,,tube1 ,,train1 ,,tram1 ,,and ,,car ,,or ,,up-,,to-,,date ,,locomotion ,illustration ,,tube1 ,,train1 ,,tram1 ,,and ,,car ,,or ,,up-,,to-,,date ,,locomotion ,,by ,,arthur ,h4 ,,beavan ,,author ,,of 8,,marlborough ,,house ,,and ,,its ,,occupants10 8,,imperial ,,london10 8,,crowning ,,the ,,king10 ,,etc4 ,,with ,,many ,,illustrations ,and an ,introduction ,,by ,,llewellyn ,,preece1 ,m4,i4,e4,e4 ,illustration3 colophon ,,london ,,geo4 ,,routledge ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,,new ,,york3 ,e4 ,p4 ,,dutton ,,co4 #aijc ,all rights reserved4 8,,the ,,chariots ,,run ,,like ,,the ,,lightning0 ,,preface ,the object of this work is to present the subject of ,electrical ,locomotion to the public for the first time1 the author believes1 in a popular form1 giving interesting information about ,tube1 ,train1 ,tram1 and ,motor-car1 but avoiding1 as much as possible1 technical and scientific detail4 ,electrical traction is of national importance1 destined perhaps materially to abate the evil of overcrowding1 by providing cheap and rapid means of access from centres of industry to country districts and vice versa4 ,it was predicted by ,george ,stephenson in #ahbe that his system would supersede all other methods of conveyance in this country4 ,similarly can it now be prophesied that throughout the world electrical traction will ultimately supplant all other forms4 ,an age of electricity is dawning1 when 8power0 may be obtained direct from fuel or from the vast store of energy existing in the heated interior of the earth1 or even from the atmosphere that surrounds us2 when every mountain stream and gleaming waterfall throughout ,great ,britain1 and each tide as it rises and falls1 will help to generate the subtle fluid1 which1 produced on a vast scale abroad1 where giant cataracts and mighty rapids abound1 may be imported to supplement our home supply1 and be utilised in every manufacturing district2 when all our main lines will be electric1 and 8light railways0 ubiquitous2 when coal-less ships and aerial machines1 with perfected accumulators1 may possibly traverse sea and ocean1 and invade the domain of condor and eagle2 when farms will be cultivated by electrical contrivances1 and their produce expeditiously conveyed to market1 and the sanitation of our streets be ensured by the universal use of horseless vehicles4 ,an age that may witness 8current0 laid on for domestic purposes to every house in the land as a matter of course2 and also as machine-power to village settlements1 where artisans engaged in certain kinds of trade may work amidst the pleasant surroundings of home4 ,and thus the abstract principle1 8,back to the land10 may become an accomplished fact4 ,to bring the body of this work precisely up to the date of its publication being obviously impossible1 ,i take the opportunity of making passing reference to the railway disaster on the ,mtropolitain of ,paris1 when eighty-four passengers were killed1 and which has caused the public mind to be much disturbed by the possibility of danger in the ,london ,tubes4 ,as regards trams1 the ,london ,united ,tramways ,company established a record of traffic during the ,august ,bank ,holiday period1 the total for the four days being #hgh1jjj1 that on ,monday alone being #ccj1jjj travellers4 ,a serious electric tram accident occurred at ,ramsgate in ,august1 when nineteen persons were injured by the colliding of one car with another at a point where the lines converged4 ,then1 as to motor-cars4 ,the great ,gordon-,bennett race in ,ireland this summer was won by a ,german4 ,a tentative ,act of ,parliament for regulating the traffic1 to come into force ,january #ast next1 and to continue for three years1 has received the ,royal ,assent1 the speed limit being fixed at twenty miles per hour4 ,a service of motor hansom cabs is shortly to be established in ,london4 ,the ,fischer 8combination0 omnibus has successfully passed through repeated private trials1 and will probably be adopted by one or both of the metropolitan chief companies4 ,motor bath-chairs1 to hold two people1 and propelled by electricity1 will be accomplished facts at the ,world's ,fair1 ,st4 ,louis1 next year4 ,i have now to acknowledge1 with thanks1 the assistance of ,sir ,william ,h4 ,preece1 who kindly read through the proof-sheets of this volume just before he fell seriously ill in ,august1 and of his son1 ,mr4 ,llewellyn ,preece1 who has written the ,introduction1 and ,i now leave 8,tube1 ,train1 ,tram1 and ,car0 to receive the verdict of those who travel4 ,,arthur ,h4 ,,beavan ,september1 #aijc4 ,,introduction ,,by ,,llewellyn ,,preece1 ,m4,i4,e4,e4 ,the object of this book is to give the public a general idea as to the progress now being made in the application of electricity for transport purposes1 and it was intended that ,sir ,william ,preece should write the introduction and correct the author so far as any technical misstatements were concerned4 ,unhappily1 ,sir ,william ,preece has fallen victim to a very severe illness1 which entirely incapacitates him from any work1 and will prevent him from doing anything for some months to come4 ,just before his illness1 however1 he had gone through the proofs and made certain corrections1 all of which1 the author tells me1 have been accepted1 but owing to the great delay in the publication of this book which has already been incurred1 and to the impossibility of discussing these matters with my father1 ,i have not been able to check the proofs since the alterations were made4 ,the advances which1 within the last few years1 have been made in the application of electricity for the purpose of transportation are shown very clearly in this book1 and if the author has made one or two flights on the wings of fancy regarding the future which may be somewhat startling to the reader1 it must be remembered that if many things which are of everyday occurrence had been suggested to any of us fifty years ago1 and if we had been told that it would be possible to travel at the rate of a hundred miles an hour1 we should have been somewhat inclined to laugh4 ,as the reader will learn1 such travelling is to be very shortly a fact4 ,at the same time ,i do not believe that it will be so much with the high-speed work as with the tramway and light railway work that electricity will be of the greatest service to the public in the future4 ,i look forward to the time when there will be a network of light railways surrounding every town in the kingdom1 enabling the population to spread itself out once again in the country4 ,central power stations distributing electric current over a radius of fifteen or twenty miles will enable these railways to work at very low cost1 and therefore carry passengers considerable distances at low fares4 ,the tendency at the present time being to reduce the hours of labour1 whether mental or manual1 the time at the disposal of a workman for travelling will increase1 so that with an eight hours working day and cheap electric light railways1 there will be no reason why the poorest labourer should not live in the country1 and at least sleep in a pure atmosphere4 ,the adaptability of electricity to motor-car work has hardly yet been sufficiently realised4 ,people see the luxurious electric brougham1 described in this book1 running on the streets of ,london and other large cities1 but few have any idea that not only the wealthy aristocrat1 but everyone will1 before long1 be able to ride in such carriages1 possibly not so luxuriousy fitted up1 but equally comfortable and speedy4 ,the usual cry at present is that electric cars are very nice1 but the owners have great difficulties with the batteries4 ,undoubtedly batteries have given trouble in the past1 and still do so to some extent4 ,but if a man buys a horse and gives it in charge of the gardener's boy1 he is likely to have trouble with his horse4 ,in the same way1 if a man buys an electric carriage and expects his coachman to look after it1 he only naturally does have considerable trouble4 ,there are several companies prepared to look after and maintain in continuous use1 not only the batteries1 but the complete carriages1 and this is greatly improving the reliability of the electric car1 and allaying the fears of those anxious to have such carriages4 ,besides this1 the battery itself is making great strides forward3 its capacity per cwt4 has largely increased1 its life is much longer1 and its reliability under great variations of discharge has considerably improved4 ,in fact1 it may be safely said that even now the electric car is more reliable than either the petrol or the steam car4 ,at present it will not do the same distance on one charge1 nor will it do the great speed other cars will1 but this is the great reason why it should appeal to the ,british public4 ,the craze for high speeds does not affect the majority of people4 ,i believe that it is only a question of a few years for the petrol and steam cars to be placed in museums and shown as monstrosities of the past1 like the mammoth elephant1 and that every cab1 omnibus1 and private carriage throughout the country will use electricity as the motive power4 ,in fact ,i do not think it unwarrantable to assert that1 so far as this country is concerned1 many of us will see the day when the only form of energy used for transportation will be that known as electricity4 ,,llewellyn ,,preece ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,the ,,new ,,order ,,of ,,railway ,,locomotion #a ,,chapter ,,ii ,,some ,,pioneer ,,electric ,,railways #aa ,,chapter ,,iii ,,some ,,pioneer ,,electric ,,railways 7continued7 #ai ,,chapter ,,iv ,,remarkable ,,electric ,,railways #ca ,,chapter ,v ,,rejuvenating ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,inner ,,circle #dg ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,central ,,london ,,electric ,,railway #fc ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,tubular ,,system #gd ,,chapter ,,viii ,,touring ,,in ,,the ,,tubes #ij ,,chapter ,,ix ,,london',s ,,tangled ,,tubes #ajg ,,chapter ,x ,,london',s ,,latest ,,and ,,longest ,,tube #aag ,,chapter ,,xi ,,electric ,,tramways ,,generally #abh ,,chapter ,,xii ,,london',s ,,tramways #ada ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,provincial ,,tramways #afb ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,shallow ,,underground ,,system #ahf ,,chapter ,,xv ,,horseless ,,vehicles--,,electrical ,,and ,,otherwise #bjj ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,horseless ,,vehicles--,,electrical ,,and ,,otherwise 7continued7 #bad ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,horseless ,,vehicles--,,electrical ,,and ,,otherwise 7continued7 #bbd ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,electricity ,,applied ,,to ,,navigation 7,a ,,forecast7 #bcj ,,chapter ,,xix ,,some ,,electric ,,locomotion ,,drawbacks #bej ,,chapter ,,xx ,,some ,,electric ,,locomotion ,,drawbacks 7continued7 #beh ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,electric ,,locomotion ,,and ,,our ,,national ,,life #bfi ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page ,,electricity4 ,,by ,h4 ,l4 ,,shindler ,frontispiece #a4 ,,queen ,,victoria',s ,,train ,,on ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,railway #c #b4 ,,nine ,,willans-,,siemens ,,dynamo ,,sets ,,for ,,electric ,,traction1 #gjj ,h4,p4 ,,each #g #c4 ,,the ,,giant',s ,,causeway #ab #d4 ,,waterloo ,,and ,,city ,,railway',s ,,new ,,pattern ,,car #be #e4 ,,the ,,liverpool ,,overhead ,,electric ,,railway #bi #f4 ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,behr ,,mono-,,railway ,,car #ce #g4 ,,interior ,,of ,a ,,behr ,,mono-,,railway ,,car #dd #h4 ,,electrical ,,power ,,house 7,,the ,,largest ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,world71 ,,lot',s ,,road1 ,,chelsea1 ,,to ,,supply ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,district ,,and ,,other ,,railways ,,with ,,current #ec #i4 ,a #b1jjj ,h4,p4 ,,westinghouse ,,steam ,,turbine1 ,,resembling ,,the ,,turbo-,,generators 7,,each ,,of #g1ejj ,h4,p47 ,,in ,,the ,,chelsea ,,power ,,house #ee #aj4 ,a ,,new ,,metropolitan ,,district ,,railway ,,car #ef #aa4 ,a ,,typical ,,electric ,,power ,,generator--,,two ,,dynamos1 ,,each ,,of ,,about #a1fjj ,h4,p4 #fi #ab4 ,a #c1jjj ,h4,p4 ,,triple ,,expansion ,,central ,,valve ,,electrical ,,engine #gf #ac4 ,,shield ,,at ,,work ,,in ,a ,,tube ,,running ,,tunnel #gi #ad4 ,,the ,,western ,,approach ,,to ,,piccadilly #abc #ae4 ,,tram-,,car ,,in ,,paris ,,equipped ,,for ,,combined ,,overhead ,,trolley ,,and ,,surface ,,contact ,,system #acc #af4 ,,cross ,,lane ,,junction1 ,,salford4 ,,the ,,largest ,,and ,,most ,,complicated ,,overhead ,,trolley ,,crossing ,,in ,,the ,,kingdom #ace #ag4 ,,boiler ,,room1 ,,london ,,united ,,tramways ,,co4',s ,,power ,,house ,,at ,,chiswick1 ,,fitted ,,with ,,vicars' ,,automatic ,,stokers #aeg #ah4 ,a ,,london ,,united ,,tramways ,,company ,,tram-,,car #aei #ai4 ,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,queen',s ,,road ,,car-,,shed1 ,,manchester ,,corporation ,,tramways #agj #bj4 ,,view ,,near ,,dudley ,,station1 ,,south ,,staffordshire1 ,,showing ,a ,,steam ,,tram-,,car #age #ba4 ,,view ,,at ,,castle ,,hill1 ,,dudley1 ,,south ,,staffordshire1 ,,showing ,,an ,,electric ,,tram-,,car #aha #bb4 ,,camps ,,bay1 ,,cape ,,town1 ,,and ,,seapoint ,,tramways #ahc #bc4 ,,boston ,,subway1 ,,showing ,,entrance ,,at ,,the ,,public ,,gardens #aic #bd4 ,,new ,,york ,,subway ,,in ,,course ,,of ,,construction4 ,,car ,,traffic ,,maintained #aie #be4 ,,new ,,york ,,subway1 ,,showing ,,how ,,it ,,was ,,built #aig #bf4 ,,electric ,,carriage ,,entirely ,,of ,,british ,,construction #bja #bg4 ,a 8,,crowdus0 ,,electric ,,carriage #bje #bh4 ,,an ,,electric ,,victoria ,,with ,,british ,,storage ,,batteries #bjg #bi4 ,a 8,,fischer0 ,,combination ,,omnibus #baa #cj4 ,,the 8,,hercules0 ,,traction ,,engine1 ,,as ,,used ,,during ,,the ,,crimean ,,war #bag #ca4 ,a ,,ten-,,ton ,,electric ,,trolley #bai #cb4 ,,an ,,electric ,,tradesman',s-,,van #bbj #cc4 ,,another ,,type ,,of ,,the 8,,fischer0 ,,combination ,,omnibus #bbb #cd4 ,,electric ,,storage ,,batteries #bcg #ce4 ,,electric ,,launch ,,on ,,the ,,thames #bdh #cf4 ,,where ,,the ,,poor ,,live #bhj ,,tube1 ,,train1 ,,tram1 ,,and ,,car ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,the ,,new ,,order ,,of ,,railway ,,locomotion 8,the thinking minds of all nations call for change40--,,carlyle4 ,,steam--,,the ,,old ,,order ,an immutable law of nature has decreed that whatever attains to perfection is doomed to perish1 for 8,the world exists by change1 and but for that ,all matter would to chaos back1 ,to form a pillow for a sleeping god40 ,thus it came to pass that in the period #ahbe to #ahce1 when the main roads of ,great ,britain were at their best1 when the then mode of travelling1 though on a limited scale1 had1 as regards speed1 punctuality1 and organisation1 reached the highest possible pitch of perfection1 a little cloud like a man's hand1 presaging the new order of locomotion1 arose at the opening of the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 and overshadowed the old method4 ,so effective was the competition of the 8iron horse10 that in lieu of the fifty-four splendidly equipped vehicles which in #ahce carried ,his ,majesty's mails throughout ,england1 not a single coach left the ,general ,post ,office1 ,st4 ,martin's-le-,grand1 in the year #ahdd2 while the kings highways had become almost deserted4 ,though this was barely sixty years ago1 railways have evolved themselves out of their embryonic state into a condition approaching the fateful one of perfect development4 ,in early days1 first-class passengers were boxed up in replicas of old stage-coaches1 the second-class in open carriages exposed to the weather1 and the third-class huddled together in seatless cattle-trucks4 ,contrast this with our luxurious ,pullmans1 and our corridor and vestibule trains for all classes1 warmed throughout1 lighted by electricity1 and provided with lavatories1 dining-saloons1 buffets1 and sleeping-cars4 8,with what further improvements can we allure the public80 ask anxious directors4 ,one answer only is possible4 8,by bringing the mode of locomotion up to date40 ,this means1 in the case of old-established railway companies1 a complete and costly transformation1 or an independent mono-rail track for long distances2 under any circumstances entailing much hardship upon the shareholders4 ,for at the moment when railway-engineers--improving so vastly upon ,george ,stephenson's venerable engine1#a built in #ahbb1 and still at work for the ,hutton ,colliery1 its weight only fifteen tons1 its speed ten miles an hour--have constructed such magnificent locomotives as the 8,greater ,britain0 for the ,london and ,north ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,queen ,,victoria',s ,,train ,,on ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,railway ,western ,railway1 or the ten-wheeled giant#b for the ,great ,northern ,railway1 fifty-seven feet over all1 weighing #ajj tons1 and capable of reeling off its #fe miles an hour with ease1 electricity steps into the field1 displaces the stately engine--resplendent in red1 blue1 green1 or chocolate paint1 glossy as the coat of some highly trained racehorse1 and gleaming with polished brass and steel1 finished in all its parts with exquisite accuracy1 the very embodiment of energy under perfect control--and from some unpretentious-looking building afar off1 drives our trains with unseen but resistless force1 at the rate1 if desired1 of a hundred miles an hour6 ,the construction of an ordinary steam locomotive is an intricate operation1 necessitating machine-shops1 erecting-shops1 foundries1 forges1 etc41 covering acres of ground1 as at ,crewe1 ,doncaster1 ,derby1 or ,swindon4 ,not a hundred engines are exactly alike in pattern1 and each one is supposed to be composed of over five thousand different parts1 all of which have to be stowed away in a necessarily limited space4 8,how is steam utilised by the locomotive80 is a question asked again and again 7and not by children only7 ever since ,stephenson's engine started on its triumphant progress from ,stockton to ,darlington and back1 and which1 ,i venture to affirm1 only a small percentage of travellers1 even in #aijc1 can answer 8right away10 as our ,american cousins would express it4 ,briefly1 then1 as follows3 ,raised up on high is the mighty boiler4 ,remove its plates1 and running through its entire length will be seen a cluster of some two or three hundred brass tubes1 in diameter that of a penny-piece4 ,at the rear of the boiler1 on a lower level1 is the fuel fire-box1 with its grate and ash-pan1 while in front is the smoke-box1 surmounted by the familiar chimney or funnel1 called in the ,united ,states the 8smoke-stack10 in ,british engines reduced to a minimum of height4 ,water from the tender surrounds the brass tubes1 and when the fire is burning1 flames1 smoke1 and heated gases rush through them1 escaping vi the chimney1 but in their passage converting the boiling water into expanding steam1 which1 when the regulator is opened1 is directed by valves into the hollow cylinders--sometimes placed below the boiler1 but generally visible outside--forcing by its pressure the pistons backwards and forwards alternately1 and1 by means of intermediate machinery1 transferring its energy to the driving-wheels4 ,the exhausted steam1 after accomplishing its work1 joins the smoke in the smoke-box1 escaping up the funnel by jerks1 which creates a forced draught through the brass boiler-tubes1 and hastens the generation of steam4 ,,electricity--,,the ,,new ,,order ,contrast this with electricity1 the definition of whose exact nature is a task ,i must of necessity leave to others1 but its adaptation to the purposes of traction can be thus broadly explained3-- ,dynamos or generators are situated at some fixed station1 more or less distant1 generating electrical energy1 whence the current is transmitted along a central steel rail1 or1 in the case of some tramways1 vi overhead wires1 returning to its place of birth by another rail or cable1 and completing its circuit4 ,it is 8picked up0 by a small locomotive fitted with motors that work the driving-mechanism1 and thus propels the coaches or cars behind it at varying speeds4 ,the rotation of the dynamos is effected either by a torrent1 waterfall1 or swift-flowing river1 absorbed by turbines1 or by steam supplied from ordinary boilers4 ,in other words1 we convert our water and coal into steam1 and1 indirectly1 the heat in the steam into electrical energy2 and the heavy locomotive that used to carry its own fuel1 and manufacture its steam as it tore along with the train behind it1 now leaves tender and boiler at home1 and has its driving power1 in the form of electric current1 forwarded to it per centre rail1 to be drawn upon when wanted4 ,the system is beautifully simple1 and the machinery compact and uncomplicated4 ,smoke defilement is unknown1 and the trains are comparatively noiseless4 ,in short1 electric traction is the refinement of mechanically applied power4 ,now let us visit an electrical power station--a small one--and ,i have in my mind that of the ,waterloo and ,city ,electric ,railway4 ,hidden away behind a bewildering labyrinth of railway arches1 in a cul-de-sac1 approached from a back street1 not a hundred miles from a great railway station1 is a plain1 very plain brick building1 wherein1 for aught one knows to the contrary1 such prosaic articles as pots and pans1 or cardboard boxes1 may be in course of manufacture4 ,pass through a door1 always on the swing1 and an unpretending office is reached1 furnished in the usual manner1 and occupied by clerks engaged upon the ordinary duties of their vocation4 ,access to the engineer-in-chief being granted1 he courteously conducts us to the power room1 whence issues the energy that drives the trains4 ,imagination had pictured a great hall1 filled with ponderous machinery whose component parts are cranks1 steel rods1 shafts1 and toothed wheels1 a wilderness of metal1 moving with bewildering rapidity and thunderous power1 in an atmosphere redolent of lubricating oil1 a vision of whirling wheels1 an ,ezekiel vision of wheels in the midst of wheels1 instinct with life1 such as the prophet saw #fjj years ,b4,c41 by the ,river ,chebar1 in the land of the ,chaldean4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,nine ,,willans-,,siemens ,,dynamo ,,sets ,,for ,,electric ,,traction1 #gjj ,h4,p4 ,,each4 ,by permission of ,willans and ,robinson1 ,ltd41 ,rugby ,nothing of the kind6 ,one portion of a moderate-sized apartment is devoted to the 8fitting0 of the motor locomotives1 and at the other end1 enclosed within a low railing1 resting upon a bed of great solidity1 and occupying but little space1 is the machinery in duplicate1 as a safeguard against breakdowns4 ,it consists of a vertical compound engine1 supplied with steam from an adjoining boiler-house1 whose cylinder is coupled direct to the fly-wheels of the revolving dynamos that are partly sunk into the flooring4 ,these1 with their electro-magnets1 are so shut in1 and so little can be seen of the working1 that it all looks very mysterious and incomprehensible to the uninitiated4 ,in large power-producing machinery an iron staircase leads up to a platform above the dynamos1 giving access to the loftier parts of the apparatus1 which then1 in its general appearance and compactness1 somewhat resembles a modern marine engine4 ,on the walls are endless dials1 recording the amount of current generated1 localising the exact position of the trains on the line at any given moment1 and checking the quantity of current picked up by each engine4 ,there is absolutely no smell1 no outward indication of resistless power1 while almost ,arcadian quiet reigns in the neighbourhood of the machines4 ,that these small dynamos are capable of driving heavy cars filled with passengers at the rate of many miles an hour seems incredible2 but faith1 8the evidence of things not seen10 must come into play4 ,the craving for mere size1 however1 will be amply gratified when the great power house at ,chelsea1 built to supply the ,metropolitan1 ,district1 and other railways1 is completed 7vide ,chapter ,v474 ,but what on earth is a kilowatt1 or a volt1 an ohm1 or an ampre8--expressions that are rapidly becoming as familiar as the word horse-power4 ,well1 8horse-power0 was a term invented long ago by engineers1 who blandly asked one to imagine that an ordinary horse was capable of lifting a weight of #cc1jjj lbs4 7or some #ad tons7 one foot high per minute4 ,now1 electricity is a very exact science4 ,there is no mere theory about it2 and a unit is a definite quantity of power1 known in that science as a 8kilowatt hour40 ,thus1 a kilowatt1 or #a1jjj watts1 is the equivalent in measured work of #a horse-power1 equal to the lifting of #dd1jjj lbs4 per minute1 or the doing of so many units of work1 either electric lighting1 heating1 machinery driving1 or traction4 ,,various ,,forms ,,of ,,electric ,,locomotion ,electricity as a locomotive force is being presented to the public in various forms4 ,there is the ordinary railway1 like the ,underground1 that1 cleansing itself1 amending its ways1 and becoming converted to the new order of traction1 has been granted a new lease of life4 ,then there are new lines laid down1 intended from the first to be electrical1 with specially designed cars1 diving beneath the ,thames1 and connecting the north and south of ,london4 ,these are our metropolitan pioneer electric railways4 ,there is also the system of railways specifically and popularly known as ,tubes1 most important factors in the travelling world of modern ,babylon4 ,another division is the system known as ,overhead ,electric ,railways2 that is to say1 rails laid upon iron girders supported by columns above the roadway1 a notable example of which is the ,liverpool ,overhead ,electric ,railway4 ,electric tramways are with us in ,greater ,london for good and all1 with their network of lines in every direction4 ,some are locally worked by the various ,borough ,councils2 others on a comprehensive scale by the ,london ,county ,council1 who now strongly advocate also another system1 the ,shallow-,underground1 by which the cars run in a kind of open trench just below the surface in the middle of the street4 ,next we have endless provincial and urban council electric tramways1 including some very extensive systems for feeding the enormous traffic of cities and large towns in the ,midlands and ,north of ,england4 ,electric ,light ,railways1 originally intended to be worked on rails laid down upon the ordinary highway1 form a special class by themselves to serve short-distance traffic in country districts2 but to all intents and purposes they are rural electric trams4 ,lastly1 we have motor-cars1 carriages1 omnibuses1 cabs1 vans1 and cycles1 that with electricity as their means of propulsion1 will possibly ere long supersede every other form of traffic in our streets and along our roads and lanes4 ,to individualise these various outcomes of electrical traction spread over the length and breadth of ,great ,britain is impossible4 ,their names and their statistics are enrolled in ,garcke's ,manual of ,electrical ,undertakings1 a work that1 like ,kelly's ,london ,directory1 grows bigger and bigger every year4 ,i propose1 therefore1 only to notice some of the principal ones2 and1 naturally1 the pioneer railway lines should have the place of honour4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,some ,,pioneer ,,electric ,,railways 8,a worthy pioneer40--,,shakespeare4 ,,the ,,giant',s ,,causeway ,,railway ,in the month of ,march1 #ahhc1 by the opening of the ,giant's ,causeway1 ,portrush1 and ,bush ,valley ,railway1 the sister island achieved the honour and glory of showing the way to the 8predominant partner0 in the matter of electrical traction enterprise2 winning1 however1 only by a head1 for in ,august of the same year the ,brighton ,beach ,electric ,railway was inaugurated4 ,who amongst us can say they know ,ireland well8 ,to the average tourist it still remains an unexplored country4 ,the travelling ,american1 however1 as a rule1 does it from end to end4 ,commencing with ,dublin1 8doing0 ,killarney1 and working round the magnificent west coast1 he returns vi the ,north ,channel1 always taking en route on the coast of ,antrim the ,giant's ,causeway1 thundered upon by storms from the wild ,atlantic4 ,there1 almost within hail of ,britain1 are those strange groups of basaltic columns so familiar to geological students1 intensely interesting1 invested with many an old and mystic ,celtic legend1 yet until recently difficult of access1 as other striking regions in ,ireland--an island abounding not only in awe-inspiring scenery1 but in sequestered spots of sylvan beauty2 a fair land of mountains and hills1 lakes and waterfalls1 crystal streams1 and splendid harbours2 truly called the ,emerald ,isle2 where the grass is greenest1 and rare conifer flourish2 where the myrtle needs no shelter1 and the arbutus blooms and fruits to perfection1 and flowers are everywhere1 for every little enclosure in due season glows with the brightest of flax and potato blossom2 and lanes and open country are gay with star-like marigolds1 shamrock1 violets1 honeysuckle1 meadowsweet1 catsear1 scabious1 large purple bugle1 and such-like lowly but welcome plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,the ,,giant',s ,,causeway4 ,by permission of ,thos4 ,cook and ,son1 ,ludgate ,circus ,from ,portrush it is easy to reach the ,causeway1 though once there1 one often has to wait for favourable weather before proceeding to explore its cavernous wonders by water4 ,the present length of the railway is #h miles of single line1 its gauge being #c feet4 ,it is worked partly by steam and partly by electricity on the overhead system1 the current being derived from a generating station three-quarters of a mile away1 where three hydraulic turbines1 fed by an adjoining waterfall1 operate the dynamo4 ,although the railway is out of the way and on a small scale1 the attractions of the ,causeway and the surrounding district result in a respectable passenger traffic of over a hundred thousand per annum4 ,,the ,,brighton ,,beach ,,railway ,under the sanction of the ,brighton ,town ,council1 the ,magnus ,volk ,co41 ,ltd41 now work the ,brighton ,beach ,electric ,tram-railway1 which at its opening was regarded as a great novelty and curiosity1 constituting an additional attraction and amusement to 8,london by the sea10 and tens of thousands must have taken a ride in its little open cars since it came into existence twenty years ago4 ,the gauge is but #b feet #h inches1 the 8feeders0 are underground1 the propelling system is electric1 with a third rail1 and its speed is about #ab miles an hour4 ,starting from the west pier1 opposite the ,royal ,aquarium1 it sets out on its one mile and a half route of single line and dips beneath the level of the ,marine ,parade to a level a little above the beach1 passing en route1 though hidden from view1 many landmarks of old ,brighton1 such as ,park ,place and ,gardens1 ,royal ,crescent1 ,marine ,square1 and ,lewes ,crescent1 and terminating at a point near ,black ,rock4 ,this was the eastern end of ,old ,brighton1 noted for many an original character in the 8twenties0 and 8thirties10 not the least interesting of whom were old ,martha ,gunn1 queen of the bathing-machines1 and ,sak ,deen ,mahomed1 a native of the ,east1 who introduced the art of shampooing into the town1 and lived to become a centenarian1 his fame being enshrined in verse by ,james ,smith1 one of the authors of ,rejected ,addresses1 who humorously predicted his longevity as follows3-- 8,sprung doubtless from ,abdullah's son1 ,thy miracles thy sire's outrun1 ,thy cures his deaths outnumber2 ,his coffin soars 'twixt heav'n and earth1 ,but thou1 within that narrow berth1 ,immortal1 ne'er shall slumber40 ,many have been the changes in ,brighton since those days4 ,arundel ,terrace1 ,kemp ,town1 ,ultima ,thule in the east2 ,adelaide ,crescent with ,palmyra ,square1 its western boundary4 ,from the fields to the north of that square could be seen1 a mile or so off1 the village of ,hove1 the intervening space being dotted with farms4 ,no one could have dreamt that a great railway-station would be built there1 with minor ones at ,kemp ,town1 ,west ,brighton1 and ,hove4 ,old residents could not have pictured a ,grand ,aquarium1 a ,western and ,eastern ,pier1 nor the destruction of their familiar ,chain ,pier4 ,they would be amazed at the spread of ,brighton in every direction1 the springing up of palatial hotels like the 8,mtropole0 and 8,grand10 and the increase of the population to some hundred and fifty thousand2 while the coaching world1 headed by the popular ,sir ,st4 ,vincent ,cotton1 prince of amateur whips1 and all the confraternity of coachmen and hackney-coach drivers1 would have thought anyone a lunatic who had dared to prophesy that one day a conveyance drawn without horses or steam power would carry passengers along the ,brighton beach6 ,,the ,,city ,,and ,,south ,,london ,,railway ,for many years prior to #ahij1 in ,gracechurch ,street1 at a point near its junction with ,eastcheap1 could be seen every day of the week numerous omnibuses arriving between nine and eleven a4m41 and departing between five and eight p4m41 for the suburbs over the water4 ,these 'buses regularly plied between ,london and ,kennington1 ,walworth1 ,camberwell1 ,stockwell1 ,clapham1 and ,brixton 7a few journeying to ,dulwich and ,peckham71 for the special accommodation of dwellers in those favourite localities engaged in business during the day4 ,wealthy 8principals0 of mercantile and brokers' firms drove to and from their comfortable ,surrey villas in well-equipped carriages1 the junior members in smart traps or dog-carts2 but the small merchants and smaller brokers1 the head clerks and the rank and file who do all the hard work1 had to make use of these omnibuses1 and when exceptionally bad weather prevented the vehicles running1 they had to get to and from their offices as best they could on foot4 ,to the working man1 living1 say1 at ,brixton1 and engaged upon a ,city job1 the fares--#d;d4 to #h;d4--were prohibitive4 ,the time wasted in these conveyances was great1 and at the best it was an unpleasant way of travelling2 overcrowding was common1 and the 8fight for the trams0 in #aijc is as nothing compared to the frantic rush for those omnibus seats2 while on wet days the sight was piteous4 ,it is true that ,city men could use the ,london1 ,chatham1 and ,dover ,railway1 to reach these suburbs1 but this involved a walk to ,blackfriars ,station1 and the facing of the crush on its dangerous platforms4 ,there were also the alternatives of crossing ,blackfriars ,bridge and using the ,london ,tramway ,company's horse-cars1 or of forcing one's way over ,london ,bridge1 tramping or 8bussing0 it along the ,borough ,high ,street1 and1 emerging at the 8,elephant and ,castle10 there tapping the trams4 ,as a matter of fact1 these ingenious alternative routes were seldom made use of4 ,at the close of business1 men of all ranks want to get home as fast as they can1 and from some station not far from their counting-houses4 ,therefore1 in the days ,i am describing1 how could any of those gentlemen clad in irreproachable frock-coats and new glossy hats1 who each day of the week issued from snug offices in ,austin ,friars1 ,drapers' ,gardens1 or ,copthall ,court1 whose business was transacted over the way at the 8,house02 how could the brokers of ,mark ,lane and ,mincing ,lane1 the underwriters at ,lloyd's1 the ship-brokers and ship-owners round about ,fenchurch ,street and ,leadenhall ,street1 the flourishing bill-brokers of ,broad ,street1 and the smaller mercantile fry2 how could any of these1 if resident on the ,surrey side1 be expected to go to and from business by way of ,blackfriars8 ,however1 this unsatisfactory means of communication was hardly likely to escape the notice of such astute experts as ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,mott1 doyen director of the ,great ,western ,railway1 and his far-seeing friends4 ,they took counsel together1 and1 after the usual hard task of persuading people1 plans were matured1 and in #ahhd an enterprise was organised and incorporated as the ,city of ,london and ,southwark ,subway ,company1 to construct a line of railway from ,king ,william ,street to the 8,elephant and ,castle10 with an intermediate station at ,marshalsea ,road4 ,this was the initial stage of the present well-known railway4 ,at the outset1 three points had to be considered4 ,how was the subway to be constructed8 ,what motive power should be employed8 ,and how was the deep level to be reached by the passengers8 ,a subway under the ,thames was no novelty4 ,the directors of the new line were not the 8first that ever burst into that silent sea0 of mud and gravel at the bottom of the swift-flowing river4 ,brunel had been long before them with his costly ,thames ,tunnel1 and ,barlow had years ago laid upon its oozy bed the ,tower ,subway of iron4 ,it was decided that a tube1 or1 rather1 two independent tunnels of cast-iron rings1 should be driven side by side beneath the bottom of the stream1 a little to the west of ,london ,bridge1 and continued on the ,surrey side4 ,on this system the work was begun by the contractors1 ,siemens ,brothers and ,mather and ,platt1 and proceeded with quite out of public sight4 ,it was accompanied with many disheartening delays and seemingly insurmountable difficulties2 but they were all successfully overcome1 and the tubes were brought to a temporary end at the 8,swan10 ,stockwell1 to which charming retreat1 by an ,act of ,parliament1 #ahhg1 an extension of the line had been sanctioned1 making its length a little over three miles4 ,the motive power eventually selected was electricity1 steam being impracticable1 and the funicular or cable system considered unreliable4 ,access to and from the trains was to be obtained at the stations by means of capacious twin-lifts capable of holding many people at a time4 ,then the problem of how best to utilise the ample 8power10 generated at the ,stockwell ,station1 for hauling the cars1 had to be seriously tackled4 ,it was not a question of a toy line like that on the ,brighton beach1 but of the driving at fair speed1 say #ae miles an hour1 of comparatively heavy coaches laden with passengers1 and at frequent intervals4 ,altogether it was a new departure in electric traction4 ,how the motor locomotives were effectually to pick up the current was the puzzle which had to be solved1 or the enterprise might at the last moment collapse and the subscribed capital be lost4 ,after an infinite amount of anxious experimenting on the part of ,mr4 ,mott and his scientific advisers--the narrative of which1 as told me by that veteran1 sounded like a romance--by a happy inspiration the way was hit upon2 and all other technical difficulties overcome1 the line was pronounced to be in working order 7#ahij71 after a series of trial trips1 at one of which the writer had the privilege of being present4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,some ,,pioneer ,,electric ,,railways 7continued7 ,a ,,trial ,,trip ,,in ,,the ,,city ,,and ,,south ,,london ,,railway ,one o'clock saw a large party of us1 chiefly ,city men1 amongst whom were numerous civil engineers1 waiting at ,king ,william ,street booking-office to descend into the bowels of the earth by one of the semicircular lifts1 a novelty in point of size4 ,our turn having come1 we duly filed into the elevator4 ,the telescopic doors clashed upon us1 and we stood for a second or two silently expectant1 feeling like a batch of condemned criminals on a gigantic scaffold waiting for the hangman to draw back the fatal lever that would launch them into the other world4 ,noiselessly the lift descended to an apparently fathomless depth1 but in reality1 ,i believe1 some #ij or #ajj feet4 ,when released by the janitor1 we found ourselves in a small1 well-lighted1 cool1 and spotlessly clean1 white-tiled station1 whence was discernible a couple of small tunnels side by side1 leading to unknown regions1 seemingly all too narrow to accommodate even the miniature cars waiting for us at one of the narrow platforms4 ,inspecting the tunnels1 the classical man of our party1 a wag in his way1 who had hitherto made no remark1 was heard to mutter something in ,latin1 which1 on being coerced1 he admitted was out of ,virgil1 and was translated thus3 8,this is the spot where the way divides in two branches40 ,in vain we pointed out that the quotation was inappropriate1 as the ways were parallel4 ,he was obdurate1 so we left him to his own reflections4 ,to most of us accustomed to roomy ,pullmans and commodious railway carriages1 the cars1 though comfortable1 seemed cramped1 especially in height4 ,the signal given1 off we started1 when we noticed that the cars fitted the tube with such nicety and economy of space that1 could the windows have been let down1 we could easily have touched the iron plates of the tunnel4 ,we realised1 too1 that although there was no smoke or smell1 the railway was by no means noiseless2 neither1 in the opinion of several of the experts present1 was the running as steady as on the 8,underground40 ,a hint had been given us that at some point where the line dipped and rose again the cars might come to a temporary standstill4 ,as we rather uneasily recalled this1 the speed gradually slackened1 and finally the train stopped altogether1 and simultaneously the incandescent lights began to pale1 and at last subsided into filaments of sickly red4 ,the situation was not a pleasant one4 ,there we were2 many of us with important engagements awaiting us later in the day2 most of us with wives and children who would expect us home as usual when evening arrived1 and grow anxious at our absence4 ,there we were sealed up in a tube1 for all we knew1 at a point beneath the ,thames4 ,not a sound reached us from the locomotive1 or1 indeed1 from anywhere4 ,were we thus to remain indefinitely8 ,for walk out we could not1 there being no room outside the carriages4 ,would some memorial tablet let into the side of ,london ,bridge1 months hence1 recall the fact that near it a goodly company of highly respectable citizens had perished in a living tomb8 ,i don't think we talked much4 ,it was luncheon-time2 we were hungry1 and we felt like the occupants of the snowed-up cars in one of ,mark ,twain's stories1 who gloomily eyed one another as starvation threatened1 calculating upon whom1 by an ingenious and complicated system of voting previously agreed to1 would next fall the lot of being sacrificed for the benefit of the rest1 and ,i believe ,i found myself unconsciously speculating on the plumpness of a youthful stockbroker standing by my side4 ,but after a very few moments of suspense the train rattled on again1 the lights reappeared1 and presently we drew up at the ,borough1 the first station on the ,surrey side4 ,railway booking-offices are not usually things of beauty1 least of all those on the ,metropolitan1 ,district1 and suburban lines4 ,here1 however1 was a surprise1 for we found quite a picturesque stone-and-brick building on the ground-floor1 a cupola surmounting the prettily designed entrance1 and a small dome with lantern by way of roof4 ,and this was a sample of all the stations along the line4 ,the ,borough recalled the ,marshalsea that once stood close by2 and there opposite was ,st4 ,george's1 ,southwark1 where ,little ,dorrit1 accidentally locked out of the prison1 was allowed by 8the sexton1 or the beadle1 or the verger1 or whatever he was10 to take refuge in the vestry1 where1 years afterwards1 she signed the marriage register when wedded to ,arthur ,clennam4 ,the next stoppage was at the ,elephant and ,castle--not the tavern of that name1 where in the past on ,derby ,day the superabundant holiday traffic usually became hopelessly congested1 but the ,city and ,south ,london's new station1 close to ,spurgeon's ,tabernacle1 ,rabbits' great boot warehouse1 and ,tarn's vast emporium1 that seems to occupy most of ,newington ,causeway4 ,onwards to ,kennington ,common1 once the place of public executions for ,surrey1 now a well-kept miniature park4 ,beyond it1 ,kennington ,oval1 associated with cricket all the world over2 and finally we arrived at ,stockwell1 the then terminus of the line1 since extended to ,clapham1 where ,tom ,hood used to go to school at a house 8with ugly windows ten in a row1 its chimney in the rear10 a style of architecture of which many specimens still exist round and about the ,common4 ,at ,stockwell we visited the generating station1 recently much extended1 and provided with entirely new plant1 and1 wondering at and admiring all we saw1 learned from the chief engineer that the contretemps en route was due to a slight defect in the new and untried power-machinery2 and thus at the point where the dip in the line was greatest1 the cars stopped4 ,an excellent luncheon restored us all to eloquence and equanimity1 extinguishing the cannibalistic feeling of half an hour ago1 and1 returning without any incident worth recording1 we emerged once more in the ,city1 to be greeted by the noise of the traffic that ever surges around ,king ,william the ,fourth's statue4 ,those were the 8green salad0 days of ,london's ,pioneer ,electric ,railway ,line4 ,now it runs without a hitch1 and has been extended north as far as the historic 8,angel10 thus giving a direct route between ,clapham and ,islington4 ,it has powers to exchange traffic with the ,great ,northern and the ,city ,railway vi ,old ,street1 and also to connect itself with the ,baker ,street and ,waterloo ,electric ,railway at the ,elephant and ,castle ,station2 and in a new building at ,finsbury ,pavement it now has commodious head offices4 ,at the last half-yearly general meeting the chairman1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,mott1 in the course of his speech1 stated that the ,board aspired to have a thoroughly first-class terminus in the ,city of ,london1 and had deposited plans with this view4 ,they proposed to construct this station between the present ,bank ,station and the ,king ,william ,street statue4 ,that the ,city and ,south ,london ,railway is most useful and popular is shown by the number of passengers it has carried--some ninety millions since its opening--the returns for last year showing about eighteen millions1 over a total route of about seven miles4 ,for the convenience of travellers1 it eventually will have subways1 connecting its ,lombard ,street ,station with the ,bank ,station of the ,central ,london ,railway1 and it already has them from its new ,london ,bridge ,station to the ,london1 ,brighton1 and ,south ,coast ,railway4 ,finally1 it can boast of possessing a station below a church--a unique position1 ,i believe4 ,st4 ,mary ,woolnoth's foundations were completely removed1 the vaults cleared out1 and the whole replaced by huge iron girders1 whereon the sacred edifice now rests1 with the booking-office below4 ,,the ,,waterloo ,,and ,,city ,,railway ,the month of ,august1 #ahih1 was unusually warm1 and the heat was felt as much in the ,city as anywhere4 ,straw hats were universal2 the shady side of the street1 if there happened to be one1 was thronged2 secluded alleys and courts were resorted to by the knowing ones who could afford the time to linger there2 and even highly respectable merchants were to be found sitting in shirt-sleeves at their writing-tables and wishing1 with ,sydney ,smith1 that they could 8sit in their bones40 ,at the junction of the ,poultry with ,victoria ,street1 shadowed by the ,mansion ,house1 from each side of the road a mysterious hoarding had just been removed1 revealing an iron railing enclosing a small area with a mysterious staircase bearing the announcement that it led to the subway to the new electric railway1 connecting the ,city with ,waterloo ,station4 ,descending a few steps1 and emerging into a tunnelled incline1 the perspiring pedestrian quickly found that here1 if anywhere1 was a refuge from the heat1 the coolest place in ,london1 and that it was well worth while1 on the pretence of urgent business across the water1 to pay twopence each way1 merely to drink in the refreshing air wafted backwards and forwards along subway1 platform1 and tube4 ,this was the ,waterloo and ,city ,railway1 a short deep-level line on the tube principle1 nearly #a miles long1 burrowing under the ,thames' bed4 ,at the terminus1 by rather prolonged inclines and staircases1 passengers could walk to the main or suburban platforms of ,waterloo ,station and catch the trains for ,wimbledon1 ,hampton ,court1 ,surbiton1 etc4 ,like the ,city and ,south ,london1 this railway meets a great want4 ,before its opening1 ,city men living down the ,london and ,south ,western line had no alternative but to catch a ,south ,eastern train from ,cannon ,street or ,charing ,cross2 to take an omnibus vi the ,strand across to ,waterloo ,bridge2 or to cab it by devious routes vi ,blackfriars ,bridge4 ,now they can reach ,waterloo with ease1 comfort1 and economy4 ,under agreement1 the line is worked by the ,london and ,south ,western ,railway ,company4 ,the electrical equipment is by the famous firm of ,siemens ,brothers1 the generating station being up a blind alley adjoining ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,waterloo ,,and ,,city ,,railway',s ,,new ,,pattern ,,car ,by permission of the 8,tramway and ,railway ,world0 ,publishing ,co41 ,london the dismal arched entrance to ,waterloo from ,york ,road4 ,each train seats #bjh passengers2 the average speed is #ah miles an hour1 and its usefulness is proved by the fact that over two and a half million ordinary passengers were carried by it in one half-year1 i4e4 to ,december #cast1 #aijb 7not counting season-ticket holders71 while the receipts for that period were #ag1djj4 ,during the busy hours of morning and evening the large trains are used and always fill up rapidly1 but in the slack times of midday single motor-cars1 each carrying #ej passengers1 are sufficient to cope with the traffic4 ,the cars are rather stuffy1 and1 like the train cars1 are narrow and low4 ,at each end is a small partitioned-off 8cab10 where sits a motor-man4 ,no tickets are issued from the booking-office2 but1 as in an omnibus1 the conductor comes round and collects the fares1 giving a punched voucher in return1 which is retained by the traveller4 ,,the ,,liverpool ,,overhead ,,electric ,,railway ,there are few overhead1 or1 rather1 elevated1 railways in the world4 ,somehow they do not seem to be popular1 and the tendency1 in ,england at least1 is rather towards burrowing like the mole1 than soaring above the street level4 ,in ,germany there is a wonderful instance of electrically driven overhead line between ,elberfeld and ,barmen1 on the mono-rail principle1 the trains hanging from tracks suspended high above rivers and public roads4 ,at the great ,beckton gas works there has been in use since #ahid an iron-built miniature railway elevated on pillars1 and it is a curious sight to witness busy little engines incessantly hauling coal trucks from the pier to the retort houses4 ,an ingenious example of the elevated principle is to be seen at the ,victoria ,station1 ,manchester1 where a railway on a very reduced scale conveys passengers' luggage from one platform to another1 and idlers are never tired of watching it4 ,the track1 a double one1 is suspended from the roof and runs between platforms five and six4 ,the motive power is electricity1 and the motor is placed between the wheels and the track1 and it lifts and lowers a basket which holds about #ae cwt4 of luggage4 ,a wonderful instance of a very elevated railway existed at ,beachy ,head while the new lighthouse was being built #fjj feet distant from the base of the cliff1 at that point #djj feet high4 ,it conveyed material to the site1 the descending load drawing up the ascending empty 8skip0 on the overhead suspension principle4 ,our ,new ,york cousins have1 in their elevated steam railway1 long been familiarised with the system1 but for ,londoners it possesses the fatal objection that the occupants of the cars as they pass along can look into the front windows of the houses and spy upon the occupants4 ,running along docks1 however1 elevated railways are not objectionable2 and the earliest example1 in this or any other country1 of electricity applied to overhead traction is at ,liverpool4 ,extending along the ,mersey--that noble river whose tidal movement is said to be four times the outfall of the ,mississippi--for a distance of #f miles are the ,liverpool ,docks1 in importance undoubtedly the first in the world1 but1 until the ,overhead ,railway was opened1 exasperatingly inaccessible to business men whose time was valuable1 and bewildering to strangers by reason of their immensity4 ,along the line of dock1 it is true1 ran broad-wheeled omnibuses built to run on the low-level dock railway1 but so slow1 in consequence of the pressure of traffic and the necessity for frequent shuntings for the passage of goods trains1 that to reach the farthest dock usually occupied over an hour4 ,to improve upon this it was proposed1 as far back as #aheb1 to construct a high-level railway2 but nothing practical came of it until #ahhh1 when the ,liverpool ,overhead ,railway ,company took over the parliamentary powers obtained by the ,dock ,board1 and setting steadily to work1 created their line for passengers only1 and1 from the first1 achieved a great success1 the number of travellers amounting to many millions annually4 ,on the #dth of ,february1 #ahic1 the railway was appropriately opened by the ex-,prime ,minister1 ,lord ,salisbury1 whose devotion to the science of electricity is well known4 ,pressing a button at the base of a silver inkstand 7subsequently presented to the ,marquis as a memento71 the engines that generated the electric current were set in motion1 and by special train his lordship was conveyed over the seven miles of line1 and afterwards entertained at a banquet by the ,mayor1 when1 in an excellent speech1 he dilated upon the prospect of electricity becoming the motive power of the age4 ,in the following month the railway was opened for public traffic1 and1 with its thirteen stations1 its five minutes' service1 and its cheap fares1 practically extinguished the omnibuses1 light or heavy4 ,from the ,overhead ,railway a splendid view is obtained of the busiest locality perhaps in the empire4 ,below are the railway trucks packed close with imported merchandise of all kinds3 cotton from ,america and the ,east2 grain from the ends of the earth2 beef1 bacon1 cheese1 butter1 flour1 and fruit from the ,new ,world2 wool and tallow from ,australia and ,argentina4 ,waggons ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,the ,,liverpool ,,overhead ,,electric ,,railway ,by permission of the ,liverpool ,overhead ,electric ,railway ,co4 and carts filled with ,manchester goods1 hardware1 machinery1 chemicals1 and every imaginable kind of manufactured goods are alongside the big liners that come into port1 discharge their cargoes1 load up1 and are out in the ,mersey and off to sea again in a few days4 ,truly ,liverpool is a wonderful place1 and although her greatness as a seaport has been threatened by the opening of the ,ship ,canal to ,manchester1 it will be a long day before she surrenders her claim to be the chief marine approach to ,great ,britain4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,remarkable ,,electric ,,railways 8,behold they shall come with speed swiftly40--,,isaiah v4 #bf4 ,,mono-,,railways ,a one-rail railway6 ,what kind of novelty can that be1 emanating no doubt from the prolific brain of some enthusiastic engineer possessed with an idea1 a fad1 a craze--call it what you will6 ,we are accustomed to highly respectable trains running in an orthodox manner on double rails4 ,a projected1 many-railed track we have also heard of to carry ships bodily across the ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,but the idea of a single-rail 8,flying ,dutchman0 or 8,wild ,irishman0 seems chimerical4 ,it is not so1 however1 and the system has been solemnly and deliberately sanctioned by ,act of ,parliament4 ,nowadays one need not be astonished at anything4 ,take cycling1 for instance4 ,long ago1 when velocipedes--three or four-wheeled1 uncanny machines--were mere toys wherewith youths loved to dislocate their joints on the lower terraces of the ,crystal ,palace1 no one dreamt that bicycles1 outraging all the laws of gravitation and practically mono-wheeled1 would ere long be used on road and field and moor1 on mountain-side1 on steppe and desert1 over barren ,asiatic tundras and snow-clad ,yukon plains--in short1 wherever adventurous mankind has penetrated4 ,the mono-rail train1 like a bicycle1 runs on one linear track1 but1 unlike that hopelessly collapsible machine1 requires no balancing1 and cannot capsize1 and under proper conditions is the safest known method of travelling at very great speed4 8,faire prose sans le savoir0 is a familiar aphorism of ,molire1 but perhaps it would astonish most of us to be calmly told by modern engineers that all our lives we have1 without knowing it1 been travelling on mono-railways6 ,they assert that although it is true that the ordinary engine with its coaches rests on a pair of rails1 the fact that the space between the rails is cut away is immaterial1 as it is rendered a single track by the rigidity of the carriage axles1 and if these were loose1 of course the train would overturn4 ,nature has no example of mono-railwayism 7to coin an expression71 unless it be the gossamer or shooting spider1 that upon a single invisible thread spun from its body ascends to aerial heights on a kind of self-manufactured mono-rail1 ,dame ,nature being too lavish and too wise1 in the perfect freedom she accords to birds1 beasts1 fishes1 and insects1 to restrict their movements to one undeviating path4 ,in the moral world there have always been mono-railists1 men of one fixed idea1 from which they could not1 or would not1 budge--apostles of an ambition1 a creed1 a theory1 a political conviction4 ,the world has had its ,alexander the ,great1 its ,napoleon1 ,buddha1 ,st4 ,paul1 ,mahomet1 ,martin ,luther1 ,ignatius ,loyola1 ,wycliffe1 its ,palissy1 ,george ,stephenson1 ,mungo ,park1 ,john ,bright1 and ,cobden4 ,it has been left to the inventive mechanical genius of the nineteenth century to develop the mono-rail system4 ,doubtless those inscrutable people1 the ,chinese1 knew of it1 and applied it in some way long ago2 and perhaps the yet more mysterious dwellers in ancient ,egypt--whence all wisdom seems to have descended--utilised it after some unknown fashion4 ,blondin1 in his marvellous feat of trundling a wheel-barrow containing a man along the high-level rope1 used a hempen mono-rail2 and the wire cables stretching across the ,thames at the reconstructed bridges at ,kew and ,vauxhall1 acting as travelling ways to convey the excavated soil from the coffer-dams in large iron 8skips0 or buckets1 were another species of mono-rail2 while at home in brickfields1 and in mines1 and on plantations in distant lands1 miniature railways have been used for years to carry clay1 ore1 and produce1 over plain and hill and dale4 ,in ,india a peculiar kind of tramway truck has been in use for some time1 with two or three flanged wheels which run on a single rail1 and a large balance-wheel on one side of the truck to prevent it toppling over4 ,produce of all kinds can easily be drawn upon it by a couple of coolies1 and its efficiency on country roads has been highly spoken of4 ,germany presents us with a recent and curious example of the application of the principle to locomotion4 ,in the ,wupper ,valley near ,dusseldorf and ,cologne there are two towns1 ,barmen and ,elberfeld1 about eight miles apart1 mutually engaged in chemical and textile industries1 and this separation of the sister-towns was an obvious disadvantage to both4 ,but now they are joined by a wonderful railway1 constructed on an elevated line running six miles of its course above the ,river ,wupper1 a tributary of the ,rhine1 some sixty to a hundred feet wide4 ,the carriages are suspended1 and work upon a single rail1 a development of the travelling cable-way system4 ,this rail is rigidly fastened to an iron framework of girders1 and supports the cars hanging therefrom by means of two steel 8bogies0 with two wheels4 ,thus they can pass round sharp curves without slackening speed and with the greatest safety1 its motive power1 electricity1 being applied by two motors on each carriage which drive both wheels with equal force at a speed fixed at thirty-one miles an hour1 and attainable fifteen seconds after starting4 ,as elevated railways of this type are somewhat costly1 and a simpler and cheaper form would be a desideratum1 a short line across country was built as an experiment at ,cologne-,deutz4 ,the stays1 measuring from #if feet to #bhe feet1 were made either of wood1 or of iron tubes1 and met at the top in a cap1 from which was jointed the sheet-iron supports that carried the mono-rail4 ,by means of this jointed connection1 the strain was always of a central character1 and1 therefore1 more easily borne4 ,at intervals of about #ffj feet a couple of stays were firmly braced together1 in order to give stability to the overhead structure and to take up the longitudinal thrust4 ,in consequence1 even with light locomotives1 the traction power was very high1 and on the line at ,deutz it was found that a locomotive drawing two carriages full of passengers could ascend a gradient of #a in #f with perfect safety4 ,but a means of adapting a mono-rail to every condition had some time before been thought out4 ,in #ahhc-d ,charles ,lartigue1 the eminent ,french engineer1 developing the principle conceived by the great ,telford1 constructed some small lines in ,tunis and ,algeria for carrying esparto grass4 ,the cars were drawn by animals in a special form of mono-rail1 the model upon which ,mr4 ,f4 ,b4 ,behr1 ,,ass4 ,,inst4 ,c4,e4--who modestly disclaims all originality in the matter--has worked for years1 greatly improving in practical details the original design1 and constructing for the first time mono-rail trains that have been successful in the carriage of both goods and passengers by steam and electricity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,behr ,,mono-,,railway ,,car ,by permission of ,mr4 ,f4 ,b4 ,behr1 ,ass4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,the ,lartigue single-rail system1 as perfected by ,mr4 ,behr1 is as follows1 but of necessity my description is a mere outline4 ,dismissing all preconceived ideas of rails laid down upon the ground1 we must imagine a heavy double-headed steel rail firmly bolted on to the summit of a girder supported by trestles1 the whole rigidly framed upon massive sleepers4 ,we thus have a permanent way somewhat resembling a continuous ,a-shaped metal viaduct1 raised about five feet from the surface1 or a succession of iron barriers--such as road-menders make use of to divert the traffic--set ends on1 secured to each other and to the ground4 ,now take an ordinary railway car with seats arranged as in an omnibus1 but with two additional rows back to back in the centre4 ,remove the axles and wheels1 extending the sides and ends of the car almost down to the ground level1 thus providing beneath the flooring an enclosure with ample room for the locomotive machinery4 ,all along the bottom of this enclosure is an opening or space1 about five feet high--extending between the middle rows of seats--that fits the ,a-shaped viaduct1 so that the car is suspended1 or1 as it were1 sits upon the mono-rail1 whereon roll six vertical grooved wheels that1 when set in motion by the electric current1 propel the cars4 ,thus we have a train apparently without wheels1 these together with the apparatus being completely hidden away between and beneath the passengers' seats4 ,on each side of the ,a-shaped trestle are fixed two guide-rails fitting close into horizontal grooved wheels effectually checking all oscillation4 ,in front is the bogie locomotive motor with a pointed bow1 the stern of the car also being pointed1 so that the entire arrangement resembles when seen from above a great stickless rocket with a sharp and flexible snout4 ,as the sister isle was the first to adopt electricity to a railway 7vide ,chapter ,,ii471 so was she the pioneer of mono-railism4 ,in ,county ,kerry1 ,munster1 near the ,shannon's mouth1 stands the little town of ,listowel1 and #i miles distant is ,ballybunion4 ,to connect these a mono-railway for passenger and goods traffic was opened on ,march #ast1 #ahhh1 and has worked ever since without any difficulty4 ,the trains are drawn by a steam locomotive divided in two1 one on each side of the mono-rail--a kind of twin-screw arrangement--and with their smoke-stacks and giant lantern between them1 present a strange and rather comical appearance1 while the track meandering at its own sweet will across country without fencing of any kind1 adds to the novelty of the little line4 ,its great safety has been amply demonstrated by the only mishap that has occurred to it4 ,some miscreant had deliberately removed the fastenings from over thirty yards of the line at a critical point where a reverse curve began1 and close to a bridge4 ,at full speed1 a train carrying #bjj passengers came up to the loosened rail1 which gave way1 breaking the coupling chains and1 luckily1 bringing into action the automatic ,westinghouse brake4 ,the permanent way was ruined by the shock1 but the fall absorbed the force of the reaction1 and deposited the carriages quietly on the ground without injury to anyone1 and without even breaking a window4 ,on an ordinary line the train would have been thrown off the metals into the river with terrible consequences4 ,shortly after the line was opened1 the ,lartigue system was adopted in ,france1 from ,tours to ,pannissieres in the ,loire ,department4 ,the ,ballybunion and ,listowel ,railway is the indirect father of a modified form of mono-rail which is expected to appear this year at the ,crystal ,palace4 ,it is called the ,electric ,mid-,railway1 the invention of ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,smith1 and as the line is to connect the existing railway station with various points in the grounds1 it should be well patronised at the modest penny fare which is to be charged4 ,being an entire novelty1 it has a specially good chance of success in this particular situation4 ,the single rail is placed below the carriage1 the weight of which is balanced upon it after the fashion of a bicycle4 ,on each side of this single track runs a trestle carrying a rail on a level with the centre of gravity of each carriage4 ,this rail serves the necessary purpose of supporting the carriage and of also preventing derailing4 ,a similar device had been suggested--and possibly has been carried into effect on the ,new ,york and ,washington ,d4 ,c4 ,line--when it was proposed to elevate a track above the earth on a single line of upright beams1 the trains to be kept steady by an auxiliary rail on either side1 but which would only come into play on rounding curves4 ,,high-,,speed ,,electric ,,railways ,in ,belgium1 ,mr4 ,behr1 who throughout his labours there received the personal encouragement and patronage of ,king ,leopold ,,ii41 successfully built an experimental high-speed mono-rail line at ,tervueren in the neighbourhood of ,brussels1 as an annexe to the ,exhibition of #ahig4 ,to find suitable ground was the great difficulty4 ,the line had to cross ten public roads1 and in the absence of compulsory powers1 leases for the land had to be arranged with grasping occupiers and owners4 ,the soil was bad1 big cuttings and embankment were unavoidable1 and finally the line consisted of nothing but steep1 up-and-down gradients4 ,in fact1 all the conditions were most unfavourable1 notwithstanding which1 the result of the experiment was conclusive in showing that with the mono-rail and perfected electrical traction1 very high speed1 double that of existing passenger express trains1 could be attained with absolute safety1 a principle which ,mr4 ,behr had for a long time past been particularly impressed with1 but which he maintains is not possible on the ordinary two-rail track1 even with electricity as a motive power4 ,in ,november1 #aija1 ,mr4 ,behr went to ,berlin1 and investigated the experiments carried out during forty days by a number of engineering experts on a military track laid down between the ,german capital and ,zossen4 ,it was hoped that a speed of #afj miles an hour would be attained and maintained1 and1 as a matter of fact1 starting from a low speed1 the train gradually reached that of #hg miles2 then1 for a moment only1 #ie miles2 and for an instant of time1 #ajj miles per hour2 but it was at once discernible that the ordinary two-rail permanent way1 though straight1 could not bear the terrific strain imposed upon it2 the rails bent at many places1 while the hundred-miles-an-hour rate had so destructive an effect as to render impracticable any attempt to create a higher record4 ,the air resistance was found to be considerable4 ,with a square-fronted instead of a pointed coach1 it was appreciable1 and the suction behind the train resembled the pressure of the water at the stern of a mail steamer1 and was calculated to equal two-thirds of the 8bow0 resistance4 ,these experiments went to prove that for excessive velocity an ordinary railway was absolutely unsafe4 ,a year before this1 a steam locomotive train had been tried in ,america by the ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railway ,company1 on the ,adams principle of reducing the atmospheric resistance to a minimum4 ,it consisted of six cars1 a tender1 and an engine of fifty-seven tons4 ,the entire train was sheathed down to within eight inches of the track4 ,there were no projections1 and all the windows were flush2 the cars were coupled close together1 and the rear one was run off to a point1 the train resembling one long sinuous and flexible carriage4 ,with this comparatively light engine it is said that the forty miles between ,baltimore and ,washington were covered in thirty-seven and a half minutes4 ,but it was claimed that with a more powerful locomotive the train could have been easily run at the rate of one mile in thirty-five seconds1 or nearly two miles a minute4 ,these speeds appear tremendous1 but custom would soon reconcile us to them4 ,our forefathers thought fifteen miles an hour terrific2 and one of the objections to ,stephenson's ideas was1 that at such a speed1 not to mention a twenty-or twenty-five-mile rate1 no human being could draw breath4 ,since then we have quietly acquiesced in and equally welcomed a style of travelling varying from #ce to an average of #eh miles an hour1 and even consider it no great feat to run a special viceregal train from ,euston to ,holyhead--#bfc miles--in five hours without stopping1 and are not astonished to read of last year's record run of the mail express from ,boulogne to ,paris--#afh miles--at an average speed of #fh miles an hour6 ,still1 #abj miles every sixty minutes without stopping is a large order1 and in practice would give some remarkable results4 ,for instance1 a resident at ,putney could be whisked from the station nearest to him1 and thence to a point adjoining his office--say in ,seething ,lane1 some seven miles off--in less than five minutes4 ,brighton could be reached from town in twenty-five minutes2 ,dover1 in forty2 ,edinburgh1 in three hours twenty minutes4 ,inverness--#ffc miles away--could be arrived at from ,euston in six hours twenty minutes1 instead of the fifteen hours thirty-five minutes of the ordinary express2 and ,paris--allowing one hour thirty minutes for the ,channel passage--in three hours forty-two minutes4 ,,the ,,manchester ,,and ,,liverpool ,,electric ,,express ,,railway ,now1 the contention of the advocates of the monorail principle is1 that only by that system can very high speed be safely attained2 and when one comes to closely examine the cars in which this hundred-and-ten-miles-per-hour travelling is achieved1 confidence is at once inspired1 because of their low centre of gravity and consequent unlikeliness of derailment4 ,there remains only one question--,cui bono8 ,what useful purpose can be served by being able to get from ,liverpool to ,manchester in twenty minutes instead of over an hour8 ,on an emergency1 such as a sudden necessity for the services of a medical specialist1 a matter of life or death perhaps1 or on the occasion of any crisis in domestic or mercantile life when the instant presence of some one distant individual is imperative1 it might be of immense service4 ,but in the usual course of business1 do not existing railways bring merchant and broker1 importer and manufacturer1 face to face quickly enough1 and are not telephones and telegraphs and the post sufficient to carry through big transactions between the centre of the cotton trade and the great city on the banks of the ,mersey8 ,public opinion1 which demands increasing speed in every phase of life1 especially in travelling1 declares they are not sufficient2 for we live in an impatient age when every hour of detention on a transatlantic passage is begrudged4 ,therefore it is not to be wondered at that in #aijj-a1 after the most exhaustive inquiries and criticisms1 the royal assent was given ,august #agth1 #aija1 to the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,electric ,express ,railway1 which was duly authorised by ,act of ,parliament4 ,it must be premised that the line1 like our ,london ,tube1 does not provide for goods traffic2 that the time occupied by the journey being so short1 neither luggage-van1 lavatory1 or refreshment buffet is required1 and that all trains consist of a single car1 couplings being a source of danger at so great a rate of speed4 ,but as the trains run every ten minutes1 and carry about forty persons each time1 a large passenger traffic is provided for4 ,well--a broker has been telephoned for by his client1 a wealthy cotton-spinner in ,manchester1 anxious to consult with him personally2 so he at once leaves the flags of the ,exchange1 and after an eight minutes' walk arrives at the ,express ,railway ,station1 near the entrance gate of the ,blue ,coat ,hospital in ,school ,lane4 ,he considers that in getting into and out of the lift he has lost two minutes1 but he just catches his car and starts for a run of #cd miles to ,manchester1 and since it is his first experience of lightning travelling1 he notices everything connected with the new line4 ,there are many curves1 he finds1 all necessary in order to avoid conflict with the vested interests of other railway companies2 the gradients1 he observes1 at points about three-quarters of a mile from the ,liverpool and ,manchester stations1 are steep--#a in #be1 and #a in #cj--;but of service in accelerating and breaking the trains4 ,unlike the ,listowel mono-rail line1 the ,manchester and ,liverpool express is fenced from end to end with an unclimbable barrier1 and as there are no level-crossings and no means of access1 there is no possibility of trespassing4 ,also1 for the security of the workmen employed in maintaining the track as on an ordinary railway--the system of 8packing0 the sleepers and inspecting the various parts being common to all railways--a clear space of three feet is left between the passing trains1 and strong posts1 ten feet apart1 are fixed along the centre of the space for the labourers to hold on by when an express rushes by4 ,collisions1 our broker quickly perceives1 are impossible1 there being no switches1 and notwithstanding the multitude of passengers 7some twenty thousand per day7 there are never more than two cars on the line at a time1 and there are no stoppages between the two termini4 ,for signalling purposes1 the line is divided into four sections of about five miles each1 and as the train passes by1 its electric motor automatically operates the signal and immediately 8blocks0 the section behind it1 so that the train following cannot advance until its leader has cleared the five-mile division4 ,the driver and conductor are both together in the front part of the train1 so that the conductor has ample time to look out for the signals1 to apply the brakes1 and assist his mate4 ,the brakes are of the ,westinghouse pattern1 and the two combined can stop the cars in about #hjj yards1 even at the speed of #aaj miles an hour4 ,these can be aided by ,mr4 ,behr's ingenious device1 which ,sir ,william ,h4 ,preece considers quite practicable1 viz4 louvres or shutters1 which1 when opened1 materially increase the air resistance4 ,past ,toxteth ,park1 ,garston1 ,halewood1 ,widnes 7whose only rival in sheer ugliness is perhaps ,london's ,stratford-by-,bow71 and exactly half-way1 ,warrington1 conspicuous for the inkiness of its river ,mersey1 and noted for its glass1 wire1 and chemical industries2 famed for its network of waterways1 especially for the great but evil-smelling ship-canal2 noted in history--when but a hamlet1 with a clear trout-yielding stream--as the camping-ground of the young ,pretender when on his march to ,derby in #agde2 and associated with ,mrs4 ,gaskell 7whose 8,cranford0 is identified with ,knutsford1 a neighbouring village71 the two ,bishops ,claughton1 ,viscount ,cross1 ,luke ,fildes1 ,r4,a41 and 8,warrington0 ,wood1 the sculptor4 ,close by1 in the parish of ,great ,sankey1 is the power-generating station of the railway1 the current obtained being #ae1jjj volts on the triphase alternating system1 converted in five sub-stations placed along the line1 into a continuous #fej volt current4 ,every car has four traction motors arranged in pairs1 each with a full-speed capacity of #afj h4p41 equal to #aaj miles an hour4 ,the cars are comfortably upholstered2 the seats are separated and placed back to back in the middle1 those along the sides facing inwards1 as in the ,twopenny ,tube4 ,the lighting is1 of course1 excellent1 and the ventilation perfect1 though to prevent accident the windows are fixed1 and the doors1 while the train is in motion1 are automatically locked4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,interior ,,of ,a ,,behr ,,mono-,,railway ,,car ,by permission of ,mr4 ,f4 ,b4 ,behr1 ,ass4 ,inst4 ,c4 ,e4 ,as regards the cost of this novel undertaking1 our ,liverpool friend had beforehand ascertained that the capital had been fixed at #b1hjj1jjj1 and that an average of eight persons per train would more than cover the expense of the enterprise4 ,swiftly leaving ,warrington in the distance1 the express shoots onwards--past ,eccles1 ,pendleton1 and ,salford--and reaches the terminus at the west side of ,deansgate1 in the busiest part of ,cottonopolis1 where1 again using the lift1 our honest broker speeds to the ,exchange in another eight minutes1 and in forty-five minutes after leaving ,liverpool is in deep business conference with his principal at ,manchester4 ,contrast this with the existing facilities of the old system for rapid transit between the two places2 and those who know their ,manchester and ,liverpool well1 will at once be able to decide whether or not the electric express better meets the requirements of those to whom every minute is of consequence4 ,the ,london and ,north ,western ,railway 7which has a perfectly straight bit of track to ,manchester1 unequalled1 except on the ,great ,eastern between ,littleford and ,lynn--#ba miles--and on the ,south ,eastern between ,nutfield and ,ashford--#cb miles7 runs expresses without stopping from ,lime ,street and ,edge ,hill to the ,exchange ,station1 ,manchester1 doing the journey in forty minutes4 ,the ,great ,central ,railway1 by an indirect route1 vi ,garston and ,widnes1 runs expresses from their ,liverpool station 7,st4 ,james's7 direct to the ,manchester ,central1 in from forty to forty-five minutes2 but on neither line is there such a thing as a ten minutes' service1 the intervals between the direct expresses ranging from forty-five minutes to so much as four hours4 ,plans1 it is said1 have been submitted to the ,board of ,trade for a mono-railway between ,edinburgh and ,glasgow4 ,the proposed construction is similar to that of the ,behr mono-railway between ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,it is quite unlike the canny ,scot to rush into sensational experiments for a speed of #aag miles per hour1 especially as a few years' waiting for the completion of the ,liverpool line would prove or disprove the possibility of the scheme4 ,,chapter ,v ,,rejuvenating ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,inner ,,circle 8,so that thy youth is renewed like the eagle's40--,ps4 ciii4 #e4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,and ,,metropolitan ,,district ,,railways ,can anything be satisfactorily rejuvenated8 ,is there any truth in the ,medean story that old age can revert to the vigour of young manhood8 ,in #aijc the usual reply is 8,no40 ,if a theatre becomes dilapidated1 it is pulled down4 ,if a railway-station gets much out of repair1 the company proceeds to reconstruct1 and not to patch up4 ,if a macadamised thoroughfare gives signs of too much wear and tear1 it is broken up and relaid with wood blocks4 ,in fact1 rejuvenation on a large scale is so seldom attempted that the scheme for renovating and electrifying the ,inner ,circle ,railway may be regarded as something remarkable4 ,for convenience we will call it the ,inner ,circle1 but1 as we all know1 it is a dual concern controlled by the ,metropolitan and the ,metropolitan ,district1 both of them old enough to have a respectable history4 ,fifty years ago railways within the boundaries of ,inner ,london were non-existent1 the nearest points approached by the country lines being at ,battersea1 ,euston1 ,st4 ,pancras1 ,shoreditch1 ,paddington1 ,london ,bridge1 and ,waterloo--miles away from the central districts4 ,it was an ideal time for omnibus companies1 who charged pretty well what they liked3 and for cabmen1 whose fare was nominally restricted to eightpence a mile1 but who were masters of the situation when passengers with luggage had to be conveyed from the termini4 ,yet1 although many suggestions were made1 including that of a great central station where all the lines might converge1 the travelling world was considerably startled in #ahed by a proposition laid before ,parliament to construct an underground line from ,farringdon ,street to ,bishop's ,road1 ,paddington2 and so astonished were capitalists that although the bill passed1 the money was so slow in coming in that work could not be begun until six years later6 ,in planning the route a golden opportunity was lost of anticipating the ,twopenny ,tube2 but the opposition of ,oxford ,street was so fierce that the line had to be poked away beneath the ,marylebone ,road in the north-west of ,london1 convenient for residents in ,paddington and ,bayswater1 but useless to other districts1 and1 what was more important1 it did not go to the ,bank1 the centre of the business world4 ,however1 we1 then as now1 were but a slow people1 therefore really comprehensive schemes found little favour in the 8fifties0 and 8sixties40 ,for three years the ,marylebone and ,euston roads were closed to traffic1 and presented the appearance of a besieged city's outskirts where deep trenches and fortifications were being made4 ,the roadway was removed to a great depth2 pipes and sewers were taken away and replaced2 foundations were underpinned1 and a series of solid brick tunnels were slowly and laboriously constructed and covered up4 ,the plank pathways1 the noise1 and the smells1 drove householders along the route to desperation2 and1 on nearing the ,city1 the problem of dealing with the old ,fleet ,ditch was at one period thought insoluble4 ,no wonder that1 what with compensation to owners of damaged property1 the acquisition of necessary land1 and engineering difficulties1 the cost of the line at some points mounted up to a million sterling per mile6 ,at last the first section was completed2 and in ,september1 #ahfb1 a trial trip was made4 ,a contemporary picture represents the train passing ,portland ,road ,station1 its open trucks in the rear full of enthusiastic guests waving flags and tall hats--after luncheon probably--evidently delighted with the success of the undertaking4 ,but at the formal opening1 ,january #ith1 #ahfc1 a grand banquet was given in the ,farringdon ,street ,station1 three long tables occupying the rail and platform space1 with a shaped table on a das for the principal guests4 ,the following day thirty thousand passengers journeyed over the line1 and everybody in ,london talked about the ,underground as somewhat of a marvel4 ,but people exhibited strange ignorance on the subject1 nervous people preparing for wonderful possibilities1 imagining that the cellars would collapse as the trains thundered by1 or that the houses would tumble through on to the line1 flinging their occupants before some passing engine6 ,yet1 after all1 the ,underground was only an ordinary tunnel 7such as pierce a score of hills71 placed in an exceptional position in the midst of ,london4 ,bit by bit1 as years went by1 the ,metropolitan ,railway extended itself eastward and westward to ,high ,street1 ,kensington1 whence the ,district ,railway that had sprung into existence went ahead and got as far as ,westminster1 its line being partly open and partly tunnelled4 ,there the ,district stuck for three years1 and then found its way into the ,city 7a great boon as an alternative route74 ,at the ,mansion ,house ,station it seemed determined to rest for a long period2 the ,metropolitan showing the same propensity at the ,moorgate ,street sheds1 until ,city men began to give up all hope of the two ends ever meeting4 ,it came about at last1 however1 and the year #ahhd witnessed the completion of the irregular ,inner ,circle--a total length of about #ab miles--by way of ,bishopsgate1 ,aldgate1 ,mark ,lane1 the ,monument1 and ,cannon ,street1 without any serious disturbance of the traffic1 but with much wonderful underpinning of warehouses and offices 7a notable instance of this operation being beneath ,king ,william the ,fourth's statue1 which weighs over #bej tons674 ,at first there were no smoking-carriages1 but the numerous complaints on the subject induced the directors to alter their rules1 and they went to the other extreme1 so that now non-smokers think there seem to be more smoking-carriages than any others4 ,in its young days the ,metropolitan was clean and its atmosphere tolerable4 ,in fact1 it had been proposed to use smokeless engines1 but for some reason the idea was abandoned1 and1 as the main railway lines began to send out feelers towards the inner districts of ,london1 they sought for1 and obtained1 running powers over the ,underground1 junctions being made with the ,great ,northern ,railway and ,great ,western1 the ,london and ,north ,western1 and the ,midland4 ,consequently1 the number of trains immensely increased1 and the smoke nuisance was intensified4 ,ventilating shafts were adopted1 and afforded some relief1 but the imprisoned fog of winter precipitated the 8blacks10 and summer weather only made the atmosphere still more stifling2 while ,baker ,street1 ,gower ,street1 and ,king's ,cross stations and tunnels were positive infernos1 and for how many deaths from asthma and bronchitis they were responsible no one knows6 ,the rolling-stock of the ,metropolitan became dirtier and dirtier1 grime and disfigurement settled down upon it1 and everybody's experience of it resembled that of ,mrs4 ,lilian ,rosamond1 described in ,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,new ,,district ,,railway ,just opposite ,st4 ,mark's ,college1 ,chelsea1 is a narrow thoroughfare called ,lot's ,road1 leading to a creek that separates the ,borough from ,fulham4 ,tradition says that the locality was formerly known as 8,the ,lots0 7about four acres in extent71 and was granted to a ,sir ,arthur ,gorges by the lord of the manor1 in lieu of certain rights over land which he gave up for the formation of the ,kensington ,canal2 but incredulous old folk dismissed this tradition with contempt1 and maintained that there was a ,chelsea personage named ,lot1 very distantly related to the patriarch's nephew1 who pitched his tent in the fertile ,jordan ,valley1 and that the dismal ,chelsea wastes so much resembled the desolateness of the fatal plains1 that diligent search therein might even result in the discovery of the ,pillar of ,salt1 brought over to this country at some remote period by a pious descendant6 ,but whoever1 or whatever1 the name ,lot may represent1 it is now associated with one of the greatest electrical undertakings of the age--the huge generating station of the ,underground ,electric ,railway ,company of ,london1 ,limited1 who1 as at present arranged1 will supply the ,district and other railways with power4 ,at the bottom of ,lot's ,road1 and at a point on the ,middlesex bank of ,battersea ,reach1 facing the ugly parish church of ,st4 ,mary1 is the mouth of ,chelsea ,creek1 filled twice a day by the muddy waters of the ,thames1 and here the ,electrical ,works are being erected4 ,they are in sight of an obscure cottage in ,cheyne ,walk where the painter ,turner lived in concealment1 and where he died4 ,the building1 with its four great chimney-shafts1 is unsthetic to a degree1 and ,turner would probably have thought it ruined his favourite landscape4 ,but it represents something more valuable than sthetic effect4 ,when ,matthew ,doulton1 in the infancy of steam1 took the ,russian ,prince ,potemkin round the works at ,soho1 ,manchester1 the distinguished visitor inquired1 8,what do you sell here80 8,we make and sell here10 replied ,james ,watts' partner1 8that which all the world wants--,power40 ,and this1 on a scale undreamt of by the famous engineer1 is what the ,underground ,electric ,railway ,company of ,london will produce1 in view of the river scenery so much admired by the chief of impressionists1 and which he never wearied of depicting4 ,this temple of electric force will be the largest in the ,old ,world4 ,in ,new ,york1 the ,manhattan and the ,metropolitan companies both have power stations slightly smaller4 ,the ,rapid ,transit ,commission have projected one that will be bigger1 while the ,waterside station of the ,edison ,illuminating ,company 7partially completed7 is on a still larger scale4 ,it has1 however1 been stated that the biggest power scheme on earth will be at ,massena1 on the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river1 ,canada1 where there will be fifteen ,westinghouse machines1 equal to a total of #ge1jjj kilowatts4 ,within the temple there will be turbo-generators fifty feet in length and ten feet high1 constructed by the ,british ,westinghouse ,company at their ,trafford ,park ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,electrical ,,power ,,house 7,,the ,,largest ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,world7 ,,lot',s ,,road1 ,,chelsea1 ,,to ,,supply ,,the ,,metropolitan ,,district ,,and ,,other ,,railways ,,with ,,current ,by permission of the ,underground ,electric ,railways ,co4 of ,london1 ,ltd4 ,works1 ,manchester1 capable of producing the prodigious quantity of #fj1jjj electrical kilowatts1 at a pressure1 or force1 technically speaking1 of #aa1jjj volts4 ,in other words1 about #ajj1jjj horse-power could be sent out1 theoretically equal to the lifting of over #a1jjj1jjj tons a foot high every minute4#c ,six such power stations could1 therefore1 move the great pyramid of ,cheops 7over #f1jjj1jjj tons weight71 and carry it bodily off on colossal rails1 and dump it down anywhere to order4 ,for condensing purposes1 an enormous quantity of water will be required1 and every twenty-four hours #ai1jjj1jjj gallons of water 7at times mounting up to #dj1jjj1jjj gallons7 will be drawn from the creek for use in the power house4 ,the force of #aa1jjj volts will be much too powerful for direct application to the purposes of locomotion4 ,it requires reducing by transformers and rotary converters into the safe and ordinary current of about #eej volts1 which will be effected at sub-stations--,earl's ,court1 ,south ,kensington1 ,victoria1 ,charing ,cross1 ,mansion ,house1 and other places along the line4 ,to these the current will be sent from the power house1 and reduced by the transformers into ordinary low-pressure voltage1 and the fiery ,o4,p4 spirit tamed to a pleasant and portable 8under-proof0 standard6 ,the current will then be distributed to two conductor-rails1 one located between the present running rails1 and the other outside them4 ,the motors on the trains will receive the current from one rail by means of a sliding contact-shoe1 and return it to the other rail in the same manner4 ,in passing through the motor the electricity causes the armature to revolve1 which motion1 by means of gearing1 is communicated to the carriage axle4 ,so much for the driving-power of the trains4 ,but what kind of trains do the public expect8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,a #b1jjj ,h4,p4 ,,westinghouse ,,steam ,,turbine1 ,,resembling ,,the ,,turbo-,,generators 7,,each ,,of #g1ejj ,h4,p47 ,,in ,,the ,,chelsea ,,power ,,house4 ,by permission of the ,westinghouse ,companies1 ,ltd41 ,london ,surely not the old carriages cleaned up and re-upholstered--made 8to last a little longer10 until broken up for firewood and old iron4 ,the public will not be disappointed in the new cars1 nothing as yet having been seen in ,london to equal them4 ,the trains will be run on the principle of the multiple unit4 ,that is1 each will be made up of seven coaches--three long motor-cars and four trail-cars--with a motor-man's cab at each end1 and one in the centre4 ,these eight-wheeled coaches will be rectangular at the sides--not sloping like those of the ,waterloo ,tube ,company--and very roomy1 #eb feet long and about #h feet #b inches wide inside1 and about #h feet #g inches from the floor to the middle of the roof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,a ,,new ,,metropolitan ,,district ,,railway ,,car ,by permission of the ,underground ,electric ,railways ,co4 of ,london1 ,ltd4 ,the arrangement of the seats will be somewhat different from that of the ,tube4 ,there will1 of course1 be corridor cars1 which will be entered from the platforms1 through telescopic doors2 there will be also sliding doors4 ,the gain in leg-space will be great1 the centre gangway giving a clear #d feet1 and there will be fewer cross seats4 ,each train will hold about #cch passengers2 the ventilation of the cars will be perfect2 and the height sufficient for a giant4 ,as the ,district tunnels are #be feet in diameter1 and #ae feet #i inches from the rail level to the crown of the arch1 there will be about #b feet of head-room1 about #b feet #f inches between each train1 and the same between the trains and the sides of the tunnels4 ,compare this with the present ,inner ,circle trains that carry about three hundred passengers1 with gangways that1 even in the first-class compartments1 leave no room for incomers to avoid a leg entanglement1 and whose height will hardly admit a tall man in a tall hat to stand upright4 ,also compare it with the dimensions of the ,central's cars1 which are #ci feet long1 #h feet wide1 and whose height to the middle of roof is only #g feet #e inches1 the gangway narrow1 with seats in each car for forty-eight people4 ,the space in the cars of the ,city and ,south ,london1 and the ,waterloo and ,city1 is still more exiguous4 ,it is proposed to run about twice as many trains as at present1 each journey to be made in about two-thirds of the time now required2 that is to say1 the trains that now run about ten miles an hour will1 it is anticipated1 work up to at least fifteen miles2 the total carrying capacity being estimated at #gj1jjj1jjj per annum1 increasable1 if necessary1 to #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,there may be an all-night service1 for the convenience of people engaged at ,covent ,garden market1 and for journalists and others whose work lies in the vicinity of ,fleet ,street4 ,a somewhat novel and economical feature will be that the trains1 during the stock hours of the day1 can be run in short lengths1 as in the ,city and ,waterloo ,railway1 and1 with their triple motors divided1 will resemble those strange ,naid worms of the ,annelida class that possess the power of increasing by mechanical division4 ,they will also be able to go forward and backward without reversing the motor engines4 ,brilliant will be the lighting of the cars and stations2 the tunnels1 too1 are to be illuminated4 ,fresh air will be obtained by the frequent movements of the trains through the tunnels1 while smoke and smuts will1 of course1 become things of the past4 ,the stations1 with their wide and roomy platforms1 will in some cases be lengthened by fifty feet to accommodate the three-hundred-and-fifty-feet-long trains1 and be thoroughly cleansed and repainted1 and the tunnels may possibly be whitened by means of 8spraying0--the principle adopted at the ,chicago ,exhibition for the finials of the pavilions4 ,the question of classes1 fares1 and tickets has not yet been settled1 but we may assume that the system adopted will be somewhat like that of the ,tube4 ,the entire project closely resembles the ,metropolitan ,underground ,railway of ,paris1 and the ,boston ,subway4 ,lifts are not at present contemplated1 and probably their absence will be no great loss to active travellers1 nor even to the 8old1 subdued1 and slow10 for trains will so quickly succeed one another that the missing of one will involve no serious delay4 ,possibly1 however1 as time goes on1 some new and convenient form of sloping footway may be adopted4 ,but alas6 for the lovers of the beautiful1 the directors1 we are told1 8have not decided that they will be warranted in sacrificing1 on sthetic grounds1 the revenue derived from advertisements40 ,then1 again1 as there will be little or no waiting1 even the most impatient of voyageurs will hardly need the diversion obtained by a trial of the omnipresent penny-in-the-slot machines1 or the contemplation of the numerous works of art displayed on the station walls4 ,they will not even need the bookstalls1 much less to gape at the contents-bills of the daily paper4 ,and1 provided the glass roofs be kept clean1 and the atmosphere innocent of smoke and gas1 might not the stations--sheltered as they are from the vagaries of weather1 and brilliantly lighted--be transformed into modified winter gardens1 with sturdy flowers and shrubs filling up nooks and corners1 and bold paintings 7frequently renewed7 of distant lands1 seascapes1 and historical subjects1 in the recesses now covered by 8,reckitt's ,blue10 etc48 ,the frequent stopping of trains would be actually welcomed1 and people would travel by the 8,circle0 for the sake of seeing the novelties6 ,in fact1 every station might be converted into a thing of beauty4 ,one other suggestion for the directors of the new ,inner ,circle4 ,cannot something be contrived in the new cars to effectually deaden the sound of the closing and opening of doors1 so irritating to modern nerves1 and unpleasantly associated with the 8banging0 in the old carriages1 and the 8clashing0 of the telescopics in the ,tubes4 ,,the ,,new ,,metropolitan ,,railway ,the ,metropolitan ,railway will be electrified in a very similar manner to the ,district ,railway1 the system being the same1 i4e4 alternating three-phase1 converted at sub-stations into continuous current4 ,access to the platforms will be by short staircases1 and not by lifts4 ,it is said that when steam is abolished the appearance of the stations may possibly be improved1 but the advertisements are too important a source of revenue to be removed1 and1 as the ,company says1 8they act as a relief to the bare walls1 and their withdrawal would answer no good06 ,an effort will be made to cleanse the tunnels1 but it has not yet been decided what method will be adopted4 ,there exist an abundance of open spaces1 ventilating-shafts1 and holes1 and the frequent passing of trains in contrary directions will necessarily keep the air in motion1 and thus1 as in the ,district1 the problem of ventilation will solve itself4 ,the cars will be of the corridor type1 seven to a full train1 each end car and the middle one having a motor1 and if the contingencies of the traffic do not require a large train1 it will thus be possible to divide it and run it in two parts4 ,the seating will be both transverse and longitudinal1 and considerably over four hundred passengers it is said can be accommodated in each full train4 ,as to day and night services1 their frequency1 the fares1 and the distinction of classes1 nothing has yet been decided4 ,about a mile from ,wembly1 where 8,watkins' ,folly10 as it is locally called--at one time aspiring1 like ,babel's1 to 8reach unto heaven0--shows gauntly against the skyline its first stage of only #aej feet1 is ,neasden1 where1 on land belonging to the ,metropolitan ,railway1 is being erected its power house 7the most extensive in the kingdom owned by a single railway company71 capable of producing some #ad1jjj kilowatts4 ,water in abundance will be obtained by means of artesian wells now being bored in the chalk2 and coal can be readily supplied4 ,the current will be applied to cars1 as on the ,district1 by a conductor-rail placed in the near side of the permanent way1 with a return fixed in the centre of the running track4 ,by the end of #aijc it is hoped that the work will be sufficiently advanced for some trains to be run by electricity4 ,finally1 as the ,metropolitan's engineer-in-chief remarks1 there will be no marked novelties1 but 8the very conversion from steam to electric traction will prove a great novelty and an attraction4 ,new cars of the latest type will be introduced1 the stations will be bright and cheerful1 the atmosphere pure2 travel will be undertaken with a greater degree of comfort1 and freedom from disagreeable odours4 ,in short1 nothing that can reasonably be expected to be performed in the interests of the public will be left undone40 ,,american ,,capital ,a good deal has been said in reference to the source whence the necessary capital has been obtained for rejuvenating the ,inner ,circle1 patriotic people objecting to the so-called ,americanising of this great undertaking1 though it is hardly a logical objection4 ,if ,british capitalists are lacking in enterprise1 there is no reason why ,london should wait until they evince it4 ,the world will not go to sleep while ,lombard ,street hesitates4 ,as ,mr4 ,perks1 ,m4,p41 ,chairman of the ,district ,company has said1 out of the five millions sterling invested in the new ,underground ,electric ,railway ,companies of ,london1 ,limited1 less than two millions were held in ,america1 and three millions on this side the ,atlantic4 8,i do not care10 he said1 8where the money comes from1 so long as it is good money0--a wise remark1 like the non olet of ,suetonius4 ,what matters it whence the materials of a sovereign have come8 ,they cannot be ear-marked1 and whether its gold is ,brazilian1 ,australian1 ,south ,african1 or ,american1 is of no consequence4 ,it is a legal tender1 and worth twenty silver shillings4 ,another matter that has engaged public attention is the apparent difference of opinion between the ,metropolitan and the ,metropolitan ,district ,companies1 as to the control of the ,inner ,circle4 ,nature has designed them to be one1 and but for vested and promoters' interests1 they probably would have been one from the first4 ,they are not merely brother and sister1 but are united by a closer tie1 therefore their motto surely ought to be ,quis separabit6 ,let us hope that long before the scheme is completed there will be a reconciliation1 and a satisfactory working arrangement made 8out of court0 between these two parties to an unnecessary divorce suit4 ,the two lines have carried their millions of passengers1 and the rejuvenated ,inner ,circle during its new and beneficent career is destined to carry very many millions more1 and prove a great boon to the metropolis4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,central ,,london ,,electric ,,railway 8,tell by what paths1 what subterranean ways40--,,blackmore4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,railway ,,and ,,its ,,city ,,subways ,when those electric traction pioneers1 the ,city and ,south ,london1 and the ,waterloo and ,city ,railways1 were opened respectively in #ahij and #ahih1 they were regarded by the public with a certain amount of apathy4 ,but when1 in ,july1 #aijj1 the ,central ,london ,railway1 inaugurated by the ,prince of ,wales1 was opened for traffic1 and it was realised that the line was laid literally in the centre of ,london1 beneath one of the greatest street routes in existence1 viz4 ,cheapside1 ,newgate ,street1 ,holborn1 ,oxford ,street1 ,bayswater and ,uxbridge roads1 and was capable of dealing with a gigantic stream of passengers at a uniform fare for any distance1 it arrested universal attention1 and for a time nothing was talked about but the deep-level system for metropolitan railways2 and by general approbation the ,central was forthwith dubbed 8,the ,twopenny ,tube10 a name it will always retain4 ,like most great enterprises1 the ,tube ,railway had to contend against considerable opposition before legislative sanction could be obtained for its construction4 ,it was incorporated on ,august #eth1 #ahia1 after a great battle with ,parliament and local authorities1 in which affray the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,greathead1 ,m4 ,,inst4 ,c4 ,e4 7deviser of one of the methods of shield-excavating for driving tunnels71 took a conspicuous part1 and the principle of a 8free-way-leave0 beneath the streets was successfully confirmed4 ,the original directors were ,mr4 ,henry ,tennant 7at one time ,general ,manager of the ,north ,eastern ,railway ,company71 ,lord ,colville of ,culross 7,director of the ,great ,eastern ,railway ,company71 ,sir ,francis ,knollys 7,director of the ,great ,northern ,railway ,company71 the ,hon4 ,a4 ,h4 ,mills 7of ,glyn1 ,mills1 ,currie1 and ,co471 and the ,right ,hon4 ,d4 ,r4 ,plunket 7,director of the ,north ,london ,railway ,company74 ,thus the railway element was strongly represented2 the financial to a small but very important extent1 and ,court influence by two prominent members of the households of the ,prince and ,princess of ,wales4 ,the ,company was authorised to construct a double underground line from ,liverpool ,street to ,shepherds ,bush 7about #f miles72 but the plan was modified1 and the ,bank of ,england became the ,city starting-point4 ,in their prospectus the directors modestly predicted an annual passenger traffic of some forty-two millions 7or seven millions per mile of line72 but this estimate has been largely exceeded1 the average being about fifty-two millions per annum1 or one million per week4 ,the ,company's capital ultimately reached the sum of nearly four millions sterling1 so the line can hardly be called a cheap one in point of construction2 for1 although the 8way-leave0 beneath the streets was free1 land had to be bought for the surface booking-offices1 costly shafts had to be sunk to the requisite depth1 and tunnels driven1 and numerous subterranean stations had to be built4 ,thus1 apart from the cost of the rolling-stock and installation of a large current-generating station1 the initial expenses soon mounted up4 ,all the booking-offices and stations are built on one principle1 each with its great electric lift2 but special interest attaches to the ,city terminus4 ,it was necessary to make use1 somehow1 of the open space between the ,mansion ,house1 the ,bank1 and the ,royal ,exchange--an ideal spot for a central railway station4 ,but how was it to be effected8 ,for years the ,civic ,fathers had contemplated the construction of subways for the safety and convenience of foot-passengers at this1 which has been termed the busiest--as it is almost the most dangerous--spot in the world1 though ,i doubt whether in the year #aijc ,piccadilly ,circus does not run it hard4 ,the ,central ,railway ,company approached the ,corporation on the subject1 and eventually it was agreed between the parties that the ,railway ,company1 in return for being allowed the privilege of constructing their station beneath the open space1 without payment1 should make the public subways1 and hand them over in perpetuity to the ,city4 ,so for many months the pavement in front of the ,royal ,exchange was disfigured by a lofty wooden hoarding1 which completely concealed a shaft1 wherein some mysterious work was progressing4 ,but beyond this there was no outward indication of what was going on below2 and1 although the entire roadway in front of the ,mansion ,house was being undermined1 the vast traffic continued as usual4 ,arranging this station proved to be one of the stiffest bits of engineering work ever attempted4 ,drain-pipes were ubiquitous--a perfect tangle that had to be diverted4 ,there were old disused and long-forgotten pipes1 electric cables1 hydraulic power pipes1 pneumatic tubes1 gas and water mains--a maze and wilderness of underground communications4 ,these were all rearranged in a special pipe-tunnel1 #ad feet wide4 ,then1 at a depth of about #bj feet1 the booking-office was built1 bit by bit1 of steel-work1 which had previously been temporarily put together in a field to ensure its fitting exactly into the excavation prepared for its accommodation--an area #ade feet one way and #ge feet the other1 its outline being on the curve4 ,its roof1 consisting of girders supporting steel troughing1 was filled up with concrete1 and finally with asphalte1 upon which thousands of people pass daily without realising what is below them4 ,access to the booking-office is gained by numerous entrances vi the public subway3 two on the ,royal ,exchange pavement1 two at the bottom of ,mansion ,house ,place1 one at the ,poultry corner1 and one at ,walbrook1 one in front of the ,safe ,deposit ,city buildings1 two each at the corners of ,princes ,street and ,cornhill1 and one at ,st4 ,mary ,woolnoth ,church4 ,the entire arrangement reminds one of a mole's subterranean fortress1 with its galleries for entrance and exit branching off in various directions4 ,these subways1 immense conveniences which should be adopted at every rond-point in ,london--though it is a strange fact that habitus of the ,city seldom use them1 they being patronised chiefly by the 8work-girl0 and by casual visitors to the central 8square mile0--are #ae feet wide and #i feet high1 are lined with glazed brick1 and have electric-lighted stairways at the above-mentioned places4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,railway ,some fifty feet below the ,bank of ,england ,station are the twin-tunnels and their platforms1 approached by five lift shafts of twenty feet1 and one stairway shaft of eighteen feet diameter2 at a deeper level still are the tubes of the ,city and ,south ,london ,railway1 crossing the ,city en route to ,islington4 ,these great passenger lifts work with wonderful smoothness 7facile descensus ,averno est71 and without them no fewer than ninety-three steps would have to be painfully descended4 ,we are all familiar by this time with the other ten surface stations of the ,twopenny ,tube 7at the ,post ,office1 ,marble ,arch1 etc474 ,they are nearly all alike1 and look as if they were waiting for a substantial and lofty building to be erected upon them1 and have little claim to architectural beauty4 ,the platforms1 necessarily rather contracted in area1 are clean and bright1 owing to the extensive use of opalite tiling and glazed bricks1 ever spotless1 and practically indestructible4 ,each train consists of six eight-wheeled bogie-cars1 #de feet long1 with well-upholstered seats1 arranged longitudinally and crosswise1 for forty-eight passengers4 ,the lighting is effected by means of eight sixteen-candle-power incandescent lamps1 supplemented by small shaded electric lights1 excellent for reading by4 ,the windows1 of course1 do not open1 but practicable ventilating louvres are arranged above them4 ,entrance is obtained at each end of the car1 and the telescopic gates are cleverly and expeditiously manipulated by the attendants4 ,straps are placed along rods on each side of the roof to aid passengers in traversing the cars1 and above the seats are racks for parcels1 etc4 ,the electric locomotives#d are curious in shape1 with the driver's cabin in the middle1 and a backward and forward slope for the apparatus looking like gigantic coal-scuttles back to back4 ,they have eight wheels1 and are fitted with motors1 one for each axle4 ,the current is collected from a central third rail by means of two cast-iron shoes which rub along it1 and is led through an automatic circuit-breaker and switched to the controller in the driver's cabin1 thence to the motors1 returning to the track rails through the wheels4 ,the total weight of a locomotive is about forty-four tons1 and the average speed is about fourteen miles an hour1 the running time from the ,bank to the western terminus being twenty-four minutes4 ,at ,shepherd's ,bush--once1 as its name implies1 a rural suburban hamlet1 suggestive of pastoral pursuits1 flocks of sheep and lambs1 washings and shearings of fleeces--is the chief power station of the ,central1 sub-stations being situated at the ,general ,post ,office1 ,marble ,arch1 and ,notting ,hill ,gate4 ,the premises cover sixty-eight acres1 with plenty of room for locomotive and car sheds1 shunting tracks1 boiler and engine houses1 the latter most impressive from the size of their six ,corliss compound horizontal engines1 each rated at #a1cjj horse-power1 though1 as in so much ,american machinery1 the somewhat rough exterior detracts from the appearance1 especially in the eyes of ,british engineers1 accustomed not only to internal mechanical perfection--as in the ,central's engines--but to nicety of finish throughout4 ,these giants are coupled direct to ,thomson-,houston dynamos1 with the capacity1 if required1 of #e1ajj kilowatts1 or #f1hjj indicated horse-power4 ,amongst other contemplated improvements is that of loop-lines between ,liverpool ,street and the ,bank1 which will materially help to accelerate the traffic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,a ,,typical ,,electric ,,power ,,generator--,,two ,,dynamos1 ,,each ,,of ,,about #a1fjj ,h4,p4 ,by permission of ,dick ,kerr and ,co41 ,london ,some remarkable results1 not very satisfactory to those interested in vehicular traffic1 have arisen from the opening of the ,twopenny ,tube4 ,the standard of travelling has gone up steadily2 improvements in 'buses are constantly demanded 7garden seats1 spiral spring cushions1 etc47 and--somewhat slowly--conceded4 ,yet1 to quote the words of an omnibus official1 8they 7the public7 want more60 ,and this at a time when fares have steadily decreased1 and the cost of fodder and maintenance have seriously increased4 ,worse still1 the ,tube's existence has been keenly realised all along the line of its route1 ladies especially preferring to go on a shopping expedition by means of the well-lit ,tube than by the not over-clean1 and decidedly slow and stuffy1 omnibus4 ,the ,london ,road ,car ,company's returns along ,oxford ,street and ,holborn showed last year a decrease nearly equivalent to the ,tube's increase1 and the ,london ,general ,omnibus ,company's report for the half-year--,december #ast1 #aija--was so disappointing1 owing to dear forage and decreased passenger traffic1 that its stock fell at one bound ten points1 from #aje to #ie--;a grave depreciation in value4 ,the ,tube1 during the six months ending ,december #cast1 #aijb1 carried #bb1dbe1ggf passengers1 a daily average of #aba1hgi1 out of which big total #b1ggj1hed were workmen at a penny per traveller4 ,on ,coronation ,day #bjb1jjj people journeyed by the ,central4 ,,its ,,ventilation ,at the commencement of its career the ,tube's atmosphere and temperature were remarkably sweet and equable1 not varying much from #fb either in summer or winter4 ,during a spell of hot weather it felt delightfully cool1 and when east winds blew it was warm compared with the atmosphere outside4 ,trips in the ,tube were at one time seriously suggested for the cure of various maladies as a modification of that usual last resource of the medical profession1 8change of air40 ,before the advent of the ,tube1 however1 many fond mothers with little faith in the pharmacopia regarded the ,underground as a sanatorium for children's complaints4 ,tunnel air1 they affirmed1 was good for croup1 whooping-cough1 and various other ailments4 ,a doctor travelling on the ,metropolitan once noticed a woman in the same compartment pull down the window upon entering a tunnel and hold outside a child she was carrying1 so that the youngster might get the full benefit of the foul atmosphere4 ,when the doctor inquired the reason for this extraordinary performance1 she told him that 8tunnel air0 had been found to be a complete cure for croup4 ,and only the other day an ,east ,end mother was discovered by a guard giving her baby two rounds on the ,inner ,circle because she had been told by a herbalist and bone-setter that a sulphurous atmosphere was good for whooping-cough4 ,but the ideal state of things in the ,tube did not continue1 and accusations respecting its ventilation began to be whispered about and finally proclaimed from the housetops 7vide ,chapter ,,xix74 ,however1 practical steps were taken to ensure its efficiency1 and at the last meeting of shareholders the chairman said that the ,company had now a better character for ventilation than any other company in ,london4 ,at ,bond ,street ,station a powerful fan has been placed at the base of the lift shaft1 which1 under ordinary pressure1 removes the vitiated atmosphere from the permanent ways1 fresh air taking its place at the various halting-places4 ,the fan1 forty-eight inches in diameter1 and electrically driven1 displaces #cj1jjj cubic feet of air per minute1 and is capable of entirely exhausting the tunnels in a fraction over three minutes4 ,the fan is worked every night after the trains have ceased running1 and travellers by the early trains literally breathe the freshest of fresh air4 ,if a train in the ,central should break down and come to a stop in the tunnel1 though it would not1 of course1 be run into--the block system making that all but impossible--it might be necessary for the passengers to get out4 ,the question naturally asked is1 8,how shall they alight8 ,and where shall they go when they have alighted80 ,a fact that not every traveller knows is that a narrow path at the side of the rails leads to the nearest station1 which cannot be more than a quarter of a mile off1 so that no serious athletic feat is required to get out at the rear of the train and walk along the ,tube4 ,,its ,,annual ,,sale ,,of ,,lost ,,articles ,like the great trunk-lines1 the ,central has an annual sale of articles left in the carriages and not claimed2 but the collection differs considerably from the miscellaneous assortment brought together by1 say1 the ,great ,northern or ,great ,western4 ,heavy impedimenta are1 as might be expected1 absent2 but who could have been the owners of the #be bottles of whisky1 the #ac boxes of cigars and cigarettes1 the #cjj ladies' umbrellas1 and the #bfd gentlemen's umbrellas1 the walking-sticks innumerable1 the #aej pairs of spectacles and eyeglasses 7showing that the light is so good that reading is a favourite way of passing the time71 the #dd fur necklets1 #ibj pairs of gloves and #ad muffs1 the #aff empty purses1 and the multitude of books1 chiefly fiction8 ,while every week someone very mysteriously leaves behind a spirit-bottle--evidently recently emptied of its contents--enclosed in cardboard and done up in a neat parcel4 ,how the ,twopenny ,tube1 and others like it1 were constructed will be described in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,tubular ,,system 8,thy arts of building from the bee receive2 ,learn of the mole to plow1 the worm to weave40--,,pope4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,system ,last year there were sounds of strife in that financial atmosphere where dwell ,titan capitalists1 who think and talk and dream in millions2 a battle of giants1 like the conflict imagined by ,milton1 when the satanic host levelled 8triple-mounted rows0 of deadly tubes with such effect against seraph and seraphim1 8that whom they hit none on their feet could stand1 though standing else as rocks40 ,but the conflict now past1 concerned tubes of another kind--iron railway tubes1 that seem to be the destiny of underground metropolitan travellers4 ,the ,morgan group1 the ,yerkes' combination1 and other great coalitions1 mustered their battalions for the fray4 ,the ,london ,county ,council1 following the policy of ,lord ,stanley's army at ,bosworth field1 hovered aloof ready to take advantage of the defeat of either2 the ,corporation of ,london anxiously watched from afar2 the great suburban railway companies shivered in their shoes2 a parental ,legislature held the balance impartially between the combatants2 while the people whom the matter most concerned--some six millions of ,londoners--had to sit down with folded hands and1 patiently or impatiently1 await their fate4 ,recollecting this tangle and uproar of conflicting interests1 it behoves everybody to have some notion of the subject of the ,tubes and their construction4 ,like many other things in the world1 there is nothing new in the idea of boring a hole through the earth and lining it with brick or iron4 ,as ,pope suggests1 mankind doubtless learnt the art from ,nature1 though the correctness of the poet's zoological knowledge is hardly shown in the examples heading this chapter4 ,for ages past--before ,london existed--that skilful excavator1 the mole1 tunnelled through the earth1 making roads and galleries1 the friction of his fur1 set perpendicularly on his skin1 lining his tube so that the soil did not fall in4 ,the larv of the humble caddis-fly covered the inside of their cases with fine silk2 and the trap-door spider lined its #ab-;inch long shaft with similar material to prevent the tumbling in of loose particles and to afford itself a foothold in climbing up2 while the ant constructed her galleries and stuccoed them with the finest grains of soil1 so that the inner walls presented a smooth1 unbroken surface4 ,with the advent of man and his civilisation came the extensive use of furs1 and in these the grubs of the moth--in the abstract the most engaging of creatures--made galleries whenever they got a chance1 lining them with their own silk1 wherein to undergo their transformation into the pupa stage4 ,well-experienced engineers1 such as the vine1 beech1 pine1 and bark-boring beetles1 are all tube-makers2 but it is the pholas1 or teredo navalis1 who is the arch-borer1 so skilled an expert in lining1 that1 though only the size of a quill and 8soft in body10 he pierces the hard timbers of ships and quay-piles1 lining the tubes as he proceeds with a saliceous substance as hard as china4 ,the body of the ,teredo is like a long white worm1 varying from a foot to two inches and a half in length1 and about the width of a finger4 ,from him1 it is said1 the elder ,brunel took his idea of the shield which he employed in constructing the tunnel beneath the ,thames after the shaft had been excavated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,a #c1jjj ,h4,p4 ,,triple ,,expansion ,,central ,,valve ,,electrical ,,engine ,by permission of ,willans and ,robinson1 ,rugby ,but his clever system was crude1 and not calculated to cope with porous or aqueous soil2 therefore1 when the stratum of clay1 through which the work was being carried forward1 broke off abruptly1 a serious influx of water took place4 ,the work had to be abandoned1 and was only completed after much delay and ruinous expense4 ,in a commercial sense1 it was an utter failure4 ,since ,brunel's time1 engineering has developed its resources pari passu with the development of science4 ,hydraulic force displaces the primitive screw power1 and steel plates the cumbersome timber works used in the ,thames tunnel4 ,tunnelling through rock1 like the ,mont ,cenis and ,st4 ,gothard mountains1 is a comparatively simple engineering feat1 as no lining is required2 so also is the ordinary railway tunnel1 carefully bratticed and propped inside1 and securely cased with brick or stone4 ,but it is1 as the ,great ,western ,railway knows to its cost1 in dealing with water-bearing strata1 vide the ,severn ,tunnel1 that a system is required1 not only to protect the men as they bore with a gigantic centre-bit through clay1 chalk1 or gravel1 but1 pholas-like1 to line the tunnel simultaneously4 ,this is obtained by the use of the famous shield invented by the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,greathead1 and employed by him in the construction of the ,city and ,south ,london and ,waterloo and ,city ,railways1 though he did not live to witness the adoption of his principle in the ,twopenny ,tube4 ,,railway ,,tubes1 ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,bored ,a revolution in tunnelling has been brought about in constructing ,tube railways4 ,by the new process a great cylinder or shield at the bottom of a shaft is pushed forward by hydraulic power into the soil ahead of it4 ,the navvies work inside1 excavating the earth in front of them1 and fit up iron segments at the rear of the tail end of the cylinder1 or shield4 ,thus1 on the one hand1 the exact size and shape of the tunnel is ensured1 and the workers are fully protected from the risk of the roof falling in4 ,this arrangement of shield and iron tube resembles an old-fashioned single-drawn telescope2 the outer case being the shield1 and the inner tube the lining of the tunnel4 ,these shields have fronts that bear a row of steel knives forming a true cutting edge1 and are so arranged that they can1 if required1 bore a circle slightly larger than the iron segments of the tube4 ,as the shield slides away from the inner tube1 the space it occupied is filled in with what is called 8grout10 a kind of porridge of water and lime1 which soon sets as hard as stone4 ,this is ingeniously blown in through apertures in the iron lining by means of compressed air1 and effectually fills up cracks accidentally formed in the soil1 which might otherwise extend to the surface and cause subsidence in the foundations of buildings4 ,theoretically1 therefore1 no disturbance of the ground below or above the tubular lining is possible4 ,in the pioneer ,tube railways1 the ,city and ,south ,london for instance1 the diameter of the tunnels was only #aj feet #f inches1 that of the ,central #ab feet1 but the ,great ,northern and ,city ,company made a new departure by fixing the width at #af feet4 ,for the construction of this railway1 the shield was designed by ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,moir1 ,m4 ,,inst4 ,c4 ,e41 and varies in some important respects from the ,greathead shield4 ,a remarkable photograph1 which1 by the courtesy of the ,tramway and ,railway ,world1 ,i am able to present to the readers of this book1 shows this shield at work in the construction ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,shield ,,at ,,work ,,in ,a ,,tube ,,running ,,tunnel ,by permission of the 8,tramway and ,railway ,world0 ,publishing ,co41 ,london of a running tunnel1 #af feet in diameter1 on the above line4 ,the ,great ,northern shield is much more powerful than any hitherto employed4 ,greater hydraulic force is applied1 and the 8jacks0 are more numerous1 and considerably larger4 ,the shield used for the sixteen-foot tunnel may be taken as typical of others up-to-date4 ,its cylindrical skin is composed of half-inch steel plates riveted together at the bottom of the indispensable shaft1 which may be1 in the future1 anything from #ej to #ejj feet beneath the surface4 ,in length1 the shield from the rear to the cutting edge in front is #h feet #i inches1 half of this being used by the excavators 7as in ,brunel's ,thames tunnel71 the after part for the erectors of the metal segments of the tube4 ,round the shield front are mounted ten heavy cast-steel cutters1 the pressure upon them being no less than two tons to the square inch1 the hydraulic rams exerting this pressure direct upon the back of the cutters1 and the purchase is taken off the edge of the nearest tunnel segment already in position4 ,the excavated soil is taken away in trolleys1 which1 as in a mine1 are drawn by ponies on a miniature track1 and afterwards sent up to the surface by the nearest shaft4 ,london clay is generally the kind of soil thus bored through in the metropolitan tubes4 ,the ,central1 while sinking the shafts1 met with it #bi feet below the surface2 but before this was reached1 #ab feet of made ground1 #ah inches of loam1 and #af feet of gravel1 had to be pierced4 ,the ,london clay ran almost without a break between the ,bank and ,shepherd's ,bush1 the only hiatus being at a point between ,red ,lion ,street and ,berner's ,street1 where the ,woolwich and ,reading strata cropped up1 which proved to consist of hard1 red1 streaky clay1 some beds of white sand1 and1 strangely enough1 beds of hard limestone rock1 whose presence had not been anticipated4 ,tube railways are carried out at considerably varying depths2 the ,central running in places #ajj feet 7i4e4 the height of ,westminster ,abbey's nave7 below the road1 and at the ,bank only #fe feet4 ,some of the proposed tubes burrow much deeper2 for instance those of ,charing ,cross and ,hampstead ,railway will be from #abj to #baf feet below the surface4 ,apparently1 there is no reasonable limit to the depth at which engineers are prepared to lay their railway tubes4 ,,the ,,tube ,,mole ,,at ,,work ,by an instinct--the heritage of years--of a kind that prompts gamekeepers to slaughter indiscriminately eagles1 hawks1 crows1 magpies1 owls1 and even squirrels1 classing them with such vermin as pole-cats1 stoats1 weasels1 and rats1 ignorant farmers and gardeners wage war against the mole1 asserting that in driving his tunnels he throws up unsightly heaps of soil1 and1 worse still1 loosens and destroys the roots of plants and grass1 totally ignoring the fact that ,mr4 ,talpa ,europa1 though he may occasionally disturb the earth around1 acts as a very efficient surface drainer1 and still better1 is a persistent chaser and devourer of his natural prey1 the wire-worm1 and other injurious insects4 ,our ,tube mole throws up no hillocks1 but he is accused of being the source of much mischief1 and of endangering the houses on the surface--damaging1 as it were1 their roots--by the vibration arising from the continual passage of trains along the iron galleries and the consequent subsidence of the ground4 ,this has given rise to numerous complaints1 so pronounced as to become the subject of an official inquiry4 ,some foolish objections have been raised to deep-level railways1 and equally unreasonable claims for injury done by them have been brought into court4 ,where a vibration clause is inserted in any ,tube ,railway ,bill1 there might be ingenious claims manufactured for compensation4 ,for instance1 a watchmaker might come forward and say that the vibration caused by the railway prevented him from setting his chronometers1 or a wine merchant might say that his wines were shaken up2 and in this way the company might be subject to endless litigation4 ,when it was proposed to bore tunnels #gj feet below the royal demesnes of ,hyde ,park1 ,st4 ,james's ,park1 and the ,green ,park1 and as much as #baf feet below ,hampstead ,heath1 approximating in the former case to the height of ,queen ,eleanor's memorial at ,charing ,cross1 and in the latter to that of the twin towers of ,westminster ,abbey1 it was at once urged by the representatives of a certain ,preservation ,society that the trees1 plants1 and flowers of the three parks would be detrimentally affected by the ,tube1 and that the ,hampstead ,heath tunnels would 8very probably drain the upper surface of the soil and destroy vegetation all round40 ,to which unthought-out contention ,mr4 ,r4 ,e4 ,middleton1 a well-known civil engineer1 replied that 8at the depths proposed for the parks the tunnels were to be constructed through a stratum1 not of loose soil1 but of stiff ,london clay1 so that any question of destroying trees1 plants1 or flowers was rather absurd2 in fact1 vegetation would in no way be affected40 ,he might have added the argument that1 although ordinary railway tunnels abound1 no one had ever heard of the overlying fields and woods being deleteriously affected by them4 ,,claims ,,for ,,damage ,,by ,,tubing ,now1 in dealing with the matter of alleged injuries to buildings from vibration set up by ,tube railways1 ,i quote the following case to show how visionary are some of the claims brought against ,tube ,companies4 ,on the #adth of ,october last1 at the ,lambeth ,county ,court1 an action was brought against the ,great ,northern and ,city ,railway ,company by an individual living in ,hoxton for damage alleged to have been done to his premises by the construction of the tunnels4 ,the plaintiff stated that in consequence of this the repairs of his house had cost him #fb1 and that in another house of his1 cracks had appeared4 ,a photograph1 taken twelve months before the tunnels were made1 which showed a crack in front of one of the houses1 was pointed out to the witness1 who said that he had never noticed it4 ,for the defence ,mr4 ,douglas ,young stated that he acted for the ,company when the tunnels were about to be constructed1 and1 anticipating claims of this nature1 he caused photographs to be taken of all houses which showed cracks on the line of route4 ,the cracks shown in the photos then taken were practically in the same condition now4 ,the repairs necessary were not caused by damage done by the tunnels1 and came entirely within the repairing clauses of the leases4 ,the jury returned a verdict for the defendant ,company on the ground that no damage had been done by them4 ,on the other hand1 among the ,tube ,railway cases brought into court last year and this1 was the following1 which illustrates the contention that though there may be a certain amount of truth in the plaintiff's arguments1 exaggerated ideas prevail as to the sums that can be claimed for injury1 present or prospective4 ,it also shows the uncertain state of the law on the subject of ownership of the subsoil--a hard legal nut4 ,in the ,london ,sheriff's ,court1 #agth ,april1 #aijb1 ,mr4 ,under-,sheriff ,burchell sat1 with a special jury1 to consider a claim for compensation brought by ,mr4 ,william ,howard1 of #aa1 ,cornwall ,terrace1 ,regent's ,park1 against the ,baker ,street and ,waterloo ,electric ,railway4 ,mr4 ,morton1 ,k4,c41 said that in ,august1 #aijj1 ,mr4 ,howard became aware that a subsidence was taking place1 and that the walls of his house were cracking1 this being unmistakably due to the borings for the railway which were being made underneath the property4 ,in the course of these borings the ,company had taken away part of the subsoil of the claimant's premises without having given notice to treat1 and this1 counsel submitted1 constituted a distinct trespass4 ,the value of the property1 counsel contended1 had been deteriorated to the extent of at least #ej per annum4 ,mr4 ,howard's lease had ten years to run1 the rental being #bjj a year4 ,after expert evidence had been given1 the ,hon4 ,a4 ,lyttelton1 ,k4,c41 for the railway company1 said it was ridiculous to assert that the ,company had committed an act of trespass4 ,they disputed the claimant's alleged ownership to land sixty-five feet below his premises1 and were determined to fight the question in the courts1 inasmuch as it was one which affected the whole of the electric tube railways in ,london4 ,one witness called on behalf of the ,company said that the damage to the property could be remedied by the expenditure of a ten-pound note4 ,the ,under-,sheriff said that an important feature of the case which the jury had to decide was whether the claimant was the owner of the subsoil4 ,as such he would be entitled to compensation for any vibration that might occur when the railway commenced to run in about two years' time4 ,he left it to the jury to decide their verdict under two heads1 namely1 8what damages had at present been sustained10 and1 8what damage was likely to accrue through vibration40 ,after a brief deliberation the jury awarded #ceg1 in one sum1 as damages4 ,on the #fth of ,february of the present year1 before ,mr4 ,justice ,ridley and a special jury1 the hearing was resumed of the case in which ,mrs4 ,dawson1 a widow1 carrying on the business of a draper at the junction of ,city ,road and ,east ,street1 sued the ,great ,northern and ,city ,railway for #aj1jjj damages1 alleged to have been caused by the tunnelling operations in the vicinity of her premises4 ,the claim included some #d1jjj which it is estimated it would cost to put the buildings in a proper state of repair1 and #e1jjj representing loss of business during the time it would take to complete the work of reinstatement4 ,the jury returned a verdict for the plaintiff under the following heads3 ,amount for taking the subsoil occupied by the tunnel1 #ej2 structural damage1 #b1jjj2 damage to trade and stock1 #b1ajj2 total1 #d1aej4 ,mr4 ,dobb asked that judgment should be entered4 ,mr4 ,mc,call thought the judge had no power to enter a judgment of the ,high ,court because the proceedings were in the form of an interpleader action4 ,mr4 ,justice ,ridley said he would give judgment in the sense in which the word was used in the ,lands ,clauses ,act4 ,judgment was given accordingly4 ,at a meeting of the ,auctioneers' ,institute held last year1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,freeman1 ,k4,c41 speaking on this subject1 pertinently remarked that various questions were likely to arise between the promotors of the new order of underground railway and the owners of adjacent property1 and he gave it as his opinion that the assertion that no possible damage would be caused1 had not been wholly verified1 and that the rights of compensation to persons equally injured ought not to depend upon whether a piece of the subsoil under the street was or was not appropriated4 ,in his judgment1 all owners who could prove damage done by the construction or working of an underground railway1 should have the same title to compensation4 ,,vibration ,the outcome of the ,board of ,trade inquiry last year into the vexed question of tube vibration was interesting4 ,it showed that alleged annoyance from vibration has not been altogether imaginary1 and some novel facts were produced4 ,fourteen meetings were held1 and evidence was given by some of the residents along the line of the ,central ,railway route1 their habitat ranging from ,bucklersbury in the ,city to ,kensington ,palace ,gardens in the west4 ,a large number of the witnesses represented householders having 8frontages10 and among others1 the ,holborn ,borough ,council4 ,they all deposed as to annoyance caused by the vibration1 and were of opinion that the shaking was most perceptible when the trains first began running in the morning2 between five and eight p4m42 and shortly after midnight1 just before the trains ceased running4 ,had any of these gentlemen resided on the north side of ,victoria ,street1 near its western end1 they would hardly have complained about mere vibration4 ,in that delectable locality the backs of the houses overlook the ,metropolitan ,district ,railway1 and if the dining-room happen to be in the rear1 as in many of the flats it is1 every wine-glass and tumbler on the table quivers in a fearful manner1 all the ornaments tremble1 and the whole apartment is agitated as each train thunders by4 ,but even this is nothing1 contrasted with the daily experience of dwellers in suburban side streets1 where passing of steam-rollers1 pantechnicon-vans1 and other elephantine vehicles1 not only shakes the tenements to their basements1 but forces out the mortar that is supposed to bind together the brickwork1 dislocates the window-frames1 turns askew the pictures on the walls1 and would eventually1 if not seen to1 reduce the 8eligible villas0 to ruin4 ,however1 the ,board of ,trade ,committee1 as in duty bound1 personally investigated the ,tube complaints and satisfied themselves that vibrations1 sufficient to cause vexation to the inmates1 were really felt in some of the houses near the ,central1 and the result of the inquiry was as follows3-- ,that it was a matter of chance whether any given train caused a slight1 or a severe1 vibration2 also that trains which produced much tremblr de tirra in one house1 as likely as not caused but little in another1 and that apparently different apartments in the same residence were not similarly affected by one and the same train4 ,it was demonstrated that the locomotives1 and not the cars1 were responsible for the greater part of the disturbances1 the reason assigned being that too great a springless load was carried on each axle of the engines1 a method of construction adopted to obviate the necessity for gearing4 ,acting upon the ,committee's representation1 the ,central ,railway ,company ordered two new types of locomotives1 in one of which the 8unspring-borne0 load was much reduced by gearing4 ,the other was not distinct from but attached to the train1 the motors being carried at one end of two or more coaches--the motor-car system of electric traction in fact4 ,the difference in weight was remarkable2 the original gearless engines being #dd tons1 the new geared pattern #cc tons1 while the motor-cars only came up to #bj tons4 ,some novel experiments were made1 and in order to identify the trains1 the houses in which the observers took their places with recording instruments were connected by telephone with the signal-boxes at the adjoining stations4 ,quite satisfactory were the results1 and it was found that1 during some two hours1 the passing of every train drawn by the heavy gearless locomotive was distinctly felt1 but was not discernible when the new engines were attached4 ,therefore the ,committee concluded that1 so far as the ,central was concerned1 the adoption of motor-cars would so reduce the tremblement de terre as to cause all real annoyance to cease1 though the sound of the trains1 particularly at night1 might still be detected4 ,as to the oscillation of the cars--a rather marked feature in the ,tube--it was attributed by the ,committee's experts to the unevenness of the surface of the rails4 ,as these leave the rolling-mills they are usually slightly curved1 and the process of straightening them in situ1 however skilfully carried out1 inevitably leaves a certain amount of waviness4 ,when the speed is high1 a condition of things soon arises whereby the irregular impulses produced by the uneven rail surfaces establishes a rocking movement of the rails and the road-bed1 converting both into an elastic instead of a rigid support4 ,this is increased and maintained by the pounding of the gearless locomotives in the narrow tubes1 intensified by the hard unyielding material of which they are composed4 ,another fact to which the ,committee called attention was1 that in consequence of the small diameter of the tunnels 7#ab feet71 the fit was too close1 and the pressure in front of the trains necessitated greater power to overcome it than if more space had been left between the roofs of the carriages and the tubes4 ,in the agitation respecting damage alleged to have been done by the construction of the ,tubes1 it was proved that provided the apertures are made of sufficient size1 and suitable locomotives used1 and the permanent way properly laid with stiffer and deeper rails1 the chance of injury to houses by the movindo la tirra1 as the ,spaniards call it1 can be reduced to a minimum4 ,modern science tells us that earth tremblings are with us at all times and in all places to an extent not realised4 ,we are assured that1 by ,professor ,j4 ,milne's instruments1 quiverings1 and slopings of the earth's crust1 insensible to the most delicate spirit-levels1 can be detected4 ,it is now known that earthquake movements can be felt right through the earth1 and all round its surface4 ,latterly1 ,professor ,milne has also discovered that his observatory in the ,isle of ,wight sinks slowly during a part of the year1 and rises as slowly during another part--as if the breast of the earth were heaving4 ,for five months in the year1 the tall buildings in a city may be heeling over towards the west2 then they come back with extreme slowness to the perpendicular1 and finally cant a little to the east4 ,surely1 then1 we need not complain about an occasional mild earth-shake produced by the passing of the useful ,underground1 or ,tube trains1 seeing that the good they do so far outweighs their defects4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,touring ,,in ,,the ,,tubes ,a ,,sketch 8,she doth stray about40--,,shakespeare4 ,mrs4 ,rosamond was a pleasant1 chatty1 little woman1 and a universal favourite4 ,her abundant hair was brown1 her eyes1 shaded by long dark lashes1 were deepest blue1 and above them rose1 not the 8bar of ,michael ,angelo10 but a low1 smooth1 and pretty forehead1 where1 however1 a phrenologist would have looked in vain for the faintest trace of the 8bump of locality40 ,she was a shrewd judge of character in men and women1 especially the former4 ,she loved beautiful scenery and everything refined in art and literature4 ,she had great sympathy with the suffering and distressed2 but her ability to take mental notes of things and places1 and to find her way about towns and cities1 as some do by instinct1 was utterly wanting in ,lilian ,rosamond2 yet1 with the strange perversity that impels people with bad eyesight to drive dog-carts or motor-cars1 or to steer yachts1 she persisted in going about strange localities unaccompanied1 and when any expedition was planned1 audaciously posed as an authority on quickest and best routes4 ,but she was a native of the fair 8,north countree10 and1 lying perdu beneath her sweet disposition1 was a vein--a thin one--of self-will4 8,why10 she argued1 8should she not find her way about like other people8 ,had she not from childhood lived at ,lymm1 ,cheshire1 and roamed about that district without difficulty8 ,had she not frequently travelled to the old county city8 ,had she not braved the terrors of the ,great ,central ,station at ,manchester en route for ,halifax--changed carriages there1 in fact8 ,and had she not once actually journeyed all by herself to ,london on a visit1 returning safely to her own town80 ,all of which was perfectly true1 but she omitted to add that1 in going up to town1 her parents had1 as it were1 to see her 8labelled and consigned0 through the medium of a fatherly guard1 while her friends in town had been strictly enjoined on no account to miss meeting her at ,euston1 and never to let her go anywhere in the metropolis unaccompanied4 ,in fact1 her family were in an agony of suspense until she was back again4 ,mrs4 ,rosamond had married a gentleman-farmer of ,welsh extraction1 and her life had fallen on pleasant lines in a remote ,radnorshire village bearing an unpronounceable name made up of consonants4 ,the year #aijb arrived1 and with it1 in ,june1 an invitation from her sister-in-law to spend ,coronation week with her in ,edith ,road1 ,west ,kensington2 and off she started1 her easy-going husband1 who had seldom tested his wife's sense 7or absence7 of locality1 and had no suspicion of how much it was lacking1 merely remarking as he saw her into the train1 8,now1 my dear1 mind you wait at ,paddington a reasonable time to see if ,annie is there to meet you4 ,she is not always punctual1 and if she does not turn up1 take a cab4 ,don't attempt to get to ,edith ,road by omnibus or ,underground ,railway4 ,you don't know ,london1 and a four-wheeler will be cheaper in the long run4 ,now1 don't forget this1 there's a dear little woman1 or ,i shall worry all day long about you40 ,in the same carriage with her was a lady of uncertain age1 whom ,mrs4 ,rosamond quickly guessed to be unmarried and an 8organiser0--one of those assertive1 independent1 8heel-less0 women of the genus plantigrade1 who know everything and want no assistance from anybody4 ,falling into conversation1 ,lilian ,rosamond remarked that she hoped to see the ,king's procession to the ,abbey1 a seat having long ago been secured for her1 and that she had been told she would have to go a very long distance from the ,west ,end and might have to start by the first train on the ,twopenny ,tube to the ,bank1 and that then by another ,tube she somehow would get to the ,borough ,high ,street 7where her 8stand0 was situated7 by way of the 8,elephant and ,castle40 ,this led to the subject of ,west ,kensington1 her destination1 and how she proposed reaching it from ,paddington4 8,why10 said the plantigrade lady1 8what on earth made your husband tell you to take a cab8 ,it is two miles off at least1 and you are sure to be over-charged4 ,never mind what he said4 ,men are always extravagant in these matters4 ,besides1 you can think for yourself2 you are a woman1 not a baby4 ,now1 ,i'll tell you what to do4 ,if your sister is not at the station1 book your luggage--you say you have not got much with you--to be sent on by the railway parcel van1 cross the road to the ,praed ,street ,district ,railway ,station1 get out at ,notting ,hill ,gate1 cross the road there to the ,tube station1 and for twopence you will be at ,shepherd's ,bush in a few minutes40 ,this suggestion seemed to ,mrs4 ,rosamond good and attractive1 but she bravely resisted the allurements of a journey by an unfamiliar route2 and1 recalling her husband and his injunction1 after waiting a quarter of an hour at ,euston and finding that no one came for her1 she allowed herself to be stowed away by an attentive and sympathetic porter into a stale1 straw-smelling four-wheeler1 and arrived safely at ,no4 #bh1 when cabby promptly asked1 and received1 half a crown--a moderate eighteenpence more than his legitimate fare2 but cabmen1 like everybody else1 must live somehow6 ,the longest day recorded in the almanac dawned clear and fair1 and ,mrs4 ,rosamond1 rising at an unearthly early hour1 started for ,islington1 where she had promised to breakfast with a relative--an unusual kind of feat to attempt1 but easy of accomplishment by leaving ,shepherd's ,bush very early for the ,bank of ,england1 where1 as it was explained to her in an off-hand1 businesslike manner by her sister's husband1 all she had to do was to hit the right subway1 book afresh at the ,bank ,station of the ,city and ,south ,london ,electric ,railway1 and 8in a jiffy1 as easy as ,a ,b ,c0 7so he put it7 she would find herself at the 8,angel10 ,islington1 and be with her aunt in time for the coffee and rolls4 ,mrs4 ,rosamond was delighted at the prospect1 and no happier woman than she stood outside the ,tube's terminus that bright summer morning4 ,the booking-office was full of people--of the working class1 thought fair ,mrs4 ,rosamond1 who1 observing that each person paid the sum of three-halfpence through the glass partition that screened the clerks from too close contact with the public1 tendered that modest sum like the others1 without specifying her destination4 ,but though plainly1 she was too daintily dressed and too self-evidently a lady to escape notice1 and was rather surprised at being asked if she wanted a workman's ticket4 8,oh no60 she hastily exclaimed4 8,i am only going to the ,bank1 and then to ,islington on a visit40 8,well1 then1 your fare is twopence40 ,and she received in return a small slip of paper and not the familiar pasteboard ticket covered with undecipherable letters and figures4 ,following the crowd1 ,mrs4 ,rosamond dropped the document into a sloping box fixed at the side of the gate and presided over by a railway official1 the process suggesting to her lively imagination the method by which votes are recorded at a ,school ,board election4 ,wide open stood the door of a gigantic lift1 the like of which she had never seen1 which quickly filled with a compact mass of some fifty men and a sprinkling of women4 ,there were upholstered benches at the sides2 and a civil young artisan offered her his seat1 but ,lilian preferred to stand and look about her4 ,the electro-lighted apartment was not sthetic1 and the unsightly advertisements1 and notices warning travellers against smoking1 spitting1 or standing too near the doors1 did not add to its beauty2 and when the telescopic gates were clashed together and fastened1 the whole thing reminded ,mrs4 ,rosamond of a great cage full of specimens of the ,british ,homo ,sapiens packed for conveyance and exhibition to inhabitants of other regions4 ,suddenly1 gently1 and noiselessly the lift began to descend1 and it seemed as if it would never stop4 ,but stop it did1 at a depth of seventy feet1 which might have been seven hundred so far as ,mrs4 ,rosamond's sensations were concerned4 ,once again the iron gates clashed1 and the wild animals--,i mean the passengers--streamed forth1 our fair traveller following1 to the platform4 ,was she dreaming8 ,had she1 like ,alice in ,wonderland1 suddenly become diminutive1 and was she waiting for a well-groomed little white rabbit1 with gold watch and chain1 to emerge from what resembled a burrow at the end of the station8 ,it was so very small4 ,everything was on a reduced scale1 the standing-room was a mere strip of planking1 the tube like a pea-shooter4 ,surely it would not take in the train6 ,however1 it was deliciously cool and light1 and the tiles that lined the station were1 as she found by touching them with her gloved hands1 perfectly free from smuts4 ,in a few moments1 from the open cutting at the opposite end of the platform1 where lay the shunting tracks1 a bright light and metallic clattering heralded the strange-looking chimneyless locomotive4 ,behind it came five attractive-looking cars joined together1 and gleaming with light4 ,at their point of junction were telescopic gates1 flung open as soon as the train stopped1 and ,mrs4 ,rosamond1 who had just time to observe that there were not two rails only on the track1 but a third in the middle1 hurried into the first car she could find1 and the earliest train on the ,tube glided into the tunnel en route for the ,bank4 ,lilian ,rosamond at once discovered that the cars just fitted the ,tube4 ,she would like to have touched the sides1 but as the windows were sealed up this was impossible4 ,everything looked delightfully clean1 and1 considering the crowd1 she was lucky to find a seat next to an intelligent and quiet-looking1 middle-aged man1 who turned out to be a foreman engaged upon great building works proceeding in the ,city4 ,the speed increased1 and the noise and the rattling of the cars increased in proportion--a condition of things she had not expected1 and it was a relief when the train slowed down and made its first pause at ,holland ,park4 ,here a few workmen got in1 but not a soul got out6 ,mrs4 ,rosamond1 looking about her1 noticed that her companions de voyage were not in appearance such as she had expected at so early an hour4 ,it is true they nearly all smoked--cigarettes mostly--some sticking to the old-fashioned short clay pipe charged with most pungent tobacco2 but they did not swear or use strong language1 they were not all dressed in corduroy1 nor were their clothes dirty1 neither did they universally carry huge 8bass-bags0 containing saws1 and other sharp and nasty tools4 ,her neighbour1 the foreman1 with whom she soon got into a lively conversation1 told her that most of the men 7masons chiefly7 were employed on a 8big job0 at ,finsbury1 and would travel to the ,bank4 ,he also volunteered the information that he lived in ,caxton ,road1 close to the ,shepherd's ,bush ,station of the ,tube2 that he had to get his own breakfast at #d4cj or thereabouts1 or wait until he got to the ,city1 when he had it at a snug little coffee-shop in ,moorfields2 that he had used the ,tube ever since its opening in #aijj day after day1 starting by the first train in the morning1 and returning1 as his place and work suited1 along the route at all hours1 from five o'clock to eight1 and sometimes 7though seldom7 by the last train from the ,bank at #ab4cj p4m42 and that the cars between the former hours--when people were leaving the ,city for the day--were more crowded than in the early morning1 in fact crammed1 with not even standing room4 ,at ,notting ,hill ,gate there was a rush of operatives4 ,by this time the cars were packed1 and the little woman perceived the uses of the sliding leather straps suspended overhead1 to which the unlucky seatless ones1 who filled up the whole of the gangway1 held on like grim death1 to avoid tumbling about as the train oscillated4 ,at the ,marble ,arch some few persons1 a dozen or so1 tried to push in1 but the five cars were complet1 and so they continued1 until1 at the ,british ,museum ,station1 a section of the passengers alighted1 as also at ,chancery ,lane and the ,general ,post ,office4 ,then1 after a run of #f miles from ,shepherd's ,bush in twenty-four minutes1 the ,central 8early workmen0 pulled up at the ,bank terminus at a platform resembling the others all along the line4 ,mrs4 ,rosamond went up in a big lift1 not to the surface as she expected1 but found herself landed in a broad asphalted1 bewildering subway lined with white bricks4 ,brilliantly lighted white passages seemed to stretch away in all directions1 full of people tearing about here1 there1 and everywhere in the utmost confusion1 some ascending steps that appeared to lead to the daylight1 others descending slopes that ended in more brick-lined passages4 ,at once she recalled her host's injunction 8to hit the right subway0 for the ,islington ,tube ,line1 but becoming a trifle excited and confused1 she went up the staircase that looked the shortest1 and found herself in ,cornhill1 along which she strayed a short distance1 and came to ,st4 ,michael's1 when she thought she had reached the station1 because she had been told it was underneath a church4 ,but there was no ,city and ,south ,london ,railway1 and her host had omitted to say that the subway between it and the ,bank was contemplated only4 ,so ,lilian asked her way1 and quickly found what she was seeking close by at the corner of ,lombard ,street and ,king ,william ,street4 ,and now1 growing confident by experience1 and perceiving that the booking-office and general arrangements resembled those of the ,two-penny ,tube1 though on a smaller scale1 she went to the booking-office window and tendered twopence4 ,the clerk politely inquired1 8,all the way1 miss80 and on her replying in the affirmative1 demanded1 and received1 fourpence1 giving her an ordinary ticket in return4 ,she thought this strange1 being different from the ,tube system1 the more so when she saw no glass box wherein to drop it4 ,but there was the lift1 and so she descended4 ,alas6 when she got to the bottom1 she forgot to make inquiries1 being absorbed in meditation about her husband4 8,what was he doing at that particular hour80 she wondered4 8,had he gone out fishing8 ,was he making the rounds of his farm1 and looking after his pet livestock1 the pigs80 ,a train came up1 and without giving the matter a second thought1 she got into it1 and found the cars pretty nearly empty4 ,they were narrow and low1 and the atmosphere was close4 ,away they sped1 by ,london ,bridge1 the ,borough1 the 8,elephant and ,castle10 ,kennington ,park ,road1 the ,oval1 and ,stockwell1 but the guard did not call out the names of these stations1 and only when the terminus was reached did ,lilian rouse herself from her reverie1 and stepping out of the station after giving up her ticket1 gazed aghast1 not at the 8,angel10 ,islington1 which she knew was a locality nearly all bricks and mortar1 but upon a large open space--,clapham ,common6 ,in fact1 the poor voyageuse had gone down the wrong lift at the ,bank ,station1 and had failed to notice the names of the stations as she came along4 ,to recover her equanimity1 ,mrs4 ,rosamond thought she would stroll about a little before going back to ,islington1 which1 it was explained to her1 was at the other extremity of the line4 ,much refreshed by an hour's walk and the novelty of the terra incognita1 she booked again1 and resumed her pilgrimage1 determined that this time there should be no mistake4 ,what was it8 ,was it fatality8 or was it some mischievous whispering spirit that caused her to keep mentally repeating the words1 8,bank ,station08 ,an echo1 perhaps1 of the instructions received the evening before4 ,anyhow1 she did not go straight on1 but as soon as the train reached the ,city1 she alighted at the ,bank1 and found herself once more in the maze of subways branching off from the ,central's booking-office4 ,the little woman was in despair4 ,what must she do8 ,it was no use asking her way1 everybody seemed in too violent a hurry to attend to other people2 so she walked mechanically down a disagreeably steep asphalted incline and along a wood-paved1 white-tiled tunnel1 and saw at the end an electric ,tube station4 ,there was the usual narrow platform1 the glazed tunnel1 the electric light1 and the four-car train1 but no queer-shaped engine1 and the carriages looked smaller than those of the ,central and of a different build1 the glazed sides sloping inwards towards the low roof4 ,there was no booking-office1 so she stepped into the train1 where1 as in an omnibus1 tickets were issued and punched for the sum of two-pence4 ,the cars were narrow and stuffy1 and she did not like them1 but looking up1 she caught sight of a brass plate giving the name of the engineers at ,preston1 ,lancashire1 and this quite cheered her4 ,in about five minutes the train stopped1 and everybody got out and streamed up stairways and along passages into what proved to be a vast railway terminus--,waterloo2 and she realised the dismal fact that by inadvertence she had taken the ,waterloo and ,city ,railway1 instead of the ,city and ,south ,london6 ,it was the word 8,city0 running in her head that had done the mischief4 ,nothing was left but to return1 and so1 through lofty cavernous regions beneath the terminus1 over bridges1 and down endless slopes of wood-paving1 she managed to reach the up-platform4 ,now came the rush of early ,city-bound men1 season-ticket holders1 who had travelled by the ,london and ,south ,western line from all parts of ,surrey served by it4 ,they came pelting down the inclines as if their lives depended upon catching a particular train4 ,most of them carried neat hand-bags1 suggestive of legal documents or company prospectuses1 and nearly all had a morning paper4 ,the bulk of them were well dressed1 with an indefinable air indicative of the suburban resident4 ,mrs4 ,rosamond found them exceedingly pleasant1 and was soon chatting with a military-looking gentleman1 irreproachably groomed1 with a lined and shrewd face1 and old enough to be her father4 ,he was1 in fact1 an eminent solicitor in ,tower ,royal1 ,cannon ,street1 who1 hearing of her adventures1 appeared to sympathise very deeply4 8,a little too deeply10 said her husband1 on hearing her narrative1 not that he was distrustful or jealous1 but he preferred to do most of the sympathising himself4 ,the man of law tried to be facetious1 and in explaining at some length the difference between metropolitan 8tubes0 and the 8,underground10 so confused ,mrs4 ,rosamond that she ended by thinking they were one and the same thing--a fatal error on her part1 as we shall see4 ,dilating upon the subject1 and upon the trials she had endured that morning1 he remarked that he was sure her friends and the world in general would be great losers were so pleasant and vivacious a lady as herself to remain underground4 ,at which fair ,rosamond smiled--she had beautiful teeth1 and a smile became her2 but she grew somewhat reserved in manner when he insisted upon escorting her along the right subway1 and felt decidedly relieved when he courteously left her on the pavement at the 8,poultry10 by ,mappin and ,webb's4 ,it was getting on towards eleven o'clock1 and ,mistress ,rosamond1 who1 beyond a cup of coffee hastily swallowed before she started1 had tasted nothing for six hours1 began to feel faint1 experiencing that distressing sensation which makes one think the ground is about to rise up and strike one1 and that hearing and vision are about to fail4 ,she must have something to eat and drink1 but where8 ,dimly she recalled how in the old days a very dear brother1 who knew his ,london well1 was fond of expatiating upon the merits of certain reliable places in the ,city where the inner man could be most satisfactorily refreshed--,birch's1 ,sweeting's1 ,pimm's in the 8,poultry40 ,why1 she was actually standing in the 8,poultry06 ,so1 following the curt1 but respectful1 directions of a civic policeman1 who must have been at least six feet two inches in his stockings1 she1 without crossing the road1 easily discovered the haven of refuge in question1 and being shown up to the ladies' dining-room1 sat down at a table near a window which looked upon busy ,cheapside4 ,though rather too early in the day for the regular menu1 consultation with a grey-headed waiter--who strongly reminded her of some ,church dignitary 7a dean for choice7 in layman's attire1 and who became immensely interested in his client1 partly because her blue eyes recalled to him those of a daughter 8lost awhile0--resulted1 within twenty minutes1 in a dainty repast1 some scalloped oysters1 a 8portion0 of the choicest ,scotch salmon cold1 with cucumber1 and dainty roll and butter1 followed by a cheese souffl1 and--by the 8dean's0 advice--neither tea1 coffee1 nor wine1 but a glass1 just one glass1 of ,pimm's 8particular0 stout1 a beverage our traveller was unaccustomed to1 but found an admirable accompaniment to her fish luncheon4 ,the bill was paid with a handsome douceur1 which the 8dean0 condescended to accept2 and refreshed1 and with renewed determination to carry out her original line of march1 ,mrs4 ,rosamond stepped out and walked along ,cheapside4 ,there the shops at once attracted her attention3 the jewellers1 the hosiers--in one of which latter she bought some neckties and collars for her spouse--the print-sellers1 and the ,london ,stereoscopic ,company's seductive window4 ,here she looked up at the church clock far above her head1 and finding the time getting on1 and becoming just a little flurried at the discovery1 started at once to resume her wanderings4 8,if you please1 constable1 can you tell me the nearest way to the ,underground ,railway80 8,straight as you can go1 miss1 down the lane1 ,bow ,lane1 in front of you1 and you will find the station across the road at the bottom40 8,thank you very much10 and1 mentally1 8,what a fine set of fellows the ,city policemen are6 ,i wonder if they are all married2 where do they live1 and what are their wages80 ,straight down the narrow lane she went1 and at the ,cannon ,street end asked another policeman the way to the ,underground4 ,he pointed to the opposite side of the road1 and1 stopping the traffic1 conveyed her across1 and she found herself in the ,mansion ,house ,station of the ,district ,railway4 ,there were no officials to be seen1 only the booking-clerks1 one of whom1 with the professional instinct for turning an honest penny for his employers1 instead of advising her to return to the ,bank close by1 up ,victoria ,street1 promptly recommended her to book by the ,district ,railway to ,bishopsgate ,street1 get across ,finsbury ,circus to ,moorgate ,street1 and then take the ,city and ,south ,london ,tube ,railway to the 8,angel40 ,by this time ,mrs4 ,rosamond had become too tired to discuss the matter1 and was disinclined to go back by the way she had come4 ,so she got into a first-class carriage of a ,circle train1 and1 with a sigh of relief1 settled down snugly into the far corner4 ,whether it was the reaction1 or the effect of the glass of stout1 was never known1 but after passing ,cannon ,street ,mrs4 ,rosamond began to feel drowsy and dreamy1 imagining she was nearing home in the local train1 and wondering if her husband had received her telegram1 and would come to meet her4 ,she fell asleep1 and a lovely picture she made1 with lips slightly parted1 and her long1 curved eyelashes resting1 like a child's1 on her soft cheeks4 ,there was revealed just a few inches of well-fitting black silk clocked stockings1 neatly-turned ankles1 and a charming pair of very small dark tan shoes4 ,time sped on1 and1 with it1 the ,circle train1 past ,bishopsgate1 ,farringdon ,street1 and ,king's ,cross1 with its maze of metropolitan underground lines2 through dismal tunnels1 black with smoke2 through brick-lined cuttings1 foul with sooty deposit2 past stations1 each one hung1 by way of adornment1 with the same monotonous1 highly-coloured 8works of art10 drawing attention to ,colman's ,mustard1 ,reckitt's ,blue1 ,nestle's ,milk1 ,bovril1 ,oxo1 ,lemco1 ,globe ,polish1 ,ogden's ,cigarettes1 ,bird's ,custards1 and ,stephen's ,inks1 and provided with penny-in-the-slot machines1 with bookstalls bearing a strong family likeness1 and with here and there a refreshment bar1 where buns and sandwiches of the ,mugby ,junction type might be had4 ,at ,high ,street1 ,kensington1 where the engine was changed1 the guard looked in1 admired the sleeping beauty1 and discreetly withdrew in silence4 ,in the middle of the tunnel between ,sloane ,square and ,victoria1 the train pulled up with a jerk1 the signal having been suddenly put against it4 ,mrs4 ,rosamond woke1 and looking at her watch1 found that she must have been slumbering nearly an hour1 and a fellow-passenger told her that by the time the train reached the ,mansion ,house ,station she would have completely traversed the circle of the ,underground6 8,well1 ,i will see this matter through10 she said to herself1 8and ,i will not go again into that horrid ,bank ,subway4 ,after all1 ,i shall soon be at ,bishopsgate ,street40 ,so she went on4 ,how1 on her arrival there1 she escaped having to pay the full fare1 no one knows4 ,she kept her own counsel2 but the ticket collector and the guard probably thought she was too nice to be worried with interrogations4 ,her brief impressions of the ,underground were that only in a few respects was the ,tube an improvement upon it4 ,the ,inner ,circle ,trains1 she thought1 ran more smoothly2 there was less rocking of the carriages1 and less rattling noise2 but they were badly lighted2 the banging of doors was awful2 the atmosphere sulphurous and stifling2 and carriages1 stations1 staircases1 and tunnels looked as if they had not been cleaned for months4 ,worse than all was the mode of pulling up the train with a jerk1 which1 at each stopping-place1 almost invariably threw the alighting passengers into their fellow-travellers' laps4 ,resolved now to ask her way at every step1 she contrived1 by minutely following directions1 to find and to cross ,finsbury ,circus1 whence she was quickly in ,moorgate ,street1 and at once discovered the ,city and ,south ,london ,railway ,station4 ,continuing to seek information for the ,islington lift1 the ,islington platform1 and the ,islington train1 she would not budge an inch until she had been thoroughly posted up4 ,once more in a ,tube car1 and by way of ,old ,street1 and the ,city ,road1 she at last arrived at the 8,angel10 and felt as if she had indeed reached the gates of heaven6 ,milner ,street was close by1 and she was soon at her aunt's house1 but1 alas6 not to breakfast1 for it was nearing twelve o'clock4 ,that relation1 an impatient woman1 tired of waiting1 had gone out for the day1 and had left no message6 ,this was too much for the little woman1 it was the last straw1 and flinging herself on the sofa1 she thought sympathetically of how in the past 8,a north-country maid up to ,london had strayed1 ,although with her nature it did not agree2 ,she wept and she sighed1 and she bitterly cried1 ,i wish once again in the north ,i could be40 ,quickly she returned to ,shepherd's ,bush1 vi the ,bank and the ,twopenny ,tube1 in the latter finding a totally different class of people from those she had travelled with in the morning1 and plenty of room for everybody4 ,she went back home the next day1 sacrificing her seat for the ,coronation procession2 and she registered a vow that if ever she came to ,london again she would study closely the route for any proposed expedition as carefully as if she were on an 8unaccompanied0 ,continental tour4 ,she kept her vow2 and1 ,i believe1 eventually1 her 8bump of locality0 became considerably developed4 ,the moral of this practically true sketch is1 that in view of the complicated system of metropolitan ,tubes and ,undergrounds1 no one without an experienced escort1 unless endowed with a talent for locality1 can hope to get about ,london without trouble and difficulty4 ,in fact1 a ,metropolitan ,bradshaw1 or ,metropolitan ,guide to ,underground ,london is urgently needed4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,london',s ,,tangled ,,tubes 8,tangled in the fold of dire necessity40--,,milton4 ,,the ,,tangle ,to inflict upon the readers of this book a map of existing and projected railways in ,london would be cruel2 and for them to try to master it would be torture worthy of the ,inquisition1 with loss of reason as the inevitable result4 ,roughly speaking1 the lines above and below ground stream inwards from the outskirts1 after the fashion of the tramways2 with this marked difference that there is a direct communication from east to west by the ,central ,railway1 and an ,inner ,circle route engirdling the middle portion of ,greater ,london4 ,as with the tramways1 the routes of nearly all these lines appear to have been adopted happy-go-luckily4 8,here are ,highgate1 ,walthamstow1 ,beckenham1 ,kew1 ,hendon10 say the promoters2 8what we have to do is to make a railway from these suburbs1 and1 somehow or other1 get as near the metropolitan centres as possible1 and dump down our passengers4 ,the problem of intercommunication is not our business4 ,we leave that to others40 ,so the lines of the various companies meander away1 often by the most indirect routes1 and finally arrive more or less near their objective destinations1 ,charing ,cross1 or the ,bank of ,england4 ,if ,napoleon the ,great with prophetic glance could have foreseen ,london linked to distant villages in every direction1 these hamlets growing into towns1 and as population increased1 being irresistibly drawn into ,greater ,london's maelstrom of brick and mortar1 even he would have been appalled by the problem of how to give ready means of access from one part to the other4 ,anticipating railways and electric tubes1 he would probably1 with the marvellous fertility of resource that distinguished him1 have formulated a plan whereby a given circular space in the metropolis would be divided into sections1 a mile square1 with a station in the centre and at each corner1 so that all within that area would have access to a railway1 at no point more than half a mile distant1 the tube railways below the surface1 and others above1 converging at a great central dept4 ,on reaching the limit of the circle1 the lines 7that would necessarily cross under and over one another7 would1 by means of loops1 return and keep up a continued circulation of traffic from rim to rim of the circle1 which1 as the city grew bigger and bigger1 could be enlarged1 and the lines extended1 the process continuing ad infinitum4 ,this1 of course1 would have been an impossibility2 the characteristic ,british love of half measures and of temporising being opposed to any really comprehensive and imperial scheme1 and local jealousy would not have tolerated the necessarily masterful1 though wise1 domination of a ,one ,man ,power in carrying out the plan4 ,therefore the great railways and the suburban railways were allowed to do pretty much as they liked1 as seen in the entire absence of system in approaching ,london1 and in dealing with its vast traffic4 ,to meet the difficulty a central station has often been mooted1 and much good would ensue therefrom if it accommodated all the lines4 ,recently1 in connection with the ,great ,western ,railway1 the idea has been revived1 and the site of ,christ's ,hospital suggested4 ,in fact1 it is an open secret that overture upon overture has been made on the subject1 but the enormous price demanded by the old school authorities has always been the bugbear4 ,the feasibility of an ,inner ,circle ,tube1 however1 linking together all the lines1 with ramifications to serve the suburbs1 worked jointly under a pooling arrangement by the various companies1 has commended itself to certain experts4 ,it is true that four of the great trunk lines are already connected by subways with the ,inner ,circle ,railway--the ,great ,eastern at ,liverpool ,street2 the ,great ,western at ,praed ,street2 the ,london1 ,brighton1 and ,south ,coast at ,victoria2 and the ,south ,eastern and ,chatham at ,cannon ,street1 ,blackfriars1 and ,victoria4 ,the ,brighton ,company has already a subway connection between ,london ,bridge and the ,city and ,south ,london ,tube ,station there1 and the ,mansion ,house subway will by-and-by be similarly connected with the ,city and ,south ,london ,bank ,station4 ,also there are the purely suburban lines to be considered1 such as the ,south ,london ,railway1 worked by the ,brighton ,company2 the ,metropolitan ,extension1 a part of the ,chatham ,company's local system2 the ,west ,london ,railway1 which gives a north-to-south connection at ,chelsea for several companies2 the ,hammersmith and ,city ,railway2 the ,hampstead ,junction ,railway 7from ,willesden to ,tottenham72 and the local services of the ,london and ,north ,western2 the ,great ,northern ,railway 7already committed to a tube72 and the ,midland ,railway1 which1 with the ,great ,northern1 has access to the south of ,london1 vi ,ludgate ,hill4 ,but the matter now engaging public attention is not ,subways1 but ,tubes--how to disentangle the different schemes1 and evolve order out of chaos4 ,the ,tubes open for traffic are the ,waterloo and ,city ,railway2 the ,city and ,south ,london ,railway2 ,clapham ,common to the 8,angel10 ,islington2 and the ,central ,london from the ,bank to ,shepherd's ,bush4 ,while those in progress more or less advanced1 are the ,great ,northern and ,city ,railway2 the ,brompton and ,piccadilly ,circus ,railway2 the ,bank to ,finsbury ,park2 the ,baker ,street and ,waterloo ,railway2 ,paddington to ,waterloo1 and thence vi ,st4 ,george's ,circus1 ,southwark1 to the ,elephant and ,castle4 ,all last session members of the ,house of ,commons were1 so to speak1 overwhelmed with ,tubes4 ,tubes to the right of them1 ,tubes to the left of them1 ,tubes in front of them1 ,volley'd and thundered6 ,but the ,select ,committees fared worse1 the task before them being even more arduous4 ,there were promoters who sought for powers to construct ,tubes to cross and recross proposed and existing lines1 and even to bore parallel with others1 while some wanted to create isolated and disconnected sections1 leading apparently nowhere4 ,petitions and protests against the various schemes poured in from innumerable sources2 from every quarter petitions in favour were also laid down at their feet4 ,truly1 the members of the ,committees found that of making many ,tubes 7as of books7 there was no end1 and that much railway promoting was a weariness of the flesh4 ,long and loud waged the conflict of the various aspirants to bore through the foundations of ,london4 ,the smaller promoters' attention finally became fixed upon the financial and legislative duel of two magnates1 each representing a similar and important scheme for joining together the existing unlinked metropolitan tube lines4 ,it was as if through some narrow gorge leading to desirable pasturage1 the smaller denizens of wood and forest tumultuously endeavoured to force a passage1 and falling out by the way1 their strife was suddenly arrested to watch the single combat of two rival antlered monarchs of the glen1 who fought to the death to obtain the sole right of way4 ,out of the ,parliamentary hurly-burly emerged triumphant the well-known ,yerkes group with its comprehensive scheme 7the first in the list given below7 the only very important one sanctioned4 ,thus closed the session of #aijb1 and in the ,railway ,committee ,rooms1 for a time at least1 the 8,fiery fight is heard no more1 ,and the storm has ceased to blow40 ,the following ,tube ,railways were authorised3--,brompton and ,piccadilly ,circus ,railway 7,acts #ahig1 #ahii1 #aijb71 that of #aijb authorising inter alia its amalgamation with the ,great ,northern and ,strand4 ,the ,charing ,cross1 ,euston1 and ,hampstead ,railway to be continued to ,edgware by a previously authorised line 7,acts #ahic to #aijj and #aijb74 ,the ,city and ,brixton ,railway1 to cross the ,thames independently of the ,city and ,south ,london ,tube1 and to have stations at ,st4 ,george's ,circus1 ,southwark1 and at ,kennington ,oval 7,act #ahig71 with a new ,city station communicating with the ,south ,london ,railway 7electric74 ,the ,great ,northern and ,city ,railway1 ,finsbury ,park to the ,bank4 ,the ,metropolitan ,district ,railway 7,act #ahig71 a ,deep-level ,electric to work with the ,brompton and ,piccadilly ,tube4 ,the ,north ,west ,london ,railway 7,act #ahii7 from the ,marble ,arch to ,cricklewood4 ,,the ,,royal ,,commission ,for some time past it had been made clear that no ,select ,committee of the ,houses of ,parliament1 however efficient1 could be expected to cope with the problem of metropolitan combined tubes1 tramways and vehicular street traffic2 and in view of the probability of other ,tube ,bills being promoted during the session of #aijc1 it was strongly urged upon the ,government to consent to a ,royal ,commission on the matter4 ,so1 before the meeting of this year's ,parliament1 a ,royal ,commission was appointed with a most comprehensive programme of arduous work4 ,general satisfaction seems to have been expressed with the composition of the ,commission4 ,no better chairman could have been found than ,sir ,david ,m4 ,barbour1 whose acquaintance with official inquiries is probably greater than that of anyone else in ,great ,britain1 he having been associated with several ,royal ,commissions4 ,special knowledge bearing on the peculiar problems to be solved1 characterises most of the members4 ,sir ,john ,wolfe ,barry is perhaps the best-known consulting railway engineer in the country1 having acted in this capacity to many of the leading railway companies1 and1 in #aija1 having taken part in the inquiry respecting vibration on tube railways4 ,sir ,george ,trout ,bartley has represented ,north ,islington in the ,house of ,commons for nearly eighteen years1 and from lifelong residence in ,london has a wide knowledge of its needs4 ,earl ,cawdor has been ,chairman of the ,great ,western ,railway for the last eight years4 ,viscount ,cobham has been a ,railway ,commissioner since #ahia1 and prior to that1 was temporarily ,deputy-,chairman of the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,sir ,joseph ,dimsdale1 being a banker1 has had wide experience as a financier4 ,ex-,lord ,mayor1 and ,city ,chamberlain1 he represents in the ,house of ,commons the ,city of ,london1 which is vitally concerned in the question of efficient transit4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,s4 ,gibb1 the ,general ,manager of the ,north ,eastern ,railway for the past twelve years1 is a railway expert of great experience4 ,as ,permanent ,secretary of the ,board of ,trade1 ,sir ,francis ,j4 ,s4 ,hopwood has a specially trained mind1 and an intimate acquaintance with railway matters1 having been formerly ,secretary of the ,railway ,department4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,murdoch1 ,c4,b41 has been for many years in the ,government service1 and has acted1 since #ahif1 as ,assistant ,under-,secretary of the ,home ,department4 ,sir ,john ,p4 ,dickson-,poynder is a member for the ,chippenham ,division of ,wiltshire1 and represents ,st4 ,george's1 ,hanover ,square1 at the ,county ,council4 ,sir ,robert ,t4 ,reid1 ,k4,c41 member for ,dumfries since #ahhf1 was ,attorney-,general in the last ,liberal ,government1 and may be regarded as the official representative of the ,opposition on the ,commission4 ,lord ,ribblesdale1 a member of the ,london ,county ,council1 was ,chairman of the ,joint ,committee of the ,lords and ,commons on ,tube ,railways in #aija4 ,soon after the appointment of the ,commission it was suggested that the labour would be considerably lightened if the subject of pedestrian and vehicular traffic included in their programme were eliminated or1 at any rate1 indefinitely postponed1 and attention concentrated upon ,tubes and ,railways1 making--as they have the power to do--an interim report2 and thus avert disastrous delay in the realisation of the ,tube ,schemes before the ,parliament of #aijc4 ,early in the session a somewhat significant announcement was made in the ,house of ,commons1 in reference to these schemes2 only two of which were very important1 viz41 the ,central ,london's proposal to complete the circle2 and the ,north-,east ,london ,railway scheme1 which 7if passed7 will embrace twenty-two miles--nine being in tubes--tapping the traffic between the ,city and ,leyton and ,walthamstow1 whose combined population is over two hundred thousand people4 ,the following is the statement made on the #bnd of ,march by ,mr4 ,jeffreys1 as ,deputy-,chairman of ,committees1 who said he had had the advantage of a conference with the ,chairman of ,committees in the ,house of ,lords and the ,president of the ,board of ,trade1 and they had come to the conclusion that certain of the bills connected with ,london traffic ought to be postponed until the result of the ,commission dealing with this matter had been reported4 ,the deep-level railways which they thought ought to await the completion of this inquiry were the ,central ,london ,railway2 ,great ,northern1 ,piccadilly1 and ,brompton 7,new ,lines and ,extensions7 ,bill2 ,north-,west ,london 7,marble ,arch to ,victoria7 ,railway ,bill2 ,clapham ,junction to ,marble ,arch ,railway 7,nos4 #a and #b7 ,bill2 ,metropolitan ,district ,railway ,works ,bill4 ,there were certain other ,bills which they thought might go to ,committees1 viz43 ,charing ,cross1 ,euston1 and ,hampstead ,railway ,bill2 ,great ,northern1 ,piccadilly1 and ,brompton ,railway 7,various ,powers7 ,bill2 ,baker ,street and ,waterloo ,railway ,transfer ,bill2 and the ,city and ,north-,east ,suburban ,electric ,railway ,bill4 ,there were1 besides1 certain other railway measures which were doubtful1 and these1 they thought1 ought to be held over until the ,chairman of ,committees of the ,house of ,lords1 the ,president of the ,board of ,trade1 and himself had considered them4 ,these ,bills were the ,city and ,south ,london ,railway 7,angel and ,islington7 ,bill1 and the ,metropolitan ,district ,railway 7,various ,powers ,bill74 ,but the ,royal ,commission is1 after all1 only a temporary expedient2 and the question remains1 as to what shall be the ,governing ,power of ,london's railway traffic2 for it must be taken for granted that both the ,city ,corporation and the ,london ,county ,council frankly admit that the underground locomotion of the metropolis has become so complicated that the general supervision of some great public department is necessary4 ,is it to be the ,london ,county ,council1 the ,board of ,trade1 some new body resembling the ,light ,railways ,commission1 or a joint committee of members of both ,houses of ,parliament1 appointed each session1 to consider all questions affecting locomotion in or near ,london8 ,here we are reminded that the ,london ,county ,council has been considering whether or not to apply for parliamentary powers to take over the burden of linking together the various districts of ,london by a series of tubes4 ,a colossal undertaking1 involving1 it is said1 a capital of fifty millions6 ,whether it be advisable for the ,council1 in addition to its other heavy responsibilities1 to extend its municipal trading on so vast a scale1 is doubtful2 for it has the ratepayers to consider4 ,if it be the fact that mercantile enterprise cannot grapple with the task1 then there would be good and sufficient reason for the ,council or the ,government to attempt it4 ,but private capital is generally obtainable for a really promising scheme4 ,besides1 such gigantic undertakings obviously require men of good business capacity and considerable railway experience to devote their time exclusively to the work4 ,one would think that county councillors 7as such71 efficient as they may be1 have already as much work as they can readily get through1 from one week's end to another4 ,,chapter ,x ,,london',s ,,latest ,,and ,,longest ,,tube 8,green pastures and ,piccadilly40--,w4 ,,black4 ,sanctioned by the ,legislature as one of the most comprehensive schemes laid before it last year for linking together existing underground1 as well as trunk1 lines1 the ,great ,northern1 ,piccadilly1 and ,brompton ,railway1 now under construction1 has attracted such universal attention1 and traverses such hitherto exclusive quarters1 that it deserves more than a passing reference4 ,from a traveller's point of view1 the effect of this new railway will be far-reaching4 ,dwellers near ,district ,railway termini1 such as ,wimbledon1 ,new ,cross1 ,bow ,road1 ,south ,harrow1 ,hounslow ,barracks1 ,richmond1 and intermediate stations1 will have1 by means of exchange--at ,earl's ,court ,station with the ,metropolitan ,district ,railway2 at ,gloucester ,road and ,south ,kensington ,station with the ,metropolitan and ,metropolitan ,district ,railway2 at ,piccadilly ,circus ,station with the ,baker ,street and ,waterloo ,railway2 at ,cranbourn ,street ,station with the ,charing ,cross1 ,euston1 and ,hampstead ,railway2 and at ,king's ,cross and ,finsbury ,park ,stations with the ,great ,northern ,railway--ready access to practically all centres and quarters of our big city2 its own immediate objective from ,earl's ,court being ,finsbury ,park1 a distance of #g miles4 ,it is similar in construction to the ,central4 ,the cars1 built at ,loughborough1 will resemble those of the new ,inner ,circle1 and the driving force will come from the ,power ,house at ,chelsea4 ,truly1 under pleasant scenes will the new ,tube be carried--as fashionable1 romantic1 and historical a route as any in ,london4 ,here is ,earl's ,court1 where1 in the midst of market gardens far away from town1 once stood ,john ,hunter's house1 where the great anatomist kept a menagerie of wild beasts to experiment upon1 and in the dead of night boiled down the body of ,o',brien1 the ,irish giant1 to obtain the skeleton1 which now adorns the museum of the ,college of ,surgeons4 ,the well-known ,edmund ,tattersall lived close by for many years at ,coleherne ,court1 on the site of one of either ,fairfax's or ,lord ,essex's redoubts 7they appear to have had a good many71 thrown up after the battle of ,brentford1 when the victorious ,royalists were expected to cross the river 7which they never did7 and besiege ,london4 ,gloucester ,road1 the next station1 recalls the fact that when the ,district ,railway came there1 it was still a mere lane with hawthorn hedges1 a blacksmith's forge somewhere near1 while pleasant paths right and left led to orchards1 in the midst of which was ,st4 ,jude's ,church1 so famous later on for its fashionable congregation and its eloquent preacher1 the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,forrest1 now ,dean of ,worcester4 ,from ,gloucester ,road the ,tube runs under pleasant ,stanhope ,gardens and part of ,harrington ,road with its fine mansions1 to ,south ,kensington4 ,the ground about the ,hoop and ,toy ,tavern close by was1 so tradition says1 designated in the draft ,parliamentary ,bill for the ,great ,western ,railway terminus4 ,at that time the site was sufficiently countrified to satisfy those who would banish railway stations to ,jericho or to the uttermost verge of ,london1 and remained so for a long time2 and ,i have been told by an old ,bromptonian that he has seen a covey of partridges put up where the ,natural ,history ,museum now stands4 ,at this point the new ,tube--leaving its course parallel with1 but at a far deeper level than1 the ,district ,railway--proceeds unaccompanied to ,piccadilly1 and1 so to say1 enters the ,brompton ,road at the ,oratory of ,st4 ,philip ,neri1 formerly a very plain brick edifice erected by the ,oratorian ,fathers1 who had begun their good work on a humble scale in ,king ,william ,street1 ,charing ,cross1 in a building subsequently occupied by ,woodin1 the ventriloquist1 and later on by ,toole1 as his own peculiar theatre4 ,the present conspicuous basilica is at last completed1 all but the towers4 ,adjoining it1 down an avenue of trees1 recalling the approach to ,shakespeare's last resting-place1 is ,holy ,trinity ,church1 ,brompton1 reminiscent of ,dr4 ,irons1 its vicar1 who ultimately became ,rector of ,st4 ,mary ,woolnoth1 beneath which is the ,city station of the ,city and ,south ,london ,electric ,railway4 ,brompton ,square is close by1 associated by many of us with a once popular song1 8,ada with the golden hair10 composed and sung by ,g4 ,w4 ,moore1 of the ,christy ,minstrels4 ,in this ,square have dwelt many actors and actresses3 ,wigan1 ,buckstone1 ,robert ,keeley1 etc42 and also ,shirley ,brooks4 ,at one corner used to be a house standing a little back from the road1 occupied by an eccentric individual whose craze was to have several clocks in every room1 and the task of keeping them in order encouraged a watch-and-clock-maker to settle down in a small shop next door4 ,another feature of his craze was to present a watch of some kind to every lady he knew2 so that his neighbour must have done a fair business4 ,a bank now occupies this site1 and the author recollects watching the strong-room being built deep down in the gravelly soil peculiar to ,south ,kensington4 ,next door will be located the unpretentious ,brompton ,station of the new railway4 ,an official of the bank was heard to remark facetiously that he trusted the ,tube would not bore into the strong-room aforesaid--a new possibility and grievance to be duly noted4 ,directly underneath ,brompton ,road goes ,london's latest ,tube1 passing 8,harrod's10 the most palatial ,general ,store in the metropolis1 if not in the world4 ,it originated some years ago in a narrow little shop1 where good tea1 excellent butter1 and1 rumour says1 jam made by ,mr4 ,harrod's mother1 were the chief articles sold to the customers1 the bulk of whom were of the working-class4 ,now ,knightsbridge is reached1 in olden times called ,kingsbridge1 when it was represented by a bridge only 7on the site of the modern ,albert ,gate71 built by ,edward the ,confessor over a brook1 or bourn1 rising1 like the ,tybourn and the ,oldbourn1 in the ,hampstead ,hills1 and flowing thence to the ,thames4 ,no part of ,london has so completely changed in appearance as this2 lofty modern buildings having taken the place of small old-fashioned houses4 ,these improvements culminate at ,sloane ,street1 where anyone approaching town by way of ,kensington1 meets the first of the numerous metropolitan 8rond-points10 surrounded by mansions and shops so tall as to put into the shade the ,french ,embassy and the houses at ,albert ,gate1 which for many years were considered the highest in town4 ,at the equestrian statue of ,field-,marshal ,lord ,strathnairn1 four thoroughfares converge--,kensington ,road1 ,brompton ,road1 ,sloane ,street1 and ,st4 ,george's ,place--pouring around it a continual stream of traffic day and night4 ,three of these thoroughfares are perfect paradises to ladies who delight in such alluring shops as ,harrod's1 ,harvey ,nichols and ,co41 and ,woolland ,brothers1 whose prolonged and magnificent frontages are unequalled in ,modern ,babylon4 ,a few doors from the 8rond-point0 in ,brompton ,road is a ,tube station2 and the workmen1 as they bore close to the triangular grass-covered enclosure in front of ,tattersall's1 are probably unaware that a comparatively slight deviation would take them through a pit beneath the enclosure1 which1 tradition avers1 was used1 during the ,great ,plague of ,london1 for the dead4 ,it is likely enough2 for centuries ago there existed1 a little to the east of ,albert ,gate1 a hospital belonging to the ,dean and ,chapter of ,westminster1 which in #affe was given up for the use of infected patients2 and as this little piece of ground has never been disturbed1 it probably was originally the burying-place attached to the hospital1 and was converted into a plague-pit4 ,a house close to ,hyde ,park ,court was once occupied by ,charles ,reade1 the novelist4 ,at a house close by 7long since pulled down71 ,horace ,smith1 joint-author of ,rejected ,addresses1 lived from #ahaj to #ahah1 and drove himself daily to and from the ,city--he was then a stockbroker--in a vehicle called a 8whisky40 ,a little farther on1 where the ,london and ,county ,bank is dwarfed by the late ,sir ,herbert ,naylor ,leyland's great mansion1 used to stand the 8,fox and ,bull10 a quaint old tavern dating back to ,queen ,elizabeth's time1 and a favourite resort of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 ,george ,morland1 and other painters4 ,holy ,trinity ,chapel1 ,st4 ,george's ,place1 no longer wedged in between two public-houses1 replaces an old church where the celebrated ,prime ,minister--then plain ,robert ,walpole--was married in #agjj to a ,lord ,mayor's daughter1 who became the mother of ,sir ,horace ,walpole4 ,in ,st4 ,george's ,place1 where it faces the ,park--surely one of the most desirable of situations1 the first intimation that we are approaching 8,green pastures and ,piccadilly0--is the ,hyde ,park ,corner ,station of the new railway1 next door to ,no4 #h1 conspicuous as the residence of the ,baden-,powell family1 on the site of which house1 in an old-fashioned tenement1 lived for many years ,john ,liston1 the comedian identified with the character of 8,paul ,pry40 ,being freehold--a unique feature in the neighbourhood--this small plot of ground has cost the ,company dear4 ,it had to pay #cj1gej for its acquisition4 ,it is hard to believe that at this point ,london once terminated1 ,lanesborough ,house1 where ,st4 ,george's ,hospital stands1 being described in ,pennant's days as a 8country mansion10 and thus it remained until little more than a century ago4 ,while in the time of ,charles the ,second1 near ,hamilton ,place was an inn1 bearing the sign of the 8,hercules ,pillars10 signifying that1 like the 8,first and ,last ,house0 at ,land's ,end1 no habitation existed beyond it4 ,all sorts and conditions of people1 mostly distinguished1 live1 and have lived1 along this part of the route1 which has its ,tube stations at ,down ,street and ,dover ,street4 ,there is ,apsley ,house1 and next to it ,baron ,rothschild's mansion4 ,at ,no4 #a ,hamilton ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,,the ,,western ,,approach ,,to ,,piccadilly4 ,place lived the great ,lord ,chancellor ,eldon4 ,from #aci1 ,piccadilly 7,lord ,glenesk's7 ,lady ,byron1 after one of her quarrels with the poet1 fled with her infant daughter4 ,at ,nos4 #ach and #aci1 formerly one building1 the ,marquis of ,queensbury 7the notorious 8,old ,q407 used1 when an octogenarian1 to sit at a certain window for hours1 and ogle the passing fair sex4 ,gloucester ,house adjoining1 is the residence of the ,duke of ,cambridge1 occupied1 when it was ,elgin ,house1 by the ,earl of ,elgin1 who brought over to ,england the famous marbles that bear his name4 ,nearly opposite ,down ,street1 on the park side of ,piccadilly1 stands a curious reminder that once upon a time1 parcels and packages of all kinds had to be conveyed all over ,london1 not by train or by ,carter ,paterson's speedy vans1 but on the shoulders of stalwart porters4 ,it is a 8bulk10 replacing an old timber one4 ,a 8bulk10 it may be explained1 is a kind of shelf supported by two posts at a convenient height for the bearers of burdens to temporarily dispose of them and rest awhile4 ,on the site of ,no4 #ajf 7the ,st4 ,james's ,club7 was formerly the 8,greyhound10 a very old inn1 which1 with the 8,white ,horse0 close by1 and the 8,half ,moon10 a little further on1 was a favourite pulling-up place for the numerous carriers1 tranters1 and market-gardeners who were incessantly coming from the country to town2 for ,piccadilly was one of ,london's great highways westward4 ,in a house 7now a club7 at the corner of ,white ,horse ,street1 ,sir ,walter ,scott sometimes stayed when in town4 ,cambridge ,house 7the ,naval and ,military ,club7 recalls ,lord ,palmerston and the notable political receptions of his accomplished wife4 ,at the corner of ,clarges ,street1 where lived ,edmund ,kean and also ,lady ,hamilton1 is the ,turf ,club1 and at ,no4 #hd the ,imperial ,service ,club1 the last of ,piccadilly's line of clubs that1 commencing with ,the ,bachelors'1 at the corner of ,hamilton ,place1 forms a kind of approach to the real club-land of ,st4 ,james's ,street and ,pall ,mall4 ,bath ,house1 at the corner of ,bolton ,street1 was the residence of the late millionaire1 ,baron ,hirsch4 ,no4 #hj1 ,piccadilly1 and ,no4 #a1 ,stratton ,street together form the town house of the ,baroness ,burdett-,coutts1 and it was from ,no4 #hj that her father1 ,sir ,francis ,burdett1 ,m4,p41 was1 in #ahaj1 amidst serious rioting1 taken to the ,tower for having made use of bad language in the ,house of ,commons4 ,from the roof can be obtained a splendid view of the ,westminster and ,pimlico district1 across the ,park1 rightly called 8,green10 with its beautiful stretches of turf and graceful trees1 and far away to the ,surrey ,hills and the ,crystal ,palace4 ,devonshire ,house1 seen through its fine old iron gates--brought here from ,chiswick--is plain enough externally1 but its saloons are very handsome1 and here the lovely ,georgiana1 ,duchess of ,devonshire1 reigned as ,queen of ,fashion long ago4 ,arlington ,street reminds us of the ,marquis of ,salisbury1 of ,earl ,nelson1 who lodged here1 and of ,sir ,horace ,walpole and his father4 ,in ,albemarle ,street1 ,percy ,bysshe ,shelley once had quarters at ,cooke's ,hotel4 ,the ,tube now carries its passengers ninety feet below the beautiful ,piccadilly shops1 past ,st4 ,james's ,street and ,bond ,street1 the ,burlington ,arcade and ,burlington ,house1 past the ,egyptian ,hall1 past ,fortnum and ,mason's--so universally associated with hampers1 long-necked bottles1 and race-meetings2 past the ,albany1 where lived ,byron1 ,lytton1 and ,lord ,macaulay2 past the ,prince's ,restaurant1 and its neighbour1 ,st4 ,james's ,church1 where there are some splendid specimens of ,grinling ,gibbons' wood-carving1 and where1 in #agfb1 occurred a singular thing4 ,in some unexplained manner the vaults caught fire1 and two hundred coffins with their inmates underwent an uncontemplated process of cremation2 past ,st4 ,james's ,hall opposite 7eventually to be enlarged and converted to purposes other than harmony only74 ,and now ,piccadilly ,circus1 where six roads meet1 and where1 next to ,spiers and ,pond's ,restaurant1 is the ,piccadilly ,circus ,station of this1 the longest ,tube4 ,subways should certainly be arranged for access to this station1 to avoid the very dangerous crossings from each of the six roads4 ,why does not the ,london ,county ,council1 emulating the ,city ,fathers and their ,mansion ,house subterranean passages1 undertake this beneficent work in the ,west ,end8 ,we are now in the region of music-halls1 theatres1 cafs1 dining-places1 and ,scott's1 the famous shell-fish shop4 8,what is the origin of the name ,piccadilly80 is a question asked again and again4 ,it is difficult to decide4 ,was it from the ruffs called 8peckadils0 7from the ,spanish pica71 whose stiffened points were like diminutive spearheads1 worn by the mashers or dudes of the early ,carolean period1 who gathered here at a gaming-house1 ,piccadilly ,hall8 ,or was it1 as ,pennant thought1 from the 8piccadills0 7cakes7 which may have been sold in the surrounding fields8 ,who in the year #aijc can decide8 ,here ,i pause4 ,the rest of the new ,tube's route to ,stamford ,hill is useful but prosaic1 and none of the remaining ten stations1 except ,cranbourn ,street1 ,covent ,garden1 and ,holborn are surrounded with any remarkably interesting associations1 either historical or modern4 ,from ,south ,kensington to ,piccadilly this railway is certainly an aristocratic one4 ,daintily-clad ladies will1 doubtless1 use it largely for shopping and paying visits4 ,the rank and fashion of ,london will patronise it4 ,countesses1 marchionesses1 even duchesses1 may condescend to travel by it2 nay1 royalty may even give it a trial6 ,nobody would be surprised to see its booking-office sthetically designed2 the officials well-groomed and decorous as bank clerks2 the lifts luxuriously upholstered with seats for all2 the cars-de-luxe 7for which an extra charge would be made7 beautifully decorated1 warmed in winter and delightfully cooled during summer heats1 with fresh flowers provided1 and perfumes sprayed at intervals to remove the least trace of bad smell2 copies of the ,court ,guide and the most fashionable magazines at the disposal of the passengers2 umbrella and parasol stands2 special and comfortable quarters for pet dogs2 the smoking-cars models of elegance and comfort2 and the guards' uniform scarlet and gold4 ,seriously1 however1 is there or is there not1 8one little rift within the lute08 ,will the size of the tunnels--#aa feet in diameter--suffice for maintaining an equable and pure atmosphere throughout the year8 ,doubtless it will2 for special attention has been given to this matter by the distinguished consulting engineer1 and inlets for fresh1 and up-cast shafts for foul air1 together with fans worked by machinery1 will be liberally provided4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,electric ,,tramways ,,generally 8,and ,i have taken away your horses40--,,amos iv4 #aj4 ,,history ,,of ,,tramways ,nearly fifty years ago there arrived in this country an enterprising citizen of the ,united ,states bearing the name of ,george ,francis ,train1 with whom will always be associated the first attempt to introduce tramways into ,great ,britain4 ,like many other innovators1 ,train was ahead of his time1 and after vainly struggling against indifference1 and1 in ,london1 against the strongest opposition voiced by the ,chief ,commissioner of ,works1 he returned home a wiser and a sadder man1 having failed to launch his great enterprise4 ,not unreasonably he complained that his system had not been given a fair trial1 and that his nationality was against him1 pointing out that in ,ireland he had1 on the contrary1 received sympathy and encouragement from the fact that he was an ,american4 ,the truth was1 his ideas were immature1 and his tram-lines utterly unsuited to the street traffic of great cities4 ,his first attempt was at ,birkenhead1 in #ahfj2 and three years later he laid down a line1 four miles long1 from ,hanley to ,burslem1 in ,staffordshire1 and also a short one at ,darlington4 ,in the year #ahfa he constructed a line from the ,marble ,arch along the ,uxbridge ,road1 and another from ,westminster ,bridge to ,kennington ,park4 ,the track was ballasted1 not paved1 and the macadam very soon 8rutted0 on each side of the rail2 but the worst feature was that the tread of the rail being an inch below the road surface1 the wheels of vehicles were seriously injured and sometimes wrenched clean off as they endeavoured to leave the lines4 ,a tremendous agitation ensued against the tramway system4 ,train's rails were compulsorily taken up1 and his ideas were dismissed as impracticable4 ,yet the bread had been cast upon the waters1 destined to be found much later on1 but not by ,george ,francis ,train4 ,for ten years after the ,birkenhead line was laid down1 tramways remained in a very primitive condition1 the sole aim being to obtain a smooth track1 and so lessen the wear and tear caused by the uneven macadam4 ,the rolling-stock was crude in the extreme1 and the rails were fastened down to longitudinal sleepers1 so that the spikes invariably worked up1 but this defect was remedied when steel girders came into use4 ,the trams were1 of course1 drawn by horses1 for until #ahhj no better means of traction appears to have been thought of4 ,nobody was a bit interested in the tramways1 and carriage-folk detested them1 so they were banished to the outskirts of the ,city and 8over the water40 ,the ,west ,end recognised them not1 except to sign petitions against their introduction4 ,the 8poor man's street railway10 it affirmed1 must keep its proper place in the south1 the far north1 and the far east of ,london4 ,it was left to private enterprise to run the lines1 and practically four companies--the ,north ,metropolitan1 the ,london ,street ,tramways1 the ,south ,london ,company1 and the ,london ,tramways ,company--monopolised the business1 there being no enterprising ,london ,county ,council to compete with4 ,,various ,,methods ,,of ,,haulage ,for a decade--up to #ahij--;all kinds of improved methods of haulage were tried3 compressed air1 coiled springs1 underground cables 7a well-known example of which was the ,highgate line1 which was always breaking down71 and1 lastly1 gas traction and steam traction4 ,to all these methods there are serious objections4 ,horse traction is expensive1 besides being distressingly trying to the animals themselves4 ,it is necessary to keep up a large stud for each car1 and the horses when idle are eating their heads off4 ,their fullest speed with the heavy cars is necessarily low4 ,starting is a slow process1 and at the best the rate of progress 7including stoppages7 does not exceed four miles an hour4 ,compressed air and coiled springs may both be consigned to pigeon-holes1 labelled respectively 8doubtful0 and 8impossible10 there being of the former scarcely half a dozen examples in ,great ,britain1 though in ,america it is said to have worked well and on an extensive scale4 ,cable traction has many advantages1 and for a long time was successfully adopted in ,america1 but is now abandoned4 ,with the funicular system1 in vogue in ,edinburgh1 ,birmingham1 ,paris1 and ,melbourne1 travellers have long been familiar4 ,where a large number of cars are employed1 it has the advantage of cheapness in working1 and the machinery does not easily get out of order4 ,but the initial cost is very heavy1 and it is not suitable for complicated lines1 or for tramways with several branches2 and therefore extensions1 unless straight1 are almost impracticable1 though it is superior to all others1 save that of electricity1 for very severe gradients4 ,as the cable moves at a uniform rate1 a car can neither vary its speed nor reverse its course4 ,then there is a difficulty in dealing with the gas and water-pipes during construction 7that is1 if they are near the surface71 and the conduit forms a receptacle for street refuse1 and becomes insanitary4 ,but the chief defect is that three-fourths of the total power required to haul the cars is absorbed in driving the cable4 ,on a small scale1 and with but little success1 gas traction has been recently tried4 ,there is a difficulty in starting the engines1 therefore they have to work continuously1 which causes the unpleasant noise familiarised to us by petrol-driven motor-cars when standing still4 ,there is a decided smell from the 8exhaust0 of the engine2 the vibration is considerable2 and1 as at present designed1 the cars cannot mount a moderately steep hill4 ,steam traction has been in use for some time1 but has not improved1 and is not popular4 ,great wear and tear of the track is caused by the weight of the locomotive1 and the public object to the long intervals of service1 consequent upon the necessity1 for economical reasons1 of using large cars4 ,steam involves sulphurous gases and general dirtiness1 besides the apprehension1 fanciful or real1 of an occasional 8blow up40 ,,various ,,methods ,,of ,,electric ,,tramway ,,traction ,dismissing all these systems1 we turn to electricity1 as admittedly the best agent for tramway traction1 and1 until some marvellous discovery displaces it as a force1 likely to remain and to become universally adopted4 ,blackpool was first in the field with an electric tramway in #ahhc4 ,several other provincial districts followed suit1 including ,bristol and ,stockton-on-,tees4 ,london1 in #aijj1 welcomed the completion of ,mr4 ,j4 ,clifton ,robinson's great scheme for electrifying that portion of the ,london ,united ,tramways running between ,hammersmith and ,kew4 ,the year #aijc sees metropolitan and suburban electric trams in every direction2 while in the provinces they will soon cover the face of the land1 so extraordinarily rapid has been their acceptance4 ,on every hand signs are evinced of the direct influence upon the general prosperity1 comfort1 and pleasure of all classes of people by a cheap and rapid electric tramway service4 ,the electric system admits of an easy extension of routes1 and is of all systems the simplest to work4 ,the cars can be readily backed or diverted in any direction4 ,they are roomy1 clean1 well lighted and ventilated1 and1 if necessary1 can be heated2 the seats are comfortable2 and the speed is double that of horses1 while1 without any fuss1 gradients of #a in #h can be tackled4 ,of its popularity none can doubt1 especially in hot weather1 when exhausted town-dwellers swarm on the roof of the cars for a breath of fresh air as they travel merrily along at the rate of twelve miles an hour4 ,existing tramways can be adapted to this system with rapidity1 and all experts bear testimony to the fact that electric haulage is comparatively so cheap1 and the development of traffic on its adoption so great1 that horse traction has no chance against it4 ,there are four kinds of electric-tramway traction which1 though apparently rather puzzling1 are readily explained4 ,these are the ,conduit2 the ,surface ,contact2 the ,overhead 7or trolley72 in each of which the current is conveyed to the line--as in an electric railway--from a power house2 and the ,accumulator1 or ,self-contained ,car1 the motive power being obtained from storage batteries carried on the car itself1 and these supply the current direct to the motor on the car4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,,tram-,,car ,,in ,,paris ,,equipped ,,for ,,combined ,,overhead ,,trolley ,,and ,,surface ,,contact ,,system ,by permission of the ,dolter ,electric ,traction ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london ,in the conduit system the main conductors 7or feed-wire71 always in this country placed underground1 are carried in a conduit or tube under the track1 which has a narrow longitudinal slit on its upper surface level with the road4 ,through this slit passes a bracket carried by the car in such a manner as to make contact with the two conduit-conductors4 ,the objections to this system are the heavy cost of construction1 its liability to derangement from floods1 the expense of cleaning the conduits1 and its tendency to accumulate filth4 ,the closed conduit1 or surface contact system1 consists of a series of plates or studs placed along the track a few feet apart and flush with the road1 and insulated from each other4 ,under ordinary circumstances these are disconnected with the conductor1 which is laid entirely below the surface1 but when a car passes over them they become1 by means of switches1 automatically connected with it1 so that the current can be conveyed through them to the car motors4 ,in other words1 the studs are 8alive0 while the car is over them1 and 8dead0 as soon as it has passed4 ,this is a very practicable method1 and in certain cases is preferable to the open conduit4 ,defects1 however1 there are1 but the ,dolter apparatus claims to have overcome them1 and it is greatly in its favour that the system has been successfully worked in ,paris for more than two years4 ,it has the merit of readily lending itself to a combination with the overhead trolley system4 ,of all systems1 by far the best known to the public is that of 8overhead10 recognised immediately by the tall iron poles inseparable from its adoption4 ,ninety-five per cent4 of the world's electric tramways are worked on the overhead principle4 ,the distribution of electric energy is by means of a wire1 called the trolley wire1 upheld by insulated brackets on poles twenty feet above the ground1 along the entire track1 which is divided into sections1 each section taking its current from the main conductor-wire1 which is laid underground1 through the iron poles4 ,should any one section of the trolley wires meet with mishap1 only the cars working on that section are stopped2 those on the remaining divisions1 having an independent source of current1 continue to run ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,cross ,,lane ,,junction1 ,,salford4 ,,the ,,largest ,,and ,,most ,,complicated ,,overhead ,,trolley ,,crossing ,,in ,,the ,,kingdom ,by permission of ,geo4 ,hill ,co41 ,manchester without interruption4 ,at the upper end is a small deeply grooved wheel which1 by means of springs at the base of the trolley pole1 is pressed against the under side of the trolley wire overhead1 and in that position remains as the car proceeds4 ,from the wire the electric current passes through the grooved wheel and down the trolley pole to the motors1 of which there is one at each end of the car4 ,in all three systems the motor itself is suspended from the axle1 which it turns2 and the armature of the motor is parallel to the axle and nearest to the centre of the car4 ,on the end of the armature is a small cogwheel which gears into the teeth of a larger wheel keyed to the axle1 and this turns round the wheels of the car4 ,a coiled spring supports the field-magnet of the motor1 and when the driver turns the lever on to the top of the controller 7which is a high box in front of each platform containing a series of wires connected with the motor71 and switches on the current1 the motor is lifted up on the first revolution of the armature1 the coiled spring takes up the motion of the motor1 and prevents the car starting with a jerk4 ,the current1 when done with1 returns to the source of supply by the ordinary tram rails1 which are specially connected at the joints for this purpose4 ,it is maintained that for cheapness of construction1 simplicity of operation1 reliability in action1 and flexibility in adaptation1 this method is superior to all others4 ,there was at one time a certain objection to it on sthetic grounds4 ,the earlier examples1 when clumsy wooden posts and festoons of wire obstructed the view and seemed to choke up the street1 undoubtedly justified the protest against the 8overhead02 but now that slender iron poles1 ornamental rather than otherwise1 and1 in some cases1 rosettes attached to the houses1 are used for the suspension of the trolley wire1 people have become reconciled to the appearance of the thoroughfares1 and no longer object to the apparatus4 ,one more system1 an ideal one1 remains to be considered4 ,it is that of the 8,self-contained ,car10 which carries a battery of secondary cells1 whence the current for working the motors is taken as required4 ,but1 for the present1 there are serious obstacles against its general application4 ,the great weight of the accumulators leads to a disproportionate consumption of power1 and involves heavy expenditure on the permanent way and in rolling-stock4 ,the batteries must be recharged at frequent intervals1 and must either be removed from the car--a troublesome process--or the car must be kept idle while the cells are revivified4 ,accumulators as a rule do not live long1 and have to be renewed4 ,thus the working expenses are so heavy that1 ideal as the system is1 and delightful the smooth running of the cars1 it does not pay commercially to adopt it1 and we must wait patiently in the hope that one day a perfect and practical secondary battery will appear on the scenes4 ,great improvements in lightness and durability are in the air4 ,tramcars have become luxurious compared with the makeshifts that did duty in ,george ,francis ,train's day1 and each new line endeavours to make its rolling-stock superior to the others4 ,some cars are double-decked1 i4e4 have seats outside2 some are single-decked1 i4e4 have no outside seats4 ,they are roomy and comfortably upholstered1 and the windows are curtained1 or provided with louvre shutters to keep the sun out4 ,those of the ,london ,united ,tramways are models of comfort1 and people who recollect only the early examples1 mostly of foreign construction1 would be surprised at the advance made4 ,they seat thirty inside and thirty-nine outside passengers1 have spring cushions covered with plush moquette1 and ceilings panelled in bird's-eye maple4 ,there are electric push-buttons for signalling the motor-man2 electric light is provided1 and ventilators extend the whole length of the car1 ensuring an abundant supply of fresh air4 ,no cars1 however1 in ,great ,britain have reached the pitch of perfection attained in ,america by the palace and parlour tramcars2 the former fitted up like a ,pullman1 with little tables and easy-chairs1 and windows prettily curtained4 ,of this type1 perhaps the most superb is in ,buenos ,ayres4 ,decorated in early ,french style1 it is beautifully finished2 while inside it resembles a drawing-room1 with windows separated by carved pilasters and draperies of white silk and gold damask4 ,a fine ,wilton carpet covers the parquetry floor1 whereon stand woven cane fauteuils with gold plush seats4 ,at each end of the car is a buffet1 and one of the platforms is provided with an ice chest1 while an electric heater produces tea and coffee when required4 ,i cannot close this chapter introducing the subject of tramways1 without reference to the 8,rush for the ,trams0 that attracted so much attention last year4 ,the rushes in the ,blackfriars ,bridge ,road began shortly after five o'clock and continued until seven p4m41 and were described in the daily journals as follows3 8,south ,london1 thanks to the ,l4,c4,c41 rejoices in an excellent tram service4 ,there are many trams going everywhere within a reasonable distance--,streatham1 ,greenwich1 ,tooting1 ,new ,cross4 ,now1 however hard or however fast you rush at a tram1 it is not to be bullied into holding more than a certain number4 ,if1 however1 you rush sufficiently fiercely and with sufficient violence1 you may either knock or frighten out of the way a girl who has been waiting longer than you4 ,some genius discovered this and rushed2 others1 not to be beaten1 rushed also4 ,the result is that every evening the ,blackfriars ,road is the scene of a savage fight for the incoming trams1 where men and women meet in unequal strife4444 ,all notions of chivalry1 of #8ladies first1' are thrown to the winds1 apparently1 on these occasions1 with the result that many young girls1 weak women and children1 rather than share in the unequal strife1 are content to walk all the way home4444 ,long before the trams arrive at the starting-point1 they are boarded at either end1 and a jovial crowd1 knocking off one another's hats1 poking out one another's eyes1 swarms on to them4 ,as an entertainment1 this is not without merit2 as an exhibition of the passions1 it is undoubtedly interesting4 ,but if you happen to be weak or a woman and want to get on one of these cars1 it is possible you will fail to consider these things4 ,only a day or two ago a fatal accident occurred in the rush for the trams4 ,such a serious case is1 no doubt1 rare1 but small injuries must be of frequent occurrence1 torn clothes and bruises part of the daily round1 the common talk of those who struggle for the trams4 ,it is unpleasantly common to see women knocked off their feet and dragged in the road4 ,nor is the ,blackfriars terminus the only battlefield4 ,the ,westminster ,bridge ,road is no whit better1 and there1 with a roadway somewhat narrower and a somewhat larger quantity of quick traffic1 the danger is even greater40 ,the remedy for this state of affairs was thus significantly pointed out3-- 8,when electricity is fully adopted the service will be able to deal with a larger traffic1 for1 although the same number of cars will be running1 they will run faster1 and each will carry #ej per cent4 more passengers1 so that the carrying capacity of the line will be much increased4 ,till then there is no hope of improvement4 ,it is impossible with horse traction to run more cars1 or run them faster40 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,london',s ,,tramways 8,when all is done1 the help of good counsel is that which setteth business straight40--,,bacon4 ,,the ,l4,c4,c4 ,,and ,,london',s ,,traffic ,all tramways within the boundaries of the ,county of ,london--an area of some #af by #ab miles--will eventually be controlled and worked by the ,london ,county ,council1 who1 under the ,tramways ,act of #ahgj1 have the power of purchasing1 either compulsorily at the expiration of twenty-one years from the passing of the ,act1 or by agreement1 any tramway undertaking within their official territory4 ,a heavy responsibility truly2 but whether for good or for evil1 municipal trading has come to stay1 and the principle as applied to tramways seems to be particularly appropriate in this1 our great metropolis1 with whose locomotive system none but a very powerful and experienced governing body can ever hope to successfully cope4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,allen-,baker1 the vice-chairman of the ,l4,c4,c4's ,highways ,committee1 reporting on the subject of our congested highways1 said3 8,even though there should be no future increase in street traffic1 ,i believe it to be the imperative duty of the ,council to seek a remedy1 and how much more when we feel assured that ,london will keep growing1 and that within the next thirty years both a water and locomotive service will have to be provided for an estimated population 7in ,greater ,london7 of probably not less than ten or twelve million people2 and whatever the growth outwards may be1 the best system of rapid transit for the central districts will always become more and more essential4 ,if1 therefore1 we are to cope with either our present or our future requirements1 and prevent our streets from becoming really impassable1 it is1 in my judgment1 our duty to take up the subject at once1 and seek from ,his ,majesty's ,government those additional powers and amendments to existing ,acts of ,parliament that will enable the ,council1 as the central authority1 to carry out these improvements in the interests of the whole metropolis40 ,i doubt if anybody realises the gigantic scale of ,greater ,london's street traffic1 so much of it being hidden away4 ,it is estimated that in one year travellers by cabs and omnibuses number #ehj1jjj1jjj1 and by tramways #djj1jjj1jjj4 ,by ,underground1 ,tube1 and suburban railways #hij1jjj1jjj travel2 and should the metropolis increase at the rate expected by ,mr4 ,j4 ,allen-,baker1 in thirty years' time there will be something like #d1jjj1jjj1jjj1 or #aa1jjj1jjj human beings per diem1 moving about on wheels or on foot4 ,all these facts will doubtless be carefully considered1 and1 if possible1 the problem of ,london's traffic solved1 by the ,royal ,commission--,sir ,david ,miller ,barbour1 ,k4,c4,s4,i41 ,k4,c4,m4,g41 in the chair--appointed in ,february last to deal with the subject4 7vide ,chapter ,,ix474 ,it is authorised to report3-- 7#a7 ,as to the measures which they deem most effectual for the improvement of the same 7the street traffic7 by the development and interconnection of railways and tramways on or below the surface1 by increasing the facilities for other forms of mechanical locomotion1 by better provision for the organisation and regulation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic or otherwise2 and 7#b7 ,as to the desirability of establishing some authority or tribunal to which all schemes of railway or tramway construction of a local character should be referred1 and the powers which it would be advisable to confer upon such a body4 ,,the ,l4,c4,c4 ,,and ,,rehousing ,the tramway policy of the ,l4,c4,c4 is so connected with the housing1 or1 rather1 with the rehousing question1 that although this book is purely on the subject of electrical traction1 ,i cannot avoid making some reference to it4 ,for fifteen years1 since1 under the ,local ,government ,act of #ahhh1 the ,council was constituted1 it has slowly been winning the confidence of ,londoners4 ,aggressive at first1 it has relinquished the altruistic theories of youth1 and it now realises the fact that it is a body of trustees acting not for one class only1 but that it must administer its heritage in the interests of the community at large4 ,jealousy of its powers is dying out1 and by comprehensive and energetic action it justifies itself as the one central privileged body able to deal with the highway1 and with the housing problem of ,modern ,babylon4 ,one of its provinces1 in fact its statutory obligation1 is to provide new accommodation--not necessarily in the same locality--in place of all houses destroyed as unfit for human habitation4 ,it also takes upon itself voluntarily 7where no such legal obligation exists7 in certain instances to provide for rehousing1 and1 wherever possible1 this is effected in the same districts4 ,but this cannot as a rule be done when rehousing is compulsory1 and to meet the difficulty1 estates have been acquired1 and blocks of houses and cottages erected at ,croydon1 ,wood ,green1 ,brixton ,hill1 ,holloway1 ,hammersmith1 and other more or less suburban spots4 ,the ,model ,dwellings built on the site of ,millbank ,prison1 and inspected by the ,king and ,queen on ,february #ahth last1 accommodate #d1ejj men1 women1 and children4 ,at ,tooting1 the ,l4,c4,c4 scheme provides for #h1fjj people2 at ,norbury1 for #e1hjj2 while at ,tottenham there will be quite a new town of #dj1jjj artisan inhabitants4 ,encouragement is given by the ,council to the idea that working-men and women--since they cannot1 in so many cases1 live chock-a-block with their employment--should be provided with homes upon1 or a little beyond1 the ,council's boundaries1 and be brought backwards and forwards by train1 for the popular #a;d4 ,being practical men1 the ,councillors know that any transference on a large scale of ,london factories to the country1 however desirable1 cannot be effected yet awhile4 ,and even if they could acquire sites in the centres of industry1 and erect gigantic lodging-houses1 the cost would be prohibitive4 ,they have to deal with the present necessity4 ,their ideal is probably the workshop as it exists in ,london1 with the heads of firms at ,belsize ,park1 ,bayswater1 and ,dulwich1 the clerks at ,wandsworth1 ,chelsea1 and ,fulham1 and the workmen at ,tottenham1 ,wood ,green1 and ,hammersmith4 ,on the other hand1 figures quoted by ,mr4 ,troupe1 of the ,home ,office1#e show to what a large extent it might be possible to relieve congestion by the removal of factories to the country4 ,he said that there were #gdh factories in ,london classified1 in the following proportions1 viz4 #ej for machine-making1 #cj for bread and biscuit-baking1 #ad for cabinet-making1 #aa for turning out fruit preserves1 #af breweries1 #dg book-binding establishments1 #gb printing houses 7not including newspapers71 and #ai saw-mills4 ,in these #gdh factories close upon #bjj1jjj people were employed1 representing with their families some #fjj1jjj human beings1 and if1 following the recent example of the largest cabinet-makers in ,london1 the bulk of these removed into the country1 which they might do if suitable railway arrangements could be made1 a considerable number of the #fjj1jjj men1 women1 and children would be rehoused amidst 8fresh woods and pastures new10 greatly to their benefit4 ,this is a dream at present1 as factories cannot without great loss be summarily transferred from suitable urban quarters where water-frontages and locomotive facilities exist4 ,they have grown up with1 and in many cases created the district in which they are situated4 ,bermondsey has for years been the home of the leather trade1 ,lambeth of the pottery industry1 and although ,mr4 ,justice ,grantham instances ,doulton's as an awful example of an uneconomical delinquent ,london manufactory--their clay in ,dorsetshire1 their coal in the ,midlands1 their salt in ,cheshire1 and their works on the banks of the ,thames--it is no light matter to break with long business ties and take up with fresh ones1 not so easy to leave the old love and take up with the new4 ,it will be granted1 however1 that ,mr4 ,william ,l4 ,magden was right when he maintained that 8no manufacturer about to commence business at the present day would fix upon ,london as a suitable position4 ,he would choose rather a district in which land was cheap1 and in which he could obtain cheap power for his machinery and transport for his goods4 ,he should not in future be limited to the colliery districts or to the main lines of railway4 ,light railways serving as feeders to the main lines1 and the supply of electrical energy over large areas from main power stations1 could provide for both these requirements1 giving the manufacturer ample assurance that his works could be run cheaply1 and that the raw material and manufactured products could be efficiently handled4 ,by such means electrical science is capable of opening up thousands of square miles in ,england for manufacturing purposes1 the native population of which has been languishing under the chronic complaint of agricultural depression40 ,,the ,l4,c4,c4',s ,,tramway ,,system ,whether1 as regards tramways1 the ,l4,c4,c4 will be the central authority recommended by the ,royal ,commissioners1 time will show2 but meanwhile it has already established its tramway system1 which can be seen at work in our midst4 ,in order to understand it the more easily1 it should be assumed that all the lines1 including those of the ,london ,united ,tramways ,company1 are in the hands of the ,council1 that they are more or less linked together1 that powers for new lines have been granted1 and that electrical traction in some form has been adopted throughout4 ,on studying a tramway map1 one is struck by the fact that1 starting from the central area of ,london1 all the tram-lines meander towards the ,council's boundaries1 where they will eventually no doubt join and interchange through traffic with the vast light railway or rural tramway systems of various companies in the direction of north and south1 north-east1 south-east1 north-west1 and south-west2 but that 8through0 7or cross-country7 communication from west to east1 practically does not exist4 ,in the north-west there are huge areas of brick and mortar as destitute of tram-lines as ,central ,australia1 so that anyone living in the ,regent's ,park districts has to 8train0 it eastward1 or1 if he be bent on 8tramming0 it1 has to go by an inconvenient and awkward route to ,hackney or ,bow4 ,another notable feature of the map is that1 although there are almost as many tramways on the south as on the north side of the river1 there is no access from one to the other1 the bridges being looked upon as sacred thoroughfares1 along which tramcars--certainly not as unsthetic as omnibuses1 or waggons laden with vegetables--may not pass1 although ,westminster is the widest bridge in the world1 #he feet2 ,blackfriars1 #hj feet2 and ,vauxhall and ,lambeth will be equally wide1 and broad enough to accommodate the trams without inconvenience4 ,at present the lines are painfully disunited1 without starting-point or terminus4 ,the gaps in the lines require to be filled up1 and where this is impracticable1 shallow underground tracks should be made use of4 ,the great defect1 however1 would at once disappear if the lines could cross the ,thames at ,westminster and ,blackfriars2 but if this be persistently refused1 light bridges or tubes ought to be specially provided at convenient points with four tracks for the use of tramways only4 ,the history of the ,london ,county ,council's work towards the improvement of metropolitan highways dates back to the early nineties1 when the ,council began to acquire tramway companies4 ,a most important step was taken in #ahig1 when the whole of the lines and depts belonging to the ,north ,metropolitan and ,london ,street ,tramways ,companies in the ,county of ,london were purchased1 the purchase-money being #hjj1jjj4 ,in #ahii the ,council acquired the ,south ,london ,tramways at a cost of #hhb1jdc1 and still more recently the control of the ,south ,eastern ,metropolitan ,tramways ,company and the ,south ,london ,company has been effected4 ,negotiations for other acquisitions are pending1 and1 as a matter of fact1 there are now not a dozen miles of tramway lines within the county which the ,council has not already purchased4 ,the ,north ,metropolitan lines have been leased by the ,council to the ,company for fourteen years from #ahif4 ,the ,south ,london lines are worked directly by the ,council1 and in the year #aija-b no fewer than #aai1hhj1eei passengers were carried over the system1 #ec1fci1dhi being at halfpenny fares and #ej1iac1jcf at penny ones4 ,the traffic receipts for the year amounted to over #dci1jjj1 and the mileage run was over #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,about #d1ejj1jjj workmen's tickets were issued during the year4 ,thus our metropolitan ,councillors have1 after due deliberation and much searching of hearts1 launched a prodigious undertaking4 ,whether it will or will not prove too costly is another matter4 ,dr4 ,alexander ,b4 ,w4 ,kennedy1 their consulting engineer1 in his report1 said3 8,i hope1 therefore1 that the ,committee will find themselves able to believe that the enterprise in which they are about to embark is one which will not only be for the benefit of ,londoners generally1 but one also which will pay its way1 and on which1 therefore1 there would seem to be no reason for grudging such expenditure as to make the whole scheme one of a kind suitable for and worthy of the greatest city in the world40 ,not long ago the ,council decided to adopt electrical traction on all their lines1 involving an ultimate cost of #i1jjj1jjj which will include the necessary generating stations1 rolling-stock1 purchase of smaller undertakings1 and extensions4 ,the result attained will be a splendid system1 equivalent in length to two hundred miles of single track1 though not larger than that of some big provincial cities4 ,wherever possible the system will be that of the conduit underground2 more expensive than the trolley method1 but in the crowded streets of ,london--where every inch of space is valuable--advantageous1 and from a severely sthetic point of view1 preferable1 because it dispenses with poles and wires4 ,but on lines acquired by the ,council where already exists the overhead principle1 there will be no difficulty in arranging the cars so that they can be run from one system to the other1 either with no stopping at all at the point of change1 or with a delay of but a second or two4 ,the cars1 except the trucks1 will be made in ,england by ,british firms1 and are to be double-decked1 double-bogied1 and thirty-two feet long2 they are to hold twenty-eight passengers inside1 and forty-two on the roof1 and will be in two compartments4 ,they will resemble the ,liverpool cars1 described in ,chapter ,,xiii1 and will be painted a chocolate colour4 ,the speed will be a maximum of twelve miles an hour1 with an average of about seven4 ,supposing1 therefore1 that all the ,l4,c4,c4 parliamentary ,bills are carried through1 and that all the disunited lines are properly and harmoniously linked together1 and through communication established in every direction1 it will be feasible to take some such day's business journey within the ,council's boundaries as that of ,benjamin ,short which ,i am about to relate4 ,but before doing so ,i think the very important decision of the ,lord ,chancellor in an appeal case1 ,november #bgth1 #aijb1 on the subject of the maintenance of tramway tracks should be recorded3-- ,,the ,,maintenance ,,of ,,tramway ,,tracks ,on ,march #dth1 #aijj1 ,mr4 ,fitzgerald was driving a horse and ,ralli car in ,grafton ,street1 ,dublin1 when the horse stumbled and fell1 and the respondent was flung out of the cart and sustained serious injuries4 ,on the ground that the surface of the paving at the place where he was driving was unsafe for horses and in a condition which was a danger and annoyance to the ordinary traffic1 he brought an action against the tramway company1 and was awarded #a1jjj damages1 the jury holding that the part of the roadway for which the company was responsible was at the time slippery and unsafe1 and that this was the cause of the horse falling4 ,they1 at the same time1 found that the misfortune was not caused by the fabric of the pavement being improperly constructed or maintained4 ,the ,lord ,chancellor1 at the conclusion of the arguments1 moved that the appeal should be dismissed4 ,the tramway company had been permitted the use of the public highway subject to certain obligations1 which practically meant that while they were to use it they must take care that the safety and convenience of the public were consulted4 ,they were not to have a monopoly of the highway1 and it was their duty to take care of the public convenience in respect to that part of the roadway over which they were permitted to exercise a kind of subordinate dominion4 ,it was not denied that the surface of the roadway became1 in certain states of the weather1 a danger and a nuisance to the public1 and it was a strong contention to say that1 having received instructions from the road authority to do that which would have prevented the accident1 there should be no liability upon them4 ,the obligation1 as he read the statute1 was to keep the pavement in a fit and proper condition for public traffic4 ,how that was to be done was a question of mechanical engineering1 and neither the ,legislature nor the ,court was called upon to enter into the question as to how it could best be done4 ,all the judges without exception seemed to agree that the best and most proper mode of doing it was to do what the road authority directed them to do1 and that they had deliberately disobeyed4 ,a ,,business ,,journey ,,by ,l4,c4,c4 ,,trams ,benjamin ,short was born and brought up in ,london1 and if any man living knew its ins and outs he did4 ,he was a jovial-looking little man1 always called ,ben1 for1 said his father1 8,we christened him ,benjamin for long1 but as he grew so slowly1 we called him ,ben for short2 for short he is1 and short he always will be--except of cash60 ,short the elder was a small tobacconist in the days when the fragrant weed was first put up and sold in packets--a paying idea1 as he soon discovered--and to effectually put it into practice1 he used a fast-trotting mare and a roomy1 comfortable trap4 ,ben1 as he grew up1 was allowed to accompany his father on these journeys1 and having abundant powers of observation and natural quickness1 he came to know more about ,greater ,london than most men of double his age4 ,he was cut out for a commercial traveller's career1 and a traveller1 in due course1 he became1 inheriting from his father a snug bit of capital4 ,at the time of which ,i am writing1 ,ben lived at ,stamford ,hill1 close to the ,london ,county ,council boundary1 in a well-built house with a bit of land at the back1 in which he had invested his inheritance4 ,he called it 8,the ,watchmaker's ,rest10 and it faced the tramway line4 ,its front garden was the envy and admiration of the neighbours4 ,there appeared in their season the choicest bulbous flowers1 lovely annuals1 herbaceous plants1 chrysanthemums1 and asters1 all of irreproachable quality1 for ,short1 being a sober and steady man1 devoted his spare time to horticulture1 at which he was an adept4 ,ben ,short travelled for a large wholesale firm of watchmakers and jewellers in ,clerkenwell1 whose ware-house was not far from the junction of ,goswell ,road and ,old ,street4 ,thither ,short went to business every day at eight o'clock from ,stamford ,hill1 not by a ,tube 78,toob0 he called it71 but by the tram which passed his door4 ,he was a first-rate salesman1 working on salary and commission1 as active and enduring as a bee1 but as no travelling expenses within the ,london district were allowed him1 he had to get about as cheaply as possible4 ,hitherto he had been in the habit of working a single section of town until it was exhausted1 and then taking up another4 ,but one ,july morning the head of the firm asked him if he could vary the plan and take the pick of several districts in one day as an experiment4 ,this was done to test ,short's capacity as against that of an ,english-speaking ,german traveller1 a protg of his partner1 who had already tried his best by train and 'bus to cover a large area in one day1 but had blundered over the job4 ,ben ,short1 who had noticed a 8foreigner0 hanging about the place a good deal1 drew his own conclusions therefrom1 and promptly acquiesced in the proposition1 and replied that he was quite willing to show how much could be done in twelve hours by one who knew his ,london well and how best to make use of its locomotive facilities4 ,ben intended to make a record6 ,to save time he took home with him from the sample-room his bag1 an inconspicuous1 well-worn old companion4 ,it was easily carried1 as the contents1 though valuable1 were light4 ,next morning at #g4cj to the minute he was at breakfast1 clean as a new pin1 thoroughly well groomed1 a man of peace1 but if you had put your hand into the side pocket of his coat you would have found a smooth ivory handle1 suspiciously like that of a neat six-shooter--in case of accidents6 ,at eight o'clock he was in a comfortable electric tram bound on his first stage to far-off ,hammersmith4 ,the route was vi ,stamford ,hill1 ,high ,street1 ,stoke ,newington ,road1 and ,kingsland ,road1 and1 branching off at ,hackney ,road1 by way of ,old ,street and ,clerkenwell ,road1 to the western end of ,theobald's ,road4 ,thence1 a long stretch by way of ,hart ,street1 ,bloomsbury1 along part of ,new ,oxford ,street1 into ,oxford ,street1 past the ,marble ,arch1 along the ,uxbridge ,road1 past ,notting ,hill ,gate1 and down the beautifully paved1 broad incline towards ,shepherd's ,bush1 then to the left through ,brook ,green1 and so to the ,broadway1 ,hammersmith--one of the most interesting rides in ,london1 and but recently added to the ,london ,county ,council system1 after tremendous agitation and opposition on the part of the 8,tube0 and others1 but absolutely necessary to complete the linking of other and disjointed sections4 ,here1 at ,hammersmith1 ,ben ,short transacted some very satisfactory business in ,king ,street4 ,it was early2 his 8clients0 had just finished their breakfasts1 their shops had been but a few minutes opened1 and they had leisure to attend to his persuasive arguments4 ,he was a favourite wherever he went1 and as he carried exactly the kind of goods to attract1 he quickly booked orders and was free to proceed4 ,on board once more1 at good speed ,ben was rolled along ,fulham ,road1 leaving on the right the big convent jealously guarded by high walls1 which made ,ben fall to wondering how any sane young woman could voluntarily cut herself off from a world about which she probably knew practically nothing4 ,on went the tram1 past the big buildings of the ,fulham ,workhouse1 past the entrance to ,fulham ,palace and the ,bishop's ,park1 along the widened ,high ,street of ,fulham1 over ,putney ,bridge1 and by way of ,putney ,bridge ,road and ,west ,hill1 ,wandsworth 7a new route71 to ,lower ,tooting--altogether a pleasant trip at that time of the year1 for gardens1 at which he critically and eagerly gazed1 greeted ,ben in every direction4 ,wasting no time1 ,short called upon all the most likely customers1 and again he was in luck1 for whether they wanted watches and jewellery or not1 orders were booked4 ,now the energetic little man had to get to the 8,elephant and ,castle40 ,along the ,balham ,hill ,road1 with its pleasant shops and lively pedestrians1 was plain sailing enough1 past umbrageous ,clapham ,common on the left1 edged with sedate and comfortable mansions recalling the old days when prosperous ,evangelicism dwelt exclusively in ,clapham2 then by way of ,clapham ,road and ,kennington ,park ,road to the far-famed 8,elephant and ,castle40 ,here a less sharp-witted man than ,short might well be bewildered by the wonderful concentration of tram lines converging from ,walworth ,road1 ,new ,kent ,road1 ,newington ,causeway1 ,london ,road1 ,st4 ,george's ,road1 and the road he had come by4 ,here1 if anywhere1 as at the ,mansion ,house1 well-arranged passenger subways are needed4 ,our 8commercial0 did much business round about1 for it was one of his best districts for cheap goods1 and then he thought it was time to refresh the inner man4 ,in a neighbouring cool1 clean little crib--8a close borough of his own10 he called it--he rested1 and made intimate acquaintance with a noble piece of silver-side1 some crisp lettuces1 and any amount of piccalilli--he was a lover of cold meat and pickles--but1 in accordance with a rule he never broke in business hours1 he restricted himself to coffee as a beverage4 ,short1 braced up by his luncheon1 was now ready to set out for the wilds of ,plumstead--a somewhat long journey4 ,he started by train from the 8,elephant and ,castle0 vi the ,new and the ,old ,kent ,roads1 ,new ,cross ,road1 ,greenwich ,road1 ,trafalgar ,road1 ,greenwich and ,woolwich ,lower ,roads to ,woolwich1 and by the ,plumstead ,road to ,plumstead itself4 ,he worked the two districts together1 but his luck had deserted him1 and orders were fewer and farther between than he altogether liked2 but he was not going to 8chuck the thing up0 yet4 ,he would do a bit of the ,east ,end1 and thus complete the circuit of ,london4 ,he took the same route back from ,plumstead as far as ,blackwall ,lane1 then vi the ,blackwall ,tunnel to ,east ,india ,dock ,road1 ,burdett ,road1 and ,mile ,end ,road to its junction with ,cambridge ,road4 ,in this neighbourhood he did his only extensive bit of walking4 ,the district1 though poor1 was large1 and he did a fair amount of business1 but as time was getting on he decided to return home2 so by ,cambridge ,road1 along ,cambridge ,heath1 ,mare ,street1 ,lower and ,upper ,clapton ,roads1 he got back to ,stamford ,hill1 and was put down almost at his own house4 ,he had travelled by electric tramway some fifty miles at a cost of about #bs4 #a;d4 7or a halfpenny a mile74 ,he had done a lot of business1 and had been absent just twelve hours6 ,in the bosom of his family he found ample compensation for his exertions4 ,a hearty welcome and a savoury supper1 accompanied by something that was not coffee1 awaited him1 and the following day the firm received him with acclamation4 ,the ,teuton was not 8in it10 and ,ben ,short reigned supreme as its chief and highly appreciated traveller4 ,,london ,,united ,,tramways ,,company ,want of space forbids more than the mere mention of the ,south ,metropolitan and the ,london ,southern1 the ,woolwich and ,south ,eastern1 the ,west ,ham1 and the ,northern ,middlesex ,tramways4 ,but this chapter would be incomplete without some reference to the useful and popular organisation1 the ,london ,united ,tramways ,company1 that takes up the running at the ,london ,county ,council's boundary4 ,forty million passengers were conveyed last year over its original route of twenty-two miles1 extending from ,shepherds ,bush and ,hammersmith to ,southall1 ,hounslow1 and ,twickenham4 ,in one week alone over a million were carried4 ,last ,april an important extension was inaugurated from ,twickenham1 which brought the trams through ,teddington and ,hampton ,wick right to the gates of ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,,boiler-,,room1 ,,london ,,united ,,tramways ,,co4',s ,,power ,,house ,,at ,,chiswick1 ,,fitted ,,with ,,vicars' ,,automatic ,,stokers ,by permission of ,t4 and ,t4 ,vicars1 ,earlstown1 ,lancashire ,hampton ,court ,palace1 and from ,richmond ,bridge to ,hampton ,court4 ,in the near future these extensions will be connected with new lines running to ,uxbridge1 ,thames ,ditton1 ,surbiton1 ,hook1 ,kingston1 ,new ,malden1 ,wimbledon1 and ,tooting2 while eventually these western and southern tracks will1 by the system of tubes1 rejuvenated underground railways1 and the ,l4,c4,c4's electric tramways1 be joined to those of northern and eastern ,london4 ,in three years' time1 when its extensions are completed1 the ,london ,united will have #ajj miles of tram lines in operation4 ,the gauge is the standard #d feet #h inches4 ,throughout the route the overhead trolley system has been adopted4 ,at ,chiswick is the power house1 and the mains convey the electricity to sub-stations1 six miles apart1 where rotary converters change the alternating into direct current1 and transform down the high voltage of #e1jjj into the ,board of ,trade limit of #ejj4 ,in the fine boiler-room ,t4 and ,t4 ,vicars' automatic stokers are used1 and very interesting it is to watch the machines continually pushing small charges of coal into the furnaces without any direct human agency4 ,mounted on two four-wheeled bogie trucks1 with two #be horse-power motors1 the handsome cars seat thirty-nine passengers outside and thirty inside4 ,on the ,sunday after the opening of the extension no fewer than #bjj1jjj people journeyed from ,hammersmith1 ,shepherd's ,bush1 and ,richmond1 to ,kew1 ,twickenham1 ,teddington1 and ,hampton ,court2 and on ,whit ,monday1 #aijc1 the number reached #djj1jjj1 thus establishing a record4 ,so great was the rush during some part of those days that a two minutes' service of cars had to be provided4 ,the extension from ,twickenham to ,hampton ,court was opened by ,mr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,yerkes1 the ,chairman1 and author of the happy alliance of train1 tube1 and tram1 which may possibly enable many toilers in the ,east ,end to live in the country4 ,at the least1 it will give them the chance1 when possessed of a little leisure and a few pence1 to quickly exchange their sordid environment for one of the numerous sylvan spots which surround ,london1 especially in the west4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,a ,,london ,,united ,,tramways ,,company ,,tram-,,car ,by permission of the ,london ,united ,tramways ,co41 ,ltd4 ,alluding to this1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,yerkes1 at the inauguration1 significantly remarked that it was a strange fact that ,london was particularly behind in transportation1 being the most backward of all cities4 ,though during the last twenty years in ,london1 #ijj miles of streets had been made1 and #cdj1jjj houses had been built1 it was only within the past few years that intramural transportation had been even spoken of4 ,the ,london ,united ,tramway ,company1 he said1 expected to join very intimately with the ,metropolitan ,district1 forming a continuous line to ,hampton ,court from the ,city2 and they anticipated connecting with the ,great ,northern1 ,brompton1 and ,piccadilly ,circus ,railway4 ,people would be carried very cheaply1 and when the ,district was electrified the mileage rates would be abolished in favour of uniform fares1 which were far the best4 ,poor people who were living in an unenviable condition should have the chance of getting into the country4 ,on the much-debated question of ,american capital and ,american enterprise in ,great ,britain1#f ,mr4 ,speyer spoke no less to the point4 ,he said that those who undertook to provide the metropolis with an up-to-date system of locomotion should be encouraged1 for they performed a task that should have been done twenty years ago4 ,english capital had had every opportunity of investment in underground lines1 and if only half of the five millions had been subscribed in this country it was not the fault of the promoters4 ,they would have preferred that the ,underground ,company should have ,english shareholders only1 but unfortunately they had had to allot half of the shares of the ,company to ,americans and foreigners4 ,one would have thought1 he said1 that there would have been more keenness in ,london to build its own underground railways1 which would so materially add to the well-being of the masses4 ,if either of the proposed lines were situated in ,south ,africa1 ,australia1 or ,klondyke1 ,london investors would have been tumbling over each other to subscribe4 ,but the fault of these lines was that they were at our own doors4 ,it was a fact1 incredible though it might seem1 that the richest city in the world did not appear able or willing to provide the funds for what was really a public necessity--quicker transit4 ,so let them hear nothing more of ,american invasion1 if people here stood with folded arms and allowed others to do the work which they ought to have done themselves2 for while they persisted in this non possumus attitude1 no one could blame the ,company if they went elsewhere4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,provincial ,,tramways 8,they shall measure to their cities round about40--,,deuteronomy xxi4 #b4 ,,the ,,light ,,railways ,,act ,,of #ahif ,in the year #ahif an ,act of ,parliament was passed which1 it is no exaggeration to say1 revolutionised tramway locomotion1 and was destined to produce consequences undreamt of by the promoters of the measure4 ,under the ,tramways ,act of #ahgj1 ,municipal ,corporations had been exercising their powers of buying up existing tramways1 working them in the interests of the ratepayers1 and of generally entering into the business of providing a cheap and efficient means of traversing the area within their boundaries4 ,they used the new ,light ,railways ,act of #ahif occasionally1 but only for the promotion 7by two or more combined local authorities7 of certain lines running through several districts4 ,prior to #ahgj1 tramways1 like railways and canals1 had to be promoted by special ,bills1 and the ,tramways ,act of that year was intended to facilitate their construction1 and to cheapen and simplify the method of obtaining parliamentary powers1 either by ,bill or by the alternative of an application to the ,board of ,trade for a ,provisional ,order authorising the construction of the tramway1 the said ,order being subsequently confirmed by an ,act of ,parliament introduced by the ,board4 ,the ,act of #ahgj provided that no tram line should be sanctioned without the consent of the district local authority1 and that the local authority might buy up the undertaking at the end of twenty-one years at its then value--practically only the worth of the rolling-stock and plant1 without any allowance for the goodwill of a going concern4 ,in either case 7that of a private ,bill in ,parliament or a ,board of ,trade ,provisional ,order71 if a tramway was planned to run through two or more districts1 the consent of the local authorities having jurisdiction over two-thirds of the length of the line was sufficient4 ,but this condition gave the local authorities owning just over a third of the route1 power to veto the whole scheme4 ,under the same ,act1 land1 otherwise than by mutual agreement1 could not be acquired by tramway promoters4 ,up to #ahif1 electric tramway schemes had remained in abeyance1 but though the ,light ,railways ,act removed many obstacles to their increase1 and made electric traction commercially possible1 it did not bestow perfect liberty of action4 ,but the fresh legislation on the subject1 anticipated during this year's session of ,parliament1 will doubtless result in such amendment of the ,act as will abolish all ground of complaint on the part of the advocates of the industry4 ,at the time the #ahif measure became law1 hardly any ,tramway ,company in ,great ,britain1 whether horse-drawn or steam-propelled1 paid its way1 except in a few large centres4 ,the companies knew that the time was drawing near when they could be bought out by corporations2 so they had no inducement to make expensive reforms2 and only by charging high fares1 and by avoiding every possible form of capital-expenditure1 could they keep their heads above water4 ,their undertakings1 one and all1 sank into a state of inefficiency1 and a strong public feeling arose in favour of their being reformed1 and worked with improved cars and at popular tariffs by local authorities4 ,so1 one by one1 these bodies absorbed the private companies1 placed new rolling-stock on the lines1 and adopted electrical traction1 to the advantage of the public1 and in one notable instance--that of ,glasgow--it is claimed1 at great pecuniary benefit to the ratepayers also4 ,,municipal ,,tramway ,,undertakings ,throughout the ,british ,isles these municipal tramway undertakings now flourish and increase in number4 ,take a map1 and we shall see that the coast line from the ,north ,foreland to ,plymouth is dotted with towns provided with electric trams1 while inland1 ,camborne1 a ,cornish tin-mining centre1 marks their western ,english limit4 ,then round ,land's ,end along the ,bristol ,channel it is the same4 ,south and ,north ,wales show a blank until ,llandudno is reached4 ,then up-to-date towns provided with electric traction thicken on the ,lancashire coast as far as ,fleetwood4 ,in the ,isle of ,man there are no fewer than four electric tramways4 ,except at ,glasgow and district1 the west of ,scotland is bare of any kind of tram1 and continues so round the ,north ,cape and the ,east ,coast until we come to ,aberdeen1 ,dundee1 and ,kirkcaldy4 ,next are clusters reaching from ,north ,shields to ,middlesbrough4 ,after this1 electric trams are to be found at ,hull1 ,great ,grimsby1 and ,yarmouth4 ,inland are three great centres--,liverpool1 ,manchester1 and ,birmingham--around which 8electrified0 towns gather thickly4 ,isolated ,guernsey and the ,isle of ,wight each possess an electric tram1 the latter being on ,ryde pier4 ,in ,ireland there is a wide stretch of country1 empty and desolate from an electric tramway point of view1 i4e4 from the ,giant's ,causeway to ,cork1 except at ,newry1 ,dundalk1 ,lurgan1 and ,dublin4 ,by far the greater number of these ,british and ,irish tramways are on the overhead trolley system4 ,the #ahif ,act provided for the establishment of a ,light ,railways ,commission of three members1 whose special work was to facilitate the construction and working of tramways or light railways in ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 the ,commissioners being appointed by the ,board of ,trade4 ,application for a ,light ,railway ,order may be made for a county1 borough1 or district council by any individual1 corporation1 or company1 or jointly by councils1 individuals1 corporations1 or companies4 ,applications have to be referred to the ,commissioners in the first instance1 and1 if approved of1 are placed before the ,board of ,trade for confirmation4 ,provision is made by the ,act for the purchase of land under certain conditions specified in the ,lands ,clauses ,act4 ,provision is also made for enabling local authorities to acquire any undertaking whose route passes through their district1 the time and terms of purchase being arranged by agreement between the promoters and the municipalities1 the terms of sale1 usually thirty-five years' purchase1 being settled on the basis of a fair market value of the line in full work1 but with no allowance for compulsory acquisition4 ,local authorities1 landowners1 and adjacent railway companies have the right to object to proposed lines4 ,the local authorities1 however1 possess no power of veto1 but generally the ,commissioners refuse applications from promoters if their schemes are strongly protested against by the municipalities concerned4 ,to what extent this ,act has been taken advantage of may be judged by the fact that last year no fewer than forty-seven municipalities were stated to have disbursed1 or to have decided to disburse1 eleven millions sterling in their electric tramways4 ,in several instances the municipality owns the tramways and leases them on certain conditions to large companies or syndicates1 a kind of compromise between absolute urban control and unrestricted private enterprise4 ,how it works in the provinces can be understood by taking as examples four of the largest cities in ,great ,britain1 viz41 ,glasgow1 ,liverpool1 ,manchester1 and ,birmingham4 ,,the ,,glasgow ,,tramways ,glasgow1 with a population of some seven hundred thousand1 possesses the most successful and lucrative system of municipal tramways in the world1 the working for the year ending ,may1 #aijb1 on a capital expenditure of nearly two millions1 showing a gross revenue of #fad1dac1 with a gross balance of #bjj1cga2 and so large was the reserve fund in consequence1 that it was applied to the writing off of all expenditure on the old horse-traction plant and equipment1 so that the capital account included only the expenditure relating to the new 7electrical7 system of locomotion4 ,in the language of the bookmakers1 the city of ,glasgow's tramways stood1 financially1 on velvet4 ,in #ahid the ,corporation began the service of tramways 7heretofore leased by it to a private company7 with everything new--buildings1 horses1 and cars--their policy being a very frequent service at low fares4 ,not satisfied with horses1 they soon began to search about for some better method of traction1 and in #ahii resolved to substitute electricity on the overhead trolley system1 and accordingly the change was effected2 new lines were from time to time constructed1 until at the present moment ,glasgow possesses1 including leased lines1 #adj miles of single track and nearly six hundred double and single-deck cars4 ,unlike the somewhat haphazard fashion of ,london1 the ,glasgow tramway lines have been planned in a skilful manner and on a definite system1 to give means of transit from the north and south and east and west of the city4 ,it is divided into five separate and independent areas1 each supplied with current from its own sub-station1 but these areas can be interconnected if necessary4 ,on a convenient side of the ,clyde1 with ample facilities for obtaining coal and water1 is the main generating station1 built with a steel framing clothed with ,glasgow plastic clay1 two great chimney-shafts1 #bfc feet high1 towering above it4 ,in this fine building is contained a mighty specimen of what is called the three-phase distribution of electrical energy1 the system being to create the power at one centre and distribute it over a wide area2 that is1 electricity is produced in the form of three-phase alternating current at a pressure of #f1ejj volts1 and sent on to five outlying sub-stations1 where it is transformed to a potential of #caj volts1 and then converted from alternating into continuous current at #ejj volts1 for working the cars4 ,the total capacity of the main station is3-- ,three-phase plant1 #aj1jjj kilowatts4 ,direct-current plant1 #a1bjj kilowatts4 ,the engines used to produce this are of #af1jjj h4p4 capacity1 while each of the generators is of the great weight of ninety tons1 almost the largest in existence for traction work4 ,altogether1 the tramway enterprise of ,glasgow is in its magnitude and its good management almost unique4 ,the size of its power-house will be surpassed by that which supplies the ,electrified ,metropolitan ,district ,railway2 but the wise and economical arrangement of its traffic can hardly be beaten1 and is a model to other large cities and towns contemplating the adoption of electric tramway traction4 ,,the ,,liverpool ,,tramways ,on a large scale are the ,liverpool ,corporation ,tramways1 the total mileage being #abg of single track1 the rolling-stock #dea cars1 and the capital a little over a million4 ,when the ,corporation acquired the ,liverpool ,united ,tramways and ,omnibus ,company's undertaking1 in #ahig1 they at once decided to use electricity on the overhead trolley system1 instead of horses4 ,singularly graceful centre and bracket poles with arched arms and scroll-work were adopted in the wide thoroughfares1 and in the narrow streets the overhead conductor-wire was upheld by rosettes attached to buildings on each side4 ,the new cars are remarkably fine and comfortable1 and include the ,continental single-deck1 with a side entrance1 and the double-deck1 about #bg feet long1 with doors at the ends1 and with three large1 well-curtained plate-glass windows on each side4 ,a special kind of staircase is fitted to these double-deckers to enable people1 the aged and infirm in particular1 to descend in safety even when the cars are in motion4 ,they are also fitted with useful revolving route-indicators1 which1 being illuminated1 light up the upper deck as well4 ,no one can grumble at the fares charged1 which are at the rate of one penny per stage of two miles4 ,that these tramways are a great boon is shown by the enormous number of passengers--nearly #ajj1jjj1jjj--;carried last year4 ,at ,pumpfields1 near the ,exchange and ,waterloo ,goods ,stations1 and at ,lister1 near ,newsham ,park1 are the power stations1 each housing plant of #ae1jjj horse-power 7up to #g1ejj kilowatt capacity74 ,the energy is distributed to sub-stations1 and thence to the cars at the safe orthodox pressure of #ejj volts4 ,the ,liverpool tramway routes necessitate many twistings and turnings4 ,the junction of lines at the intersection of the ,london ,road and ,lime ,street is a sight worth seeing1 there being at that place special trackwork with sixteen points4 ,,the ,,manchester ,,tramways ,manchester--fifth largest city in the empire--has a wide district to serve1 as the ,corporation works certain tramways in such districts as ,stockport1 ,heaton-,norris1 etc4 ,thus its track consists of #aej miles of single line1 and its rolling-stock of #fjj cars1 worked on the overhead trolley system4 ,these cars are of three sizes1 and carry respectively #fg1 #dc1 and #bj passengers1 the smallest cars being single-deck4 ,the larger ones have six nicely-draped plate-glass windows on each side1 and the upholstery1 fittings1 and lighting are excellent4 ,the estimated capital expenditure is the same as at ,glasgow1 two millions sterling4 ,a speciality of the ,manchester ,tramways undertaking is its splendid car dept1 the site covering three acres1 two and a half of which is roofed over4 ,the faade to ,boyle ,street is #gjj feet long1 and reminds one of some large and picturesque public school1 a tramway-car dept being the last thing one would take it to be4 ,it is claimed to be the largest car-shed area in ,europe1 and the covered-in portion is the most extensive in the world4 ,in this and three other similar sheds and a few smaller ones elsewhere all the cars are stabled4 ,formerly they were concentrated in one place4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,queen',s ,,road ,,car-,,shed1 ,,manchester ,,corporation ,,tramways ,by permission of the ,manchester ,corporation ,tramways4 ,the cars are of the ,british ,thomson-,houston ,company type1 double-motored1 and are fine examples of elegance and solidity combined1 and fitted with all the latest improvements for the comfort of travellers4 ,,the ,,birmingham ,,tramways ,birmingham1 as regards tramways1 stands in a peculiar position4 ,its city area is restricted2 it has only short lengths of tram lines1 and these require to be linked up with outlying districts4 ,the lines were leased to the ,city of ,birmingham ,tramways ,company1 but whether the ,corporation will or will not take them over now1 has not yet been decided4 ,however1 by a majority of fourteen votes it has sanctioned the substitution of electricity on the overhead method1 and this is being proceeded with2 and when the transformation is complete ,birmingham and district will have an electric tramway system of nearly a hundred and ten miles4 ,its tramways have always been popular1 and at a charge of a penny for a three-mile ride--a record for cheapness--#ef1jjj passengers made use of them on ,mafeking ,day1 no small proportion of a city of #ebb1ahb inhabitants6 ,before quitting the subject of tramways1 it will be interesting to note the fares charged in different parts of the world4 ,in ,london they begin at a halfpenny4 ,on the ,continent they vary2 for example1 in ,berlin the fare is #a;d4 for two miles1 and a halfpenny for each additional mile2 in ,paris it is #c;d4 inside1 with transfer ticket1 and #a;d4 on the platforms1 or outside the car2 in ,st4 ,petersburg #a;d4 and #a;d4 is the fare2 in ,stockholm it is the curious sum of #a;d42 in ,florence it is #a;d4 from the suburbs to the city1 and #a;d4 across the city2 in ,cape ,town it is #c;d4 for three miles2 and in ,canada the fare averages #b;d41 and #e;d4 after midnight4 ,,provincial ,,rural ,,tramways ,the memorable question once put to the ,house of ,commons1 8,what is a pound80 to this day has not met with a strictly accurate reply4 ,the same may be said of the frequent inquiry1 8,what constitutes a ,light ,railway80 ,under the ,act of #ahif a ,tube should officially be described as a ,light ,railway4 ,so should a ,shallow ,underground1 an ,urban ,tramway1 and a ,rural ,tramway4 ,so1 too1 should a ,brighton ,beach ,line1 or any short train running along a pier4 ,so also should any railway line for the carrying of minerals1 worked by heavy sixty-ton locomotives1 and hauling five or six hundred tons of ore at a time6 ,reductio ad absurdum4 ,the originators of the ,act did not define what a ,light ,railway really is1 but they evidently had in their minds1 inter alia1 that railways1 unrestricted by ,board of ,trade regulations as to fencing1 sidings1 gradients1 and permanent stations1 should be permitted to run along the high roads1 acting as feeders to the existing lines1 to the benefit of the small towns1 villages1 and farms near which they passed4 ,thus a pleasing vision unfolded itself of revived agricultural prosperity1 of handy little trams peacefully steaming along the highways1 stopping1 when hailed1 at some convenient corner1 where the farmers' waggons would be in waiting with produce to be taken away to market in exchange for goods delivered to them4 ,it was a promising idea1 for the cost of construction per mile would necessarily bear no comparison with that of ordinary heavy railways4 ,but in this form ,light ,railways were not developed4 ,agriculturists abandoned the hope of any immediate relief1 and it came to be recognised that the ,act meant a development1 not of goods1 but of passenger traffic1 and that1 so far as extra-urban districts were concerned1 ,light ,railways meant ,tramways1 just as they did in town or city4 ,it may be asked1 8,do not local railways answer all requirements of the ever-increasing population and already congested districts8 ,whereabouts are these country tramways that we hear so much about8 and in what respects are they so useful and necessary80 ,for goods the network of local railways covering the country is no doubt fairly sufficient1 and eventually1 when well-organised services of electric-motor waggons aid in feeding them with merchandise collected and delivered at the very doors of consignor and consignee1 they will fully answer their purpose2 but for linking together city1 town1 village1 and hamlet in the interests of working-men--in many districts the chief customers--they are almost useless4 ,for this class1 wishing to get about quickly--going to and from their daily toil1 paying visits to their sporting pals1 attending dog shows1 football matches1 etc41 taking their wives and children shopping1 and on holidays going some distance afield--a local railway1 even if close by1 is of little use1 with its rigid time-table1 its fixed stopping-places1 its high fares1 and its general formality4 ,what they wanted1 and what1 until the introduction of electric traction1 they waited patiently for1 was a service of comfortable cars1 that would pass their houses every few minutes1 and would take them long stages for1 at the utmost1 a twopenny fare4 ,to meet this want1 in various parts of rural ,england1 more especially in ,staffordshire1 horse and steam tramways were tried1 but the latter method1 from mechanical reasons1 proved to be a failure4 ,the rails weighed but #de lbs4 to the yard2 they were set in iron chairs and laid on wooden sleepers1 and the engines were of the locomotive vertical boiler type4 ,soon it was found that the weight of the water damaged the locomotive1 and the incessant vibration and pounding shook the track so much as to necessitate constant renewal1 and the expenditure became so great that many private ,steam ,tram ,companies either wound up1 were reconstructed1 or were taken over by the local authorities4 ,unattractive was the appearance of these old-style tramcars--great cumbersome1 top-heavy1 two-storied structures1 drawn by what looked like a big iron box with a black funnel poking through its lid4 ,they were dirty1 they smelt1 the service was irregular and slow1 and the fares were too high4 ,,manufacturing ,,centres--,,great ,,britain ,studying an up-to-date map of ,great ,britain1 one is struck by the fact that in the distribution of cities1 towns1 and villages it resembles the stellar system1 with ,london as the governing central body1 while lesser planets1 each surrounded by groups of satellites 7not very bright ones1 it is true71 varying in size and importance1 represent subordinate star centres4 ,these have grown1 and still grow bigger and bigger1 the suburbs of a large town reaching out farther and farther until they touch the outskirts of the next town1 so that in some districts an overgrowth of houses and factories covers many a square mile4 ,in the quiet old days that are gone1 a working-man1 particularly if a weaver1 could labour far away in the country in some miniature workshop or in his own little room at home4 ,but for years past he has been compelled to trudge backwards and forwards to some big factory or mill1 where steam-power was concentrated1 and run upon so economical a principle1 that outside of it the individual workman had no chance of gaining even the barest livelihood4 ,with the advent of steam the villages in certain parts of ,england were abandoned for the town1 where clusters of great workshops had sprung up4 ,a new order of things arose1 and operatives1 if they could1 lived within the town boundaries4 ,but as rates1 taxes1 and rent increased1 they concentrated in outlying hamlets1 within walking ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,view ,,near ,,dudley ,,station1 ,,south ,,staffordshire1 ,,showing ,a ,,steam ,,tram-,,car ,by permission of the ,manual of ,electrical ,undertakings1 ,ltd41 ,london distance of their work4 ,thus these hamlets gradually became townlets1 and eventually towns1 which in their turn developed into centres of industries--lesser lights revolving round the greater4 ,all over the kingdom manufacturing industries have a natural tendency to settle down in particular localities favoured by the proximity of the raw material1 and by railway or water facilities4 ,thus ,dundee1 ,aberdeen1 and the ,north of ,ireland are associated with linen and strong textiles2 the ,eastern counties and ,lincolnshire with agriculture2 ,warwickshire and ,yorkshire with machinery2 ,burton-on-,trent with beer2 ,coventry and ,nottingham with cycles2 and so on4 ,any intelligent schoolboy could reel off a list of such towns and their products4 ,swansea1 with its great works for smelting copper and tin ore--the former brought from ,south ,australia1 ,chili1 and ,cornwall2 the latter from the ,straits ,settlements and ,cornwall--and its manufactories of tin plates1 bolts1 and zinc goods1 is the centre for neighbouring towns associated with its industries1 such as ,porth1 ,pontypridd1 and ,penarth1 which1 together with the ,mumbles1 are partially linked together by tramways4 ,glasgow1 where shipbuilding1 armour-plate rolling1 and locomotive constructing flourish1 has around it the towns of ,gourock1 ,greenock1 ,rothesay1 ,coatbridge1 and ,bridge of ,allan1 all more or less commercially interested in the great northern city4 ,newcastle-on-,tyne and ,sunderland1 headquarters of ,england's shipbuilding1 are surrounded by places connected with or engaged in kindred industries1 as ,tynemouth1 ,stockton1 the ,hartlepools1 ,gateshead1 ,jarrow1 and ,north and ,south ,shields--the last four practically suburbs of ,newcastle--a fine field for electric tramways4 ,then in ,yorkshire we have such centres of the linen and woollen interests as ,leeds1 ,bradford1 ,huddersfield1 ,halifax1 etc41 begirt with townlets which are in process of being interconnected2 and further south1 in ,south ,lancashire1 ,burnley1 ,oldham1 ,ashton1 ,blackburn1 ,preston1 ,rochdale1 ,bolton1 ,manchester1 and ,liverpool1 together with endless smaller places--every one of them engaged in our gigantic cotton trade--cover large thickly populated areas1 supplied with tramway means of intercommunication4 ,,the ,,black ,,country ,,and ,,the ,,potteries ,a remarkable instance of the localisation of special industries1 and of a city begirt with good-sized towns1 is to be found in the ,south ,staffordshire ,black ,country1 its central sun being the city of ,birmingham4 ,while in the ,potteries are a number of small towns almost touching one another--star clusters1 destined maybe eventually to coalesce into a single planet of the first magnitude4 ,here humanity swarms4 ,alighting from a train at any wayside station in the ,south or ,west of ,england1 if one walks along the main road1 and avoids the villages1 one may go for miles without meeting a soul4 ,the ,londoner1 whose nerves have been unstrung and jarred by incessant contact and friction with his fellow-citizens for months at a stretch1 has only to journey a few miles1 say to ,chertsey1 ,ewell1 ,epsom1 or anywhere in ,herts or ,surrey1 and in a few moments he finds a peaceful solitude not likely to be disturbed save by passing cycles or motor-cars4 ,but in the ,midlands1 and for that matter anywhere in the ,north1 it is different4 ,there the bulk of ,britain's population is concentrated4 ,one cannot go for a stroll without coming across individuals of all ages1 who1 although accustomed to see many people1 stare at every stranger after a fashion unknown in the home counties1 as if he or she were a wanderer from another planet4 ,and should it be a child whose curiosity is thus aroused1 he will probably follow the stranger for miles1 gaping at nothing6 ,in the past1 the manners and customs of the ,black ,country folk were decidedly rough1 based on the principle of a blow first and an explanation afterwards4 ,but this little trait has1 under the modern influence of inter-communication with the outer world1 been considerably modified4 ,they work hard and 8play0 hard1 and are given to week-end excursions and an annual 8outing0 to ,blackpool1 ,southport1 ,lytham1 or other favourite seaside resort4 ,they earn good wages and1 if steady1 quickly save money and live in comfortable houses of their own2 but if otherwise1 their 8good pay0 only accelerates the wretchedness of their surroundings4 ,lavish with their cash1 they are hospitable in the extreme2 great consumers of plain beef and mutton1 sweets and kickshaws they relegate to the women and children2 but they no longer--as was affirmed of puddlers and miners during the boom of many years ago--drink champagne and feed their bull-pups on loin-chops and rump-steak4 ,they are keen on dogs1 pigeons1 and singing-birds4 ,dog-fights are a thing of the past1 of course1 but it is whispered that suspiciously high-bred gamecocks are still to be seen sub-rosa throughout the district6 ,altogether they are not half as black as they are painted2 neither is the aspect of their country1 though except in the neighbourhood of ,birmingham it can hardly be called picturesque4 ,they represent the sturdy old ,midland ,english1 independent and brusque1 whose confidence once gained will not be betrayed4 ,here1 then1 in the country called 8,black10 is a concentration of industrial centres1 each possessing great natural wealth of coal and iron1 and turning out in enormous quantities cutlery1 anvils1 bolts1 buttons1 ironwork of all kinds1 guns1 hinges1 locomotives1 nails1 pens1 pins1 rails1 rifles1 screws1 tin and zinc-lined goods1 tools1 tubes1 etc4 ,in its eighty-square-mile area1 between ,wolverhampton and the headquarters of 8,chamberlainism0 on the one side1 and ,stourbridge and ,walsall on the other1 dwell over a million people1 distributed among some twenty-one towns ranging in size and population from ,quarry ,bank 7#h1jjj inhabitants7 to ,wolverhampton 7#id1jjj71 and including such familiar places as ,handsworth 7#ch1jjj71 ,stourbridge 7#ag1jjj71 ,tipton 7#cc1jjj71 ,wednesbury 7#bi1jjj71 and ,west ,bromwich 7#fh1jjj71 all busily engaged in the industries before mentioned4 ,such in a few words is the ,black ,country district1 which the adjoining ,potteries closely resembles4 ,a more promising field for tramway enterprise could hardly exist4 ,no wonder that ,george ,francis ,train in #ahfj selected ,north ,staffordshire for one of his earliest1 though unsuccessful1 ventures--a two-mile tramway from ,hartley to ,burslem1 in the very heart of the ,potteries4 ,,the ,,new ,,order ,,of ,,rural ,,tramways ,subsequently tramway companies came on the scene1 with horses and steam traction1 and--in one instance--with electricity4 ,there were five distinct enterprises3 the ,south ,staffordshire ,tramways ,company1 the ,birmingham and ,midland ,tramways ,company1 the ,dudley and ,wolverhampton ,tramways ,company1 the ,wolverhampton ,tramways ,company1 and the ,dudley1 ,stourbridge1 and ,district ,electric ,traction ,company 7a short line of about four miles74 ,not only were these lines entirely separated and disconnected1 involving tedious changing of cars1 but two of the five were actually of different gauge from the rest1 making through communication impossible4 ,it was no system1 merely a conglomeration of disjecta membra4 ,the tramway condition of the district became thoroughly unsatisfactory1 utterly inadequate to the needs of the travelling public4 ,matters gradually went from bad to worse1 and a financial ,lord ,kitchener was urgently needed to remodel everything4 ,he appeared in the form of a powerful organisation1 the ,british ,electric ,traction ,company1 with a share capital of #d1jjj1jjj1 which entered into negotiations with the various companies and with the local authorities controlling no fewer than twenty-two districts1 into which the ,black ,country area is divided4 ,the proposition was to combine all the ,black ,country tramways into one great system to be worked by electricity in the most up-to-date manner1 to give frequent service1 to ensure rapid and comfortable communication between all parts1 to straighten things out well1 and to adopt this motto1 8,one management1 one method1 one gauge10 provided the local authorities would for some years suspend their rights under the ,acts of #ahgj and #ahif to buy the tramways for practically the worth of old iron4 ,some of the local authorities thought well of it4 ,others did not1 contending that they1 and not the ,company1 ought to undertake the reform2 while the rest saddled their adherence to the scheme with such impossible conditions1 that the negotiations dragged wearily on1 and it was some time before the great scheme was finally carried through at the cost of much trouble with the local authorities in the matter of routes selected for the requisite extensions4 ,in one instance the line1 instead ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,,view ,,at ,,castle ,,hill1 ,,dudley1 ,,south ,,staffordshire4 ,,showing ,,an ,,electric ,,tram-,,car ,by permission of the ,manual of ,electrical ,undertakings1 ,ltd41 ,london4 of being carried in the natural way direct to the urban boundaries of a large town1 was compelled by the authorities of the area involved to turn off at an angle and to gain access to the town in an utterly roundabout fashion1 much as if in ,london1 one was obliged in approaching ,st4 ,paul's by ,ludgate ,hill to deflect up the ,old ,bailey1 and to reach the cathedral by way of ,newgate ,street4 ,one thing only is still wanted to make this ,light ,railway scheme 7typical of other similar ones7 perfect1 and this is that its cars should have running powers right into ,birmingham and other large towns1 and it is to be hoped that before this book is published they will be granted4 ,travellers do not want to change cars when they arrive at the municipal boundary4 ,they want to move from one centre of population to the other1 to get in at the ,birmingham starting-point1 and to get out in the centre of ,walsall1 ,west ,bromwich1 or ,wolverhampton1 as the case may be1 or even to go without changing as far as ,kinver1 on the edge of the ,black ,country1 a favourite holiday resort hitherto inaccessible to the manufacturing population4 ,in the ,north ,staffordshire ,potteries the ,british ,electric ,traction ,company has pursued the same policy as in the ,black ,country with excellent result1 as may be judged by the number of passengers in #aija4 ,in the ,potteries and the ,black ,country many millions made use of the tramways1 the system throughout being that of the overhead trolley1 and the combined length of track about #ge miles4 ,,local ,,authorities ,,and ,,rural ,,tramways ,the whole question of local authority in its relation to rural tramways needs settling on a sound common-sense ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,,camps ,,bay1 ,,cape ,,town1 ,,and ,,seapoint ,,tramways ,by ,permission of ,dick ,kerr ,co41 ,london4 basis1 making the requirements of travellers the dominating object to the exclusion of petty differences and local aspirations and jealousy4#g ,if ,great ,britain is to be networked with these handy means of transport1 and the interspaces of town and village bridged over with cobweb lines of trams1 an ,act of ,parliament should settle a universal gauge1 and on equitable terms provide for free running powers1 whether in town or country1 and encourage an interchange of traffic4 ,it is constantly urged that it is better for cities and great towns to create tramway lines of their own1 and work them within their own boundaries1 and that the task of dealing with the rural interspaces should be left to the small towns and areas1 and not to private enterprise4 ,the opponents of this principle argue that one great objection to municipal trams is that they are compelled to work within artificial local boundaries1 and that there are grave drawbacks to municipal trading in any form4 ,as to the interspaces1 to work them by themselves would never pay1 and any interspaced tramway system would be almost useless without intimate connection with urban centres as feeders1 which is only obtainable by the uniform control afforded under joint stock enterprise4 ,besides--say the objectors to municipal or rural council control--if private working is the most economical way of running tramways in interspaces1 it should be still more economical in towns4 ,surely1 therefore1 there would be no hardship in restricting the development of urban and rural tramways to local authorities wielding power over areas of a certain size and importance1 and the loss to small communities of the power of objection or veto to large schemes ought not to be felt by them4 ,they and the landowners should take warning from the history of railways1 and encourage in every way the introduction and extension of tramways1 which in remote districts would vastly relieve the tedium of existence1 enabling labourers and others to temporarily exchange some dull little village for the comparatively lively market town at a nominal cost4 ,whereas1 in many instances1 instead of welcoming this herald of a brighter and less monotonous life1 too often is repeated the scene immortalised in ,punch some years ago4 ,a brickfield3 8,bill1 who's that chap80 8,do'ant know4 ,a stranger1 ,i should think40 8,then heave 'arf a brick at his 'ed40 ,capitalists should be encouraged to embark in tramway enterprises that are bound to be beneficial to everybody1 and in which they would be entitled to a fair return of interest2 for truly the labourer is worthy of his reward4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,shallow ,,underground ,,system 8,through the faithless excavated soil ,see the unweary'd ,briton delves his way40 ,,blackmore4 ,,in ,,london ,hitherto we have been considering ,metropolitan ,electric ,railways constructed at considerable depths below the surface1 or lifted up on high1 as at the ,liverpool ,docks4 ,there is another system1 however1 and one that is strongly advocated by the ,london ,county ,council1 at present chiefly as a means of linking together existing tram lines by taking the cars underground through congested areas and bringing them to the surface again where the traffic is less dense4 ,in its ever-increasing congested condition1 ,london reminds us of a patient afflicted with dropsy of long standing1 susceptible to occasional alleviation1 but hopelessly incurable4 ,in ,tudor1 ,stuart1 and ,hanoverian days the town gave no signs of this malady2 but with ,queen ,victoria's reign the germs of it became evident1 and now the giant city lies prostrate in a state of helplessness that has baffled the most skilful engineering physicians1 whose remedies1 trains and trams and tubes1 have been successful only in giving temporary relief to the sufferer1 who forthwith resumes and even increases his original bulk4 ,for ages the ocean1 without breaking its bounds1 has absorbed the rivers and streams running into it2 but imagine the process reversed1 and the ,english and ,irish ,channels and the ,north ,sea unrestrictedly pouring their torrents into the ,thames1 the ,forth1 or the ,liffey6 ,only one result could ensue4 ,the channels thus gorged with water1 their currents would cease to flow4 ,a similar fate threatens ,london1 into whose narrow and inelastic fairways an ,atlantic of traffic is ever pouring4 ,one day the current will be unable to flow1 and there will be a permanent condition of 8block40 ,then1 and only then1 perhaps1 will a partial migration of town to country bring about a more natural state of things1 and save this colossal city from utter collapse4 ,these shallow tramways of the ,london ,county ,council are a novelty in ,england1 but on a large scale have been successfully adopted in ,paris1 ,buda-,pesth1 ,boston1 and ,new ,york4 ,at present the shallow subway which the ,council has been authorised to construct at a total cost of #bgi1jjj1 commences at ,theobald's ,road1 ,holborn1 where it forms a junction with an existing surface tramway1 the property of the ,council4 ,thence the line falls in level1 until1 in ,southampton ,row1 it runs beneath the street1 whence1 in a trench of inconsiderable depth1 it passes along the new thoroughfare1 ,kingsway1 from ,southampton ,row to the new ,strand crescent1 ,aldwych4 ,there it turns towards the ,embankment1 on gaining which near ,waterloo ,bridge it again comes out to the surface4 ,in its total length of about five-eighths of a mile it has four stations4 ,its motive power is electricity on the underground conduit third rail system4 ,the cars1 running singly1 and at frequent intervals1 are single-decked4 ,it claims for its principle that the station platforms are readily accessible1 so that instead of having to descend a great number of steps1 or to enter a lift to reach the cars1 passengers arrive there by means of a short well-lighted stairway2 that the ventilation of the tunnels is perfect1 and the speed of the cars equal to that of the trains1 and as they run singly and close together1 long waits are avoided1 and thus they are specially suited for short-distance travelling4 ,it also claims a general immunity from vibration4 ,to thoroughly understand how a complete system of shallow underground works we must go abroad to ,paris1 ,buda-,pesth1 ,boston1 and ,new ,york4 ,i may remark that in describing this system a certain amount of repetition is inevitable4 ,,paris ,paris has its 8,twopenny ,tube10 or rather its equivalent4 ,on ,july #cjth1 #aijj1 ,londoners for the first time travelled by a deep-level line from the ,city to ,shepherds ,bush1 a distance of #egg miles2 and a few days earlier1 on the #aith of the same month1 the ,electrical ,chemin de ,fer ,mtropolitain de ,paris--the main channel of an elaborate system that links together every district of the capital--was opened for traffic4 ,this chief artery connects at the fortifications1 the ,porte ,maillot with the ,porte de ,vincennes1 a distance of #ff miles4 ,in other words1 it crosses ,paris diagonally from north-west to south-east2 from a point at the north of the ,bois de ,boulogne to another at the north of the ,bois de ,vincennes2 the eighteen stations 7including terminals7 on the main line being ,porte ,maillot1 ,rue ,d',obligado1 ,place de ,l',etoile 7,arc de ,triomphe71 ,avenue de ,l',alma1 ,rue ,marbuf1 ,champs ,elyses1 ,place de la ,concorde1 ,tuileries1 ,palais ,royal1 ,louvre1 ,chtelet1 ,hotel de ,ville1 ,st4 ,paul1 ,place de la ,bastille1 ,gare de ,lyons1 ,rue de ,reuilly1 ,place de la ,nation1 and ,porte de ,vincennes4 ,on the ,mtropolitain there is a three-minutes' service of trains during the day1 and a six-minutes' service at night4 ,on the ,london ,tube the intervals vary from two-and-a-half to three-and-a-half minutes in the day1 while at night they are the same as in ,paris1 both railways being open for some twenty hours out of the twenty-four4 ,in ,paris two classes of passengers are provided for3 first and second4 ,the former are called upon to pay #b;d41 the latter #a;d41 for any length of journey4 ,up to nine a4m41 second-class1 or workmen's tickets1 are issued for #b;d41 the return half being available for the remainder of the day4 ,thus1 as regards date of opening1 length of line1 service of trains1 and average fares1 there is a close similarity between the ,english and ,french lines2 but the system is widely different4 ,in ,london we burrow deep2 in ,paris they go just beneath the surface1 the authorities after much hesitation having adopted the shallow underground system4 ,our ,tube trains are shot through huge iron pipes penetrating the subsoil at depths varying from sixty to a hundred feet1 and to get at the rail level1 passengers must take a perpendicular journey in a big lift4 ,but their ,parisian counterparts trip down a few steps and along a brightly-lighted1 white-tiled tunnel1 so beautifully ventilated and smokeless--electricity being the motive power--that an enthusiastic expert declares its atmosphere to be 8perfectly clean and sweet40 ,the tunnels are as near the surface as possible1 and on the greater part of the line the keystones of the masonry arches are only about #c feet #f inches below the street level4 ,the excavations were at first attempted by means of shields1 as in 8tubular0 work2 but this had to be abandoned in favour of the time-honoured 8cut and cover0 plan employed in the construction of our early underground railway4 ,when the great ,parisian scheme is completed upon a twentieth-century model1 much more finished and convenient in many ways than any of ours in ,london1 it will comprise a total length of #chhf miles of track1 seven-tenths being laid in shallow covered trenches1 the remainder in open cuttings or on viaducts1 the entire cost being estimated at twelve million sterling4 ,an interesting feature of the scheme is that each section is self-contained and ends in loops1 so that shunting is obviated4 ,no trains run from any one distant strip of line into another1 but where there are crossings1 or where the termini touch1 there are stations to facilitate changing4 ,this arrangement ensures a rapid service1 maintained with regularity and punctuality on each section4 ,like our 8,tube10 the success of the ,parisian ,mtropolitain was from the first immense1 and at the end of ten months showed a return of over forty million passengers4 ,,buda-,,pesth ,along the ,boulevard ,andrassy at ,buda-,pesth there is a shallow electric tramway built upon similar principles1 a few feet under the main thoroughfare1 which is by no means a failure1 financially or otherwise4 ,,boston ,now let us cross the ,atlantic1 and note what has been effected at ,boston and ,new ,york4 ,the former--the picturesque old-world capital of the ,state of ,massachusetts1 with its population of over a million--is familiarised to every schoolboy who knows anything of history and the ,war of ,independence1 with the city where the tea was thrown into the harbour by ,colonials disguised as ,mohawks1 an incident that indirectly brought about the creation of the ,united ,states4 ,it is a city also sacred to literati as being the home of ,nathaniel ,hawthorne1 and is so old-fashioned--or so excessively up-to-date1 whichever you please--that1 until recently1 neither cabs1 omnibuses1 tubes1 or underground railways were to be found within its boundaries4 ,what with the uneven surface and the labyrinth of the streets1 ,boston is picturesque in spite of itself1 and its old buildings emphasize this4 ,there are the two ,new ,england meeting-houses4 ,the 8,old ,south0 has been proudly preserved in its ancient state1 although the ground on which it stands is almost as valuable as that in the ,city of ,london4 ,architecturally1 it is a brick barn1 with a pretentiously ugly steeple4 8,old ,north0 has an equally plain body1 but from its steeple1 as a tablet affixed to it sets forth1 8the signal lantern of ,paul ,revere warned the country of the march of the ,british troops to ,lexington and ,concord40 ,king's ,chapel1 another ecclesiastical antiquity of ,boston1 was1 for a quarter of a century after #agdi1 the place of worship of the official ,british colony1 and accordingly became an eyesore to the earnest puritanical ,bostonians4 ,but ,boston cannot1 like ,charlestown1 ,south ,carolina1 boast of a ,st4 ,michael's ,church1 famous for its beautiful steeple1 so greatly resembling that of ,st4 ,martin's-in-the-,fields as to suggest that probably they were both designed by the same architect1 ,gibbs1 one of ,wren's pupils4 ,in the ,act passed by the ,state ,legislature authorising the construction of the ,boston subway1 it was stipulated that its length should be some five miles1 and its total cost not more than one and a half million pounds sterling4 ,the construction of the subway was begun at the ,public ,gardens1 where an incline1 a hundred yards long1 carries the surface lines into the tunnel1 passing under the edge of ,boston ,common to ,tremont ,street4 ,it is joined by a branch subway from ,pleasant ,street1 where another incline leads to the surface4 ,from this junction the subway proceeds beneath the ,tremont ,street side of the ,common to ,park ,street1 which is the central point of the system4 ,thence it is carried directly beneath ,tremont ,street to ,scollay ,square1 and by means of a bifurcation under ,hanover ,street on the one hand and ,cornhill on the other to a junction under ,washington ,street4 ,the tunnel continues under ,washington ,street to ,haymarket ,square1 and immediately rises by an incline to ,causeway ,street1 where it connects with both the surface and the elevated lines4 ,wherever possible1 the subway was carried out by open excavations1 and1 as in the ,paris ,mtropolitain1 by the old-fashioned 8cut and cover0 method4 ,the roof of the tunnel is generally about three feet below the surface1 though in some places considerably lower4 ,at and near the stations the subway sides are lined with white glazed bricks1 whitewash being used elsewhere4 ,there are five stations in the ,boston shallow underground1 viz4 at ,boylston ,street1 ,park ,street1 ,adams ,square1 ,scollay ,square1 and ,haymarket ,square4 ,these are approached by short stairways1 protected from the weather by neat clock-surmounted kiosks1 or small iron structures1 in shape resembling our cab shelters1 and placed at convenient points1 either on the sidewalks or--where there is sufficient width--in the centre of the ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,,boston ,,subway1 ,,showing ,,entrance ,,at ,,the ,,public ,,gardens ,by permission of the ,london ,county ,council roadway4 ,passengers can thus1 by about twenty-five steps1 go to and from the platforms in a few seconds4 ,the ticket-offices are at the bottom of the stairways4 ,the passenger returns at ,park ,street 7the busiest station7 are among the largest in the world1 being #bh1jjj1jjj per annum4 ,the ,boston surface street cars adopt the overhead trolley principle of electric traction1 and the elevated railway-cars the third rail system1 both these systems being continued throughout the subway4 ,the subway is illuminated electrically1 but a considerable amount of natural light is also obtained1 especially at the stations2 and ,captain ,piper1 deputy of the ,new ,york ,police1 when on a visit to ,london last ,february1 discussing the question of ventilation in tube railways1 gave it as his opinion that the freshest air he had 8struck0 in an underground railway was at ,boston4 8,the air10 he said1 8is excellent40 ,the subway is1 of course1 perfectly clean1 smokeless1 and comparatively quiet2 neither in the streets can any noise be heard from the cars that are continually passing close beneath4 ,by an extension of the subway under ,boston harbour1 the surface lines in the district of ,east ,boston are connected with the main system1 thus making the entire length eight miles of single track4 ,,new ,,york ,in ,new ,york1 after much careful consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of deep tunnels 7tubes7 and shallow railways1 the ,rapid ,transit ,commissioners decided upon the latter as being likely to give the best facilities for quick travelling4 ,on account of its peculiar peninsular shape1 admitting of extension in one direction ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,new ,,york ,,subway ,,in ,,course ,,of ,,construction4 ,,car ,,traffic ,,maintained ,by permission of the ,london ,county ,council only1 the problem of transportation in the ,empire ,city is comparatively easy1 the routes being straight1 and no necessity existing for intercommunication as in ,london4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the number of persons to be carried morning and evening is greater4 ,instead of the arched roof and masonry side-walks of the ordinary underground1 there is a rectangular structure with a framework of steel beams riveted together1 concrete enclosing the erection completely at the top and sides1 and forming the bottom1 rows of steel columns helping to support the roof between the tracks--in other words1 a kind of ,britannia ,bridge let into the surface of the earth4 ,the line has four tracks1 the two centre ones being reserved for an express service 7#cj miles an hour71 with stations #a miles apart4 ,on the other tracks the stations are closer together1 about four to the mile4 ,so that there are two kinds of stations2 one with platforms on the outside of the outer 7or slow7 track 7at which only local trains stop71 and another with platforms for fast trains only1 and island platforms for either local or express trains4 ,at the former stations the subway is sufficiently deep to allow of a bridge over the entire four tracks1 with staircases leading to the various platforms4 ,by means of loops1 and1 in places1 by the lowering of the express track beneath the local tracks1 crossings and switchings at the termini are1 as in the ,paris ,mtropolitain1 eliminated1 and the cars run continuously without any shunting whatever4 ,its general scheme is as follows4 ,starting with a loop round the ,general ,post ,office1 a four-track route is taken direct to the ,grand ,central ,station in #dbnd ,street4 ,it then turns west along #dbnd ,street to ,broadway1 and proceeds under ,broadway to #ajdth ,street1 a distance of seven miles4 ,here the four tracks divide1 a ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,,new ,,york ,,subway1 ,,showing ,,how ,,it ,,was ,,built ,by permission of the ,london ,county ,council double track continuing along ,broadway to ,kingsbridge1 and another double track going in an easterly direction under the ,harlem river to the ,bronx district4 ,each of these branches is seven miles long1 making a total length1 for the whole system1 of twenty-one miles1 seven being for four track and fourteen for double track4 ,the northerly ends of the double-track line are on the surface for a combined distance of about five miles1 the remainder being shallow underground4 ,at convenient points inclines lead to the surface from the subway1 and are linked to street trams and elevated railroads4 ,electricity is exclusively used for traction and lighting1 and the cost of the entire scheme was originally estimated at #g1jjj1jjj4 ,now1 what is the conclusion to be come to as to the adaptability of the shallow underground system to our vast metropolis1 whose station at ,liverpool ,street is the busiest in the world1 with its 8turnover0 of forty-five millions of passengers per annum2 ,st4 ,lazare1 at ,paris1 coming next with forty-three millions8 ,in newly-constructed thoroughfares provision for shallow subways1 and for sewers1 pipes1 cables1 etc41 can be easily made2 but in old-established streets the difficulty and expense in making them would be formidable1 as vaults and cellars used for business purposes frequently extend right across the narrow carriageways1 and a perfect network of conduits would have to be displaced and moved either below or alongside the subway4 ,some idea of the cost of interfering with sewers may be gathered by the fact that in constructing the ,new ,york subway an entirely new outfall sewer1 over six feet in diameter1 had to be built one mile in length6 ,on the other hand1 labour is cheaper in this country than in ,america1 and in ,london there is no rock to be removed as in ,new ,york4 ,in conclusion1 ,i would quote from the report of ,lieutenant-,colonel ,yorke1 who was sent over to ,paris two or three years ago by the ,board of ,trade to inspect the ,mtropolitain4 ,he thinks that as regards convenience for passengers and economy of working1 the balance of advantage lies with the shallow tunnel or subway as compared with the deep-level tube4 ,but he hesitates a little when confronted with the thought of what would happen to ,london while its roadways were in process of being undermined4 ,the difficulties in the way of adopting the subway would1 he says1 be great1 though he does not emphatically declare that he considers them prohibitive2 and he approves of the attempt made to introduce the system in the manner adopted by the ,london ,county ,council beneath the new street between ,holborn and the ,strand4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,horseless ,,vehicles--,,electrical ,,and ,,otherwise 8,cars without horses will go40--,,mother ,,shipton4 ,,private ,,motor-,,cars ,the above prediction1 constantly quoted at the advent of railways1 is being realised with the utmost exactness4 ,except the late craze for cycling1 nothing is more remarkable than the boom in the motor-car4 ,prior to the passing of the 8,locomotives on ,highways ,act0 in #ahif1 motoring was an impossibility4 ,even then its advance was slow1 and until about three years ago motor-cars were decidedly unpopular4 ,the ,london street boys--miniature representatives of public opinion--derided them1 and1 with their usual fiendish lack of sympathy1 rejoiced when they came to grief2 while 'bus-drivers and cabmen ironically likened all automobiles to traction engines1 cherishing the delusion that they continually broke down1 cost a small fortune to maintain1 and1 worse than all1 dislocated every bone in their occupants' bodies4 ,this contempt reached a climax when certain lemon-coloured electric cabs were seen plying for hire1 ugly to look at and limited in speed2 while simultaneously a line of steam omnibuses1 so cumbersome and weighty ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,electric ,,carriage ,,entirely ,,of ,,british ,,construction ,by permission of ,henry ,f4 ,joel ,co41 ,london as to really merit comparison with traction engines1 began to run to ,victoria ,station4 ,but an extraordinary and rapid change has come over popular taste1 and nothing is needed to bring motor-cars into universal use1 save a lowering of their cost2 for even the cheapest are rather beyond the means of people with moderate incomes4 ,this may be one reason why they are so fashionable1 though the ,king's marked predilection for travelling by them has done much to make 8motoring0 the correct thing2 and ,his ,majesty has recently consented to become a patron of the ,automobile ,club4 ,before the advent of the motor-car1 ,society1 though tired of 8biking0 and craving for a novelty1 could not tolerate the notion of being seen in any other than a well-horsed vehicle4 ,society now thinks differently1 as evidenced by a stroll in the ,park during the season4 ,there1 in the midst of graceful landaus and other equipages drawn by the most splendid horses in the world1 may be seen endless electric and steam barouches1 broughams1 victorias1 and cars1 all perfectly noiseless1 and magnificent petrol motor-cars 7not noiseless671 resplendent with brass and oxidised silver fittings and upholstered in morocco1 whose fair occupants are smartly dressed in tailor-made motoring gowns or1 on warm days1 in ordinary carriage toilettes4 ,some of the fashionable hotels own big cars and run them in lieu of coaches for their customers' benefit to various places near ,london2 while1 to the vexation of omnibus companies1 motor waggonettes1 duly authorised by ,scotland ,yard1 ply to and from ,putney and ,piccadilly ,circus1 always 8full up0 with people1 no longer the butt 7as they used to be71 but the envy1 of pedestrians4 ,and these public cars1 though not perfect1 are an advance upon omnibuses1 and do not break down more frequently than horsed conveyances4 ,in the country motor-cars have become indispensable1 more especially to landed proprietors1 with houses always full of visitors who1 with their luggage1 have to be conveyed to and from the station4 ,they are much used for race-meetings and for conveying shooting parties to the covert side1 stubble1 or moor1 in comfort1 golfers to the links1 and fishermen to the riverbank2 picnics would be failures without them2 and delightful excursions to all kinds of outlying places are arranged by the host1 proud of 8motoring0 his guests1 who thus are made acquainted with bits of beautiful scenery they would otherwise have remained ignorant of2 as in the case of the ,king's and ,queen's visit to ,chatsworth last ,january1 when a feature of the programme was a series of motor-car tours in ,north and ,west ,derbyshire4 ,in fact1 the motor is a most important factor in ,english country life1 and the art of managing it is gradually superseding that of riding1 driving1 and four-in-hand coaching4 ,eheu6 ,horseless vehicles are not actual novelties4 ,they have merely been in abeyance while the perfecting of our iron roads has proceeded4 ,the earliest practical specimen emanated from an inventor named ,guyniot a hundred and thirty years ago1 but nothing commercially serious came of it1 and the idea slept4 ,in #aghf ,william ,symington produced his steam-engine1 to run upon an ordinary road4 ,it had the condenser and the ratchet-motion used in his steamboat1 an invention of which he was the originator4 ,the boiler and funnel were in the front1 a coach on ,c-springs between them1 and the steering gear1 with a kind of bicycle handle-bar1 at the rear4 ,the machine1 it was said1 worked well4 ,then1 in #ahba1 a steam-coach by ,griffiths attracted much attention1 being the first self-propelled vehicle to ply for passengers on ,british roads4 ,it had a boiler with water-tubes as now used in the ,serpollet and ,belleville systems for motor-cars4 ,in appearance it somewhat resembled the ,symington1 but carried a double coach mounted on railway springs4 ,walter ,hancock's three-wheeled steam-coach of #ahbh looked like a tricycle with a big funnel1 and was propelled by a pair of oscillating cylinders working the double-cranked axle of the steering-wheel4 ,in #ahei the ,marquis of ,stafford had a steam-coach built that weighed less than a ton4 ,with its chain-action it anticipated the modern bicycle3 in front it had a kind of bath-chair seat facing the steering gear4 ,in this vehicle ,lord ,stafford and party of three made trips at from nine to twelve miles an hour over heavy roads without any difficulty1 it being easy to guide and remarkably steady4 ,in these steam coaches the funnels appear to have been placed in the rear4 ,all these ideas1 though from one point of view crude1 undoubtedly represented 8444such refraction of events ,as often rises ere they rise40 ,the motor-car industry in ,great ,britain is flourishing1 and it is estimated that out of a total of some ten thousand horseless carriages in the country one-tenth are of home manufacture 7the remainder being ,french or ,american71 a small proportion1 truly1 but a great increase upon the number built in #ahij2 and at the ,reliability ,trials of the ,automobile ,club last ,september 7#aijb71 thirty-five of ,british make took part in the contest1 and only twenty-six of ,continental or ,american origin1 a most satisfactory feature to those who are eager to see ,british makers second to none in motor-car construction1 especially1 as the aim of the competition was to encourage the building of machines that would be thoroughly dependable in all conditions of road and weather4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,a 8,,crowdus0 ,,electric ,,carriage ,by permission of the ,fischer ,motor ,vehicle ,syndicate1 ,london4 ,at the last ,crystal ,palace ,automobile ,show1 national vanity was certainly gratified4 ,not only was the exhibition the largest ever held in the country1 but was a concrete example of the remarkable progress of an industry which1 so far as these islands are concerned1 started lamentably late in the day4 ,there were brought together at the ,crystal ,palace about seven hundred and fifty motor-propelled vehicles of every class1 ranging from the powerful steam lorry1 capable of transporting a load of #g tons1 to the latest 8flier10 light and elegant of construction1 and costing anything up to some #c1jjj4 ,motor tricycles and bicycles formed a strong section4 ,the cosmopolitan character of the exhibition is shown by the fact that among the two hundred or so exhibitors were the leading ,english1 ,french1 ,dutch1 ,italian1 and ,german firms4 ,by general consent the show was regarded to have made plain the fact that in efficiency and reliability the ,english maker has drawn at least level with his foreign rival1 while1 so far as the production of motors for commercial purposes is concerned1 he still stands far ahead4 ,automobiles are of all sizes up to magnificent #dj-or #fj-;horse-power racers4 ,for town use there are broughams1 victorias1 landaus1 and landaulettes 7open or closable for country work71 the phaeton with four seats1 placed two by two1 looking forward1 and the tonneau--a kind of small omnibus with a movable back--with the two rear seats in the corners4 ,sometimes cars are run with six seats arranged in three pairs1 with plenty of room both for the driver and the coveted box-seats4 ,most cars of either pattern have a glass front screen1 while some have a fixed roof as well4 ,the greater number are driven by the use of petrol1 the machinery being in front under what is called the 8bonnet10 and the ease with which the oil can be obtained has great advantages for a touring expedition4 ,steam is also employed for motor-cars1 and is practically noiseless1 but there are obvious objections to its use1 however skilfully the working parts are constructed4 ,in ,london1 electromobiles are extremely popular1 and no wonder1 for there is no smell1 no vibration1 and no noise2 the speed attainable is great1 and they are under perfect control1 advantages involving the use of storage batteries1 the recharging of which is a lengthy operation1 seldom taking less than five hours4 ,but1 as ,mr4 ,llewellyn ,preece observed about twelve months ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,,an ,,electric ,,victoria ,,with ,,british ,,storage-,,batteries ,by permission of the ,electric ,power ,storage ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london ago1 8this condition of affairs is gradually disappearing2 private electric carriages are now to be seen in ,london1 and their number is increasing4 ,cars can be obtained capable of running to ,brighton1 ,portsmouth1 and other places within seventy or eighty miles of the metropolis40 7i4e4 on one charge4 ,they may be called 8short-tour cars407 ,electric town-cars are generally of the landaulette type--for theatre-going1 and for paying visits in such inaccessible suburbs as ,stoke ,newington1 ,balham1 and ,hampstead4 ,they carry from two to four passengers1 can attain a speed of fourteen miles an hour1 and will run forty miles without recharging4 ,a long-distance electric car1 to compete with petrol1 has yet to be made1 but it will shortly be possible to obtain one of moderate weight at a reasonable price that will cover one hundred and twenty miles on a single charge2 and1 as a matter of fact1 tours of more than a thousand miles 7from ,london to ,glasgow and back7 have been satisfactorily accomplished4 ,,public ,,conveyances ,the perfect motor-omnibus1 and1 for that matter1 the perfect 'bus of any kind1 has yet to arise1 and is suggestive of ,darwinism in the length of time required for its evolution4 ,but can ,london and the long-suffering traveller wait ten million years or so--putting up meanwhile with the inconvenience of existing vehicles--until the omnibus companies wake up1 or are superseded by more enterprising business adventurers8 ,why1 for instance1 should all omnibuses be stuffy8 ,there was a reason for it when their floors were covered with straw and they were shut in with doors4 ,but now there are no doors1 and there is nothing to harbour damp2 yet even when the passengers sitting at the entrance of the omnibus are assailed by icy blasts1 those at the far end are in an atmosphere of mustiness strongly suggestive of stables4 ,then1 on days when the roads are greasy1 these vehicles crawl along1 often taking an hour and a half to travel from ,fulham to ,liverpool ,street 7a distance of about six miles74 ,upon such minor nuisances and annoyances as the exiguous space 7about #b feet #f inches7 between the seats1 ticket-giving and ticket-examining1 the jarring of brakes1 the rattling of loose coach-bolts1 the lurching of the top-heavy structure1 the windows that will not open1 the glare and dust in summer1 the ,cimmerian darkness in winter and at night1 the stout people who take up too much room1 the wet umbrellas and odoriferous waterproof cloaks1 the exasperating and often unnecessary stopping every few hundred yards to the distress of the poor animals1 it is needless to dilate4 ,we experience them every day of our lives4 ,but better times are in store for the horses1 and better times for our children 7perhaps even for ourselves71 who will see in ,london's streets electric omnibuses in which it will be a delight to travel4 ,between ,oxford ,circus and ,cricklewood 7not far from ,hendon7 are now running improved motor-omnibuses built in ,scotland for a ,london syndicate1 to the requirements of the ,chief ,commissioner of ,police4 ,it will be remembered that some years ago a very large ,thorneycroft steam 'bus plied for custom4 ,it carried thirty-six passengers1 but1 turning the scale at three tons1 it was of illegal weight as a vehicle1 and should have come under the definition of a traction engine with speed limited to four miles an hour1 and preceded by a man with a red flag4 ,so it was ultimately withdrawn4 ,but the new 8,stirling0 steam omnibuses are only #cb cwt4 when empty4 ,the engine is of #ab horse-power1 and is geared for three forward speeds of #d1 #i1 and #ad miles per hour1 with one slow reversing speed1 while by a clever contrivance the driving machinery ceases to act if #adb miles be exceeded1 both steering gear and brakes being under perfect control4 ,handsomely fitted up1 with large windows that can be taken bodily out in hot weather1 and with comfortable leather-covered spring seats1 the new 'buses are a decided step in the right direction4 ,at the last meeting of the ,london ,general ,omnibus ,company the deputy-chairman stated that there was no kind of motor traction that would pay the company to take up4 ,if anything was done in that direction it would be in the use of petrol4 ,steam was of no use1 because of the great vibration1 and he doubted if the ,government would permit #ae1jjj such omnibuses to run over the streets4 ,in his opinion the time to take up motor omnibuses had not yet arrived4 ,but the ,london ,road ,car ,company has taken a different and more far-sighted view of the situation1 and a combination of petrol and electricity is now to be tested by it4 ,cars of the ,fischer combination pattern have arrived from ,america4 ,each has a #aj horse-power petrol engine which drives a dynamo1 the current from which is used to work a motor acting directly on the wheels4 ,this may1 perhaps1 seem a needless complication1 but there is much method in it4 ,a #aj horse-power engine is not sufficiently powerful to drive a fully-laden 'bus up a hill at any reasonable pace1 but there are many places where a 'bus will run by its own weight1 and needs no engine4 ,the new car is provided with accumulators4 ,when little or no power is required by the motor1 the current is switched on to the accumulators1 so as to store up a reserve for hill-climbing4 ,so when necessary1 the car draws on the reserve in the accumulators1 and with them and the dynamo develops not #aj but #bj horse-power1 enough to take it up and over any hill that 'buses climb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,a 8,,fischer0 ,,combination ,,omnibus ,capacity fifteen passengers2 weight1 #b tons #ac cwt42 speed1 #ab miles an hour ,by permission of the ,fischer ,motor ,vehicle ,syndicate1 ,ltd41 ,london ,the manager of the ,road ,car ,company is of opinion that the new vehicles will carry from twelve to twenty passengers4 ,owing to the greater speed of the motors1 however1 the passenger accommodation provided by1 say1 half a dozen such cars would be greater than that of a similar number of omnibuses1 for the service would be more frequent4 ,not much increase of speed can be hoped for in congested areas1 but outside these the motor should be able to run half as fast again as the horsed 'bus4 ,there exists1 however1 no reason why a still more improved and refined omnibus service should not be started1 electricity alone being adopted1 instead of steam1 petrol1 or a combination4 ,runs of seventy and eighty miles without recharging are perfectly feasible by using standard long-distance batteries1 and would suffice for the daily journeys of the omnibus1 while the recharging could be effected with little or no trouble after working-hours4 ,motor-omnibuses1 besides working on the regular routes1 can be run on the tramway time-table system on tramway sections where there is little traffic2 while for developing scantily-populated districts and accustoming people to travel1 automobile public conveyances are perfect agencies1 the very fact that they can choose their own route accentuating this great advantage2 and on special occasions1 for instance when exhibitions are held in places inaccessible by tramways1 they will be a source of considerable profit4 ,our provincial towns 7take ,eastbourne and ,hastings for example7 are beginning to wake up on the subject1 and many of them have adopted or contemplated the starting of some form of horseless omnibus1 in several cases the motive power being electricity4 ,across the ,atlantic automobile 'buses are run by the ,fifth ,avenue ,stage ,company of ,new ,york ,city down ,fifth ,avenue1 and have proved most popular2 while in ,chicago there are three lines of electric omnibuses successfully competing with the street cars for patronage4 ,they are double-decked1 seating forty passengers1 and when they are 8full-up0 express speed is put on1 and there are no more stoppages until the down-town district is reached4 ,as to four-wheeled cabs1 they are hopelessly behind the times1 though excellent ones may be evolved out of the landaulette type of electromobiles4 ,during sixty-two years of sullen toleration on the part of the public1 the growler has improved but little1 and it remains a mystery why in the streets of the world's metropolis comfortable and comely private vehicles cannot be hailed for hire1 as in other cities4 ,new and improved cabs1 such as the 8,brougham10 the 8,clarence10 and the 8,chesterfield10 from time to time appear in our streets1 and inspire hope that a general reformation is about to take place1 and that neat little coups will be universal4 ,but in some unaccountable manner1 after a brief season they disappear from public view--as did the lemon-coloured electric broughams of a few years ago--relegated to some mysterious region where vehicular failures find employment when banished from ,modern ,babylon4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,horseless ,,vehicles1 ,,electrical ,,and ,,otherwise 7continued7 ,,motor-,,cars ,,in ,,warfare ,the question of mechanical traction in war is of the gravest importance1 the increasing size of armies and the large area they cover when in action1 necessitating the employment of some form of haulage other than that of railways or horses4 ,for bringing up guns and their ammunition at a critical moment automobiles are of the greatest value4 ,at the ,motor-car ,reliability ,trials last autumn there was present a military officer of considerable experience who was much impressed with the possibilities of the motor in battle4 ,if1 he argued1 sixty cars could run down from ,london to the ,south ,coast easily in three hours carrying an average of four passengers each1 the same number of horseless vehicles could convey sixty machine-guns to ,brighton in a similar time4 ,a corps of these might1 he said1 have proved extremely handy in the late ,south ,african campaign4 ,to illustrate this1 he pointed out that quick-firing guns carried on automobiles might possibly have ended the ,boer ,war after the action of ,poplar ,grove4 ,he was present on that occasion1 and could speak with authority4 ,all the enemy had been routed out of their far-reaching trenches and were in full flight4 ,then was the time to push home the attack1 but cavalry and infantry were thoroughly done up by the great flanking movement and were unable to follow up their advantage4 ,in full sight of our army1 the ,boers scuttled away along the plain with only a few desultory shells fired after them4 8,now10 said the officer1 8if we had only possessed a few automobiles with guns on that occasion we should have scored very heavily4 ,the veldt was level enough for the purpose4 ,a big victory at that critical moment might have thoroughly demoralised the ,boers1 already much disheartened by ,cronje's defeat a short time before at ,paardeberg1 and so caused them to surrender without much ado40 ,no doubt the gallant soldier took rather a sanguine view of the situation2 but of one thing he might have been certain1 viz41 that at that time neither an unenterprising ,war ,office1 nor a ,colonial ,department capable of requisitioning ordinary infantry from ,australia to act against the wily mounted ,boer1 would for one moment have thought of sending motor-cars out for the purpose he suggests6 ,not only for light artillery1 but for heavy guns1 motors can now be used in warfare1 and ,lord ,roberts had a road-train constructed for ,south ,africa sufficiently armoured to withstand rifle-fire1 and powerful enough to draw a couple of heavy guns with their crews and ammunition1 the motive power being steam4 ,in the prosaic work of conveying stores1 motor-tractors with lorries are fast becoming integral parts of our complicated war-system1 and the report of the trials held at ,aldershot in ,december1 #aija1 is decidedly in favour of their employment on a large scale4 ,the tests were severe1 and included two days' running 7with full loads7 of thirty miles a day1 and a march of #aig miles 7also with full loads7 in six consecutive1 days on roads both hard and soft1 and even over boggy ground1 the gradients being various1 and in places very stiff4 ,the first prize was awarded to the ,thorneycroft ,steam ,waggon ,company1 but although the committee believed that these steam lorries were serviceable and useful for the present1 they were much struck with the great possibilities of machines burning heavy oil4 ,their observations were as follows3-- 8,compared with horse-draught1 these trials have shown that self-propelled lorries can transport five tons of stores at about six miles an hour over very considerable distances on hilly1 average ,english roads under winter conditions4 ,the load transported by each single lorry 7five tons7 if carried in horse-waggons of service pattern would overload three ,g4,s4 waggons1 requiring twelve draught horses1 besides riding horses1 whose pace would not ordinarily exceed three miles an hour4 ,moreover1 the marching of #aig miles in six consecutive days would not have been accomplished by horses even at that speed without the assistance of spare horses40 ,to this report appeared the following appendix of considerable importance3-- 8,the committee1 in carrying out the tests1 travelled in motor-cars1 and as a result of their experience they remark1 #8,the committee desire to bring to special notice the incidental demonstration afforded by these trials of the great possibilities for staff work1 and for work in connection with the command of long transport trains1 of the motor-car4 ,no vehicles drawn by horses could have possibly covered the distances or kept up the speeds required2 portions of the roads1 sometimes miles in length1 had to be traversed and retraversed several times1 and at speeds beyond the capabilities of horse-flesh4 ,riding horses would have been knocked up to an extent necessitating large relays4 ,the staff officer1 moreover1 instead of being fatigued1 is always comparatively fresh at the end of the day4'0 ,no wonder that the ,army1 from the ,commander-in-,chief downwards1 is quickly becoming devoted to motoring4 ,the quantity of work that can be got through by means of the automobile is a revelation to those who have been used to travelling by means of horses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,,the 8,,hercules0 ,,traction ,,engine1 ,,as ,,used ,,during ,,the ,,crimean ,,war ,by permission of ,sampson ,low1 ,marston1 ,co41 ,london ,during the ,crimean ,war1 ,boydell's traction machine was used to haul open trucks on the road and across country4 ,its engine1 the 8,hercules10 was fitted with a curious arrangement1 which1 by means of rails attached in six sections to the wheels1 enabled it to lay down and take up its own track as it went along4 ,in the ,south ,african campaign the military traction engines did some excellent work1 and1 as they rolled over the plains1 startled the ,kaffirs out of their senses at the unwonted sight of what they probably thought was some new and monstrous form of rhinoceros4 ,it has yet to be decided what is the best motive power for lorry cars in warfare1 both oil and steam motors having1 as compared with those driven by electricity1 the disadvantage that the machinery moves by a series of shocks4 ,doubtless the ideal power would be one that acted evenly4 ,the electric motor is superior to all others in the regularity of its action1 and its steering is most readily effected4 ,all that is wanted to adapt electric traction to military purposes is a perfected storage battery1 and the day may not be far distant when extensive use will be made of light accumulators capable of being safely carried and of being recharged as readily as a steam engine can be supplied with fuel4 ,,motors ,,in ,,agriculture ,in ,england the use of steam for agricultural machinery has hitherto been confined to the purpose of ploughing and threshing4 ,but coal in some districts is dear1 and farmers are beginning to find that oil engines are more economical1 there being no loss of fuel in the sudden stopping of work during wet weather2 but petrol has a nasty trick of not vaporising readily when it is frosty1 and here electricity steps in with an admirable force-motif4 ,with a dependable electro-motor1 the farmer may work his self-binder all day long in the harvest-field1 and at-night send it up to market with produce4 ,moreover1 the motor may help to plough and harrow in the winter1 and when there is no work to be done it costs nothing1 having--unlike the horse--no stomach to fill4 ,in fact1 the successful adaptation of the motor to farming may solve the ever-present labour problem1 and do much to resuscitate the agricultural industry1 while fruit and vegetable growers may find it invaluable1 making them independent of high railway rates and bad train service4 ,but1 although the application of the automobile to agriculture is only in the experimental stage1 it cannot be doubted that1 in some shape or other1 it will come to the cornfield1 the orchard1 and the market garden1 while the modern farmer will welcome it gladly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,a ,,ten-,,ton ,,electric ,,trolley ,by permission of the ,anglo-,american ,motor ,car ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london ,probably it will begin1 as was suggested by ,mr4 ,rider ,haggard before the ,norfolk ,chamber of ,agriculture at ,norwich1 in the shape of an agricultural post4 ,his plan was to enlarge the present system of parcel-post so that one hundred packages1 each of #ajj lbs4 in weight1 should be carried in the same way as parcels of only #aj lbs41 and that produce of any sort1 such as a crate of apples1 the carcase of a sheep1 a basket of flowers1 etc41 should be delivered the next morning to whatever part of ,england the goods were consigned4 ,,mercantile ,,motors ,the prosaic use of motors is increasing rapidly4 ,in our streets are frequently seen steam or petrol lorries for the heavy goods of brewers1 stone-merchants1 builders1 contractors1 engineers1 asphalt-paving companies1 etc42 substantial vans for wholesale manufacturing houses and great establishments1 such as ,bryant and ,may's1 ,maple's1 ,harrod's1 ,whiteley's1 and ,barker's2 lighter vehicles for smaller tradesmen1 carts for county council and borough council work2 a few fire-engines and ambulance waggons2 while in the country any number of motors are used by shopkeepers to deliver their goods for miles around4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,,an ,,electric ,,tradesman',s-,,van ,by permission of the ,automobile ,co4 of ,great ,britain1 ,london ,in fact1 the mercantile use of motors has grown so much1 that before long we may even see 8,black ,maria0 delivering and picking up its daily quantum of dtenus through the medium of stored-up electricity4 ,we must just glance at the subject of motor-bicycles1 driven by petrol and 8sparked0 by electricity4 ,they are beginning to be much used for getting about quickly1 for trailers1 and as sporting machines for 8breaking the record40 ,in ,september last year1 at the ,crystal ,palace1 some extraordinary results were obtained by them in the matter of speed1 one of them covering no less than fifty miles in an hour and eight minutes6 ,sir ,martin ,conway's opinion1 humorously delivered this year to the ,society of ,arts1 respecting 8stupid cyclists0 and motor-cycles1 is worth recording4 ,he said that the first thing on which he desired knowledge concerning motor-cycles was how he was to fall off1 as he fell off every machine on wheels some time or other2 next1 how long it would take a man to understand the parts in a motor-cycle1 or whether they were hopelessly removed from the range of the ordinary stupid person2 then1 how the thing vibrated2 and1 finally1 which of them did not break down4 ,he said that he had been told that the pleasure with a motor-car was considerable when it went1 and the annoyance even more considerable when it did not go4 ,motors are everywhere1 and are used for every purpose4 ,there are motors in the ,equatorial ,free ,states of the ,congo1 where there is no energetic policeman1 stop-watch in hand1 to time the 8driver0 and summon him2 and one day--who knows8--there may be motor-cars in use at the ,north ,pole4 ,the motor has even been the indirect cause of political upheavings1 for it is said that the revolution in ,morocco came to a head because the fanatical tribal allies of the ,pretender resisted1 amongst other ,european articles1 the introduction of automobiles into the country1 and opposed their use by the enlightened emperor1 as too progressive1 and not in accordance with the ,mussulman faith4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,,another ,,type ,,of ,,the 8,,fischer0 ,,combination ,,omnibus ,by permission of the ,fischer ,motor ,vehicle ,syndicate1 ,london ,meals are sent out in motor-vans by the ,london ,distributing ,kitchen ,company from its well-equipped premises near the ,army and ,navy ,stores1 the breakfasts1 luncheons1 and dinners being placed in air-tight baskets in aluminium receptacles4 ,in ,manchester1 for some time past1 8meals by motor0 have been an accomplished fact1 and most popular and lucrative the scheme has proved4 ,motoring has its romantic side4 ,for instance1 in ,france--the birthplace of the automobile--abduction by motor has been initiated1 and our lively neighbours may possibly contemplate the revival of that medival custom of wedlock by force4 ,this young lady1 however1 seems to have been a not unwilling party to the transaction4 ,going to school by motor has also been made practicable across the ,channel4 ,for some months the ,ecole ,lacordaire1 in ,paris1 has been running a ,serpollet steam omnibus1 which collects the pupils and conveys them to and from the school4 ,the day's run gives a total of sixty miles4 ,monsieur ,serpollet has lately carried out an interesting test with the vehicle4 ,he made a run of sixty miles with twelve passengers1 and the cost for petrol was #as4 #b;d4 per passenger1 or rather more than four miles for a penny4 ,the omnibus averaged eighteen miles an hour4#h ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,horseless ,,vehicles1 ,,electrical ,,and ,,otherwise 7continued7 ,,speed ,,of ,,motor-,,cars ,to motorists the pressing question of the day is speed4 ,in ,england the motor-car was in its infancy when the present law came into force4 ,before its birth1 no mechanically propelled carriage could travel along the highway faster than four miles an hour2 but six years ago a determined attempt was made to adapt the law to the exigencies of modern traffic4 ,fourteen miles an hour was decided upon as the maximum speed1 and the ,local ,government ,board subsequently reduced the limit to twelve miles4 ,but these regulations are now out of date4 ,a few years ago there was a great outcry against cycle speeds4 ,that has died out1 not because cyclists ride more slowly1 but because the public has come to realise that1 with a readily controllable vehicle like the bicycle1 the greater speeds are not dangerous4 ,similarly the public is now much exercised in mind concerning speeds of twenty to twenty-five miles an hour by motor-cars4 ,it will not be long before they realise that these velocities are quite safe under certain conditions1 and that the motor-car might almost under any circumstances be allowed to travel twice as fast as a horse1 indeed even faster4 ,it is said that this year the speed of the motor-car is expected to approach a hundred miles an hour4 ,the ,hon4 ,c4 ,s4 ,rolls came very near to attaining it at ,welbeck last ,february1 when he made an attempt on the flying kilometre record4 ,the best of four runs gave the time of #bg seconds1 which is a speed of #hb miles per hour1 and #a seconds better than ,mr4 ,jarrott's run over this course last year4 ,whether it will rank as a world's record is not certain1 as the road in the ,duke of ,portland's park has a slight favouring gradient4 ,the ,french official record on the ,dourdan road is twenty-nine seconds1 a speed of seventy-seven miles per hour1 accomplished by both ,fournier and ,augires4 ,mr4 ,rolls drove an #hj horse-power ,mors1 which he entered for the ,paris-,madrid race4 ,estimates of speed differ in the most extraordinary degree1 and the ,hon4 ,j4 ,scott-,montagu gave to the ,car the following humorous table1 the result of an inquiry at a police court3-- ,miles4 8,private opinion of mechanic in charge #ab ,his opinion when talking to his friends #bj ,his opinion when in court #h ,policeman's private opinion #ad ,policeman's opinion in court #bh ,farmer's opinion when a pony was frightened #ej ,maker's guaranteed speed #af ,actual speed #aj0 ,motorists are evidently assumed to be made of money1 if we may judge by the following statement made by a correspondent of ,motoring ,illustrated this year4 ,he says1 8,one curious result of a car case1 in which ,i was fined #aj for #8scorching1' is that in less than a week ,i have received upwards of seventy begging letters from charitable societies or individual beggars4 ,motor owner and millionaire are apparently one and the same thing in the popular mind40 ,mr4 ,leopold de ,rothschild1 who is entitled to speak with authority on the subject1 frankly admits that there is much justification for the irritation in the public mind against motor-cars4 ,he strongly condemns rash driving1 but1 at the same time1 maintains that when motor-car owners obey the law and observe the courtesy of the road1 they ought not to be looked upon by coachmen1 cyclists1 and pedestrians1 as the enemies of mankind4#i ,nevertheless1 he firmly believes that the dislike of motor-cars will die away in due time1 just as did the dislike of cycles4 ,the utmost caution ought1 he concedes1 to be exercised by drivers in the crowded thoroughfares of large towns4 ,on the question of their importance generally in relation to ,british industry ,mr4 ,leopold de ,rothschild says1 8,we should foster them by every means in our power4 ,at the beginning not a single one was produced in this country1 but at the present moment some of the machines turned out in ,english workshops rival those of the very best ,french make4 ,in recent contests on the ,continent1 too1 ,english cars have more than held their own4 ,it is sometimes complained that the machines make a great noise4 ,that defect is being gradually cured4 ,then it is urged that they raise a tremendous dust as they speed along4 ,that evil is also being remedied1 and will disappear altogether if the experiment of pouring petroleum on the roadways should prove successful4 ,where the motor-car is extremely useful1 ,i consider1 is in enabling people to go across country to attend hunt meets and visit distant golf links4 ,then1 again1 see what encouragement is given to wayside inns4 ,when in ,scotland the other day ,i visited a friend who lived twenty-five miles off1 and did it comfortably between luncheon and dinner1 and that1 too1 without endangering the life of myself or anybody else4 ,i regard the motor-car as a source of intense enjoyment4 ,allow the owners greater freedom1 but take care that in return they loyally observe the regulations which are framed by competent authorities for the safety of the public40 ,,motor-,,cars ,,and ,,public ,,highways ,who can place a limit to the development of motors6 ,the time may arrive when tram lines will disappear1 the roads themselves being of steel and forming a broad rail upon which self-propelled coaches1 omnibuses1 cabs1 and cars will ply in every direction1 and far and wide into the suburbs4 ,this is the idea of ,mr4 ,a4 ,a4 ,c4 ,swinton1 who also thinks that eventually motor-cars will drive tram-cars out1 because1 as he says1 8,tramways are merely a smooth place on a rough road1 with a groove to keep the wheel in a smooth place10 and as one day the whole road will be smooth the tram-rails will disappear4 ,something similar1 ,i take it1 was in ,mr4 ,balfour's mind when1 in #aija1 writing to the ,warden of the ,browning ,settlement in ,camberwell on the subject of homes for the workers1 he said3-- 8,what ,i am anxious people should bear in mind is that trams1 railways1 and #8tubes' by no means exhaust the catalogue of possible improvements in transit2 indeed1 ,i am not sure that they are the means of communication for relatively short distances which some years hence will find most favour4 ,what ,i should like to see carefully thought out by competent authorities would be a system of radiating thoroughfares1 confined to rapid 7say1 fifteen miles an hour or over7 traffic 7that is absolutely essential71 and with a surface designed1 not for carts or horses1 but for some form of auto-car propulsion4 ,if the local authority which designed and carried out such a system chose to run public auto-cars along them1 well and good4 ,but this would not be necessary1 and private enterprise would probably in time do all that was wanted4 ,in such a thoroughfare there would be none of the monopoly inseparable from trams1 the number of people carried could be much larger1 the speed much greater1 the power of taking them from door to door unique1 while there would be none of the friction now caused when the owners of the tram lines break up the public streets4 ,it may be urged--and1 perhaps1 with truth--that at present the auto-car industry has not devised an absolutely satisfactory vehicle2 but we are1 ,i believe1 so near it that the delay ought not to be material40 8,it is1 of course1 obvious10 he continued1 8that the present difficulty of locomotion in our streets is almost entirely due to want of differentiation in the traffic4 ,we act as the owners of a railway would act if they allowed luggage trains1 express trains1 and horse-drawn trams to run upon one pair of rails4 ,the radiating causeways1 as ,i conceive them1 would be entirely free from this difficulty4 ,neither the traffic of cross streets1 nor foot passengers1 nor slow-going carts and vehicles would be permitted to interfere with the equable running of fast cars4 ,there would be no danger and no block2 and as the causeway would be connected at intervals with the ordinary road and street system of the district1 and would melt into that system at either end1 every village in which there were enough residents who had to be in ,london at a fixed hour every day could have a motor of its own4 ,it might be well worth a manufacturer's while1 ,i should suppose1 to lodge his workpeople out of ,london1 and to run them to and from his works40 ,no electrician living can predict with certainty what the motor-car may not result in4 ,one thing only is probable--that our metropolitan streets will soon be congested with vehicles to such an extent as to leave no space for horses4 ,and then will come the complete victory of the automobile4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,electricity ,,applied ,,to ,,navigation 7,a ,,forecast7 8,and knowledge shall be increased40--,,daniel xii4 #d4 ,,development ,,in ,,size ,,of ,,ships ,,and ,,steamers 8,don't give yourself away10 shrewdly remarked an eminent engineer1 as ,i discussed with him the outline of this work1 and the probability that in the near future1 gigantic ships1 as long as the ,crystal ,palace1 and propelled solely by electricity1 would traverse the seas4 8,i have not yet come across any form of accumulator that could be adapted to such a purpose1 though ,i admit that the next quarter of a century may produce some startling results4 ,still1 ,i would not1 if ,i were you1 write about it40 ,my friend1 like many scientists1 was cautious1 and did not like to commit himself2 but ,i am not professionally restricted1 and may freely indulge in a dream containing many elements of reality1 and 8take the wings of fancy10 nay1 may also 8take the wings of foresight10 and try to describe a mail-packet of the future4 ,but before entering into particulars of that phenomenon1 the ,princess ,ida1 and to prepare ourselves for the contemplation of her large proportions1 we should note the evolutionary process which has gone on steadily for the last seventy years1 and rapidly during the close of the ,victorian ,era1 in regard to the size and tonnage of ocean steamers4 ,to go far back for the purpose of comparison--i4e4 to the days when ,britain as a maritime nation was in her infancy1 or even to ,tudor and ,stuart times1 when the ,great ,harry floated proudly in ,english waters1 and ,elizabeth's ,ark ,royal defied the ,spanish ,armada1 or when ,phineas ,pett reconstructed ,charles the ,second's navy and planned those famous men-of-war1 the ,royal ,sovereign1 ,royal ,charles1 and ,royal ,prince--is misleading1 because up to ,nelson's time the practice of building ships with an extravagant amount of 8sheer0 7the forecastle and stern towering upwards to protect the fighting men1 and producing the outline of a doubled-up old shoe71 together with the pronounced 8tumbling in0 of the ship's sides1 rendered it difficult to arrive at any correct estimate of length and beam4 ,approximately1 #a1ejj tons might represent the ,great ,harry's measurement1 and #aej feet her length1 the ,carolean ,royal being about the same4 ,this method of shipbuilding began to be modified while ,pepys was at the ,admiralty1 but it was very gradually abandoned1 and had almost disappeared at the beginning of the century1 the ,victory1 slightly over #b1jjj tons1 and some #aeb feet in length1 showing but a slight trace of it in her high poop4 ,in #ahcd a merchantman of #a1jjj tons was considered a big craft1 the largest on ,lloyd's register for that year being #a1ejj tons1 upon which there was not much advance until the 8fifties0 and 8sixties10 when all the adventurous of ,england's manhood were irresistibly attracted to the goldfields of ,australia1 and vessels of large tonnage began to be laid down on the stocks4 ,of such were the ,british ,empire1 #b1fgf tons2 the ,donald ,mc,kay1 #b1fcf tons2 ,red ,jacket1 #b1jjj tons2 and many others of from #a1jjj to #a1hjj tons registered tonnage4 ,these in their turn gave place to iron 8sailers0 of immense capacity1 the tendency being to build them bigger and still bigger--8five-masters0 of from #c1jjj to #d1jjj tons--it having been found that they are worked more economically than smaller craft1 and are able to compete with the larger vessels of other countries1 and with the syndicates that threaten to monopolise the nation's carrying trade4 ,foreign examples are ,la ,france1 #c1fbd tons1 and the ,preussen 7biggest in the world71 #d1gjj tons4 ,in steamers the development of size has been great1 and astonishingly so since the universal adoption of the screw-propeller4 ,for instance1 the paddle-wheel ,william ,fawcett1 that pioneered the ,p4 and ,o4 ,company1 built in #ahbi1 was but #gd feet long2 the ,cunard ,britannia1 that took ,charles ,dickens to ,boston1 was a paddle-boat of #a1aed tons1 and #bjg feet long2 the ,great ,britain 7#ahdc7 was #c1djj tons register1 and regarded as phenomenal4 ,presently the shipping world arrived at the awakening period of its history1 when steamers of from #cej to #ejj feet long1 and of from #d1jjj to #g1jjj tons1 began to be common2 but old stagers shook their heads1 and asked where and when this enlargement was going to stop4 ,time went on1 and splendid mail boats1 such as the ,cunard ,scotia and ,persia1 in their day considered perfect1 were looked upon as obsolete1 and even their successors1 the ,servia1 #g1cib tons and #eae feet long1 the ,etruria1 #g1gah tons and #ejb feet long1 and others of similar dimensions1 soon ceased to be wondered at4 ,this was eighteen years ago4 ,then1 by leaps and bounds1 so great was the competition between the different ,atlantic liners1 and so strong the demand for speed1 that #aj1jjj tons was soon reached in the ,white ,star ,company's ,majestic and ,teutonic1 and exceeded by the ,cunarders1 ,campania and ,lucania 7#ahic71 of #ac1jjj tons each1 #fbj feet in length1 and over #fe feet in beam4 ,but ,harland and ,wolff1 of ,belfast1 who had been building #ab1jjj ton boats1 metaphorically without 8turning a hair10 were determined not to be beaten1 and produced their new ,oceanic 7#ahii71 #gjd feet by #fh feet1 i4e4 nearly as long as the ,haymarket1 and about as broad as one portion of ,piccadilly4 ,in her1 it was thought1 finality had been reached2 but last year ,belfast witnessed the launch of a still bigger vessel1 the ,cedric1 #ba1jjj tons gross register1 #gjj feet long1 and #ge feet wide--the largest steamer afloat6 ,even she is destined to take second place1 as ere long two ships belonging to the ,cunard ,line will dispossess the ,cedric of her premier position4 ,these wonderful creations will be #gej feet by #gf feet1 with an estimated sea-speed of #be knots4 ,thus we clearly see how enormously the dimensions of steamers have increased2 for instance1 the ,britannia 7#ahdj7 was #a1aed tons1 and #bjg feet long1 and had accommodation for #aae cabin passengers1 no 8steerage0 being carried4 ,but the ,cedric is nearly #c times longer1 and carries #c1jjj people across the ,atlantic1 besides her crew of #cej hands4 ,in the same ratio of progression1 ships 7they will not be called steamers1 but electrofers7 #b1ejj feet long1 with comfortable quarters for #ge1jjj human beings1 will be the order of the day6 ,i have not referred to the poor old ,great ,eastern--or ,leviathan as she was originally named--#fhj feet long1 and of #af1jjj tons register4 ,she was before her time1 and1 like other big steamers of that day1 far too heavy in her plating to be driven economically at even moderate speed4 ,great dimensions and swiftness have been rendered possible by improved engines1 but chiefly by the employment of steel in their construction1 which so materially reduces the vis inertia1 that in the case of the ,pennsylvania1 built by ,harland and ,wolff for the ,hamburg-,american ,line1 although a mighty carrack of something like #ehe feet1 and #fb feet by #db feet1 her actual dead-weight is only #h1jjj tons4 ,still more remarkable will be the reduction--about one-half--when aluminium with some form of alloy--copper1 perhaps--comes into general use4 ,torpedo-boats have been built with this metal1 and have run with great smoothness4 ,it exists in every clay and shale formation1 and is scattered throughout the world in immense profusion1 our ,london clay consisting principally of silicate of alumina4 ,electricity is used in manufacturing this beautiful metal1 that requires no paint to defend it from rusting2 and1 although it has hitherto been a costly article1 the time is not far off--so it is said--when the price will come down to #ai a ton1 or less4 ,a recent and novel application of aluminium to building purposes is to be seen at ,chicago1 where a house sixteen stories high is fronted on both sides with it1 instead of bricks or terra-cotta4 ,berthing the monstrous ships of the future is a problem met by a radical and world-wide alteration in the dimensions of docks1 supplemented by quays running out into deep water1 which in ,london would extend on both sides of the ,thames1 on the north from ,tilbury to the ,albert ,docks1 thus converting the old river1 like the ,clyde1 into a long water-street lined by sea-walls1 and kept constantly dredged1 and connected with ,london by special lines of railway4 ,but what is to be the propelling power of the future leviathans8 ,not steam2 but electricity1 applied to the machinery from storage batteries4 ,why not8 ,,electric ,,storage ,,as ,a ,,motive ,,power ,sceptics in the past argued that it was manifestly impossible that vehicles would ever be horseless1 or that communications would one day be transmitted by telegraph1 not to speak of the time when even the wires for that purpose would be dispensed with2 while the suggestion that artificial light would be obtained through any other agency than candles or oil-lamps1 and that sail-less ships would be propelled against wind and tide1 seemed savouring of ,bedlam6 ,yet all these seeming impossibilities1 and many more1 have become realities4 ,so1 too1 will electrical marine propulsion1 and1 although we live in a more enlightened era than our ancestors1 few persons even now perhaps realise that ships will be navigated without either sail or steam power4 ,by this time1 however1 the public have become so familiarised with scientific marvels1 that they have ceased to wonder at anything4 ,for instance1 there is nothing really more marvellous than that hundreds1 or even thousands1 of horse-power should be borne by a copper wire1 or a moderate cable1 and despatched to a distant point with the speed of lightning for traction purposes2 but1 without knowing what the nature of the force is1 we cease to be astonished at it4 ,in point of fact1 it is not more occult than heat or light1 the attraction of gravity or cohesion4 ,therefore when it was announced last year that ,edison had solved the problem of how to store electrical force effectually1 everybody took it for granted that he had been1 or would eventually be1 as successful in this direction as in multiplying electric light and applying it to a thousand new purposes4 ,the 8,wizard of ,llewellyn ,park0 is necessarily a sanguine inventor1 but he has taken the right and only satisfactory way to determine the question--that of varied and long-continued experiment4 ,electricity differs from all other forms of power in two respects--it can be stored1 and transmitted to a distance4 ,the task of transmission has been1 and is being1 rapidly achieved4 ,the far greater object of light and efficient storage1 the most momentous problem awaiting solution in the whole range of practical physics1 may very shortly be solved4 ,in brief1 ,edison's storage battery cells are composed of tiny bricks of specially-prepared iron and nickel4 ,in charging and discharging1 oxygen is driven from one metal to the other and back again through the action of a potash solution1 and without corrosion or waste4 ,renewal of the water supply is all that is needed to keep the cells in good condition1 and a process of recharging has been improved1 so that less time is consumed than for the recharging of other batteries4 ,no wonder he believes that the application of storage batteries will ultimately be extended to trains1 and especially to ships4 ,the claim of the ,edison ,accumulator is that it will occupy about the same space as the present battery1 and that it will weigh only about seventy per cent4 as much1 and will be more durable4 ,men conversant with the theory of electrical science are not so thoroughly impressed with the work accomplished as is ,mr4 ,edison4 ,the tests that have been made have been more than duplicated1 it is said1 by the batteries now on the market4 ,we may assume1 then1 that either ,edison's or somebody else's method of storing up electricity for the propulsion of sea-going vessels will be perfected4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,,electric ,,storage ,,batteries ,by permission of the ,electric ,power ,storage ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london ,,the 8,,princess ,,ida0 ,,in ,,the ,,year ,a4,d4 #ai-- ,early one morning in the spring of #ai--;a small party of ladies and gentlemen1 anxious to avoid the east wind fiend by flying from their native shores to milder regions1 travelled by the electric railway towards the mouth of the ,thames1 and1 branching off at a point near ,barking ,junction1 traversed the new line1 running for miles alongside the splendid quays recently completed between ,galleon's ,reach and ,tilbury1 where special berths were reserved for the leviathan liners that had begun running from the port of ,london to ,cape ,town4 ,long before the station was reached inquiring glances had been cast riverwards for the first glimpse of the giantess ,princess ,ida4 8,that cannot be the ,princess ,ida10 said an unbelieving and short-sighted member of the party to his sharp-eyed friend1 who was pointing to something which in the distance looked like a couple of ,white ,star ,cedrics linked together and towering above the roofs of the warehouses that commanded the quays4 8,well1 you will see for yourself presently10 he retorted4 8,seeing is believing1 isn't it80 ,and as the train got nearer and nearer1 wonder and admiration increased1 and when a break in the line of warehouses gave them a clear view of the great vessel1 her beautiful proportions1 her polished hull gleaming in the sunlight1 and her exquisite cleanliness1 their excitement and enthusiasm rendered them speechless4 ,the ,princess was berthed close alongside the river wall1 and through a great sliding port in her side over a short1 stout gangway like a drawbridge1 neat motor-cars laden with luggage1 and with passengers who had made the run direct from their ,london homes1 passed in continually1 emerging later from a corresponding port-hole some distance away4 ,of cargo there was none1 the only resemblance to it being mails1 sufficient in quantity1 however1 to fully load an ordinary small steamer4 ,as these were not timed to arrive alongside from the ,general ,post ,office until two o'clock1 the party had plenty of leisure to look around1 and from what they had read about this wonderful ship1 supplemented by much information supplied by a courteous and communicative official detailed as cicerone1 they were able to give the following history and particulars of that interesting up-to-date creation of shipbuilding--the fair giantess ,princess ,ida4 ,she was constructed by the ,thames ,ironworks ,company1 a flourishing concern that worthily represented the marked revival of the shipbuilding industry in the world's metropolis4 ,the material used throughout1 except for the lower masts1 machinery1 propellers1 and rigging1 was aluminium alloyed with copper4 ,her dimensions were as follows3 length over all1 #a1fjj feet2 breadth amidships1 #afd feet2 depth from upper deck1 #aaj feet2 estimated gross registered tonnage1 #cc1ejj2 but her lines were so perfect and graceful as to mask these enormous measurements4#aj ,she had an 8entrance0 forward like a clipper ship1 and a 8clearance0 aft of the utmost fineness1 the stem being rounded off in most beautiful curves4 ,her floor in the midship sections was flat1 and resembled the letter ,u1 and deep bilge keels helped to keep her steady1 and enabled her to settle down upon her shore cradle without risk of canting or straining4 ,her horizontal outline revealed to nautical eyes just that amount of 8sheer10 and no more1 necessary for strength1 rising almost imperceptibly to a graceful overhanging bow1 from which pointed a tapering bowsprit1 apparently short1 but in reality a single massive spar of ,oregon pine4 ,this style had been adopted by the owners because1 as they argued1 it added considerably to the beauty of the great ship1 and as she probably would never enter a dock--using a shore cradle when it was necessary to cleanse the hull--a few score feet added to her length would make but little difference in the room she took up at the quays4 ,the figure-head1 of oxidised silver1 was a beautiful half-draped representation of ,tennyson's fair ,princess-- 8,all beauty compass'd in a female form40 ,five magnificent pole-masts1 set up with thick wire shrouds and backstays1 rose aloft from her deck1 their lower part of steel1 the upper section of polished and varnished ,american fir1 terminating in gilded globes1 one of them being specially set apart for the wireless telegraph apparatus4 ,these masts1 with a graceful 8rake10 could not have been much less than three hundred feet high1 but were in accurate proportion to the length of the ,princess ,ida1 giving her the appearance of a ,brobdingnagian five-masted fore-and-aft schooner4 ,in an emergency1 sails could be put up from them to keep the ship's head to the wind and sea4 ,no ventilators showed their unsightly mouths above the very broad teak top-rail1 for they were not needed2 but more than the regulation number of boats--about eighty1 all hoisted electrically--hung from massive davits1 some being electric launches4 ,no great forty-feet wide funnels to hold the wind2 no top-hampering superstructures broke the deck area1 save the deck stairway houses and the wide bridge1 with its chart-room1 captain's sanctum1 and binnacle house1 in which a wheel that a child could turn operated the steering-gear1 consisting of a great toothed pinion wheel keyed to the enormous rudder1 and worked by two electric motors used alternately4 ,from end to end was a double striped and fringed awning4 ,the ,princess carried a search-light of enormous range and power on her foremast1 and her sidelights were disposed without any disfiguring effect on her starboard and port bows1 and not in miniature ,eddystones4 ,her anchor gear1 worked by electricity1 was the heaviest ever made1 and resembled that of the largest battleship4 ,over all floated the red merchant flag of ,great ,britain1 #dj feet by #bd feet1 the flag of the ,south ,african ,commonwealth1 the ,blue ,peter at the fore1 and above the taffrail the beautiful blue ensign of the ,royal ,naval ,reserve1 while in honour of this her maiden voyage she was dressed rainbow-fashion with innumerable pennons4 ,the hull was built on the cellular principle1 divided into water-tight compartments up to above the waterline1 the decks or floors being ten in number4 ,the mighty hold1 and the space where bunkers would have been in an ordinary steamer1 were filled with storage batteries2 so that an immense area was at disposal for electric power1 renewed daily by a wonderful chemical process1 the weight of the batteries--in this case an advantage--taking the place of ballast1 keeping the ,princess ,ida at an almost unvarying draught4 ,relatively the machinery of the ,princess ,ida was simplicity itself4 ,she had three propellers that looked inadequate to move so vast a bulk4 ,there were no quadruple expansion-balanced engines with cylinders of #bh1 #da1 #eh1 and #hd inches in diameter1 and no bewildering gathering of cranks1 pistons1 rods1 and levers1 but the shafts were coupled direct to enormous electric motors which turned them with resistless force1 without the loss involved in the use of a long propeller-shaft4 ,there was no escaping steam1 no heat1 no stuffy stokehold and fierce boilers1 no smell of oil and waste1 and the ventilation was almost as perfect as on deck4 ,going on board by the central gangway reserved for foot-passengers1 one entered a splendid hall fifty feet high and a hundred feet square1 resembling the lounge saloon of a big hotel1 with glass dome-shaped skylight above--a winter garden with beds of flowers and groups of sea-loving palms at the side1 kept-renewed throughout the voyage2 seductive easy-chairs and couches scattered about2 tables here and there1 covered with periodicals and writing material2 while at one end of a platform1 used by the ship's band1 and forming a miniature stage1 was a grand piano backed by a handsome curtain of peacock-blue plush1 and1 facing it1 a fine organ1 both instruments strictly reserved for public entertainments1 theatrical and otherwise4 ,the walls of this beautiful saloon were of polished ,new ,zealand woods1 ,kauri pine predominating1 than which a lighter and more elegant wainscot can hardly be imagined4 ,fireplaces with ornate overmantels burnt logs of wood--a sacrifice to conventionality and sentiment1 as they were not required for warmth1 the ship being lighted and heated throughout by electricity4 ,in general arrangement the interior of the ship reminded one of a modern hotel1 and the illusion was heightened by the port-holes on the main or second deck being so arranged as to resemble plate-glass windows set in frames of great strength1 and when the vessel began to move on the waters it was as if a section of the ,cecil ,hotel had floated off into the river4 ,but1 though beautifully furnished1 the ship was not overdone with meaningless decoration4 ,mirrors were restricted in number1 and there was but little gilding4 ,rare paintings of ships1 birds1 and flowers were on the walls1 while wood-carvings in the style of ,grinling ,gibbons and delicate ,french bronzes beautified unsightly corners4 ,all the decks were covered with india-rubber laid over fireproof planking1 reducing noise to a minimum1 those below the upper deck being carpeted2 and as all the doors were sliding and shut noiselessly1 the general effect of quietude was delightful1 even the electric gongs being subdued in tone4 ,the style of upholstery throughout was that of the latest ,victorian ,era1 modified to meet the requirements of life at sea4 ,there was1 of course1 a very grand dining-saloon1 and smaller ones for private parties2 also a principal drawing-room1 boudoirs1 tea-rooms1 and in the transoms 7i4e4 the aftermost part of the ship7 one small and purely ornamental parlour in imitation of ,princess ,ida's in her college-- 84444 a court ,compact of lucid marbles1 boss'd with lengths ,of classic frieze with ample awnings gay ,betwixt the pillars1 and with great urns of flowers0-- where a statue of that divinity1 seated on a throne1 with a couple of tame leopards on each side1 was placed as a kind of tutelary genius1 to which the sentimental ladies on board made weekly offerings of the choicest flowers they could get4 ,then there had been skilfully provided in this wonderful ship a small oratory for the use of ,roman ,catholic passengers1 several libraries1 reading and lecture rooms1 a music-room1 a cardroom1 smoking saloons of course1 a billiard-room1 7available in very fine weather71 swimming or rather plunge baths1 and electric and ordinary baths in abundance made of aluminium2 besides massage-rooms1 coiffeurs' and barbers' saloons1 a shooting-gallery1 a post and telegraph office1 a gymnasium1 a skating-rink1 a bowling-alley1 a photographic room1 an amateur's workshop1 an apartment specially set apart for ping-pong and similar games1 ,american bars1 and a miniature cafe for the pleasure of those who would make believe they were still ashore2 a tennis-court1 a miniature golf-link1 a small running1 walking1 and cycle track 7quoits1 cricket1 hockey1 and even football could always be enjoyed on the upper deck71 an aviary 7parrots prohibited71 a natural history room1 an aquarium1 a servants' hall1 a nursery 7a remote locality7 with tracks for perambulators2 small shops for confectionery1 millinery1 hosiery1 and tobacco2 also a printing-press1 a dispensary1 and a hospital2 a cell for insubordinates1 and1 alas6 a mortuary4#aa ,on the upper deck--so great was the distance from stem to stern1 twice up and down being more than a mile--small electric trolley-chairs were at the disposal of the old or infirm to enable them to take open-air exercise4 ,a wide shelter-promenade ran round the ship's sides between two of the decks1 looking out on the sea through spacious port-holes1 and when wind and rain were too pronounced there were the roomy stairway houses on deck wherein to take refuge4 ,on every floor there were lifts for those who cared to use them4 ,the telegraph and telephone made intercommunication easy1 and at every corner of the ship1 with its maze of corridors and staircases1 direction-tablets indicated one's whereabouts4 ,families were accommodated with furnished suites of private rooms1 which could be rented or even leased4 ,here they could bring their own servants1 and be boarded independently of the other travellers4 ,these suites varied in size from a modest sitting-room and bedroom for solitary couples1 to flats suitable for a large number4 ,there were bedrooms 7not cabins7 for spinsters and bachelors1 and double-bedded rooms4 ,the familiar two1 four1 and six open-berthed staterooms were conspicuous by their absence4 ,of regulations there were few1 and these were framed for the general good and were strictly enforced4 ,no dogs or cats were allowed in any part of the ship2 the playing upon any instrument1 except in the music-room1 was prohibited1 and this applied even to the private suites2 small children and babies were kept absolutely separate from the adults1 and smoking was forbidden except in saloons set apart for that purpose and in private rooms4 ,all cookery was done by electricity1#ab supplemented by charcoal1 and the scale of provisions that had to be dealt with1 apart from the ship's stores for the crew1 was ,gargantuan1 while fresh fruit1 fish1 etc41 were always obtained in addition at the various stopping places4 ,for the round voyage1 with allowance for accidents1 say forty-two days in all1 there had to be put on board for the passengers3 of fish1 #cf1jjj lbs42 fresh meat 7beef1 mutton1 lamb1 veal1 and pork71 #cfg1gjj lbs42 fowls and chickens1 #af1jjj2 ducks1 #a1hjj2 geese1 #iej2 turkeys1 #a1ejj2 partridges1 grouse1 etc41 #c1fjj brace2 #bfj tons of potatoes2 #efj hampers of vegetables2 #d1jjj quarts of ice-cream2 #ah1jjj quarts of milk2 #bae1jjj eggs2 also canned goods1 butter1 flour1 and groceries in proportion4 ,of champagne1 #ah1jjj bottles2 #ae1jjj of claret2 #aaj1jjj of ale2 #de1jjj of stout2 #hg1jjj of mineral waters2 and #aj1jjj bottles of various spirits4 ,all these1 except the stimulants1 were preserved in chilled rooms1 the ice being made on board4 ,at a pinch the ,princess ,ida could accommodate--besides her crew of four hundred1 a small army of servants1 the stewards1 and stewardesses 7there were no stokers or firemen7--six thousand souls2 but to ensure comfort1 only #c1ejj passengers were as a rule booked1 necessarily at high rates4 ,all were of one class1 the only difference1 as in an hotel1 being in the price paid for position4 ,the officers were comfortably quartered in the forward part of the ship in a manner equal to the first class of many a steamer2 the crew beneath1 in the so-called forecastle1 palatial in comparison with the old-fashioned sailing ship4 ,by the time the handy-man had taken these notes ,h4 ,m4's mails arrived alongside1 and were put on board by electric trolleys through the central side port4 ,there was no stupefying1 deafening escape of steam1 and no maddening ringing of great bells4 ,the ,blue ,peter--some fifteen feet square--fluttered down from the foremast1 and a megaphone in sonorous tones announced that the hour of departure had arrived1 and that visitors must leave for the shore4 ,the ,ida began to show that she could move1 and majestically and slowly shifted her position1 until her bow pointed seaward1 a mighty cheer going up from quay and ship4 ,an unseen orchestra gave forth 8,auld ,lang ,syne10 and in the fading light the ,princess ,ida1 glowing with incandescents1 her syren sounding at intervals1 disappeared in the river fog on her maiden voyage4 ,going down channel at an easy fifteen knots1 it was immediately noticeable how remarkably steady the great ship was in the choppy sea4 ,there was an entire absence of vibration1 partly attributable to the metal of which she was constructed1 and to the perfect balancing of her machinery and nice adjustment of weight throughout her holds4 ,even in the ,bay of ,biscay1 which was wavelessly heavy in long1 sullen rollers after a mighty storm from the west had died away1 the ,princess behaved like a real sea-lady1 yielding slowly1 but steadily1 to the force majeur of the ,atlantic2 and no one dreamt of being sea-sick except one very bilious-looking gentleman1 a heavy eater1 hailing from ,brazil4 ,in short1 she proved herself to be a splendid sea-boat4 ,not a drop of water could reach her upper decks2 pitch she hardly could1 as her great length enabled her to ride quietly across the valleys between oncoming waves4 ,a few hours' detention at beautiful ,madeira1 and shortly afterwards ,teneriffe was reached1 where it began to be warm2 but the ship was so spacious1 and was kept so cool by means of refrigerators1 electric fans1 and--when necessary--punkahs1 that no one felt in the least inconvenienced by the heat4 ,there were no smuts1 no smoke1 and1 better still1 no smell of oil or paint 7neither of these being used on the ship71 no cockroaches1 mosquitoes1 flies1 or rats6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,electric ,,launch ,,on ,,the ,,thames ,by permission of the ,immisch ,electric ,launch ,co41 ,ltd41 ,london ,here she began to put on speed1 working up to eighteen knots an hour1 her maximum 7very great speed being no special consideration71 and it was then observed that so smooth and tapering were her lines1 that she slipped through the water raising but little bow wave1 and almost as frictionless as a swift ocean-fish4 ,an hour or so at lonely ,ascension1 and the same at ,st4 ,helena--in each case to deliver and receive mails1 and to keep up telegraphic communication with ,london--a voyage altogether of wondrous beauty and enjoyment1 nights of solemn loveliness1 and days that broke in perfect splendour1 cloudless1 save for little patches of white here and there1 and the ocean a dazzling radiance of deep blue4 ,cape ,town--six thousand miles in sixteen days out from ,tilbury--and1 greeted by thousands who had flocked from far and near to witness the sight1 the ,princess ,ida glided to her berth inside the great breakwater4 ,and there for the present ,i must leave her4 ,i think ,i have demonstrated that1 theoretically at least1 the tiny electric launches1 put on the ,thames in #ahhi by the ,immisch ,company1 one of which1 the ,lammda1 took the then ,prince of ,wales through ,boulter's ,lock1 was the forerunner of the ocean steamer of the twentieth century4 ,but there is no absolute novelty under the sun2 for it is stated that in #ahch a distinguished ,roman scientist1 ,jacobi1 invented an electric motor which drove a small boat on the ,neva at two miles an hour4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,some ,,electric ,,locomotion ,,drawbacks 8,perfection is attained by slow degrees2 she requires the hand of time40--,,voltaire4 ,,the ,,devil',s ,,advocate ,little more need be said as to the advantages of the new order of things1 for however technical opinions may differ about the relative advantages of steam or electricity1 there cannot be any doubt that the public fully recognise the immense superiority of the latter in details of cleanliness and general comfort4 ,tube railways are intensely disliked by some people1 and as heartily appreciated by millions of others4 ,that they are an advantage in many ways is unquestionable1 though they are not yet without defects4 ,motor-cars 7electric or petrol71 to those who use them1 appear to be the safest and most delightful of vehicles1 but here again perfection has not been reached4 ,with these four well-known forms of traction ,i must now deal1 and not eulogisticallv4 ,in the old days when some recluse renowned for his holiness--which he had instanced by living unwashed for years in a hair shirt until it fell to pieces--died1 his admirers frequently put in a claim for his canonisation4 ,this necessitated the appointment of an individual called the ,advocatus ,diaboli1 a leader of the opposition1 whose duty it was to raise all kinds of objections to the granting of the sacred honour1 and to recall everything possible to the detriment of the candidate4 ,not a pleasant task1 certainly1 but not altogether unnecessary4 ,after this fashion it is fair to bring up some sort of a case against electric traction4 ,,electric ,,railway ,,accidents ,,and ,,breakdowns ,as regards electric railway accidents and blockings of tubes1 the ,advocatus ,diaboli is able to quote rather too many examples4 ,commencing with the ,united ,states1 where in ,july1 #aijb1 a car1 descending the mountain on the ,mountain and ,lake ,electric ,railway1 near ,gloversville1 where the grade is a thousand feet in four miles1 became uncontrollable1 and1 acquiring frightful velocity1 collided with another car which was ascending the slope4 ,both cars rushed down several feet1 and then ran off the rails4 ,each car contained seventy passengers1 and of these fifteen were killed and injured4 ,ten bodies1 mangled beyond recognition1 were taken from the wreckage4 ,most of the victims were women4 ,at home there is the disastrous ,liverpool ,electric ,overhead ,railway fire of ,december #bcrd1 #aija4 ,the trains are run on the multiple control principle1 a motor at each end1 and the accident was due to a defect in the rear one4 ,but as it is a typical case1 ,i will quote in full the cause of the accident1 as assigned by ,lieutenant-,colonel ,h4 ,a4 ,yorke1 the ,board of ,trade ,inspector4 ,he says3 8,a gale of wind was blowing from the west1 that is1 from the mouth of the tunnel towards the station1 which caused the fire to spread from carriage to carriage until the whole train was enveloped in flames4 ,it is estimated that the train was well alight about twelve minutes after the stoppage4 ,there were twenty-nine passengers1 who1 when the train first came to a stand1 were urged by the driver and guard to keep their seats1 as there was no danger4 ,the driver and guard seem to have made some futile attempts to put out the fire2 but it soon became apparent that the fire had obtained the mastery1 and the passengers found it necessary to alight4 ,they had only eighty yards to walk in order to reach the station1 and the majority of them appear to have gone to their homes without any delay1 and to have suffered no ill-effects from the fire4 ,it appears1 however1 from the evidence that a few remained behind1 presumably to watch the progress of the conflagration and the result of the effort to control it40 ,the inspector went on to say that in his opinion it would have been productive of no serious danger had only the driver acted with a moderate degree of prudence4 ,when this man discovered that his rear motor had failed his duty was to disconnect his rear motor by means of the plug provided for the purpose in his apartment4 ,he should then have run into the station with one motor1 as is often done4 ,for some reason or other1 which cannot be conjectured1 the driver1 instead of disconnecting the defective motor1 and in disregard of the warning of the guard1 made repeated efforts to bring it into use1 the result being that before long the woodwork of the rear carriage was ignited by the flashes produced by the electric arc when the current was switched on to the defective motor4 ,while the driver was so employed both he and the guard appear to have told the passengers to keep their seats1 as there was no danger4 ,both these men and the station foreman seem to have exhibited a lamentable lack of judgment in this respect4 ,it is impossible not to feel that the sacrifice of life might have been easily avoided4 ,if the passengers had been hurried out of the train as soon as it became evident that it had broken down1 and if none of them had been permitted to loiter about the station1 their safety would have been secured4 ,and if the train men and station foreman1 who deserve credit for their efforts to prevent the fire from spreading1 had only realised sooner that the train was doomed1 they too had ample time to escape4 ,the cutting off of the current did no good1 but1 by putting the place in darkness1 rather increased the difficulties and danger of the situation4 ,the lesson of the disaster is1 that all woodwork should be removed as far as possible from the electric machinery of the railway carriages1 and that for the purpose of insulation material should be employed which is uninflammable4 ,of blocks or stoppages on tube railways the following are examples4 ,serious inconvenience was caused on ,december #cjth1 #aija1 by a mishap on the ,central ,london ,railway4 ,it appeared that just before five o'clock in the morning a motor was being shunted into the ,bank ,station to take the first train to ,shepherd's ,bush1 when1 though going dead slow1 some of the gear apparently fouled the current rail1 and it jumped the points just where the two tunnels join1 and effectually prevented any train entering or leaving either4 ,the nearest 8cross-over10 by which trains could be shunted from one to the other1 was at the ,british ,museum ,station1 but even timely notice did not make the walk through the wet any the more attractive to business men1 the rain having caused all the omnibuses to be filled long before they got to the station gates4 ,when the line was constructed it was proposed to make a second siding at the ,bank as at ,shepherd's ,bush1 and had this been done there would have been no dislocation of traffic1 but fears for the effects of vibration on buildings above vetoed the proposal4 ,on an ordinary railway a powerful crane would probably have been run alongside1 but the space in the tube is so circumscribed that it was with the utmost difficulty that the engine1 which weighed forty-four tons1 and was resting against the side of the tunnel1 could be moved4 ,as the afternoon wore on1 crowds of ,city men gathered in the subway in the hope that the obstruction would soon be removed1 but it was not till five o'clock that the line was cleared and the traffic resumed4 ,once more the ,twopenny ,tube distinguished itself by a stoppage4 ,it was on ,december #cjth1 #aijb1 the anniversary of the precisely similar mishap in #aija1 but fortunately with less serious results4 ,then the engine fell against the side of the tube1 and the workmen could only get at one side of it2 but this one settled itself in such a position that jacks could be got to work under both sides4 ,the points at the terminus very much resemble those at the ends of the tram lines1 and with the tremendous traffic passing over them 7engines #a1bjj times a day7 the only wonder is that accidents of this kind do not occur more often than once a year4 ,with a curious perversity1 the engine chose the time--four o'clock in the afternoon--when it would cause the maximum of inconvenience1 and the thousands of ,city men and women going home realised more fully than ever the advantage of the tube4 ,the nearest cross-over is between the ,british ,museum and ,chancery ,lane1 and notice was at once given that trains were running between the former station and the western terminus4 ,as soon as possible gangs of men got to work1 and within an hour and a half the wheels were got on1 but unfortunately it was very difficult to see what had caused the mishap1 as in getting the motor back the evidences of the cause were removed4 ,some little delay was occasioned by straightening the bent rails1 but at half-past eight an engine was run to and fro over the points to see that they were all right again1 and a few minutes later the message was sent to all stations3 8,resumed bookings and ordinary working40 ,these mishaps showed how necessary it was that1 instead of cross-overs1 loops should be provided1 round which trains could be run4 ,january #afth1 #aijb1 witnessed an accident on the ,city and ,south ,london ,electric ,railway1 happily unattended with serious consequences4 ,a train left the ,elephant and ,castle ,station shortly after seven a4m41 and had proceeded some two hundred yards towards the ,borough when what is technically known as a 8short0 occurred in the switch4 ,this means1 roughly1 that the current had chosen to go a way of its own instead of through the insulated wires to the motor4 ,hence1 an 8arc0 was produced--that is1 an arc lamp on a large scale4 ,the insulating material began to burn and smell and smoke4 ,small defects of this kind are common enough1 and the flame is frequently put out with the driver's hand or cap4 ,on this occasion the flame resisted all efforts to put it out1 and the driver had to stop the cars and send back for assistance4 ,the following trains came on slowly1 and the engine pushed the broken-down predecessor on to the ,borough ,station4 ,it was found necessary to ask the passengers 7fortunately numbering only about thirty or forty7 to leave the train1 and the fire was then easily extinguished1 though it was found necessary to cut off the current from the generating station for a short time4 ,the line was only blocked for about an hour1 and the accident was of little importance except as illustrating one advantage which1 it is said1 the 8engine0 system of electric traction possesses over the 8multiple unit40 ,,medical ,,objections ,,to ,,tube ,,travelling ,but apart from accidents and breakdowns1 a terrible indictment is brought against tube railways in general1 and the ,central ,london in particular1 which1 if true1 constitutes a veritable drawback4 ,the accuser is ,dr4 ,l4 ,c4 ,parkes1 ,medical ,officer of ,health for ,chelsea1 who says3 8,tube railways are still such a comparative novelty1 that the question of the healthiness of this mode of travel has not yet been fully determined4 ,dr4 ,wynter ,blyth1 in an address a year ago1 gave the results of some experiments on the ventilation and condition of the atmosphere in the tubes and stations of the ,central ,london ,railway4 ,the chief cause of the movements of air in the tubes and stations1 lifts and stairways1 is the passage of the trains along the tubes1 which the carriages nearly fill1 thus acting as a piston in a cylinder1 driving air before them and sucking it in from behind in their progress from one station to another4 ,the condition of the atmosphere1 was not excessively foul1 the largest amount of ,,co ascertained to be present1 being #aai parts per #aj1jjj vols4 ,this sample was taken in a carriage containing twenty-seven people between the ,lancaster ,gate and ,marble ,arch ,stations4 ,the amount of ,,co present in the air of the station's lifts and stairways varied between #h and #aa parts per #aj1jjj4 ,in no case1 then1 did ,dr4 ,wynter ,blyth find the amount of ,,co in the air of the tube to be more than three times the amount usually present in the outer atmosphere of the ,london streets 7average #d parts per #aj1jjj74 ,contrasted with the tunnel of the ,metropolitan ,railway between ,gower ,street and ,king's ,cross ,stations1 where a sample of the air taken showed that ,,co was present to the extent of #bei parts per #aj1jjj1 the air of the tube railway is comparatively pure40 ,dr4 ,parkes continues3 8,it may be safely asserted that constant travelling day after day1 even if only for a limited period each day1 in an atmosphere containing #ae to #bj parts per #aj1jjj of ,,co1 such ,,co being derived solely from a human source1 must eventually tend to injure health4 ,there are two other dangers in tube-travelling which require notice4 ,first1 the danger in the warm summer and the cold winter months alike of bodily chill4 ,in the hot weather the traveller passes suddenly from the warm street into a much colder atmosphere below the ground level4 ,in the winter the reverse happens--the passenger who has been warmed and enervated by the devitalised air below meets the chilly wintry blast on emerging into the street4 ,secondly1 the air of the tube being very dry1 and constantly in movement1 there must be much organic dust of human origin floating in it4 ,the dangers of tubercular expectoration are no doubt intensified in such a dry and shifting atmosphere as that of the tube1 and the cautionary notices to prevent spitting are wisely exhibited in every carriage40 ,on the whole1 ,dr4 ,parkes favours open air to other methods of travelling4 ,he recommends that as far as possible travelling should be by routes open to the air of heaven4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,some ,,electric ,,locomotion ,,drawbacks 7continued7 ,,tramway ,,accidents ,when the ,chiswick ,high ,road tram-line was being made the tradesmen petitioned the ,london ,county ,council against it4 ,they complained of the annoyance as well as of the danger of the trams4 ,they said that the trams1 being large 7carrying seventy people in all7 and running on eight wheels1 made considerably more noise than the light horse-car2 that the motor was not silent1 and the progress of the trolley along the shivering overhead wire made a continuous1 most unmusical1 and penetrating din2 while the brake--of necessity powerful--also had a harsh note quite its own4 ,to this was added the noise and flash of electric sparks and a singularly sonorous and imperative bell in place of the usual whistle2 and as the cars came along every two and a half minutes in each direction1 they who dwelt along the route did not find them altogether lovely4 ,some people maintain that electric trams are not merely unlovely1 but are decidedly dangerous to travel in4 ,there have been electric tram accidents1 of course1 and very serious ones4 ,for instance1 at ,huddersfield1 one ,june night in #aijb1 a car1 as it approached the town and was half-way down an incline of a mile in length1 got out of control4 ,the trolley arm left the wire1 plunging the conveyance into darkness4 ,by this time the pace of the car was too great to permit of anyone getting off4 ,it went whizzing past the car standing in the next loop2 but failing to negotiate a sharp curve at the bottom of ,somerset ,road1 ran straight across the street1 smashing the pavement and dashing with great force into a grocer's shop1 the wooden front of which collapsed4 ,the front of the car was also driven in4 ,three persons were killed and six seriously injured4 ,at ,chatham a catastrophe1 resulting in four deaths and many injuries1 is still fresh in people's minds4 ,it occurred on ,october #cjth1 #aijb1 and was extraordinary in many respects1 the tram being completely wrecked4 ,the ,chatham and ,district ,light ,railway is worked as an electric tramway on the overhead trolley system1 and has been in operation about twelve months4 ,the scene of the mishap was at the foot of ,westcourt ,street1 ,old ,brompton1 in the parish of ,gillingham1 close to the main entrance to ,chatham ,dockyard1 where there is a very steep gradient4 ,a workmen's car1 filled with mechanics and labourers on their way to work1 suddenly bolted in descending the hill1 notwithstanding that the brakes had been duly applied4 ,the weight of the heavily laden vehicle increased the velocity every yard of the way1 and a terrific pace was obtained4 ,there is a sharp curve in the railway at the end of the road4 ,the passengers screamed as they realised their danger4 ,the driver shouted to them to jump off the car1 which many did2 and the driver and conductor themselves took a leap for their lives1 and thus avoided serious injury4 ,as anticipated1 the curve proved fatal to the safety of the car4 ,the heavy vehicle toppled over on its side with a terrific crash1 and the passengers1 projected in all directions1 made a confused heap in the highway4 ,those who were not seriously injured struggled to their feet1 but others remained prostrate1 unable to move1 shrieking or groaning with pain1 and several more were rendered insensible4 ,assistance was speedily forthcoming1 and the sufferers were removed to the ,royal ,naval ,hospital1 which is within a stone's-throw of the scene of the accident4 ,in ,september of the same year a remarkable accident took place at ,glasgow1 also with fatal results4 ,about half-past nine one ,saturday night1 when the streets were at their busiest1 a ,possilpark car got out of the driver's control1 and began to move down a slope of ,renfield ,street1 which is the main car artery of ,glasgow4 ,where ,renfield ,street cuts ,sauchiehall ,street1 the principal thoroughfare of the city1 the vehicle dashed into a ,pollokshields car1 standing at the junction4 ,both cars left the rails1 and the runaway1 without perceptible interruption1 continued on its career1 driving the other before it1 the conductors' platforms being interlocked4 ,a few yards further on a ,dennistown car was encountered4 ,the two locked cars swept down1 and1 driving the third in front of them1 continued their course down to ,argyle ,street1 a distance of about six hundred yards4 ,a long succession of cars was moving upwards1 and with the momentum the three heavy cars had then attained a disaster seemed imminent4 ,however1 where the ,dennistown line1 coming out of ,st4 ,vincent ,place1 joins ,renfield ,street1 the foremost of the three runaways took the branch points1 swerved with such speed that it failed to keep the rails1 and plunged headlong across the street1 being eventually brought up by the wall of a shop4 ,the second and third cars1 still locked together1 followed the former1 striking the shop almost at the same point4 ,at ,devonport another accident1 resulting in death1 occurred the same month4 ,about nine o'clock in the morning1 a car containing eight passengers1 six of whom were on the top1 got beyond the control of the driver on the incline leading to the ,south-,western ,railway ,station4 ,the powerful brakes were promptly applied1 but failed to check the progress of the car1 which rapidly gathered momentum1 although the reversing gear was also applied at full pressure4 ,at the foot of the slope1 where the line takes a sharp curve into one of the main roads to ,devonport1 the vehicle1 which had by this time attained a terrific pace1 jumped the rails1 crossed the road1 and dashed into a wall enclosing the carriage entrance to the station4 ,the force of the impact broke the wall1 and caused the car itself partly to topple over4 ,some of the terrified passengers on the top jumped into the roadway1 and others were thrown off4 ,one young man1 in jumping off1 succeeded in clearing the car and the wall1 but as he alighted in the roadway1 which slopes down to the entrance of the station1 a piece of granite coping1 weighing several hundredweight1 dislodged by the force of the collision1 fell on his head1 death being instantaneous4 ,other injured persons were lying in the roadway some distance from the wrecked car1 the upper part of which was a shapeless mass of broken seats and twisted rails4 ,the position of the car enabled it to be seen that the brakes were gripping the wheels lightly1 while the wooden brakes1 which act on the lines1 appeared to be down to the utmost extent4 ,in this case the verdict of the coroner's court coincided with the ,board of ,trade's subsequent report1 to the effect that the accident was brought about by the negligence and incapacity of the driver of the car1 the ,board of ,trade adding that the cause was excessive speed on a steep gradient and sharp curve1 that the driver was responsible for the accident in failing to use the brake-power1 and in disobeying the company's orders by leaving the stopping-place without a signal4 ,these runnings away of electric trams called for increased attention to the question of brakes1 which1 though they will always hold a car on a stiff incline on dry rails1 yet when the track is greasy they introduce an element of danger by reason of their very power4 ,they skid the wheels1 which is always a source of great danger4 ,in such cases safety lies in relaxing the pressure1 but it needs a wary brain and firm nerves to ease off the brake at all when the car has already bolted4 ,then there are collisions1 which luckily seldom occur4 ,in ,october last one took place between two electric tramcars between ,middleton and ,rhodes1 near ,manchester4 ,the cars were carrying workmen1 and the accident occurred near what is known as the ,parkfield loop4 ,the vehicles were travelling in opposite directions1 and owing to some cause1 at present unexplained1 they both got on the same line1 instead of one waiting on the loop4 ,about twelve of the passengers were more or less hurt by broken glass1 and one of the drivers was injured about the leg4 ,cars can be completely overturned1 as was proved by an incident that happened in ,december last year to one of the ,london ,county ,council trams4 ,it left the metals at ,st4 ,george's ,circus1 and after jolting along for a few yards slowly toppled over into a ditch three feet deep1 which had been dug on the near side for the purpose of laying the electrical connections4 ,there were about ten passengers on the top and twelve inside1 and the tram was already overturning before they had fully realised their danger4 ,fortunately they retained their presence of mind1 and those on the top1 by clinging to the rails1 prevented themselves from being hurled into the roadway4 ,two small boys1 who were unable to retain their grip of the rail when the side of the car struck the ground1 were thrown off into the gutter1 but escaped with little more than a few cuts and a severe shaking4 ,the cause was difficult to discover1 but probably as the lines were being rearranged some piece of iron or other hard substance eluded the observation of those put to watch1 got into the groove of the metals1 and caused the car to jump the rail at a spot where excavations were being made4 ,in our climate tramway traffic is not exposed to any very inclement weather1 so that electric traction is not likely to prove a failure by reason of heavy snowfalls1 as in ,new ,york last winter during a blizzard4 ,,electric ,,shocks ,there is a serious feature in the overhead trolley system which ought not to be overlooked1 as the following will show4 ,in the centre of ,sunderland four principal streets cross1 and here1 about eight o'clock one ,saturday night in ,august1 #aijb1 when the thoroughfares were congested with people1 the trolley-arm of a tram-car became entangled1 and no fewer than three live electric wires snapped4 ,a woman received a severe shock through one of them striking an iron handrail on the tram which she was boarding2 but the promptitude of a motor inspector in turning off the current averted further personal injury4 ,the ,fulham ,public ,baths tragedy at the beginning of this year exemplified the fact that it does not require a high alternative current to kill4 ,under certain conditions #bjj volts are sufficient4 ,criminals are electrocuted at a voltage of #b1jjj1 the current passes in at the skull4 ,the murderous elephant1 ,topsy1 in ,new ,york paid the penalty of her misdeeds by having a current of #f1fjj volts passed through her1 and died in ten seconds2 but a minute before1 she had swallowed #dfj grains of cyanide of potassium6 ,my own personal experience somewhat resembles that of the woman at ,sunderland4 ,it was at ,ramsgate on a rainy day1 and1 the car being full inside1 ,i had to travel outside1 seats1 metal-work1 and everything being naturally very wet1 and in taking hold of the iron framing of a seat ,i experienced so strong a shock that ,i called up the conductor4 ,he ridiculed the idea1 but while he was arguing the matter out1 contending that it was an impossibility1 he inadvertently grasped the wet trolley-pole1 which gave him such an electric sensation that he yelled and fell flat on the roof4 ,the car had to be stopped1 and until the rain ceased no passengers were allowed outside4 ,,motor-,,car ,,accidents ,by those who dislike them1 every imaginable evil is laid at the doors1 or1 rather1 the wheels of motor-cars1 whether propelled by petrol or electricity1 and recorded accidents are quoted1 chapter and verse being given to show that they are the enemies of pedestrian1 driving1 and cycling mankind4 ,here are some examples4 ,on a steep hill in the neighbourhood of ,grimsthorpe1 near ,bourne1 on ,may #beth1 #aijb1 a motor-car got out of control and overturned4 ,the driver1 employed by ,lord ,willoughby de ,eresby1 ,m4,p41 for whom the vehicle had been built at ,birmingham1 was instantaneously killed1 his skull being fractured4 ,he had brought the car to ,grimsthorpe ,castle only the previous evening1 and was out with a party of friends1 mostly ,lord ,ancaster's employs1 when the accident happened4 ,one man was badly injured1 and two others of the party received slight injuries1 but a child1 who was flung over a hedge1 escaped unhurt4 ,the following day a motor-car was being driven down a steep hill just outside ,stroud1 when the brake failed to act1 and the car ran violently into a stone wall1 carrying part of it away4 ,one of the occupants1 a local cloth manufacturer1 was seriously injured1 and a gentleman who accompanied him escaped with some ugly bruises4 ,an accident occurred near ,rearsby1 ,leicestershire1 on ,august #ith1 #aijb1 whereby the master of the ,quorn ,hunt1 ,captain ,burns ,hartopp1 and ,mr4 ,a4 ,burnaby were injured4 ,the party were motoring from ,little ,dalby ,hall to ,quorn1 when1 near ,rearsby1 the car ran into a cow1 with the result that the occupants were pitched out and the car was wrecked4 ,captain ,burns ,hartopp was picked up in a semi-conscious condition1 ,mr4 ,burnaby was more seriously injured1 while ,mr4 ,dashwood escaped with a shaking4 ,a curious escape was witnessed the same day at ,monmouth4 ,general ,sir ,evelyn ,wood1 who was accompanied by ,colonel ,grierson1 acting ,q4,m4,g41 and ,captain ,wood1 ,a4,d4,c41 had been inspecting the ,monmouth ,royal ,engineers 7,militia7 under the command of ,lord ,raglan4 ,afterwards the ,general and staff proceeded in a motor-car to ,abergavenny4 ,while the machine was being reversed towards the entrance of the ,angel ,hotel a brake refused to work1 and the car mounted the pavement and ran into the wall of a shop1 just missing a plate-glass window4 ,captain ,wood1 who had alighted1 narrowly escaped being caught between the motor and the wall4 ,the following month a motor-car accident occurred at ,barnet1 when the ,hon4 ,c4 ,s4 ,rolls was returning home in a motor-car from ,barnet ,fair4 ,mr4 ,rolls saw a trap containing three or four persons approaching him1 and he steered his car into the hedge1 but a collision could not be avoided4 ,one of the occupants of the trap--a youth--was thrown to the ground1 and the horse was cut on the leg4 ,mr4 ,rolls escaped with a slight shaking4 ,on the #agth of ,october last1 while motoring from ,chester1 the ,rev4 ,arthur ,guest1 vicar of ,lower ,peover1 with his wife and a friend1 had a startling experience4 ,in steering past a milkcart near ,lostock ,chemical ,works1 the car ran into a brick wall and was overturned and badly smashed4 ,the vicar1 strange to say1 escaped without injury1 but his wife and friend were not so fortunate4 ,a lamentable catastrophe occurred in ,february this year in ,london1 when ,mr4 ,george ,edward ,colebrook1 an ,australian merchant1 of ,st4 ,mary ,axe1 ,e4,c41 lost his life4 ,it appeared that on the previous ,sunday the deceased went for his first motor-car ride with his brother-in-law1 accompanied also by the owner of the car and a professional driver4 ,there had been a sharp fall of snow and hail1 and the roads were in a bad state4 ,when attempting to pass at a moderate pace another car in the ,finchley ,road1 near the ,royal ,oak at ,hendon1 the hind wheels skidded4 ,the car turned round and ran against a raised footpath and then overturned4 ,mr4 ,colebrook was fatally injured1 and died on ,tuesday night from concussion of the brain1 having been unconscious from the time of the accident4 ,his brother-in-law received a fractured arm and other injuries4 ,,the ,,general ,,verdict ,thus much for the opposition1 and the ,advocatus ,diaboli now resumes his seat4 ,his accusations appear formidable2 but it might be justly pointed out that if a catalogue were compiled of the serious results caused by the shortcomings of the horse1 motor-car accidents would be found few in comparison4 ,it might be demonstrated that in twelve days #ag persons had been killed and #adc injured in accidents attributable to that noble animal4 ,when the foregoing tram and motor casualties are analysed1 it will be found that the majority were due to lack of control over the brake power1 to ignorance1 or to careless driving4 ,as ,i have observed before1 many evils have been laid to the charge of electric traction4 ,last year it was reported in the papers that a young woman had been instantaneously killed at ,shepherd's ,bush by the overhead wires4 ,the fatality was attributed to one of the guide-wires breaking at the extreme end 7an accident which had really occurred on the line71 but it had been replaced before the young lady fell down in the road1 and it was proved at the inquest that she died in the normal way of heart disease4 ,in the old coaching days the dire forebodings of evil arising from travelling by steam were much more comprehensive than those of the present day from electric travelling4 ,horse-breeding1 it was said1 would cease and farmers become ruined1 their crops perhaps destroyed by sparks from passing engines2 human beings would be asphyxiated while rushing through the air at tremendous speeds2 high roads would fall to rack and ruin2 and every innkeeper on coach routes would be bankrupted6 ,in fact1 a lamentable social revolution was bound to be brought about by ,stephenson's pestilential proposals6 ,of electrical traction1 its greatest detractors can only urge--and with truth--that it is not yet without drawbacks1 not yet so perfected as to render accidents impossible4 ,and the ,advocatus ,diaboli1 after due consideration of his own arguments1 generously acknowledges that he has failed to make out his case4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,electric ,,locomotion ,,and ,,our ,,national ,,life 8,long sleeps the summer in the seed2 ,run out your measured arcs1 and lead ,the closing cycle rich in good40--,,tennyson4 ,,how ,,it ,,affects ,,existing ,,railways ,thomas ,alva ,edison is reported to have said1 8,electricity will displace steam10 and1 taking his prediction as a text1 ,i will begin by quoting a few figures2 for ,britishers1 though they may affect otherwise1 dearly love statistics4 ,well1 in the year that ,queen ,victoria ascended the throne the capital invested in railways might have been expressed in a few figures4 ,when she died1 the 8iron horse0 represented the vast sum of twelve hundred millions sterling4 ,twenty years ago investments in electric traction enterprises amounted to not more than #ajj1jjj4 ,to-day they involve immense sums1 the ,county ,council's scheme for ,london alone running up to #ej1jjj1jjj6 ,but this is nothing to the probabilities of the near future1 as ,mr4 ,percy ,sellon pointed out to the ,london ,chamber of ,commerce4 8,within the next ten years10 he said1 8electric supply and traction may be expected1 with a fair field1 to engage at least #bej millions of capital02 and this estimate seems to be by no means exaggerated2 in fact1 it is underrated4 ,as one of the leading 8dailies0 observes1 8,apart from such a large project as the electrification of the ,district and ,metropolitan ,railways1 there is scarcely a municipal authority in ,great ,britain which has not in hand some scheme of electric railway1 tramway1 or lighting4 ,it is as well to think that electricity is not the agent of the future1 but of the present1 and an era which has already dawned4 ,in displacement of steam1 electricity is evidently destined to be one of the products of the first quarter of the twentieth century40 ,it may be surmised that by the time ,mr4 ,sellons ten years have expired all the great railway companies in the kingdom will have adopted electricity as motive power1 certainly on their suburban lines1 and for the passenger traffic on the main lines4 ,with what effect1 and at what cost8 ,the latter question can hardly be answered1 but the former may be guessed at4 ,for a long time the railway companies will naturally be reluctant to bring about such a revolution as the substitution of electricity for steam4 ,engines of enormous power1 such as the new ,great ,eastern 8,decapod0 or ten-wheeler1 will be requisitioned to accelerate the working of trains2 and1 to save fuel1 petroleum will be extensively adopted on others4 ,but electricity the public will have1 if it is shown to be more economical in the long run4 ,still1 to entirely dispense with a great stock of costly locomotives1 substituting up-to-date motor engines--with the possibility looming in the future that these1 too1 in their turn1 by the perfecting of storage batteries1 may be displaced--to1 perhaps1 build new cars1 or completely remodel existing rolling-stock2 to erect new buildings 7in many cases7 for power stations2 to lay down third rails2 all this would involve an expenditure that even long-suffering shareholders would rebel against4 ,while1 if the steam locomotives were retained to work an accelerated goods service on separate tracks1 the widening of bridges1 cuttings1 and viaducts1 the duplication of tunnels on many lines1 and the enlargement of stations and sidings1 would entail disastrous expenditure4 ,however1 the change will doubtless be made gradually1 perhaps commencing with the suburban lines1 probably as a direct result of the electrification of the ,inner ,circle ,railway1 over whose system several main lines have important running powers1 and which will then be compelled to abandon steam4 ,or should some enterprising ,socialistic ,government come into power with no such trifling matters as ,education1 ,water1 ,gas1 or ,tube ,bills on its hands1 it might by the year #aiac1 in its anxiety to carry theory into practice1 decide to nationalise and electrify our railways wholesale1 and at any cost--to the ratepayers6 ,the effect1 anyhow1 would not be so very startling1 for by that time electric travelling would be a matter of course1 and disused locomotives of the type so familiar on the 8,underground0 would be inquired for by relic hunters and presented as curios to every big town4 ,already the change on the great lines has begun1 and it is a significant fact that the ,north ,eastern have decided to adopt electricity on some thirty-seven miles of their system in the neighbourhood of ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 and a modified form of it in the shape of auto-cars with petrol engines and dynamos generating the current1 on the short line between ,hartlepool and ,west ,hartlepool4 ,of electric lines in progress or projected1 we have the ,manchester and ,liverpool1 the ,london and ,brighton1 the ,edinburgh and ,glasgow1 and others4 ,in ,london all the big termini will be linked together1 and connected with the metropolitan ,tube systems1 whatever form the latter may ultimately assume4 ,this may have the effect of increasing the crowding and bustling of our big stations1 but1 on the other hand1 a vast number of wealthy people will use motor-cars from 8house-to-house10 dispensing altogether with the railway4 ,trains1 more speedily and more economically run1 will start more frequently4 ,goods traffic will be on entirely separate lines1 and passenger trains will be able to follow one another in rapid and safe succession4 ,exteriorily all the termini will look as they do now1 minus the presence of horsed four-wheelers and hansoms4 ,but ,victoria will be greatly enlarged along ,buckingham ,palace ,road2 while ,euston1 nearly doubled in size1 will have its frontage brought forward to ,euston ,square4 ,within1 there will be less confusion1 as either the ,american check system of booking luggage will be adopted1 or that of collecting it beforehand by the railway company's swift motor-vans1 and there will be less steam4 ,on the whole1 however1 the old stations will probably be unchanged--,paddington1 with its familiar transept roof1 impressive as in #ahed1 when the late ,queen1 travelling from ,windsor1 paid it her first visit2 the ,midland1 remarkable for its noble span roof1 soaring one hundred feet above the level of its eleven lines of rail and its four platforms2 the ,great ,eastern1 the largest terminus in the kingdom1 under five great spans--four parallel and one transverse--of glazed roofing1 with its eighteen arrival and departure platforms2 and ,waterloo1 once a mere shed propped up by arches1 but now second in size only to ,liverpool ,street1 a maze to the uninitiated4 ,the large provincial stations will most likely remain much as they are at present--,bristol1 ,exeter1 ,york1 ,glasgow1 ,liverpool1 all splendid specimens of important termini and junctions2 ,swindon1 ,crewe1 ,manchester1 and ,warrington1 greatly improved1 if not entirely rebuilt4 ,power machinery will be housed in existing railway buildings when practicable1 and intermediate sub-stations will be marked features along the railway routes4 ,pumping-houses1 water-tanks1 coalyards1 stages1 and sidings will have disappeared4 ,sleepy wayside stations1 with their pleasant gardens and rural surroundings1 will probably remain untouched by the new order of things1 save that the rapid delivery of farm produce by horseless vehicles or by light railways1 acting as feeders1 will wake them up4 ,,the ,,improvement ,,of ,,street ,,traffic ,the general use of horseless vehicles will do more--at any rate in ,london--towards the sanitation of great cities than all the enactments of county or borough councils4 ,medical experts are agreed that the condition of the roads1 however well kept1 in dry weather particularly1 is highly conducive to the spread of all kinds of throat diseases1 not to mention influenza2 while if the roads are neglected1 the peril is increased and every sense is offended4 ,horses1 as beasts of burden1 should have no place in crowded thoroughfares1 and their presence in numbers produces on wood-paving a pernicious and offensive ammoniacal result which anyone can test in1 say1 ,broad ,street1 after the omnibuses have ceased running for the day1 or1 rather1 for the night4 ,all over ,london1 and even in the suburbs1 the streets are ,augean stables1 which no effort of the ,hercules of ,spring ,gardens or the ,guildhall can effectually cleanse4 ,it is estimated that at the present time there are over #af1jjj licensed horse carriages in ,london1 besides tradesmens vans and other vehicles1 and that #bjj1jjj horses are stabled every night1 necessitating the removal of thousands of tons of manure and refuse daily4 ,noise1 too--that distracting rattle and rumble of vans1 light carts1 omnibuses1 and cabs--will be done away with1 and how much this will help to restore the nervous system of ,londoners who can tell8 ,horses having almost vanished1 the space each one would occupy--some seven feet in length--will be saved on each vehicle1 and thus the increase of traffic will be partly provided for4 ,collisions and the running-down of cars will be unheard of1 the steering and stopping powers of the electric motors being perfect4 ,,its ,,social ,,results ,the effect of universal electric traction on our social life may be far-reaching and prodigious4 ,it may result in a partial decrease in the resident population of ,london1 the working-classes living largely in the country and travelling up and down at uniform penny fares1 clerks and others doing the same2 while the wealthy and the well-to-do may use their motor-cars to such an extent as to habitually sleep outside the town boundaries1 as may also members of both ,houses4 ,only those persons whose duties compel them1 will live within hearing of ,big ,ben4 ,society will be still more restless1 but its members will be healthier1 as fresh air will readily be obtainable4 ,there will be even less time for reading than now4 ,formal calls will largely cease2 friends in luxurious electro-cars will 8pop in0 en route on short surprise visits1 and hospitality will1 on the whole1 diminish4 ,in these vehicles1 touring parties 7without ,cook and ,son1 or ,gaze and ,co47 will be constantly arranged to traverse the world4 ,house rents generally will be lower1 save at the seaside and other health resorts1 where they may actually become higher4 ,so that for those who elect to remain in town1 it will be possible to live on a moderate income1 rates and taxes1 it is to be hoped1 also being lessened4 ,the cost of living will be reduced1 produce of all kinds being more extensively home-grown and more economically brought to market4 ,horses1 being discarded for draught purposes1 will be plentiful and cheap2 cavalry remounts will be readily obtained1 and all over ,europe mounted forces may be the order of the day4 ,the smallest farmer will be able to employ several horses on his farm1 and everyone in the country1 grown tired of cycling and motoring1 will have their stables full at low cost1 while in the season ,rotten ,row will be more crowded than ever with equestrians4 ,wages will be higher1 and there will be a wider field and less competition4 ,lastly1 hygienic conditions being vastly improved1 and smoke abolished1 the death-rate of ,london and all large cities will be reduced4 ,but the greatest boon electrical traction can bestow1 will be reserved for the working and poorer classes4 ,take ,london1 for example4 ,,the ,,effect ,,on ,,overcrowding 8,overcrowding6 ,why1 everybody knows what that means60 said the ,hon4 ,john ,middlemass4 8,only the other day ,i had to travel to town from ,southampton1 and the first-class compartment actually filled up--a beastly nuisance1 for we could not play whist as we had hoped4 ,and in the afternoon1 when on my way to pay a visit at ,lancaster ,gate1 ,i couldn't get a seat in the ,twopenny ,tube1 but had to stand all the way1 holding on by one of the straps in the roof6 ,overcrowding6 ,why1 the last time ,i dined at the ,gresham ,club in the ,city1 there was not a table to be got to one's self4 ,they were all packed1 and the waiters could hardly move about4 ,and that evening at ,lady ,danby's reception in ,piccadilly we couldn't even stir1 ,i can assure you1 once we were in her big drawing-room4 ,while as for supper1 it was a fight to get near the buffet1 and when ,i did manage to get some consomm for ,sybil ,clare1 who was positively starving1 just as ,i was piloting it out of the crush1 some fool jobbed my elbow1 and sent the lot of it right into old ,colonel ,curry's face1 and made him swear like a trooper6 ,to make matters worse1 ,i stepped upon the ,dowager ,lady ,harvey's train1 which had no business on the floor at all1 and1 ,i am told1 tore three breadths out of it1 whatever that may mean4 ,anyhow1 ,i was not asked to any of her dinners again that season4 8,overcrowding6 ,yes6 ,you should have been stopping with me at ,rookfort ,castle the ,christmas after young ,lord ,staunton had come of age6 ,two in each bedroom1 ,i assure you1 and they actually had the cheek to ask some of us to put up with the box-room at the top of the house1 as every square foot of the place was occupied4 ,oh1 yes1 ,i know what trying to put too many eggs in one basket means6 ,i went through it all on board the ,p4 and ,o4 ,arabia1 from ,bombay4 ,six in a cabin2 no room to dress1 had to take it by turns2 all the grub served in double relays2 baths out of the question1 unless a fellow sat up all night to grab one2 and the promenade-deck like the enclosure at ,ascot on ,cup ,day2 which reminds me that ,i never was at any of the big races when the grand stand wasn't crowded out4 8,then1 as to overcrowding in small houses1 used ,i not to call upon poor ,bristowe1 my chum at ,eton1 who became a lawyer's clerk at #cjj a year1 got married1 had eleven children1 and lives in a poky little house down ,fulham way--only eight rooms--and ,i believe some of them sleep in the bathroom and the kitchen1 and the slavey in the scullery60 ,evidently the ,hon4 ,john did not know much about the social problem of overcrowding amongst the poor1 and how it has arisen4 8,it is not good that man should be alone10 and ever since that divine maxim was enunciated1 man has taken good care to act upon it1 in more senses than one4 ,his nature is gregarious1 and as the world he was sent into ceased to give him its fruits spontaneously1 he was obliged to take to a country life to obtain the means of existence by the sweat of his brow4 ,he did not readily adapt himself to the new conditions1 and1 as the history of ,babel shows1 there was always a tendency to congregate1 build great cities1 and get as much agricultural work done as possible by slaves4 ,nowadays the dislike of solitude is more marked than ever4 ,who does not know of beautiful country vicarages whose inmates would give their souls to go and live in towns2 of farms where wife and daughters pass their time in grumbling because it is so dull at the old house2 of squatters far away in ,gipp's ,land or ,maneroo ,plains1 who1 as soon as they make their pile1 leave the roomy verandahed station1 and1 importuned by an impatient family1 settle down at ,st4 ,kilda1 ,toorak1 ,darling ,point1 in ,melbourne1 or ,sydney8 ,even peasants1 country born and bred1 seeking to 8better themselves0 in ,canada1 often cannot1 or will not1 bear the absence of such small excitement as falls to their lot in their native village4 ,this is illustrated by a case known to myself1 where a labouring lad1 assisted out to the far ,west1 and there obtaining good wages1 and--what to him was luxury indeed--unlimited eggs to eat1 threw up his situation and came back to his home in ,kent and to his wretched wages1 simply because1 as he said1 8,it was too lonely in ,manitoba2 there was no amusement and no village inns40 ,as ,mr4 ,rider ,haggard has remarked1 8,some parts of ,england are becoming almost as lonesome as the veldt of ,africa40 ,therefore there is the danger ahead that ,goldsmith's foreboding may be realised3-- 8,ill fares the land1 to hastening ills a prey1 ,where wealth accumulates and men decay4 ,princes and lords may flourish1 or may fade1 ,a breath can make them as a breath has made1 ,but a bold peasantry1 their country's pride1 ,when once destroyed can never be supplied40 ,hodge1 as a class1 cannot emigrate4 ,he has muscle1 he has a wife and usually several children1 but he has no capital1 and the colonies1 with the exception of ,canada1 do not encourage him or want him without4 ,his advent also means a disturbance in the labour market and lowers the wage rate4 ,so millions of acres of fertile land in our dependencies where there is room1 and more than room1 for all1 remain untilled1 dependencies created by ,british capital1 defended from invasion by ,british fleets1 helped by ,british taxpayers1 but allowed by a succession of ,governments1 with the precedent of the ,american colonies in their minds1 to surround themselves with chevaux-de-frise of exclusiveness4 ,no longer do great clipper ships leave these shores crowded with hopeful emigrants1 the refrain of 8,cheer1 boys1 cheer10 on their lips1 and speed across wide oceans to the ,antipodes4 ,a new order of things prevails4 ,workmen's wages in ,australasia must be maintained at a fixed standard1 come what may4 ,heavy duties must be levied to effect this1 and everything must be 8protected10 except the interests of ,great ,britain4 ,but ,hodge wants to move somewhere and earn more money1 so he and his belongings migrate to ,london1 side by side with other kinds of impoverished labourers2 but1 alas6 for them1 side by side also with the poor alien1 who is unquestionably one great cause of the congestion in certain districts4 ,russians1 ,poles1 and ,germans swarm into the world's metropolis1 whose streets1 they have been told1 are paved with gold that only requires picking up6 ,they are willing to pay almost any price for wretched accommodation near their work1 where they herd together under conditions as low as they can well be4 ,the following illustrates this4 ,at the ,london ,hospital in ,december of last year ,mr4 ,wynne ,e4 ,baxter held an inquest on the body of ,mary ,moretsky ,libermann1 aged nine1 who was accidentally burnt to death4 ,the coroner said the only articles in the room where the fatality took place were a small bed and a broken chair1 and that the mother and two children slept in the bed1 and four other children on the floor4 ,the woman1 it appeared1 came from ,russia1 and had only been in ,england seven weeks4 ,for the small room she paid #cs4 #f;d4 a week4 ,a juryman urged that there ought to be some sort of supervision over the kind of house in which this woman and her family existed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,,where ,,the ,,poor ,,live ,original drawing by ,hanslip ,fletcher ,by permission of ,mr4 ,hanslip ,fletcher ,the presence of aliens and their competition also lowers the already sufficiently low rate of wages4 ,houses1 therefore1 in these localities--once tenanted by a single family--are let off at exorbitant rates to as many as can be crammed into them4 ,lucky1 indeed1 is the married labourer who can anywhere secure a single room for #ds4 to #fs4 a week4 ,and such a room6 ,no means of preparing a real meal1 the family fare generally consisting of tea1 8two-eyed steaks0 7herrings71 and a 8couple of doorsteps0 7two slices of bread7 per head4 ,but1 as 8,general0 ,booth says1 8,a home is a home be it ever so low1 and the desperate tenacity with which the poor cling to the last wretched semblance of one is very touching4 ,there are vile dens1 fever-haunted and stenchful crowded courts1 where the return of summer is dreaded because it means the unloosing of myriads of vermin which render night unbearable1 which 7the dens7 nevertheless are regarded as havens of rest by their hard-working occupants4 ,they can scarcely be said to be furnished4 ,a chair1 a mattress1 and a few miserable sticks constitute all the furniture of the single room in which they have to sleep and breed and die2 but they cling to it as a drowning man to a half-submerged raft4444 ,so long as the family has a lair into which it can creep at night1 the married man keeps his footing1 but when he loses that solitary foothold1 there arrives the time1 if there be such a thing as ,christian compassion1 for the helping hand to be held out to save him from the vortex that sucks him downward1 aye1 downward to the hopeless under-strata of crime and despair40 ,truly in such cases one realises the truth of these lines3-- 8,god made the country1 and man made the town1 ,what wonder then that health and virtue1 gifts ,that can alone make sweet the bitter draft ,that life holds out to all1 should most abound ,and least be threatened in the fields and groves40 ,booth writes chiefly of the ,east of ,london2 but of all overcrowded vile dens1 perhaps none are so bad as those in the ,west ,end1 frequently not a stone's-throw from fashionable thoroughfares and luxurious residences4 ,at ,notting ,dale1 ,kensington1 is a district comprising five streets1 consisting entirely of common lodging-houses and 8furnished rooms10 whose occupants are thieves1 rogues1 professional beggars1 hawkers1 and 8unfortunates40 ,it has been rightly named the 8,west ,end ,avernus10 and so offensive are the habits of its unwashed crowds1 that the policeman on his beat is often compelled to hold his handkerchief to his nose as he passes by4 ,still lower in the grade of accommodation for a married labourer is the 8part of one room0 system2 and1 lowest of all1 the common lodging-house1 where over-crowding is inevitable4 ,in one alley in ,spitalfields there were last year ten houses in whose fifty-one rooms 7none of them more than #h ft4 by #i ft4--about the size of a biggish bathroom7 no fewer than #bed human beings were distributed2 from two to nine in each apartment1 but nine in the room was not the maximum4 ,there is an old story to the effect that a district visitor1 sympathising with an occupant of some such lodging as the above in ,st4 ,giles'-in-the-,fields1 where four families respectively tenanted the four corners1 was met with the philosophic reply1 8,oh1 yes1 we should have been comfortable enough if the landlord hadn't gone and let the middle of the room to a fifth family40 ,think of all this1 fathers and mothers1 who jealously guard your children from every possible source of moral contamination1 whose daughters' modesty would be startled if accidentally a bedroom window momentarily revealed their toilettes1 whose children at boarding-schools feel sensitive about dressing and undressing before others4 ,yet this is nothing6 ,a well-known rector in the ,east ,end says3 8,from one of my parochial buildings ,i have seen through the thinly-veiled windows of a house1 four men and six women retiring for the night in one room1 all of them respectable1 hard-working people1 and the majority of them sleeping in beds on the floor10 the rent per week being eight shillings4 ,as to the alleged dislike of the very poor to the use of soap and water1 it is chiefly because the privacy essential for tubbing is simply non-existent4 ,probably the lowest depth is attained1 as ,i have said1 in the common lodging-house1 where all kinds of characters assemble under conditions which make innocence and decency impossible1 children looking without any emotion upon sights they ought never to see1 and listening to language they ought never to hear4 ,the victims of this result of overcrowding are human beings like ourselves1 8fed with the same food1 hurt with the same weapons1 subject to the same diseases1 healed by the same means1 warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer40 ,it is not from choice that men1 women1 and children are thus herded worse than cattle4 ,necessity compels them to dwell within a certain area1 especially the 8docker10 who cannot afford to take a journey in search of work1 while the smallness and uncertainty of their earnings1 together with the high rent they pay1 deprive them of the power to exist otherwise4 ,figures prove little1 but it is a fact that for all ,london the average population per acre is fifty-seven2 and an idea of the extent of overcrowding in certain localities may be gathered by comparing this with that of ,st4 ,george the ,martyr1 ,southwark1 which is #baj2 with ,whitechapel1 #bbe2 and with ,spitalfields1 #ccj2 the latter equivalent to crowding into the area of ,grosvenor ,square 7six acres71 tenements containing #a1ihj souls1 instead of #cdb6 ,on the other hand1 in the wealthy parts of ,london there is far too much room1 great mansions that could comfortably accommodate scores of people being habitually left almost empty4 ,the moral effect of it all is terrible4 ,thousands of infants1 ill-born1 tainted1 ill-fed1 ill-clothed1 ill-housed1 are growing up under conditions where purity of thought is impossible1 growing up to taint future generations and undo the good work effected elsewhere in social regeneration4 ,why keep the main stream pure if foul rivulets be allowed to arise and pollute it again8 ,why make clean the outside only of the cup and platter8 ,but1 as ,cervantes says1 8there is a remedy for everything but death40 ,and for the 8submerged tenth10 who cannot move away to the suburbs1 no doubt in time vast barracks built of steel with garden roofs1 unsightly but utilitarian1 will be created in every poor quarter1 resembling the ,park ,row ,buildings in ,new ,york1 #chj feet in height1 and consisting of thirty stories2 or the ,fisher1 the ,marquette1 and the ,champlain blocks in ,chicago1 of seventeen stories each4 ,these buildings would accommodate thousands of lodgers--,british subjects only--at low rentals1 under decent and sanitary conditions4 ,while for workmen and others in receipt of fair wages cheap electric traction1 enabling them to go to and from their daily task1 will solve the problem of overcrowding so far as they are concerned4 ,overcrowding1 however1 is only one out of a host of problems and questions that characterised the closing decades of the last century1 and beset the opening of the present one4 ,we are haunted with problems1 and if none existed we should probably regret it1 and try to invent them4 ,there are endless political and economic problems1 the naval and military1 the religious and educational1 the national food supply1 and with it the land and agricultural question1 the labour question1 and the relief of the poor1 who are always with us4 ,social problems bristle on all sides1 and every active lady appears to belong1 not to one1 but to many of the societies for the reform or abolition of this1 and for the bringing about of that1 which abound4 ,mr4 ,jellyby's little project for civilising the natives of ,borrioboola-,gha on the left bank of the ,niger1 and providing them with blankets1 would be but a drop in the philanthropic ocean of to-day6 ,temperance1 morality1 smoking1 marriage laws1 vaccination1 funeral customs and cremation1 early closing1 domestic service1 cooking1 dress1 hygiene1 our boys and girls and what to do with them1 in fact1 everything in life1 seems to have been converted into a 8,question10 and provides a text upon which more or less eloquent sermons are preached4 ,everyone seems to work hard1 and has no time for anything4 ,everyone1 too1 is restless and expectant1 eager for excitement and change1 while miracles of discovery and invention are wrought so frequently as to be almost unnoticed4 ,all nations are being chained together by iron roads or lines of swift steamers1 and everybody travels4 ,locomotion is the order of the day1 a sign of the times1 and electricity is the great factor that has brought it about4 ,just as in the building of some vast cathedral unsightly scaffolding conceals the graceful proportions of the uprising building1 so in what is going on around us may appear much confusion and absence of purpose4 ,but out of it is being evolved a state of readiness for the coming era1 when wars shall cease and vexed problems be finally solved4 ,meantime the world's feverish workers might well despair1 were it not that they 8444see in part ,that all1 as in some piece of art1 ,is toil co-operant to an end40 ,,index ,accidents on electric railways1 #bea-bef -- to motor-cars1 #bfd-bfg -- tramway1 #beh-bfc ,adaptability of shallow underground system to ,london1 #aih1 #aii ,advance of motoring1 #bjb ,agricultural motor vehicles1 #bah1 #bai ,agriculture1 ,decay of1 #bgg1 #bgh ,aldershot trials of motor vehicles1 #bae-bag ,aliens and overcrowding1 #bgi1 #bhj ,american capital and ,london's railways1 #fa1 #afj1 #afa ,balfour's1 ,mr41 views on motor-cars and public highways1 #bbh1 #bbi ,ballybunion and ,listowel ,railway1 #cf1 #cg ,barnet motor-car accident1 #bff ,birmingham electric tramways1 #agj1 #aga ,black country1 ,facts and statistics respecting the1 #agg-agi ,board of ,trade ,committee upon vibration in ,tubes1 #hg -- -- ,report of upon shallow underground system1 #aii -- -- -- -- vibration in ,tubes1 #hg-hi ,boer war and motor-cars1 #bad1 #bae ,boston shallow underground railway1 #aij-aid ,brighton ,beach ,electric ,railway1 #ac1 #ad ,british ,electric ,traction ,co4's tramways1 #ahj-ahb ,brunel's shield and ,thames ,tunnel1 #gf1 #gg ,buda-,pesth shallow underground railway1 #aij ,cabs1 new and old1 #bab1 #bac ,cars1 ,curious uses of motor1 #bba-bbc -- ,description of various motor1 #bjf -- -- electric tram1 #acg1 #ach ,central ,london ,electric ,railway1 ,the1 #fc-gc -- -- -- -- ,description of1 #ff-fh -- -- -- -- ,effect on omnibus traffic of1 #gj -- -- -- -- ,history of1 #fc-fe -- -- -- -- ,its annual sale of lost articles1 #gb1 #gc -- -- -- -- ,its ,city subways1 #fe1 #ff -- -- -- -- ,means of exit from cars of1 #gb -- -- -- -- ,ventilation of1 #gj-gb ,centres of ,great ,britain1 ,manufacturing1 #agd-agg ,chatham electric tramway accident1 #bei1 #bfj ,chester motor-car accident1 #bff ,city and ,south ,london ,railway1 ,the1 #ae-ah1 #bb1 #bc -- -- -- -- ,a trial trip in1 #ai-bb ,claims for damage by railway tubing1 #hc-hf ,combination omnibus 7electricity and petrol17 #baj1 #baa ,conveyances1 ,public1 #bjh-bac ,county ,council1 ,the ,london1 #adc -- -- -- and rehousing1 #adc1 #add ,county ,council's1 ,the ,london1 design for shallow underground railway1 #ahg1 #ahh -- -- -- tramway system1 #adj-aej -- -- -- tramways1 ,business journey on1 #aea-aef ,country1 ,changes produced by electric locomotion in the1 #bgc ,crimean war and traction engine1 #bag ,devonport electric tramway accident1 #bfa1 #bfb ,earth tremblings1 #hi ,electric haulage on tramways by accumulators1 #acg -- -- -- closed conduit1 #acd -- -- -- open conduit1 #acc1 #acd -- -- -- overhead trolley1 #acd-acg -- locomotion1 ,devil's ,advocate and1 #bej1 #bea -- -- ,drawbacks of1 #bej-bfg -- -- our national life and1 #bfi-bhf -- -- ,various forms of1 #i1 #aj -- motor-cars1 #bjf1 #bjh -- -- vehicles1 #bad1 #bai -- omnibuses1 #baa1 #bab ,electric railway accident in ,united ,states1 #bea -- -- -- on ,liverpool ,overhead1 #bea-bec -- -- accidents1 official report upon causes of1 #bea-bec -- -- breakdown on ,city and ,south ,london1 #bee1 #bef -- -- breakdowns on ,central ,london1 #bec-bee -- railways1 ,accidents on1 #bea-bef -- -- ,pioneer1 #aa-cj -- -- ,remarkable1 #ca-df -- traction undertakings1 ,investment of capital in1 #bfi1 #bgj -- tramcars1 ,description of1 #acg1 #ach -- tramway accidents1 ,official report upon causes of1 #bfa1 #bfb -- -- traction1 ,various methods of1 #aca-ach -- tramways generally1 #abh-adj -- -- ,objections to1 #beh ,electricity1 amount required to cause death1 #bfd -- ,definition of terms used in1 #h1 #i -- for traction1 how produced1 #g1 #h -- ,signs of the times and1 #bhe -- ,storage of1 #bce -- -- applied to navigation1 #bcj-bdi -- -- ,edison's system1 #bce1 #bcf ,emigration and overcrowding1 #bgh1 #bgi ,factories1 ,removal from ,london of1 #add-adf ,flourishing state of motor-car industry in ,great ,britain1 #bjd-bjf ,general verdict upon drawbacks of electric locomotion1 #bfg1 #bfh ,giant's ,causeway ,electric ,railway1 ,the1 #aa-ac ,glasgow electric tramway accident1 #bfj1 #bfa -- tramways1 #aff-afh ,great ,northern1 ,brompton1 and ,piccadilly ,circus ,railway1 ,the1 #aag1 #aah1 #abg -- -- -- -- -- -- ,advantages of1 #aag1 #aah -- -- -- -- -- -- ,aristocratic character of1 #abf1 #abg -- -- -- -- -- -- ,route of1 #aah-abf ,grimsthorpe motor-car accident1 #bfd1 #bfe ,haulage on tramways1 ,various methods of1 #acj1 #aca ,high-speed railways1 #ch-dj ,history of tramways1 #abh-acj ,horseless vehicles1 electrical and otherwise1 #bjj-bbi -- -- in the past1 #bjc1 #bjd ,how railway ,tubes are bored1 #gg-ha ,huddersfield electric tramway accident1 #beh1 #bei ,improvements in railway travelling1 #b-d ,inner ,circle1 ,rejuvenating the ,metropolitan1 #dg-fb ,introduction of tramways by ,g4 ,f4 ,train1 #abh1 #abi ,investment of capital in electric traction undertakings1 #bfi1 #bgj ,legislation respecting motor-cars1 #bbf ,light ,railway ,act of #ahif1 #afb-aff1 #aga1 #agb -- -- -- -- ,effect on rural tramways of1 #afc1 #afd ,liverpool electric tramways1 #afh1 #afi -- ,overhead ,railway1 ,the1 #bf-cj ,local authorities and rural tramways1 #ahb-ahe ,locomotion1 ,electric1 ,changes in the country produced by1 #bgc -- -- -- at ,london termini produced by1 #bgb1 #bgc -- -- ,devil's ,advocate and1 #bej1 #bea -- -- ,drawbacks of1 #bej-bfg -- -- -- ,general verdict upon1 #bfg1 #bfh -- -- ,improvement of street traffic arising from1 #bgc1 #bgd -- -- ,its effect upon existing railways1 #bgj1 #bgb -- -- ,our national life and1 #bfi-bhf -- -- overcrowding1 ,effect of1 on1 #beg-bhf -- -- ,social results of1 #bgd1 #bge -- -- ,various forms of1 #i1 #aj -- ,new and old order of1 #a-i ,locomotives1 ,steam railway1 #b1 #d -- ,steam in railway1 #d1 #e ,london ,county ,council1 ,the1 #adc -- -- -- and rehousing1 #adc1 #add -- -- ,council's tramway system1 #adf-aej -- -- -- tramways1 ,business journey on1 #aea-aef -- ,motor-car accident in1 #bff1 #bfg -- ,overcrowding in1 #bgi-bhd -- ,removal of factories from1 #add-adf -- termini1 ,changes at1 produced by electric locomotion1 #bgb1 #bgc -- tramcar overturned1 #bfb1 #bfc -- tramways in the past1 #abi1 #acj -- ,united ,tramways ,company1 #aef-afj -- -- -- -- ,extension to ,hampton ,court1 #aef1 #aei ,london's congested traffic1 #ahf1 #ahg -- latest and longest ,tube1 #aag-abg -- railways and ,american capital1 #fa1 #afj1 #afa -- -- ,royal ,commission on1 #aab-aaf1 #adb1 #adc -- -- ,selection of central authority respecting1 #aae1 #aaf ,london's street traffic1 #ada1 #adb -- tangled ,tubes1 #ajg-aaf -- congested traffic1 suggested remedy for1 #ajh1 #aji -- tramways1 #ada-afa ,maintenance of tramway tracks1 #aej1 #aea ,manchester and ,liverpool ,electric ,express ,railway1 ,the1 #dj-df -- -- -- -- -- -- ,advantages of1 #da1 #db1 #de -- electric tramways1 #afi1 #agj -- tramcar collision1 #bfb ,manufacturing centres of ,great ,britain1 #agd-agg ,medical objections to railway travelling in ,tubes1 #bef1 #bfg ,mercantile motors1 #bbj-bbc ,metropolitan and ,metropolitan ,district ,railways1 ,construction of1 #dh-ea -- -- -- -- ,differences of opinion between the ,new1 #fa1 #fb -- -- -- -- ,chelsea power house of1 #ea-ed -- ,district ,railway1 ,new1 ,driving power of trains on the1 #ed1 #ee -- -- -- rejuvenated1 ,rolling stock of1 #ee-eg -- -- -- ,rejuvenation of1 #ea-ei -- -- -- -- ,stations and tunnels of1 #eg-ei -- ,inner ,circle1 ,rejuvenating the1 #dg-fb -- ,railway1 ,rejuvenation of the1 #ei1 #fj -- railways fifty years ago1 #dg1 #dh ,modern social questions1 #bhd1 #bhe ,mole1 ,tube at work1 ,the1 #ha -- -- -- -- ,objections to1 #hb ,monmouth motor-car accident1 #bfe1 #bff ,mono-railway1 ,ballybunion and ,listowel1 #cf1 #cg -- -- ,behr's1 #ce1 #cf -- -- ,manchester and ,liverpool ,electric ,express1 #dj-df -- railways1 #ca-ch ,motor-car accident at ,barnet1 #bff -- -- at ,chester1 #bff -- -- at ,grimsthorpe1 #bfd1 #bfe -- -- in ,london1 #bff1 #bfg -- -- at ,monmouth1 #bfe1 #bff -- -- at ,rearsby1 #bfe -- -- at ,stroud1 #bfe -- industry1 ,flourishing state of ,british1 #bjd-bjf ,motor-cars1 ,accidents to1 #bfd-bfg -- ,boer ,war and1 #bad1 #bae -- ,curious uses of1 #bba-bbc -- ,description of various1 #bjf -- ,electric1 #bjf1 #bjh -- ,private1 in country1 #bjc -- -- in town1 #bjb1 #bjc -- ,public highways and1 #bbg-bbi -- -- -- ,mr4 ,balfour's views on1 #bbh1 #bbi -- ,speed of1 #bbd-bbf ,motor-cars1 ,speed of1 ,legislation respecting1#bbf -- ,unpopularity of1 #bjj-bjb1 #bbf -- ,usefulness of1 #bbf1 #bbg ,motor-cycles1 #bbj1 #bba ,motor vehicles1 ,agricultural1 #bah1 #bai -- -- at ,aldershot1 ,trials of1 #bae-bag -- -- ,rider ,haggard and1 #bai -- -- ,warfare in1 #bad1 #bag1 #bah ,motors1 ,mercantile1 #bbj-bbc ,motoring1 ,advance of1 #bjb1 #bjc ,municipal tramways in the ,british ,isles1 ,extent of1 #afd-aff ,navigation1 ,electricity applied to1 #bcj-bdi ,new and old order of locomotion1 #a-i -- order of locomotion1 #e-h ,new ,york shallow underground railway1 #aid-aih ,official report upon causes of electric railway accidents1 #bea1 #bec -- -- -- -- tramway accidents1 #bfa1 #bfb ,old and new order of locomotion1 #a-i -- order of locomotion1 #a-e ,omnibuses1 ,advantages of horseless1 #bab -- ,combination 7electricity and petrol71 #baj1 #baa -- ,electric1 #baa1 #bab -- ,existing1 #bjh1 #bji -- ,steam1 #bji1 #baj ,overcrowding and aliens1 #bgi1 #bhj -- and emigration1 #bgh1 #bgi -- ,effect of electric locomotion on1 #bge-bhf -- in ,london1 #bgi-bhd -- -- -- ,facts and statistics relating to1 #bhc1 #bhd -- -- -- ,possible remedy for1 #bhd -- ,what it is like1 #bhj-bhc -- ,what it is not like1 #bge-bgg ,paris shallow underground railway1 #ahh-aij ,parliament1 ,tube ,bills in 7#aijb71 #aaj1 #aaa -- -- -- 7#aijb71 ,authorised1 in1 #aab -- -- -- 7#aijc71 ,postponed1 #aad1 #aae ,piccadilly1 ,associations of1 #abb-abf ,pioneer electric railways1 #aa-cj ,princess ,ida1 ,the1 #bcj-bdi -- -- ,construction of1 #bci-bdc -- -- ,description of1 #bci -- -- ,provisioning of1 #bde1 #bdf -- -- ,recreations and conveniences on board1 #bdc-bde -- -- ,visit to1 #bch1 #bci -- -- ,voyage to the ,cape of1 #bdg-bdi ,private motor-cars in country1 #bjc -- -- in town1 #bjb1 #bjc ,provincial tramways1 #afb-ahe -- rural tramways1 #aga-agd ,public conveyances1 #bjh1 #bac -- highways and motor-cars1 #bbg1 #bbh -- -- -- ,mr4 ,balfour's views on1 #bbh1 #bbi ,questions1 ,modern social1 #bhd1 #bhe ,railway accident on ,liverpool ,overhead ,electric1 #bea-bec -- -- in ,united ,states1 ,electric1 #bea -- breakdown1 ,city and ,south ,london ,electric1 #bee1 #bef -- breakdowns1 ,central ,london ,electric1 #bec-bee -- ,electric1 ,brighton ,beach1 #ac1 #ad -- -- ,central ,london1 #fc-gc -- -- ,city and ,south ,london1 #ae-ah1 #bb1 #bc -- -- ,giant's ,causeway1 #aa-ac -- -- ,great ,northern1 ,brompton1 and ,piccadilly ,circus1 #aag-abg -- -- ,liverpool ,overhead1 #bf-cj -- -- ,manchester and ,liverpool ,express1 #dj-df -- -- ,metropolitan1 #ei1 #fj -- -- -- ,district1 #ea-ei -- -- ,waterloo and ,city1 #bc-bf -- ,light1 ,act of #ahif1 #afb-aff1 #aga1 #agb -- -- -- ,rural tramways effect on1 #afc1 #afd -- ,metropolitan1 ,rejuvenation of1 #ei1 #fj -- -- ,district1 ,rejuvenation of1 #ea-ei -- -- -- ,new1 ,driving power of trains1 #ed1 #ee -- -- -- -- ,power house at ,chelsea1 #ea-ed -- -- -- -- ,rolling ,stock of1 #ee-eg -- -- -- -- ,stations and tunnels of1 #eg-ei -- ,mono1 ,behr's1 #ce1 #cf -- travelling1 ,improvements in1 #b-d -- -- in ,tubes1 ,medical objections to1 #bef1 #beg -- ,tubes1 ,annoyance from vibration in1 #hf-hi -- -- -- -- ,official ,commission upon1 #hg -- -- -- -- -- -- ,report of upon1 #hg1 #hi -- -- ,depths of1 #ha -- -- ,how they are bored1 #gg-ha -- ,tubing1 ,claims for damage by1 #hc-hf ,railways1 ,construction of ,metropolitan and ,metropolitan ,district1 #dh-ea -- ,differences of opinion between the ,metropolitan and ,metropolitan ,district1 #fa1 #fb -- ,electric1 ,accidents on1 #bea-bef -- -- ,remarkable1 #ca-df -- ,existing1 ,effects of electric locomotion upon1 #bgj-bgb -- ,high-speed1 #ch-dj -- ,london's1 ,royal ,commission on1 #aab-aaf1 #adb1 #adc ,railways1 ,london's1 ,selection of ,central authority respecting1 #aae1 #aaf -- ,metropolitan1 fifty years ago1 #dg1 #dh -- ,mono1 #ca-ch -- ,tube1 open for traffic in ,london1 #aaj ,ramsgate tramcar shock1 #bfd ,rearsby motor-car accident1 #bfe ,rider ,haggard and motor vehicles1 #bai ,rural tramways1 #afb-ahe -- -- and local authorities1 #ahb-ahe -- -- ,new order of1 #agi-ahb -- -- ,old order of1 #agc1 #agd -- -- ,provincial1 #aga-agd -- -- ,usefulness of1 #agb1 #agc ,rush for the ,london tramways1 #ach-adj ,shallow underground railway1 ,boston1 #aij-aid -- -- -- ,buda-,pesth1 #aij -- -- -- ,london ,county ,council's design for1 #ahg1 #ahh -- -- -- ,new ,york1 #aid-aih -- -- -- ,paris1 #ahh-aij -- -- -- system1 ,the1 #ahf-aii -- -- -- -- ,board of ,trade report upon1 #aii -- -- -- -- ,its adaptability to ,london1 #aih1 #aii ,ships and steamers1 ,development in size of1 #bcj-bce -- -- ,use of aluminium in building1 #bcd ,signs of the times and electricity1 #bhe ,social results of electric locomotion1 #bgd1 #bge ,speed of motor-cars1 #bbd-bbf -- -- ,legislation respecting1 #bbf ,steam railway locomotives1 #b1 #d -- in railway locomotives1 #d1 #e -- omnibuses1 #bji1 #baj ,storage of electricity1 #bce -- -- ,edison's system1 #bce1 #bcf ,street traffic1 ,improvement in1 arising from electric locomotion1 #bgc1 #bgd ,stroud motor-car accident1 #bfe ,subways and suburban lines1 #aji1 #aaj ,sunderland tramcar shock1 #bfc ,thames ,tunnel and ,brunei's shield1 #gf1 #gg ,touring in the ,tubes 7a sketch71 #ij-ajf ,traction engine used in ,crimean ,war1 #bag ,traffic1 ,london's congested1 #ahf1 #ahg -- -- street1 #ada1 #adb ,tramcar collision at ,manchester1 #bfb -- overturned in ,london1 #bfb1 #bfc -- shock at ,ramsgate1 #bfd -- -- ,sunderland1 #bfc ,tramcars1 ,electric1 ,description of1 #acg1 #ach ,tramway accidents1 #beh-bfc ,tramway tracks1 maintenance of1 #aej1 #aea -- traction1 various methods of electric1 #aca-acg ,tramways1 ,birmingham1 #agj1 #aga -- ,british ,electric ,traction ,co4's1 #ahj-ahb -- ,electric1 ,accident at ,chatham1 #bei1 #bfj -- -- -- ,devonport1 #bfa1 #bfb -- -- -- ,glasgow1 #bfj1 #bfa -- -- -- ,huddersfield1 #beh1 #bei -- -- ,accidents1 ,official report upon causes of1 #bfa1 #bfb -- -- accumulators1 ,haulage of by1 #acg -- -- closed conduit1 ,haulage of by1 #acd -- -- generally1 #abh-adj -- -- ,municipal1 ,extent of1 in ,british ,isles1 #afd-aff -- -- ,objections to1 #beh -- -- open conduit1 ,haulage of by1 #acc1 #acd -- -- overhead trolley1 ,haulage of by1 #acd-acg -- ,glasgow1 #aff-afh -- haulage on1 ,various methods of1 #acj1 #aca -- ,history of1 #abh-acj -- ,introduction of1 by ,g4 ,f4 ,train1 #abh1 #abi -- ,liverpool1 #afh1 #afi -- ,london ,county ,council's system of1 #adf-aej -- -- in the past1 #abi1 #acj -- -- ,united ,company1 #aef-afj -- -- -- -- ,extension to ,hampton ,court1 #aef-aei -- ,london's1 #ada-afa -- ,manchester1 #afi1 #agj -- ,provincial1 #afb-ahe -- -- rural1 #aga1 #agd -- ,rural1 ,effect of ,light ,railways ,act1 #ahif1 on1 #afc1 #afd -- -- ,local authorities and1 #ahb-ahe -- -- ,new order of1 #agi-ahb -- -- ,old order of1 #agc1 #agd ,tramways1 ,rural1 ,usefulness of1 #agb1 #agc -- ,rush for the ,london1 #ach-adj ,trial trip in the ,city and ,south ,london ,railway1 #ai-bb ,tube ,bills in ,parliament 7#aijb71 #aaj1 #aaa -- -- -- -- ,authorised1 in1 #aab -- -- -- 7#aijc71 ,postponed1 #aad1 #aae -- ,london's latest and longest1 #aag-abg -- mole at work1 ,the1 #ha1 #hb -- -- -- ,objections to1 #hb -- ,railway1 ,central ,london1 #fc-gc -- -- ,city and ,south ,london1 #ae-ah1 #bb1 #bc -- -- ,great ,northern1 ,brompton1 and ,piccadilly ,circus1 #aag-abg -- -- ,waterloo and ,city1 #bc-bf -- railways1 ,depths of1 #ha -- -- ,how they are bored1 #gg-ha -- -- open for traffic in ,london1 #aaj ,tubes1 ,london's tangled1 #ajg-aaf -- -- -- ,suggested remedy for1 #ajh1 #aji -- ,railway travelling in1 ,medical objections to1 #bef1 #beg -- ,touring in the 7a sketch71 #ij-ajf ,tubing1 ,claims for damage caused by railway1 #hc-hf ,tubular system1 ,the1 #gd-hi -- -- ,origin of1 #ge1 #gf ,unpopularity of motor-cars1 #bjj-bjb1 #bbf1 #bbg ,usefulness of motor-cars1 #bbf1 #bbg -- of rural tramways1 #agb1 #agc ,vehicles1 ,electric motor1 #bjf1 #bjh -- ,horseless1 electrical and otherwise1 #bjj-bbi -- -- in the past1 #bjc1 #bjd ,vibration of railway ,tubes1 ,annoyance from1 #hf-hi -- -- -- -- -- ,board of ,trade ,committee upon1 #hg -- -- -- -- -- ,report of ,board of ,trade ,committee upon1 #hg-hi ,warfare1 motor vehicles in1 #bad-bah ,waterloo and ,city ,railway1 #bc-bf ,,plymouth ,,william ,,brendon ,,and ,,son ,,printers ,,footnotes3 #a ,this is by no means the oldest steam-engine at work in the kingdom1 the doyen being one built as far back as #agfg1 and used continuously ever since at ,charles ,clifford and ,sons' ,metal-rolling ,mills1 ,birmingham4 ,it is of beam type1 and the oak beam was only replaced at the end of last year by one of iron4 ,in #ahab a new cylinder was put in1 but the rest of the engine remains as it was #acf years ago1 even to the connecting-rod for rolling-mill purposes4 ,it is said that this ,g4,o4,m4 is more economical than many of the modern engines used in the trade4 #b ,the biggest and most powerful locomotive in the world is stated to be the 8,bessemer10 built in #aijj at the ,pittsburg ,locomotive ,works1 ,u4,s4,a41 weighing with its tender #age tons4 ,its height is #af feet from rail to top of smoke-stack1 and it is capable of easily drawing a train of #d1jjj tons at #be miles an hour1 or #h1jjj tons at #ae miles an hour4 ,its hauling power is therefore enormous1 and so it ought to be1 as the diameter of the smallest ring of the boiler is #g feet #aj inches4 ,the nearest approach in size to this monster was constructed in ,great ,britain for the ,santa ,f ,railway in ,argentina1 and weighed #aej tons4 #c ,see ,chapter ,i4 #d ,these have since given place to motor-cars built in ,america4 #e ,report of ,parliamentary ,committee on ,housing of the ,poor1 #aijb4 #f vide ,chapter ,v4 #g ,one of the largest tramway schemes ever promoted is contained in the ,nottinghamshire and ,derbyshire ,tramways ,bill1 which came before ,parliament in ,march last4 ,the routes have a total length of #hj miles1 and pass through a district with a population of close upon three-quarters of a million4 ,the idea is to connect1 by means of electric tramways1 the towns of ,nottingham1 ,long ,eaton1 ,derby1 ,ilkeston1 ,ripley1 ,alfreton1 ,sutton-in-,ashfield1 ,pleasley1 ,mansfield1 ,eastwood1 ,bulwell1 and ,hucknall ,torkard4 #h ,in ,england the motor-car is beginning to play an important part in country parliamentary elections4 ,motor-cars are used by commercial travellers1 and are being tried for the official work of the police about the metropolis4 ,the ,general ,post ,office is also giving motor carriers a trial for letters and parcels2 and motors are utilised for dust-carts4 #i ,a very curious and1 to the superstitious1 significant coincidence was recently reported from ,ireland4 ,last year1 when permission was asked to repair the road between ,newcastle and ,kilcoole1 a member of the rural council opposed1 declaring that it was good enough for farmers1 and they did not want to encourage 8galoots in motor-cars0 and 8go-boys on bicycles0 in their neighbourhood4 ,this councillor was1 not long since1 killed through the wheel of his cart catching in one of the ruts complained of6 #aj ,both ,brunel and ,scott ,russell1 the eminent shipbuilder1 argued that from scientific theory and actual experience there need be no limit to the size of a ship when constructed on the tubular principle1 except that which the quality of the material imposed4 #aa ,the ,hamburg-,american ,line's luxurious yacht ,prinzessin ,victoria ,luise has a splendidly-equipped gymnasium1 where the passengers can indulge in horse-riding1 cycling1 and rowing1 on the various apparatus installed4 ,on one of the decks is a first-class 8cricket-pitch10 a tennis-court1 and an archery ground4 #ab ,a heater devised by ,mr4 ,e4 ,g4 ,rivers1 chief electrical engineer to the ,office of ,works1 brings the problem of electric heating for domestic purposes well within the bounds of practical utility4 ,it renders possible the employment of electricity for heating buildings1 for cooking1 and for other uses in a manner hitherto impossible4 ,mr4 ,rivers is engaged in developing his invention in the direction of applying it to cooking-ranges1 and expects very shortly to adapt it to that use4 ,typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber3 safeguard against breaksdown safeguard against breakdowns pg #h ,motor tricycles and bicylces ,motor tricycles and bicycles pg #bje