and fascinating history4 ,acknowledgments ,many people have contributed their time and talents to this co-operative undertaking4 ,we thank each of the authors of the articles2 where their affiliation is not given1 they are staff members of the ,new ,mexico ,bureau of ,mines and ,mineral ,resources division of the ,new ,mexico ,institute of ,mining and ,technology4 ,professor ,christiansen is a member of the ,humanities ,department of the ,institute's ,college division4 ,this book would have been incomplete without the co-operation of the ,new ,mexico ,department of ,game and ,fish1 the ,museum of ,new ,mexico1 the ,new ,mexico ,department of ,development1 the ,state ,park ,commission1 the ,u4,s4 ,park ,service1 and the ,forest ,service1 ,southwestern ,region1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,our special appreciation goes to ,dr4 ,ross ,calvin for his interpretative description of ,new ,mexico's unique flora4 ,black and white photographs were contributed by ,robert ,bieberman1 ,roy ,foster1 and ,teri ,ray of the ,bureau of ,mines staff and by the authors or their agencies4 ,some of the drawings were made by ,david ,h4 ,moneypenny4 ,acknowledgment is also made to ,mr4 ,elliott ,s4 ,barker and the ,forest ,service for their willing loan of color transparencies4 ,among the numerous personnel of the ,new ,mexico ,institute of ,mining and ,technology who aided in preparation of this book1 appreciation is due ,helen ,waxler1 ,lois ,devlin1 ,lola ,white1 ,mary ,ann ,grandjean1 and ,sharon ,ballenger for typing of manuscripts and ,william ,arnold1 ,robert ,price1 and ,raymond ,molina for drafting maps and figures4 ,teri ,ray deserves special mention for her interest and editorial advice and for nursing the material from rough manuscripts into printed pages4 ,,preface ,,to ,,second ,,edition ,the kind reception given our attempt to provide a brief but comprehensive guide to ,new ,mexico's scenery1 rocks1 and history resulted in distribution of #ejjj copies in two years1 and led to this second edition4 ,in this revision1 we have incorporated changes that have occurred during these two years1 especially the addition of ,state ,parks1 and ,teri ,ray has added an index to make the book more usable4 ,each author has re-edited his article and made changes where necessary4 ,william ,arnold added much material to the index map2 typing of the revision manuscript was carefully done by ,lois ,devlin4 ,alfred ,coulloudon and ,wayne ,bera supplied additional photographs4 ,teri ,ray initiated revision of the first edition1 worked with authors1 and guided the manuscript from the authors to the final copy4 ,,preface ,,to ,,third ,,edition ,the first edition appeared in #aifd1 the second in #aifg1 and a reprint in #aifh4 ,in the present edition front matter has been re-styled1 printed matter has been altered on the inside and outside of the covers1 a footnote added to page #ajd1 and a less bulky paper used4 ,of ,indians1 ,spaniards1 and ,americans by ,paige ,w4 ,christiansen ,in the world of the twentieth century with its tumultuous ovation for each discovery of science1 with its language of non-,euclidian space1 with new heroes who leave the earth1 not discover it--sometimes it is refreshing to look back on other days1 to see other heroes1 and to seek romance and excitement which was equally spectacular in times past4 ,yet there is a close affinity and a spiritual link among the heroes of the past1 the present1 and the future1 and the reaction of their contemporaries to their feats of glory is not so different4 ,heroes are those who seek the unknown1 who risk life and position to expand the frontiers of man's universe and mind4 ,but heroes can only lead an age1 never surpass it4 ,history1 then1 is people and their catalyst1 ideas4 ,the history of ,new ,mexico1 like twentieth century science1 is multi-dimensional4 ,its complex cultural patterns fit with the intricate variety of its geologic wonders and its flora and fauna4 ,in reality1 ,new ,mexico is a part of a broader concept1 the ,southwest4 ,this vast region1 which includes western ,texas1 ,new ,mexico1 ,arizona1 southern ,california1 part of southern ,colorado1 and southern ,utah1 has given rise to some of man's greatest achievements4 ,here prehistoric man rose above his animal heritage to take control of these lands4 ,here1 also1 many millennia later1 man achieved one of his greatest scientific wonders1 the successful release of atomic energy4 ,the story of the years between these events1 so far separated in time1 is a wondrous tale4 ,,indian ,,beginnings ,before the coming of the white man1 this land belonged to nature's children1 the ,indian4 ,centuries before ,european nations came into existence1 peoples from ,asia1 crossing by the ,bering waters1 had discovered1 explored1 and settled the ,american continents from ,alaska to ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,they mastered the plains1 the northern forests1 the jungles of ,central and ,south ,america1 and the arid regions4 ,in the deserts and mountains of the ,southwest1 they conquered elements and terrain1 first to survive and then slowly to ascend the ladder of culture4 ,at first they were foragers1 living on what nature provided4 ,at the time of ,christ1 several groups could be distinguished3 ,in the ,colorado ,river drainage1 south of the ,grand ,canyon1 were the ,yuman ,foragers2 in southeastern ,arizona and southwestern ,new ,mexico were the ,mogollon people2 in the ,four ,corners area 7where the states of ,utah1 ,colorado1 ,arizona1 and ,new ,mexico meet7 and in the ,rio ,grande ,valley of ,new ,mexico was a complex of cave sites that evidenced a forager type of culture4 ,but1 as man always aspires to rise above his environment1 the ,indian slowly and painfully learned to make tools1 developed new techniques1 and finally made the great step upward2 he domesticated plants4 ,agriculture1 based primarily on the growing of corn1 came to the ,four ,corners before the ,christian era4 ,gradually1 out of the primitive foragers1 there developed across the ,southwest a complex pattern of agricultural societies2 peaceful farmers intent upon harvesting the utmost from a harsh land4 ,in ,arizona1 the ,hohokam peoples created a culture based upon irrigation4 ,in the valleys of the upper ,gila and ,mimbres rivers of southwestern ,new ,mexico1 several branches of the ,mogollon culture grew and prospered4 ,in the ,four ,corners area and in the upper ,rio ,grande ,valley1 the ,mesa ,verde1 the ,gran ,chaco1 and later the ,rio ,grande branches developed1 at first in the cliffs of the high country1 then in open villages along the main tributaries of the ,rio ,grande4 ,that there were numerous and varied cultures is attested to by the ruins one finds scattered throughout the ,southwest4 ,along now dry arroyos1 on buttes overlooking rivers or dry river beds1 among cliffs in the mountain fastnesses and in caves wherever they appear1 there are thousands of sites whose people and history are lost in antiquity4 ,illustration3 ,prehistoric ,indian cliff dwelling ,and these people were builders4 ,they lived in caves at first1 then in crude pit houses4 ,finally they moved above the ground and evolved building techniques and styles of architecture that stood the ravages of time and still serve the people of the ,southwest4 ,in the city of ,santa ,fe1 the ,palace of the ,governors was built upon the ruins of an ,indian pueblo 7village71 the name of which has disappeared even from tradition1 and its massive walls of puddled adobe1 laid down before the art of making bricks was introduced by the ,spanish1 may be seen under glass in some of the rooms of the ,palace at the present time4 ,perhaps most spectacular are the great houses of ,chaco ,canyon1 some of which must have sheltered from one to two thousand people each1 and which as achievements in building1 both from the standpoint of durability and graceful construction1 rival the structures of the historic valleys and plateaus of the ancient eastern world4 ,in addition to agriculture and building1 the ,indian of the ,southwest achieved great heights in artistic forms4 ,the ceramics of the ,american ,southwest become increasingly important when compared with products of the ,old ,world4 ,the ,indians of ,america and the ,southwest are a race of artists4 ,their aesthetic culture towers above anything achieved by the white man1 with the general exception of ancient ,greece and ,renaissance ,italy4 ,as impressive as his achievements in domesticating plants1 in building massive structures1 and in developing symbolism and aesthetic values to match his material advances1 the ,indian's greatest heights were reached in his philosophy on nature and life4 ,he conceived himself to be1 not master of creation1 but a single factor in the scheme of things4 ,he shared with all things--beasts1 birds1 rocks1 trees1 everything in nature--a life principle which permeated all1 a gift conferred by the mighty powers of earth and sky4 ,he observed orderly procession of natural phenomena and ordered his own life in harmony therewith4 ,his was no egocentric point of view which has become so much a part of the philosophic base of the ,european mentality4 ,his natural philosophy entered into every facet of his life--his daily work1 his art1 his ceramics1 his religion4 ,in short1 this singularly fine outlook upon the world helps to account for his success in conquering the diverse elements of earth and sky which constantly threatened his very existence4 ,but this fine culture did not survive in the fullness of its bloom4 ,what eventually destroyed the vast and complicated agricultural system was not the rigors of ,mother ,nature but a migration of new people into the flow of ,southwest history4 ,sometime after #ajjj ,a4,d41 a nonfarming1 nomadic1 warlike people entered the ,southwest4 ,the peaceful farmers1 weakened by drouth1 were unable to cope with this new force4 ,gradually they fell back1 leaving behind their homes1 their fields1 their culture4 ,by #acjj1 only a small remnant remained1 that located in the ,rio ,grande ,valley of north-central ,new ,mexico4 ,across the rest of the ,southwest the nomadic tribes1 technically called ,athapascan from their linguistic affiliation but better known by their modern name1 ,apache1 had replaced the farming cultures4 ,the picturesque ,indian pueblos we see today in the valleys of northern ,new ,mexico are the direct descendants of the great cultures that existed at ,mesa ,verde1 ,gran ,chaco1 ,frijoles1 and other centers of cultural achievement4 ,the ,indians of the ,rio ,grande ,valley and the ,apache who controlled most of the ,southwest managed an uneasy coexistence4 ,the ,pueblo ,indians remained basically farmers1 holding fast to the cultural advances made by their ancestors during the millennium preceding #acjj4 ,the ,apache1 for the most part1 remained nomadic predators1 living off nature's bounty1 or better still1 raiding the pueblos for food4 ,the ,apache groups began to take on names and traditional areas which they called their own4 ,in northern ,new ,mexico were the ,jicarilla ,apache and in the southeast1 the ,lipan1 the ,mescalero1 and the ,natage ,apache4 ,in northeastern ,arizona were the ,navajo and in the drainage of the ,gila ,river1 the ,chiricahua1 the ,gila1 and other groups of the ,western ,apache4 ,each of these groups made its mark upon the face of the land4 ,,spanish ,,contributions ,this was the situation in the ,southwest when the sixteenth century opened1 but a new force was abroad which would grow and strengthen and leave a deep imprint on ,new ,mexico4 ,beginning on the wild islands of the ,caribbean and then fanning out into the heart of ,mexico and the ,south ,american continent1 this new force spread across the face of ,america4 ,europeans1 more exactly1 ,spaniards1 came bent upon conquest for its own reward1 for the glory of ,god1 and for gold4 ,these sturdy men from the ,iberian peninsula with weapons vastly superior to the ,indians'1 with the horse which made them highly mobile and devastating in battle1 and with tactics and precision in warfare unknown among the ,indians1 were to sweep without serious setback across the great cultures of ,mexico and ,central and ,south ,america4 ,by #aedj1 they were ready to take their next leap forward4 ,on the west coast of ,mexico1 at a place called ,culiacan1 a colorful host gathered4 ,in their ears rang the words of the legend of the ,seven ,cities of ,cibola1 seven golden cities1 a legend which had been popular in ,spain for many generations4 ,mexico ,city had produced wealth1 and the ,spanish were ready to believe that other fabulous cities existed4 ,one ,spaniard had already crossed part of ,north ,america and had heard from the ,indians tales of the rich cities4 ,his name was ,cabeza de ,vaca1 and the exuberance of his tales fired the imagination of the ,spaniards4 ,the soldiers and adventurers gathering in ,mexico1 commanded by ,francisco ,vasquez de ,coronado1 were the first ,europeans to organize an expedition to the ,american ,southwest4 ,leaving from ,culiacan in #aedj1 they went up the west coast of ,mexico into modern ,arizona1 then east into ,new ,mexico4 ,the seven golden cities turned out to be the pueblos around ,zuni1 ,new ,mexico1 and not golden at all4 ,the expedition1 although discouraged1 marched into the ,rio ,grande ,valley and visited most of the pueblos there4 ,still they failed to find the treasure they sought4 ,in a final desperate attempt1 they explored onto the ,great ,plains1 eventually reaching central ,kansas4 ,broken in spirit and body1 they struggled back to the ,rio ,grande ,valley1 and then retraced their route to ,mexico4 ,in all1 the expedition covered a two-year span4 ,a failure8 ,yes1 in terms of wealth and treasure found4 ,yes1 in terms of conquest1 for nothing had been conquered4 ,no1 in terms of human resources1 for the ,indians ,coronado met were to be the incentive that would bring the ,spaniard back to ,new ,mexico4 ,while the ,spaniard did seek gold and glory1 he also burned with a missionary zeal and sought souls for his deep-running religion1 ,roman ,catholicism4 ,illustration3 ,mesa top pueblo ,for fifty-five years after ,coronado1 interest in ,new ,mexico and the ,southwest was spotty4 ,other things occupied the ,spanish--primarily silver discoveries in the central valleys of ,mexico4 ,but men did not forget ,new ,mexico and saw there an opportunity for missionary activity and exploitation4 ,also1 other nations of ,europe were beginning to take an interest in the ,north ,american continent1 and ,new ,mexico began to look attractive to the ,spanish as a frontier defensive outpost4 ,the frontier line pushed ever northward from central ,mexico4 ,by #aeie1 the ,spanish were ready to push a salient into ,new ,mexico4 ,from among the mining communities of northern ,mexico1 a force of two hundred colonists was assembled by ,don ,juan ,oate who had a contract to colonize ,new ,mexico4 ,after countless delays due to politics and supply shortages1 the ,oate expedition left ,chihuahua in #aeih4 ,the route went north across the desert to the ,rio ,grande near ,el ,paso del ,norte 7modern ,juarez71 thence up the ,rio ,grande into ,new ,mexico4 ,on ,august #ah1 #aeih1 they arrived at ,san ,juan1 and there founded the first capital of ,new ,mexico1 ,san ,juan de los ,caballeros4 ,these lands of the ,southwest so long colored by the ,indian now received a new imprint1 one that would alter the direction and flow of culture and change it from the ,indian to the ,spanish ,southwest4 ,from ,san ,juan1 and later 7#afaj7 from ,santa ,fe1 ,oate1 his men1 and his colonists brought ,new ,mexico under the ,spanish yoke4 ,in co-operation with the ,franciscan ,order1 which had been assigned the task of converting the ,indian1 ,oate supervised the building of missions and mission churches at many of the pueblos of ,new ,mexico4 ,at the same time1 ,spanish towns developed1 the most important being the new capital at ,santa ,fe4 ,by #afbh1 ,new ,mexico was solidly in the hands of her new masters4 ,the period from #afbh to #afhj was one of internal conflict and isolation for ,new ,mexico4 ,it lay far out on the frontier1 alone and distant from its source of supplies4 ,it lacked many of the items necessary for frontier life1 particularly hardware and clothing4 ,its population was small1 and in constant fear of ,indian uprising1 and its officials were too weak to act with vigor4 ,finally1 there was a lack of genuine interest on the part of the central authorities4 ,all these problems led to internal conflicts between soldier and colonist2 between colonist and ,indian2 between colonist and official2 and1 perhaps most bitter of all1 between church and state4 ,this latter conflict would erupt time after time1 openly1 and with bitterness and denunciation from both sides4 ,governors were excommunicated as heretics2 ,franciscans were accused of all sorts of crimes and improper behavior4 ,this1 plus the other conflicts1 gave rise to growing disrespect by the ,indians for their ,european conquerors4 ,the superiority of ,christianity was questioned by the ,indians as they watched the attacks and counterattacks made by priest and governor4 ,the whole system of ,spanish rule seemed a mockery4 ,in #afhj1 the ,indians decided their way was best after all and rose in rebellion4 ,led by ,po-p from ,taos1 the various pueblos banded together in a mighty effort to remove the ,spanish from traditional ,indian lands4 ,for the first time the pueblos came together1 united by a single purpose4 ,there were two exceptions2 ,isleta1 just south of ,albuquerque1 and the ,piro villages farther south 7,socorro7 remained loyal to the ,spanish4 ,up and down the ,rio ,grande ,valley1 the ,spaniards fell before the pent-up anger of the ,indians4 ,survivors gathered at ,santa ,fe1 but their water supply was cut1 and they were forced to retreat south4 ,at ,isleta and later at the ,piro villages1 they received aid before continuing south to ,el ,paso del ,norte4 ,with them went their ,indian allies from ,isleta and ,socorro4 ,it was a total defeat for the ,spanish1 and the ,indian again was master of ,new ,mexico4 ,but not for long1 for at ,el ,paso there gathered a force dedicated to revenge for their comrades who had died before the ,indian onslaught4 ,ably led by ,diego de ,vargas1 this expedition moved into ,new ,mexico in #afib4 ,the ,indians1 who had achieved such unity for the moment in #afhj1 were again badly divided4 ,de ,vargas1 instead of having to subdue an alliance1 had only to deal with one pueblo at a time4 ,very quickly ,new ,mexico was returned to a mission area and frontier military post4 ,the ,pueblo ,indians became permanently subjected to ,european domination4 ,their one and only attempt at unity had1 in the final analysis1 failed4 ,during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 ,new ,mexico was the heart of the ,spanish empire in the ,southwest4 ,only in southwestern ,arizona1 western ,texas1 and ,california did the ,spanish hold any land other than in the upper ,rio ,grande ,valley of ,new ,mexico4 ,during these centuries1 this valley complex played out its dual role of mission area and military outpost4 ,its only connection with the resources and ideas of the world was a long hazardous road that stretched from ,santa ,fe to ,chihuahua ,city and then south to ,mexico ,city4 ,this was ,new ,mexico's ,royal ,road1 and over it moved everything needed by soldier1 priest1 and civilian4 ,the trade was dominated by the merchants of ,chihuahua1 and ,new ,mexico suffered4 ,the tale of ,new ,mexico during this period was one of poverty1 hardship1 and warfare4 ,and several vital forces moved across the land4 ,one of these forces had long been in the ,southwest1 but latent4 ,the ,spanish adopted an ,indian word meaning enemy to describe it--,apache6 ,the ,spanish brought with them domesticated animals which quickly adapted to conditions of the ,new ,world and became available to the ,indian4 ,most important was the horse1 at least as far as the ,apache was concerned4 ,by the early eighteenth century1 the ,apache1 and other groups on the plains1 had adapted to the use of the horse4 ,while dangerous as foot soldiers1 the ,apache became vastly more dangerous as mounted warriors4 ,whereas they had been satisfied with minor raids against the pueblos and the ,spanish holdings prior to #agjj1 they exploded on a wave of terrorism during the eighteenth century which very nearly drove the ,spanish from the frontier4 ,late in the century1 the conflict between the ,apache and the ,spanish became increasingly bitter4 ,the history of the ,southwest became the history of incessant ,indian incursions and ,spanish attempts to control the raiders4 ,the missions declined and in many instances gave way entirely to the presidio or fort4 ,in ,new ,mexico the military came to dominate the missionary1 and only through the heroic efforts of the meager force at the ,presidio of ,santa ,fe did the ,spanish manage to hold ,new ,mexico from total collapse4 ,a poor province became poorer1 population declined1 both among the ,spanish and ,indian1 and the future looked dark indeed4 ,far from ,new ,mexico1 other forces were stirring which would have a profound effect on the province and the ,southwest4 ,spain and the ,spanish empire were in trouble4 ,spain had failed to develop the supply capability to keep her colonies alive and was forced to spend her wealth in other areas of ,europe4 ,after two and a half centuries1 the cumbersome and inefficient colonial administrative machinery was breaking down4 ,while ,spain's star was descending1 other ,european nations were on the move4 ,england1 ,france1 ,holland1 and ,russia were contesting with ,spain for control of the ,new ,world4 ,england and ,france were digging in on the east coast of ,north ,america2 ,holland was penetrating the islands of the ,caribbean1 and ,russia was pushing down the ,pacific ,coast from ,alaska4 ,the weakness of ,spain and the failure of her colonial government1 plus help from ,napoleon by way of his invasion of the ,iberian ,peninsula in #ahjh1 brought about the collapse of the ,spanish empire4 ,in ,america1 patriots1 inspired by the earlier success of the ,american ,revolution and afire with the ideas of the ,french ,revolution1 struck out at the remnants of ,spanish rule4 ,by #ahbe1 all the ,spanish colonies but the islands of the ,caribbean were free and independent nations4 ,new ,mexico and the ,southwest became part of the ,mexican state4 ,almost immediately1 ,mexico1 without leaders1 without a political heritage to lead it to stability1 and torn by power struggles large and small1 was plunged into a period of political anarchy and civil war which would last for half a century4 ,the problems and dangers of a far-flung frontier were lost in the din of conflict1 and ,new ,mexico became a forgotten province4 ,its claims as a mission area were so weak as to be almost nonexistent4 ,it was no longer needed as a military outpost1 for the danger to ,mexico was not external1 but internal4 ,its reasons for being were forgotten1 at least for the moment1 and ,new ,mexico had to survive on her own initiative4 ,but for one very important fact1 the ,spanish salient into the ,southwest might have collapsed under the weight of poverty and ,indian attacks4 ,that fact was the opening of the ,santa ,fe ,trail in #ahba1 a trail which linked the ,spanish world with the ,anglo-,saxon world then pushing its frontiers out from ,missouri4 ,this trail1 so rich in lore and adventure1 so much a part of the history of both the ,american west and the ,spanish north1 was the door through which passed the characters for the final act in the history of the ,southwest4 ,before the final act1 however1 it is vital and necessary to set down the contribution of two hundred fifty years of ,spanish occupation and rule4 ,the coming of the ,spaniard to the ,southwest began a mixture of white and red races which resulted in a new mixed race4 ,the first generation of those who came up from ,mexico were ,caucasians2 their descendants were usually not4 ,they came seeking wealth and security1 but there was neither wealth nor security in ,new ,mexico1 and they remained poor1 very poor4 ,the society that evolved was to be based upon farming and stock raising1 and its organization was to be feudal in nature4 ,there would be no education2 hence1 there could be no intellectual advance4 ,the world began to go ahead of the people of ,new ,mexico4 ,only in the house of the rico was there any sign of the wealth and grandeur of ,spain2 everywhere else was poverty4 ,farming was left in the hands of the ,indian1 while the ,spaniard chose to be a man on horseback1 a cattleman1 an aristocrat4 ,in the final analysis1 ,spanish ,new ,mexico would not develop as democratic and agricultural1 but aristocratic and feudal4 ,the hacienda was a part of old ,spain in exile4 ,the rico tried vainly to hold to his idea of chivalry and to a decorum suitable to his position4 ,but what chance was there in the face of the increasing poverty1 the constant danger to life and property1 and time that did not move8 ,while individual courage of the upper class remained1 discipline and industry died4 ,when the ,american army marched into the ,southwest1 the sons of the conquistadores could offer no armed resistance4 ,perhaps the most amazing thing about the society of the ricos in ,new ,mexico was that it failed to contribute any lasting monument4 ,it left no art1 no music1 no great highways1 no adequate governmental system4 ,but many elements of ,spanish culture were to persist1 and these arose from the collective consciousness of the people of ,new ,mexico4 ,around the great haciendas were small villages with their artisans and workers4 ,it was among these people that the heritage of ,spain clung to this land4 ,many of these towns yet remain and are not much different from those of two hundred years ago4 ,to a large degree1 their ,spanish culture seems hidden and undiscovered1 but the people1 their loves and hates1 pleasures and hopes1 beliefs and fears1 are governed by tradition1 a tradition that finds its roots deep in the soil of ,spain4 ,illustration3 ,old mission church at ,isleta ,pueblo ,today1 when we look at the cultural scene in ,new ,mexico1 we can see direct evidence of ,spanish occupation4 ,the language of half the people in the state is ,spanish1 in some areas still the ,spanish of the sixteenth century4 ,roman ,catholicism1 of which the ,spanish were the most ,catholic1 dominates the religious scene4 ,the ,spanish heritage in political attitudes1 in building and architecture1 and in the legal tradition of the state is apparent4 ,new ,mexico1 of all the states in the ,united ,states1 is the only one that can claim a truly ,spanish heritage4 ,,anglo-,,american ,,vigor ,while ,spain lost its empire and ,new ,mexico and the ,southwest sank into poverty and decay1 yet another force was on the march1 a force that welled up in an ,anglo-,american people clinging to the ,atlantic ,coast of ,north ,america4 ,as these people developed a nation1 they also discovered a sense of destiny which turned their faces to the west and their footsteps toward the sunset4 ,with them moved their culture4 ,at first1 it was a trickle1 a few traders bent on profit1 crossing the plains on the ,santa ,fe ,trail4 ,then the trickle became a flood4 ,for ,new ,mexico1 these men came as saviors4 ,the ,missouri traders broke the ,chihuahua monopoly and goods from all parts of the world began to flow into ,new ,mexico1 resulting in higher standards of living4 ,these ,yankee traders1 sensing a good thing1 also penetrated the markets of ,mexico1 using ,new ,mexico's ,royal ,road to gain entrance4 ,again there was conflict1 not ,spanish and ,indian1 but ,latin and ,anglo-,american4 ,mexico owned the lands of the ,southwest and intended to keep them4 ,but this ,american1 with his gaze glued on western skies1 refused to turn aside1 and he strode on1 grinding the feeble efforts of ,mexican resistance into the desert sands4 ,the ,mexican ,war in #ahdf1 suddenly transferred ownership of ,texas1 ,new ,mexico1 ,utah1 ,nevada1 ,arizona1 and ,california from ,mexico to the ,united ,states4 ,this was nearly half the territory of ,mexico4 ,new ,mexico1 with her already complex cultural pattern1 was subjected to still another influence4 ,the history of the ,american occupation of the ,southwest is as complex and diverse as its predecessors4 ,its ingredients include cattle1 mining1 railroads1 agriculture1 science1 and the ,indian4 ,all these1 and others1 combined to give an ,anglo-,american slant to the ,southwest4 ,the ,indian culture did not disappear1 nor did the ,spanish1 but rather a new stratum was cast that was to complete the mosaic4 ,when the ,american arrived in ,new ,mexico1 he found a poor1 backward area1 hungry for trade and outside contacts4 ,he found the ,indians of the ,southwest in open rebellion against the white men4 ,the ,navajo and other ,apache groups1 the ,comanche1 and some of the ,pueblos were the primary offenders4 ,this was to be the main problem occupying the time and energy of the ,american settler and soldier for forty years after #ahdf4 ,until the ,indian situation was stabilized1 there would be little economic and social development4 ,the method evolved for containing the vicious raids against friendly ,indian1 ,spanish1 and ,american communities was a series of forts placed at strategic passes or trails surrounding the traditional lands of the ,apache4 ,the ,indian strongholds were located primarily in the mountainous regions of southwestern ,new ,mexico and southeastern ,arizona4 ,the line of forts stretched along the ,rio ,grande south of ,socorro to the vicinity of ,las ,cruces1 and west along the southern edge of the mountain escarpment into ,arizona4 ,then the defense complex ran north across the desert to an irregular line running east from ,flagstaff through ,gallup and back to the ,rio ,grande4 ,these forts were well garrisoned and provisioned and began to carry the fight to the ,indian4 ,early success was halted by the conflict generated by the ,american ,civil ,war4 ,the center of the ,civil ,war in the west was in ,new ,mexico4 ,there was conflict1 argument1 and some small degree of fighting in other western states and territories as settlers from the north or south struggled to carry this territory or that state into the ,union or the ,confederacy4 ,these were1 however1 local matters and as much political as military4 ,in ,new ,mexico1 there was a war and there were battles1 battles which deserve to be a part of the general ,civil ,war story but that are usually forgotten in the smoke and roar of eastern cannon4 ,two major battles were fought in ,new ,mexico1 the first a ,confederate victory1 the second a ,union victory which saved ,new ,mexico1 and the west1 for the ,union4 ,the aim of the ,confederate forces was to capture1 intact if possible1 the forts in ,new ,mexico and ,arizona with their great store of military provisions1 provisions badly needed by the ,confederate army4 ,also1 there was a feeling among southern leaders that success in ,new ,mexico might also lead to success in ,california1 badly split on the question of secession1 and in ,colorado1 rich in silver and gold4 ,an army recruited in ,texas and commanded by ,general ,henry ,sibley was sent to accomplish ,confederate aims4 ,this army entered ,new ,mexico along the traditional route1 moving up the ,rio ,grande from ,el ,paso4 ,it quickly subdued the forts and ,union troops in southern ,new ,mexico and continued up-river4 ,on ,february #ba1 #ahfb1 it met a ,union army commanded by ,colonel ,e4 ,r4 ,s4 ,canby at ,valverde1 a small community about twenty miles south of ,socorro1 ,new ,mexico4 ,kit ,carson1 ,new ,mexico's famous trapper and scout1 commanded the ,new ,mexico ,volunteers1 a part of the ,union force4 ,canby's troops were beaten and dispersed at the ,battle of ,val ,verde1 leaving the upper ,rio ,grande ,valley virtually without defense4 ,within a few weeks1 the ,texans had taken ,albuquerque and ,santa ,fe4 ,but one stronghold in ,new ,mexico remained in the hands of the ,union forces4 ,fort ,union1 northeast of ,las ,vegas1 ,new ,mexico1 became the focal point of action by both north and south4 ,sibley1 marching from ,santa ,fe1 knew success depended on the fall of ,fort ,union4 ,the ,union forces1 equally aware of the importance of the fort1 hurriedly reinforced it with a number of volunteers from ,colorado4 ,within ,fort ,union1 a crisis developed over differing opinions on strategy4 ,the fort commander wanted to keep the garrison at full strength and fight the ,confederates from within the fort4 ,the ,colorado ,volunteers wanted to go out and meet the enemy4 ,the latter won and a ,union force moved into the passes of the ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains to meet the ,confederates in a fateful battle that would decide control of the west4 ,it was fought at ,glorieta ,pass on ,march #bh1 #ahfb4 ,despite the fact that the two armies met on this field1 the contest was not decided there4 ,early on the morning of ,march #bh1 a force of #djj ,colorado ,volunteers1 commanded by ,colonel ,john ,m4 ,chivington1 began a flanking action in hopes of hitting the ,confederate rear4 ,this group moved out of the ,pass into the mountains1 and by a very difficult route moved back toward the ,pass behind the ,confederate force4 ,on a ridge overlooking ,apache ,canyon1 they saw below them the entire ,confederate supply train and cavalry horse herd4 ,in a lightning hit-and-run attack1 the supply train and horses were destroyed4 ,when word of this reached ,sibley at ,glorieta ,pass1 there was little for him to do but to retire from the field4 ,the ,confederate force never recovered from this disaster and gradually retreated to ,santa ,fe1 then back down the ,rio ,grande into ,texas4 ,with the end of the ,civil ,war1 ,new ,mexico and the ,southwest returned1 not to peace1 but to war1 war against the ,apache4 ,it took twenty years for the ,american with all his modern weapons and tactics to bring the ,apache under control4 ,for the ,apache1 it ended on ,september #c1 #ahhf1 when ,geronimo and his few ragged followers surrendered to ,general ,miles in ,skeleton ,canyon1 ,arizona4 ,under the weight of steel and increasing numbers of white men1 the ,apache was doomed4 ,though civilization would swallow the ,apache1 as it has always succeeded against the barbarian1 the ,apache made a spectacular defense of his lands and his way of life against both ,spaniard and ,american4 ,he made himself master of the desert1 and only the gods of science succeeded in overcoming him and his desert gods4 ,,industrial ,,boom ,with the ,indian situation settled1 ,new ,mexico underwent a boom in two important areas1 mining and cattle raising4 ,these industries1 so much a part of the history of the ,american ,west1 did and still play an important role in the well-being of the ,southwest4 ,mining camps sprang up along the mountain fringes as new discoveries of silver and gold came to light4 ,around ,socorro and ,magdalena1 in the ,mogollon ,mountains1 at ,hillsboro and ,kingston in the ,black ,range1 and hundreds of other places in ,new ,mexico and the ,southwest1 men hungry for quick wealth swarmed over the hills and mountains and built their roaring camps4 ,while miners were tapping the subsurface wealth1 cattlemen were staking out their claims to the grasslands1 both on the eastern plains and in the high mountain meadows4 ,cattle empires grew to staggering proportions1 sometimes erupting into violent conflict over grazing and water rights1 such as the ,lincoln ,county ,war made famous by the participation of ,billy the ,kid4 ,illustration3 ,feature of the ,old ,west ,the character of the ,southwest still bears the stamp of the miner and the cattleman4 ,although the cattle and grazing industry has declined1 as has the traditional mining camp1 the past importance of these activities has had a tremendous impact upon the character of ,southwest folklore1 law1 and music and on the thought of the people4 ,other influences affected ,new ,mexico as a result of the ,american occupation1 things inherent in the ,american culture4 ,ribbons of steel across a continent1 buildings of steel and stone1 business and commerce1 technology1 common law1 the ,english language1 the ,protestant religion1 and1 above all1 the ,american-brought driving desire to dominate1 to win4 ,certainly the ,american had to adapt his culture to the desert lands1 but he did it in his own way1 not in the way of the ,indian or ,spaniard4 ,so ,anglo-,american culture became superimposed upon a ,spanish culture that was superimposed upon an ,indian culture4 ,disinherited1 that is the word that best describes contemporary ,new ,mexico culture4 ,a stronger race came and took away the inheritance of the ,indian1 though there did result a blood mixture4 ,only in superficial matters did the ,spanish adopt any of the ,indian ways4 ,the ,spanish1 too1 succumbed to a stronger people and have been denied the privilege commonly accorded to conquered peoples1 that of mixing their blood with that of the conquerors4 ,one finds today in ,new ,mexico three distinct people--,indian1 ,spanish1 and ,anglo-,american--as sharply contrasted as the strands in a ,navajo blanket4 ,there is pure red alongside white1 and only rarely do the colors blend into pinks or grays4 ,this is why we must say that ,new ,mexico is a mosaic1 not a synthesis1 of many elements1 clearly defined4 ,across the span of time1 great men1 people1 and ideas have molded ,new ,mexico and ,southwest history4 ,indian1 ,spanish1 ,american--vital forces that are today working toward a genuinely unique culture in ,new ,mexico4 ,the modern world may well give to the ,southwest the idea or catalyst that will blend these elements into a single force4 ,science1 techniques1 ideas are things of the present and are for the present to assess and synthesize4 ,the ,indian gods of air1 earth1 and sky and the white man's gods of morality and science do not differ a great deal in their aspirations for their chosen people1 and perhaps they will decree a splendid and unique synthesis from the cultural mosaic4 ,through understanding comes knowledge2 from knowledge1 creation4 ,the ,exotic ,plants of ,new ,mexico by ,ross ,calvin ,the problem of discussing plant life becomes complicated1 for some of those arriving in ,new ,mexico may be compound microscope botanists1 some collectors1 others pathologists1 still others geneticists4 ,some will be chemists or mathematicians1 some others untrained in the ways of growing things and mainly interested in seeing while they tour4 ,but one thing is fairly certain--most visitors will come from a distance1 so it may be useful to invite them to observe what they can readily see on the way hither1 which will be a relatively painless method of amassing some information4 ,yet the method of arrival itself suggests choices1 options1 and exercises in probability4 ,do visitors come in covered wagons1 or in jet planes2 by bus1 car1 train1 or some other way8 ,the most convenient way1 doubtless1 is by plane traveling six hundred miles an hour at a height of some thirty thousand feet2 but the most rewarding way is by saddle or on foot as the early collectors came4 ,since one cannot know his own country well if he knows no other1 a visitor from the east arriving at an altitude of five miles will probably be more conscious than others of drastic changes in the landscape when he first looks down on ,new ,mexico4 ,instead of the universal green of the east1 he will note the earth as an unaccustomed tawny1 reddish brown expanse1 and this will be its common color through most months of the year4 ,he will note the absence of rivers1 but the presence of mountains which generally ring the horizon4 ,he will wonder1 after traversing the border counties at the western edge of the ,great ,plains1 at the infrequency of plowlands1 and will promptly conclude that ,new ,mexico is one vast1 bare desert--an impression that will be corrected rapidly when he visits the dark ,national ,forests where the slim1 crowded spruces and firs tower skyward4 ,the visitor from ,el ,paso1 as the ,chihuahua desert 7the name is fairly deserved7 slides backward underneath him1 will be amazed at the serpentine stripe of vivid verdure below1 all completely leveled1 and all marked off by geometrical lines and tightly bordered by pale hills where the vegetation is reduced to tiny dots not tall enough to cast a shadow4 ,still proceeding north1 he will presently be above a ninety-mile stretch where the vegetation is so skimpy and the river so closely boxed in by desolate hills that ,spanish explorers bestowed on it the sinister name ,jornada del ,muerto--,dead ,man's ,journey1 which is self-explanatory4 ,but on the other hand1 a visitor descending into ,new ,mexico from the northland in wintertime above this same ,rio ,grande will traverse a featureless jumble of peaks on which the black coniferous forest no longer shows as black at all but1 snow-encased1 gleams as white as the naked snowfields themselves4 ,and he will find incredible the immense range of climate spanned in a flight only an hour long4 ,the jet traveler approaching from the west beholds the greatest1 most spectacular panorama of all1 the true wasteland of the desert1 with vast blocks uplifted from out of earth's crust1 plateaus dissected by giant empty canyons whose walls are seared to utter nudity by ages of the most intense sunshine on our continent4 ,here the architecture of nature is all designed on a gigantic scale1 and the climate exhibits influences of a mighty ocean1 of towering mountain chains1 and the range of wandering planetary winds which created the desert4 ,from the altitude of a cruising jet1 the distances1 the speed1 the color1 and the light are indescribably exhilarating4 ,since the traveler arriving from any direction can see for identification only a few species1 it will suffice to point out only two of the harbingers of eastern ,new ,mexico1 both of which are dominant on that area of the ,great ,plains3 the blue grama grass1 which in fall and winter bears the graceful sickle-shaped head1 and the small ,yucca glauca which cannot be mistaken for anything else4 ,along the northern line1 the visitor should look for the somber1 almost black1 forest of spruce and fir with its white patches of aspen on the #aj1jjj-;foot slopes4 ,descending farther southward1 even a casual observer will note that these species give way first to the yellow pines1 then to the junipers 78cedars07 and dwarf pines or pions4 ,the visitor arriving from the south will find most conspicuous of all the olive-green creosote bush in its summer-winter foliage1 next1 the omnipresent mesquite 7,prosopis71 then the various ,opuntia cacti 7chollas and prickly pears71 and the yuccas4 ,as he comes in from ,arizona1 the splendid saguaros will beckon him toward the gateway of ,new ,mexico1 but they will nowhere enter it themselves4 ,the vase-shaped body of the ocotillo consisting of unbranching1 ten-foot wands should be recognized at a glance1 as likewise should the various yuccas and agaves4 ,and in early springtime1 a low tree with a rounded mass of golden bloom will joyously proclaim its identity as a paloverde4 ,the desert plants thus enumerated can be recognized along various stretches of ,u4,s4 #ff as one holds his speed at a conservative ninety or1 even better1 at a conservative sixty4 ,the amateur scientist will need to do some homework before he learns much systematic botany or plant physiology4 ,it takes considerable study to comprehend the slow1 age-long process which has resulted in the evolution of all this grotesque vegetation3 the interaction of extreme aridity1 high temperature1 low humidity1 high evaporation1 infrequent precipitation1 the hostility of numerous chemical solutions1 and the natural rapacity of the animal population4 ,each plant must have an adaptation of its own1 from the tiny winter annual1 which must race through its course from a tender rosette to ripened seed before the searing sunshine arrives1 on up through the series to the stoic saguaro1 which seems able to scorn nature's enmity4 ,a final warning to the air traveler4 ,he should be sure before deplaning that he has observed a bajada4 ,it is a must4 ,bajada is one name1 outwash slope is another1 alluvial fan is still another4 ,the stewardess should inquire of each student1 and if his answer is 8no10 she should reply1 8,then you've just flunked the course40 ,a bajada is the most characteristic single feature of all in the sloping1 stony topography of the desert--and remember that the surface of the desert is regularly sloping and stony4 ,the ,spanish word itself means only a down slope1 but it has come to have a semitechnical sense--a fan-shaped apron of rocky debris at the foot of a mountain where it has settled out of the summer torrents and there keeps accumulating in successive floods4 ,as the mass builds up1 the bigger fragments drop out closest to the parent crag1 then the small ones1 finally the coarse gravel1 and lowest of all on the slope the fine sand4 ,thus the fragments are graduated in size1 in distance traveled1 and in the nature of soil resulting4 ,as the fan increases in size and laps up higher and higher on the mountain's flank1 the geologists often describe the result by saying that the mountain 8is burying itself under its own debris40 ,from the air1 the lines of drainage will be seen to have assumed the form of a tree with its trunk downward1 its branches high in air4 ,but the most interesting aspect of a bajada is the nice proportion which nature works out between the plant species and their location on the curve4 ,,from ,,sagebrush ,,to ,,spruce ,,trees ,the traveler who has viewed the ,southwestern panorama of nature from its sagebrush to its spruce trees has indeed seen most of it4 ,the spruce which grows wild only well up on the higher mountains is familiar to everybody because it has become a favorite in formal planting everywhere4 ,but the sages--who knows them8 ,to the tenderfoot1 almost any gray plant is 8sage40 ,to my friends the cowmen1 sage means commonly saltbush4 ,to my friends the foresters1 sage means an artemisia4 ,but there are romantics to whom 8purple sage0 is ,apache plume1 which is a member of the wild rose family4 ,some popular education would seem to be desirable4 ,and this applies1 too1 to the cacti1 for there is more misinformation about them than anything else that grows1 runs1 or creeps--except rattlesnakes4 ,the clever people who design travel folders and pictorial maps almost always put saguaros in ,new ,mexico4 ,but saguaros do not grow in ,new ,mexico4 ,that is final6 ,and the yucca is not a cactus4 ,that also is final4 ,nor yet the ocotillo--that defiant1 splendid denizen of the desert which flaunts the scarlet torch of flowers4 ,the question that is always on the surface as one writes of plant life in the ,southwest is1 8,who wants to know80 ,the picnicker wants to know the names--and nothing much besides--of the wild flowers4 ,my friend the cowman already has the names2 that is1 the common ones4 ,if ,i chance to mention blue grama grass1 he gently corrects me1 8black grama40 ,then if ,i mention black grama1 he says1 8no1 white grama40 ,but at least he is concerned about something more important than nonscientific names4 ,he wants to know if the plant is something that a lean old cow can eat1 whether it stays green in winter1 and if it will hold the soil in place4 ,the tourist who pilots car and passengers some six hundred miles between breakfast and bedtime asks only what he was looking at4 ,the rest of us who go into the mountains often enough to be impressed by the layer-cake succession of plants on their slopes can1 with the aid of some reading1 amass a store of knowledge where others amass only mileage4 ,on a tour1 it is mileage or knowledge4 ,one has to choose4 ,actually1 our ,new ,mexico desert is not dominated by sage4 ,that honor is held by the creosote bush1 called by some of the old-timers greasewood1 ,covillea glutinosa1 by some of the scientists--along with five other synonyms4 ,like the mesquite with which it shares the same general habitat but does not intermix1 it occupies an immense spread of territory1 roughly from ,texas to ,california4 ,since no livestock will eat it and the ground it occupies is equally useless for agriculture because of aridity and stoniness1 creosote is a veritable coyote for survival4 ,the traveler descending from ,taos to ,santa ,fe need not look for it4 ,the sage of that locality1 which gives the landscape its singularly mournful aspect1 is a true sage4 ,with good reason the cowboys call it black sage4 ,in #ahdf1 ,lieutenant ,emory1 as he rode southward with the ,army of the ,west1 first encountered the creosote as he approached ,socorro4 ,the northward extension of the plant is at the same point today1 and the range of mesquite extends only a few miles farther north4 ,these two remarkable plants are the main markers of the ,lower ,sonoran ,zone4 ,in the same arid1 stony1 broken country1 the traveler will find an abundance of cacti1 and these plants are usually supposed to be the most tenacious of all tenacious growing things4 ,actually1 in southwestern ,arizona and neighboring parts of ,california there are whole areas where the aridity is too severe for cacti1 but for our state--let it stand4 ,everybody1 of course1 has noted the grotesque shape of the plants1 but not everybody has noted that the shape was chosen with a canny intelligence4 ,a globe exposes less surface 7that is1 the vulnerable area for evaporation7 than any other solid of equal volume4 ,and a cylinder is second best4 ,another thing--cacti being succulents are filled with a watery sap or juice which quickly coagulates after a wound and stops the waste of moisture4 ,furthermore1 the plant's aggressive root system is arranged so as to capture the grounds scanty moisture most quickly and completely after rains4 ,cacti of more than sixty species occur within our state1 but more than nine tenths of the plants seen along the highway--unless they are brought together for a garden collection--can be grouped into one genus1 the ,opuntia4 ,the family likeness is shown not by the shape or general appearance but by the fact that all are jointed4 ,both the cane cactus 7also called cholla and elkhorn7 and the pancaked prickly pear1 unlike the big barrel cactus and the numerous small species which resemble it in shape1 have joints and may therefore be rightly called opuntias4 ,the 8pancakes10 it may be remarked1 are not leaves but divisions of the stem4 ,a cactus gets along without leaves4 ,so a good rough-and-ready test is this3 if it has leaves1 it is not a cactus--which eliminates ocotillo1 yucca1 agave1 sotol1 and so on4 ,the barrel cactus is sure to be seen growing beside service stations in the southern part of the state4 ,its name as well as its size identifies it4 ,the flowers and the large lemon-shaped fruits are worth a glance4 ,if they do not occur on the south side of the plant1 it has been transplanted and turned4 ,the evidence is as trustworthy as the presence of moss on the north side of a tree in the forest4 ,the barrel cacti1 the opuntias1 acacias1 the ocotillos1 along with the creosote and mesquite already mentioned1 have a way of growing along together in what is called a plant society4 ,these all belong in the bottom layer of the cake called the ,lower ,sonoran ,zone1 which is best seen on the ,rio ,grande mesas near ,el ,paso4 ,the layer next above it comprises the foothill country of the ,upper ,sonoran ,zone1 which includes most of the state of ,new ,mexico4 ,some of its common markers are juniper1 pion1 oak of various species including live oak1 mountain mahogany1 mescal1 yucca1 beargrass1 and the famous blue grama grass4 ,it is exhibited all along the ,continental ,divide in the southwest part of the state but nowhere so well as in the ,fort ,bayard ,reservation4 ,there a tract1 protected for three generations from woodcutting1 fires1 and intensive grazing1 offers a large-scale picture of the lovely land that once was ,new ,mexico4 ,there the character and amount of vegetation astounds the visitor who is familiar with only the close-picked1 parched aspect of the landscape that generally borders the main highways4 ,when seen from the air1 the very color of the grass-mantled earth is many shades lighter than that of the bare overgrazed ranges a few miles to the south4 ,and the difference can be seen by anybody4 ,the foothills are dotted1 not covered1 with juniper and pion4 ,the dwarfed1 rounded little junipers 7properly enough called cedars7 leave the traveler unprepared to believe that they will anywhere become respectable forest trees4 ,yet in the ,burro ,mountains1 the alligator-bark species1 finest of them all1 reaches a diameter of five feet and an age of about #ajjj years4 ,the wood has an extraordinary fragrance1 and its smoke tells the neighbors for blocks around that you are warming yourself at the fireplace4 ,another notable thing about the wood is its resistance to decay in the earth4 ,i have removed pieces of it from subterranean ruins of the ,mimbres culture which1 according to the best archaeological opinion1 are some eight hundred years old4 ,the yuccas deserve a story by themselves4 ,one small1 unimpressive species greets you on the meadows at the foot of ,raton ,pass2 others have to be searched out along high limestone ridges where the foothills are deciding to become mountains4 ,the one chosen for our state flower is the tall yucca 7,yucca elata71 a superb species best seen along the ,continental ,divide near ,silver ,city4 ,the genus reaches its greatest size in the grotesque ,joshua tree1 which never fails to attract the eye on the ,mohave desert in ,california4 ,the century plant has a name that always gets attention4 ,but let us be sure we mean the same thing4 ,rightly1 it means the mescal1 the favorite food of the ,mescalero ,apaches4 ,besides these two names1 it is called also maguey and1 no doubt1 ,spanish dagger along with various other spine-tipped plants4 ,all of which clinches the argument for a name which for all users is a certain designation for one object and only one4 ,it is not just because botanists like to appear learned that they call this plant ,agave parryi4 ,that title is as descriptive as middle ,c for one key on the piano1 and in the same way international4 ,illustration3 ,yucca plants ,everyone inquires about the century plant's life expectancy4 ,an insurance man might make an inference from the name4 ,the plant is a big compact cluster or rosette of rigid1 upward-pointing1 spadelike leaves1 each four or five inches in width and each tipped with a vicious1 stout thorn4 ,year after year the plant just sits there by a boulder1 unnoticed4 ,i question whether anything alive on the desert has a better life expectancy4 ,as far as my observations go1 it has no diseases4 ,it is invincible to drouth4 ,freezing does not harm it1 and fire cannot burn it--although a yucca even when green will flame up like a torch4 ,no hungry old cow can crop it1 and no rodent gnaws it1 at least not enough to do harm4 ,and since the ,indians have gone on reservations1 no human uses it4 ,so it stays there4 ,in fact1 nothing less than a caterpillar can leave a dent on it--not1 of course1 the caterpillar that eats young tomato plants1 but the ,caterpillar that pulls heavy road machinery4 ,the plant just does not die before maturity1 it would seem4 ,a remarkable organism1 indeed6 ,but after many1 many years1 depending on the amount of moisture it receives1 it makes up its mind to flower4 ,in one tremendous effort1 it shoots up a twelve-foot flower stalk at the rate of several inches a day4 ,the blossoming is a final1 dramatic1 beautiful gesture1 for by the time the flowers have withered1 the great tenacious plant has turned to a ghastly purple and is dead4 ,on the high slopes where the last yuccas end and only a few junipers remain in the race for survival1 the yellow pines come in to mark off what is called the ,transition ,zone4 ,the pines need no description1 no printed promotion4 ,the traveler1 any traveler1 can appreciate them although he might not be stirred to the slightest interest by the lovely yuccas4 ,since the beginning of time1 the pines1 fragrant1 cheerful1 companionable1 have been man's best friend4 ,among the ponderosa pines takes place most of the hunting1 most of the camping1 much of the picnicking4 ,there is no danger that the tourist will overlook the pine belt and the pines for they are probably the most numerous tree in ,new ,mexico4 ,illustration3 ,pion needles ,above them1 the classifications are less clearly defined and ecologists are less inclined to agree on zonation4 ,the ,canadian ,zone1 if we settle on that name1 occurs only in small areas on the map1 and most of them north of ,santa ,fe4 ,these are high ridges and island peaks that tower high enough to tempt the ,engelmann spruces4 ,yet some of these islands occur as far south as the ,mogollon ,mountains and thus bring ,canadian ,zone scenes almost to the ,mexican border4 ,for hardy ecologists who want to explore high ridges and horns of bare stone which rise as clean as a hound's tooth clear up into the ,arctic-alpine ,zone1 it is necessary to enter ,colorado4 ,engelmann spruce forests may be associated with the #aj1jjj-;foot level4 ,the blue spruce is very similar1 perhaps only a subspecies1 but it comes in a little lower4 ,the ,engelmann makes a dense forest hardly allowing invaders1 but the blue is more tolerant1 less austere4 ,it loves the water and is the natural companion of chill1 cascading trout streams4 ,though fond of shadow1 it seems to grow equally well where the narrow canyons widen and admit the sunshine upon the tiny meadows of lush grass1 cranesbill1 velvety red cinquefoils1 lupines1 and yellow columbines4 ,and when one of these miniature openings is fringed with spruces whose pointed tips rise sharp against a curtain of azure with its white cumulus clouds1 there you have the loveliest vista in the mountains4 ,,our ,,visible ,,impact ,,on ,,the ,,plant ,,life ,though nature lovers usually find the life zones more fascinating than any other aspect of plants in the mountains1 there is one other much more important4 ,it is the misuse1 injury1 and destruction of native plant life4 ,because scientists are generally alert to the conservation of what is useful and beautiful in natural resources1 ,i venture to bring up the matter here4 ,a useful case history is provided by ,silver ,city1 ,new ,mexico4 ,it was founded in the early seventies as a silver camp1 which would fairly guarantee a certain amount of reckless haste and rowdy carelessness4 ,point two was its location on a foothill watershed only twenty-seven square miles in area4 ,point three was an extreme concentration of livestock near the town4 ,point four was the fact that the annual rainfall was crowded mainly into ,july1 ,august1 and a part of ,september4 ,mines are naturally users of timber4 ,obviously1 shafts and tunnels have to be timbered4 ,more than that1 little smelters nestled back among the hills were also hungry for wood4 ,and since coal was expensive and hard to get1 most of the adobe cottages were heated many years by juniper1 oak1 and pion firewood4 ,all these matters were naturally1 if not actually1 inevitable under the circumstances4 ,the massive ore wagons and freight wagons had to be drawn by four- to ten-horse teams--and the horses kept on eating4 ,then because it was also a ranching country1 each cowboy had to keep a remuda of saddle horses--and they ate too4 ,also1 the few cows that provided milk for the children grazed hungrily over the stony slopes4 ,most of all1 the range cattle1 which had no provender at all except that which the competitive1 half-starved steers could provide for themselves1 overgrazed every square foot of pasturage down to the bare soil4 ,the government's open-range policy made overgrazing inevitable because no ranchman could protect his pasturage since it was all unfenced4 ,the cow that got there first got the grass4 ,that passed as land management1 which proves that some statesmen then were about as wise as some of the ,wizards of ,washington now4 ,but the advent of fences caused the cutting of millions of fence posts where none should have been cut4 ,illustration3 ,elk ,when the grass went1 its roots went1 and when its roots went1 there was nothing to hold the soil1 and then it1 too1 started to go4 ,and go it did4 ,a deep hole formed in ,main ,street1 as it is still called on the ,silver ,city town plat4 ,the best explanation ,i can find of that hole is that earth was taken out of it to form adobe bricks for the walls of houses and corrals 7that clay did make good adobe674 ,meanwhile1 the woodhaulers' wagons had greedily carted away the trees from each little canyon1 while the narrow steel tires cut deep ruts which formed two deep gullies at the first heavy rain4 ,then the parallel gullies proceeded to wash out deeper and create a middle ridge or high center on which axles got stuck4 ,since there was nobody responsible for making a new road1 there was no choice except to move over and form another track and use it until in turn it became unusable4 7,by this simple kind of destruction1 the old ,santa ,fe ,trail1 it is said1 reached a width of a hundred feet47 ,but the water descending the slope kept increasing its destructive velocity as the denuded ground approached the bareness of a tin roof4 ,villagers observed that the hole in their ,main ,street was becoming a waterfall after each rain1 and that the ruin was passing into a big-time operation4 ,the town built a dam to restrain the floods4 ,it washed out in the first one4 ,soon ,main ,street followed it down the drain1 which by this time was already a hideous gash in the earth many miles long and twenty feet deep4 ,then the water began on a really different scale of destruction4 ,one furious flood washed away the cabin in which ,billy the ,kid's mother lived4 ,more than that1 it washed away the wall of ,judge ,newcomb's house and abducted his ,steinway from the second floor4 ,a few yards from the spot1 an old photograph taken in #ahia shows a woodhauler's ox team lying in the street there4 ,it gives no hint at that time of the famous ,big ,ditch--the only name that ,main ,street1 ,silver ,city has had now for the last forty years4 ,by #aibg1 after many other attempts had been made to tame the floods a steel bridge about one hundred feet long and thirty feet above the floor of the 8canyon0 was swung into place4 ,in #aice-aicf1 the ,soil ,conservation ,service went to work in earnest1 made the watershed a demonstration area1 and spent a third of a million dollars there in a short time4 ,in the ,new ,mexico ,magazine for ,august #aicd1 the really incredible story of the ,big ,ditch is exactly documented with old photographs and newspaper clippings4 ,after a friendship of many years with old-time miners and ranchers at ,silver ,city1 ,i would not point an accusing finger at one of them4 ,i appeal1 however1 for a greater vigilance over plant life and soils nowadays from everybody4 ,in such protected areas as the ,fort ,bayard ,reservation1 the ,u4,s4 ,national ,forest enclosures1 and the frontier cemeteries1 the imagination can visualize a ,new ,mexico that is far different from what is here today--a close-picked1 hard-used land where unwise woodcutting has continued through much of the last three centuries and where the thin ranges have been required to support in the last century alone perhaps more than one hundred million cows1 sheep1 and horses4 ,the magnitude of the cause accounts for the magnitude of the effect4 ,a good many years ago1 ,i wrote as the concluding paragraph to ,sky ,determines what seemed to some exaggerated praise for my adopted homeland4 ,there is now less and less cavil from any readers4 ,i believed the words true in #aicd1 and ,i stand my ground now4 ,perhaps nowhere in the world is the natural setting nobler than in ,new ,mexico--more beautiful with spacious desert1 sky1 mountain2 more varied in rich1 energizing climate1 more dramatic in its human procession1 more mellow with age-old charm4 ,endowed with sunshine that stimulates1 and winter chill that toughens2 with silence and majestic desert color that offer a spiritual companionship1 it has enough4 ,here1 if anywhere is air1 earth1 sky fit to constitute a gracious homeland1 not alone for those who study and create1 but as well for those who play1 for those who sit still to brood and dream4 ,illustration3 ,tyuonyi ,pueblo ruin ,this large ruin in ,bandelier ,national ,monument lies along the banks of ,el ,rito de los ,frijoles4 ,narrow-leaf cottonwoods line the stream1 and shrubs of the ,upper ,sonoran ,zone cover the hillside slopes4 ,dwellers in the ,hills and ,plains by ,levon ,lee#a ,the vast sweep of ,new ,mexico's #gg million acres1 which ranges all the way from the ,alpine tundra of the tallest mountains down to the heat of the lower ,sonoran desert1 offers a home and sanctuary for many kinds of wild life4 ,some of these animals are considered game animals2 others may be pests1 since they prey upon or destroy what mankind regards as its own4 ,the coyote which takes a sheep from the small herder is wicked indeed in the eyes of the sheepman4 ,predatoriness on all living things by other things has gone on since time began and will continue--mankind being not the least predator4 ,a good definition is that composed by the late ,judge ,c4 ,m4 ,botts who defined a predator as 8a critter that takes another critter that ,i want40 ,new ,mexico's immense topographic and geologic differences make for a very wide range of habitats preferred by the various species4 ,the elk and deer1 being highly adaptable1 may be found from the ,alpine tundra of the higher mountains clear out into the creosote desert4 ,deer occur in four separate subspecies3 the ,rocky ,mountain and the desert mule deer1 the western whitetail1 and the ,sonoran fantail deer1 which is also a whitetail4 ,these animals may be found all the way from the dense coniferous forests of the north with perpetual gloom and cold to the sun-scorched granite mountains such as the ,florida and the ,organ mountains of southern ,new ,mexico2 from great towering granite spires to the folded blocks of limestone such as comprise the ,big ,hatchets1 the ,guadalupe1 and the ,san ,andres mountains4 ,the javelina1 or little wild pig1 lives along the watercourses in the south west part of the state4 ,its thin spiky hair gives it little or no protection against cold1 and only in the balmier parts of ,new ,mexico does it feel at home4 ,the desert bighorn sheep1 as distinguished from his cousin the ,rocky ,mountain bighorn1 goes around on a sun-scorched1 ocotillo-covered limestone-rubble slope in the full glare of the sun and lies down to take his afternoon siesta4 ,the ,rocky ,mountain bighorn1 on the other hand1 with his preference for cooler climates does not shun even the dense spruce timber at the very top of the ,sandia ,mountains as the hideout for his afternoon rest4 ,this adaptability by ,new ,mexico's species to the tremendous differences in altitude1 rainfall1 and temperature makes them all the more valuable as a resource for the pleasure and enjoyment of everyone4 ,illustration3 7,photo courtesy of ,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a47 ,pack train on a wilderness trail ,the most popular big game animals in ,new ,mexico are the mule deer in either of the two subspecies4 ,every fall1 beginning in late ,october and extending ordinarily through ,december1 more than #ajj1jjj hunters take to the woods for their #ej-ej chance of bringing home the sought-after mule deer4 ,a hunter may shoot his mule deer at the ,alpine tundra timber line1 out in the blazing heat of the creosote desert1 or among the rock crags of some of the southern desert mountains4 ,he will find his quarry a worthy opponent4 ,shy1 wild1 and with terrific eyesight and hearing1 these animals provide a true challenge4 ,elk and antelope1 as well as bighorn sheep1 are hunted by special licenses only1 since their numbers do not warrant a general open season4 ,these special licenses are much sought after and are ordinarily made available by application and a public drawing in the fall4 ,the javelina1 confined to our southwestern counties1 is also hunted by special license4 ,it is noteworthy that although ,new ,mexico had protected them for many years1 the javelina did not increase its numbers4 ,as a matter of fact1 the natural losses applied against any game species are going to be in effect no matter whether hunting is permitted or not1 the hunting being merely subtracted from what would be lost to nature anyhow4 ,our state mammal1 the black bear1 is found throughout the wooded areas of the state and occasionally wanders out into the plains or down into the desert mountains of the south4 ,bears are hunted avidly in the fall by sportsmen with dog packs before the regular big game seasons begin1 when the use of dogs is prohibited4 ,they are again hunted during the big game seasons by anyone bearing the proper license1 but no packs of dogs are allowed4 ,this is to prohibit the possibility of dogs being used to pursue elk1 deer1 or wild turkey1 an illegal act in ,new ,mexico4 ,new ,mexico is fortunate in having a tremendous diversity of both upland game and waterfowl1 and big game and small game for her people4 ,importantly1 the game resources are spread out through every county in the state4 ,the state's richness of bird life is varied and extensive4 ,new ,mexico ranks among the first five in the total number of birds found within its boundaries4 ,more than #djj species of birds live within the state4 ,these range all the way from the tiny mites of the bird kingdom1 the hummingbirds1 weighing less than an ounce1 to the great white whistling swan1 weighing up to #be pounds1 or the ,merriam turkey1 which may weigh close to #cj4 ,of the six species of quail found in the ,united ,states1 ,new ,mexico has four and may possess the fifth1 since the mountain quail of the western coast have been introduced into this state and still occur on the west slopes of the ,sacramento ,mountains near ,tularosa4 ,five species of doves found throughout the state from the highest coniferous forest down into the scorching heat of the creosote desert are the ,inca dove1 ground dove1 mourning dove1 white-winged dove1 and the bandtail pigeon1 all of them close relatives4 ,of these1 only two1 the mourning dove and the white-winged dove1 are commonly hunted as game species4 ,an unexplained and precipitous decline struck the bandtail pigeon about ten or twelve years ago1 from which it apparently has never recovered4 ,although hunting was undoubtedly part of the pressure exercised against these birds1 it in no way accounted for their sudden and dramatic decline in numbers4 ,this decline may gradually be reversed1 since more and more of these birds are being seen4 ,it is well known that animals with a high reproductive capacity can endure much heavier losses to their population than can those with low or very limited reproduction1 such as the bandtail1 which normally lays only a single egg4 ,the mourning dove1 on the other hand1 lays two eggs at a time and may raise as many as five or more broods in one year4 ,take this one step further with the scaled or ,gambel quail1 which may lay up to #ab or #ae eggs1 and it can readily be seen that the population of bandtail pigeons can never endure the losses that the much more prolific mourning dove and quail can4 ,the same might be said by comparison of elk and deer4 ,elk do not bear their first young until their third year1 and then the cow may not bear young but alternate years until her seventh or eighth year2 by that time she has begun to decline in vigor2 in her total life she may not produce more than four or five calves4 ,the mule deer1 on the other hand1 start bearing at the age of two1 with their first birth normally single2 from then on1 twins are usual for the rest of the doe's life4 ,thus1 deer have a considerably greater reproductive potential than do elk or bighorn sheep1 which have one young at a time4 ,the fleet-footed antelope of the open rolling plains is another example of fairly high reproductive capacity1 since they breed earlier than do deer and normally bear twins4 ,antelope are confined to the more open country where their prodigious running ability and marvelous eyesight stand in good stead in protecting them against their natural enemies4 ,the wild turkey1 classified by law in ,new ,mexico as big game1 is found throughout the mountainous areas of the state1 not excepting some of the desert ranges4 ,new ,mexico is one of two states fortunate enough to possess three of the five forms of the wild turkey known to the ,united ,states3 the ,merriam turkey1 found in the higher elevations of the mountainous areas1 usually the ponderosa forest2 the ,rio ,grande turkey1 confined to the watercourses of the eastern plains2 and the fairly rare ,mexican turkey1 found in the ,animas and ,peloncillo mountains of extreme southwestern ,new ,mexico4 ,in ,hildalgo ,county these mountains are actually largely ,mexican in both flora and fauna4 ,some of the rarest1 most beautiful birds of ,north ,america are also found in this area and nowhere else in the ,united ,states with the exception of southeastern ,arizona4 ,our most abundant game bird1 the mourning dove1 is found in every county of the state and nests from the coniferous forests of the north and the higher mountains of the south clear out into the plains where there is not a tree in sight for miles4 ,doves are extremely adaptable and very prolific4 ,they provide the finest kind of sport shooting and are avidly sought1 particularly by shotgun enthusiasts of the eastern and southern parts of the state4 ,scaled quail are found throughout ,new ,mexico1 being absent only in elevations above #gjjj feet4 ,even there1 they periodically occur but are ordinarily driven back by winter snow4 ,gambel quail are found throughout the river courses of the ,rio ,grande ,valley1 the ,san ,juan ,valley1 and the southwestern watercourses4 ,the ,mearns' quail is found in the southern half of the state in the higher mountain elevations1 whereas the bob-white quail occupies the grassy rolling sandhills of the eastern counties where it is commonly found together with scaled quail4 ,quail hunting is one of the most popular sports in ,new ,mexico and many thousands of hunters can hardly wait from one season to the next4 ,new ,mexico is in the heart of the scaled quail country and provides some of the finest shooting to be had anywhere4 ,migratory waterfowl1 while not considered abundant1 are not uncommon in this state1 known more for its aridity than for its rivers and lakes4 ,the two main fly ways are the ,rio ,grande ,valley and the ,pecos ,valley1 with the ,pecos ,valley being somewhat ahead in total numbers4 ,ducks commonly found in ,new ,mexico in abundance are teal1 both green-winged and blue-winged as well as the lesser-known cinnamon teal1 mallards1 widgeon1 pintails1 gadwall1 scaups1 canvasbacks1 redheads1 and other species4 ,in addition1 ,new ,mexico plays winter home to many thousands of the lesser sandhill crane which is confined to the river valleys and open plains of the eastern part of the state1 particularly the southeastern counties4 ,a smaller population of the greater sandhill crane is found in the ,rio ,grande ,valley and near ,columbus4 ,flocks of the small ,richardson's goose are found in the northeastern counties1 in particular1 and along river courses throughout the state4 ,the small snow goose is likewise confined mostly to major river courses4 ,the larger ,canada geese are found particularly in the middle ,rio ,grande ,valley where extensive development has been made by both state and federal agencies to encourage the use and the presence of bands of geese4 ,new ,mexico is unique in that it was the first state in many years to be able to open a hunting season on the lesser sandhill crane4 ,this bird is comparatively abundant1 the total population probably being in excess of #bjj1jjj1 with the vast majority of these birds wintering in west ,texas1 ,new ,mexico1 and ,mexico4 ,they occasionally cause heavy depredation to grain crops in the southeastern part of the state1 and hunting has been partly justified on the basis that the large wintering flocks might be broken up and depredation spread over a larger area for less individual effect4 ,these birds are tall1 wild1 and shy4 ,they are hard to hunt1 even more so than geese1 and although strenuous efforts have been made1 not too many of them are bagged4 ,one should not overlook the tremendous opportunity for sport hunting of unprotected species1 such as the various rabbits1 the mountain lions and bobcats1 and coyotes4 ,the wolf is now very rare in ,new ,mexico4 ,only occasionally do wolves come out of ,mexico into the southwestern counties1 usually in ,hidalgo1 ,luna1 and ,doa ,ana4 ,wolves are large1 effective predators and are incompatible with the cattle-raising industry4 ,since they have a fondness for beef1 the hand of the cattleman is raised against them4 ,the mountain lion prefers his natural prey of deer1 mule deer being the principal victims4 ,the bobcat preys on deer and on many of the small wild animals1 rabbits in particular4 ,these predators1 when run and hunted with a pack of dogs1 provide a fascinating sport which is growing in popularity4 ,the use of calls to attract animals to a 8victim0 has become widespread4 ,the calls imitate the distressed cry of rabbits and other creatures which to the predator means a meal close at hand4 ,everything from mountain lions to red-tailed hawks have been hunted by this procedure1 and it can be very successful in bagging quarry4 ,this type of hunting has value in that it can be enjoyed at any time of the year throughout the state and with a minimum of time and effort4 ,hunting is a conservation practice that1 wisely administered1 results in wholesome out-of-door recreation and brings many tons of high protein food of highest quality to the table4 ,nature nowhere in her economy locks up a resource and throws away the key--we should be no less wise4 ,long gone are the buffalo which once roamed the ,high ,plains of eastern ,new ,mexico4 ,exotic animals1 imported and stocked along the rugged canyon of the ,canadian ,river above ,conchas ,reservoir1 are the ,barbary sheep with their magnificent coiled horns4 ,beavers dam some of the mountain streams1 badgers and skunks can be seen from the highways1 and amid the forests are squirrels and porcupines1 while high on rock slopes1 the ,rocky ,mountain woodchuck and the gray rock cony dash from ledge to ledge4 ,the white-tailed ptarmigan also haunts these high crags1 and lower down the mountain1 bluebirds nest4 ,hawks1 eagles1 magpies1 jays1 ravens1 orioles1 wrens1 sparrows1 warblers1 finches1 and many other birds of endless variety soar over canyon1 forest1 and sand-dune desert4 ,most notable of all is the crested roadrunner1 the chapparal cock or paisano of ,mexico and the state bird4 ,in between racing with horsemen or automobiles1 the slender roadrunner cocks his head1 strikes swiftly and victoriously1 then swallows his victim1 which can be a small rattlesnake1 whole4 ,snakes there are aplenty4 ,mostly1 they are nonpoisonous1 such as the garter snake1 glass snake1 puff adder1 ring-necked snake1 the coachwhip1 the ,mexican blacksnake1 and the large western bullsnake4 ,the small but very venomous coral snake is rare1 but common among rocks and near streams are the large western diamondback rattlesnake1 the prairie rattlers1 and the less common green or blacktailed rattlesnake4 ,every sun-warmed rock has its scampering lizard1 and nearby are horned toads1 dry-land terrapins1 tortoises1 tarantulas1 centipedes1 vinegarroons1 scorpions1 and spiders4 ,of these latter desert animals1 only the black widow spider is poisonous4 ,contrast in the influence of environments is shown by the animals that inhabit the 8malpais10 the recent flows of black1 rough-surfaced lava1 compared with similar animals found among the white gypsum dunes of ,white ,sands4 ,black or darkly colored subspecies of mice1 plains wood rats1 kangaroo rats1 and rock squirrels live on the black lava1 whereas white or pale counterparts of these animals live among the white gypsum dunes4 ,illustration3 ,sketch of roadrunner1 ,new ,mexico state bird ,the dwellers in the hills and plains of ,new ,mexico are as varied as the hills and plains2 they add their color and movement to the scenes of the ,land of ,enchantment4 ,rocks ,that ,shape the ,enchanting ,landscape by ,frank ,e4 ,kottlowski 8,as old as the hills40 ,how much more ancient can anything be8 ,yet ,new ,mexico's hills1 its enchanting landscapes1 were built in but the most recent 8minute0 of geologic time4 ,merely one geologic era ago1 marine waters covered the state1 and storm-tossed waves ruled where now the hot sun beats down on dry sands and cacti a mile above sea level4 ,what determined the ,land of ,enchantment's landscapes8 ,shaping these land forms are the rocks of the earth's crust1 the structure of those rocks1 and the endless battle between the rocks and the atmosphere4 ,a story spelled out in stone1 the geologic history4 ,the rocks determine4 ,eons ago1 it began2 one billion1 two billion1 or perhaps even more billions of years ago4 ,a history whose beginnings have been lost owing to destruction of its earliest records4 ,a history1 written in the rocks1 that is divided into four general parts 7fig4 #a74 ,the oldest rocks1 more than #fjj m4y4 7million years7 old1 almost devoid of traces of life1 are the ,precambrian rocks4 ,the ,paleozoic rocks1 #bcj to #fjj m4y4 old1 are marked by ancient 7paleo-7 life4 ,this was the ,period of ,invertebrates1 animals without backbones4 ,mesozoic rocks1 #gj to #bcj m4y4 old1 formed in the ,era of ,dinosaurs and contain types of life that are intermediate 7meso-7 between the ancient and modern animals4 ,and rocks of the ,cenozoic ,era1 #gj m4y4 ago to the present1 make up the latest 7ceno-1 recent7 chapter of the earth's history4 ,events of the ,cenozoic ,era have had the greatest influence on ,new ,mexico's landscapes4 ,so let us begin the story at the dawn of the ,cenozoic1 and return to the earlier geologic chapters later4 ,,cenozoic ,,era ,the mountains1 the plains1 the rivers1 and the lakes all are transitory features of the landscape1 created during the recent part of the ,cenozoic ,era1 and all doomed to destruction in the near future1 geologically speaking4 ,even so1 some of the plains and mountains may predate man's evolution onto the earth scene4 ,gone were the late ,mesozoic seas2 never again during our lifetime nor the lifetime of many future generations will marine waters roll over ,new ,mexico1 and sea-spawned creatures rule4 ,for the first two thirds of the ,cenozoic1 the ,paleogene ,period 7#be to #gj m4y4 ago71 ,new ,mexico suffered from the dying effects of the great ,laramide upheaval of the earth's crust4 ,large areas were exposed to the harsh erosion of stream and wind4 ,the landscape looked as parts of southwestern ,new ,mexico do today--tall rugged mountain ranges scattered in isolated patches amid wide gravelly plains4 ,but the climate was more humid1 and while no large through rivers are known1 local great swamps and lakes lay on the plains in debris-trapping lowlands4 ,illustration3 ,figure #a4 ,table of geologic time ,scale of geologic time in millions of years ,era ,rocks ,dominant life ,geologic age #gj ,,cenozoic ,neogene ,pleistocene ,bandelier volcanic ash1 ,man basalts1 sand dunes1 river gravels1 glacial lake beds4 #a my ,pliocene ,volcanic rocks of ,mt4 ,mammals ,taylor1 early ,valle ,grande ,gila region2 ,santa ,fe1 ,gila1 and ,ogallala ,fms4 #aa my ,miocene #be my ,paleogene ,oligocene ,datil1 ,espinaso1 and other volcanic rocks4 #dj my ,eocene ,baca1 ,animas1 ,nacimiento1 ,san ,jose1 ,raton1 ,poison ,canyon1 ,galisteo ,el ,rito1 ,blanco ,basin1 ,cub ,mountain ,fms4 #fj my ,paleocene #afj ,,mesozoic ,cretaceous ,upper sandstone1 shale1 ,dinosaurs coal4 ,mesaverde1 ,pierre1 ,niobrara1 ,dakota ,ss4 and ,mancos ,sh4 ,volcanic rocks1 limestone1 sandstone1 and conglomerate4 #ace my ,jurassic ,morrison ,fm41 ,summerville ,fm41 ,zuni ,ss41 ,todilto ,ls4 gypsum1 ,entrada ,ss4 #ahj my ,triassic ,wingate ,ss41 ,dockum ,fm41 ,chinle ,fm41 ,santa ,rosa ,ss41 ,moenkopi ,fm4 #cgj ,,paleozoic ,permian ,rustler ,dolomite2 redbeds ,amphibians ,castile gypsum1 ,salado ,salt4 ,artesia ,grp4--,capitan reef ,san ,andres ,ls4--,goat ,seep reef ,glorieta ,sandstone ,yeso ,fm4--,bone ,spring ,fm4 ,abo ,redbeds--,hueco ,ls4 #bhj my ,pennsylvanian ,mostly limestone2 beds of shale sandstone2 lenses of gypsum1 salt1 and coal4 #caj my ,mississippian ,helms ,paradise ,fms4 ,fish ,rancheria ,ls4 ,lake ,valley ,escabrosa ,lss4 ,arroyo ,penasco ,tererro ,fms4 #cde my ,devonian ,percha ,shale1 ,ouray ,ls4 northern dol41 ss1 and sh4 erosion #djj my ,silurian ,fusselman ,dolomite erosion #dbe my ,ordovician ,montoya ,dolomite ,invertebrates ,el ,paso ,limestone ,bliss #ejj my ,cambrian ,sandstone erosion #aejj ,,precambrian quartzite1 gneiss1 rhyolite1 ,simple andesite1 granite1 primitive forms pegmatite1 schist1 greenstone4 ,illustration3 ,figure #b4 ,new ,mexico during ,paleogene time ,scenery in north-central ,new ,mexico 7fig4 #b7 may have been similar to today's1 with mountains in the same general areas as the present-day ,sangre de ,cristo1 ,nacimiento1 ,san ,juan1 and ,brazos ranges4 ,coarse-grained gravels were stacked up at the edges of the mountains1 but out in the adjoining lowlands1 floodplain sands and varicolored lake-bed clays settled4 ,three low areas were 8basins0 of deposition where thick masses of sediments accumulated--the ,raton and ,poison ,canyon formations in the ,raton ,basin near ,raton1 the ,animas1 ,nacimiento1 and ,san ,jose formations in the ,san ,juan ,basin north and northwest of ,cuba1 seen along ,n4,m4 ,highway #dd1 with thinner deposits of the ,el ,rito and ,blanco ,basin formations to the northeast of ,cuba1 and the ,galisteo ,formation in the ,galisteo ,basin south and southwest of ,santa ,fe4 ,volcanic rocks1 the ,espinaso beds1 overlie the ,galisteo but are not much younger in age4 ,reddish rocks of the ,galisteo ,formation crop out along ,u4,s4 ,highway #he at ,la ,bajada ,hill about twenty miles southwest of ,santa ,fe4 ,the ,sandia ,mountains' area appears to have been a lowland4 ,silicified wood1 chiefly of pines but with some oak and poplar1 is abundant in the ,galisteo ,formation4 ,large logs1 up to #f feet in diameter and #ace feet long1 have been found4 ,in the great swamps of the ,raton ,basin1 where the climate was much like that of ,georgia today1 tall reeds1 water lilies1 fig trees1 palm trees1 magnolias1 and sycamores grew in profusion1 and contributed to the thick coal beds now mined there4 ,the early ages of the ,cenozoic saw the spectacular rise of the mammals to dominance over reptiles on land2 numerous remains of the early mammals are found in the ,nacimiento and ,san ,jose formations1 including the famous ,puerco and ,torrejon faunas--as well as many clams1 snails1 fish1 turtles1 crocodiles1 snakes1 and birds4 ,southeastern ,new ,mexico appears to have been relatively level with only local hills and vast regions of featureless1 stagnant but high plains where erosion slowly ate downward1 deposition was slight1 and most of the detritus was carried eastward far beyond the state's borders4 ,the redbeds of the ,baca ,formation were laid down on the north flank of low mountains that extended intermittently from somewhere near ,quemado toward ,socorro4 ,some ancient hills near present-day ,sierra ,blanca shed rock fragments that accumulated near ,capitan as the varicolored ,cub ,mountain ,formation4 ,deeply eroded uplands northwest of ,elephant ,butte ,reservoir supplied gravels and sands that mingled with andesitic volcanic debris as the upper part of the ,mc,rae ,formation in central ,sierra ,county4 ,many of the weathered greenish and purplish volcanic rocks in southwestern ,new ,mexico were extruded at this time1 and beneath the surface these molten magmas 7hot liquefied rocks7 cut into older rocks4 ,vapors and hot solutions from the magmas are believed to have emplaced some of ,new ,mexico's vast ore deposits during this time4 ,the last phase of the ,paleogene ,period1 about #be to #dj m4y4 ago1 was an earth-shaking time in ,new ,mexico--and the first explosion of an atomic bomb in #aide on the ,jornada del ,muerto between ,socorro and ,carrizozo was a relatively low-energy-yield event compared with the late ,paleogene earth movements4 ,almost the entire southwestern quarter of the state literally exploded1 with volcanic eruptions on a grand scale4 ,these lava flows1 rock breccias1 ashes1 pumice1 and associated intrusives 7molten rocks that did not make it to the surface7 form the ,datil-,mogollon plateau--at least #ajj miles in diameter--as part of the ,datil ,formation1 which locally is miles thick1 and made up the main mass of many other ranges near the ,mexican border4 ,sierra ,blanca 7#ab1jjc feet altitude7 northeast of ,alamogordo is a huge1 isolated volcanic mass of late ,paleogene age4 ,illustration3 ,figure #c4 ,east-west cross section of ,rio ,grande graben near ,santa ,fe ,this widespread volcanic activity continued into the ,neogene ,period which began about #be m4y4 ago4 ,rhyolites1 pumice1 and perlite in the southwest1 as well as in other parts of the state1 covered wide areas4 ,mount ,taylor1 towering up to #aa1chi feet near ,grants and visible on the western skyline from ,albuquerque1 is a ,neogene volcanic pile1 as are parts of the ,sangre de ,cristo range northeast of ,taos4 ,shiprock and ,cabezon ,peak1 landmarks in northwestern ,new ,mexico1 are volcanic necks--the eroded cores of ancient volcanoes4 ,valle ,grande caldera makes up the center of the ,jemez ,mountains west of ,los ,alamos and is a late ,neogene volcanic mass with the central crater sixteen miles in diameter--one of the world's largest calderas4 ,bandelier ,national ,monument headquarters is within a canyon carved from ,valle ,grande's ashes4 ,volcanic ash scattered over the western parts of ,texas1 ,oklahoma1 and ,kansas was blown from this volcano4 ,capulin ,mountain1 east of ,raton1 is a huge recent cinder cone and is surrounded by numerous basaltic lava flows that cap the ,high ,plains from ,raton eastward to ,clayton4 ,the very fresh black basalt flows near ,carrizozo and in the valley of ,rio ,san ,jose near ,grants are probably less than #ajjj years old4 ,numerous mesas along the ,rio ,grande ,valley from the ,colorado line to ,el ,paso are capped by black basalt flows of late ,neogene age4 ,many of the present-day mountains were uplifted in early ,neogene time1 following the climax of the great volcanic eruptions4 ,this uplifting1 in many instances1 took place along one side of huge mountain masses1 forming tilted fault blocks like the ,sandia1 ,manzano1 ,san ,andres1 and ,sacramento mountains4 ,rock beds in the ,sandia ,mountains1 for example1 dip to the east1 but were uplifted along a west-bounding fault zone--a huge break in the earth's crust--as much as four miles6 ,this was an earth-shaking event6 ,however1 the uplifting took place slowly1 and indeed is continuing today as the ,albuquerque area1 along with the ,rio ,grande ,valley southward to ,socorro1 is one of the most active earthquake areas in the state4 ,concurrent with uplift1 other blocks of the earth's crust sank1 forming graben basins which were flooded with rock debris from the adjoining uplifts4 ,a tremendous irregular graben1 now followed by the ,rio ,grande1 cut north-south across the state4 ,geologists label it the ,rio ,grande structural depression 7fig4 #c74 ,mountains on the east are the ,sangre de ,cristo1 ,sandia1 ,manzano1 ,los ,pinos1 ,fra ,cristobal1 and ,caballo ranges2 those to the west include the ,brazos1 ,jemez1 ,ladron1 ,socorro1 ,magdalena1 and ,san ,mateo mountains4 ,within this complex graben1 and around the bordering ranges1 the colorful sandstones and siltstones of the ,santa ,fe ,group were deposited--these red1 yellow1 orange1 and cream rocks are eroded in many places1 such as near ,santa ,fe1 to 8badlands0 characteristic of the landscapes along the ,rio ,grande ,valley from ,espanola southward to ,el ,paso4 ,much brightly tinted silicified wood is found in these beds1 and literally freight-car loads of mammalian remains have been shipped to museums from outcrops near ,espanola4 ,in the basins amid the mountains of southwestern ,new ,mexico1 similar sands and gravels of the ,gila ,conglomerate filled low areas4 ,east of the mountains of central ,new ,mexico that form a north-south chain of ranges from ,raton to ,carlsbad1 thin gravels of the ,ogallala ,formation were dumped onto the western edges of the ,high ,plains4 ,they now cap the plains as well as make picturesque bluffs east of the ,pecos ,river and southeast of ,tucumcari--the 8caprock0 of that area4 ,in northwestern ,new ,mexico1 isolated mesas are topped by the ,chuska and ,bidahochi formations2 similar sands1 silts1 and clays washed from adjoining highlands4 ,the final episodes of landscape formation occurred during the ,pleistocene ,epoch1 the recent glacial period4 ,mountain valley glaciers occupied some of the higher parts of the state1 as far southward as ,sierra ,blanca2 large lakes filled many of the closed basins1 such as those near ,estancia and south of ,lordsburg2 the ,carrizozo and ,grants basalt flows were extruded2 the final tremendous explosions of ,valle ,grande spread volcanic ash over large regions2 sands1 gravels1 and clays were eroded and deposited by streams and in lakes2 and sand dunes were heaped up in many areas4 ,the glistening white gypsum dunes 7fig4 #d7 of ,white ,sands ,national ,monument1 built up into #ej-;foot-high mounds windward of gypsiferous ,lake ,lucero1 are spectacular products of the wind4 ,the ,rio ,grande1 in its present valley1 probably is only as old as mid-,pleistocene1 born during late uplift of its headwater mountains1 the ,san ,juan and ,sangre de ,cristo ranges in southern ,colorado and northern ,new ,mexico--initiated by floods of meltwaters from waning mountain glaciers4 ,some of the lower terraces 7benches7 along the ,rio ,grande are very young1 being dated by radiocarbon methods at #bfjj b4p4 7before present74 ,until shackled by ,elephant ,butte ,dam in #aiaf1 and smaller dams up and down the valley1 the ,rio ,grande switched its course with every large springtime flood4 ,even with these man-made controls1 the ,rio carves new channels during floods and covers flooded fields with silt as the high waters recede4 ,,precambrian ,,era ,the highest points in ,new ,mexico are in the north-central region4 ,here1 along the backbone of the ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains1 tower ,wheeler ,peak 7#ac1afj feet above sea level71 northeast of ,taos1 and ,south ,truchas ,peak 7#ac1ajb feet71 northeast of ,santa ,fe4 ,snow lingers on these lofty spires all year around except during an especially hot ,august4 ,highest peaks--they must be capped by the youngest rocks4 ,but no1 the quartzites and gneisses1 hard rocks made up of quartz and feldspar1 that hold up these pinnacles against the attack of water and ice are among the oldest rocks known in the ,southwest--perhaps as much as two billion years old4 ,these ,precambrian rocks lay deep beneath the earth's surface from early ,paleozoic time 7#ejj m4y4 ago87 until early ,neogene time1 then were uplifted along great breaks in the earth's crust1 uplifted slowly and intermittently during the span of time from about #bj m4y4 ago to perhaps #a m4y4 ago4 ,illustration3 ,figure #d4 ,gypsum dunes of ,white ,sands ,how did these ancient rocks form8 ,what did ,new ,mexico look like during the dawn of geologic history8 ,the record in stone is fragmentary4 ,but about two billion or so years back1 thick masses of quartz sandstone were laid down in north-central ,new ,mexico1 as well as vast lenses of mud1 and some beds of feldspar-rich sandstone4 ,volcanic activity was intense2 huge flows of rhyolite and andesite were poured out over most of the state1 and these in turn1 along with the muddy and sandy sediments1 were intruded by enormous masses of hot granite4 ,mile-high mountains were formed1 and during the stretch of this early geologic time1 called the ,precambrian ,era1 the high peaks were eroded by rain1 wind1 and sun until some were worn down to featureless plains sloping toward the ancient ancestral oceans4 ,illustration3 ,figure #e4 ,staurolite twin crystals in mica schist ,these ,precambrian rocks now make up the cores of such mountain ranges as the ,sandias east of ,albuquerque1 the ,sangre de ,cristo range near ,santa ,fe1 the ,pedernal ,hills south of ,clines ,corners1 the ,burro ,mountains southwest of ,silver ,city1 the ,brazos ,range east of ,tierra ,amarilla1 the ,zuni ,mountains southwest of ,grants1 and the ,san ,andres ,mountains west of ,white ,sands4 ,as seen in ,tijeras ,canyon east of ,albuquerque1 the bulk of the ancient rocks are gray to pinkish granite and granite gneiss1 speckled by crystals of biotite1 microcline1 orthoclase1 and quartz4 ,quartzites 7hardened sandstones71 greenstone1 and foliated mica schists 7fig4 #e7 are the older rocks that were intruded by granitic magmas about #acej million years ago--as indicated by dating of radioactive isotopes1 ,k-,ar and ,rb-,sr4 ,locally1 pegmatite dikes1 a late-cooling1 large-crystal stage of the granites1 crisscross the granite and contain excellent crystals of quartz1 feldspar1 and mica1 as well as less common minerals4 ,the famous ,harding pegmatite near ,dixon1 about forty miles north of ,santa ,fe1 contains beryl1 columbite-tantalite1 lepidolite mica1 spodumene1 and other rare minerals4 ,some of these crystals are ten feet in length6 ,,paleozoic ,,era ,there are some primitive types of plant and animal life known from ,precambrian rocks outside of ,new ,mexico but the earliest beds that contain abundant fossils are those of ,cambrian age1 #ejj to #fjj m4y4 old4 ,cambrian rocks in ,new ,mexico are in the ,bliss ,sandstone1 a reddish brown iron-rich bed1 #ej to #bjj feet thick1 that occurs only in the southern part of the state4 ,there it can be seen1 for example1 along the bold east-facing escarpment of the ,san ,andres ,mountains or the west-facing cliffs of the ,caballo ,mountains1 as a dark band resting on the pinkish ,precambrian granitic rocks4 ,it is a shallow-sea sand1 deposited on the northeastern edge of the ,cambrian seas4 ,scattered amid the brown-stained quartz1 red hematite1 and green glauconite are broken shells of trilobites and primitive brachiopods4 ,northern ,new ,mexico was a low1 broad island during ,cambrian time1 a source of some of the sands in the ,bliss ,sandstone4 ,during the ,ordovician ,period1 #dbe to #ejj m4y4 ago1 upper sands of the ,bliss as well as overlying limestones and dolomites were deposited in the shallow warm seas of southern ,new ,mexico2 these latter rocks are the ,el ,paso ,limestone and ,montoya ,dolomite4 ,the ,ordovician seas teemed with invertebrate life4 ,fifteen-foot-long cephalopods1 as much as a foot in diameter1 ruled the shallow salt-water bottoms1 munching on the abundant trilobites and the moss animals1 the bryozoans4 ,numerous brachiopods1 corals1 snails1 and clams also thrived1 with many of the ,ordovician carbonate-rock beds literally being made up of these fossil remains4 ,near ,el ,paso1 these limy fossiliferous beds are nearly #bjjj feet thick1 but they thin northward to a knife edge in thickness near ,mockingbird ,gap at the north end of the ,san ,andres ,mountains4 ,parts of northwestern ,new ,mexico may have been low islands exposed to the sun and erosion during ,ordovician time1 but most of the state was probably within an extensive shallow ocean4 ,later1 erosion removed the ,ordovician rocks from central and northern ,new ,mexico4 ,silurian strata1 the brown ,fusselman ,dolomite1 deposited during the middle of that period 7#djj to #dbe m4y4 ago71 remain only in the southern and southeastern parts of the state1 thinning out northward from the #ajjj-;foot-thick bed near ,el ,paso4 ,the extent of these middle ,silurian seas is not known1 but most of central and northern ,new ,mexico was undergoing erosion during late ,silurian time4 ,the northward thinning of the ,fusselman ,dolomite is due chiefly to this erosion1 evidenced by the knobby1 ridged and channeled top surface of the ,fusselman4 ,brachiopods and corals are the most abundant fossils in the ,fusselman ,dolomite2 elsewhere1 ,silurian rocks are known for the sea scorpions or eurypterids1 which attained a length of nine feet1 and for the complete remains of primitive fishes4 ,during early and middle ,devonian time 7#cde to #djj m4y4 ago71 most of ,new ,mexico was a lowland rotting beneath the sun4 ,fossiliferous ,devonian rocks are unknown in the north-central part of the state but occur beneath the surface in the ,four ,corners region of northwestern ,new ,mexico and the adjoining states4 ,these rocks are of late ,devonian age and consist of lower dolomite and sandstone1 middle shale and dolomite1 and the upper ,ouray ,limestone4 ,in southern ,new ,mexico1 a uniform blanket of dark limy muds1 called the ,percha ,shale1 was deposited during late ,devonian time4 ,this shale marks a great change from the limestones of earlier ages4 ,in part1 it is of black muds deposited in widespread or in local stagnant basins and in part calcareous fossiliferous muds in which abundant invertebrate life was buried4 ,the clay and quartz silt that make up the rocks were a weathered residuum that had accumulated1 during the long period of late ,silurian and early and middle ,devonian times1 on the lowland of central and northern ,new ,mexico4 ,except in the stagnant basins1 invertebrate life was prolific1 brachiopods1 bryozoans1 and corals being especially numerous4 ,fossil fish remnants1 chiefly teeth1 are abundant in some of the sandy units1 and outside of ,new ,mexico the earliest amphibians occur in upper ,devonian rocks4 ,the oldest definitely known assemblage of land plants occurs in the ,devonian1 and forests containing forty-foot-high trees spread over the uplands4 ,such tree ferns1 horsetail rushes1 and lycopods 7spiked-leafed trees7 may have grown in profusion on the swampy lowlands near ,albuquerque's and ,santa ,fe's present sites1 far north of the muddy ,devonian seas of southern ,new ,mexico4 ,figure #f4 ,fossil specimens ,illustration3 ,brachiopod ,marginifera4 ,illustration3 ,crinoid stem fragment4 ,illustration3 ,crinoid restoration of a crinoid4 ,mississippian rocks 7#caj to #cde m4y4 old7 probably were deposited over most of ,new ,mexico4 ,subsequent erosion removed much of the ,mississippian beds in northern ,new ,mexico4 ,the remnants1 less than #ajj feet thick in most places1 are of lower sandy and shaly beds overlain by massive crinoidal limestones1 the ,arroyo ,penasco ,formation of the ,nacimiento and ,sandia mountains and the ,tererro ,formation of the ,sangre de ,cristo range east of ,santa ,fe4 ,in southern ,new ,mexico1 the ,mississippian beds are thick and widespread1 being more than #ajjj feet in thickness in the southwestern panhandle4 ,there the rock units are the ,escabrosa ,limestone of the southwest or the ,lake ,valley ,limestone of the south-central part of the state4 ,these are massive fossiliferous limestones precipitated in shallow extensive seas abounding with invertebrate life4 ,huge gardens of the sea lilies1 crinoids1 spread over the area1 their remains mingled with those of lacy moss animals1 the bryozoans1 and with brachiopods and corals4 ,locally1 as in the region of the ,sacramento and ,san ,andres mountains and ,black ,range1 moundlike fossil reefs1 called bioherms1 were built4 ,some of these bioherms in the ,sacramento ,mountains are mounds of fossiliferous limestones #cej feet high and several thousand feet in diameter4 ,beds on their flanks dip as much as #ce degrees and are made up of broken 8fossil hash0 calcite sands4 ,one can stand at the base of these huge limestone hills and almost hear the ancient waves breaking against the reef and see the dying struggle of the brachiopod 7fig4 #f7 that left his shell in the reef-flank sands4 ,to the south1 beginning near the present site of ,white ,sands1 dark cherty limestones were laid down in stagnant waters1 to become the ,rancheria ,limestone4 ,this black to reddish brown siliceous limestone is more than #cjj feet thick near ,el ,paso4 ,there its thin beds break down into slabs that resemble a jumbled woodpile4 ,northern ,new ,mexico was above sea level during late ,mississippian time2 in some areas caves developed in the porous limestones1 and in other places the limestones were eroded to a residuum of chert and red clay4 ,the land must have looked like the karst areas of ,indiana1 ,kentucky1 and ,illinois today--with lost rivers flowing into sink holes1 numerous caves1 and many underground rivers4 ,only the southernmost part of the state was awash in the late ,mississippian seas1 and in these salt waters1 rocks of the ,helms and ,paradise formations settled4 ,they are typical nearshore beds of yellowish limy sandstone1 green limy shales1 and brown sandy oolitic limestones4 ,plant fossils occur intermingled with marine animal remains2 the plant fragments were washed into the shallow seas from the land areas of the central and northern parts of the state4 ,the ,pennsylvanian ,period 7#bhj to #caj m4y4 ago7 was a time of change4 ,previously1 northern ,new ,mexico had been an emergent lowland or barely awash in shallow waters1 while to the south shallow but extensive seas held sway1 the spawning ground of the vertebrates and invertebrates that evolved between #caj and #fjj m4y4 ,b4,c4 ,but mountains were built during the ,pennsylvanian1 and the whole pattern of land and sea was altered4 ,the sun rose on north-south aligned ranges interspersed with north-south-trending seas 7fig4 #g74 ,somewhere north of ,albuquerque a mighty range of mountains1 the ,uncompahgre ,range1 arose to shed rock debris into adjoining ocean basins4 ,to the southeast1 a lower but prominent range1 the ,pedernal ,mountains1 stretched from the present-day ,pedernal ,hills southward to somewhere near ,ruidoso and ,pion4 ,rocks eroded from this landmass were dumped westward into the ,orogrande basin which occupied the region near the present-day ,white ,sands2 there as much as #cjjj feet of beds accumulated--impure sandstones1 dark shales1 fragmental limestones1 and even some gypsum during the end phase of ,pennsylvanian sedimentation4 ,rocks filled the ,delaware basin in southeastern ,new ,mexico--limestones1 sandstones1 and black shales that now produce oil and gas4 ,in northwestern ,new ,mexico west of ,grants and mostly west of the ,zuni ,mountains1 a low land area1 the ,zuni ,islands1 was the source of eroded residuum released into an ocean channelway that ran north-northwest through central ,new ,mexico from ,el ,paso to ,farmington4 ,and in the northeast1 granite hills of the ,sierra ,grande ,arch stood above the shallow ,pennsylvanian seas4 ,in the ,four ,corners region1 broken rock from the ,uncompahgre ,range was rushed westward into the ,pennsylvanian-age ,paradox ,basin4 ,amid the clastic limestones1 black shale1 gypsum1 and salt of this basin are oil-bearing lenses4 ,today1 oil wells pump this black 8gold0 from the ancient rocks--wells almost in the shadow of ,shiprock's famous spire4 ,the ,pennsylvanian ,period was a time of coal making on the greatest scale in the earth's history4 ,extensive swamps and marshes1 the habitat of peat and ultimately coal1 were almost lacking in ,new ,mexico4 ,thus1 only thin scattered lenses of coal occur in the ,pennsylvanian beds of the state4 ,the lands of this period were covered by tree ferns1 scale trees1 horsetail rushes1 and primitive conifers4 ,in the shallow seas1 the dominant invertebrates were fusulinids 7fig4 #h71 small-shelled protozoans shaped like grains of wheat4 ,abundant cockroaches1 large dragonflies1 and spiders swarmed over the land4 ,illustration3 ,figure #g4 ,new ,mexico during ,pennsylvanian time ,permian ,rocks ,the ,permian ,period 7#bcj to #bhj m4y4 ago7 dawned with renewed rising of the highlands in northern ,new ,mexico and southern ,colorado4 ,floods of red sand and clay1 washed from the rotting hills1 wiped out the seas of northern and central ,new ,mexico1 and intertongued southward with marine limestones4 ,these early ,permian rocks are the ,hueco ,limestone near ,el ,paso1 there #bbjj feet thick1 the ,abo ,redbeds near ,albuquerque1 and the upper ,sangre de ,cristo ,redbeds southeast of ,santa ,fe4 ,wherever the redbeds crop out1 their dark reddish brown hue1 speckled and striped with spots and streaks of green1 enlivens the drab gray-and-brown landscape4 ,some of the reddish coloring is from angular grains of red to orange feldspar1 but most is in thin brilliantly tinted skins of hematite that coat the sand grains and saturate the clays4 ,in northern and central ,new ,mexico1 amphibians and other primitive vertebrate animals lived amid the red soils and sands2 their bones and imprints have been preserved on thin flat slabs of sandstone that now decorate sidewalks and patios4 ,figure #h4 ,fossil specimens ,illustration3 ,bryozoan ,fenestrellina4 ,illustration3 ,fusulinid ,fusulina4 ,illustration3 ,coral ,lophophyllidium4 ,the early ,permian seashore1 where limy muds beyond the surf intermingled with red sandy muds swept from the north1 vacillated somewhere north of ,alamogordo with each sea-level change4 ,amid the breakers1 and as submarine banks in the shallow waters1 reefs grew--moundlike masses of shell debris and calcite mud trapped among frondlike calcareous algae4 ,near ,tularosa1 these algal 8bioherms0 are sixty feet high and extend within broad belts half a mile wide4 ,in southeastern ,new ,mexico1 these buried 8,abo0 reefs have yielded much oil4 ,by the middle of ,permian time1 the southern ,colorado mountains had been worn down to low hills that lay north of an extensive sea covering most of ,new ,mexico4 ,from ,santa ,fe south to ,white ,sands and southeastward almost to ,carlsbad1 very shallow marine waters were alternately stifled by pale-red sandy muds or evaporated by the sun4 ,the results were alternating beds of pale-red sandstone1 gypsum1 and silty dolomitic limestone1 called the ,yeso ,formation4 ,locally1 as near ,carrizozo1 thick deposits of rock salt also were precipitated1 and the ,yeso there is about #djjj feet thick4 ,at this time1 the ,delaware basin of southeastern ,new ,mexico saw the beginning of its most spectacular events1 the building of the ,capitan and ,goat ,seep reefs4 ,this basin--a huge oval south of ,carlsbad and east of ,carlsbad ,caverns--had been 8deep0 sea during most of ,pennsylvanian time1 but it was a more distinct geographic feature during the ,permian4 ,while the pale-red sands1 gypsum1 halite1 and dolomitic limestones of the ,yeso ,formation were laid down to the north and northwest1 the ,delaware basin was rimmed by a low1 broad bank of fossil-hash calcite sand1 now called the ,victorio ,peak ,limestone4 ,in the basin1 in deep stagnant waters1 black sandy limestone and black shale of the ,bone ,spring ,formation were deposited4 ,a sheet of white quartz sand filled the late ,yeso seas2 the resulting ,glorieta ,sandstone1 about #bjj feet thick1 prominently caps ,glorieta ,mesa4 ,its cliffs are a familiar sight to travelers on the ,santa ,fe ,railway at ,glorieta ,pass4 ,the ,coconino ,sandstone in the ,grand ,canyon area of ,arizona is the western part of the ,glorieta4 ,this 8clean0 sand--lacking intermixed mud--marks the continued lowering of the southern ,colorado uplands4 ,broad seas then spread over all but northern ,new ,mexico and a thick 7#fjj to #ajjj feet7 persistent marine unit1 the ,san ,andres ,limestone1 was laid down4 ,much oil is produced in southeastern ,new ,mexico from this dark-gray unit of limestones and dolomites4 ,the rich agricultural region stretching from ,roswell to ,artesia depends on underground water gained from the ,san ,andres ,limestone1 water that falls as rain and snow on the ,sacramento ,mountains1 seeps underground into the cracks and caverns within the ,san ,andres1 and flows eastward downslope to the ,pecos ,valley4 ,the delicate balance between land and sea swung upward at the end of ,san ,andres time as these late ,permian seas retreated to southern ,new ,mexico4 ,the deep ,delaware basin was the only persistent marine body of water4 ,it was rimmed by magnificent towering barrier reefs1 the ,goat ,seep and ,capitan reefs that now are host to ,carlsbad ,caverns4 ,these reefs were similar to the present-day ,great ,barrier ,reef of ,australia1 except that the ,capitan and ,goat ,seep reefs surrounded an inland sea whereas the ,australian reef borders a continent4 ,the ,capitan reef is about #djj miles long1 and other than oceanward channels cut through to the south1 completely encircled the #aj1jjj-square-mile ,delaware basin4 ,at its heyday1 the ,capitan reef was barely awash1 and teeming with life1 in contrast to the silent1 stagnant deeps of the ,delaware basin which were about #bjjj feet below sea level only a few miles away from the barrier reef4 ,on the steep slope into the basin1 huge slump blocks of fossiliferous reef limestone slid1 mingling with fossil-hash sand4 ,these 8flank0 beds dip steeply from the massive reef core to interfinger with the black sandy limestones of the basin4 ,the ,delaware basin was a marine feature throughout ,late ,paleozoic time2 its northwestern border is now marked by the southeast-trending front of the ,guadalupe ,mountains southeast of ,carlsbad2 its north edge was east-northeast of ,carlsbad1 and it extended southward into ,west ,texas4 ,shallow 8shelf0 seas reached irregularly and intermittently northward and northwestward from the ,capitan reef and mingled with low islands throughout all but southeastern ,new ,mexico4 ,landward1 away from the ,delaware basin1 the rocks change from massive1 thick1 light-gray limestones of the reefs into thin units of thin-bedded dolomite1 then abruptly into alternating beds of gypsum and redbeds1 the ,artesia ,group of rocks1 and finally1 marking the distant shorelines1 into thin units of red mudstone and red sandstone1 the ,bernal ,formation4 ,evaporation of sea water was excessive1 and average temperatures high2 the climate varied from semiarid in northwestern ,new ,mexico to subtropical in the ,delaware basin area--a contrast and a similarity to today's climate4 ,illustration3 ,figure #i4 ,castile gypsum sample ,latest ,permian time saw the dramatic end of the ,paleozoic ,era4 ,most of ,new ,mexico was uplifted above sea level1 with only the ,delaware basin remaining as a land-locked sea1 much like the ,caspian ,sea today1 but with channels open periodically southward to the ocean4 ,the rocks of this waning part of the ,permian are called the ,ochoan ,series2 they show an abrupt and striking change from the underlying ,carlsbad reef limestones and associated black basin-filling limestones up into the laminated gypsum-anhydrite of the basal ,ochoan rocks1 the ,castile formation4 ,normal marine conditions ended almost instantaneously4 ,excess of evaporation lowered the water level of the inland sea2 the accumulated brine 7concentrated salty sea water7 killed the life on and near the ,capitan reef1 and thick beds of anhydrite were precipitated4 ,the lowest beds of the ,ochoan ,series1 the ,castile ,anhydrite1 and the overlying ,salado ,salt1 mostly filled the deep depression that was the ,delaware basin2 the upper beds1 the ,rustler ,dolomite and ,dewey ,lake ,redbeds1 lap over the edges of the basin and in places rest irregularly upon the ,capitan limestone4 ,these are unusual rocks4 ,the ,castile 7about #ahjj feet thick7 is thinly banded1 with thicker bands 7laminae1 thin layers7 of light-gray gypsum-anhydrite alternating with thin laminae of dark-brown calcite 7fig4 #i74 ,this lamination is believed due to annual changes1 the brown calcite being precipitated during the summer and the gray anhydrite during the winter4 ,on the surface1 the calcium sulfate mineral is gypsum1 but at depths of about #fjj feet1 these laminae are anhydrite4 ,addition of water to anhydrite has changed it to gypsum wherever ground water penetrated the laminae4 ,the ,salado ,salt1 about #bjjj feet thick1 is almost entirely of rock salt 7halite71 with important interbeds of potassium-rich minerals--red sylvite1 gray langbeinite1 brownish bitter-tasting carnallite1 and pale-red polyhalite4 ,as all these salts are highly soluble in water1 the ,salado ,salt nowhere 8crops out0 at the surface4 ,east of ,carlsbad1 however1 the potash-rich beds are mined underground1 and supply about ninety per cent of the ,united ,states' production--used chiefly as fertilizer4 ,the arid period of ,salado ,salt evaporation changed slightly as the dolomites and anhydrites of the ,rustler ,dolomite were laid down in the last drying moments 7geologically speaking7 of the ,permian4 ,then as the seas retreated to the south1 the fine-grained red sands and silts of the ,dewey ,lake ,redbeds were spread as a thin blanket over the low lands basking under the hot ,permian sun4 ,this was a time of dying2 whole races of vertebrate and invertebrate animals were wiped out1 to be known today only from their fossil remains4 ,as the dim unmarked episode of latest ,permian time merged into the ,triassic1 an inkling of coming life was recorded in the rocks4 ,the amphibians were more modern types1 and they gave rise to the most striking of early land animals1 the reptiles4 ,this was the beginning of the conquest of the land by the reptiles1 which culminated later in the dinosaurs1 and was aided by the retreat of shallow seas from the continents1 a change survived chiefly by the species adapted to living on land4 ,,mesozoic ,,era ,the ,mesozoic ,era dawned in ,new ,mexico on extensive plains1 except for a northwest-trending range in the extreme north-central part of the state4 ,during this1 the early part of the ,triassic ,period 7#ahj to #bcj m4y4 ago71 sands and muds eroded from ,new ,mexico were carried westward to northeastern ,arizona where they now form the ,moenkopi ,formation1 the brilliant reds and purples of the ,painted ,desert region4 ,uplands arose in late ,triassic time in southwestern ,new ,mexico4 ,along with mountains in south-central ,colorado1 these highlands were torn apart by water and wind1 and the detritus was swept into sheets of brightly colored sand and shale4 ,these beds are thickest 7about #bjjj feet7 along the ,new ,mexico--,texas line east of ,roswell and in west-central ,new ,mexico 7near ,grants7 extending westward into northeastern ,arizona4 ,the eastern ,triassic rocks are the redbeds of the ,dockum ,group with the lower ,santa ,rosa ,sandstone and the upper ,chinle beds4 ,the northwestern rocks are the ,chinle ,formation overlain by the redbeds of the ,wingate ,sandstone4 ,the ,chinle ,formation is of special scenic interest as its beds contain the silicified trees so well shown at ,petrified ,forest ,national ,monument4 ,these varicolored rocks--red1 purple1 green1 and gray--also decorate the ,painted ,desert area1 the wide valley of ,rio ,san ,jose east of ,laguna1 and flank ,interstate #dj 7,u4,s4 ,highway #ff7 from the ,texas line westward almost to ,clines ,corners4 ,as some beds are weathered 8ash0 beds1 the highlands were sites of volcanoes that spread their dust over much of the ,southwest4 ,in contrast to the underlying marine ,paleozoic rocks1 these ,triassic beds were deposited on land by streams and in shallow lakes4 ,thus the beasts that roamed ,new ,mexico were amphibians--such as the thick-skulled stegocephalians--and reptiles of the crocodilelike clan1 the phytosaurs4 ,the silicified trees in the ,chinle are mostly primitive pines2 some grew to heights of more than #ajj feet and measure #g feet in diameter4 ,new ,mexico was featureless rolling prairie1 with scattered low hills in the northwest1 during most of ,jurassic time 7#ace to #ahj m4y4 ago74 ,in the late part of the period1 the ,sundance-,curtis sea and its shoreline lagoons spread down from the north into northwestern ,new ,mexico4 ,sand dunes on its southeastern shores consolidated into the cross-bedded ,entrada ,sandstone2 its reddish brown cliffs rim the ,rio ,san ,jose ,valley near ,grants and ,gallup4 ,in an extensive lagoon1 or salt-water lake that covered most of northwestern and north-central ,new ,mexico1 the gypsum and limestone of the ,todilto ,formation were precipitated2 this gypsum is the bed mined near ,rosario siding 7seen between ,albuquerque and ,santa ,fe7 by the ,kaiser ,gypsum ,company1 and near ,san ,ysidro on ,white ,mesa by the ,american ,gypsum ,company4 ,the ,todilto salty basin was overwhelmed by reddish sands and silts of the ,summerville ,formation1 washed chiefly from the south1 and by the multicolored sands of the ,zuni ,sandstone 7exposed at ,el ,morro71 and then the stream and wind-blown sands and clays of the varicolored ,morrison ,formation were laid down in northern ,new ,mexico4 ,petrified wood and bone fragments are abundant in the ,morrison beds--along with uranium--but no fossil finds in ,new ,mexico equal those in the ,morrison ,formation of ,dinosaur ,national ,park1 ,utah4 ,much of ,north ,america1 including southern ,new ,mexico1 was land during the ,jurassic4 ,in the streams and lakes were many kinds of fishes1 amphibians1 reptiles1 snails1 crustaceans1 and water bugs2 on dry land were hordes of reptiles1 small primitive mammals1 and ants2 in the air were flying reptiles1 the earliest known birds1 moths1 and butterflies4 ,the earth was ruled by the reptiles1 with the dinosaurs dominant--some being the most ponderous land animals of all earth history4 ,such were ,stegosaurus and ,brachiosaurus1 the latter #he feet long and weighing #ej tons4 ,the ,cretaceous ,period 7#gj to #ace m4y4 ago7 was one of great contrast in ,new ,mexico4 ,during ,early ,cretaceous time1 most of the central and northern parts of the state were low lands torn by erosion1 while thick piles of conglomerate1 sandstone1 and shale accumulated in depressions in the southwestern corner4 ,huge volcanoes near ,lordsburg added their hot ashes1 bombs1 and flows to the sedimentary detritus1 and thick fossiliferous limestones were laid down in muddy and sandy waters of the sea--the shoreline fluctuated over tens of miles in areas south of ,lordsburg1 ,deming1 and ,el ,paso4 ,these ,early ,cretaceous beds total #bj1jjj feet in thickness in some areas4 ,in eastern and northeastern ,new ,mexico1 in contrast1 thin sheets of quartz sand were deposited by streams on the edge of a shallow sea1 and black muds in local lagoons4 ,rock beds thousands of feet thick were laid down in northern and central ,new ,mexico during ,late ,cretaceous time1 whereas most of the southern part of the state was above sea level and was being eroded by tireless winds and streams4 ,the shorelines made parallel northwest-trending bands across the state4 ,these are now marked by beach sands1 some of which are speckled by black minerals1 high in rare elements titanium1 niobium1 and zirconium4 ,northwestern and central ,new ,mexico was a battleground of the land and sea1 with the beaches advancing and retreating fifty or a hundred miles during an instant of geologic time4 ,stream sands and coal beds lie landward from the beach sands which1 in turn1 mingle seaward with black limy shales that were flushed into the seas4 ,the lowest of these rocks is the ,dakota ,sandstone--famous as an artesian aquifer in the ,high ,plains areas of states to the northeast--,colorado1 the ,dakotas1 ,nebraska1 ,kansas1 ,wyoming1 and ,montana4 ,above is the black ,mancos ,shale1 which in turn is overlain by the ,mesaverde ,group4 ,the transitions from coal swamps and stream sands to beach deposits and then into marine black shales is characteristic of the ,mesaverde in northwestern and north-central ,new ,mexico4 ,to the northeast1 beds of the same age were laid down in an extensive muddy sea that stretched far to the east2 the ,pierre ,shale and ,niobrara chalky limestone that underlie the plains northeast of ,las ,vegas are typical4 ,the cliff-forming sandstones and coal beds near ,gallup are part of the ,mesaverde ,group and rim the entire ,san ,juan ,basin4 ,above are similar rocks such as the ,kirtland ,shale1 ,pictured ,cliffs ,sandstone1 and ,fruitland ,formation that underlie valleys cut in the shales and cliffs carved from the sandstones in the northwest corner of ,new ,mexico near ,farmington4 ,toward the end of the ,cretaceous1 the ,laramide 8revolution0 began1 and ,new ,mexico along with most of ,north ,america emerged from beneath the seas1 to be high and dry to the present4 ,the revolution1 an extensive upheaval of the earth's crust1 saw uplift of the ,san ,juan ,mountains area in southwestern ,colorado and large volcanoes spouting fire and ashes nearby4 ,fragments of the eroded mountains and debris from these andesitic volcanoes were flushed southward by streams and steam to settle as thick piles of mud1 sandstone1 and conglomerate1 the ,mc,dermott and ,animas formations in the ,san ,juan ,basin4 ,the last moment of ,cretaceous time1 if we could be so precise1 was ushered out almost unnoticed--with mountains rising to the north and the andesitic-quartz detritus being laid down to the south in the upper beds of the ,animas ,formation4 ,similarly1 mountains arose during ,late ,cretaceous time in north-central ,new ,mexico and south-central ,colorado1 about on the site of the present-day ,sangre de ,cristo range northeast of ,taos1 and shed erosional gravels and muds into the ,raton ,basin area4 ,alluvial fan gravels and sands grade eastward into dark muds and coals laid down in swamps and on floodplains4 ,these rocks now cap the rugged mesas seen northwest of the ,santa ,fe ,railway from ,raton southward--the cliff-forming ,trinidad ,sandstone and the dark siltstones1 sandstones1 black shales1 and coal beds of the ,vermejo and ,raton formations4 ,the ,kaiser ,steel ,corporation mine near ,koehler extracts coal from these beds4 ,again1 the exact end of the ,cretaceous is marked only by some obscure boundary between beds1 in that area within the ,raton ,formation4 ,during the ,cretaceous ,period1 the deciduous trees--such as the oak1 maple1 poplar1 and elm that dominate today's flora--became common4 ,the covered-seed plants1 the angiosperms1 are the most notable of the ,cretaceous plants1 but the development of the modern floras was an antecedent to the great expansion of mammals and birds during the following ,cenozoic ,era4 ,reptiles ruled the earth1 led by the dinosaurs 7fig4 #aj7 and their distinctive group1 the horned large-skulled ceratopsians such as ,triceratops4 ,the small1 hairy1 warm-blooded mammals were still insignificant creatures that ran from their huge dinosaur lords1 but they ate reptile eggs1 and so excelled the sluggish reptiles in mental and physical activity that they adapted swiftly to the changing environments of the ,laramide revolution--and became dominant as the pea-brained reptiles were unable to stand the changes4 ,the shallow seas of the ,cretaceous swarmed with invertebrate life2 foraminifers 7unicellular protozoans7 in uncountable billions make up large parts of the chalky limestones4 ,mollusks1 particularly clams like oysters and the heavy ribbed ,inoceramus1 and complexly sutured cephalopods1 the ammonites1 as well as the internal-shelled belemnoids 7that look like cigars71 were most numerous among larger marine animals4 ,reef builders in southwestern ,new ,mexico were the peculiarly corallike clams1 the rudistids4 ,widespread warm humid climates seem to have prevailed throughout the state during most of the ,cretaceous4 ,,landscapes ,,and ,,mineral ,,resources ,thus as the ,cretaceous seas withdrew from ,new ,mexico1 the ,cenozoic ,era dawned1 and never again have marine waters shaped the landscapes4 ,the rocks1 ,precambrian1 ,paleozoic1 ,mesozoic1 and ,cenozoic1 and their ancient movements determine ,new ,mexico's spectacular landscapes4 ,they tell tales of the endless war between erosion and hard rock1 show the deposition of sediments1 their uplift1 and their eventual destruction4 ,the result is striking scenery--volcanic mountains1 as ,mount ,taylor1 ,sierra ,blanca1 ,valle ,grande--fresh lava flows near ,carrizozo and ,grants--volcanic necks like ,shiprock and ,cabezon--,white ,sands1 the work of the wind--,el ,morro1 ,enchanted ,mesa1 ,acoma1 and badlands near ,santa ,fe1 the result of weathering and erosion--great fault-line escarpments of the ,sandia1 ,manzano1 ,san ,andres1 and ,sacramento mountains--the work of underground waters at ,carlsbad ,caverns4 ,and man adds his erosive powers--the huge open-pit copper mine at ,santa ,rita and countless excavations for rock to build homes1 to straighten highways4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aj4 ,make way for 'is lordship1 the ,dinosaur6 ,the sun can be harsh and hot1 the rain sparse1 the winter nights fierce cold4 ,but within the rocks are natural resources undreamed of by the early ,indians1 almost untouched by the ,spanish1 and with potential beyond vision for the future4 ,water1 being scarce1 is one of the more important resources4 ,with an average yearly precipitation of only fifteen inches1 and more than half of the state receiving less than that average1 water is a problem6 ,farming must depend upon irrigation1 the water being drawn from streams or 8mined0 from underground 8pools0 where it had been accumulating for centuries4 ,forests1 game1 and fish are lucrative resources somewhat unexpected in a semiarid state2 sheep and cattle--in this the stronghold of the cowboy1 famous in gunfighter lore--each total more than a million4 ,new ,mexico's #aife mineral production1 valued at #gha4i million1 ranked seventh among the states4 ,principal commodities won from the rocks1 in order of value1 were oil1 potash1 natural gas1 uranium1 copper1 sand and gravel1 zinc1 coal1 crushed stone1 and perlite4 ,sizeable quantities of barite1 beryl1 carbon dioxide1 cement1 clays1 gem stones1 gold1 gypsum1 helium1 iron ore1 lead1 limestone1 magnesium compounds1 manganese1 mica1 molybdenum1 pumice1 salt1 silver1 sulfur1 and vanadium were also mined4 ,the huge open-pit copper mine at ,santa ,rita1 the many uranium mines near ,grants1 the underground potash mines near ,carlsbad1 and the thousands of oil and gas wells in the northwestern and southeastern parts of the state are typical of man-made landscape features attributable to mineral exploitation in ,new ,mexico4 ,numerous old mine dumps1 rotting mine shafts1 and spooky ghost towns are reminders of past fortunes won and lost4 ,the rocks1 the work of water1 wind1 and sun1 and the not insignificant upheavals by man have shaped ,new ,mexico's landscapes4 ,blended with its blue skies1 warm sun1 and the products of three cultures--,indian1 ,spanish1 and ,american--the rocks and their movements have made the landscapes a land of enchantment4 ,earth wears a mantle rich with lore1 of storied fabric finely spun1 ,that tells of kingdoms come and gone1 of legions lost and battles won4 ,no seer no monarch can divine1 the cryptic writings2 he alone1 ,who humbly speaks the tongue of earth1 can find a story in a stone4 ,before ,coronado by ,robert ,h4 ,weber ,the cultural heritage of ,new ,mexico is a rich and colorful one1 blending as it does the three separate traditions of ,indian1 ,spanish1 and ,anglo-,american4 ,of these1 the lifeways of the ,indian1 ancient and modern1 are of particular interest to both the visitor and resident4 ,these were the first inhabitants of the ,new ,world1 whose roots extend back in time many thousands of years before the first ,european set foot here4 ,people who had adapted themselves to the varied and often harsh environments of desert1 plain1 valley1 canyon1 and mountain2 who witnessed the disappearance of the large mammals of the ,pleistocene ,ice ,age and concomitant changes in climate and vegetation2 the first prospectors and miners seeking flint1 obsidian1 turquoise1 clay1 salt1 and mineral pigments2 early traders exchanging valued minerals and handicrafts for shells of the coastal regions2 hunters and farmers1 architects and builders1 civic and religious leaders1 philosophers and critics1 skilled craftsmen and artists1 explorers and soldiers--all ancient counterparts of those who were to follow4 ,in #aedj1 when the train of soldiers in the company of ,coronado's ,spanish ,expedition entered the unknown lands later called ,new ,mexico1 four groups of native ,americans were established residents in the area4 ,along the arable valley of the ,rio ,grande and its tributaries1 and in several outlying areas were the adobe and stone apartment-house villages of the ,pueblo ,indians1 whose livelihood was based largely on agriculture4 ,east of the mountains were scattered bands of ,plains ,indians1 ,eastern ,apaches1 who were nomadic hunters following the herds of buffalo that ranged across the vast grasslands of the ,high ,plains4 ,western ,apaches were dispersed in small bands of hunters and gatherers of wild foods through the mountainous country to the west of the ,rio ,grande4 ,a related group1 the ,navajo1 augmented the necessities of life gained by hunting and gathering with subordinate agricultural crops in the ,plateau region to the northwest4 ,early contacts of the conquistadores were largely with the ,pueblo ,indians1 although they had limited knowledge of the ,apaches and ,navajos in outlying districts4 ,there was little to suggest to the ,spanish invaders1 except for the ruins of long-abandoned ,pueblo villages1 that the fragmentary record of thousands of years of human prehistory lay scattered in the dust beneath their feet4 ,undoubtedly they would have dismissed as utter nonsense any notion that men armed with stone-tipped spears had here slain elephants in a marsh #ab1jjj years old that now lay buried beneath shifting sands of a desert landscape4 ,indeed1 it was not until the last quarter of the #ahjj's that serious attempts were made to decipher the prehistoric traces of the ,pueblo ,indians1 whereas concrete evidence that man had hunted long-extinct ,pleistocene big game in ,america was not discovered until less than forty years ago4 ,,early ,,hunters ,the year #aibf was marked by the first of a series of important archeological finds in ,new ,mexico that were eventually to demonstrate that man had occupied this area as much as #aa1jjj to #ab1jjj years ago4 ,during this period1 ,late ,pleistocene ice sheets of continental glaciers still blanketed parts of the northern tier of states in the vicinity of the ,great ,lakes1 and elephants 7both mammoths and mastodons71 horses1 camels1 giant bison1 tapirs1 and ground sloths roamed the ,southwest4 ,excavations begun in #aibf near the small town of ,folsom1 in northeastern ,new ,mexico 7fig4 #a71 disclosed a number of fossil skeletons of a large form of extinct bison1 forerunners of the modern bison or buffalo4 ,among these bones were dart or spear points of distinctive form and workmanship1 characterized by broad1 shallow flutes or channels on each face 7fig4 #b74 ,these artifacts1 now known as ,folsom points1 have since been recovered from a number of sites in ,new ,mexico and elsewhere in ,north ,america1 commonly in association with the remains of extinct bison4 ,evidently ,folsom 8,man0 7whose skeletal remains have not been discovered7 was a nomadic hunter particularly dependent upon the bison for his food supply1 much as were the later ,plains ,indians of historic time4 ,ages of from #aj1jjj to #aa1jjj years have been obtained from charcoal and other organic remains at ,folsom camp sites by the radiocarbon method4 ,succeeding years have seen an increasing number of valuable archeological discoveries at camp and game-kill sites of ,folsom ,man and other ,early ,hunters4 ,unquestionably1 the most important of these sites is the ,blackwater ,draw locality between ,clovis and ,portales in extreme eastern ,new ,mexico1 where excavations for gravel disclosed a stratified sequence of sediments that were deposited in an ancient pond and spring4 ,here1 too1 were the characteristic ,folsom points in association with the bones of fossil bison4 ,below the ,folsom layer1 still older deposits contained the fossil bones of mammoth1 horse1 camel1 and bison associated with fluted spear points that resembled those from ,folsom but were generally larger and less skillfully chipped and fluted4 ,these points1 now known as ,clovis points1 are so commonly found beside the remains of mammoths in a number of sites in the ,high ,plains and the ,southwest that their makers are believed to have been adept at hunting these extinct elephants4 ,radiocarbon dates place ,clovis points in a time range of from #aa1jjj to #ab1jjj years ago4 ,in a layer above that containing ,folsom points at ,blackwater ,draw1 several varieties of unfluted lanceolate points were found to be associated with the bones of fossil bison4 ,these points have been identified by various specific names such as ,plainview1 ,milnesand1 ,eden1 and ,scottsbluff from excavated sites elsewhere in the ,high ,plains region1 and probably range in age from #hjjj to #aj1jjj years4 ,although the giant bison still survived into this level of stratigraphy and time1 the elephant1 camel1 and horse of the ,clovis level had disappeared from the area4 ,illustration3 ,figure #a4 ,index map of ,new ,mexico showing locations of significant archeological sites1 modern ,indian pueblos1 and ,navajo1 ,ute1 and ,apache reservations ,early ,hunter ,sites #a4 ,folsom ,state ,monument #b4 ,sandia ,cave #c4 ,san ,jon #d4 ,blackwater ,draw #e4 ,manzano ,cave #f4 ,lucy #g4 ,milnesand #h4 ,burnet ,cave ,prehistoric ,pueblo and ,cliff-,dwelling ,ruins #i4 ,aztec ,ruins ,national ,monument #aj4 ,chaco ,canyon ,national ,monument #aa4 ,puye ,cliff ,dwellings #ab4 ,bandelier ,national ,monument 7,tyuonyi7 #ac4 ,gila ,cliff ,dwellings ,national ,monument ,historic ,pueblo ,ruins #ad4 ,jemez ,state ,monument #ae4 ,pecos ,state ,monument #af4 ,coronado ,state ,monument 7,kuaua7 #ag4 ,paako ,state ,monument #ah4 ,quarai ,state ,monument #ai4 ,abo ,state ,monument #bj4 ,gran ,quivira ,national ,monument ,modern ,pueblos #ba4 ,taos #bb4 ,san ,lorenzo 7,picurs7 #bc4 ,san ,juan #bd4 ,santa ,clara #be4 ,san ,ildefonso #bf4 ,namb #bg4 ,tesuque #bh4 ,cochiti #bi4 ,santo ,domingo #cj4 ,san ,felipe #ca4 ,sandia #cb4 ,santa ,ana #cc4 ,zia #cd4 ,jemez #ce4 ,isleta #cf4 ,laguna #cg4 ,acoma #ch4 ,zuni #ci4 ,ojo ,caliente ,navajo1 ,ute1 and ,apache ,reservations #dj4 ,navajo ,indian ,reservation #da4 ,ute ,mountain ,indian ,reservation #db4 ,jicarilla ,apache ,indian ,reservation #dc4 ,mescalero ,apache ,indian ,reservation ,modern pueblos ,historic pueblo ruins ,prehistoric pueblo and cliff-dwelling ruins ,early ,hunter sites ,another important discovery was made in ,sandia ,cave northeast of ,albuquerque4 ,below cave deposits containing ,folsom points was an earlier type of point among the bones of mammoth1 horse1 camel1 and other large ,pleistocene mammals4 ,now identified as ,sandia points1 these projectile tips are distinguished by an asymmetric stemmed form with a shoulder on one side4 ,the age of the ,sandia points has been a subject of some controversy1 but the latest available data from charcoal in ,sandia ,cave indicates an age of nearly #ab1jjj years1 which is within the accepted range of the ,clovis points4 ,illustration3 ,figure #b4 ,folsom point recovered from among rib bones of fossil bison at ,folsom1 ,new ,mexico 7,photograph of plastic replica4 ,original point in collection of ,denver ,museum of ,natural ,history47 ,clovis1 ,sandia1 and ,folsom points1 together with related stone implements1 are at many places enclosed in sediments deposited in or adjacent to ponds1 lakes1 streams1 and wet meadows4 ,these environments indicate a former cool and more humid climate in areas that are now semiarid4 ,the food requirements of many of the large herbivores that lived at this time also suggest more abundant vegetation and surface water than prevails here today4 ,it is not unreasonable1 then1 to presume that climatic conditions contributing to the advance of continental glaciers in the ,great ,lakes region1 and to valley glaciers in the ,rocky ,mountains1 should have been reflected in lower summer temperatures and higher rainfall in non-glaciated areas4 ,the ultimate extinction of the large ,pleistocene mammals and the similar time of disappearance of the hunters who preyed upon them may both be related to the climatic changes that followed the end of the ,ice ,age in ,america4 ,,hunters ,,and ,,gatherers ,groups of people dependent upon a different way of life from that of the ,early ,hunters are known to have occupied much of the present area of ,new ,mexico4 ,although there is some suggestion of overlap in time of these people with the ,early ,hunters1 they appear to have become prominent during the several thousand warm1 dry years following the end of the ,pleistocene4 ,adapted1 as they were1 to a fuller utilization of the resources of the area through the hunting and trapping of smaller game and an emphasis on the gathering of a wide variety of wild plant foods1 these people ranged extensively across the varied terrain of the state4 ,similar patterns of subsistence and artifacts are known from the ,great ,basin region west of the ,rocky ,mountains1 where they have been categorized under the term ,desert ,culture4 ,local manifestations of the ,desert ,culture in southeastern ,arizona1 extending eastward into western and southern ,new ,mexico1 are identified as the ,cochise ,culture4 ,other groups showing similarities with ,archaic cultures to the east penetrated the northeastern part of ,new ,mexico at a time when the area was still populated by ,pleistocene bison4 ,habitation sites of these gatherers are distributed in open situations and in shelter caves4 ,such sites are commonly marked by milling stones that characterize the preparation of wild foods 7fig4 #c71 hearths1 chopping and scraping implements1 and stemmed projectile points markedly different from those used by the ,early ,hunters4 ,these points were affixed to dart shafts that were propelled with a spear thrower or atlatl1 a device that preceded the bow and arrow in ,america but is still used by ,australian ,aborigines4 ,seasonal changes in the local availability of wild foods must have necessitated a nomadic or seminomadic way of life4 ,the development of agricultural techniques in the later years before the beginning of the ,christian ,era1 however1 probably contributed to the development of a semisedentary existence that was eventually to lead to the village life of the later periods4 ,the exact time of introduction of the principal agricultural crops1 corn1 squash1 and beans1 is unknown1 but evidence from west-central ,new ,mexico indicates their use by the ,cochise people by #bejj ,b4,c4 ,,puebloan ,,farmers ,having acquired the techniques of deliberately planting and raising food crops that could be stored against future needs1 local populations of ,hunters and ,gatherers became less dependent upon the gathering of wild foods and began to construct clusters of more permanent dwellings near cultivable land4 ,among the earliest recognized houses of this period are the semisubterranean pit houses of the early ,mogollon people in the ,san ,francisco ,river drainage of west-central ,new ,mexico 7fig4 #d7 and of the ,anasazi ,basketmakers in the ,san ,juan ,river drainage of northwestern ,new ,mexico4 ,these cultural advances1 together with the acquisition of techniques for the manufacture of fired pottery1 foreshadowed the development of the ,mogollon and ,pueblo cultures at a time beginning perhaps as early as #cjj ,b4,c4 for the ,mogollon area and at least by #a ,a4,d4 for the ,anasazi area4 ,illustration3 ,figure #c4 ,milling stones of the type used by the ,cochise ,people ,plant foods were ground in a shallow basin metate with the small one-hand mano 7hand stone74 ,socorro1 ,new ,mexico4 ,these two cultural groups1 the ,mogollon in southwestern and southern ,new ,mexico1 whose roots extend back through the ancestral ,cochise to before #fjjj ,b4,c41 and the ,anasazi in the ,four ,corners region of northwestern ,new ,mexico1 probably developed independently during the early years4 ,from about #ejj ,a4,d41 however1 there is increasing evidence of trade relationships and eventual fusion of traits4 ,other groups to the west1 such as the ,hohokam of ,arizona1 were sources of cultural influence on the indigenous people of ,new ,mexico4 ,in the ,mogollon and ,san ,juan ,anasazi heartlands and in the ,rio ,grande ,valley of central ,new ,mexico1 a pattern of village life with elaboration of social and religious organization emerged from the relatively simple cultures of the early years4 ,villages began to assume organized form1 dwellings were combined in rows of adobe and stone structures containing a number of contiguous rooms1 and subterranean ceremonial chambers or kivas assumed larger and more specialized architectural distinctiveness from the ancestral pit-house dwellings4 ,in the ,mogollon area1 the characteristic brownware pottery of the ,mogollons was used side by side with decorated black-on-white pottery of ,anasazi origin4 ,the bow and arrow slowly replaced the less efficient atlatl and dart4 ,the significance of these early stages in the evolution of the ,pueblo ,culture in the ,san ,juan and upper ,rio ,grande areas is indicated by their designation as the ,developmental ,pueblo period 7,pueblo ,i and ,,ii74 ,illustration3 7,photograph of museum diorama courtesy of the ,chicago ,natural ,history ,museum7 ,figure #d4 ,mogollon pit-house village of the period #bjj ,b4,c4 ,the climax of these developments occurred in the interval between #ajej and #acjj ,a4,d4 in the ,classic or ,great ,pueblo period 7,pueblo ,,iii74 ,among the most impressive manifestations of this period are large stone-masonry apartment houses1 some rising to five stories in height and housing hundreds of people4 ,dwellings of this type are highlights of several well-known tourist attractions1 among which are the cliff dwellings of ,mesa ,verde in southwestern ,colorado and the monumental ruins of ,pueblo ,bonito in ,chaco ,canyon 7fig4 #e71 both products of the ingenuity of the ,anasazi ,indians4 ,at the very apex of the cultural efflorescence of the ,great ,pueblo period1 some unknown circumstance or series of events caused abandonment of most of the urban centers of the ,san ,juan ,anasazi and ,mogollon areas4 ,a prolonged drouth is recorded by tree rings formed during the period from #abgf to #abii ,a4,d4 ,surely a drouth of this magnitude would have had serious effects on people as dependent upon agriculture as were the ,pueblo ,indians4 ,there are some indications that alien and perhaps enemy people were drifting into these areas at about this time1 perhaps predecessors of the modern ,navajos and ,apaches4 ,the congested living conditions of ,pueblo villages undoubtedly contributed to unsanitary conditions and social pressures that also may have contributed to shifts in population4 ,many of these migrants moved into the homeland of the ,rio ,grande ,anasazi in the upper ,rio ,grande ,valley1 and to a lesser extent in the central ,rio ,grande ,valley4 ,some may have relocated at ,zuni and other areas along the ,little ,colorado ,river drainage extending westward into ,arizona4 ,illustration3 7,photograph courtesy of the ,national ,park ,service7 ,figure #e4 ,pueblo ,bonito1 ,chaco ,canyon ,national ,monument ,a multistory pueblo containing #hjj rooms4 ,during the ,great ,pueblo period1 another group showing characteristics of both the ,anasazi and of non-,puebloan people occupied an area on both sides of the ,continental ,divide along the eastern margin of the ,san ,juan ,basin4 ,this cultural phase1 known as the ,largo-,gallina because of the distribution of sites in the ,largo and ,gallina drainage basins1 is represented by pit houses1 surface rooms1 and towerlike structures with some similarities to the dwellings of the ,anasazi4 ,the black-on-white pottery also suggests ,puebloan relationships1 whereas the culinary vessels resemble those of the ,navajo4 ,beginning at about #acjj ,a4,d4 or shortly thereafter1 a different cultural group began to move westward from the ,texas ,panhandle into the plains of northeastern ,new ,mexico4 ,these people of the ,panhandle ,aspect built single-room structures and contiguous room pueblos resembling those in use by the ,anasazi of the ,rio ,grande and were skilled bison hunters1 farmers1 and traders4 ,this combination of traits suggests both ,puebloan and eastern traditions4 ,panhandle ,aspect villages were abandoned suddenly not long after #adjj1 perhaps as a result of the drouth recorded by tree rings for the period from #adci to #aded4 ,following the shift in population of the ,pueblo region1 cultural changes occurred that have led to the designation ,regressive ,pueblo period 7,pueblo ,,iv7 for the interval between #acjj and #agjj ,a4,d4 ,noteworthy changes during this period include a tendency toward enlargement of villages and the creation of new styles of pottery1 accompanied by some deterioration of the artistic creativity of the ,classic period4 ,major ruins of this period that are readily accessible to the public include ,puye ,cliff ,dwellings1 ,tyuonyi ,pueblo in ,bandelier ,national ,monument1 and ,pecos ,pueblo in ,pecos ,national ,monument4 ,at the time of ,coronado's entrada in #aedj1 there were from #fj to #gj ,pueblo villages in ,new ,mexico1 most of which contained fewer than #djj inhabitants4 ,four or five mutually unintelligible languages were spoken1 each with several dialects1 making communication between ,spanish and ,indian extremely difficult4 ,language barriers contributed to an inadequate documentation of the ,pueblo way of life during the early years of ,spanish contact1 so that we must continue to depend upon the archeological record during the first century of ,spanish colonization of the area4 ,the beginning of the ,historic ,pueblo period 7,pueblo ,v7 accordingly is commonly set at #agjj ,a4,d4 ,,apaches ,,and ,,navajos ,little is known concerning the origin of these two related groups1 who differ markedly from the ,pueblo ,indians in language and cultural traits4 ,their closest ties are with other ,athapaskan-speaking tribes in northwestern ,canada1 and available evidence indicates that they are comparative newcomers to the ,southwest4 ,a correlation between the abandonment of sections of the ,pueblo region and pressures exerted by ancestral ,apaches and ,navajos has been suggested1 but definite proof of this is still lacking4 ,raids against the eastern pueblos of the ,galisteo ,basin are reported to have occurred in #aebe4 ,coronado's expedition encountered nomadic hunters in the plains east of ,pecos in #aeda1 observing that they followed the movements of herds of bison or buffalo on whom they were highly dependent for food and shelter1 lived in portable tents of tanned buffalo hides supported by a framework of poles1 and used dogs as beasts of burden4 ,trade contacts with the ,rio ,grande pueblos included exchange of hide 8cloaks0 for corn grown by the ,pueblo ,indians4 ,related groups in western and northwestern ,new ,mexico are even more poorly known1 as there was still less contact between them and the ,spanish explorers4 ,evidently some agriculture was practiced as a supplement to a subsistence based largely on hunting and gathering1 a pattern of livelihood reminiscent of that of the pre-,puebloan ,cochise people4 ,the succeeding years of ,spanish and ,american colonization of ,new ,mexico were to be highly influenced by the ,apaches and ,navajos1 and also by another group of ,plains ,indians1 the ,comanches4 ,the events of this period1 however1 are discussed in a separate article4 ,frontier ,forts of ,new ,mexico by ,robert ,a4 ,bieberman ,following ,president ,polk's declaration of war against ,mexico in ,may #ahdf1 a ,united ,states ,army force was sent from ,ft4 ,leavenworth1 ,kansas ,territory1 against the ,mexican provinces of ,new ,mexico and ,california4 ,this army1 known as 8,the ,army of the ,west10 was led by ,gen4 ,stephen ,w4 ,kearny4 ,upon his arrival in ,santa ,fe in ,august #ahdf1 ,general ,kearny issued a proclamation which informed the citizens that ,new ,mexico was now a part of the ,united ,states and that he and his army and the forces to follow would protect them and their property4 ,general ,kearny remained in ,santa ,fe only one month1 but during that month he appointed a governor1 judges1 and other officials1 started construction of a fort in ,santa ,fe1 and sent troops against the ,navajo ,indians in fulfillment of his promise to protect the people4 ,kearny and his 8,army of the ,west0 left ,santa ,fe in ,september #ahdf to conquer ,california1 leaving behind a detachment of troops under the command of ,col4 ,alexander ,w4 ,doniphan4 ,thus began the role of the ,u4,s4 ,army1 which was to continue for the next half century1 in securing the frontier in what we now know as the ,state of ,new ,mexico4 ,history has shown that the troops stationed in ,new ,mexico were called upon to participate in the ,mexican ,war and the ,civil ,war and to protect the newly established border between ,mexico and ,new ,mexico from violations from both sides4 ,however1 the basic role of the military1 the role which continued for fifty years1 was to protect the traveler1 the farmer1 the miner1 and the settler from ,indian attack4 ,its task was made no less difficult by the changing1 unrealistic1 discriminatory ,indian policies which came out of ,washington during this period4 ,when relative calm was established1 promises were forgotten and violence erupted anew4 ,the defense policy in ,new ,mexico did not follow a set plan but gradually evolved4 ,military posts were established at different places when the need arose and were abandoned when the need diminished4 ,a few of the posts were occupied and used by the army throughout most of this period4 ,others existed but a few months or years4 ,,forts ,fort ,union ,located twenty-seven miles northeast of ,las ,vegas1 ,fort ,union became the most important and most famous fort in the ,new ,mexico ,territory4 ,established on the ,santa ,fe ,trail in #ahea1 it served as supply depot for the territory and as a base for troops engaged in the protection of traffic along the ,santa ,fe ,trail and of the settlements in the area from the depredations of the ,apaches1 ,utes1 ,comanches1 and ,kiowas4 ,the site can be reached by traveling eight miles of paved road which leaves ,u4,s4 ,highway #he one mile north of ,watrous4 ,during its forty-year history1 ,fort ,union occupied three different sites1 all within the same general area4 ,the original fort was of log construction which rapidly fell into disrepair4 ,in ,august #ahfa1 amid rumors of the possible invasion of the territory by ,confederate forces1 construction was begun on a new fort4 ,this fort was of earthworks1 in the form of an eight-pointed star4 ,it was here that the troops waited for the attack which never came4 ,with the passing of the ,confederate threat1 work was begun in #ahfc on the third fort1 the remains of which are seen today4 ,fort ,union soon became the largest fort in the territory4 ,it was constructed in two sections1 one for the garrison and one for the supply depot4 ,the garrison area consisted of four infantry and two cavalry barracks facing a row of nine officers' quarters across the parade ground4 ,a sixty-bed hospital was constructed4 ,the depot area included five warehouses1 mechanics corral1 transportation corral1 and administration buildings4 ,an arsenal was built about one mile from the fort proper4 ,the buildings were constructed of adobe on stone foundations4 ,the roofs were flat and the walls were capped with brick copings in what has become the territorial style of architecture4 ,illustration3 7,photo courtesy of ,national ,park ,service7 ,ruins of ,fort ,union ,fort ,union was a community within itself and a lively social center4 ,weary travelers on the ,santa ,fe ,trail eagerly anticipated their arrival4 ,few complaints were heard when soldiers were transferred to ,fort ,union1 for this was a popular assignment4 ,with the coming of the railroad and peace at last descending on the frontier in the #ahhj's1 the need for the fort diminished4 ,but it clung to life for a few more years1 mainly because of the fond memories which lived in the hearts of the military leaders who had been stationed there4 ,finally1 the end came and ,fort ,union was abandoned in ,february #ahia4 ,new life came to the fort in #aiee when it became a ,national ,monument4 ,the ruins have been excavated and stabilized and a fine visitors' center and museum has been established4 ,fort ,union has at last assumed its rightful place as a shrine of history4 ,stand on the parade ground and survey the majesty that was ,fort ,union1 listen for the sounds1 the bugle calls1 the barklike commands of close-order drill1 the creak of wagons1 and the thunder of horses' hooves4 ,these are the sounds of ,fort ,union4 ,they are still there if one will only pause and listen4 ,fort ,marcy ,fort ,marcy was established in #ahdf at ,santa ,fe and was named for the then ,secretary of ,war1 ,w4 ,l4 ,marcy4 ,the fort was located on a hill overlooking the city some #ajjj yards northeast of the plaza4 ,a deep ditch or moat surrounded the massive adobe walls of the fort and a blockhouse1 within musket range1 protected the only entrance4 ,at the time of ,colonel ,manfield's inspection trip in ,august #ahec1 the troops were quartered in public buildings in ,santa ,fe1 there being no quarters provided at the fort2 however1 it could be occupied on a moment's notice4 ,the original ,fort ,marcy was abandoned in #ahfg and a new one was constructed a short distance to the west4 ,this new site is now occupied by business and residential properties4 ,the ,war ,department abandoned ,fort ,marcy in ,october #ahid1 the troops and equipment being moved to ,fort ,sill1 ,oklahoma4 ,the site was turned over to the city of ,santa ,fe in #ahig4 ,fort ,marcy played an important role during the military occupation of ,new ,mexico4 ,it served as a base of operations against marauding ,indians1 was captured and occupied for a short time by ,confederate forces in #ahfb1 served as headquarters for the ,ninth ,military ,department 7changed to ,department of ,new ,mexico in #ahec7 throughout most of this period1 and was a center for the social life of ,santa ,fe4 ,only low mounds of earth now mark the site of ,fort ,marcy4 ,fort ,wingate ,fort ,wingate1 at the site known today1 was established in #ahfh4 ,it is located on the site of a pre-existing fort at ,ojo del ,oso 7,bear ,springs7 about twelve miles east of ,gallup and three miles south of ,u4,s4 ,highway #ff4 ,fort ,fauntleroy was established in ,august #ahfj and was named for the then ,department ,commander1 ,col4 ,t4 ,t4 ,fauntleroy4 ,the name was changed to ,fort ,lyon in ,september #ahfa after ,colonel ,fauntleroy resigned his commission and joined the ,confederate forces4 ,the fort was abandoned in ,december #ahfa as troops were concentrated at other posts to meet the threat of invasion of the territory by ,confederate forces from the south4 ,with the defeat of ,confederate troops early in #ahfb1 the military returned to the ,indian problem and established a post some sixty miles to the east on the ,rio de ,gallo near ,san ,rafael4 ,this post was named ,fort ,wingate in honor of ,capt4 ,benjamin ,wingate who died of wounds received during the battle with the ,confederate forces at ,val ,verde4 ,the post proved to be too far from the ,navajo country for effective control and1 in #ahfh1 was abandoned and a new ,fort ,wingate established at ,ojo del ,oso on the site occupied earlier by ,fort ,fauntleroy4 ,the physical plant of the new ,fort ,wingate consisted of barracks1 officers' quarters1 hospital1 guard house1 storehouse1 employees' quarters1 corrals1 barns1 and various repair and storage sheds1 all bordering the traditional rectangular parade ground4 ,some of these buildings are in use today4 ,in #aiad1 #djjj ,mexican refugees lived in a tent city at ,fort ,wingate until peace was restored after ,pancho ,villa's revolution in ,mexico4 ,following ,world ,war ,i1 it became an ordnance storage depot1 and new administrative and living quarters were built several miles west of the original fort enclosure4 ,this installation is known today as ,fort ,wingate ,ordnance ,depot1 and the long rows of concrete ammunition storage bunkers can be seen from ,u4,s4 ,highway #ff4 ,in #aibe1 the original fort enclosure was transferred to the ,department of the ,interior for use as an ,indian school4 ,today1 the parade ground is a playground and the barracks are dormitories for the children who attend this school4 ,the missile age came to ,fort ,wingate in #aifc when a portion of the military reservation became the launching site for test rockets which impact at the ,white ,sands ,missile ,range #bjj miles to the south4 ,fort ,wingate has seen many changes during its long and colorful history4 ,it served well during its first #ajj years and continues to serve today4 ,fort ,craig ,fort ,craig was established in the spring of #ahed on the abandonment of ,fort ,conrad1 nine miles north4 ,it was named in honor of ,col4 ,l4 ,s4 ,craig who was killed by an army deserter on ,june #f1 #aheb4 ,the remains of ,fort ,craig are located on the west bank of the ,rio ,grande about thirty-four miles south of ,socorro and five miles1 by dirt road1 east of ,u4,s4 ,highway #he4 ,the fort was established to afford protection against the many bands of ,apaches that roamed this part of the territory4 ,fort ,craig was well built and became one of the best-garrisoned military posts in ,new ,mexico4 ,built on the usual rectangular plan1 the parade ground was bordered on the northeast by two double officers' quarters2 on the northwest by the guard house1 prison room1 and sallyport2 on the southwest by three soldiers' barracks each in the form of a hollow square enclosing a patio2 and on the southeast by various workshops1 storerooms1 stables1 and corrals4 ,the commanding officers' quarters occupied the west corner of the parade ground and the hospital the east corner4 ,behind the commanding officers' quarters there were three large bombproof storerooms4 ,the entire installation was enclosed within a high wall1 beyond which a ditch encircled the fort4 ,gun bastions projected from the north and south corners4 ,illustration3 ,remnants of guard house1 ,fort ,craig 7built of basalt blocks7 ,fort ,craig was one of the most important military posts in ,new ,mexico4 ,its troops participated in many engagements with the ,indian4 ,in the fall of #ahfa1 troops from other posts were concentrated at ,fort ,craig to meet the threatened invasion of ,confederate forces from the south4 ,in ,february #ahfb1 these troops were defeated by the ,confederate invaders in the battle of ,val ,verde which took place about four miles north of the fort4 ,upon the withdrawal of ,confederate forces from the territory later in #ahfb1 the troops at ,fort ,craig returned to the ,indian problem4 ,in ,march #ahhe1 the fort was relinquished by the army and the improvements sold4 ,the last soldier left in ,august #ahhe after government property was removed and sent to ,forts ,bliss and ,stanton4 ,the buildings were sold at public auction on ,april #cj1 #ahid1 to the ,valverde ,land and ,irrigation ,company for #ajgj4ej4 ,fort ,craig is now a ruin1 but the outlines of most of the buildings can still be seen4 ,portions of the plastered walls of the commanding officers' quarters remain1 as do portions of the hospital and stone guard house4 ,the wall and ditch surrounding the fort1 gun bastions1 storehouses1 and cemetery are still much in evidence4 ,coal marks the blacksmith's shop and broken bottles the sutler's store4 ,another frontier fort has passed into history4 ,fort ,stanton ,fort ,stanton was established in ,may #ahee on the ,rio ,bonito at a site located approximately four miles east of present-day ,capitan and three miles south of ,u4,s4 ,highway #chj4 ,the fort was an attempt to control the ,mescalero and ,white ,mountain ,apaches and was named for ,capt4 ,h4 ,w4 ,stanton who had been killed by ,apache ,indians earlier that year4 ,many a soldier stationed at ,fort ,stanton gave up his life to an ,apache during the ,indian wars4 ,illustration3 ,map of ,new ,mexico showing location of frontier forts ,the original fort was little more than a stockade1 with few buildings and little equipment4 ,in ,august #ahfa1 the government stores were burned and the troops moved to ,albuquerque in the face of the ,confederate invasion4 ,confederate troops occupied the site one month later but promptly left after a few encounters with the ,apache4 ,the site was reoccupied by ,union troops ,october #ahfb and1 later1 substantial buildings were erected1 most of which still stand4 ,with the passing of the frontier1 ,fort ,stanton was abandoned as a military post in ,august #ahif1 and in #ahii1 the installation passed to the ,u4,s4 ,public ,health ,service for use as a merchant marine hospital for the treatment of tuberculosis4 ,during ,world ,war ,,ii1 a ,german prisoner of war camp was established at the fort4 ,in #aiec1 the hospital was closed by the federal government because of the high cost of running the establishment4 ,fort ,stanton is now a state tuberculosis hospital operated by the ,new ,mexico ,department of ,public ,welfare4 ,col4 ,kit ,carson used the fort as a base of operations while rounding up the ,mescalero and ,white ,mountain ,apaches in late #ahfb and early #ahfc4 ,in #ahha1 the famous outlaw1 ,billy the ,kid1 was confined in the building now used as a dental clinic while on his way to the gallows in ,lincoln1 which never claimed him4 ,gen4 ,john ,j4 ,pershing1 as a young lieutenant1 was stationed for a time at ,fort ,stanton4 ,fort ,selden ,fort ,selden was established in #ahfe and named for ,capt4 ,henry ,r4 ,selden 7later colonel7 who distinguished himself at the battle of ,val ,verde1 ,february #ba1 #ahfb4 ,the fort was beside the ,rio ,grande nine miles north of the settlement of ,doa ,ana4 ,the site is located along ,u4,s4 ,highway #he about seventeen miles north of present-day ,las ,cruces4 ,fort ,selden was one of a chain of forts established to control the ,apaches4 ,it was on the ,butterfield ,trail and provided protection for the government rope ferry which crossed the ,rio ,grande at nearby ,leasburg4 ,the summit of ,mt4 ,robledo1 across the river to the west1 was used as a heliograph station1 flashing messages between ,fort ,selden and ,fort ,bliss at ,franklin 7,el ,paso1 ,texas74 ,the buildings of the fort were one-story adobe structures with walls two feet thick4 ,the installation included barracks for enlisted men1 two double officers' quarters1 a ten-bed hospital1 stone guard house1 storehouses1 workshop1 bake shop1 corrals1 and a magazine with stone walls three feet thick4 ,the fort was rectangular in ground plan1 the buildings enclosing a parade ground4 ,fort ,selden was abandoned in #ahgi when the railroads began to draw travel away from the overland trails4 ,it was reoccupied in #ahha when the ,apache ,chiefs ,victorio1 ,nana1 and later ,geronimo were on the warpath4 ,with the passing of the ,indian problem1 ,fort ,selden was permanently abandoned in #ahib4 ,during ,world ,war ,i1 the grounds of the fort were used for cavalry maneuvers by units stationed at ,fort ,bliss4 ,a rather famous ,american once lived at ,fort ,selden4 ,gen4 ,douglas ,mac,arthur1 as a child of four1 moved with his family to the fort in #ahhd1 following the assignment of his father1 then an infantry captain1 to that post4 ,the family remained at ,fort ,selden until late in #ahhf4 ,now only crumbling adobe walls mark the site of ,fort ,selden1 once a welcome sight to travelers in southern ,new ,mexico4 ,the wind1 rain1 and sun have taken their toll1 aided in no small way by man himself4 ,in #aifc1 through the efforts of the ,doa ,ana ,historical ,society1 ,fort ,selden was made a ,state ,monument by the ,new ,mexico legislature4 ,it is to be hoped that the fort will now be protected from further weathering and vandalism so that the remnants of this old outpost will stand for many years to come as a monument to the men who once manned it4 ,fort ,cummings ,fort ,cummings was established in ,october #ahfc in what is now ,luna ,county1 ,new ,mexico4 ,it was located at ,cooke's ,spring1 an important watering stop on the ,butterfield ,trail1 at the eastern edge of ,cooke's ,canyon4 ,prior to the establishment of ,fort ,cummings1 the ,apaches made frequent and fatal attacks upon travelers as they passed through the four miles of ,cooke's ,canyon or stopped at the spring4 ,cooke's ,canyon was one of the most dangerous stretches on the ,butterfield ,trail4 ,the fort was named for ,maj4 ,joseph ,cummings who was killed by ,navajo ,indians in ,august #ahfc4 ,its ruins can be reached by turning off ,state ,highway #bf at ,florida1 sixteen miles northeast of ,deming1 and traveling seven miles to the west4 ,fort ,cummings was the most elaborate and best-walled fort in ,new ,mexico4 ,it covered an area #cfe #cbj feet and was completely surrounded by a twelve-foot-high adobe wall4 ,the main entrance was topped by a guard tower4 ,officers' quarters occupied the west side of the parade ground1 the hospital the north side1 and soldiers' quarters the east side4 ,the various workshops1 storerooms1 offices1 stables1 and corrals extended along the south side of the fort4 ,abandoned in ,august #ahgc1 ,fort ,cummings was reoccupied in #ahhj1 and then again abandoned in ,october #ahhf4 ,later it was used as a cattle corral by the ,carpenter-,stanley ,cattle ,company4 ,the spring was walled and covered1 and the water piped to ,florida4 ,little remains of ,fort ,cummings today4 ,a few weathered walls here and there among the mesquite and creosote bushes mark the site4 ,the spring still flows1 supplying water for the stock which now graze upon this 8protector of the trail40 ,fort ,bayard ,fort ,bayard1 established in #ahfe to protect the miners and settlers moving into the area following the ,civil ,war1 allowed the orderly development of what was to become ,new ,mexico's most important mineral-producing area4 ,named for ,capt4 ,george ,d4 ,bayard who was wounded repeatedly during ,indian forays and who died of wounds received in the ,battle of ,fredricksburg 7,va47 during the ,civil ,war1 the fort was located about five miles southeast of ,pinos ,altos and about midway between the mining towns of ,pinos ,altos and ,santa ,rita4 ,the site is about nine miles east of present-day ,silver ,city1 just north of ,state ,highway #ij4 ,the original fort consisted of log and adobe buildings forming a square around the parade ground4 ,during its thirty-four year history as an army post1 many changes and additions were made to the fort1 including the building of two-storied officers' quarters4 ,in #ahii1 the line troops were removed and the fort was officially designated as a ,u4,s4 ,army ,general ,hospital to treat tubercular soldiers4 ,in #aibj1 the hospital was turned over to the ,public ,health ,department2 in #aibb1 to the ,u4,s4 ,veterans ,administration2 and again1 in #aiff1 to the ,state ,health ,department as a facility for the care of the aged and of tuberculosis cases4 ,it can now accommodate more than #cjj patients4 ,the modern buildings are a far cry from the dirt-floored log and adobe buildings of the original fort4 ,,history ,pre-,civil ,war ,period4 ,the period #ahdf to #ahfa was characterized by constant ,indian warfare4 ,treaties were made1 then broken4 ,forts were established1 then abandoned1 and new forts built as the military tried in vain to cope with the problem4 ,punitive expeditions proved ineffective as the ,indians separated into small and predatory bands which overran the country4 ,forts ,union1 ,marcy1 ,fauntleroy1 ,craig1 and ,stanton were established during this period4 ,additional forts1 whose sites have returned to the desert1 are ,fort ,conrad 7#ahea71 on the ,rio ,grande about twenty-five miles south of ,socorro2 ,fort ,thorn 7#ahec71 on the ,rio ,grande about five miles north of ,hatch2 ,fort ,fillmore 7#ahea71 on the ,rio ,grande about seven miles south of ,las ,cruces2 ,fort ,webster 7#aheb71 on the ,mimbres ,river about one and one-half miles northwest of ,san ,lorenzo2 ,fort ,mc,lane 7#ahfj71 at ,apache ,tejo about four miles south of ,hurley2 and ,fort ,floyd 7#aheg71 on the ,gila ,river about two miles south of ,cliff4 ,civil ,war ,period4 ,the outbreak of the ,civil ,war in #ahfa created a new problem on the frontier in ,new ,mexico4 ,confederate military leaders moved quickly to seize control of the ,southwest and ,california to cut off the supply of gold to the ,north and divert it to the ,confederacy4 ,confederate troops under ,col4 ,j4 ,b4 ,baylor occupied abandoned ,fort ,bliss at ,franklin 7,el ,paso71 ,texas on ,july #a1 #ahfa4 ,baylor began his move northward along the ,rio ,grande on ,july #bc and quickly occupied ,mesilla4 ,nearby ,fort ,fillmore was abandoned and the ,union forces retreated toward ,fort ,stanton1 but they were soon captured by ,baylor's troops4 ,upon the fall of ,fort ,fillmore1 ,fort ,stanton was hastily abandoned on ,august #b and was taken over by the ,confederates shortly thereafter4 ,gen4 ,h4 ,h4 ,sibley arrived at ,fort ,bliss in ,december #ahfa to assume command of the ,confederate forces4 ,sibley's troops moved northward along the ,rio ,grande and were engaged in battle by ,union troops from ,fort ,craig1 under ,gen4 ,e4 ,r4 ,s4 ,canby1 as they attempted to bypass the well-garrisoned post4 ,the ,battle of ,val ,verde took place four miles north of ,fort ,craig on ,february #ba1 #ahfb4 ,after a day of bloody fighting1 ,sibley emerged the victor4 ,he occupied ,albuquerque on ,march #b1 #ahfb1 and ,santa ,fe on ,march #bc4 ,the ,confederate forces then moved toward ,fort ,union in an attempt to gain complete control of the territory4 ,on ,march #bg and #bh1 they were met by ,union forces sent out from ,fort ,union and were defeated in battle near present-day ,glorieta4 ,sibley then retreated to ,fort ,bliss4 ,illustration3 ,the ,confederate campaign in ,new ,mexico1 #ahfa-ahfb ,while ,sibley was thus engaged1 another part of his army moved across what is now southwestern ,new ,mexico and southeastern ,arizona and occupied ,tucson 7,arizona74 ,gen4 ,j4 ,h4 ,carleton and his ,california ,column left ,los ,angeles on ,april #ac and cleared this area of ,confederate troops1 reaching the ,rio ,grande on ,august #g4 ,carleton reoccupied ,fort ,bliss1 which had been abandoned by the ,confederate troops in their retreat4 ,post-,civil ,war ,period4 ,while the ,union troops were preoccupied with the ,confederates1 the ,indians stepped up their raids and depredations4 ,with the passing of the ,confederate threat1 attention was once more focused on the ,indian problem4 ,a new plan was formulated which called for the capturing of the ,indians and confining them to reservations4 ,a reservation 7,bosque ,redondo7 was established late in #ahfb near present-day ,fort ,sumner1 ,new ,mexico1 to which were eventually confined several thousand ,navajos and ,mescalero ,apaches4 ,this resettlement was not a success since the ,apaches ran off and the ,navajos suffered greatly from sickness and disease4 ,a treaty was signed with the ,navajos in #ahfh1 and they were allowed to return to their homes1 no longer a threat to the frontier4 ,the ,mescalero ,apaches were finally settled on a reservation in their own country south of ,fort ,stanton1 and the ,jicarillas on a reservation west of ,tierra ,amarilla4 ,the ,mimbreno1 ,mogollon1 and ,warm ,springs ,apaches of southwestern ,new ,mexico were more of a problem4 ,in #ahga1 a reservation and ,fort ,tularosa were established near present-day ,aragon in western ,new ,mexico4 ,after a futile attempt to keep the ,indians there1 they were moved in #ahgd to a new reservation and military post at ,ojo ,caliente1 about forty miles northwest of present-day ,truth or ,consequences4 ,this1 too1 proved a failure and the ,apaches were moved to the ,san ,carlos ,reservation in what is now ,arizona4 ,during these attempts to locate the ,apaches on reservations1 various rebellious bands of ,apaches led by ,victorio1 ,nana1 and ,geronimo continued on the warpath4 ,geronimo and his band surrendered in #ahhf and were imprisoned in ,florida4 ,after ,geronimo's surrender1 relative peace descended upon the frontier in ,new ,mexico4 ,established in the post-,civil ,war period were ,forts ,wingate 7old and new71 ,selden1 ,cummings1 and ,bayard1 as well as ,fort ,lowell 7#ahfh71 near ,tierra ,amarilla2 ,fort ,bascom 7#ahfc71 on the ,canadian ,river about eight miles north of ,tucumcari2 ,fort ,sumner 7#ahfb71 on the ,pecos ,river about five miles southeast of present-day ,fort ,sumner2 ,fort ,mc,rae 7#ahfc71 on the ,rio ,grande about ten miles northeast of ,truth or ,consequences2 and ,fort ,west 7#ahfc71 on the ,gila ,river about two miles south of ,cliff4 ,with the arrival of the railroad and cessation of hostilities with the ,indians1 a new era was begun4 ,one by one1 the old forts were abandoned3 their need had passed4 ,the colorful frontier forts of ,new ,mexico are just a memory now4 ,our ,national ,heritage ,national ,forests in the so-called 8desert0 state of ,new ,mexico cover more than #h4e million acres1 about #aa per cent of the state's area4 ,national ,monuments and ,carlsbad ,caverns ,national ,park only extend over about #dcj square miles but cover ten of ,new ,mexico's most scenic areas that are of national geologic1 archeologic1 and historic interest4 ,these are our national heritage1 set aside by the federal government for the perpetual equal use of all ,americans4 ,the forests cap the higher ranges of the state1 except on windblown peaks that extend above the timberline4 ,they provide protection for the watersheds that feed ,new ,mexico's rivers1 supply about #abe million board feet of cut timber each year1 and yield forage for more than #aej1jjj cattle and sheep4 ,picnic nooks and camp grounds are plentiful1 fish abound in the rushing mountain streams1 and big game awaits the hunter throughout the forest lands4 ,the primitive virgin wilderness is preserved in its natural state1 accessible only by pack trip1 in the ,gila ,wilderness area of the ,diablo and ,mogollon mountains north of ,silver ,city and the ,pecos ,wilderness area east of ,santa ,fe in the ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains4 ,incomparable ,carlsbad ,caverns is in the state's only ,national ,park4 ,national ,monuments include the glistening gypsum dunes of ,white ,sands1 the volcanic cone of ,capulin ,mountain1 the prehistoric ruins of ,chaco ,canyon1 ,aztec ,ruins1 ,bandelier1 and ,gila ,cliff ,dwellings1 the ,spanish ruins at ,gran ,quivira1 ,inscription ,rock at ,el ,morro1 and the crumbling walls of old ,fort ,union4 ,in the near future1 ,valle ,grande may be added to the ,national ,park ,system and will include ,valle ,caldera1 one of the world's largest volcanic calderas1 a mountainous jumble with cool streams1 thick coniferous forests1 and lush high meadows4 ,,new ,,mexico',s ,,big ,,share ,,of ,,the ,,national ,,park ,,system by ,h4 ,v4 ,reeves1 ,jr4#b ,in contemplating the growth of cities and towns1 the insatiable suburbs1 congested streets and highways1 the acres of dump yards for discarded automobiles1 legions of billboards upstaging mountain ranges and seashores1 and the melancholy predictions of demographers who say that within thirty years there will be twice as many of us1 consider this3 for ,new ,mexico in particular1 the outlook is not utterly bleak4 ,some ninety years ago1 without anything approaching the present-day horrible example before them1 some farsighted1 selfless1 tireless individuals began to work to set aside areas of outstanding scenic1 scientific1 and historical interest so that they would not be engulfed by humanity4 ,often against strong opposition1 these benefactors succeeded in bringing about legislation that bounded many such areas and defined laws to protect them4 ,the areas became national parks1 monuments1 and historic sites4 ,and in #aiaf1 the ,national ,park ,service1 an agency of the ,u4,s4 ,department of the ,interior1 was established to administer the units of the ,national ,park ,system4 ,today1 other selfless individuals are contributing their time and effort to bring additional areas into the ,national ,park ,system before they are lost forever4 ,for example1 ,pecos ruins became a ,national ,monument in late #aiff 7see page #ajf74 ,not every suggested area possesses the qualities that merit preservation1 qualities of national significance4 ,proposed areas receive careful study before they are recommended for inclusion within the system--recommended to the ,congress by the ,secretary of the ,interior4 ,the ,secretary's recommendations are based on those received from the ,advisory ,board on ,national ,parks1 ,historic ,sites1 ,buildings1 and ,monuments4 ,this board is composed of eleven private citizens1 each of whom is competent in one or more of the following fields3 history1 natural history1 archeology1 architecture1 conservation1 and recreation4 ,diverse in character1 ,new ,mexico's ten units of the ,national ,park ,system are of geologic1 scenic1 archeological1 and historical interest4 ,a visit to each unit will disclose the qualities that have been judged to be of national significance4 ,carlsbad ,caverns ,national ,park ,incomparable ,carlsbad ,caverns1 in southeastern ,new ,mexico1 includes a single underground chamber so expansive that its floor could accommodate fourteen football fields and its ceiling could hold a #bb-story building2 other chambers that contain countless cave formations of great variety of shape and color2 cool and naturally circulating fresh air2 and a system of lighting that reveals the beauty and spaciousness most effectively4 ,since the temperature within the ,caverns remains at about #ef;,f the year round1 warm clothing is needed4 ,comfortable shoes1 too1 for the four-hour1 three-mile complete tour1 which starts at the natural entrance4 ,shorter trips1 the ,big ,room tours that start at the elevators in the visitor center1 take in only a part of the underground chambers4 ,all tours are under leadership of competent park guides who answer questions and explain the earth processes that have resulted in the caverns and their amazing decorations4 ,from the natural entrance1 the immense main corridor of the ,caverns is followed downward #hbi feet for one and three-quarters miles4 ,this brings visitors to the most scenic rooms 7the ,green ,lake ,room1 ,king's ,palace1 ,queen's ,chamber1 and ,papoose ,room71 where the stalactites1 stalagmites1 and helictites reach their peak in numbers1 shapes1 and delicate coloring4 ,the trail leads upward #hj feet from the ,papoose ,room to the lunchroom4 ,near the lunchroom is the ,big ,room1 the most majestic of the ,caverns' chambers4 ,the trail around its perimeter1 one and a quarter miles long1 encompasses a floor space of fourteen acres4 ,illustration3 ,hall of ,giants in ,carlsbad ,caverns ,national ,park ,completing the circuit of the ,big ,room and returning to the lunchroom1 visitors may either walk or board an elevator and ride smoothly back to the surface4 ,how were the ,caverns formed8 ,the story began about #bdj million years ago1 during the ,permian ,period4 ,at that time1 the two limestone formations in which the caverns occur--the ,tansill ,formation and ,capitan ,limestone--were deposited as part of an organic reef complex at the edge of a warm shallow sea4 ,during subsequent periods1 other seas brought in sedimentary material that covered the reef4 ,about #fj million years ago1 earth movements1 which were responsible for the uplift of the area1 fractured the reef and permitted surrounding ground water to enter along fracture lines and begin work in fashioning the caverns4 ,the water at first dissolved small crevices in the limestone4 ,as more water came in1 the crevices enlarged to cavities1 called solution pockets4 ,then the walls1 floors1 and ceilings of the pockets dissolved and collapsed1 joining the pockets1 while the solution process continued1 eventually forming the huge rooms seen today4 ,beginning about #c million years ago and into recent times1 the uplift of the local ,guadalupe ,mountains and changing climates lowered the water table4 ,water that had been inside the caverns drained away and was replaced by air4 ,most solution stopped1 but large sections of partly dissolved walls and ceilings collapsed under their own weight4 ,stability was finally achieved1 however1 and probably no rock has fallen within the caverns during the last several thousand years4 ,even before the collapsing ended1 another phase of cavern development had begun4 ,rain water and snow melt slowly seeped into the caverns4 ,droplets of water1 each holding a minute quantity of dissolved limestone1 appeared upon the ceilings4 ,exposed to the air1 the droplets evaporated and left their mineral content as calcite and aragonite--crystalline forms of limestone4 ,over centuries1 this process of evaporation and deposition has built a myriad of crystalline stalactites of all shapes and sizes4 ,water that dripped to the floor evaporated and deposited the calcite and aragonite to build stalagmites4 ,when joined together1 stalactites and stalagmites become columns1 or pillars4 ,in the scenic rooms1 conditions existed that brought about the creation of helictites--twisted formations that seem to defy gravity in their growth4 ,color in the cave formations1 shades of brown1 red1 and yellow1 result from the presence of small amounts of iron oxide and other minerals4 ,carlsbad ,caverns ,national ,park offers more than the caverns themselves4 ,each evening from ,april to ,october1 bats in incredible numbers spiral upward out of the ,caverns' entrance and fly southward over the rim of the escarpment to feed in the valleys of the ,black and ,pecos rivers4 ,they return just before dawn1 diving swiftly and from high altitudes into the entrance4 ,flying directly to the bat cave1 they spend each day hanging head downward in dense clusters from the walls and ceilings4 ,the bat cave itself is not open to visitors4 ,a park naturalist explains the bat flight and discusses the bats in detail in a talk given at the entrance to the ,caverns each evening before the flight begins4 ,the nature trail1 a half mile loop that begins and ends near the entrance to the ,caverns1 guides the visitor to many of the desert plants of the region4 ,the park is visited by more than half a million people each year1 and yet the delicate cave formations and the natural beauties remain unmarred4 ,white ,sands ,national ,monument ,white ,sands ,national ,monument1 fifteen miles southwest of ,alamogordo1 is another area of great interest to the geologist and biologist4 ,but its strangeness1 the graceful contours of its snow-white dunes1 and the peculiar adaptations of some of the plants and animals that live among its dunes are appreciated as fully by the nonscientist4 ,more than #cgj1jjj visitors come to marvel at the ,white ,sands each year4 ,the ,monument1 some #bcj square miles in extent1 preserves the most impressive part of the world's largest gypsum desert4 ,this is a glistening sea of pure gypsum sand that the wind has drifted into huge dunes that are almost bare of vegetation except along the fringes4 ,wavelike1 the restive dunes move slowly before the prevailing winds1 covering and uncovering the few plants that lie in their way4 ,and wavelike1 their surfaces trace the vagaries of indecisive breezes in tiny parallel ripplelike ridges4 ,because of the almost constant wind and resulting gradual advance of the dunes1 most of the plants that are able to establish themselves in the open flats between the dunes eventually become buried4 ,a few species1 however1 are able to survive the irresistible march of the sand4 ,through rapid growth and elongation of the stems1 the struggling crowns remain on top of the rising crests of the dunes4 ,plants with stems more than forty feet long have been found4 ,as the dunes continue forward under the pressure of the wind1 they leave the plants elevated on columns of compacted gypsum bound by their adventitious roots4 ,animals1 too1 have become adapted to their unusual surroundings4 ,the small creatures1 lizards1 mice1 and others1 are picked off easily by such predators as foxes1 coyotes1 and hawks when they are conspicuous4 ,thus1 through the centuries1 only the lighter-colored individuals have survived among the dunes and1 through many generations1 have developed pale and elusive animals that blend inconspicuously with their white surroundings4 ,pocket mice are a good example of this4 ,among the white dunes1 the pocket mice are white2 in the nearby red hills1 they are a rusty color2 and on the beds of black lava a few miles north of the sand1 the pocket mice are very dark4 ,a visitor to ,white ,sands ,national ,monument should stop at the visitor center1 where exhibits explain the geology of the duneland and others describe the plants and animals that are able to live there4 ,but how and from where did this natural wonder come8 ,the dunes of gypsum lie in the ,tularosa ,basin1 which stretches for more than #ajj miles between two north-south mountain ranges4 ,all sides of the valley slope gently inward1 forming the basin1 with ,lake ,lucero1 its lowest point1 at the southwest end of the ,monument4 ,this valley was formed hundreds of centuries ago1 when a great section of the earth's crust settled to form the type of basin known geologically as a graben4 ,high above the basin floor1 beds of gypsum are found to the north in the mountain ranges flanking the valley4 ,similar gypsum beds lie far beneath the floor of the basin4 ,thus1 it was once a part of the high plateau1 a great blocklike section that slowly sank to form the basin at its present level4 ,percolating water from seasonal rains and melting snow carries tons of gypsum1 in solution1 from the highlands at the north end of the basin into ,lake ,lucero4 ,during much of the year1 cloudless skies and warm dry winds evaporate ,lake ,lucero1 and it shrinks to a crystal-encrusted marsh4 ,capillarity draws the gypsum-laden underground water to the surface2 it1 too1 evaporates1 depositing its burden of gypsum throughout the extensive 8alkali flats40 ,the persistent southwest wind picks up the particles of gypsum and whirls them away1 adding them to the gleaming white dunes1 the accumulation of centuries4 ,the best ways to see the dunes are by car and by foot4 ,along the drive that leads into the heart of the duneland are numbered posts that correspond to numbered paragraphs in the ,monument's informational folder4 ,these paragraphs explain the features that are of particular significance4 ,at pull-outs along the drive1 park the car and walk among the dunes4 ,illustration3 ,capulin ,mountain ,national ,monument ,capulin ,mountain ,national ,monument ,capulin ,mountain ,national ,monument1 in the northeast part of the state1 is an area of geologic interest that presents still another aspect of the science of the earth4 ,it contains the cone of an extinct volcano1 one of the most symmetrical of the geologically recent cinder cones in the ,united ,states4 ,its conical form rises more than #ajjj feet above its base4 ,the irregular rim is about one mile in circumference1 and the crater is about #dae feet in depth1 as measured from the highest part of the rim4 ,some #dj1jjj people a year visit the ,monument4 ,the mountain consists chiefly of loose cinders1 ash1 and other rock debris of volcanic explosions4 ,these materials were spewed out by a series of successive eruptions1 probably of considerable duration4 ,the coarse materials fell back around the vent1 piling up to form the conical mound4 ,dust and other fine materials were carried away by the wind4 ,after the eruptions1 vegetation gained a foothold on the steep1 unstable flanks of the cone1 so that in time the slopes became stabilized4 ,geological studies indicate that the volcano probably was active about #gjjj years ago4 ,capulin ,mountain is of special interest1 partly because it represents the last stages of a great period of volcanic activity that was widespread throughout western ,north ,america4 ,evidences of this older and more intense activity can be seen from the top of ,capulin ,mountain in the scores of other nearby volcanic hills and peaks4 ,the largest of these is the ,sierra ,grande1 an extinct volcano rising #djjj feet above the surrounding plain2 it is ten miles to the southeast4 ,northwest of ,capulin are a number of mesas that are capped with black lava1 the largest of which are ,barella1 ,raton1 and ,johnson4 ,fishers ,peak1 south of ,trinidad1 ,colorado1 is on a similar mesa4 ,the famous ,spanish ,peaks1 northwest of ,trinidad1 are a pair of extinct volcanoes4 ,in this great volcanic area1 the lava erupted in a succession of flows4 ,the series of eruptions were separated by long periods of inactivity4 ,during these inactive times1 erosion cut valleys and wore down parts of the old lava sheets4 ,this action formed new channels and lower terrain over which succeeding lava flows spread4 ,this process was repeated at least three times4 ,the oldest lavas1 which have been exposed by erosion1 are found on the tops of the highest mesas4 ,the last series of eruptions created ,capulin ,mountain2 they were ejections mostly of cinders and ash1 with less lava flow than in the preceding volcanic activity4 ,these cinder-and-ash eruptions were so recent1 geologically1 that some of the nearby1 bare1 steep-sided cinder cones appear as if they had just cooled4 ,the ,national ,park ,service has constructed a road up the mountain to the rim of the crater4 ,and from the parking area at the rim1 two trails lead to the most interesting points on the mountain4 ,one trail1 self-guiding1 makes the complete one-mile circuit of the crater along the rim4 ,a guide booklet1 keyed to numbered stakes that have been set at places along the trail1 explains the features of particular significance--both on the mountain and in the distance4 ,the other trail1 less scenic1 provides a rare opportunity to see a volcanic mountain from the inside out1 for it leads down to the bottom of the crater4 ,illustration3 ,view of ,chaco ,canyon ,national ,monument ,chaco ,canyon ,national ,monument ,rich in areas of geological interest1 ,new ,mexico is equally rich in areas of archeological interest4 ,four of these are preserved as units of the ,national ,park ,system4 ,chaco ,canyon ,national ,monument1 in the northwestern part of the state1 contains more than a dozen large prehistoric ruins and hundreds of smaller archeological sites4 ,these ruins are considered to be without equal north of central ,mexico4 ,no other archeological area in the ,southwest exhibits such a high development of prehistoric ,pueblo civilization4 ,most of the sites lie within a strip of land about eight miles long and two miles wide1 through which ,chaco ,canyon runs4 ,although the ,monument is relatively isolated1 it is open year around and is visited by about #bb1jjj people annually4 ,the most imposing and best known of the ruins is ,pueblo ,bonito4 ,built between #hjj and #ijj years ago1 this #d- and #e-story village covered more than three acres and contained about #hjj rooms and #cb kivas1 or ceremonial chambers4 ,archeologist ,neil ,m4 ,judd1 of the ,national ,museum1 who conducted some of the late excavations1 has said that ,pueblo ,bonito was the largest apartment house built anywhere in the world prior to #ahhg1 estimating that at one time it housed #abjj people4 ,earliest of the ,chaco sites1 small villages of crude pit houses were occupied during #fjj to #hjj ,a4,d4 ,archeologists1 studying changes in masonry style1 pottery types1 and other remains1 have pieced together the development of the culture of the inhabitants of ,chaco ,canyon over a period of six centuries4 ,after ,chaco ,canyon's cultural high point was reached in the #aajj's1 a gradual decline set in4 ,the population decreased1 and in the #abjj's1 the region was abandoned4 ,during this same century1 other ,pueblo centers within the ,san ,juan ,basin were also deserted4 ,various theories have been advanced to explain this exodus3 soil erosion1 warlike enemies1 poor facilities for urban sanitation1 drought1 and intervillage warfare4 ,one or a combination of these factors might have been instrumental in bringing about the abandonment of the region4 ,aztec ,ruins ,national ,monument ,aztec ,ruins ,national ,monument1 at ,aztec in the northwestern corner of the state1 was set aside to preserve an outstanding example of classical ,pueblo construction1 one of the largest pre-,spanish villages in the ,southwest4 ,more than #dj1jjj visitors come to the ,monument each year4 ,tree-ring dates indicate that most of the big central pueblo was rapidly constructed during the period #aajf to #aaba4 ,at this time1 the people of ,aztec were influenced by the cultural center to the south1 ,chaco ,canyon4 ,during the last half of the #aajj's1 after the decline of ,chaco ,canyon had begun1 the people of ,aztec began to look toward the north1 and by #abjj1 ,mesa ,verde ideas dominated the region4 ,aztec was abandoned by about #acjj1 as was the rest of the general region4 ,of particular interest at ,aztec ,ruins ,national ,monument is the reconstructed ,great ,kiva4 ,the ,pueblo ,indians built separate rooms1 now known as kivas1 for ceremonial purposes4 ,during the period of ,chaco influence1 the people at ,aztec constructed a very large circular building1 #dh feet in diameter1 in their plaza4 ,its features differ from those of the small kivas and establish it as a ,great ,kiva1 similar to those at ,chaco4 ,the ,great ,kivas represent the peak of religious architecture among the ,pueblos4 ,the ,great ,kiva at ,aztec was completely restored in #aicd by ,earl ,h4 ,morris1 of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,bandelier ,national ,monument ,bandelier ,national ,monument1 forty-six miles west of ,santa ,fe1 preserves the ruins of dwellings and other structures that were erected by ,indians who lived in the area until about #aeej ,a4,d4 ,almost #ajj1jjj people visit the ,monument each year4 ,when many of the ancient ,pueblo ,indian centers were abandoned in the late thirteenth century1 the people moved to locations where the water supply was more constant4 ,a favorable area was the upper ,rio ,grande ,valley in what is now ,new ,mexico4 ,one of the later flowerings of ,pueblo culture occurred here4 ,the ruins within ,bandelier are representative of this phase of ,pueblo development4 ,in ,frijoles ,canyon1 the ,indians chose the location of their homes well4 ,the creek that runs through the canyon flows all year4 ,on the canyon floor and mesa top there was land suitable to the cultivation of crops4 ,and the canyon walls of soft tuff 7consolidated volcanic ash7 could easily be hollowed out by the ,indians with their harder stone tools in fashioning storage rooms behind dwellings built against the cliff4 ,cliff ruins1 or talus villages1 extend along the base of the northern wall of the canyon for about two miles4 ,other ruins are located on the floor of the canyon4 ,the houses of stone masonry were irregularly terraced1 from one to three stories in height4 ,some hollowed recesses at the base of the cliff also were used for dwelling rooms4 ,like the other pueblo dwellers1 the ,frijoles inhabitants were farmers1 raising the usual corn1 beans1 and squash4 ,they used cotton cloth1 which has been found in the ruins and which suggests that they had the loom4 ,since the growing season in the high ,frijoles country is short1 they probably obtained their cotton by trade with ,indians who lived farther south4 ,they made pottery decorated with glaze paint4 ,for a few centuries1 the ,indian farmers lived in the canyons1 built villages1 honeycombed the cliffs with artificial caves1 and tilled the soil4 ,but with the passing years1 drought1 soil-eroding floods1 soil depletion1 famine1 and possibly disease--singly or in combination--forced the canyon dwellers again to seek new homes4 ,descendants of these ,indians still live in nearby modern pueblos along the ,rio ,grande4 ,illustration3 ,cliff houses in ,frijoles ,canyon1 ,bandelier ,national ,monument ,about ninety per cent of ,bandelier ,national ,monument is1 and will remain1 a wilderness4 ,the rugged and scenic back country is accessible by about sixty miles of maintained trails1 leading to such features as ,alamo ,canyon1 the ,stone ,lions1 ,painted ,cave1 the ,pueblo ruins of ,san ,miguel and ,yapashi1 and ,white ,rock ,canyon of the ,rio ,grande4 ,valle ,grande ,another area has been considered as an addition to the ,national ,park ,system in ,new ,mexico4 ,a #aifc bill introduced in ,congress would establish ,valle ,grande-,bandelier ,national ,park1 about forty-six miles west of ,santa ,fe4 ,valle ,grande is part of the ,valle ,caldera1 which is among the world's largest and has been the site of extensive studies of calderas 7the collapsed summits of volcanoes74 ,lessons learned there have been applied in recognizing and investigating calderas in other places4 ,bandelier ,national ,monument1 primarily of archeological significance1 lies to the east of the canyon-cut rim of the caldera4 ,as written1 the bill would have incorporated the ,monument in the proposed national park4 ,illustration3 ,part of ,gila ,cliff ,dwellings ,national ,monument ,gila ,cliff ,dwellings ,national ,monument ,gila ,cliff ,dwellings ,national ,monument1 forty-seven miles north of ,silver ,city and at the edge of the ,gila ,wilderness ,area1 contains a series of ruins that portray the development of the agricultural ,indians who lived south of the ,mogollon ,mountains4 ,specifically1 the ruins represent a branch of the generalized culture known as ,mogollon4 ,although part of the road to the ,monument was paved in #aifc1 the last four-mile stretch is still primitive and should not be attempted in an ordinary passenger car except during the summer and in dry weather4 ,in spite of the difficult road1 more than #bc1jjj people visited the ,monument during #aife4 ,the last four miles of the road have been recently paved4 ,the earliest ruin yet found within the ,monument is a ,mogollon pit house of a type that was made about #ejj ,a4,d4 ,it is roundish and1 on the east side1 has a narrow ramplike entrance some two feet wide and ten feet long4 ,the people of this period did only a little farming 7corn and beans71 a little hunting1 and gathered much uncultivated plant food4 ,they made a fairly good plain-brown pottery and undoubtedly were skilled in a number of crafts whose products have since disappeared4 ,such things as nets and snares1 baskets1 and wooden tools last but a short time in open sites4 ,other1 later1 pit house types may be seen in the ,monument4 ,pit houses were prevalent in the area until about #ajjj ,a4,d41 when influences from the ,anasazi 7,pueblo7 ,indians of the northern part of the ,southwest began to affect the ,mogollon people4 ,square houses1 built above the ground1 became the style2 some were of masonry1 some of adobe construction1 and some were built of wattle 7wooden rods and twigs74 ,a new type of pottery was also introduced at about the same time3 white with black designs4 ,the principal ruins in the ,monument are the cliff dwellings1 which were built during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4 ,they1 too1 reflect the northern pueblo influence4 ,about forty rooms1 remarkably well preserved1 are fitted into a series of chambers1 or caves1 in a low cliff of ,gila ,conglomerate4 ,by about the beginning of the fifteenth century1 the area was abandoned by the farming ,indians4 ,gran ,quivira ,national ,monument ,significant chapters in the absorbing history of ,new ,mexico were written at three sites that have been made units of the ,national ,park ,system4 ,gran ,quivira ,national ,monument1 near the center of the state southeast of ,mountainair1 preserves the ruins of a frontier ,spanish mission that had been built1 used1 and abandoned by #afge4 ,the ,monument contains twenty-one ruined house mounds of ,indian pueblos and ruins of two mission churches4 ,it was the presence of the ,indians at this location1 of course1 that attracted the ,franciscan missionaries4 ,illustration3 ,a look at ruins of ,gran ,quivira ,the earliest ,indian pueblo in the ,monument was founded about #acjj ,a4,d42 by the #afjj's1 the village1 with several structures1 had become the largest in the region4 ,it was conveniently located on the south side of a hill near the cultivated fields in the surrounding lowlands4 ,water was a problem then as now4 ,the ,indians solved this as best they could by digging shallow wells at the base of the hill1 about one mile west of the pueblo4 ,the first known specific reference to ,gran ,quivira was made in #afcj by ,fray ,alonso de ,benavides1 a ,franciscan missionary4 ,he called the pueblo the 8,village of the ,humanas10 and referred to the church there as having been built by ,father ,francisco ,letrado in #afbi and dedicated to ,san ,isidro4 ,humanas1 now misnamed 8,gran ,quivira10 was later administered from the mission of ,san ,gregorio de ,abo1 some forty miles to the north4 ,in #afei1 ,father ,diego de ,santander was assigned to ,humanas4 ,construction of the mission buildings1 which he rededicated to ,san ,buenaventura1 was completed by him4 ,the ,franciscans had a pronounced influence upon the ,pueblo ,indians4 ,they stimulated trade with ,mexico and the pueblos farther north4 ,they imported wine grapes and cultivated them1 and they introduced domesticated sheep1 goats1 cattle1 and horses4 ,sometime between #afgb and #afge1 the pueblo and mission at ,humanas were abandoned because of ,apache raids1 drought1 and crop failures4 ,the people first moved to the ,rio ,grande near the present town of ,socorro4 ,a few continued to ,el ,paso del ,norte1 where1 in #afhj1 they were joined by those from ,socorro1 who had fled with the ,spaniards from the ,pueblo ,revolt of that year4 ,el ,morro ,national ,monument ,el ,morro ,national ,monument1 southwest of ,grants near ,ramah1 was established to preserve the famous ,inscription ,rock1 register of ,indians1 ,spaniards1 and westward-moving pioneers4 ,about #bb1jjj people now visit the ,monument each year4 ,el ,morro1 or ,inscription ,rock1 is a massive mesa point of sandstone4 ,rising some #bjj feet above the valley floor1 it forms a striking landmark4 ,from its summit1 rain and melted snow drain into a natural basin at the foot of the cliff1 creating a constant and dependable supply of water in a region where water is scarce4 ,the route from ,acoma to the ,zuni pueblos led directly past the mesa4 ,it was a regular camping place for ,spanish conquistadores and1 later1 for travelers from the east4 ,on the top of ,el ,morro lie ruins of ,indian pueblos1 abandoned long before the coming of the ,spaniards4 ,and carved in the sandstone are numerous petroglyphs left by these ancient people1 ancestors of the modern ,zunis4 ,perhaps it was the petroglyphs that prompted later travelers to record their names and thoughts on the rock4 ,the first known historical mention of ,el ,morro is found in the journal of ,diego ,prez de ,luxn1 chronicler of the ,espejo ,expedition of #aehc4 ,luxn stopped there for water on ,march #aa of that year4 ,illustration3 ,part of the pool and cliff at ,el ,morro ,the oldest dated inscription at ,el ,morro was made in #afje by don ,juan de ,oate1 first governor of ,new ,mexico4 ,returning from an expedition to the mouth of the ,colorado ,river1 he camped at ,el ,morro and carved this inscription in ,spanish3 8,passed by here the ,adelantado ,don ,juan de ,oate from the discovery of the ,sea of the ,south1 the #afth of ,april of #afje40 ,the 8,sea of the ,south0 was the ,gulf of ,california4 ,if don ,diego de ,vargas1 the most famous ,spanish governor of ,new ,mexico1 seems boastful in the message he left at ,el ,morro1 who can blame him8 ,his words1 in ,english1 read1 8,here was the ,general ,don ,diego de ,vargas1 who conquered for our ,holy ,faith and for the ,royal ,crown all of ,new ,mexico at his own expense1 year of #afib40 ,twelve years earlier1 the great ,pueblo ,indian ,revolt had driven the ,spaniards from ,new ,mexico4 ,more than #djj1 including #bc priests1 had lost their lives1 and the surviving ,spaniards1 some #aajj1 had fled to ,el ,paso del ,norte4 ,de ,vargas restored order1 without further bloodshed1 in #afib4 ,after the occupation of ,santa ,fe by the army of ,gen4 ,stephen ,w4 ,kearny in ,august #ahdf1 details of ,united ,states troops were dispatched to explore various parts of ,new ,mexico4 ,probably the first to visit ,el ,morro was ,lt4 ,j4 ,h4 ,simpson1 accompanied by the artist ,r4 ,h4 ,kern1 who copied some of the early inscriptions in ,september #ahdi4 ,then the names of other soldiers1 traders1 ,indian agents1 surveyors1 emigrants who were traveling westward1 and settlers were added to the rock4 ,since the establishment of the ,monument by ,presidential proclamation in #aijf1 inscribing on the face of the cliff has been prohibited4 ,if the ,monument had not been established and the law not passed1 this fascinating part of the history of the ,southwest would surely have been lost4 ,fort ,union ,national ,monument ,fort ,union ,national ,monument1 twenty-six miles northeast of ,las ,vegas and on the route of the old ,santa ,fe ,trail where the mountains meet the plains1 preserves the ruins of a famous frontier ,army post4 ,as a base of operations for military and civilian ventures in ,new ,mexico from #ahea to #ahia1 ,fort ,union helped to direct the course of events in the formative years of the ,southwest4 ,more than #aa1jjj visitors come to the ,monument each year4 ,five years after the conquest of ,new ,mexico by the ,united ,states in the war with ,mexico1 ,col4 ,e4 ,v4 ,sumner moved some of his troops from ,fort ,marcy1 in ,santa ,fe1 to the site of ,fort ,union and there began construction of log buildings on the west side of ,coyote ,creek4 ,this was the first ,fort ,union4 ,the first post took an active part in protecting settlers and traders from ,indian raids during the #ahej's4 ,mounted patrols of dragoons made many expeditions into the mountains against the warring ,apaches and ,utes and out onto the plains to pursue ,comanche war parties4 ,fort ,union was also charged with supply and support of many outlying military posts1 such as ,fort ,defiance and ,fort ,craig4 ,the ,quartermaster ,depot at ,fort ,union in later years came to be the hub of all ,army supply services in the ,southwest4 ,during the first three decades of its life1 ,fort ,union saw the great ,conestoga wagons and prairie schooners of the ,santa ,fe ,trail caravans pass in increasing numbers4 ,by the outbreak of the ,civil ,war1 enterprising traders were hauling more than ten million dollars' worth of goods from ,missouri each year4 ,the fort provided escorts for caravans and when requested by apprehensive company or postal officials1 escorts for stage-coaches of the ,independence-,santa ,fe ,mail4 ,century-old tracks of the ,santa ,fe ,trail can be still seen near ,fort ,union4 ,the start of the ,civil ,war in #ahfa brought new activity to the fort4 ,immediate invasion of ,new ,mexico by ,confederate forces from ,texas was expected4 ,gen4 ,e4 ,r4 ,s4 ,canby1 commanding ,union troops in the territory1 began construction of an earthwork fortification in a defensive position about a mile from the original fort4 ,the ditches1 parapets1 and bomb-proofs of this redoubt were completed late in #ahfa4 ,the ,texas column was not slow in coming4 ,by ,march #ahfb1 these invaders under ,gen4 ,henry ,h4 ,sibley had defeated a ,union force at ,val ,verde1 had frightened the defenders from ,albuquerque and ,santa ,fe into inaction1 and were marching eastward across the mountains toward the final stronghold1 ,fort ,union4 ,on ,march #aj1 the ,first ,regiment of ,colorado ,volunteers1 under ,col4 ,j4 ,p4 ,slough1 arrived at ,fort ,union as reinforcements4 ,and on ,march #bb1 ,colonel ,slough led his #acdb men out of the fort to meet the advancing ,confederates4 ,in a two-day battle fought in ,apache ,canyon and ,glorieta ,pass1 the ,union forces defeated the ,confederates1 thus saving ,fort ,union for the federal cause4 ,from #ahfc to #ahfi1 the garrisons at ,fort ,union were chiefly occupied in a construction program that produced most of the adobe-walled buildings whose ruins may now be seen4 ,fort ,union then returned to its earlier mission of a base for ,indian fighting4 ,the usefulness of ,fort ,union was reduced with the final submission of the ,indians and with the arrival of the railhead at ,las ,vegas in #ahgi4 ,the huge fort was demoted to caretaker status in the #ahhj's and was abandoned in #ahia4 ,at each of these ,new ,mexico units of the ,national ,park ,system1 as at other units throughout the nation1 trained personnel of the ,national ,park ,service--archeologists1 historians1 naturalists1 and park rangers--are on duty4 ,their purpose is to make the visitor's trip rewarding4 ,this they do through museum exhibits1 guided walks and self-guiding trails1 campfire talks1 and publications4 ,here in ,new ,mexico1 then1 escape the irritations that seem to go with progress4 ,awaiting the traveler are unspoiled places where he can surround himself with the quiet majesty of nature1 walk the paths made by prehistoric people1 camp where the ,spanish conquistadores camped1 stroll among the ruins of buildings erected by the men who helped to fashion the ,southwest4 ,,forest ,,lands ,,above ,,the ,,desert by ,ruth ,bush ,jones#c ,today1 as in earlier times1 people of ,new ,mexico look to their mountains with a new and greater appreciation of their forest land heritage4 ,today1 also1 people seek aesthetic values of peace1 beauty1 and serenity found in nature's solitudes1 in addition to forest products for economic use4 ,basic to the enjoyment of the high country are the forest treasures of clear1 pure water 444 of wild game and birds 444 of trees for shade and solitude1 fuel1 shelter1 and forest products 444 of grass and browse for cattle1 sheep1 horses1 and wildlife 444 of magnificent grandeur and panoramic vistas4 ,these basic treasures coupled with understanding of the purposes and many benefits of the ,national ,forests bring true recreation to the visitor4 ,the high country of ,new ,mexico1 much of it in the ,national ,forests1 is entrusted by law to the care and administration of the ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service1 an agency of the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,these vast public properties located in several sections of the state are administered as ,carson1 ,santa ,fe1 ,cibola1 ,lincoln1 ,gila1 ,apache1 and ,coronado ,national ,forests1 the latter two lying primarily in ,arizona and being directed from there rather than from ,new ,mexico4 ,visitors to ,new ,mexico traveling along main highways see the high forest country outlining the horizon and often regard the lofty masses of rugged rock as unapproachable and lacking in friendliness4 8,not so10 says the ,forest ,ranger4 ,there are broad highways welcoming the traveler into the high country where forest trees stretch to the sky4 ,there are cool invigorating streams sparkling clear and clean from mountain fastnesses and developed campgrounds and picnic areas ready for use4 ,outdoor recreation from simple relaxing and picnicking under a pine tree to the most strenuous of wilderness backpacking or horseback riding1 winter sports1 and skiing awaits the visitor4 ,there is fishing in mountain streams and in big open lakes or in precious1 secluded mountain lakes4 ,and for those who like their surroundings interpreted for them1 there are nature trails and_/or forest naturalists to explain local rock formations1 vegetation1 and the natural and human history of the immediate country4 ,the ,forest ,ranger asks only that each visitor do his share in cleaning up a camp or picnic site and being sure that camp fires1 matches1 and cigarettes are thoroughly extinguished3 8,keep ,your ,national ,forest ,green and ,clean60 ,carson ,national ,forest ,located in north-central ,new ,mexico1 with headquarters at ,taos1 the ,carson ,national ,forest nurtures and cradles the ,rio ,grande as it leaves its birthplace in ,colorado en route to the south4 ,carrying water from high country snow melt1 the ,carson adds precious1 clear water from its high mountain streams and lakes to the ,rio ,grande in support of the prosperous communities along its way4 ,the ,carson includes some of the highest water-producing lands in the state and is the source of several permanent streams and lakes4 ,illustration3 ,map of ,national ,forests in ,new ,mexico ,named in honor of ,kit ,carson1 the noted scout1 ,carson ,national ,forest offers some of the most spectacular mountain scenery in the ,southwest1 including the ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains1 ,red ,river ,canyon1 and ,wheeler ,peak1 which at #ac1afj feet is the highest point in ,new ,mexico4 ,part of the famed ,pecos ,wilderness ,area and the ,wheeler ,peak ,wild ,area are included in this ,forest and are available to those willing and able to hike1 ride a horse1 or pack into the rugged mountain country4 ,for the winter sports enthusiast1 the ,red ,river ,ski ,area1 ,sipapu ,winter ,sports ,area1 and ,taos ,ski ,valley operate in part within the ,carson ,national ,forest and offer some of the finest alpine skiing in the ,southwest4 ,good roads lead the visitor to ,spanish and ,indian villages where life and culture are almost unchanged since the ancient and comparatively recent days of settlement4 ,towns with singing-sounding names like ,picurs1 ,taos ,pueblo1 ,las ,trampas1 ,truchas1 ,santa ,barbara1 and ,tres ,ritos nestle along forest streams and add charm and beauty to a scenic trip in the northern ,sangre de ,cristo range 7name given to the mountains by early ,spanish settlers1 meaning ,blood of ,christ4 ,the analogy relates to the reddish glow that sometimes colors the mountains at sunset474 ,radiating from ,taos are roads leading into the eastern half of the ,forest1 bringing the traveler into fascinating and colorful country4 ,taos ,canyon1 ,arroyo ,hondo1 ,questa1 and the ,red ,river country abound in old mining ghost towns1 ,indian ruins1 and legendary ,spanish villages located in canyons and on mountain tops4 ,the high range rising between the ,rio ,grande and the ,chama ,river to the west is the major part of the western half of the ,carson ,national ,forest4 ,tres ,piedras1 ,el ,rito1 ,la ,madera1 ,canjilon1 ,lagunitas1 and ,san ,antonio are a few of the picturesque communities here4 ,farther to the west is the ,jicarilla ,division of the ,carson1 the high mountain country adjacent to the ,jicarilla ,apache ,reservation4 ,bisected by ,state ,highway #ag between ,farmington and ,chama1 this section is a test of true pioneering skill for the traveler who is willing to follow dim tracks of roads and trails to enjoy the ,forest4 ,however1 modern civilization is introduced by the #aej oil and gas wells in this area1 even though the country is rugged and broken4 ,carson ,national ,forest is a trout fisherman's delight4 ,for the hunter1 ,rocky ,mountain mule deer1 elk1 and antelope are found in all parts of the ,forest4 ,small game is plentiful1 and rabbits provide many hours of hunting pleasure4 ,beaver1 muskrat1 mink1 weasel1 marten1 and skunk are the principal fur bearers1 and turkey1 grouse1 ducks1 geese1 quail1 and doves make up the game bird population4 ,predators include the mountain lion1 bobcat1 coyote1 and fox4 ,more than #dj developed camp and picnic grounds1 most of which are accessible year round1 welcome the visitor4 ,among them1 ,echo ,amphitheater picnic ground on ,u4,s4 ,highway #hd1 south of ,canjilon1 is a striking natural echo chamber formed by centuries of wind and water erosion in the rugged sandstone rock4 8,if you stand near the chamber1 you only have to whisper1 and your words come back in a spooky echo40 ,about five miles south on ,u4,s4 ,highway #hd is the ,ghost ,ranch ,museum1 with live native ,southwestern animals and conservation exhibits1 including a living and growing display showing on-the-ground ,forest ,service ,multiple ,use ,management of the mythical ,beaver ,national ,forest1 the 8smallest ,national ,forest in the world40 ,ranger stations at ,canjilon1 ,el ,rito1 ,gobernador1 ,penasco1 ,questa1 ,taos1 and ,tres ,piedras provide local information and recreation maps4 ,illustration3 ,echo ,amphitheater surrounds part of the trail to campground ,santa ,fe ,national ,forest ,the ,santa ,fe ,national ,forest1 with headquarters in ,santa ,fe1 lies directly south of the ,carson ,national ,forest on both sides of the ,rio ,grande and is the center of a region rich in natural resources as well as historic and geologic interests4 ,the two divisions of the ,forest contain the high mountains to the east and west in the central section of the state4 ,the ,pecos ,division to the east of the ,rio ,grande is the location of the major part of the ,pecos ,wilderness ,area1 one of the earliest of such areas to be established4 ,the ,pecos ,division is so named because the ,pecos ,river1 which later joins the ,rio ,grande in ,texas1 heads among its towering mountains in a beautiful alpine basin sometimes called the ,pecos ,horseshoe4 ,the ,pecos ,river is one of the state's largest streams and supplies some of its most important irrigation projects4 ,this division of the ,forest includes the southern part of the ,sangre de ,cristo range and was first known as the ,pecos ,river ,forest ,reserve1 established in #ahib--the oldest ,national ,forest in the ,southwest4 ,the division abounds in clear1 cold mountain lakes and streams4 ,truchas ,lakes1 ,pecos ,baldy1 ,stewart ,lake1 ,spirit ,lake1 and ,lost ,lake1 as well as many mountain streams1 lure not only the fisherman but the hiker and camper to their wilderness beauty4 ,twenty-three developed campgrounds and picnic areas located in cool glades are ready for the visitor along roads leading into the ,forest from ,santa ,fe1 ,pecos1 ,glorieta1 ,las ,vegas1 and other communities4 ,skiing and winter sports are available at the ,santa ,fe ,ski ,basin northeast of ,santa ,fe2 the chair lift operates year around for those who wish merely to view the spectacular scenery4 ,the ,pecos ,division watersheds of the ,santa ,fe ,national ,forest1 like the eastern section of the ,carson1 contribute generously to the water flow of the ,rio ,grande4 ,wild game1 game birds1 and fishing attract visitors at all times of the year1 while the golden hues of the aspen in the autumn tempt artists and photographers to record on canvas and film nature's fall colors4 ,a trip just before the winter snows to the aspen country of the ,santa ,fe ,national ,forest is a must4 ,ranger stations are located at ,santa ,fe1 ,las ,vegas1 and ,pecos4 ,illustration3 ,an ,izaak ,walton along the ,pecos river ,west of the ,rio ,grande are the ,jemez ,mountains1 which form the ,jemez ,division of the ,santa ,fe ,national ,forest4 ,the ,jemez country is a favorite area for fishermen and hunters4 ,for the sturdy hiker and picnicker1 there are hundreds of fascinating points to visit and peaks to climb4 ,capulin ,peak1 ,dead ,man's ,peak1 ,nacimiento ,peak1 and ,cerro ,pedernal are a few of the exciting ones4 ,the ,jemez country contains the ,san ,pedro ,parks ,wild ,area1 northeast of ,cuba where ,san ,gregorio ,lake is waiting for the fisherman or hiker willing to walk or ride horseback4 ,this section abounds in unique geologic formations--,battleship ,rock1 ,tent ,rocks1 ,teakettle ,rock1 to name a few4 ,eighteen developed camping and picnicking areas welcome the visitor to the ,jemez ,division4 ,youth groups also favor the ,jemez for their summer camping4 ,boy ,scouts1 ,girl ,scouts1 ,camp ,fire ,girls1 ,,ymca1 and others have camps adjacent to the ,santa ,fe ,national ,forest4 ,timber production1 wildlife habitat management1 livestock grazing1 and watershed protection are among the activities of the ,jemez ,division1 while visitors and travelers enjoy the forest1 the streams1 and the unique scenery4 ,ranger stations are at ,jemez ,springs1 ,cuba1 ,espanola1 and ,coyote4 ,cibola ,national ,forest ,a mountain playground for people who live or visit near ,u4,s4 ,highway #ff is ,cibola ,national ,forest1 with headquarters in ,albuquerque4 ,embracing the ,sandias1 ,manzanos1 and ,gallinas ,peak areas east of the ,rio ,grande in central ,new ,mexico1 this ,forest also includes most of the mountain ranges in the west-central section of the state1 the ,san ,mateo ,mountains1 with #aa1chi-;foot ,mount ,taylor1 and the ,datil1 ,magdalena1 and ,zuni ranges4 ,outdoor recreation is the fastest growing use of the ,cibola ,national ,forest and more than a million visits are made each year to this popular ,forest4 ,the name is a ,zuni ,indian word1 pronounced ,,see-bo-lah1 meaning buffalo4 ,buffalo may have roamed the ,cibola in years past1 but today's big game animals making the ,cibola their home are the ,rocky ,mountain bighorn sheep1 ,rocky ,mountain mule deer1 white-tailed deer1 elk1 antelope1 and bear4 ,game birds include turkey1 grouse1 quail1 and dove2 spring and fall migrations of ducks and geese use the ,cibola as a resting place4 ,there are #ah campgrounds with #bdi family units and #ad picnic grounds with #chb family units scattered through the vast domain of the ,cibola ,national ,forest4 ,sandia ,crest in the ,sandia ,mountains east of ,albuquerque is a goal for many travelers4 ,here on this #aj1fgh-;foot mountain top1 there is a breathtaking view of the middle ,rio ,grande ,valley and the ,estancia ,valley--a jet age view of nearly #aj1jjj square miles4 ,the visitor stands on rocks which in eons past were under the sea1 as indicated by fossils found on the peak4 ,recent recreation developments have been made at the ,sandia ,ski ,area where a new #gdej-;foot double chair lift will carry #gjj riders an hour on a #afej-;foot vertical rise to the restaurant and upper terminal on ,sandia ,crest4 ,a tramway ascends the west face of the ,sandias to meet the ,ski ,area chair lift at the ,crest4 ,the fabled ,manzano ,mountains rising above the plains to the west of ,state ,highway #aj and south of ,u4,s4 ,highway #ff are fast becoming a haven for the camper1 picnicker1 or sightseer willing to follow secondary roads to find the perfect spot to enjoy the forest4 ,capillo ,peak1 #icfh feet high1 ,mosca ,peak1 ,cerro ,blanco1 and ,manzano ,peak lure the mountain climber4 ,legends surrounding the old ,spanish communities of ,tajique1 ,torreon1 and ,manzano are exciting campfire stories after a day spent exploring the high country4 ,west of the ,rio ,grande1 the ,san ,mateo ,mountains north of ,grants and the ,zuni ,mountains forming the backbone of the ,continental ,divide southeast of ,gallup can be a new experience in outdoor recreation4 ,mc,gaffey ,lake recreation area1 not too far from the route of the conquistadore ,juan de ,oate1 is a cool retreat after crossing the desert and lava flow4 ,west of ,socorro on ,u4,s4 ,highway #fj1 with ,magdalena as headquarters1 the high ,datil1 ,gallinas1 and ,magdalena mountains and another ,san ,mateo range rise above the ,san ,agustin ,plains1 an ancient lake bed4 ,mt4 ,withington and ,mt4 ,baldy1 #aj1ghg feet high1 dominate the landscape4 ,good roads and developed campgrounds are available4 ,hunting for wild game as well as for unusual gem stones and geologic finds are favored activities in this western section of the ,cibola4 ,district ranger stations are at ,grants1 ,gallup1 ,magdalena1 ,mountainair1 and ,tijeras4 ,lincoln ,national ,forest ,named for the great president1 the ,lincoln ,national ,forest1 with headquarters at ,alamogordo1 has characteristics distinguishing it from all other ,national ,forests in the state4 ,the high mountains and canyons of the ,sacramento1 ,guadalupe1 ,capitan1 and ,white mountains1 rising between the ,tularosa and ,pecos basins1 were the backdrop and often the prize of the ,indian and cattle wars4 ,stories and legends of early day happenings in the ,tularosa ,basin1 mining operations1 battles between rival cattle ranchers1 large timber operations providing lumber1 poles1 mine props1 and railroad ties are warp and woof of the ,lincoln country4 ,this ,forest includes the high mountains north and south of the ,mescalero ,apache ,indian ,reservation4 ,during the last decade1 the ,lincoln ,national ,forest gained new fame as the birthplace of the world-renowned ,smokey the ,bear1 symbol of forest fire prevention4 ,in the ,capitan ,mountains1 travelers like to visit ,smokey's birthplace near ,capitan ,pass1 and in the community of ,capitan on ,u4,s4 ,highway #chj is a log museum which features the activities of the bear cub found near there during a disastrous fire4 ,for the outdoor enthusiast1 the ,forest offers superb beauty1 graceful and majestic snow-covered peaks1 and the peace and serenity of a forest sanctuary4 ,each year1 thousands of visitors from the plains seek its cool refuge from desert heat in summer and its readily accessible sports area in the winter4 ,ten campgrounds with many picnicking and camping sites are provided4 ,canyons1 mountains1 and streams in many instances feature anglicized names--,big ,dog ,canyon1 ,mule ,peak1 ,bug ,scuffle ,hill--though the influence of the early ,spanish settler still remains in names such as ,sacramento1 ,agua ,chiquita1 ,ruidoso1 and ,rio ,penasco4 ,lincoln ,national ,forest abounds in points of interest2 ,monjeau ,lookout overlooks the headwaters of the ,bonito1 ,eagle1 and ,ruidoso creeks as well as the tall slopes of ,sierra ,blanca to the southwest4 ,sierra ,blanca1 #ab1jjc feet high1 is the most southerly mountain of that elevation in the continental ,united ,states4 ,just north of the peak is the ,sierra ,blanca ,recreation ,area1 with one of the finest and best-equipped skiing facilities in the country4 ,the restaurant and gondola lift operate during summer months1 and from ,lookout ,mountain observation site1 near the gondola's upper terminal1 the traveler can view ,white ,sands1 the ,malpais 7lava flow71 and the #bh1jjj-;acre ,white ,mountain ,wild ,area4 ,hunters find deer of three distinct types in this ,forest--the ,rocky ,mountain mule deer1 the desert mule deer1 and the ,texas white-tailed deer--and1 of course1 black bear from which family ,smokey the ,bear came4 ,game birds like wild turkey1 quail1 and chukkar partridge challenge the hunter4 ,fishing the ,lincoln's lakes and streams is a recurring delight to the angler4 ,aspens and oaks flaunt their brilliant autumn coloring against the warm green of pines and spruces1 heralding the advent of winter snows and provoking numerous aspencades for those who wish a share in this ever new pageant of nature's beauty4 ,like all the ,national ,forests1 the ,lincoln is managed for the production and wise use of water1 timber1 and forage for livestock and wildlife and outdoor recreation4 ,district ranger stations are at ,cloudcroft1 ,carlsbad1 ,mayhill1 ,ruidoso1 ,sacramento1 and ,capitan4 ,illustration3 8,anybody for a run80 at ,sierra ,blanca ski area ,gila ,national ,forest ,the ,gila ,national ,forest1 with headquarters in ,silver ,city1 is a big1 wild1 wonderful country in the southwestern section of the state4 ,it has been scarcely affected by the hustle and bustle of modern living4 ,within its boundaries are #b4g million acres of public-owned forest and range land1 with almost a quarter of it devoted to wilderness and primitive areas4 ,it includes the famous ,gila ,wilderness1 the first such area set aside in the ,united ,states and the largest in the ,southwest4 ,most of the ,gila ,national ,forest is north of ,silver ,city1 though part of it lies in the high country between ,silver ,city and ,lordsburg4 ,the ,gila is an exciting and exhilarating place to explore1 sightsee1 hunt1 fish1 and just enjoy4 ,indian ruins are evident almost everywhere1 but the ,gila ,cliff ,dwellings ,national ,monument1 adjacent to the ,gila ,primitive ,area1 is the best preserved4 ,ancient tree stumps and abandoned ,indian ruins record the history of man2 old mine dumps contain ores and minerals not known nor appreciated in the heyday of local mining2 microscopic plants and forest grasses which may hold the key to man's future health abound2 and the traveler may experience great delight in finding a dried root or branch to add to a native rock garden2 the majestic peaks1 deer and other wild game1 and cool1 splashing waters of a mountain creek delight the camera hobbyist4 ,one of the most beautiful and spectacular box canyons in the ,southwest is on ,whitewater ,creek about four miles northeast of ,glenwood4 ,a catwalk built against the rock walls of the canyon enables the traveler to thrill at the unusual beauty and colors of the canyon and the cool depths of the trout stream below 7see ,frontispiece74 ,good roads lead into the ,gila ,national ,forest at ,reserve and ,alma from ,u4,s4 ,highway #bfj4 ,an enjoyable loop trip which touches the ,gila ,wilderness at ,willow ,creek can be taken on ,state ,highway #gh from ,alma4 ,another beautiful trip is through the ,black ,range from the junction of ,state ,highway #ahj and ,u4,s4 ,highway #he to ,silver ,city4 ,approach to the ,gila from the north can be made through ,beaverhead1 ,apache ,creek1 and ,reserve1 where good roads lead into the ,forest4 ,fifteen developed recreation areas provide camping and picnicking for the hiker1 horseback rider1 and motorist and are complete with fireplaces1 tables1 and benches4 ,elk1 deer1 antelope1 bear1 javelina1 and game birds are plentiful1 and fishing in the high mountain creeks is usually rewarded with a satisfying catch4 ,district ranger stations are at ,magdalena1 ,truth or ,consequences1 ,reserve1 ,glenwood1 and ,mimbres4 ,apache and ,coronado ,forests ,although small parts of these forests lie in ,new ,mexico1 they belong to forests in ,arizona4 ,apache ,national ,forest touches the northern edge of the ,gila and its attractions are much like those of the latter4 ,the ,coronado ,national ,forest1 which is in the extreme southwest corner of ,new ,mexico1 lies in an area of aridity and is difficult to reach from ,new ,mexico4 ,it is surrounded by ,sonoran desert1 at least in its environment in this state4 ,illustration3 ,gila ,hunters with ,happy ,thanksgiving 7wild turkeys7 ,these far-flung public lands in ,new ,mexico provide many resources besides varied kinds of outdoor recreation3 timber for industry1 water for city and farm1 forage for livestock and wildlife4 ,as long as our ,national ,forests are protected and developed--used but not abused--they will continue to yield rich harvests1 both tangible and intangible1 forever4 ,illustration3 ,lake ,roberts ,this #gj-;acre lake thirty miles northeast of ,silver ,city on ,state ,highway #be lies in the ,gila ,national ,forest4 ,the ,state ,also ,preserves#d ,state ,monuments have been established to preserve some of ,new ,mexico's historic and archeologic sites of importance4 ,these include the mission ruins of ,abo1 ,quarai1 ,pecos1 and ,jemez1 the ,palace of the ,governors in ,santa ,fe1 pueblo ruins at ,coronado ,state ,monument1 the old ,lincoln ,county ,courthouse1 the archeologic site at ,folsom ,man ,state ,monument1 the plaza and nearby ,mexican ,colonial-style buildings in ,la ,mesilla1 and ,fort ,selden4 ,the history recorded at these sites dates from #aj1jjj ,b4,c4 of ,clovis ,man to #ahgh of the cattlemen's ,lincoln ,county ,war4 ,state parks cover areas of scenic beauty1 geologic wonders1 and historic interest4 ,reservoir lakes yielding necessary water1 good fishing1 swimming1 and boating include ,conchas1 ,storrie1 ,bluewater1 ,el ,vado1 ,ute1 ,elephant ,butte1 ,caballo1 ,alamogordo1 ,clayton1 ,morphy1 and ,bottomless ,lakes4 ,the latter are natural sink holes east of ,roswell4 ,hyde ,memorial ,park and ,santa ,fe ,river ,park1 near and in ,santa ,fe1 provide scenic picnic spots1 as do ,rock ,hound ,state ,park near ,deming and ,oasis ,state ,park near ,portales and ,clovis4 ,picnicking1 fishing1 and spectacular canyons attract the visitor at ,rio ,grande ,gorge ,park west of ,taos4 ,weird erosional figures carved from volcanic layers distinguish ,city of ,rocks ,state ,park near ,deming4 ,pancho ,villa ,state ,park at ,columbus and ,kit ,carson ,memorial at ,taos mark historic sites4 ,valley of ,fires ,state ,park west of ,carrizozo preserves the black twisted lava of a relatively recent volcanic flow4 ,,new ,,mexico ,,state ,,monuments by ,museum of ,new ,mexico ,staff ,the ,state of ,new ,mexico1 recognizing the depth and color of its own history1 has established a number of state monuments preserving important historical or archeological sites4 ,these are administered by the ,museum of ,new ,mexico located in ,santa ,fe4 ,any mosaic of ,new ,mexico would be incomplete without including these important landmarks4 ,el ,palacio1 ,palace of the ,governors ,the main facility of the ,museum of ,new ,mexico is ,el ,palacio4 ,the ,palace of the ,governors1 on the plaza in the heart of ,santa ,fe1 is the oldest public building in the ,united ,states4 ,built in #afaj1 it was the seat of ,spanish government in ,new ,mexico until #ahba1 of the ,mexican government until #ahdf1 and the residence of the governors appointed by the ,president of the ,united ,states until #aiaj1 when it became a unit of the ,museum of ,new ,mexico4 ,it presently contains exhibits relating to ,new ,mexico's past1 ranging from the ,indians1 who arrived after crossing the ,bering ,sea1 to the ,spanish1 who came seeking gold and glory on horseback1 to the wagon trains from the east1 whose goal was the end of the ,santa ,fe ,trail1 which is directly in front of ,el ,palacio4 ,el ,palacio was the capitol of ,new ,mexico for #cjj years and was the seat of residence for more than one hundred of ,new ,mexico's governors4 ,during that time it was captured and held by the ,indians from #afhj to #afib4 ,the ,army of the ,confederacy captured it for a few days during the ,civil ,war1 and one of its occupants1 ,territorial ,governor ,lew4 ,wallace1 wrote his famous novel1 ,ben ,hur1 within its walls4 ,there are other fascinating units connected with the ,museum of ,new ,mexico in ,santa ,fe4 ,among these are the ,fine ,arts ,museum1 emphasizing the art and artists of the great ,southwest2 the ,international ,folk ,art ,museum2 and the ,hall of ,ethnology1 devoted primarily to the peoples of the ,southwest4 ,abo ,state ,monument ,off ,u4,s4 ,highway #fj1 nine miles west of ,mountainair is ,abo ,state ,monument4 ,the ruins of the ancient mission church of ,san ,gregorio de ,abo and its pueblo1 built of red sandstone1 are in a broad1 natural amphitheater rimmed on the north and west by the blue ,manzano ,mountains1 which contrast strikingly with the reddish hues of the ,abo sandstone4 ,this is one of the ,saline ,missions1 so called because of the nearby salt deposits in the ,estancia ,basin4 ,it was built during the seventeenth century by ,indians under the supervision of the ,franciscans1 led by the venerable ,fray ,francisco de ,acevedo4 ,the inhabitants of ,abo were very friendly to the ,spaniards4 ,they were forced to abandon their pueblo about #afgc because of drought and the raids of the ,apaches and ,comanches4 ,they then moved south to ,el ,paso del ,norte where they joined in founding ,isleta del ,sur4 ,the walls of the pueblo have disintegrated with time into low mounds which lie adjacent to the mission4 ,the ecclesiastical structures have been excavated and repaired for permanent preservation4 ,quarai ,state ,monument ,this monument is near ,punta de ,agua1 eight miles north of ,mountainair off ,state ,highway #aj4 ,the ruins of the mission church of the ,immaculate ,conception at ,quarai are unsurpassed in grandeur of architecture or setting by any that survive from the labors of the early ,franciscans in ,new ,mexico4 ,built of red sandstone masonry about #afbh1 at the ,pueblo of ,quarai1 it was abandoned along with the pueblo about #afgd1 chiefly because of ,apache depredations4 ,one of the most venerated of the ,franciscan missionaries1 ,fray ,geronimo de la ,llana1 worked and died at ,quarai1 beloved by his ,indian charges4 ,his remains now rest in a crypt in the wall of ,st4 ,francis ,cathedral in ,santa ,fe4 ,the ruins have been excavated and repaired for permanent preservation4 ,coronado ,state ,monument ,this pueblo ruin is on the west bank of the ,rio ,grande1 one mile from the town of ,bernalillo1 seventeen miles north of ,albuquerque1 and one mile off ,u4,s4 ,highway #he1 between ,albuquerque and ,santa ,fe4 ,the ,pueblo of ,kuaua was one of the several towns of the ancient ,tiguex province4 ,at or near ,kuaua1 the ,coronado expedition maintained headquarters from about #aedj to #aedb ,a4,d4 ,during excavation of the ancient pueblo1 more than #abjj ground-floor rooms were found and five kivas1 or underground ceremonial chambers1 were uncovered4 ,in one of the kivas was found a highly important group of ancient wall paintings4 ,this kiva has been reconstructed and the paintings restored4 ,the old walls of ,kuaua have been rebuilt to a few feet in height so that the structure can be seen4 ,a museum has been erected on the site to exhibit the material found during the excavation and to portray life in the ,tiguex province4 ,the ,coronado ,state ,monument and ,museum commemorates the meeting1 more than four hundred years ago1 of the elements that influenced the culture of ,new ,mexico--the ,indian and the conquistadore4 ,a curator-custodian is on duty at the ,coronado ,museum headquarters1 which is open all year4 ,pecos ,state ,monument ,off ,u4,s4 ,highway #hd-he1 three miles south of ,pecos1 is this ,state ,monument4 ,it became a ,national ,monument during late #aiff4 ,this mission1 the ,church of ,nuestra ,senora de los ,angeles de ,porciuncula at ,pecos1 dates from the year #afag4 ,it is fitting that this mission1 which was one of the first two1 with ,jemez1 established by the ,franciscans in ,new ,mexico1 should bear the name 8,our ,lady of the ,angels of ,porciuncula10 for with his own hands1 ,st4 ,francis1 founder of the ,order1 rebuilt the decaying chapel of ,our ,lady of ,angels at ,assisi1 which he called his ,porciuncula or 8,little ,inheritance10 and there established the headquarters of the ,franciscan ,order4 ,pecos was well fortified because of its location on the eastern edge of the pueblo area and its contact with the ,plains ,indians4 ,it resisted the raids for many years1 but when a smallpox epidemic in #ahch reduced the population to seventeen survivors1 they moved to ,jemez ,pueblo1 abandoning ,pecos4 ,a part of the massive adobe walls of the ruined mission has been excavated and repaired1 as have some of the rubble masonry walls4 ,jemez ,state ,monument ,this ,monument is at ,jemez ,springs1 sixty miles north of ,albuquerque on ,state ,highway #d4 ,one of the finest early mission churches was established at ,giusewa ,pueblo4 ,giusewa means 8place of the boiling waters0 in the language of the ,jemez ,indians1 and refers to the famous ,jemez ,hot ,springs nearby4 ,the mission1 with ,pecos1 was one of the two earliest in ,new ,mexico4 ,these were founded one hundred and fifty-two years before the first ,california missions4 ,the original settlement of the ,giusewa ,pueblo goes back hundreds of years before ,columbus' discovery of ,america1 as does the settlement of the other pueblos1 ,quarai1 ,abo1 and ,pecos4 ,guisewa ,pueblo became extinct during the last quarter of the seventeenth century1 a result of the consolidation of several pueblos of the ,jemez province into fewer and larger towns4 ,only one town1 the present ,jemez ,pueblo1 survives from that time4 ,excavation and repairs have been made in the ruins of both the pueblo and the mission church4 ,la ,mesilla ,state ,monument ,this colorful ,state ,monument consists of the plaza in the village of ,mesilla1 near ,las ,cruces1 and the buildings nearby4 ,the ,monument preserves an aspect of the ,mexican ,colonial culture and architecture which flourished here in the early nineteenth century4 ,the ,gadsden ,purchase of #ahec was celebrated in the ,mesilla ,plaza and the famous desperado1 ,billy the ,kid1 once stood trial here for his life4 ,during the ,civil ,war1 ,mesilla was briefly the ,confederate capitol of the ,territory of ,arizona4 ,lincoln ,state ,monument ,located in ,lincoln1 on ,u4,s4 ,highway #chj1 and known as the ,old ,lincoln ,county ,courthouse1 the first floor of this ,monument was the mercantile store of ,l4 ,g4 ,murphy ,co4 in the #ahgj's1 during the ,lincoln ,county ,war4 ,the second floor was purchased in #ahgj by the county for a court house4 ,it was from this building that ,billy the ,kid made his daring escape on ,april #bh1 #ahha1 after killing his two guards4 ,a caretaker and a museum attendant are on duty at all times4 ,mementos of the infamous ,lincoln ,county cattle war are featured4 ,fort ,selden ,state ,monument ,the crumbling adobe walls of ,fort ,selden lie about seventeen miles north of ,las ,cruces just west of ,interstate ,highway #be4 ,the history of this fort1 given in the article on ,frontier ,forts1 was highlighted by the brief stay of ,general ,douglas ,mac,arthur1 who spent some of his childhood within the fort's walls and played in the adjoining green valley of the ,rio ,grande4 ,,new ,,mexico ,,state ,,parks by ,the ,editors ,new ,mexico is blessed with a wealth of natural resources and perhaps most important is the abundance of sites with outstanding scenic and recreational facilities4 ,the contrasts apparent in the mosaic of ,new ,mexico are also seen in the pattern of its state parks4 ,they range from desert regions with sparse and exotic flora and fauna to the high mountain canyons choked with ,douglas fir and aspen where even in the summer evenings one huddles close to the fire for warmth4 ,and the mosaic shifts from waterless areas amid geologic wonders to wide expanses of open water well stocked with trout4 ,the parks are administered by the ,new ,mexico ,state ,park and ,recreation ,commission4 ,wherever possible1 areas have been set aside for the permanent enjoyment of the people of ,new ,mexico and their visitors4 ,bottomless ,lakes ,state ,park ,bottomless ,lakes ,state ,park1 established in #aicf1 was one of the first of the ,new ,mexico state parks4 ,it is surprising to find this treasure of great natural beauty in an area so dominated by aridity4 ,there are six small lakes in the park1 of which ,lea ,lake is the largest with about #ae acres of surface area4 ,the water of the lakes is crystal clear and varies in depth from #de feet in the shallow lakes to about #ajj feet in the deeper ones4 ,they were created as 8sink holes0 when water dissolved large areas of underground gypsum1 resulting in cave-ins4 ,the lakes now offer extensive recreational facilities for the people of ,new ,mexico and for tourists passing through or visiting the area4 ,camping1 swimming1 and boating are available4 ,pecos 8diamonds10 small quartz crystals1 can be found in the neighboring hills4 ,conchas ,lake ,state ,park ,illustration3 ,sketch of ,bottomless ,lake ,conchas ,lake is one of the largest sustained bodies of water in ,new ,mexico4 ,conchas ,dam1 which holds the water of the ,canadian ,river1 forms the lake4 ,the main dam is #bce feet above the roadway and is #abej feet in length4 ,at capacity it holds #fjj1jjj acre-feet of water4 ,the reservoir serves many purposes3 flood control1 local irrigation1 camping and boating facilities1 and fishing and water skiing4 ,the ,canadian ,river has its origin on ,raton ,mesa and flows southward to ,conchas ,dam1 then turns abruptly eastward4 ,on its way across the ,high ,plains1 it cuts into some of the oldest rocks that can be seen on the western edge of the plains1 the ,dockum ,group of ,late ,triassic age4 ,the best place to view the earth-building processes of this region is where ,state ,highway #abj crosses the gorge of the ,canadian ,river between ,wagon ,mound and ,roy4 ,hyde ,memorial ,state ,park ,here1 at an elevation of #ijjj feet1 among tall pines and aspens is one of the most scenic of all ,new ,mexico's parks4 ,high in the ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains1 eight miles northeast of ,santa ,fe1 the park offers an excellent example of the scenic beauty in ,new ,mexico rarely seen by most travelers passing through the state4 ,easily accessible from ,santa ,fe1 ,hyde ,park gives a few moments1 or a few days1 respite in the cool refreshment of a mountain forest4 ,excellent picnic and camping facilities are available4 ,for those who want to penetrate the mountain vastness even farther1 there are a number of well-marked trails for hiking4 ,navajo ,lake ,state ,park ,navajo ,dam on the ,san ,juan ,river lies twenty-five miles east of ,aztec at an elevation of #fbjj feet in a region of spectacular scenic beauty4 ,camping1 picnicking1 boating1 fishing1 and water skiing facilities are available1 and a lodge is under construction4 ,this is expected to be one of the most important sports and recreational centers in northwest ,new ,mexico in coming years4 ,pancho ,villa ,state ,park ,named for the famous ,mexican bandit and revolutionary leader1 the park is located near ,columbus1 ,new ,mexico1 site of ,villa's most infamous raid4 ,in the dead of the night on ,march #aj1 #aiaf1 ,villa and his men entered the town of ,columbus and did their bloody work4 ,when they left1 seventeen local people were dead1 including eight soldiers and nine civilians4 ,the ,mexican force suffered heavy casualties1 perhaps as many as #abe killed4 ,the town of ,columbus was badly damaged and has only recently begun to recover from the blow4 ,the expedition of ,general ,pershing1 then on duty along the ,mexican border1 was organized to hunt down ,villa and his men4 ,pershing and a ,united ,states military unit spent three months inside ,mexico1 only to return to the ,united ,states empty-handed4 ,the park commemorates one of the most interesting and tragic episodes in ,new ,mexico history4 ,within the park1 one can see excellent examples of ,sonoran desert flora4 ,picnic facilities and camping sites are available4 ,el ,vado ,lake ,state ,park ,el ,vado ,dam is a part of the complex ,rio ,grande ,conservancy ,district flood and irrigation project4 ,it holds the water of the ,chama ,river1 which flows west1 south1 and then east into the ,rio ,grande4 ,the country surrounding ,el ,vado ,lake is beautiful and contains some of the finest trout fishing streams in the state4 ,at the lake itself there are camping facilities1 including trailer spaces 7no hookups for water or electricity74 ,the lake is at an elevation of #gjjj feet and is one of the important flood-control bodies of water in ,new ,mexico4 ,bluewater ,state ,park ,bluewater ,lake1 at an elevation of #gdfj feet1 is a spot of spectacular beauty4 ,adjacent is a #afj-;acre wooded park4 ,the area offers boating1 fishing1 and swimming4 ,the lake was formed by impounding the waters from the ,zuni ,mountains' watershed1 and it fills three great depressions in high tablelands4 ,the dam1 built across two lofty natural walls of solid rock1 the ,san ,andres ,limestone1 holds a lake a mile wide and seven and a half miles long4 ,bluewater ,lake ,state ,park was the first of ,new ,mexico's parks1 so designated in #aibi4 ,storrie ,lake ,state ,park ,storrie ,lake ,state ,park surrounds a small lake north of ,las ,vegas1 ,new ,mexico4 ,it lies on the west edge of the ,high ,plains and is an excellent recreation area4 ,the lake is at an elevation of #fdjj feet and has a limited number of picnic and camping facilities4 ,it is stocked with rainbow and brown trout and crappies4 ,city of ,rocks ,state ,park ,this is one of the most unusual of the state parks1 and one of the finest for picnicking and for camping4 ,located in the unusual rock formation known as the ,sugarlump ,welded ,rhyolite ,tuff northwest of ,deming1 it is a source of wonder to all visitors4 ,suddenly1 in a seemingly flat1 desert plain1 one comes upon these grotesque outcrops4 ,in the coolness of the shade of these ancient rocks one can survey vistas under an azure sky that are almost breathless4 ,this is the desert ,southwest at its very best2 not the harsh1 unfriendly desert of movies and fiction1 but a lovely spot in which to enjoy to the fullest the wonders of nature4 ,kit ,carson ,memorial ,park ,this #bj-;acre plot of grass1 flower beds1 trees1 and picnic tables lies on the northeast edge of ,taos and contains the graves of ,kit ,carson and ,padre ,jos ,martinez4 ,not far away is the ,kit ,carson ,house1 a group of adobe buildings surrounding a patio1 that was ,carson's headquarters1 office1 and home from #aheh to #ahff4 ,this ,indian fighter1 trapper1 hunter1 and trader is most famous for defeating the ,navajos in ,canyon de ,chelly and marching #gjjj of these ,indians across ,new ,mexico to a reservation at ,bosque ,redondo near ,fort ,sumner4 ,however1 during his eight years as ,indian agent1 ,carson worked continuously for the welfare of his charges4 ,oasis ,state ,park ,one of the state's newest parks1 ,oasis is seven miles northeast of ,portales along ,state ,highway #dfg4 ,this shady place of cottonwood trees amid sand dunes has long been a favorite picnic spot4 ,the sand dunes form an irregular ridge separating ,portales ,valley to the south from ,blackwater ,draw to the north4 ,in ,blackwater ,draw have been found bones of ancient animals and the weapons used by early man some #ab1jjj years ago4 ,portales ,valley is the sand-filled remnant of the early ,pleistocene ,brazos ,river ,valley that once drained eastward into ,texas4 ,about #hjj1jjj years ago1 the ,pecos ,river to the west 8captured0 the headwaters of this former ,brazos ,river and left the ,portales ,valley high and dry4 ,valley of ,fires ,state ,park ,this park1 about five miles west of ,carrizozo on ,u4,s4 ,highway #chj1 features picnic tables amid the ,carrizozo lava flow1 or malpais1 one of the youngest in the ,united ,states4 ,the lava flowed out of ,little ,black ,peak about #ajjj years ago in a series of individual 8rivers0 of hot black basalt4 ,the composite flow is #dd miles long1 #j4e to #f miles wide1 and is made up of about #a cubic mile of basalt2 it moved southward down the lowest part of the northern ,tularosa ,basin4 ,climb around on the lava and note the ropy nature of the surface 7pahoehoe of the ,hawaiians71 the many frozen gas bubbles in the rocks 7vesicles71 the squeeze-ups where once-liquid lava protrudes through cracks in the hardened crust1 the pressure ridges where the hardened crust arched and broke1 and collapsed lava tunnels where the outer lava froze and the molten interior ran out1 leaving an open tube or cave4 ,ute ,lake ,state ,park ,ute ,dam1 two miles southwest of ,logan1 provides a #dbjj-;acre reservoir along the ,canadian ,river and ,ute ,creek stocked with rainbow trout1 bass1 crappie1 and catfish4 ,camping1 picnicking1 and boating facilities are available along the valley walls1 which are cut in the brown ,santa ,rosa ,sandstone and overlying maroon to green ,chinle shales4 ,santa ,fe ,river ,state ,park ,bordering the ,santa ,fe ,river in downtown ,santa ,fe1 this city park merges with the ,state ,capitol grounds4 ,it provides picnic tables and benches in the shade of tall trees amid the picturesque ancient city4 ,elephant ,butte ,lake ,state ,park ,the giant ,elephant ,butte ,reservoir1 impounded behind the dam five miles east of ,truth or ,consequences1 provides year-around fishing1 boating1 water skiing1 and camping4 ,built in brown to gray ,cretaceous sandstone and shale1 the dam is overlooked by the brownish-black volcanic neck that is ,elephant ,butte4 ,eastern shores are carved from the purplish and maroon ,mc,rae layers4 ,this is the main storage reservoir for the water that irrigates the lush ,rio ,grande ,valley to the south near ,las ,cruces and ,el ,paso4 ,caballo ,lake ,state ,park ,caballo ,reservoir1 downstream from ,elephant ,butte1 offers excellent facilities for water sports1 its bass and crappie fishing being notable4 ,the ,state ,park is fourteen miles south of ,truth or ,consequences and six miles north of the dam4 ,the spectacular rugged front of the ,caballo ,mountains looms to the east1 with sharp canyons and ribbed cliffs along the valley walls cut in the tan layers of the ,santa ,fe ,formation4 ,rio ,grande ,gorge ,state ,park ,from ,velarde 7twelve miles north of ,espanola7 for seventy miles northward to the ,colorado state line1 the ,rio ,grande ,gorge is carved #ejj to #hjj feet into black basalt flows and tan ,santa ,fe ,formation layers4 ,fishing is exciting in the fast waters1 although the northern part of the gorge is difficult to reach4 ,foot and horseback trails lead to the bottom at the mouth of ,red ,river west of ,questa where picnic units have been built4 ,alamogordo ,lake ,state ,park ,the dam of ,alamogordo ,reservoir blocks the ,pecos ,river and ,alamogordo ,creek northwest of ,fort ,sumner4 ,picnic1 camp1 and water sports facilities lie along ,u4,s4 ,highway #hd about sixteen miles northwest of ,fort ,sumner4 ,juniper trees dot the low valley walls where the maroon to green shale and sandstone of the ,chinle ,formation crop out4 ,rock ,hound ,state ,park ,lying on the west flank of the ,little ,florida ,mountains1 ,rock ,hound ,state ,park1 twelve miles southeast of ,deming1 offers camping and picnicking facilities and many varieties of agate in the volcanic rocks4 ,a few miles to the south tower cliffs of the ,florida ,mountains1 a landmark of southwestern ,new ,mexico and also happy hunting grounds for rock hounds4 ,clayton ,lake ,state ,park ,serving the northeast corner of ,new ,mexico1 ,clayton ,lake ,state ,park lies twelve miles north of ,clayton on ,state ,highway #cgj1 impounded by a dam across ,cieneguilla ,creek4 ,the stream bed cuts brown ,dakota ,sandstone1 and rolling grassy hills to the south overlie weathered basalt flows4 ,morphy ,lake ,state ,park ,morphy ,lake1 backed up from a dam across ,rito ,morphy1 lies three miles west of ,ledoux in southwestern ,mora ,county and thirty-one miles north of ,las ,vegas off ,state ,highway #id4 ,the #ae-;acre lake provides fine trout fishing and picnicking amid stately ponderosa pines1 with the canyon walls formed by tier upon tier of ,pennsylvanian limestones4 ,angling in the ,desert's ,waters by ,fred ,a4 ,thompson#e ,water in the great ,southwest1 of which the ,state of ,new ,mexico is a part1 has made for a colorful and historical background4 ,water1 perhaps more than anything else1 has molded the lives of all inhabitants of the area from the pueblo and lodge of the early ,indian to the civilization we know today4 ,the fish and wildlife resources as related to water have played an important part in everyday living and economy4 ,from data gathered by archeologists there are indications that the early ,indian used fish as part of his diet4 ,fish bones are found in excavated ruins1 and fish pictures are occasionally found as petroglyphs and on pottery 7fig4 #a74 ,although the use of fish was limited1 it was widespread throughout the ,southwest1 not being confined to one ,indian tribe or nation4 ,illustration3 ,figure #a4 ,bowl depicting fish1 found in ruins of ,mimbres ,indians ,the use of fish by the white settler was likewise restricted1 but it increased as time progressed and knowledge and equipment improved4 ,there is only limited reference to fish for either food or sport fishing until after the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,early explorers made records of fish in various waters of ,new ,mexico and in most instances described the new species4 ,originally1 the waters of the desert also could be described as fish deserts4 ,only three recognized kinds of food fish1 as we know them today1 inhabited the waters of this region4 ,the trout was limited to the cutthroat species or subspecies4 ,these were found as one subspecies in the ,rio ,grande drainage and the other subspecies in the ,arkansas ,river drainage4 ,the latter is reduced in numbers but a few remnants remain in the headwaters4 ,the former is being artificially propagated and is being maintained successfully4 ,the trout found in the ,gila ,river drainage1 originally thought to be a cutthroat1 then a rainbow1 has been recently described as a separate species4 ,these trout1 like the ,arkansas ,river fish1 remain as remnants in the headwaters4 ,for the most part1 the native trout have had a difficult time surviving in recent years because of the change in water and land use2 the habitat has become exceedingly restricted4 ,channel catfish were originally found in the ,rio ,grande drainage and continue to maintain themselves satisfactorily4 ,water and land manipulation1 however1 present a serious threat1 even to this hardy fish4 ,there are records that the gulf eel once came up the ,rio ,grande during part of its life cycle4 ,this fish of the ocean has long since disappeared--the fate of many migrating fish when confronted with man-made obstructions in the watercourses4 ,waterfowl were in great abundance once1 in both the upper ,rio ,grande and the ,pecos ,river drainages4 ,these birds utilized the vast marsh areas of the valleys during spring and fall migrations4 ,it is presumed that there was very little nesting of waterfowl in the early years4 ,the mammals that live in or near the water1 principally fur bearers1 were in abundance as long as water habitat was abundant and prior to unrestricted trapping4 ,with the exception of the beaver 7since restocked and protected71 many of the fur bearers once numerous are now extremely limited in numbers or approaching extinction4 ,there is only an occasional sighting of the otter which was once relatively plentiful4 ,habitat for the various water mammals1 birds1 and fish is found in the drainage systems4 ,the major system is the ,rio ,grande that flows through the center of the state2 the ,pecos ,river is its tributary4 ,in this system are six of the seven life zones and conditions of habitat suitable to almost any form of water-dwelling life4 ,there is a noticeable habitat change due to several causes1 such as ranching1 irrigation1 urban development1 and a general minor change in climatic conditions4 ,many variations are in direct relation1 such as improper grazing1 unscreened irrigation diversions1 dams1 and sewage disposal1 to mention a few4 ,there is an indication of a long-term warming of the general ,southwest1 and though this change is fractional1 it does have a basic effect on habitat4 ,the effect of habitat change can be noted in the life of the cutthroat trout4 ,early records reveal that this trout1 liking cool clear water1 was once caught in the ,rio ,grande in the lower part of the box canyon north of ,peablanca4 ,it was also caught near the town of ,pecos4 ,the fish can no longer survive in the changed water conditions and is found now only in the headwaters4 ,even the catfish has difficulty surviving in some sections of the rivers for lack of water4 ,in the lower ,pecos1 the catfish finds difficulty in reproducing because of the high salt content of the river water4 ,as has already been noted1 the fish that are recognized as game fish today were in short supply a hundred years ago4 ,it was not until the railroads entered ,new ,mexico that fish were imported to supplement the native supply4 ,in an unpublished report by the author1 it was pointed out that almost every kind of fish propagated in the ,united ,states has been imported and stocked in waters of ,new ,mexico4 ,of these1 some have survived beyond expectations and others have disappeared entirely4 ,when the railroads entered ,new ,mexico1 there were already requests for fish in the hands of the ,united ,states ,fish ,commission4 ,fish were delivered in especially designed fish-distribution cars and the consignee met the cars at designated rail sidings4 ,from the distribution cars1 the fish were further transported by wagons in water containers of various descriptions1 usually wooden barrels or watertight wooden boxes1 to streams or lakes as assigned4 ,because of the mode of travel at the time1 the quantities of fish so stocked were limited1 but they did provide seed stock from which their population could grow4 ,fish were packed on back and on horses into relatively inaccessible areas4 ,the procedures and techniques of fish transportation have evolved to the present highly specialized equipment and methods of operation4 ,it is interesting to note that the quantities of fish imported and planted increased in relation to the improved transportation4 ,the early records indicate the numbers in the hundreds and in just a few locations2 later plantings increased both in numbers stocked and in waters stocked4 ,the first fish imported to supplement the native fish was the ,german carp4 ,in fact1 this was the only fish imported for eight consecutive years1 #ahhc-ahij4 ,these early plantings were followed by catfish1 ,german brown trout1 brook trout1 yellow perch1 largemouth black bass1 crappie1 rock bass1 tench1 rainbow trout1 strawberry bass1 black spotted trout1 bream1 smallmouth bass1 salmon1 white bass1 and walleyed pike4 ,all the fish imported are classed as game fish except carp and tench 7the latter did not survive74 ,the various species met their habitat requirements1 and although there were no survivals in some locations1 they did acclimate in others and have developed into a substantial fishery4 ,some species are predominant while others1 like the rock bass1 are remnant and taken only occasionally4 ,the fish most sought now and predominant in the fishery are rainbow 7fig4 #b7 and brown trout1 catfish1 largemouth bass1 crappie1 and walleyed pike4 ,illustration3 ,figure #b4 ,joy of the fisherman1 rainbow trout ,management of the fishery has progressed with technical development4 ,when fish were planted in early years1 very little thought was given about the habitat except that it was water4 ,there was little known of the requirements of fish4 ,as a result1 fish were placed in waters only to perish4 ,to maintain a fish population now1 all techniques available are employed and fish are stocked where water and species are compatible4 ,water in the desert is always at a premium for the inhabitants4 ,the early ,indian cultures used water for irrigation1 and there are still vestiges of canals used by ,indians to convey water to their crops4 ,the use of water by the ,indians then had little or no effect on fish life1 but as irrigation development increased1 a new habitat was formed4 ,the once free-flowing rivers became dry in places1 and new waters were developed in the drainage ditches in the ,rio ,grande ,valley4 ,the competition for water is very keen and fish and wildlife uses come after domestic1 commercial1 and irrigation purposes4 ,the water requirements are so great1 in fact1 that it has been necessary to control water and its use by laws4 ,the law of #ahgf provided that water could not be refused a traveler4 ,community ditch commissioners were established by law in #ahie4 ,the basic laws governing water rights were established in #aijg4 ,these laws have been amended or added to as conditions dictate4 ,conservancy districts were recognized by law in #aibg1 and underground waters came under law in #aica4 ,the ,interstate ,stream ,commission was created in #aice4 ,at present1 ,new ,mexico water laws are considered some of the best in the nation2 however1 it has been only recently that water for fish and wildlife has been recognized as one of the beneficial uses4 ,converse to the use of water to the detriment of fish and wildlife1 there are several areas in which water has been developed and impounded to the benefit of the fishery4 ,although some impoundments were single-purpose developments1 they supply habitat in conservation pools or during years of abundant water supply4 ,illustration3 ,figure #c4 ,find the elephant6--at ,elephant ,butte reservoir ,waters impounded by man but used as a fishery are ,elephant ,butte ,reservoir 7fig4 #c71 #dj1jif surface acres when full4 ,it contains largemouth black bass1 crappie1 walleyed pike1 catfish1 and sunfish4 ,this lake has not been full for many years2 but like ,alamogordo ,reservoir 7#dfej surface acres71 ,caballo ,reservoir 7#aa1ecb surface acres71 ,mc,millan ,reservoir 7#bejj surface acres71 ,conchas ,reservoir 7#af1fdj surface acres71 and ,avalon ,reservoir 7#iej surface acres71 it has produced excellent fishing4 ,these are large irrigation lakes and are all stocked generally with the same species of fish4 ,the lakes built for irrigation but utilized for trout are usually much smaller4 ,the principal ones are ,navajo ,reservoir 7#ae1fjj surface acres7 and ,el ,vado 7#cejj surface acres74 ,there are also ,miami ,lake 7#aij surface acres7 and several others of small size4 ,in addition1 several small lakes have been built or acquired for the primary purpose of providing fishing4 ,a few of these are ,hopewell ,lake 7#ad surface acres71 ,lake ,roberts 7#gc surface acres71 and ,charette ,lakes 7#djj surface acres74 ,there are many more varying in size4 ,the smaller lakes are primarily for trout fishing1 but a few in the southern part of the state do have species usually found in warmer waters4 ,in the process of reservoir construction1 waterfowl habitat and resting areas are created4 ,these new lakes1 however1 are a poor substitute for the natural marshes and potholes originally frequented by ducks and geese4 ,water mammals1 likewise1 find the artificial impoundments undesirable in comparison1 and the increased water has added very little to this resource4 ,every water development has with it the appeal of recreation other than fishing4 ,now a lake must have such facilities as picnic and camping areas1 launching ramps1 good accessibility1 boat rentals1 and a concessionaire4 ,there is no single-purpose reservoir in respect to recreation4 ,finally1 it is concluded that the old adage1 8fishing ain't what it used to be10 should no longer be true for ,new ,mexico4 ,the fishing water has been added to greatly and the fish are managed better4 ,the only problem is one of increased human population4 ,where there was one fisherman fifty years ago1 there are a thousand now4 ,truly1 the water of the desert is used to the limit4 ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a47 ,the past living today--,san ,miguel1 early mission church still used daily in ,santa ,fe ,the ,indians of ,new ,mexico by ,paige ,w4 ,christiansen ,people entering ,new ,mexico today find ,indian cultures and ,indian villages with traditions and ways of life that have changed little in many centuries4 ,in this respect1 man in the twentieth century shares an experience in common with ,coronado1 ,oate1 and all the other conquistadores who visited ,new ,mexico so many generations ago4 ,they1 too1 found the ancient ,indian cultures strangely magnetic and exciting4 ,if we could but remove the asphalt highways1 the billboards1 the telephone poles1 and fences that seem always to surround us1 the ,indian villages in many parts of the state would look very much as they looked to the early ,spanish explorers who were the first ,europeans to see them4 ,to meet the ,indians of ,new ,mexico and to visit their homes1 if possible1 is one of the greatest experiences available to residents and visitors alike4 ,although words are inadequate to give the true flavor and excitement of the ,indian and his way of life1 they are all we have to introduce the various people who make up the ,indian population of ,new ,mexico4 ,there are two main groups that should be known4 ,first1 the ,pueblo ,indians1 those who developed sedentary village life and who are the descendants of the first ,americans in ,new ,mexico4 ,second1 the 8newcomers0 to the state1 those who1 for some reason or other1 moved into the state to replace earlier cultures4 ,let us1 then1 visit some of these people's homes4 ,acoma ,pueblo ,acoma ,indian ,pueblo1 the ,sky ,city1 is famous in both history and legend4 ,built on the top of a lofty1 almost inaccessible1 redrock mesa some #ceg feet high1 it is one of the most picturesque of all ,new ,mexico ,indian pueblos4 ,no other pueblo gives one such a clear sense of living in ancestral times4 ,the movements of the people up and down the steep trails1 the untiring vistas1 and the ancient homesites are reminiscent of the life and times of the cliff dwellers4 ,here the archeologists can search out the secrets of ancient life by direct observation4 ,here1 too1 is brought forth in the fullness of its bloom an ,indian culture of outstanding achievement4 ,the ,indians of ,acoma participated in the great ,pueblo ,revolt of #afhj4 ,they killed their priest1 ,fray ,lucas ,maldonado1 in the first frenzy of the rebellion4 ,because of their isolation and the inaccessibility of the village1 they were spared the vengeance of the ,spaniards under de ,vargas during the reconquest in #afib4 ,there was an attempt by the ,spanish in #afif to take ,acoma1 but they succeeded only in destroying the crops and in capturing five ,acoma warriors4 ,the ,indians held out until ,july #f1 #afii1 when they submitted to the ,spanish governor of ,new ,mexico1 ,governor ,cubero4 ,thereafter1 ,acoma became an integral part of the mission complex established in ,new ,mexico by the ,spanish4 ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a41 by ,starr ,jenkins7 ,aspen ,basin in ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains near ,santa ,fe ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a41 by ,john ,whiteside7 ,tent ,rocks in ,jemez ,mountains ,acoma is noted for its excellent pottery4 ,the ware is fashioned from clay of fine quality1 is very well fired1 and is carefully decorated in typical ,acoma designs4 ,here is an excellent example of ,indian artistic ability4 ,some weaving1 such as belts and headbands1 is engaged in and a few baskets are produced1 but ,acoma is most famous for its pottery4 ,one of the landmarks at ,acoma is the great church which brave ,fray ,juan ,ramirez toiled to create in the early seventeenth century4 ,surely there are few memorials of the ,spanish epoch in the ,southwest that present such a picture of dauntless faith in spiritual ideals as does this fortress church silhouetted high against the sky above the bare-rock mesa4 ,it measures #aej feet in length and has walls that are #fj feet high and #aj feet thick4 ,timbers #dj feet long and #ad inches through support the roof and make a handsome ceiling4 ,there are1 of course1 no seats and little decoration4 ,and what a location for so magnificent a spiritual center it is6 ,from there one may lift his eyes in rapt admiration of the splendid panorama of the great plain and the encircling mountains1 and thereby appreciate more fully the work of the ,deity4 ,the ,acoma are agriculturists1 cultivating their lands by irrigation2 they raise corn1 wheat1 melons1 squashes1 and hay4 ,now1 however1 most of the people of ,acoma do not live on their mesa which protected them for so many centuries4 ,the dangers of attack are no longer present1 and the farmers find it more advantageous to live closer to their irrigated plots4 ,the result is that the people of ,acoma are now scattered throughout several villages4 ,their great culture1 their traditions1 their fierce pride1 and their deep reverence for their spectacular history is visible in their faces and manners4 ,acoma1 the ,sky ,city1 remains the eternal city of ,new ,mexico4 ,cochiti ,pueblo ,the ,indians of ,cochiti ,pueblo claim the famed cave dwellings and ruins of the ,rito de ,frijoles 7,bandelier ,national ,monument7 as their ancestral home4 ,failure of timber and water resources plus the constant attack of the various ,apache ,indian tribes over several centuries caused the residents of the ,rito de ,frijoles to seek a better home4 ,this probably occurred about #abjj ,a4,d4 ,in #aeih1 when ,juan de ,oate1 colonizer of ,new ,mexico1 arrived1 the ,indians of ,cochiti were living in their present village4 ,for a short time following the reconquest of ,new ,mexico by de ,vargas after the ,pueblo ,revolt1 the people of ,cochiti lived in ,caada de ,cochiti1 which was in a better position for defense against ,spanish reconquest4 ,in #afid1 de ,vargas took the canyon village by storm1 burned it1 and forced the people to return to the older village of ,cochiti where they remain to this day4 ,the population of the village is slightly more than #cjj1 and there has been little growth in the past thirty years4 ,like the other ,new ,mexico pueblos1 the main occupation is agriculture4 ,their ancient traditions are well preserved1 among them the well-known ,rain ,dance held during the annual festival of ,san ,buenaventura in ,july4 ,located at the pueblo is the ancient and beautiful ,spanish mission1 ,san ,buenaventura de ,cochiti1 built in the early seventeenth century4 ,to step into this church is to return to the ,spanish days of yore4 ,there are no seats1 women kneel on one side1 the men on the other1 and the services are a mixture of old world orthodoxy and new world ,indian traditions4 ,cochiti represents one of the finest examples of modern ,pueblo ,indian life4 ,isleta ,pueblo ,isleta ,pueblo is the southernmost of the pueblos lying along the green and lush ,rio ,grande ,valley today4 ,it stands on the same site it occupied when ,coronado came in #aedj and was a stopping place for every ,spanish explorer and traveler who passed through ,new ,mexico4 ,it did not take part in the ,pueblo ,revolt of #afhj1 but rather joined the ,spanish in the retreat to ,el ,paso del ,norte 7modern ,juarez1 ,mexico74 ,there they founded a new village just to the south of modern ,el ,paso which they called ,isleta del ,sur4 ,the main village of ,isleta1 in ,new ,mexico1 remained deserted until #agji when it was re-established by ,fray ,juan de la ,pea4 ,two different missions were built at ,isleta ,pueblo4 ,the first1 ,san ,antonio de ,isleta1 was constructed about #afbi4 ,the church was burned in #afhj1 and in #afha was being used as a sheep corral4 ,between #afhj and the completion of the reconquest1 it was completely destroyed4 ,the second mission1 still remaining at ,isleta1 called ,san ,agustin de ,isleta1 was built in #agji on the old site4 ,agriculture is the primary pursuit of the ,indians of ,isleta1 although they do considerable stock grazing4 ,the population of ,isleta is nearly #bjjj persons4 ,the annual fiesta takes place in late ,august4 ,jemez ,pueblo ,the ,jemez ,indians were first seen by ,europeans in #aeda when they were visited by ,captain ,francisco de ,barrio-,nuevo1 of ,coronado's expedition4 ,he counted seven villages1 naming them ,aguas ,calientes because of the many hot springs in the canyon of the ,jemez ,river4 ,the ancient pueblos are now all in ruins1 with one preserved as the ,jemez ,state ,monument4 ,the present pueblo1 built on the mesa where the ,jemez ,river leaves the mountains1 was constructed after the ,pueblo ,revolt4 ,the ,jemez people fled their older villages during the reconquest and for a time lived with the ,navajo1 whom they disliked but preferred to the ,spanish4 ,there have been four notable missions among the ,jemez ,indians4 ,the first1 ,san ,diego de ,jemez ,mission1 was built in the early seventeenth century4 ,it was one of the most successful of the ,new ,mexico missions2 reportedly1 more than #fjjj converts were made among the ,jemez ,indians before #afbb4 ,because of the constant attacks of the ,navajo1 the traditional enemies of the ,jemez people1 the ancient pueblos gradually declined and were finally completely abandoned after ,jemez participation in the ,pueblo ,revolt4 ,the ruins of this church1 now the ,jemez ,state ,monument1 are among the most picturesque in all ,new ,mexico4 ,its walls are three feet thick and were put together with intricate care4 ,in its time1 it must have been a beautiful building4 ,the second1 ,san ,juan de ,los ,jemez ,mission1 was built in #afag at a village located near the junction of the ,guadalupe and ,jemez rivers1 six miles north of the present pueblo4 ,the ruins are faint but still visible4 ,the mission was abandoned in #afhj4 ,the third mission had a very brief history4 ,it was called ,san ,jose de los ,jemez ,mission and was located near ,san ,juan de ,los ,jemez1 of which it was a visita4 ,like ,san ,juan1 ,san ,jose was abandoned in #afhj4 ,the present mission was founded early in the eighteenth century and is one of the interesting things to visit at ,jemez ,pueblo4 ,this old church is the center of the annual festival held at ,jemez on ,november #ab4 ,jemez is noted for its splendid presentation of the ,buffalo ,dance in the winter and for its ,corn ,dances during the ,november festival4 ,laguna ,pueblo ,laguna ,pueblo is the youngest and second largest of the pueblos in ,new ,mexico4 ,built in #afig1 shortly after the reconquest by de ,vargas1 the name was derived from a large lake which existed at one time just west of the village4 ,in addition to the main village1 a number of small settlements have developed where the terrain is suitable for agriculture1 the main occupation of the ,lagunas4 ,the most important of these villages are ,paguate1 ,encinal1 ,paraje1 ,mesita1 ,seama1 and ,casa ,blanca4 ,the ,laguna ,indians are of mixed origin1 composed of four linguistic stocks3 ,tano1 ,keres1 ,shoshone1 and ,zuni4 ,illustration3 ,rock-walled ,santa ,maria mission1 ,laguna ,reservation ,although the occupation of the pueblo was traditionally agriculture1 in recent years a moderate revolution has been visible4 ,the people of ,laguna are in the middle of one of the richest uranium mining areas in the world1 and many of them have been employed in mining activities4 ,also1 the pueblo lies on the main line of the ,santa ,fe ,railway1 allowing some employment with the railroad4 ,laguna ,pueblo is one of the most progressive of all the ,indian groups in ,new ,mexico4 ,it has a population well in excess of #cjjj4 ,located at ,laguna is the ,san ,jose de ,laguna mission1 built in #afii4 ,the plaster on the building is native earth4 ,indian symbols are painted on the ceiling of the chancel1 and a large picture of ,st4 ,joseph done on elk skin hangs on the reredos4 ,the halos on the saints are triangular rather than circular4 ,the altar is covered with animal skins painted with ,christian symbols4 ,namb ,pueblo ,namb is one of the smallest of the pueblos but is located in an area noted for its scenic beauty and climate4 ,its population is less than #bjj4 ,it was not always so small2 during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries1 the population was greatly reduced by intertribal war and witchcraft executions4 ,the ,namb people played an active role in the pueblo rebellion of #afhj1 murdering their priest and destroying their church4 ,the original church at ,namb was one of the first missions founded after the establishment of the first ,european settlement of ,san ,gabriel at ,san ,juan in #aeih4 ,destroyed in #afhj1 it was rebuilt in #afif4 ,in #agbi1 the converts had increased to such numbers that a new church was required4 ,this church remained in use until #aiji when1 because of carelessness in keeping it in repair1 the roof collapsed during a storm4 ,the annual ,namb fiesta is held in early ,october4 ,picurs ,pueblo ,picurs is seldom visited by the tourist1 for it lies in the mountains forty miles north of ,santa ,fe and can only be reached over a gravel road4 ,the people of ,picurs were among the most warlike of the normally peaceful pueblo peoples4 ,they participated actively in the pueblo rebellion in #afhj1 killing their priest and all the ,spaniards in the vicinity4 ,they also participated in the battle for ,santa ,fe which broke ,spanish power in ,new ,mexico until #afib4 ,after the revolt1 fear of the ,spanish caused them to abandon their village until they were induced to return in #agjf4 ,the population of ,picurs is very small1 being slightly more than #ajj4 ,one of the few old missions left in ,new ,mexico1 the ,san ,lorenzo de ,picurs church shows the strange mixture of ,spanish and ,indian traditions4 ,near the door is a human skull covered with an old cloth1 but unfortunately1 its story is lost to antiquity4 ,an interesting feature at ,picurs is the unusual construction seen in some of the buildings4 ,made of puddled adobe1 they are the oldest still standing of any pueblo in the ,rio ,grande ,valley4 ,the buildings were made by pouring adobe mud into wall forms4 ,this is the same kind of construction that is found at ,casa ,grande1 ,arizona1 one of the significant prehistoric ruins in the ,united ,states4 ,pojoaque ,pueblo ,pojoaque1 though still listed among the ,indian villages of ,new ,mexico1 is no longer populated by ,indians4 ,two missions were established at ,pojoaque in the early ,spanish days1 the first shortly after #afjj4 ,this was destroyed in the rebellion in #afhj4 ,later1 in #agjf1 a new church was constructed which is still in use4 ,the ,indian population of ,pojoaque was gradually reduced until1 in #aijj1 the few remaining families abandoned the village4 ,since that time1 ,spanish-,american families have occupied the buildings4 ,it is a picturesque village seldom seen1 for it is hidden from the passing tourist by a hill4 ,yet some of the buildings in this ancient village date back to pre-,coronado times and are a significant part of the romance of ,new ,mexico4 ,sandia ,pueblo ,sandia ,pueblo is a remnant of the ,tiguex villages visited by ,coronado in #aedj4 ,a mission was created at ,sandia shortly after the colonization by ,oate1 and it was an important mission center until the ,pueblo ,revolt4 ,after the revolt1 ,sandia peoples scattered rather than again submit to ,spanish control4 ,many of them went to live with the ,hopi and there founded the village of ,payupki on the middle mesa1 the walls of which can still be found4 ,after #fb years1 in #agdb1 a few families returned to the ,rio ,grande ,valley to found the modern pueblo4 ,the old mission remains visible1 although reduced to a rubble of adobe4 ,sandia ,pueblo remains a small village1 containing less than #aej people4 ,san ,felipe ,pueblo ,san ,felipe is one of the most conservative of the pueblos and has retained much of its ,indian heritage despite the impact of ,spanish and ,american influences4 ,it has a close affinity with its neighbors1 particularly ,santo ,domingo only five miles distant4 ,san ,felipe was a well-established village when the ,spanish first arrived4 ,its people joined in heartily when the pueblo uprising began in #afhj but abandoned their village during a ,spanish counteroffensive in #afha 7which failed74 ,when reconquest was completed in #afib1 the people returned to their village4 ,thereafter1 they remained friendly to the ,spanish and suffered many attacks from the ,navajo1 who hated them for this loyalty4 ,one of the finest remaining structures showing early ,franciscan mission architecture can be seen at the ,san ,felipe church4 ,the present church is not the original mission1 for three different churches were located at ,san ,felipe over the centuries4 ,the first was built in #afje and destroyed during the ,pueblo ,revolt4 ,the second was built in a new part of the village in #afid1 but shortly after #agjj1 the village was moved and a new church constructed4 ,the latter church is the one now in use at ,san ,felipe4 ,on ,may #a1 the nearly #ajjj people of the pueblo celebrate their annual fiesta4 ,san ,ildefonso ,pueblo ,san ,ildefonso has gained fame throughout the world because of the excellence of its pottery4 ,the high quality and general acceptance of this commodity has made the village prosperous4 ,it boasts some of the most famous ,indian artists and artisans in the ,united ,states1 among them ,julian and ,maria ,martinez1 perhaps the best-known potters in the world4 ,san ,ildefonso participated in the ,pueblo ,revolt but did not contest the reconquest1 at least not at first4 ,in #afid1 when de ,vargas began to wage war on the northern pueblos1 ,san ,ildefonso did take part4 ,the people fortified themselves on ,black ,mesa1 a high1 steep mesa of volcanic origin near the pueblo4 ,there they successfully withstood ,spanish efforts to dislodge them4 ,notwithstanding their initial success1 they were ultimately conquered and brought into the ,spanish system4 ,today there are several hundred people living in the village1 and they are among the friendliest of the pueblo peoples4 ,san ,ildefonso is easily accessible from ,santa ,fe4 ,the mission church dates back to the #ahij's1 although earlier churches at the pueblo played an important role in bringing ,christianity to the ,pueblo ,indian world4 ,the older churches are long since gone4 ,san ,juan ,pueblo ,san ,juan ,pueblo is best noted for its close association with the first ,spanish settlement in ,new ,mexico in #aeih4 ,oate1 colonizer of ,new ,mexico1 selected a site for his first headquarters which was a part of the ancient ,pueblo of ,san ,juan4 ,the natives living in that part of the village willingly gave up their homes to the ,spaniards and were taken in by the remainder of the people of ,san ,juan4 ,oate1 in appreciation for this hospitality1 bestowed upon the pueblo the name ,san ,juan de los ,caballeros1 a name which the pueblo is still proud to bear4 ,yet this same friendly people also contributed ,po-p1 the great leader of the ,pueblo ,revolt1 to the history of ,new ,mexico4 ,while ,po-p shared with many other pueblo leaders a hatred of the ,spanish conqueror1 he was the spiritual force and the organizer of the rebellion that broke the control of the ,spaniard for twelve years and returned ,new ,mexico to the ,indian4 ,this great rebellion stands as one of the significant efforts in the history of the world of a people to cast off the bonds of foreign control4 ,san ,juan cannot claim a church dating back to the conquistadores1 but it does have one of the great landmark churches in the ,southwest4 ,in #ahij1 the chapel of ,our ,lady of ,lourdes was dedicated at ,san ,juan4 ,it was constructed of red volcanic rock found west of the ,rio ,grande4 ,this beautiful structure is an architectural jewel set in desert surroundings4 ,the nearly #gjj people of ,san ,juan welcome visitors to their homes2 their undecorated burnished black pottery is particularly distinctive and popular4 ,the pueblo's annual festival is held in ,june4 ,santa ,ana ,pueblo ,santa ,ana ,pueblo lies along the banks of the ,rio ,jemez1 which enters the ,rio ,grande from the west4 ,the pueblo was visited by ,oate and a mission was built there about #afjj1 shortly after his visit4 ,the people of ,santa ,ana joined in the ,pueblo ,revolt1 and since there was no priest serving their church in #afhj1 they joined with the ,indians of ,santo ,domingo and ,san ,felipe to massacre the padres at ,san ,felipe4 ,in #afhg1 during one of the ,spanish efforts to reconquer ,new ,mexico1 ,santa ,ana was destroyed and her people fled4 ,later1 at the urging of de ,vargas1 the modern pueblo was established1 along with the church now standing there4 ,the population of ,santa ,ana is nearly #djj4 ,its annual festival takes place in ,august4 ,it is often difficult to find many of the people at the main pueblo for they spend most of the growing season at ,el ,ranchito1 to the east in the ,rio ,grande ,valley4 ,santa ,clara ,pueblo ,santa ,clara ,pueblo is near the mouth of ,santa ,clara ,creek1 a year-round stream flowing out of the ,jemez ,mountains into the ,rio ,grande4 ,to the west of the pueblo1 on lands owned by ,santa ,clara1 are the famous ,puye ,cliff ,dwellings ruins4 ,the people of ,santa ,clara claim these natural cliff homes as their ancestral dwelling places1 a fact which has been substantiated by archeologists4 ,the ,santa ,clara ,indians represent1 then1 an important living ,indian group in which one can observe institutions and traditions that can be linked to traditions of the cultures that lived in the caves and abandoned cities of ,southwest antiquity4 ,like most of the pueblo people1 ,santa ,clara joined the ,pueblo ,revolt1 but this action did not seriously harm the pueblo4 ,the real damage was done to ,santa ,clara in the late eighteenth century when intertribal warfare over witchcraft1 plus the ravages of disease1 took nearly #ejj lives in the village4 ,the current population is about #ejj4 ,the church at ,santa ,clara is quite modern1 having been constructed in the twentieth century4 ,the old church1 built in #agfj1 was caught up in the modernization craze that swept through the pueblo world in the early #aijj's4 ,perhaps one of the most substantial and beautiful of all pueblo churches1 the old church collapsed during a storm in #aiji 7the same storm that destroyed the church at ,namb72 it had been structurally weakened by the removal of the roof for remodeling4 ,the village has excellent agricultural lands and supplements its income by manufacturing an excellent and distinctive pure black pottery4 ,its annual festival is in mid-,august4 ,santo ,domingo ,pueblo ,santo ,domingo is one of the largest of the pueblos1 having a population of nearly #aejj4 ,it is also the most conservative in retention of its native culture4 ,this makes its dances and dress of particular interest to the visitor to ,new ,mexico4 ,the present pueblo was established after the reconquest in #afib4 ,the ,indians of ,santo ,domingo took a particularly active part in the ,pueblo ,revolt1 killing three padres resident at the pueblo4 ,when de ,vargas moved to retake ,santo ,domingo1 he found the people had abandoned the village4 ,they had constructed a village in the ,jemez ,mountains to the west1 and it was there that de ,vargas defeated them4 ,even then1 the people of ,santo ,domingo did not give up the fight1 and only after a long series of defeats and serious loss of life did they surrender and again return to the vicinity of their original village4 ,the church at ,santo ,domingo is not so old as many other pueblo edifices1 but its qualities remain among the most typical aspects of early ,new ,mexico mission architecture4 ,in early ,august1 during the great annual festival1 the ,indians completely clean and whitewash the church4 ,two large horses are painted on the front of the building by native artists4 ,the dances during the ,santo ,domingo festival are among the most colorful and authentic in ,new ,mexico4 ,taos ,pueblo ,taos represents the northernmost of the pueblos in ,new ,mexico4 ,it is also one of the most scenic1 lying at the foot of the ,taos ,mountains1 a spur of the mighty ,sangre de ,cristo range4 ,it is a prosperous village of about #ijj persons4 ,there is no finer example of pueblo apartment architecture in ,new ,mexico4 ,the main pueblo building rises five stories above the mesa4 ,one must be careful not to confuse the ,spanish town1 don ,fernando de ,taos1 and the old ,indian farming center1 ,ranchos de ,taos1 with the pueblo1 ,san ,geronimo de ,taos4 ,it is the latter that is ,indian and is1 therefore1 by far the oldest of the three4 ,the ruins of the old ,san ,geronimo mission at ,taos represent one of the most historic and fateful in all the ,southwest4 ,it was there that two priests were murdered in #afhj during the first days of the ,pueblo ,revolt4 ,it was there that ,po-p sowed the first seeds of that rebellion4 ,again in #afif1 the ,taos ,indians sought to free themselves from ,spanish control by killing their priests and other ,spaniards in the vicinity4 ,again they were subdued4 ,in #ahdg1 when the ,americans annexed ,new ,mexico1 the ,taos ,indians tried once more to gain their independence4 ,inflamed by ,mexican citizens who refused to accept ,american authority1 they attacked the ,americans at ,fernando de ,taos1 killing nine of them4 ,governor ,charles ,bent1 builder of the famous ,bent's ,fort on the ,santa ,fe ,trail1 was among those killed4 ,on ,february #c1 #ahdg1 the ,american army in ,new ,mexico laid siege to the village and the ,indians fortified themselves in the mission4 ,it became the ,alamo of the ,taos people4 ,american artillery was brought to bear1 and the walls of the ancient church were battered down2 the ,indians fled1 first to the village and then into the mountains1 leaving behind #aej dead and many wounded4 ,they were finally forced to surrender1 and their leaders were hung4 ,those so hung remain martyrs to this day4 ,the ruins of the ,taos mission1 built three and a quarter centuries ago1 still can be seen4 ,they are a stark landmark to the stubborn independence of the people of ,taos4 ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a47 ,souvenir of the ,american army's work in #ahdg3 ,taos ,pueblo mission ,the traditions and ceremonials of ,taos are well preserved4 ,their arts and crafts1 however1 have declined and are not of the high quality found in some of the other pueblos4 ,their ceremonials are excellent and are noted for their beauty and precision4 ,the feast day of ,san ,geronimo1 ,september #cj1 is the most important event of the year4 ,tesuque ,pueblo ,tesuque is a small village1 perhaps numbering no more than #aej persons4 ,even though it has always been small1 it holds a major place in the history of ,new ,mexico4 ,it was at ,tesuque that the first blood was shed in the ,pueblo ,revolt of #afhj4 ,on ,august #i1 ,cristobal de ,herrera was murdered1 and two ,tesuque ,indians rushed to ,santa ,fe to warn the ,spanish governor of the impending rebellion4 ,the ,indian leaders1 now aware that their plot was known1 moved the date of the revolt from ,august #ac to ,august #aj4 ,on ,august #aj1 ,father ,pio1 in charge of the ,tesuque mission1 went out from ,santa ,fe to say ,mass and also was murdered4 ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a47 ,most-painted church in ,america8444 ,ranchos de ,taos ,although its handicrafts are of poor quality1 the ,tesuque ,indian ceremonials are colorful and authentic4 ,the people have retained much of their early culture while living in proximity to the white man 7,santa ,fe is only nine miles distant74 ,the pueblo's most important festival falls on ,november #ab4 ,zia ,pueblo ,the story of ,zia is one of tragedy and difficult problems of existence4 ,located on a basalt flow on the north bank of the ,jemez ,river some fifteen miles above its junction with the ,rio ,grande1 ,zia has poor land and a limited supply of irrigation water4 ,agriculture is the main economic pursuit1 but the pueblo's unfortunate location makes trading for part of its food supply necessary4 ,oate reported ,zia to be a large pueblo4 ,however1 it suffered greatly because of its participation in the ,pueblo ,revolt4 ,some historians estimate that during the reconquest1 nearly #fjj of the people of ,zia were killed defending themselves from the ,spanish4 ,continued wars and pestilence reduced the pueblo to a very few families4 ,over the past century1 the group has again showed signs of growth and now has a population of more than #cjj4 ,the church at ,zia dates from #afib1 and thus represents one of the fine examples of ancient ,franciscan architecture in ,new ,mexico4 ,the annual festival1 dedicated to ,nuestra ,senora de la ,asuncion1 is celebrated with an excellent ,corn ,dance on ,august #ae4 ,zuni ,pueblo ,zuni has the distinction of being the first of the pueblos seen or visited by ,europeans4 ,seen from a distance by ,fray ,marcos de ,niza in #aeci1 it was reported as a rich and extensive city4 ,nearby were six other pueblos1 and the ,spanish immediately associated the ,zuni complex with an old ,spanish legend about seven golden cities1 the ,seven ,cities of ,cibola4 ,the expedition of ,coronado was formed to explore and conquer the rich pueblos of ,new ,mexico4 ,his first contact was at ,zuni1 then called ,hawikuh4 ,it was neither golden nor rich4 ,although ,zuni was an important stopping place on the early trails to ,mexico1 it managed to remain least influenced by ,european ideas4 ,the ,spanish concentrated their efforts in the ,rio ,grande ,valley and ,zuni went its own way most of the time4 ,while there were missionary efforts from time to time1 by the nineteenth century1 the stout resistance to such activity caused it to cease4 ,in recent years1 sporadic missionary activity has been evident1 but it has not been notably successful4 ,the most famous of all ,new ,mexico ,indian ceremonial dances is held at ,zuni each year4 ,the ,shalako1 which occurs in early ,december1 is authentic and spectacular4 ,the dancers1 carrying huge ceremonial figures on their shoulders1 must train and practice constantly during the entire year4 ,zuni is the largest of the pueblos in ,new ,mexico1 with a population numbering more than #ejjj persons4 ,the main occupation is agriculture4 ,the ,zunis supplement their income by manufacturing silver inlay jewelry that shows great creative skill and is beautiful to behold4 ,other ,new ,mexico ,indians ,in addition to the well-known ,pueblo ,indians of ,new ,mexico1 there are four other areas of ,indian lands4 ,three of these belong to peoples of ,athapascan origin1 sometimes better known as ,apache ,indians4 ,by name1 they are the ,jicarilla ,apache1 the ,mescalero ,apache1 and ,navajo4 ,the fourth group is the ,ute ,indian4 ,the ,apache tribes were relative newcomers to the ,southwest4 ,their origin was the plains area between the northern ,rocky ,mountains and ,hudson ,bay in ,canada4 ,about #ajjj ,a4,d41 a part of these northern ,plains ,indians began a migration that ultimately brought them to ,new ,mexico4 ,down the ,high ,plains across the western ,dakotas1 western ,nebraska1 ,kansas1 and finally to western ,texas and eastern ,new ,mexico1 these people came4 ,at about the latitude of ,albuquerque1 the migration split4 ,part of the group continued south1 across the ,staked ,plains1 into southeastern ,new ,mexico1 west ,texas1 and northern ,coahuila and ,chihuahua1 ,mexico4 ,here they divided into the ,lipan1 the ,mescalero1 and the ,natage ,apache4 ,today1 in south-central ,new ,mexico are the descendants of the ,mescalero4 ,the ,mescalero ,apache reservation is crossed by ,u4,s4 ,highway #gj1 a scenic drive through pine forests4 ,the tribe operates the ,sierra ,blanca ski area1 one of the southernmost ski areas in the ,united ,states4 ,its annual ,crown ,dance and coming-of-age ceremonials are held ,july #a to #d1 followed by an ,apache rodeo4 ,the ,lipan and the ,natage have virtually disappeared4 ,the second group of the migration discovered for the first time in their long trek down the eastern fringes of the ,rockies that the country opened up to the west4 ,they poured through the passes and entered the areas traditionally controlled by pueblo farmers4 ,gradually1 they took over these lands for themselves1 driving out the farmers4 ,by the time the ,spanish came on the scene1 most of the peaceful farmers had given way before the onslaught of the warlike ,athapascan savages4 ,only one group remained1 the pueblos of the central ,rio ,grande ,valley4 ,the migration that moved into the desert and mountain lands divided into a number of groups which are known by modern names3 the ,chiricahua1 ,white ,mountain1 ,western1 and ,jicarilla ,apache and the ,navajo4 ,the ,jicarilla ,apache reside mainly in north-central ,new ,mexico on reservation lands1 and the ,navajo reservation lies partly in extreme northwestern ,new ,mexico4 ,most of the ,navajo land and all the lands of the others are in ,arizona4 ,the ,ute ,indians1 driven from the plains by stronger tribes1 settled in the central ,rocky ,mountain area4 ,there they raided the wealthy 7at least in their eyes7 pueblos to the south4 ,they fought sporadically against white penetration but were finally subdued and placed on reservation lands in the ,four ,corners area1 part of which lies in ,new ,mexico4 ,while the history of these peoples is fascinating and full of romance1 there is little besides scenery to be seen when visiting their reservations4 ,the populations are often scattered over many hundreds of square miles1 and the people have only rudimentary handicrafts4 ,the exception is the ,navajo1 and a trip to the ,navajo reservation is worthwhile4 ,these ,indians have developed techniques of weaving and silversmithing that contribute significant art forms to ,southwest handicrafts4 ,the outstanding ,indian event of the year in ,new ,mexico is the ,inter-,tribal ,indian ,ceremonial at ,gallup1 held during mid-,august4 ,some thirty tribes from the ,southwest and ,midwest meet to compete in arts1 crafts1 and ceremonial dancing4 ,reminders of the ,past by ,paige ,w4 ,christiansen ,when driving across ,new ,mexico or when visiting some part of the state1 one should be aware of the wealth of history that is always close at hand4 ,many people1 when faced with what seems like endless miles of empty country1 fail to realize that the very emptiness is one of the charms of the state4 ,they also do not recognize that in the vast expanses of mountain and desert1 people of the ancient past or a recent past have lived and worked and died4 ,sometimes the fruits of their labor are clear and evident and live on in cities and towns4 ,in many instances1 however1 the mountains and desert have reclaimed their own and the works of man have succumbed4 ,a mental picture must be cast over the landscape on which great historical events took place but which is almost empty of signs of man's efforts4 ,if travelers are fortunate1 there may still be some sign--a ghost town1 a ruined ranch1 some old artifacts--to tell the story2 if not1 imagination must be given rein4 ,the search is the adventure1 and to give aid in that search1 the following might suffice as a faint guiding light4 ,to simplify the descriptions of these reminders of the past1 ,new ,mexico is divided into seven geographical regions which a traveler might well visit3 #a4 ,north from ,santa ,fe1 including ,u4,s4 ,highways #fd1 #bhe1 and #hd1 and connecting state highways4 #b4 ,the northeast1 including ,u4,s4 #he from ,santa ,fe to ,raton1 ,u4,s4 #ff east from ,albuquerque to the ,texas line1 ,u4,s4 #ef from ,springer to the state line1 and connecting state highways4 #c4 ,the northwest1 including ,u4,s4 #ff west from ,albuquerque to the ,arizona line1 ,u4,s4 #fff north from ,gallup to ,colorado1 and ,state ,highway #dd from ,bernalillo to ,farmington4 #d4 ,east-central1 including ,u4,s4 #fj east from ,bernardo1 ,u4,s4 #chj east from ,san ,antonio1 ,u4,s4 #gj from the ,mescalero ,indian ,reservation to the ,texas line1 ,u4,s4 #bhe from ,clines ,corners to ,roswell1 ,u4,s4 #ed from ,three ,rivers to ,santa ,rosa1 and connecting state highways4 #e4 ,west-central1 including ,u4,s4 #fj west of ,socorro1 ,u4,s4 #ahj-bfj and ,state ,highway #ab in ,catron ,county1 ,u4,s4 #he from ,los ,lunas to ,elephant ,butte1 and connecting state highways4 #f4 ,southeast1 including ,u4,s4 #gj from ,las ,cruces to the ,mescalero ,indian ,reservation1 ,u4,s4 #ed from ,el ,paso to ,three ,rivers1 ,u4,s4 #fb from ,hobbs to the ,texas line1 ,u4,s4 #bhe from ,roswell to the ,texas line1 and numerous state roads4 #g4 ,southwest1 including ,u4,s4 #he from ,truth or ,consequences to ,el ,paso1 ,u4,s4 #ahj north from ,deming to the ,catron county line1 ,u4,s4 #gj-hj west from ,las ,cruces to ,arizona1 and state roads4 ,north ,from ,santa ,fe ,the country north of ,santa ,fe is the heart of ,indian and ,spanish ,new ,mexico4 ,here1 if he looks beyond the narrow boundaries of the highway right-of-way1 the traveler can see ,indian and ,spanish villages which have not changed significantly in two and a half centuries4 ,along the lush green of the ,rio ,grande ,valley or of its tributaries dashing out of the ,sangre de ,cristo range to the east1 these sleepy concentrations of people reveal cultural and language patterns which smack of the conquistadores of the sixteenth century or of the ancient cliff dwellers4 ,it is a slow and easy world1 perhaps most representative of the 8land of maana40 ,in a region already worked for centuries for what it can produce1 there is no hurry4 ,it will be there tomorrow and forever4 ,the people of this region are typically ,new ,mexican4 ,the hills are dotted with pion and juniper trees which give a greenish to black cast to the land4 ,this1 too1 is typically ,new ,mexican4 ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a47 ,cool drive on a summer day1 ,red ,river ,canyon ,there is one short trip that would be fruitful for him who wants to know ,new ,mexico1 to feel the romance of ,spanish culture1 and to seek adventure off the beaten track4 ,just north of ,espaola1 ,state ,highway #gf strikes east from ,u4,s4 #fd4 ,nowhere in the state can be found so much of old world charm or spectacular scenic beauty4 ,heading east1 the traveler passes through ,chimay1 a village famed throughout the world for its weaving1 though seldom visited1 then on through ,truchas and ,las ,trampas to ,penasco1 heart of the ,penitente country4 ,the ,penitentes were a religious sect growing out of long isolation from the main threads of ,roman ,catholicism4 ,they gradually reverted to relatively primitive ,christian practices without guidance from main church centers but within the past few years have returned to the ,church4 ,the many white crosses that can be seen in the area attest to their former activity4 ,from ,penasco1 the traveler can return to ,u4,s4 #fd via ,state ,highway #ge4 ,the area northwest of ,santa ,fe1 stretching some thirty or forty miles on the southeast flanks of the ,jemez ,mountains1 is the noted ,pajarito ,plateau1 the home of great numbers of ,indian cultures1 living and dead4 ,many of the modern ,indian pueblos will be found in this region4 ,also1 some of the most significant ancient ,indian ruins are found here1 such as the ,frijoles ,canyon 7,bandelier ,national ,monument7 and ,puye ,cliff ,dwellings4 ,the entire area north of ,santa ,fe1 then1 is alive with history4 ,in every village1 in every canyon1 there is something that will add to the romance of ,spanish-,indian ,new ,mexico4 ,in our ,southwest1 the heritage handed down by these two great cultures is held dear by the people4 ,to the traveler will come a greater appreciation and a greater understanding of ,new ,mexico and the ,southwest if these are but understood4 ,northeast ,new ,mexico ,the section designated as northeast ,new ,mexico is an area of mountains and plains1 and its historical mosaic shows elements of both3 the rugged ,sandia ,mountains near ,albuquerque and the southernmost parts of the extensive ,sangre de ,cristo range1 which thrusts north from ,u4,s4 ,highway #he far into ,colorado1 and part of the famed buffalo plains4 ,the area is drained by two main river systems2 the ,canadian ,river flows east to join the ,arkansas and the ,mississippi and the ,pecos ,river flows south to join the ,rio ,grande4 ,through this vast area ran one of ,americas greatest highways1 the ,santa ,fe ,trail4 ,beginning in ,missouri communities1 the ,trail hurled itself into the intricate patterns of the ,great ,plains with all of their dangers--,indians1 boredom1 violent storms1 treacherous rivers1 and prairie grass fires4 ,then on into the foothills of the mighty ,rocky ,mountains and the steep and backbreaking approaches to ,raton ,pass in ,new ,mexico4 ,the new highway across this pass 7,u4,s4 #he7 and the nature of our vehicles have made this an easy passage4 ,but the traveler should pause at some high point1 or perhaps leave the main highway for a moment1 and try to imagine crossing this rugged land in ,conestoga wagons4 ,from ,raton1 the ,santa ,fe ,trail continued south to ,las ,vegas and thence into ,santa ,fe via ,glorieta ,pass 7current route of ,u4,s4 #he74 ,over this trail passed the goods of the world4 ,in part1 these were intended for the people of ,new ,mexico1 but over other trails they also found markets in ,mexico and in ,california4 ,for the curious and adventurous1 sections of the ,santa ,fe ,trail can still be seen4 ,local inquiry will elicit directions to remaining parts of the wide rutted ,trail1 scene of so much of the ,american westward movement4 ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a47 ,how ,to see the ,rio ,grande ,valley--from ,sandia ,crest ,while passing through the mountains between ,santa ,fe and ,las ,vegas1 the traveler should be aware that a critical ,civil ,war battle was waged in the fastness of these passes4 ,in #ahfb1 ,confederate forces1 which came up the ,rio ,grande from ,texas and won a series of victories over ,union troops1 met a combined force of ,colorado ,volunteers and ,new ,mexico ,union troops in a decisive contest over the control of the ,american ,southwest4 ,the ,union troops were successful1 preserving ,new ,mexico and the ,west for the ,union4 ,these1 then1 are some of the things to look for in this region of plains and mountains4 ,picture buffalo by the tens of thousands pushing up the ,canadian ,river1 or long lines of wagons winding their way along the ,santa ,fe ,trail carrying goods and people into new lands1 or the ,blue and the ,gray locked in deadly combat far from the thunder of the main ,civil ,war battles4 ,the mosaic here is sharp and vividly different4 ,northwest ,new ,mexico ,northwest ,new ,mexico is typified as ancient ,indian country4 ,while seemingly a harsh land1 it is only this to the uninitiated1 to those who lock their minds to beauties of history and lands unlike their own4 ,the ,indian found this country good and productive4 ,some of the finest ruins of ,indian antiquity are in this region--,chaco ,canyon and ,aztec1 both ,national ,monuments1 and hundreds more that remain unnamed4 ,the ,indians of the ,four ,corners area 7named thus because ,new ,mexico1 ,colorado1 ,utah1 and ,arizona meet here1 the only place in the ,united ,states where the lines of four states intersect7 created levels of culture unsurpassed in what is the continental ,united ,states2 only the ,indians of ,mexico and ,peru claim a higher culture4 ,this is a land whose ancient people reached their great peak at the same time as the later ,romans1 as ,charlemagne in ancient ,frankish ,europe1 and as ,mohammed and his successors in the ,middle ,east4 ,but ancient ,indians hold no monopoly on this vast region4 ,today many of the ,indians of ,new ,mexico still find homes here4 ,the ,navajo ,reservation lies between ,gallup and the ,colorado line4 ,part of the ,ute ,reservation lies along the northern edge of ,new ,mexico1 and the ,jicarilla ,reservation is in the eastern part of this region4 ,many of the pueblo people are found between ,albuquerque and ,santa ,fe4 ,at ,gallup each year1 the famed ,indian ,ceremonials bring together peoples from many of the tribes in the ,united ,states4 ,this region is also renowned as an oil and natural gas producer and is one of the booming areas in ,new ,mexico4 ,but this is only one aspect of the mineral riches of the northwest2 the mines near ,grants1 between ,albuquerque and ,gallup1 produce tremendous quantities of uranium ores4 ,the atomic energy capability of the ,united ,states begins at ,grants4 ,and near ,gallup and ,fruitland are huge open-pit coal mines4 ,the northwest is drained by the ,san ,juan ,river1 a tributary of the ,colorado ,river1 and is therefore a part of the ,pacific watershed4 ,the ,navajo ,dam project1 just east of ,farmington1 is a part of this drainage pattern4 ,thus the region is characterized by ,indians old and new1 ancient things buried deep beneath the earth1 and great beauty in pastel colors and subtle contrasts--the mosaic of the land4 ,east-,central ,new ,mexico ,east-central ,new ,mexico1 like the northeast1 is an area of plains and mountains4 ,here the buffalo roamed1 and in their place1 cattle now utilize the hardy and nutritious grasses of the ,high ,plains4 ,mountains are the ,manzano1 southeast of ,albuquerque1 and ,sierra ,blanca1 near ,carrizozo1 as well as numerous minor ranges4 ,also in this region is some harsh and desolate country1 seared by the southwestern sun and lacking in rainfall1 but supporting the exotic plants and wildlife typical of the ,sonoran desert regions4 ,while the desert regions may not be attractive to the eye1 they should be appreciated for their part in the historical mosaic4 ,in the area east of the ,rio ,grande is the northern half of the well-known ,white ,sands ,missile ,range1 one of the significant test centers in the rocket and space age4 ,it was also in this arid region that the first atomic bomb was exploded 7southeast of ,socorro74 ,the early use of this desert1 however1 emphasized its harshness4 ,for centuries1 the ,spanish suffered across this waterless waste on their way from ,chihuahua in ,old ,mexico to ,santa ,fe1 for this was the ,jornada del ,muerto1 journey of death1 the hardest and most dangerous part of the trip over the ,camino ,real4 ,the ,camino ,real was the lifeline of ,new ,mexico from #aeih until the ,santa ,fe ,trail was opened in #ahba1 and all visitors during that period were obliged to cross this arid section4 ,a modern rocket crosses in mere seconds what took the ,spaniards many days4 ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a47 ,who says this is desert country8444 ,sierra ,blanca from ,u4,s4 #gj ,in the ,manzano ,mountains1 there are numerous ,indian ruins which represent the eastern fringes of the pueblo-building ,indians of ,new ,mexico4 ,these ruined villages have been given the name by historians of 8cities that died of fear10 fear of the vicious ,apache and ,comanche tribes4 ,for centuries1 these brave village people tilled their crops and lived peacefully on the land4 ,then1 in the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth centuries1 the great migrations of ,plains ,indians that pushed into the ,southwest gradually did their deadly work4 ,one by one the villages succumbed1 until by #agjj few people remained1 and these were ultimately killed or driven into the sanctuary of the ,rio ,grande pueblos4 ,it is awesome to stand mid the rubble of one of those ancient cities and imagine the circumstances of its demise4 ,in the eastern part of this section was the heart of the ,high ,plains cattle empires4 ,here is a land that once belonged to the great cattle barons1 a land of free range1 the home of the cowboy4 ,although it is fenced today1 it is still a land of cattle and is still very close to the early days of the cattleman4 ,again1 there is an intricate and varied mosaic4 ,no simple land this1 but a complexity of plains1 mountains1 and desert1 all of which color its history4 ,the ,indians no longer inhabit their villages1 the ,spanish no longer struggle along the ,jornada del ,muerto1 and the free range of the cattle baron is gone1 but if the traveler sees it through its historical past1 it will again come alive4 ,west-,central ,new ,mexico ,this section is a complex and colorful mass of landforms scattered helter-skelter across the western part of the state4 ,it stretches from the green ,rio ,grande ,valley1 with its irrigated lands1 quaint farms1 and picturesque agricultural villages1 up the ,valley's steep western slopes to the rolling grassland and mesas and alluvial fans1 ending in precipitous and treacherous canyons in the rugged mountains4 ,socorro ,mountain1 the ,magdalenas1 the ,san ,mateos1 the ,ladrones1 and countless others seem always to ring the horizon4 ,some of them are timbered and abound in cool1 refreshing shade and springs2 some are harsh and dry4 ,in the west1 the famed ,san ,agustin ,plains stretch to the sunset1 a wide carpet fringed by black1 timbered hills1 site of fabulous cattle drives of a bygone day4 ,the complexity of the region's geology1 scenery1 and terrain is matched by an equally complex history4 ,the history is a mosaic of many hues1 some harsh and stark like its dry desert mountains1 some inviting like the shade and coolness of its timbered canyons and mountain springs4 ,first were the many diverse and sometimes hostile ,indian cultures4 ,there were peaceful pueblo peoples tilling their lands1 using the ,rio ,grande's flowing water to produce abundance4 ,also1 prehistoric village dwellers struggled to create agricultural societies along the banks of now-dry rivers in the western part of the region4 ,and there were the fearsome ,apache ,indians who founded their homes in the broken mountain fastnesses and added their excitement and tragedy to the mosaic4 ,so1 too1 did the ,spaniard make his mark and the ,mexican who followed close behind4 ,the place names of the eastern part of the region are primarily ,spanish1 although the ,spanish found the area a difficult one in which to maintain themselves4 ,and then the ,american came to dominate this land1 adding realism and technology4 ,finally1 two major economic factors left a profound imprint3 stock raising and mining4 ,the first began with the ,spanish1 was continued by the ,mexicans1 and commercialized by the ,americans4 ,everywhere are signs of this heritage4 ,mining also played a dominant role1 although of a shorter duration4 ,one can hardly lift his eyes to the hills without seeing signs of the prospectors shovel or the miner's work4 ,one can hardly converse with local citizens without discussing mines of the past or mines of the future4 ,livestock and minerals1 then1 are woven through the historical pattern and are never far from any part of the story4 ,let the traveler be aware of several important facts when he passes through this region4 ,first1 this is empty country1 an area that has fewer people now than it had eighty years ago4 ,its mines are mostly closed and the towns that grew with the mines are ghosts4 ,one of the most famous of these is the town of ,kelly1 a short distance from the community of ,magdalena4 ,another is ,mogollon1 off ,u4,s4 ,highway #ahj in the southwestern part of this region4 ,either of these will give to the viewer a vivid picture of the mining camps of the nineteenth century4 ,to the average tourist crossing the ,san ,agustin ,plains1 they seem desolate and uninteresting4 ,to the traveler with imagination and knowledge of the history of this once great inland lake1 the trip can be exciting4 ,he pictures this great basin full of water1 forty-five miles long and fifteen miles wide1 and sees mountains covered with blue spruce surrounding the great lake4 ,his mental motion picture rolls on thousands of years1 watching the water evaporate and the forest of spruce die1 to be replaced eventually by the pion and juniper now dotting the hills4 ,grass grew in the old lake bed1 except in the last areas to evaporate1 for these had an alkali content too high for most grasses4 ,the traveler then watches the ,indian enter the scene--not the pueblo builder1 except as a transient1 for no water is available4 ,the nomadic warrior uses the pathway later4 ,in #aggd and in #aggf1 he sees several important battles between the ,spanish and the ,apaches fought on these ,plains4 ,later1 the ,american cattleman dominates them1 as he does today4444 ,and so the mosaic grows--,indians1 ,spanish1 ,americans1 cattle1 and mines--and the spectacular vistas and the vast emptiness add color and excitement for the traveler who sees the past with the present4 ,southeast ,new ,mexico ,much of southeast ,new ,mexico is an extension of the ,great ,plains1 but it has some rugged mountains and a severe desert in the middle of which lie ,white ,sands ,national ,monument and the ,white ,sands ,missile ,range4 ,mountain ranges include the ,sacramento east of ,alamogordo and the ,guadalupe ,mountains1 in which are located ,carlsbad ,caverns4 ,the plains part of this region are devoted to cattle1 potash1 and oil4 ,like the other plains regions of ,new ,mexico1 the heritage passed on from the great cattle empires of bygone days is very strong and detectable in the people4 ,since the early #aicj's1 oil has come to play an increasingly important part in the history of this section4 ,this is especially true near ,hobbs4 ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a47 ,anyone for a hike8444 in the ,guadalupe ,mountains ,the desert region in the western part of this section has clearly defined aspects of the old and the new4 ,the southern part of the dread ,jornado del ,muerto swept across this arid land and only returned to the river near modern ,hatch1 or sometimes farther south1 near modern ,las ,cruces1 according to the whim of the river4 ,here also lies the ,white ,sands ,national ,monument1 a desert spot of unusual beauty and interest4 ,near the ,monument1 the ,white ,sands ,missile ,range stands as an advanced scientific test center for the most modern of vehicles1 the rocket4 ,near ,alamogordo1 another advanced space development and testing facility is located at ,holloman ,air ,force ,base4 ,so the desert is useful1 and it is beautiful1 and it is full of tragic history4 ,this is also ,indian land4 ,east of ,tularosa is the ,mescalero ,apache ,indian ,reservation4 ,in a way1 this region has always belonged to the ,apache1 at least since he migrated into ,new ,mexico4 ,the area contained no sedentary groups and the ,apache appropriated it as his own4 ,his strongholds were in the ,guadalupe and ,sacramento mountains4 ,the forts along the ,rio ,grande1 like ,forts ,fillmore and ,selden1 were located to control the ,mescalero and other ,apache groups4 ,all that remains today are the ,mescaleros4 ,there was little ,spanish influence in this area except near ,el ,paso and in the ,rio ,grande ,valley4 ,the ,spanish were more attracted to the upper ,rio ,grande ,valley because of the sedentary nature of the ,indians of that region4 ,the southeast underwent its greatest development in the ,american period4 ,again1 sense the mosaic3 ,these are not blends of land and history2 they are sharp and distinct1 each with its own character4 ,search for the history and the beauty1 for they do not come automatically4 ,southwest ,new ,mexico ,finally1 the southwest1 another region of harsh desert and cool refreshing mountains1 part of ,new ,mexico's unusual contrast4 ,the country south of ,u4,s4 #gj is ,sonoran desert1 thinly populated and poorly watered4 ,to the north of the highway lies one of the most spectacular beauty spots in the ,southwest1 the mountains and forests forming the headwaters of the ,gila ,river4 ,the ,gila ,river flows west across ,arizona until it joins the ,colorado ,river which empties into the ,gulf of ,california4 ,the ,indians in this part of the state fall into two distinct categories3 ,the builders1 known as the ,mimbres culture1 constructed homes in caves and along the watercourses of the ,gila and ,mimbres rivers4 ,they reached extremely high levels of culture1 and then they disappeared4 ,the ,apache ,indians1 who entered this country at the same time as they did the rest of ,new ,mexico1 were responsible for the end of the farmers and builders1 at least in part4 ,the ,apaches were predators and the farmers were peaceful1 unversed in the arts of war4 ,finally the ,apache ruled supreme1 and this region became the most important single stronghold of the ,indian4 ,it was here that ,geronimo found sanctuary4 ,but the ,apaches1 too1 were forced to surrender their claims and were placed on reservations outside this area4 ,mining is and has been the main source of wealth4 ,the great open-pit operation of ,kennecott ,copper ,company is at ,santa ,rita1 east of ,silver ,city4 ,this is one of the largest open-pit copper mines in ,north ,america4 ,to look into that huge man-made pit is a thrilling experience4 ,this mine was first opened in #ahjc by the ,spanish who needed copper badly as a circulating currency in ,new ,spain 7,mexico74 ,for a number of years1 the coins used for money in ,mexico were from copper mined in southwestern ,new ,mexico4 ,copper represents only a part of the mining activity in this region4 ,famous mining districts in earlier days were at ,kingston and ,hillsboro1 just east of the ,black ,range on ,state ,highway #ij4 ,these areas produced considerable quantities of silver4 ,there is some activity yet1 but the boom has long since passed them by1 although they are interesting towns to visit4 ,the trip from ,u4,s4 #he to ,silver ,city via ,state ,highway #ij is one of the most scenic routes in the state4 ,in the region north of ,silver ,city lies high mountain country1 much of it preserved as the ,gila ,wilderness ,area4 ,here a person who wishes the solitude of forest and mountain1 the thrill of trout fishing in a clear cold stream1 and a wealth of wildlife can find his heart's desire4 ,in the heart of this wilderness1 the traveler might well find some of the ancient homes of the ,mimbres people4 ,history and recreation blend into one4 ,these complete the mosaic4 ,everywhere one travels in ,new ,mexico is enchanting history1 in the land and_/or in the people4 ,this has not been an effort to acquaint anyone with the intricate detail of all the history of every nook and cranny of this land1 but these broad strokes made on the canvas may help the traveler1 transient or native1 to enjoy himself4 ,let him accept the challenge1 stop to investigate1 search out evidence of the history that is there in the colorful and changing land itself1 the ,indian heritage1 the ,spanish past1 the cattleman's range1 the miner's endless search--and become enchanted4 ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a41 by ,john ,whiteside7 ,wheeler ,peak near ,taos--highest point in ,new ,mexico1 #ac1afj feet above sea level ,illustration3 7,courtesy ,elliott ,s4 ,barker7 ,ghost ,ranch ,mountain north of ,abiquiu ,derricks and ,mines by ,george ,b4 ,griswold ,new ,mexico is a mineral-rich state4 ,the gross production value of oil1 gas1 and minerals was #fga million during #aifc1 making the state the sixth ranking mineral producer in the nation4 ,new ,mexico ranks among other states as follows3 first in the production of potash1 uranium1 perlite1 and carbon dioxide2 third in helium2 fourth in copper2 fifth in natural gas and liquids2 and seventh in petroleum4 ,important amounts of zinc1 lead1 gold1 silver1 magnesium compounds1 coal1 gypsum1 pumice1 and salt are also produced from deposits within ,new ,mexico4 ,the oil and gas industry holds a dominant position in the state1 accounting for almost two thirds of the value of minerals produced4 ,,oil ,,and ,,gas ,most of ,new ,mexico's oil and gas are produced in the southeastern part1 south and east of ,roswell4 ,the bustling towns of ,hobbs1 ,artesia1 and ,lovington1 as well as ,roswell1 are headquarters for the many oil companies and the associated service and supply organizations operating in the area4 ,oil and gas are produced from numerous reservoirs1 called fields or pools1 in ,paleozoic sediments ranging from ,ordovician to ,permian in age4 ,from the standpoint of production1 the ,eunice-,monument field 7lying between these two towns7 is the largest1 having produced more than #bej million barrels of oil4 ,other important fields are ,hobbs1 ,vacuum1 ,langlie ,mattix1 ,denton1 and ,jalmat4 ,all these fields produce a considerable amount of gas associated directly with the oil4 ,when driving an automobile through southeast ,new ,mexico1 a layman finds it difficult to comprehend the immensity of the petroleum industry of that region4 ,this is due to the scattering of wells over a large area4 ,seldom are wells spaced closer than one to every ten acres1 even in the most productive fields4 ,there are1 in fact1 some #af1jjj wells in this part of ,new ,mexico1 ranging in depth from less than #ajjj feet to #ag1eee feet4 ,the other oil- and gas-producing area of the state is in the northwest1 in the ,san ,juan ,basin4 ,farmington serves as the base of operations for most of this activity4 ,in #aifb1 there were #gcgh wells in the area1 #aggj of which were producing oil and gas and #efjh producing gas only4 ,most of the ,san ,juan ,basin production is from ,cretaceous sandstones1 in contrast to the southeast where the oil and gas are derived from ,paleozoic sediments4 ,the development of the ,san ,juan ,basin production is relatively new2 most of the wells have been drilled since ,world ,war ,,ii4 ,the petroleum industry can be proud of the great help it has given to the development of this once-almost-forgotten part of the state4 ,illustration3 7,courtesy ,el ,paso ,natural ,gas ,co47 ,there's the way to refine oil6 ,look at those mesas1 near ,gallup ,the methods of finding and producing oil and gas have come a long way from the 8boom town0 days when wells were drilled for the most part on pure hunches and hopes4 ,the exploration and exploitation of petroleum are now highly specialized technologies4 ,all branches of the geologic and geophysical sciences are brought into play to piece together a comprehensive picture of all the factors which may have made a certain area favorable for the accumulation of oil or gas4 ,these factors include such things as the age1 thickness1 and permeability of the sedimentary rocks1 the structure1 old shorelines1 and buried reefs4 ,once a target is selected1 a drilling rig is moved onto the location to prove or disprove the theory4 ,this is the costly step of finding oil4 ,a single #aj1jjj-;foot hole may cost #cej1jjj1 and some individual wells in ,new ,mexico have cost more than #a million to drill4 ,if the well is in a completely untested area1 it is called a 8wildcat40 ,once a discovery is made1 then the land around the wildcat is explored by 8offset0 wells until the complete extent of the new field is proved4 ,during #aifb1 #afff wells were drilled to an average depth of #eaec feet4 ,the average drilling cost was #ga1jjj a well1 representing a total investment of almost #abj million in a single year6 ,most of these wells were of the development 7offset7 type1 but even then1 #bg per cent were dry4 ,during #aifb1 #bie true wildcats were drilled2 of these1 only #df found oil or gas--about two out of every thirteen4 ,the story of oil just begins with the discovery of a well4 ,various special 8completion0 operations are applied to the oil-producing horizon so as to increase the flow into the well4 ,the most common techniques are either by 8acidizing10 pumping acid into the formation to increase flow by enlarging the pores in the rock1 or by 8hydrafracing10 whereby actual cracks are induced in the formation by pumping oil from the surface back into the well under very high pressure4 ,after the well is 8completed10 it may be a natural-flowing well if sufficient gas is associated with the oil4 ,if sufficient gas is not present1 then the well is pumped4 ,in recent years1 considerable success has been achieved in revitalizing old fields where production had dropped below the point of economic operation4 ,these fields are reactivated by forcing either water or gas down selected wells within the field1 thereby forcing stagnated oil within the producing zone toward the other wells4 ,this technique is called secondary recovery4 ,many fields will produce more oil under the secondary recovery program than they did during their primary life4 ,illustration3 ,here's a wildcat for you6 ,once the oil is on the surface1 it passes through separators to remove any admixed gas from the oil4 ,the gas is sent into pipelines while the oil is sent to storage tanks called tank batteries4 ,periodically1 the oil is drawn from the tank batteries where it is transported by pipeline or rail to refineries4 ,the great bulk of the crude oil leaves ,new ,mexico for refining via a major pipeline network extending through ,texas to both the ,gulf and ,east coasts4 ,some oil is refined in ,new ,mexico1 however4 ,oil refineries in ,artesia1 ,bloomfield1 ,ciniza1 ,farmington1 and ,monument have a combined capacity to treat some #cj1jjj barrels 7#db gallons a barrel7 of crude oil a day4 ,on the other hand1 practically all the natural gas is treated in ,new ,mexico so as to recover its liquid petroleum constituents before sending it out of the state by pipeline4 ,,mining ,the mining industry of ,new ,mexico dates back to the days of ,spanish rule4 ,copper was mined from the ,santa ,rita mine as early as #ahjj for shipment to ,mexico for use in coinage4 ,significant mining in ,new ,mexico did not commence1 however1 until the late #ahjj's4 ,there are three major centers today3 ,carlsbad1 potash2 ,silver ,city area1 copper1 zinc1 and lead2 and ,grants1 uranium4 ,illustration3 ,question3 where are the other oil pumps and tanks in the ,san ,juan ,basin8 ,the potash mining east of ,carlsbad1 a #ge million-a-year industry employing more than #cfjj persons1 is the largest operation of its kind in the world4 ,six mining companies are active in the area1 and a seventh is developing yet another mine4 ,potash is a word used to denote various potassium compounds4 ,the principal ore mineral at ,carlsbad is sylvanite1 a mixture of potassium chloride and sodium chloride 7common salt74 ,the ore contains the equivalent of #ba to #be per cent potassium oxide 7,k,o74#f ,another ore mineral1 known as langbeinite1 a double salt of potassium and magnesium sulfate1 is also mined4 ,the potash ores occur as horizontal beds sandwiched between thick salt and anhydrite layers4 ,these beds are the result of evaporation of large quantities of salt waters during the latter part of the ,permian period some #bdj million years ago4 ,the potash-bearing horizons now are buried from #ijj to #ahjj feet below the surface4 ,the discovery of potash in southeast ,new ,mexico was almost by accident4 ,in #aibe1 the ,snowden and ,mc,sweeny ,company drilled a wildcat oil test a few miles east of ,carlsbad4 ,the hole was dry1 but potash minerals were detected in the drill cuttings4 ,the discovery generated considerable interest because the ,united ,states was forced to import most of its potash prior to this time4 ,further drilling proved the existence of tremendous deposits of potassium salts in that area4 ,the potash mines are among the most highly mechanized of the mineral industry4 ,access to the buried deposits is gained by vertical shafts4 ,actual mining is now done to a large extent by continuous miners1 machines which bore or rip the potash ore from the face and load it into shuttle cars in one continuous operation4 ,the shuttle cars then transport the ore to conveyor belts which move it to the shafts for hoisting4 ,working conditions and safety are excellent and have led to high productivity from these mines4 ,the potash ore is refined or processed by fractional crystallation or flotation4 ,these plants remove most of the unwanted sodium chloride and other gangue minerals to produce high-quality potassium chloride or sulfate4 ,after processing1 the potash salts are stored in giant bins to await shipment by rail to the major agriculture areas of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,carlsbad mines produce some #ae million tons of ore a year which1 when refined1 produces #d million tons of marketable potassium salts having a ,k,o equivalent of #b4e million tons4 ,illustration3 7,courtesy ,international ,minerals ,chemical ,corp47 ,crunch6444 continuous mining machine at work ,uranium mining is the newest major industry in ,new ,mexico4 ,the boom started in #aiej with the discovery of uranium ore west of ,grants by a ,navajo sheep rancher named ,paddy ,martinez4 ,this discovery started one of the most extensive exploration and development campaigns in all mining history4 ,by #aieg1 the area had proved uranium reserves accounting for more than half of the entire reserve of the nation4 ,these discoveries will make this country self-sufficient in this vital atomic energy metal for years to come4 ,five mills were built that are capable of producing 8yellow cake0 7almost pure uranium oxide7 from uranium ores containing as little as #j4bj per cent ,u,o4 ,four mills are located in the ,grants area1 ranging in capacity from #aejj to #djjj tons a day4 ,the fifth mill1 rated at #ejj tons a day1 is at ,shiprock4 ,there are numerous mines1 ranging from tiny two-man operations up to great mines producing more than #ajjj tons a day4 ,the most prolific producing area is the ,ambrosia ,lake ,district north of ,grants2 most of these mines are underground4 ,probably the largest single uranium mine1 however1 is the open-pit ,jackpile-,paguate mine of the ,anaconda ,company on the ,laguna ,indian ,reservation some thirty miles east of ,grants4 ,the mine uses electric shovels capable of loading eight cubic yards of ore at a time into large diesel trucks4 ,copper is produced from the ,chino mine located at ,santa ,rita1 about fifteen miles east of ,silver ,city4 ,this mine1 operated by ,kennecott ,copper ,corporation1 is the showpiece of the ,new ,mexico minerals industry4 ,the copper ore is low grade1 containing only sixteen pounds a ton of the red metal1 but the deposit is immense1 allowing the mining of #bb1ejj tons a day4 ,the ,chino is by far the largest single mining operation in the state4 ,a large concentrator and smelter are located at ,hurley1 about ten miles southwest of the pit4 ,the ,chino pit is a spectacular sight for its scenic setting and its sheer size4 ,the deposit is located below the ,kneeling ,nun1 a famous natural statue formed by the erosion of a rhyolite flow which caps a high mesa4 ,the pit covers almost one square mile and is #hjj feet deep4 ,the mining is highly mechanized4 ,large rotary drills make blast holes twelve inches in diameter into which explosives are loaded4 ,a single blast may break #ajj1jjj tons of rock4 ,the ore is loaded with #h-;cubic-yard shovels into large trucks carrying from #be to #fe tons each4 ,the trucks transport the ore to an inclined skipway on the west end of the pit4 ,the skip then carries the ore up to the train level where it is transferred into railroad cars for shipment to the mill4 ,waste rock1 too low-grade to justify sending to the mill1 is transported to the very top of the skip way1 where it is trucked to the dumps4 ,at ,chino1 much of the waste rock contains some copper4 ,the amount is small1 but a part of it can be recovered by leaching-percolating water down through the rock to dissolve the copper4 ,at the bottom of the dumps1 the copper-rich water is collected and sent through precipitating tanks containing scrap iron4 ,the copper plates out on the iron1 forming metallic copper4 ,the dump-leaching program alone at ,chino is a substantial enterprise4 ,the concentrator and smelter at ,hurley is the facility which reduces the low-grade ore into pure metal4 ,the concentrator first crushes and grinds the ore1 then recovers the copper-bearing minerals 7principally chalcocite and chalcopyrite7 by flotation4 ,the concentrate of these copper sulfides is taken to the smelter to make metallic copper4 ,north and west of the ,chino mine are important deposits of zinc and lead4 ,two underground mines are now active3 the ,hanover of the ,new ,jersey ,zinc ,company and the ,kearney--,pewabic of ,american--,peru ,mining ,company4 ,although dwarfed by the ,chino mine1 these are important producers4 ,illustration3 7,courtesy ,the ,anaconda ,co47 ,man1 dig this hole6444 ,jackpile open-pit uranium mine near ,laguna ,illustration3 7,courtesy ,kennecott ,copper ,corp47 8,just scoop up copper ore1 take it to the skipway44440 up the side of the ,chino ,mine at ,santa ,rita ,copper1 potash1 and uranium are not the only mining operations of ,new ,mexico4 ,perlite is recovered from deposits near ,no ,agua in ,taos ,county and just north of ,grants4 ,two new gypsum plants are now operating northeast of ,albuquerque1 and a cement plant is located east of that city4 ,high-grade copper veins are worked south of ,lordsburg4 ,coal mining is being reactivated1 with producing mines near ,gallup1 ,fruitland1 and ,raton4 ,a new molybdenum mine is under development east of ,questa4 ,new ,mexico's mineral industry is on a broad and firm base4 ,mines and derricks are ever-present aspects of ,new ,mexico's landscapes2 they are seen by every citizen of the state and every tourist as he travels across the plains1 valleys1 and mountains4 ,the derricks and the mine openings are merely surface features through which the vast wealth of the underground is exploited1 but they are a monetarily important part of ,new ,mexico's scenery1 rocks1 and history4 ,enchanting ,landscapes by ,frank ,e4 ,kottlowski ,the visitor and the native may be well acquainted with the more famous scenic places in ,new ,mexico4 ,most of these are ,national or ,state ,parks or ,monuments--glistening dunes of ,white ,sands1 sandstone cliffs of ,el ,morro1 canyons eroded in volcanic rocks of ,bandelier1 the recent volcano of ,capulin ,mountain1 multicolored sinkholes at ,bottomless ,lakes1 grotesque carvings of volcanic rocks at ,city of ,rocks1 and the black tongues of cooled lava in the ,valley of ,fires ,state ,park near ,carrizozo4 ,many of the lesser-known spectacular scenic areas are off the beaten path1 far from the seventy-mile-an-hour ,interstate highways4 ,even a brief description of all would fill a thick book4 ,but near the most traveled routes are numerous enchanting landscapes4 ,the traveler from the midwest or east1 driving ,u4,s4 ,highway #ff 7,interstate #dj7 breaks over the edge of the 8caprock0 a few miles east of the ,new ,mexico--,texas line4 ,atop the caprock is ,llano ,estacado1 the ,staked ,plains1 a level surface stretching along the southeast edge of ,new ,mexico eastward into ,texas4 ,as seen south of ,tucumcari near ,ragland1 east of ,fort ,sumner near ,taiban1 or east of ,roswell near ,kenna and ,caprock1 the bluffs of the ,llano ,estacado are topped by caprock1 a cliff of white caliche-limestone as much as forty feet thick in places4 ,below1 on gentle to steep slopes reaching northward toward ,tucumcari or westward toward ,fort ,sumner and ,roswell1 are the varicolored red1 purple1 green1 and gray shales and sandstones of ,triassic age4 ,red ,lake near ,taiban on ,u4,s4 ,highway #fj-hd lies in the red muds of these ,triassic rocks4 ,south of ,tucumcari1 rising boldly from the red-earth lowlands draining to the ,canadian ,river1 are ,tucumcari ,mountain and ,mesa ,redonda1 and to the northwest the long buff cliffs of ,mesa ,rica4 ,the latter mesa lies north of ,interstate #dj as far west as ,newkirk4 ,patches of the white caprock caliche-limestone cap these eastern ,new ,mexico sentinels1 whereas in other localities1 the brown ,dakota ,sandstone tops the buttes and is underlain by pink ,jurassic sandstones1 with the mesa bases made up of the ,triassic redbeds4 ,near ,santa ,rosa1 ,interstate #dj dips down into the narrow green valley of ,rio ,pecos4 ,roadcuts lining the steep hills into the city show the red and brown sandstones and shales of the ,triassic beds4 ,driving westward from ,santa ,rosa1 one crosses rolling hills near ,clines ,corners1 then dips gently down into the northern part of the ,estancia ,basin near ,moriarty4 ,to the north on the horizon are the snow-capped peaks of the ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains4 ,from ,moriarty1 ,interstate #dj pulls slowly upward toward ,edgewood into the eastern foothills of the ,sandia ,mountains1 the grassy plains giving way to juniper and pion groves4 ,from the downgrade into ,tijeras ,canyon1 ,state ,highway #aj leads north to ,san ,antonito and the turnoff to ,sandia ,crest4 ,the crest road winds up canyon walls1 on sloping limestone mesas1 up through thick stands of ponderosa pine1 aspen1 and1 near the top1 ,engelmann spruce and corkbark fir4 ,rocky ,mountain bighorn sheep may be seen off the road on the high crags4 ,from ,sandia ,crest1 #aj1fgh feet above sea level1 much of north-central ,new ,mexico is visible2 ,mount ,taylor to the west1 the ,nacimiento and ,jemez mountains to the northwest1 the mighty ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains to the northeast1 and countless ranges to the south and southwest4 ,the city of ,albuquerque is spread out at the base of the ,sandias1 and the twisting north-south channel of the ,rio ,grande stretches1 glistening1 as far left and right as one can see4 ,from ,tijeras1 ,interstate #dj plunges into ,tijeras ,canyon1 slicing through vertical roadcuts in ,pennsylvanian limestones and shales1 then through the ancient ,precambrian granite4 ,at the canyons mouth1 the road levels off on the broad alluvial plain on which much of east ,albuquerque is built1 although the 8downtown0 is really down1 in the valley of the ,rio ,grande4 ,westward1 ,interstate #dj rolls up out of the valley1 crosses windswept plains spotted with black volcanic cones1 in and out of the shallow brown valley of ,rio ,puerco1 and then to the red-cliff-bordered valley of ,rio ,san ,jose4 ,cliffs are of brown1 buff1 and light-gray ,jurassic sandstones1 with the valley carved in ,triassic redbeds4 ,near ,laguna1 on the north side of the valley1 white gypsum of the ,todilto ,formation crops out4 ,then through the pink ,jurassic cliffs the canyon winds1 and near ,new ,laguna1 the highway is bordered by the varicolored1 uranium-bearing ,morrison beds1 which are overlain by brown sandstones and black shales of ,cretaceous age4 ,but as ,interstate #dj approaches ,grants1 the dominant feature is black frozen lava4 ,the mesas surrounding ,mount ,taylor are capped by black basalt1 built up in many layers1 each individual flows1 and loose blocks tumble down on the hillsides4 ,young basalt1 twisted and wrinkled as if it were still hot1 winds along the valley2 just east of ,grants1 a huge 8field0 of this recent basalt stretches southward beyond the horizon4 ,and above all looms ,mount ,taylor1 remnant of an ancient volcano1 snow-capped in winter1 towering #aa1chi feet above sea level4 ,at ,casa ,blanca1 southeast of ,mount ,taylor1 ,state ,road #bc leads south to ,acoma ,pueblo4 ,eleven miles to the southwest1 ,enchanted ,mesa1 ,katsim as it is called by the ,acomas1 towers #dej feet above the surrounding valley floor4 ,this sheer-cliffed rock is built by layers of 7from the base to the top7 pink and white ,entrada ,sandstone1 gray ,todilto limestone1 pink and green ,summerville beds1 a massive cliff of light-tan ,zuni ,sandstone1 and a cap of yellow-brown ,dakota ,sandstone4 ,the top of ,enchanted ,mesa is inaccessible by normal means4 ,legend has it that once the ,acomas lived there1 and there are ,indian ruins up on the isolated rim4 ,a terrific rain and lightning storm1 one summer day1 sent huge waterfalls down the sides of the mesa1 tearing away large blocks of sandstone1 and destroyed the trail to the top1 a series of narrow zigzag ledges and toeholds in crevasses4 ,thus the ,acoma ,indians moved a few miles to the southwest to ,acoma1 onto the top of another sheer cliff1 a rock fortress carved in ,zuni ,sandstone and capped by ,dakota ,sandstone4 ,illustration3 ,talk about wide open spaces 444 around the ,enchanted ,mesa ,southwest of ,grants1 the forested ,zuni ,mountains rise1 bordered on the north by a valley cut in ,triassic redbeds and on the east by the recent black basalt flows4 ,the hurrying traveler will follow ,interstate #dj to ,gallup around the north edge of the ,zuni dome1 flanked on the north by the spectacular pink1 red1 brown1 and gray cliffs of ,jurassic and ,cretaceous sandstones4 ,if one has time1 take the low road1 ,state ,highways #ec and #cf1 around the southern edge of the ,zunis4 ,for almost twenty miles1 passing through ,san ,rafael1 the paved highway parallels the west edge of the ,grants black basalt flow2 then up over low ridges and past black cinder cones toward ,el ,morro4 ,in the lava tunnels1 perpetual ice stays hidden from the sun2 these can be visited at ,ice ,caves4 ,el ,morro1 ,inscription ,rock1 with its towering cliffs of ,zuni ,sandstone1 overlooks peaceful green valleys2 farther west1 the red and brown sandstones are carved into many mesas and buttes near ,zuni ,pueblo4 ,then northward to ,gallup1 swinging around the west edge of the ,zuni ,mountains1 the roller-coaster highway1 ,state #cf1 cuts through ponderosa pine country1 bordered by ,cretaceous brown sandstones1 black shales1 and coal beds4 ,northeast of ,gallup eight miles is ,kit ,carson's ,cave1 a gaping door on the face of a massive cliff of ,jurassic sandstone4 ,a pool of cool water lies along its floor4 ,the three-and-a-half-mile drive north of ,interstate #dj is through a vast broken country of sandstone spires1 pyramids1 cliffs1 and ledges carved in the ,jurassic rocks4 ,near ,gallup1 the drab coal-bearing ,cretaceous beds form the landscapes1 but westward near the ,arizona line1 erosion has cut down again to the brilliantly colored ,jurassic rocks1 and ,interstate #dj is escorted westward into the ,grand ,canyon ,state by cliffs of white and pink sandstone4 ,californians crossing ,new ,mexico in the winter are likely to travel ,u4,s4 ,highway #gj-hj 7,interstate #aj7 eastward4 ,new ,mexico is entered just before ,steins ,pass1 which is channeled through the tan and green volcanic rocks of the ,peloncillo ,mountains4 ,then down across the mud and salt marshes of ,alkali ,flats lying in the ,animas ,valley and up onto the north edge of the ,pyramid ,mountains into ,lordsburg4 ,mine dumps dot the ,pyramids1 and the ghost mining town of ,shakespeare lies amid the purple volcanic rocks4 ,eastward from ,lordsburg for #aah miles are the ,antelope ,plains2 plains1 plains1 plains4 ,steers graze on the sparse grass1 yucca clumps border the highway1 and here and there sand dunes flee before the restless winds4 ,mountain ranges1 like islands on the sea of grass1 yucca1 and creosote bush1 rise in the distance4 ,west of ,deming1 the low ,victorio ,mountains lie south of the highway1 made up of dolomite1 limestone1 and andesite ridges4 ,southeast of ,deming are the lofty ,florida ,mountains1 their northern toe crossed by ,interstate #aj4 ,volcanic hills dot the landscape east of ,las ,cruces1 ,sierra de las ,uvas' purple slopes to the north1 and the ,potrillo ,mountains and ,mount ,riley to the south4 ,the latter are part of a spectacular volcanic field where black cinder cones and basalt flows cover hundreds of square miles1 and craters such as ,kilbourne ,hole are sunk below the plains4 ,the descent into the ,rio ,grande ,valley is awesome1 especially if the late afternoon sun is dancing on the spires and cliffs of the ,organ ,mountains to the east4 ,from across the brown plains1 ,interstate #aj winds down into the green ,mesilla ,valley1 a different world of cotton and alfalfa fields1 pecan and cottonwood groves1 and red-tile-roofed ,spanish homes4 ,the view of the ,organ ,mountains alone is worth the trip4 ,at ,las ,cruces1 a city booming on cotton1 rockets1 and tourists1 ,interstate #aj turns south to parallel the east side of the ,rio ,grande ,valley down to ,texas and ,el ,paso4 ,if one prefers a quiet scenic route1 ,state ,highway #bh winds its way along the west side of the ,valley amid fields and groves1 through peaceful villages1 to end at the bridge over the ,rio ,grande on the edge of ,el ,paso4 ,here1 to the south1 is ,el ,cristo ,rey1 a cone of massive andesite1 flanked by steeply tilted beds of limestone and shale1 ,early ,cretaceous in age1 cut in two by the ,new ,mexico-,mexico border4 ,atop the peak is a #bi-;foot-high1 #dj-ton1 limestone statue of ,christ2 a winding path leads upward from the base for those strong enough of limb to make the climb4 ,beyond1 to the south1 ,ciudad ,juarez lies1 famous for its bordertown flavor1 markets1 cathedrals1 and bull rings4 ,the traveler to the east should stay on ,u4,s4 #fb-ahj from ,el ,paso4 ,this highway cuts through the ,hueco ,mountains via ,powwow ,canyon1 a gash carved from ,pennsylvanian and ,permian limestones1 crosses the ,diablo ,plateau1 rolls past the white patches of ,salt ,flat lakes1 then winds up to the summit of ,guadalupe ,pass between the ,delaware ,mountains on the south and the towering ,guadalupe ,mountains on the north4 ,looking north from the ,pass1 ,guadalupe ,peak1 highest point in ,texas1 and ,el ,capitan are unforgettable sights1 their steep lower slopes ribbed brown and green1 overshadowed by the #ajjj-;foot limestone cliffs of the peaks4 ,the limestone-hewn ,guadalupe ,mountains parallel the highway in ,new ,mexico and are pitted with many caves1 with ,carlsbad ,caverns the largest known in the range4 ,eastward beyond the ,pecos ,valley stretches the ,great ,plains and ,texas4 ,a side trip1 near ,carlsbad1 over black-topped and gravel roads leads from ,seven ,rivers1 up ,rocky ,arroyo on ,state ,road #acg1 into the northern foothills of the ,guadalupe ,mountains to ,sitting ,bull ,falls4 ,here1 cool spring waters cascade over limestone ledges to join in green pools lying amid the cottonwood groves of the canyon floor4 ,lake ,mc,millan1 a reservoir along the ,pecos ,river north of ,carlsbad1 and the many potash mines east of ,carlsbad are parts of the enchanting landscapes of this southeastern corner4 ,northward1 following the green cotton fields bordering the ,pecos ,river1 ,u4,s4 ,highway #bhe leads through ,artesia with its oil refineries to modern booming ,roswell1 second city of the state4 ,east of ,roswell1 bordering the east side of the ,pecos ,valley1 is ,bottomless ,lakes1 azure blue pools spotted in sink holes4 ,eastward from ,roswell1 on either ,u4,s4 ,highway #gj or #chj1 redbeds of ,permian and ,triassic age lie half hidden by pinkish sands up to the edge of the caprock2 beyond are the fertile grazing and crop lands of the ,llano ,estacado1 with its queen cities of ,clovis and ,portales4 ,here1 deep wells pump underground waters to irrigate lush fields that produce peanuts1 tomatoes1 sweet potatoes1 melons1 strawberries1 cucumbers1 and grapes4 ,on the plains beyond the reach of the wells1 wheat1 maize1 and broomcorn are grown4 ,southeastward1 oil derricks dot the plains1 surrounding ,hobbs and ,lovington4 ,westward from ,roswell1 ,u4,s4 ,highways #gj and #chj run together up the rolling limestone hills west of the ,pecos ,valley before plunging down ,picacho ,hill into the narrow canyon of ,rio ,hondo4 ,at ,hondo they divide4 ,u4,s4 ,highway #chj leads northwestward through ,lincoln town1 ,billy the ,kid's shooting grounds1 into ,capitan1 over ,indian ,divide1 and down into sleepy ,carrizozo--paralleled by the forested peaks of ,capitan ,mountains to the north and overshadowed by mighty ,sierra ,blanca to the southwest4 ,u4,s4 ,highway #gj runs up the green canyon of ,rio ,ruidoso1 past ,ruidoso ,downs1 past ,state ,highway #cg which leads to ,ruidoso and the ,sierra ,blanca ,ski ,area1 up into the ponderosa pines1 crossing the divide at ,apache ,summit1 then westward and downhill past ,mescalero1 paralleling ,rio ,tularosa4 ,suddenly the canyon widens1 and ahead is the dry ,tularosa ,basin with the ,white ,sands glistening in the far distance4 ,illustration3 7,forest ,service1 ,u4,s4,d4,a47 ,now this is what is meant by forest4444 from ,monjeau ,lookout ,from ,tularosa to ,alamogordo1 ,u4,s4 ,highway #gj is along the west edge of the ,sacramento ,mountains wherein tier upon tier of dolomite and limestone cliffs rise to the high peaks near ,cloudcroft4 ,southwestward from ,alamogordo1 the highway cuts diagonally across the ,tularosa ,basin1 skirting the southern edge of the ,white ,sands1 and passing through ,white ,sands ,missile ,range4 ,ahead lie the fabulous spires of the ,organ ,mountains2 to the right1 the notched cliffs of the ,san ,andres ,mountains stretch northward to rounded ,salinas ,peak and beyond the horizon4 ,steeply1 the highway rises to cross ,san ,augustin ,pass between the ,organ and ,san ,andres mountains1 past the village of ,organ with its crumbling mining dumps1 before plunging downward onto the southern end of ,jornada del ,muerto1 and finally1 on the east edge of ,las ,cruces1 leaves the creosote bush plains to dip into the green ,mesilla ,valley of the ,rio ,grande4 ,west of ,carrizozo1 ,u4,s4 #chj crosses the black basalt flows of ,valley of ,fires ,state ,park1 curves over the ,carrizozo dome and up the dip slopes of ,chupadera ,mesa1 crosses in red roadcuts the northern tip of ,sierra ,oscura1 then westward through sand dunes of the northern ,jornada del ,muerto4 ,coal beds crop out at ,cerro ,colorado before the highway sweeps down into the ,rio ,grande ,valley to ,san ,antonio4 ,u4,s4 ,highway #fj enters the state from the east on the ,staked ,plains near booming ,clovis1 crosses ,rio ,pecos ,valley at ,fort ,sumner--near ,billy the ,kid's grave--goes straight as a beeline over the plains to ,vaughn1 then crosses the low southern end of the ,pedernal ,hills where tan ,permian sandstones lie abruptly on ,precambrian granite1 quartzite1 and schists4 ,near ,willard1 the highway crosses the southern end of the ,estancia ,valley1 with the salt lakes of ,laguna del ,perro mere remnants of the huge ,pleistocene lake that once filled the ,valley4 ,west from ,mountainair1 ,abo redbeds border the highway2 limestone walls of ,gran ,quivira lie to the south and the red sandstone church ruins of ,abo and ,quarai are to the north4 ,through ,abo ,pass between the ,manzano and ,los ,pinos mountains the highway runs1 then down the long alluvial fan slopes to the ,rio ,grande ,valley at ,bernardo4 ,from ,bernardo to ,socorro1 ,u4,s4 ,highway #fj joins ,interstate #be2 westward from ,socorro1 the road climbs out of the ,valley onto ,snake ,ranch ,flats1 parallels the snow-tipped ,magdalena ,mountains to ,magdalena1 then crosses the north end of the grassy ,san ,agustin ,plains4 ,westward to ,datil and ,quemado1 the highway is always in sight of volcanic mountains1 up and down winding canyons1 and across intermontane plains4 ,still westward into ,arizona along ,u4,s4 ,highway #fj are ,springerville1 fabulous ,salt ,river ,canyon1 the mining cities of ,globe1 ,miami1 and ,superior1 and booming ,phoenix4 ,into this west-central ,new ,mexico country of volcanic peaks and grassy plains comes ,u4,s4 ,highway #ahj from ,deming northwestward4 ,along the scenic1 winding route are ,city of ,rocks1 the copper smelter at ,hurley1 ,santa ,rita's huge open-pit copper mine1 famous ,silver ,city1 colorful canyons of the ,gila and ,san ,francisco rivers1 and1 crossed by passes or bordering all routes1 the rugged rhyolite1 andesite1 and basalt ledges and cliffs4 ,from ,el ,paso to ,raton ,pass1 #eae miles1 ,u4,s4 ,highway #he 7,interstate #be7 crosses ,new ,mexico from south to north1 from ,mexico to ,colorado4 ,as far as ,la ,bajada ,hill1 between ,albuquerque and ,santa ,fe1 the highway parallels the ,rio ,grande4 ,northward from ,el ,paso1 past ,las ,cruces to ,radium ,springs and old ,fort ,selden1 the green ,mesilla ,valley borders the route2 then through ,selden ,canyon into the ,hatch ,valley near ,san ,diego ,mountain1 and along the west side of the bold cliffs of the ,caballo ,mountains1 past ,caballo ,reservoir to ,truth or ,consequences 7old ,hot ,springs74 ,eastward lies ,elephant ,butte ,dam and reservoir2 the road cuts across alluvial plains to the west of the ,rio ,grande all the way to ,albuquerque1 with the mountains to the west the ,san ,mateo1 ,magdalena1 ,socorro1 and ,ladron and to the east1 the ,fra ,cristobal1 ,los ,pinos1 and ,manzano4 ,intersecting ,interstate #dj at ,albuquerque1 the ,pan-,american ,central ,highway1 ,interstate #be crosses to the east side of the ,rio ,grande1 the sheer cliffs of the ,sandia ,mountains to the east and the distant dark green ,jemez ,mountains to the northwest4 ,crossing ,galisteo ,creek northeast of ,santo ,domingo ,pueblo1 ,interstate #be turns toward the northeast1 climbs ,la ,bajada ,hill1 onto the green plains sloping from ,santa ,fe4 ,santa ,fe1 the ancient capital city1 is nestled on the edge of the ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains4 ,southeastward and eastward1 ,u4,s4 ,highway #he 7to be ,interstate #be here7 rolls1 skirting the southern end of the ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains1 wedged in by the north-facing cliffs of ,glorieta ,mesa1 through ,glorieta ,pass1 where the ,confederates lost the battle for the ,southwest1 across the upper reaches of ,rio ,pecos1 and around to ,las ,vegas4 ,then in straight lines across the western edges of the ,great ,plains where they lap up onto the ,sangre de ,cristo ranges1 through ,wagon ,mound and ,springer to ,raton4 ,the climb up-canyon to ,raton ,pass1 through roadcuts of brown sandstone1 shale1 and coal1 leads into ,colorado1 with a view of much of southern ,colorado from the ,pass4 ,many routes lead northward from ancient ,santa ,fe4 ,u4,s4 ,highway #bhe crosses the high divide near ,bishop's ,lodge1 follows ,rio ,tesuque to ,pojoaque1 crosses the ,rio ,grande near ,espanola amid varicolored badlands cut in the ,santa ,fe rocks1 then heads northward on the black basalt plateau toward ,colorado4 ,black ,mesa1 a volcanic neck1 lies south of ,espanola1 overlooking the green ,rio ,grande ,valley2 atop this height1 ,pueblo ,indians once defied ,spanish guns until they starved4 ,northward1 near ,tres ,piedras1 the ,ortega and ,brazos ranges tower to the west1 the perlite-rich hills of ,no ,agua lie to the northeast1 and across the basalt plains cut by the ,rio ,grande1 the lofty1 snow-capped ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains loom4 ,at ,pojoaque1 ,state ,road #d leads westward1 across ,otowi bridge of the ,rio ,grande1 then winds up into the canyon and mesa country bordering the ,jemez ,mountains4 ,herein lie ,bandelier and ,los ,alamos1 one with ancient abandoned pueblos1 the other the atomic city4 ,farther west1 the road crosses the rim of an ancient volcano into ,valle ,grande1 the crater of that volcano--some #af miles across4 ,when this volcano spewed forth hot ashes about a million years ago1 the volcanic dust was wind-blown as far as ,kansas and ,nebraska6 ,at ,espanola1 ,u4,s4 ,highway #hd breaks away to the northwest to follow ,rio ,chama in its canyon carved from redbeds near ,abiquiu1 past the interesting museum at ,ghost ,ranch--where bones of ,triassic dinosaurs are collected--,echo ,amphitheater1 ,el ,vado ,lake1 through ,chama1 and on up into the ,san ,juan ,mountains country of southern ,colorado4 ,near ,espanola1 ,u4,s4 ,highway #fd splits off to the northeast2 this is the high road of north-central ,new ,mexico4 ,paralleling the canyon of the ,rio ,grande to ,pilar1 the highway climbs up onto the ,taos plateau to ,taos1 turns eastward to cut through the ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains over ,palo ,flechado ,pass1 down into the grassy ,moreno ,valley to ,eagle ,nest and ,eagle ,nest ,lake1 then eastward again following the narrow canyon of the ,cimarron ,river to ,cimarron and ,raton4 ,a loop trip northward from ,eagle ,nest on ,state #ch goes through ghost town ,elizabethtown1 over ,red ,river ,pass1 and down the varicolored canyon of ,red ,river to ,questa1 before turning southward toward ,taos4 ,illustration3 7,u4,s4 ,park ,service7 ,subdivision living1 pueblo style--at ,aztec ,national ,monument ,and there is the northwest1 the ,four ,corners region1 land of ,navajos and gas wells1 presided over by magnificent ,shiprock4 ,state ,highway #dd leaves ,interstate #be at ,bernalillo1 follows ,rio ,salado to ,san ,ysidro1 which nestles at the south tip of the ,nacimiento ,mountains below ,white ,mesa1 thence northwestward past ,cabezon ,peak and coaly ,la ,ventana to ,cuba in the valley of ,rio ,puerco4 ,then1 up and down1 the winding highway cuts transversely across the ,san ,juan ,basin1 through pine groves at the ,continental ,divide1 past the side road to ,chaco ,canyon ,national ,monument at ,blanco ,trading ,post1 and among the multicolored ,tertiary beds carved into badlands4 ,at ,bloomfield1 oil and gas wells lie all about1 and the mesa-and-canyon country gives way to the valley of the ,san ,juan ,river4 ,at ,aztec1 ,state ,road #dd joins ,u4,s4 ,highway #eej in the narrow valley of the ,animas ,river--a clear cold stream sent rushing down from the icy lakes of the ,san ,juan ,mountains to the north4 ,eastward a few miles lies ,navajo ,lake along the ,san ,juan ,river2 northward1 ,u4 ,s4 #eej winds up the ,animas ,valley toward ,durango1 high ,silverton1 and ,mesa ,verde ,national ,park4 ,aztec ,ruins ,national ,monument is just to the northwest of ,aztec4 ,westward from ,aztec1 ,u4,s4 ,highway #eej follows the ,animas ,river to its junction with the ,san ,juan ,river1 then past the huge ,navajo coal mine1 a long open cut near ,fruitland1 to junction with ,u4,s4 ,highway #fff at ,shiprock4 ,shiprock6 ,a buttressed needle1 towering #adej vertical feet above ,navajo-land1 with walls of black igneous rock radiating from its feet like spokes on a wheel4 ,this dark-colored spire once filled the throat of a volcano4 ,where are piles of rocks1 hundreds of feet thick1 that once surrounded it8 ,down the river they went1 down the ,san ,juan to the ,colorado ,river1 and thence to the ocean4 ,to the west1 as a background1 are the forested ,carrizo1 ,lukachukai1 and ,chuska mountains4 ,off to the east lies ,hogback ,mountain1 an upturned ridge of sedimentary rocks producing oil--the petroleum geologist's favorite haunt1 an anticline4 ,southward from ,shiprock1 ,u4,s4 #fff passes other volcanic necks such as ,bennett ,peak and ,ford ,butte4 ,north of ,gallup1 ,state ,road #fh leads westward to ,window ,rock 7,arizona71 the ,indian ,headquarters of the ,navajo ,reservation4 ,near ,gallup1 coal beds of ,late ,cretaceous age crop out1 ,gamerco once being a booming coal-mining town4 ,now huge dragline shovels scoop out the coal from open pits to the northwest of ,gallup4 ,and at ,gallup1 the ,indian ,capital1 a loop drive around the ,san ,juan ,basin is completed2 ,interstate #dj1 old ,u4,s4 ,highway #ff1 goes eastward to ,albuquerque1 ,st4 ,louis1 and ,chicago1 and westward to ,grand ,canyon1 ,los ,angeles1 and the blue ,pacific4 ,many other scenic places dot the ,land of ,enchantment2 local hosts1 rancher or city dweller1 know of these4 ,mountain meadows1 rushing streams1 rocky peaks1 desert valleys1 badlands1 grassy plains1 thick forests1 spectacular chasms1 needle rocks1 and brilliant colors--they are all here in ,new ,mexico4 ,footnotes #a,new ,mexico ,department of ,game and ,fish4 #b,national ,park ,service4 #c;,forest ,service1 ,southwestern ,region1 ,u4,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture4 #d;,information on monuments and parks developed since this publication was first printed may be obtained from ,the ,new ,mexico ,state ,park and ,recreation ,commission1 ,santa ,fe1 ,new ,mexico #hgeja4 #e,new ,mexico ,department of ,game and ,fish4 #f,k,o is the common unit used in pricing and assaying potassium salts4 ,however1 the potash is sold as purified potassium chloride or sulfate4 ,composition3 ,linotype ,fairfield ,text--#aj_/aa ,index--#h_/i 7reduced to #f_/g7 ,display heads--#ah pt4 ,bulmer italic ,presswork3 #ch ,miehle ,single ,color ,offset #bi ,harris ,single ,color ,offset ,binding3 ,smyth sewn and glued ,paper3 ,text--#gj white matte ,cover--#ab pt4 ,kivar ,index ,a ,abiquiu1 #ade1 #afb ,abo1 #ajd2 church1 #afa2 ,pass1 #afa2 ,pueblo1 #ajg2 ,redbeds1 #dd1 #ajd1 #afa2 ,state ,monument1 #aje ,acevedo1 ,fray ,francisco de1 #aje ,acoma1 #ea2 ,indian1 #aeg2 ,pueblo1 #hi1 #abj1 #abb1 #aef agave1 #ag1 #bj1 #ba agriculture1 #d1 #ab1 #ai1 #ec1 #ed1 #eh1 #fa1 #fb1 #abb1 #abd1 #abe1 #aca1 #acb1 #aej ,agua ,chiquita1 #ii ,aguas ,calientes1 #abc ,alamo ,canyon1 #he ,alamogordo1 #cf1 #de1 #gh1 #ii1 #ada1 #adc1 #aei1 #afj2 ,creek1 #aab2 ,lake ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aab2 ,reservoir1 #aab ,albuquerque1 #h1 #ac1 #cg1 #dj1 #db1 #dc1 #dd-de1 #di1 #eg1 #gj1 #gc1 #ib1 #ih1 #ajf1 #acb1 #acd1 #acf1 #ach1 #aed1 #aef1 #afa1 #afb1 #afd alfalfa1 #aeh algae1 #de ,alkali ,flats1 #aeh alluvial fan1 #ah1 #ej1 #adj1 #aef1 #afa ,alma1 #aja ,alpine ,zone1 #bb1 #bf1 #bh ,ambrosia ,lake ,district1 #aea ,american ,gypsum ,company1 #di ammonites1 #ea amphibians1 #da1 #de1 #dh1 #di ,anasazi1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb2 ,basketmakers1 #ei2 ,indians1 #fj1 #hf andesite1 #ci1 #aeh1 #afa anhydrite1 #dg1 #dh1 #di ,animas ,formation1 #ce1 #ej ,mountains1 #bi ,river1 #afc1 #afd ,valley1 #aeh1 #afd antelope1 #bh1 #bi1 #ie1 #ih1 #aja ,apache1 #e1 #f1 #i1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ed1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #fe1 #fg1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gd1 #hi1 #ij1 #aje1 #abb1 #acb1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adc 7see also under tribal names72 ,canyon1 #ac1 #ib2 ,creek1 #aja2 ,national ,forest1 #aja1 #ajc2 plume1 #ah2 ,reservation1 map #ef2 ,summit1 #aei2 ,tejo1 #gb ,aragon1 #gd aragonite1 #gh archeological sites1 map #ef ,arctic-alpine ,zone1 #bb 7see also ,alpine7 ,arkansas ,river1 #aad1 #acf ,army of the ,west1 #ai1 #fd ,arroyo ,hondo1 #ie ,arroyo ,penasco ,formation1 #db artemisia1 #ah ,artesia1 #df1 #adf1 #adh1 #aei2 ,group1 #df aspen1 #ag1 #ig1 #ajj1 #ajg1 #aji1 illus4 #aba1 #aef ,athapascan1 #e1 #fb1 #acb1 #acc atlatl1 #eh1 #fj ,avalon ,reservoir1 #aah ,aztec1 #hb1 #aji1 #ach1 #afc1 #afd2 ,ruins ,national ,monument1 #ge1 #hb1 #hd1 illus4 #afc1 #afd ,b ,baca ,formation1 #cf badger1 #ca bajada1 #ah ,bandelier ,national ,monument1 illus4 #be1 #cg1 #fb1 #ge1 #hd-he1 illus4 #he1 #abb1 #acf1 #aee1 #afb bandtail pigeon 7see doves7 barite1 #ec ,barella ,mesa1 #ha basalt1 #cg1 #ch1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aca1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb basin1 #ce1 #da1 #de1 #di1 #gi1 #hi1 #if1 #ada 7see also under proper names3 ,delaware1 ,galisteo1 ,gallina1 ,great1 ,largo1 ,orogrande1 ,paradox1 ,san ,juan1 ,tularosa7 bass1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aae1 #aag bats1 #gh ,battle of ,val ,verde1 #ac1 #fh1 #gj1 #gc1 #ib ,battleship ,rock1 #ih ,baylor1 ,col4 ,j4 ,b41 #gb beans1 #eh1 #hd1 #hf bear1 #bh1 #ih1 #ajj1 #aja2 state mammal1 #bh beargrass1 #bj beaver1 #ca1 #ie1 #aad ,beaverhead1 #aja ,beaver ,national ,forest1 #ie belemnoids1 #ea ,benavides1 ,fray ,alonso de1 #hi ,ben ,hur1 #aje ,bennett ,peak1 #afd ,bent1 ,governor ,charles1 #abi2 ,bent's ,fort1 #abi ,bernal ,formation1 #dg ,bernalillo1 #ajf1 #acd1 #afc ,bernardo1 #acd1 #afa beryl1 #dj1 #ec ,bidahochi ,formation1 #ch ,big ,dog ,canyon1 #ii ,big ,hatchet ,mountains1 #bf ,billy the ,kid1 #ad1 #bd1 #gj1 #ajg1 #aei1 #afa bioherm1 #db1 #de biotite1 #dj birds1 #bi-ca1 #cf1 #di1 #ea1 #ie1 #ih ,bishop's ,lodge1 #afb bison1 #ee1 #eh1 #fb black 8gold10 #dc ,black ,mesa1 #abg1 #afb ,range1 #ad1 #db1 #aja1 #add ,river ,valley1 #gh ,blackwater ,draw1 #ee1 #aaa ,blanco ,basin ,formation1 #cf ,blanco ,trading ,post1 #afc ,bliss ,sandstone1 #dj1 #da ,bloomfield1 #adh1 #afc bluebird1 #ca blue spruce1 #bb1 #ada ,bluewater ,lake1 #ajd1 #aaj2 ,state ,park1 #aaj bobcat1 #cj1 #ca1 #ie ,bone ,spring ,formation1 #df ,bonito ,creek1 #ii ,bosque ,redondo1 #gd1 #aaj ,bottomless ,lakes1 #ajd1 illus4 #ajh1 #aei2 ,state ,park1 #ajh1 #aee ,botts1 ,judge ,c4 ,m41 #bf brachiopods1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 illus4 #db ,brachiosaurus1 #di ,brazos ,mountains1 #ce1 #ch1 #dj1 #afb ,brazos ,river ,valley1 #aaa bream1 #aae broomcorn1 #aei bryozoans1 #da1 #db1 illus4 #de buffalo1 #ca1 #ed1 #ee1 #fb1 #ih1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach ,buffalo ,dance1 #abd ,bug ,scuffle ,hill1 #ii ,burro ,mountains1 #bj1 #dj ,butterfield ,trail1 #gj1 #ga ,c ,caballo ,lake ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aab ,mountains1 #ch1 #dj1 #aab1 #afa ,reservoir1 #aab1 #aag1 #afa ,cabeza de ,vaca1 #f ,cabezon ,peak1 #cg1 #ea1 #afc cacti1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #cc calcite1 #db1 #df1 #dg1 #gh caldera1 #cg1 #ge1 #he1 #hf ,california ,column1 #gc-gd camels1 #ee1 #eg ,cambrian1 #dj2 rocks1 #dj ,camino ,real 7see ,royal ,road7 ,canadian ,river1 #ca1 #gd1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaa1 #acf1 #acg1 #aee ,canadian ,zone1 #bb ,canby1 ,col4 ,e4 ,r4 ,s41 #ac1 #gc1 #ib ,canjilon1 #ie ,canyon de ,chelly1 #aaj ,capillo ,peak1 #ih ,capitan1 #cf1 #fi1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aei2 limestone1 #dg1 #gg2 ,mountains1 #ii1 #aei2 ,pass1 #ii2 ,reef1 #de1 #df1 #dg caprock1 #ch1 #aee1 #aei ,caprock ,n4 ,mex41 #aee ,capuln ,mountain1 #cg1 #ge2 ,national ,monument1 illus4 #hj1 #ha-hb1 #aee ,capulin ,peak1 #ig carbon dioxide1 #ec1 #adf ,carlsbad1 #ch1 #de1 #df1 #dh1 #ec1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #aei2 reef limestones1 #dg ,carlsbad ,caverns1 #df1 #ea1 #ada1 #aei2 ,national ,park1 #ge1 #gf-gh1 illus4 #gg ,carleton1 ,gen4 ,j4 ,h41 #gc1 #gd carnallite1 #dh carp1 #aae ,carrizo ,mountains1 #afd ,carrizozo1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #de1 #ajd1 #aaa1 #ach1 #aee1 #aei1 #afa2 dome1 #afa ,carson1 ,kit1 #ac1 #gj1 #id1 #aaj 7see also under ,kit7 ,carson ,national ,forest1 #ic-ie1 #if1 #ig ,casa ,blanca1 #aef ,casa ,grande ,ariz41 #abf ,castile ,anhydrite1 #dg2 gypsum sample1 illus4 #dg catfish1 #aaa1 #aad1 #aae1 #aag ,catron ,county1 #acd1 #ace cattle1 #ab1 #ad1 #ae1 #bc1 #bd1 #ca1 #ec1 #ge1 #hi1 #ic1 #ii1 #adj1 #ada cedar1 #bj1 #ba cement1 #ec1 #aed ,cenozoic ,era1 #cc-ch1 #ea2 rocks1 #ea centipede1 #ca century plant1 #bj cephalopods1 #da1 #ea ,cerro ,blanco1 #ih ,colorado1 #afa ,pedernal1 #ig ,chaco ,canyon1 #e1 #fj1 #ge1 #hb1 #hd1 #ach2 ,national ,monument1 #fa1 #hb1 illus4 #hc1 #afc chalcocite1 #aea chalcopyrite1 #aea ,chama1 #ie1 #afb2 ,river1 #ie1 #aaj ,charette ,lakes1 #aah chert1 #dc ,chihuahua ,mexico1 #g1 #i1 #aa1 #acb1 #aci ,chihuahua desert1 #af ,chimay1 #acf ,chinle ,formation1 #dh1 #di1 #aaa1 #aab ,chino mine1 #aea1 illus4 #aec ,chiricahua ,apache1 #f1 #acc ,chivington1 ,col4 ,john ,m41 #ac chollas1 #ag1 #ai ,chupadera ,mesa1 #afa ,chuska ,formation1 #ch ,mountains1 #afd ,cibola ,national ,forest1 #ih-ii ,cieneguilla ,creek1 #aab ,cimarron1 #afc2 ,river1 #afc ,ciniza1 #adh 8cities that died of fear10 #aci ,city of ,rocks ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aaj1 #aee1 #afa ,civil ,war1 #ab1 #ac1 #fd1 #ga1 #gb-gd1 #ib1 #aje1 #ajg1 #acg clams1 #cf1 #da1 #ea clay1 #ce1 #ch1 #da1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #di1 #ec1 #ed ,clayton1 #cg1 #aab2 ,lake ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aab ,cliff1 #gb1 #gd ,clines ,corners1 #dj1 #di1 #acd1 #aee ,cloudcroft1 #ajj1 #afj ,clovis1 #ee1 #ajd1 #aei1 #afa2 ,man1 #ajd2 points1 #ee1 #eg coal1 #bc1 #cf1 #dc1 #ej1 #ea1 #ec1 #fi1 #ach1 #adf1 #aed1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb1 #afd ,cochise ,culture1 #eh1 #ei1 #fc ,cochiti1 ,caada de1 #abb2 ,pueblo1 #abb-abc ,coconino ,sandstone1 #df ,colorado ,river1 #c1 #ij1 #ach1 #adc1 #afd state line1 #aab ,volunteers1 #ac1 #ib1 #acg columbite-tantalite1 #dj ,columbus ,n4 ,mex41 #cj1 #ajd1 #aji ,comanche1 #ab1 #fc1 #fe1 #ij1 #aje1 #aci ,conchas ,dam1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #aji ,lake ,state ,park1 #ajh-aji ,reservoir1 #ca1 #aah ,confederate1 #ab1 #ac1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #ib1 #aje1 #ajg1 #acg1 #afb2 campaign1 map #gc conglomerate1 #di1 #ej conifers1 #dd conquistadore1 #aj1 #ed1 #hi1 #ib1 #ii1 #ajf1 #abj1 #abg1 #ace ,continental ,divide1 #bj1 #fa1 #ii1 #afc continuous miner1 #aej1 illus4 #aej cony1 #ca ,cooke's ,canyon2 ,spring1 #ga copper1 #ea1 #ec1 #adc1 #add1 #adf1 #adh1 #aea1 #aec1 #aed1 #afa corals1 #da1 #db1 illus4 #de corn1 #d1 #eh1 #fb1 #hd1 #hf1 #abb ,corn ,dance1 #abd1 #acb ,coronado 7,francisco ,vasquez de71 #f1 #g1 #ed1 #fb1 #ajf1 #abj1 #abc1 #abf1 #acb ,coronado ,national ,forest1 #aja1 #ajc ,state ,monument1 #ajd1 #ajf cotton1 #hd1 #aeh1 #aei cottonwood1 illus4 #be1 #aeh1 #aei coyote1 #ai1 #bf1 #cj1 #gi1 #ie ,coyote ,n4 ,mex41 #ih ,coyote ,creek1 #ij crane1 #cj crappies1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aae1 #aag creosote bush1 #ag1 #ai1 #bj1 #bf1 #bh1 #ga1 #aeh1 #afa ,cretaceous1 #ej1 #aab1 #adf1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afd2 beds1 #di1 #aeh2 ,period1 #di1 #ea2 sandstone1 #aeg2 seas1 #ea2 time1 #di1 #ej crinoid1 #db1 illus4 #db crocodiles1 #cf ,crown ,dance1 #acc ,cuba ,n4 ,mex41 #ce1 #cf1 #ih1 #afc ,cub ,mountain ,formation1 #cf cucumbers1 #aei ,culiacan ,mexico1 #f ,culture ,archaic1 #eh2 ,cochise1 #eh2 ,desert1 #eh2 ,pueblo1 #ei1 #fj ,d ,dakota ,sandstone1 #ej1 #aab1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg ,datil1 #afa2 ,formation1 #cf2 ,mountains1 #ih1 #ii ,datil-,mogollon plateau1 #cf ,dead ,man's ,peak1 #ig deer1 #bf1 #bh1 #bi1 #ca1 #ajj1 #aja2 desert mule1 #bf1 #ajj2 mule1 #bh1 #bi1 #ca2 ,rocky ,mountain mule1 #bf1 #ie1 #ih1 #ajj2 ,sonoran fantail1 #bf2 whitetail1 #bf1 #ih1 #ajj de la ,llana1 ,fray ,geronimo1 #aje ,delaware basin1 #dc1 #de1 #df1 #dg ,mountains1 #aei ,deming1 #di1 #ga1 #ajd1 #aaj1 #aab1 #ace1 #aeh1 #afa de ,niza1 ,fray ,marcos1 #acb de ,vargas1 don ,diego1 #h1 #ij1 #abj1 #abb1 #abd1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi ,devonian1 #db2 rocks1 #da2 seas1 #db2 time1 #da ,dewey ,lake ,redbeds1 #dg1 #dh ,diablo ,mountains1 #ge ,plateau1 #aei dinosaur1 #dh1 #di1 #ea1 illus4 #eb1 #afb ,dixon1 #dj ,dockum ,group1 #dh1 #aji dolomite1 #da1 #df1 #dh1 #aeh1 #aei ,doa ,ana1 #gj2 ,county1 #cj2 ,historical ,society1 #ga ,doniphan1 ,col4 ,alexander ,w41 #fd doves1 #bh1 #bi1 #ie1 #ih dragonflies1 #dd ducks1 #cj1 #ie1 #ih1 #aah ,e eagle1 #ca ,eagle ,creek1 #ii ,nest1 #afb1 #afc2 ,lake1 #afc ,early ,hunters1 #ee1 #eh earthquake1 #cg ,echo ,amphitheater1 #ie1 illus4 #if1 #afb ,edgewood1 #aee eel1 #aad ,el ,capitan1 #aei ,el ,cristo ,rey1 #aeh ,elephant ,butte1 #aab1 #acd2 ,dam1 #ch1 #aaa1 #afa2 ,lake ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aaa1 #aab2 ,reservoir1 #cf1 #aaa1 #aag1 illus4 #aag elephants1 #ed1 #ee ,elizabethtown1 #afc elk1 illus4 #bc1 #bf1 #bh1 #bi1 #ie1 #ih1 #aja elkhorn 7cacti71 #ai elm1 #ea ,el ,morro1 #di1 #ea1 #ge1 #hi1 #aeg2 ,national ,monument1 #hi-ij1 illus4 #ia1 #aee ,el ,palacio ,state ,monument1 #ajd-aje 7see also ,palace of the ,governors7 ,el ,paso ,tex41 #ac1 #af1 #bj1 #cg1 #ch1 #da1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #di1 #gj1 #gb1 #aab1 #abc1 #acd1 #ace1 #adc1 #aeh1 #afa ,el ,paso del ,norte1 #g1 #h1 #hi1 #ij1 #aje1 #abc ,el ,paso ,limestone1 #da ,el ,ranchito1 #abh ,el ,rito1 #ie2 de los ,frijoles1 illus4 #be2 ,formation1 #cf ,el ,vado ,dam1 #aaj ,lake1 #ajd1 #aaj1 #aah1 #afb2 ,state ,park1 #aaj ,reservoir1 #aah ,emory1 ,lieutenant1 #ai ,enchanted ,mesa1 #ea1 #aef1 illus4 #aeg ,engelmann spruce1 #bb1 #aef ,entrada ,sandstone1 #di1 #aef ,escabrosa ,limestone1 #db ,espanola1 #ch1 #ih1 #aab1 #acf1 #afb ,espejo ,expedition1 #hi ,espinaso beds1 #cf ,estancia1 #ch2 ,basin1 #ih1 #aje1 #aee1 #afa ,eunice1 #adf eurypterids1 #da ,f ,farmington1 #dc1 #ej1 #ie1 #acd1 #ach1 #adf1 #adh feldspar1 #ci1 #dj1 #de ferns1 #db1 #dc fig trees1 #cf finch1 #ca fir1 #af1 #ag2 corkbark1 #aef2 ,douglas1 #ajh fish1 #cf1 #da1 #di1 #ec1 #ge1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aac-aah1 illus4 #aac ,fishers ,peak1 #ha flint1 #ed ,florida ,mountains1 #bf1 #aab1 #aeh ,folsom1 #ee1 #eg2 ,man1 #ee2 ,state ,monument1 #ajd2 points1 #ee1 #eg1 illus4 #eg foraminifers1 #ea ,ford ,butte1 #afd fort1 #i1 #ab1 #ac1 #fd-gd1 map #fi1 #ij1 #ib1 #ajg1 #adc ,fort 7see also individual listing7 ,bascom1 #gd ,defiance ,ariz41 #ij ,floyd1 #gb ,lowell1 #gd ,lyon1 #fg ,mc,lane1 #gb ,mc,rae1 #gd ,thorn1 #gb ,tularosa1 #gd ,webster1 #gb ,west1 #gd ,fort ,bayard1 #ga-gb1 #gd2 ,reservation1 #bj1 #bd ,fort ,bliss ,texas1 #fh1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd ,fort ,conrad1 #fg1 #gb ,fort ,craig1 #fg-fi1 illus4 #fh1 #gb1 #gc1 #ij ,fort ,cummings1 #ga1 #gd ,fort ,fauntleroy1 #ff-fg1 #gb ,fort ,fillmore1 #gb1 #adc ,fort ,marcy1 #ff1 #gb1 #ij ,fort ,selden1 #gj-ga1 #gd1 #ajd1 #ajg1 #adc1 #afa2 ,state ,monument1 #ajd1 #ajg ,fort ,stanton1 #fh1 #fi-gj1 #gb1 #gd ,fort ,sumner1 #gd1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aee1 #afa ,fort ,union1 #ac1 #fd-ff1 illus4 #fe1 #gb1 #gc1 #ge1 #ib2 ,national ,monument1 #ff1 #ij1 #ib ,fort ,wingate1 #ff-fg1 #gd2 ,ordnance ,depot1 #fg fossil1 #da1 illus4 #db1 #dc1 illus4 #de1 #dh1 #di1 #ee1 #ih2 fish1 #da2 hash1 #db1 #df2 reefs1 #db ,four ,corners1 #c1 #d1 #da1 #dc1 #ei1 #acc1 #ach1 #afc fox1 #gi1 #ie ,fra ,cristobal ,mountains1 #ch1 #afb ,franciscan1 #h1 #hi1 #aje1 #ajf1 #abf2 missionaries1 #hf1 #hi1 #aje2 ,order1 #g1 #ajf ,franklin 7see ,el ,paso1 ,texas7 ,frijoles ,canyon1 #e1 #hd1 illus4 #he1 #acf ,fruitland1 #ach1 #aed1 #afd2 ,formation1 #ej ,fusselman ,dolomite1 #da fusulinids1 #dd1 illus4 #de ,g ,gadsden ,purchase1 #ajg gas1 #dc1 #ec1 #ie1 #ach1 #adf-adh1 #afc ,galisteo ,basin1 #cf1 #fb ,creek1 #afb ,formation1 #cf ,gallina basin1 #fa ,gallinas ,mountains1 #ii ,peak1 #ih ,gallup1 #ab1 #di1 #ej1 #ff1 #ii1 #acc1 #acd1 #ach1 #adg1 #aed1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afd ,gamerco1 #afd geese1 #cj1 #ie1 #ih1 #aah gem stones1 #ec geologic history1 #cc-ec time table1 #cd1 #ci1 #ej ,geronimo1 #ad1 #gj1 #gd1 #adc ,ghost ,ranch1 #afb2 ,mountain1 illus4 #ade2 ,museum1 #ie ghost towns1 #ec1 #ie1 #ada1 #aeh1 #afc ,gila ,apache1 #f ,cliff ,dwellings 7,national ,monument71 #ge1 #hf1 illus4 #hg1 #aja ,conglomerate1 #ch1 #hf ,national ,forest1 #aja ,river1 #d1 #f1 #gb1 #gd1 #aad1 #adc1 #afa ,wilderness 7,area71 #ge1 #hf1 #aja1 #add ,giusewa ,pueblo1 #ajf1 #ajg glacier1 #ch1 #ee1 #eg glauconite1 #dj ,glenwood1 #aja ,glorieta1 #gc1 #ig2 ,mesa1 #df1 #afb2 ,pass1 #ac1 #df1 #ib1 #acg1 #afb2 ,sandstone1 #df gneiss1 #ci1 #dj goats1 #hi ,goat ,seep ,reef1 #de1 #df ,gobernador1 #ie gold1 #f1 #g1 #ac1 #ad1 #ec1 #gb1 #ajd1 #adf graben1 #cg1 #ch1 #gi grama grass1 #ag1 #ah1 #bj ,gran ,chaco1 #d1 #e granite1 #ci1 #dj1 #dc1 #aef1 #afa ,gran ,quivira1 #ge1 #afa2 ,national ,monument1 #hf1 illus4 #hh1 #hi ,grants1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #dc1 #dh1 #di1 #ec1 #hi1 #ii1 #ach1 #adh1 #aej1 #aea1 #aec1 #aef1 #aeg grapes1 #hi1 #aei gravel1 #ce1 #cf1 #ch1 #ej1 #ec greasewood1 #ai ,great ,barrier ,reef1 #df1 #ada ,basin1 #eh ,kiva1 #hd ,lakes1 #ee1 #eg ,plains1 #f1 #af1 #ag1 #acf1 #aei1 #afb greenstone1 #dj grouse1 #ie1 #ih ,guadalupe ,mountains1 #bf1 #df1 #gg1 #ii1 #ada1 illus4 #adb1 #adc1 #aei ,pass1 #aei ,peak1 #aei ,river1 #abd ,gulf of ,california1 #ij1 #adc gypsum1 #dc1 #de1 #df1 #dh1 #di1 #ec1 #gi1 #adf1 #aec1 #aef2 --anhydrite1 #dg2 dunes1 #ca1 #cb1 #ch1 illus4 #ci1 #ge1 #gh ,h halite1 #de1 #dh ,hall of ,giants1 illus4 #gg ,hanover mine1 #aea ,harding pegmatite1 #dj ,hatch1 #gb1 #adb2 ,valley1 #afa hawk1 #ca1 #gi hay1 #abb helictites1 #gf1 #gh heliograph station1 #gj helium1 #ec1 #adf ,helms ,formation1 #dc hematite1 #dj1 #de ,herrera1 ,cristobal de1 #acj ,hidalgo ,county1 #bi1 #cj ,high ,plains1 #ca1 #cg1 #ch1 #ej1 #ed1 #ee1 #aji1 #aaj1 #acc1 #ach1 #adj ,hillsboro1 #ad1 #add ,hobbs1 #acd1 #adb1 #adf1 #aei ,hogback ,mountain1 #afd ,hohokam people1 #d1 #ei ,holloman ,air ,force ,base1 #adc ,hondo1 #aei ,hopewell ,lake1 #aah horse1 #f1 #i1 #ac1 #bc1 #ee1 #eg1 #hi1 #ic1 #aae1 #abi ,hopi1 #abf ,hot ,springs ,n4 ,mex4 7see ,truth or ,consequences7 ,hueco ,limestone1 #dd ,mountains1 #aeh hummingbirds1 #bh ,hunters and ,gatherers1 #eh ,hurley1 #gb1 #aea1 #afa ,hyde ,memorial ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aji ,i ,ice ,caves1 #aeg ,immaculate ,conception 7church71 #aje ,indian1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #ab1 #ad1 #ae1 #ba1 #ec1 #ed-fc1 #fd1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #gb1 #gd1 #hd1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij1 #ie1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aaf1 #abj-acc1 #ace1 #acf1 #ach1 #adj1 #ada1 #adc1 #afd2 ,divide1 #aei2 pueblo1 #d1 #e1 map #ef1 #hf1 #hi1 #abj-acc1 #acf2 reservations1 map #ef ,inscription ,rock 7see ,el ,morro7 ,interstate ,highway #aj3 #aeh #be3 #ajg1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc #dj3 #dh1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #afb1 #afd ,inter-,tribal ,indian ,ceremonial1 #acc1 #ach iron1 #ec1 #gh ,isleta del ,sur1 #aje1 #abc ,pueblo1 #h1 #aa1 #abc ,san ,agustin de1 #abc ,san ,antonio de1 #abc ,j ,jackpile-,paguate mine1 #aea1 illus4 #aeb javelina1 #bf1 #bh1 #aja jay1 #ca ,jemez1 #ajf2 ,division1 #ig1 #ih2 ,indians1 #ajg2 ,mission1 #ajd1 ,san ,diego de1 #abc1 ,san ,jose de los1 #abd1 ,san ,juan de ,los1 #abd2 ,mountains1 #cg1 #ch1 #ig1 #aba1 #abh1 #abi1 #acf1 #aef1 #afb2 ,pueblo1 #ajf1 #abc-abd2 ,river1 #abc1 #abd1 #abh1 #aca2 ,springs1 #ih1 #ajf1 #ajg2 ,state ,monument1 #ajf-ajg1 #abc1 #abd ,jicarilla ,apache1 #f1 #gd1 #acb1 #acc ,division1 #ie ,indian ,reservation1 #ie1 #ach ,johnson ,mesa1 #ha ,jornada del ,muerto1 #af1 #cf1 #aci1 #adj1 #adb1 #afj-afa ,joshua tree1 #bj ,jurez ,mexico1 #g1 #abc1 #aeh juniper1 #bj1 #ba1 #bc1 #ace1 #ada1 #aee ,jurassic rocks1 #aeh sandstones1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg time1 #di ,k ,kaiser ,gypsum ,company1 #di ,kaiser ,steel ,corporation1 #ea kangaroo rats1 #cb ,kearny1 ,gen4 ,stephen ,w41 #fd1 #ij ,kelly1 #ada ,kenna1 #aee ,kennecott ,copper ,company1 #adc1 #aea ,keres1 #abd ,kern1 ,r4 ,h41 #ij ,kilbourne ,hole1 #aeh ,kingston1 #ad1 #add ,kiowas1 #fe ,kirtland ,shale1 #ej ,kit ,carson ,memorial ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aaj 7see also under ,carson7 ,kit ,carson's ,cave1 #aeg kiva1 #ei1 #hd1 #ajf ,kneeling ,nun1 #aea ,koehler1 #ea ,kuaua1 #ajf ,l ,la ,bajada ,hill1 #cf1 #afa1 #afb ,ladron ,mountains1 #ch1 #adj1 #afb ,laguna1 #dh1 #aeb1 #aef2 del ,perro1 #afa2 ,indians1 #abd2 ,mission1 ,san ,jose de1 #abe2 ,santa ,maria1 illus4 #abd2 ,pueblo1 #abd-abe2 ,reservation1 #abd1 #aea ,lagunitas1 #ie ,lakes and_/or ,reservoirs 7see individual entries3 ,alamogordo1 ,avalon1 ,bluewater1 ,bottomless1 ,caballo1 ,charette1 ,clayton1 ,conchas1 ,eagle ,nest1 ,elephant ,butte1 ,el ,vado1 ,hopewell1 ,lea1 ,lost1 ,lucero1 ,mc,gaffey1 ,mc,millan1 ,miami1 ,morphy1 ,navajo1 ,red1 ,roberts1 ,san ,gregorio1 ,stewart1 ,storrie1 ,truchas1 ,ute7 ,lake ,lucero1 #ch1 #gi ,lake ,roberts1 illus4 #ajc1 #aah ,lake ,valley ,limestone1 #db ,la ,madera1 #ie ,la ,mesilla ,state ,monument1 #ajd1 #ajg lanceolate points1 #ee langbeinite1 #dh1 #adi ,laramide revolution1 #cc1 #ej ,largo basin1 #fa ,las ,cruces1 #ab1 #gj1 #gb1 #ajg1 #aab1 #acd1 #ace1 #adb1 #aeh1 #afa ,las ,trampas1 #ie1 #acf ,las ,vegas ,n4 ,mex41 #ac1 #ej1 #fd1 #ij1 #ib1 #ig1 #aaj1 #aab1 #acg1 #afb lava1 #ca1 #cb1 #cf1 #cg1 #ea1 #gi1 #ha1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajd1 #aaa1 #aee1 #aef ,la ,ventana1 #afc lead1 #ec1 #adf1 #adh1 #aea ,lea ,lake1 #ajh ,leasburg1 #gj ,ledoux ,n4 ,mex41 #aab lepidolite mica1 #dj ,letrado1 ,father ,francisco1 #hi limestone1 #da1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 #di1 #ea1 #ec1 #gg1 #gh1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa ,lincoln1 #gj1 #ajg1 #aei2 ,county ,courthouse1 #ajd1 #ajg2 ,county ,war1 #ad1 #ajd1 #ajg2 ,national ,forest1 #ii-ajj2 ,state ,monument1 #ajg ,lipan ,apache1 #f1 #acb1 #acc ,little ,black ,peak1 #aaa ,little ,colorado ,river1 #fa ,little ,florida ,mountains1 #aab livestock1 #ai1 #bc1 #ih1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #ada lizard1 #ca1 #gi ,llano ,estacado 7see ,staked ,plains7 ,logan1 #aaa ,lookout ,mountain1 #ajj ,lordsburg1 #ch1 #di1 #aja1 #aed1 #aeh ,los ,alamos1 #cg1 #afb ,los ,lunas1 #acd ,los ,pinos ,mountains1 #ch1 #afb ,lost ,lake1 #if ,lovington1 #adf1 #aei ,lukachukai ,mountains1 #afd ,luna ,county1 #cj1 #ga ,luxn1 ,diego ,prez de1 #hi ,m ,mac,arthur1 ,gen4 ,douglas1 #gj-ga1 #ajg ,mc,dermott ,formation1 #ej ,mc,gaffey ,lake1 #ii ,mc,millan ,reservoir1 #aag1 #aei ,mc,rae ,formation1 #cf1 #aab ,magdalena1 #ad1 #ii1 #aja1 #ada1 #afa-afb2 ,mountains1 #ch1 #ih1 #ii1 #adj1 #afa magma1 #cf1 #dj magnesium compounds1 #ec1 #adf magnolia trees1 #cf magpie1 #ca maguey1 #ba maize1 #aei ,maldonado1 ,fray ,lucas1 #abj malpais1 #ca1 #ajj1 #aaa mammals1 #bf-cb1 #cf1 #di1 #ea1 #eg1 #eh1 #ie1 #ih1 #aad2 prehistoric1 #di1 #ea1 #ee mammoth1 #ee1 #eg manganese1 #ec ,mancos ,shale1 #ej mano1 illus4 #ei ,manzano1 #ii2 ,mountains1 #cg1 #ch1 #ea1 #ih1 #aje1 #ach1 #aci1 #afa1 #afb2 ,peak1 #ih maple1 #ea marten1 #ie ,martinez1 ,julian and ,maria1 #abg ,martinez1 ,paddy1 #aej ,martinez1 ,padre ,jos1 #aaj mastodon1 #ee ,mayhill1 #ajj melons1 #abb1 #aei ,mesa ,redonda1 #aee ,rica1 #aee ,verde ,colo41 #d1 #e1 #fj1 #hd2 ,national ,park1 #afd ,mesaverde ,group1 #ej mescal1 #bj1 #ba ,mescalero1 #aei2 ,apache1 #f1 #ba1 #fi1 #gj1 #gd1 #acb2 ,indian ,reservation1 #ii1 #acc1 #acd1 #adc ,mesilla1 #gb1 #ajg2 ,valley1 #aeh1 #afa ,mesozoic ,era1 #dh-ea rocks1 #cc1 #ea seas1 #cc mesquite1 #ag1 #ai1 #bj1 #ga metate1 illus4 #ei ,mexican1 #adj1 #ada2 ,colonial1 #ajd1 #ajg2 ,war1 #ab1 #fd ,mexico1 #f1 #g1 #aj1 #ab1 #cj1 #ca1 #fd1 #fg1 #hi1 #ij1 #acb1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci1 #add1 #adh1 #aeh1 #afa2 ,city1 #f1 #i ,miami ,lake1 #aah mica1 #dj1 #ec2 schist1 illus4 #dj mice1 #ca1 #gi microcline1 #dj ,miles1 ,general1 #ad ,mimbreno ,apache1 #gd ,mimbres1 #aja1 #add2 culture1 #bj1 #adc2 ,river1 #d1 #gb1 #adc minerals1 #dj1 #ec1 #adf ff4 mink1 #ie mining1 #ab1 #ad1 #ae1 #bc1 #ec1 #gb1 #ie1 #ii1 #aja1 #abe1 #ada1 #adc1 #add1 #adf1 #adh-aed1 #afj1 #afa mission7s71 #h1 #i1 #hf1 #hi1 #abf2 churches1 #h1 illus4 #aa1 #hf1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajg1 illus4 #aai1 #abb1 #abc1 #abg2 ruins1 #ajd ,mississippian rocks1 #db seas1 #dc time1 #dc ,mockingbird ,gap1 #da ,moenkopi ,formation1 #dh ,mogollon1 #ada2 ,apache1 #gd2 culture1 #d1 #ei1 #hf2 ,mountains1 #ad1 #bb1 #ge1 #hf2 people1 #c1 #ei1 #fj1 #hf mollusks1 #ea molybdenum1 #ec1 #aed ,monjeau ,lookout1 #ii1 illus4 #afj ,montoya ,dolomite1 #da ,monument1 #adf1 #adh ,mora ,county1 #aab ,moreno ,valley1 #afb ,moriarty1 #aee ,morphy ,lake1 #aab2 ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aab ,morrison ,formation1 #di ,mosca ,peak1 #ih ,mountainair1 #hf1 #ii1 #aje1 #afa mountain lion1 #cj1 #ca1 #ie mountain mahogany1 #bj mountains 7see under proper name3 ,animas1 ,big ,hatchet1 ,black ,range1 ,brazos1 ,burro1 ,caballo1 ,capitan1 ,carrizo1 ,chuska1 ,datil1 ,delaware1 ,diablo1 ,florida1 ,fra ,cristobal1 ,gallinas1 ,guadalupe1 ,hueco1 ,jemez1 ,ladron1 ,little ,florida1 ,los ,pinos1 ,lukachukai1 ,magdalena1 ,manzano1 ,mogollon1 ,nacimiento1 ,organ1 ,ortega1 ,pedernal ,hills1 ,peloncillo1 ,potrillo1 ,pyramid1 ,rocky1 ,sacramento1 ,san ,andres1 ,sandia1 ,sangre de ,cristo1 ,san ,juan1 ,san ,mateo1 ,taos1 ,victorio1 ,zun7 ,mount ,baldy1 #ii ,riley1 #aeh ,robledo1 #gj ,taylor1 #cg1 #ea1 #ih1 #aef ,withington1 #ii ,mule ,peak1 #ii museum1 #ajd1 #aje muskrat1 #ie ,n ,nacimiento ,formation1 #ce1 #cf ,mountains1 #ce1 #db1 #aef1 #afc ,peak1 #ig ,namb1 #abh2 mission1 #abe2 ,pueblo1 #abe ,nana1 #gj1 #gd ,natage ,apache1 #f1 #acb1 #acc ,national ,forests1 #af1 #bd1 #ge1 #ic-ajc1 map #id 7see also under proper names3 ,apache1 ,beaver1 ,carson1 ,cibola1 ,coronado1 ,gila1 ,lincoln1 ,santa ,fe7 ,national ,monuments1 #ge-ib1 #ach1 #aee 7see also under proper names3 ,aztec ,ruins1 ,bandelier1 ,carlsbad ,caverns 7,park71 ,capulin ,mountain1 ,chaco ,canyon1 ,el ,morro1 ,fort ,union1 ,gila ,cliff ,dwellings1 ,gran ,quivira1 ,pecos1 ,valle ,grande1 ,white ,sands7 ,national ,park ,system1 #ge1 #gf1 #hb1 #he1 #hf1 #ib2 ,service1 #gf1 #ha ,navajo1 #f1 #ab1 #ae1 #ed1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fg1 #ga1 #gd1 #aaj1 #abc1 #abf1 #acb1 #acc1 #afc1 #afd2 ,dam1 #aji1 #ach2 ,indian ,reservation1 map #ef1 #acc1 #ach1 #afd2 ,lake1 #afc2 ,state ,park1 #aji2 ,reservoir1 #aah ,neogene ,period1 #cg time1 #ci ,newkirk1 #aee ,new ,mexico ,department of ,public ,welfare1 #gj ,new ,mexico ,volunteers1 #ac niobium1 #ej ,niobrara limestone1 #ej ,no ,agua1 #aec1 #afb ,o oak1 #bj1 #bc1 #cf1 #ea1 #ajj ,oasis ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aaa obsidian1 #ed ,ochoan rocks1 #dg ,series1 #dg ocotillo1 #ag1 #ah1 #bj1 #bf ,ogallala ,formation1 #ch oil1 #dc1 #de1 #df1 #ec1 #ie1 #ach1 #ada1 #adf-adh1 #aei1 #afc1 #afd2 fields1 #adf2 pumps1 illus4 #adi2 refinery1 illus4 #adg1 #aei2 secondary recovery1 #adh ,ojo ,caliente1 #gd ,ojo del ,oso 7,bear ,springs71 #ff1 #fg ,oate 7,don ,juan71 #g1 #h1 #ij1 #ii1 #abj1 #abb1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #aca opuntia1 #ag1 #ai1 #bj ,ordovician1 #adf2 ,period1 #dj2 rocks1 #da2 seas1 #da2 time1 #da ,organ ,n4 ,mex41 #afj ,organ ,mountains1 #bf1 #aeh1 #afj oriole1 #ca ,orogrande basin1 #dc ,ortega ,mountains1 #afb orthoclase1 #dj ,otowi bridge1 #afb otter1 #aad ,ouray ,limestone1 #da ,our ,lady of ,lourdes 7chapel71 #abg oysters1 #ea ,p ,painted ,cave1 #he ,painted ,desert1 #dh ,pajarito ,plateau1 #acf ,palace of the ,governors1 #d1 #e1 #ajd 7see also ,el ,palacio7 ,paleogene ,period1 #cc1 #cf time1 map #ce ,paleozoic1 #adf2 ,era1 #dj-dh2 rocks1 #cc1 #di1 #ea2 time1 #ci1 #df palm trees1 #cf ,palo ,flechado ,pass1 #afb paloverde1 #ag ,pan-,american ,central ,highway1 #afb ,pancho ,villa1 #fg1 #aji2 ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aji ,panhandle ,aspect1 #fb ,paradise ,formation1 #dc ,paradox ,basin1 #dc partridge1 #ajj peanuts1 #aei pecan1 #aeh ,pecos1 #ig1 #ajf1 #aae2 ,baldy1 #if2 ,basin1 #ii2 8diamonds10 #ajh2 ,division1 #if1 #ig2 ,horseshoe1 #if2 mission1 #ajd1 #ajg2 ,national ,monument1 #fb1 #gf1 #ajf2 ,pueblo1 #fb1 #ajg2 ,river1 #ch1 #gd1 #if1 illus4 #ig1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aad1 #acf1 #aee1 #aei1 #afb1 ,forest ,reserve1 #if2 ,state ,monument1 #ajf2 ,valley1 #cj1 #df1 #gh1 #aei1 #afa2 ,wilderness 7,area71 #ge1 #id1 #if ,pedernal ,hills1 #dj1 #dc1 #afa pegmatite1 #dj ,peloncillo ,mountains1 #bi1 #aeh ,pea1 ,fray ,juan de la1 #abc ,peablanca1 #aae ,penasco1 #ie1 #acf ,penitente1 #acf ,pennsylvanian limestone1 #aab ,period1 #dc1 #aef1 #aei time1 map #dd1 #de perch1 #aae ,percha ,shale1 #da perlite1 #cg1 #ec1 #adf1 #aec1 #afb ,permian1 #de1 #dh1 #adf1 #aei1 #afa2 ,period1 #dd1 #gg1 #adi2 rocks1 #dd-dh2 seas1 #df2 time1 #de1 #dg ,pershing1 ,gen4 ,john ,j41 #gj1 #aji ,petrified ,forest ,national ,monument1 #dh petrified wood1 #di petroglyphs1 #hi1 #aac petroleum1 #adf1 #adg1 #afd ,phoenix ,ariz41 #afa phytosaur1 #di ,picacho ,hill1 #aei ,pictured ,cliffs ,sandstone1 #ej ,picurs1 #ie2 ,pueblo1 #abe-abf2 ,san ,lorenzo de1 #abe ,pierre ,shale1 #ej pike1 #aae1 #aag ,pilar1 #afb pine1 #bb1 #cf1 #di1 #ic1 #ajj1 #aji1 #afc2 dwarf1 #ag2 ponderosa1 #ag1 #ba1 #bi1 #aab1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aei2 yellow1 #ag1 #ba pion1 #ag1 #bj1 illus4 #bb1 #bc1 #ace1 #ada1 #aee ,pion1 #dc ,pinos ,altos1 #gb ,piro1 #h pit houses1 #d1 #ei1 illus4 #fj1 #fa1 #hb1 #hf ,plains ,indians1 #ed1 #ee1 #fc1 #ajf1 #acb1 #adj ,pleistocene1 #ed1 #ee1 #eg1 #aaa1 #afa2 ,epoch1 #ch2 ,ice ,age1 #ed1 #eh ,poison ,canyon ,formation1 #ce ,pojoaque1 #afb2 ,pueblo1 #abf polyhalite1 #dh ,po-p1 #h1 #abg1 #abi poplar1 #cf1 #ea ,porciuncula1 ,church of 444 de1 #ajf porcupine1 #ca ,portales1 #ee1 #ajd1 #aaa1 #aei2 ,valley1 #aaa potash1 #dh1 #ec1 #ada1 #adf1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #aec1 #aei potatoes1 #aei ,potrillo ,mountains1 #aeh pottery1 #fb1 #hb1 #hd1 #hf1 #aac1 illus4 #aac1 #abb1 #abg1 #abh2 black-on-white1 #fj1 #fa2 brown1 #hf2 brownware1 #ei2 white with black1 #hf ,powwow ,canyon1 #aeh ,precambrian1 #aef1 #afa2 ,era1 #ch-dj2 rocks1 #cc1 #ci1 #dj1 #ea ,presidio of ,santa ,fe1 #i prickly pears1 #ag1 #ai protozoans1 #dd1 #ea ptarmigan1 #ca ,pueblo ,bonito1 #fj1 illus4 #fa1 #hb ,indians1 #e1 #h1 #ab1 #ed1 #fa1 #fb1 #hd1 #hf1 #hi1 #abj ff41 #afb periods3 ,classic 7or ,great71 #fj1 #fa1 #fb1 #hb ,developmental1 #fj ,historic1 #fb prehistoric1 #hb ,regressive1 #fb ,revolt1 #h1 #hi1 #ij1 #abj1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca ruins1 #ajd pumice1 #cf1 #cg1 #ec1 #adf ,punta de ,agua1 #aje ,puye ,cliff ,dwellings1 #fb1 #abh1 #acf ,pyramid ,mountains1 #aeh ,q quail1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #ie1 #ih1 #ajj ,quarai1 #ajd church1 #afa ,pueblo1 #ajg ,state ,monument1 #aje quartz1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #df1 #ej1 #ajh quartzites1 #dj1 #afa ,quemado1 #cf1 #afa ,questa1 #ie1 #aab1 #aed1 #afc ,r rabbit1 #cj1 #ca1 #ie ,radium ,springs1 #afa ,ragland1 #aee rattlesnakes1 #ah1 #ca railroads1 #ab1 #ff1 #gj1 #gd1 #ib1 #ii1 #aae1 #abe1 #aea ,rain ,dance1 #abc ,ramah ,n4 ,mex41 #hi ,ramirez1 ,fray ,juan1 #abb ,rancheria ,limestone1 #db ,raton1 #ce1 #cg1 #ch1 #ej1 #acd1 #acf1 #afb1 #afc ,basin1 #ce1 #cf1 #ej ,formation1 #ce1 #ea ,mesa1 #ha1 #aji ,pass1 #bj1 #acf1 #afa1 #afb raven1 #ca redbeds1 #cf1 #de1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afa1 #afb ,red ,lake1 #aee ,redondo ,peak1 cover ,red ,river1 #ie 7town71 #aab1 #afc 7river7 ,canyon1 #id1 illus4 #ace ,pass1 #afc ,ski ,area1 #id reeds1 #cf reef1 #db1 #de1 #df1 #ea1 #gg1 #adg reptiles1 #ca1 #cf1 #dh1 #di1 #ea ,reserve1 #aja ,reservoirs 7see under ,lakes for individual listing7 rhyolite1 #cg1 #ci1 #afa ,rio ,bonito1 #fi ,chama1 #afb de ,gallo1 #fg ,grande 7see separate entry7 ,hondo1 #aei ,penasco1 #ii ,puerco1 #aef1 #afc ,ruidoso1 #aei ,salado1 #afc ,san ,jose1 #cg1 #dh1 #aef ,valley1 #di ,tesuque1 #afb ,tularosa1 #aei ,rio ,grande1 #d1 #g1 #ab1 #ac1 #af1 #bj1 #ch1 #ed1 #fj1 #fb1 #fg1 #gj1 #gb1 #gd1 #hd1 #hi1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #aad1 #aae1 #abg1 #abh1 #aca1 #acf1 #acg1 #aci1 #adc1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb ,gorge1 #aab1 ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aab graben1 illus4 #cg pueblos1 #fb1 #adj ,valley1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #h1 #ac1 #cj1 #cg1 #ch1 #ed1 #ei1 #fa1 #hd1 #ih1 #aab1 #aag1 #abc1 #abe1 #abf1 #abh1 #acb1 #acc1 #ace1 #acg1 #adj1 #adc1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb ,rito de ,frijoles1 #abb ,rito ,morphy1 #aab roadrunner 7chapparal71 #ca1 illus4 #cb state bird1 #ca rocks 7see under proper name3 ,cambrian1 ,cenozoic1 ,devonian1 ,jurassic1 ,mesozoic1 ,mississippian1 ,ochoan1 ,ordovician1 ,paleozoic1 ,permian1 ,precambrian1 ,silurian1 ,triassic1 volcanic7 ,rock ,hound ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aab ,rocky ,mountains1 #eg1 #eh1 #acb1 #acc1 #acf ,rocky ,arroyo1 #aei ,roswell1 #df1 #dh1 #ajd1 #acd1 #adf1 #aee1 #aei ,roy1 #aji ,royal ,road 7,camino ,real71 #i1 #ab1 #aci rudistids1 #ea ,ruidoso1 #dc1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aei ,creek1 #ii ,downs1 #aei ruins1 #d1 #fj1 #fb1 #fe1 #fh1 #ge1 #hb1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij1 #ib1 #ie1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aac1 #abh1 #abi1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci1 #aef1 #afa rushes1 #db1 #dc-dd ,rustler ,dolomite1 #dg1 #dh ,s ,sacramento ,mountains1 #bh1 #cg1 #db1 #df1 #ea1 #ii1 #ada1 #adc1 #aei ,sacramento ,n4 ,mex41 #ii1 #ajj sage1 #ah1 #ai saguaros1 #ag1 #ah ,saint ,francis1 #ajf ,saint ,joseph1 #abe ,salado ,salt1 #dg1 #dh ,salinas ,peak1 #afj ,saline ,missions1 #aje salmon1 #aae salt1 #dc1 #de1 #ec1 #ed1 #aje1 #aae1 #adf1 #adi saltbush1 #ah ,salt ,flat lakes1 #aei ,san ,agustin ,plains1 #ii1 #adj1 #ada1 #afa ,san ,andres ,limestone1 #df1 #aaj ,mountains1 #bf1 #cg1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #ea1 #afj ,san ,antonio1 #ie1 #acd1 #afa ,san ,antonito1 #aee ,san ,augustin ,pass1 #afj ,san ,buenaventura1 #hi de ,cochiti1 #abb sand1 #ce1 #cf1 #ch1 #dj1 #db1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1 #ec1 #ed1 #gi1 #aaa1 #aei ,sandia ,cave1 #ee1 #eg ,crest1 #ih1 illus4 #acg1 #aef ,mountains1 #bf1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #db1 #ea1 #ih1 #acf1 #aee1 #aef1 #afb points1 #eg ,pueblo1 #abf ,ski ,area1 #ih ,san ,diego ,mountain1 #afa sandstone1 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #dc1 #de1 #dg1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #hi1 #ie1 #aje1 #adf1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb ,san ,felipe1 #abh church1 #abf ,pueblo1 #abf-abg ,san ,francisco ,river1 #ei1 #afa ,san ,gabriel1 #abe ,san ,geronimo1 #acj ,sangre de ,cristo ,mountains1 #ac1 #ce1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #db1 #ej1 #ge1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #aji1 #aba1 #abi1 #ace1 #acf1 #aee1 #aef1 #afb ,sangre de ,cristo ,redbeds1 #de ,san ,gregorio de ,abo1 #hi1 #aje ,lake1 #ih ,san ,ildefonso1 pottery1 #abg ,pueblo1 #abg ,san ,isidro1 #hi ,san ,jose ,formation1 #ce1 #cf ,san ,juan1 #g1 #fj1 #abe ,basin1 #ce1 #ej1 #fa1 #hb1 #adf1 #adi1 #afc1 #afd de los ,caballeros1 #g1 #abg ,mountains1 #ce1 #ch1 #ej1 #afb1 #afc ,pueblo1 #abg-abh ,river1 #ei1 #aji1 #ach1 #afc1 #afd ,valley1 #cj ,san ,lorenzo1 #gb ,san ,mateo ,mountains1 #ch1 #ih1 #ii1 #adj1 #afa ,san ,miguel mission church1 illus4 #aai ,pueblo ruins1 #he ,san ,pedro ,wild ,area1 #ig-ih ,san ,rafael1 #fg1 #aeg ,santa ,ana ,pueblo1 #abh ,santa ,barbara ,n4 ,mex41 #ie ,santa ,clara ,creek1 #abh ,pueblo1 #abh ,santa ,fe1 #d1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #ac1 #ai1 #bb1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #db1 #de1 #di1 #ea1 #fd1 #ff1 #gc1 #ge1 #hd1 #he1 #ij1 #ib1 #if1 #ig1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aai1 #aba1 #abe1 #abg1 #acj1 #aca1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci1 #afa1 #afb ,formation1 #aab ,group1 #ch ,national ,forest1 #if-ih ,railway1 #df1 #ej1 #abe ,river ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aaa ,ski ,basin1 #ig ,trail1 #aj1 #aa1 #bd1 #fd1 #ff1 #ij1 #ib1 #ajd1 #abi1 #acf1 #acg1 #aci ,santa ,maria mission1 illus4 #abd ,santander1 ,father ,diego de1 #hi ,santa ,rita1 #ea1 #ec1 #gb1 #adc1 #adh1 #aea1 #aec1 #afa ,santa ,rosa1 #acd1 #aee ,sandstone1 #dh1 #aaa ,santo ,domingo1 #abh2 ,pueblo1 #abf1 #abh-abi1 #afb ,san ,ysidro1 #di1 #afc schist1 #dj1 #afa science1 #ab1 #ae1 #fg1 #aci1 #adc1 #adg scorpion1 #ca sea1 #da sea lilies1 #db secondary recovery 7oil71 #adh ,selden ,canyon1 #afa ,seven ,cities of ,cibola1 #f1 #acb ,seven ,rivers1 #aei ,shalako dances1 #acb ,shakespeare1 #aeh shale1 #da1 #dc1 #df1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afb sheep1 #bf1 #ec1 #ge1 #hi1 #ic ,barbary1 #ca bighorn1 #bh1 #bi2 desert1 #bf2 ,rocky ,mountain1 #bf1 #ih1 #aef shells1 #ed ,shiprock1 #cg1 #dc1 #ea1 #aea1 #afc1 #afd ,shoshone1 #abd ,sibley1 ,general ,henry ,h41 #ac1 #gb1 #gc ,sierra ,blanca1 #cf1 #ch1 #ea1 #ajj1 #ach1 illus4 #aci1 #aei ,ski ,area1 illus4 #ajj1 #acc1 #aei ,sierra ,county1 #cf de las ,uvas1 #aeh ,grande1 #ha ,arch1 #dc ,oscura1 #afa silicified wood1 #cf1 #ch1 #di silt1 #ch1da1 #dh1 #di siltstone1 #ch1 #ea ,silurian1 #da rocks1 #da silver1 #g1 #ac1 #ad1 #bc1 #ec1 #acb1 #add1 #adf ,silver ,city1 #bj1 #bc1 #bd1 #dj1 #gb1 #ge1 #hf1 #aja1 #adc1 #add1 #adh1 #aea1 #afa ,simpson1 ,lt4 ,j4 ,h41 #ij ,sipapu ,winter ,sports ,area1 #id-ie ,sitting ,bull ,falls1 #aei skipway1 #aea1 illus4 #aec skunk1 #ca1 #ie ,sky ,city 7see ,acoma ,pueblo7 sloths1 #ee ,slough1 ,col4 ,j4 ,p41 #ib ,smokey the ,bear1 #ii1 #ajj snails1 #cf1 #da1 #di ,snake ,ranch ,flats1 #afa snakes1 #ah1 #ca1 #cf ,socorro1 #h1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ai1 #cf1 #cg1 #ei1 #gb1 #hi1 #ii1 #acd1 #aci1 #afa ,mountain1 #ch1 #adj sodium chloride1 #adi1 #aej ,sonoran desert1 #bf1 #ajc1 #aji1 #ach1 #adc ,lower ,zone1 #ai1 #bj ,upper ,zone1 #bj1 illus4 #be sotol1 #bj ,south ,truchas ,peak1 #ch ,spain1 #f1 #i1 #aj1 #aa ,spanish1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ae1 #af1 #ah1 #ec1 #ed1 #fb1 #fc1 #hf1 #hi1 #ib1 #ie1 #ii1 #ajd1 #abj1 #abb1 #abc1 #abe1 #abf1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc1 #ace1 #acf1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adc1 #adh1 #aeh1 #afb dagger1 #ba ,peaks1 #ha sparrow1 #ca spider1 #ca1 #dd ,spirit ,lake1 #if spodumene1 #dj ,springer1 #acd1 #afb spruce1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #bf1 #ajj2 blue1 #bb1 #ada2 ,engelmann1 #bb1 #aef squash1 #eh1 #hd1 #abb squirrel1 #ca1 #cb ,staked ,plains 7,llano ,estacado71 #acb1 #aee1 #aei1 #afa stalactites1 #gf1 #gh stalagmites1 #gf1 #gh state bird1 #ca ,capitol1 #aaa flower1 #bj mammal1 #bh ,state ,highway #d3 #ajf1 #afb #aj3 #ih1 #aje1 #aef #ab3 #acd #ag3 #ie #bc3 #aef #be3 illus4 #ajc #bf3 #ga #bh3 #aeh #cf3 #aeg #cg3 #aei #ch3 #afc #dd3 #cf1 #acd1 #afc #ec3 #aeg #fh3 #afd #ge3 #acf #gf3 #acf #gh3 #aja #ij3 #gb1 #add #id3 #aab #abj3 #aji #acg3 #aei #ahj3 #aja #cgj3 #aab #dfg3 #aaa ,state ,monuments1 #ajd-ajg1 #aee 7see also under proper names3 ,abo1 ,coronado1 ,el ,palacio1 ,folsom ,man1 ,gran ,quivira1 ,jemez1 ,la ,mesilla1 ,lincoln 7,county ,courthouse71 ,pecos1 ,quarai1 ,selden7 ,state ,parks1 #ajd1 #ajg-aab1 #aee 7see also under proper names3 ,alamogordo ,lake1 ,bluewater ,lake1 ,bottomless ,lakes1 ,caballo ,lake1 ,city of ,rocks1 ,clayton ,lake1 ,conchas ,lake1 ,elephant ,butte ,lake1 ,el ,vado ,lake1 ,hyde ,memorial1 ,kit ,carson ,memorial1 ,morphy ,lake1 ,navajo ,lake1 ,oasis1 ,pancho ,villa1 ,rio ,grande ,gorge1 ,rock ,hound1 ,santa ,fe ,river1 ,storrie ,lake1 ,ute ,lake1 ,valley of ,fires7 staurolite1 illus4 #dj ,stegosaurus1 #di ,stein's ,pass1 #aeh ,stewart ,lake1 #if ,stone ,lions1 #he ,storrie ,lake1 #ajd2 ,state ,park1 #aaj strawberries1 #aei ,sugarlump ,welded ,rhyolite ,tuff1 #aaj sulfur1 #ec ,summerville beds1 #aef ,formation1 #di sunfish1 #aag swan1 #bh sycamore trees1 #cf sylvanite1 #adi sylvite1 #dh ,t ,taiban1 #aee ,tajique1 #ii ,tano1 #abd ,tansill ,formation1 #gg ,taos1 #h1 #ai1 #cg1 #ch1 #ej1 #ic1 #ie1 #ajd1 #aaj1 #ade1 #afb1 #afc2 ,canyon1 #ie2 ,county1 #aec2 don ,fernando de1 #abi2 ,indians1 #abi2 mission1 #abi1 illus4 #acj2 ,mountains1 #abi2 ,pueblo1 #ie1 #abi-acj2 ,ranchos de1 #abi1 illus4 #acj2 ,san ,geronimo de1 #abi2 ,ski ,valley1 #ie tapirs1 #ee tarantula1 #ca ,teakettle ,rock1 #ih tench1 #aae ,tent ,rocks1 #ih1 illus4 #aba ,tererro ,formation1 #db terrapin1 #ca ,tertiary1 #afc ,tesuque ,indians1 #acj ,pueblo1 #acj-aca ,river1 #afb ,three ,rivers1 #acd ,tierra ,amarilla1 #dj1 #gd ,tiguex1 #ajf1 #abf ,tijeras1 #ii1 #aef2 ,canyon1 #dj1 #aef timber1 #ge1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #abb titanium1 #ej toad1 #ca ,todilto ,formation1 #di1 #aef tomatoes1 #aei ,torreon1 #ii tortoise1 #ca tramway1 #ih ,transition ,zone1 #ba ,tres ,piedras1 #ie1 #afb ,tres ,ritos1 #ie ,triassic1 #dh1 #aei1 #afb2 age1 #aji1 #aee2 ,period1 #dh2 redbeds1 #di1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg2 rocks1 #dh1 #aee2 time1 #dh ,triceratops1 #ea trilobite1 #dj1 #da ,trinidad ,sandstone1 #ej trout1 #ie1 #aja1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aah1 #add2 black spotted1 #aae2 brook1 #aae2 brown1 #aaj1 #aae2 ,german brown1 #aae2 cutthroat1 #aad1 #aae2 rainbow1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aad1 #aae1 illus4 #aaf ,truchas1 #ie1 #acf2 ,lakes1 #if ,truth or ,consequences1 #gd1 #aja1 #aaa1 #ace1 #afa ,tucumcari1 #ch1 #gd1 #aee2 ,mountain1 #aee tuff1 #hb ,tularosa1 #bh1 #de1 #adc1 #aei2 ,basin1 #gi1 #ii1 #aaa1 #aei1 #afj turkey 7wild71 #bh1 #bi1 #ie1 #ih1 #ajj1 illus4 #ajb turquoise1 #ed turtles1 #cf ,tyuonyi ,pueblo ruin1 illus4 #be1 #fb ,u ,uncompahgre ,range1 #dc ,union forces1 #ab1 #ac1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #ib1 #acg ,u4,s4 ,highway #ed3 #acd #ef3 #acd #fj3 #ii1 #aje1 #acd1 #aee1 #afa #fb3 #acd1 #aeh #fd3 #acd1 #acf1 #afb #ff3 #ag1 #dh1 #ff1 #fg1 #ih1 #acd1 #aee1 #afd #gj3 #acc1 #acd1 #ace1 #adc1 #aeh1 #aei #hj3 #ace1 #aeh #hd3 #ie1 #ajf1 #aab1 #acd1 #aee1 #afb #he3 #cf1 #fe1 #fg1 #gj1 #aja1 #ajf1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #add1 #afa1 #afb #ahj3 #acd1 #ace1 #ada1 #aeh1 #afa #bfj3 #aja1 #acd1 #afa #bhe3 #acd1 #aei1 #afb #chj3 #fi1 #ii1 #ajg1 #aaa1 #acd1 #aei1 #afa #eej3 #afc1 #afd #fff3 #acd1 #afd ,u4,s4 ,public ,health ,service1 #gj1 #gb uranium1 #di1 #ec1 #abe1 #ach1 #adf1 #adh1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aef ,ute1 #fe1 #ij2 ,creek1 #aaa2 ,dam1 #aaa2 ,indian1 #acb1 #acc2 ,lake ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aaa2 ,reservation1 map #ef1 #acc1 #ach ,v ,valle ,grande1 #ch1 #ea1 #ge1 #he-hf1 #afb2 --,bandelier ,national ,park1 #he2 caldera1 #cg1 #ge1 #he ,valley of ,fires ,state ,park1 #ajd1 #aaa1 #aee1 #afa ,valverde ,n4 ,mex41 #ac1 #fg ,valverde ,land and ,irrigation ,company1 #fh vanadium1 #ec ,vaughn1 #afa ,velarde1 #aab ,vermejo ,formation1 #ea vertebrate1 #dc1 #de1 #dh ,victorio1 #gj1 #gd2 ,mountains1 #aeh2 ,peak ,limestone1 #df 8,village of the ,humanas10 #hi vinegarroon1 #ca volcanic activity1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #ha neck1 #cg1 #ea1 #aab1 #afb1 #afd rocks1 #cf1 #ajd1 #aab volcano1 #cg1 #di1 #ej1 #ha1 #ajd1 #aef1 #afb ,w ,wagon ,mound1 #aji1 #afb ,wallace1 ,gov4 ,lew41 #aje warbler1 #ca ,warm ,springs ,apache1 #gd water1 #ec1 #hd1 #hi1 #ic1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah1 #abb2 laws1 #aag2 lilies1 #cf waterfowl1 #aad1 #aah ,watrous1 #fe weasel1 #ie wheat1 #abb1 #aei ,wheeler ,peak1 #ch1 #id1 illus4 #ade2 ,wild ,area1 #id ,white ,mesa1 #di1 #afc ,mountain ,apache1 #fi1 #gj1 #acc ,mountains1 #ii2 ,wild ,area1 #ajj ,rock ,canyon1 #he ,white ,sands1 #ca1 illus4 #ci1 #dj1 #db1 #dc1 #de1 #ea1 #ge1 #ajj1 #aei1 #afj2 ,missile ,range1 #fg1 #aci1 #ada1 #adc1 #afj2 ,national ,monument1 #ch1 #gh-gi1 #ada1 #adb-adc1 #aee ,whitewater ,canyon1 frontispiece2 ,creek1 #aja wildcat1 #adg1 illus4 #adh1 #adi wildlife1 #bf-cb1 #ic1 #ig1 #ih1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #aac1 #aag1 #ach1 #add ,wilderness trail 7illus471 #bg ,willard1 #afa ,willow ,creek1 #aja ,wingate ,sandstone1 #dh wolf1 #cj woodchuck1 #ca wood rats1 #ca ,world ,war ,i1 #fg1 #gj2 ,,ii1 #gj1 #adf wren1 #ca ,y ,yankee traders1 #ab ,yapashi ,pueblo ruins1 #he 8yellow cake10 #aea ,yeso ,formation1 #de1 #df yucca1 #ag1 #ah1 #bj1 illus4 #ba2 state flower1 #bj ,yuman ,foragers1 #c ,z ,zia ,pueblo1 #aca-acb zinc1 #ec1 #adf1 #adh1 #aea zirconium1 #ej ,zuni1 #fa1 #ih2 ,mountains1 #dj1 #dc1 #ih1 #ii1 #aaj1 #aeg2 ,pueblo1 #f1 #hi1 #acb1 #aeg2 ,sandstone1 #di1 #aef1 #aeg ,traveler's-,eye ,view of ,new ,mexico ,a truly representative picture of ,new ,mexico is presented in this guide for visitor and resident4 ,the traveler gains a background knowledge of the ,state's centuries-old history1 desert-to-alpine flora and fauna1 geological past1 ancient ,indians1 and frontier forts4 ,he learns of the numerous recreational and scenic attractions of its nine ,national ,monuments1 seven ,forests1 and one ,park and nine ,state ,monuments and twenty-one ,parks4 ,unusual features such as the ,antelope ,plains1 ,ghost ,ranch ,museum1 ,sitting ,bull ,falls1 ,jackpile open-pit uranium mine1 ,jornada del ,muerto1 and ,abo ,pass redbeds are described1 as are nineteen ,indian pueblos4 ,routes given include both major highways and good secondary roads2 all are well designated and easy to follow on the full-color general map4 ,,new ,,mexico ,,bureau ,,of ,,mines ,,and ,,mineral ,,resources ,transcriber's ,notes --,retained publication information from the printed edition3 this e,book is public-domain in the country of publication4 --,corrected a few palpable typos4 --,in the text versions only1 text in italics is delimited by underscores4