,transcriber's ,notes ,this e-text is based on #8,the ,ethics of ,diet1' from #ahhc4 ,inconsistent and uncommon spelling and hyphenation have been retained2 punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected4 ,quotations1 particularly in languages other than ,english1 have not been changed4 ,some footnote anchors are missing in the original text4 ,they have been restored in the position where they make sense on the page in question4 ,the succession of chapter titles in the table of contents has been rearranged for chapters ,,xliii4-,,xlvii4 to match the order of chapters printed in the text4 ,neither the author ,louis ,lmery1 referred to in the index1 nor any of his works could be located in the text2 the reference has been retained1 though4 ,passages in italics have been surrounded by underscores2 small capitals have been converted to ,,uppercase ,,letters4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,diet4 ,a ,catena ,,of ,,authorities ,,deprecatory ,,of ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,flesh-,,eating4 ,,by ,,howard ,,williams1 ,m4,a4 8,man by ,nature was never made to be a carnivorous animal1 nor is he armed at all for prey and rapine40 --,ray4 8,hommes1 soyez humains6 c'est votre premier devoir4 ,quelle sagesse y-a-t-il pour vous hors de l'humanit80 --,rousseau4 8,der ,mensch ist was er isst40 --,german ,proverb4 ,,london3 ,f4 ,,pitman1 #bj1 ,,paternoster ,,row2 ,,john ,,heywool1 #aa1 ,,paternoster ,,buildings1 ,,manchester3 ,,john ,,heywood1 ,,deansgate ,,and ,,ridgefield4 #ahhc4 ,all ,rights ,reserved4 ,,contents4 ,,chap4 ,,page4 ,preface i4-vi4 ,i4 ,hesiod #a ,,ii4 ,pythagoras #d ,,iii4 ,plato #ab ,,iv4 ,ovid #bc ,v4 ,seneca #bg ,,vi4 ,plutarch #da ,,vii4 ,tertullian #ea ,,viii4 ,clement of ,alexandria #ef ,,ix4 ,porphyry #fc ,x4 ,chrysostom #gf ,,xi4 ,cornaro #hc ,,xii4 ,thomas ,more #ij ,,xiii4 ,montaigne #id ,,xiv4 ,gassendi #ajj ,,xv4 ,ray #ajf ,,xvi4 ,evelyn #ajg ,,xvii4 ,mandeville #aac ,,xviii4 ,gay #aae ,,xix4 ,cheyne #abj ,,xx4 ,pope #abh ,,xxi4 ,thomson #acd ,,xxii4 ,hartley #ach ,,xxiii4 ,chesterfield #aci ,,xxiv4 ,voltaire #ada ,,xxv4 ,haller #aef ,,xxvi4 ,cocchi #aeg ,,xxvii4 ,rousseau #aei ,,xxviii4 ,linn #afd ,,xxix4 ,buffon #aff ,,xxx4 ,hawkesworth #afh ,,xxxi4 ,paley #afi ,,xxxii4 ,st4 ,pierre #agc ,,xxxiii4 ,oswald #agi ,,xxxiv4 ,hufeland #ahd ,,xxxv4 ,ritson #ahe ,,xxxvi4 ,nicholson #aij ,,xxxvii4 ,abernethy #aif ,,xxxviii4 ,lambe #aih ,,xxxix4 ,newton #bje ,,xl4 ,glezs #bjh ,,xli4 ,shelley #bah ,,xlii4 ,phillips #bce ,,xliii4 ,lamartine #bde ,,xliv4 ,michelet #beb ,,xlv4 ,cowherd #beh ,,xlvi4 ,metcalfe #bfj ,,xlvii4 ,graham #bfd ,,xlviii4 ,struve #bga ,,xlix4 ,daumer #bhb ,l4 ,schopenhauer #bhf ,,appendix4 ,i4 ,hesiod #bic ,,ii4 ,the ,golden ,verses #bid ,,iii4 ,the ,buddhist ,canon #bie ,,iv4 ,ovid #bii ,v4 ,musonius #cjc ,,vi4 ,lessio #cje ,,vii4 ,cowley #cjh ,,viii4 ,tryon #cji ,,ix4 ,hecquet #cad ,x4 ,pope #cah ,,xi4 ,chesterfield #cbj ,,xii4 ,jenyns #cbb ,,xiii4 ,pressavin #cbd ,,xiv4 ,schiller #cbf ,,xv4 ,bentham #cbg ,,xvi4 ,sinclair #cbi ,,xvii4 ,byron #cca ,,preface4 ,at the present day1 in all parts of the civilised world1 the once orthodox practices of cannibalism and human sacrifice universally are regarded with astonishment and horror4 ,the history of human development in the past1 and the slow but sure progressive movements in the present time1 make it absolutely certain that1 with the same astonishment and horror will the now prevailing habits of living by the slaughter and suffering of the inferior species--habits different in degree rather than in kind from the old-world barbarism--be regarded by an age more enlightened and more refined than ours4 ,of such certainty no one1 whose beau idal of civilisation is not a ,state crowded with jails1 penitentiaries1 reformatories1 and asylums1 and who does not measure ,progress by the imposing but delusive standard of an ostentatious ,materialism--by the statistics of commerce1 by the amount of wealth accumulated in the hands of a small part of the community1 by the increase of populations which are mainly recruited from the impoverished classes1 by the number and popularity of churches and chapels1 or even by the number of school buildings and lecture halls1 or the number and variety of charitable institutions throughout the country--will pretend to have any reasonable doubt4 ,in searching the records of this nineteenth century--the minutes and proceedings of innumerable learned and scientific societies1 especially those of ,social and ,sanitary ,science ,congresses--our more enlightened descendants 7let us suppose1 of the #bjjast century of the ,christian era71 it is equally impossible to doubt1 will observe with amazement that1 amid all the immeasurable talking and writing upon social and moral science1 there is discoverable little or no trace of serious inquiry in regard to a subject which the more thoughtful ,few1 in all times1 have agreed in placing at the very foundation of all public or private well-being4 ,nor1 probably1 will the astonishment diminish when1 further1 it is found that1 amid all the vast mass of theologico-religious publications1 periodical or other 7supposing1 indeed1 any considerable proportion of them to survive to that age71 no consciousness appeared to exist of the reality of such virtues as ,humaneness and ,universal ,compassion1 or of any obligation upon the writers to exhibit them to the serious consideration of the world3 and this1 notwithstanding the contemporary existence of a long-established association of humanitarian reformers who1 though few in number1 and not in the position of dignity and power which compels the attention of mankind1 none the less by every means at their disposal--upon the platform and in the press1 by pamphlets and treatises appealing at once to physical science1 to reason1 to conscience1 to the authority of the most earnest thinkers1 to the logic of facts--had been protesting against the cruel barbarisms1 the criminal waste1 and the demoralising influences of ,butchery2 and demonstrating by their own example1 and by that of vast numbers of persons in the most different parts of the globe1 the entire practicability of ,humane ,living4 ,when1 further1 it is revealed in the popular literature1 as well as in the scientific books and journals of this nineteenth century1 that the innocent victims of the luxurious gluttony of the richer classes in all communities1 subjected as they were to every conceivable kind of brutal atrocity1 were yet1 by the science of the time1 acknowledged1 without controversy1 to be beings essentially of the same physical and mental organisation with their human devourers2 to be as susceptible to physical suffering and pain as they2 to be endowed--at all events1 a very large proportion of them--with reasoning and mental faculties in very high degrees1 and far from destitute of moral perceptions1 the amazement may well be conjectured to give way to incredulity1 that such knowledge and such practices could possibly co-exist4 ,that the outward signs of all this gross barbarism--the entire or mangled bodies of the victims of the ,table--were accustomed to be put up for public exhibition in every street and thoroughfare1 without manifestations of disgust or abhorrence from the passers-by--even from those pretending to most culture or fashion--such outward proofs of extraordinary insensibility on the part of all classes to finer feeling may1 nevertheless1 scarcely provoke so much astonishment from an enlightened posterity as the fact that every public gathering of the governors or civil dignitaries of the country2 every celebration of ecclesiastical or religious festivals appeared to be made the special occasion of the sacrifice and suffering of a greater number and variety than usual of their harmless fellow-beings2 and all this often in the near neighbourhood of starving thousands1 starving from want of the merest necessaries of life4 ,happily1 however1 there will be visible to the philosopher of the ,future signs of the dawn of the better day in this last quarter of the nineteenth century4 ,he will find1 in the midst of the general barbarism of life1 and in spite of the prevailing indifferentism and infidelity to truth1 that there was a gradually increasing number of dissenters and protesters2 that already1 at the beginning of that period1 there were associations of dietary reformers--offshoots from the ,english parent society1 founded in #ahdg--successively established in ,america1 in ,germany1 in ,switzerland1 in ,france1 and1 finally1 in ,italy2 small indeed in numbers1 but strenuous in efforts to spread their principles and practice2 that in some of the larger cities1 both in this country and in other parts of ,europe1 there had also been set on foot ,reformed ,restaurants1 which supplied to considerable numbers of persons at once better food and better knowledge4 ,if the truth or importance of any ,principle or ,feeling is to be measured1 not by its popularity1 indeed--not by the quod ab omnibus--but by the extent of its recognition by the most refined and the most earnest thinkers in all the most enlightened times--by the quod a sapientibus--the value of no principle has better been established than that which insists upon the vital importance of a radical reform in ,diet4 ,the number of the protesters against the barbarism of human living who1 at various periods in the known history of our world1 have more or less strongly denounced it1 is a fact which cannot fail to arrest the attention of the most superficial inquirer4 ,but a still more striking characteristic of this large body of protestation is the variety of the witnesses4 ,gautama ,buddha and ,pythagoras1 ,plato and ,epikurus1 ,seneca and ,ovid1 ,plutarch and ,clement 7of ,alexandria71 ,porphyry and ,chrysostom1 ,gassendi and ,mandeville1 ,milton and ,evelyn1 ,newton and ,pope1 ,ray and ,linn1 ,tryon and ,hecquet1 ,cocchi and ,cheyne1 ,thomson and ,hartley1 ,chesterfield and ,ritson1 ,voltaire and ,swedenborg1 ,wesley and ,rousseau1 ,franklin and ,howard1 ,lambe and ,pressavin1 ,shelley and ,byron1 ,hufeland and ,graham1 ,glezs and ,phillips1 ,lamartine and ,michelet1 ,daumer and ,struve--such are some of the more or less famous1 or meritorious1 names in the ,past to be found among the prophets of ,reformed ,dietetics1 who1 in various degrees of abhorrence1 have shrunk from the rgime of blood4 ,of many of those who have revolted from it1 it may almost be said that they revolted in spite of themselves--in spite1 that is to say1 of the most cherished prejudices1 traditions1 and sophisms of ,education4 ,if we seek the historical origin of anti-kreophagist philosophy1 it is to the ,pythagorean ,school1 in the later development of the ,platonic philosophy especially1 that the western world is indebted for the first systematic enunciation of the principle1 and inculcation of the practice1 of anti-materialistic living--the first historical protest against the practical materialism of every-day eating and drinking4 ,how ,christianity1 which1 in its first origin1 owes so much to1 and was so deeply imbued with1 on the one hand1 ,essenian1 and1 on the other1 ,platonic principles1 to the incalculable loss of all the succeeding ages1 has failed to propagate and develope this true and vital spiritualism--in spite1 too1 of the convictions of some of its earliest and best exponents1 an ,origen or ,clemens1 seems to be explained1 in the first instance1 by the hostility of the triumphant and orthodox ,church to the 8,gnostic0 element which1 in its various shapes1 long predominated in the ,christian ,faith1 and which at one time seemed destined to be the ruling sentiment in the ,church2 and1 secondly1 by the natural growth of materialistic principles and practice in proportion to the growth of ecclesiastical wealth and power2 for1 although the virtues of 8asceticism10 derived from ,essenism and ,platonism1 obtained a high reputation in the orthodox ,church1 they were relegated and appropriated to the ecclesiastical order 7theoretically at least71 or rather to certain departments of it4 ,such was what may be termed the sectarian cause of this fatal abandonment of the more spiritual elements of the new ,faith1 operating in conjunction with the corrupting influences of wealth and power4 ,as regards the humanitarian reason of anti-materialistic living1 the failure and seeming incapacity of ,christianity to recognise this1 the most significant of all the underlying principles of reformation in ,diet--the cause is not far to seek4 ,it lay1 essentially1 in the 7theoretical7 depreciation of1 and contempt for1 present as compared with future existence4 ,all the fatal consequence of this theoretical teaching 7which yet has had no extensive influence1 even in the way it might have been supposed to act beneficially71 in regard to the status and rights of the non-human species1 has been well indicated by a distinguished authority4 8,it should seem10 writes ,dr4 ,arnold1 8as if the primitive ,christians1 by laying so much stress upon a future life1 and placing the lower beings out of the pale of hope of extended existence1 placed them at the same time out of the pale of sympathy1 and thus laid the foundation for this utter disregard of other animals in the light of our fellow-beings4 ,their definition of ,virtue was the same as that of ,paley--that it was good performed for the sake of ensuring everlasting happiness2 which1 of course1 excluded all the so-called brute creatures40#a ,hence it comes about that ,humanitarianism and1 in particular1 ,humane ,dietetics1 finds no place whatever in the religionism or pseudo-philosophy of the whole of the ages distinguished as the ,medival--that is to say1 from about the fifth or sixth to the sixteenth century--and1 in fact1 there existed not only a negative indifferentism1 but even a positive tendency towards the still further depreciation and debasement of the extra-human races1 of which the great doctor of medival theology1 ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas 7in his famous ,summa ,totius ,theologi--the standard text book of the orthodox church71 is especially the exponent4 ,after the revival of reason and learning in the sixteenth century1 to ,montaigne1 who1 following ,plutarch and ,porphyry1 reasserted the rights of the non-human species in general2 and to ,gassendi1 who reasserted the right of innocent beings to life1 in particular1 among philosophers1 belongs the supreme merit of being the first to dispel the long-dominant prejudices1 ignorance1 and selfishness of the common-place teachers of ,morals and ,religion4 ,for orthodox ,protestantism1 in spite of its high-sounding name1 so far at least as its theology is concerned1 has done little in protesting against the infringement of the moral rights of the most helpless and the most harmless of all the members of the great commonwealth of ,living ,beings4 ,the principles of ,dietary ,reform are widely and deeply founded upon the teaching of 7#a7 ,comparative ,anatomy and ,physiology2 7#b7 ,humaneness1 in the two-fold meaning of ,refinement of ,living1 and of what is commonly called 8,humanity20 7#c7 ,national ,economy2 7#d7 ,social ,reform2 7#e7 ,domestic and ,individual ,economy2 7#f7 ,hygienic ,philosophy1 all of which are amply displayed in the following pages4 ,various minds are variously affected by the same arguments1 and the force of each separate one will appear to be of different weight according to the special bias of the inquirer4 ,the accumulated weight of all1 for those who are able to form a calm and impartial judgment1 cannot but cause the subject to appear one which demands and requires the most serious attention4 ,to the present writer1 the humanitarian argument appears to be of double weight2 for it is founded upon the irrefragable principles of ,justice and ,compassion--universal ,justice and universal ,compassion--the two principles most essential in any system of ethics worthy of the name4 ,that this argument seems to have so limited an influence--even with persons otherwise humanely disposed1 and of finer feeling in respect to their own1 and1 also1 in a general way1 to other species--can be attributed only to the deadening power of custom and habit1 of traditional prejudice1 and educational bias4 ,if they could be brought to reflect upon the simple ethics of the question1 divesting their minds of these distorting media1 it must appear in a light very different from that in which they accustom themselves to consider it4 ,this subject1 however1 has been abundantly insisted upon with eloquence and ability much greater than the present writer has any pretensions to4 ,it is necessary to add here1 upon this particular branch of the subject1 only one or two observations4 ,the popular objections to the disuse of the flesh-diet may be classified under the two heads of fallacies and subterfuges4 ,not a few candid inquirers1 doubtless1 there are who sincerely allege certain specious objections to the humanitarian argument1 which have a considerable amount of apparent force2 and these fallacies seem alone to deserve a serious examination4 ,in the general constitution of life on our globe1 suffering and slaughter1 it is objected1 are the normal and constant condition of things--the strong relentlessly and cruelly preying upon the weak in endless succession--and1 it is asked1 why1 then1 should the human species form an exception to the general rule1 and hopelessly fight against ,nature8 ,to this it is to be replied1 first3 that1 although1 too certainly1 an unceasing and cruel internecine warfare has been waged upon this atomic globe of ours from the first origin of ,life until now1 yet1 apparently1 there has been going on a slow1 but not uncertain1 progress towards the ultimate elimination of the crueller phenomena of ,life2 that1 if the carnivora form a very large proportion of ,living ,beings1 yet the non-carnivora are in the majority2 and1 lastly1 what is still more to the purpose1 that ,man1 most evidently1 by his origin and physical organisation1 belongs not to the former but to the latter2 besides and beyond which1 that in proportion as he boasts himself--and as he is seen at his best 7and only so far7 he boasts himself with justness--to be the highest of all the gradually ascending and co-ordinated series of ,living ,beings1 so is he1 in that proportion1 bound to prove his right to the supreme place and power1 and his asserted claims to moral as well as mental superiority1 by his conduct4 ,in brief1 in so far only as he proves himself to be the beneficent ruler and pacificator--and not the selfish ,tyrant--of the world1 can he have any just title to the moral pre-eminence4 ,if the philosophical fallacy 7the eidolon specs7 thus vanishes under a near examination2 the next considerable objection1 upon a superficial view1 not wholly unnatural1 that1 if slaughtering for food were to be abolished1 there would be a failure of manufacturing material for the ordinary uses of social life1 is1 in reality1 based upon a contracted apprehension of facts and phenomena4 ,for it is a reasonable and sufficient reply1 that the whole history of civilisation1 as it has been a history of the slow but1 upon the whole1 continuous advance of the human race in the arts of ,refinement1 so1 also1 has it proved that demand creates supply--that it is the absence of the former alone which permits the various substances1 no less than the various forces1 yet latent in ,nature to remain uninvestigated and unused4 ,nor can any thoughtful person1 who knows anything of the history of ,science and ,discovery1 doubt that the resources of ,nature and the mechanical ingenuity of man are all but boundless4 ,already1 notwithstanding the absence of any demand for them1 excepting within the ranks of anti-kreophagists1 various non-animal substances have been proposed1 in some cases used1 as substitutes for the prepared skins of the victims of the ,slaughter-house2 and that1 in the event of a general demand for such substitutes1 there would spring up an active competition among inventors and manufacturers in this direction there is not the least reason for doubt4 ,besides1 it must be taken into account that the process of conversion of the flesh-eating 7that is to say1 of the richer7 sections of communities to the bloodless diet will1 only too certainly1 be very slow and gradual4 ,as for the popular--perhaps the most popular--fallacy 7the eidolon fori71 which exhibits little of philosophical accuracy1 or1 indeed1 of common reason1 involved in the questions3 8,what is to become of the animals80 and1 8,why were they created1 if they are not intended for ,slaughter and for human food80--it is scarcely possible to return a grave reply4 ,the brief answer1 of course1 is--that those variously-tortured beings have been brought into existence1 and their numbers maintained1 by selfish human invention only4 ,cease to breed for the butcher1 and they will cease to exist beyond the numbers necessary for lawful and innocent use2 they were 8created0 indeed1 but they have been created by man1 since he has vastly modified and1 by no means1 for the benefit of his helpless dependants1 the natural form and organisation of the original types1 the parent stocks of the domesticated ,ox1 ,sheep1 and ,swine1 now very remote from the native grandeur and vigour of the ,bison1 the ,mouflon1 and the wild ,boar4 ,there remains one fallacy of quite recent origin4 ,an association has been formed--somewhat late in the day1 it must be allowed--consisting of a few sanitary reformers1 who put forward1 also1 humane reasons1 for 8,reform of the ,slaughter-,houses10 one of the secondary propositions of which is1 that the savagery and brutality of the ,butchers' trade could be obviated by the partial or general use of less lingering and revolting modes of killing than those of the universal knife and axe4 ,no humanitarian will refuse to welcome any sign1 however feeble1 of the awakening of the conscience of the ,community1 or rather of the more thoughtful part of it1 to the paramount obligations of common ,humanity1 and of the recognition of the claims of the subject species to some consideration and to some compassion1 if not of the recognition of the claims of ,justice2 or will refuse to welcome any sort of proposition to lessen the enormous sum total of atrocities to which the lower animals are constantly subjected by human avarice1 gluttony1 and brutality4 ,but1 at the same time1 no earnest humanitarian can accept the sophism1 that an attempt at a mitigation of cruelty and suffering which1 fundamentally1 are unnecessary1 ought to satisfy the educated conscience or reason4 ,vainly do the more feeling persons1 who happen to have some scruples of conscience in respect to the sanction of the barbarous practice of ,butchering1 think to abolish the cruelties1 while still indulging the appetite for the flesh luxuries1 of the ,table4 ,the vastness of the demands upon the butchers--demands constantly increasing with the pecuniary resources of the nation1 and stimulated by the pernicious example of the wealthy classes2 the immensity of the traffic in 8live stock0 7as they complacently are termed7 by rail and by ship1#b the frightful horrors of which it has often been attempted1 though inadequately1 to describe2 the utter impossibility of efficiently supervising and regulating such traffic and such slaughter--even supposing the desire to do so to exist to any considerable extent--and the inveterate indifferentism of the ,legislature and of the influential classes1 sufficiently declare the futility of such expectation and of the indulgence of such comfortable hope4 ,it is1 in brief1 as with other attempts at patching and mending1 or at applying salves to a hopelessly festered and gangrened wound1 merely to put the 8flattering unction0 of compromise to the conscience4 8,diseases1 desperate grown1 by desperate appliances are relieved1 or not at all20 the foul stream of cruelty must be stopped at its source2 the fountain and origin of the evil--the ,slaughter-,house itself--must be abolished4 ,delendum est ,macellum4 ,it has been well said by one of the most eloquent of the prophets of ,humane ,living1 that there are steps on the way to the summit of ,dietetic ,reform1 and1 if only one step be taken1 yet that that single step will be not without importance and without influence in the world4 ,the step1 which leaves for ever behind it the barbarism of slaughtering our fellow-beings1 the ,mammals and ,birds1 is1 it is superfluous to add1 the most important and most influential of all4 ,as for the plan of the present work1 living writers and authorities--numerous and important as they are--necessarily have been excluded4 ,its bulk1 already extended beyond the original conception of its limits1 otherwise would have been swollen to a considerably larger size4 ,for its entire execution1 as well as for the collection and arrangement of the matter1 the compiler alone is responsible2 and1 conscious that it must fall short of the completeness at which he aimed1 he can pretend only to the merits of careful research and an eclectic impartiality4 ,to the fact that the work already has appeared in the pages of the ,dietetic ,reformer1 to which it has been contributed periodically during a space of time extending over five years1 is owing some repetition of matter1 which also1 necessarily1 is due to the nature of the subject4 ,errors of inadvertence1 it is hoped1 will be found to be few and inconsiderable4 ,for the rest1 he leaves the ,ethics of ,diet to the candour of the critics and of the public4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,diet4 ,i4 ,,hesiod4 ,,eighth ,,century ,b4,c4 ,,hesiod--the poet par excellence of peace and of agriculture1 as ,homer is of war and of the 8heroic0 virtues--was born at ,ascra1 a village in ,botia1 a part of ,hellas1 which1 in spite of its proverbial fame for beef-eating and stupidity1 gave birth to three other eminent persons--,pindar1 the lyric poet1 ,epameinondas1 the great military genius and statesman1 and ,plutarch1 the most amiable moralist of antiquity4 ,the little that is known of the life of ,hesiod is derived from his ,works and ,days4 ,from this celebrated poem we learn that his father was an emigrant from olia1 the ,greek portion of the north-west corner of the ,lesser ,asia2 that his elder brother1 ,perses1 had1 by collusion with the judges1 deprived him of his just inheritance2 that after this he settled at ,orchomenos1 a neighbouring town--in the pre-historical ages a powerful and renowned city4 ,this is all that is certainly known of the author of the ,works and ,days1 and ,the ,theogony4 ,of the genuineness of the former there has been little or no doubt2 that of the latter--at least in part--has been called in question4 ,besides these two chief works1 there is extant a piece entitled ,the ,shield of ,herakles1 in imitation of the ,homeric ,shield 7,iliad xviii47 ,the ,catalogues of ,women--a poem commemorating the heroines beloved by the gods1 and who were thus the ancestresses of the long line of heroes1 the reputed founders of the ruling families in ,hellas--is lost4 ,the charm of the ,works and ,days--the first didactic poem extant--is its apparent earnestness of purpose and simplicity of style4 ,the author's frequent references to1 and rebuke of1 legal injustices--his sense of which had been quickened by the iniquitous decisions of the judges already referred to--are as nave as they are pathetic4 ,of the ,theogony1 the subject1 as the title implies1 is the history of the generation and successive dynasties of the ,olympian divinities--the objects of ,greek worship4 ,it may1 indeed1 be styled the ,hellenic ,bible1 and1 with the ,homeric ,epics1 it formed the principal theology of the old ,greeks1 and of the later ,romans or ,latins4 ,the 8,promium10 or introductory verses--in which the ,muses are represented as appearing to their votary at the foot of the sacred ,helicon1 and consecrating him to the work of revealing the divine mysteries by the gift of a laurel-branch--and the following verses1 describing their return to the celestial mansions1 where they hymn the omnipotent ,father1 are very charming4 ,to the long description of the tremendous struggle of the warring gods and ,titans1 fighting for the possession of heaven1 ,milton was indebted for his famous delineation of a similar conflict4 ,the ,works and ,days1 in striking contrast with the military spirit of the ,homeric epic1 deals in plain and simple verse with questions ethical1 political1 and economic4 ,the ethical portion exhibits much true feeling1 and a conviction of the evils brought upon the earth by the triumph of injustice and of violence4 ,the well-known passages in which the poet figures the gradual declension and degeneracy of men from the golden to the present iron race1 are the remote original of all the later pleasing poetic fictions of golden ages and times of innocence4 ,according to ,hesiod1 there are two everlastingly antagonistic agents at work on the ,earth2 the spirit of war and fighting1 and the peaceful spirit of agriculture and mechanical industry4 ,and in the apostrophe in which he bitterly reproaches his unrighteous judges-- 8,o fools6 they know not1 in their selfish soul1 ,how far the half is better than the whole3 ,the good which ,asphodel and ,mallows yield1 ,the feast of herbs1 the dainties of the field0-- he seems to have a profound conviction of the truth taught by ,vegetarianism--that luxurious living is the fruitful parent of selfishness in its manifold forms4#c ,that ,hesiod regarded that diet which depends mainly or entirely upon agriculture and upon fruits as the highest and best mode of life is sufficiently evident in the following verses descriptive of the 8,golden ,age0 life3-- 8,like gods1 they lived with calm1 untroubled mind1 ,free from the toil and anguish of our kind1 ,nor did decrepid age mis-shape their frame4 99 99 99 99 99 ,pleased with earth's unbought feasts3 all ills removed1 ,wealthy in flocks1#d and of the ,blest beloved1 ,death1 as a slumber1 pressed their eyelids down3 ,all ,nature's common blessings were their own4 ,the life-bestowing tilth its fruitage bore1 ,a full1 spontaneous1 and ungrudging store4 ,they with abundant goods1 'midst quiet lands1 ,all willing1 shared the gatherings of their hands4 ,when ,earth's dark breast had closed this race around1 ,great ,zeus1 as demons1#e raised them from the ground2 ,earth-hovering spirits1 they their charge began-- ,the ministers of good1 and guards of men4 ,mantled with mist of darkling air they glide1 ,and compass ,earth1 and pass on every side2 ,and mark1 with earnest vigilance of eyes1 ,where just deeds live1 or crooked ways arise1 ,and shower the wealth of seasons from above40#f ,the second race--the 8,silver ,age0--inferior to the first and wholly innocent people1 were1 nevertheless1 guiltless of bloodshed in the preparation of their food2 nor did they offer sacrifices--in the poet's judgment1 it appears1 a damnable error4 ,for the third--the 8,brazen ,age0--it was reserved to inaugurate the feast of blood3-- 8,strong with the ashen spear1 and fierce and bold1 ,their thoughts were bent on violence alone1 ,the deed of battle1 and the dying groan4 ,bloody their feasts1 with wheaten food unblessed40 ,according to ,hesiod1 who is followed by the later poets1 the 8immortals inhabiting the ,olympian mansions0 feast ever on the pure and bloodless food of ,ambrosia1 and their drink is ,nectar1 which may be taken to be a sort of refined dew4 ,he represents the divine ,muses of ,helicon1 who inspire his song1 as reproaching the shepherds1 his neighbours1 8that tend the flocks10 with the possession of 8mere fleshly appetites40 ,ovid1 amongst the ,latins1 is the most charming painter of the innocence of the 8,golden ,age40 ,amongst our own poets1 ,pope1 ,thomson1 and ,shelley--the last as a prophet of the future and actual rather than the poet of a past and fictitious age of innocence--have contributed to embellish the fable of the ,past and the hope of the ,future4 ,,ii4 ,,pythagoras4 #egj-dgj ,b4,c4 8,a greater good never came1 nor ever will come1 to mankind1 than that which was imparted by the gods through ,pythagoras40 ,such is the expression of enthusiastic admiration of one of his biographers4 ,to those who are unacquainted with the historical development of ,greek thought and ,greek philosophy it may seem to be merely the utterance of the partiality of hero-worship4 ,those1 on the other hand1 who know anything of that most important history1 and of the influence1 direct or indirect1 of ,pythagoras upon the most intellectual and earnest minds of his countrymen--in particular upon ,plato and his followers1 and through them upon the later ,jewish and upon very early ,christian ideas--will acknowledge1 at least1 that the name of the prophet of ,samos is that of one of the most important and influential factors in the production and progress of higher human thought4 ,there is a true and there is a false hero-worship4 ,the latter1 whatever it may have done to preserve the blind and unreasoning subservience of mankind1 has not tended to accelerate the progress of the world towards the attainment of truth4 ,the old-world occupants of the popular ,pantheon--8the patrons of mankind1 gods and sons of gods1 destroyers rightlier called and plagues of men0--are indeed fast losing1 if they have not entirely lost1 their ancient credit1 but their vacant places have yet to be filled by the representatives of the most exalted ideals of humanity4 ,whenever1 in the place of the representatives of mere physical and mental force1 the true heroes shall be enthroned1 amongst the moral luminaries and pioneers who have contributed to lessen the thick darkness of ignorance1 barbarism1 and selfishness1 the name of the first western apostle of humanitarianism and of spiritualism must assume a prominent position4 ,it is a natural and legitimate curiosity which leads us to wish to know1 with something of certainty and fulness1 the outer and inner life of the master spirits of our race4 ,unfortunately1 the personality of many of the most interesting and illustrious of them is of a vague and shadowy kind4 ,but when we reflect that little more is known of the personal life of ,shakspere than of that of ,pythagoras or ,plato--not to mention other eminent names--our surprise is lessened that1 in an age long preceding the discovery of printing1 the records of a life even so important and influential as that of the founder of ,pythagoreanism are meagre and scanty4 ,the earliest account of his teaching is given by ,philolaus 78,lover of the ,people10 an auspicious name7 of ,tarentum1 who1 born about forty or fifty years after the death of his master--was thus contemporary with ,sokrates and ,plato4 ,his ,pythagorean ,system1 in three books1 was so highly esteemed by ,plato that he is said to have given #djj or #ejj for a copy1 and to have incorporated the principal part of it in his ,timus4 ,sharing the fate of so many other valuable products of the ,greek genius1 it has long since perished4 ,our remaining authorities for the ,life are ,diogenes of ,laerte1 ,porphyry1 one of the most erudite writers of any age1 and ,iamblichus4 ,of these1 the biography of the last is the fullest1 if not the most critical2 that of ,porphyry wants the beginning and the end2 whilst of the ten books of ,iamblichus ,on the ,pythagorean ,sect 7 71 of which only five remain1 the first was devoted to the life of the founder4 ,diogenes1 who seems to have been of the school of ,epikurus1 belongs to the second1 while ,porphyry and ,iamblichus1 the well-known exponents of ,neo-,platonism1 wrote in the third and fourth centuries of our era4 ,pythagoras was born in the ,island of ,samos1 somewhere about the year #egj ,b4,c4 ,at some period in his youth1 ,polykrates--celebrated by the fine story of ,herodotus--had acquired the tyranny of ,samos1 and his rule1 like that of most of his compeers1 has deserved the stigma of the modern meaning of the ,greek equivalent for princely and monarchical government4 ,the future philosopher1 we are told1 unable to descend to the ordinary arts of sycophancy and dissimulation1 left his country1 and entered1 like the ,sirian philosopher of ,voltaire1 upon an extensive course of travels--extensive for the age in which he lived4 ,how far he actually travelled is uncertain4 ,he visited ,egypt1 the great nurse of the old-world science1 and ,syria1 and it is not impossible that he may have penetrated eastwards as far as ,babylon1 perhaps as the captive of the recent conqueror of ,egypt--the ,persian ,kambyses4 ,it was in the ,east1 and particularly in ,egypt1 that he probably imbibed the dogma of the immortality of the soul1 or1 as he chose to represent it to the public1 that of the metempsychosis--a fancy widely spread in the eastern theologies4 ,it has been asserted that he had already abandoned the orthodox diet at the age of nineteen or twenty4 ,if this was actually the fact1 he has the additional merit of having adopted the higher life by his own original force of mind and refinement of feeling4 ,if not1 he may have derived the most characteristic as well as the most important of his teachings from the ,egyptians or ,persians1 or1 through them1 even from the ,hindus--the most religiously strict abstainers from the flesh of animals4 ,it is remarkable that the two great apostles of abstinence--,pythagoras and ,sakya-,muni1 or ,buddha--were almost contemporaries2 nor is it impossible that the ,greek may1 in whatever way1 have become acquainted with the sublime tenets of the ,hindu prophet1 who had lately seceded from ,brahminism1 the established sacerdotal and exclusive religion of the ,peninsula1 and promulgated his great revelation--until then new to the world--that religion1 at least his religion1 was to be 8a religion of mercy to all beings10 human and non-human4#g ,as the natural and necessary result of his pure living1 we are told by ,iamblichus that 8his sleep was brief1 his soul vigilant and pure1 and his body confirmed in a state of perfect and invariable health40 ,he appears to have passed the period of middle life when he returned to ,samos1 where his reputation had preceded him4 ,either1 however1 finding his countrymen hopelessly debased by the corrupting influence of despotism1 or believing that he would find a better field for the propagandism of his new revelation1 he not long afterwards set out for ,southern ,italy1 then known as 8,great ,greece10 by reason of its numerous ,greek colonies1 or1 rather1 autonomous communities4 ,at ,krotona his fame and eloquence soon attracted1 it seems1 a select if not numerous auditory2 and there he founded his famous society--the first historical anti-flesh-eating association in the western world--the prototype1 in some respects1 of the ascetic establishments of ,greek and ,catholic ,christendom4 ,it consisted of about three hundred young men belonging to the most influential families of the city and neighbourhood4 ,it was the practice of the ,egyptian priestly caste and of other exclusive institutions to reserve their better ideas 7of a more satisfactory sort1 at all events1 than the system of theology that was promulgated to the mass of the community71 into which only privileged persons were initiated4 ,this esoteric method1 which under the name of the mysteries has exercised the learned ingenuity of modern writers--who have1 for the most part1 vainly laboured to penetrate the obscurity enveloping the most remarkable institution of the ,hellenic theology--was accompanied with the strictest vows and circumstances of silence and secrecy4 ,as for the priestly order1 it was their evident policy to maintain the superstitious ignorance of the people and to overawe their minds1 while in regard to the philosophic sects1 it was perhaps to shield themselves from the priestly or popular suspicion that they shrouded their scepticism in this dark and convenient disguise4 ,the parabolic or esoteric method was1 perhaps1 almost a necessity of the earlier ages4 ,it is to be lamented that it should be still in favour in this safer age1 and that the old exclusiveness of the mysteries is in esteem with many modern authorities1 who seem to hold that to unveil the spotless ,truth to the multitude is 8to cast pearls before swine40 ,it was probably from the philosophic motive that the founder of the new society instituted his grades of catechumens and probationary course1 as well as vows of the strictest secrecy4 ,the exact nature of all his interior instruction is necessarily very much matter of conjecture1 inasmuch as1 whether he committed his system to writing or not1 nothing from his own hand has come down to us4 ,however this may be1 it is evident that the general spirit and characteristic of his teaching was self-denial or self-control1 founded upon the great principles of justice and temperance2 and that communism and asceticism were the principal aim of his sociology4 ,he was the founder of communism in the ,west--his communistic ideas1 however1 being of an aristocratic and exclusive rather than of a democratic and cosmopolitan kind4 8,he first taught10 says ,diogenes1 8that the property of friends was to be held in common--that friendship is equality--and his disciples laid down their money and goods at his feet1 and had all things common40 ,the moral precepts of the great master were much in advance of the conventional morality of the day4 ,he enjoined upon his disciples1 the same biographer informs us1 each time they entered their houses to interrogate themselves--8,how have ,i transgressed8 ,what have ,i done8 ,what have ,i left undone that ,i ought to have done80 ,he exhorted them to live in perfect harmony1 to do good to their enemies and by kindness to convert them into friends4 8,he forbade them either to pray for themselves1 seeing that they were ignorant of what was best for them2 or to offer slain victims 77 as sacrifices2 and taught them to respect a bloodless altar only40 ,cakes and fruits1 and other innocent offerings were the only sacrifices he would allow4 ,this1 and the sublime commandment 8,not to kill or injure any innocent animal10 are the grand distinguishing doctrines of his moral religion4 ,so far did he carry his respect for the beautiful and beneficent in ,nature1 that he specially prohibited wanton injury to cultivated and useful trees and plants4 ,by confining themselves to the innocent1 pure1 and spiritual dietary he promised his followers the enjoyment of health and equanimity1 undisturbed and invigorating sleep1 as well as a superiority of mental and moral perceptions4 ,as for his own diet1 8he was satisfied10 says ,porphyry1 8with honey or the honeycomb1 or with bread only1 and he did not taste wine from morning to night 7'72 or his principal dish was often kitchen herbs1 cooked or uncooked4 ,fish he ate rarely40 ,humanitarianism--the extension of the sublime principles of justice and of compassion to all innocent sentient life1 irrespective of nationality1 creed1 or species--is a very modern and even now very inadequately recognised creed2 and1 although there have been here and there a few1 like ,plutarch and ,seneca1 who were 8splendidly false10 to the spirit of their age1 the recognition of the obligation 7the practice has always been a very different thing7 of benevolence and beneficence1 so far from being extended to the non-human races1 until a comparatively recent time has been limited to the narrow bounds of country and citizenship2 and patriotism and internationalism are1 apparently1 two very opposite principles4 ,the obligation to abstain from the flesh of animals was founded by ,pythagoras on mental and spiritual rather than on humanitarian grounds4 ,yet that the latter were not ignored by the prophet of akreophagy is evident equally by his prohibition of the infliction of pain1 no less than of death1 upon the lower animals1 and by his injunction to abstain from the bloody sacrifices of the altar4 ,such was his abhorrence of the ,slaughter-,house1 ,porphyry tells us1 that not only did he carefully abstain from the flesh of its victims1 but that he could never bring himself to endure contact with1 or even the sight of1 butchers and cooks4 ,while thus careful of the lives and feelings of the innocent non-human races1 he recognised the necessity of making war upon the ferocious carnivora4 ,yet to such a degree had he become familiar with the habits and dispositions of the lower animals that he is said1 by the exclusive use of vegetable food1 not only to have tamed a formidable bear1 which by its devastations on their crops had become the terror of the country people1 but even to have accustomed it to eat that food only for the remainder of its life4 ,the story may be true or fictitious1 but it is not incredible2 for there are well-authenticated instances1 even in our own times1 of true carnivora that have been fed1 for longer or shorter periods1 upon the non-flesh diet4#h 8,amongst other reasons1 ,pythagoras10 says ,iamblichus1 8enjoined abstinence from the flesh of animals because it is conducive to peace4 ,for those who are accustomed to abominate the slaughter of other animals1 as iniquitous and unnatural1 will think it still more unjust and unlawful to kill a man or to engage in war40 ,specially1 he 8exhorted those politicians who are legislators to abstain4 ,for if they were willing to act justly in the highest degree1 it was indubitably incumbent upon them not to injure any of the lower animals4 ,since how could they persuade others to act justly1 if they themselves were proved to be indulging an insatiable avidity by devouring these animals that are allied to us4 ,for through the communion of life and the same elements1 and the sympathy thus existing1 they are1 as it were1 conjoined to us by a fraternal alliance40#i ,maxims how different from those in favour in the present 8year of grace10 #ahgg6 ,if the refined thinker of the sixth century ,b4,c4 were now living1 what would be his indignation at the enormous slaughter of innocent life for the public banquets at which our statesmen and others are constantly fted1 and which are recorded in our journals with so much magniloquence and minuteness8 ,his hopes for the regeneration of his fellow-men would surely be terribly shattered4 ,we may apply the words of the great ,latin satirist1 ,juvenal1 who so frequently denounces in burning language the luxurious gluttony of his countrymen under the ,empire--8,what would not ,pythagoras denounce1 or whither would he not flee1 could he see these monstrous sights--he who abstained from the flesh of all other animals as though they were human80 7,satire xv47 ,how long the communistic society of ,krotona remained undisturbed is uncertain4 ,inasmuch as its reputation and influence were widely spread1 it may be supposed that the outbreak of the populace 7the origin of which is obscure71 by which the society was broken up and his disciples massacred1 did not happen until many years after its establishment4 ,at all events1 it is commonly believed that ,pythagoras lived to an advanced age1 variously computed at eighty1 ninety1 or one hundred years4 ,it is not within our purpose to discuss minutely the scientific or theological theories of ,pythagoras4 ,in accordance with the abstruse speculative character of the ,ionic school of science1 which inclined to refer the origin of the universe to some one primordial principle1 he was led by his mathematical predilections to discover the cosmic element in numbers1 or proportion--a theory which savours of ,john ,dalton's philosophy1 now accepted in chemistry1 and a virtual enunciation of what we now call quantitative science4 ,pythagoras taught the ,kopernican theory prematurely4 ,he regarded the sun as more divine than the earth1 and therefore set it in the centre of the earth and planets4 ,the argument was surely a mark of genius1 but it was too transcendental for his contemporaries1 even for ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,his elder contemporary1 the celebrated ,thales of ,miletus1 with whom in his early youth he may have been acquainted1 may claim1 indeed1 to be the remote originator of the famous nebular hypothesis of ,laplace and modern astronomy4 ,another cardinal doctrine of the ,pythagorean school was the musical1 from whence the idea1 so popular with the poets1 of the 8music of the spheres40 ,to music was attributed the greatest influence in the control of the passions4 ,in its larger sense1 by the ,greeks generally1 the term 8,music0 7,musice--pertaining to the ,muses7 denoted1 it is to be remembered1 not alone the 8concord of sweet sounds10 but also an artistic and sthetic education in general--all humanising and refining instruction4 ,the famous doctrine of the ,metempsychosis or ,transmigration of ,souls also was1 doubtless1 a prominent feature in the ,pythagorean system2 but it is probable that we may presume that by it ,pythagoras intended merely to convey to the 8uninstructed10 by parable1 the sublime idea that the soul is gradually purified by a severe course of discipline until finally it becomes fitted for a fleshless life of immortality4#aj ,we are chiefly concerned with his attitude in regard to flesh eating4 ,there can be no question that abstinence was a fundamental part of his system1 yet certain modern critics--little in sympathy with so practical a manifestation of the higher life1 or1 indeed1 with self-denial of any kind--have sometimes affected either to doubt the fact or to pass it by in contemptuous silence1 thus ignoring what for the after ages stands out as by far the most important residuum of ,pythagoreanism4 ,in support of this scepticism the fact of the celebrated athlete ,milo1 whose prodigies of strength have become proverbial1 has been quoted4 ,yet if these critics had been at the pains of inquiring somewhat further1 they would have learned1 on the contrary1 that the non-flesh diet is exactly that which is most conducive to physical vigour2 that in the ,east there are at this day non-flesh eaters1 who in feats of strength might put even our strongest men to the blush4 ,the extraordinary powers of the porters and boatmen of ,constantinople have been remarked by many travellers2 and the ,chinese coolies and others are almost equally notorious for their marvellous powers of endurance4 ,yet their food is not only of the simplest--rice1 dhourra 7i4e41 millet71 onions1 c4--but of the scantiest possible4 ,moreover1 the elder ,greek athletes themselves1 for the most part1 trained on vegetarian diet4 ,not to multiply details1 the fact that1 upon a moderate calculation1 two-thirds at least of the population of our globe--including the mass of the inhabitants of these islands--live1 nolentes1 volentes1 on a dietary from which flesh is almost altogether necessarily excluded1 is on the face of it sufficient proof in itself of the non-necessity of the diet of the rich4 ,while the general consent of antiquity and of later times has received as undoubted the obligation of strict abstinence on the part of the immediate followers of ,pythagoras1 it seems that as regards the uninitiated1 or 7to use the ecclesiastical term7 catechumens1 the obligation was not so strict4 ,indeed relaxation of the rules of the higher life was simply a sine qu non of securing the attention of the mass of the community at all2 and1 like one still more eminent than himself in an after age1 he found it a matter of necessity to present a teaching and a mode of living not too exalted and unattainable by the grossness and 8hardness of heart0 of the multitude4 ,hence1 in all probability1 the seeming contradictions in his teaching on this point found in the narratives of his followers4 ,if his critics had been more intent on discovering the excellence of his rules of abstinence than on discussing1 with frivolous diligence1 the probable or possible reasons of his alleged prohibition of beans1 it would have redounded more to their credit for wisdom and love of truth4 ,assuming the fact of the prohibition1 in place of collecting all the most absurd gossip of antiquity1 they might perhaps have found a more rational and more solid reason in the hypothesis that the bean being1 as used in the ballot1 a symbol and outward and visible sign of political life1 was employed by ,pythagoras parabolically to dissuade his followers from participating in the idle strife of party faction1 and to exhort them to concentrate their efforts upon an attempt to achieve the solid and lasting reformation of mankind4#aa ,but to be much concerned in a patient inquiry after truth unhappily has been not always the characteristic of professional commentators4 ,blind hero-worship or idolatry of genius or intellect1 even when directed to high moral aims1 is no part of our creed2 and it is sufficient to be assured that he was human1 to be free to confess that the historical founder of akreophagy was not exempt from human infirmity1 and that he could not wholly rise above the wonder-loving spirit of an uncritical age4 ,deducting all that has been imputed to him of the fanciful or fantastic1 enough still remains to force us to recognise in the philosopher-prophet of ,samos one of the master-spirits of the world4#ab ,,iii4 ,,plato4 #dbh-cdg ,b4,c4 ,the most renowned of all the prose writers of antiquity may be said to have been almost the lineal descendant1 in philosophy1 of the teacher of ,samos4 ,he belonged to the aristocratic families of ,athens--8the eye of ,greece0--then and for long afterwards the centre of art and science4 ,his original name was ,aristokles1 which he might well have retained4 ,like another equally famous leader in literature1 ,franois ,marie ,arouet1 he abandoned his birth-name1 and he assumed or acquired the name by which he is immortalised1 to characterise1 as it is said1 either the breadth of his brow or the extensiveness of his mental powers4 ,in very early youth he seems to have displayed his literary aptitude and tastes in the various kinds of poetry--epic1 tragic1 and lyric--as well as to have distinguished himself as an athlete in the great national contests or 8games10 as they were called1 the grand object of ambition of every ,greek4 ,he was instructed in the chief and necessary parts of a liberal ,greek education by the most able professors of the time4 ,he devoted himself with ardour to the pursuit of knowledge1 and sedulously studied the systems of philosophy which then divided the literary world4 ,in his twentieth year he attached himself to ,sokrates1 who was then at the height of his reputation as a moralist and dialectician4 ,after the judicial murder of his master1 #cii1 he withdrew from his native city1 which1 with a theological intolerance extremely rare in pagan antiquity1 had already been disgraced by the previous persecution of another eminent teacher--,anaxagoras--the instructor of ,euripides and of ,perikles4 ,plato then resided for some time at ,megara1 at a very short distance from ,athens1 and afterwards set out1 according to the custom of the eager searchers after knowledge of that age1 on a course of travels4 ,he traversed the countries which had been visited by ,pythagoras1 but his alleged visit to the further ,east is as traditional as that of his predecessor4 ,the most interesting fact or tradition in his first travels is his alleged intimacy with the ,greek prince of ,syracuse1 the elder ,dionysius1 and his invitation to the western capital of the ,hellenic world4 ,the story that he was given up by his perfidious host to the ,spartan envoy1 and by him sold into slavery1 though not disprovable1 may be merely an exaggerated account of the ill-treatment which he actually received4 ,his grand purpose in going to ,italy was1 without doubt1 the desire to become personally known to the eminent ,pythagoreans whose headquarters were in the southern part of the ,peninsula1 and to secure the best opportunities of making himself thoroughly acquainted with their philosophic tenets4 ,at that time the most eminent representative of the school was the celebrated ,archytas1 one of the most extraordinary mathematical geniuses and mechanicians of any age4 ,upon his return to ,athens1 at about the age of forty1 he established his ever-memorable school in the suburban groves or 8gardens0 known as --whence the well-known ,academy by which the ,platonic philosophy is distinguished1 and which1 in modern days1 has been so much vulgarised4 ,all the most eminent ,athenians1 present and future1 attended his lectures1 and among them was ,aristotle1 who was destined to rival the fame of his master4 ,from about #chh to #cdg1 the date of his death1 he continued to lecture in the ,academy and to compose his ,dialogues4 ,in the intervals of his literary and didactic labours he twice visited ,sicily2 the first time at the invitation of his friend ,dion1 the relative and minister of the two ,dionysii1 the younger of whom had succeeded to his father's throne1 and whom ,dion hoped to win to justice and moderation by the eloquent wisdom of the ,athenian sage4 ,such hopes were doomed to bitter disappointment4 ,his second visit to ,syracuse was undertaken at the urgent entreaties of his ,pythagorean friends1 of whose tenets and dietetic principles he always remained an ardent admirer4 ,for whatever reason1 it proved unsuccessful4 ,dion was driven into exile1 and ,plato himself escaped only by the interposition of ,archytas4 ,thus the only chance of attempting the realisation of his ideal of a communistic commonwealth--if he ever actually entertained the hope of realising it--was frustrated4 ,almost the only source of the biographies of ,plato are the ,letters ascribed to him1 commonly held to be fictitious1 but maintained to be genuine by ,grote4 ,the narrative of the first visit to ,sicily is found in the seventh ,letter4 ,we can refer but briefly to the nature of the philosophy and writings of ,plato4 ,in the notice of ,pythagoras it has been stated that ,plato valued very highly that teacher's methods and principles4 ,pythagoreanism1 in fact1 enters very largely into the principal writings of the great disciple and exponent 7and1 it may safely be added1 improver7 of ,sokrates1 especially in the ,republic and the ,timus4 ,the four cardinal virtues inculcated in the ,republic--justice or righteousness 771 temperance or self-control 7 or 71 prudence or wisdom 771 fortitude 77--are eminently pythagorean4 ,the characteristic of the purely speculative portion of ,platonism is the theory of ideas 7used by the author in the new sense of unities1 the original meaning being forms and figures71 of which it may be said that its merit depends upon its poetic fancy rather than upon its scientific value4 ,divesting it of the verbiage of the commentators1 who have not succeeded in making it more intelligible1 all that need be said of this abstruse and fantastic notion is1 that by it he intended to convey that all sensible objects which1 according to him1 are but the shadows and phantoms of things unseen1 are ultimately referable to certain abstract conceptions or ideas1 which he termed unities1 that can only be reached by pure thinking4 ,hence he asserted that 8not being in a condition to grasp the idea of the ,good with full distinctness1 we are able to approximate to it only so far as we elevate the power of thinking to its proper purity40 ,whatever may be thought of the premiss1 the truth and utility of the deduction may be allowed to be as unquestionable as they are unheeded4 ,this characteristic theory may be traced to the belief of ,plato not only in the immortality1 but also in the past eternity of the soul4 ,in the ,phdrus1 under the form of allegory1 he describes the soul in its former state of existence as traversing the circuit of the universe where1 if reason duly control the appetite1 it is initiated1 as it were1 into the essences of things which are there disclosed to its gaze4 ,and it is this ante-natal experience1 which supplies the fleshly mind or soul with its ideas of the beautiful and the true4 ,the subtlety of the ,greek intellect and language was1 apparently1 an irresistible temptation to their greatest ornaments to indulge in the nicest and most mystic speculation1 which1 to the possessors of less subtle intellects and of a far less flexible language1 seems often strangely unpractical and hyperbolic4 ,thus while it is impossible not to be lost in admiration of the marvellous powers of the ,greek dialectics1 one cannot but at the same time regret that faculties so extraordinary should have been expended 7we will not say altogether wasted7 in so many instances on unsubstantial phantoms4 ,if1 however1 the transcendentalism of the ,platonic and other schools of ,greek thought is matter for regret1 how must we not deplore the enormous waste of time and labour apparent in the theological controversies of the first three or four centuries of ,christendom--at least of ,greek ,christendom--when the omission or insertion of a single letter could profoundly agitate the whole ecclesiastical world and originate volumes upon volumes of refined1 indeed1 but useless verbiage4 ,yet even the ecclesiastical ,greek writers of the early centuries may lay claim to a certain originality and merit of style which cannot be conceded to the 8schoolmen0 of the medival ages1 and of still later times1 whose solemn trifling--under the proud titles of ,platonists and ,aristotelians1 or ,nominalists and ,realists1 and the numerous other appellations assumed by them--for centuries was received with patience and even applause4 ,nor1 unfortunately1 is this war of ,phantoms by any means unknown or extinct in our day4 ,it was the lament of ,seneca1 often echoed by the most earnest minds1 that all1 or at least the greater part of1 our learning is expended upon words rather than upon the acquisition of wisdom4#ac ,plato deserves his high place among the ,immortals not so much on account of any very definite results from his philosophy as on account of its general tendency to elevate and direct human thought and aspirations to sublime speculations and aims4 ,of all his ,dialogues1 the most valuable and interesting1 without doubt1 is the ,republic--the one of his writings upon which he seems to have bestowed the most pains1 and in which he has recorded the outcome of his most mature reflections4 ,next may be ranked the ,phdo and the ,phdrus--the former1 it is well known1 being a disquisition on the immortality of the soul4 ,in spite of certain fantastic conceptions1 it must always retain its interest1 as well by reason of its speculations on a subject which is 7or rather which ought to be7 the most interesting that can engage the mind1 as because it purports to be the last discourse of ,sokrates1 who was expecting in his prison the approaching sentence of death4 ,the ,phdrus derives its unusual merit from the beauty of the language and style1 and from the fact of its being one of the few writings of antiquity in which the charms of rural nature are described with enthusiasm4 ,the ,republic1 with which we are here chiefly concerned1 since it is in that important work that the author reproduces the dietetic principles of ,pythagoras1 may have been first published amongst his earlier writings1 about the year #cie2 but that it was published in a larger and revised edition at a later period is sufficiently evident4 ,it consists of ten ,books4 ,the question of ,dietetics is touched upon in the second and third1 in which ,plato takes care to point out the essential importance to the well-being of his ideal state1 that both the mass of the community and1 in a special degree1 the guardians or rulers1 should be educated and trained in proper dietetic principles1 which1 if not so definitely insisted upon as we could wish them to have been1 sufficiently reveal the bias of his mind towards ,vegetarianism4 ,in the second ,book the discussion turns principally upon the nature of ,justice2 and there is one passage which1 still more significant for the age in which it was written1 is not without instruction for the present4 ,while ,sokrates is discussing the subject with his interlocutors1 one of them is represented as objecting3 8,with much respect be it spoken1 you who profess to be admirers of justice1 beginning with the heroes of old1 have every one of you1 without exception1 made the praise of ,justice and the condemnation of ,injustice turn solely upon the reputation and honour and gifts resulting from them4 ,but what each is in itself1 by its own peculiar force as it resides in the soul of its possessor1 unseen either by gods or men1 has never1 in poetry or prose1 been adequately discussed1 so as to show that ,injustice is the greatest bane that a soul can receive into itself1 and ,justice the greatest blessing4 ,had this been the language held by you all from the first1 and had you tried to persuade us of this from our childhood1 we should not be on the watch to check one another in the commission of injustice1 because everyone would be his own watchman1 fearful lest by committing injustice he might attach to himself the greatest of evils40 ,very useful and necessary for those times1 and not wholly inapplicable to less remote ages1 is the incidental remark in the same book1 that 8there are quacks and soothsayers who flock to the rich man's doors1 and try to persuade him that they have a power at command which they procure from heaven1 and which enables them1 by sacrifices and incantations1 performed amid feasting and indulgence1 to make amends for any crime committed either by the individual himself or by his ancestors4444 ,and in support of all these assertions they produce the evidence of poets--some1 to exhibit the facilities of vice1 quoting the words3-- 8,whoso wickedness seeks1 may even in masses obtain it ,easily4 ,smooth is the way1 and short1 for nigh is her dwelling4 ,virtue1 heaven has ordained1 shall be reached by the sweat of the forehead40 --,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #bhg4ad ,it is the fifth ,book1 however1 which has always excited the greatest interest and controversy1 for therein he introduces his ,communistic views4 ,our interest in it is increased by the fact that it is the original of the ideal ,communisms of modern writers--the prototype of the ,utopia of ,more1 of the ,new ,atlantis of ,francis ,bacon1 the ,oceanica of ,harrington1 and the ,gaudentio of ,berkeley1 c4 ,in maintaining the perfect natural equality of women to men1#ae and insisting upon an identity of education and training1 he advances propositions which perhaps only the more advanced of the assertors of women's rights might be prepared to entertain4 ,whatever may have been said by the various admirers of ,plato1 who have been anxious to present his political or social views in a light which might render them less in conflict with modern ,conservatism1 there can be no doubt for any candid reader of the ,republic that the author published to the world his bon fide convictions4 ,one of the dramatis person of the dialogue1 while expressing his concurrence in the ,communistic legislation of ,sokrates1 at the same time objects to the difficulty of realising it in actual life1 and desires ,sokrates to point out whether1 and how1 it could be really practicable4 ,whereupon ,sokrates 7who it is scarcely necessary to remark1 is the convenient mouthpiece of ,plato7 replies3 8,do you think any the worse of an artist who has painted the beau idal of human beauty1 and has left nothing wanting in the picture1 because he cannot prove that such a one as he has painted might possibly exist8 ,were not we1 likewise1 proposing to construct1 in theory1 the pattern of a perfect ,state8 ,will our theory suffer at all in your good opinion if we cannot prove that it is possible for a city to be organised in the manner proposed80 ,as has been well paraphrased by the interpreters to whom we are indebted for the ,english version3 8,the possibilities of realising such a commonwealth in actual practice is quite a secondary consideration1 which does not in the least affect the soundness of the method or the truth of the results4 ,all that can fairly be demanded of him is to show how the imperfect politics at present existing may be brought most nearly into harmony with the perfect ,state which has just been described4 ,to bring about this great result one fundamental change is necessary1 and only one3 the highest political power must1 by some means or other1 be vested in philosophers40 ,the next point to be determined is1 ,what is1 or ought to be1 implied by the term philosopher1 and what are the characteristics of the true philosophic disposition8 8,they are--7#a7 an eager desire for the knowledge of all real existence2 7#b7 hatred of falsehood1 and devoted love of truth2 7#c7 contempt for the pleasures of the body2 7#d7 indifference to money2 7#e7 high-mindedness and liberality2 7#f7 justice and gentleness2 7#g7 a quick apprehension and a good memory2 7#h7 a musical1 regular1 and harmonious disposition40 ,but how is this disposition to be secured8 ,under the present condition of things1 and the corrupting influences of various kinds1 where temptations abound to compromise truth and substitute expediency and self-interest1 it would seem wellnigh impossible and ,utopian to expect it4 8,how is this evil to be remedied8 ,the ,state itself must regulate the study of philosophy1 and must take care that the students pursue it on right principles1 and at a right age4 ,and now1 surely1 we may expect to be believed when we assert that if a ,state is to prosper it must be governed by philosophers4 ,if such a contingency should ever take place 7and why should it not871 our ideal ,state will undoubtedly be realised4 ,so that1 upon the whole1 we come to this conclusion3 ,the constitution just described is the best1 if it can be realised2 and to realise it is difficult1 but not impossible40 ,at this moment1 when the question of compulsory education1 under the immediate superintendence of the ,state1 is being fought with so much fierceness--on one side1 at least--to recur to ,plato might not be without advantage4 ,in the most famous dialogue of ,plato--the ,republic1 or1 as it might be termed ,on ,justice--the principal interlocutors1 besides ,sokrates1 are ,glaukon1 ,polymachus1 and ,adeimantus2 and the whole piece originates in the chance question which rose between them1 8,what is ,justice80 ,in the second ,book1 from which the following passage is taken1 the discussion turns upon the origin of society1 which gives opportunity to ,sokrates to develop his opinions upon the diet best adapted for the community--at all events1 for the great majority3-- 8#8,they the artisans and work-people generally will live1 ,i suppose1 on barley and wheat1 baking cakes of the meal1 and kneading loaves of the flour4 ,and spreading these excellent cakes and loaves upon mats of straw or on clean leaves1 and themselves reclining on rude beds of yew or myrtle-boughs1 they will make merry1 themselves and their children1 drinking their wine1 weaving garlands1 and singing the praises of the gods1 enjoying one another's society1 and not begetting children beyond their means1 through a prudent fear of poverty or war4' 8,glaukon here interrupted me1 remarking1 #8,apparently you describe your men feasting1 without anything to relish their bread4'#af 8#8,true1' ,i said1 #8,i had forgotten4 ,of course they will have something to relish their food4 ,salt1 no doubt1 and olives1 and cheese1 together with the country fare of boiled onions and cabbage4 ,we shall also set before them a dessert1 ,i imagine1 of figs1 pease1 and beans3 they may roast myrtle-berries and beech-nuts at the fire1 taking wine with their fruit in moderation4 ,and thus1 passing their days in tranquillity and sound health1 they will1 in all probability1 live to an advanced age1 and dying1 bequeath to their children a life in which their own will be reproduced4' 8,upon this ,glaukon exclaimed1 #8,why1 ,sokrates1 if you were founding a community of swine1 this is just the style in which you would feed them up6' 8#8,how1 then1' said ,i1 #8would you have them live1 ,glaukon8' 8#8,in a civilised manner1' he replied4 #8,they ought to recline on couches1 ,i should think1 if they are not to have a hard life of it1 and dine off tables1 and have the usual dishes and dessert of a modern dinner4' 8#8,very good3 ,i understand4 ,apparently we are considering the growth1 not of a city merely1 but of a luxurious city4 ,i dare say it is not a bad plan1 for by this extension of our inquiry we shall perhaps discover how it is that justice and injustice take root in cities4 ,now1 it appears to me that the city which we have described is the genuine and1 so to speak1 healthy city4 ,but if you wish us also to contemplate a city that is suffering from inflammation1 there is nothing to hinder us4 ,some people will not be satisfied1 it seems1 with the fare or the mode of life which we have described1 but must have1 in addition1 couches and tables and every other article of furniture1 as well as viands4444 ,swineherds again are among the additions we shall require--a class of persons not to be found1 because not wanted1 in our former city1 but needed among the rest in this4 ,we shall also need great quantities of all kinds of cattle for those who may wish to eat them1 shall we not8' 8#8,of course we shall4' 8#8,then shall we not experience the need of medical men also to a much greater extent under this than under the former rgime8' 8#8,yes1 indeed4' 8#8,the country1 too1 ,i presume1 which was formerly adequate to the support of its then inhabitants1 will be now too small1 and adequate no longer4 ,shall we say so8' 8#8,certainly4' 8#8,then must we not cut ourselves a slice of our neighbours' territory1 if we are to have land enough both for pasture and tillage8 ,while they will do the same to ours if they1 like us1 permit themselves to overstep the limit of necessaries1 and plunge into the unbounded acquisition of wealth4' 8#8,it must inevitably be so1 ,sokrates4' 8#8,will our next step be to go to war1 ,glaukon1 or how will it be8' 8#8,as you say4' 8,at this stage of our inquiry let us avoid asserting either that war does good or that it does harm1 confining ourselves to this statement--that we have further traced the origin of war to causes which are the most fruitful sources of whatever evils befall a ,state1 either in its corporate capacity or in its individual members40 7,book ,,ii47#ag ,justly holding that the best laws will be of little avail unless the administrators of them shall be just and virtuous1 ,sokrates1 in the ,third ,book1 proceeds to lay down rules for the education and diet of the magistrates or executive1 whom he calls--in conformity with the ,communistic system--guardians3-- 8#8,we have already said1' proceeds ,sokrates1 #8that the persons in question must refrain from drunkenness2 for a guardian is the last person in the world1 ,i should think1 to be allowed to get drunk1 and not know where he is4' 8#8,truly it would be ridiculous for a guardian to require a guard4' 8#8,but about eating3 our men are combatants in a most important arena1 are they not8' 8#8,they are4' 8#8,then will the habit of body which is cultivated by the trained fighters of the ,palstra be suitable to such persons8' 8#8,perhaps it will4' 8#8,well1 but this is a sleepy kind of regimen1 and produces a precarious state of health2 for do you not observe that men in the regular training sleep their life away1 and1 if they depart only slightly from the prescribed diet1 are attacked by serious maladies in their worst form8' 8#8,i do4' 99 99 99 99 99 8#8,in fact1 it would not be amiss1 ,i imagine1 to compare this whole system of feeding and living to that kind of music and singing which is adapted to the panharmonicum1 and composed in every variety of rhythm4' 8#8,undoubtedly it would be a just comparison4' 8#8,is it not true1 then1 that as in music variety begat dissoluteness in the soul1 so here it begets disease in the body1 while simplicity in gymnastic diet is as productive of health as in music it was productive of temperance8' 8#8,most true4' 8#8,but when dissoluteness and diseases abound in a city1 are not law courts and surgeries opened in abundance1 and do not ,law and ,physic begin to hold their heads high1 when numbers even of well-born persons devote themselves with eagerness to these professions8' 8#8,what else can we expect8' 99 99 99 99 99 8#8,and do you not hold it disgraceful to require medical aid1 unless it be for a wound1 or an attack of illness incidental to the time of the year--to require it1 ,i mean1 owing to our laziness and the life we lead1 and to get ourselves so stuffed with humours and wind1 like quagmires1 as to compel the clever sons of ,asklepios to call diseases by such names as flatulence and catarrh8' 8#8,to be sure1 these are very strange and new-fangled names for disorders4'0 7,book ,,iii47 ,elsewhere1 in a well-known passage 7in ,the ,laws71 ,plato pronounces that the springs of human conduct and moral worth depend principally on diet4 8,i observe10 says he1 8that men's thoughts and actions are intimately connected with the threefold need and desire 7accordingly as they are properly used or abused1 virtue or its opposite is the result7 of eating1 drinking1 and sexual love40 ,he himself was remarkable for the extreme frugality of his living4 ,like most of his countrymen1 he was a great eater of figs2 and so much did he affect that frugal repast that he was called1 par excellence1 the 8lover of figs0 774 ,the ,greeks1 in general1 were noted among the ,europeans for their abstemiousness2 and ,antiphanes1 the comic poet 7in ,athenus71 terms them 8leaf-eaters0 774 ,amongst the ,greeks1 the ,athenians and ,spartans were specially noted for frugal living4 ,that of the latter is proverbial4 ,the comic poets frequently refer1 in terms of ridicule1 to what seemed to them so unaccountable an indifferentism to the 8good things0 of life on the part of the witty and refined people of ,attica4 ,see the ,deipnosophists 7dinner-philosophers7 of ,athenus 7the great repertory of the bon-vivantism of the time71 and ,plutarch's ,symposiacs4 ,it has been pointed out by ,professor ,mahaffy1 in his recent work on old ,greek life1 that slaughter-houses and butchers are seldom1 or never1 mentioned in ,greek literature4 8,the eating of flesh meat10 he observes1 8must have been almost confined to sacrificial feasts2 for1 in ordinary language1 butchers' meat was called victim 774 ,the most esteemed1 or popular1 dishes were madsa1 a sort of porridge of wheat or barley2 various kinds of bread 7see ,deipn4 iii472 honey1 beans1 lupines1 lettuce and salad1 onions and leeks4 ,olives1 dates1 and figs formed the usual fruit portion of their meals4 ,in regard to non-vegetable food1 fish was the most sought after and preferred to anything else2 and the well-known term opson1 which so frequently recurs in ,greek literature1 was specially appropriated to it4 ,contemporary with the great master of language was the great master of medicine1 ,hippokrates1 7#dfj-ceg7 who is to his science what ,homer is to poetry and ,herodotus to history--the first historical founder of the art of healing4 ,he was a native of ,ks1 a small island of the ,s4,w4 coast of ,lesser ,asia1 the traditional cradle and home of the disciples of ,asklepios1 or sculapius 7as he was termed by the ,latins71 the semi-divine author and patron of medicine4 ,and it may be remarked1 in passing1 that the ,college of ,asklepiads of ,ks were careful to exercise a despotism as severe and exclusive as that which obtains1 for the most part1 with the modern orthodox schools4 ,amongst a large number of writings of various kinds attributed to ,hippokrates is the treatise ,on ,regimen in ,acute ,diseases 7 71 which is generally received as genuine2 and ,on the ,healthful ,regimen 7 71 which belongs to the same age1 though not to the canonical writings of the founder of the school himself4 ,he was the author1 real or reputed1 of some of the most valuable apophthegms of ,greek antiquity4 ,ars longa--,vita brevis 7education is slow2 life is short7 is the best known1 and most often quoted4 ,what is still more to our purpose is his maxim--8,over-drinking is almost as bad as over-eating40 ,of all the productions of this most voluminous of writers1 his ,aphorisms 771 in which these specimens of laconic wisdom are collected1 and which consists of some four hundred short practical sentences1 are the most popular4 ,about a century after the death of ,plato appeared a popular exposition of the ,pythagorean teaching1 in hexameters1 which is known by the title given to it by ,iamblichus--the ,golden ,verses4 8,more than half of them10 says ,professor ,clifford1 8consist of a sort of versified #8,duty to ,god and my ,neighbour1' except that it is not designed by the rich to be obeyed by the poor2 that it lays stress on the laws of health2 and that it is just such sensible counsel for the good and right conduct of life as an ,englishman might now-a-days give to his son40 ,hierokles1 an eminent ,neo-,platonist of the fifth century1 ,a4,d41 gave a course of lectures upon them at ,alexandria--which since the time of the ,ptolemies had been one of the chief centres of ,greek learning and science--and his commentary is sufficiently interesting4 ,sudas1 the lexicographer1 speaks of his matter and style in the highest terms of praise4 8,he astonished his hearers everywhere10 he tells us1 8by the calm1 the magnificence1 the width of his superlative intellect1 and by the sweetness of his speech1 full of the most beautiful words and things40 ,the ,alexandrian lecturer quotes the old ,pythagorean maxims3 8,you shall honour ,god best by becoming godlike in your thoughts4 ,whoso giveth ,god honour as to one that needeth it1 that man in his folly hath made himself greater than ,god4 ,the wise man only is a priest1 is a lover of ,god1 is skilful to pray2 444 for that man only knows how to worship1 who begins by offering himself as the victim1 fashions his own soul into a divine image1 and furnishes his mind as a temple for the reception of the divine light40 ,the following extracts will serve as a specimen of the religious or moral character of the ,golden ,verses3-- 8,let not sleep come upon thine eyelids till thou hast pondered thy deeds of the day4 8,wherein have ,i sinned8 ,what work have ,i done1 what left undone that ,i ought to have done8 8,beginning at the first1 go through even unto the last1 and then let thy heart smite thee for the evil deeds1 but rejoice in the good work4 8,work at these commandments and think upon them3 these commandments shalt thou love4 8,they shall surely set thee in the way of divine righteousness3 yea1 by ,him who gave into our soul the ,tetrad1#ah well-spring of life everlasting4 99 99 99 99 99 8,know so far as is permitted thee1 that ,nature in all things is like unto herself3 8,that thou mayest not hope that of which there is no hope1 nor be ignorant of that which may be4 8,know thou also1 that the woes of men are the work of their own hands4 8,miserable are they1 because they see not and hear not the good that is very nigh them3 and the way of escape from evil few there be that understand it4 99 99 99 99 99 8,verily1 ,father ,zeus1 thou wouldst free all men from much evil1 if thou wouldst teach all men what manner of spirit they are of4 99 99 99 99 99 8,keep from the meats aforesaid1 using judgment both in cleansing and setting free the soul4 8,give heed to every matter1 and set reason on high1 who best holdeth the reins of guidance4#ai 8,then when thou leavest the body1 and comest into the free ther1 thou shalt be a god undying1 everlasting1 neither shall death have any more dominion over thee40 ,referring to these verses1 which inculcate that the human race is itself responsible for the evils which men1 for the most part1 prefer to regret than to remedy1 ,professor ,clifford1 to whom we are indebted for the above version of the ,golden ,verses1 remarks on the merits of this teaching1 that it reminds us that 8men suffer from preventible evils1 that the people perish for lack of knowledge40#bj ,thus we find that the principal obstructions1 in all ages1 to human progress and perfectibility may be ever found in ,,ignorance and ,,selfishness4 ,,iv4 ,,ovid4 #dc ,b4,c4--#ah ,a4,d4 ,the school of ,pythagoras and of ,plato1 although it was not the fashionable or popular religion of ,rome1 counted amongst its disciples some distinguished ,italians1 and the name of ,cicero1 who belonged to the 8,new ,academy10 is sufficiently illustrious4 ,the ,italians1 however1 who borrowed their religion as well as their literature from the ,greeks1 were never distinguished1 like their masters1 for that refinement of thought which might have led them to attach themselves to the ,pythagorean teaching4 ,under the bloody despotism of the ,empire1 the philosophy which was most affected by the literati and those who were driven to the consolations of philosophy was the stoical1 which taught its disciples to consider apathy as the summum bonum of existence4 ,this school of philosophy1 whatever its other merits1 was too much centred in self--paradoxical as the assertion may seem--to have much regard for the rest of mankind1 much less for the non-human species4 ,nor1 while they professed supreme contempt for the luxuries and even comforts of life1 did the disciples of the 8,porch10 in general1 practice abstinence from any exalted motive1 humanitarian or spiritual4 ,they preached indifference for the 8good things0 of this life1 not so much to elevate the spiritual and moral side of human nature as to show their contempt for human life altogether4 ,that the ,italian was essentially of a more barbarous nature than the ,greek is apparent in the national spectacles and amusements4 ,the savage scenes of gladiatorial and non-human combat and internecine slaughter of the ,latin amphitheatres1 of which the famous ,colosseum in the capital was the model of many others in the provinces1 were abhorrent to the more refined ,greek mind4#ba ,in view of scenes so sanguinary--the 8,roman holiday0--it is scarcely necessary to observe that humanitarianism was a creed unknown to the ,italians2 and it was not likely that a people1 addicted throughout their career as a dominant race to the most bloody wars1 not only foreign but also internecine1 with whom fighting and slaughter of their own kind was an almost daily occupation1 should entertain any feeling of pity 7to say nothing of justice7 towards their non-human dependants4 ,nevertheless1 even they were not wholly inaccessible1 on occasion1 to the prompting of pity4 ,referring to a grand spectacle given by ,pompeius at the dedication of his theatre 7,b4,c4 #ee71 in which a large number of elephants1 amongst others1 were forced to fight1 the elder ,pliny tells us3-- 8,when they lost the hope of escape1 they sought the compassion of the crowd with an appearance that is indescribable1 bewailing themselves with a sort of lamentation so much to the pain of the populace that1 forgetful of the imperator and the elaborate munificence displayed for their honour1 they all rose up in tears and bestowed imprecations on ,pompeius1 of which he soon after experienced the effect40#bb ,cicero1 who was himself present at the spectacle of the ,circus1 in a letter to a friend1 ,marcus ,marius1 writes3-- 8,what followed1 for five days1 was successive combats between a man and a wild beast4 7,venationes bin47 ,it was magnificent4 ,no one disputes it4 ,but what pleasure can it be to a person of refinement1 when either a weak man is torn to pieces by a very powerful beast1 or a noble animal is struck through by a hunting spear8444 ,the last day was that of the elephants1 in which there was great astonishment on the part of the populace and crowd1 but no enjoyment4 ,indeed there followed a degree of compassion1 and a certain idea that there is a sort of fellowship between that huge animal and the human race40 7,cicero1 ,ep4 ad ,diversos vii41 #a47 ,testimonies which might induce one almost to think that1 had not they been systematically and industriously accustomed to these horrible and gigantic butcheries by their rulers1 even the ,roman populace might have been susceptible of better feelings and desires than those inspired by their amphitheatres1 though these savage exhibitions were perhaps hardly worse than the combats and slaughter in the bull-rings of ,seville or ,madrid1 or at the courts of the ,mohammedan princes of ,india recently sanctioned by the presence of ,english royalty4 ,it is worth noting1 in passing1 that while the gladiatorial slaughters were discontinued some years after the triumph of ,christianity1 the other part of the entertainment--the indiscriminate combats and slaughter of the non-human victims--continued to be exhibited to a much later period4 ,if we reflect that the rise of the humanitarian spirit in ,christian ,europe1 or rather in the better section of it1 is of very recent origin1 it might appear unreasonable to look for any distinct exhibition of so exalted a feeling in the younger age of the world4 ,yet1 to the shame of more advanced civilisations1 we find manifestations of it in the writings of a few of the more refined minds of ,greece and ,italy2 and ,plutarch and ,seneca--the former particularly--occupy a distinguished place amongst the first preachers of that sacred truth4#bc ,publius ,ovidius ,naso1 the ,latin versifier of the ,pythagorean philosophy1 was born ,b4,c4 #dc4 ,he belonged to the equestrian order1 a position in the social scale which corresponds with the 8higher middle class0 of modern days4 ,like so many other names eminent in literature1 he was in the first instance educated for the law1 for which1 also like many other literary celebrities1 he soon showed his genius to be unfitted and uncongenial4 ,he studied at the great ,university of that age--,athens--where he acquired a knowledge of the ,greek language1 and probably of its rich literature4 ,the most memorable event in his life--which1 in accordance with the fashion of his contemporaries of the same rank1 was for the most part devoted to 8gallantry0 and the accustomed amatory licence--is his mysterious banishment from ,rome to the inhospitable and savage shores of the ,euxine1 where he passed the last seven years of his existence1 dying there in the sixtieth year of his age4 ,the cause of his sudden exile from the ,court of ,augustus1 where he had been in high favour1 is one of those secrets of history which have exercised the ingenuity of his successive biographers4 ,according to the terms of the imperial edict1 the freedom of the poet's ,ars ,amatoria was the offence4 ,that this was a mere pretext is plain1 as well from the long interval of time which had passed since the publication of the poem as from the character of the fashionable society of the capital4 ,ovid himself attributes his misfortune to the fact of his having become the involuntary witness of some secret of the palace1 the nature of which is not divulged4 ,his most important poems are 7#a7 ,the ,metamorphoses1 in fifteen books1 so called from its being a collection of the numerous transformations of the popular theology4 ,it is1 perhaps1 the most charming of ,latin poems that have come down to us4 ,particular passages have a special beauty4 7#b7 ,the ,fasti1 in twelve books1 of which only six are extant1 is the ,roman ,calendar in verse4 ,its interest1 apart from the poetic genius of the author1 is great1 as being the grand repertory of the ,latin feasts and their popular origin4 ,besides these two principal poems he was the author of the famous ,loves1 in three books2 the ,letters of the ,heroines1 ,the ,remedies of ,love1 and ,the ,tristia1 or ,sad ,thoughts4 ,he also wrote a tragedy--,medea--which1 unfortunately has not come down to us4 ,all his poems are characterised by elegance and a remarkable smoothness and regularity of versification1 and in much of his productions there is an unusual beauty and picturesqueness of poetic ideas4 ,the following passage from the fifteenth book of the ,metamorphoses has been justly said by ,dryden1 his translator1 to be the finest part of the whole poem4 ,it is almost impossible to believe but that1 in spite of his misspent life1 he must have felt1 in his better moments at least1 something of the truth and beauty of the ,pythagorean principles which he so exquisitely versifies4 ,in the touching words which he puts into the mouth of the jealous ,medea--the murderess of her children--he might have exclaimed in his own case-- 8,video meliora proboque ,deteriora sequor40#bd 8,he ,pythagoras1 too1 was the first to forbid animals to be served up at the table1 and he was first to open his lips1 indeed full of wisdom yet all unheeded1 in the following words3 #8,forbear1 ,o mortals6 to pollute your bodies with such abominable food4 ,there are the farinacea 7fruges71 there are the fruits which bear down the branches with their weight1 and there are the grapes swelling on the vines2 there are the sweet herbs2 there are those that may be softened by the flame and become tender4 ,nor is the milky juice denied you2 nor honey1 redolent of the flower of thyme4 ,the lavish ,earth heaps up her riches and her gentle foods1 and offers you dainties without blood and without slaughter4 ,the lower animals satisfy their ravenous hunger with flesh4 ,and yet not all of them2 for the horse1 the sheep1 the cows and oxen subsist on grass2 while those whose disposition is cruel and fierce1 the tigers of ,armenia and the raging lions1 and the wolves and bears1 revel in their bloody diet4 8#8,alas6 what a monstrous crime it is 7scelus7 that entrails should be entombed in entrails2 that one ravening body should grow fat on others which it crams into it2 that one living creature should live by the death of another living creature6 ,amid so great an abundance which the ,earth--that best of mothers--produces does1 indeed1 nothing delight you but to gnaw with savage teeth the sad produce of the wounds you inflict and to imitate the habits of the ,cyclops8 ,can you not appease the hunger of a voracious and ill-regulated stomach unless you first destroy another being8 ,yet that age of old1 to which we have given the name of golden1 was blest in the produce of the trees and in the herbs which the earth brings forth1 and the human mouth was not polluted with blood4 8#8,then the birds moved their wings secure in the air1 and the hare1 without fear1 wandered in the open fields4 ,then the fish did not fall a victim to the hook and its own credulity4 ,every place was void of treachery2 there was no dread of injury--all things were full of peace4 ,in later ages some one--a mischievous innovator 7non utilis auctor71 whoever he was--set at naught and scorned this pure and simple food1 and engulfed in his greedy paunch victuals made from a carcase4 ,it was he that opened the road to wickedness4 ,i can believe that the steel1 since stained with blood1 was first dipped in the gore of savage wild beasts2 and that was lawful enough4 ,we hold that the bodies of animals that seek our destruction are put to death without any breach of the sacred laws of morality4 ,but although they might be put to death they were not to be eaten as well4 ,from this time the abomination advanced rapidly4 ,the swine is believed to have been the first victim destined to slaughter1 because it grubbed up the seeds with its broad snout1 and so cut short the hopes of the year4 ,for gnawing and injuring the vine the goat was led to slaughter at the altars of the avenging ,bacchus4 ,its own fault was the ruin of each of these victims4 8#8,but how have you deserved to die1 ye sheep1 you harmless breed that have come into existence for the service of men--who carry nectar in your full udders--who give your wool as soft coverings for us--who assist us more by your life than by your death8 ,why have the oxen deserved this--beings without guile and without deceit--innocent1 mild1 born for the endurance of labour8 ,ungrateful1 indeed1 is man1 and unworthy of the bounteous gifts of the harvest who1 after unyoking him from the plough1 can slaughter the tiller of his fields--who can strike with the axe that neck worn bare with labour1 through which he had so often turned up the hard ground1 and which had afforded so many a harvest4 8#8,and it is not enough that such wickedness is committed by men4 ,they have involved the gods themselves in this abomination1 and they believe that a ,deity in the heavens can rejoice in the slaughter of the laborious and useful ox4 ,the spotless victim1 excelling in the beauty of its form 7for its very beauty is the cause of its destruction71 decked out with garlands and with gold is placed before their altars1 and1 ignorant of the purport of the proceedings1 it hears the prayers of the priest4 ,it sees the fruits which it cultivated placed on its head between its horns1 and1 struck down1 with its life-blood it dyes the sacrificial knife which it had perhaps already seen in the clear water4 ,immediately they inspect the nerves and fibres torn from the yet living being1 and scrutinise the will of the gods in them4 8#8,from whence such a hunger in man after unnatural and unlawful food8 ,do you dare1 ,o mortal race1 to continue to feed on flesh8 ,do it not1 ,i beseech you1 and give heed to my admonitions4 ,and when you present to your palates the limbs of slaughtered oxen1 know and feel that you are feeding on the tillers of the ground4'0--,metam4 xv41 #gc-adb4 ,v4 ,,seneca4 ,,died #fe ,a4,d4 ,lucius ,annus ,seneca1 the greatest name in the stoic school of philosophy1 and the first of ,latin moralists1 was born at ,corduba 7,cordova7 almost contemporaneously with the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,his family1 like that of ,ovid1 was of the equestrian order4 ,he was of a weakly constitution2 and bodily feebleness1 as with many other great intellects1 served to intensify if not originate1 the activity of the mind4 ,at ,rome1 with which he early made acquaintance1 he soon gained great distinction at the bar2 and the eloquence and fervour he displayed in the ,senate before the ,emperor ,caligula excited the jealous hatred of that insane tyrant4 ,later in life he obtained a prtorship1 and he was also appointed to the tutorship of the young ,domitius1 afterwards the ,emperor ,nero4 ,on the accession of that prince1 at the age of seventeen1 to the imperial throne1 ,seneca became one of his chief advisers4 ,unfortunately for his credit as a philosopher1 while exerting his influence to restrain the vicious propensities of his old pupil1 he seems to have been too anxious to acquire1 not only a fair proportion of wealth1 but even an enormous fortune1 and his villas and gardens were of so splendid a kind as to provoke the jealousy and covetousness of ,nero4 ,this1 added to his alleged disparagement of the prince's talents1 especially in singing and driving1 for which ,nero particularly desired to be famous1 was the cause of his subsequent disgrace and death4 ,the philosopher prudently attempted to anticipate the will of ,nero by a voluntary surrender of all his accumulated possessions1 and he sought to disarm the jealous suspicions of the tyrant by a retired and unostentatious life4 ,these precautions were of no avail2 his death was already decided4 ,he was accused of complicity in the conspiracy of ,piso1 and the only grace allowed him was to be his own executioner4 ,the despair of his wife1 ,pompeia ,paulina1 he attempted to mitigate by the reflection that his life had been always directed by the standard of a higher morality4 ,nothing1 however1 could dissuade her from sharing her husband's fate1 and the two faithful friends laid open their veins by the same blow4 ,advanced age and his extremely meagre diet had left little blood in ,seneca's veins1 and it flowed with painful slowness4 ,his tortures were excessive and1 to avoid the intolerable grief of being witnesses of each other's suffering1 they shut themselves up in separate apartments4 ,with that marvellous intrepid tranquillity which characterised some of the old sages1 ,seneca calmly dictated his last thoughts to his surrounding friends4 ,these were afterwards published4 ,his agonies being still prolonged1 he took hemlock2 and this also failing1 he was carried into a vapour-stove1 where he was suffocated1 and thus at length ceased to suffer4 ,in estimating the character of ,seneca1 it is just that we should consider all the circumstances of the exceptional time in which his life was cast4 ,perhaps there has never been an age or people more utterly corrupt and abandoned than that of the period of the earlier ,roman ,csars and that of ,rome and the large cities of the empire4 ,allowing the utmost that his detractors have brought against him1 the moral character of the author of the ,consolations and ,letters stands out in bright relief as compared with that of the immense majority of his contemporaries of equal rank and position1 who were sunk in the depths of licentiousness and of selfish indifference to the miseries of the surrounding world4 ,that his public career was not of so exalted a character altogether as are his moral precepts1 is only too patent to be denied and1 in this shortcoming of a loftier ideal1 he must share reproach with some of the most esteemed of the world's luminaries4 ,if1 for instance1 we compare him with ,cicero or with ,francis ,bacon1 the comparison would certainly be not unfavourable to ,seneca4 ,the darkest stigma on the reputation of the great ,latin moralist is his connivance at the death of the infamous ,agrippina1 the mother of his pupil ,nero4 ,although not to be excused1 we may fairly attribute this act to conscientious1 if mistaken1 motives4 ,his best apology is to be found in the fact that1 so long as he assisted to direct the counsels of ,nero1 he contrived to restrain that prince's depraved disposition from those outbreaks which1 after the death of the philosopher1 have stigmatised the name of ,nero with undying infamy4 ,the principal writings of ,seneca are3-- #a4 ,on ,anger4 ,his earliest1 and perhaps his best known1 work4 #b4 ,on ,consolation4 ,addressed to his mother1 ,helvia4 ,an admirable philosophical exhortation4 #c4 ,on ,providence2 or1 ,why evils happen to good men though a divine ,providence may exist4 #d4 ,on ,tranquillity of ,mind4 #e4 ,on ,clemency4 ,addressed to ,nero ,csar4 ,one of the most meritorious writings of all antiquity4 ,it is not unworthy of being classed with the humanitarian protests of ,beccaria and ,voltaire4 ,the stoical distinction between clemency and pity 7misericordia71 in book ii41 is1 as ,seneca admits1 merely a dispute about words4 #f4 ,on the ,shortness of ,life4 ,in which the proper employment of time and the acquisition of wisdom are eloquently enforced as the best employment of a fleeting life4 #g4 ,on a ,happy ,life4 ,in which he inculcates that there is no happiness without virtue4 ,an excellent treatise4 #h4 ,on ,kindnesses4 #i4 ,epistles to ,lucilius4 #abd in number4 ,they abound in lessons and precepts in morality and philosophy1 and1 excepting the ,de ,ir1 have been the most read1 perhaps1 of all ,seneca's productions4 #aj4 ,questions on ,natural ,history4 ,in seven books4 ,besides these moral and philosophic works1 he composed several tragedies4 ,they were not intended for the stage1 but rather as moral lessons4 ,as in all his works1 there is much of earnest thought and feeling1 although expressed in rhetorical and declamatory language4 ,what especially characterises ,seneca's writings is their remarkably humanitarian spirit4 ,altogether he is imbued with this1 for the most part1 very modern feeling in a greater degree than any other writer1 ,greek or ,latin4 ,plutarch indeed1 in his noble ,essay on ,flesh ,eating1 is more expressly denunciatory of the barbarism of the ,slaughter ,house1 and of the horrible cruelties inseparably connected with it1 and evidently felt more deeply the importance of exposing its evils4 ,the ,latin moralist1 however1 deals with a wider range of ethical questions1 and on such subjects1 as1 e4g41 the relations of master and slave1 is far ahead of his contemporaries4 ,his treatment of ,dietetics1 in common with that of most of the old-world moralists1 is rather from the spiritual and ascetic than from the purely humanitarian point of view4 8,the judgments on ,seneca's writings10 says the author of the article on ,seneca in ,dr4 ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,latin ,biography1 8have been as various as the opinions about his character1 and both in extremes4 ,it has been said of him that he looks best in quotations2 but this is an admission that there is something worth quoting1 which cannot be said of all writers4 ,that ,seneca possessed great mental powers cannot be doubted4 ,he had seen much of human life1 and he knew well what man is4 ,his philosophy1 so far as he adopted a system1 was the stoical2 but it was rather an eclecticism of stoicism than pure stoicism4 ,his style is antithetical1 and apparently laboured2 and where there is much labour there is generally affectation4 ,yet his language is clear and forcible--it is not mere words--there is thought always4 ,it would not be easy to name any modern writer1 who has treated on morality and has said so much that is practically good and true1 or has treated the matter in so attractive a way40 ,jerome1 in his ,ecclesiastical ,writers1 hesitates to include him in the catalogue of his saints only because he is not certain of the genuineness of the alleged literary correspondence between ,seneca and ,st4 ,paul4 ,we may observe1 in passing1 on the remarkable coincidence of the presence of the two greatest teachers of the old and the new faiths in the capital of the ,roman ,empire at the same time2 and it is possible1 or rather highly probable1 that ,st4 ,paul was acquainted with the writings of ,seneca2 while1 from the total silence of the pagan philosopher1 it seems that he knew nothing of the ,pauline epistles or teaching4 ,amongst many testimonies to the superiority of ,seneca1 ,tacitus1 the great historian of the empire1 speaks of the 8splendour and celebrity of his philosophic writings10 as well as of his 8amiable genius0--ingenium amnum4 7,annals1 xii41 xiii47 ,the elder ,pliny writes of him as 8at the very head of all the learned men of that time40 7xiv4 #d47 ,petrarch quotes the testimony of ,plutarch1 8that great man who1 ,greek though he was freely confesses #8that there is no ,greek writer who could be brought into comparison with him in the department of morals4'0 ,the following passage is to be found in a letter to ,lucilius1 in which1 after expatiating on the sublimity of the teaching of the philosopher ,attalus in inculcating moderation and self-control in corporeal pleasures1 ,seneca thus enunciates his dietetic opinions3-- 8,since ,i have begun to confide to you with what exceeding ardour ,i approached the study of philosophy in my youth1 ,i shall not be ashamed to confess the affection with which ,sotion his preceptor inspired me for the teaching of ,pythagoras4 ,he was wont to instruct me on what grounds he himself1 and1 after him1 ,sextius1 had determined to abstain from the flesh of animals4 ,each had a different reason1 but the reason in both instances was a grand one 7magnifica74 ,sotion held that man can find a sufficiency of nourishment without blood shedding1 and that cruelty became habitual when once the practice of butchering was applied to the gratification of the appetite4 ,he was wont to add that #8,it is our bounden duty to limit the materials of luxury4 ,that1 moreover1 variety of foods is injurious to health1 and not natural to our bodies4 ,if these maxims of the ,pythagorean school are true1 then to abstain from the flesh of animals is to encourage and foster innocence2 if ill-founded1 at least they teach us frugality and simplicity of living4 ,and what loss have you in losing your cruelty8 7,quod istic crudelitatis tu damnum est87 ,i merely deprive you of the food of lions and vultures4' 8,moved by these and similar arguments1 ,i resolved to abstain from flesh meat1 and at the end of a year the habit of abstinence was not only easy but delightful4 ,i firmly believed that the faculties of my mind were more active1#be and at this day ,i will not take pains to assure you whether they were so or not4 ,you ask1 then1 #8,why did you go back and relinquish this mode of life8' ,i reply that the lot of my early days was cast in the reign of the emperor ,tiberius4 ,certain foreign religions became the object of the imperial suspicion1 and amongst the proofs of adherence to the foreign cultus or superstition was that of abstinence from the flesh of animals4 ,at the entreaties of my father1 therefore1 who had no real fear of the practice being made a ground of accusation1 but who had a hatred of philosophy1#bf ,i was induced to return to my former dietetic habits1 nor had he much difficulty in persuading me to recur to more sumptuous repasts4444 8,this ,i tell10 he proceeds1 8to prove to you how powerful are the early impetuses of youth to what is truest and best under the exhortations and incentives of virtuous teachers4 ,we err partly through the fault of our guides1 who teach us how to dispute1 not how to live2 partly by our own fault in expecting our teachers to cultivate not so much the disposition of the mind as the faculties of the intellect4 ,hence it is that in place of a love of wisdom there is only a love of words 7,itaque qu philosophia fuit1 facta philologia est740--,epistola cviii4#bg ,seneca here cautiously reveals the jealous suspicion with which the first ,csars viewed all foreign1 and especially quasi-religious1 innovations1 and his own public compliance1 to some extent1 with the orthodox dietetic practices4 ,yet that in private life he continued to practise1 as well as to preach1 a radical dietary reformation is sufficiently evident to all who are conversant with his various writings4 ,the refinement and gentleness of his ethics are everywhere apparent1 and exhibit him as a man of extraordinary sensibility and feeling4 ,as for dietetics1 he makes it a matter of the first importance1 on which he is never weary of insisting4 8,we must so live1 not as if we ought to live for1 but as though we could not do without1 the body40 ,he quotes ,epikurus3 8,if you live according to nature1 you will never be poor2 if according to conventionalism1 you will never be rich4 ,nature demands little2 fashion 7opinio7 superfluity40 ,in one of his letters he eloquently describes the riotous feasting of the period which corresponds to our festival of ,christmas--another illustration of the proverb1 8,history repeats itself03-- 8,december is the month10 he begins his letter1 8when the city ,rome most especially gives itself up to riotous living 7desudat74 ,free licence is allowed to the public luxury4 ,every place resounds with the gigantic preparations for eating and gorging1 just as if10 he adds1 8the whole year were not a sort of ,saturnalia40 ,he contrasts with all this waste and gluttony the simplicity and frugality of ,epikurus1 who1 in a letter to his friend ,polynus1 declares that his own food does not cost him sixpence a day2 while his friend ,metrodorus1 who had not advanced so far in frugality1 expended the whole of that small sum3-- 8,do you ask if that can supply due nourishment8 ,yes2 and pleasure too4 ,not1 indeed1 that fleeting and superficial pleasure which needs to be perpetually recruited1 but a solid and substantial one4 ,bread and pearl-barley 7polenta7 certainly is not luxurious feeding1 but it is no little advantage to be able to receive pleasure from a simple diet of which no change of fortune can deprive one4444 ,nature demands bread and water only3 no one is poor in regard to those necessaries40#bh ,again1 ,seneca writes3-- 8,how long shall we weary heaven with petitions for superfluous luxuries1 as though we had not at hand wherewithal to feed ourselves8 ,how long shall we fill our plains with huge cities8 ,how long shall the people slave for us unnecessarily8 ,how long shall countless numbers of ships from every sea bring us provisions for the consumption of a single month8 ,an ,ox is satisfied with the pasture of an acre or two3 one wood suffices for several ,elephants4 ,man alone supports himself by the pillage of the whole earth and sea4 ,what6 ,has ,nature indeed given us so insatiable a stomach1 while she has given us so insignificant bodies8 ,no3 it is not the hunger of our stomachs1 but insatiable covetousness 7ambitio7 which costs so much4 ,the slaves of the belly 7as says ,sallust7 are to be counted in the number of the lower animals1 not of men4 ,nay1 not of them1 but rather of the dead4444 ,you might inscribe on their doors1 #8,these have anticipated death4'0--7,ep4 lx47 ,the extreme difficulty of abstinence is oftentimes alleged3-- 8,it is disagreeable1 you say1 to abstain from the pleasures of the customary diet4 ,such abstinence is1 ,i grant1 difficult at first4 ,but in course of time the desire for that diet will begin to languish2 the incentives to our unnatural wants failing1 the stomach1 at first rebellious1 will after a time feel an aversion for what formerly it eagerly coveted4 ,the desire dies of itself1 and it is no severe loss to be without those things that you have ceased to long for4 ,add to this that there is no disease1 no pain1 which is not certainly intermitted or relieved1 or cured altogether4 ,moreover it is possible for you to be on your guard against a threatened return of the disease1 and to oppose remedies if it comes upon you40--7,ep4 lxxviii47 ,on the occasion of a shipwreck1 when his fellow-passengers found themselves forced to live upon the scantiest fare1 he takes the opportunity to point out how extravagantly superfluous must be the ordinary living of the richer part of the community3-- 8,how easily we can dispense with these superfluities1 which1 when necessity takes them from us1 we do not feel the want of4444 ,whenever ,i happen to be in the company of richly-living people ,i cannot prevent a blush of shame1 because ,i see evident proof that the principles which ,i approve and commend have as yet no sure and firm faith placed in them4444 ,a warning voice needs to be published abroad in opposition to the prevailing opinion of the human race3 #8,you are out of your senses 7insanitis72 you are wandering from the path of right2 you are lost in stupid admiration for superfluous luxuries2 you value no one thing for its proper worth4'0--7,ep4 lxxxvii47 ,again3-- 8,i now turn to you1 whose insatiable and unfathomable gluttony 7profunda et insatiabilis gula7 searches every land and every sea4 ,some animals it persecutes with snares and traps1 with hunting-nets the customary method of the battue of that period1 with hooks1 sparing no sort of toil to obtain them4 ,excepting from mere caprice or daintiness1 there is no peace allowed to any species of beings4 ,yet how much of all these feasts which you obtain by the agency of innumerable hands do you even so much as touch with your lips1 satiated as they are with luxuries8 ,how much of that animal1 which has been caught with so much expense or peril1 does the dyspeptic and bilious owner taste8 ,unhappy even in this6 that you perceive not that you hunger more than your belly4 ,study10 he concludes his exhortation to his friend1 8not to know more1 but to know better40 ,again3-- 8,if the human race would but listen to the voice of reason1 it would recognise that fashionable cooks are as superfluous as soldiers4444 ,wisdom engages in all useful things1 is favourable to peace1 and summons the whole human species to concord40--7,ep4 xc47 8,in the simpler times there was no need of so large a supernumerary force of medical men1 nor of so many surgical instruments or of so many boxes of drugs4 ,health was simple for a simple reason4 ,many dishes have induced many diseases4 ,note how vast a quantity of lives one stomach absorbs--devastator of land and sea4#bi ,no wonder that with so discordant diet disease is ever varying4444 ,count the cooks3 you will no longer wonder at the innumerable number of human maladies40--7,ep4 xcv47 ,we must be content with giving our readers only one more of ,seneca's exhortations to a reform in diet3-- 8,you think it a great matter that you can bring yourself to live without all the apparatus of fashionable dishes2 that you do not desire wild boars of a thousand pounds weight or the tongues of rare birds1 and other portents of a luxury which now despises whole carcases1#cj and chooses only certain parts of each victim4 ,i shall admire you then only when you scorn not plain bread1 when you have persuaded yourself that herbs exist not for other animals only1 but for man also--if you shall recognise that vegetables are sufficient food for the stomach into which we now stuff valuable lives1 as though it were to keep them for ever4 ,for what matters it what it receives1 since it will soon lose all that it has devoured8 ,the apparatus of dishes1 containing the spoils of sea and land1 gives you pleasure1 you say4444 ,the splendour of all this1 heightened by art1 gives you pleasure4 ,ah6 those very things so solicitously sought for and served up so variously--no sooner have they entered the belly than one and the same foulness shall take possession of them all4 ,would you contemn the pleasures of the table8 ,consider their final destination0 7exitum specta74#ca ,if ,seneca makes dietetics of the first importance1 he at the same time by no means neglects the other departments of ethics1 which1 for the most part1 ultimately depend upon that fundamental reformation2 and he is equally excellent on them all4 ,space will not allow us to present our readers with all the admirable dicta of this great moralist4 ,we cannot resist1 however1 the temptation to quote some of his unique teaching on certain branches of humanitarianism and philosophy little regarded either in his own time or in later ages4 ,slaves1 both in pagan and ,christian ,europe1 were regarded very much as the domesticated non-human species are at the present day1 as born merely for the will and pleasure of their masters4 ,such seems to have been the universal estimate of their status4 ,while often superior to their lords1 nationally and individually1 by birth1 by mind1 and by education1 they were at the arbitrary disposal of too often cruel and capricious owners3-- 8,are they slaves80 eloquently demands ,seneca4 8,nay1 they are men4 ,are they slaves8 ,nay1 they live under the same roof 7contubernales74 ,are they slaves8 ,nay1 they are humble friends4 ,are they slaves8 ,nay1 they are fellow-servants 7conservi71 if you will consider that both master and servant are equally the creatures of chance4 ,i smile1 then1 at the prevalent opinion which thinks it a disgrace for one to sit down to a meal with his servant4 ,why is it thought a disgrace1 but because arrogant ,custom allows a master a crowd of servants to stand round him while he is feasting80 ,he expressly denounces their cruel and contemptuous treatment1 and demands in noble language 7afterwards used by ,epictetus1 himself a slave73-- 8,would you suppose that he whom you call a slave has the same origin and birth as yourself8 has the same free air of heaven with yourself8 that he breathes1 lives1 and dies like yourself80 ,he denounces the haughty and insulting attitude of masters towards their helpless dependants1 and lays down the precept3 8,so live with your dependant as you would wish your superior to live with you40 ,he laments the use of the term 8slaves10 or 8servants0 7servi71 in place of the old 8domestics0 7familiares74 ,he declaims against the common prejudice which judges by the outward appearance3-- 8,that man10 he asserts1 8is of the stupidest sort who values another either by his dress or by his condition40 ,is he a slave8 ,he is1 it may be1 free in mind4 ,he is the true slave who is a slave to cruelty1 to ambition1 to avarice1 to pleasure4 8,love10 he declares1 insisting upon humanity1 8cannot co-exist with fear40--7,ep4 xlviii47 ,he is equally clear upon the ferocity and barbarity of the gladiatorial and other shows of the ,circus1 which were looked upon by his contemporaries as not only interesting spectacles1 but as a useful school for war and endurance--much for the same reason as that on which the 8sports0 of the present day are defended4 ,cicero uses this argument1 and only expresses the general sentiment4 ,not so ,seneca4 ,he speaks of a chance visit to the ,circus 7the gigantic ,colosseum was not yet built71 for the sake of mental relaxation1 expecting to see1 at the period of the day he had chosen1 only innocent exercises4 ,he indignantly narrates the horrid and bloody scenes of suffering1 and demands1 with only too much reason1 whether it is not evident that such evil examples receive their righteous retribution in the deterioration of character of those who encourage them3-- 8,ah6 what dense mists of darkness do power and prosperity cast over the human mind4 ,he the magistrate believes himself to be raised above the common lot of mortality1 and to be at the pinnacle of glory1 when he has offered so many crowds of wretched human beings to the assaults of wild beasts2 when he forces animals of the most different species to engage in conflict2 when in the full presence of the ,roman populace he causes torrents of blood to flow1 a fitting school for the future scenes of still greater bloodshed40#cb ,in his treatise ,on ,clemency1 dedicated to his youthful pupil ,nero1 he anticipates the very modern theory--theory1 for the prevalent practice is a very different thing--that prevention is better than punishment1 and he denounces the cruel and selfish policy of princes and magistrates1 who are1 for the most part1 concerned only to punish the criminals produced by unjust and unequal laws3-- 8,will not that man10 he asks1 8appear to be a very bad father who punishes his children1 even for the slightest causes1 with constant blows8 ,which preceptor is the worthier to teach--the one who scarifies his pupils' backs if their memory happens to fail them1 or if their eyes make a slight blunder in reading1 or he who chooses rather to correct and instruct by admonition and the influence of shame8444 ,you will find that those crimes are most often committed which are most often punished4444 ,many capital punishments are no less disgraceful to a ruler than are many deaths to a physician4 ,men are more easily governed by mild laws4 ,the human mind is naturally stubborn and inclined to be perverse1 and it more readily follows than is forced4 ,the disposition to cruelty which takes delight in blood and wounds is the characteristic of wild beasts2 it is to throw away the human character and to pass into that of a denizen of the woods40 ,speaking of giving assistance to the needy1 he says that the genuine philanthropist will give his money-- 8,not in that insulting way in which the great majority of those who wish to seem merciful disdain and despise those whom they help1 and shrink from contact with them1 but as one mortal to a fellow-mortal he will give as though out of a treasury that should be common to all40#cc ,next to the ,de ,clementi and the ,de ,ir 78,on ,anger071 his treatise ,on the ,happy ,life is most admirable4 ,in the abundance of what is unusually good and useful it is difficult to choose4 ,his warning 7so unheeded7 against implicit confidence in authority and tradition cannot be too often repeated3-- 8,there is nothing against which we ought to be more on our guard than1 like a flock of sheep1 following the crowd of those who have preceded us--going1 as we do1 not where we ought to go1 but where men have walked before4 ,and yet there is nothing which involves us in greater evils than following and settling our faith upon authority--considering those dogmas or practices best which have been received heretofore with the greatest applause1 and which have a multitude of great names4 ,we live not according to reason1 but according to mere fashion and tradition1 from whence that enormous heap of bodies1 which fall one over the other4 ,it happens as in a great slaughter of men1 when the crowd presses upon itself4 ,not one falls without dragging with him another4 ,the first to fall are the cause of destruction to the succeeding ranks4 ,it runs through the whole of human life4 ,no-one's error is limited to himself alone1 but he is the author and cause of another's error4444 ,we shall recover our sound health if only we shall separate ourselves from the herd1 for the crowd of mankind stands opposed to right reason--the defender of its own evils and miseries4#cd 444 ,human history is not so well conducted1 that the better way is pleasing to the mass4 ,the very fact of the approbation of the multitude is a proof of the badness of the opinion or practice4 ,let us ask what is best1 not what is most customary2 what may place us firmly in the possession of an everlasting felicity1 not what has received the approbation of the vulgar--the worst interpreter of the truth4 ,now ,i call 8the vulgar0 the common herd of all ranks and conditions0 7,tam chlamydatos quam coronatos74--7,de ,vit ,beat i4 and ii47 ,again3-- 8,i will do nothing for the sake of opinion2 everything for the sake of conscience40 ,he repudiates the doctrines of ,egoism for those of ,altruism3-- 8,i will so live1 as knowing myself to have come into the world for others4444 ,i shall recognise the world as my proper country4 ,whenever nature or reason shall demand my last breath ,i shall depart with the testimony that ,i have loved a good conscience1 useful pursuits--that ,i have encroached upon the liberty of no one1 least of all my own40 ,very admirable are his rebukes of unjust and insensate anger in regard to the non-human species3-- 8,as it is the characteristic of a madman to be in a rage with lifeless objects1 so also is it to be angry with dumb animals1#ce inasmuch as there can be no injury unless intentional4 ,hurt us they can--as a stone or iron--injure us they cannot4 ,nevertheless1 there are persons who consider themselves insulted when horses that will readily obey one rider are obstinate in the case of another2 just as if they are more tractable to some individuals than to others of set purpose1 not from custom or owing to treatment40--7,de ,ir ii41 xxvi47 ,again1 of anger1 as between human beings3-- 8,the faults of others we keep constantly before us2 our own we hide behind us4444 ,a large proportion of mankind are angry1 not with the sins1 but with the sinners4 ,in regard to reported offences2 many speak falsely to deceive1 many because they are themselves deceived40 ,of the use of self-examination1 he quotes the example of his excellent preceptor1 ,sextius1 who strictly followed the ,pythagorean precept to examine oneself each night before sleep3-- 8,of what bad practice have you cured yourself to-day8 ,what vice have you resisted8 ,in what respect are you the better8 ,rash anger will be moderated and finally cease when it finds itself daily confronted with its judge4 ,what1 then1 is more useful than this custom of thoroughly weighing the actions of the entire day80 ,he adduces the feebleness and shortness of human life as one of the most forcible arguments against the indulgence of malevolence3-- 8,nothing will be of more avail than reflections on the nature of mortality4 ,let each one say to himself1 as to another1 #8,what good is it to declare enmity against such and such persons1 as though we were born to live for ever1 and to thus waste our very brief existence8 ,what profit is it to employ time which might be spent in honourable pleasures in inflicting pain and torture upon any of our fellow-beings8' 444 ,why rush we to battle8 ,why do we provoke quarrels8 ,why1 forgetful of our mortal weakness1 do we engage in huge hatreds8 ,fragile beings as we are1 why will we rise up to crush others8444 ,why do we tumultuously and seditiously set life in an uproar8 ,death stands staring us in the face1 and approaches ever nearer and nearer4 ,that moment which you destine for another's destruction perchance may be for your own4444 ,behold6 death comes1 which makes us all equal4 ,whilst we are in this mortal life1 let us cultivate humanity2 let us not be a cause of fear or of danger to any of our fellow-mortals4 ,let us contemn losses1 injuries1 insults4 ,let us bear with magnanimity the brief inconveniences of life40 ,again1 in dealing with the weak and defenceless3-- 8,let each one say to himself1 whenever he is provoked1 #8,what right have ,i to punish with whips or fetters a slave who has offended me by voice or manner8 ,who am ,i1 whose ears it is such a monstrous crime to offend8 ,many grant pardon to their enemies2 shall ,i not pardon simply idle1 negligent1 or garrulous slaves8' ,tender years should shield childhood--their sex1 women--individual liberty1 a stranger--the common roof1 a domestic4 ,does he offend now for the first time8 ,let us think how often he may have pleased us40--7,de ,ir iii41 passim47 ,as to the conduct of life3-- 8,we ought so to live1 as though in the sight of all men4 ,we ought so to employ our thoughts1 as though someone were able to inspect our inmost soul--and there is one able4 ,for what advantages it that a thing is hidden from men2 nothing is hidden from ,god4 7,ep4 #hc47 444 ,would you propitiate heaven8 ,be good4 ,he worships the gods1 who imitates the higher ideal of them4 ,how do we act8 ,what principles do we lay down8 ,that we are to refrain from human bloodshed8 ,is it a great matter to refrain from injuring him to whom you are bound to do good8 ,the whole of human and divine teaching is summed up in this one principle--we are all members of one mighty body4 ,nature has made us of one kin 7cognatos71 since she has produced us from the same elements and will resolve us into the same elements4 ,she has implanted in us love one for another1 and made us for living together in society4 ,she has laid down the laws of right and justice1 by which ordinance it is more wretched to injure than to be injured2 and by her ordering1 our hands are given us to help each the other4444 ,let us ask what things are1 not what they are called4 ,let us value each thing on its own merits1 without thought of the world's opinion4 ,let us love temperance2 let us1 before all things1 cherish justice4444 ,our actions will not be right unless the will is first right1 for from that proceeds the act40 ,again3-- 8,the will will not be right unless the habits of mind are right1 for from these results the will4 ,the habits of thought1 however1 will not be at the best unless they shall have been based upon the laws of the whole of life2 unless they shall have tried all things by the test of truth40--7,ep4 xcv47 ,excellent is his advice on the choice of books and of reading3-- 8,be careful that the reading of many authors1 and of every sort of books1 does not induce a certain vagueness and uncertainty of mind4 ,we ought to linger over and nourish our minds with1 writers of assured genius and worth1 if we wish to extract something which may usefully remain fixed in the mind4 ,a multitude of books distracts the mind4 ,read always1 then1 books of approved merit4 ,if ever you have a wish to go for a time to other kinds of books1 yet always return to the former40#cf--7;,ep4 ii47 ,in his #hhth ,letter ,seneca well exposes the folly of a learning which begins and ends in mere words1 which has no real bearing on the conduct of life and the instruction of the moral faculties3-- 8,in testing the value of books and writers1 let us see whether or no they teach virtue4444 ,you inquire minutely about the wanderings of ,ulysses rather than work for the prevention of error in your own case4 ,we have no leisure to hear exactly how and where he was tossed about between ,italy and ,sicily4444 ,the tempests of the soul are ever tossing us1 and evildoing urges us into all the miseries of ,ulysses4444 ,oh marvellously excellent education6 ,by it you can measure circles and squares1 and all the distances of the stars4 ,there is nothing that is not within the reach of your geometry4 ,since you are so able a mechanician1 measure the human mind4 ,tell me how great it is1 how small it is 7pusillus74 ,you know what a straight line is4 ,what does it profit you1 if you know not what is straight 7rectum7 in life40#cg ,what then8 ,are liberal studies of no avail8 ,for other things much2 for virtue nothing4444 ,they do not lead the mind to virtue--they only clear the way4 8,humanity forbids us to be arrogant towards our fellows2 forbids us to be grasping2 shows itself kind and courteous to all1 in word1 deed1 and thought2 thinks no evil of another1 but rather loves its own highest good1 chiefly because it will be of good to another4 ,do liberal studies always inculcate these maxims8 ,no more than they do simplicity of character and moderation2 no more than they do frugality and economy of living2 no more than they do mercy1 which is as sparing of another's blood as it is of its own1 and recognises that man is not to use the services of his fellows unnecessarily or prodigally4 8,wisdom is a great1 a vast subject4 ,it needs all the spare time that can be given to it4444 ,whatever amount of natural and moral questions you may have mastered1 you will still be wearied with the vast abundance of questions to be asked and solved4 ,so many1 so great1 are these questions1 all superfluous things must be removed from the mind1 that it may have free scope for exercise4 ,shall ,i waste my life in mere words 7syllabis78 ,thus does it come about that the learned are more anxious to talk than to live4 ,mark what mischief excessive subtlety of mind produces1 and how dangerous it may be to truth40--7,ep4 lxxxviii47 ,elsewhere he indignantly demands3-- 8,what is more vile or disgraceful than a learning which catches at popular applause 7clamores780--7,ep4 lii47 ,anticipating the ultimate triumph of ,truth1 he well says3-- 8,no virtue is really lost--that it has to remain hidden for a time is no loss to itself4 ,a day will come which will publish the truth at present neglected and oppressed by the malignity 7malignitas7 of its age4 ,he who thinks the world to be of his own age only1 is born for the few4 ,many thousands of years1 many millions of people1 will supervene4 ,look forward to that time4 ,though the envy of your own day shall have condemned you to obscurity1 there will come those who will judge you without fear or favour4 ,if there is any reward for virtue from fame1 that is imperishable4 ,the talk of posterity1 indeed1 will be nothing to us4 ,yet it will revere us1 even though we are insensible to its praise2 and it will frequently consult us4444 ,what now deceives has not the elements of duration4 ,falsehood is thinly disguised2 it is transparent1 if only you look close enough40--7,ep4 lxix47 ,in his ,questions on ,nature1 in which he often shows himself to have been much in advance of his contemporaries1 and1 indeed1 of the whole medival ages1 in scientific acumen1 he takes occasion to reprobate the common practice of glorifying the lives and deeds of worthless princes and others1 and exclaims in the modern spirit3-- 8,how much better to try to extinguish the evils of our own age than to glorify the bad deeds of others to posterity6 ,how much better to celebrate the works of ,nature deorum than the piracies of a ,philip or ,alexander and of the rest who1 become illustrious by the calamities of nations1 have been no less the pests of mankind than an inundation which devastates a whole country1 or a conflagration in which a large proportion of living creatures is consumed40--7,qust4 ,nat4 iii47 ,it will be sufficiently apparent1 from what we have presented to our readers1 that ,seneca1 though nominally of the ,stoic school1 belonged in reality to no special sect or party4 ,nullius addictus jurare in verba magistri4 ,bound to the words of no one master1 he sought for truth everywhere4 ,the authority whom he most frequently quotes with approval is ,epicurus1 the arch-enemy of ,stoicism4 ,wiser and more candid than the great mass of sectaries1 he scorns the tactics of partisanship4 ,he justly recognises the fact that the 8luxurious egoists have not derived their impulse or sanction from ,epicurus2 but1 abandoned to their vices1 they disguise their selfishness in the name of his philosophy40 ,he professes his own conviction to be 8against the common prejudice of the popular writers of my own school1 that the teaching of ,epicurus was just and holy1 and1 on a close examination1 essentially grave and sober4444 ,i affirm this1 that he is ill-understood1 defamed1 and depreciated40 7,de ,vit ,beat1 xii1 xiii47 ,it will also be sufficiently clear that the ethics of ,seneca consist of no mere trials of skill in logomachy2 in finely-drawn distinctions between words and names1 as do so large a proportion both of modern and ancient dialectics4 ,if so daring a heresy may possibly be forgiven us1 we would venture to suggest that the authorities of our schools and universities might1 with no inconsiderable advantage1 substitute judicious excerpts from the ,morals of ,seneca for the ,ethics of ,aristotle2 or1 as ,latin literature is now in question1 even for the ,de ,officiis of ,cicero4 ,this1 however1 is perhaps to indulge ,utopian speculation too greatly4 ,the medival spirit of scholasticism is not yet sufficiently out of favour at the ancient schools of ,aquinas and ,scotus4 ,,vi4 ,,plutarch4 #dj-abj ,a4,d4 787 ,the years of the birth and death of the first of biographers and the most amiable of moralists are unknown4 ,we learn from himself that he was studying philosophy at ,athens under ,ammonius1 the ,peripatetic1 at the time when ,nero was making his ridiculous progress through ,greece4 ,this was in #ff ,a4,d41 and the date of his birth may therefore be approximately placed somewhere about the year #dj4 ,he was thus a younger contemporary of ,seneca4 ,chronea1 in ,botia1 claims the honour of giving him birth4 ,he lived several years at ,rome and in other parts of ,italy1 where1 according to the fashion of the age and the custom of the philosophic rhetoricians 7of whom1 probably1 he was one of the very few whose prlections were of any real value71 he gave public lectures1 attended by the most eminent literary as well as social personages of the time1 among whom were ,tacitus1 the younger ,pliny1 ,quintilian1 and perhaps ,juvenal4 ,these lectures may have formed the basis1 if not the entire matter1 of the miscellaneous essays which he afterwards published4 ,when in ,italy he neglected altogether the ,latin language and literature1 and the reason he gives proves the estimation in which he was held3 8,i had so many public commissions1 and so many people came to me to receive instruction in philosophy4444 it was1 therefore1 not till a late period in life that ,i began to read the ,latin writers40 ,in fact1 the very general indifference1 or at least silence1 of the ,greek masters in regard to ,latin literature is not a little remarkable4 ,it is asserted1 on doubtful authority 7,suidas71 that he was preceptor of ,trajan1 in the beginning of whose reign he held the high post of ,procurator of ,greece2 and he also filled the honourable office of ,archon1 or ,chief ,magistrate of his native city1 as well as of priest of the ,delphic ,apollo4 ,he passed the later and larger portion of his life in quiet retirement at ,chronea4 ,the reason he assigns for clinging to that dull and decaying provincial town1 although residence there was not a little inconvenient for him1 is creditable to his citizen-feeling1 since he believed that by quitting it he1 as a person of influence1 might contribute to its ruin4 ,in all the relations of social life ,plutarch appears to have been exemplary1 and he was evidently held in high esteem by his fellow-citizens4 ,as husband and father he was particularly admirable4 ,the death of a young daughter1 one of a numerous progeny1 was the occasion of one of his most affecting productions--the ,consolation--addressed to his wife ,timoxena4 ,he himself died at an advanced age1 in the reign of ,hadrian4 ,plutarch's writings are sufficiently numerous4 ,the ,parallel ,lives1 forty-six in number1 in which he brings together a ,greek and a ,roman celebrity by way of comparison1 is perhaps the book of ,greek and ,latin literature which has been the most widely read in all languages4 8,the reason of its popularity10 justly observes a writer in ,dr4 ,smith's ,dictionary1 8is that ,plutarch has rightly conceived the business of a biographer--his biography is true portraiture4 ,other biography is often a dull1 tedious enumeration of facts in the order of time1 with perhaps a summing up of character at the end4 ,the reflections of ,plutarch are neither impertinent nor trifling2 his sound good sense is always there2 his honest purpose is transparent2 his love of humanity warms the whole4 ,his work is and will remain1 in spite of all the fault that can be found with it by plodding collectors of facts and small critics1 the book of those who can nobly think and dare and do40 ,his miscellaneous writings--indiscriminately classed under the title ,moralia1 or ,morals1 but including historical1 antiquarian1 literary1 political1 and religious disquisitions--are about eighty in number4 ,as might be expected of so miscellaneous a collection1 these essays are of various merit1 and some of them are1 doubtless1 the product of other minds than ,plutarch's4 ,next to the ,essay on ,flesh ,eating#ch may be distinguished as amongst the most important or interesting1 ,that the ,lower ,animals ,reason1#ci ,on the ,sagacity of the ,lower ,animals--highly meritorious treatises1 far beyond the ethical or intellectual standard of the mass of 8educated0 people even of our day--,rules for the ,preservation of ,health1 ,a ,discourse on the ,training of ,children1 ,marriage ,precepts1 or ,advice to the ,newly ,married1 ,on ,justice1 ,on the ,soul1 ,symposiacs--in which he deals with a variety of interesting or curious questions--,isis and ,osiris1 a theological disquisition2 ,on the ,opinions of the ,philosophers1 ,on the ,face that ,appears in the ,moon1#dj ,political ,precepts1 ,platonic ,questions1 and last1 not least1 his ,consolation1 addressed to ,timoxena4 ,plutarch also wrote his autobiography4 ,if it had come down to us it would have been one of the most interesting remains of ,antiquity1 dealing1 as we may well imagine it did deal1 with some of the most important phenomena of the age4 ,possibly we might have had the expression of his feeling and attitude in regard to the new religion 7established some #bjj years later71 which1 strangely enough1 is altogether overlooked or ignored as well by himself as by the other eminent writers of ,greece and ,italy4#da ,plutarch was an especial admirer of ,plato and his school1 but he attached himself exclusively to no sect or system4 ,he was essentially eclectic3 he chose what his reason and conscience informed him to be the most good and useful from the various philosophies4 ,as to the influence of his literary labours in instructing the world1 it has been truly remarked by the author of the article in the ,penny ,cyclopdia that1 8a kind1 humane disposition1 and a love of everything that is ennobling and excellent1 pervades his writings1 and gives the reader the same kind of pleasure that he has in the company of an esteemed friend1 whose singleness of heart appears in everything that he says or does40 ,his personal character is1 in fact1 exactly reflected in his publications4 ,that he was somewhat superstitious and of a conservative bias is sufficiently apparent2#db but it is also equally clear1 in his case1 that the moral perceptions were not obscured by a selfishness which is too often the product of optimism1 or self-complacent contentment with things as they are4 ,in metaphysics1 with all earnest minds oppressed by the terrible fact of the dominance of evil and error in the world1 he vainly attempted to find a solution of the enigma in that prevalent ,western ,asiatic prejudice of a dualism of contending powers4 ,he found consolation in the persuasion that the two antagonistic principles are not of equal power1 and that the ,good must eventually prevail over the ,evil4 ,the ,lives has gone through numerous editions in all languages4 ,of the ,morals1 the first translation in this country was made by ,philemon ,holland1 ,m4,d41 ,london1 #afjc and #afeg4 ,the next ,english version was published in #afhd-afid1 8by several hands40 ,the fifth edition1 8revised and corrected from the many errors of the former edition10 appeared in #agah4 ,the latest ,english version is that of ,professor ,goodwin1 of ,harvard ,university 7#ahgj71 with an introduction by ,r4 ,w4 ,emerson4 ,it is1 for the most part1 a reprint of the revision of #agah1 and consists of five octavo volumes4 ,it is a matter equally for surprise and regret that1 in an age of so much literary1 or at least publishing1 enterprise1 a judicious selection from the productions of so estimable a mind has never yet been attempted in a form accessible to ordinary readers4#dc ,in his ,symposiacs1 discussing 7,quest4 ii471 8whether the sea or land affords the better food10 and summing up the arguments1 he proceeds3-- 8,we can claim no great right over land animals which are nourished with the same food1 inspire the same air1 wash in and drink the same water that we do ourselves2 and when they are slaughtered they make us ashamed of our work by their terrible cries2 and then1 again1 by living amongst us they arrive at some degree of familiarity and intimacy with us4 ,but sea creatures are altogether strangers to us1 and are brought up1 as it were1 in another world4 ,neither does their voice1 look1 or any service they have done us plead for their life4 ,this kind of animals are of no use at all to us1 nor is there any obligation upon us that we should love them4 ,the element we inhabit is a hell to them1 and as soon as ever they enter upon it they die40 ,we may infer that ,plutarch advanced gradually to the perfect knowledge of the truth1 and it is probable that his essay on ,flesh-eating was published at a comparatively late period in his life1 since in some of his miscellaneous writings1 in alluding to the subject1 he speaks in less decided and emphatic terms of its barbarism and inhumanity3 e4g41 in his ,rules for the ,preservation of ,health1 while recommending moderation in eating1 and professing abstinence from flesh1 he does not so expressly denounce the prevalent practice4 ,yet he is sufficiently pronounced even here in favour of the reformed diet on the score of health3-- 8,ill-digestion10 says he1 8is most to be feared after flesh-eating1 for it very soon clogs us and leaves ill consequences behind it4 ,it would be best to accustom oneself to eat no flesh at all1 for the earth affords plenty enough of things fit not only for nourishment but for delight and enjoyment2 some of which you may eat without much preparation1 and others you may make pleasant by adding various other things40 ,that the non-,christian humanitarian of the first century was far ahead--we will not say of his contemporaries1 but of the common crowd of writers and speakers of the present age in his estimate of the just rights and position of the innocent non-human races--will be sufficiently apparent from the following extract from his remarkable essay entitled1 ,that the ,lower ,animals ,reason1 to which ,montaigne seems to have been indebted4 ,the essay is in the form of a dialogue between ,odysseus 7,ulysses7 and ,gryllus1 who is one of the transformed captives of the sorceress ,circe 7see ,odyssey ix47 ,gryllus maintains the superiority of the non-human races generally in very many qualities and in regard to many of their habits--e4g41 in eating and drinking3-- 8,being thus wicked and incontinent in inordinate desires1 it is no less easy to be proved that men are more intemperate than other animals even in those things which are necessary--e4g41 in eating and drinking--the pleasures of which we the non-human races always enjoy with some benefit to ourselves4 ,but you1 pursuing the pleasures of eating and drinking beyond the satisfaction of nature1 are punished with many and lingering diseases#dd which1 arising from the single fountain of superfluous gormandising1 fill your bodies with all manner of wind and vapours not easy for purgation to expel4 ,in the first place1 all species of the lower animals1 according to their kind1 feed upon one sort of food which is proper to their natures--some upon grass1 some upon roots1 and others upon fruits4 ,neither do they rob the weaker of their nourishment4 ,but man1 such is his voracity1 falls upon all to satisfy the pleasures of his appetite1 tries all things1 tastes all things2 and1 as if he were yet to seek what was the most proper diet and most agreeable to his nature1 among all animals is the only all-devourer4#de ,he makes use of flesh not out of want and necessity1 seeing that he has the liberty to make his choice of herbs and fruits1 the plenty of which is inexhaustible2 but out of luxury and being cloyed with necessaries1 he seeks after impure and inconvenient diet1 purchased by the slaughter of living beings2 by this showing himself more cruel than the most savage of wild beasts4 ,for blood1 murder1 and flesh are proper to nourish the kite1 the wolf1 and the serpent3 to men they are superfluous viands4 ,the lower animals abstain from most of other kinds and are at enmity with only a few1 and that only compelled by necessities of hunger2 but neither fish1 nor fowl1 nor anything that lives upon the land escapes your tables1 though they bear the name of humane and hospitable40 ,reprobating the harshness and inhumanity of ,cato the ,censor1 who is usually regarded as the type of old ,roman virtue1 ,plutarch1 with his accustomed good feeling1 declares3-- 8,for my part1 ,i cannot but charge his using his servants like so many horses and oxen1 or turning them off or selling them when grown old1 to the account of a mean and ungenerous spirit1 which thinks that the sole tie between man and man is interest or necessity4 ,but goodness moves in a larger sphere than so-called justice4 ,the obligations of law and equity reach only to mankind1 but kindness and beneficence should be extended to beings of every species4 ,and these always flow from the breast of a well-natured man1 as streams that flow from the living fountain4 ,a good man will take care of his horses and dogs1 not only while they are young1 but when old and past service4 ,thus the people of ,athens1 when they had finished the temple of ,hecatompedon1 set at liberty the lower animals that had been chiefly employed in that work1 suffering them to pasture at large1 free from any further service4444 ,we certainly ought not to treat living beings like shoes or household goods1 which1 when worn out with use1 we throw away2 and were it only to learn benevolence to human kind1 we should be compassionate to other beings4 ,for my own part1 ,i would not sell even an old ox that had laboured for me2 much less would ,i remove1 for the sake of a little money1 a man1 grown old in my service1 from his accustomed place--for to him1 poor man1 it would be as bad as banishment1 since he could be of no more use to the buyer than he was to the seller4 ,but ,cato1 as if he took a pride in these things1 tells us that1 when ,consul1 he left his war-horse in ,spain1 to save the public the charge of his freight4 ,whether such things as these are instances of greatness or of littleness of soul1 let the reader judge for himself40#df ,if we shall compare these sentiments of the pagan humanitarian with the every-day practices of modern christian society in the matter1 e4g41 of 8knackers' yards10 and other similar methods of getting rid of dumb dependants after a life-time of continuous hard labour--perhaps of bad usage1 and even semi-starvation--the comparison scarcely will be in favour of christian ethics4 ,from the essay ,on ,flesh-,eating we extract the principal and most significant passages3-- ,,plutarch--,,essay ,,on ,,flesh-,,eating4 8,you ask me upon what grounds ,pythagoras abstained from feeding on the flesh of animals4 ,i1 for my part1 marvel of what sort of feeling1 mind1 or reason1 that man was possessed who was the first to pollute his mouth with gore1 and to allow his lips to touch the flesh of a murdered being3 who spread his table with the mangled forms of dead bodies1 and claimed as his daily food what were but now beings endowed with movement1 with perception1 and with voice4 8,how could his eyes endure the spectacle of the flayed and dismembered limbs8 ,how could his sense of smell endure the horrid effluvium8 ,how1 ,i ask1 was his taste not sickened by contact with festering wounds1 with the pollution of corrupted blood and juices8 #8,the very hides began to creep1 and the flesh1 both roast and raw1 groaned on the spits1 and the slaughtered oxen were endowed1 as it might seem1 with human voice4'#dg ,this is poetic fiction2 but the actual feast of ordinary life is1 of a truth1 a veritable portent--that a human being should hunger after the flesh of oxen actually bellowing before him1 and teach upon what parts one should feast1 and lay down elaborate rules about joints and roastings and dishes4 ,the first man who set the example of this savagery is the person to arraign2 not1 assuredly1 that great mind which1 in a later age1 determined to have nothing to do with such horrors4 8,for the wretches who first applied to flesh-eating may justly be alleged in excuse their utter resourcelessness and destitution1 inasmuch as it was not to indulge in lawless desires1 or amidst the superfluities of necessaries1 for the pleasure of wanton indulgence in unnatural luxuries that they the primeval peoples betook themselves to carnivorous habits4 8,if they could now assume consciousness and speech they might exclaim1 #8,o blest and ,god-loved men who live at this day6 ,what a happy age in the world's history has fallen to your lot1 you who plant and reap an inheritance of all good things which grow for you in ungrudging abundance6 ,what rich harvests do you not gather in8 ,what wealth from the plains1 what innocent pleasures is it not in your power to reap from the rich vegetation surrounding you on all sides6 ,you may indulge in luxurious food without staining your hands with innocent blood4 ,while as for us wretches1 our lot was cast in an age of the world the most savage and frightful conceivable4 ,we were plunged into the midst of an all-prevailing and fatal want of the commonest necessaries of life from the period of the earth's first genesis1 while yet the gross atmosphere of the globe hid the cheerful heavens from view1 while the stars were yet wrapped in a dense and gloomy mist of fiery vapours1 and the sun earth itself had no firm and regular course4 ,our globe was then a savage and uncultivated wilderness1 perpetually overwhelmed with the floods of the disorderly rivers1 abounding in shapeless and impenetrable morasses and forests4 ,not for us the gathering in of domesticated fruits2 no mechanical instrument of any kind wherewith to fight against nature4 ,famines gave us no time1 nor could there be any periods of seed-time and harvest4 8#8,what wonder1 then1 if1 contrary to nature1 we had recourse to the flesh of living beings1 when all our other means of subsistence consisted in wild corn or a sort of grass--1 and the bark of trees1 and even slimy mud1 and when we deemed ourselves fortunate to find some chance wild root or herb8 ,when we tasted an acorn or beech-nut we danced with grateful joy around the tree1 hailing it as our bounteous mother and nurse4 ,such was the gala-feast of those primeval days1 when the whole earth was one universal scene of passion and violence1 engendered by the struggle for the very means of existence4 8#8,but what struggle for existence1 or what goading madness has incited you to imbrue your hands in blood--you who have1 we repeat1 a superabundance of all the necessaries and comforts of existence8 ,why do you belie the ,earth as though it were unable to feed and nourish you8 ,why do you do despite to the bounteous goddess ,ceres1 and blaspheme the sweet and mellow gifts of ,bacchus1 as though you received not a sufficiency from them8 8#8,does it not shame you to mingle murder and blood with their beneficent fruits8 ,other carnivora you call savage and ferocious--lions and tigers and serpents--while yourselves come behind them in no species of barbarity4 ,and yet for them murder is the only means of sustenance2 whereas to you it is a superfluous luxury and crime4' 8,for1 in point of fact1 we do not kill and eat lions and wolves1 as we might do in self-defence--on the contrary1 we leave them unmolested2 and yet the innocent and the domesticated and helpless and unprovided with weapons of offence--these we hunt and kill1 whom ,nature seems to have brought into existence for their beauty and gracefulness4444 8,nothing puts us out of countenance 1 not the charming beauty of their form1 not the plaintive sweetness of their voice or cry1 not their mental intelligence 1 not the purity of their diet1 not superiority of understanding4 ,for the sake of a part of their flesh only1 we deprive them of the glorious light of the sun--of the life for which they were born4 ,the plaintive cries they utter we affect to take to be meaningless2 whereas1 in fact1 they are entreaties and supplications and prayers addressed to us by each which say1 #8,it is not the satisfaction of your real necessities we deprecate1 but the wanton indulgence of your appetites4 ,kill to eat1 if you must or will1 but do not slay me that you may feed luxuriously4' 8,alas for our savage inhumanity6 ,it is a terrible thing to see the table of rich men decked out by those layers out of corpses 1 the butchers and cooks3 a still more terrible sight is the same table after the feast--for the wasted relics are even more than the consumption4 ,these victims1 then1 have given up their lives uselessly4 ,at other times1 from mere niggardliness1 the host will grudge to distribute his dishes1 and yet he grudged not to deprive innocent beings of their existence6 8,well1 ,i have taken away the excuse of those who allege that they have the authority and sanction of ,nature4 ,for that man is not1 by nature1 carnivorous is proved1 in the first place1 by the external frame of his body--seeing that to none of the animals designed for living on flesh has the human body any resemblance4 ,he has no curved beak1 no sharp talons and claws1 no pointed teeth1 no intense power of stomach or heat of blood which might help him to masticate and digest the gross and tough flesh-substance4 ,on the contrary1 by the smoothness of his teeth1 the small capacity of his mouth1 the softness of his tongue1 and the sluggishness of his digestive apparatus1 ,nature sternly forbids him to feed on flesh4 8,if1 in spite of all this1 you still affirm that you were intended by nature for such a diet1 then1 to begin with1 kill yourself what you wish to eat--but do it yourself with your own natural weapons1 without the use of butcher's knife1 or axe1 or club4 ,no2 as the wolves and lions and bears themselves slay all they feed on1 so1 in like manner1 do you kill the cow or ox with a gripe of your jaws1 or the pig with your teeth1 or a hare or a lamb by falling upon and rending them there and then4 ,having gone through all these preliminaries1 then sit down to your repast4 ,if1 however1 you wait until the living and intelligent existence be deprived of life1 and if it would disgust you to have to rend out the heart and shed the life-blood of your victim1 why1 ,i ask1 in the very face of ,nature1 and in despite of her1 do you feed on beings endowed with sentient life8 ,but more than this--not even1 after your victims have been killed1 will you eat them just as they are from the slaughter-house4 ,you boil1 roast1 and altogether metamorphose them by fire and condiments4 ,you entirely alter and disguise the murdered animal by the use of ten thousand sweet herbs and spices1 that your natural taste may be deceived and be prepared to take the unnatural food4 ,a proper and witty rebuke was that of the ,spartan who bought a fish and gave it to his cook to dress4 ,when the latter asked for butter1 and olive oil1 and vinegar1 he replied1 #8,why1 if ,i had all these things1 ,i should not have bought the fish6' 8,to such a degree do we make luxuries of bloodshed1 that we call flesh #8a delicacy1' and forthwith require delicate sauces for this same flesh-meat1 and mix together oil and wine and honey and pickle and vinegar with all the spices of ,syria and ,arabia--for all the world as though we were embalming a human corpse4 ,after all these heterogeneous matters have been mixed and dissolved and1 in a manner1 corrupted1 it is for the stomach1 forsooth1 to masticate and assimilate them--if it can4 ,and though this may be1 for the time1 accomplished1 the natural sequence is a variety of diseases1 produced by imperfect digestion and repletion4#dh 8,diogenes 7the ,cynic7 had the courage1 on one occasion1 to swallow a polypus without any cooking preparation1 to dispense with the time and trouble expended in the kitchen4 ,in the presence of a numerous concourse of priests and others1 unwrapping the morsel from his tattered cloak1 and putting it to his lips1 #8,for your sakes1' cried he1 #8,i perform this extravagant action and incur this danger4' ,a self-sacrifice truly meritorious6 ,not like ,pelopidas1 for the freedom of ,thebes1 or like ,harmodius and ,aristogeiton1 on behalf of the citizens of ,athens1 did the philosopher submit to this hazardous experiments2 for he acted thus that he might unbarbarise1 if possible1 the life of human kind4 8,flesh-eating is not unnatural to our physical constitution only4 ,the mind and intellect are made gross by gorging and repletion2 for flesh-meat and wine may possibly tend to give robustness to the body1 but it gives only feebleness to the mind4 ,not to incur the resentment of the prize-fighters the athletes1 ,i will avail myself of examples nearer home4 ,the wits of ,athens1 it is well known1 bestow on us ,botians the epithets #8gross1' #8dull-brained1' and #8stupid1' chiefly on account of our gross feeding4 ,we are even called #8hogs4' ,menander nicknames us the #8jaw-people' 4 ,pindar has it that #8mind is a very secondary consideration with them4' #8,a fine understanding of clouded brilliancy' is the ironical phrase of ,herakleitus4444 8,besides and beyond all these reasons1 does it not seem admirable to foster habits of philanthropy8 ,who that is so kindly and gently disposed towards beings of another species would ever be inclined to do injury to his own kind8 ,i remember in conversation hearing1 as a saying of ,xenokrates1 that the ,athenians imposed a penalty upon a man for flaying a sheep alive1 and he who tortures a living being is little worse 7it seems to me7 than he who needlessly deprives of life and murders outright4 ,we have1 it appears1 clearer perceptions of what is contrary to propriety and custom than of what is contrary to nature4444 8,reason proves both by our thoughts and our desires that we are 7comparatively7 new to the reeking feasts of kreophagy4 ,yet it is hard1 as says ,cato1 to argue with stomachs since they have no ears2 and the inebriating potion of ,custom#di has been drunk1 like ,circe's1 with all its deceptions and witcheries4 ,now that men are saturated and penetrated1 as it were1 with love of pleasure1 it is not an easy task to attempt to pluck out from their bodies the flesh-baited hook4 ,well would it be if1 as the people of ,egypt turning their back to the pure light of day disembowelled their dead and cast away the offal1 as the very source and origin of their sins1 we1 too1 in like manner1 were to eradicate bloodshed and gluttony from ourselves and purify the remainder of our lives4 ,if the irreproachable diet be impossible to any by reason of inveterate habit1 at least let them devour their flesh as driven to it by hunger1 not in luxurious wantonness1 but with feelings of shame4 ,slay your victim1 but at least do so with feelings of pity and pain1 not with callous heedlessness and with torture4 ,and yet that is what is done in a variety of ways4 8,in slaughtering swine1 for example1 they thrust red-hot irons into their living bodies1 so that1 by sucking up or diffusing the blood1 they may render the flesh soft and tender4 ,some butchers jump upon or kick the udders of pregnant sows1 that by mingling the blood and milk and matter of the embryos that have been murdered together in the very pangs of parturition1 they may enjoy the pleasure of feeding upon unnaturally and highly inflamed flesh6#ej ,again1 it is a common practice to stitch up the eyes of cranes and swans1 and shut them up in dark places to fatten4 ,in this and other similar ways are manufactured their dainty dishes1 with all the varieties of sauces and spices --,lydian sauces1 composed of blood and spices--from all which it is sufficiently evident that men have indulged their lawless appetites in the pleasures of luxury1 not for necessary food1 and from no necessity1 but only out of the merest wantonness1 and gluttony1 and display44440#ea ,among the illustrious earlier contemporaries of ,plutarch who practised no less than preached rigid abstinence1 ,apollonius of ,tyana1 the ,pythagorean1 one of the most extraordinary men of any age1 deserves particular notice4 ,he came into the world in the same year with the founder of ,christianity1 ,b4,c4 #d4 ,the facts and fictions of his life we owe to ,philostratus1 who wrote his memoirs at the express desire of the ,empress ,julia ,domna1 the wife of ,severus4 ,apollonius1 according to his biographer1 came of noble ancestry4 ,he early applied himself to severe study at the ever memorable ,tarsus1 where he may have known the great persecutor1 and afterwards second founder1 of ,christianity4 ,disgusted with the luxury of the people1 he soon exiled himself to a more congenial atmosphere1 and applied himself to the examination of the various schools of philosophy--the ,epicurean1 the ,stoic1 the ,peripatetic1 c4--finally giving the preference to the ,pythagorean4 ,he embraced the strictest ascetic life1 and travelled extensively1 visiting1 in the first instance1 ,nineveh1 ,babylon1 and1 it is said1 ,india1 and afterwards ,greece1 ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,roman ,africa and ,ethiopia4 ,at the accession of ,domitian1 he narrowly escaped from the hands of that tyrant1 after having voluntarily given himself up to his tribunal1 by an exertion of his reputed supernatural power4 ,he passed the last years of his life at ,ephesus1 where1 according to the well-known story1 he is said to have announced the death of ,domitian at the very moment of the event at ,rome4 ,his alleged miracles were so celebrated1 and so curiously resemble the ,christian miracles1 that they have excited an unusual amount of attention4#eb ,unfortunately1 the life by ,philostratus1 in accordance with the taste of a necessarily uncritical age1 is so full of the preternatural and marvellous that the real fact that the pythagorean philosopher had acquired and possessed extraordinary mental as well as moral faculties1 which might well be deemed supernatural at that period1 is too apt to be discredited4 ,the ,life was composed long after the death of the hero1 and thus a considerable amount of inventive license was possible to the biographer2 but that it rested upon an undoubted substratum of actual occurrences will scarcely be disputed4 ,there is one passage which deserves to be transcribed as of wider application4 ,the people of a town in ,pamphylia 7in the ,lesser ,asia71 where the great ,thaumaturgist chanced to be staying1 were starving in the midst of plenty by the selfish policy of the monopolists of grain1 and1 driven to desperation1 were on the point of attacking the responsible authorities4 ,apollonius1 at this crisis1 wrote the following address1 and gave it to the magistrates to read aloud3-- 8,apollonius to the ,monopolists of ,corn in ,aspendos1 greeting3 ,the ,earth is the common mother of all1 for she is just4#ec ,you are unjust1 for you have made her the mother of yourselves only4 ,if you will not cease from acting thus1 ,i will not suffer you to remain upon her40 ,philostratus assures us that 8intimidated by these indignant words they filled the market with grain1 and the city recovered from its distress40 ,,vii4 ,,tertullian4 #afj-bdj 787 ,a4,d4 ,the earliest of the ,latin ,fathers extant is1 also1 one of the most esteemed by the ,church1#ed notwithstanding the well-known heterodoxy of his later life1 as the first ,apologist of ,christianity in the ,western and ,latin world4 ,he was a native of ,carthage1 the son of an officer holding an important post under the imperial government4 ,the facts of his life known to us are very few1 nor is it ascertained at what period he became a convert to the new religion1 or when he was ordained as presbyter4 ,the ill-treatment to which he was subjected by his clerical brethren at ,rome induced him1 it seems1 to throw in his lot with the ,montanist sect1 in whose defence he wrote several books4 ,he lived to an advanced age4 ,of his numerous works the best known 7by name at least7 is his ,apologeticus 78,an ,apology for ,christianity074 ,amongst his other treatises we may enumerate ,de ,spectaculis 78,on ,shows071 ,on ,idolatry1 ,on the ,soldier's ,crown 7in which ,tertullian raises the question of the lawfulness of the 8violent and sanguinary occupation0 of the soldier1 but rather1 however1 for the reason of the circumstances of the pagan ceremonial71 ,on ,monogamy1 ,on the ,dress of ,women 7upon the extravagance of which the 8,old ,fathers0 were eloquently denunciative71 ,address to his ,wife4 ,the treatise which here concerns us is his ,de ,jejuniis ,adversus ,psychicos4#ee ,tertullian sets himself to expose the subterfuge of a large proportion of the professing ,christians in his day who appealed to the pretended authority of ,christ and his ,apostles for the lawfulness of flesh-eating4 ,especially does he refute the 7supposed7 defence of kreophagy in ,i4 ,tim4 iv41 #c4ef ,as to the celebrated verse in ,genesis which solemnly enjoins the vegetable diet1 the opponents of abstinence allege the permission afterwards given to the 8post-diluvians40 8,to this we reply10 says ,tertullian1 8that it was not proper that man should be burdened with an express command to abstain1 who had not been able in fact1 to support even so slight a prohibition as that of not to eat one single species of fruit2 and1 therefore1 he was released from that stringency that1 by the very enjoyment of freedom1 he might learn to acquire strength of mind2 and after the #8flood1' in the reformation of the human species1 the simple command to abstain from blood sufficed1 and the use of other things was freely left to his choice4 ,inasmuch as ,god had displayed his judgment through the #8flood1' and had threatened1 moreover1 exquisition of blood1 whether at the hand of man or of beast1 giving evident proof beforehand of the justice of his sentence1 he left them liberty of choice and responsibility1 supplying the material for discipline by the freedom of will1 intending to enjoin abstinence by the very indulgence granted1 in order1 as we have said1 that the primordial offence might be the better expiated by greater abstinence under the opportunity of greater license40 7,quo magis1 ut diximus1 primordiale delictum expiaretur majoris abstinenti operatione in majoris licenti occasione47 ,he quotes the various passages in the ,jewish ,scriptures1 in which the causes of the idolatrous proclivities and the crimes of the earlier ,jews are connected by ,jehovah and his prophets with flesh-eating and gross living3-- 8,whether or no10 he proceeds1 8,i have unreasonably explained the cause of the condemnation of the ordinary food by ,god1 and of the obligation upon us1 through the divine will1 to denounce it1 let us consult the common conscience of men4 ,nature herself will inform us whether1 before gross eating and drinking1 we were not of much more powerful intellect1 of much more sensitive feeling1 than when the entire domicile of men's interior has been stuffed with meats1 inundated with wines1 and1 fermenting with filth in course of digestion1 turned into a mere preparatory place for the draught 7,prmeditatorium latrinarum74#eg 8,i greatly mistake 7mentior7 if ,god himself1 upbraiding the forgetfulness of himself by ,israel1 does not attribute it to fulness of stomach4 ,in fine1 in the book of ,deuteronomy1 bidding them to be on their guard against the same cause1 he says1 #8,lest when thou hast eaten and art full--when thy flocks and thy herds multiply1' c4 ,he makes the enormity of gluttony an evil superior to any other corrupting result of riches4444 ,so great is the privilege 7prerogative7 of a circumscribed diet that it makes ,god a dweller with men 7contubernalem--literally1 #8a fellow-guest'71 and1 indeed1 to live 7as it were7 on equal terms with them4 ,for if the eternal ,god--as he testifies through ,isaiah--feels no hunger1 man1 too1 may become equal to the ,deity when he subsists without gross nourishment40 ,he instances ,daniel and his countrymen1 8who preferred vegetable food and water to the royal dishes and goblets1 and so became more comely than the rest1 in order that no one might fear for his personal appearance2 while1 at the same time1 they were still more improved in understanding40 ,as to the priesthood3-- 8,god said to ,aaron1 #8,wine and strong liquor shall ye not drink1 you and your sons after you1' c4 ,so1 also1 he upbraids ,israel3 #8,and ye gave the ,nazarites wine to drink4' 7,amos ii41 #c47 ,now this prohibition of drink is essentially connected with the vegetable diet4 ,thus1 where abstinence from wine is required by ,god1 or is vowed by man1 there1 too1 may be understood suppression of gross feeding1 for as is the eating1 so is the drinking 7qualis enim esus1 talis et potus74 ,it is not consistent with truth that a man should sacrifice half of his stomach 7gulam7 only to ,god--that he should be sober in drinking1 but intemperate in eating4#eh 8,you reply1 finally1 that this abstinence is to be observed according to the will of each individual1 not by imperious obligation4 ,but what sort of thing is this1 that you should allow to your arbitrary inclinations what you will not allow to the will of ,god8 ,shall more licence be conceded to the human inclinations than to the divine power8 ,i1 for my part1 hold that1 free from obligation to follow the fashions of the world1 ,i am not free from obligation to ,god40 ,in regard to ,st4 ,paul's well-known sentences 7,rom4 xiv41 #a1 c471 ,tertullian maintains that he refers to certain teachers of abstinence who acted from pride1 not from a sense of right3-- 8,and even if he has handed over to you the keys of the slaughter-house or butcher's shop 7,macelli7 in permitting you to eat all things1 excepting sacrifices to idols1 at least he has not made the kingdom of heaven to consist in butchery2 #8for1' says he1 #8eating and drinking is not the kingdom of ,god1 and food commends us not to ,god4' ,you are not to suppose it said of vegetable1 but of gross and luxurious1 food1 since he adds1 #8,neither if we eat have we anything the more1 nor if we eat not have we anything the less4'#ei ,how unworthily1 too1 do you press the example of ,christ as having come #8eating and drinking' into the service of your lusts4 ,i think that ,he who pronounced not the full but the hungry and thirsty #8blessed1' who professed ,his work to be 7not as ,his disciples understood it7 the completion of ,his ,father's will1 ,i think that ,he was wont to abstain--instructing them to labour for that #8meat' which lasts to eternal life1 and enjoining in their common prayers petition1 not for rich and gross food1 but for bread only4 8,and if there be ,one who prefers the works of justice1 not1 however1 without sacrifice--that is to say1 a spirit exercised by abstinence--it is surely that ,god to whom neither a gluttonous people nor priest was acceptable--monuments of whose concupiscence remain to this day1 where was buried a large proportion of a people greedy and clamorous for flesh-meats1 gorging quails even to the point of inducing jaundice4#fj 8,your belly is your god10 thus he indignantly reproaches the apologists of kreophagy1 8your liver is your temple1 your paunch is your altar1 the cook is your priest1 and the fat steam is your ,holy ,spirit2 the seasonings and the sauces are your chrisms1 and your eructations are your prophesyings4 ,i ever10 continues ,tertullian with bitter irony1 8recognise ,esau the hunter as a man of taste 7sapere71 and as his were so are your whole skill and interest given to hunting and trapping--just like him you come in #8from the field' of your licentious chase4 ,were ,i to offer you #8a mess of pottage1' you would1 doubtless1 straightway sell all your #8birthright4' ,it is in the cooking-pots that your love is inflamed--it is in the kitchen that your faith grows fervid--it is in the flesh dishes that all your hope lies hid4444 ,who is held in so much esteem with you as the frequent giver of dinners1 as the sumptuous entertainer1 as the practised toaster of healths8 8,consistently do you men of flesh reject the things of the spirit4 ,but if your prophets are complacent towards such persons1 they are not my prophets4 ,why preach you not constantly1 #8,let us eat and drink1 for to-morrow we die1' just as we preach1 #8,let us abstain1 brothers and sisters1 lest to-morrow1 perchance1 we die'8 8,let us openly and boldly vindicate our teaching4 ,we are sure that they #8who are in the flesh cannot please ,god4'#fa ,not1 surely1 meaning #8in the covering or substance of the flesh1' but in the care1 the affection1 the desire for it4 ,as for us1 less grossness 7macies7 of the body is no cause of regret1 for neither does ,god give flesh by weight any more than he gives spirit by measure4444 ,let prize-fighters and pugilists fatten themselves up 7saginentur7--for them a mere corporeal ambition suffices4 ,and yet even they become stronger by living on vegetable food 7xerophagia--literally1 #8eating of dry foods'74 ,but other strength and vigour is our aim1 as other contests are ours1 who fight not against flesh and blood4 ,against our antagonists we must fight--not by means of flesh and blood1 but with faith and a strong mind4 ,for the rest1 a grossly-feeding ,christian is akin 7necessarius7 to lions and bears rather than to ,god1 although even as against wild beasts it should be our interest to practice abstinence40#fb ,,viii4 ,,clement ,,of ,,alexandria4 ,,died #bbj 787 ,a4,d4 ,the attitude of the first great ,christian writers and apologists in regard to total abstinence was somewhat peculiar4 ,trained in the school of ,plato1 in the later development of neo-platonism1 their strongest convictions and their personal sympathies were1 naturally1 anti-kreophagistic4 ,the traditions1 too1 of the earliest period in the history of ,christianity coincided with their pre-,christian convictions1 since the immediate and accredited representatives of the ,founder of the new religion1 who presided over the first ,christian society1 were commonly held to have been1 equally with their predecessors and contemporaries the ,essenes1 strict abstinents from flesh-eating4#fc ,moreover1 the very numerous party in the ,church--the most diametrically opposed in other respects to the ,jewish or ,ebionite ,christians--the ,gnostics or philosophical ,christians1 8the most polite1 the most learned1 and the most wealthy of the ,christian name10 for the most part agreed with their rivals for orthodox supremacy in aversion from flesh1 and1 as it seems1 for nearly the same reason--a belief in the essential and inherent evil of matter1 a persuasion1 it may be said1 however unscientific1 not unnatural1 perhaps1 in any age1 and certainly not surprising in an age especially characterised by the grossest materialism1 selfishness1 and cruelty4 ,but the creed of the ,christian church1 which eventually became the prevailing and ruling dogma1 like that of the ,english ,church at the ,revolution of the sixteenth century1 was a compromise--a compromise between the two opposite parties of those who received and those who rejected the old ,jewish revelation4 ,on the one hand ,christianity1 in its later and more developed form1 had insensibly cast off the rigid formalism and exclusiveness of ,mosaism1 and1 on the other1 had stamped with the brand of heresy the ,greek infusion of philosophy and liberalism4 ,unfortunately1 unable clearly to distinguish between the true and the false--between the accidental and fanciful and the permanent and real--timidly cautious of approving anything which seemed connected with heresy--the leaders of the dominant body were prone to seek refuge in a middle course1 in regard to the question of flesh-eating1 scarcely consistent with strict logic or strict reason4 ,while advocating abstinence as the highest spiritual exercise or aspiration1 they seem to have been unduly anxious to disclaim any motives other than ascetic--to disclaim1 in fine1 humanitarian or 8secular0 reason1 such as that of the ,pythagoreans4 ,such was the feeling1 apparently1 of the later orthodox church1 at least in the ,west4 ,while1 however1 we thus find1 occasionally1 a certain constraint and even contradiction in the theory of the first great teachers of the ,church1 the practice was much more consistent4 ,that1 in fact1 during the first three or four centuries the most esteemed of the ,christian heroes and saints were not only non-flesh-eaters but ,vegetarians of the extremest kind 7far surpassing1 if we give any credit to the accounts we have of them1 the most frugal of modern abstainers7 is well known to everyone at all acquainted with ecclesiastical and1 especially1 eremitical history--and it is unnecessary to further insist upon a notorious fact4#fd ,titus ,flavius ,clemens1 the founder of the famous ,alexandrian school of ,christian theology1 and at once the most learned and most philosophic of all the ,christian ,fathers1 is generally supposed to have been a native of ,athens4 ,his ,latin name suggests some connexion with the family of ,clemens1 cousin of the emperor ,domitian1 who is said to have been put to death for the crime of atheism1 as the new religion was commonly termed by the orthodox pagans4 ,he travelled and studied the various philosophies in the ,east and ,west4 ,on accepting the ,christian faith he sought information in the schools of its most reputed teachers1 of whom the name of ,pantnus is the only one known to us4 ,at the death of ,pantnus1 in #aij1 ,clement succeeded to the chair of theology in ,alexandria1 and at the same time1 perhaps1 he became a presbyter4 ,he continued to lecture with great reputation till the year #bjb1 when the persecution under ,severus forced him to retire from the ,egyptian capital4 ,he then took refuge in ,palestine1 and appears not to have returned to ,alexandria4 ,the time and manner of his death are alike unknown4 ,he is supposed to have died in the year #bbj4 ,amongst his pupils by far the most famous1 hardly second to himself in learning and ability1 was ,origen1 his successor in the ,alexandrian professorship4 ,his three great works are3 ,a ,hortatory ,discourse ,addressed to the ,greeks 7 71 ,the ,instructor 7,paidagogos--strictly1 ,tutor1 or ,conductor to school71 and the ,miscellanies 7,stromateis1 or ,stromata--lit4 8,patch-work074#fe ,the three works were intended to form a graduated and complete initiation and instruction in ,christian theology and ethics4 ,the first is addressed to the pagan ,greek world1 the second to the recent convert1 and in the last he conducts the initiated to the higher gnosis1 or knowledge4 ,the ,miscellanies originally consisted of eight books1 the last of which is lost4 ,the whole series is of unusual value1 not only as the record of the opinions of the ablest and most philosophical of the mediators between ,greek philosophy and the ,christian creed1 but also as containing an immense amount of information on ,greek life and literature4 ,eloquence1 earnestness1 and erudition equally characterise the writings of ,clement4 ,he assumes the name and character of a ,gnostic1#ff or philosophic ,christian1 not in the historical but in his own sense of the word1 and professes himself an eclectic--as far as a liberal interpretation of his religion admitted4 8,by philosophy10 he says1 8,i do not mean the ,stoic1 the ,platonic1 the ,epicurean1 or the ,aristotelian1 but all that has been well said in each of those sects teaching righteousness with religious science--all this selected truth 7 7 ,i call philosophy40 ,again1 he echoes the sentiments of ,seneca in lamenting that 8we incline more to beliefs that are in repute 7 71 even when they are contradictory1 than to the truth0 7,miscellanies1 i4 and vii474 8,it would have been well for ,christianity if the principles1 which he set forth with such an array of profound scholarship and ingenious reasoning1 had been adopted more generally by those who came after him4444 ,if anyone1 even in a ,protestant community1 were to assert the liberal and comprehensive principles of the great ,father of ,alexandria1 he would be told that he wished to compromise the distinctive claims of theology1 and that he was little better than a heathen and a publican40#fg ,it is in his second treatise1 the ,instructor or ,tutor1 that ,clement displays his opinions on the subject of flesh-eating3-- 8,some men live that they may eat1 as the irrational beings #8whose life is their belly and nothing else4' ,but the ,instructor enjoins us to eat that we may live4 ,for neither is food our business1 nor is pleasure our aim4 ,therefore discrimination is to be used in reference to food3 it must be plain1 truly simple1 suiting precisely simple and artless children--as ministering to life not to luxury4 ,and the life to which it conduces consists of two things1 health and strength3 to which plainness of fare is most suitable1 being conducive both to digestion and lightness of body1 from which come growth1 and health1 and right strength3 not strength that is violent or dangerous1 and wretched1 as is that of the athletes which is produced by artificial feeding40 ,referring to the injunction of ,jesus1 8,when thou makest an entertainment1 call the poor10 for 8whose sake chiefly a supper ought to be made10 ,clement says of the rich3-- 8,they have not yet learned that ,god has provided for his creature 7man1 ,i mean7 food and drink for sustenance not for pleasure3 since the body derives no advantage from extravagance in viands4 ,on the contrary1 those who use the most frugal fare are the strongest and the healthiest1 and the noblest3 as domestics are healthier and stronger than their masters1 and agricultural labourers than proprietors1 and not only more vigorous but wiser than rich men4 ,for they have not buried the mind beneath food4 ,wholly unnatural and inhuman is it for those who are of the earth1 fattening1 themselves like cattle1 to feed themselves up for death4#fh ,looking downwards on the earth1 bending ever over tables1 leading a life of gluttony1 burying all the good of existence here in a life that by and by will end for ever3 so that cooks are held in higher esteem than the tillers of the ground4 ,we do not abolish social intercourse1 but we look with suspicion on the snares of ,custom and regard them as a fatal mischief4 ,therefore daintiness must be spurned1 and we are to partake of few and necessary things4444 ,nor is it suitable to eat and drink simultaneously4 ,for it is the very extreme of intemperance to confound the times whose uses are discordant4 ,and #8whether ye eat or drink1 do all to the glory of ,god1' aiming after true frugality1 which ,christ also seems to me to have hinted at when he blessed the loaves and the cooked fishes with which he feasted the disciples1 introducing a beautiful example of simple diet4 ,and the fish which1 at the command of the ,lord1 ,peter caught1 points to digestible and ,god-given and moderate food4444 ,we must guard against those sorts of food which persuade us to eat when we are not hungry1 bewitching the appetite4 ,for is there not1 within a temperate simplicity1 a wholesome variety of eatables--vegetables1 roots1 olives1 herbs1 milk1 cheese1 fruits1 and all kinds of dry food8 #8,have you anything here to eat8' said the ,lord to the disciples after the resurrection3 and they1 as taught by ,him to practice frugality1 #8gave him a piece of broiled fish1' and besides this1 it is not to be overlooked that those who feed according to the ,word are not debarred from dainties--such as honey combs4 ,for of sorts of food those are the most proper which are fit for immediate use without fire1 since they are readiest3 and second to these are those which are the simplest1 as we said before4 ,but those who bend around inflammatory tables1 nourishing their own diseases1 are ruled by a most licentious disease which ,i shall venture to call the demon of the belly3 and the worst and most vile of demons4 ,it is far better to be happy than to have a devil dwelling in us3 and happiness is found only in the practice of virtue4 ,accordingly the ,apostle ,matthew lived upon seeds and nuts1 7--hard-shelled fruits7 and vegetables without the use of flesh4 ,and ,john1 who carried temperance to the extreme1 #8ate locusts and wild honey4'0 ,as to the ,jewish laws3 8,the ,jews10 says ,clement1 8had frugality enjoined on them by the ,law in the most systematic manner4 ,for the ,instructor1 by ,moses1 deprived them of the use of innumerable things1 adding reasons--the spiritual ones hidden1 the carnal ones apparent--to which latter1 indeed1 they have trusted03-- 8,so that1 altogether1 but a few animals were left proper for their food4 ,and of those which he permitted them to touch1 he prohibited such as had died1 or were offered to idols1 or had been strangled3 inasmuch as to touch these was unlawful4444 ,pleasure has often produced in men harm and pain1 and full feeding begets in the soul uneasiness1 and forgetfulness1 and foolishness4 ,it is said1 moreover1 that the bodies of children1 when shooting up to their height1 are made to grow right by abstinence in diet2 for then the spirit which pervades the body1 in order to its growth1 is not checked by abundance of food obstructing the freedom of its course4 ,whence that truth-seeking philosopher1 ,plato1 fanning the spark of the ,hebrew philosophy1 when condemning a life of luxury1 says3 #8,on my coming hither to ,syracuse the life which is here called happy pleased me not by any means4 ,for not one man under heaven1 if brought up from his youth in such practices1 will ever turn out a wise man1 with however admirable genius he may be endowed4' ,for ,plato was not unacquainted with ,david1#fi who placed the sacred ark in his city in the midst of the tabernacle1 and bidding all his subjects rejoice #8before the ,lord1 divided to the whole host of ,israel1 men and women1 to each a loaf of bread1 and baked bread1 and a cake from the frying-pan4'#gj ,this was the sufficient sustenance of the ,israelites4 ,but that of the ,gentiles was over-abundant1 and no one who uses it will ever study to become temperate1 burying1 as he does1 his mind in his belly1 very like the fish called onos which1 ,aristotle says1 alone of all creatures has its heart in its stomach4 ,this fish ,epicharmus1 the comic poet1 calls #8monster-paunch4' ,such are the men who believe in their stomach1 #8whose ,god is their belly1 whose glory is in their shame1 who mind earthly things4' ,to them the apostle predicted no good when he said #8whose end is destruction4'0#ga ,in treating of the subject of sacrifices1 upon which he uses a good deal of sarcasm 7in regard to the pagan sacrifices at least71 ,clement incidentally allows us to see1 still further1 his opinion respecting gross feeding4 ,he quotes several of the ,greek poets who ridicule the practice and pretence of sacrificial propitiation1 e4g41 ,menander3-- 8the end of the loin1 ,the gall1 the bones uneatable1 they give ,alone to ,heaven3 the rest themselves consume40 8,if1 in fact10 remarks ,clement1 8the savour is the special desire of the ,gods of the ,greeks1 should they not first deify the cooks1 and worship the ,chimney itself which is still closer to the much-prized savour80 8,if10 he justly adds1 8the deity need nothing1 what need has he of food8 ,now1 if nourishing matters taken in by the nostrils are diviner than those taken in by the mouth1 yet they imply respiration4 ,what then do they say of ,god8 ,does ,he exhale1 like the oaks1 or does he only inhale1 like the aquatic animals by the dilatation of the gills1 or does he breathe all around like the insects80 ,the only innocent altar he asserts to be the one allowed by ,pythagoras3-- 8,the very ancient altar in ,delos was celebrated for its purity1 to which alone1 as being undefiled by slaughter and death1 they say that ,pythagoras would permit approach4 ,and will they not believe us when we say that the righteous soul is the truly sacred altar8 ,but ,i believe that sacrifices were invented by men to be a pretext for eating flesh1 and yet1 without such idolatry1 they might have partaken of it40 ,he next glances at the popular reason for the ,pythagorean abstinence1 and declares3-- 8,if any righteous man does not burden his soul by the eating of flesh1 he has the advantage of a rational motive1 not1 as ,pythagoras and his followers dream1 of the transmigration of the soul4 ,now ,xenokrates1 treating of #8,food derived from ,animals1'#gb and ,polemon in his work #8,on ,life according to ,nature1'#gb seem clearly to affirm that animal food is unwholesome4 ,if it be said that the lower animals were assigned to man--and we partly admit it--yet it was not entirely for food2 nor were all animals1 but such as do not work4 ,and so the comic poet1 ,plato1 says not badly in the drama of ,the ,feasts3-- #8,for of the quadrupeds we should not slay ,in future aught but swine4 ,for they have flesh ,most delicate3 and about the swine is nought ,for us3 excepting bristles1 dirt1 and noise4' ,some eat them as being useless1 others as destructive of fruits1 and others do not eat them because they are said to have strong propensity to coition4 ,it is alleged that the greatest amount of fatty substance is produced by swine's flesh3 it may1 then1 be appropriate for those whose ambition is for the body2 it is not so for those who cultivate the soul1 by reason of the dulling of the faculties resulting from eating of flesh4 ,the ,gnostic1 perhaps1 too1 will abstain for the sake of training1 and that the body may not grow wanton in amorousness4 #8,for wine1' says ,andokides1 #8and gluttonous feeds of flesh make the body strong1 but the soul more sluggish4' ,accordingly such food1 in order to a clear understanding1 is to be rejected40#gc ,in a chapter in his ,miscellanies1 discussing the comparative merits of the ,pagan and of the ,jewish code of ethics1 he displays much eloquence in attempting to prove the superiority of the latter4 ,in the course of his argument he is led to make some acknowledgment of the claims of the lower animals which1 however incomplete1 is remarkable as being almost unique in ,christian theology4 ,he quotes certain of the 8,proverbs10 e4g41 #8,the merciful man is long-suffering1 and in every one who shows solicitude there is wisdom1' and proceeds 7assuming the indebtedness of the ,greeks to the ,jews73-- 8,pythagoras seems to me to have derived his mildness towards irrational animals from the ,law4 ,for instance1 he interdicted the employment of the young of sheep and goats and cows for some time after their birth2 not even on the pretext of sacrifice allowing it1 on account both of the young ones and of the mother2 training men to gentleness by their conduct towards those beneath them4 #8,resign1' he says1 #8the young one to the mother for the proper time4' ,for if nothing takes place without a cause1 and milk is produced in large quantity in parturition for the sustenance of the progeny1 he who tears away the young one from the supply of the milk and the breast of the mother1 dishonours ,nature40 ,reverting to the ,jewish religion1 he asserts3-- 8,the ,law1 too1 expressly prohibits the slaying of such animals as are pregnant till they have brought forth1 remotely restraining the proneness of men to do wrong to men2 and thus also it has extended its clemency to the irrational animals1 that by the exercise of humanity to beings of different races we may practise amongst those of the same species a larger abundance of it4 ,those too that kick the bellies of certain animals before parturition1 in order to feast on flesh mixed with milk1 make the womb created for the birth of the ftus its grave1 though the ,law expressly commands #8but neither shalt thou seethe a lamb in his mother's milk4'#gd ,for the nourishment of the living animal1 it is meant1 may not be converted into sauce for that which has been deprived of life2 and that which is the cause of life may not co-operate in the consumption of its flesh40#ge ,,ix4 ,,porphyry4 #bcc-cjf 787 ,a4,d4 ,one of the most erudite1 as well as one of the most spiritual1 of the literati of any age or people1 and certainly the most estimable of all the extant ,greek philosophers after the days of ,plutarch1 was born either at ,tyre or at some neighbouring town4 ,his original name1 ,malchus1 the ,greek form of the ,syrian ,melech 7king71 and the name by which he is known to us1 ,porphyrius 7purple-robed71 we may well take deservedly to mark his philosophic superiority4 ,he was exceptionally fortunate in his preceptors--,longinus1 the most eloquent and elegant of the later ,greek critics1 under whom he studied at ,athens2 ,origen1 the most independent and learned of the ,christian ,fathers1 from whom1 probably1 he derived his vast knowledge of theological literature2 and1 finally1 ,plotinus1 the famous founder of ,new-,platonism1 who had established his school at ,rome in the year #bdd4 ,upon first joining the school of ,plotinus1 he had ventured to contest some of the characteristic doctrines of his new teacher1 and he even wrote a book to refute them4 ,amerius1 his fellow-disciple1 was chosen to reply to this attack4 ,after a second trial of strength by each antagonist1 ,amerius1 by weight of argument induced ,porphyry to confess his errors1 and to read his recantation before the assembled ,platonists4 ,porphyry ever after remained an attached and enthusiastic follower of the beloved master1 with the final revision and edition of whose voluminous works he was entrusted4 ,he had lived with him six years when1 becoming so far unsettled in his mind as even to contemplate suicide in order to free himself from the shackles of the flesh1 by the persuasion of his preceptor he made a voyage to ,sicily for the restoration of his health and serenity of mind4 ,this was in #bgj1 in the thirty-seventh year of his age4 ,returning to the capital upon the death of his master1 he continued the amiable but vain work of attempting the reform of the established religion1 which had then sunk to its lowest degradation1 and to this labour of love he may be said to have devoted his whole life4 ,at an advanced age he married ,marcella1 the widow of one of his friends1 who was a ,christian and the mother of a rather numerous progeny1 with the view1 as he tells us1 of superintending the education of her children4 ,about sixty separate works of ,porphyry are enumerated by ,fabricius1 published1 unpublished1 or lost2 the last numbering some forty-three distinct productions4 ,the most important of his writings are-- 7#a7 ,on ,abstinence from the ,flesh of ,living ,beings1#gf in four books1 addressed to a certain ,firmus ,castricius1 a ,pythagorean1 who for some reason or other had become a renegade to the principles1 or at least to the practice1 of his old faith4 ,next to the inculcation of abstinence as a spiritual or moral obligation1 ,porphyry's 8chief object seems to have been to recommend a more spiritual worship in the place of the sacrificial system of the pagan world1 with all its false notions and practical abuses4 ,this work10 adds ,dr4 ,donaldson1 8is valuable on many accounts1 and full of information40 7#b7 ,his criticism on ,christianity1 which he entitled a ,treatise against the ,christians--his most celebrated production4 ,it was divided into fifteen books4 ,all our knowledge of it is derived from ,eusebius1 ,jerome1 and other ecclesiastical writers4 ,several years after its appearance the courtly ,bishop of ,csarea1 the well-known historian of the first ages of ,christianity1 replied to it in a work extending to twenty-five books4 ,more than a century later1 ,theodosius ,,ii4 caused the obnoxious volume to be publicly burned1 and ,porphyry's criticism shared the fate of those 8many elaborate treatises which have since been committed to the flames0 by the theological or political zeal of orthodox emperors and princes4#gg 7#c7 ,the ,life of ,pythagoras--a fragment1 but1 as far as it goes1 the most interesting of the ,pythagorean biographies4 7#d7 ,on the ,life of ,plotinus and the ,arrangement of his ,works4 ,it is to this biography we are indebted for our knowledge of the estimable elaborator of ,new-,platonism4 ,we learn that he was the pupil of ,ammonius1 who disputes with ,numenius the fame of having originated the principles of the new school of thought of which ,plotinus1 however1 was the ,st4 ,paul--the actual founder4 ,of a naturally feeble constitution1 he had early betaken himself to the consolations of divine philosophy4 ,after vainly seeking rest for his truth-loving and aspiring spirit in other systems1 he at last found in ,ammonius the teacher and teaching which his intellectual and spiritual sympathies demanded4 ,his great ambition was to visit the country of ,buddha and of ,zerdusht or ,zoroaster1 and1 for that purpose1 he joined the expedition of the ,emperor ,gordian against the ,persians4 ,the defeat and death of that prince frustrated his plans4 ,he then settled at ,rome1 where he established his school1 and he remained in ,italy until his death in #bgj4 ,by the earnest solicitations of his disciples1 ,porphyry and ,amerius1 he was induced with much reluctance to publish his oral discourses1 and eventually they appeared in fifty-four books1 edited by ,porphyry1 who gave them the name of the ,enneads1 as being arranged in six groups of nine treatises4 ,perhaps no teacher ever engaged to so unbounded an extent the admiration and affection of his followers4 8,during the long period of his residence at ,rome1 ,plotinus enjoyed an estimation almost approaching to a belief in his superhuman wisdom and sanctity4 ,his ascetic virtue1 and the mysterious transcendentalism of his conversation1 which made him the ,coleridge of the day1 seems to have carried away the minds of his associates1 and raised them to a state of imaginative exaltation4 ,he was regarded as a sort of prophet1 divine himself1 and capable of elevating his disciples to a participation in his divinity4444 ,these coincidences or collusions his alleged miracles show how sacred a character had attached to ,plotinus4 ,and we see the same evidenced in his social influence4 ,men and women of the highest rank crowded round him1 and his house was filled with young persons of both sexes whom their parents when dying had committed to his care4 ,rogatian1 a senator and prtor-elect1 gave up his wealth and dignities1 and lived as the humble bedesman of his friends1 devoting himself to ascetic and contemplative philosophy4 ,his self-denial obtained for him the approbation of ,plotinus1 who held him up as a pattern of philosophy2 and he gained the more solid advantage of a perfect cure from the worst kind of rheumatic gout4 ,the influence of ,plotinus extended to the imperial throne itself4 ,the weak-minded ,gallienus1 and his ,empress ,salonina1 were so completely guided by the philosopher1 that he had actually obtained permission to convert a ruined ,city of ,campania into a ,platonopolis1 in which the laws of ,plato's ,republic were to be tested by a practical experiment2 and the philosopher had promised to retire thither accompanied by his chief friends40 ,the 8practical common sense0 7which usually may be interpreted to mean cynical indifferentism71 of the statesmen and politicians of the day interposed to prevent this attempt at a realisation of ,plato's great ideal2 and1 considering the prematurity of such ideas in the then condition of the world--and1 it must be added1 the extravagance of some of them--we can1 perhaps1 hardly regret that his 8,republic0 was never instituted4 ,as to the essence and spirit of the teaching of ,plotinus1 8,he cannot be termed1 strictly or exclusively1 a ,neo-,platonist3 he is equally a ,neo-,aristotelian and a ,neo-,philosopher in general4 ,he has himself one pervading idea1 to which he is always recurring1 and to which he accommodates1 as far as he can1 the reasonings of all his predecessors4 ,it is his object to proclaim and exalt the immanent divinity of man1 and to raise the soul to a contemplation of the good and the true1 and to vindicate its independence of all that is sensuous1 transitory1 and special4 ,with an enthusiasm bordering on fanaticism1 he proclaims his philosophical faith in an unseen world3 and1 rejecting with indignation the humiliating attempt to make out that the spiritual world is no better than an essence or elixir drained off from the material--that thoughts are #8merely the shadows and ghosts of sensations1' he tells his disciples that the inward eyes of consciousness and conscience were to be purged and unsealed at the fountain of heavenly radiance1 before they can discern the true form and colours and value of spiritual objects40 ,the personal humility of this sublime teacher1 we may add1 seems to have equalled the loftiness of his inspiration4 ,of the other writings of ,porphyry1 space allows us to refer only to his ,epistle to ,anebo--a critical refutation of some of the popular prejudices of ,pagan theology1 such as the grosser dmonism1 necromancy1 and incantation1#gh and1 above all1 animal sacrifice1 to which his keen spiritual sense was essentially antagonistic4 ,it is known only by fragments preserved in ,eusebius4 ,as to the theological or metaphysical opinions of ,porphyry1 8it is clear10 remarks ,dr4 ,donaldson1 8that he had but little faith in the old polytheism of the ,greeks4 ,he expressly tells his wife 7,letter to ,marcella7 that outward worship does neither good nor harm40 ,in truth1 as regards the better parts of ,christianity1 he was nearer to the religion of ,jesus than of ,jupiter1 although he found himself in opposition to what he considered the evils or errors of dogmatic ,christian theology4 ,in common with most of the principal expounders of ,neo-,platonism1#gi his sympathies were with much that was contained in the ,christian ,scriptures1 and1 in particular1 with the fourth ,gospel1 the sublime beginning of which1 we are assured1 the disciples of ,plato regarded as 8an exact transcript of their own opinions10 and which1 as ,st4 ,augustin informs us 7,de ,civ4 ,dei x41 #bi71 they declared to be worthy to be written in letters of gold1 and inscribed in the most conspicuous place in every ,christian church4 ,as for the learning1 as well as lofty ideas1 of the author of the treatise ,on ,abstinence1 there has been a general consensus of opinion even from his theological opponents4 ,augustin1 himself among the most learned of the ,latin ,fathers1 styles him doctissimus philosophorum 78the most learned of the philosophers071 and1 again1 philosophus nobilis 78a noble philosopher071 8a man of no common mind0 7,de ,civit4 ,dei72 and elsewhere he calls him 8the great philosopher of the heathen40 ,even ,eusebius1 his immediate antagonist1 concedes to him the titles of 8the noble philosopher10 8the wonderful theologian10 8the great prophet of ineffable doctrines0 7 74 ,donaldson1 endorsing the common admiration of the moderns1 describes his learning and erudition as 8stupendous40 ,amongst modern testimonies to the merits of ,porphyry's treatise1 ,on ,abstinence1 the sympathising remarks of ,voltaire are worth transcribing3-- 8,it is well known that ,pythagoras embraced this humane doctrine of abstinence from flesh-eating and carried it into ,italy4 ,his disciples followed it through a long period of time4 ,the celebrated philosophers1 ,plotinus1 ,iamblichus1 and ,porphyry1 recommended and practised it1 although it is sufficiently rare to practice what one preaches4 ,the work of ,porphyry1 written in the middle of our third century1 and very well translated into our language by ,m4 de ,burigni1 is much esteemed by the learned--but he has made no more converts amongst us than has the book of the physician ,hecquet4#hj ,it is in vain that ,porphyry alleges the example of the ,buddhists and ,persian ,magi of the first class1 who held in abhorrence the practice of engulfing the entrails of other beings in their own--he is followed at present only by the ,fathers of ,la ,trappe4#ha ,the treatise of ,porphyry is addressed to one of his old disciples1 named ,firmus1 who became a ,christian1 it is said1 to recover his liberty to eat flesh and drink wine4 8,he remonstrates with ,firmus1 that in abstaining from flesh and from strong liquors the health of the soul and of the body is preserved2 that one lives longer and with more innocence4 ,all his reflections are those of a scrupulous theologian1 of a rigid philosopher1 and of a gentle and sensitive spirit4 ,one might believe1 in reading him1 that this great enemy of the ,church is a ,father of the ,church4 ,he does not speak of the ,metempsychosis1 but he regards other animals as our brothers--because they are endowed with life as we1 because they have the same principles of life1 the same feelings1 ideas1 memory1 industry1 as we4 ,speech alone is wanting to them4 ,if they had it1 should we dare to kill and eat them8 ,should we dare to commit those fratricides8 ,what barbarian is there who would cause a lamb to be slaughtered and roasted1 if that lamb conjured him1 by an affecting appeal1 not to be at once assassin and cannibal8 8,this book1 at least1 proves that there were1 among the #8,gentiles1' philosophers of the strictest and purest virtue4 ,yet they could not prevail against the butchers and the gourmands4 ,it is to be remarked that ,porphyry makes a very beautiful eulogy on the ,essenians4 ,at that time the rivalship was who could be the most virtuous--,essenians1 ,pythagoreans1 ,stoics1 ,christians4 ,when churches form but a small flock their manners are pure2 they degenerate as soon as they get powerful40#hb ,of this famous treatise there is1 it appears1 only one ,english translation1 that of ,taylor 7#ahea71 long out of print2 and there is a ,german version by ,herr ,ed4 ,baltzer1 ,president of the ,vegetarian ,society of ,germany2 thus we have to lament for ,porphyry1 no less than for ,plutarch1 the indifferentism of the publishers1 or rather of the public1 which allows a production1 of an inspiration far above that of the common herd of writers1 to continue to be a sealed book for the community in general4 ,it has been already stated that it consists of four ,divisions4 ,the first treats of ,abstinence from the point of view of ,temperance and ,reason4 ,in the second is considered the lawfulness or otherwise of animal sacrifice4 ,in the third ,porphyry treats the subject from the side of ,justice4 ,in the fourth he reviews the practice of some of the nations of antiquity and of the ,east--of the ,egyptians1 ,hindus1 and others4 ,this last ,book1 by its abrupt termination1 is evidently unfinished4 ,porphyry begins with an expression of surprise and regret at the apostasy of the ,pythagorean renegade3-- 8,for when ,i reflect with myself upon the cause of your change of mind so he addresses his former associate1 ,i cannot believe1 as the vulgar herd will suppose1 that it has anything to do with reasons of health or strength1 inasmuch as you yourself were used to assert that the fleshless diet is more consonant to healthfulness and to an even and proportionate endurance of philosophic toils 7 71 and experience fully proved the truth of your conviction4 ,whether then it was through some other fallacy or delusion1 or through a later notion that this or that diet makes no difference to the intellectual powers1 or whether it was from the fear of incurring odium by opposition to orthodox customs1 or what the reason may have been1 ,i am unable to conjecture40 ,he expresses his hope1 or rather his belief1 that1 at least1 the lapse was not due in this case to natural intemperance1 or regret for the gluttonous habits 77 of flesh-eating4 ,he then proceeds to quote and refute the fallacies of the ordinary systems and sects1 and1 in particular1 the objections of one ,clodius1 a ,neapolitan1 who had published a treatise against ,pythagoreanism4 ,he professes that he does not hope to influence those who are engaged in sordid and selfish1 or in sanguinary1 pursuits4 ,rather he addresses himself to the man 8,who considers what he is1 whence he came1 and whither he ought to tend2 and who1 in what pertains to the nourishment of the body and other necessary concerns1 is of really thoughtful and earnest mind--who resolves that he shall not be led astray and governed by his passions4 ,and let such a man tell me whether a rich flesh diet is more easily procured1 or incites less to the indulgence of irregular passions and appetites1 than a light vegetable dietary4 ,but if neither he1 nor a physician1 nor1 indeed1 any reasonable man whosoever1 dares to affirm this1 why do we persist in oppressing ourselves with gross feeding8 ,and why do we not1 together with that luxurious indulgence1 throw off the encumbrances and snares which attend it8 8,it is not from those who have lived on innocent foods that murderers1 tyrants1 robbers1 and sycophants have come1 but from eaters of flesh4 ,the necessaries of life are few and easily procured1 without violation of justice1 liberty1 or peace of mind2 whereas luxury obliges those ordinary souls who take delight in it to covet riches1 to give up their liberty1 to sell justice1 to misspend their time1 to ruin their health1 and to renounce the satisfaction of an upright conscience40 ,in condemning animal sacrifice1 he declares that 8it is by means of an exalted and purified intellect alone that we can approximate to the ,supreme ,being1 to whom nothing material should be offered40 ,he distinguishes four degrees of virtue1 the lowest being that of the man who attempts to moderate his passions2 the highest1 the life of pure reason1 by which man becomes one with the ,supreme ,existence4 ,in the third book1 maintaining that other animals are endowed with high degrees of reasoning and of mental faculties1 and1 in some measure1 even with moral perception1 ,porphyry proceeds logically to insist that they are1 therefore1 the proper objects of ,justice3-- 8,by these arguments1 and others which ,i shall afterwards adduce in recording the opinions of the old peoples1 it is demonstrated that many species of the lower animals are rational4 ,in very many1 reason is imperfect indeed--of which1 nevertheless1 they are by no means destitute4 ,since then justice is due to rational beings1 as our opponents allow1 how is it possible to evade the admission also that we are bound to act justly towards the races of beings below us8 ,we do not extend the obligations of justice to plants1 because there appears in them no indication of reason2 although1 even in the case of these1 while we eat the fruits we do not1 with the fruits1 cut away the trunks4 ,we use corn and leguminous vegetables when they have fallen on the earth and are dead4 ,but no one uses for food the flesh of dead animals1 unless they have been killed by violence1 so that there is in these things a radical injustice4 ,as ,plutarch says1 it does not follow1 because we are in need of many things1 that we should therefore act unjustly towards all beings4 ,inanimate things we are allowed to injure to a certain extent1 to procure the necessary means of existence--if to take anything from plants while they are growing can be said to be an injury--but to destroy living and conscious beings merely for luxury and pleasure is truly barbarous and unjust4 ,and to refrain from killing them neither diminishes our sustenance nor hinders our living happily4 ,if indeed the destruction of other animals and the eating of flesh were as requisite as air and water1 plants and fruits1 then there could be no injustice1 as they would be necessary to our nature40 ,porphyry1 it is scarcely necessary to remark1 by these arguments proves himself to have been1 in moral as well as mental perception1 as far ahead of the average thinkers of the present day as he was of his own times4 ,he justly maintains that 8,sensation and perception are the principle of the kinship of all living beings4 ,and he reminds his opponents ,zeno and his followers the ,stoics admit that alliance or kinship 77#hc is the foundation of justice4 ,now1 to the lower animals pertain perception and the sensations of pain and fear and injury4 ,is it not absurd1 then1 whereas we see that many of our own species live by brute sense alone1 and exhibit neither reason nor intellect1 and that very many of them surpass the most terrible wild beasts in cruelty1 rage1 rapine2 that they murder even their own relatives2 that they are tyrants and the tools of tyrants--seeing all this1 is it not absurd1 ,i say1 to hold that we are obliged by nature to act leniently towards them1 while no kindness is due from us to the ,ox that ploughs1 the ,dog that is brought up with us1 and those who nourish us with their milk and cover our bodies with their wool8 ,is not such a prejudice most irrational and absurd80 ,to the objection of ,chrysippus 7the second founder of the school of the ,porch7 that the gods made us for themselves and for the sake of each other1 and that they made the non-human species for us--a convenient subterfuge by no means unknown to writers and talkers of our own times--,porphyry unanswerably replies3-- 8,let him to whom this sophism may appear to have weight or probability1 consider how he would meet the dictum of ,karneades#hd that #8everything in nature is benefited1 when it obtains the ends to which it is adapted and for which it was generated4' ,now1 benefit is to be understood in a more general way as meaning what the ,stoics call useful4 #8,the hog1 however1' says ,chrysippus1 #8was produced by nature for the purpose of being slaughtered and used for food1 and when it undergoes this1 it obtains the end for which it is adapted1 and it is therefore benefited6' ,but if ,god brought other animals into existence for the use of men1 what use do we make of flies1 beetles1 lice1 vipers1 and scorpions8 ,some of these are hateful to the sight1 defile the touch1 are intolerable to the smell1 while others are actually destructive to human beings who fall in their way4#he ,with respect to the cetacea1 in particular1 which ,homer tells us live by myriads in the seas1 does not the ,demiurgus#hf teach us that they have come into being for the good of things in general8 ,and unless they affirm that all things were indeed made for us and on our sole account1 how can they escape the imputation of wrong-doing in treating injuriously beings that came into existence according to the general arrangement of ,nature8 8,i omit to insist on the fact that1 if we depend on the argument of necessity or utility1 we cannot avoid admitting by implication that we ourselves were created only for the sake of certain destructive animals1 such as crocodiles and snakes and other monsters1 for we are not in the least benefited by them4 ,on the contrary1 they seize and destroy and devour men whom they meet--in so doing acting not at all more cruelly than we4 ,nay1 they act thus savagely through want and hunger2 we from insolent wantonness and luxurious pleasure#hg1 amusing ourselves as we do also in the ,circus and in the murderous sports of the chase4 ,by thus acting1 a barbarous and brutal nature becomes strengthened in us1 which renders men insensible to the feeling of pity and compassion4 ,those who first perpetrated these iniquities fatally blunted the most important part of the civilised mind4 ,therefore it is that ,pythagoreans consider kindness and gentleness to the lower animals to be an exercise of philanthropy and gentleness40 ,porphyry unanswerably and eloquently concludes this division of his subject with the fortiori argument3-- 8,by admitting that selfish pleasure is the legitimate end of our action1 justice is evidently destroyed4 ,for to whom must it not be clear that the feeling of justice is fostered by abstinence8 ,he who abstains from injuring other species will be so much the more careful not to injure his own kind4 ,for he who loves all animated ,nature will not hate any one tribe of innocent beings1 and by how much greater his love for the whole1 by so much the more will he cultivate justice towards a part of them1 and to that part to which he is most allied40 ,in fine1 according to ,porphyry1 he who extends his sympathies to all innocent life is nearest to the ,divine nature4 ,well would it have been for all the after-ages had this1 the only sure foundation of any code of ethics worthy of the name1 found favour with the constituted instructors and rulers of the western world4 ,the fourth and final ,book reviews the dietetic habits of some of the leading peoples of antiquity1 and of certain of the philosophic societies which practised abstinence more or less rigidly4 ,as for the ,essenes1 ,porphyry describes their code of morals and manner of living in terms of high praise4 ,we can here give only an abstract of his eloquent eulogium3-- 8,they are despisers of mere riches1 and the communistic principle with them is admirably carried out4 ,nor is it possible to find amongst them a single person distinguished by the possession of wealth1 for all who enter the society are obliged by their laws to divide property for the common good4 ,there is neither the humiliation of poverty nor the arrogance of wealth4 ,their managers or guardians are elected by vote1 and each of them is chosen with a view to the welfare and needs of all4 ,they have no city or town1 but dwell together in separate communities4444 ,they do not discard their dress for a new one1 before the first is really worn out by length of time4 ,there is no buying and selling amongst them4 ,each gives to each according to his or her wants1 and there is a free interchange between them4444 ,they come to their dining-hall as to some pure and undefiled temple1 and when they have taken their seats quietly1 the baker sets their loaves before them in order1 and the cook gives them one dish each of one sort1 while their priest first recites a form of thanksgiving for their pure and refined food 7 740 ,the testimony of the national historian of the ,jews1 it is interesting to observe1 is equally favourable to those pioneers of the modern communisms4 8,the ,essenes1 as we call a sect of ours10 writes ,josephus1 8pursue the same kind of life as those whom the ,greeks call ,pythagoreans4 ,they are long-lived also1 insomuch that many of them exist above a hundred years by means of their simplicity of diet and the regular course of their lives0 7,antiquities of the ,jews474 ,upon entering the society and partaking of the common meal 7which1 with baptism1 was the outward and visible sign of initiation7 three solemn oaths were administered to each aspirant3-- 8,first1 that he would reverence the divine ideal 7 72 second1 that he would carefully practise justice towards his fellow-beings and refrain from injury1 whether by his own or another's will2 that he would always hate the ,unjust and fight earnestly on the side of 77 the ,just and lovers of justice2 keep faith with all men2 if in power1 never use authority insolently or violently2 nor surpass his subordinates in dress and ornaments2 above all things always to love ,truth40 ,as for their food1 while they seem not to have been bound to total abstinence from every kind of flesh1 they may be considered to have been almost ,vegetarian in practice4 ,to kill any innocent individual of the non-human species that had sought refuge or an asylum amongst them was a breach of the most sacred laws3 to spare the domesticated races1 or fellow-workers with man1 even in an enemy's country1 was a solemn duty4 ,for1 says ,porphyry1 their founder had no groundless fear that there could be any overabundance of life productive of famine to ourselves1 inasmuch as he knew1 first1 that those animals who bring forth many young at a time are short lived1 and1 secondly1 that their too rapid increase is kept down by other hostile animals4 8,a proof of which is10 he continues1 8that though we abstain from eating very many1 such as dogs1 wild beasts1 rats1 lizards1 and others1 there is yet no fear that we should ever suffer from famine in consequence of their excessive multiplication2 and1 again1 it is one thing to have to kill1 and another to eat1 since we have to kill many ferocious animals whom we do not also eat40 ,he quotes the historians of ,syria who allege that1 in the earlier period1 the inhabitants of that part of the world abstained from all flesh1 and1 therefore1 from sacrifice2 and that when1 afterwards1 to avert some impending misfortune they were induced to offer up propitiatory victims1 the practice of flesh-eating was by no means general4 ,and ,asklepiades says1 in his ,history of ,cyprus and ,phnicia1 that 8no living being was sacrificed to heaven1 nor was there even any express law on the subject1 since it was forbidden by the law of ,nature 7 730 that1 in course of time1 they took to occasional propitiatory sacrifice3 and that1 at one of these times1 the sacrificing priest happened to place his blood-smeared finger on his mouth1 was tempted to repeat the action1 and thus introduced the habit of flesh-eating1 whence the general practice4 ,as for the ,persian ,magi 7the successors of ,zerdusht71 we are informed that the principal and most esteemed of their order neither eat nor kill any living being1 while those of the second class eat the flesh of some1 but not of domesticated1 animals2 nor do even the third order eat indiscriminately4 ,instances are adduced of certain peoples who1 being compelled by necessity to live upon flesh1 have evidently deteriorated and been rendered savage and ferocious1 8from which examples it is clearly unbecoming men of good disposition to belie their human nature 7 740 ,amongst individuals he instances the example of the traditionary ,athenian legislator ,triptolemus-- 8,of whom ,hermippus1 in his second book on the legislators1 writes3 ,of his laws1 according to ,xenokrates the philosopher1 the three following remain in force at ,eleusis--#8to gratify ,heaven with the offering of fruits1' #8to harass or harm no innocent living being4' 444 ,as to the third1 he is in doubt for what particular reason ,triptolemus charged them to abstain--whether from believing it to be criminal to kill those that have an identical origin with ourselves 771 or from a consciousness that the slaughter of all the most useful animals would be the inevitable consequence of addiction to it1 and wishing to render human life mild and innocent1 and to preserve those species that are tame and gentle and domesticated with man40#hh 99 99 99 99 99 ,somewhat later than ,porphyry1 the name of ,julian 7#cca-cfc71 the ,roman emperor1 may here be fitly introduced4 ,during his brief reign of sixteen months he proved himself1 if not always a judicious1 yet a sincere and earnest reformer of abuses of various kinds1 and he may claim to be one of the very few virtuous princes1 pagan or christian4 ,unfortunately the just blame attaching to his ill-judged attempt to suppress the religion of ,constantine1 from whose family his relatives and himself had suffered the greatest injury and insult1 has enabled the lovers of party rather than of truth successfully to conceal from view his undoubted merits4 ,in his manner of living1 with which alone we are now concerned1 he seems to have almost rivalled the most ascetic of the ,platonists or of the ,christian anchorets4 ,one of his most intimate friends1 the celebrated orator1 ,libanius1 who had often shared the frugal simplicity of his table1 has remarked that his 8light and sparing diet1 which was usually of the vegetable kind1 left his mind and body always free and active for the various and important business of an author1 a pontiff1 a magistrate1 a general1 and a prince40 ,that his frugal diet had not impaired his powers1 either physical or mental1 may sufficiently appear from the fact that-- 8,in one and the same day he gave audience to several ambassadors1 and wrote or dictated a great number of letters to his generals1 his civil magistrates1 his private friends1 and the different cities of his dominions4 ,he listened to the memorials which had been received1 considered the subject of the petitions1 and signified his intentions more rapidly than they could be taken in shorthand by the diligence of his secretaries4 ,he possessed such flexibility of thought1 and such firmness of attention1 that he could employ his hand to write1 his ear to listen1 and his voice to dictate1 and pursue at once three several trains of ideas without hesitation and without error4 ,while his ministers reposed1 the prince flew with agility from one labour to another1 and1 after a hasty dinner1 retired into his library till the public business1 which he had appointed for the evening1 summoned him to interrupt the prosecution of his studies4 ,the supper of the emperor was still less substantial than the former meal2 his sleep was never clouded by the fumes of indigestion4444 ,he was soon awakened by the entrance of fresh secretaries who had slept the preceding day1 and his servants were obliged to wait alternately1 while their indefatigable master allowed himself scarcely any other refreshment than the change of occupation4 ,the predecessors of ,julian1 his uncle1 his brother1 and his cousin1 indulged their puerile taste for the games of the circus under the specious pretence of complying with the inclination of the people1 and they frequently remained the greater part of the day as idle spectators4444 ,on solemn festivals ,julian1 who felt and professed an unfashionable dislike to these frivolous amusements1 condescended to appear in the ,circus1 and1 after bestowing a careless glance on five or six of the races1 he hastily withdrew with the impatience of a philosopher who considered every moment as lost that was not devoted to the advantage of the public1 or the improvement of his own mind4 ,by this avarice of time he seemed to protract the short duration of his reign1 and1 if the dates were less securely ascertained1 we should refuse to believe that only sixteen months elapsed between the death of ,constantius and the departure of his successor for the ,persian war in which he perished40#hi ,following the principles of ,platonism1 8he justly concluded that the man who presumes to reign should aspire to the perfection of the divine nature--that he should purify his soul from her mortal and terrestrial part--that he should extinguish his appetites1 enlighten his understanding1 regulate his passions1 and subdue the wild beast which1 according to the lively metaphor of ,aristotle1 seldom fails to ascend the throne of a despot40 ,with all these virtues1 unfortunately for his credit as a philosopher and humanitarian1 the imperial ,stoic allowed his natural goodness of heart to be corrupted by superstition and fanaticism4 ,conceiving himself to be the special and chosen instrument of the ,deity for the restoration of the fallen religion1 which he regarded as the true faith1 he made it the foremost object of his pious but misdirected ambition to re-establish its sumptuous temples1 priesthoods1 and sacrificial altars with all their imposing ritual1 and 8he was heard to declare1 with the enthusiasm of a missionary1 that if he could render each individual richer than ,midas and every city greater than ,babylon1 he should not esteem himself the benefactor of mankind1 unless at the same time he could reclaim his subjects from their impious revolt against the immortal gods40#ij ,inspired by this religious zeal1 he forgot the maxims of his master1 ,plato1 so far as to rival1 if not surpass1 the ancient ,jewish or ,pagan ritual in the number of the sacrificial victims offered up in the name of religion and of the ,deity4 ,happily for the future of the world1 the fanatical piety of this youthful champion of the religion of ,homer proved ineffectual to turn back the slow onward march of the ,western mind1 through fearful mazes of evil and error indeed1 towards that 8diviner day0 which is yet to dawn for the ,earth4 ,x4 ,,chrysostom4 #cdg-djg ,a4,d4 ,the most eloquent1 and one of the most estimable1 of the 8,fathers0 was born at ,antioch1 the ,christian city par excellence4 ,his family held a distinguished position1 and his father was in high command in the ,syrian division of the imperial army4 ,he studied for the law1 and was instructed in oratory by the famous rhetorician ,libanius 7the intimate friend and counsellor of the young ,emperor ,julian71 who pronounced his pupil worthy to succeed to his chair1 if he had not adopted the ,christian faith4 ,he soon gave up the law for theology1 and retired to a monastery1 near ,antioch1 where he passed four years1 rigidly abstaining from flesh-meat and1 like the ,essenes1 abandoning the rights of private property and living a life of the strictest asceticism4 ,having submitted himself in solitude to the severest austerities during a considerable length of time1 he entered the ,church1 and soon gained the highest reputation for his extraordinary eloquence and zeal4 ,on the death of the ,archbishop of ,constantinople1 he was unanimously elected to fill the vacant ,primacy4 ,the nolo me episcopari seems1 in his case1 to have been no unmeaning formula4 ,his beneficence and charity in the new position attracted general admiration4 ,from the revenues of his ,see he founded a hospital for the sick--one of the very first of those rather modern institutions4 ,the fame of the 8,golden-mouthed0 drew to his cathedral immense crowds of people1 who before had frequented the theatre and the circus rather than the churches1 and the building constantly resounded with their enthusiastic plaudits4 ,he was1 however1 no mere popular preacher2 he fearlessly exposed the corrupt and selfish life of the large body of the clergy4 ,at one time he deposed1 it is said1 no less than thirteen bishops1 in ,lesser ,asia1 from their ,sees2 and in one of his ,homilies he does not hesitate to charge 8the whole ecclesiastical body with avarice and licentiousness1 asserting that the number of bishops who could be saved bore a very small proportion to those who would be damned40#ia ,at length1 his repeated denunciations of the too notorious scandals of the ,court and the ,church excited the bitter enmity of his brother-prelates1 and1 by their intrigues at the ,imperial ,court of ,constantinople1 he was deposed from his ,see and exiled to the wildest parts of the ,euxine coasts1 where1 exposed to every sort of privation1 he caught a violent fever and died4 ,so far did the hostility of the ,episcopacy extend1 that one of his rivals1 a bishop1 named ,theophilus1 in a book expressly written against him1 amongst other vituperative epithets had proceeded to the length of styling him 8a filthy demon10 and of solemnly consigning his soul to ,satan4 ,with the poor1 however1 ,chrysostom enjoyed unbounded popularity and esteem4 ,his greatest fault was his theological intolerance--a fault1 it is just to add1 of the age rather than of the man4 ,the writings of ,chrysostom are exceedingly voluminous--#gjj homilies1 orations1 doctrinal treatises1 and #bdb epistles4 ,their 8chief value consists in the illustrations they furnish of the manners of the fourth and fifth centuries--of the moral and social state of the period4 ,the circus1 spectacles1 theatres1 baths1 houses1 domestic economy1 banquets1 dresses1 fashions1 pictures1 processions1 tight-rope dancing1 funerals--in fine1 everything has a place in the picture of licentious luxury which it is the object of ,chrysostom to denounce40 ,next to his profession of faith in the efficacy and virtues of a non-flesh diet1 amongst the most interesting of his productions is his ,golden ,book on the education of the young4 ,he recommends that children should be inured to habits of temperance1 by abstaining1 at least1 twice a week from the ordinary grosser food with which they are supplied4 ,as might be expected from the age1 and from his order1 the practice of ,chrysostom1 and of the numerous other ecclesiastical abstinents from the gross diet of the richer part of the community1 reposed upon ascetic and traditionary principles1 rather than on the more secular and modern motives of justice1 humanity1 and general social improvement4 ,so1 in fact1 ,origen1 one of the most learned of the ,fathers1 expressly says 7,contra ,celsum1 v473 8,we the ,christian leaders practise abstinence from the flesh of animals to buffet our bodies and treat them as slaves 7 71 and we wish to mortify our members upon earth10 c4 ,accordingly1 the ,apostolical ,canons distinguished1 as ,bingham 7,antiquities of the ,christian ,church7 reports them1 between abstinents1 and 1 i4e41 between those who abstained to exercise self-control1 and those who did so from disgust and abhorrence of what1 in ordinary and orthodox language1 are too complacently and confidently termed 8the good creatures of ,god40 ,this distinction1 it must be added1 holds only of the prevailing sentiment of the ,orthodox ,church as finally established4 ,during several centuries--even so late as the ,paulicians in the seventh1 or even as the ,albigeois of the thirteenth1 century--,manicheism1 as it is called1 or a belief in the inherent evil of all matter1 was widely spread in large and influential sections of the ,christian ,church--nor1 indeed1 were some of its most famous ,fathers without suspicion of this heretical taint4 ,according to the ,clementine ,homilies1 8the unnatural eating of flesh-meat is of demoniacal origin1 and was introduced by those giants who1 from their bastard nature1 took no pleasure in pure nourishment1 and only lusted after blood4 ,therefore the eating of flesh is as polluting as the heathen worship of demons1 with its sacrifices and its impure feasts2 through participation in which1 a man becomes a fellow-dietist 77 with demons40#ib ,that superstition was often1 in the minds of the followers both of ,plato and of ,st4 ,paul1 mixed up with1 and1 indeed1 usually dominated over1 the reasonable motives of the more philosophic advocates of the higher life1 there can be no sort of doubt2 nor can we claim a monopoly of rational motives for the mass of the adherents of either ,christian or ,pythagorean abstinence4 ,yet an impartial judgment must allow almost equal credit to the earnestness of mind and purity of motive which1 mingled though they undoubtedly were with 7in the pre-scientific ages7 a necessary infusion of superstition1 urged the followers of the better way--,christian and non-,christian--to discard the 8social lies0 of the dead world around them4 ,at all events1 it is not for the selfish egoists to sneer at the sublime--if error-infected--efforts of the earlier pioneers of moral progress for their own and the world's redemption from the bonds of the prevailing vile materialism in life and dietary habits4 ,we have already shown that the earliest ,jewish-,christian communities1 both in ,palestine and elsewhere--the immediate disciples of the original ,twelve--enjoined abstinence as one of the primary obligations of the ,new ,faith2 and that the earliest traditions represent the foremost of them as the strictest sort of ,vegetarians4#ic ,if then we impartially review the history of the practice1 the teaching1 and the traditions of the first ,christian authorities1 it cannot but appear surprising that the ,orthodox ,church1 ignoring the practice and highest ideal of the most sacred period of its annals1 has1 even within its own ,order1 deemed it consistent with its claim of being representative of the ,apostolic period to substitute partial and periodic for total and constant abstinence4 ,the following passages in the ,homilies1 or ,congregational ,discourses1 of ,chrysostom will serve as specimens of his feeling on the propriety of dietary reform4 ,the eloquent but diffusive style of the ,greek ,bossuet1 it must be noted1 is necessarily but feebly represented in the literal ,english version3-- 8,no streams of blood are among them the ascetics2 no butchering and cutting up of flesh2 no dainty cookery2 no heaviness of head4 ,nor are there horrible smells of flesh-meats among them1 or disagreeable fumes from the kitchen4 ,no tumult and disturbance and wearisome clamours1 but bread and water--the latter from a pure fountain1 the former from honest labour4 ,if1 at any time1 however1 they may wish to feast more sumptuously1 the sumptuousness consists in fruits1 and their pleasure in these is greater than at royal tables4 ,with this repast of fruits and vegetables1 even angels from ,heaven1 as they behold it1 are delighted and pleased4 ,for if over one sinner who repents they rejoice1 over so many just men imitating them what will they not do8 ,no master and servant are there4 ,all are servants--all free men4 ,and think not this a mere form of speech1 for they are servants one of another and masters one of another4 ,wherein1 therefore1 are we different from1 or superior to1 ,ants1 if we compare ourselves with them8 ,for as they care for the things of the body only1 so also do we4 ,and would it were for these alone6 ,but1 alas6 it is for things far worse4 ,for not for necessary things only do we care1 but also for things superfluous4 ,those animals pursue an innocent life1 while we follow after all covetousness4 ,nay1 we do not so much as imitate the ways of ,ants4 ,we follow the ways of ,wolves1 the habits of ,tigers2 or1 rather1 we are worse even than they4 ,to them ,nature has assigned that they should be thus carnivorously fed1 while ,god has honoured us with rational speech and a sense of equity4 ,and yet we are become worse than the wild beasts40#id ,again he protests3-- 8,neither am ,i leading you to the lofty peak of total renunciation of possessions 2 but for the present ,i require you to cut off superfluities1 and to desire a sufficiency alone4 ,now1 the boundary of sufficiency is the using those things which it is impossible to live without4 ,no one debars you from these1 nor forbids you your daily food4 ,i say #8food1' not #8luxury' --#8raiment1' not #8ornament4' ,rather1 this frugality--to speak correctly--is1 in the best sense1 luxury4 ,for consider who should we say more truly feasted--he whose diet is herbs1 and who is in sound health and suffered no uneasiness1 or he who has the table of a ,sybarite and is full of a thousand disorders8 ,clearly1 the former4 ,therefore let us seek nothing more than these1 if we would at once live luxuriously and healthfully4 ,and let him who can be satisfied with pulse1 and can keep in good health1 seek for nothing more4 ,but let him who is weaker1 and needs to be more richly dieted with other vegetables and fruits1 not be debarred from them4444 ,we do not advise this for the harm and injury of men1 but to lop off what is superfluous--and that is superfluous which is more than we need4 ,when we are able to live without a thing1 healthfully and respectably1 certainly the addition of that thing is a superfluity40--,hom4 xix4 #b ,cor4 ,denouncing the grossness of the ordinary mode of living1 he eloquently descants on the evil results1 physical as well as mental3-- 8,a man who lives in pleasure i4e41 in selfish luxury is dead while he lives1 for he lives only to his belly4 ,in his other senses he lives not4 ,he sees not what he ought to see2 he hears not what he ought to hear2 he speaks not what he ought to speak4444 ,look not at the superficial countenance1 but examine the interior1 and you will see it full of deep dejection4 ,if it were possible to bring the soul into view1 and to behold it with our bodily eyes1 that of the luxurious would seem depressed1 mournful1 miserable1 and wasted with leanness1 for the more the body grows sleek and gross1 the more lean and weakly is the soul4 ,the more the one is pampered1 the more is the other hampered --3 the latter meaning1 literally1 buried4 ,as when the pupil of the eye has the external envelope too thick1 it cannot put forth the power of vision and look out1 because the light is excluded by the dense covering1 and darkness ensues2 so when the body is constantly full fed1 the soul must be invested with grossness4 ,the dead1 say you1 corrupt and rot1 and a foul pestilential humour distils from them4 ,so in her who lives in pleasure may be seen rheums1 and phlegm1 and catarrh1 hiccough1 vomiting1 eructations1 and the like1 which1 as too unseemly1 ,i forbear to name4 ,for such is the despotism of luxury1 it makes us endure things which we do not think proper even to mention4444 8#8,she that lives in pleasure is dead while she lives4' ,hear this1 ye women#ie who pass your time in revels and intemperance1 and who neglect the poor1 pining and perishing with hunger1 whilst you are destroying yourselves with continual luxury4 ,thus you are the cause of two deaths--of those who are dying of want and of your own1 both through ill-measure4 ,if1 out of your fulness1 you tempered their want1 you would save two lives4 ,why do you thus gorge your own body with excess1 and waste that of the poor with want8 ,consider what comes of food--into what it is changed4 ,are you not disgusted at its being named8 ,why1 then1 be eager for such accumulations8 ,the increase of luxury is but the multiplication of filth4#if ,for ,nature has her limits1 and what is beyond these is not nourishment1 but injury and the increase of ordure4 8,nourish the body1 but do not destroy it4 ,food is called nourishment1 to show that its purpose is not to hurt1 but to support us4 ,for this reason1 perhaps1 food passes into excrement that we may not be lovers of luxury4 ,if it were not so--if it were not useless and injurious to the body1 we should hardly abstain from devouring one another4 ,if the belly received as much as it pleased1 digested it1 and conveyed it to the body1 we should see battles and wars innumerable4 ,even as it is1 when part of our food passes into ordure1 part into blood1 part into spurious and useless phlegm1 we are1 nevertheless1 so addicted to luxury that we spend1 perhaps1 whole estates on a meal4 ,the more richly we live1 the more noisome are the odours with which we are filled40--,hom4 xiii4 ,tim4 v4#ig 99 99 99 99 99 ,from this period--the fifth century ,a4,d4 down to the sixteenth--,christian and ,western literature contains little or nothing which comes within the purpose of this work4 ,the merits of monastic asceticism were more or less preached during all those ages1 although constant abstinence from flesh was by no means the general practice even with the inmates of the stricter monastic or conventual establishments--at all events in the ,latin ,church4 ,but we look in vain for traces of anything like the humanitarian feeling of ,plutarch or ,porphyry4 ,the mental intelligence as well as capacities for physical suffering of the non-human races--necessarily resulting from an organisation in all essential points like to our own--was apparently wholly ignored2 their just rights and claims upon human justice were disregarded and trampled under foot4 ,consistently with the universal estimate1 they were treated as beings destitute of all feeling--as if1 in fine1 they are the 8automatic machines0 they are alleged to be by the ,cartesians of the present day4 ,in those terrible ages of gross ignorance1 of superstition1 of violence1 and of injustice--in which human rights were seldom regarded--it would have been surprising indeed if any sort of regard had been displayed for the non-human slaves4 ,and yet an underlying and latent consciousness of the falseness of the general estimate sometimes made itself apparent in certain extraordinary and perverse fancies4#ih ,to ,montaigne1 the first to revive the humanitarianism of ,plutarch1 belongs the great merit of reasserting the natural rights of the helpless slaves of human tyranny4 ,while ,chrysostom seems to have been one of the last of ,christian writers who manifested any sort of consciousness of the inhuman1 as well as unspiritual nature of the ordinary gross foods1 ,platonism continued to bear aloft the flickering torch of a truer spiritualism2 and 8the golden chain0 of the prophets of the dietary reformation reached down even so late as to the end of the sixth century4 ,hierokles1 author of the commentary on the ,golden ,verses of ,pythagoras1 to which reference has already been made1 and who lectured upon them with great success at ,alexandria2 ,hypatia1 the beautiful and accomplished daughter of ,theon the great mathematician1 who publicly taught the philosophy of ,plato at the same great centre of ,greek science and learning1 and was barbarously murdered by the jealousy of her ,christian rival ,cyril1 ,archbishop of ,alexandria2 ,proklus1 surnamed the ,successor1 as having been considered the most illustrious disciple of ,plato in the latter times1 who left several treatises upon the ,pythagorean system1 and 8whose sagacious mind explored the deepest questions of morals and metaphysics02#ii ,olympiodorus1 who wrote a life of ,plato and commentaries on several of his dialogues1 still extant1 and lived in the reign of ,justinian1 by whose edict the illustrious school of ,athens was finally closed1 and with it the last vestiges of a sublime1 if imperfect1 attempt at the purification of human life--such are some of the most illustrious names which adorned the days of expiring ,greek philosophy4 ,olympiodorus and six other ,pythagoreans determined1 if possible1 to maintain their doctrines elsewhere2 and they sought refuge with the ,persian ,magi1 with whose tenets1 or1 at least1 manner of living1 they believed themselves to be most in accord4 ,the ,persian customs were distasteful to the purer ideal of the ,platonists1 and1 disappointed in other respects1 they reluctantly relinquished their fond hopes of transplanting the doctrines of ,plato into a foreign soil1 and returned home4 ,the ,persian prince1 ,chosroes1 we may add1 acquired honour by his stipulation with the bigoted ,justinian1 that the seven sages should be allowed to live unmolested during the rest of their days4 8,simplicius and his companions ended their lives in peace and obscurity2 and1 as they left no disciples1 they terminated the long list of ,grecian philosophers who may be justly praised1 notwithstanding their defects1 as the wisest and most virtuous of their contemporaries4 ,the writings of ,simplicius are now extant4 ,his physical and metaphysical commentaries on ,aristotle have passed away with the fashion of the times1 but his moral interpretation of ,epiktetus is preserved in the library of nations as a classical book excellently adapted to direct the will1 to purify the heart1 and to confirm the understanding1 by a just confidence in the nature both of ,god and ,man40#ajj ,,xi4 ,,cornaro4 #adfe-aeff4 ,after the extinction of ,greek and ,latin philosophy in the fifth century1 a mental torpor seized upon and1 during some thousand years1 with rare exceptions1 dominated the whole ,western world4 ,when this torpor was dispelled by the influence of returning knowledge and reason evoked by the various simultaneous discoveries in science and literature--in particular by the achievements of ,gutenberg1 ,vasco da ,gama1 ,christopher ,colon1 and1 above all1 ,copernik--the moral sense then first1 too1 began to show signs of life4 ,the renascence of the sixteenth century1 however1 with all the vigour of thought and action which accompanied it1 proved to be rather a revival of mere verbal learning than of the higher moral feeling of the best minds of old ,greece and ,italy4 ,men1 fettered as they were in the trammels of theological controversy and metaphysical subtleties1 for the most part expended their energies and their intellect in the vain pursuit of phantoms4 ,with the very few splendid exceptions of the more enlightened and earnest thinkers1 ,ethics1 in the real and comprehensive meaning of the word1 was an unknown science2 and a long period of time was yet to pass away before a perception of the universal obligations of ,justice and of ,right dawned upon the minds of men4 ,in truth1 it could not have been otherwise4 ,before the moral instincts can be developed1 reason and knowledge must have sufficiently prepared the way4 ,when attention to the importance of the neglected science of ,dietetics had been in some degree aroused1 the interest evoked was little connected with the higher sentiments of humanity4 ,of all dietary reformers who have treated the subject from an exclusively sanitarian point of view1 the most widely known and most popular name1 perhaps1 has been that of ,luigi ,cornaro2 and it is as a vehement protester against the follies1 rather than against the barbarism1 of the prevailing dietetic habits that he claims a place in this work4 ,he belonged to one of the leading families of ,venice1 then at the height of its political power4 ,even in an age and in a city noted for luxuriousness and grossness of living of the rich and dominant classes1 he had in his youth distinguished himself by his licentious habits in eating and drinking1 as well as by other excesses4 ,his constitution had been so impaired1 and he had brought upon himself so many disorders by this course of living1 that existence became a burden to him4 ,he informs us that from his thirty-fifth to his fortieth year he passed his nights and days in continuous suffering4 ,every sort of known remedy was exhausted before his new medical adviser1 superior to the prejudices of his profession and of the public1 had the courage and the good sense to prescribe a total change of diet4 ,at first ,cornaro found his enforced regimen almost intolerable1 and1 as he tells us1 he occasionally relapsed4 ,these relapses brought back his old sufferings1 and1 to save his life1 he was driven at length to practise entire and uniform abstinence1 the yolk of an egg often furnishing him the whole of his meal4 ,in this way he assures us that he came to relish dry bread more than formerly he had enjoyed the most exquisite dishes of the ordinary table4 ,at the end of the first year he found himself entirely freed from all his multiform maladies4 ,in his eighty-third year he wrote and published his first exhortation to a radical change of diet under the title of ,a ,treatise on a ,sober ,life1#aja in which he eloquently narrates his own case1 and exhorts all who value health and immunity from physical or mental sufferings to follow his example4 ,and his exordium1 in which he takes occasion to denounce the waste and gluttony of the dinners of the rich1 might be applied with little1 or without any1 modification of its language to the public and private tables of the present day3-- 8,it is very certain10 he begins1 8that ,custom1 with time1 becomes a second nature1 forcing men to use that1 whether good or bad1 to which they have been habituated2 and we see custom or habit get the better of reason in many things4444 ,though all are agreed that intemperance 7la crapula7 is the offspring of gluttony1 and sober living of abstemiousness1 the former nevertheless is considered a virtue and a mark of distinction1 and the latter as dishonourable and the badge of avarice4 ,such mistaken notions are entirely owing to the power of ,custom1 established by our senses and irregular appetites4 ,these have blinded and besotted men to such a degree that1 leaving the paths of virtue1 they have followed those of vice1 which lead them imperceptibly to an old age burdened with strange and mortal diseases4444 8,o wretched and unhappy ,italy6 thus he apostrophises his own country can you not see that gluttony murders every year more of your inhabitants than you could lose by the most cruel plague or by fire and sword in many battles8 ,those truly shameful feasts 7i tuoi veramente disonesti banchetti71 now so much in fashion and so intolerably profuse that no tables are large enough to hold the infinite number of the dishes--those feasts1 ,i say1 are so many battles4#ajb ,and how is it possible to live amongst such a multitude of jarring foods and disorders8 ,put an end to this abuse1 in heaven's name1 for there is not--,i am certain of it--a vice more abominable than this in the eyes of the divine ,majesty4 ,drive away this plague1 the worst you were ever afflicted with--this new 8 kind of death--as you have banished that disease which1 though it formerly used to make such havoc1 now does little or no mischief1 owing to the laudable practice of attending more to the goodness of the provisions brought to our markets4 ,consider that there are means still left to banish intemperance1 and such means1 too1 that every man may have recourse to them without any external assistance4 8,nothing more is requisite for this purpose than to live up to the simplicity1 dictated by nature1 which teaches us to be content with little1 to pursue the practice of holy abstemiousness and divine reason1 and accustom ourselves to eat no more than is absolutely necessary to support life2 considering that what exceeds this is disease and death1 and done merely to give the palate a satisfaction which1 though but momentary1 brings on the body a long and lasting train of disagreeable diseases1 and at length kills it along with the soul4 ,how many friends of mine--men of the finest understanding and most amiable disposition--have ,i seen carried off by this plague in the flower of their youth6 who1 were they now living1 would be an ornament to the public1 and whose company ,i should enjoy with as much pleasure as ,i am now deprived of it with concern40 ,he tells us that he had undertaken his arduous task of proselytising with the more anxiety and zeal that he had been encouraged to it by many of his friends1 men of 8the finest intellect0 7di bellissimo intelletto71 who lamented the premature deaths of parents and relatives1 and who observed so manifest a proof of the advantages of abstinence in the robust and vigorous frame of the dietetic missionary at the age of eighty4 ,cornaro was a thorough-going hygeist1 and he followed a reformed diet in the widest meaning of the term1 attending to the various requirements of a healthy condition of mind and body3-- 8,i likewise10 he says with much candour1 8did all that lay in my power to avoid those evils which we do not find it so easy to remove--melancholy1 hatred1 and other violent passions which appear to have the greatest influence over our bodies4 ,however1 ,i have not been able to guard so well against either one or the other kind of these disorders passions as not to suffer myself now and then to be hurried away by many1 not to say all1 of them2 but ,i reaped one great benefit from my weakness--that of knowing by experience that these passions have1 in the main1 no great influence over bodies governed by the two foregoing rules of eating and drinking1 and therefore can do them but very little harm1 so that it may1 with great truth1 be affirmed that whoever observes these two capital rules is liable to very little inconvenience from any other excess4 ,this ,galen1 who was an eminent physician1 observed before me4 ,he affirms that so long as he followed these two rules relative to eating and drinking 7perch si guardava da quelli due della bocca7 he suffered but little from other disorders--so little that they never gave him above a day's uneasiness4 ,that what he says is true ,i am a living witness2 and so are many others who know me1 and have seen how often ,i have been exposed to heats and colds and such other disagreeable changes of weather1 and have likewise seen me 7owing to various misfortunes which have more than once befallen me7 greatly disturbed in mind4 ,for not only can they say of me that such mental disturbance has affected me little1 but they can aver of many others who did not lead a frugal and regular life that such failure proved very prejudicial to them1 among whom was a brother of my own and others of my family who1 trusting to the goodness of their constitution1 did not follow my way of living40 ,at the age of seventy a serious accident befel him1 which to the vast majority of men so far advanced in life would probably have been fatal4 ,his coach was overturned1 and he was dragged a considerable distance along the road before the horses could be stopped4 ,he was taken up insensible1 covered with severe wounds and bruises and with an arm and leg dislocated1 and altogether he was in so dangerous a state that his physicians gave him only three days to live4 ,as a matter of course they prescribed bleeding and purging as the only proper and effectual remedies3-- 8,but ,i1 on the contrary1 who knew that the sober life ,i had led for many years past had so well united1 harmonised1 and dispersed my humours as not to leave it in their power to ferment to such a degree as to induce the expected high fever1 refused to be either bled or purged4 ,i simply caused my leg and arm to be set1 and suffered myself to be rubbed with some oils1 which they said were proper on the occasion4 ,thus1 without using any other kind of remedy1 ,i recovered1 as ,i thought ,i should1 without feeling the least alteration in myself or any other bad effects from the accident1 a thing which appeared no less than miraculous in the eyes of the physicians40 ,it is1 perhaps1 hardly to be expected that 8,the ,faculty0 will endorse the opinions of ,cornaro1 that any person by attending strictly to his regimen 8could never be sick again1 as it removes every cause of illness2 and so1 for the future1 would never want either physician or physic03-- 8,nay1 by attending duly to what ,i have said he would become his own physician1 and1 indeed1 the best he could have1 since1 in fact1 no man can be a perfect physician to anyone but himself4 ,the reason of which is that any man may1 by repeated trials1 acquire a perfect knowledge of his own constitution and the most hidden qualities of his body1 and what food best agrees with his stomach4 ,now1 it is so far from being an easy matter to know these things perfectly of another that we cannot1 without much trouble1 discover them in ourselves1 since a great deal of time and repeated trials are required for that purpose40 ,cornaro's second publication appeared three years later than his first1 under the title of ,a ,compendium of a ,sober ,life and the third1 ,an ,earnest ,exhortation to a ,sober and ,regular ,life1#ajc in the ninety-third year of his age4 ,in these little treatises he repeats and enforces in the most earnest manner his previous exhortations and warnings4 ,he also takes the opportunity of exposing some of the plausible sophisms employed in defence of luxurious living3-- 8,some allege that many1 without leading such a life1 have lived to a hundred1 and that in constant health1 although they ate a great deal and used indiscriminately every kind of viands and wine1 and therefore flatter themselves that they shall be equally fortunate4 ,but in this they are guilty of two mistakes4 ,the first is1 that it is not one in one hundred thousand that ever attains that happiness2 the other mistake is1 that such persons1 in the end1 most assuredly contract some illness which carries them off1 nor can they ever be sure of ending their days otherwise1 so that the safest way to obtain a long and healthy life is1 at least after forty1 to embrace abstinence4 ,this is no difficult matter1 since history informs us of very many who1 in former times1 lived with the greatest temperance1 and ,i know that the present ,age furnishes us with many such instances1 reckoning myself one of the number4 ,now let us remember that we are human beings1 and that man1 being a rational animal1 is himself master of his actions40 ,amongst others3-- 8,there are old gluttons 7attempati7 who say that it is necessary they should eat and drink a great deal to keep up their natural heat1 which is constantly diminishing as they advance in years1 and that it is therefore necessary for them to eat heartily and of such things as please their palates1 and that were they to lead a frugal life it would be a short one4 ,to this ,i answer that our kind mother1 ,nature1 in order that old men may live to a still greater age1 has contrived matters so that they should be able to subsist on little1 as ,i do1 for large quantities of food cannot be digested by old and feeble stomachs4 ,nor should such persons be afraid of shortening their lives by eating too little1 since when they are indisposed they recover by eating the smallest quantities4 ,now1 if by reducing themselves to a very small quantity of food they recover from the jaws of death1 how can they doubt but that1 with an increase of diet1 still consistent1 however1 with sobriety1 they will be able to support nature when in perfect health8 8,others say that it is better for a man to suffer every year three or four returns of his usual disorders1 such as gout1 sciatica1 and the like than to be tormented the whole year by not indulging his appetite1 and eating everything his palate likes best1 since by a good regimen alone he is sure to get the better of such attacks4 ,to this ,i answer that1 our natural heat growing less and less as we advance in years1 no regimen can retain virtue enough to conquer the malignity with which disorders of repletion are ever attended1 so that he must die at last of these periodical disorders1 because they abridge life as health prolongs it4 ,others pretend that it is much better to live ten years less than not indulge one's appetite4 ,my reply is that longevity ought to be highly valued by men of genius and intellect2 as to others it is of no great matter if it is not duly prized by them1 since it is they who brutalise the world 7perch questi fanno brutto il mondo71 so that their death is rather of service to mankind40 ,cornaro frequently interrupts his discourse with apostrophes to the genius of ,temperance1 in which he seems to be at a loss for words to express his feeling of gratitude and thankfulness for the marvellous change effected in his constitution1 by which he had been delivered from the terrible load of sufferings of his earlier life1 and by which moreover he could fully appreciate1 as he had never dreamed before1 the beauties and charms of nature of the external world1 as well as develope the mental faculties with which he had been endowed3-- 8,o thrice holy ,sobriety1 so useful to man by the services thou renderest him6 ,thou prolongest his days1 by which means he may greatly improve his understanding4 ,thou moreover freest him from the dreadful thoughts of death4 ,how greatly is thy faithful disciple indebted to thee1 since by thy assistance he enjoys this beautiful expanse of the visible world1 which is really beautiful to such as know how to view it with a philosophic eye1 as thou hast enabled me to do6444 ,o truly happy life which1 besides these favours conferred on an old man1 hast so improved and perfected him that he has now a better relish for his dry bread than he had formerly for the most exquisite dainties4 ,and all this thou hast effected by acting rationally1 knowing that bread is1 above all things1 man's proper food when seasoned by a good appetite4444 ,it is for this reason that dry bread has so much relish for me2 and ,i know from experience1 and can with truth affirm1 that ,i find such sweetness in it that ,i should be afraid of sinning against temperance were it not for my being convinced of the absolute necessity of eating of it1 and that we cannot make use of a more natural food40 ,the fourth and last of his appearances in print was a 8,letter to ,barbaro1 ,patriarch of ,aquileia10 written at the age of ninety-five4 ,it describes in a very lively manner the health1 vigour1 and use of all his faculties of mind and body1 of which he had the perfect enjoyment4 ,he was far advanced in life when his daughter1 his only child1 was born1 and he lived to see her an old woman4 ,he informs us1 at the age of ninety-one1 with much eloquence and enthusiasm of the active interest and pleasure he experienced in all that concerned the prosperity of his native city3 of his plans for improving its port2 for draining1 recovering1 and fertilizing the extensive marshes and barren sands in its neighbourhood4 ,he died1 having passed his one hundredth year1 calmly and easily in his arm-chair at ,padua in the year #aeff4ajd ,his treatises1 forming a small volume1 have been 8very frequently published in ,italy1 both in the vernacular ,italian and in ,latin4 ,it has been translated into all the civilised languages of ,europe1 and was once a most popular book4 ,there are several ,english translations of it1 the best being one that bears the date #aggi4 ,cornaro's system10 says the writer in the ,english ,cyclopdia whom we are quoting1 8has had many followers40 ,recounting his many dignities and honours1 and the distinguished part he took in the improvement of his native city1 by which he acquired a great reputation amongst his fellow-citizens1 the ,italian editor of his writings justly adds3-- 8,but all these fine prerogatives of ,luigi ,cornaro would not have been sufficient to render his name famous in ,europe if he had not left behind him the short treatises upon ,temperance1 composed at various times at the advanced ages of #he1 #hf1 #ia1 and #ie4 ,the candour which breathes through their simplicity1 the importance of the argument1 and the fervour with which he urges upon all to study the means of prolonging our life1 have obtained for them so great good fortune as to be praised to the skies by men of the best understanding4 ,the many editions which have been published in ,italy1 and the translations which1 together with an array of physiological and philological notes1 have appeared out of ,italy1 at one time in ,latin1 at another in ,french1 again in ,german1 and again in ,english1 prove their importance4 ,these discourses1 in fact1 enjoyed all the reputation of a classical book1 and1 although occasionally somewhat unpolished1 as #8,poca favilla gran fiamma seconda1' they have sufficed to inspire 7riscaldare7 a ,lessio1 a ,bartolini1 a ,ramazzini1 a ,cheyne1 a ,hufeland1 and so many others who have written works of greater weight upon the same subject40 ,addison 7,spectator #aie7 thus refers to him3-- 8,the most remarkable instance of the efficacy of temperance towards the procuring long life is what we meet with in a little book published by ,lewis ,cornaro1 the ,venetian1 which ,i the rather mention because it is of undoubted credit1 as the late ,venetian ,ambassador1 who was of the same family1 attested more than once in conversation when he resided in ,england4444 ,after having passed his one hundredth year he died without pain or agony1 and like one who falls asleep4 ,the treatise ,i mention has been taken notice of by several eminent authors1 and is written with such a spirit of cheerfulness1 religion1 and good sense as are the natural concomitants of temperance and sobriety4 ,the mixture of the old man in it is rather a recommendation than a discredit to it40 ,in fact he has exposed himself1 it must be confessed1 to the taunts of the 8devotees of the ,table0 often cast at the abstinents1 that they are too much given to parading their health and vigour1 and certainly if any one can be justly obnoxious to them it is ,luigi ,cornaro4 ,,xii4 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,more4 #adhj-aece4 ,during part of the period covered by the long life of ,cornaro there is one distinguished man1 all reference to whose opinions--intimately though indirectly connected as they are with dietary reform--it would be improper to omit--,sir ,thomas ,more4 ,his eloquent denunciation of the grasping avarice and the ruinous policy which were rapidly converting the best part of the country into grazing lands1 as well as his condemnation of the slaughter of innocent life1 commonly euphemised by the name of 8sport10 are as instructive and almost as necessary for the present age as for the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,son of ,sir ,john ,more1 a judge of the ,king's ,bench1 he was brought up in the palace of the ,cardinal ,lord ,chancellor ,morton1 an ecclesiastic who stands out in favourable contrast with the great majority of his order1 and1 indeed1 of his contemporaries in general4 ,in his twenty-first year he was returned to the ,house of ,commons1 where he distinguished himself by opposing a grant of a subsidy to the king 7,henry ,,vii474 ,in #aeaf he published 7in ,latin7 his world-famed ,utopia--the most meritorious production in sociological literature since the days of ,plutarch4 ,in #aebc he was elected ,speaker of the ,house of ,commons1 and again he displayed his courage and integrity in resisting an illegal and oppressive subsidy bill1 by which he was not in the way to advance his interests with ,henry ,,viii4 and his principal minister1 ,wolsey4 ,seven years later1 however1 upon the disgrace of the latter personage1 ,sir ,thomas ,more succeeded to the vacant ,chancellorship1 in which office he maintained his reputation for integrity and laborious diligence4 ,when the amorous and despotic king had determined upon the momentous divorce from ,catherine1 he resigned the ,seals rather than sanction that equivocal proceeding2 and soon afterwards he was sent to the ,tower for refusing the ,oath of ,supremacy4 ,after the interval of a year he was brought to trial before the ,king's ,bench1 and sentenced to the block 7#aece74 ,in private life and in his domestic relations he exhibits a pleasing contrast to the ordinary harsh severity of his contemporaries4 ,in learning and ability he occupies a foremost place in the annals of the period4 ,unfortunately for his reputation with after ages1 as ,lord ,chancellor he seems to have forgotten the maxims of toleration 7political and theological7 of his earlier career1 so well set forth in his ,utopia2 and he supplies a notable instance1 not too rare1 of retrogression with advancing years and dignities1 and of 8a head grown grey in vain40 ,in fact1 he belonged1 ecclesiastically1 to the school of conservative sceptics1 of whom his intimate friend ,erasmus was the most conspicuous representative1 rather than to the party of practical reform4 ,yet1 in spite of so lamentable a failure in practical philosophy1 ,more may claim a high degree of merit both for his courage and for his sagacity in propounding views far in advance of his time4 ,in the ,utopia his ideas in regard to labour and to crime exhibit him1 indeed1 as in advance of the received dogmas even of the present day4 ,as to the former he held that the labourer1 as the actual basis and support of the whole social system1 was justly entitled to some consideration1 and to a more rational existence than usually allowed him by the policy of the ruling classes2 and1 in limiting the daily period of labour to nine hours1 he anticipated by #cej years the tardy legislation on that important matter4 ,in exposing the equal absurdity and iniquity of the criminal code he preached the despised doctrine of prevention rather than punishment1 and denounced the monstrous inequality of penalties by which thieving was placed in the same category with murder and crimes of violence3-- 8,for great and horrible punishments be awarded to thieves1 whereas much rather provision should have been made that there were some means whereby they might get their living1 so that no man should be driven to this extreme necessity--first to steal and then to die4444 ,by suffering your youth to be wantonly and viciously brought up and to be infected1 even from their tender age1 by little and little with vice--then1 in ,god's name1 to be punished when they commit the same faults after being come to man's state1 which from their youth they were ever like to do--in this point1 ,i pray you1 what other thing do you than make thieves and then punish them40#aje ,what we are immediately concerned with here is his feeling in regard to slaughter4 ,the ,utopians condemn-- 8,hunters also and hawkers 7falconers71 for what delight can there be1 and not rather displeasure1 in hearing the barking and howling of dogs8 ,or what greater pleasure is there to be felt when a dog follows a hare than when a dog follows a dog8 ,for one thing is done by both--that is to say1 running1 if you have pleasure in that4 ,but if the hope of slaughter and the expectation of tearing the victim in pieces pleases you1 you should rather be moved with pity to see an innocent hare murdered by a dog--the weak by the strong1 the fearful by the fierce1 the innocent by the cruel and pitiless4#ajf ,therefore this exercise of hunting1 as a thing unworthy to be used of free men1 the ,utopians have rejected to their butchers1 to the which craft 7as we said before7 they appoint their bondsmen4 ,for they count hunting the lowest1 the vilest1 and most abject part of butchery2 and the other parts of it more profitable and more honest as bringing much more commodity1 in that they 7the butchers7 kill their victims from necessity1 whereas the hunter seeks nothing but pleasure of the seely simple1 innocent and woful animal's slaughter and murder4 ,the which pleasure in beholding death1 they say1 doth rise in wild beasts1 either of a cruel affection of mind or else by being changed1 in continuance of time1 into cruelty by long use of so cruel a pleasure4 ,these1 therefore1 and all such like1 which be innumerable1 though the common sort of people do take them for pleasures1 yet they1 seeing that there is no natural pleasantness in them1 plainly determine them to have no affinity with true and right feeling40 ,in telling us that his model people 8permit not their free citizens to accustom themselves to the killing of #8beasts' through the use whereof they think clemency1 gentlest affection of our nature1 by little and little to decay and perish10#ajg ,more for ever condemns the immorality of the ,slaughter-,house1 whether he intended to do so in toto or no4 ,in relegating the business of slaughter to their bondsmen 7criminals who had been degraded from the rights of citizenship71 the ,utopians1 we may observe1 exhibit less of justice than of refinement4 ,to devolve the trade of slaughter upon a pariah-class is not the least immoral of the necessary concomitants of the shambles4 ,that the author of ,utopia should feel an instinctive aversion from the coarseness and cruelty of the shambles is not surprising2 that he should have failed to banish it entirely from his ideal commonwealth is less to be wondered at than to be lamented4 ,that he had at least a latent consciousness of the indefensibility of slaughter for food appears sufficiently clear from his remark upon the ,utopian religion that 8they kill no living animal in sacrifice1 nor do they think that ,god has delight in blood and slaughter1 ,who has given life to animals to the intent they should live40 ,wiser than ourselves1 the ideal people do not waste their corn in the manufacture of alcoholic drinks3-- 8,they sow corn only for bread4 ,for their drink is either wine made of grapes1 or else of apples or pears1 or else it is clear water--and many times mead made of honey or liquorice sodden in water1 for of that they have great store40 ,the selfish policy of converting arable into grazing land is emphatically denounced by ,more3-- 8,they 7the oxen and sheep7 consume1 destroy1 and devour whole fields1 houses1 and cities4 ,for look in what parts of the realm doth grow the finest and therefore the dearest wool4 ,there noblemen and gentlemen1 yea1 and certain abbots1 holy men no doubt1 not contenting themselves with the yearly revenues and profits that were wont to grow to their forefathers and predecessors of their lands1 nor being content that they live in rest and pleasure nothing profiting1 yea1 much annoying1 the public weal1 leave no land for tillage--they enclose all into pasture1 they throw down houses1 they pluck down towns and leave nothing standing1 but only the church to be made a sheep house2 and1 as though you lost no small quantity of ground by forests1 chases1 lands1 and parks1 those good holy men turn dwelling-places and all glebe land into wilderness and desolation4444 ,for one shepherd or herdsman is enough to eat up that ground with cattle1 to the occupying whereof about husbandry many hands would be requisite4 ,and this is also the cause why victuals be now in many places dearer2 yea1 besides this1 the price of wool is so risen that poor folks1 which were wont to work it and make cloth thereof1 be now able to buy none at all1 and by this means very many be forced to forsake work and to give themselves to idleness4 ,for after that so much land was enclosed for pasture1 an infinite multitude of sheep died of the rot1 such vengeance ,god took of their inordinate and insatiable covetousness1 sending among the sheep that pestiferous murrain which much more justly should have fallen on the sheep-masters' own heads2 and though the number of sheep increase never so fast1 yet the price falleth not one mite1 because there be so few sellers10 c4 ,these sagacious and just reflections upon the evil social consequences of carnivorousness may be fitly commended to the earnest attention of our public writers and speakers of to-day4 ,the periodical cattle plagues and foot-and-mouth diseases1 which1 in theological language1 are vaguely assigned to national sins1 might be more ingenuously and truthfully attributed to the one sufficient cause--to the general indulgence of selfish instincts1 which closes the ear to all the promptings at once of humanity and of reason1 and is1 in truth1 a national sin of the most serious character4#ajh ,the 8wisdom of our ancestors10 which has been so often invoked1 both before and since the days of ,more1 and which ,bentham has so mercilessly exposed1 apparently did not subdue the reason of the author of ,utopia2 yet1 with no little amount of applause it has been made to serve as a very conclusive argument against dietetic reformation1 as against many other changes3-- 8#8,these things1' say they1 #8pleased our forefathers and ancestors--would to ,god we could be so wise as they were6' ,and1 as though they had wittily concluded the matter1 and with this answer stopped every man's mouth1 they sit down again as who should say1 #8,it were a very dangerous matter if a man in any point should be found wiser than his forefathers were4' ,and yet be we content to suffer the best and wittiest wisest of their decrees to be unexecuted2 but if in anything a better order might have been taken than by them was1 there we take fast hold1 finding therein many virtues40#aji ,,xiii4 ,,montaigne4 #aecc-aeib4 ,the modern ,plutarch and the first of essayists deserves his place in this work1 if not so much for express and explicit denunciation1 totidem verbis1 of the barbarism of the ,slaughter-,house1 at least for a sort of argument which logically and necessarily arrives at the same conclusion4 ,in truth1 if he had not 8seen and approved the better way0 7even though1 with too many others1 he may not have had the courage of his convictions71 he would be no true disciple of the great humanitarian4 ,it is necessary to remember that the 8perfect day0 was not yet come2 that a few rays only here and there enlightened the thick darkness of barbarism2 that1 in fine1 not even yet1 with the light of truth shining full upon us1 have reason and conscience triumphed1 as regards the mass of the community1 either in this country or elsewhere4 ,michel de ,montaigne descended from an old and influential house in ,prigord 7modern ,prigeaux1 in the department of the ,dordogne74 ,his youth was carefully trained1 and his early inclination to learning fostered under his father's diligent superintendence4 ,he became a member of the provincial parliament1 and1 by the universal suffrage of his fellow-citizens1 was elected chief magistrate of ,bordeaux1 from the official routine of whose duties he soon retired to the more congenial atmosphere of study and philosophic reflection4 ,in his chteau1 at ,montaigne1 his studious tranquillity was violently interrupted by the savage contests then raging between the opposing factions of ,catholics and ,huguenots1 from both of whom he received ill-treatment and loss4 ,to add to his troubles1 the plague1 which appeared in ,guienne in #aehf1 broke up his household and compelled him1 with his family1 to abandon his home4 ,together they wandered through the country1 exposed to the various dangers of a civil war2 and he afterwards for some time settled in ,paris4 ,he had also travelled in ,italy4 ,montaigne returned to his home when the disturbances and atrocities had somewhat subsided1 and there he died with the philosophic calmness with which he had lived4 ,the ,essais--that book of 8good faith10 8without study and artifice10 as its author justly calls it--appeared in the year #aehj4 ,it is a book unique in modern literature1 and the only other production to which it may be compared is the ,moralia of ,plutarch4 8,it is not a book we are reading1 but a conversation to which we are listening40 8,it is10 as another ,french critic observes1 8less a book than a journal divided into chapters1 which follow one another without connexion1 which bear each a title without much regard to the fulfilment of their promise40 ,montaigne treats of almost every phase of human thought and action2 and upon every subject he has something original and worth saying4 ,living in a savagely sectarian and persecuting age1 he kept himself aloof and independent of either of the two contending theological sections1 and contents himself with the rle of a sceptical spectator4 ,it must be admitted that he is not always satisfactory in this character1 since he sometimes seems to give forth an 8uncertain sound40 ,considering the age1 however1 his assertion of the proper authority of ,reason deserves our respectful admiration1 and is in pleasing contrast with the attitude of most of his contemporaries4 ,a few1 like his friend ,de ,thou1 or the ,italian ,giordano ,bruno--the latter of whom1 indeed1 had more of the martyr-spirit than ,montaigne--contributed to keep alight the torch of ,truth and ,reason4 ,but we have only to recollect that it was the age par excellence of ,diabolism in ,catholic and ,protestant theology alike1 and of all the horrible superstitions and frightful tortures1 both bodily and mental1 of which the universal belief in the ,devil's actual reign on earth was the fruitful cause4 ,about the very time of the appearance of the ,essais1 one of the most learned men of the period1 the lawyer ,jean ,bodin published a work which he called the ,dmonomanie des ,sorciers 7the 8,diabolic ,inspiration of ,witches071 in which he protested his unwavering faith in the most monstrous beliefs of the creed1 and vehemently called upon the judges1 ecclesiastical and civil1 to punish the reputed criminals 7accused of an impossible crime7 with the severest tortures4 ,we have only to recognise this fact alone 7the most astounding of all the astounding facts and phases in the history of ,superstition7 to do full justice to the reason and courage of this small band of protesters4 ,as for the influence of ,montaigne on the modes of thought of after times1 and especially of his countrymen1 it can scarcely be over estimated4 ,he is the literary progenitor of the most famous ,french writers of the humanitarian eighteenth century4 ,the most eminent of them1 ,voltaire1 perhaps1 most resembles him1 but naturally the style of the eighteenth century philosopher is more concise and incisive1 and his opinions are more pronounced4 8,both10 says a ,french critic1 8laugh at the human species2 but the laughter of ,voltaire is more bitter2 his railleries are more terrible4 ,both1 nevertheless1 breathe the love of humanity4 ,that of ,voltaire is more ardent1 more courageous1 more unwearied4 ,the hatred of both of them for charlatanism and hypocrisy is well known4 ,their morality has for its first principle benevolence towards others1 without distinction of country1 of manners1 or of religious beliefs2 warning us not to think that we alone hold the deposit of justice and of truth4 ,it transports our soul1 by contempt of mortal things and by enthusiasm for great truths40 ,it is to be lamented that the countrymen of ,montaigne and of ,voltaire have not profited to a larger extent by their humanitarian teaching and tendencies4 ,in reference to the almost incredible atrocities of war1 and especially of civil war1 ,montaigne protests3-- 8,scarcely could ,i persuade myself1 before ,i had seen it with my own eyes1 that there could be souls so ferocious as for the simple pleasure of murder to be ready to perpetrate it2 to hack and dismember the limbs of others2 to ransack their invention to discover unheard-of tortures and new kinds of deaths--and that without the incentive of enmity or of profit--with the mere view of enjoying the pleasant spectacle of pitiable actions and movements1 of groans and lamentations1 of a man dying in agony4 ,for this is the climax to which cruelty can attain--#8for a man without anger1 without fear1 to kill another merely to witness his sufferings4' 8,for my part ,i have never been able to see1 without displeasure1 an innocent and defenceless animal1 from whom we receive no offence or harm1 pursued and slaughtered4 ,and when a deer1 as commonly happens1 finding herself without breath and strength1 without other resource1 throws herself down and surrenders1 as it were1 to her pursuers1 begging for mercy by her tears1 #8,questuque cruentus ,atque imploranti similis4'#aaj ,this has always appeared to me a very displeasing spectacle4 ,i seldom1 or never1 take an animal alive whom ,i do not restore to the fields4 ,pythagoras was in the habit of buying their victims from the fowlers and fishermen for the same purpose4 #8,primque a cde ferarum ,incaluisse puto maculatum sanguine ferrum4'#aaa 8,dispositions sanguinary in regard to other animals testify a natural inclination to cruelty towards their own kind4 ,after they had accustomed themselves at ,rome to the spectacle of the murders meurtres of other animals1 they proceeded to those of men and gladiators4 ,nature has1 ,i fear1 herself attached some instinct of inhumanity to man's disposition4 ,no one derives any amusement from seeing other animals enjoy themselves and caressing one another2 and no one fails to take pleasure in seeing them torn in pieces and dismembered4 ,that ,i may not he is cautious enough to add be ridiculed for this sympathy which ,i have for them1 even theology enjoins some respect for them1#aab and considering that one and the same ,master has lodged us in this palatial world for his service1 and that they are1 as we1 members of ,his family1 it is right that it should enjoin some respect and affection towards them40 ,quoting instances of the extreme respect in which some of the non-human races were held by people in ,antiquity1#aac and ,plutarch's interpretation of the meaning of the divine honours sometimes paid to them--that they adored certain qualities in them as types of divine faculties--,montaigne declares for himself that3-- 8,when ,i meet1 amongst the more moderate opinions1 arguments which go to prove our close resemblance to other animals1 and how much they share in our greatest privileges1 and with how much of probability they are compared to us1 of a truth ,i abate much from our common presumption1 and willingly abdicate that imaginary royalty which they assign us over other beings40 ,wiser than the majority in later times1 ,montaigne well rebukes the arrogant presumption of the human animal who affects to hold all other life to be brought into being for his sole use and pleasure3-- 8,let him shew me1 by the most skilful argument1 upon what foundations he has built these excessive prerogatives which he supposes himself to have over other existences4 ,who has persuaded him that that admirable impulse of the celestial vault1 the eternal brightness of those ,lights rolling so majestically over our heads1 the tremendous motions of that infinite sea of ,globes1 were established and have continued so many ages for his advantage and for his service4 ,is it possible to imagine anything so ridiculous as that this pitiful chtive1 miserable creature1 who is not even master of himself1 exposed to injuries of every kind1 should call itself master and lord of the universe1 of which1 so far from being lord of it1 he knows but the smallest part8444 ,who has given him this sealed charter8 ,let him shew us the #8letters patent' of this grand commission4 ,have they been issued octroyes in favour of the wise only8 ,they affect but the few in that case4 ,the fools and the wicked--are they worthy of so extraordinary a favour1 and being the worst part of the world le pire pice du monde1 do they deserve to be preferred to all the rest8 ,shall we believe all this8 8,presumption is our natural and original disease4 ,the most calamitous and fragile of all creatures is man1 and yet the most arrogant4#aad ,it is through the vanity of this same imagination that he equals himself to a god1 that he attributes to himself divine conditions1 that he picks himself out and separates himself from the crowd of other creatures1 curtails the just shares of other animals his brethren confrres and companions1 and assigns to them such portions of faculties and forces as seems to him good4 ,how does he know1 by the effort of his intelligence1 the interior and secret movements and impulses of other animals8 ,by what comparison between them and us does he infer the stupidity la btise which he attributes to them80 ,montaigne quotes the example of his master1 the just and benevolent ,plutarch1 who made it a matter of justice and conscience not to sell or send to the slaughter-house 7according to the common selfish ingratitude7 a ,cow who had served him faithfully and profitably for so many years4 ,with ,plutarch and ,porphyry he never wearies of denouncing the unreasoning opinions1 or rather prejudices1 prevalent amongst men as to the mental qualities of many of the non-human races1 and1 as we have already seen1 insists that the difference between them and us is of degree and not of kind3-- 8,plato1 in his picture of the #8,golden ,age1' reckons amongst the chief advantages of the men of that time the communication they had with other animals1 by investigating and instructing themselves in whose nature they learned their true qualities and the differences between them1 by which they acquired a very perfect knowledge and intelligence1 and thus made their lives more happy than we can make ours4 ,is a better test needed by which to judge of human folly in regard to other species8 8,i have said all this in order to bring us back and reunite ourselves to the crowd presse4 ,we are in the accidents of mortality neither above nor below the rest4 #8,all who are under the sky1' says the ,jewish sage1 #8experience a like law and fate4' ,there is some difference1 there are orders and degrees1 but they are under the aspect of one and the same nature4 ,man must be constrained and ranged within the barriers of this police ,il faut contraindre l'homme1 et le ranger dans les barrires de cette police4 ,the wretch has no right to encroach d'enjamber beyond these2 he is fettered1 entangled1 he is subjected to like necessities with other creatures of his order1 and in a very mean condition without any true and essential prerogative and pre-excellence4 ,that which he confers upon himself by his own opinion and fancy has neither sense nor substance2 and if it be conceded to him that he alone of all animals has that freedom of imagination and that irregularity of thought representing to him what he is1 what he is not1 and what he wants1 the false and the true1 it is an advantage which has been very dearly sold to him1 and of which he has very little to boast1 for from that springs the principal source of the evils which oppress him--crime1 disease1 irresolution1 trouble1 despair40 ,rejecting the still received prejudice which will not allow our humble fellow-beings the privilege of reason1 but invents an imaginary faculty called 8instinct10 he repeats that-- 8,there is no ground for supposing that other beings do by natural and necessary inclination the same things that we do by choice1 and while we are bound to infer from like effects like faculties--nay1 from greater effects1 greater faculties--we are forced to confess1 consequently1 that that same reason1 that same method which we employ in action are also employed by the lower animals1 or else that they have some still better reason or method4 ,why do we fancy in them that natural necessity or impulse contrainte--we who have no experience of that sort ourselves4#aae 8,as for use in eating1 it is with us as with them1 natural and without instruction4 ,who doubts that a child1 arrived at the necessary strength for feeding itself1 could find its own nourishment8 ,the earth produces and offers to him enough for his needs without artificial labour1 and if not for all seasons1 neither does she for the other races--witness the provisions which we observe the ants and others collecting for the sterile seasons of the year4 ,those nations whom we have lately discovered the peoples of ,hindustan and of parts of ,america1 so abundantly furnished with natural meat and drink without care and without labour1 have just instructed us that bread is not our sole food1 and that without toil our mother ,nature has furnished us with every plant we need1 to shew us1 as it seems1 how superior she is to all our artificiality2 while the extravagance of our appetite outruns all the inventions by which we seek to satisfy it40#aaf ,,xiv4 ,,gassendi4 #aeib-afee4 ,gassendi1 one of the most eminent men1 and1 what is more to the purpose1 the most meritorious philosophic writer of ,france in the seventeenth century1 claims the unique honour of being the first directly to revive in modern times the teaching of ,plutarch and ,porphyry4 ,other minds1 indeed1 of a high order1 like ,more and ,montaigne1 had1 as already shown1 implicitly condemned the inveterate barbarism4 ,but ,gassendi is the writer who first1 since the extinction of the ,platonic philosophy1 expressly and unequivocally attempted to enlighten the world upon this fundamental truth4 ,he was born of poor parents1 near ,digne1 in ,provence4 ,in his earliest years he gave promise of his extraordinary genius4 ,at nineteen he was professor of philosophy at ,aix4 ,his celebrated 8,essays against the ,aristotleians0 7,exercitationes ,paradoxic ,adversus ,aristoteleos7 was his first appearance in the philosophic world4 ,written some years earlier1 it was first published1 in part1 in the year #afbd4 ,it divides with the ,novum ,organon of ,francis ,bacon1 with which it was almost contemporary1 the honour of being the earliest effectual assault upon the old scholastic jargon which1 abusing the name and authority of ,aristotle1 during some three or four centuries of medival darkness had kept possession of the schools and universities of ,europe4 ,it at once raised up for ,gassendi a host of enemies1 the supporters of the old orthodoxy1 and1 as has always been the case in the exposure of falsehood1 he was assailed with a torrent of virulent invective4 ,five of the ,books of the ,exercitationes1 by the advice of his friends1 who dreaded the consequences of his courage1 had been suppressed4 ,in the ,fourth ,book1 besides the heresy of ,kopernik 7which ,bacon had not the courage or the penetration to adopt71 the doctrine of the eternity of the ,earth had been maintained1 as already taught by ,bruno2 while the ,seventh1 according to the table of contents1 contained a formal recommendation of the ,epicurean theory of morals1 in which ,pleasure and ,virtue are synonymous terms4 ,in the midst of the obloquy thus aroused the philosopher devoted himself1 by way of consolation1 to the study of anatomy and astronomy1 as well as to literary studies4 8,as the result of his anatomical researches he composed a treatise to prove that man was intended to live upon vegetables1 and that animal food1 as contrary to the human constitution1 is baneful and unwholesome40#aag ,he was the first to observe the transit of the planet ,mercury over the ,sun's disc 7#afca71 previously calculated by ,kepler4 ,he next appears publicly as the opponent of ,descartes in his ,disquisitiones ,anticartesian 7#afdc7--;a work justly distinguished1 according to the remark of an eminent ,german critic1 as a model of controversial excellence4 ,the philosophic world was soon divided between the two hostile camps4 ,it is sufficient to observe here that ,descartes1 whatever merit may attach to him in other respects1 by his equally absurd and mischievous paradox that the non-human species are possessed only of unconscious sensation and perception1 had done as much as he well could to destroy his reputation for common sense and common reason with all the really thinking part of the world4 ,yet this 8animated machine0 theory1 incredible as it may appear1 has recently been revived by a well-known physiologist of the present day1 in the very face of the most ordinary facts and experience--a theory about which it needs only to be said that it deserves to be classed with some of the most absurd and monstrous conceptions of medivalism4 ,as though1 to quote ,voltaire's admirable criticism1 ,god had given to the lower animals reason and feeling to the end that they might not feel and reason4 ,it was not thus1 as the same writer reminds us1 that ,locke and ,newton argued4#aah ,in #afdf ,gassendi became ,regius ,professor of ,mathematics in the ,university of ,paris1 where his lecture-room was crowded with listeners of all classes4 ,his ,life and ,morals of ,epikurus 7,de ,vit et ,moribus ,epicuri71 his principal work1 appeared in the year #afdg4 ,it is a triumphant refutation of the prejudices and false representations connected with the name of one of the very greatest and most virtuous of the ,greek ,masters1 which had been prevalent during so many ages4 ,neither his ,european reputation1 nor the universal respect extorted by his private as well as public merits1 could corrupt the simplicity of ,gassendi2 and his sober tastes were little in sympathy with the luxurious or literary trifling of ,paris3-- 8,he had only with difficulty resolved to quit his southern home1 and being attacked by a lung complaint1 he returned to ,digne1 where he remained till #afec4 ,within this period falls the greater part of his literary activity and zeal in behalf of the philosophy of ,epikurus1 and simultaneously the positive extension of his own doctrines4 ,in the same period ,gassendi produced1 besides several astronomical works1 a series of valuable biographies1 of which those of ,kopernik and ,tycho ,brahe are especially noteworthy4 ,he is1 of all the most prominent representatives of ,materialism1 the only one gifted with a historic sense1 and that he has in an eminent degree4 ,even in his ,syntagma ,philosophicum he treats every subject1 at first historically from all points of view4444 ,gassendi did not fall a victim to ,theology1 because he was destined to fall a victim to ,medicine4 ,being treated for a fever in the fashion of the time1 he had been reduced to extreme debility4 ,he long1 but vainly1 sought restoration in his southern home4 ,on returning to ,paris he was again attacked by fever1 and thirteen fresh blood-lettings ended his life4 ,he died ,october #bdth1 #afee40 ,lange1 from whom we have quoted this brief notice1 proceeds to vindicate his position as a physical philosopher3-- 8,the reformation of ,physics and ,natural ,philosophy1 usually ascribed to ,descartes1 was at least as much the work of ,gassendi4 ,frequently1 in consequence of the fame which ,descartes owed to his ,metaphysics1 those very things have been credited to ,descartes which ought properly to be assigned to ,gassendi4 ,it was also a result of the peculiar mixture of difference and agreement1 of hostility and alliance1 between the two systems that the influences resulting from them became completely interfused40#aai ,although of extraordinary erudition his learning did not1 as too often happens1 obscure the powers of original thought and reason4 ,bayle1 writing at the end of the seventeenth century1 has characterised him as 8the greatest philosopher amongst scholars1 and the greatest scholar amongst philosophers20 and ,newton conceived the same high esteem for the great vindicator of ,epikurus4#abj ,it is in his celebrated letter to his friend ,van ,helmont1 that ,gassendi deals with the irrational assertions of certain physiologists1 apparently more devoted to the defence of the orthodox diet than to the discovery of unwelcome truth1 as to the character of the human teeth3-- 8,i was contending10 he writes to his medical friend1 8that from the conformation of our teeth we do not appear to be adapted by ,nature to the use of a flesh diet1 since all animals 7,i spoke of terrestrials7 which ,nature has formed to feed on flesh have their teeth long1 conical1 sharp1 uneven1 and with intervals between them--of which kind are lions1 tigers1 wolves1 dogs1 cats1 and others4 ,but those who are made to subsist only on herbs and fruits have their teeth short1 broad1 blunt1 close to one another1 and distributed in even rows4 ,of this sort are horses1 cows1 deer1 sheep1 goats1 and some others4 ,and further--that men have received from ,nature teeth which are unlike those of the first class1 and resemble those of the second4 ,it is therefore probable1 since men are land animals1 that ,nature intended them to follow1 in the selection of their food1 not the carnivorous tribes1 but those races of animals which are contented with the simple productions of the earth4444 ,wherefore1 ,i here repeat that from the primval institution of our nature1 the teeth were destined to the mastication1 not of flesh1 but of fruits4 ,as for flesh1 true1 indeed1 it is that man is sustained on flesh4 ,but how many things1 let me ask1 does man do every day which are contrary to1 or beside1 his nature8 ,so great1 and so general1 is the perversion of his mode of life1 which has1 as it were1 eaten into his flesh by a sort of deadly contagion 7contagione veluti qudam jam inusta est71 that he appears to have put on another disposition4 ,hence1 the whole care and concern of philosophy and moral instruction ought to consist in leading men back to the paths of ,nature40 ,helmont1 it seems1 had rested his principal argument for flesh-eating1 not altogether in accordance with ,genesis1 and certainly not in accordance with ,science1 on the presumption that man was formed expressly for carnivorousness4 ,to this ,gassendi replied that1 without ignoring theological argument1 he still maintained comparative ,anatomy to be a satisfactory and sufficient guide4 ,he then applies himself to refute the physiological prejudice of ,helmont about the teeth1 c4 7as already quoted71 and begins by warning his friend that he is not to wonder if the self-love of men is constantly viewed by him with suspicion4#aba 8,for1 in fact1 we all1 with tacit consent1 conspire to extol our own nature1 and we do this commonly with so much arrogance that1 if people were to divest themselves of this traditional and inveterate prejudice1 and seriously reflect upon it1 their faces must be immediately suffused with burning shame40 ,he repeats ,plutarch's unanswerable challenge3-- 8,man lives very well upon flesh1 you say1 but1 if he thinks this food to be natural to him1 why does he not use it as it is1 as furnished to him by ,nature8 ,but1 in fact1 he shrinks in horror from seizing and rending living or even raw flesh with his teeth1 and lights a fire to change its natural and proper condition4 ,well1 but if it were the intention of ,nature that man should eat cooked flesh1 she would surely have provided him with ready-made cooks2 or1 rather1 she would have herself cooked it as she is wont to do fruits1 which are best and sweetest without the intervention of fire4 ,nature1 surely1 does not fail in providing necessary provision for her children1 according to the common boast4 ,but what is more necessary than to make food pleasurable8 ,and1 as she does in the case of sexual love by which she procures the preservation of the species1 so would she procure the preservation of the genus4 8,nor let anyone say that ,nature in this is corrected1 since1 to pass over other things1 that is tantamount to convicting her of a blunder4 ,consider how much more benevolent she would be proved to be1 in that case1 towards the savage beasts than towards us4 ,again1 since our teeth are not sufficient for eating flesh1 even when prepared by fire1 the invention of knives seems to me to be a strong proof4 ,because1 in fact1 we have no teeth given us for rending flesh1 and we are therefore forced to have recourse to those non-natural organs1 in order to accomplish our purpose4 ,as if1 forsooth1 ,nature would have left us destitute in so essential things6 ,i divine at once your ready reply3 #8think that ,nature has given man reason to supply defects of this kind4' ,but this1 ,i affirm1 is always to accuse ,nature1 in order to defend our unnatural luxury4 ,so it is about dress--so it is about other things4 8,what is clearer he sums up than that man is not furnished for hunting1 much less for eating1 other animals8 ,in one word1 we seem to be admirably admonished by ,cicero that man was destined for other things than for seizing and cutting the throats of other animals4 ,if you answer that #8that may be said to be an industry ordered by ,nature1 by which such weapons are invented1' then1 behold6 it is by the very same artificial instrument that men make weapons for mutual slaughter4 ,do they this at the instigation of ,nature8 ,can a use so noxious be called natural8 ,faculty is given by ,nature1 but it is our own fault that we make a perverse use of it40 ,he1 finally1 refutes the popular objection about the strength-giving properties of flesh-meat1 and instances ,horses1 ,bulls1 and others4#abb ,in his ,ethics 7affixed to his ,books on ,physics7 he quotes and endorses the opinions of ,epikurus on the slaughter of innocent life3-- 8,there is no pretence10 he asserts1 8for saying that any right has been granted us by law to kill any of those animals which are not destructive or pernicious to the human race1 for there is no reason why the innocent species should be allowed to increase to so great a number as to be inconvenient to us4 ,they may be restrained within that number which would be harmless1 and useful to ourselves40#abc ,with that ,great ,master he thus rebukes the fashionable 8hospitality03-- 8,i1 for my part1 to speak modestly of myself1 lived contented with the plants of my little garden1 and have pleasure in that diet1 and ,i wish inscribed on my doors3 #8,guest1 here you shall have good cheer6 here the summum bonum is ,pleasure4 ,the guardian of this house1 humanely hospitable1 is ready to entertain you with pearl-barley 7polenta71 and will furnish you abundantly with water4 ,these little gardens do not increase hunger1 but extinguish it2 nor do they make thirst greater by the very potations themselves1 but satisfy it by a natural and gratuitous remedy4'0#abd ,there is one name which1 in reputation1 occupies a pre-eminent position in philosophy1 belonging to this period--,francis ,bacon4 ,but1 for ourselves1 for whom true ethical and humanitarian principles have a much deeper significance than mere mental force undirected to the highest aims of truth and of justice1 the name of the modern assertor of the truths of ,vegetarianism will challenge greater reverence than even that of the author of the ,new ,instrument4 ,that ,bacon should exhibit himself in the character of an advocate of the rights of the lower races is hardly to be expected from the selfish and unscrupulous promoter of his own private interests at the expense at once of common gratitude and common feeling4 ,his remarks on ,vivisection 7where he questions whether experiments on human beings are defensible1 and suggests the limitation of scientific torture to the non-human races7#abe are1 in fact1 sufficient evidence of his indifferentism to so unselfish an object as the advocacy of the claims of our defenceless dependants4 ,when we consider his unusual sagacity in exposing the absurd quasi-scientific methods of his predecessors1 and of the prevailing 7so-called7 philosophical system and the many profound remarks to be found in his writings1 it must be added that we are reluctantly compelled to believe that the opinions elsewhere which he publishes inconsistent with those principles were inspired by that notorious servility and courtiership by which he flattered the absurd and pedantic dogmatism of one of the most contemptible of kings4 ,one passage there is1 however1 in his writings which seems to give us hope that this eminent compromiser was not altogether insensible to higher and better feeling3-- 8,nature has endowed man with a noble and excellent principle of compassion1 which extends 8 ought to extend itself also to the dumb animals--whence this compassion has some resemblance to that of a prince towards his subjects4 ,and it is certain that the noblest souls are the most extensively compassionate1 for narrow and degenerate minds think that compassion belongs not to them2 but a great soul1 the noblest part of creation1 is ever compassionate4 ,thus1 under the old laws1 there were numerous precepts 7not merely ceremonial7 enjoining mercy--for example1 the not eating of flesh with the blood1 c4 ,so1 also1 the sects of the ,essenes and ,pythagoreans totally abstained from flesh1 as they do also to this day1 with an inviolate religion1 in some parts of the empire of the ,mogul ,hindustan4 ,nay1 the ,turks1 though a savage nation1 both in their descent and discipline1 give alms to the dumb animals1 and suffer them not to be tortured40#abf ,if ,bacon had lived longer 7he died in #afbf7 we may entertain the hope that the powerful arguments of his illustrious contemporary might have inspired him with more sound and satisfactory ideas on ,dietetics than the somewhat crude ones which he published in his ,de ,augmentis 7iv41 #b74 ,as for ,medicine1 he had1 reasonably enough1 not conceived a high opinion of the methods of its ordinary professors4 ,he says3-- 8,medicine has been more professed than laboured1 and more laboured than advanced2 rather circular than progressive2 for ,i find great repetition1 and but little new matter in the writers of ,physic40 ,,xv4 ,,ray4 #afbg-agje4 ,john ,ray1 the founder of ,botanical and1 only in little less degree1 of ,zoological ,science1 was an alumnus of the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,he was elected ,fellow of ,trinity ,college in #afdi1 and ,lecturer in ,greek in the following year4 ,while at ,cambridge he formed a collection of plants growing in the neighbourhood1 a catalogue of which he published in #affj4 ,three years later1 with his friend ,francis ,willoughby1 he travelled over a large part of ,europe1 as during his academical life he had traversed the greater part of these islands1 in pursuit of botanical and zoological science--an account of which tour he published in #afgc4 ,he had been one of the first ,fellows of the recently founded ,royal ,society4 ,in #afhb appeared his ,new ,method of ,plants1 which formed a new era in botany1 or rather1 which was the first attempt at making it a real science4 ,it is the basis of the subsequent classification of ,jussieu1 which is still received2 and its author was the first to propose the division of plants into monocotyledons and dicotyledons4 ,his principal work is the ,historia ,plantarum1 #afhf-agjd4 8,in it he collected and arranged all the species of plants which had been described by botanists4 ,he enumerated #ah1fbe species4 ,haller1 ,sprengel1 ,adamson1 and others speak of this work as being the produce of immense labour1 and as containing much acute criticism40 ,what1 however1 is more interesting to us is the fact that 8in zoology ,ray ranks almost as high as in botany1 and his works on this subject are even more important1 as they still1 in great measure1 preserve their utility4 ,cuvier says that #8they may be considered as the foundation of modern zoology1 for naturalists are obliged to consult them every instant for the purpose of clearing up the difficulties which they meet with in the works of ,linnus and his copyists4'0 ,between #afgf-afhf appeared ,ornithologia and ,historia ,piscium1 the materials of which had been left him by his friend ,willoughby4 ,to his extraordinary erudition and industry the world was indebted for ,a ,methodical ,synopsis of ,quadrupeds as well as a very valuable history of ,insects4 ,conspicuous amongst his merits are his accuracy of observation and his philosophical method of classification4 ,with others1 ,buffon is largely indebted to the most meritorious of the pioneers of zoological knowledge4 ,ray has delivered his profession of faith in the superiority and excellence of the non-flesh diet in the following eloquent passage which has been quoted with approval by his friend ,john ,evelyn3-- 8,the use of plants is all our life long of that universal importance and concern that we can neither live nor subsist with any decency and convenience1 or be said1 indeed1 to live at all without them4 ,whatsoever food is necessary to sustain us1 whatsoever contributes to delight and refresh us1 is supplied and brought forth out of that plentiful and abundant store4 ,and ah6 he exclaims how much more innocent1 sweet1 and healthful is a table covered with those than with all the reeking flesh of butchered and slaughtered animals4 ,certainly man by nature was never made to be a carnivorous animal1 nor is he armed at all for prey and rapine1 with jagged and pointed teeth and crooked claws sharpened to rend and tear1 but with gentle hands to gather fruit and vegetables1 and with teeth to chew and eat them40#abg ,,xvi4 ,,evelyn4 #afbj-agjf4 ,john ,evelyn1 the representative of the more estimable part of the higher middle life of his time1 who has so eloquently set forth the praises of the vegetable diet1 also claims with ,ray the honour of having first excited1 amongst the opulent classes of his countrymen1 a rational taste for botanical knowledge4 ,especially meritorious and truly patriotic was his appeal to the owners of land1 by growing trees to provide the country with useful as well as ornamental timber for the benefit of posterity4 ,he was one of the first to treat gardening and planting in a scientific manner2 and his own cultivation of exotic and other valuable plants was a most useful example too tardily followed by ignorant or selfish landlords of those and succeeding times4 ,it would have been well indeed for the mass of the people of these islands1 had the owners of landed property cared to develope the teaching of ,evelyn by stocking the country with various fruit trees1 and so supplied at once an easy and wholesome food4 ,o fortunatos nimium1 sua si bona nrint1 ,agricolas6444 ,fundit humo facilem victum justissima ,tellus4#abh ,the family of ,evelyn was settled at ,wooton1 in ,surrey4 ,during the struggle between the ,parliament and the ,court he went abroad1 and travelled for some years in ,france and in ,italy1 where he seems to have employed his leisure in a more refined and useful way than is the wont of most of his travelling countrymen4 ,he returned home in #afea4 ,at the foundation of the ,royal ,society1 some ten years later1 ,evelyn became one of its earliest ,fellows4 ,his first work was published in #affd1 ,sylva2 or1 a ,discourse of ,forest ,trees and the ,propagation of ,timber4 ,its immediate cause was the application of the ,naval ,commissioners to the ,royal ,society for advice in view of the growing scarcity of timber1 especially of oak1 in ,england4 ,a large quantity of the more valuable wood now existing is the practical outcome of his timely publication4 ,in #afge1 appeared his ,terra3 a ,discourse of the ,earth ,relating to the ,culture and the ,improvement of it1 to ,vegetation and the ,propagation of ,plants4 ,the book by which he is most popularly known is his ,diary and ,correspondence1 one of the most interesting productions of the kind4 ,besides its value as giving an insight into the manner of life in the fashionable society of the greater part of the seventeenth century1 it is of importance as an independent chronicle of the public events of the day4 ,the work which has the most interest and value for us is his ,acetaria 7,salads1 or ,herbs eaten with vinegar71 in which the author professes his faith in the truth and excellence of the ,vegetarian diet4 ,unfortunately1 according to the usual perversity of literary enterprise1 it is one of those few books which1 representing some profounder truth1 are nevertheless the most neglected by those who undertake to supply the mental and moral needs of the reading public4 ,evelyn held many high posts under the varying ,governments of the day2 and being1 by tradition and connexion1 attached to the monarchical party1 he attracted 7contrary to the general experience7 the grateful recognition of the restored dynasty4 ,having adduced other arguments for abstinence from flesh1 ,evelyn continues3-- 8,and now1 after all we have advanced in favour of the herbaceous diet1 there still emerges another inquiry1 viz41 whether the use of crude herbs and plants is so wholesome as is alleged8 ,what opinion the prince of physicians had of them we shall see hereafter2 as also what the sacred records of olden times seem to infer1 before there were any flesh-shambles in the world2 together with the reports of such as are often conversant among many nations and people1 who1 to this day1 living on herbs and roots1 arrive to an incredible age in constant health and vigour1 which1 whether attributable to the air and climate1 custom1 constitution1 c41 should be inquired into40 ,cardan--the pseudo-savant of the sixteenth century--had written1 it seems1 in favour of flesh-meat4 ,evelyn informs us that3-- 8,this1 the alleged superiority of flesh his learned antagonist1 utterly denies4 ,whole nations--flesh devourers1 such as the farthest northern--become heavy1 dull1 inactive1 and much more stupid than the southern2 and such as feed more on plants are more acute1 subtle1 and of deeper penetration4 ,witness the ,chaldeans1 ,assyrians1 ,egyptians1 c4 ,and he further argues from the short lives of most carnivorous animals1 compared with grass feeders1 and the ruminating kind1 as the ,hart1 ,camel1 and the longvus ,elephant1 and other feeders on roots and vegetables4 8,as soon as old ,parr came to change his simple homely diet to that of the ,court and ,arundel ,house1 he quickly sank and drooped away2 for1 as we have shewn1 the stomach easily concocts plain and familiar food1 but finds it a hard and difficult task to vanquish and overcome meats of different substances4 ,whence we so often see temperate and abstemious persons of a collegiate diet of a distant age1 we must suppose very healthy2 husbandmen and laborious people more robust and longer-lived than others of an uncertain1 extravagant habit40 ,he appeals to the biblical reverence of his readers1 and tells them3-- 8,certain it is1 ,almighty ,god ordaining herbs and fruit for the food of man1 speaks not a word concerning flesh for two thousand years2 and when after1 by the ,mosaic constitution1 there were distinctions and prohibitions about the legal uncleanness of animals1 plants of what kind soever were left free and indifferent for everyone to choose what best he liked4 ,and what if it was held indecent and unbecoming the excellency of man's nature1 before sin entered and grew enormously wicked1 that any creature should be put to death and pain for him who had such infinite store of the most delicious and nourishing fruit to delight1 and the tree of life to sustain him8 ,doubtless there was no need of it4 ,infants sought the mother's nipples as soon as born1 and when grown and able to feed themselves1 ran naturally to fruit1 and still will choose to eat it rather than flesh1 and certainly might so persist to do1 did not ,custom prevail even against the very dictates of ,nature4#abi 8,and now to recapitulate what other prerogatives the hortulan provision has been celebrated for besides its antiquity1 and the health and longevity of the antediluvians--viz41 that temperance1 frugality1 leisure1 ease1 and innumerable other virtues and advantages which accompany it1 are no less attributable to it4 ,let us hear our excellent botanist1 ,mr4 ,ray40 ,he then quotes the profession of faith of the father of ,english botany and zoology2 and goes on eloquently to expatiate on the varied pleasures of a non-flesh and fruit diet3-- 8,to this might we add that transporting consideration1 becoming both our veneration and admiration1 of the infinitely wise and glorious ,author of ,nature1 who has given to plants such astonishing properties2 such fiery heat in some to warm and cherish2 such coolness in others to temper and refresh2 such pinguid juice to nourish and feed the body2 such quickening acids to compel the appetite1 and grateful vehicles to court the obedience of the palate2 such vigour to renew and support our natural strength2 such ravishing flavours and perfumes to recreate and delight us2 in short1 such spirituous and active force to animate and revive every part and faculty to all kinds of human and1 ,i had almost said1 heavenly capacity4 8,what shall we add more8 ,our gardens present us with them all3 and1 while the ,shambles are covered with gore and stench1 our ,salads escape the insults of the summer-fly1 purify and warm the blood against winter rage4 ,nor wants there variety in more abundance than any of the former ages could show40 ,evelyn produces an imposing array of the 8,old ,fathers03-- 8,in short1 so very many1 especially of the ,christian profession1 advocate it the bloodless food that some even of the ancient fathers themselves have thought that the permission of eating flesh to ,noah and his sons was granted them no otherwise than repudiation of wives was to the ,jews--namely--for the hardness of their hearts and to satisfy a murmuring generation40#acj ,he is 8persuaded that more blood has been shed between ,christians0 through addiction to the sanguinary food than by any other cause3-- 8,not that ,i impute it only to our eating blood2 but ,i sometimes wonder how it happened that so strict1 so solemn1 and famous a sanction--not upon a ceremonial account1 but 7as some affirm7 a moral and perpetual one1 for which also there seem to be fairer proofs than for most other controversies agitated amongst ,christians--should be so generally forgotten1 and give place to so many other impertinent disputes and cavils about superstitious fopperies which frequently end in blood and cutting of throats40#aca ,it is opportune here to refer to the sentiments of ,evelyn's contemporary and political and ecclesiastical opposite--the great ,puritan poet and patriot--one of the very greatest names in all literature4 ,milton's feeling1 so far as he had occasion to express it1 is quite in unison with the principles of dietetic reform1 and in sympathy with aspirations after the more spiritual life4 ,in one of his earliest writings1 on the eve of the production of one of the finest poems of its kind in the ,english language--the ,ode to ,christ's ,nativity1 composed at the age of twenty-one--he thus writes in ,latin verse to his friend ,charles ,deodati1 recommending the purer diet at all events to those who aspired to the nobler creations of poetry3-- 8,simply let those1 like him of ,samos1 live3 ,let herbs to them a bloodless banquet give4 ,in beechen goblets let their beverage shine1 ,cool from the crystal spring their sober wine6 ,their youth should pass in innocence secure ,from stain licentious1 and in manners pure4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for these are sacred bards and1 from above1 ,drink large infusions from the mind of ,jove40#acb ,to readers of his master-piece the ,paradise ,lost1 it is perhaps a work of supererogation to point out the charming passages in which he sympathetically describes the food of the ,age of ,innocence3-- 8,savoury fruits1 of taste to please ,true appetites40 ,in ,raphael's discourse with his terrestrial entertainers1 the ethereal messenger utters a prophecy 7as we may take it7 of the future general adoption by our race of 8fruit1 man's nourishment10 and we may interpret his intimation3-- 8time may come when men ,with angels may participate1 and find ,no inconvenient diet1 nor too light fare4 ,and from those corporal nutriments perhaps ,your bodies may at last turn all to spirit1 ,improved by tract of time1 and winged ascend ,ethereal as we2 or may1 at choice1 ,here1 or in heavenly paradises1 dwell10 as a picture of the true earthly paradise to be--8the ,paradise of ,peace40 ,with these exquisite pictures of the life of bloodless feasts and ambrosial food we may compare the fearful picture of the ,court of ,death1 displayed in prospective vision before the terror-stricken gaze of the traditional progenitor of our species1 where1 amongst the occupants1 the largest number are the victims of 8intemperance in meats and drinks1 which on the earth shall bring diseases dire40 ,in this universal lazar-house might be seen-- 8all maladies ,of ghastly ,spasm1 or racking torture1 ,qualms ,of heart-sick agony1 all ,feverous kinds1 ,convulsions1 ,epilepsies1 fierce ,catarrhs1 ,intestine ,stone and ,ulcer1 ,colic pangs1 ,demoniac ,phrensy1 moping ,melancholy1 ,and moon-struck ,madness1 pining ,atrophy1 ,marasmus1 and wide-wasting ,pestilence1 ,dropsies and ,asthmas1 and joint-racking ,rheums40#acc ,very different1 in other respects1 from those of the author of the ,history of the ,reformation in ,england the sentiments of his celebrated contemporary ,bossuet1 whose eloquence gained for him the distinguishing title of the 8,eagle of ,maux10 as to the degrading character of the prevalent human nourishment in the ,western world1 are sufficiently remarkable to deserve some notice4 ,the ,oraisons ,funbres and1 particularly1 his ,discours sur ,l',histoire ,universelle have entitled him to a high rank in ,french literature4 ,but a single passage in the last work1 we shall readily admit1 does more credit to his heart than his most eloquent efforts in oratory or literature do to his intellect4 ,that1 in common with other theologians1 ,catholic and ,protestant1 he has thought it necessary to assume the intervention of the ,deity to sanction the sustenance of human life by the destruction of other innocent life1 does not affect the weight of intrinsic evidence derivable from the natural feeling as to the debasing influence of the ,slaughter-,house4 ,it is thus that he1 impliedly at least1 condemns the barbarous practice3-- 8,before the time of the ,deluge the nourishment which without violence men derived from the fruits which fell from the trees of themselves1 and from the herbs which also ripened with equal ease1 was1 without doubt1 some relic of the first innocence and of the gentleness 7douceur7 for which we were formed4 ,now to get food we have to shed blood in spite of the horror which it naturally inspires in us2 and all the refinements of which we avail ourselves1 in covering our tables1 hardly suffice to disguise for us the bloody corpses which we have to devour to support life4 ,but this is but the least part of our misery4 ,life1 already shortened1 is still further abridged by the savage violences which are introduced into the life of the human species4 ,man1 whom in the first ages we have seen spare the life of other animals1 is accustomed henceforward to spare the life not even of his fellow-men4 ,it is in vain that ,god forbade1 immediately after the ,deluge1 the shedding of human blood2 in vain1 in order to save some vestiges of the first mildness of our nature1 while permitting the feeding on flesh did he prohibit consumption of the blood4 ,human murders multiplied beyond all calculation40 ,bossuet1 a few pages later1 arrives at the necessary and natural consequence of the murder of other animals1 when he records that 8the brutalised human race could no longer rise to the true contemplation of intellectual things40#acd ,,xvii4 ,,bernard ,,de ,,mandeville4 #afgj-agcc4 ,the most paradoxical of moralists1 born at ,dort1 in ,holland4 ,he was brought up to the profession of medicine1 and took the degree of ,m4,d4 ,he afterwards settled and practised in ,london4 ,it was in #agad that he published his short poem called ,the ,grumbling ,hive3 or1 ,knaves ,turned ,honest1 to which he afterwards added long explanatory notes1 and then republished the whole under the new and celebrated title of ,the ,fable of the ,bees4 ,this work 8which1 however erroneous may be its views of morals and of society1 is written in a proper style1 and bears all the marks of an honest and sincere inquiry on an important subject1 exposed its author to much obloquy1 and met with answers and attacks4444 ,it would appear that some of the hostility against this work1 and against ,mandeville generally1 is to be traced to another publication1 recommending the public licensing of #8stews1' the matter and manner of which are certainly exceptionable1 though1 at the same time1 it must be stated that ,mandeville earnestly and with seeming sincerity commends his plan as a means of diminishing immorality1 and that he endeavoured1 so far as lay in his power1 by affixing a high price and in other ways1 to prevent the work from having a general circulation40 ,in fact1 ,mandeville is one of those injudicious but well-meaning reformers who1 by their propensity to perverse paradox1 have injured at once their reputation and their usefulness for after times4 ,a second part of ,the ,fable appeared at a later period4 ,amongst other numerous writings were two entitled1 ,free ,thoughts on ,religion1 the ,church1 and ,national ,happiness1 and ,an ,enquiry into the ,origin of ,honour1 and the ,usefulness of ,christianity in ,war4 ,he appears to have been enabled to pursue his literary career in great measure by the liberality of his ,dutch friends1 and he was a constant guest of the first ,earl of ,macclesfield4 8,the ,fable of the ,bees2 or1 ,private ,vices ,public ,benefits may be received in two ways10 says the writer in the ,penny ,cyclopdia1 whom we have already quoted1 8as a satire on men1 and as a theory of society and national prosperity4 ,so far as it is a satire1 it is sufficiently just and pleasant1 but received in its more ambitious character of a theory of society1 it is altogether worthless4 ,it is ,mandeville's object to show that national greatness depends on the prevalence of fraud and luxury2 and for this purpose he supposes #8a vast hive of bees' possessing in all respects institutions similar to those of men2 he details the various frauds1 similar to those among men1 practised by bees one upon another in various professions4444 ,his hive of bees having thus become wealthy and great1 he afterwards supposes a mutual jealousy of frauds to arise1 and ,fraud to be1 by common consent1 dismissed2 and he again assumes that wealth and luxury immediately disappear1 and that the greatness of the society is gone40 ,for our part1 in place of 8greatness10 we should have rather written misery1 as far as concerns the mass of communities4 ,strange1 as it may appear1 that views of this kind should be seriously put forth1 8it is yet more so that they should come from one whose object always was1 however strange the way in which he set about it1 to promote good morals1 for there is nothing in ,mandeville's writings to warrant the belief that he sought to encourage vice40#ace ,mandeville1 like ,swift1 in the piece entitled ,an ,argument against ,abolishing ,christianity2 or like ,de ,foe1 in his ,shortest ,way with the ,dissenters1 which were taken au srieux almost universally at the time of their appearance1 may have used the style of grave irony1 so far as the larger portion of his ,fable is concerned1 for the purpose of making a stronger impression on the public conscience4 ,if such were his purpose1 the irony is so profound that it has missed its aim4 ,yet that his purpose was true and earnest is sufficiently evident in his opinion of the practice of slaughtering for food3-- 8,i have often thought writes ,mandeville if it was not for the tyranny which ,custom usurps over us1 that men of any tolerable good nature could never be reconciled to the killing of so many animals for their daily food1 so long as the bountiful ,earth so plentifully provides them with varieties of vegetable dainties4 ,i know that ,reason excites our compassion but faintly1 and therefore ,i do not wonder how men should so little commiserate such imperfect creatures as cray-fish1 oysters1 cockles1 and1 indeed1 all fish in general1 as they are mute1 and their inward formation1 as well as outward figure1 vastly different from ours3 they express themselves unintelligently to us1 and therefore 'tis not strange that their grief should not affect our understanding which it cannot reach2 for nothing stirs us to pity so effectually as when the symptoms of misery strike immediately upon our senses1 and ,i have seen people moved at the noise a live lobster makes upon the spit who could have killed half a dozen fowls with pleasure4 8,but in such perfect animals as ,sheep and ,oxen1 in whom the heart1 the brain1 and the nerves differ so little from ours1 and in whom the separation of the spirits from the blood1 the organs of sense1 and1 consequently1 feeling itself1 are the same as they are in human creatures1 ,i cannot imagine how a man not hardened in blood and massacre1 is able to see a violent death1 and the pangs of it1 without concern4 8,in answer to this he continues1 most people will think it sufficient to say that things being allowed to be made for the service of man1 there can be no cruelty in putting creatures to the use they were designed for1#acf but ,i have heard men make this reply1 while the nature within them has reproached them with the falsehood of the assertion4 8,there is of all the multitude not one man in ten but will own 7if he has not been brought up in a slaughter-house7 that of all trades he could never have been a butcher2 and ,i question whether ever anybody so much as killed a chicken without reluctancy the first time4 ,some people are not to be persuaded to taste of any creatures they have daily seen and been acquainted with while they were alive2 others extend their scruples no further than to their own poultry1 and refuse to eat what they fed and took care of themselves2 yet all of them feed heartily and without remorse on beef1 mutton1 and fowls when they are bought in the market4 ,in this behaviour1 methinks1 there appears something like a consciousness of guilt2 it looks as if they endeavoured to save themselves from the imputation of a crime 7which they know sticks somewhere7 by removing the cause of it as far as they can from themselves2 and ,i discover in it some strong marks of primitive pity and innocence1 which all the arbitrary power of ,custom1 and the violence of ,luxury1 have not yet been able to conquer40#acg ,,xviii4 ,,gay4 #afhh-agcb4 ,the intimate friend of ,pope and ,swift is best known by his charming and instructive ,fables4 ,he was born at ,barnstaple1 in ,devonshire1 and belonged to the old family of the ,le ,gays of that county4 ,his father1 reduced in means1 apprenticed him to a silk mercer in the ,strand1 ,london1 in whose employment he did not long remain4 ,the first of his poems1 ,rural ,sports1 appeared in #agaa4 ,in the following year he became secretary to the ,duchess of ,monmouth1 and he served for a short time as secretary to the ,english embassy in ,hanover4 ,his next work was his ,shepherd's ,week1 in ,six ,pastorals1 in which he ridicules the sentimentality of the 8pastorals0 of his own and preceding age4 ,it contains much naturalness as well as humour1 and it was the precursor of ,crabbe's rural sketches4 ,in #agbf he published the most successful of his works1 the ,beggars' ,opera--the idea of which had been suggested to him by the ,dean of ,st4 ,patrick's4 ,it was received with unbounded applause1 and it originated the 7so-called7 ,english opera1 which for a time supplanted the ,italian4 ,the ,fables first appeared in #agbf4 ,they were supplemented afterwards by others1 and the volume was dedicated to the young ,duke of ,cumberland1 famous in after years by his suppression of the ,highland rising of #agde4 ,gay's death1 which happened suddenly1 called forth the sincere laments of his devoted friends ,swift and ,pope4 ,the former1 in his letters1 frequently refers to his loss with deep feeling2 and ,pope has characterised him as-- 8,of manners gentle1 of affections mild-- ,in wit a man1 simplicity a child40 ,of his ,fables--the best in the language--one of the most interesting is the well-known ,hare and ,many ,friends1 in which he seems to record some of his own experiences4 ,the ,court of ,death1 suggested probably by ,milton's fine passage in the ,paradise ,lost1 is one of his most forcible4 ,when the principal ,diseases have severally advanced their claims to pre-eminence1 ,death calls upon ,intemperance3-- 8,all spoke their claim1 and hoped the wand4 ,now expectation hushed the band1 ,when thus the monarch from the throne3 ,merit was ever modest known-- ,what6 no physician speak his right6 ,none here8 ,but fees their toils requite4 ,let then ,intemperance take the wand1 ,who fills with gold their jealous hand4 ,you1 ,fever1 ,gout1 and all the rest 7,whom wary men as foes detest7 ,forego your claim4 ,no more pretend-- ,intemperance is esteemed a friend4 ,he shares their mirth1 their social joys1 ,and as a courted guest destroys4 ,the charge on him must justly fall ,who finds employment for you all40 ,it is in the following fable that ,gay especially satirises the sanguinary diet3-- 8,pythagoras rose at early dawn1 ,by soaring meditation drawn2 ,to breathe the fragrance of the day1 ,through flow'ry fields he took his way4 ,in musing contemplation warm1 ,his steps misled him to a farm3 ,where1 on the ladder's topmost round1 ,a peasant stood4 ,the hammer's sound ,shook the weak barn4 #8,say1 friend1 what care ,calls for thy honest labour there8' 8,the clown1 with surly voice1 replies3 #8,vengeance aloud for justice cries4 ,this kite1 by daily rapine fed1 ,my hens' annoy1 my turkeys' dread1 ,at length his forfeit life hath paid4 ,see on the wall his wings displayed1 ,here nailed1 a terror to his kind4 ,my fowls shall future safety find1 ,my yard the thriving poultry feed1 ,and my barn's refuse fat the breed4' 8#8,friend1' says the ,sage1 #8the doom is wise-- ,for public good the murderer dies4 ,but if these tyrants of the air ,demand a sentence so severe1 ,think how the glutton1 man1 devours2 ,what bloody feasts regale his hours6 ,o impudence of ,power and ,might6 ,thus to condemn a hawk or kite1 ,when thou1 perhaps1 carnivorous sinner1 ,had'st pullets yesterday for dinner4' 8#8,hold6' cried the clown1 with passion heated1 #8,shall kites and men alike be treated8 ,when heaven the world with creatures stored1 ,man was ordained their sovereign lord4' #8,thus tyrants boast1' the ,sage replied1 #8,whose murders spring from power and pride4 ,own then this man-like kite is slain ,thy greater luxury to sustain-- ,for petty rogues submit to fate ,that great ones may enjoy their state4'0#ach ,this is not the only apologue in which the rhyming moralist exposes at once the inconsistency and the injustice of the human animal who1 himself choosing to live by slaughter1 yet hypocritically stigmatises with the epithets 8cruel0 and 8bloodthirsty0 those animals whom ,nature has evidently designed to be predaceous4 ,in ,the ,shepherd's ,dog and the ,wolf he represents the former upbraiding the ravisher of the sheepfolds for attacking 8a weak1 defenceless kind03-- 8#8,friend1' says the ,wolf1 #8the matter weigh3 ,nature designed us beasts of prey4 ,as such1 when hunger finds a treat1 ',tis necessary wolves should eat4 ,if1 mindful of the bleating weal1 ,thy bosom burn with real zeal1 ,hence1 and thy tyrant lord beseech-- ,to him repeat thy moving speech4 ,a wolf eats sheep but now and then-- ,ten thousands are devoured by men6 ,an open foe may prove a curse1 ,but a pretended friend is worse4'0 ,in ,the ,philosopher and the ,pheasants the same truth is conveyed with equal force3-- 8,drawn by the music of the groves1 ,along the winding gloom he roves4 ,from tree to tree the warbling throats ,prolong the sweet1 alternate notes4 ,but where he passed he terror threw2 ,the song broke short--the warblers flew3 ,the thrushes chattered with affright1 ,and nightingales abhorred his sight4 ,all animals before him ran1 ,to shun the hateful sight of man4 #8,whence is this dread of every creature8 ,fly they our figure or our nature8' ,as thus he walked1 in musing thought1 ,his ear imperfect accents caught4 ,with cautious step1 he nearer drew1 ,by the thick shade concealed from view4 ,high on the branch a ,pheasant stood1 ,around her all her listening brood3 ,proud of the blessings of her nest1 ,she thus a mother's care expressed3-- #8,no dangers here shall circumvent2 ,within the woods enjoy content4 ,sooner the hawk or vulture trust ,than man1 of animals the worst4 ,in him ingratitude you find-- ,a vice peculiar to the kind4 ,the ,sheep1 whose annual fleece is dyed ,to guard his health and serve his pride1 ,forced from his fold and native plain1 ,is in the cruel shambles slain4 ,the swarms who1 with industrious skill1 ,his hives with wax and honey fill1 ,in vain whole summer days employed-- ,their stores are sold1 their race destroyed4 ,what tribute from the ,goose is paid8 ,does not her wing all science aid8 ,does it not lovers' hearts explain1 ,and drudge to raise the merchant's gain8 ,what now rewards this general use8 ,he takes the quills and eats the ,goose6'0 99 99 99 99 99 ,in another parable ,gay1 in some sort1 gives the victims of the ,shambles their revenge3-- 8,against an elm a ,sheep was tied3 ,the butcher's knife in blood was dyed-- ,the patient flock1 in silent fright1 ,from far beheld the horrid sight4 ,a savage ,boar1 who near them stood1 ,thus mocked to scorn the fleecy brood3-- #8,all cowards should be served like you4 ,see1 see1 your murderer is in view3 ,with purple hands and reeking knife1 ,he strips the skin yet warm with life4 ,your quartered sires1 your bleeding dams1 ,the dying bleat of harmless lambs1 ,call for revenge4 ,o stupid race6 ,the heart that wants revenge is base4' #8,i grant1' an ancient ,ram replies1 #8,we bear no terror in our eyes4 ,yet think us not of soul so tame1 ,which no repeated wrongs inflame-- ,insensible of every ill1 ,because we want thy tusks to kill-- ,know1 those who violence pursue ,give to themselves the vengeance due1 ,for in these massacres they find ,the two chief plagues that waste mankind-- ,our skin supplies the wrangling bar3 ,it wakes their slumbering sons to war4 ,and well ,revenge may rest contented1 ,since drums and parchment were invented4'0#aci ,,xix4 ,,cheyne4 #afga-agdc4 ,one of the most esteemed of ,english physicians1 and one of the first medical authorities in this country who expressly wrote in advocacy of the reformed diet1 descended from an old ,scottish family4 ,he studied medicine at ,edinburgh--then and still a principal school of medicine and surgery--where he was a pupil of ,dr4 ,pitcairn4 ,at about the age of thirty he removed to ,london1 was elected a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 and took his ,m4,d4 degree1 commencing practice in the metropolis4 ,the manner of life of a medical practitioner in the first half of the last century differed considerably from the present fashion4 ,not only personal inclination1 but even professional interest1 usually led him to frequent taverns and to indulge in all the excesses of 8good living20 for in such boon companionship he most easily laid the foundation of his practice4 ,cheyne's early habits of temperance thus gave way to the double temptation1 and soon by this indulgence he contracted painful disorders which threatened his life4 ,an enormous weight of flesh1 intermittent fevers1 shortness of breath1 and lethargy combined to enfeeble and depress him4 ,his first appearance in literature was the publication of his ,new ,theory of ,fevers1 written in defence and at the suggestion of his old master ,dr4 ,pitcairn1 who was at war with his brethren on the nature of epidemics4 ,the author1 while in after life holding that it contained1 though in a crude form1 some valuable matter1 wisely allowed it to fall into oblivion4 ,the ,mechanical or ,iatro-,mathematical ,theory1 as it was called1 of which ,cheyne was one of the earliest and most distinguished expounders1 by which it was attempted to apply the laws of ,mechanics to vital phenomena1 had succeeded to the principles of the old ,chemical ,school4 ,on the ,continent the new theory had the support of the eminent authority of ,boerhaave1 ,borelli1 ,sauvages1 ,hoffman1 and others4 ,the natural desire to discover some definite and simple formul of medical science lay at the root of this1 as of many other hypotheses4 ,cheyne1 himself1 it is right to observe1 ridiculed the notion that all vital processes can be explained on mechanical principles4 ,in #agje he published his ,philosophical ,principles of ,natural ,religion1 a book which had some repute in its day1 apparently1 since it was in use in the ,universities4 ,between this and his next essay in literature a long interval elapsed1 during which he had to pay the penalty of his old habits in apoplectic giddiness1 violent headaches1 and depression of spirits4 ,happily1 it became for him the turning-point in his life1 and eventually rendered him so useful an instructor of his kind4 ,he had now arrived at a considerable amount of reputation in the profession4 ,he seems to have been naturally of agreeable manners and of an amiable disposition1 as well as of lively wit which1 improved by study and reading1 made him highly popular2 and amongst his scientific and professional friends he was in great esteem4 ,he had now1 however--not too soon--determined to abandon his bon-vivantism1 and speedily 8even those who had shared the best part of my profusions10 he tells us1 8who1 in their necessities had been relieved by my false generosity1 and1 in their disorders1 been relieved by my care1 did now entirely relinquish and abandon me40 ,he retired into solitude in the country and1 almost momentarily expecting the termination of his life1 set himself to serious and earnest reflection on the follies and vices of ordinary living4 ,at this time it seems that1 although he had reduced his food to the smallest possible amount1 he had not altogether relinquished flesh-meat4 ,he repaired to ,bath for the waters and1 by living in the most temperate way and by constant and regular exercise1 he seemed to have regained his early health4 ,at ,bath he devoted himself to cases of nervous diseases which most nearly concerned his own state1 and which were most abundant at that fashionable resort4 ,about the year #agab1 or in the forty-second year of his age1 his health was fairly re-established1 and he began to relax in the milk and vegetable regimen which he had previously adopted4 ,his next publication was ,an ,essay on the ,gout and ,bath ,waters 7#agbj71 which passed through seven editions in six years4 ,in it he commends the vegetable diet1 although not so radically as in his latest writings4 ,his relaxation of dietetic reform quickly brought back his former maladies1 and he again suffered severely4 ,during the next ten or twelve years he continued to increase in corpulency1 until he at last reached the enormous weight of thirty-two stones1 and he describes his condition at this time as intolerable4#adj ,in #agbe he left ,bath for ,london1 to consult his friend ,dr4 ,arbuthnot1 whose advice probably renewed and confirmed his old inclination for the rational mode of living4 ,at all events1 within two years1 by a strict adherence to the milk and vegetable regimen his maladies finally disappeared2 nor did he afterwards suffer by any relapse into dietetic errors4 ,in the preceding year had appeared his first important and original work--his well-known ,essay of ,health and a ,long ,life4 ,in the preface he declares that it is published for the benefit of those weakly persons who 8are able and willing to abstain from everything hurtful1 and to deny themselves anything their appetites craved1 to conform to any rules for a tolerable degree of health1 ease1 and freedom of spirits4 ,it is for these1 and these only10 he proceeds1 8the following treatise is designed4 ,the robust1 the luxurious1 the pot-companions1 c41 have here no business2 their time is not yet come40 ,it is generally acknowledged to be one of the best books on the subject4 ,haller pronounced it to be 8the best of all the works bearing upon the health of sedentary persons and invalids40 ,it went through several editions in the space of two years1 and in #agbf was enlarged by the author and translated by his friend and pupil ,john ,robertson ,m4,a4 into ,latin1 and three or four editions were quickly exhausted in ,france and ,germany4 ,in this book1 while reducing flesh-meat to a minimum1 and insisting upon the necessity of abstinence from grosser food and of the use of vegetables only1 at the morning and evening meals1 he had not advanced as yet so far as to preach the truth in its entirety4 ,he arrived at it only by slow and gradual conviction4 ,expatiating on the follies and miseries of bon-vivantism1 he proceeds to affirm that-- 8,all those who have lived long1 and without much pain1 have lived abstemiously1 poor1 and meagre4 ,cornaro prolonged his life and preserved his senses by almost starving in his latter days2 and some others have done the like4 ,they have1 indeed1 thereby1 in some measure1 weakened their natural strength and qualified the fire and flux of their spirits1 but they have preserved their senses1 weakened their pains1 prolonged their days1 and procured themselves a gentle and quiet passage into another state4444 ,all the rest will be insufficient without this a frugal diet2 and this alone1 without these medicines1 c41 will suffice to carry on life as long as by its natural flame it was made to last1 and will make the passage easy and calm1 as a taper goes out for want of fuel40 ,while the ,essay of ,health added greatly to his reputation with all thinking people1 it also exposed him 7as was to be expected7 to a storm of small wit1 ridicule1 and misrepresentation3-- 8,some good-natured and ingenious retainers to the ,profession10 he tells us1 8on the publication of my book on ,long ,life and ,health1 proclaimed everywhere that ,i was turned mere enthusiast1 advised people to turn monks1 to run into deserts1 and to live on roots1 herbs1 and wild fruits6 in fine1 that ,i was1 at bottom1 a mere leveller1 and for destroying order1 ranks1 and property1 everyone's but my own4 ,but that sneer had its day1 and vanished into smoke4 ,others swore that ,i had eaten my book1 recanted my doctrine and system 7as they were pleased to term it71 and was returned again to the devil1 the world1 and the flesh4 ,this joke ,i have also stood4 ,i have been slain again and again1 both in prose and verse2 but1 ,i thank ,god1 ,i am still alive and well40 ,his next publication was his ,english ,malady3 or1 a ,treatise of ,nervous ,diseases of all kinds1 which was also well received1 going through four editions in two years4 ,the incessant ridicule with which the gourmands had assailed his last work seems to have made him cautious in his next attempt to revolutionise dietetics2 and he is careful to advertise the public that his milk and vegetable system was for those in weak health only4 ,denouncing the use of sauces and provocatives of unnatural appetite1 8contrived not only to rouse a sickly stomach to receive the unnatural load1 but to render a naturally good one incapable of knowing when it has enough10 he asks1 8,is it any wonder then that the diseases which proceed from idleness and fulness of meat should increase in proportion80 ,he is bold enough by this time to affirm that1 for the cure of many diseases1 an entire abstinence from flesh is indisputably necessary3-- 8,there are some cases wherein a vegetable and milk diet seems absolutely necessary1 as in severe and habitual gouts1 rheumatisms1 cancerous1 leprous1 and scrofulous disorders2 extreme nervous colics1 epilepsies1 violent hysteric fits1 melancholy1 consumptions 7and the like disorders1 mentioned in the preface71 and towards the last stages of all chronic distempers4 ,in such distempers ,i have seldom seen such a diet fail of a good effect at last40 ,six years later1 in #agdj1 appeared his ,essay on ,regimen3 together with ,five ,discourses ,medical ,moral and ,philosophical1 c4 ,since his last exhortation to the world ,cheyne had evidently convinced himself1 by long experience as well as reflection1 of the great superiority of the vegetable diet for all--sound as well as sick2 and1 accordingly1 he speaks in strong and clear language of the importance of a general reform4 ,as a consequence of this plain speaking1 his new book met with a comparatively cold reception4 ,perhaps1 too1 its mathematical and somewhat abstruse tone may have affected its popularity4 ,as regards its moral tone it was a new revelation1 doubtless1 for the vast majority of his readers4 ,he boldly asserts3-- 8,the question ,i design to treat of here is1 whether animal or vegetable food was1 in the original design of the ,creator1 intended for the food of animals1 and particularly of the human race4 ,and ,i am almost convinced it never was intended1 but only permitted as a curse or punishment4444 ,at what time animal flesh food came first in use is not certainly known4 ,he was a bold man who made the first experiment4 ,illi robur et s triplex ,circa pectus erat4 ,to see the convulsions1 agonies1 and tortures of a poor fellow-creature1 whom they cannot restore nor recompense1 dying to gratify luxury1 and tickle callous and rank organs1 must require a rocky heart1 and a great degree of cruelty and ferocity4 ,i cannot find any great difference1 on the foot of natural reason and equity only1 between feeding on human flesh and feeding on brute animal flesh1 except custom and example4 ,i believe some more rational creatures would suffer less in being fairly butchered than a strong ,ox or red ,deer2 and1 in natural morality and justice1 the degrees of pain here make the essential difference1 for as to other differences1 they are relative only1 and can be of no influence with an infinitely perfect ,being4 ,did not use and example weaken this lesson1 and make the difference1 reason alone could never do it40--,essay on ,regimen1 c4 #hvo4 #agdj4 ,pages #ed and #gj4 ,noble and courageous words6 ,courageous as coming from an eminent member of a profession--which almost rivals the legal or even the clerical1 in opposition to all change in the established order of things4 ,in ,dr4 ,cheyne's days such interested or bigoted opposition was even stronger than in the present time4 ,from the period of the final establishment of his health1 about #agbh1 little is known of his life excepting through his writings4 ,almost all we know is1 that he continued some fifteen years to practise in ,london and in ,bath with distinguished reputation and success4 ,he had married a daughter of ,dr4 ,middleton of ,bristol by whom he had several children4 ,his only son was born in #agab4 ,amongst his intimate friends was the celebrated ,dr4 ,arbuthnot1 a ,scotchman like himself1 and we find him meeting ,sir ,hans ,sloane and ,dr4 ,mead at the bedside of his friend and relative ,bishop ,burnet4 ,both ,dr4 ,arbuthnot and ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 we may remark in passing1 have given evidence in favour of the purer living4 ,his own diet he thus describes in his ,author's ,case1 written towards the end of his life3-- 8,my regimen1 at present1 is milk1 with tea1 coffee1 bread and butter1 mild cheese1 salads1 fruits and seeds of all kinds1 with tender roots 7as potatoes1 turnips1 carrots71 and1 in short1 everything that has not life1 dressed or not1 as ,i like it1 in which there is as much or a greater variety than in animal foods1 so that the stomach need never be cloyed4 ,i drink no wine nor any fermented liquors1 and am rarely dry1 most of my food being liquid1 moist1 or juicy4#ada ,only after dinner ,i drink either coffee or green tea1 but seldom both in the same day1 and sometimes a glass of soft1 small cider4 ,the thinner my diet1 the easier1 more cheerful and lightsome ,i find myself2 my sleep is also the sounder1 though perhaps somewhat shorter than formerly under my full animal diet2 but then ,i am more alive than ever ,i was4 ,as soon as ,i wake ,i get up4 ,i rise commonly at six1 and go to bed at ten40 ,as for the effect of this regimen1 he tells us that 8since that time his last lapse ,i thank ,god ,i have gone on in one constant tenor of diet1 and enjoy as good health as1 at my time of life 7being now sixty71 ,i or any man can reasonably expect40 ,when we remember the complicity of maladies of which he had been the victim during his adhesion to the orthodox mode of living1 such experience is sufficiently significant4 ,some ten years later he records his experiences as follows3-- 8,it is now about sixteen years since1 for the last time1 ,i entered upon a milk and vegetable diet4 ,at the beginning of this period1 this light food ,i took as my appetite directed1 without any measures1 and found myself easy under it4 ,after some time1 ,i found it became necessary to lessen this quantity1 and ,i have latterly reduced it to one-half1 at most1 of what ,i at first seemed to bear2 and if it should please ,god to spare me a few years longer1 in order to preserve1 in that case1 that freedom and clearness which by his presence ,i now enjoy1 ,i shall probably find myself obliged to deny myself one-half of my present daily sustenance1 which1 precisely1 is three ,winchester pints of new milk1 and six ounces of biscuit1 made without salt or yeast1 baked in a quick oven40#adb--,natural ,method of ,curing ,diseases1 c41 page #bih2 see also ,preface to ,essay on ,regimen4 ,the last production of ,dr4 ,cheyne was his 8,natural ,method of ,curing the ,diseases of the ,body1 and the ,disorders of the ,mind ,depending on the ,body4 ,in three parts4 ,part ,i4--,general ,reflections on the ,economy of ,nature in ,animal ,life4 ,part ,,ii4--,the ,means and ,methods for ,preserving ,life and ,faculties2 and also ,concerning the ,nature and ,cure of ,acute1 ,contagious1 and ,cephalic ,disorders4 ,part ,,iii4--,reflections on the ,nature and ,cure of ,particular ,chronic ,distempers4 #hvo4 ,strahan1 ,london1 #agdb40 ,it is dedicated to the celebrated ,lord ,chesterfield1 who records his grateful recognition of the benefits he had experienced from his methods4 ,he writes3 8,i read with great pleasure your book1 which your bookseller sent me according to your direction4 ,the physical part is extremely good1 and the metaphysical part may be so too1 for what ,i know1 and ,i believe it is1 for as ,i look upon all metaphysics to be guess work of imagination1 ,i know no imagination likelier to hit upon the right than yours1 and ,i will take your guess against any other metaphysician's whatsoever4 ,that part which is founded upon knowledge and experience ,i look upon as a work of public utility1 and for which the present age and their posterity may be obliged to you1 if they will be pleased to follow it40 ,lord ,chesterfield1 it will be seen below1 was one of those more refined minds whose better conscience revolted from1 even if they had not the courage or self-control to renounce1 the ,slaughter ,house4 ,the ,natural ,method its author considers as a kind of supplement to his last book1 containing 8the practical inferences1 and the conclusions drawn from its principles1 in particular cases and diseases1 confirmed by forty years' experience and observation40 ,it is the most practical of all his works1 and is full of valuable observations4 ,very just and useful is his rebuke of that sort of ,john-,bullism which affects to hold 8good living0 not only as harmless but even as a sort of merit-- 8,how it may be in other countries and religions ,i will not say1 but among us good ,protestants1 abstinence1 temperance1 and moderation 7at least in eating71 are so far from being thought a virtue1 and their contrary a vice1 that it would seem that not eating the fattest and most delicious1 and to the top1 were the only vice and disease known among us--against which our parents1 relatives1 friends1 and physicians exclaim with great vehemence and zeal4 ,and yet1 if we consider the matter attentively we shall find there is no such danger in abstinence as we imagine1 but1 on the contrary1 the greatest abstinence and moderation nature and its external laws will suffer us to go into and practise for any time1 will neither endanger our health1 nor weaken our just thinking1 be it ever so unlimited or unrestrained4444 ,and it is a wise providence that ,lent time falls out at that season which1 if kept according to its original intention1 in seeds and vegetables well dressed and not in rich high-dressed fish1 would go a great way to preserve the health of the people in general1 as well as dispose them to seriousness and reflection--so true it is that #8godliness has the promise of this life1 and of that which is to come1' and it is very observable that in all civil and established religious worships hitherto known among polished nations ,lents1 days of abstinence1 seasons of fasting and bringing down the brutal part of the rational being1 have had a large share1 and been reckoned an indispensable part of their worship and duty1 except among a wrong-headed part of our ,reformation1 where it has been despised and ridiculed into a total neglect4 ,and yet it seems not only natural and convenient for health1 but strongly commended both in the ,old and ,new ,testament1 and might allow time and proper disposition for more serious and weighty purposes4 ,and this #8,lent1' or times of abstinence1 is one reason of the cheerfulness or serenity of some ,roman ,catholic or ,southern countries1 which would be still more healthy and long-lived were it not for their excessive use of aromatics and opiates1 which are the worst kind of dry drams1 and the cause of their unnatural and unbridled lechery and shortness of life40 ,denouncing the general practice of the ,profession of encouraging their patients in indulging vitiated habits and tastes1 he reminds them3-- 8,that such physicians do not consider that they are accountable to the community1 to their patients1 to their conscience1 and to their ,maker1 for every hour and moment they shorten and cut off their patients' lives by their immoral and murderous indulgence3 and the patients do not duly ponder that suicide 7which this is in effect7 is the most mortal and irremissible of all sins1 and neither have sufficiently weighed the possibility that the patient1 if not quickly cut off by both these preposterous means1 may linger out miserably1 and be twenty or thirty years a-dying1 under these heart and wheel-breaking miseries thus exasperated2 whereas1 by the methods ,i propose1 if they obtain not in time a perfect cure1 yet they certainly lessen their pain1 lengthen their days1 and continue under the benign influence of #8the ,sun of ,righteousness1 who has healing in ,his wings1' and1 at worst1 soften and lighten the anguish of their dissolution1 as far as the nature of things will admit40 ,not the least useful and instructive portions of his treatise are his references to the proper regimen for mental diseases and disordered brains1 which1 he reasonably infers1 are best treated by the adoption of a light and pure dietary4 ,he despairs1 however1 of the general recognition1 or at least adoption1 of so rational a method by the 8faculty0 or the public at large1 8,who do not consider that nine parts in ten of the whole mass of mankind are necessarily confined to this diet 7of farinacea1 fruits1 c471 or pretty nearly to it1 and yet live with the use of their senses1 limbs1 and faculties1 without diseases or with but few1 and those from accidents or epidemical causes2 and that there have been nations1 and now are numbers of tribes1 who voluntarily confine themselves to vegetables only1 444 and that there are whole villages in this kingdom whose inhabitants scarce eat animal food or drink fermented liquors a dozen times a year40 ,in regard to all nervous and brain diseases1 he insists that the reformed diet would 8,greatly alleviate and render tolerable original distempers derived from diseased parents1 and that it is absolutely necessary for the deep-thinking part of mankind1 who would preserve their faculties ripe and pregnant to a green old age and to the last dregs of life2 and that it is the true and real antidote and preservative from wrong-headedness1 irregular and disorderly intellect and functions1 from loss of the rational faculties1 memory1 and senses1 as far as the ends of ,providence and the condition of mortality will allow40--7,nat4 ,method1 page #ij47 ,this benevolent and beneficent dietetic reformer1 according to the testimony of an eye-witness1 exemplified by his death the value of his principles--relinquishing his last breath easily and tranquilly1 while his senses remained entire to the end4 ,during his last illness he was attended by the famous ,david ,hartley1 noticed below4 ,he was buried at ,weston1 near ,bath4 ,his character is sufficiently seen in his writings which1 if they contain some metaphysical or other ideas which our reason cannot always endorse1 in their practical teaching prove him to have been actuated by a true and earnest desire for the best interests of his fellow-men4 ,one of the merits of ,cheyne's writings is his discarding the common orthodox esoteric style of his profession1 who seem jealously to exclude all but the 8initiated0 from their sacred mysteries4 ,one of his biographers has remarked upon this point that 8there is another peculiarity about most of ,dr4 ,cheyne's writings which is worthy of notice4 ,although there are many passages that are quite unintelligible to the reader unless he possesses a considerable knowledge1 not only of medicine but also of mathematics1 yet there is no doubt but that the greater part of his works were intended for popular perusal1 and in this undertaking he is one of the few medical writers who have been completely successful4 ,his productions1 which were much read and had an extensive influence in their day1 procured him a considerable degree of reputation1 not only with the public1 but also with the members of his own profession4 ,if they present to the reader no great discoveries 787 they possess the merit of putting more prominently forward some useful but neglected truths2 and though now1 probably1 but little read1 they contain much matter that is well worth studying1 and have obtained for their author a respectable place in the history of medical literature40#adc ,our notice of the author of the ,essay on ,regimen1 c41 would scarcely be complete without some reference to his friendship with two distinguished characters--,john ,wesley and ,samuel ,richardson1#add the author of ,pamela4 ,it was to ,dr4 ,cheyne that ,wesley1 as he tells us in his journals1 was indebted for his conversion to those dietetic principles to which he attributes1 in great measure1 the invigoration of his naturally feeble constitution1 and which enabled him to undergo an amount of fatigue and toil1 both mentally and bodily1 seldom or never surpassed4 ,of ,cheyne's friendship for ,richardson there are several memorials preserved in his familiar letters to that popular writer2 and his free and nave criticisms of his novels are not a little amusing4 ,the novelist1 it seems1 was one of his patients1 and that he was not always a satisfactory one1 under the abstemious regimen1 appears occasionally from the remonstrances of his adviser4 ,,xx4 ,,pope4 #afhh-agdd4 ,the most epigrammatic1 and one of the most elegant1 of poets4 ,he was also one of the most precocious4 ,his first production of importance was his ,essay on ,criticism1 written at the age of twenty-one1 although not published until two years later4 ,but he had composed1 we are assured1 several verses of an ,epic at the age of twelve2 and his ,pastorals was given to the world by a youth of sixteen4 ,its division into the ,four ,seasons is said to have suggested to ,thomson the title of his great poem4 ,the ,,ms4 passed through the hands of some distinguished persons1 who loudly proclaimed the merits of the boy-poet4 ,in the same year with his fine mock-heroic ,rape of the ,lock 7#agab7 appeared ,the ,messiah1 in imitation of ,isaiah and of ,virgil 7in his well-known ,eclogue ,,iv471 both of whom celebrate1 in similar strains1 the advent of a 8golden age0 to be4 ,the 8,sybilline0 prophecy1 which ,pope supposes the ,latin poet to have read1 existed1 it need scarcely be added1 only in the imagination of himself and of the authorities on whom he relied4 ,windsor ,forest 7#agac7 deserves special notice as one of the earliest of that class of poems which derive their inspiration directly from ,nature4 ,it was the precursor of ,the ,seasons1 although the anti-barbarous feeling is less pronounced in the former4 ,we find1 however1 the germs of that higher feeling which appears more developed in the ,essay on ,man2 and the following verses1 descriptive of the usual 8sporting0 scenes1 are significant3-- 8,see6 from the brake the whirring ,pheasant springs1 ,and mounts exulting on triumphant wings3 ,short is his joy2 he feels the fiery wound1 ,flutters in blood1 and panting beats the ground4 ,ah1 what avail his glossy1 varying dyes1 ,his purple crest and scarlet-circled eyes-- ,the vivid green his shining plumes unfold1 ,his painted wings1 and breast that flames with gold8 99 99 99 99 99 ,to plains with well-breathed beagles they repair1 ,and trace the mazes of the circling ,hare4 ,beasts1 urged by us1 their fellow-beasts pursue1 ,and learn of man each other to undo4 ,with slaughtering guns the unwearied fowler roves1 ,when frosts have whitened all the naked groves1 ,where ,doves1 in flocks1 the leafless trees o'ershade1 ,and lonely ,woodcocks haunt the watery glade-- ,he lifts the tube1 and level with his eye1 ,straight a short thunder breaks the frozen sky4 ,oft1 as in airy rings they skim the heath1 ,the clamorous ,lapwings feel the leaden death3 ,oft1 as the mounting ,larks their notes prepare1 ,they fall and leave their little lives in air40 ,his ,epistle of ,eloisa to ,abelard 7a romantic version of a very realistic story71 ,temple of ,fame1 ,imitations of ,chaucer1 translation of the ,iliad 7#agac-agbj7--;characterised by ,gibbon as having 8every merit but that of likeness to its original0--an edition of ,shakspere1 ,the ,dunciad 7#agbh71 translation of the ,odyssey1 are some of the works which attest his genius and industry4 ,but it is with his ,moral ,essays--and in particular the ,essay on ,man 7#agcb-agce71 the most important of his productions--that we are especially concerned4 ,as is pretty well known1 these ,essays owe their conception1 in great part1 to his intimate friend ,st4 ,john ,bolingbroke4 ,although the author by birth and1 perhaps1 still more from a feeling of pride which might make him reluctant to abandon an unfashionable sect 7such it was at that time71 belonged nominally to the ,old ,church1 the theology and metaphysics of the work display little of ecclesiastical orthodoxy4 ,the pervading principles of the ,essay on ,man are natural theology or1 as ,warburton styles it1 8,naturalism0 7i4e41 the putting aside human assertion for the study of the attributes of ,deity through its visible manifestations7 and ,optimism4#ade ,the merits of the ,essay1 it must be added1 consist not so much in the philosophy of the poem as a whole as in the many fine and true thoughts scattered throughout it1 which the author's epigrammatic terseness indelibly fixes in the mind4 ,of the whole poem the most valuable part1 undoubtedly1 is its ridicule of the common arrogant 7pretended7 belief that all other species on the earth have been brought into being for the benefit of the human race--an egregious fallacy1 by the way1 which1 ably exposed as it has been over and over again1 still frequently reappears in our popular theology and morals4 ,to the writers and talkers of this too numerous class may be commended the rebukes of ,pope3-- 8,nothing is foreign--parts relate to whole3 ,one all-extending1 all-preserving soul ,connects each being1 greatest with the least-- ,made beast in aid of man1 and man of beast3 ,all served1 all serving--nothing stands alone4 99 99 99 99 99 ,has ,god1 thou fool1 worked solely for thy good1 ,thy joy1 thy pastime1 thy attire1 thy food8 99 99 99 99 99 ,is it for thee the ,lark ascends and sings8 ,joy tunes his voice1 joy elevates his wings4 ,is it for thee the ,linnet pours his throat8 ,loves of his own and raptures swell the note4 ,the bounding ,steed you pompously bestride ,shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride4 99 99 99 99 99 ,know ,nature's children all divide her care1 ,the fur that warms a monarch warmed a ,bear4 ,while ,man exclaims1 #8,see all things for my use6' #8,see ,man for mine6' replies a pampered ,goose4 ,and just as short of reason he must fall1 ,who thinks all made for one1 not one for all40 ,he then paints the picture of the 8,times of ,innocence0 of the ,past1 or rather 7as we must take it7 of the ,future3-- 8,no murder clothed him1 and no murder fed4 ,in the same temple--the resounding wood-- ,all vocal beings hymned their equal ,god4 ,the shrine1 with gore unstained1 with gold undrest1 ,unbribed1 unbloody1 stood the blameless priest4 ,heaven's attribute was universal care1 ,and man's prerogative to rule but spare4 ,ah1 how unlike the man of times to come-- ,of half that live the butcher and the tomb6 ,who1 foe to ,nature1 hears the general groan1 ,murders their species1 and betrays his own4 ,but just disease to luxury succeeds1 ,and every death its own avenger breeds3 ,the fury-passions from that blood began1 ,and turned on man a fiercer savage1 man40 ,again1 depicting the growth of despotism and superstition1 and speculating as to-- 8,who first taught souls enslaved and realms undone ,the enormous faith of ,many made for ,one80 he traces the gradual horrors of sacrifice beginning with other1 and culminating in that of the human1 species3-- 8,she ,superstition from the rending earth and bursting skies ,saw gods descend1 and fiends infernal rise3 ,here fixed the dreadful1 there the blest1 abodes-- ,fear made her devils and weak ,hope her gods-- ,gods partial1 changeful1 passionate1 unjust1 ,whose attributes were rage1 revenge1 or lust-- ,such as the souls of cowards might conceive1 ,and1 formed like tyrants1 tyrants would believe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,altars grew marble then1 and reeked with gore2 ,then first the ,flamen tasted living food1 ,next his grim idol smeared with human blood4 ,with ,heaven's own thunders shook the earth below1 ,and played the ,god an engine on his foe40 ,whenever occasion arises1 ,pope fails not to stigmatise the barbarity of slaughtering for food2 and the sva indignatio urges him to upbraid his fellows with the slaughter of-- 8,the lamb thy riot dooms to bleed1 99 99 99 99 99 ,who licks the hand just raised to shed his blood40 ,and1 again1 he expresses his detestation of the selfishness of our species who-- 8,destroy all creatures for their sport or gust40 ,that all this was no mere affectation of feeling appears from his correspondence and contributions to the periodicals of the time3-- 8,i cannot think it extravagant10 he writes1 8to imagine that mankind are no less1 in proportion1 accountable for the ill use of their dominion over the lower ranks of beings1 than for the exercise of tyranny over their own species4 ,the more entirely the inferior creation is submitted to our power1 the more answerable we must be for our mismanagement of them2 and the rather1 as the very condition of ,nature renders them incapable of receiving any recompense in another life for ill-treatment in this40#adf ,consistently with the expression of this true philosophy1 he declares elsewhere that-- 8,nothing can be more shocking and horrid than one of our kitchens sprinkled with blood1 and abounding with the cries of expiring victims1 or with the limbs of dead animals scattered or hung up here and there4 ,it gives one the image of a giant's den in romance1 bestrewed with scattered heads and mangled limbs40#adg ,the personal character of ,pope1 we may add1 has of late been subjected to minute and searching criticism4 ,some meannesses1 springing from an extreme anxiety for fame with after ages1 have undoubtedly tarnished his reputation for candour4 ,his excessive animosity towards his public or private enemies may be palliated in part1 if not excused1 by his well-known feebleness of health and consequent mental irritability4 ,for the rest1 he was capable of the most sincere and disinterested attachments2 and not his least merit1 in literature1 is that in an age of servile authorship he cultivated literature not for place or pay1 but for its own sake4 99 99 99 99 99 ,amongst ,pope's intimate friends were ,dr4 ,arbuthnot1 ,dean ,swift1 and ,gay4 ,the first of these1 best known as the joint author with ,pope and ,swift of ,martinus ,scriblerus1 a satire on the useless pedantry prevalent in education and letters1 and especially as the author of the ,history of ,john ,bull 7the original of that immortal personification of beef1 beer1 and prejudice71 published his ,essay ,concerning ,aliments1 in which the vegetable diet is commended as a preventive or cure of certain diseases1 about the year #agcj4 ,not the least meritorious of his works was an epitaph on the notorious ,colonel ,chartres--one of the few epitaphs which are attentive less to custom than to truth1 and1 we may add1 in marked contrast with that typical one on his unhistorical contemporary ,captain ,blifil4 ,in the ,travels of ,lemuel ,gulliver the reader will find the sva indignatio of ,swift--or1 at all events1 of the ,houyhnhnms--amongst other things1 launched against the indiscriminating diet of his countrymen3-- 8,i told him0 the ,master-,horse1 says ,gulliver1 8we fed on a thousand things which operated contrary to each other--that we eat when we are not hungry1 and drink without the provocation of thirst 444 that it would be endless to give him a catalogue of all diseases incident to human bodies1 for they could not be fewer than five or six hundred1 spread over every limb and joint--in short1 every part1 external and intestine1 having diseases appropriated to itself--to remedy which there was a sort of people bred up among us in the profession or pretence of curing the sick40 ,among the infinite variety of remedies and prescriptions1 in the human ,materia ,medica1 the astounded ,houyhnhnm learns1 are reckoned 8serpents1 toads1 frogs1 spiders1 dead men's flesh and bones1 birds1 beasts1 fishes0--no mere travellers' tales 7it is perhaps necessary to explain71 but sober fact1 as any one may discover for himself by an examination of some of the received and popular medical treatises of the seventeenth century1 in which the most absurd 8prescriptions10 involving the most frightful cruelty1 are recorded with all seriousness3-- 8,my master1 continuing his discourse1 said there was nothing that rendered the ,yahoos more odious than their undistinguishing appetite to devour everything that came in their way1 whether herbs1 roots1 berries1 the corrupted flesh of animals1 or all mingled together2 and that it was peculiar in their temper that they were fonder of what they could get by rapine or stealth at a greater distance than much better food provided for them at home4 ,if their prey held out1 they would eat till they were ready to burst40 ,although unaccustomed to the better living1 and finding it 8insipid at first10 the human slave of the ,houyhnhnm 7a word which1 by the way1 in that language1 means 8the perfection of nature07 records as the result of his experience1 in the first place1 how little will sustain human life2 and1 in the second place1 the fact of the superior healthfulness of the vegetable food4#adh ,about this period or a little earlier1 ,philippe ,hecquet1 a ,french physician1 published his ,trait des ,dispenses du ,carme 78,treatise on ,dispensations in ,lent071 #agji1 in which he gave in his adhesion to the principles of ,vegetarianism--at all events1 so far as health is concerned4 ,he is mentioned by ,voltaire1 and is supposed to be the original of the doctor ,sangrado of ,le ,sage4#adi ,if this conjecture have any truth1 the author of ,gil ,blas is open to the grave charge of misrepresentation1 of sacrificing truth to effect1 or 7what is still worse and still more common7 of pandering to popular prejudices4#aej ,,xxi4 ,,thomson4 #agjj-agdh4 ,in the long and terrible series of the ,ages the distinguishing glory of the eighteenth century is its ,humanitarianism--not visible1 indeed1 in legislation or in the teaching of the ordinarily-accredited guides of the public faith and morals1 but proclaimed1 nevertheless1 by the great prophets of that era4 ,as far as ordinary life was concerned1 the last age is only too obnoxious to the charge of selfishness and heartlessness4 ,callousness to suffering1 as regards the non-human species in particular1 is sufficiently apparent in the common amusements and 8pastimes0 of the various grades of the community4 ,yet1 if we compare the tone of even the common-place class of writers with that of the authors of quasi-scientific treatises of the preceding century--in which the most cold-blooded atrocities on the helpless victims of human ignorance and barbarity are prescribed for the composition of their medical nostrums1 c41 with the most unconscious audacity and ignoring of every sort of feeling--considerable advance is apparent in the slow onward march of the human race towards the goal of a true morality and religion4 ,to the author of ,the ,seasons belongs the everlasting honour of being the first amongst modern poets earnestly to denounce the manifold wrongs inflicted upon the subject species1 and1 in particular1 the savagery inseparable from the ,slaughter-,house--for ,pope did not publish his ,essay on ,man until four years after the appearance of ,spring4 ,james ,thomson1 of ,scottish parentage1 came to ,london to seek his fortune in literature1 at the age of #be4 ,for some time he experienced the poverty and troubles which so generally have been the lot of young aspirants to literary1 especially poetic1 fame4 ,winter--which inaugurated a new school of poetry--appeared in ,march1 #agbf4 ,that the publisher considered himself liberal in offering three guineas for the poem speaks little for the taste of the time2 but that a better taste was coming into existence is also plain from the fact of its favourable reception1 notwithstanding the obscurity of the author4 ,three editions appeared in the same year4 ,summer1 his next venture1 was published in #agbg1 and the 7,four7 ,seasons in #agcj1 by subscription--#chg subscribers enrolling their names for copies at a guinea each4 ,natural enthusiasm1 sympathy1 and love for all that is really beautiful on ,earth 7a sort of feeling not to be appreciated by vulgar minds7 forms his chief characteristic4 ,but1 above all1 his sympathy with suffering in all its forms 7see1 particularly1 his reflections after the description of the snowstorm in ,winter71 not limited by the narrow bounds of nationality or of species but extended to all innocent life--his indignation against oppression and injustice1 are what most honourably distinguish him from almost all of his predecessors and1 indeed1 from most of his successors4 ,the ,seasons is the forerunner of ,the ,task and the humanitarian school of poetry4 ,the ,castle of ,indolence in the stanza of ,spenser1 has claims of a kind different from those of ,the ,seasons2 and the admirers of ,the ,faerie ,queen cannot fail to appreciate the merits of the modern romance4 ,besides these chefs-d'uvre ,thomson wrote two tragedies1 ,sophonisba and ,liberty1 the former of which1 at the time1 had considerable success upon the stage4 ,in the number of his friends he reckoned ,pope and ,samuel ,johnson1 both of whom are said to have had some share in the frequent revisions which he made of his principal production4 ,it is with his ,spring that we are chiefly concerned1 since it is in that division of his great poem that he eloquently contrasts the two very opposite diets4 ,singing the glories of the annual birth-time and general resurrection of ,nature1 he first celebrates 8,the living ,herbs1 profusely wild1 ,o'er all the deep-green ,earth1 beyond the power ,of botanist to number up their tribes1 7,whether he steals along the lonely dale ,in silent search1 or through the forest1 rank ,with what the dull incurious weeds account1 ,bursts his blind way1 or climbs the mountain-rock1 ,fired by the nodding verdure of its brow74 ,with such a liberal hand has ,nature flung ,their seeds abroad1 blown them about in winds1 ,innumerous mixed them with the nursing mould1 ,the moistening current and prolific rain4 ,but who their virtues can declare8 ,who pierce1 ,with vision pure1 into those secret stores ,of health and life and joy--the food of man1 ,while yet he lived in innocence and told ,a length of golden years1 unfleshed in blood8 ,a stranger to the savage arts of life-- ,death1 rapine1 carnage1 surfeit1 and disease-- ,the ,lord1 and not the ,tyrant1 of the world40 ,and then goes on to picture the feast of blood3-- 8,and yet the wholesome herb neglected dies1 ,though with the pure exhilarating soul ,of nutriment and health1 and vital powers ,beyond the search of ,art1 'tis copious blessed4 ,for1 with hot ravin fired1 ensanguined ,man ,is now become the ,lion of the plain ,and worse4 ,the ,wolf1 who from the nightly fold ,fierce drags the bleating ,prey1 ne'er drank her milk1 ,nor wore her warming fleece2 nor has the ,steer1 ,at whose strong chest the deadly ,tiger hangs1 ,e'er ploughed for him4 ,they1 too1 are tempered high1 ,with hunger stung and wild necessity1 ,nor lodges pity in their shaggy breast4 ,but ,man1 whom ,nature formed of milder clay1 ,with every kind emotion in his heart1 ,and taught alone to weep2 while from her lap ,she pours ten thousand delicacies--herbs ,and fruits1 as numerous as the drops of rain ,or beams that gave them birth--shall he1 fair form1 ,who wears sweet smiles and looks erect on heaven1 ,e'er stoop to mingle with the prowling herd ,and dip his tongue in gore8 ,the beast of prey1 ,blood-stained1 deserves to bleed4 ,but you1 ye ,flocks1 ,what have you done8 ,ye peaceful people1 what ,to merit death8 ,you who have given us milk ,in luscious streams1 and lent us your own coat ,against the winter's cold8 ,and the plain ,ox1 ,that harmless1 honest1 guileless animal1 ,in what has he offended8 ,he1 whose toil1 ,patient and ever ready1 clothes the land ,with all the pomp of harvest--shall he bleed1 ,and struggling groan beneath the cruel hands ,e'en of the clowns he feeds1 and that1 perhaps1 ,to swell the riot of the autumnal feast ,won by his labour80#aea ,and again in denouncing the amateur slaughtering 7euphemised by the mocking term of ,sport7 unblushingly perpetrated in the broad light of day3-- 8,when beasts of prey retire1 that all night long1 ,urged by necessity1 had ranged the dark1 ,as if their conscious ravage shunned the light1 ,ashamed4 ,not so he reproaches the steady tyrant ,man1 ,who with the thoughtless insolence of ,power1 ,inflamed beyond the most infuriate wrath ,of the worst monster that e'er roamed the waste1 ,for ,sport alone pursues the cruel chase1 ,amid the beamings of the gentle days4 ,upbraid1 ye ravening tribes1 our wanton rage1 ,for hunger kindles you1 and lawless want2 ,but lavish fed1 in ,nature's bounty rolled-- ,to joy at anguish1 and delight in blood-- ,is what your horrid bosoms never knew40#aeb ,we conclude these extracts from ,the ,seasons with the poet's indignant reflection upon the selfish greed of ,commerce1 which barbarously sacrifices by thousands 7as it does also the innocent mammalia of the seas7 the noblest and most sagacious of the terrestrial races for the sake of a superfluous luxury3-- 8,peaceful1 beneath primeval trees1 that cast ,their ample shade o'er ,niger's yellow stream1 ,and where the ,ganges rolls his sacred waves2 ,or mid the central depth of blackening woods1 ,high raised in solemn theatre around1 ,leans the huge ,elephant1 wisest of brutes6 ,o truly wise6 with gentle might endowed3 ,though powerful1 not destructive4 ,here he sees ,revolving ages sweep the changeful ,earth1 ,and empires rise and fall3 regardless he ,of what the never-resting race of men ,project4 ,thrice happy6 could he 'scape their guile ,who mine1 from cruel avarice1 his steps3 ,or with his towering grandeur swell their state-- ,the pride of kings6--or else his strength pervert1 ,and bid him rage amid the mortal fray1 ,astonished at the madness of mankind40#aec ,,xxii4 ,,hartley4 #agje-ageg4 ,celebrated as the earliest writer of the utilitarian school of morals4 ,at the age of fifteen he entered ,jesus ,college1 ,cambridge1 of which he was afterwards elected a ,fellow4 ,scruples of conscience about the 8,thirty-nine ,articles0 would not allow him to subscribe them and take orders1 and he turned to the medical profession1 in which he reached considerable eminence4 ,his ,observations on ,man3 his ,frame1 his ,duties1 and his ,expectations1 appeared in #agdh4 ,the principal interest in the book consists in the fact of its containing the germs of that school of moral philosophy of which ,paley1 ,bentham1 and ,mill have been the most able expositors4 ,he had imbibed the teaching of ,locke upon the origin of ideas1 which that first of ,english metaphysicians founded in ,sensation and ,reflection or ,association1 in contradiction to the old theory of ,innateness4 ,although now universally received1 it is hardly necessary to remark that at its first promulgation it met with as great opposition as all rational ideas experience long after their first introduction2 and ,locke's controversy with the ,bishop of ,worcester is matter of history4 ,it has already been stated that ,david ,hartley was the friend of ,dr4 ,cheyne1 whom he attended in his last illness1 and he numbered amongst his acquaintances some of the most eminent personages of the day4 ,his character appears to have been singularly amiable and disinterested4 ,his theology is1 for the most part1 of unsuspected orthodoxy4 ,the following sentences reveal the bias of his mind in the matter of kreophagy3-- 8,with respect to animal diet1 let it be considered that taking away the lives of other animals in order to convert them into food1 does great violence to the principles of benevolence and compassion4 ,this appears from the frequent hard-heartedness and cruelty found among those persons whose occupations engage them in destroying animal life1 as well as from the uneasiness which others feel in beholding the butchery of the lower animals4 ,it is most evident1 in respect to the larger animals and those with whom we have a familiar intercourse--such as ,oxen1 ,sheep1 and domestic ,fowls1 c4--so as to distinguish1 love1 and compassionate individuals4 ,they resemble us greatly in the make of the body in general1 and in that of the particular organs of circulation1 respiration1 digestion1 c42 also in the formation of their intellects1 memories1 and passions1 and in the signs of distress1 fear1 pain1 and death4 ,they often1 likewise1 win our affections by the marks of peculiar sagacity1 by their instincts1 helplessness1 innocence1 nascent benevolence1 c41 c41 and1 if there be any glimmering of hope of an hereafter for them--if they should prove to be our brethren and sisters in this higher sense1 in immortality as well as mortality--in the permanent principle of our minds as well as in the frail dust of our bodies--this ought to be still further reason for tenderness for them4 8,this1 therefore1 seems to be nothing else10 he concludes1 8than an argument to stop us in our career1 to make us sparing and tender in this article of diet1 and put us upon consulting experience more faithfully and impartially in order to determine what is most suitable to the purposes of life and health1 our compassion being made1 by the foregoing considerations in some measure1 a balance to our impetuous bodily appetites40#aed ,dr4 ,hartley is not the only theologian who has suggested the possibility or probability of a future life for all or some of the non-human races4 ,this question we must leave to the theologians4 ,all that we here remark is1 that ,hartley is one of the very few amongst his brethren who have had the consistency and the courage of their opinions to deduce the inevitable inference4 ,,xxiii4 ,,chesterfield4 #afid-aggc4 ,notwithstanding his strange self-deception as to the 8general order of nature10 by which he attempted 7sincerely we presume7 to silence the better promptings of conscience1 the remarkably strong feeling expressed by ,lord ,chesterfield gives him some right to notice here4 ,his early instinctive aversion for the food which is the product of torture and murder is much better founded1 we shall be apt to believe1 than the fallacious sophism by which he seems eventually to have succeeded in stifling the voices of ,nature and ,reason in seeking refuge under the shelter of a superficial philosophy4 ,at all events his example is a forcible illustration of ,seneca's observation that the better feelings of the young need only to be evoked by a proper education to conduct them to a true morality and religion4#aee ,as it is we have to lament that he had not the greater light 7of science7 of the present time1 if1 indeed1 the 8deceitfulness of riches0 would not have been for him1 as for the mass of the rich or fashionable world1 the shipwreck of just and rational feeling4 ,philip ,dormer1 ,earl of ,chesterfield1 succeeded to the family title in #agbf4 ,high in favour with the new king--,george ,,ii4--he received the appointment of ,ambassador-extraordinary to the ,court of ,holland in #agbh1 and amongst other honours that of the knighthood of the ,garter4 ,in #agde he was appointed ,lord ,lieutenant of ,ireland1 in which post1 during his brief rule1 he seemed to have governed with more success than some of his predecessors or successors4 ,he was soon afterwards a ,secretary of ,state3 ill-health obliged him to relinquish this office after a short tenure4 ,he wrote papers for ,the ,world--the popular periodical of the time--besides some poetical pieces1 but he is chiefly known as an author by his celebrated ,letters to his ,son1 which long served as the text-book of polite society4 ,it contains some remarks in regard to the relations of the sexes scarcely consonant with the custom1 or at least with the outward code of sexual morals of the present day4 ,his sentiments upon the subject in question are as follow3-- 8,i remember1 when ,i was a young man at the ,university1 being so much affected with that very pathetic speech which ,ovid puts into the mouth of ,pythagoras against the eating of the flesh of animals1 that it was some time before ,i could bring myself to our college mutton again1 with some inward doubt whether ,i was not making myself an accomplice to a murder4 ,my scruples remained unreconciled to the committing of so horrid a meal1 till upon serious reflection ,i became convinced of its legality#aef from the general order of ,nature which has instituted the universal preying of the stronger upon the weaker as one of her first principles3 though to me it has ever appeared an incomprehensible mystery that she1 who could not be restrained by any want of materials from furnishing supplies for the support of her numerous offspring1 should lay them under the necessity of devouring one another4#aeg 8,i know not whether it is from the clergy having looked upon this subject as too trivial for their notice1 that we find them more silent upon it than could be wished2 for as slaughter is at present no branch of the priesthood1 it is to be presumed that they have as much compassion as other men4 ,the ,spectator has exclaimed against the cruelty of roasting lobsters alive1 and of whipping pigs to death1 but the misfortune is the writings of an ,addison are seldom read by cooks and butchers4 ,as to the thinking part of mankind1 it has always been convinced1 ,i believe1 that however conformable to the general rule of nature our devouring animals may be1 we are nevertheless under indelible obligation to prevent their suffering any degree of pain more than is absolutely unavoidable4 8,but this conviction lies in such heads that ,i fear not one poor creature in a million has ever fared the better for it1 and1 ,i believe1 never will3 since people of condition1 the only source from whence effectual pity is to flow1 are so far from inculcating it to those beneath them1 that a very few years ago they suffered themselves to be entertained at a public theatre by the performances of an unhappy company of animals who could only have been made actors by the utmost energy of whipcord and starving40#aeh ,the writer might have instanced still more frightful results of this insensibility on the part of the influential classes of the community3 nor indeed1 the better few always excepted1 were he living now could he present a much more favourable picture of the morals 7in this the most important department of them7 of the ruling sections of society4 ,ritson supplements the virtual adhesion of ,lord ,chesterfield to the principles of ,humanity1 with some remarks of ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 the eminent ,orientalist1 who 7protesting against the selfish callousness of 8,sportsmen0 and even of 8,naturalists0 in the infliction of pain7 writes3 8,i shall never forget the couplet of ,ferdusi#aei for which ,sadi1#afj who cites it with applause1 pours blessings on his departed spirit3-- 8,ah6 spare yon emmet1 rich in hoarded grain3 ,he lives with pleasure and he dies with pain40 ,to which creditable expression of feeling we would append a word of astonishment at that very common inconsistency1 and failure in elementary logic1 which permits men--while easily and hyperbolically commiserating the fate of an emmet1 a beetle1 or a worm--to ignore the necessarily infinitely greater sufferings of the highly-organised victims of the ,table40 ,,xxiv4 ,,voltaire4 #afid-aggh4 ,of the life and literary productions of the most remarkable name in the whole history of literature--if at least we regard the extent and variety of his astonishing genius1 as well as the immense influence1 contemporary and future1 of his writings--only a brief outline can be given here4 ,yet1 as the most eminent humanitarian prophet of the eighteenth century1 the principal facts of his life deserve somewhat larger notice than within the general scope of this work4 ,franois ,marie ,arouet--commonly known by his assumed name of ,voltaire--on his mother's side of a family of position recently ennobled1 was born at ,chatenay1 near ,paris4 ,he was educated at the ,jesuits' ,college of ,louis ,,xiv41 where1 it is said1 the fathers already foretold his future eminence4 ,like many other illustrious writers he was originally destined for the 8,law10 which was little adapted to his genius1 and1 like his great prototype1 ,lucian1 and others1 he soon abandoned all thought of that profession for letters and philosophy4 ,he had the good fortune1 at an early age1 to gain the favour of the celebrated ,ninon de ,lenclos1 who left him a legacy of #b1jjj livres for the purchase of a library--an important event which was doubtless the means of confirming his intellectual bias4 ,voltaire's first literary conceptions were formed in the ,bastile1 that infamous representative of despotic caprice1 to which some verses of which he was the reputed author1 satirising the licentious extravagance of the ,court of the late king1 ,louis ,,xiv41 had consigned him at the age of twenty4 ,soon afterwards appeared the tragedy of dipe 7founded upon the well-known dramas of ,sophocles71 the first modern drama in which the universal and traditional love scenes were discarded4 ,this contempt for the conventionalities1 however1 excited the indignation of the play-goers1 and the dipe was1 at its first representation1 hissed off the stage4 ,the author found himself forced to sacrifice to the popular tastes1 and his tragedy was received with applause4 ,two memorable verses indicated the bias of the future antagonist of ecclesiastical orthodoxy1 and naturally provoked the hostility of the profession which he had dared so openly to assail3-- 8,nos prtres ne sont pas ce qu'un vain peuple pense3 ,notre credulit fait toute leur science40 ,it was during this imprisonment1 too1 that he formed the first idea of the ,henriade 7or ,the ,league1 as it was originally called71 the only epic poem worthy of the name in the ,french language4 ,a chance quarrel with an insolent courtier was the cause of ,voltaire's second incarceration in the ,bastile with1 at the end of six months1 a peremptory order to absent himself from the capital4 ,these experiences of despotic caprice and of sophisticated society he long afterwards embodied in two of his best romances1 ,l',ingnu and ,micro-mgas 7the 8,little-,big ,man071 one of the most exquisite productions of ,satire4 ,the youthful victim of these malicious persecutions determined upon seeking refuge in ,england1 whose freer air had already inspired ,newton1 ,locke1 ,shaftesbury1 and other eminent leaders of ,thought4 ,a flattering welcome awaited him--and subscriptions to the ,henriade1 better received here than in ,france1 gratified his pride and filled his purse4 ,during his sojourn of three years in this country1 he made the most of his time in studying its best literature1 and cultivating the acquaintance of its most eminent living writers4 ,his tragedy of ,brutus was followed by ,la ,mort de ,csar which1 from its taint of liberalism1 was not allowed to be printed in ,france4 ,upon his return to ,paris he published his ,zare--finished in eighteen days--the first tragedy in which1 deserting the footsteps of ,corneille and ,racine1 he ventured to follow the bent of his own genius4 ,the plan of ,zare has been pronounced to be one of the most perfect ever contrived for the stage4 ,more important1 by its influence upon contemporary thought1 was his famous ,letters on the ,english--a work designed to inform his countrymen generally of the literature1 thought1 and political and theological parties of the rival nation1 and1 more especially1 of the discoveries of ,newton and ,locke4 ,descartes1 at this moment supreme in ,france1 had succeeded to the vacant throne of the so-called ,aristotelian ,schoolmen4 ,his system1 a great advance upon the old1 broached some errors in physics1 amongst others the theory of 8,vortices0 to explain the planetary movements4 ,a much more pernicious and reprehensible error was his absurd denial of conscious feeling and intelligence to the lower races1 which was admirably exposed by ,voltaire in his ,elmens de ,newton and elsewhere4 ,in ,england1 ,newton's extraordinary discoveries had already made ,descartes obsolete1 as far as the savans were concerned at least1 but the ,french scientific world still clung1 for the most part1 to the ,cartesian principles4 ,as for ,locke1 he had overturned the orthodox creed of 8innate ideas10 supplying instead sensation and reflection4 ,this advocacy of the new philosophy1 added to the success of his tragedies for the theatre1 8,drew says ,voltaire in his ,mmoires a whole library of pamphlets down upon me1 in which they proved ,i was a bad poet1 an atheist1 and the son of a peasant4 ,a history of my life was printed in which this genealogy was inserted4 ,an industrious ,german took care to collect all the tales of that kind which had been crammed into the libel1 they had published against me4 ,they imputed adventures to me with persons ,i never knew1 and with others who never existed4 ,i have found while writing this a letter from the ,marchal de ,richelieu which informed me of an impudent lampoon where it was proved his wife had given me an elegant couch1 with something else1 at a time when he had no wife4 ,at first ,i took some pleasure in making collections of these calumnies1 but they multiplied to such a degree ,i was obliged to leave off4 ,such are the fruits ,i gathered from my labours4 ,i1 however1 easily consoled myself1 sometimes in my retreat at ,cirey1 and at other times in mixing with the best society40 ,amongst other subjects the ,lettres 7a masterpiece of criticism and sort of essays1 since often imitated but seldom or never1 perhaps1 equalled in their kind7 contains an admirable essay upon the ,quakers1 to whom he did justice4 ,he introduces one of them in conversation with him1 thus apologising for his eccentricities3 8,confess that thou hast had some trouble to prevent thyself from laughing when ,i answered all thy civilities with my hat upon my head and with thouing and thee-ing thee 7en te tutoyant74 ,yet thou seemest to me too well informed to be ignorant that1 in the time of ,christ1 no nation fell into the ridiculousness of substituting the plural for the singular4 ,they used to say to ,csar-,augustus3 #8,i love thee1' #8,i pray thee1' #8,i thank thee4' ,he would not allow himself to be called #8,monsieur' 7dominus74 ,it was only a long time after him that men thought of causing themselves to be addressed as you in place of thou1 as though they were double1 and of usurping impertinent titles of grandeur1 of eminence1 of holiness1 of divinity even1 which earthworms give to other earthworms1 while assuring them with a profound respect 7and with an infamous falseness71 they are their very humble and very obedient servants4 ,it is in order to be upon our guard against this unworthy commerce of lies and of flatteries that we #8thee' and #8thou' equally kings and kitchen-maids3 that we give the ordinary compliments to no one1 having for men only charity1 and reserving our respect for the laws4 ,we wear a dress a little different from other men1 in order that it may be for us a continual warning not to resemble them4 ,others wear marks of their dignities1 we those of ,christian humility4 ,we never use oaths1 not even in law courts3 we think that the name of the ,most ,high ought not to be pronounced in the miserable debates of men4 ,when we are forced to appear before the magistrates on others' business 7for we never have law suits ourselves71 we affirm the truth by a #8yes' or a #8no1' and the judges believe us upon our simple word1 while so many other ,christians perjure themselves upon the ,gospel4 ,we never go to war4 ,it is not that we fear death1 but it is because we are neither tigers1 nor wolves1 nor dogs1 but men1 but ,christians4 ,our ,god1 who has told us to love our enemies and to suffer without a murmur1 doubtless would not have us cross the sea to go and cut the throats of our brothers1 because assassins1 clothed in red and in hats of two feet high1 enrol citizens to the accompaniment of a noise produced by two little sticks upon the dried skin of an ass4 ,and when1 after battles won1 all ,london is brilliant with illuminations1 when the sky is in flames with musket shots1 when the air re-echoes with sounds of thanksgiving1 with bells1 with organs1 with cannons1 we groan in silence over the murders which cause the public light-heartedness40 7,lettre ,,ii47 ,about this period1 frequenting less the fashionable and trifling society of the capital1 and contenting himself with the company of a few congenial minds1 he formed amongst others a sympathetic friendship with the ,marquise de ,chtelet1 a lady of extraordinary talents4 8,i was tired thus he begins his unfinished ,mmoires1 ,i was tired of the lazy and noisy life led at ,paris1 of the multitude of petit-matres1 of bad books printed with the approbation of censors and the privilege of the king1 of the cabals and parties among the learned1 and of the mean arts of plagiarism and book-making which dishonour ,literature40 ,the lady was the equal of ,madame ,dacier in knowledge of the ,greek and ,latin languages1 and she was familiar with all the best modern writers4 ,she wrote a commentary on ,leibnitz4 ,she also translated the ,principia4 ,her favourite pursuits1 however1 were mathematics and metaphysics4 8,she was none the less fond of the world and those amusements familiar to her age and sex4 ,she determined to leave them all and bury herself in an old ruinous chteau on the borders of ,champagne and ,lorraine1 situated in a barren and unhealthy soil4 ,this old chteau she ornamented with sufficiently pretty gardens4 ,i built a gallery1 and formed a very good collection of natural history1 added to which we had a library not badly furnished4 ,we were visited by several of the savans1 who came to philosophise in our retreat4444 ,i taught ,english to ,madame de ,chtelet1 who1 in about three months understood it as well as ,i did1 and read ,newton1 and ,locke1 and ,pope1 with equal ease4 ,we read all the works of ,tasso and ,ariosto together1 so that when ,algerotti came to ,cirey1 where he finished his ,newtonianism for ,women1 he found her sufficiently skilful in his own language to give him some very excellent information by which he profited40 ,voltaire had already 7#agda7 given to the world his ,elmens de ,newton--a work which1 in conjunction with other parts of his writings1 proves that had he chosen to apply himself wholly to natural philosophy or to mathematics he might have reached the highest fame in those departments of science4 ,it is in the ,elmens that ,voltaire records his noble protest at the same time against the monstrous hypothesis of ,descartes1 to which we have already referred1 and against the selfish cruelty of our species4 8,there is in man a disposition to compassion as generally diffused as his other instincts4 ,newton had cultivated this sentiment of humanity1 and he extended it to the lower animals4 ,with ,locke he was strongly convinced that ,god has given to them a proportion of ideas1 and the same feelings which he has to us4 ,he could not believe that ,god1 who has made nothing in vain1 would have given to them organs of feeling in order that they might have no feeling4 8,he thought it a very frightful inconsistency to believe that animals feel and at the same time to cause them to suffer4 ,on this point his morality was in accord with his philosophy4 ,he yielded but with repugnance to the barbarous custom of supporting ourselves upon the blood and flesh of beings like ourselves1 whom we caress1 and he never permitted in his own house the putting them to death by slow and exquisite recherches modes of killing for the sake of making the food more delicious4 ,this compassion1 which he felt for other animals1 culminated in true charity for men4 ,in truth1 without humanity1 a virtue which comprehends all virtues1 the name of philosopher would be little deserved40#afa ,at ,cirey some of his best tragedies were composed--,alzire1 ,mrope1 and ,mehemet2 the ,discours sur l',homme1 a moral poem in the style of ,pope's ,essays1 pronounced to be one of the finest monuments of ,french poetry2 an ,essay on ,universal ,history1 7for his friend's use1 to correct as well as supplement ,bossuet's splendid but little philosophic history71 the foundation of perhaps his most admirable production the ,essai sur les ,murs et l',esprit des ,nations1 and many lesser pieces1 including a large correspondence4 ,besides these literary works1 he engaged in mathematical and scientific studies1 which resulted in some brochures of considerable value4 ,about this time 7#agdj7 news arrived of the death of ,friedrich ,wilhelm of ,prussia4 ,most readers know the extraordinary character of this strange personage1 who caned the women and his clergy in the streets of his capital1 and who was with difficulty dissuaded from ordering his son's execution4 ,narrowly escaping with his life the prince had devoted himself to literary pursuits1 and had kept up a correspondence with the leading men of letters of ,france1 and above all with the author of ,zare whom he regarded as little less than divine4 ,the new king set about inspecting his territories1 and proceeded incognito to ,brussels1 where the first interview between the two future most eminent persons in ,europe took place4 ,repairing to his majesty's quarters-- 8,one soldier was the only guard ,i found4 ,the ,privy-,councillor and ,minister of ,state was walking in the court-yard blowing his fingers4 ,he had on a large pair of coarse ruffles1 a hat all in holes1 and a judge's old wig1 one side of which hung into his pocket and the other scarcely touched his shoulder4 ,they informed me that this man was charged with a state affair of great importance1 and so indeed he was4 ,i was conducted into his majesty's apartments1 in which ,i found nothing but four bare walls4 ,by the light of a taper ,i perceived a small truckle-bed two feet and a half wide in a closet1 upon which lay a little man wrapped in a morning dressing-gown of blue cloth4 ,it was his majesty who lay perspiring and shaking beneath a miserable coverlet in a violent ague fit4 ,i made my bow1 and began my acquaintance by feeling his pulse1 as if ,i had been his first physician4 ,the fit left him1 and he rose1 dressed himself1 and sat down to table with ,algerotti1 ,maupertuis1 the ambassador of the ,states-general1 and myself4 ,at supper he treated most profoundly of the soul1 natural liberty1 and the ,androgynes of ,plato4 ,i soon found myself attached to him1 for he had wit1 an agreeable manner1 and moreover was a king1 which is a circumstance of seduction hardly to be vanquished by human weakness4 ,generally speaking1 it is the employment of men of letters to flatter kings1 but in this instance ,i was praised by a king from the crown of my head to the soles of my feet at the same time that ,i was libelled at least once a week by the ,abb ,desfontaines and other ,grub-street poets of ,paris40 ,voltaire received a pressing invitation to ,berlin4 8,but ,i had before given him to understand ,i could not come to stay with him2 that ,i deemed it a duty to prefer friendship to ambition2 that ,i was attached to ,mdlle4 de ,chtelet1 and that1 between philosophers1 ,i loved a lady better than a king4 ,he approved of the liberty ,i took1 though1 for his part1 he did not love the ladies4 ,i went to pay him a visit in ,october1 and the ,cardinal de ,fleury the ,french premier wrote me a long letter1 full of praises of the ,anti-,machiavel1 and of the author ,friedrich1 which ,i did not forget to let him see40 ,the ,french court wished to secure the alliance of ,friedrich4 ,no one seemed a more fitting mediator than his early counsellor1 who was induced to accept the mission1 and to set out for ,berlin1 where an enthusiastic welcome awaited him1 apartments in the palace being placed at his disposal4 ,yet1 in spite of the success of this and other public services1 his enemies in ,paris remained in full possession of the field4 ,for the second time ,voltaire sought admission into the ,acadmie--an empty honour1 the granting or refusal of which could neither add to nor detract from his fame4 ,the prestige of that society1 however1 he seemed to consider essential to his safety against the increasing violence and formidable array of his enemies1 who were bent on crushing him1 by whatever means4 ,it was only by submitting to the mortification of qualifying some of his opinions that he at length succeeded in his object4 ,notwithstanding the address with which he manages his language1 it were better1 as his biographer--the ,marquis de ,condorcet--justly remarks1 he had renounced the ,acadmie than have had the weakness to submit to so evident a farce4 ,on succeeding to a vacant chair it was customary1 besides a eulogy upon the deceased member1 to speak in set terms of praise of ,richelieu and ,louis ,,xiv4 ,this traditional and servile practice the new ,academician was the first to break through4 ,philosophy and literature were treated of in unaccustomed strains of freedom1 and his good example has been influential on after generations4 8,i was deemed worthy writes ,voltaire to be one of the forty useless members of the ,acadmie1 was appointed historiographer of ,france1 and created by the king one of the gentlemen in ordinary of his chamber4 ,from this ,i concluded it was better1 in order to make the most trifling fortune1 to speak four words to a king's mistress1 than to write a hundred volumes40 ,a sort of experience he has finely illustrated in his romance of ,zadig4 ,stanislaus1 the ex-king of ,poland1 was keeping his ,court at ,luneville1 not far from ,cirey1 where he divided his time between his mistress and his confessor4 ,to this royal retreat the friends of ,cirey were invited1 and the whole of the year #agdi was passed there4 ,meanwhile ,madame de ,chtelet died1 and ,voltaire1 much affected by his loss1 returned to ,paris4 ,friedrich redoubled his solicitation with new hope4 8,i was destined to run from king to king1 although ,i loved liberty to idolatry4444 ,he was well assured that in reality his verse and prose were superior to my verse and prose2 though as to the former1 he thought there was a certain something that ,i1 in quality of academician1 might give to his writings1 and there was no kind of flattery1 no seduction1 he did not employ to engage me to come40 ,the philosopher at length set out for ,berlin1 and his reception must have reached his highest expectations4 ,we have no intention to repeat the account of this singular episode in his life1 which has been so often narrated4 ,evenings of the most agreeable kind1 abundance of wit1 unrestrained conversation1 the society of some of the most distinguished men of science of the time1 the unbounded adoration of a royal host1 eager1 above all things1 to retain so brilliant a guest--such were the pleasures of this palace of ,alcina1 as he calls it4 ,but the imperious tempers of the two unequal friends soon proved the impossibility of a lasting entente1 and rivalries amongst the literary courtiers hastened1 if they did not effect1 the final rupture4 ,after his escape from ,berlin ,voltaire passed a few weeks with the ,duchess of ,saxe-,gotha1 8the best of princesses1 full of gentleness1 discretion1 and equanimity1 and who1 ,god be thanked1 did not make verses0 7alluding to his late host's proclivities71 and some days with the ,landgrave of ,hesse on his way to ,frankfort4 ,literature had not suffered during the life at ,berlin4 ,finishing touches were put to many of the tragedies--the ge de ,louis ,,xiv4 was completed1 part of the ,essai sur les ,murs et l',esprit des ,nations written1 ,la ,pucelle 7the least worthy of all his productions7 corrected1 and a poem1 ,sur la ,loi ,naturelle1 composed 7a work of a far better inspiration than the poem just mentioned1 but which was publicly burned at ,paris by the misdirected zeal of the bigots74 ,in a later poem on the destruction of ,lisbon1 as well as in the romance of ,candide1 fired with indignation at the hypocrisies and mischiefs of the easy-going creed of ,optimism 7as generally understood71 so welcome to self-complacent orthodoxy1 he displayed all his vast powers of sarcasm in exposing its fatal absurdities4 ,leibnitz had been one of its most strenuous apologists4 ,in the person of the wretched ,pangloss the theory of 8the best of all possible worlds10 and of the 8eternal fitness of things10 is overwhelmed1 indeed1 with an excess of ridicule4 ,it is to be lamented that the satirist allowed his sva indignatio to overpower a proper sense of the proprieties of language and expression4 ,voltaire was now become a potentate more dreaded than a sovereign-prince on his throne1 an object of hatred and terror to political and other oppressors4 ,after some hesitation he had chosen for his retreat the ever-memorable ,ferney--a place within ,french territory1 on the borders of ,switzerland--and also a spot near ,geneva1 where he alternately resided1 escaping at pleasure either from ,catholic intolerance or from ,puritanic rigour1 with his niece--,madame ,denis1 who had anxiously attended him during a recent illness4 ,from these retreats he made himself heard over all ,europe in defence of reason and humanity4 ,it was about this time 7#agef7 that he employed his eloquence to save ,admiral ,byng1 a victim to ministerial necessities1 who was nevertheless condemned1 as his advocate expresses it in ,candide1 8pour encourager les autres40 ,a like philanthropic effort1 equally vain1 was made on behalf of the still more unfortunate ,comte de ,lally4 ,the year #ageg is memorable in literature as that in which he gave to the world an accurate edition of his already published works1 enriched by one of his most meritorious productions1 the ,essai sur les ,murs et l',esprit des ,nations1 which now appeared in its complete form4 ,history1 the author justly complained1 had hitherto been but a uniform chronicle of kings1 courts1 and court intrigues4 ,the history of legislation1 arts1 sciences1 commerce1 morals1 had been always1 or almost always1 neglected4 8,we imagine says ,condorcet1 while we read such histories1 that the human race was created only to exhibit the political or military talents of a few individuals1 and that the object of society is not the happiness of the ,species but the pleasure of the ,few40 ,if the best historical works of the present day are a considerable improvement upon those which were in fashion before ,voltaire's critiques1 the remarks of ,condorcet are not altogether inapplicable to the popular and school manuals still in vogue4 ,at all events this style of composing 8history10 ridiculed by the wit of ,lucian sixteen centuries before1 was the universal method down to the appearance of the celebrated ,essai4 ,beginning with ,charlemagne1 it presents1 in a rapid1 concise1 and philosophic style1 the most important and interesting features1 not only of ,european but of the world's history1 adorned with all the grace and ease of which he was always so consummate a master4 ,many there always are who conceive of philosophy and erudition only as enveloped in verbosity and obscurity4 ,dulness and learning in the common mind are convertible terms4 ,the very transparency and clearness of his style were reproached to him as a sign of superficiality and want of exactness--the last faults which could be justly imputed to him4 ,however1 the influence of ,voltaire became apparent in the productions of the ,english historical school1 till then unknown1 which soon afterwards arose4 ,the ,italian ,vico1 and ,beaufort1 in ,france1 in the particular branch of ,roman antiquity1 and ,bayle in general1 had already contributed in some degree towards the founding of a critical school2 but these attempts were partial only4 ,to ,voltaire belongs the honour of having applied the principles of criticism at once universally and popularly4 ,in reviewing the history and manners of the ,hindus he repeatedly expresses his sympathy1 more or less directly1 with their aversion from the coarser living of the ,west3-- 8,the ,hindus1 in embracing the doctrine of the ,metmpsychosis1 had one restraint the more4 ,the dread of killing a father or mother1 in killing men and other animals1 inspired in them a terror of murder and every other violence1 which became with them a second nature4 ,thus all the peoples of ,india1 whose families are not allied either to the ,arabs or to the ,tartars1 are still at this day the mildest of all men4 ,their religion and the temperature of their climate made these peoples entirely resemble those peaceful animals whom we bring up in our sheep pens and our dove cotes for the purpose of cutting their throats at our good will and pleasure4444 8,the ,christian religion1 which these primitives the ,quakers alone follow out to the letter1 is as great an enemy to bloodshed as the ,pythagorean4 ,but the ,christian peoples have never practised their religion1 and the ancient ,hindu castes have always practised theirs4 ,it is because ,pythagoreanism is the only religion in the world which has been able to educe a religious feeling from the horror of murder and slaughter4444 8,some have supposed the cradle of our race to be ,hindustan1 alleging that the feeblest of all animals must have been born in the softest climate1 and in a land which produces without culture the most nourishing and most healthful fruits1 like dates and cocoa nuts4 ,the latter especially easily affords men the means of existence1 of clothing and of housing themselves--and of what besides has the inhabitant of that ,peninsula need8444 ,our ,houses of ,carnage1 which they call ,butcher-,shops boucheries1 where they sell so many carcases to feed our own1 would import the plague into the climate of ,india4 8,these peoples need and desire pure and refreshing foods4 ,nature has lavished upon them forests of citron trees1 orange trees1 fig trees1 palm trees1 cocoa-nut trees1 and plains covered with rice4 ,the strongest man can need to spend but one or two sous a day for his subsistence4#afb ,our workmen spend more in one day than a ,malabar native in a month4444 8,in general1 the men of the ,south-,east have received from ,nature gentler manners than the people of our ,west4 ,their climate disposes them to abstain from strong liquors and from the flesh of animals--foods which excite the blood and often provoke ferocity--and1 although superstition and foreign irruptions have corrupted the goodness of their disposition1 nevertheless all travellers agree that the character of these peoples has nothing of that irritability1 of that caprice1 and of that harshness which it has cost much trouble to keep within bounds in the countries of the ,north40 ,in noticing the comparative progress of the various foreign religions in ,india1 ,voltaire observes that-- 8,the ,mohammedan religion alone has made progress in ,india1 especially amongst the richer classes1 because it is the religion of the ,prince1 and because it teaches but the divine unity conformably to the ancient teaching of the first ,brahmins4 ,christianity he adds1 only too truly has not had the same success1 notwithstanding the large establishments of the ,portuguese1 of the ,french1 of the ,english1 of the ,dutch1 of the ,danes4 ,it is1 in fact1 the conflict of these nations which has injured the progress of our ,faith4 ,as they all hate each other1 and as several of them often make war one upon the other in their climates1 what they teach is naturally hateful to the peaceful inhabitants4 ,their customs1 besides1 revolt the ,hindus4 ,those people are scandalised at seeing us drinking wine and eating flesh1 which they themselves abhor40#afc ,this--one of the chief obstacles to the spread of ,christian civilisation in the ,east1 and especially in ,india1 viz41 the eating of flesh and the drinking of alcohol1 its legitimate attendant--has been acknowledged by ,christian missionaries themselves of late years4 ,employed as he was in various literary undertakings he had been watching with great interest1 not1 perhaps1 without a secret wish for vengeance1 the important political and military complications of ,europe4 ,after some brilliant successes the ,prussian king had been reduced to the last extremity4 ,at this juncture the former friends agreed to forget1 as far as possible1 their old quarrel1 and ,voltaire enjoyed the satisfaction of having succeeded in dissuading ,friedrich from suicide4 ,the victories of ,rosbach and ,breslau not long afterwards changed the condition of things once again4 ,from this time the prince and the philosopher resumed the name1 if not the cordiality1 of friends4 ,a curious accident put the arbitrament of peace and war for some weeks into the hands of ,voltaire4 ,the ,prussian king1 while inactive in his fortified camp1 wrote1 as his custom was1 a quantity of verse and sent the packet to ,ferney4 ,amongst the mass--good1 bad1 and indifferent--was a satire on ,louis and his mistress4 ,the packet had been opened before reaching its destination4 8,had ,i been inclined to amuse myself1 it depended only on me to set the ,king of ,france and the ,king of ,prussia to war in rhyme1 which would have been a novel farce on earth4 ,but ,i enjoyed another pleasure--that of being more prudent than ,friedrich4 ,i wrote him word that his ,ode was beautiful1 but that he ought not to publish it4444 ,to make the pleasantry complete ,i thought it possible to lay the foundation of the peace of ,europe on these poetical pieces4 ,my correspondence with the ,duc de ,choiseul the ,french ,premier gave birth to that idea1 and it appeared so ridiculous1 so worthy of the transactions of the times1 that ,i indulged it1 and had the satisfaction of proving on what weak and invisible pivots the destinies of nations turn40 ,several letters passed between the three before the danger was averted4 ,the limited space at our disposal will allow us only rapidly to notice some of the remaining chefs-d'uvre of ,voltaire4 ,the celebrated ,encyclopdie1 under the auspices of ,d',alembert and ,diderot1 had been lately commenced4 ,to this great work1 to which he looked with some hope as promising a severe assault on ignorance and prejudice1 ,voltaire contributed a few articles4 ,it is not the place here to narrate the history of the fierce war of words to which the ,encyclopdie gave birth4 ,it was completed in about fifteen years1 in #agge--;a memorable year in literature4 8,several men of letters thus ,voltaire briefly describes the project1 most estimable by their learning and character1 formed an association to compose an immense ,dictionary of whatever could enlighten the human mind1 and it became an object of commerce with the booksellers4 ,the ,chancellor1 the ,ministry1 all encouraged so noble an enterprise4 ,seven volumes had already appeared1 and were translated into ,english1 ,german1 ,dutch1 and ,italian4 ,this treasure1 opened by the ,french to all nations1 may be considered as what did us most honour at the time1 so much were the excellent articles in the ,encyclopdie superior to the bad1 which also were tolerably numerous4 ,one had little to complain of in the work1 except too many puerile declamations unfortunately adopted by the editors1 who seized whatever came to hand to swell the work4 ,but all which those editors wrote themselves was good40 ,the article which was particularly selected by the prosecution was that on the ,soul1 8one of the worst in the work1 written by a poor doctor of the ,sorbonne1 who killed himself with declaiming1 rightly or wrongly1 against materialism40 ,the writers1 as 8encyclopdistes0 and 8philosophers0 were long marked by those titles for the public opprobrium4 ,this general persecution had the effect of uniting that party for common defence4 ,for ,voltaire himself an important advantage was secured4 ,most of the principal men of letters and science1 up to this time either avowed enemies or coldly-distant friends1 henceforward enrolled themselves under his undisputed leadership4 ,about the same period he published a number of pieces1 prose and verse1 directed against his enemies of various kinds1 theatrical as well as theological4 ,amongst the latter1 conspicuous by their attacks1 but still more so by their punishment1 were ,frron and ,desfontaines1 whose chastisement was such that1 according to ,macaulay's hyperbolic expression1 8scourging1 branding1 pillorying would have been a trifle to it40 ,it is more pleasing1 however1 to turn from this fierce war of retaliation1 in which neither party was free from blame1 to proofs of the real benevolence of his disposition4 ,we can merely note the strenuous efforts he made1 unsolicited1 on behalf of ,admiral ,byng and the ,comte de ,lally1 and the still more meritorious labours in the less well-known histories of ,calas and ,serven4 ,not by these public acts alone did the man1 who has been accused of malignity1 discover the humanity of his character3 to whose ready assistance in money1 as well as in counsel1 the unfortunate of the literary tribe and others acknowledged their obligations4 ,his ,philosophie de l',histoire1 the prototype of its successors in name at least1 was designed to expose that long-established and prevailing idolatry of ,antiquity1 which received everything bequeathed by it with astounding credulity4 ,the ,philosophie called forth a numerous host of small critics1 to which men who knew1 or ought to have known better1 allied themselves4 ,their curious way of maintaining the credit of ,antiquity afforded1 as may be imagined1 the author of the ,defence of my ,uncle1 under which title ,voltaire chose to defend himself1 full scope for the exercise of his unrivalled powers of irony4 ,warburton1 the pedant ,bishop of ,gloucester1 with his odd theories about the 8,divine ,legation10 comes in for a share of this ,dunciad sort of immortalisation4 ,a work of equal merit with the ,philosophie are the ,questions1 addressed to the lovers of science1 upon the ,encyclopdia1 wherein1 in the form of a dictionary1 he treats1 as the ,marquis de ,condorcet eloquently describes1 8,successively of theology1 grammar1 natural philosophy1 and literature4 ,at one time he discusses subjects of ,antiquity2 at another questions of policy1 legislation1 and public economy4 ,his style1 always animated and seductive1 clothed these various subjects with a charm hitherto known to himself alone1 and which springs chiefly from the licence with which1 yielding to his successive emotions1 adapting his style less to his subject than to the momentary disposition of his mind1 sometimes he spreads ridicule over objects which seem capable of inspiring only horror1 and almost instantaneously hurried away by the energy and sensibility of his soul1 he vehemently and eloquently exclaims against abuses which he had just before treated with mockery4 ,his anger is excited by false taste2 he quickly perceives that his indignation ought to be reserved for interests more important1 and he finishes by laughing in his usual way4 ,sometimes he abruptly leaves a moral or political discussion for a literary criticism1 and in the midst of a lesson on taste he pronounces abstract maxims of the profoundest philosophy1 or makes a sudden and terrible attack on fanaticism and tyranny40 ,it is with his romances that we are here chiefly concerned1 since it is in those lighter productions of his genius that he has most especially allowed us to see his opinions upon flesh-eating4 ,in the charming tale of ,the ,princess of ,babylon1 her attendant ,phnix thus accounts to his mistress for the silence of his brethren of the inferior races3-- 8,it is because men fell into the practice of eating us in place of holding converse with and being instructed by us4 ,the barbarians6 ,ought they not to have convinced themselves that1 having the same organs as they1 the same power of feeling1 the same wants1 the same desires1 we have what they call soul as well as themselves1 that we are their brethren1 and that only the wicked and bad deserve to be cooked and eaten8 ,we are to such a degree your brethren that the ,great ,being1 the ,eternal and ,creative ,being1 having made a covenant with men#afd1 expressly comprised us in the treaty4 ,he forbad you to feed yourselves upon our blood1 and us to suck yours4 ,the fables of your ,lokman1 translated into so many languages1 will be an everlasting witness of the happy commerce which you formerly had with us4 ,it is true that there are many women among you who are always talking to their ,dogs2 but they have resolved never to make any answer1 from the time that they were forced by blows of the whip to go hunting and to be the accomplices of the murder of our old common friends1 the ,deer and the ,hares and the ,partridges4 ,you have still some old poems in which ,horses talk and your coachmen address them every day1 but with so much grossness and coarseness1 and with such infamous words1 that ,horses who once loved you now detest you4444 ,the shepherds of the ,ganges1 born all equal1 are the owners of innumerable flocks who feed in meadows that are perpetually covered with flowers4 ,they are never slaughtered there4 ,it is a horrible crime in the country of the ,ganges to kill and eat one's fellows semblables4 ,their wool1 finer and more brilliant than the most beautiful silk1 is the greatest object of commerce in the ,orient40 ,a certain king had the temerity to attack this innocent people3-- 8,the king was taken prisoner with more than #fjj1jjj men4 ,they bathed him in the waters of the ,ganges2 they put him on the salutary rgime of the country1 which consists in vegetables1 which are lavished by ,nature for the support of all human beings4 ,men1 fed upon carnage and drinking strong drinks1 have all an empoisoned and acrid blood1 which drives them mad in a hundred different ways4 ,their principal madness is that of shedding the blood of their brothers1 and of devastating fertile plains to reign over cemeteries40 ,her admirable instructor caused the princess to enter 8,a dining-hall1 whose walls were covered with orange-wood4 ,the under-shepherds and shepherdesses1 in long white dresses girded with golden bands1 served her in a hundred baskets of simple porcelain1 with a hundred delicious meats1 among which was seen no disguised corpse4 ,the feast was of rice1 of sago1 of semolina1 of vermicelli1 of maccaroni1 of omelets1 of eggs in milk1 of cream-cheeses1 of pastries of every kind1 of vegetables1 of fruits of perfume and taste of which one has no idea in other climates1 and a profusion of refreshing drinks superior to the best wines40 ,having occasion to visit the land par excellence of flesh-eaters1 and being entertained at the house of a certain ,english lord1 the hero1 the amiable lover of the princess1 is questioned by his host 8,whether they ate #8good roast beef' in the country of the people of the ,ganges4 ,the ,vegetarian traveller replied to him with his accustomed politeness that they did not eat their brethren in that part of the world4 ,he explained to him the system and diet which was that of ,pythagoras1 of ,porphyry1 of ,iamblichus2 whereupon milord went off into a sound slumber40#afe ,amabed1 a young ,hindu1 writes from ,europe to his affianced mistress his impressions of the ,christian sacred books and1 in particular1 of ,christian carnivorousness3-- 8,i pity those unfortunates of ,europe who have1 at the most1 been created only #f1idj years2 while our era reckons #aae1feb years the ,brahminical computation4 ,i pity them more for wanting pepper1 the sugar-cane1 and tea1 coffee1 silk1 cotton1 incense1 aromatics1 and everything that can render life pleasing4 ,but ,i pity them still more for coming from so great a distance1 among so many perils1 to ravish from us1 arms in hand1 our provisions4 ,it is said at ,calicut they have committed frightful cruelties only to procure pepper4 ,it makes the ,hindu nature1 which is in every way different from theirs1 shudder2 their stomachs are carnivorous1 they get drunk on the fermented juices of the vine1 which was planted1 they say1 by their ,noah4 ,father ,fa-,tutto one of the missionaries1 polished as he is1 has himself cut the throats of two little chickens2 he has caused them to be boiled in a cauldron1 and has devoured them without pity4 ,this barbarous action has drawn upon him the hatred of all the neighbourhood1 whose anger we have appeased only with much difficulty4 ,may ,god pardon me6 ,i believe that this stranger would have eaten our sacred ,cows1 who give us milk1 if he had been allowed to do so4 ,a promise has been extorted from him that he will commit no more murders of ,hens1 and that he will content himself with fresh eggs1 milk1 rice1 and our excellent fruits and vegetables--pistachio nuts1 dates1 cocoa nuts1 almond cakes1 biscuits1 ananas1 oranges1 and with everything which our climate produces1 blessed be the ,eternal60 ,in another letter to his old ,hindu teacher from ,rome1 whither he had been induced to go by the missionaries1 speaking of the feasts in that 8citadel of the faith10 he writes3-- 8,the dining-hall was grand1 convenient1 and richly ornamented4 ,gold and silver shone upon the sideboards4 ,gaiety and wit animated the guests4 ,but1 meantime1 in the kitchens blood and fat were streaming in one horrible mass2 skins of quadrupeds1 feathers of birds and their entrails1 piled up pell-mell1 oppressed the heart1 and spread the infection of fevers40#aff ,that one who hated and denounced injustice of all kinds1 and who sympathised with the suffering of all innocent life1 should thus characterise the cruelty of the ,slaughter-,house is what we might naturally look for2 as also that he should denounce the kindred and even worse atrocity of the physiological ,laboratory4 ,and it is a strange and unaccountable fact that1 amongst the humanitarians of his time1 he stands apparently alone in condemnation of the secret tortures of the vivisectionists and pathologists--although1 perhaps1 the almost universal silence may be attributable1 in part1 to the very secresy of the experiments which only recent vigilance has fully detected4 ,exposing the equally absurd and arrogant denial of reason and intelligence to other animals1 and instancing the dog1 he proceeds3-- 8,there are barbarians who seize this dog1 who so prodigiously surpasses man in friendship1 and nail him down to a table1 and dissect him alive to shew you the mezaraic veins4 ,you discover in him all the same organs of feeling as in yourself4 ,answer me1 ,machinist i4e41 supporter of the theory of mere mechanical action1 has ,nature really arranged all the springs of feeling in this animal to the end that he might not feel8 ,has he nerves that he may be incapable of suffering8 ,do not suppose that impertinent contradiction in ,nature40#afg ,to the final triumph which in ,paris awaited this champion of the weak1 at the advanced age of #hd1 and the unexampled enthusiasm of the people1 and the closing act of his eventful life1 we can here merely refer4 ,in ,berlin1 ,friedrich ordered a solemn mass in the cathedral church in commemoration of his genius and virtues4 ,a more enduring monument than any conventional mark of human vanity is the legacy which he left to posterity1 which will last as long as the ,french language1 and1 still more1 the humanity embodied in one of his later verses3-- 8,j'ai fait un peu de bien1 c'est mon meilleur ouvrage40 ,the faults of his character and writings which1 for the most part1 lie on the surface 7one of the most regretable of which was his sometimes servile flattery of men in power1 and the only excuse for which was his eagerness to gain them over to moderation and justice7 will be deemed by impartial criticism to have been more than counterbalanced by his real and substantial merits4 ,that he allowed his ardent indignation to overmaster the sense of propriety in too many instances1 in dealing with subjects which ought to be dealt with in a judicial and serious manner1 is that fault in his writings which must always cause the greatest regret4 ,in his discourse at his reception by the ,french ,academy he remarks that 8the art of instruction1 when it is perfect1 in the long run1 succeeds better than the art of sarcasm1 because ,satire dies with those who are the victims of it2 while ,reason and ,virtue are eternal40 ,it would have been well1 in many instances1 had he practised this principle4 ,but1 however objectionably his convictions were sometimes expressed1 his ardent love of truth and hatred of injustice have secured for him an imperishable fame2 while ,gthe's estimate of his intellectual pre-eminence--that he has the greatest name in all ,literature--is not likely soon to be disputed by ,posterity4 ,,xxv4 ,,haller4 #agjh-aggg4 ,the founder of ,modern ,physiology was born at ,berne4 ,in #agbc he went to ,tbingen to study medicine1 afterwards to ,leyden1 where the famous ,boerhaave was at the height of his reputation4 ,twelve years later he received the appointment of physician to the hospital at ,berne2 but soon afterwards he was invited by ,george ,,ii41 as ,elector of ,hanover1 to accept the professorship of anatomy and surgery at the ,university of ,gttingen4 ,his scientific writings are extraordinarily numerous4 ,from #agbg to #aggg he published nearly #bjj treatises4 ,his great work is his ,elements of the ,physiology of the ,human ,body 7in ,latin71 #ageg-agff--the most important treatise on medical science--or at least on anatomy and surgery--up to that time produced4 ,the ,icones ,anatomic 78,anatomical ,figures07 is 8a marvellously accurate1 well-engraved representation of the principal organs of the human body40 ,his writings are marked by unusual clearness of meaning1 as well as by accurate and deep research4 ,we wish that we could here stop2 but the force of truth compels us to affirm that1 for us at least1 his reputation1 great as it is in science1 has been for ever tarnished by his sacrifices--with frightful torture--of innocent victims on the altars of a selfish and sanguinary science4 ,one plea in extenuation of this callousness in regard to the suffering of other animals1 and only one1 can be offered in his defence4 ,at this very moment1 after all the humanitarian doctrine that has been preached during the century since the death of ,haller1 tortures of the most cold-blooded kind are being inflicted on tens of thousands of horses1 deer1 dogs1 rabbits1 and others1 in all the 8laboratories0 of ,europe2 while he had neither the prolonged experience of the uselessness of all such unnatural experimentation1 of which the vivisectors and pathologists of our day are in possession1 nor the same indoctrination of a higher morality1 which has been the heritage of these latter days4 ,the scientific barbarity of ,haller does not affect the nature of his physiological testimony1 which1 it might be presumed1 ought to be of some weight with his disciples and representatives of the present day4 ,he asserts3-- 8,this food1 then1 that ,i have hitherto described1 in which flesh has no part1 is salutary2 inasmuch as it fully nourishes a man1 protracts life to an advanced period1 and prevents or cures such disorders as are attributable to the acrimony or the grossness of the blood40#afh ,,xxvi4 ,,cocchi4 #afie-ageh4 ,it might justly provoke expression of feeling stronger than that of astonishment1 when we have to record that in ,south ,europe 7where climate and soil unite to recommend and render a humane manner of living#afi still more easy than in our colder regions7 the followers1 or1 at all events1 the prophets of the ,reformed ,diet have been conspicuously few4 ,since1 by the fortiori argument1 if abundant experience and teaching have proved it to be more conducive to health in higher latitudes1 much more is it evident that it must be fitting for the people of those parts of the globe nearer to the ,equator4 ,italy1 which has produced ,seneca1 ,cornaro1 and ,cocchi1 is less obnoxious to the reproach of indifferentism in this most vitally-important branch of ethics than the western peninsula4 ,but the 8paradise of ,europe0 has yet to deserve the more glorious title of 8the paradise of ,peace10 and to atone 7if1 indeed1 it be possible7 for the cruel shedding of innocent1 and in an especial degree superfluous1 blood4 ,an eminent professor of medicine and of surgery1 ,antonio ,cocchi distinguished himself also as a philologist4 ,he was born at ,benevento4 ,before giving himself up to the practice of medicine he devoted several years to the study of the old and the modern languages of ,europe4 ,his knowledge of ,english helped to bring him into contact with many men of science in ,england1 some of whom he met on his visit to ,london4 ,returning to ,italy he was named ,professor of ,medicine at ,pisa4 ,he soon left that ,university for ,florence1 where he held the chair of ,anatomy as well as of ,philosophy4 ,to him ,florence was indebted for its ,botanical ,society1 with which1 in conjunction with ,micheli1 he endowed it4 ,he was a voluminous writer4#agj ,his ,greek ,surgical ,books#aga contain valuable extracts from the ,greek writers on medicine and surgery not before published4 ,amongst other writings may be distinguished his ,treatise on the ,use of ,cold ,baths by the ,ancients4#agb ,the treatise which gives him a place in this work was published at ,florence under the title of ,the ,pythagorean ,diet3 for the ,use of the ,medical ,faculty4#agc ,dr4 ,cocchi begins his little treatise with a eulogy and defence of the great reformer of ,samos1 and of his radical revolution in food4 ,he cites the ,greek and ,latin writers1 and especially the earlier ,roman ,laws1 the ,fannian and the ,licinian4 ,he proceeds3-- 8,true and constant vigour of body is the effect of health1 which is much better preserved with watery1 herbaceous1 frugal1 and tender food1 than with vinous1 abundant1 hard1 and gross flesh 7che col carneo vinoso ed unto abundante e duro74 ,and in a sound body1 a clear intelligence1 and desire to suppress the mischievous inclinations 7voglie dannose71 and to conquer the irrational passions1 produces true worth40 ,cocchi cites the examples of the ,greeks and of the ,romans as proof that the non-flesh diet does not diminish courage or strength3-- 8,the vulgar opinion1 then1 which1 on health reasons1 condemns vegetable food and so much praises animal food1 being so ill-founded1 ,i have always thought it well to oppose myself to it1 moved both by experience and by that refined knowledge of natural things which some study and conversation with great men have given me4 ,and perceiving now that such my constancy has been honoured by some learned and wise physicians with their authoritative adhesion 7della autorevole sequela71 ,i have thought it my duty publicly to diffuse the reasons of the ,pythagorean diet1 regarded as useful in medicine1 and1 at the same time1 as full of innocence1 of temperance1 and of health4 ,and it is none the less accompanied with a certain delicate pleasure1 and also with a refined and splendid luxury 7non privo nemmeno d'una certa delicate volutt e d'un lusso gentile e splendido ancora71 if care and skill be applied in selection and proper supply of the best vegetable food1 to which the fertility and the natural character of our beautiful country seem to invite us4 ,for my part ,i have been so much the more induced to take up this subject1 because ,i have persuaded myself that ,i might be of service to intending diet-reformers1 there not being1 to my knowledge1 any book of which this is the sole subject1 and which undertakes exactly to explain the origin and the reasons of it40 ,his special motive to the publication of his treatise1 however1 was to vindicate the claims of the reformer of ,samos upon the gratitude of men3-- 8,i wished to show that ,pythagoras1 the first founder of the vegetable regimen1 was at once a very great physicist and a very great physician2 that there has been no one of a more cultured and discriminating humanity2 that he was a man of wisdom and of experience2 that his motive in commending and introducing the new mode of living was derived not from any extravagant superstition1 but from the desire to improve the health and the manners of men40#agd ,,xxvii4 ,,rousseau4 #agab-aggh4 ,few lives of writers of equal reputation have been exposed to our examination with the fulness and minuteness of the life of this the most eloquent name in ,french literature4 ,with the exception of the great ,latin father1 ,st4 ,augustine1 no other leader of thought1 in fact1 has so entirely revealed to us his inner life1 his faults and weaknesses 7often sufficiently startling71 no less than the estimable parts of his character1 and we remain in doubt whether more to lament the infirmities or to admire the candour of the autobiographer4 ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau1 son of a ,genevan tradesman1 had the misfortune to lose his mother at a very early age4 ,it is to this want of maternal solicitude and fostering care that some of the errors in his after career may perhaps be traced4 ,after a short experience of school discipline he was apprenticed to an engraver1 whose coarse violence must injuriously have affected the nervous temperament of the sensitive child4 ,ill-treatment forced him to run away1 and he found refuge with ,mde4 de ,warens1 a ,swiss lady1 a convert to ,catholicism1 who occupies a prominent place in the first period of his ,confessions4 ,influenced by her kindness1 and by the skilful arguments of his preceptors at the college at ,turin1 where she had placed him1 the young ,rousseau 7like ,bayle and ,gibbon1 before and after him1 though from a different motive7 abjured ,protestantism1 and1 for the moment1 accepted1 or at least professed1 the tenets of the old ,orthodoxy4 ,dismissed from the college because he refused to take orders1 he engaged himself as a domestic servant or valet4 ,he did not long remain in this position1 and he resought the protection of his friend ,mde4 de ,warens at ,chambry4 ,his connexion with his too indulgent patroness terminated in the year #agdj4 ,for some years after this his life was of a most erratic1 and not always edifying1 kind4 ,we find him employed in teaching at ,lyons1 and at another time acting as secretary to the ,french ,embassy at ,venice4 ,in #agde he came to ,paris4 ,there he earned a living by copying music4 ,about this time he met with ,therse ,levasseur1 the daughter of his hostess1 with whom he formed a lasting but unhappy connexion4 ,it was in #agdh1 at the age of #cf1 that he made the acquaintance1 at the house of ,mde4 d',epinay1 of the editors of the ,encyclopdie1 ,d',alembert and ,diderot1 who engaged him to write articles on music and upon other subjects in that first of comprehensive dictionaries4 ,his first independent appearance in literature was in his essay on the question1 8,whether the progress of science and of the arts has been favourable to the morals of mankind10 in which paradoxically he maintains the negative4 ,it was the eloquence1 we must suppose1 rather than the reasoning1 which gained him the prize awarded by the ,acadmie of ,dijon4 ,his next production--a more important one--was his ,discours sur l',inegalit parmi les ,hommes 78,discourse upon ,inequality amongst ,men074 ,in this treatise--the prelude to his more developed ,contrat ,social--,rousseau affirms the paradox of the natural school1 as it may be termed1 which alleged the state of nature--the life of the uncivilised man--to be the ideal condition of the species4 ,his thesis that all men are born with equal rights takes a much more defensible position4 ,in this ,discours diet is assigned its due importance in relation to the welfare of communities4 ,the romance of ,julie3 ou la ,nouvelle ,hloise1 which excited an unusual amount of interest1 appeared in #agei4 ,emile3 ou de l',education1 was given to the world three years later4 ,it is the most important of his writings4 ,in the education of ,emile1 or ,emilius1 he propounds his ideas upon one of the most interesting subjects which can engage attention--the right training of the young4 ,the earlier part of the book is almost altogether admirable and useful4 ,the later portion is more open to criticism1 although not upon the grounds upon which was founded the hostility of the authorities of the day who unjustly condemned the book as irreligious and immoral4 ,rousseau begins with laying down the principles of a new and more rational method of rearing infants1 agreeing1 in many particulars1 with the system of his predecessor1 ,locke4 ,at least some of his protests against the unnatural treatment of children were not altogether in vain4 ,mothers in fashionable ranks of life began to recognise the mischief arising from the common practice of putting their infants out to nurse in place of suckling them themselves4 ,they began also to abandon the absurd custom of confining their limbs in mummy-like bandages4 ,nor1 though long in bearing adequate fruit1 were his denunciations of the barbarous severity of parents and schoolmasters without some result4 ,he insists upon the incalculable evils of inoculating the young1 according to the almost universal custom1 with superstitious beliefs and fancies which grow with the growth of the recipient until they become radically fixed in the mind as by a natural development4 ,most important of all his innovations in education1 and certainly the most heretical1 is his recommendation of a pure dietary4 ,the publication of his treatise on education brought down a storm of persecution and opprobrium upon the author4 ,the ,contrat ,social 7in which he seemed to aim at subverting the political and social traditions1 as he had in ,emile the educational prejudices of the venerated ,past7 appearing soon afterwards added fuel to the flames4 ,rousseau found himself forced to flee from ,paris1 and he sought shelter in the territory of ,geneva4 ,but the authorities1 unmindful of the old reputation of the land of freedom1 refusing him an asylum1 he proceeded to ,neuchtel1 then under ,prussian rule1 where he was well received4 ,from this retreat he replied to the attacks of the ,archbishop of ,paris1 and addressed a letter to the magistrates of ,geneva renouncing his citizenship4 ,he also published ,letters ,written from the ,mountain1 severely criticising the civil and church government of his native canton4 ,these acts did not tend to conciliate the goodwill of the rulers of the people with whom he had taken refuge4 ,at this moment an object of dislike to all the ,continental sovereign powers1 he gladly embraced the offer of ,david ,hume to find him an asylum in ,england4 ,the social and political revolutionist arrived in ,london in #agff1 and took up his residence in a village in ,derbyshire4 ,he did not remain long in this country1 his irritable temperament inducing him too hastily to suspect the sincerity of the friendship of his host4 ,the next eight years of his life were passed in comparative obscurity1 and in migrating from one place to another in the neighbourhood of ,paris4 ,in his solitude gardening and botanising occupied a large part of his leisure hours4 ,it was at this period he made the acquaintance of ,bernardin ,st4 ,pierre1 his enthusiastic disciple1 and immortalised as the author of ,paul et ,virginie4 ,his end came suddenly4 ,he had been settled only a few months in a cottage given him by one of his numerous aristocratic friends and admirers1 when one morning1 feeling unwell1 he requested his wife to open the window that he 8might once more look on the lovely verdure of the fields10 and as he was expressing his delight at the exquisite beauty of the scene and of the skies he fell forward and instantly breathed his last4 ,at his special request his place of burial was chosen on an island in a lake in the ,park of ,ermondville1 a fitting resting-place for one of the most eloquent of the high priests of ,nature4 ,his character 7as we have already remarked7 is revealed in his ,confessions--which was written1 in part1 during his brief exile in ,england4 ,it1 as well as his other productions1 shews him to us as a man of extraordinary sensibility1 which1 in regard to himself1 occasionally degenerated into a sort of disease or1 in popular language1 morbidness 7a word1 by the way1 constantly abused by the many who seem to excuse their own insensibility to surrounding evils by stigmatising with that vague expression the acuter feeling of the few71 which sometimes assumed the appearance of partial unsoundness of mind4 ,this it was that caused him to suspect and quarrel with his best friends1 and which1 we may suppose1 led him1 in his minute dissection of himself1 to exaggerate his real moral infirmities4 ,in summing up his personal character we shall perhaps impartially judge him to have been1 on the whole1 amiable rather than admirable1 of good impulses1 and of a naturally humane disposition1 cultivated by reading and reflection1 but to have been wanting in firmness of mind and in that virtue so much esteemed in the school of ,pythagoras--self control4 ,his philosophy is distinguished rather by refinement than by vigour or depth of thought4 ,it is in the education of the young that ,rousseau exerts his eloquence to enforce the importance of a non-flesh diet3-- 8,one of the proofs that the taste of flesh is not natural to man is the indifference which children exhibit for that sort of meat1 and the preference they all give to vegetable foods1 such as milk-porridge1 pastry1 fruits1 c4 ,it is of the last importance not to denaturalise them of this primitive taste 7de ne pas dnaturer ce got primitif71 and not to render them carnivorous1 if not for health reasons1 at least for the sake of their character4 ,for1 however the experience may be explained1 it is certain that great eaters of flesh are1 in general1 more cruel and ferocious than other men4 ,this observation is true of all places and of all times4 ,english coarseness is well known4#age ,the ,gaures1 on the contrary1 are the gentlest of men4 ,all savages are cruel1 and it is not their morals that urge them to be so2 this cruelty proceeds from their food4 ,they go to war as to the chase1 and treat men as they do bears4 ,even in ,england the butchers are not received as legal witnesses any more than surgeons4#agf ,great criminals harden themselves to murder by drinking blood4#agg ,homer represents the ,cyclopes1 who were flesh-eaters1 as frightful men1 and the ,lotophagi ,lotus-eaters as a people so amiable that as soon as one had any dealing with them one straightway forgot everything1 even one's country1 to live with them40 ,rousseau1 in a free translation1 here quotes a considerable part of ,plutarch's ,essay4 ,he insists1 especially1 that children should be early accustomed to the pure diet3-- 8,the further we remove from a natural mode of living the more do we lose our natural tastes2 or rather habit makes a second nature1 which we substitute to such a degree for the first that none among us any longer knows what the latter is4 ,it follows from this that the most simple tastes must also be the most natural1 for they are those which are most easily changed1 while by being sharpened and by being irritated by our whims they assume a form which never changes4 ,the man who is yet of no country will conform himself without trouble to the customs of any country whatever1 but the man of one country never becomes that of another4 ,this appears to me true in every sense1 and still more so applied to taste properly so-called4 ,our first food was milk4 ,we accustom ourselves only by degrees to strong flavours4 ,at first they are repugnant to us4 ,fruits1 vegetables1 kitchen herbs1 and1 in fine1 often broiled dishes1 without seasoning and without salt1 composed the feasts of the first men4 ,the first time a savage drinks wine he makes a grimace and rejects it2 and even amongst ourselves1 whoever has lived to his twentieth year without tasting fermented drinks1 cannot afterwards accustom himself to them4 ,we should all be abstinents from alcohol if we had not been given wines in our early years4 ,in fine1 the more simple our tastes are the more universal are they1 and the most common repugnance is for made-up dishes4 ,does one ever see a person have a disgust for water or bread8 ,behold here the impress of nature6 ,behold here1 then1 our rule of life4 ,let us preserve to the child as long as possible his primitive taste2 let its nourishment be common and simple2 let not its palate be familiarised to any but natural flavours1 and let no exclusive taste be formed4444 ,i have sometimes examined those people who attached importance to good living1 who thought1 upon their first awaking1 of what they should eat during the day1 and described a dinner with more exactitude than ,polybius would use in describing a battle4 ,i have thought that all these so-called men were but children of forty years without vigour and without consistence--fruges consumere nati4#agh ,gluttony is the vice of souls that have no solidity 7qui n'ont point d'toffe74 ,the soul of a gourmand is in his palate4 ,he is brought into the world but to devour4 ,in his stupid incapacity he is at home only at his table4 ,his powers of judgment are limited to his dishes4 ,let us leave him in his employment without regret4 ,better that for him than any other1 as much for our own sakes as for his40#agi ,in the ,julie3 ou la ,nouvelle ,heloise he describes his heroine as preferring the innocent feast3-- 8,although luxurious in her repasts she likes neither flesh-meat nor ragots4 ,excellent vegetable dishes1 eggs1 cream1 fruits--these constitute her ordinary food2 and1 excepting fish1 which she likes as much1 she would be a true ,pythagorean40#ahj ,although he was not a thorough or consistent abstainer1 ,rousseau speaks with enthusiasm of the pleasures of his frugal repasts1 in which1 it seems1 when he was not seduced by the sumptuous dinners of his fashionable admirers1 flesh1 as a rule1 had no part3-- 8,who shall describe1 who shall understand1 the charm of these repasts1 composed of a quartern loaf1 of cherries1 of a little cheese1 and of a half-pint of wine1 which we drank together4 ,friendship1 confidence1 intimacy1 sweetness of soul1 how delicious are your seasonings60#aha ,,xxviii4 ,,linn4 #agjg-aggh4 ,karl von ,linn1 or 7according to the antiquated fashion of ,latinising eminent names still retained7 ,linnus1 the distinguished ,swedish naturalist1 and the most eminent name in botanical literature1 in a notable manner arrived at his destined immortality in spite of friends and fortune4 ,prophecies do not always fulfil themselves1 and the estimate of his teachers that he was a hopeless 8blockhead10 and the prediction that he would be of no intellectual worth in the world 7they had advised his parents to apprentice him to a handicraft trade71 are a conspicuous instance of the falsification of prophecy4 ,after one year's course of study at the ,university of ,lund--where he had access to a good library and collections of natural history--he proceeded to the ,university of ,upsala4 ,there1 upon an allowance by his father of #h a year to meet all his expenses of living1 he struggled desperately against the almost insuperable obstacles of extreme poverty1 which forced him often to reduce his diet to one meal during the day4 ,he was then at the age of #bj4 ,at length1 by the hospitable friendship of the professor of botany1 and a small income derived from a few pupils1 ,linn found himself free to devote himself to the great labour of his life4 ,it was in the house of his host 7,rudbeck7 that he sketched the subject-matter of the important works he afterwards published4 ,in #agca he was commissioned by his university to explore the vegetable life of ,lapland4 ,within the space of five months he traversed alone1 and with slender provision1 some #d1jjj miles4 ,the result of this laborious expedition was his ,flora ,laponica4 ,three years later1 with the sum of fifteen pounds1 which he had with great difficulty gathered together1 he set out in search of some university where he might obtain the necessary degree of doctor in medicine at the least outlay1 in order to gain a living by the practice of physic4 ,he found the object of his search in ,holland4 ,in that country he met with a hospitable reception4 ,during his residence in ,holland he came over to ,england1 and visited the botanical collections at ,oxford and ,eltham1 with which the ,swedish savant1 it seems1 had not much reason to be satisfied4 ,returning to ,sweden1 he began practice as a physician at the age of #ca1 and he lectured1 by ,government appointment1 upon botany and mineralogy at ,stockholm4 ,his fame had now become ,european4 ,he was in correspondence with some of the most eminent scientific men throughout the world4 ,books and collections were sent to him from every quarter1 and his pupils supplied him with the results of their explorations in the three continents4 ,he was elected to the ,professorship of ,medicine at ,upsala1 and 7a vain addition to his real titles7 he was soon afterwards 8ennobled40 ,the productions of his genius and industry during the twenty years from #agdj were astonishingly numerous4 ,besides his ,systema ,natur and ,species ,plantarum1 his two most considerable works1 he wrote a large number of dissertations1 afterwards collected under the title of ,amnitates ,academic--8,academic ,delights40 ,everything he wrote was received with the greatest respect by the scientific world4 ,upon his death the whole ,university of ,upsala united in showing respect to his memory2 sixteen doctors of medicine1 old pupils1 bearing the 8pall10 and a general mourning was ordered throughout the land of his birth4 ,the scientific merits of ,linn are his exactness and conciseness in classification4 ,he reduced to something like order the chaotic and pedantic systems of his predecessors1 which were prolix and overladen with names and classes4 ,if the science still labours under the stigma of needless pedantry1 the fault lies not with himself1 but with his successors4 ,linn's evidence to the scientific truth of ,vegetarianism is brief but pregnant3-- 8,this species of food fruits and farinacea is that which is most suited to man1 as is proved by the series of quadrupeds1 analogy1 wild men1 apes1 the structure of the mouth1 of the stomach1 and of the hands40#ahb ,,xxix4 ,,buffon4 #agjg-aghh4 ,an eminent instance of perversity of logic--of which1 by the way1 the history of human thought supplies too many examples--is that of the well-known author of the ,histoire ,naturelle1 a work which 7highly interesting as it is1 and always will be1 by reason of the detailed and generally accurate delineation of the characters and habits of the various forms of animated nature1 and by reason of the graces of style of that ,french classic7 is1 from a strictly scientific point of view1 of not always the most reliable authority4 ,although ,buffon has depicted as forcibly as well can be conceived the low position in ,nature of the carnivorous tribes1 and not a few of the evils arising from human addiction to carnivorousness1 yet1 by a strange perversion of the facts of comparative physiology1 he has chosen to enlist himself amongst the apologists of that degenerate mode of living4 ,but facts are stronger than prejudices1 and his very candid admissions1 which we shall here quote1 speak sufficiently for themselves3-- 8,man says he knows how to use1 as a master1 his power over other animals4 ,he has selected those whose flesh flatters his taste4 ,he has made domestic slaves of them4 ,he has multiplied them more than ,nature could have done4 ,he has formed innumerable flocks1 and by the cares which he takes in propagating them he seems#ahc to have acquired the right of sacrificing them for himself4 ,but he extends that right much beyond his needs4 ,for1 independently of those species which he has subjected1 and of which he disposes at his will1 he makes war also upon wild animals1 upon birds1 upon fishes4 ,he does not even limit himself to those of the climate he inhabits4 ,he seeks at a distance1 even in the remotest seas1 new meats1 and entire ,nature seems scarcely to suffice for his intemperance and the inconsistent variety of his appetites4 8,man alone consumes and engulfs more flesh than all other animals put together4 ,he is1 then1 the greatest destroyer1 and he is so more by abuse than by necessity4 ,instead of enjoying with moderation the resources offered him1 in place of dispensing them with equity1 in place of repairing in proportion as he destroys1 of renewing in proportion as he annihilates1 the rich man makes all his boast and glory in consuming1 all his splendour in destroying1 in one day1 at his table1 more material 7plus de biens7 than would be necessary for the support of several families4 ,he abuses equally other animals and his own species1 the rest of whom live in famine1 languish in misery1 and work only to satisfy the immoderate appetite and the still more insatiable vanity of this human being who1 destroying others by want1 destroys himself by excess4 8,and yet ,man might1 like other animals1 live upon vegetables4 ,flesh is not a better nourishment than grains or bread4 ,what constitutes true nourishment1 what contributes to the nutrition1 to the development1 to the growth1 and to the support of the body1 is not that brute matter which1 to our eyes1 composes the texture of flesh or of vegetables1 but it is those organic molecules which both contain2 since the ox1 in feeding on grass1 acquires as much flesh as man or as animals who live upon flesh and blood4444 ,the essential source is the same2 it is the same matter1 it is the same organic molecules which nourish the ,ox1 ,man1 and all animals4444 ,it results from what we have just said that ,man1 whose stomach and intestines are not of a very great capacity relatively to the volume of his body1 could not live simply upon grass4 ,nevertheless it is proved by facts that he could well live upon bread1 vegetables1 and the grains of plants1 since we know entire nations and classes of men to whom religion forbids to feed upon anything that has life40 ,to the ordinary apprehension all this might seem prim facie conclusive evidence of the non-necessariness of the food of the richer classes of the community4 ,but1 unhappily1 ,buffon seems to have considered himself as holding a brief to defend his clients1 the flesh-eaters1 in the last resort1 and1 accordingly1 in spite of these admissions1 which to an unbiassed mind might appear conclusive argument for the relinquishment of flesh as food1 he proceeds to contradict himself by adding3-- 8,but these examples1 supported even by the authority of ,pythagoras and he might have added many later names of equal authority1 and recommended by some physicians too friendly to a reformed diet 7trop amis de dite671 appear to me not sufficient to convince us that it would be for the advantage of human health 7qu'il y et gagner pour la sant des hommes7 and for the multiplication of the human species to live upon vegetables and bread only1 for so much the stronger reason1 that the poor country people1 whom the luxury of the cities and towns and the extravagant waste of tables reduce to this mode of living1 languish and die off sooner than persons of the middle class1 to whom inanition and excess are equally unknown60#ahd ,in stigmatising1 in the following sentence1 the cruel rapacity of the lower carnivorous tribes1 ,buffon consciously or unconsciously stamps the same stigma upon the carnivorous human animal3-- 8,after ,man1 the animals who live only upon flesh are the greatest destroyers4 ,they are at once the enemies of ,nature and the rivals of ,man40#ahe ,,xxx4 ,,hawkesworth4 #agae-aggc4 ,best known as the editor of ,the ,adventurer--a periodical in imitation of the ,spectator1 ,rambler1 c4--which appeared twice a week during the years #ageb-ed4 ,johnson1 ,warton1 and others assisted him in this undertaking1 which has the honour of being one of the first periodicals which have ventured to denounce the cruel barbarism of 8,sport10 and the papers by ,hawkesworth upon that subject are in striking contrast with the usual tone and practice of his contemporaries and1 indeed1 of our own times4 ,in #agfa he published an edition of ,swift's writings1 with a life which received the praise of ,samuel ,johnson 7in his ,lives of the ,poets71 and it is a passage in that book which entitles him to a place here4 ,in #aggc he was entrusted by the ,government of the day with the task of compiling a history of the recent voyages of ,captain ,cook4 ,he also translated the ,aventures de ,tlmaque of ,fnlon4 ,the coarseness and repulsiveness of the dishes of the common diet seldom have been stigmatised with greater force than by ,dr4 ,hawkesworth4 ,his expressions of abhorrence are conceived quite in the spirit of ,plutarch3-- 8,among other dreadful and disgusting images which ,custom has rendered familiar1 are those which arise from eating animal food4 ,he who has ever turned with abhorrence from the skeleton of a beast which has been picked whole by birds or vermin1 must confess that habit alone could have enabled him to endure the sight of the mangled bones and flesh of a dead carcase which every day cover his table4 ,and he who reflects on the number of lives that have been sacrificed to sustain his own1 should enquire by what the account has been balanced1 and whether his life is become proportionately of more value by the exercise of virtue and by the superior happiness which he has communicated to more reasonable beings40#ahf ,,xxxi4 ,,paley4 #agdc-ahje4 ,with the exception of ,joseph ,butler1 perhaps the ablest and most interesting of ,english orthodox theologians4 ,as one of the very few of this numerous class of writers who seem seriously to be impressed with the difficulty of reconciling orthodox dietetics with the higher moral and religious instincts1 ,paley has for social reformers a title to remembrance1 and it is as a moral philosopher that he has a claim upon our attention4 ,the son of a country curate1 ,paley began his career as tutor in an academy in ,greenwich4 ,he had entered ,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge1 as 8sizar40 ,being senior wrangler of his year1 he was afterwards elected a ,fellow of his college4 ,his lectures on moral philosophy at the ,university contained the germs of his most useful writing4 ,after the usual previous stages1 finally he received the preferment of the ,archdeaconry of ,carlisle4 ,the failure of the most eminent of the modern apologists of dogmatic ,christianity to attain the highest rewards of ecclesiastical ambition1 and the refusal of ,george ,,iii4 to promote 8pigeon0 ,paley when it was proposed to that reactionary prince to make so skilful a controversialist a bishop--a refusal founded on the famous apology for monarchy in the ,moral and ,political ,philosophy--is well known4 ,the most important1 by far1 of his writings1 is the ,elements of ,moral and ,political ,philosophy 7#aghe74 ,he founds moral obligation upon principles of utility4 ,in politics he asserts the grounds of the duties of rulers and ruled to be based upon the same far-reaching consideration1 and upon this principle he maintains that as soon as any ,government has proved itself corrupt or negligent of the public good1 whatever may have been the alleged legitimacy of its original authority1 the right of the governed to put an end to it is established4 8,the final view of all national politics10 he affirms1 8is ought to be to produce the greatest quantity of happiness40 ,the comparative boldness1 indeed1 of certain of his disquisitions on ,government alarmed not a little the political and ecclesiastical dignitaries of the time4 ,his adhesion to the programme of ,clarkson and the anti-slavery 8fanatics0 7as that numerically insignificant band of reformers was styled7 did not tend1 it may be presumed1 to counteract the damaging effects of his political philosophy4 ,in his ,natural ,theology 7#ahjb71 his best theological production1 he labours to establish the fact of benevolent design from observation of the various phenomena of nature and life4 ,whatever estimate may be formed of the success of this undertaking1 there can be no question of the ability and eloquence of the accomplished pleader2 and the book proves him1 at least1 to have acquired a surprising amount of physiological and anatomical knowledge4 ,it is justly described by ,sir ,j4 ,mackintosh as 8the wonderful work of a man who1 after sixty1 had studied anatomy in order to write it40 ,of the ,evidences 7#agij-id7--the most popularly known of his writings--the considerable literary merit is in somewhat striking contrast1 in regard to clearness and simplicity of style1 with the ordinary productions of the evidential school4 ,we are concerned now with the ,moral and ,political ,philosophy4 ,it has been already stated that it is based upon the principles of utilitarianism4 ,as for personal moral conduct1 he justly considered it to be vastly influenced by early custom2 or1 as he expresses it1 the art of life consists in the right 8setting of our habits40 ,on the subjoined examination of the question of the lawfulness or otherwise of flesh-eating1 his ultimate refuge in an alleged biblical authority 7forced upon him1 apparently1 by the necessity of his position rather than by personal inclination7 confirms rather than weakens his preceding candid admissions1 which sufficiently establish our position3-- 8,a right to the flesh of animals4 ,this is a very different claim from the former #8a right to the fruits or vegetable produce of the earth'4 ,some excuse seems necessary for the pain and loss which we occasion to other animals by restraining them of their liberty1 mutilating their bodies1 and1 at last1 putting an end to their lives for our pleasure or convenience4 8,the reasons alleged in vindication of this practice are the following--that the several species of animals being created to prey upon one another#ahg affords a kind of analogy to prove that the human species were intended to feed upon them2 that1 if let alone1 they would overrun the earth1 and exclude mankind from the occupation of it2#ahh that they are requited for what they suffer at our hands by our care and protection4 8,upon which reasons ,i would observe that the analogy contended for is extremely lame1 since the carnivorous animals have no power to support life by any other means1 and since we have1 for the whole human species might subsist entirely upon fruit1 pulse1 herbs1 and roots1 as many tribes of ,hindus#ahi actually do4 ,the two other reasons may be valid reasons1 as far as they go1 for1 no doubt1 if men had been supported entirely by vegetable food a great part of those animals who die to furnish our tables would never have lived#aij but they by no means justify our right over the lives of other animals to the extent to which we exercise it4 ,what danger is there1 e4g41 of fish interfering with us in the occupation of their element1 or what do we contribute to their support or preservation8 8,it seems to me that it would be difficult to defend this right by any arguments which the light and order of ,nature afford1 and that we are beholden for it to the permission recorded in ,scripture 7,gen4 ix41 #a1 #b1 #c74 ,to ,adam and his posterity had been granted1 at the creation1 #8every green herb for meat1' and nothing more4 ,in the last clause of the passage now produced the old grant is recited and extended to the flesh of animals--#8even as the green herb1 have ,i given you all things4' ,but this was not until after the ,flood4 ,the inhabitants of the antediluvian world had therefore no such permission that we know of4 ,whether they actually refrained from the flesh of animals is another question4 ,abel1 we read1 was a keeper of sheep1 and for what purpose he kept them1 except for food1 is difficult to say 7unless it were sacrifice74 ,might not1 however1 some of the stricter sects among the antediluvians be scrupulous as to this point8 ,and might not ,noah and his family be of this description8 ,for1 it is not probable that ,god should publish a permission to authorise a practice which had never been disputed40#aia ,thus far as regards the moral aspect of the subject4 ,dealing with the social and economical view1 ,paley1 untrammelled by professional views1 is more decided4 ,in his chapter1 ,of ,population and ,provision1 c41 he writes3-- 8,the natives of ,hindustan being confined1 by the laws of their religion1 to the use of vegetable food1 and requiring little except rice1 which the country produces in plentiful crops2 and food1 in warm climates1 composing the only want of life1 these countries are populous under all the injuries of a despotic1 and the agitations of an unsettled1 ,government4 ,if any revolution1 or what would be called perhaps refinement of manners 7671 should generate in these people a taste for the flesh of animals1 similar to what prevails amongst the ,arabian hordes--should introduce flocks and herds into grounds which are now covered with corn--should teach them to account a certain portion of this species of food amongst the necessaries of life--the population from this single change would suffer in a few years a great diminution1 and this diminution would follow in spite of every effort of the laws1 or even of any improvement that might take place in their civil condition4 ,in ,ireland the simplicity of living alone maintains a considerable degree of population under great defects of police1 industry1 and commerce4444 ,next to the mode of living1 we are to consider #8the quantity of provision suited to that mode1 which is either raised in the country or imported into it1' for this is the order in which we assigned the causes of population and undertook to treat of them4 ,now1 if we measure the quantity of provision by the number of human bodies it will support in due health and vigour1 this quantity1 the extent and quality of the soil from which it is raised being given1 will depend greatly upon the kind4 ,for instance1 a piece of ground capable of supplying animal food sufficient for the subsistence of ten persons would sustain1 at least1 the double of that number with grain1 roots1 and milk4 8,the first resource of savage life is in the flesh of wild animals4 ,hence the numbers amongst savage nations1 compared with the tract of country which they occupy1 are universally small1 because this species of provision is1 of all others1 supplied in the slenderest proportion4 ,the next step was the invention of pasturage1 or the rearing of flocks and herds of tame animals4 ,this alteration added to the stock of provision much4 ,but the last and principal improvement was to follow1 viz41 tillage1 or the artificial production of corn1 esculent plants1 and roots4 ,this discovery1 whilst it changed the quality of human food1 augmented the quantity in a vast proportion4 8,so far as the state of population is governed and limited by the quantity of provision1 perhaps there is no single cause that affects it so powerfully as the kind and quality of food which chance or usage hath introduced into a country4 ,in ,england1 notwithstanding the produce of the soil has been of late considerably increased by the enclosure of wastes and the adoption1 in many places1 of a more successful husbandry1 yet we do not observe a corresponding addition to the number of inhabitants1 the reason of which appears to me to be the more general consumption of animal food amongst us4 ,many ranks of people whose ordinary diet was1 in the last century1 prepared almost entirely from milk1 roots1 and vegetables1 now require every day a considerable portion of the flesh of animals4 ,hence a great part of the richest lands of the country are converted to pasturage4 ,much also of the bread-corn1 which went directly to the nourishment of human bodies1 now only contributes to it by fattening the flesh of sheep and oxen4 ,the mass and volume of provisions are hereby diminished1 and what is gained in the amelioration of the soil is lost in the quality of the produce4 8,this consideration teaches us that tillage1 as an object of national care and encouragement1 is universally preferable to pasturage1 because the kind of provision which it yields goes much farther in the sustentation of human life4 ,tillage is also recommended by this additional advantage--that it affords employment to a much more numerous peasantry4 ,indeed pasturage seems to be the art of a nation1 either imperfectly civilised1 as are many of the tribes which cultivate it in the internal parts of ,asia1 or of a nation1 like ,spain1 declining from its summit by luxury and inactivity40#aib ,elsewhere ,paley asserts that 8luxury in dress or furniture is universally preferable to luxury in eating1 because the articles which constitute the one are more the production of human art and industry than those which supply the other40 ,,xxxii4 ,,st4 ,,pierre4 #agcg-ahad4 ,principally known as the author of the most charming of all idyllic romances--,paul et ,virginie4 ,beginning his career as civil engineer he afterwards entered the ,french army4 ,a quarrel with his official superiors forced him to seek employment elsewhere1 and he found it in the ,russian service1 where his scientific ability received due recognition4 ,encouraged by the esteem in which he was held1 he formed the project of establishing a colony on the ,caspian shores1 which should be under just and equal laws4 ,st4 ,pierre submitted the scheme to the ,russian ,minister1 who1 as we should be apt to presume1 did not receive it too favourably4 ,he then went to ,poland in the vain expectation of aiding the people of that hopelessly distracted country in throwing off the foreigners' yoke4 ,failing in this undertaking1 and despairing1 for the time1 of the cause of freedom1 we next find him in ,berlin and in ,vienna4 ,he had also previously visited ,holland1 in which great refuge of freedom he had been received with hospitality4 ,in ,paris1 upon his return to ,france1 his project of a free colony found better reception than in ,st4 ,petersburg--owing1 perhaps1 to the not altogether disinterested sympathy of the ,government with the recently revolted ,american colonies4 ,to further his plans he accepted an official post in the ,ile de ,france1 intending eventually to proceed to ,madagascar1 where was to be realised his long-cherished idea4 ,on the voyage he discovered that his associates had formed a very different design from his own--to engage in the slave traffic4 ,separating from these nefarious speculators1 he landed in the ,ile de ,france1 where he remained two years4 ,it is to the experiences of this part of his life that we owe his ,paul et ,virginie1 the scenes of which are laid in that tropical island4 ,returning home once again1 he made the acquaintance of ,d',alembert and of other leading men of letters in ,paris1 and1 particularly1 of ,rousseau1 his philosophical master4 ,at the period of the ,great ,revolution of #aghi1 ,st4 ,pierre lost his post as superintendent of the ,royal ,botanical ,gardens under the old ,bourbon ,government1 and he found himself reduced to poverty2 and although his sympathies were with the party of constitutional1 though not of radical1 reform1 the supremacy of the extreme revolutionists 7#agib-agid7 exposed him to some hazard by reason of his known deistic convictions4 ,upon the establishment of the reactionary revolution of the ,empire1 ,st4 ,pierre recovered his former post1 and1 with the empty honour of the ,imperial ,cross1 he received the more solid benefit of a pension and other emoluments4 ,his writings have been collected and published in two quarto volumes 7,paris1 #ahcf74 ,of these1 after his celebrated romance1 perhaps the most popular is ,la ,chaumire ,indienne 78,the ,indian or ,hindu ,cottage074 ,his principal productions are ,etudes de la ,nature 78,studies of ,nature071 ,vux d'un ,solitaire 78,aspirations of a ,recluse071 ,voyage ,l',ile de ,france 78,voyage to ,mauritius071 and ,l',arcadie 78,arcadia074 ,his merits consist in a certain refinement of feeling1 in charming eloquence in description of natural beauty1 and in the humane spirit which breathes in his writings4 ,of the ,paul et ,virginie he tells us-- 8,i have proposed to myself great designs in that little work4444 ,i have desired to reunite to the beauty of ,nature1 as seen in the tropics1 the moral beauty of a small society of human beings4 ,i proposed to myself thereby to demonstrate several great truths2 amongst others this--that our happiness consists in living according to ,nature and ,virtue40 ,he assures us that the principal characters and events he describes are by no means only the imaginings of romance4 ,in truth1 it seems difficult to believe that the genius of the author alone could have impressed so wonderful an air of reality upon merely fictitious scenes4 ,the popularity of the story was secured at once in the author's own country1 and it rapidly spread throughout ,europe4 ,paul et ,virginie was successively translated into ,english1 ,italian1 ,german1 ,dutch1 ,polish1 ,russian1 and ,spanish4 ,it became the fashion for mothers to give to their children the names of its hero and heroine1 and well would it have been had they also adopted for them that method of innocent living which is the real1 if too generally unrecognised1 secret of the fascinating power of the book4 ,it is thus that he eloquently calls to remembrance the natural feasts of his young heroine and hero3-- 8,amiable children6 thus in innocence did you pass your first days4 ,how often in this spot have your mothers1 pressing you in their arms1 thanked ,heaven for the consolation you were preparing for them in their old age1 and for the happiness of seeing you enter upon life under so happy auguries6 ,how often1 under the shadow of these rocks1 have ,i shared1 with them1 your out-door repasts which had cost no animals their lives4 ,gourds full of milk1 of newly-laid eggs1 of rice cakes upon banana leaves1 baskets laden with potatoes1 with mangoes1 with oranges1 with pomegranates1 with bananas1 with dates1 with ananas1 offered at once the most wholesome meats1 the most beautiful colours1 and the most agreeable juices4 ,the conversation was as refined and gentle as their food40 ,the humaneness of their manners had attracted to the charming arbour1 which they had formed for themselves1 all kinds of beautiful birds1 who sought there their daily meals and the caresses of their human protectors4 ,our readers will not be displeased to be reminded of this charming scene3-- 8,virginie loved to repose upon the slope of this fountain1 which was decorated with a pomp at once magnificent and wild4 ,often would she come there to wash the household linen beneath the shade of two cocoa-nut trees4 ,sometimes she led her goats to feed in this place2 and1 while she was preparing cheese from their milk1 she pleased herself in watching them as they browsed the herbage upon the precipitous sides of the rocks1 and supported themselves in mid-air upon one of the jutting points as upon a pedestal4 ,paul1 seeing that this spot was loved by ,virginie1 brought from the neighbouring forest the nests of all sorts of birds4 ,the fathers and mothers of these birds followed their little ones1 and came and established themselves in this new colony4 ,virginie would distribute to them from time to time grains of rice1 maize1 and millet4 ,as soon as she appeared1 the blackbirds1 the bengalis1 whose flight is so gentle1 the cardinals1 whose plumage is of the colour of fire1 quitted their bushes2 parroquets1 green as emerald1 descended from the neighbouring lianas1 partridges ran along under the grass--all advanced pell-mell up to her feet like domestic hens4 ,paul and she delighted themselves with their transports of joy1 with their eager appetites1 and with their loves40 ,in his views upon national education1 ,st4 ,pierre invites the serious attention of legislators and educators to the importance of accustoming the young to the nourishment prescribed by ,nature3-- 8,they the true instructors of the people will accustom children to the vegetable rgime4 ,the peoples living upon vegetable foods1 are1 of all men1 the handsomest1 the most vigorous1 the least exposed to diseases and to passions1 and they whose lives last longest4 ,such1 in ,europe1 are a large proportion of the ,swiss4 ,the greater part of the peasantry who1 in every country1 form the most vigorous portion of the people1 eat very little flesh-meat4 ,the ,russians have multiplied periods of fasting and days of abstinence1 from which even the soldiers are not exempt2 and yet they resist all kinds of fatigues4 ,the negroes1 who undergo so many hard blows in our colonies1 live upon manioc1 potatoes1 and maize alone4 ,the ,brahmins of ,india1 who frequently reach the age of one hundred years1 eat only vegetable foods4 ,it was from the ,pythagorean sect that issued ,epaminondas1 so celebrated by his virtues2 ,archytas1 by his genius for mathematics and mechanics2 ,milo of ,crotona1 by his strength of body4 ,pythagoras himself was the finest man of his time1 and1 without dispute1 the most enlightened1 since he was the father of philosophy amongst the ,greeks4 ,inasmuch as the non-flesh diet introduces many virtues and excludes none1 it will be well to bring up the young upon it1 since it has so happy an influence upon the beauty of the body and upon the tranquility of the mind4 ,this regimen prolongs childhood1 and1 by consequence1 human life4#aic 8,i have seen an instance of it in a young ,englishman aged fifteen1 and who did not appear to be twelve years of age4 ,he was of a most interesting figure1 of the most robust health1 and of the most sweet disposition4 ,he was accustomed to take very long walks4 ,he was never put out of temper by any annoyance that might happen4 ,his father1 ,mr4 ,pigott1 told me that he had brought him up entirely upon the ,pythagorean regimen1 the good effects of which he had known by his own experience4 ,he had formed the project of employing a part of his fortune1 which was considerable1 in establishing in ,english ,america a society of dietary reformers who should be engaged in educating1 under the same regimen1 the children of the colonists in all the arts which bear upon agriculture4 ,would that this educational scheme1 worthy of the best and happiest times of ,antiquity1 might succeed6 ,physically1 it suits a warlike people no less than an agricultural one4 ,the ,persian children1 of the time of ,cyrus1 and by his orders1 were nourished upon bread1 water1 and vegetables4444 ,it was with these children1 become men1 that ,cyrus made the conquest of ,asia4 ,i observe that ,lycurgus introduced a great part of the physical and moral regimen of the ,persian children into the education of those of the ,lacedemonians40 7,etudes47#aid 99 99 99 99 99 ,of the many practical witnesses of this period1 more or less interesting1 for the sufficiency1 or rather superiority1 of the reformed regimen1 four names stand out in prominent relief--,franklin1 ,howard1 ,swedenborg1 ,wesley--prominent either for scientific ability or for philanthropic zeal4 ,to his early resolution to betake himself to frugal living1 ,benjamin ,franklin1 then in a printer's office in ,boston1 attributes mainly his future success in life4#aie ,it was to his pure dietary that the great ,prison ,reformer assigns his immunity1 during so many years1 from the deadly jail-fever1 to the infection of which he fearlessly exposed himself in visiting those hotbeds of malaria--the filthy prisons of this country and of continental ,europe4 7,see the correspondence of ,john ,howard--passim47 ,equally significant is the testimony of the eminent founder of ,methodism whose almost unexampled energy and endurance1 both of mind and body1 during some fifty years of continuous persecution1 both legal and popular1 were supported 7as he informs us in his ,journals7 mainly by abstinence from gross foods2 while1 in regard to ,emanuel ,swedenborg1 if abstinence does not assume so prominent a place in his theological or other various writings as might have been expected from his special opinions1 the cause of such silence must be referred not to personal addiction to an anti-spiritualistic nourishment 7for he himself was notably frugal7 but to preoccupation of mental faculties which seem to have been absorbed in the elaboration of his well-known spiritualistic system4 ,the limits of this work do not permit us to quote all the many writers of the eighteenth century whom philosophy1 science1 or profounder feeling urged incidentally to question the necessity or to suspect the barbarism of the ,slaughter-,house4 ,but there are two names1 amongst the highest in the whole range of ,english philosophic literature1 whose expression of opinion may seem to be peculiarly noteworthy--the author of the ,wealth of ,nations and the historian of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire4 8,it may1 indeed1 be doubted writes the founder of the science of ,political ,economy whether butchers' meat is anywhere a necessary of life4 ,grain and other vegetables1 with the help of milk1 cheese1 and butter1 or oil 7where butter is not to be had71 it is known from experience1 can1 without any butchers' meat1 afford the most plentiful1 the most wholesome1 the most nourishing1 and the most invigorating diet40#aif ,as for the reflections of the first of historians1 who seems always carefully to guard himself from the expression of any sort of emotion not in keeping with the character of an impartial judge and unprejudiced spectator1 but who1 on the subject in question1 cannot wholly repress the natural feeling of disgust1 they are sufficiently significant4 ,gibbon is describing the manners of the ,tartar tribes3-- 8,the thrones of ,asia have been repeatedly overturned by the shepherds of the ,north1 and their arms have spread terror and devastation over the most fertile and warlike countries of ,europe4 ,on this occasion1 as well as on many others1 the sober historian is forcibly awakened from a pleasing vision1 and is compelled1 with some reluctance1 to confess that the pastoral manners1 which have been adorned with the fairest attributes of peace and innocence1 are much better adapted to the fierce and cruel habits of a military life4 8,to illustrate this observation1 ,i shall now proceed to consider a nation of shepherds and of warriors in the three important articles of 7#a7 their diet1 7#b7 their habitations1 and 7#c7 their exercises4 #a4 ,the corn1 or even the rice1 which constitutes the ordinary and wholesome food of a civilised people1 can be obtained only by the patient toil of the husbandman4 ,some of the happy savages who dwell between the tropics are plentifully nourished by the liberality of ,nature2 but in the climates of the ,north a nation of shepherds is reduced to their flocks and herds4 ,the skilful practitioners of the medical art will determine 7if they are able to determine7 how far the temper of the human mind may be affected by the use of animal or of vegetable food2 and whether the common association of carnivorous and cruel deserves to be considered in any other light than that of an innocent1 perhaps a salutary1 prejudice of humanity4 ,yet if it be true that the sentiment of compassion is imperceptibly weakened by the sight and practice of domestic cruelty1 we may observe that the horrid objects which are disguised by the arts of ,european refinement are exhibited in their naked and most disgusting simplicity in the tent of a ,tartar shepherd4 ,the ,oxen or the ,sheep are slaughtered by the same hand from which they were accustomed to receive their daily food1 and the bleeding limbs are served1 with very little preparation1 on the table of their unfeeling murderers40#aig ,to the poets1 who claim to be the interpreters and priests of ,nature1 we might1 with justness1 look for celebration of the anti-materialist living4 ,unhappily we too generally look in vain4 ,the prophet-poets--,hesiod1 ,kalidsa1 ,milton1 ,thomson1 ,shelley1 ,lamartine--form a band more noble than numerous4 ,of those who1 not having entered the very sanctuary of the temple of humanitarianism1 have been content to officiate in its outer courts1 ,burns and ,cowper occupy a prominent place4 ,that the latter1 who felt so keenly 8,the persecution and the pain ,that man inflicts on all inferior kinds ,regardless of their plaints10 and who has denounced with so eloquent indignation the pitiless wars 8waged with defenceless innocence10 and the protean shapes of human selfishness1 should yet have stopped short of the final cause of them all1 would be inexplicable but for the blinding influence of habit and authority4 ,nevertheless1 his picture of the savagery of the ,slaughter-,house1 and of some of its associated cruelties1 is too forcible to be omitted3 8,to make him sport1 ,to justify the phrensy of his wrath1 ,or his base gluttony1 are causes good ,and just1 in his account1 why bird and beast ,should suffer torture1 and the stream be dyed ,with blood of their inhabitants impaled4 ,earth groans beneath the burden of a war ,waged with defenceless ,innocence3 while he1 ,not satisfied to prey on all around1 ,adds tenfold bitterness to death by pangs ,needless1 and first torments ere he devours4 ,now happiest they who occupy the scenes ,the most remote from his abhorred resort4 99 99 99 99 99 ,witness at his feet ,the ,spaniel dying for some venial fault1 ,under dissection of the knotted scourge3 ,witness the patient ,ox1 with stripes and yells ,driven to the slaughter1 goaded as he runs ,to madness1 while the savage at his heels ,laughs at the frantic sufferer's fury spent ,upon the heedless passenger o'erthrown4 ,he1 too1 is witness--noblest of the train ,who waits on ,man--the flight-performing ,horse3 ,with unsuspecting readiness he takes ,his murderer on his back1 and1 pushed all day1 ,with bleeding sides1 and flanks that heave for life1 ,to the far-distant goal arrives1 and dies6 ,so little mercy shows1 who needs so much6 ,does ,law--so jealous in the cause of ,man8-- ,denounce no doom on the delinquent8 ,none40#aih ,,xxxiii4 ,,oswald4 #agcj-agic4 ,amongst the less known prophets of the new ,reformation the author of the ,cry of ,nature--one of the most eloquent appeals to justice and right feeling ever addressed to the conscience of men--deserves an honourable place4 ,of the facts of his life we have scanty record4 ,he was a native of ,edinburgh4 ,at an early age he entered the ,english army as a private soldier1 but his friends soon obtained for him an officer's commission4 ,he went to the ,east ,indies1 where he distinguished himself by his remarkable courage and ability4 ,he did not long remain in the military life2 and1 having sold out1 he travelled through ,hindustan to inform himself of the principles of the ,brahmin and ,buddhist religions of the peninsula1 whose dress as well as milder manners he assumed upon his return to ,england4 ,during his stay in this country he uniformly abstained from all flesh meats1 and so great1 we are told1 was his abhorrence of the ,slaughter-,house1 that1 to avoid it or the butcher's shop1 he was accustomed to make a long dtour4 ,his children were brought up in the same way4 ,in #agij1 like some others of the more enthusiastic class of his countrymen1 he espoused the cause of the ,revolution1 and went to ,paris4 ,by introducing some useful military reforms he gained distinction amongst the ,republicans1 and he received an important post4 ,he seems to have fallen1 with his sons1 fighting in ,la ,vende for the ,national ,cause4 ,the author1 in his preface1 tells us that-- 8,fatigued with answering the inquiries and replying to the objections of his friends with respect to the singularity of his mode of life1 he conceived that he might consult his ease by making1 once for all1 a public apology for his opinions4444 ,the author is very far from entertaining a presumption that his slender labours 7crude and imperfect as they are now hurried to the press7 will ever operate an effect on the public mind2 and yet1 when he considers the natural bias of the human heart to the side of mercy1#aii and observes1 on all hands1 the barbarous governments of ,europe giving way to a better system of things1 he is inclined to hope that the day is beginning to approach when the growing sentiment of peace and goodwill towards men will also embrace1 in a wide circle of benevolence1 the lower orders of life4 8,at all events1 the pleasing persuasion that his work may have contributed to mitigate the ferocities of prejudice1 and to diminish1 in some degree1 the great mass of misery which oppresses the lower animal world1 will1 in the hour of distress1 convey to the author's soul a consolation which the tooth of calumny will not be able to empoison40 ,a noble and true inspiration nobly and eloquently used6 ,the arguments1 by which he attempts to reach the better feeling of his readers1 are drawn from the deepest source of morality4 ,having given a beautiful picture of the tempting and alluring character of ,fruits1 he exclaims in his poetic-prose3-- 8,but far other is the fate of animals4 ,for1 alas6 when they are plucked from the tree of ,life1 suddenly the withered blossoms of their beauty shrink to the chilly hand of ,death4 ,quenched in his cold grasp expires the lamp of their loveliness1 and struck by the livid blast of loathed putrefaction1 their comely limbs are involved in ghastly horror4 ,shall we leave the living herbs to seek1 in the den of death1 an obscene aliment8 ,insensible to the blooming beauties of ,pomona--unallured by the fragrant odours that exhale from her groves of golden fruits--unmoved by the nectar of ,nature1 by the ambrosia of innocence--shall the voracious vultures of our impure appetites speed along those lovely scenes and alight in the loathsome sink of putrefaction to devour the remains of other creatures1 to load with cadaverous rottenness a wretched stomach80 ,he repeats ,porphyry's appeal to the consideration of human interests themselves-- 8,and is not the human race itself highly interested to prevent the habit of spilling blood8 ,for1 will the man1 habituated to violence1 be nice to distinguish the vital tide of a quadruped from that which flows from a creature with two legs8 ,are the dying struggles of a ,lamb less affecting than the agonies of any animal whatever8 ,or1 will the ruffian who beholds unmoved the supplicatory looks of innocence itself1 and1 reckless of the ,calf's infantine cries1 pitilessly plunges in her quivering side the murdering knife1 will he turn1 ,i say1 with horror from human assassination8 #8,what more advance can mortals make in sin1 ,so near perfection1 who with blood begin8 ,deaf to the calf who lies beneath the knife1 ,looks up1 and from the butcher begs her life4 ,deaf to the harmless kid who1 ere he dies1 ,all efforts to procure thy pity tries1 ,and imitates1 in vain1 thy children's cries4 ,where will he stop8' 8,from the practice of slaughtering an innocent animal of another species to the murder of man himself the steps are neither many nor remote4 ,this our forefathers perfectly understood1 who ordained that1 in a cause of blood1 no butcher should be permitted to sit in jury4444 8,but from the nature of the very human heart arises the strongest argument in behalf of the persecuted beings4 ,within us there exists a rooted repugnance to the shedding of blood1 a repugnance which yields only to ,custom1 and which even the most inveterate custom can seldom entirely overcome4 ,hence the ungracious task of shedding the tide of life 7for the gluttony of the table7 has1 in every country1 been committed to the lowest class of men1 and their profession is1 in every country1 an object of abhorrence4 8,they feed on the carcass without remorse1 because the dying struggles of the butchered victim are secluded from their sight--because his cries pierce not their ears--because his agonising shrieks sink not into their souls4 ,but were they forced1 with their own hands1 to assassinate the beings whom they devour1 who is there among us who would not throw down the knife with detestation1 and1 rather than embrue his hands in the murder of the lamb1 consent for ever to forego the accustomed repast8 ,what then shall we say8 ,vainly planted in our breast is this abhorrence of cruelty--this sympathetic affection for innocence8 ,or do the feelings of the heart point to the command of ,nature more unerringly than all the elaborate subtlety of a set of men who1 at the shrine of science1 have sacrificed the dearest sentiments of humanity80 ,this eloquent vindicator of the rights of the oppressed of the non-human races here addresses a scathing rebuke to the torturers of the vivisection-halls1 as well as to those who abuse ,science by attempting to enlist it in the defence of slaughter4 8,you1 the sons of modern science1 who court not ,wisdom in her walks of silent meditation in the grove--who behold her not in the living loveliness of her works1 but expect to meet her in the midst of obscenity and corruption--you1 who dig for knowledge in the depths of the dunghill1 and who expect to discover ,wisdom enthroned amid the fragments of mortality and the abhorrence of the senses--you1 that with cruel violence interrogate trembling ,nature1 who plunge into her maternal bosom the butcher-knife1 and1 in quest of your nefarious science1 delight to scrutinise the fibres of agonising beings1 you dare also to violate the human form1 and holding up the entrails of men1 you exclaim1 #8,behold the bowels of a carnivorous animal6' ,barbarians6 to these very bowels ,i appeal against your cruel dogmas--to these bowels which ,nature hath sanctified to the sentiments of pity and of gratitude1 to the yearnings of kindred1 to the melting tenderness of love4 #8,mollissima corda ,humano generi dare se ,natura fatetur1 ,qu lachrymas dedit3 hc nostri pars optima sensus4'#bjj 8,had ,nature intended man to be an animal of prey1 would she have implanted in his breast an instinct so adverse to her purpose8444 ,would she not rather1 in order to enable him to brave the piercing cries of anguish1 have wrapped his ruthless heart in ribs of brass1 and with iron entrails have armed him to grind1 without shadow of remorse1 the palpitating limbs of agonising life8 ,but has ,nature winged the feet of men with fleetness to overtake the flying prey8 ,and where are his fangs to tear asunder the beings destined for his food8 ,does the lust of carnage glare in his eye-balls8 ,does he scent from afar the footsteps of his victim8 ,does his soul pant for the feast of blood8 ,is the bosom of men the rugged abode of bloody thoughts1 and from the den of ,death rush forth1 at sight of other animals1 his rapacious desires to slay1 to mangle1 and to devour8 8,but come1 men of scientific subtlety1 approach and examine with attention this dead body4 ,it was late a playful ,fawn1 who skipping and bounding on the bosom of parent ,earth1 awoke in the soul of the feeling observer a thousand tender emotions4 ,but the butcher's knife has laid low the delight of a fond mother1 and the darling of ,nature is now stretched in gore upon the ground4 ,approach1 ,i say1 men of scientific subtlety1 and tell me1 does this ghastly spectacle whet your appetite8 ,but why turn you with abhorrence8 ,do you then yield to the combined evidence of your senses1 to the testimony of conscience and common sense2 or with a show of rhetoric1 pitiful as it is perverse1 will you still persist in your endeavour to persuade us that to murder an innocent being is not cruel nor unjust1 and that to feed upon a corpse is neither filthy nor unfitting80 ,amid the dark scenes of barbarism and cold-blooded indifferentism to suffering innocence1 there are yet the glimmers of a better nature1 which need but the life-giving impulse of a true religion and philosophy3-- 8,and yet those channels of sympathy for inferior animals1 long--a very long--custom has not been able altogether to stifle4 ,even now1 notwithstanding the narrow1 joyless1 and hard-hearted tendency of the prevailing superstitions2 even now we discover1 in every corner of the globe1 some good-natured prejudice in behalf of certain of the persecuted animals2 we perceive1 in every country1 certain privileged animals1 whom even the ruthless jaws of gluttony dare not to invade4 ,for1 to pass over unnoticed the vast empires of ,india and of ,china1 where the lower orders of life are considered as relative parts of society1 and are protected by the laws and religion of the natives1#bja the ,tartars abstain from several kinds of animals2 the ,turks are charitable to the very dog1 whom they abominate2 and even the ,english peasant pays towards the red-breast an inviolable respect to the rights of hospitality4 8,long after the perverse practice of devouring the flesh of animals had grown into inveterate habit among peoples1 there existed still in almost every country1 and of every religion1 and of every sect of philosophy1 a wiser1 a purer1 and more holy class of men who preserved by their institutions1 by their precepts1 and by their example1 the memory of primitive innocence 8 and simplicity4 ,the ,pythagoreans abhorred the slaughter of any animal life2 ,epicurus and the worthiest part of his disciples bounded their delights with the produce of their garden2 and of the first ,christians several sects abominated the feast of blood1 and were satisfied with the food which ,nature1 unviolated1 brings forth for our support4444 8,man1 in a state of nature1 is not1 apparently1 much superior to other animals4 ,his organisation is1 without doubt1 extremely happy2 but then the dexterity of his figure is counterpoised by great advantages in other beings4 ,inferior to the ,bull in force1 and in fleetness to the ,dog1 the os sublime1 or erect front1 a feature he bears in common with the ,monkey1 could scarcely have inspired him with those haughty and magnificent ideas which the pride of human refinement thence endeavours to deduce4 ,exposed1 like his fellow-creatures1 to the injuries of the air1 urged to action by the same physical necessities1 susceptible of the same impressions1 actuated by the same passions1 and equally subject to the pains of disease and to the pangs of dissolution1 the simple savage never dreams that his nature was so much more noble1 or that he drew his origin from a purer source or more remote than the other animals in whom he saw a resemblance so complete4 8,nor were the simple sounds by which he expressed the singleness of his heart at all fitted to flatter him into that fond sense of superiority over the beings whom the unreasoning insolence of cultivated ages absurdly styles mute4 ,i say absurdly styles mute2 for with what propriety can that name be applied1 for example1 to the little sirens of the groves1 to whom ,nature has granted the strains of ravishment--the soul of song8 ,those charming warblers who pour forth1 with a moving melody which human ingenuity vies with in vain1 their loves1 their anxiety1 their woes4 ,in the ardour and delicacy of his amorous expressions1 can the most impassioned1 the most respectful1 human lover surpass the #8glossy kind1' as described by the most beautiful of all our poets8 8,and1 indeed1 has not ,nature given to almost every being the same spontaneous signs of the various affections8 ,admire we not in other animals whatever is most eloquent in man--the tremor of desire1 the tear of distress1 the piercing cry of anguish1 the pity-pleading look--expressions which speak to the soul with a feeling which words are feeble to convey80 ,the whole of the little book of which the above extracts are properly representative1 breathes the spirit of a true religion4 ,we shall only add that it exhibits almost as much learning and valuable research as it exhibits justness of thought and sensibility--enriched1 as it is1 by copious illustrative notes4#bjb ,,xxxiv4 ,,hufeland4 #agfb-ahcf4 ,not entitled to rank among the greater prophets who have had the penetration to recognise the essential barbarism1 no less than the unnaturalness1 of ,kreophagy 7disguised1 as it is1 by the arts of civilisation71 this most popular of all ,german physicians1 with the ,cornaros and ,abernethys1 may yet claim considerable merit as having1 in some degree1 sought to stem the tide of unnatural living1 which1 under less gross forms indeed than those of the darker ages of dietetics1 and partially concealed in the refinements of ,art1 is more difficult to be resisted by reason of its very disguise4 ,if the renaissance of ,pythagorean dietetics had already dawned for the deeper thinkers1 the age of science and of reason1 as regards the mass of accredited teachers1 was yet a long way off2 and to all pioneers1 even though they failed to clear the way entirely1 some measure of our gratitude is due4 ,christian ,wilhelm ,hufeland is one of the most prolific of medical writers4 ,having studied medicine at ,jena and at ,gottingen he took the degree of doctor in #aghc4 ,at ,jena he occupied a professorial chair 7#agic71 and came to ,berlin five years later1 where he was entrusted with the superintendence of the ,medical ,college4 ,both as practical physician and as professor1 ,hufeland attained a ,european reputation4 ,the ,french ,academy of ,sciences elected him one of its members4 ,his numerous writings have been often reprinted in ,germany4 ,among the most useful are3 7#a7 ,popular ,dissertations upon ,health 7,leipsig1 #agid72 7#b7 ,makrobiotik3 oder die ,kunst das ,menschliche ,leben zu ,verlngern 7,jena1 #agif71 a celebrated work which has been translated into all the languages of ,europe#bjc2 7#c7 ,good ,advice to ,mothers upon the most ,important ,points of the ,physical ,education of ,children in the ,first ,years 7,berlin1 #agii72 7#d7 ,history of ,health1 and ,physical ,characteristics of our ,epoch 7,berlin1 #ahab7bjd4 ,of ,hufeland's witness to the general superiority of the ,naturgemsse ,lebensweise the following sentences are sufficiently representative3 8,the more man follows ,nature and obeys her laws the longer will he live4 ,the further he removes from them 7je weiter er von ihnen abweicht7 the shorter will be his duration of existence4444 ,only inartificial1 simple nourishment promotes health and long life1 while mixed and rich foods but shorten our existence4444 ,we frequently find a very advanced old age amongst men who from youth upwards have lived1 for the most part1 upon the vegetable diet1 and1 perhaps1 have never tasted flesh40#bje ,,xxxv4 ,,ritson4 #agfa-ahcj4 ,known to the world generally as an eminent antiquarian and1 in particular1 as one of the earliest and most acute investigators of the sources of ,english romantic poetry1 for future times his best and enduring fame will rest upon his at present almost forgotten ,moral ,essay upon ,abstinence--one of the most able and philosophical of the ethical expositions of anti-kreophagy ever published4 ,his birthplace was ,stockton in the county of ,durham4 ,by profession a conveyancer1 he enjoyed leisure for literary pursuits by his income from an official appointment4 ,during the twenty years from #aghb to #ahjb his time and talents were incessantly employed in the publication of his various works1 antiquarian and critical4 ,his first notable critique was his ,observations on ,warton's ,history of ,english ,poetry1 in the shape of a letter to the author 7#aghb71 in which his critical zeal seems to have been in excess of his literary amenity4 ,of other literary productions may be enumerated his ,remarks on the ,commentators of ,shakspere2 ,a ,select ,collection of ,english ,songs1 with a ,historical ,essay on the ,origin and ,progress of ,national ,songs 7#aghc72 ,ancient ,songs from the ,time of ,king ,henry ,,iii4 to the ,revolution 7#agij71 reprinted in #ahbi--perhaps the most valuable of his archological labours2 ,the ,english ,anthology 7#agic72 ,ancient ,english ,metrical ,romances1 and ,bibliographia ,poetica1 a catalogue of ,english poets from the #abth to the #afth century1 inclusive1 with short notices of their works4 ,these are only some of the productions of his industry and genius4 ,we give the origin of his adhesion to the ,humanitarian ,creed as recorded by himself in one of the chapters of his ,essay1 in which1 also1 he introduces the name of an ardent and well-known humanitarian reformer3-- 8,mr4 ,richard ,phillips1#bjf the publisher of this compilation1 a vigorous1 healthy1 and well-looking man1 has desisted from animal food for upwards of twenty years2 and the compiler himself1 induced to serious reflection by the perusal of ,mandeville's ,fable of the ,bees1 in the year #aggb1 being the #aith year of his age1 has ever since1 to the revisal of these sheets #ahjb1 firmly adhered to a milk and vegetable diet2 having1 at least1 never tasted1 during the whole course of those thirty years1 any flesh1 fowl1 or fish1 or anything1 to his knowledge1 prepared in or with those substances or any extract from them1 unless1 on one occasion1 when tempted by wet1 cold1 and hunger in the south of ,scotland1 he ventured to eat a few potatoes dressed under roasted flesh1 nothing less repugnant to his feelings being obtainable2 or1 except by ignorance or imposition1 unless1 it may be1 in eating eggs1 which1 however1 deprives no animal of life1 although it may prevent some from coming into the world to be murdered and devoured by others40#bjg ,ritson begins his ,essay with a brief review of the opinions of some of the old ,greek and ,italian philosophers upon the origin and constitution of the world1 and with a sketch of the position of man in ,nature relatively to other animals4 ,amongst others he cites ,rousseau's ,essay ,upon ,inequality ,amongst ,men4 ,he then demonstrates the unnaturalness of flesh-eating by considerations derived from ,physiology and ,anatomy1 and from the writings of various authorities2 the fallacy of the prejudice that flesh-meats are necessary or conducive to strength of body1 a fallacy manifest as well from the examples of whole nations living entirely1 or almost entirely1 upon non-flesh food1 as from those of numerous individuals whose cases are detailed at length4 ,he quotes ,arbuthnot1 ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 ,cheyne1 ,adam ,smith1 ,volney1 ,paley1 and others4 ,next he insists upon the ferocity or coarseness of mind directly or indirectly engendered by the diet of blood3-- 8,that the use of animal food disposes man to cruel and ferocious actions is a fact to which the experience of ages gives ample testimony4 ,the ,scythians1 from drinking the blood of their cattle1 proceeded to drink that of their enemies4 ,the fierce and cruel disposition of the wild ,arabs is supposed chiefly1 if not solely1 to arise from their feeding upon the flesh of camels3 and as the gentle disposition of the natives of ,hindustan is probably owing1 in great degree1 to temperance and abstinence from animal food1 so the common use of this diet1 with other nations1 has1 in the opinion of ,m4 ,pags1 intensified the natural tone of their passions2 and he can account1 he says1 upon no other principle1 for the strong1 harsh features of the ,mussulmen and the ,christians compared with the mild traits and placid aspect of the ,gentoos4 #8,vulgar and uninformed men1' it is observed by ,smellie1 #8when pampered with a variety of animal food1 are much more choleric1 fierce1 and cruel in their tempers1 than those who live chiefly upon vegetables4' ,this affection is equally perceptible in other animals--#8,an officer1 in the ,russian service1 had a bear whom he fed with bread and oats1 but never gave him flesh4 ,a young hog1 however1 happening to stroll near his cell1 the bear got hold of him and pulled him in2 and1 after he had once drawn blood and tasted flesh1 he became unmanageable1 attacking every person who came near him1 so that the owner was obliged to kill him4'--,memoirs of ,p4 ,h4 ,bruce4 ,it was not1 says ,porphyry1 from those who lived on vegetables that robbers1 or murderers1 or tyrants have proceeded1 but from flesh-eaters4#bjh ,prey being almost the sole object of quarrel amongst carnivorous animals1 while the frugivorous live together in constant peace and harmony1 it is evident that if men were of this latter kind1 they would find it much more easy to subsist happily40 8,the barbarous and unfeeling sports 7as they are called7 of the ,english--their horse-racing1 hunting1 shooting1 bull and bear baiting1 cock-fighting1#bji prize-fighting1 and the like1 all proceed from their immoderate addiction to animal food4 ,their natural temper is thereby corrupted1 and they are in the habitual and hourly commission of crimes against nature1 justice1 and humanity1 from which a feeling and reflective mind1 unaccustomed to such a diet1 would revolt1 but in which they profess to take delight4 ,the kings of ,england have from a remote period1 been devoted to hunting2 in which pursuit one of them1 and the son of another lost his life4 ,james ,i41 according to ,scaliger1 was merciful1 except at the chase1 where he was cruel1 and was very much enraged when he could not catch the ,stag4 #8,god1' he used to say1 #8is enraged against me1 so that ,i shall not have him4' ,whenever he had caught his victim1 he would put his arm all entire into his belly and entrails4 ,this anecdote may be paralleled with the following of one of his successors3 #8,the hunt on ,tuesday last1 7,march #ast1 #aghd71 commenced near ,salthill1 and afforded a chase of upwards of fifty miles4 ,his ,majesty was present at the death of the stag near ,tring1 in ,herts4 ,it is the first deer that has been ran to death for many months2 and when opened1 the heart strings were found to be quite rent1 as is supposed1 with the force of running4'#baj ,siste1 vero1 tandem carnifex6 ,the slave trade1 that abominable violation of the rights of ,nature1 is most probably owing to the same cause1 as well as a variety of violent acts1 both national and personal1 which usually are attributed to other motives4 ,in the sessions of ,parliament1 #ahjb1 a majority of the members voted for the continuance of bull-baiting1 and some of them had the confidence to plead in favour of it40#baa ,ritson enforces his observations upon this head by citing ,plutarch1 ,cowper1 and ,pope 7in the ,guardian1 ,no4 #fa--;a most forcible and eloquent protest against the cruelties of 8sport0 and of gluttony74#bab ,in his fifth chapter he traces the origin of human sacrifices to the practice of flesh eating3-- 8,superstition is the mother of ,ignorance and ,barbarity4 ,priests began by persuading people of the existence of certain invisible beings1 whom they pretended to be the creators of the world and the dispensers of good and evil2 and of whose wills1 in fine1 they were the sole interpreters4 ,hence arose the necessity of sacrifices ostensibly to appease the wrath or to procure the favour of imaginary gods1 but in reality to gratify the gluttonous and unnatural appetites of real demons4 ,domestic animals were the first victims4 ,these were immediately under the eye of the priest1 and he was pleased with their taste4 ,this satisfied for a time2 but he had eaten of the same things so repeatedly1 that his luxurious appetite called for variety4 ,he had devoured the sheep1 and he was now desirous of devouring the shepherd4 ,the anger of the gods--testified by an opportune thunderstorm1 was not to be assuaged but by a sacrifice of uncommon magnitude4 ,the people tremble1 and offer him their enemies1 their slaves1 their parents1 their children1 to obtain a clear sky on a summer's day1 or a bright moon by night4 ,when1 or upon what particular occasion1 the first human being was made a sacrifice is unknown1 nor is it of any consequence to enquire4 ,goats and bullocks had been offered up already1 and the transition was easy from the #8brute' to the man4 ,the practice1 however1 is of remote antiquity and universal extent1 there being scarcely a country in the world in which it has not1 at some time or other1 prevailed40 ,he supports this probable thesis by reference to ,porphyry1 the most erudite of the later ,greeks1 who repeats the accounts of earlier writers upon this matter1 and by a comparison of the religious rites of various nations1 past and present4 ,equally natural and easy was the step from the use of non-human to that of human bodies3-- 8,as human sacrifices were a natural effect of that superstitious cruelty which first produced the slaughter of other animals1 so is it equally natural that those accustomed to eat the #8brute' should not long abstain from the man4 ,more especially as1 when roasted or broiled upon the altar1 the appearance1 savour1 and taste of both1 would be nearly1 if not entirely the same4 ,but1 from whatever cause it may be deduced1 nothing can be more certain than that the eating of human flesh has been a practice in many parts of the world from a very remote period1 and is so1 in some countries1 at this day4 ,that it is a consequence of the use of other animal food there can be no doubt1 as it would be impossible to find an instance of it among people who were accustomed solely to a vegetable diet4 ,the progress of cruelty is rapid4 ,habit renders it familiar1 and hence it is deemed natural4 8,the man who1 accustomed to live on roots and vegetables1 first devoured the flesh of the smallest mammal1 committed a greater violence to his own nature than the most beautiful and delicate woman1 accustomed to other animal flesh1 would feel in shedding the blood of her own species for sustenance2 possessed as they are of exquisite feelings1 a considerable degree of intelligence1 and even1 according to her own religious system1 of a living soul4 ,that this is a principle in the social disposition of mankind1 is evident from the deliberate coolness with which seamen1 when their ordinary provisions are exhausted1 sit down to devour such of their comrades as chance or contrivance renders the victim of the moment2 a fact of which there are but too many1 and those too well-authenticated instances4 ,such a crime1 which no necessity can justify1 would never enter the mind of a starving ,gentoo1 nor1 indeed1 of anyone who had not been previously accustomed to other animal flesh4 ,even among the ,bedouins1 or wandering ,arabs of the desert--according to the observation of the enlightened ,volney--though they so often experience the extremity of hunger1 the practice of devouring human flesh was never heard of40 ,in the two following chapters ,ritson traces a large proportion of human diseases and suffering1 physical and mental1 to indulgence in unnatural living4 ,he cites ,drs4 ,buchan1 ,goldsmith1 ,cheyne1 ,stubbes 7,anatomy of ,abuses1 #aehc71 and ,sparrman the well-known pupil of ,linn 7,voyages74 ,in his ninth chapter1 he gives a copious catalogue of 8nations and of individuals1 past and contemporary1 subsisting entirely upon vegetable foods0--not the least interesting part of his work4 ,some of the most eminent of the old ,greek and ,latin philosophers and historians are quoted1 as well as various modern travellers1 such as ,volney and ,sparrman4 ,especially valuable are the enquiries of ,sir ,f4 ,m4 ,eden 7,state of the ,poor71 who1 in a comparison of the dietary of the poor1 in different parts of these islands1 proves that flesh has1 or at all events had1 scarcely any share in it--a fact which is still true of the agricultural districts1 manifest not only by the commonest observation1 but also by scientific and official enquiries of late years4 ,of individual cases1 two of the most interesting are those of ,john ,williamson of ,moffat1 the discoverer of the famous chalybeate spring1 who lived almost to the age of one hundred years1 having abstained from all flesh-food during the last fifty years of his life1#bac and of ,john ,oswald1 the author of ,the ,cry of ,nature4 ,it is in this part of his work that ,ritson narrates the history of his own conversion and dietetic experiences1 and of his well-known publisher1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,phillips4 ,,xxxvi4 ,,nicholson4 #agfj-ahbe4 ,among the least known1 but none the less among the most estimable1 of the advocates of the rights of the oppressed species and the heralds of the dawn of a better day1 the humble ,yorkshire printer1 who undertook the unpopular and unremunerative work of publishing to the world the sorrows and sufferings of the non-human races1 claims our high respect and admiration4 ,he has also another title 7second only to his humanitarian merit7 to the gratitude of posterity as having been the originator of cheap literature of the best class1 and of the most instructive sort1 which1 alike by the price and form1 was adapted for wide circulation4 ,george ,nicholson was born at ,bradford4 ,he early set up a printing press1 and began the publication of his ,literary ,miscellany1 8which is not1 as the name might lead one to suppose1 a magazine1 but a series of choice anthologies1 varied by some of the gems of ,english literature4 ,the size is a small #ahmo41 scarcely too large for the waistcoat pocket4 ,the printing was a beautiful specimen of the typographic art1 and for the illustrations he sought the aid of the best artists4 ,he was one of the patrons of ,thomas ,bewick1 some of whose choicest work is to be found in the pamphlets issued by ,nicholson4 ,he also issued #abe cards1 on which were printed favourite pieces1 afterwards included in the ,literary ,miscellany4 ,this #8assemblage of classical beauties for the parlour1 the closet1 the carriage1 or the shade1' became very popular1 and extended to twenty volumes4 ,the plan of issuing them in separate numbers enabled individuals to make their own selection1 and they are found bound up in every possible variety4 ,complete sets are now rare1 and highly prized by collectors40 ,of his many useful publications may be enumerated--,stenography3 ,the ,mental ,friend and ,rational ,companion1 consisting of ,maxims and ,reflections relating to the ,conduct of ,life4 #abmo4 ,the ,advocate and ,friend of ,woman4 #abmo4 ,directions for the ,improvement of the ,mind4 #abmo4 ,juvenile ,preceptor4 ,three vols41 #abmo4 ,the books which concern us now are--,on the ,conduct of ,man to ,inferior ,animals 7,manchester1 #agig3 this was adorned by a woodcut from the hand of ,bewick74 ,and his magnum opus1 which appeared in the year #ahja1 under the title of ,the ,primeval ,diet of ,man3 ,arguments in ,favour of ,vegetable ,food2 with ,remarks on ,man's ,conduct to other ,animals 7,poughnill1 near ,ludlow74 ,the value of ,the ,primeval ,diet was enhanced by the addition1 in a later issue1 of a tract ,on ,food 7#ahjc71 in which are given recipes for the preparation of 8one hundred perfectly palatable and nutritious substances1 which may easily be procured at an expense much below the price of the limbs of our fellow animals4444 ,some of the recipes1 on account of their simple form1 will not be adopted even by those in the middle rank of life4 ,yet they may be valuable to many of scanty incomes1 who desire to avoid the evils of want1 or to make a reserve for the purchasing of books and other mental pleasures40 ,he also published a tract ,on ,clothing1 which contains much sensible and practical advice on an important subject4 ,nicholson resided successively in ,manchester1 ,poughnill1 and ,stourport1 and died at the last-named place in the year #ahbe4 8,he possessed10 says a writer in ,the ,gentleman's ,magazine 7xcv471 8in an eminent degree1 strength of intellect1 with universal benevolence and undeviating uprightness of conduct40 ,the learned bibliographer1 to whom we are indebted for this brief notice1 thus sums up the character of his labours3 8,in all his writings the purity and benevolence of his intentions are strikingly manifest4 ,each subject he took in hand was thought out in an independent manner1 and without reference to current views or prejudices40#bad ,in his brief preface the author thus expresses his sad conviction of the probable futility of his protests3-- 8,the difficulties of removing deep-rooted prejudices1 and the inefficiency of reason and argument1 when opposed to habitual opinions established on general approbation1 are fully apprehended4 ,hence the cause of humanity1 however zealously pleaded1 will not be materially promoted4 ,unflattered by the hope of exciting an impression on the public mind1 the following compilation is dedicated to the sympathising and generous ,few1 whose opinions have not been founded on implicit belief and common acceptation3 whose habits are not fixed by the influence of false and pernicious maxims or corrupt examples3 who are neither deaf to the cries of misery1 pitiless to suffering innocence1 nor unmoved at recitals of violence1 tyranny1 and murder40 ,in the whole literature of humanitarianism1 nothing can be more impressive for the sympathising reader than this putting on record by these nobler spirits their profound consciousness of the moral torpor of the world around them1 and their sad conviction of the prematureness of their attempt to regenerate it4 ,in both his principal works1 he judiciously chooses1 for the most part1 the method of compilation1 and of presenting in a concise and comprehensive form the opinions of his humane predecessors1 of various minds and times1 rather than the presentation of his own individual sentiments4 ,he justly believed that the large majority of men are influenced more by the authority of great names than by arguments addressed simply to their conscience and reason4 ,he intersperses1 however1 philosophic reflections of his own1 whenever the occasion for them arises4 ,thus1 under the head of 8,remarks on ,defences of ,flesh-eating10 he well disposes of the common excuses3-- 8,the reflecting reader will not expect a formal refutation of common-place objections1 which mean nothing1 as1 #8,there would be more unhappiness and slaughter among animals did we not keep them under proper regulations and government4 ,where would they find pasture did we not manure and enclose the land for them8 c4' ,the following objection1 however1 may deserve notice3--#8,animals must die1 and is it not better for them to live a short time in plenty and ease1 than be exposed to their enemies1 and suffered in old age to drag on a miserable life8' ,the lives of animals in a state of nature are very rarely miserable1 and it argues a barbarous and savage disposition to cut them prematurely off in the midst of an agreeable and happy existence2 especially when we reflect on the motives which induce it4 ,instead of a friendly concern for promoting their happiness1 your aim is the gratification of your own sensual appetites4 ,how inconsistent is your conduct with the fundamental principle of pure morality and true goodness 7which some of you ridiculously profess7--whatsoever you would that others should do to you1 do you even so to them4 ,no man would willingly become the food of other animals2 he ought not therefore to prey on them4 ,men who consider themselves members of universal nature1 and links in the great chain of ,being1 ought not to usurp power and tyranny over others1 beings naturally free and independent1 however such beings may be inferior in intellect or strength4444 ,it is argued that #8man has a permission1 proved by the practice of mankind1 to eat the flesh of other animals1 and consequently to kill them2 and as there are many animals which subsist wholly on the bodies of other animals1 the practice is sanctioned among mankind4' ,by reason of the at present very low state of morality of the human race1 there are many evils which it is the duty and business of enlightened ages to eradicate4 ,the various refinements of civil society1 the numerous improvements in the arts and sciences1 and the different reformations in the laws1 policy1 and government of nations1 are proofs of this assertion4 ,that mankind1 in the present stage of polished life1 act in direct violation of the principles of justice1 mercy1 tenderness1 sympathy1 and humanity1 in the practice of eating flesh1 is obvious4 ,to take away the life of any happy being1 to commit acts of depredation and outrage1 and to abandon every refined feeling and sensibility1 is to degrade the human kind beneath its professed dignity of character2 but to devour or eat any animal is an additional violation of those principles1 because it is the extreme of brutal ferocity4 ,such is the conduct of the most savage of wild beasts1 and of the most uncultivated and barbarous of our own species4 ,where is the person who1 with calmness1 can hear himself compared in disposition to a lion1 a hyna1 a tiger or a wolf8 ,and yet1 how exactly similar is his disposition4 8,mankind affect to revolt at murders1 at the shedding of blood1 and yet eagerly1 and without remorse1 feed on the corpse after it has undergone the culinary process4 ,what mental blindness pervades the human race1 when they do not perceive that every feast of blood is a tacit encouragement and licence to the very crime their pretended delicacy abhors6 ,i say pretended delicacy1 for that it is pretended is most evident4 ,the profession of sensibility1 humanity1 c41 in such persons1 therefore1 is egregious folly4 ,and yet there are respectable persons among everyone's acquaintance1 amiable in other dispositions1 and advocates of what is commonly termed the cause of humanity1 who are weak or prejudiced enough to be satisfied with such arguments1 on which they ground apologies for their practice6 ,education1 habit1 prejudice1 fashion1 and interest1 have blinded the eyes of men1 and seared their hearts4 8,opposers of compassion urge3 #8,if we should live on vegetable food1 what shall we do with our cattle8 ,what would become of them8 ,they would grow so numerous they would be prejudicial to us--they would eat us up if we did not kill and eat them4' ,but there is abundance of animals in the world whom men do not kill and eat2 and yet we hear not of their injuring mankind1 and sufficient room is found for their abode4 ,horses are not usually killed to be eaten1 and yet we have not heard of any country overstocked with them4 ,the raven and redbreast are seldom killed1 and yet they do not become too numerous4 ,if a decrease of cows1 sheep1 and others were required1 mankind would readily find means of reducing them4 ,cattle are at present an article of trade1 and their numbers are industriously promoted4 ,if cows are kept solely for the sake of milk1 and if their young should become too numerous1 let the evil be nipped in the bud4 ,scarcely suffer the innocent young to feel the pleasure of breathing4 ,let the least pain possible be inflicted2 let its body be deposited entire in the ground1 and let a sigh have vent for the calamitous necessity that induced the painful act4444 ,self-preservation justifies a man in putting noxious animals to death1 yet cannot warrant the least act of cruelty to any being4 ,by suddenly despatching one when in extreme misery1 we do a kind office1 an office which reason approves1 and which accords with our best and kindest feelings1 but which 7such is the force of custom7 we are denied to show1 though solicited1 to our own species4 ,when they can no longer enjoy happiness1 they may perhaps be deprived of life4 ,do not suppose that in this reasoning an intention is included of perverting nature4 ,no6 some animals are savage and unfeeling2 but let not their ferocity and brutality be the standard and pattern of the conduct of man4 ,because some of them have no compassion1 feeling1 or reason1 are we to possess no compassion1 feeling1 or reason80 ,in another section of his book ,nicholson undertakes to expose the inconsistencies of flesh-eaters1 and the strange illogicalness of the position of many protestors against various forms of cruelty1 who condone the greatest cruelty of all--the 7necessary7 savagery of the butchers3-- 8,the inconsistencies of the conduct and opinions of mankind in general are evident and notorious2 but when ingenious writers fall into the same glaring errors1 our regret and surprise are justly and strongly excited4 ,annexed to the impressive remarks by ,soame ,jenyns1 to be inserted hereafter1 in examining the conduct of man to other animals1 we meet with the following passage3-- 8#8,god has been pleased to create numberless animals intended for our sustenance1 and that they are so intended1 the agreeable flavour of their flesh to our palates1 and the wholesome nutriment which it administers to our stomachs1 are sufficient proofs2 these1 as they are formed for our use1 propagated by our culture1 and fed by our care1 we have certainly a right to deprive of life1 because it is given and preserved to them on that condition4' 8,now1 it has already been argued that the bodies of animals are not intended for the sustenance of man2 and the decided opinions of several eminent medical writers and others sufficiently disprove assertions in favour of the wholesomeness of the flesh of animals4 ,the agreeable taste of food is not always a proof of its nourishing or wholesome properties4 ,this truth is too frequently experienced in mistakes1 ignorantly or accidentally made1 particularly by children1 in eating the fruit of the deadly nightshade1 the taste of which resembles black currants1 and is extremely inviting by the beauty of its colour and shape4#bae 8,that we have a right to make attacks on the existence of any being because we have assisted and fed such being1 is an assertion opposed to every established principle of justice and morality4 ,a #8condition' cannot be made without the mutual consent of parties1 and1 therefore1 what this writer terms #8a condition1' is nothing less than an unjust1 arbitrary1 and deceitful imposition4 #8,such is the deadly and stupifying influence of habit or custom1' says ,mr4 ,lawrence1 #8of so poisonous and brutalising a quality is prejudice1 that men1 perhaps no way inclined by nature to acts of barbarity1 may yet live insensible of the constant commission of the most flagrant deeds4' 444 ,a cook-maid will weep at a tale of woe1 while she is skinning a living eel2 and the devotee will mock the ,deity by asking a blessing on food supplied by murderous outrages against nature and religion6 ,even women of education1 who readily weep while reading an affecting moral tale1 will clear away clotted blood1 still warm with departed life1 cut the flesh1 disjoint the bones1 and tear out the intestines of an animal1 without sensibility1 without sympathy1 without fear1 without remorse4 ,what is more common than to hear this softer sex talk of1 and assist in1 the cookery of a deer1 a hare1 a lamb or a calf 7those acknowledged emblems of innocence7 with perfect composure8 ,thus the female character1 by nature soft1 delicate1 and susceptible of tender impressions1 is debased and sunk4 ,it will be maintained that in other respects they still possess the characteristics of their sex1 and are humane and sympathising4 ,the inconsistency then is the more glaring4 ,to be virtuous in some instances does not constitute the moral character1 but to be uniformly so40 ,we can allow ourselves space only for one or two further quotations from this excellent writer4 ,the remarks upon the common usage of language1 by which it is vainly thought to conceal the true nature of the dishes served up upon the tables of the rich1 are particularly noteworthy1 because the inaccurate expression condemned is almost universal1 and that even1 from force of habit1 amongst reformed dietists themselves3-- 8,there is a natural horror at the shedding of blood1 and some have an aversion to the practice of devouring the carcase of an innocent sufferer1 which bad habits improper education1 and silly prejudices have not overcome4 ,this is proved by their affected and absurd refinement of calling the dead bodies of animals meat4 ,if the meaning of words is to be regarded1 this is a gross mistake2 for the word meat is a universal term1 applying equally to all nutritive and palatable substances4 ,if it be intended to express that all other kinds of food are comparatively not meat1 the intention is ridiculous4 ,the truth is that the proper expression1 flesh1 conveys ideas of murder and death4 ,neither can it easily be forgotten that1 in grinding the body of a fellow animal1 substances which constitute human bodies are masticated4 ,this reflection comes somewhat home1 and is recurred to by eaters of flesh in spite of themselves1 but recurred to unwillingly4 ,they attempt1 therefore1 to pervert language in order to render it agreeable to the ear1 as they disguise animal flesh by cookery in order to render it pleasing to the taste40 ,his reflections upon the essential injustice 7to use no stronger term7 of delegating the work of butchering to a particular class of men 7to which frequent reference has already been made in these pages7 are equally admirable3-- 8,among butchers1 and those who qualify the different parts of an animal into food1 it would be easy to select persons much further removed from those virtues which should result from reason1 consciousness1 sympathy1 and animal sensations1 than any savages on the face of the earth6 ,in order to avoid all the generous and spontaneous sympathies of compassion1 the office of shedding blood is committed to the hands of a set of men who have been educated in inhumanity1 and whose sensibility has been blunted and destroyed by early habits of barbarity4 ,thus men increase misery in order to avoid the sight of it1 and because they cannot endure being obviously cruel themselves1 or commit actions which strike painfully on their senses1 they commission those to commit them who are formed to delight in cruelty1 and to whom misery1 torture1 and shedding of blood is an amusement6 ,they appear not once to reflect that whatever we do by another we do ourselves40 8,when a large and gentle ,ox1 after having resisted a ten times greater force of blows than would have killed his murderers1 falls stunned at last1 and his armed head is fastened to the ground with cords2 as soon as the wide wound is made1 and the jugular veins are cut asunder1 what mortal can1 without horror and compassion1 hear the painful bellowings1 intercepted by his flow of blood1 the bitter sighs that speak the sharpness of his anguish1 and the deep-sounding groans with loud anxiety1 fetched from the bottom of his strong and palpitating heart4 ,look on the trembling and violent convulsions of his limbs2 see1 whilst his reeking gore streams from him1 his eyes become dim and languid1 and behold his strugglings1 gasps1 and last efforts for life4 8,when a being has given such convincing and undeniable proofs of terror and of pain and agony1 is there a disciple of ,descartes so inured to blood1 as not to refute1 by his commiseration1 the philosophy of that vain reasoner80#baf ,in his previous essay1 ,on the ,conduct of ,men to ,inferior ,animals1 ,nicholson has collected from various writers1 both humane and inhumane1 a fearful catalogue of atrocities of different kinds perpetrated upon his helpless dependants by the being who delights to boast himself 7at least in civilised countries7 to be made 8in the image and likeness of ,god40 ,among these the hellish tortures of the vivisectionists and 8pathologists0 hold1 perhaps1 the bad pre-eminence1 but the cruel tortures of the ,slaughter-,house come very near to them in wanton atrocity4 ,,xxxvii4 ,,abernethy4 #agfc-ahca4 ,distinguished as a practical surgeon and as a physiologist1 ,abernethy has earned his lasting reputation as having been one of the first to attack the old prejudice of the profession as to the origin of diseases1 and as having sought for such origin1 not in mere local and accidental but1 in general causes--in the constitution and habits of the body4 ,a pupil of ,john ,hunter1 in #aghf he became assistant surgeon at ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,hospital1 and shortly afterwards he lectured on anatomy and surgery at that institution1 which to his ability and genius owes the fame which it acquired as a school of surgery4 ,as a lecturer he had a reputation and popularity seldom or perhaps never before so well earned in the medical schools--founded1 as they were1 upon a rare penetration and logical method1 united with clearness and perspicuity in communicating his convictions4 ,in honesty1 integrity1 and in the domestic virtues his character was unimpeachable1 but the gentleness of deportment for which he was noted in his home he was far from exhibiting in public and towards his patients4 ,his roughness and even coarseness of manner in dealing with capricious valetudinarians1 indeed1 became notorious4 ,the ,constitutional ,origin and ,treatment of ,local ,diseases--his principal work--in comparison with the vast mass of medical literature up to that time put forth1 stands out in favourable relief4 ,in it two great principles are laid down--that 8local diseases are symptoms of a disordered constitution1 not primary and independent maladies1 and that they are to be cured by remedies calculated to make a salutary impression on the general frame1 not by local treatment1 nor by any mere manipulations of surgery40 ,this single principle changed the aspect of the entire field of surgery1 and elevated it from a manual art into the rank of a science4 ,and to this first principle he added a second1 the range of which is1 perhaps1 less extensive1 but the practical importance of which is scarcely inferior to that of the first--namely1 that 8this disordered state of the constitution either originates from1 or is rigorously allied with1 derangement of the stomach and bowels1 and that it can only be reached by remedies which first exercise a curative influence upon these organs40 ,it will not detract from the merit of ,abernethy to add to this account that his predecessor1 ,dr4 ,cheyne1 and his contemporary1 ,dr4 ,lambe1 have most satisfactorily and radically carried out into practice these just principles2 or to remark that great public reputations ought not to be allowed1 as too often is the fact1 to overwhelm less known but not therefore less meritorious labours4 ,as to dietetics1 the theory of ,abernethy seems to have been better than his practice4 ,when reproached with the inconsistency that the reformed diet which he so forcibly commended to others he himself failed to follow1 he is related to have used the well-known simile of the sign-post with his usual readiness of repartee4 ,it was while ,dr4 ,lambe was at the ,aldersgate ,street ,dispensary that ,abernethy formed the acquaintance of that unostentatious but true reformer--an acquaintance which was destined to have no unimportant influence upon the medical theories of the great surgeon4 ,abernethy was at that time writing his ,observations on ,tumours1 and he had intrusted to his friend one of his cancer patients to be treated by the non-flesh and distilled water regimen4 ,he carefully watched the effects1 and he has thus given us the results of his observations3-- 8,there can be no subject which ,i think more likely to interest the mind of a surgeon than that of an endeavour to amend and alter the state of a cancerous constitution4 ,the best timed and best conducted operation brings with it nothing but disgrace if the diseased propensities of the constitution are active and powerful4 ,it is after an operation that1 in my opinion1 we are most particularly concerned to regulate the constitution1 lest the disease should be revived or renewed by its disturbance4 ,in addition to that attention1 to tranquillise and invigorate the nervous system1 and keep the digestive organs in as healthy a state as possible 7which ,i have recommended in my first volume71 ,i believe general experience sanctions the recommendation of a more vegetable because less stimulating diet1 with the addition of so much milk1 broth1 and eggs1 as seems necessary to prevent any declension of the patient's strength4 8,very recently ,dr4 ,lambe has proposed a method of treating cancerous diseases1 which is wholly dietetic4 ,he recommends the adoption of a strict vegetable regimen1 to avoid the use of fermented liquors1 and to substitute water purified by distillation in the place of common water as a beverage1 and in all parts of diet in which common water is used1 as tea1 soups1 c4 ,the grounds upon which he founds his opinion of the propriety of this advice1 and the prospects of benefit which it holds out1 may be seen in his ,reports on ,cancer1 to which ,i refer my readers4 8,my own experience on the effects of this regimen is of course very limited4 ,nor does it authorise me to speak decidedly on the subject4 ,but ,i think it right to observe that1 in one case of cancerous ulceration in which it was used1 the symptoms of the disease were1 in my opinion1 rendered more mild1 the erysipelatous inflammation surrounding the ulcer was removed1 and the life of the patient was1 in my judgment1 considerably prolonged4 ,the more minute details of the facts constitute the sixth case of ,dr4 ,lambe's ,reports4 ,it seems to me very proper and desirable that the powers of the regimen recommended by ,dr4 ,lambe should be fairly tried1 for the following reasons3-- 8,because ,i know some persons who1 whilst confined to such diet1 have enjoyed very good health2 and further1 ,i have known several persons1 who did try the effects of such a regimen1 declare that it was productive of considerable benefit4 ,they were not1 indeed1 afflicted with cancer1 but they were induced to adopt a change of diet to allay a state of nervous irritation and correct disorder of the digestive organs1 upon which medicine had but little influence4 8,because it appears certain1 in general1 that the body can be perfectly nourished by vegetables4 8,because all great changes of the constitution are more likely to be effected by alterations of diet and modes of life than by medicine4 8,because it holds out a source of hope and consolation to the patient in a disease in which medicine is known to be unavailing1 and in which surgery affords no more than a temporary relief40#bag 8,the above opinion of ,mr4 ,abernethy10 remarks an experienced authority upon the subject1 8is most valuable1 for he watched the case for three and a half years under ,dr4 ,lambe's regimen1 which is directly opposed to the system of diet which he had advocated1 before he met ,dr4 ,lambe1 in the first volume of his work on ,constitutional ,diseases1 and from his rough honesty there is no doubt that had ,dr4 ,abernethy lived to publish a second edition he would have corrected his mistake40 ,as it is1 the candour by which so distinguished an authority was impelled to alter or modify opinions already put forth to the world1 claims our respect as much as the too general want of it deserves censure4 ,,xxxviii4 ,,lambe4 #agfe-ahdg4 ,one of the most distinguished of the hygeistic and scientific promoters of the reformed regimen1 ,dr4 ,lambe1 occupies an eminent position in the medical literature of vegetarianism1 and he divides with his predecessor1 ,dr4 ,cheyne1 the honour of being the founder of scientific dietetics in this country4 ,his family had been settled some two hundred years in the county of ,hereford1 in which they possessed an estate that descended to ,dr4 ,william ,lambe1 and is now held by his grandson4 ,he early gave promise of his future mental eminence4 ,head boy of the ,hereford ,grammar ,school1 he proceeded1 in due course1 to ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,in #aghf1 being then in the twenty-first year of his age1 he graduated as fourth wrangler of his year4 ,as a matter of course1 he soon was elected a ,fellow of his college1 where he continued to reside until his marriage in #agid4 ,during this period of learned leisure he devoted his time to the study of medicine1 and the ,,ms4 notes in the possession of his biographer1 ,mr4 ,hare1 8prove the diligence with which he studied his profession1 and there we see the origin of his enlarged views of the causes of disease1 so much insisted on by these fathers of medicine1 and so much neglected by modern physicians in their search for chemical remedies40 ,after his marriage he went to reside and practise in ,warwick1 where he was the intimate friend of ,parr1 the well-known ,greek critic1 and of ,walter ,savage ,landor1 who writes of him as 8very communicative and good humoured4 ,i had enough talk with ,lambe to assure myself that he is no ordinary man40 ,it was to the discoveries of ,dr4 ,lambe1 and to his publications reporting the curative value of its mineral waters1 that ,leamington owed its fame and popularity2 and ,dr4 ,jefferson1 in his address to the ,british ,medical ,association a few years ago1 thus eulogises him3-- 8,it was not until the end of the last century that any really scientific research ever was recorded on this subject impure water4 ,about this period ,dr4 ,lambe was engaged in practice in ,warwick4 ,somewhat eccentric in some of his practical views1 ,dr4 ,lambe was not the less a scientific man1 an intelligent observer of nature1 and an accomplished physician1 and was1 moreover1 one of the most elegant medical writers of his day4 ,the springs of the neighbouring village of ,leamington did not escape his observation1 and1 having carefully studied and analysed the waters1 he published an account of them1 in #agig1 in the fifth volume of the ,transactions of the ,philosophical ,society of ,manchester1 a society embracing the respected names of ,priestley1 ,dalton1 ,watt1 and others1 and not inferior1 perhaps1 to any contemporary association in ,europe40 ,like many other seceders from orthodox dietetics both before and after him1 ,dr4 ,lambe found himself impelled to experiment in the non-flesh diet by ill-health4 ,his bodily disorders1 indeed1 were so complicated and of such a nature1 as to excite astonishment that not only he greatly mitigated their violence1 but that also he survived to an advanced age4 ,in an exceedingly minute and conscientious narrative of his own case in his ,additional ,reports 7writing in the third person71 he informs us1 that having during several years--from his eighteenth year--suffered greatly and with constantly aggravated symptoms3-- 8,he resolved1 therefore1 finally to execute what he had been contemplating for some time--to abandon animal food altogether1 and everything analogous to it1 and to confine himself wholly to vegetable food4 ,this determination he put in execution the second week of ,february1 #ahjf1 and he has adhered to it with perfect regularity to the present time4 ,his only subject of repentance with regard to it has been that it had not been adopted much earlier in life4 ,he never found the smallest real ill-consequence from this change4 ,he sank neither in strength1 flesh1 nor in spirits4 ,he was at all times of a very thin and slender habit1 and so he has continued to be1 but upon the whole he has rather gained than lost flesh4 ,he has experienced neither indigestion nor flatulence even from the sort of vegetables which are commonly thought to produce flatulence1 nor has the stomach suffered from any vegetable matter1 though unchanged by culinary art or uncorrected by condiments4 ,the only unpleasant consequence of the change was a sense of emptiness of stomach1 which continued many months4 ,in about a year1 however1 he became fully reconciled to the new habit1 and felt as well satisfied with his vegetable meal as he had been formerly with his dinner of flesh4 ,he can truly say that since he has acted upon this resolution no year has passed in which he has not enjoyed better health than in that which preceded it4 ,but he has found that the changes introduced into the body by a vegetable regimen take place with extreme slowness2 that it is in vain to expect any considerable amendment in successive weeks or in successive months4 ,we are to look rather to the intervals of half-years or years40 ,with extreme candour as well as carefulness1 this patient and philosophic experimentalist details every particular circumstance of his own diagnosis4 ,after a minute report of the various symptoms of his maladies and his gradual subjugation of them1 he deduces the only just inference3-- 8,granting this representation of facts to be correct1 and the nature of this case to1 be truly determined1 ,i must be permitted to ask1 ,what other method than that which has been adopted would have produced the same benefit8 ,if such methods exist1 ,i confess my ignorance of them4444 ,but though these pains in the head still recur in a trifling degree1 the relief given to the brain in general has been decided and most essential4 ,it has appeared in an increased sensibility of all the organs1 particularly of the senses--the touch1 the taste1 and the sight1 in greater muscular activity1 in greater freedom and strength of respiration1 greater freedom of all the secretions1 and in increased intellectual power4 ,it has been extended to the night as much as to the day4 ,the sleep is more tranquil1 less disturbed by dreams1 and more refreshing4 ,less sleep1 upon the whole1 appears to be required2 but the loss of quantity is more than compensated by its being sound and uninterrupted4444 8,the hypochondriacal symptoms continued to be occasionally very oppressive during the second year1 particularly during the earlier part of it1 but they afterwards very sensibly declined1 and at present he enjoys more uniform and regular spirits than he had done for many years upon the mixed diet4 ,from the whole of these facts it follows that all the organs1 and indeed every fibre of the body1 are simultaneously affected by the matters habitually conveyed into the stomach1 and that it is the incongruity of these matters to the system1 which gradually forms that morbid diathesis1 which exists alike both in apparent health and in disease4 ,i might illustrate this fact still more minutely by observations on the teeth1 on the hair1 and on the skin4 ,i might show that by a steady attention to regimen1 the skin of the palm of the hand becomes of a firmer and stronger texture1 that even an excrescence which had for twenty years and upwards been growing more fixed1 firm1 and deep1 had1 first1 its habitudes altered1 and1 finally1 was softened and disappeared4 ,but1 perhaps1 enough has been said already to give a pretty clear idea both of the kind of change introduced into the habit by diet1 and of the extent to which it may be carried4 ,i proceed1 therefore1 to relate some new phenomena which took place during the course of this regimen1 which are both curious in themselves and lead to important conclusions40 ,the author then goes on to record further gradual diminution of painful symptoms4 ,from long and careful observation of himself1 amongst other important deductions1 ,dr4 ,lambe infers that3-- 8,we may conclude that it is the property of this regimen1 and1 in particular1 of the vegetable diet1 to transfer diseased action from the viscera to the exterior parts of the body--from the central parts of the system to the periphery4 ,vegetable diet has often been charged with causing cutaneous diseases2 in common language1 they are1 in these cases1 said to proceed from poorness of blood4#bah ,in some degree the charge is probably just1 and the observation ,i have already made may give us some insight into the causes of it4 ,but this charge1 instead of being a just cause of reproach1 is a proof of the superior salubrity of vegetable diet4 ,cutaneous eruptions appear1 because disease is translated from the internal organs to the skin40 ,for all brain disease abandonment of the gross and stimulating flesh-meats is shown to be of the first importance4 ,at the same time1 that it involves any loss of actual bodily strength is a fallacy3-- 8,we see1 then1 how ill-founded is the notion that inaction and loss of power are induced by a vegetable diet4 ,in fact1 all the observations that have been made have shewn the very reverse to be the truth4 ,symptoms of plenitude and oppression have continued in considerable force for at least five years2 and the consequence of this peculiar regimen has been an increase of strength and power1 and not a diminution4 ,in the subject of this case the pulse1 which may be deemed1 perhaps1 the best idea of the condition of all the other functions1 is at present much more strong and full than under the use of animal food4 ,it is also perfectly calm and regular40 ,his personal experience of satisfaction derivable from vegetables and fruits as affording1 for the most part1 sufficient liquids in themselves1 without use of extraneous drinks1 is of importance3-- 8,he had1 when living on the common diet1 been habitually thirsty1 and1 like most persons inclined to studious and sedentary habits1 was much attached to tea-drinking4 ,but for the last two or three years he has almost wholly relinquished the use of liquids1 and by the substitution of fruit and recent vegetables he has found that the sensation of thirst has been in a manner abolished4 ,even tea has lost its charms1 and he very rarely uses it4 ,he is therefore certain1 from his own experience1 that the habit of employing liquids is an artificial habit1 and not necessary to any of the functions of the animal economy40 ,whatever may be thought of the theory of the possibility of entire abstinence from all extraneous liquids1 there is not the least doubt that a judicious use of vegetable foods reduces to a minimum the feeling of thirst and craving for artificial drinks1 an experience1 we imagine1 almost universal with abstinents from flesh-dishes4 ,dr4 ,lambe concludes the first part of his valuable diagnosis with the assurance1 8that if those for whose service these labours are principally designed1 ,i mean persons suffering under habitual and chronic illness1 are able to go along with me in my argument to form a general correct notion of what they are to expect from a reformed regimen1 and1 above all1 to arm their minds with firmness1 patience1 and perseverance1 ,i shall not readily be induced to think that ,i have written one superfluous line40#bai ,in #ahje1 at the age of forty1 we find him established in practice in ,london4 ,five years later he was physician to the ,general ,dispensary1 ,aldersgate ,street4 ,he was also elected ,fellow and ,censor of the ,college of ,physicians1 whose meetings he regularly attended4 ,his peculiar opinions did not tend to secure popularity for him1 and the adhesion of such men as ,dr4 ,abernethy1 ,dr4 ,pitcairn1 ,lord ,erskine1 and of ,mr4 ,brotherton1 ,m4,p4 7one of the earliest members of the ,vegetarian ,society71 served only to make the indifference of the mass of the community more conspicuous4 ,not the least interesting fact in his life is his share in the conversion of ,shelley1 and his friendship with ,j4 ,f4 ,newton and his interesting family1 at whose house these earlier pioneers of the ,new ,reformation were accustomed to meet1 and celebrate their charming runions with vegetarian feasts4 ,a cardinal part of the dietetic system of ,dr4 ,lambe was his insistance upon the use of distilled water4 ,in his ,reports on ,regimen he writes of the ,newton family3 8,i am well acquainted with a family of young children who have scarcely ever touched animal food1 and who now for three years have drunk only distilled water4 ,for clearness and beauty of complexion1 muscular strength1 fulness of habit free from grossness1 hardiness1 healthiness1 and ripeness of intellect these children are unparalleled40#bbj ,we have already mentioned ,lord ,erskine as one of the many eminent friends of ,dr4 ,lambe4 ,that more humane and distinguished lawyer1 in a letter to his friend acknowledging the receipt of the ,reports1 writes as follows3 8,i am of opinion that both this work and the other referred to in it are deserving of the highest consideration4 ,i read them both with more interest and attention from the abuse of the ,british ,critic one of the periodicals of the day mentioned in the preface1 as no periodical criticism ever published in this country is so uniformly unjust1 ignorant1 and impudent40 ,dr4 ,abernethy's testimony to the efficacy of abstinence in cases of cancer will be found in the notice of that eminent practitioner4 ,amongst the most interesting correspondence of his later years is his interchange of ideas with ,sylvester ,graham--the first of the ,american prophets of the reformed regimen4 ,the letter to the celebrated ,american vegetarian is1 as ,dr4 ,lambe's latest biographer justly observes1 8a most valuable relic1 because it continues the result of ,dr4 ,lambe's diet up to ,september1 #ahcg--twenty-three years after the last notice of his health in the account of his own case1 which he published in ,november1 #ahad4 ,it is1 besides1 an admirable proof of his truthful and philosophic mind1 which was slow to arrive at conclusions1 and willing rather to exaggerate than otherwise the traces of disease which he still felt40 ,he proves1 also1 in this letter1 how slow and yet sure are the effects of diet1 and it supplies an answer to those objectors who complain that they have tried the diet 7perhaps for a few weeks only7 without any good result4 ,after complimenting his transatlantic fellow-worker in the cause of truth upon his zeal and industry1 ,dr4 ,lambe proceeds3-- 8,my book1 entitled ,additional ,reports on ,regimen1 has now been before the world three and twenty years4 ,that it has attracted little notice1 and still less popular favour--though it may have excited in the writer some mortification--has not occasioned much surprise4 ,the doctrine it seeks to establish is in direct opposition to popular and deep-rooted prejudice4 ,it is thought 7most erroneously7 to attack the best enjoyments and most solid comforts of life2 and1 moreover1 it has excited the bitter hostility of a numerous and influential body in society--,i mean that body of medical practitioners who exercise their profession for the sake of its profits merely1 and who appear to think that disease was made for the profession and not the profession for disease4 8,to drop1 however1 all idle complaints of public neglect1 let us go to the more useful inquiry whether or not the principles propounded in these ,reports have been confirmed by subsequent and more extensive experience4 ,to this inquiry ,i answer directly and fearlessly1 that in the interval between the present time and the year #ahae 7the date of that publication7 the practice recommended has succeeded in cases very numerous and of extreme variety1 and ,i can promise the practitioner who will try it fairly and judge with candour that he will experience no disappointment4 ,i say1 let him try it fairly4 ,i do not assert that it will succeed in cases where the powers of life are sunk1 in confirmed hectic fever1 in ulcerated cancer1 in established chronic disease1 or in the decrepitude of old age4 ,i may have attempted the relief of such cases in an early stage of my experiments1 but experience speedily demonstrated the hopelessness of such attempts4 ,but let subjects be taken not far advanced in life1 let them be tabid children 7for example7 with tumid abdomen1 swelled joints1 and depraved appetites1 or with obstinate cutaneous diseases1 erythema1 scabus1 rickets1 epileptic convulsions 7not grown habitual by long continuance74 ,but a practitioner in moderate practice will find no difficulty in selecting proper subjects1 if he is himself actuated by a regard to humanity united to principles of honour4 8,moreover1 let not the patient1 particularly if arrived at mature age1 expect to receive a perfect cure4 ,in many cases the consequences are rather preventive than curative4 ,this ,i hold to be no objection4 ,it is enough1 surely1 if a disease which1 from its nature1 might be expected to be continually on the increase1 is obviously checked in its progress1 if the symptoms become more and more mild1 and if a human being is preserved in comfortable existence who would otherwise have been consigned to the grave40 ,he devoted his great medical knowledge and experience particularly to the cure or mitigation of cancer4 ,in the letter1 from which we have already quoted1 he informs his correspondent of this interesting fact3-- 8,my most ardent wish was to attempt the relief of cases of cancer4 ,this object ,i have steadily pursued 7from the year #ahjc7 to the present day4 ,the case--the particulars of which ,i briefly mentioned to you in my former communication--has hitherto succeeded so perfectly that ,i should myself suspect an error in the diagnosis1 if it were not for the strongly-marked constitutional symptoms1 which are such as1 in my mind1 put it out of doubt4 ,there does not now remain what ,i expected1 and what ,i have called a nucleus1 for the resolution is complete4 ,now1 this is contrary to most of my former observations1 and would furnish1 as ,i have said1 some ground of suspicion4 ,but still it is not wholly unsupported by corroborative facts4 ,i have observed1 particularly in one case1 that the whole extreme edge of a schirrous tumour has been restored1 whilst the portion has remained unchanged2 not1 indeed1 speedily as in the former case1 but after having used the diet for a very considerable time4 ,now1 if a portion of a true schirrous tumour can be resolved1 there can be no reason why a resolution of the whole--taken very early and under favourable circumstances--shall be deemed impossible4 ,the truth is1 that at present we are not advanced enough to form general conclusions1 but ought to content ourselves with accumulating facts for the use of our successors40 ,if the experience of the benefits of a reasonable living in the cases of his patients was thus satisfactory1 he himself afforded1 in his own person1 perhaps the best testimony to its revivifying and invigorating qualities4 ,one of his visitors gives his impressions of the now famous doctor 7a title1 in the present instance1 of real meaning7 as follow3 8,agreeably to your request1 ,i submit to your perusal a short account of the friendly interview ,i had with ,dr4 ,lambe in ,london4 ,i first called on him in ,february4 ,i found him to be very gentlemanly in manners and venerable in appearance4 ,he is rather taller than the middle height4 ,his hair is perfectly white1 for he is now seventy-two years of age4 ,he told me he had been on the vegetable diet thirty-one years1 and that his health was better now than at forty1 when he commenced his present system of living4 ,he considers himself as likely to live thirty years longer as to have lived to his present age4444 ,although he is seventy-two years of age he walks into town1 a distance of three miles from his residence1 every morning1 and back at night4 ,dr4 ,lambe1 ,i am told1 has spent large sums of money in making experiments and publishing their results to the world40 ,in his earlier life he had been conspicuously thin and attenuated4 ,in later years he seems to have acquired even a certain amount of robustness1 and he is described as being active and strong at an advanced age4 ,some instances of extraordinary energy and endurance have been put on record by his family2 and his feats of pedestrianism1 when he was verging on his eightieth year1 are1 we imagine1 rarely to be paralleled4 ,his hope of attaining the age of one hundred years1 unhappily1 was not to be fulfilled4 8,our bodies10 his biographer justly remarks1 8are but machines adapted to perform a definite amount of work1 and ,dr4 ,lambe's originally weak constitution had been severely tried by sickness and wrong diet during the first forty years of his life4 ,at the age of eighty his strength began to fail1 but his grandson writes1 #8up to a very short time before his death there were no outward signs of ill-health1 only the marks of old age4'0#bba ,existence had its enjoyment for him up to almost the last days1 and his intellectual powers remained to the end4 ,he calmly expired in his eighty-third year4 ,of contemporary and posthumous eulogies of his personal1 as well as scientific1 worth1 the following may suffice3 8,a man of learning1 a man of science1 a man of genius1 a man of distinguished integrity and honour40 ,such is the testimony of his friend ,dr4 ,parr1 as quoted by ,samuel ,johnson4 ,in the ,anniversary ,harveian ,oration before the ,college of ,physicians1 by ,dr4 ,francis ,hawkins1 in the year #ahdh1 the representative of the ,faculty thus recalls his memory3 8,nor can ,i pass over in silence the loss we have sustained in ,dr4 ,william ,lambe--an excellent chemist1 a learned man1 and a skilful physician4 ,his manners were simple1 unreserved1 and most modest4 ,his life was pure4 ,farewell1 therefore1 gentle spirit1 than whom no one more pure and innocent has passed away60 ,,xxxix4 ,,newton4 #aggj-ahbe4 ,john ,frank ,newton1 the friend and associate of ,dr4 ,lambe1 ,shelley1 and the little band who met at the house of the former to share his vegetarian repasts1 appears to have been one of the earliest converts of ,dr4 ,lambe1 to whom he dedicated his ,return to ,nature1 in gratitude for the recovery of his health through the adoption of the reformed regimen4 ,he published his little work1 as he informs us in his preface1 to impart to others the benefits which he himself had experienced2 and especially to make known to the heads of households the fact that his whole family of himself1 wife1 and four children under nine years of age1 with their nurse1 had been living1 at the date of his publication1 for two years upon a non-flesh diet1 during which time the apothecary's bill1 he tells us1 had amounted to the sum of sixpence2 and that charge had been incurred by himself4 ,the ever-memorable meetings of the reformers at the house of ,newton1 where ,shelley was a constant guest1 have been thus recorded by one of the biographers of the great poet3--8,shelley was intimate with the ,newton family1 and was converted by them in #ahac1 and he began then a strict vegetable diet4 ,his intimate association with the amiable and accomplished votaries of a ,return to ,nature was perhaps the most pleasing portion of his poetical1 philosophical1 and lovely life4444 ,for some years ,i was in the thick of it2 for ,i lived much with a select and most estimable society of persons 7the ,newtons71 who had #8returned to ,nature1' and ,i heard much discussion on the topic of vegetable diet4 ,certainly their vegetable dinners were delightful1 elegant1 and excellent repasts2 flesh1 fowl1 fish1 and #8game' never appeared--nor eggs nor butter bodily1 but the two latter were admitted into cookery1 but as sparingly as possible1 and under protest1 as not approved of and soon to be dispensed with4 ,we had soups in great variety1 that seemed the more delicate from the absence of flesh-meat4 8,there were vegetables of every kind1 plainly stewed or scientifically disguised4 ,puddings1 tarts1 confections and sweets abounded4 ,cheese was excluded4 ,milk and cream might not be taken unreservedly1 but they were allowed in puddings1 and sparingly in tea4 ,fruits of every kind were welcomed4 ,we luxuriated in tea and coffee1 and sought variety occasionally in cocoa and chocolate4 ,bread and butter1 and buttered toast were eschewed2 but bread1 cakes1 and plain seed-cakes were liberally divided among the faithful40#bbb ,the cause of the publication of his book ,newton thus states3-- 8,having for many years been an habitual invalid1 and having at length found that relief from regimen which ,i had long and vainly hoped for from drugs1 ,i am anxious1 from sympathy with those afflicted1 to impart to others the knowledge of the benefit ,i have experienced1 and to dispel1 as far as in me lies1 the prejudices under which ,i conceive mankind to labour on points so nearly connected with their health and happiness4 8,the particulars of my case ,i have already related at the concluding pages of ,dr4 ,lambe's ,reports on ,cancer4 ,to the account there given ,i have little to add1 but that1 by continuing to confine myself to the regimen advised in that work1 ,i continue to experience the same benefit2 that the winter which has just elapsed has been passed much more comfortably than that which preceded it1 and that1 if my habitual disorder is not completely eradicated1 it is so much subdued as to give but little inconvenience2 that ,i have suffered but a single day's confinement for several months2 and1 upon the whole1 that ,i enjoy an existence which many might envy who consider themselves to be in full possession of the blessings of health4 8,all that ,i have to regret in my present undertaking is the imperfect way in which it is executed4 ,the adepts in medicine have gained their knowledge originally from the experience of the sick4 ,i have taken my own sensations for my guide1 and am myself alone responsible for the conclusions which ,i have drawn from them1 the manuscript of this volume having been neither corrected nor looked over by any individual4 ,while ,i make no pretensions to medical science1 ,i cannot consent to be reasoned or ridiculed out of my feelings2 nor to believe that to be an illusion1 the truth of which has been confirmed to me by long-continued and repeated observation40 ,the use of distilled water was a cardinal article in the dietary creed of his friend ,dr4 ,lambe1 and upon this point ,newton particularly insists4 ,he appeals with much fervour1 as we have just stated1 to parents to have recourse to the natural means of prevention and cure1 in place of vainly trying every available artificial method by medicine and drugs4 ,he instances1 with minute particularity1 the regimen of his children1 whom he asserts to have been1 up to the moment of his writing1 perfectly free from any sort of malady or disorder1 and to be-- 8,so remarkably healthy that several medical men who have seen and examined them with a scrutinizing eye1 all agreed in the observation that they knew nowhere a whole family which equals them in robustness4 ,should the success of this experiment1 now of three years' standing1 proceed as it has begun1 there is little doubt1 he ventures to flatter himself that it must at length have some influence with the public1 and that every parent who finds the illness of his family both afflicting and expensive1 will say to himself #8,why should ,i any longer be imprudent or foolish enough to have my children sick8' ,all hail to the resolution which that sentiment implies6 ,but until it becomes general1 ,i feel it necessary to exhort1 in the warmest language ,i can think of1 those who have the young in their charge to institute an experiment which ,i have made before them with the completest success4 ,to those parents especially do ,i address myself who1 aware that temperance in enjoyment is the best warrant of its duration1 feel how dangerous and how empty are all the feverous amusements of our assemblies1 our dinners1 and our theatres1 compared with the genuine and tranquil pleasures of a happy circle at home40 ,he presents an alluring picture of the health-producing results for the young of the natural regimen4 ,he promises that 8,they will become not only more robust but more beautiful2 that their carriage will be erect1 their step firm2 that their development at a critical period of youth1 the prematurity of which has been considered an evil1 will be retarded2 that1 above all1 the danger of being deprived of them will in every way diminish2 while by these light repasts their hilarity will be augmented1 and their intellects cleared in a degree which shall astonishingly illustrate the delightful effects of this regimen4444 ,i will beg here to attempt an answer in this place to that trite and specious objection to ,dr4 ,lambe's opinions that #8what is suitable to one constitution may be not so to another4' ,if there be a single person existing1 whose health would not be improved by the vegetable diet and distilled water1 then the whole system falls at once to the ground4 ,the question is simply1 whether fruits and other vegetables be not the natural sustenance of man1 who would have occasion for no other drink than these afford1 and whose thirst is at present excited by an unnatural flesh diet1 which causes his disorders bodily and mentally4444 ,another objection sometimes urged is this3 #8,if children1 brought up on a vegetable regimen1 should at a future period of their lives adopt a flesh diet1 they will certainly suffer more from the change than they otherwise would have done4' ,the very contrary of this1 ,i conceive1 would happen4 ,the stomach is so fortified by the general increase of health1 that a person thus nourished is enabled to bear what one whose humours are less impaired would sink under4 ,the children of our family can each of them eat a dozen or eighteen walnuts for supper without the most trifling indigestion1 an experiment which those who feed their children in the usual manner would consider it adventurous to attempt4 ,so also the ,irish porters in ,london bear these alterations of diet successfully1 and owe much of their actual vigour to the vegetable food of their forefathers1 and to their own1 before they emigrated from ,ireland1 where1 in all probability1 they did not taste flesh half-a dozen times in the year40 ,as to another well-known pretext1 that the propensity to flesh-eating1 and the relish with which it is evidently enjoyed by the majority of flesh eaters1 is proof of its fitness1 ,newton justly objects the various unnatural and disgusting foods of many savage peoples which are eaten with equal relish1 so that 8the argument of the agreeable flavour proves nothing1 ,i apprehend1 by proving too much40 ,he exhorts the medical faculty generally1 and those members of it who are in charge of hospitals1 infirmaries1 or workhouses1 to try the effect of the pure regimen on the sufferers and patients--in particular1 in the cases of the victims of cancer4 ,amongst others of his personal acquaintance who had derived the greatest benefit from the regimen1 he instances ,dr4 ,adam ,ferguson1 the historian of the ,roman ,republic1 who lived strictly on a vegetable diet4 ,he was in the habit of accompanying ,mr4 ,newton1 in the year #agid1 in rides through the environs of ,rome4 ,he was still living in #ahaa1 and he died1 in fact1 at the age of ninety1 holding a professorship in the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,,xl4 ,,gle,z,s4 #aggc-ahdc4 ,of all the enlightened and humane spirits to which the philosophic eighteenth century gave birth1 and who were quickened into activity by the great movement which originated in ,france in its last quarter1 not one1 assuredly1 was actuated by a purer and more exalted feeling than ,jean ,antoine ,glezs--the most enthusiastic1 perhaps1 of all the apostles of humanity and of refinement4 ,he was born at ,dourgne1 in the 7present7 department of the ,tarn4 ,his father was advocate to the old provincial parliament4 ,his mother's name was ,anna ,francos4 ,after attending preliminary schools1 he applied himself to the study of medicine--urged1 says his biographer1 more by love of his species than by predilection for the profession4 ,his intense horror of the vivisectional experiments in the physiological torture-dens soon compelled him to abandon his intended career3 the experience1 however1 gained during his brief medical course he was able to utilize more than once in his after life for the benefit of his neighbours4 ,the earlier period of the ,revolution had been hailed by him1 still very young as he then was1 as the hopeful beginning of a new era2 when its direction1 unhappily1 fell into the hands of fanatical leaders1 who1 following too much the examples of the old rgimes1 thought1 by wholesale executions1 to clear the way for the establishment of a universal republic and of lasting peace4 ,the youthful enthusiast1 whose whole soul revolted from the very idea of bloodshed and of suffering1 withdrew despairing into solitude1 and devoted himself to scientific and literary studies1 and to calm contemplation of ,nature4 ,in #agid1 at the age of #ba1 ,glezs married ,aglae de ,baumelle1 daughter of a writer of some repute4 ,at this time he seems to have entertained the hope of instructing his countrymen1 by engaging in public teaching2 but1 disappointed in a scheme for the inauguration of a course of historical lectures in the central school of his department1 he retired altogether from the active business of the world1 and settled down in a happy and peaceful home1 in a small chteau belonging to his wife1 at the foot of the ,pyrenees near ,mezires4 ,it was here1 amidst the magnificent solitudes of ,nature1 that in #agih1 in his twenty fifth year1 he determined upon abandoning for ever the diet of blood and slaughter4 ,until the moment of his death1 forty-five years later1 his diet consisted solely of milk1 fruits1 and vegetables4 ,so great was his scrupulousness1 that there might be no possibility or mistake ,glezs prepared his own food2 and he always ate alone 7his wife being unable or unwilling to follow his loftier aims71 since he could not endure either the smell or the sight of the ordinary dishes4 ,and this intense aversion it was1 indeed1 that compelled him to forego in great measure his intercourse with the world1 or1 at all events1 to shun the ordinary celebrations of social 8festivity40 ,full of enthusiastic belief that the transparent truth and sublimity of his creed could not fail to commend themselves to the better spirits of the age amongst his countrymen1 ,glezs addressed himself to some of the more thoughtful of his contemporaries2 amongst others to ,lamartine1 ,lamennais1 and ,chateubriand4 ,lamartine--the author of the ,fall of an ,angel1 in which he gives expression to his akreophagistic sympathies--responded1 if not with the enthusiasm that might justly have been expected from the author of that poem1 at least in a friendly spirit4 ,the others kept silence4 ,this indifferentism of those who should have been the first to lend the support of their names naturally affected him2 and made much more sensible the intellectual and moral isolation of his existence4 ,he was not left quite alone1 however4 ,there were found three or four minds of a loftier reach who had the courage of their convictions1 and followed them out to their logical conclusion4 ,these were ,anquetil 7the author of ,recherches sur les ,indes71 ,charles ,nodier1 ,girod de ,chantrans1 and ,cabantous1 dean of the ,faculty of ,letters at ,toulouse4 ,his brother1 ,colonel ,glezs1 a member of the ,academy of ,sciences of the same university1 also declared for the reformation4 ,it is superflous to say that these converts were all men of superior moral calibre to their contemporaries1 however high they might be exalted by popular estimates of worth4 ,deeply sensible as he was of the profound selfishness and indifferentism of the world surrounding him upon the subject which to him had all the interest and importance of a new religion1 he yet constantly displayed the benevolence of his disposition1 and the beneficence of his morality1 in his efforts for the good of all with whom he came in contact1 and particularly in respect to his domestics and his tenants1 amongst whom his memory was long held in reverence4 8,his exalted nature10 states his brother1 8glowed with enthusiasm for everything true and good40 ,his 8life-sorrow0 seems to have been the want of sympathy on the part of his wife1 to whom1 nevertheless1 he proved an indulgent husband4 ,his first book1 ,les ,mlancolies d'un ,solitaire1 appeared in the year #agid1 in #ahjj his ,nuits ,elysiennes1 and four years later his ,agrestes2 all more or less advocating the truth4 ,a long interval elapsed before he again essayed an appeal to the world4 ,his ,christianisme ,expliqu3 ou l',unit de ,croyance pour tous les ,chrtiens 7,christianity ,explained3 or1 ,unity of ,belief for all ,christians7 was published in #ahcj4 ,seven years later it appeared under the title of 8,christianity ,explained3 or1 the ,true ,spirit of that ,religion ,misinterpreted up to the ,present ,day40 ,in this work1 says his estimable editor and translator ,herr ,springer1 8he sought to prove1 from the standing-point of a protestant christian1 that ,christ's mission had for its end the abolition of the murder of animals 7,thiermord71 and that the whole significance of his teaching lay in the words spoken at the institution of the #8,supper1' that is to say1 the substitution of bread instead of flesh1 and wine instead of blood40 ,this undertaking1 it is needless to remark1 admirable as was its motive1 could hardly1 from the nature of the case1 be successful4 ,his last work was his ,thalysie3 ou ,la ,nouvelle ,existence1 the first part of which was published at ,paris in #ahdj1 the second in #ahdb4 ,he survived this his final appeal to the world on behalf of the new reformation but a few months4 ,he had reached the proverbial limit of human existence2 but that his life was shortened by disappointment and the bitter weariness of hope deferred1 8by that sorrow which perpetually gnaws at the heart of the unrecognised reformer0 7as his biographer well expresses it71 we have too much reason to believe4 ,the ,thalysie--his magnum opus--excited1 it appears1 little interest1 or even notice1 upon its first appearance4 ,it found one sympathising critic in ,m4 ,cabantous1 to whom reference has been already made1 who delivered a course of lectures upon it from his professorial chair4 ,a few years later a ,parisian advocate1 ,m4 ,blot-,lequne1 wrote a treatise in terms of strong recommendation of its principles2 and ,eugne ,stourm1 editor of ,the ,phalanx1 also eloquently advocated its claims upon the public notice4 ,at length it was criticised in the ,rvue des ,deux ,mondes by ,alphonse ,esquiros1 known to ,english readers by his contributions to that ,review on ,english life and manners4 ,we are hardly surprised that the criticism was conceived in the usual supercilious and prejudiced spirit4 ,no attempt appears to have been made to re-publish the ,new ,existence until ,herr ,springer undertook the task for his countrymen4 ,his ,german version1 with an interesting notice of the life and labours of ,glezs1 was published at ,berlin in #ahgb4 ,criticising a flippant article in ,the ,food ,journal in the same year1 ,herr ,springer eloquently rebukes the easy and arrogant tone--so successful in appealing to popular prejudices--and observes3 8,glezs at last published his eminent work1 which1 as ,weilhaser says1 he has written with the blood of his own heart4 ,if it be eccentric1 as ,mr4 ,jerrold asserts1 it has only the eccentricity of a gospel of humanity4 ,glezs was so eccentric as to write the following lines1 which were found amongst his posthumous papers3 #8,god1 pure ,source of ,light1 in order to obey thy commands ,i wrote this book4 ,be gracious to protect and to support my efforts2 for the humble creature which raises its voice from its grain of sand may1 perhaps1 be speechless to-morrow1 and deep silence reign in the desert4' ,yes2 ,mr4 ,jerrold is right3 that theory was to its author a religion4 ,in the ,thalysie we are instructed in the highest questions concerning the health and happiness of mankind4 ,surpassing all naturalists and philosophers1 he explained to us the great mystery of ,nature--that robbery and murder in its full meaning arose only by corruption1 and by alienation from the original laws of creation1 and that man1 instead of favouring the corruption1 as he has done till now1 would be able to abolish it4 ,in this way1 and in contradiction to the hollow phrases of optimism and the depressing contemplation of pessimism1 ,glezs restores the peace of our mind1 and bestows upon us the hope for a future reign of ,wisdom and ,love40#bbc ,in the preface to the ,thalysie ,glezs thus expresses his convictions1 his hopes1 and the general purpose of his labours3-- 8,the system which ,i now publish to the world is not1 as the usual acceptation of that word might seem to indicate1 a collection of principles more or less probable1 and of which it depends upon each one to admit or reject the consequences4 ,it is a chain of principles1 rigorously true and just1 from which man cannot depart without incurring penalties proportionate to his deviation4 ,but1 in spite of these penalties which he has suffered1 and which he still suffers1 he is not aware of his lost condition garement4 ,his fate is that of the slave1 born in servitude1 who plays with his chains1 sometimes insults the freemen1 and carries his madness to the point of refusing freedom when it is offered to him1 and of choosing slavery4 8,it is not that all men have allowed themselves to be carried willingly down the fatal descent3 a large number have struggled against the press1 but their diverse and scattered efforts have resembled the eddies of the flood1 which ends with forcing together all the diverging waters and hurrying away with them into the gulf of the ocean4 ,or1 if some few have raised and kept themselves above the rapid current1 no permanent advantage has resulted from it to the human race1 which has been none the less abandoned to itself40 ,we know that the greatest intellects amongst the ,greeks#bbd had taught the better way2 but they failed1 says ,glezs1 inasmuch as their doctrine was too exclusive and esoteric4 8,the condition of the human race is a plain witness of its error4 ,this condition1 in fact1 is so alarming that it might seem desperate1 if it were certain that men had acquired all their knowledge4 ,but1 happily1 there is one branch of it--the most essential of all1 and without which the rest is scarcely of any account--which is yet entirely ignored4 ,this knowledge is precisely that of which these great men had glimpses1 and of which they reserved to themselves the sole enjoyment2#bbe and it is this knowledge1 or1 rather1 this wisdom 7and we know that with the ,greeks these two things were comprised under the same denomination7 which ,i publish4 ,i shall give it an extension which it was not possible for them to perceive or to give2 because ,nature refuses its life-giving spirit esprit de vie to solitary and isolated seeds1 and makes those only to fructify which enter into the common heritage of mankind4 8,with such support1 the most feeble must have an advantage over the strongest without it4 ,i have1 besides1 another advantage4 ,men feeling to-day1 more than ever1 the privation of what is wanting to them1 invoke on all sides new principles1 and demand a higher civilisation4 ,it is not the first time1 doubtless1 that such a state of things has been manifested4 ,it has been seen to supervene after all the moral revolutions that have left man greater than they have found him4 ,but that of which we have been the witnesses the revolution in ,france of #aghi--the reforms of #ahcj seems to have something more remarkable1 more complete--one would almost be tempted to believe that it must be the last1 and terminate that long sequence of vain disputes across which the human kind has painfully advanced1 seeing it rise in the midst of the dbris of all the old-world ideas which have expired or are expiring at one's feet4 ,what a moment for rebuilding6 ,no more favourable one could exist2 and it is urged on1 so to speak1 by the breeze of these happy circumstances that ,i offer to the meditation of men the following propositions4444 8,i shall add but a few words4 ,the principles which ,i have laid down are absolute--they cannot bend flchir4 ,but there are steps on the route which conduct to the heights which they occupy2 and were there but a single step made in that direction1 that single step could not be regarded as indifferent and unimportant4 ,thus this work--guide of those whom it shall convince--will be useful also to the rest of the world as1 at least1 a moderator and a check2 and1 ,i shall avow it1 my hopes do not extend beyond this latter object4 ,i should feel myself even perfectly satisfied1 if this book should inspire in my contemporaries enough of esteem and favour to prevent them from arresting and impeding it at its start1 and to allow it to follow its course towards a generation1 ,i will not say more worthy1 but better prepared than the present to receive it40 ,glezs divides his great work into twelve ,discourses1 in two volumes1 supplemented by a third volume which he entitles ,moral ,proofs4 ,it is an almost exhaustive1 as well as eloquent1 rsum of the history and ethics of the subject4 ,the only fault of this1 perhaps1 most heartfelt appeal to the reason and conscience of mankind ever published is its too great discursiveness4 ,the manifest anxiety of the author to meet1 or to anticipate1 every possible objection or subterfuge on the part of the hostile or the indifferent1 may well excuse this apparent blemish2 and the slightest acquaintance with his ,new ,existence can hardly fail to extort1 even from the most prejudiced reader1 a tribute of admiration to a spirit so noble and so pure1 devoting all its energies to the furtherance of an exalted and refined morality4 ,in the earlier portion of his book he reviews the dietetic habits and practices of the various peoples of the younger world1 and notices the various philosophic and other writers who have left any record of their opinions upon flesh-eating4 ,he next treats of modern authorities1 and1 after quoting a large number of anti-kreophagistic testimonies1 in his fifth ,discourse he applies himself to answer the sophisms of the chief opponents1 and particularly of its arch-enemy--his countryman1 ,buffon1 in his well-known ,histoire ,naturelle--and he may be said effectually to have disposed of his astonishing fallacies4#bbf 8,what most strikes the observer when he throws an attentive glance over the earth1 is the relative inferiority of man1 considered as what he is1 in regard to what he ought to be3 it is the feebleness of the work compared with the aptitude of the workman4 ,all his inspirations are good1 and all his actions bad2 and it is to this singular fact that must be attributed1 without doubt1 the universal contempt that man exhibits towards his fellows4444 ,we must remount to the source1 and see if there is not in man's existence some essential act which1 reflecting itself on all the rest1 would communicate to them its fatal influence4 ,let us consider1 above everything1 the distinctive quality of man--that which raises him above all other beings4 ,it is clear that it is ,pity1#bbg source of that intelligence which has placed him at the head of that fine moral order1 invincible in the midst of the catastrophes of ,nature4 ,his utter failure to exhibit this feeling of pity towards his humble fellow-beings1 as well as to his own kind1 engages us to inquire what is the permanent cause of such failure2 and we find it1 at first1 in that unhappy facility with which man receives his impressions of the beings by whom he is surrounded4 ,these impressions1 transmitted with life and cemented by habit1 have formed a creation apart and separate from himself1 which is consequently beyond the domain of his conscience1 or1 if you prefer it1 of the ordinary jurisprudence of men4 ,thus men continue to accuse themselves of being unjust1 violent1 cruel1 and treacherous to one another1 but they do not accuse themselves of cutting the throats of other animals and of feeding upon their mangled limbs1 which1 nevertheless1 is the single cause of that injustice1 of that violence1 of that cruelty1 and of that treachery4 8,although all have not these vices to the same degree1 and it is exactly this fact which aids the self-deception1 ,i shall clearly prove that all have the germs of them2 and that1 if they are not equally developed1 we must thank the circumstances only which have failed them4 8,it is thus that many ,europeans1 whom their destiny conducts to the cannibal countries1 after some months of sojourn with the natives1 make no difficulty of seating themselves at their banquet1 and of sharing their horrible repast1 which at first had excited their horror and disgust4 ,they begin with devouring a dog3 from the dog to the man the space is soon cleared4 8,men believe themselves to be just1 provided that they fulfil1 in regard to their fellows1 the duties which have been prescribed to them4 ,but it is goodness which is the justice of man2 and it is impossible1 ,i repeat it1 to be good towards one's fellow without being so towards other existences4 ,let us not be the dupes of appearances4 ,seneca1 who lived only on the herbs of his garden1 to which he owed those last gleams of philosophy which enlightened1 so to speak1 the fall of the ,roman ,empire1 also thinks that crime cannot be circumscribed3 ,nullum intr se manet vitium4 ,and if1 as ,ovid affirms1 the sword struck men only after having been first dyed in the blood of the lower animals1 what interest have we not in respecting such a barrier8 ,like olus1 who held in his hands the bag in which the winds were confined1 we may at our will1 according as we live upon plants or upon animals1 tranquillize the earth or excite terrible tempests upon it4 8,i am too well aware that a subterfuge will be found in excusing the crime by necessity1 and calumniating ,providence4 ,according to the pretended belief of the greatest number of people1 if other animals were not put to death1 they would deprive men of the empire of the earth4 ,but it is easy to reply to this objection by the examples of people who1 holding in horror the effusion of blood1 and robbing no being of life--even the vilest or most hateful--are by no means disturbed in the exercise of their sovereignty4#bbh ,and it would result from the examples of these people1 if one had not other proofs besides1 that man is absolutely master of the means of increasing or limiting the multiplication of the species which are more or less in dependence upon him4 ,and it is not less evident that the earth1 in this latter hypothesis1 would support an infinitely greater number of the human species4 ,thus will the vegetable regimen be necessarily adopted one day over the whole earth1 when the multiplication of our species shall have reached a certain number fixed and pre-established by that imperious and irrevocable law which is intimately connected1 for the most part1 with humanity1 justice1 and virtue--the number at which it is slowly arriving1 arrested by the very causes which ,i am striving to destroy1 and which1 for that single reason1 ought to arm against them all generous beings who appreciate the benefit of existence40#bbi ,amongst other pretexts by which men seek to excuse selfishness1 is the assertion that its victims have little or no consciousness of suffering1 and that their death is so unexpected that it cannot excite their terror4 ,this monstrous fiction is eloquently exposed by ,glezs1 as it is1 indeed1 by the commonest everyday experience3-- 8,the instinct of life among animals generally gives them a presentiment and fear of death--that is to say violent death2 for as for natural death it inspires in them no alarm1 for the simple reason that it is in the course of nature4 ,and it is the same with man4 ,he is not afflicted with the thought of dying when he knows his hour is come2 he resigns himself to that fate as to any other imposed upon him by necessity4 ,the sensations of other beings differ in no respect from those of men2 and when the horse1 for example1 is condemned to death by the lion1 that is to say1 when he hears the confused roar of that terrible beast which fills space1 while the precise spot from which it emanates cannot be determined1 which takes from the victim all hope of escape by flight1 the perspiration rolls down all his limbs1 he falls to the earth as if he had just been struck by a thunderbolt1 and would die of terror alone if the lion did not run up to terminate the tragedy40#bcj 8,there exists so great an analogy1 so strong a resemblance1 between the life of man and that of other animals who surround him1 that a simple return to himself--simple reflection--ought to suffice to make him respect the latter2 and if he were condemned by ,nature to rend it from them1 he might justly curse the order of things which1 on the one hand1 should have implanted in his heart the source of feeling so gentle1 and1 on the other1 should have imposed on him a necessity so cruel4444 ,and if this man have children1 if he bear in his heart objects which are so dear to him1 how can he unceasingly surround himself with images of death--of that death which must deprive him one day of those whom he loves1 or snatch himself away from their love8 ,and if he be just1 if he be good1 how will he not have repugnance for acts which will continually recall to him ideas of ingratitude1 of cruelty1 and of violence8 ,there exists in the ,east a tree which1 by a mechanical movement1 inclines its branches towards the traveller1 whom it seems to invite to repose under its shade4 ,this simple image of hospitality1 which is revered in that part of the world1 makes them regard it as sacred1 and they would punish with death him who should dare to apply a hatchet to its trunk4 ,our humble fellow-beings1 should they be less sacred because they represent1 not by mechanical movements1 but by actions resembling our own1 feelings the dearest to our hearts8 ,ah6 let us respect them1 not alone because they aid us to bear the burdens of the world1 which would overwhelm us without them but because they have the same right with ourselves to life4444 ,a reason which is without reply1 at least for generous souls1 is the trust and confidence reposed in man by other animals4 ,nature has not taught them to distrust him4 ,he is the only enemy whom she has not pointed out to them4 ,is it not evident proof that he was not intended to be so8 ,for can one believe that ,nature1 who holds so just a balance1 could have been willing to deceive all other beings in favour of man alone8 ,it has been observed that birds of the gentle species express certain cries when they perceive the fox1 the weasel1 c41 although they have nothing to fear from them1 without doubt1 by reason of the analogy which they offer4 ,they are the cries of hatred rather than of fear1 whilst they utter these latter at sight of the eagle1 of the hawk1 c4 ,now1 it is certain that in all the islands on which man has landed1 the native animals have not fled before them4 ,they have been able to take even birds with the hand40 ,glezs rejects the common fallacy that1 because men have acquired a lust for flesh1 therefore it is natural or proper for them4 8,it is a specious but very false reason to allege that1 since man has acquired this taste1 he ought to be permitted to indulge it--in the first place because ,nature has not given him cooked flesh1 and because several ages must have rolled away before fire was used4 ,it is very well known that there are many countries in which it was not known at the period of their discovery4 ,nature1 then1 could have given man only raw or living flesh1 and we know that it is repugnant to him over the whole extent of the earth4 ,now it is exactly this character which essentially distinguishes animals of prey from others4 ,the former1 those at least of the larger species1 have generally an extreme repugnance1 not only for cooked flesh1 but even for that which has lost its freshness4 ,man1 then1 is not carnivorous but under certain abnormal conditions2 and his senses1 to which he appeals in support of his carnivorousness1 are perverted to such a degree1 that he would devour his fellow-man without perceiving it1 if they served him up in place of veal1 the flesh of which is said to have the same taste4 ,thus ,harpagus ate1 without knowing it1 the corpse of his son40 ,glezs instances the case of ,cows and of ,reindeer who1 in ,norway1 have been denaturalised so far as to feed on fish1 and readily to take to that unnatural food4 8,it would be too long to enumerate here all the causes which may have produced so great an aberration4 ,this will be the matter of another ,discourse4 ,i shall content myself for the moment with saying some words upon that which perpetuates it4 ,it is essentially that lightness of mind1 or1 rather1 that sort of stupidity1 which makes all reflection upon anything which is opposed to their habits painful to the generality of mankind4 ,they would turn their head aside with horror if they saw what a single one of their repasts costs ,nature4 ,they eat animals as some amongst them launch a bomb into the midst of a besieged town1 without thinking of the evils which it must bring to a crowd of individuals1 strangers to war--women1 children1 and old men--evils the near spectacle of which they could not support1 in spite of the hardness of their hearts4444 ,to-day1 when everything is calculated with so much precision he remarks with bitterness1 there will not be wanting persons with sufficient assurance to attempt to prove that there is more of advantage for the domesticated animals to be born and live on condition of having their throats cut1 than if they had remained in #8nothingness1' or in the natural state4 ,as for the word #8nothingness1' ,i confess that ,i do not understand it1 but ,i understand the other very well2 and ,i have never conceived how man could have had the barbarity to accumulate all the calamities of the earth upon a single individual2 that is to say1 to slaughter it in return for having caused its degeneracy4 ,but if he thinks himself to escape from the influence of an action so dastardly and so infamous1 he would be in a very great error4444 8,i shall finish these prolegomena with an important remark4 ,i have known a large number of good souls who offered up the most sincere wishes for the establishment of this doctrine of humaneness1 who thought it just and true in all its aspects1 who believed in all that it announces2 but who1 in spite of so praiseworthy a disposition1 dared not be the first to give the example4 ,they awaited this movement from minds stronger than their own4 ,doubtless they are the minds which give the impulse to the world2 but is it necessary to await this movement when one is convinced of one's self8 ,is it permissible to temporise in a question of life or death for innocent beings whose sole crime is to have been born1 and is it in a case like this that strength of mind should fail justice8 ,no6 ,well-doing is1 happily1 not so difficult4 ,ah6 what is your excuse1 besides1 pusillanimous souls8 ,i blush for you at the miserable pretexts which keep you back4 ,it would be necessary1 say you1 to separate one's self from the world2 to renounce one's friends and neighbours4 ,i see no such necessity1 and ,i think1 on the contrary1 that if you truly loved the world and your neighbours1 you would hasten to give them an example which must have so powerful an influence upon their present happiness and upon their future destiny40#bca ,we have reason once again to lament the perversity of literary or publishing enterprise which will produce and reproduce1 ad infinitum1 books of no real and permanent value to the world1 and altogether neglect its true luminaries4 ,this is1 in an especial manner1 the case with ,glezs4 ,the ,nouvelle ,existence has never been republished1 we believe1 in the author's own country2 while it has never found a translator1 perhaps scarcely a reader1 in this country outside the ,vegetarian ranks4 ,germany1 as we have already noticed1 alone has the honour of attempting to preserve from oblivion one of the few who have deserved immortality4 ,,xli4 ,,shelley4 #agib-ahbb4 ,that a principle of profound significance for the welfare of our own species in particular1 and for the peaceful harmony of the world in general--that a true spiritualism1 of which some of the most admirable of the poets of the pre-,christian ages proved themselves not unconscious1 has been1 for the most part1 altogether overlooked or ignored by modern aspirants to poetic fame is matter for our gravest lament4 ,thomson1 ,pope1 ,shelley1 ,lamartine--to whom ,milton1 perhaps1 may be added--these form the small band who almost alone represent1 and have developed the earlier inspiration of a ,hesiod1 ,ovid1 or ,virgil1 the prophet-poets who1 faithful to their proper calling1#bcb have sought to unbarbarise and elevate human life by arousing1 in various degree1 feelings of horror and aversion from the prevailing materialism of living4 ,of this illustrious band1 and1 indeed1 of all the great intellectual and moral luminaries who have shed a humanising influence upon our planet--who have left behind them 8thoughts that breathe and words that burn0--none can claim more reverence from humanitarians than the poet of poets--the influence of whose life and writings1 considerable even now1 and gradually increasing1 doubtless in a not remote future is destined to be equal to that of the very foremost of the world's teachers1 and of whom our sketch1 necessarily limited though it is1 will be extended beyond the usual allotted space4 ,percy ,bysshe ,shelley descended from an old and wealthy family long settled in ,sussex4 ,at the age of #ac he was sent to ,eton1 where 7such was the spirit of the public and other schools at that time1 and1 indeed1 of long afterwards7 he was subjected to severe trials of endurance by the rough and rude manners of the ordinary schoolboy1 and the harsh and unequal violence of the schoolmaster4 ,of an exceptionally refined and sensitive temperament1 he was none the less determined in resistance to injustice and oppression1 and his refusal to submit tamely to their petty tyrannies seems to have brought upon him more than the common amount of harsh treatment4 ,it penetrated into his inmost soul1 and inspired the opening stanzas of 8,the ,revolt of ,islam10 in intensity of feeling seldom equalled4 ,some alleviation of these sufferings of childhood he found in his own mental resources4 ,for his amusement he translated1 we are assured1 several books of the ,natural ,history of ,pliny4 ,of ,greek writers he even then 7in an ,english version7 read ,plato1 who afterwards1 in his own language1 always remained one of his chief literary companions1 and he applied himself also to the study of ,french and of ,german4 ,in natural science1 ,chemistry seems to have been his especial pursuit4 ,in #ahaj1 at the age of seventeen1 he entered ,university ,college1 ,oxford4 ,there he studied and wrote unceasingly4 ,with a strong predilection for metaphysics1 he devoted himself in particular to the great masters of dialectics1 ,locke and ,hume1 and to their chief representatives in ,french philosophy4 ,ardent and enthusiastic in the pursuit of truth1 he sought to enlarge his knowledge and ideas from every possible quarter1 and he engaged in correspondence with distinguished persons1 suggested to him by choice or chance1 with whom he discussed the most interesting philosophical questions4 ,like all truly fruitful minds1 the youthful inquirer was not satisfied with the dicta of mere authority1 or with the consensus1 however general1 of past ages1 and he hesitated not1 in matters of opinion in which every well-instructed intelligence is capable of judging for itself1 to bring to the test of right reason the most widely-received dogmas of ,antiquity4 ,actuated by this spirit1 rather than by any matured convictions1 and wishing to elicit sincere as well as exhaustive argument on the deepest of all metaphysical inquiries1 in an unfortunate moment for himself1 he caused to be printed an abstract of anti-theistic speculations1 drawn from ,david ,hume and other authorities1 presented in a series of mathematically-expressed propositions4 ,copies of this modest thesis of two pages were sent either by the author1 or by some other hand1 to the heads of his ,college4 ,the clerical dignitaries1 listening to the dictates of outraged authority1 rather than influenced by calm reflection1 which would have1 perhaps1 shewn them the useless injustice of so extreme a measure1 proceeded at once to expel him from the ,university4#bcc ,that in spite of this impetuous attack upon the stereotyped presentations of ,theism1 ,shelley had an eminently religious temperament has been well insisted upon by a recent biographer3-- 8,brimming over with love for men1 he was deficient in sympathy with the conditions under which they actually think and feel4 ,could he but dethrone the anarch1 ,custom1 the #8,millennium1' he argued1 would immediately arrive2 nor did he stop to think how different was the fibre of his own soul from that of the unnumbered multitudes around him4 ,in his adoration of what he recognised as living1 he retained no reverence for the ossified experience of past ages4444 ,for he had a vital faith1 and this faith made the ideals he conceived seem possible--faith in the duty and desirability of overthrowing idols2 faith in the gospel of liberty1 fraternity1 equality2 faith in the divine beauty of ,nature2 faith in the perfectibility of man2 faith in the omnipresent soul1 whereof our souls are atoms2 faith in love1 as the ruling and co-ordinating substance of morality4 ,the man who lived by this faith was in no vulgar sense of the word #8atheist4' ,when he proclaimed himself to be one he pronounced his hatred of a gloomy religion which had been the instrument of kings and priests for the enslavement of their fellow beings4 ,as he told his friend ,trelawney1 he used the word ,atheism #8to express his abhorrence of superstition3 he took it up1 as a knight took up a gauntlet1 in defiance of injustice4'0#bcd ,so thorough was his contempt for mere received and routine thought1 that even ,aristotle1 the great idol of the medival schoolmen1 and still an object of extraordinary veneration in the elder ,university1 became for him a kind of synonym for despotic authority-- 8,tomes ,of reasoned ,wrong glozed on by ,ignorance0-- and was1 accordingly1 treated with undue neglect4 ,as for politics1 as represented in the parliament and public ,press of his day1 he was indignantly impatient of the too usual trifling and unreality of public life4 ,he seldom read the newspapers2 nor could he ever bring himself to mix with the 8rabble of the ,house40 ,thus1 forced into antipathy to the ordinary and orthodox business of life around him1 the poet withdrew himself more and more from it into his own thoughts1 and hopes1 and aspirations1 which he communicated to his familiar friends4 ,some of those1 however1 into whose society he chanced to be thrown1 were not of a sort of mind most congenial to his own4 ,yet they all bear witness to his surpassing moral no less than mental1 constitution4 8,in no individual1 perhaps1 was the moral sense ever more completely developed than in ,shelley10 says one of his most intimate acquaintances2 8in no being was the perception of right and wrong more acute40 8,as his love of intellectual pursuits was vehement1 and the vigour of his genius almost celestial1 so were the purity and sanctity of his life most conspicuous4444 ,i have had the happiness to associate with some of the best specimens of gentleness2 but 7may my candour and preference be pardoned71 ,i can affirm that ,shelley was almost the only example ,i have yet found that was never wanting1 even in the most minute particular1 of the infinite and various observances of pure1 entire1 and perfect gentility40 ,this is the voluntary testimony of a friend who was not inclined to excess of praise4#bce ,the sudden end of his career at ,oxford had estranged him from his father1 who was of a temperament the very opposite to that of the enthusiastic reformer--harsh1 intolerant1 and bigoted in his prejudices2 and the young ,shelley's marriage1 shortly afterwards1 to ,harriet ,westbrook1 a young girl of much beauty1 but of little cultivation of mind1 and in a position of life different from his own1 incensed him still further4 ,the marriage1 happy enough in the beginning1 proved to be an ill-assorted one1 and various causes contributed to the inevitable dnouement4 ,after a union of some three years1 the marriage1 by mutual consent1 was dissolved4 ,two years later--not1 it seems1 in consequence of the divorce1 as sometimes has been suggested--the young wife put an end to her existence--a terrible and tragic termination of an ill-considered attachment1 which must have caused him the deepest pangs of grief1 and which seems always1 and justly1 to have cast a gloomy shadow upon his future life4 ,brief as his career was1 we can refer only to the most interesting events in it4 ,of these1 his enthusiastic effort to arouse a bloodless revolution in ,ireland1 such as1 if effected1 might have prevented the continued miseries of that especially neglected portion of the three kingdoms1 is not the least noteworthy4 ,with his lately-married wife and her sister he was living at ,keswick1 when1 by a sudden inspiration1 he resolved to cross the ,channel1 and engage in the work of propagating his principles of political and social reform4 ,this was in the early part of #ahab4 ,in ,dublin1 where they established their head-quarters1 he printed an ,address to the ,irish ,people1 which1 by his own hands1 as well as by other agency1 was distributed far and wide4 ,in this wonderfully well-considered and reasonable manifesto1 the principles laid down as necessary to success in attempting deliverance from ages of bad laws and misgovernment1 are as sound as the ardour and sincerity of his hopeless undertaking are unmistakeable4 ,the cosmopolitan scope of the ,address appears in such passages as these3-- 8,do not inquire if a man be a heretic1 if he be a ,quaker1 a ,jew1 or a ,heathen1 but if he be a virtuous man1 if he love liberty and truth1 if he wish the happiness and peace of human kind4 ,if a man be ever so much #8a believer1' and love not these things1 he is a heartless hypocrite and a knave4444 ,it is not a merit to tolerate1 but it is a crime to be intolerant4444 ,be calm1 mild1 deliberate1 patient4444 ,think1 and talk1 and discuss4444 ,be free and be happy1 but first be wise and good4444 ,habits of sobriety1 regularity1 and thought must be entered into and firmly resolved upon40 ,truer in his perception of the radical causes and cure of national evils than most party politicians1 he urged the essential need of ethical and social change1 without which mere political change of parties1 or increase in material wealth of some sections in the community1 must be valueless in any true estimate of a nation's prosperity4 ,shelley also issued1 in pamphlet form1 ,proposals for an ,association--a plan for the formation of a vast society of ,irish ,catholics1 to enforce their 8emancipation0--a measure which was not brought about until twenty years later after long and vehement opposition4 ,two months were devoted to this generous but futile work2 the people of ,ireland did not move1 and the young reformer returned to ,england1 but without abandoning his propaganda of the principles of liberty and justice4 ,while residing in ,somersetshire he published a paper entitled a ,declaration of ,rights1 to circulate which recourse was had to ingenious methods4 ,four years later1 in #ahag1 he published ,a ,proposal for putting ,reform to the ,vote throughout the ,kingdom4 8,he saw that the ,house of ,commons did not represent the country2 and acting upon his principle that ,government is the servant of the ,governed1 he sought means for ascertaining the real will of the nation with regard to its ,parliament1 and for bringing the collective opinions of the population to bear upon its rulers4 ,the plan proposed was that a large network of committees should be formed1 and that by their means every individual man should be canvassed4 ,we find here the same method of advancing reform by peaceable associations as in ,ireland40 ,at the same time1 in presence of the incalculable amount of ignorance1 destitution1 and consequent venality of the great mass of the community--the necessary outcome of long ages of bad and selfish legislation--,universal ,suffrage for the present appeared to him to be not a safe experiment4 ,evidence of controversial power1 is his 8grave and lofty0 ,letter to ,lord ,ellenborough1 who had recently sentenced to imprisonment the printers of the ,age of ,reason1 8an eloquent argument in favour of toleration and the freedom of the intellect1 carrying the matter beyond the instance of legal tyranny1 which occasioned its composition1 and treating it with philosophical if impassioned1 seriousness40#bcf ,before his visit to ,ireland1 he had been engaged 7as he tells his correspondent1 ,william ,godwin7 in writing ,an ,inquiry into the ,causes of the ,failure of the ,french ,revolution to ,benefit ,mankind4 ,we have to lament that this ,essay seems never to have been completed1 since it is hardly doubtful that it would have been of unusual interest4 ,such was the force and activity of ,shelley's intellect1 as displayed in the regions of practical philosophy1 at the age of twenty1 and before he had given to the world his first productions in poetry4 ,queen ,mab1 written in part two years before1 was finished and printed in #ahac4 ,although it may have some of the defects of immaturity of genius1 it has the charm of a genuine poetic inspiration4 ,intense hatred of selfish injustice and untruth in all their shapes1 equally intense sympathy with all suffering1 sublime faith in the ultimate triumph of ,good1 clothed in the language of entrancing eloquence and sublimity1 are the characteristics of this unique poem4 ,the author's depreciation of his earliest poetic attempt in after years1 in a letter addressed to the ,examiner1 only a month before his death1 strikes us as scarcely sincere1 and as having been a sort of necessary sacrifice on the altar of ,expediency4 ,in this exquisitely beautiful prophecy of a 8,golden ,age0 to be1 the fairy ,queen ,mab1 the unembodied being who acts as his instructress and guide through the ,universe1 displays to his affrighted vision1 in one vast panorama1 the horrors of the ,past and the ,present4 ,she afterwards1 in a glorious apocalypse1 relieves his despair by revealing to him the 8new heavens and the new earth10 which eventually will displace the present evil constitution of things on our planet4 ,on the redeemed and regenerated ,globe3-- 8,ambiguous ,man6 he that can know ,more misery1 and can dream more joy than all3 ,whose keen sensations thrill within his heart1 ,to mingle with a loftier instinct there1 ,lending their power to pleasure and to pain1 ,yet raising1 sharpening1 and refining each3 ,who stands amid the ever-varying world ,the burden or the glory of the ,earth-- ,he chief perceives the change3 his being notes ,the gradual renovation1 and defines ,each movement of its progress on his mind4 99 99 99 99 99 ,here now the human being stands1 adorning ,this loveliest ,earth with taintless body and mind4 ,blest from his birth with all bland impulses1 ,which gently in his truthful bosom wake ,all kindly passions and all pure desires4 ,him 7still from hope to hope the bliss pursuing1 ,which from the exhaustless store of human weal ,draws on the virtuous mind71 the thoughts that rise ,in time-destroying infiniteness1 gift ,with self-enshrined eternity1 that mocks ,the unprevailing hoariness of age3 ,and ,man1 once fleeting o'er the transient scene1 ,swift as an unremembered vision1 stands ,immortal upon ,earth4 ,no longer now ,he slays the ,lamb who looks him in the face1 ,and horribly devours his mangled flesh1 ,which1 still avenging ,nature's broken law1 ,kindled all putrid humours in his frame-- ,all evil passions and all vain belief-- ,hatred1 despair1 and loathing in his mind1 ,the germs of misery1 death1 disease1 and crime4 ,no longer now the wingd habitants1 ,that in the woods their sweet lives sing away1 ,flee from the form of ,man4 99 99 99 99 99 ,all things are void of terror4 ,man has lost ,his terrible prerogative1 and stands ,an equal amidst equals4 ,happiness ,and ,science dawn1 though late1 upon the ,earth4 ,peace cheers the mind1 ,health renovates the frame4 ,disease and pleasure cease to mingle here1 ,reason and passion cease to combat there2 ,whilst each1 unfettered1 o'er the ,earth extends ,its all-subduing energies1 and wields ,the sceptre of a vast dominion there2 ,whilst every shape and mode of matter lends ,its force to the omnipotence of ,mind1 ,which from its dark mine drags the gem of ,truth ,to decorate its paradise of ,peace40 ,in rapt vision the prophet-poet apostrophises the 8,new ,earth03 8,o happy ,earth6 reality of ,heaven1 ,to which those restless souls1 that ceaselessly ,throng through the human universe1 aspire4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of purest spirits1 thou pure dwelling-place1 ,where care and sorrow1 impotence and crime1 ,languor1 disease1 and ignorance dare not come4 ,o happy ,earth6 reality of ,heaven4 ,genius has seen thee in her passionate dreams2 ,and dim forebodings of thy loveliness1 ,haunting the human heart1 have there entwined ,those rooted hopes of some sweet place of bliss4 99 99 99 99 99 and the souls ,that1 by the paths of an aspiring change1 ,have reached thy haven of perpetual ,peace1 ,there rest from the eternity of toil1 ,that framed the fabric of thy perfectness40 ,from the ,essay1 in the form of a note1 which he subjoined to the passage we have quoted1 we extract the principal arguments3-- 8,man1 and the other animals whom he has afflicted with his malady or depraved by his dominion1 are alone diseased4 ,the ,bison1 the wild ,hog1 the ,wolf1 are perfectly exempt from malady1 and invariably die either from external violence or from mature old age4 ,but the domestic ,hog1 the ,sheep1 the ,cow1 the ,dog1 are subject to an incredible variety of distempers1 and1 like the corruptors of their nature1 have physicians who thrive upon their miseries4 ,the super-eminence of man is1 like ,satan's1 the super-eminence of pain2 and the majority of his species1 doomed to penury1 disease1 and crime1 have reason to curse the untoward event that1 by enabling him to communicate his sensations1 raised him above the level of his fellow-animals4 ,but the steps that have been taken are irrevocable4 ,the whole of human science is comprised in one question3 ,how can the advantages of intellect and civilisation be reconciled with the liberty and pure pleasures of natural life8 ,how can we take the benefits and reject the evils of the system which is now interwoven with the fibre of our being8 ,i believe that abstinence from animal food and spirituous liquors would1 in a great measure1 capacitate us for the solution of this important question4 8,it is true that mental and bodily derangements are attributable1 in part1 to other deviations from rectitude and nature than those which concern diet4 ,the mistakes cherished by society respecting the connexion of the sexes1 whence the misery and diseases of unsatisfied celibacy1 unenjoyed prostitution1 and the premature arrival of puberty1 necessarily spring4 ,the putrid atmosphere of crowded cities1 the exhalations of chemical processes1 the muffling of our bodies in superfluous apparel1 the absurd treatment of infants--all these1 and innumerable other causes1 contribute their mite to the mass of human evil4 8,comparative ,anatomy teaches us that man resembles the frugivorous animals in everything1 the carnivorous in nothing4 ,he has neither claws wherewith to seize his prey1 nor distinct and pointed teeth to tear the living fibre4 ,a mandarin of the first class1 with nails two inches long1 would probably find them alone inefficient to hold even a hare4 ,after every subterfuge of gluttony1 the bull must be degraded into the 8ox10 and the ram into the 8wether10 by an unnatural and inhuman operation1 that the flaccid fibre may offer a fainter resistance to rebellious nature4 ,it is only by softening and disguising dead flesh by culinary preparation that it is rendered susceptible of mastication or digestion1 and that the sight of its bloody juice and raw horror does not excite loathing and disgust4 8,let the advocate of animal food force himself to a decisive experiment on its fitness1 and1 as ,plutarch recommends1 tear a living lamb with his teeth and1 plunging his head into its vitals1 slake his thirst with the streaming blood4 ,when fresh from this deed of horror1 let him revert to the irresistible instinct of nature that would rise in judgment against it and say1 #8,nature formed me for such work as this4' ,then1 and then only would he be consistent4 8,man resembles no carnivorous animal4 ,there is no exception1 unless man be one1 to the rule of herbivorous animals having cellulated colons4 8,the orang-outang perfectly resembles man both in the order and in the number of his teeth4 ,the orang-outang is the most anthropomorphous of the ape tribe1 all of whom are strictly frugivorous4 ,there is no other species of animals1 which live on different food1 in which this analogy exists4#bcg ,in many frugivorous animals the canine teeth are more pointed and distinct than those of man4 ,the resemblance also of the human stomach to that of the orang-outang is greater than to that of any other animal4 8,the structure of the human frame1 then1 is that of one fitted to a pure vegetable diet in every essential particular4 ,it is true that the reluctance to abstain from animal food1 in those who have been long accustomed to its stimulus1 is so great in some persons of weak minds as to be scarcely overcome4 ,but this is far from bringing any argument in its favour4 ,a ,lamb1 who was fed for some time on flesh by a ship's crew1 refused her natural diet at the end of the voyage4 ,there are numerous instances of ,horses1 ,sheep1 ,oxen1 and even ,wood-,pigeons having been taught to live upon flesh until they have loathed their natural aliment4 ,young children evidently prefer pastry1 oranges1 apples1 and other fruit1 to the flesh of animals1 until1 by the gradual depravation of the digestive organs1 the free use of vegetables has1 for a time1 produced serious inconveniences--for a time1 ,i say1 since there never was an instance wherein a change from spirituous liquors and animal food to vegetables and pure water has failed ultimately to invigorate the body by rendering its juices bland and consentaneous1 and to restore to the mind that cheerfulness and elasticity which not one in fifty possesses on the present system4 ,a love of strong liquors also is with difficulty taught infants4 ,almost every one remembers the wry faces which the first glass of port produced4 ,unsophisticated instinct is invariably unerring1 but to decide on the fitness of animal food from the perverted appetites which its continued adoption produces1 is to make the criminal a judge of his own cause4 ,it is even worse1 for it is appealing to the infatuated drunkard in a question of the salubrity of brandy4 8,except in children1 there remain no traces of that instinct which determines1 in all other animals1 what aliment is natural or otherwise2 and so perfectly obliterated are they in the reasoning adults of our species1 that it has become necessary to urge considerations drawn from comparative anatomy to prove that we are naturally frugivorous4 8,crime is madness4 ,madness is disease4 ,whenever the cause of disease shall be discovered1 the root from which all vice and misery have so long overshadowed the ,globe will be bare to the axe4 ,all the exertions of man1 from that moment1 may be considered as tending to the clear profit of his species4 ,no sane mind in a sane body resolves upon real crime4444 ,the system of a simple diet promises no ,utopian advantages4 ,it is no mere reform of legislation1 whilst the furious passions and evil propensities of the human heart1 in which it had its origin1 are still unassuaged4 ,it strikes at the root of all evil1 and is an experiment which may be tried with success1 not alone by nations1 but by small societies1 families1 and even individuals4 ,in no cases has a return to vegetable diet produced the slightest injury2 in most it has been attended with changes undeniably beneficial4 ,should ever a physician be born with the genius of ,locke1 ,i am persuaded that he might trace all bodily and mental derangements to our unnatural habits as clearly as that philosopher has traced all knowledge to sensation4444 8,by all that is sacred in our hopes for the human race1 ,i conjure those who love happiness and truth to give a fair trial to the vegetable system4 ,reasoning is surely superfluous on a subject whose merits an experience of six months would set for ever at rest4 ,but it is only among the enlightened and benevolent that so great a sacrifice of appetite and prejudice can be expected1 even though its ultimate excellence should not admit of dispute4 ,it is found easier by the short-sighted victims of disease to palliate their torments by medicine than to prevent them by regimen4 ,the vulgar of all ranks are invariably sensual and indocile1 yet ,i cannot but feel myself persuaded that when the benefits of vegetable diet are mathematically proved2 when it is as clear that those who live naturally are exempt from premature death as that one is not nine1 the most sottish of mankind will feel a preference towards a long and tranquil1 contrasted with a short and painful1 life4 ,on the average1 out of sixty persons four die in three years4 ,hopes are entertained that1 in ,april1 #ahad1 a statement will be given that sixty persons1 all having lived more than three years on vegetables and pure water1 are then in perfect health4 ,more than two years have now elapsed--not one of them has died4 ,no such example will be found in any sixty persons taken at random4 8,seventeen persons of all ages 7the families of ,dr4 ,lambe and ,mr4 ,newton7 have lived for seven years on this diet without a death1 and almost without the slightest illness4444 ,in proportion to the number of proselytes1 so will be the weight of evidence1 and when a thousand persons can be produced living on vegetables and distilled water1#bch who have to dread no disease but old age1 the world will be compelled to regard flesh and fermented liquors as slow but certain poisons40 ,shelley next insists on the incalculable benefits of a reformed diet economically1 socially1 and politically3-- 8,the monopolising eater of flesh would no longer destroy his constitution by devouring an acre at a meal2 and many loaves of bread would cease to contribute to gout1 madness1 and apoplexy1 in the shape of a pint of porter or a dram of gin1 when appeasing the long-protracted famine of the hard-working peasant's hungry babes4 ,the quantity of nutritious vegetable matter consumed in fattening the carcase of an ox would afford ten times the sustenance1 undepraved1 indeed1 and incapable of generating disease1 if gathered immediately from the bosom of the earth4 ,the most fertile districts of the habitable globe are now actually cultivated by men for other animals1 at a delay and waste of aliment absolutely incapable of calculation4 ,it is only the wealthy that can1 to any great degree1 even now1 indulge the unnatural craving for dead flesh1 and they pay for the greater licence of the privilege by subjection to supernumerary diseases4 ,again1 the spirit of the nation1 that should take the lead in this great reform1 would insensibly become agricultural4 8,the advantage of a reform in diet is obviously greater than that of any other4 ,it strikes at the root of the evil4 ,to remedy the abuses of legislation1 before we annihilate the propensities by which they are produced1 is to suppose that by taking away the effect the cause will cease to operate4444 8,let not too much1 however1 be expected from this system4 ,the healthiest among us is not exempt from hereditary disease4 ,the most symmetrical1 athletic1 and long-lived is a being inexpressibly inferior to what he would have been1 had not the unnatural habits of his ancestors accumulated for him a certain portion of malady and deformity4 ,in the most perfect specimen of civilised man1 something is still found wanting by the physiological critic4 ,can a return to ,nature1 then1 instantaneously eradicate predispositions that have been slowly taking root in the silence of innumerable ,ages8 ,undoubtedly not4 ,all that ,i contend for is1 that from the moment of relinquishing all unnatural habits no new disease is generated2 and that the predisposition to hereditary maladies gradually perishes for want of its accustomed supply4 ,in cases of consumption1 cancer1 gout1 asthma1 and scrofula1 such is the invariable tendency of a diet of vegetables and pure water44440 ,he concludes this philosophic discourse with an earnest appeal to the various classes of society3-- 8,i address myself not to the young enthusiast only1 to the ardent devotee of truth and virtue--the pure and passionate moralist1 yet unvitiated by the contagion of the world4 ,he will embrace a pure system from its abstract truth1 its beauty1 its simplicity1 and its promise of wide-extended benefit4 ,unless custom has turned poison into food1 he will hate the brutal pleasures of the chase by instinct4 ,it will be a contemplation full of horror and disappointment to his mind that beings1 capable of the gentlest and most admirable sympathies1 should take delight in the deathpangs and last convulsions of dying animals4 8,the elderly man1 whose youth has been poisoned by intemperance1 or who has lived with apparent moderation1 and is afflicted with a variety of painful maladies1 would find his account in a beneficial change1 produced without the risk of poisonous medicines4 ,the mother1 to whom the perpetual restlessness of disease1 and unaccountable deaths incident to her children1 are the causes of incurable unhappiness1 would1 on this diet1 experience the satisfaction of beholding their perpetual health and natural playfulness4#bci ,the most valuable lives are daily destroyed by diseases that it is dangerous to palliate1 and impossible to cure1 by medicine4 ,how much longer will man continue to pimp for the gluttony of ,death--his most insidious1 implacable1 and eternal foe80 ,some time after the melancholy death of his first wife1 ,shelley married ,mary ,wolstoncroft1 the daughter of ,william ,godwin1 author of ,political ,justice--perhaps the most revolutionary of all pleas for a change in the constitution of society that has ever proceeded from a prosaic tradesman1 such as1 in the ordinary intercourse of life and interchange of ideas1 his biography and correspondence 7lately published7 prove him to have been4 ,her mother was the celebrated and earliest advocate of the rights of women4 ,previously1 the lovers had travelled through ,france and part of ,germany1 and an account of their six weeks' tour was afterwards printed by ,mrs4 ,shelley4 ,in #ahae appeared his ,alastor2 or the ,spirit of ,solitude4 ,in #ahag he again left ,england for ,geneva4 ,while in ,switzerland he made the acquaintance of ,byron1 which was renewed during his stay in ,italy4 ,in the same year he returned to this country and1 after a short sojourn with ,leigh ,hunt1 he settled at ,great ,marlow1 one of the most picturesque parts of the ,thames4 ,there1 in spite of his own ill-health1 he showed the active benevolence of his character1 not only in the easier form of alms-giving but also in frequent visits to the sick and destitute1 at the risk of aggravating symptoms of consumption now alarmingly apparent4 ,there1 too1 he composed the ,revolt of ,islam1 or1 as it was originally more fitly entitled1 ,laon and ,cythna4 ,in this poem1 by the mouth of ,laone1 he again expresses his humanitarian convictions and sympathies4 ,she calls upon the enfranchised nations3-- 8#8,my brethren1 we are free6 ,the fruits are glowing ,beneath the stars1 and the night-winds are flowing ,o'er the ripe corn2 the ,birds and ,beasts are dreaming-- ,never again may blood of bird or beast ,stain with his venomous stream a human feast1 ,to the pure skies in accusation steaming4 ,avenging poisons shall have ceased ,to feed disease1 and fear1 and madness4 ,the dwellers of the earth and air ,shall throng around our steps in gladness1 ,seeking their food or refuge there4 ,our toil from ,thought all glorious forms shall cul4 ,to make this earth1 our home1 more beautiful1 ,and ,science1 and her sister ,poesy1 ,shall clothe in light the fields and cities of the ,free4 99 99 99 99 99 8,their feast was such as ,earth1 the general ,mother1 ,pours from her fairest bosom1 when she smiles ,in the embrace of ,autumn--to each other ,as when some parent fondly reconciles ,her warring children1 she their wrath beguiles ,with her own sustenance2 they1 relenting1 weep-- ,such was this ,festival1 which1 from their isles1 ,and continents1 and winds1 and oceans deep1 ,all shapes might throng to share1 that fly1 or walk1 or creep3 8,might share in peace and innocence1 for gore1 ,or poison none this festal did pollute4 ,but1 piled on high1 an overflowing store ,of pomegranates1 and citrons--fairest fruit1 ,melons1 and dates1 and figs1 and many a root ,sweet and sustaining1 and bright grapes1 ere yet ,accursed fire their mild juice could transmute ,into a mortal bane2 and brown corn set ,in baskets3 with pure streams their thirsting lips they wet40#bdj ,while he was yet residing in ,marlow1 the ,princess ,charlotte1 daughter of the ,prince of ,wales 7afterwards ,george ,,iv417 died2 and1 since her character had been in strong contrast with her father's and with royal persons' in general1 her early death seems to have caused1 not only ceremonial mourning1 but also genuine regret amongst all in the community having any knowledge of her exceptional amiability4 ,the poet seized the opportunity of so public an event1 and published ,an ,address to the ,people on the ,death of the ,princess ,charlotte4 ,by the ,hermit of ,marlow1 in which he inscribed the motto--8,we pity the plumage1 but forget the dying bird40 ,in this pamphlet1 while paying due tribute of regret for the death of an amiable girl1 and fully appreciating the sorrow caused by death as well among the destitute and obscure 7with whom1 indeed1 the too usual absence of the care and sympathy of friends intensifies the sorrow7 as among the rich and powerful1 he invited1 in studiously moderate language1 attention to the many just reasons for national mourning in the interests of the poor no less than of princes2 and1 in particular1 invited the nation to express its indignant grief for the fate of the ,lancashire mechanics who1 missing the happier fate of their brethren slaughtered at ,peterloo1 were subjected to an ignominious death by a government which had1 by its neglect1 encouraged the growth of a just discontent4 ,in #ahah ,shelley left ,england never to return4 ,at this time was composed the principal part of his masterpiece--,prometheus ,unbound1 the most finished and carefully executed of all his poems4 ,while in ,rome 7#ahai7 he published ,the ,cenci1 which had been suggested to him by the famous picture of ,guido1 until lately supposed to be that of ,beatrice ,cenci1 and by the traditions1 current even in the poet's time1 of the cruel fate of his heroine4 ,shakspere's four great dramas excepted1 ,the ,cenci must take rank as the finest tragic drama since the days of the ,greek masters4 ,it is worked up to a degree of pathos unsurpassed by anything of the kind in literature4 8,the ,fifth ,act10 remarks ,mrs4 ,shelley1 his editor and commentator1 8is a masterpiece4 ,every character has a voice that echoes truth in its tones40 ,the ,cenci was followed in quick succession by the ,witch of ,atlas1 ,adonais 7an elegy on the death of ,keats71 the most exquisite 8,in ,memoriam0--not excepting ,milton's or ,tennyson's--ever written2 and ,hellas1 which was inspired by his strong sympathy with the ,greeks1 who were then engaged in the war of independence4 ,of his lesser productions1 the ,ode to the ,skylark is of an inspiration seldom equalled in its kind4 ,with the 8blythe spirit10 whom he apostrophises1 the poet rises in rapt ecstasy 8higher still and higher40 ,for the rest of his productions 7the ,letters from ,italy and criticisms or rather eulogies on ,greek art have an especial interest7 and for the other events in his brief remaining existence we must refer our readers to the complete edition of his works4#bda ,the last work upon which he was engaged was his ,triumph of ,life1 a poem in the terza rima of the ,divine ,comedy4 ,it breaks off abruptly--it is peculiarly interesting to note--with the significant words1 8,then what is ,life1 ,i cried80 ,the manner of his death is well known4 ,while engaged in his usual recreation of boating he was drowned in the bay of ,spezia4 ,his body was washed on to the shore and1 according to regulations then in force by the ,italian governments of the day1 in guarding against possible infection from the plague1 it was burned where it lay1 in presence of his friends ,byron and ,trelawney1 and the ashes were entombed in the ,protestant cemetery in ,rome--a not unfitting disposal of the remains of one the most spiritualised of human beings4 ,the following just estimate of the character of his genius and writings1 by a thoughtful critic1 is worth reproduction here3--8,no man was more essentially a poet--#8glancing from earth to heaven4' ,he was1 indeed1 #8of imagination all compact4' 444 ,in all his poems he uniformly denounces vice and immorality in every form2 and his descriptions of love1 which are numerous1 are always refined and delicate1 with even less of sensuousness than in many of our most admired writers4 ,it is true that he decried marriage1 but not in favour of libertinism2 and the evils he depicts1 or laments1 are those arising from the indissolubility of the bond1 or from the opinions of society as to its necessity--opinions to which he himself submitted by marrying the woman to whom he was attached4444 ,his reputation as a poet has gradually widened since his death1 and has not yet reached its culminating point4 ,he was the poet of the future--of an ideal futurity--and hence it was that his own age could not entirely sympathise with him4 ,he has been called the #8poet of poets1' a proud title1 and1 in some respects1 deserved40#bdb ,of his creed1 the article which he most firmly held1 and which1 perhaps1 most distinguishes him from ordinary thinkers1 was the ,perfectibility of his species1 and his firm faith in the ultimate triumph of ,good4 8,he believed10 says the one authority who had the best means of knowing his thought and feeling1 8that mankind had only to will that there should be no evil1 and there would be none4 ,it is not my part in these notes to criticise the arguments that have been urged against this opinion1 but to mention the fact that he entertained it1 and was1 indeed1 attached to it with fervent enthusiasm4 ,that man could be so perfectionised as to be able to expel ,evil from his own nature1 and from the greater part of the world1 was the cardinal point of his system4 ,and the subject he liked best to dwell upon was the image of ,one warring with an evil principle1 oppressed not only by it but by all1 even the good1 who were deluded into considering evil a necessary portion of humanity--a victim full of gratitude and of hope and of the spirit of triumph emanating from a reliance in the ultimate omnipotence of ,good40 ,such was the conviction which inspired his greatest poem ,the ,prometheus ,unbound4 ,a principal charm of his poetry is that which repels the common class of readers3 8,he loved to idealise reality1 and this is a task shared by few4 ,we are willing to have our passing whims exalted into passions1 for this gratifies our vanity4 ,but few of us understand or sympathise with the endeavour to ally the love of abstract beauty and adoration of abstract ,good with sympathies with our own kind40#bdc ,of so rare a spirit it is peculiarly interesting to know something of the outward form3-- 8,his features describes one of his biographers were not symmetrical--the mouth1 perhaps1 excepted4 ,yet the effect of the whole was extremely powerful4 ,they breathed an animation1 a fire1 an enthusiasm1 a vivid and preternatural intelligence1 that ,i never met with in any other countenance4 ,nor was the moral expression less beautiful than the intellectual3 for there was a softness1 a delicacy1 a gentleness1 and especially 7though this will surprise many7 that air of profound religious veneration that characterises the best works1 and chiefly the frescoes1 of the great ,masters of ,florence and of ,rome4 8,his eyes were blue1 unfathomably dark and lustrous4 ,his hair was brown3 but very early in life it became grey1 while his unwrinkled face retained to the last a look of wonderful youth4 ,it is admitted on all sides that no adequate picture was ever painted of him4 ,mulready is reported to have said that he was too beautiful to paint4 ,and yet1 although so singularly lovely1 he owed less of his charm to regularity of feature1 or to grace of movement1 than to an indescribable personal fascination40 ,as to his voice1 impressions varied3-- 8,like all finely-tempered natures1 he vibrated in harmony with the subjects of his thought4 ,excitement made his utterance shrill and sharp4 ,deep feeling1 or the sense of beauty1 lowered its tone to richness2 but the timbre was always acute1 in sympathy with his intense temperament4 ,all was of one piece in ,shelley's nature4 ,this peculiar voice1 varying from moment to moment1 and affecting different sensibilities in diverse ways1 corresponds to the high-strung passion of his life1 his finedrawn and ethereal fancies1 and the clear vibrations of his palpitating verse4 ,such a voice1 far-reaching1 penetrating1 and unearthly1 befitted one who lived in rarest ether on the topmost heights of human thought40#bdd ,if the physical characteristics of a great ,teacher or of a sublime ,genius excite a natural curiosity1 it is the principal moral characteristics which most reasonably and profoundly interest us4 ,to the supremely amiable disposition of the creator of ,the ,cenci and ,prometheus ,unbound brief reference has been made2 and we shall fitly supplement this imperfect sketch of his humanitarian career with the vivid impressions left on the mind of the friend who best knew him4 ,love of truth and hatred of falsehood and injustice were not1 in his case1 limited to the pages of a book1 and forgotten in the too often deadening influence of intercourse with the world--they permeated his whole life and conversation4 8,the qualities that struck any one newly introduced to ,shelley were1 first1 a gentle and cordial goodness that animated his discourse with warm affection and helpful sympathy2 the other1 the eagerness and ardour with which he was attached to the cause of human happiness and improvement1 and the fervent eloquence with which he discussed such subjects4 ,his conversation was marked by its happy abundance1 and the beautiful language in which he clothed his poetic ideas and philosophical notions4 ,to defecate life of its misery and its evil was the ruling passion of his soul2 he dedicated to it every power of his mind1 every pulsation of his heart4 ,he looked on political freedom as the direct agent to effect the happiness of mankind2 and thus any new-sprung hope of liberty inspired a joy and even exultation more intense and wild than he could have felt for any personal advantage4 ,those who have never experienced the workings of passion on general and unselfish subjects cannot understand this2 and it must be difficult of comprehension to the younger generation rising around1 since they cannot remember the scorn and hatred with which the partisans of reform were regarded some few years ago1 nor the persecution to which they were exposed4 8,many advantages attended his birth2 he spurned them all when balanced with what he considered his duties4 ,he was generous to imprudence--devoted to heroism4 ,these characteristics breathe throughout his poetry4 ,the struggle for human weal2 the resolution firm to martyrdom2 the impetuous pursuit2 the glad triumph in good2 the determination not to despair4444 ,perfectly gentle and forbearing in manner1 he suffered a great deal of internal irritability1 or rather excitement1 and his fortitude to bear was almost always on the stretch2 and thus1 during a short life1 he had gone through more experience of sensation than many whose existence is protracted4 #8,if ,i die to-morrow1' he said1 on the eve of unanticipated death1 #8,i have lived to be older than my father4' ,the weight of thought and feeling burdened him heavily4 ,you read his sufferings in his attenuated frame1 while you perceived the mastery he held over them in his animated countenance and brilliant eyes4 8,he died1 and the world showed no outward sigh2 but his influence over mankind1 though slow in growth1 is fast augmenting2 and in the ameliorations that have taken place in the political state of his country we may trace1 in part1 the operation of his arduous struggles4444 ,he died1 and his place among those who knew him intimately has never been filled up4 ,he walked beside them like a spirit of good to comfort and benefit--to enlighten the darkness of life with irradiations of genius1 to cheer with his sympathy and love40#bde 99 99 99 99 99 ,with the name of ,shelley is usually connected that of his more popular contemporary1 ,byron 7#aghh-ahbd74 ,the brother poets1 it already has been noted1 met in ,switzerland2 and1 afterwards1 they had some intercourse in ,italy during ,shelley's last years4 ,excepting surpassing genius1 and equal impatience of conventional laws and usages they had little in common4 ,the one was first and above all a reformer1 the other a satirist4 ,to assert1 however1 the author of ,childe ,harold to have been inspired solely by cynical contempt for his species is unjust4 ,a large part of his poems is pervaded apparently with an intense conviction of the evils of life as produced by human selfishness and folly4 ,but what distinguishes the author of ,prometheus ,unbound from his great rival 7if he may be so called7 is the sure and certain hope of a future of happiness for the world4 ,thus1 that belief in the all-importance of humane dietetics1 as a principal factor in the production of weal or woe on earth1 is far less apparent in ,byron is matter of course4 ,yet1 that in moments of better feeling1 ,byron revolted from the gross materialism of the banquets1 of which1 as he expresses it1 ,england 8,was wont to boast--as if a ,glutton's tray ,were something very glorious to behold40#bdf and that1 had he not been seduced by the dinner-giving propensity of ,english society1 he would have retained his early preference for the refined diet1 we are glad to believe4 ,in a letter to his mother1 written in his early youth1 he announces that he had determined upon relinquishment of flesh-eating1 and his clearer mental perceptions in consequence of his reformed living2#bdg and he seems even to have advanced to the extreme frugality of living1 at times1 upon biscuits and water only4 ,it would have been well for him had he1 like ,shelley1 abstained from gross eating and drinking upon principle2 and had he uniformly adhered to the resolution formed in his earlier years1 we should1 in that case1 not have to lament his too notorious sexual intemperance4 ,,xlii4 ,,phillips4 #agfg-ahdj4 ,it is an obvious truth--in vain demonstrated seventeen centuries since by the best moral teachers of non-,christian antiquity--that abolition of the slaughter-house1 with all the cruel barbarism directly or indirectly associated with it1 by a necessary and logical corollary1 involves abolition of every form of injustice and cruelty4 ,of this truth the subject of the present article is a conspicuous witness4 ,during his long and active career1 in social and political as well as in literary life1 ,sir ,richard ,phillips was a consistent philanthropist2 and few1 in his position of influence1 have surpassed him in real beneficence4 ,in the face of rancorous obloquy and opposition from that too numerous proportion of communities which systematically resist all 8innovation0 and deviation from the 8ancient paths10 he fearlessly maintained the cause of the oppressed2 and1 as a prison reformer1 he claims a place second only to that of ,howard4 ,of his life we have fuller record than we have of some others of the prophets of dietetic reformation4 ,yet there is uncertainty as to his birthplace4 ,one account represents him to have been born in ,london1 and to have been the son of a brewer4 ,another statement1 which appears to be more authentic1 reports his place of birth to have been in the neighbourhood of ,leicester1 and his father to have been a farmer4 ,what is of more permanent interest is the account preserved of the reason of his first revolt from the practice of kreophagy4 ,disliking the business of farming1 it seems1 while yet quite young1 not without the acquiescence of his parents1 he had adventurously sought his living1 on his own account1 in the metropolis4 ,what1 if any1 plans had been formed by him is not known2 but it is certain that he soon found himself in imminent danger of starvation1 and1 after brief trial1 he gladly re-sought his home4 ,upon his return to the farm1 he found awaiting him the welcome of the 8,prodigal ,son0--although1 happily1 he had no just claim to the title of that well-known character4 ,a 8fatted calf0 was killed1 and the boy shared in the dish with the rest of the family4 ,it was not until after the feast that he learned that the slaughtered calf had been his especial favourite and playmate4 ,so revolting to his keener sensibility was the consciousness of this fact1 that he registered a vow never again to live upon the products of slaughter4 ,to this determination he adhered during the remainder of his long life4#bdh ,his next venture1 and first choice of a profession1 while he was still quite young1 led him to engage in teaching4 ,as an advertisement he placed a flag at the door of a house in which he rented a room1 where he gave elementary instruction to such children as were entrusted to his tuition by the townspeople of ,leicester4 ,the experiment proved not very successful1 and at the end of a twelvemonth he tried his fortune elsewhere4 ,he next turned to commerce--at first in a humble fashion4 ,his business prospered1 and his next important undertaking was the establishment of a newspaper--the ,leicester ,herald4 ,this journal was what is now called a 8,liberal0 paper4 ,yet by those who affected to identify the welfare of ,england with the continued existence of rotten boroughs and other corruptions1 it was held up to opprobrium as revolutionary and 8incendiary40 ,phillips himself had the reputation of an able political writer2 but the chief support of the journal was the celebrated ,dr4 ,priestley1 whose name and contributions gave it a reputation it otherwise might not have gained4 ,the responsible editor did not escape the perils that then environed the denouncers of legal or social iniquity1 and ,phillips1 convicted of a 8misdemeanour10 was sentenced to three years' imprisonment in the ,leicester jail4 ,during his imprisonment he displayed the beneficence of his disposition in relieving the miseries of some of his more wretched companions4 ,upon his release1 he sold his interest in the ,leicester ,herald1 and for some time confined himself altogether to his business4 ,leaving ,leicester he migrated to ,london and set up a hosiery establishment1 which1 however1 he soon converted into the more congenial bookshop4 ,it was the success of the ,leicester ,herald that1 probably1 led him to think of starting a new periodical4 ,upon consultation with ,priestley and other friends he was encouraged to proceed1 and the ,monthly ,magazine was the result4 ,it commenced in ,july #agie and proved to be a most decided success4 ,at first conducted by ,priestley1 it was afterwards partly under the editorship of ,dr4 ,aikin1 author of the ,country ,around ,manchester4 ,the proprietors shared in the management of the magazine1 but to what extent it is difficult to ascertain4 ,amongst the contributors was 8,peter ,pindar10 so well known as the author1 amongst other satirical rhymes1 of the verses upon ,george ,,iii41 perplexed by the celebrated 8apple dumpling40 ,the monthly receipts from the sale amounted to #a1ejj4 ,a quarrel with ,aikin was followed by the resignation of the editor4 ,increase of business soon led to a removal of the publishing-house from ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard to a much larger establishment in ,blackfriars4 ,his home was at ,hampstead where1 in a beautiful neighbourhood and in an elegant villa1 the opulent publisher enjoyed the refined pleasures which his humaneness of living1 as well as beneficent industry1 had justly deserved4 ,at this time he began a correspondence with ,c4 ,j4 ,fox1 on the subject of the ,history of ,james ,,ii41 upon which the famous ,whig statesman was then engaged4 ,four letters addressed to him by ,fox have been printed1 but they have no special importance4 ,he was already married1 and the story of his courtship has more than the mere gossiping interest of ordinary biography4 ,upon his first arrival in ,london1 he had taken lodgings in the house of a milliner4 ,one of her assistants was a ,miss ,griffiths1 a beautiful young ,welsh girl1 who1 learning the unconquerable aversion of their guest from the common culinary barbarism1 had amiably volunteered to prepare his dishes on strictly anti-kreophagist principles4 ,this incident induced a sympathy and friendship which speedily resulted in a proposal of marriage4 ,they were a handsome pair2 and a somewhat precipitate matrimonial alliance was followed by many years of unmixed happiness for both4 ,in #ahjg the 8,livery0 of ,london elected him to the office of ,high ,sheriff of the ,city and ,county of ,middlesex for the ensuing year4 ,this responsible post put to the proof the sincerity of his professions as a reformer4 ,nor did he fail in the trial4 ,during his term of power he effected many improvements in the treatment of the real or pretended criminals who1 as occupants of the jails1 came under his jurisdiction4 ,no one who has read ,howard's ,state of the ,prisons1 published thirty years before ,phillips' entrance upon his office1 or even general accounts of them1 needs to be told that they were the very nurseries of disease1 vice1 misery1 and crime of all kinds--one of the many everlasting disgraces of the governments and civilisation of the day4 ,nor had they been appreciably improved during the interval of thirty years4 ,the new ,sheriff daily visited ,newgate and the ,fleet prisons and1 by personal inquiry1 made himself acquainted with the actual state of the occupants1 and in many ways was able to ameliorate their condition4 ,by his direction several collecting boxes were conspicuously displayed1 and the alms collected were applied to the relief of the families of destitute debtors4 ,he further insisted that persons1 whose indictments had been ignored by the grand jury1 should not be detained in the foul and pestilential atmosphere1 as was then the case1 but should be immediately released4 ,in his admirable ,letter to the ,livery of ,london1 he begins with an appeal to the common sentiments of humanity which ought to have some influence with those in authority4 ,he reminds his readers that3-- 8,it is too much the fashion to exclude feeling from the business of public life1 and a total absence of it is considered as a necessary qualification in a public man4 ,among statesmen and politicians he is considered as weak and incompetent who suffers natural affection to have any influence on his political calculations40 ,in a note to this passage he adds3-- 8,it appears to me that political errors of all kinds arise1 in a great degree1 from the studied banishment of feeling from the consideration of statesmen4 ,reasoning frequently fails us from a false estimate of the premises on which our deductions are founded4 ,but feeling1 which1 in most respects1 is synonymous with conscience1 is almost always right4 ,statesmen are apt to view society as a machine1 the several parts of which must be made by them to perform their respective functions for the success of the whole4 ,the comparison is often made1 but the analogy is not perfect4 ,the parts of the social machine are made up of sensitive beings1 each of whom 7though in the obscurest situation7 is equal1 in all the affections of our nature1 to those in the most conspicuous places4 ,the harmony and happiness of the whole will depend on the degree of feeling exercised by the directors and prime movers40 ,after this preliminary exhortation1 he presents to their contemplation an appalling revelation of the stupid cruelties of the criminal law and its administration4 ,he gives a graphic account of the jail of ,newgate--both of the felons' and the debtors' division4 ,the dimensions of the entire building were #aje yards by #dj yards1 of which only one-fourth part was used by the prisoners4 ,into this space were crowded sometimes seven or eight hundred1 never less than four or five hundred1 human beings of both sexes and of all ages4 8,felons0 and debtors seem to have fared pretty much the same1 and filth1 fever1 and starvation prevailed in all parts of the jail alike4 ,the women prisoners he describes as pressed together so closely as1 upon lying down1 to leave no atom of space between their bodies4 ,as for the results of this neglect on the part of the ,state1 he finds it impossible to draw an adequate picture of them1 and is at a loss to imagine how the whole city is not carried off by a plague4 ,by persevering energy he obtained some reformation1 although he failed in his proposal for a new building4 ,as to the individual occupants of these pest-houses1 he found a large number whose offences were comparatively of an innocent kind1 but who were herded with the most savage criminals4 ,he espoused the cause of several of these prisoners--especially of the women--who1 after some years of incarceration1 were frequently drifted off to ,botany ,bay1 which1 besides its other terrors1 was for almost all of them a perpetual separation from their homes1 their husbands1 and families4 ,twice he vainly addressed a memorial to the ,secretary of ,state 7,lord ,hawkesbury7 on their behalf4 ,the traditions and routine of office were too powerful even for his persistent energy4 ,romilly had lately introduced his measure for amendment of the barbarous and bloody penal code of this country4 ,sir ,richard ,phillips addressed to him also a thoughtful letter1 in which were pointed out some of the more glaring abuses in the administration of the laws1 with which his official experience as ,high ,sheriff had made him familiar4 ,when ,mansfield was ,lord ,chief ,justice1 and ,thurlow ,lord ,chancellor1 the hangings were so numerous that1 as he informs us1 on one 8hanging holiday0 he saw nineteen persons on the gallows1 the eldest of whom was not twenty-two years of age4 ,the larger number1 probably1 had been sentenced to this barbarous death for theft of various kinds4 ,three hundred years had passed away since the animadversions of ,more 7before his accession to office7 in the ,utopia1 and some half-century since ,beccaria and ,voltaire had protested against this monstrous iniquity of criminal legislation1 without effect1 in ,england1 at least4 ,as far as their contemporaries and their successors for long afterwards were concerned these philanthropists had written wholly in vain4 ,in the letter to ,romilly ,phillips insists particularly upon the following reforms3 7#a7 ,no prisoner to be placed in irons before trial4 7#b7 ,none to be denied free access of friends or legal advisers4 7#c7 ,none to be deprived of adequate means of subsistence--#ad ounces of bread then being the maximum of allowance of food4 7#d7 ,every prisoner to be discharged as soon as the grand jury shall have thrown out the bill of indictment4 7#e7 ,abolition of payment to jailors by exactions forced from the most destitute prisoners1 and of various other exorbitant or illegal fines and extortions4 7#f7 ,separation of lunatic from other occupants of the jails4 7#g7 ,that counsel be provided for those too poor to pay for themselves4 ,in #ahaa ,phillips published his ,treatise on the ,powers and ,duties of ,juries1 and on the ,criminal ,laws of ,england4 ,three years later ,golden ,rules for ,jurymen1 which he afterwards expanded into a book entitled ,golden ,rules of ,social ,philosophy 7#ahbf71 in which he lays down rules of conduct for the ordinary business of life--lawyers1 clergymen1 schoolmasters1 and others being the objects of his admonitions4 ,it is in this work that the civic dignitary--so 8splendidly false0 to the habits of his class--sets forth at length the principles upon which his unalterable faith in the truth of humanitarian dietetics was founded4 ,the reasons of this 8true confession0 are fully and perspicuously specified1 and the first forms the key-note of the rest3--#bdi 8#a4 ,because1 being mortal himself1 and holding his life on the same uncertain and precarious tenure as all other sensitive beings1 he does not find himself justified by any supposed superiority or inequality of condition in destroying the enjoyment of existence of any other mortal1 except in the necessary defence of his own life4 8#b4 ,because the desire of life is so paramount1 and so affectingly cherished in all sensitive beings1 that he cannot reconcile it to his feelings to destroy or become a voluntary party in the destruction of any innocent living being1 however much in his power1 or apparently insignificant4 8#c4 ,because he feels the same abhorrence from devouring flesh in general that he hears carnivorous men express against eating human flesh1 or the flesh of ,horses1 ,dogs1 ,cats1 or other animals which1 in some countries1 it is not customary for carnivorous men to devour4 8#d4 ,because ,nature seems to have made a superabundant provision for the nourishment of frugivorous animals in the saccharine matter of ,roots and ,fruits1 in the farinaceous matter of ,grain1 ,seed1 and ,pulse1 and in the oleaginous matter of the ,stalks1 ,leaves1 and ,pericarps of numerous vegetables4 8#e4 ,because he feels an utter and unconquerable repugnance against receiving into his stomach the flesh or juices of deceased animal organisation4 8#f4 ,because the destruction of the mechanical organisation of vegetables inflicts no sensible suffering1 nor violates any moral feeling1 while vegetables serve to sustain his health1 strength1 and spirits above those of most carnivorous men4 8#g4 ,because during thirty years of rigid abstinence from the flesh and juices of deceased sensitive beings1 he finds that he has not suffered a day's serious illness1 that his animal strength and vigour have been equal or superior to that of other men1 and that his mind has been fully equal to numerous shocks which he has had to encounter from malice1 envy1 and various acts of turpitude in his fellow-men4 8#h4 ,because observing that carnivorous propensities among animals are accompanied by a total want of sympathetic feelings and gentle sentiments--as in the ,hyna1 the ,tiger1 the ,vulture1 the ,eagle1 the ,crocodile1 and the ,shark--he conceives that the practice of these carnivorous tyrants affords no worthy example for the imitation or justification of rational1 reflecting1 and conscientious beings4 8#i4 ,because he observes that carnivorous men1 unrestrained by reflection or sentiment1 even refine on the most cruel practices of the most savage animals of other species1 and apply their resources of mind and art to prolong the miseries of the victims of their appetites--bleeding1 skinning1 roasting1 and boiling animals alive1 and torturing them without reservation or remorse1 if they thereby add to the variety or the delicacy of their carnivorous gluttony4 8#aj4 ,because the natural sentiments and sympathies of human beings1 in regard to the killing of other animals1 are generally so averse from the practice that few men or women could devour the animals whom they might be obliged themselves to kill2 and yet they forget1 or affect to forget1 the living endearments or dying sufferings of the being1 while they are wantoning over his remains4 8#aa4 ,because the human stomach appears to be naturally so averse from receiving the remains of animals1 that few could partake of them if they were not disguised and flavoured by culinary preparation2 yet rational beings ought to feel that the prepared substances are not the less what they truly are1 and that no disguise of food1 in itself loathsome1 ought to delude the unsophisticated perceptions of a considerate mind4 8#ab4 ,because the forty-seven millions of acres in ,england and ,wales would maintain in abundance as many human inhabitants1 if they lived wholly on grain1 fruits1 and vegetables2 but they sustain only twelve millions in #ahaa scantily1 while animal food is made the basis of human subsistence4 8#ac4 ,because animals do not present or contain the substance of food in mass1 like vegetables2 every part of their economy being subservient to their mere existence1 and their entire frames being solely composed of blood necessary for life1 of bones for strength1 of muscles for motion1 and of nerves for sensation4 8#ad4 ,because the practice of killing and devouring animals can be justified by no moral plea1 by no physical benefit1 nor by any just allegation of necessity in countries where there is abundance of vegetable food1 and where the arts of gardening and husbandry are favoured by social protection1 and by the genial character of the soil and climate4 8#ae4 ,because wherever the number and hostility of predatory land animals might so tend to prevent the cultivation of vegetable food as to render it necessary to destroy and1 perhaps1 to eat them1 there could in that case exist no necessity for destroying the animated existences of the distinct elements of air and water2 and1 as in most civilised countries1 there exist no land animals besides those which are properly bred for slaughter or luxury1 of course the destruction of mammals and birds in such countries must be ascribed either to unthinking wantonness or to carnivorous gluttony4 8#af4 ,because the stomachs of locomotive beings appear to have been provided for the purpose of conveying about with the moving animal nutritive substances1 analogous in effect to the soil in which are fixed the roots of plants and1 therefore1 nothing ought to be introduced into the stomach for digestion and for absorption by the lacteals1 or roots of the animal system1 but the natural bases of simple nutrition--as the saccharine1 the oleaginous1 and the farinaceous matter of the vegetable kingdom40#bej ,perhaps his most entertaining book is his ,morning ,walk from ,london to ,kew 7#ahag74 ,in it he avails himself of the various objects on his road for instructive moralising--as1 for example1 when he meets with a mutilated soldier1 on the frightful waste and cruelty of war2 or with a horse struggling up a precipitous hill in agony of suffering from the torture of the bearing-rein1 on the common forms of selfish cruelty2 or again1 when he deplores the incalculable waste of food resources1 by the careless indifferentism of owners of land and of the ,state in allowing the country to remain encumbered with useless1 or comparatively useless1 timber1 in place of planting it with valuable fruit trees of various sorts according to the nature of the soil4 ,his next publication of importance was his ,million of ,facts and ,correct ,data and ,elementary ,constants in the entire ,circle of the ,sciences1 and on all ,subjects of ,speculation and ,practice 7#ahcb7 #hvo4 ,it is this work by which1 perhaps1 ,phillips is now most known--an immense collection and1 although many of the 8,constants0 may be open to criticism or have already become obsolete1 it may still be examined with interest4 ,the plan of the work is that of a classified collection of scraps of information on all the arts and sciences4 ,it was so popular that five large editions were published in seven years4 ,his preface to the stereotyped edition is dated #ahci4 ,he remarks that 8his pretensions for such a task are a prolonged and uninterrupted intercourse with books and men of letters4 ,he has1 for forty-nine years1 been occupied as the literary conductor of various public journals of reputation2 he has superintended the press in the printing of many hundred books in every branch of human pursuit1 and he has been intimately associated with men celebrated for their attainments in each of them40 ,in the facts concerning anatomy and physiology will be found references to scientific and other authorities upon the subject of flesh-eating4 ,occasionally we meet with biographical facts of special interest4 ,thus1 he says that1 early in #ahbe1 he suggested the first idea of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge to ,dr4 ,birkbeck and then1 by his advice1 to ,lord ,brougham4 ,his idea was the establishment of a fund for selling or giving away books and tracts1 after the manner of the ,religious ,tract ,society4 ,as regards his astronomic paradoxes1 his theory1 in opposition to the ,newtonian1 that the phenomena attributed to gravitation are1 in reality1 the 8proximate effects of the orbicular and rotatory motions of the earth0 7for which he was severely criticised by ,professor ,de ,morgan71 exhibits at least the various activity1 if not the invariable infallibility1 of his mental powers4 ,a work of equal interest with a ,million of ,facts is his next compilation--,a ,dictionary of the ,arts of ,life and ,civilisation 7#ahcc74 ,under the article ,diet he well remarks3-- 8,some regard it as a purely egotistical question whether men live on flesh or on vegetables4 ,but others mix with it moral feelings towards animals4 ,if theory prescribed human flesh1 the former party would lie in wait to devour their brethren2 but the latter1 regarding the value of life to all that breathe1 consider that1 even in a balance of argument1 feelings of sympathy ought to turn the scale4444 ,we see all the best animal and social qualities in mere vegetable-feeders4444 ,beasts of prey are necessarily solitary and fearful1 even of one another4 ,physiologists1 themselves carnivorous1 differ on the subject1 but they never take into account moral considerations4 8,though it is known that the ,hindus and other ,eastern peoples live wholly on rice--that the ,irish and ,scotch peasantry subsist on potatoes and oatmeal--and that the labouring poor of all countries live on the food1 of which an acre yields one hundred times more than of flesh1 while they enjoy unabated health and long life--yet an endless play of sophistry is maintained about the alleged necessity of killing and devouring animals4 8,at twelve years of age the author of this volume was struck with such horror in accidentally seeing the barbarities of a ,london slaughter-house1 that since that hour he has never eaten anything but vegetables4 ,he persevered1 in spite of vulgar forebodings1 with unabated vigorous health2 and at sixty-six finds himself more able to undergo any fatigue of mind and body than any other person of his age4 ,he quotes himself because the case1 in so carnivorous a country1 is uncommon--especially in the grades of society in which he has been accustomed to live4444 ,on principle he does not abstain from any vegetable luxuries or from fermented liquors2 but any indulgence in the latter requires 7he hastens to add7 the correction of carbonate of soda4 ,he is always in better health when water is his sole beverage2 and such is the case with all who have imitated his practice40#bea ,under the article 8,farming10 he observes that 8a man who eats #alb4 of flesh eats the exact equivalent of #flbs4 of wheat1 and #abhlbs4 of potatoes40 ,that is1 that he1 in such proportion1 wastes the national resources of a country4 ,the ,high ,sheriff1 on the occasion of some petition to the ,king1 had been knighted1 7to the affected scandal of his political enemies1 who1 apparently1 wished to reserve all titular or other recognition for their own party71 and the conspicuous beneficence of his career1 while in office1 had gained for him an honourable popularity4 ,but fortune1 so long favourable1 now for a time showed itself adverse4 ,in #ahji his affairs became embarrassed1 and recourse to the bankruptcy court inevitable4 ,happily his friends aided him in saving from the general wreck the copyright of the ,monthly ,magazine4 ,its management was a chief occupation of his remaining years2 and his own contributions1 under the signature of 8,common ,sense10 attracted marked attention4 ,in his publishing career1 the most curious incident was the refusal of the ,,mss4 of ,waverley4 ,the author's demands seem to have been in excess of the value placed upon the novel by the publisher4 ,it had been advertised in the first instance 7he tells us7 as the production of ,mr4 ,w4 ,scott4 ,the name was then withdrawn1 and the famous novel came before the world anonymously4 ,besides the writings already noticed1 ,phillips compiled or edited a large number of school books4 ,he tells us that all the elementary books1 published under the names of ,goldsmith1 ,blair and others1 were his own productions--between the years #agih and #ahae4 ,nor was his mental activity confined to literary work2 mechanical and scientific inventions largely occupied his attention4 ,to prevent the enormous expenses of railway viaducts1 embankments1 and removals of streets1 he proposed suspension roads1 ten feet above the housetops1 with inclined planes of #bj or #cj1 and stationary engines to assist the rise and fall at each end4 ,cities1 he maintained1 might be traversed in this way on right lines1 with intermediate points for ascent and descent4 ,this bold and ingenious idea seems to be very like an anticipation of the elevated railways of ,new ,york1 although even these have not yet reached the height ,phillips thought to be desirable4 ,he interested himself1 also1 in steam navigation4 ,when ,fulton was in ,england he was in frequent communication with his ,english friend1 to whom he despatched a triumphant letter on the evening of his first voyage on the ,hudson4 ,this letter1 having been shown to ,earl ,stanhope and some eminent engineers1 was treated by them with derision as describing an impossibility4 ,sir ,r4 ,phillips then advertised for a company1 to repeat on the ,thames what had become an accomplished fact on the ,american rivers4 ,after expenditure of a large sum of money in advertising he obtained only two ten-pound conditional subscribers4 ,he then printed1 with commendation1 ,fulton's letters in the ,monthly ,magazine1 and his credulity was almost universally reprobated4 ,it is worth recording that1 in the first steam voyage from the ,clyde to the ,thames1 ,phillips1 three of his family1 and five or six others1 were the only passengers who had the courage to test the experiment4 ,to allay the public alarms he published a letter in the newspapers1 and before the end of that summer he saw the same packet set out on its voyage with #cej passengers4#beb ,in #ahdj1 the year following the final edition of his most popular book1 he died at ,brighton in the seventy-third year of his age4 ,during his busy life if1 by his reforming energy1 he had raised up some bitter enemies and detractors1 he had made1 on the other hand1 some valuable friendships4 ,amongst these--not the least noteworthy--is his intimate friendship with that most humane-minded lawyer1 ,lord ,erskine1 one of those who have best adorned the legal profession in this country4 ,,xliii4 ,,lamartine4 #agij-ahfi4 ,of aristocratic descent1 and educated at the college of the 8,fathers of the ,faith0 7,pres de la ,foi71 ,du ,prat--such was the name of his family--imbibed in his youth principles very different from those of his great literary contemporary ,michelet4 ,happily1 ,nature seems to have endowed his mother with a rare refinement and humaneness of feeling2 and from her example and instruction he derived1 apparently1 the germs of those loftier ideas which1 in maturer age1 characterise a great part of his writings4 ,while the first ,napolon was still emperor1 he entered the army1 from which he soon retired to employ his leisure in the more congenial amusement of travel4 ,in #ahbj he first came before the world as the author of ,mditations ,potiques1 of which1 within four years1 #de1jjj copies were sold1 and the new poet was eagerly welcomed by the party of ,reaction1 who thought to find in him a future successor to the brilliant author of the ,gnie du ,christianisme1 the literary hope of their party1 and the champion of the ,church and royalty--the political counterbalance to ,branger1 the poet of the ,revolution--for ,hugo had not yet raised the standard of revolt4 ,yet this remarkable volume with the greatest difficulty found its way into print4 8,a young man1 writes one of his biographers his health scarcely re-established from a cruel malady1 his face pale with suffering and covered with a veil of sadness1 through which could be read the recent loss of an adored being1 went about from publisher to publisher1 carrying a small packet of verses dyed with tears4 ,everywhere the poetry and the poet were politely bowed out4 ,at length1 a bookseller1 better advised1 or seduced by the infinite grace of the young poet1 decided to accept the manuscript so often rejected40 ,it was published without a name and without recommendation4 ,the melancholy beauty of the style1 and the melody of the rhythm1 could not fail to attract sympathy from readers of taste and feeling1 even from those opposed to his political prejudices--8,a rhythm of a celestial melody1 verse supple1 cadenced1 and sonorous1 which softly vibrates as an olian harp sighing in the evening breeze40 ,its political1 rather than its poetical1 recommendations1 we may presume1 gained for the writer from the ,government of ,louis ,,xviii4 a diplomatic post at ,florence1 which he held until the dynastic revolution of #ahcj4 ,for some short time he acted as secretary to the ,french ,embassy in ,london1 and during his stay in ,england he made the acquaintance of a rich ,englishwoman1 whom he afterwards married at ,florence4 ,a legacy of valuable property from an uncle1 upon the condition of his assuming the name of ,lamartine1 still further enriched him4 ,in #ahbi appeared the collection of ,harmonies ,potiques et ,rligieuses1 in which1 as in all his poetry up to this time1 one of the most characteristic features is his devotion to ,legitimacy and the ,church4 ,the renversement of #ahcj considerably modified his political and ecclesiastical ideas4 8,i wish10 he declared at this turning-point in his career1 8to enter the ranks of the people2 to think1 speak1 act1 and struggle with them40 ,one of the first proofs of his advanced opinions was his pamphlet advocating abolition of 8capital0 punishment4 ,he failed to obtain a seat in the ,chambre des ,dputs of ,louis ,philippe1 whether in consequence of this advocacy or by reason of his antecedent politics4 ,his enforced leisure he employed in travelling1 and in #ahcb1 with his ,english wife and their young daughter ,juliette 7whose death at ,beyrout caused him inconsolable grief71 he set sail for the ,east in a vessel equipped and armed at his own expense4 ,a narrative of these travels he published in his ,voyage en ,orient 7#ahce74 ,in the following year appeared his ,jocelyn1 a poem of charming tenderness and eloquence1 and1 in #ahch1 ,la ,chute d'un ,ange 78,the ,fall of an ,angel071 in which he1 for the first time1 gives expression to his feeling of revolt from the barbarisms of the ,slaughter-,house4 ,in this strikingly original poem1 one of the most remarkable of its kind in any language1 ,lamartine discovers to us that he no longer views human institutions1 the customs of society1 and the consecrated usages of nations through the rose-coloured medium of traditional prejudice4 ,it is penetrated with a deep consciousness of the injustice and falseness of a large proportion of those things which are tolerated1 and even approved1 under the sanction of religious or social law1 and with ardent indignation against cruelty and selfishness4 ,in the frightful representation of the practices of the early tyrants of the world saved from the 8universal deluge10 he allows us to see his own feeling4 ,one of more humane race thus addresses his charming heroine ,dadha3-- 8,ces hommes1 pour apaiser leur faim1 ,n'ont pas assez des fruits que ,dieu mit sous leur main4 ,par un crime envers ,dieu dont frmit la ,nature1 ,ils demandent au sang une autre nourriture4 ,dans leur cit fangeuse il coule par ruisseaux6 ,les cadavres y sont tals en monceaux4 ,ils tranent par les pieds des fleurs de la prairie1 ,l'innocente brebis que leur main a nourrie1 ,et sous l'il de l'agneau l'gorgeant sans remords1 ,ils savourent ses chairs et vivent de la mort6 99 99 99 99 99 ,de cruels aliments incessamment repus1 ,toute piti s'efface en leurs curs corrompus4 ,et leur il1 qu'au forfait le forfait habitue1 ,aime le sang qui coule et l'innocent qu'on tue4 ,ils aiguisent le fer en flches1 en poignard2 ,du mtier de tuer ils ont fait le grand art3 ,le meurtre par milliers s'appelle une victoire1 ,c'est en lettres de sang que l'on crit la ,gloire40 ,from the pages of the 8,primitive ,book10 which he imagines to have been originally delivered to men1 their hermit-host reads to ,dadha and her celestial1 but incarnate1 lover the true divine revelation1 which is thus sublimely prefaced3-- 8,hommes6 ne dites pas1 en adorant ces pages1 ,un ,dieu les crivit par la main de ses sages4 99 99 99 99 99 ,la langue qu'il crit chante ternellement-- ,ses lettres sont ces feux1 mondes du firmament ,et1 par del ces cieux1 des lettres plus profondes-- ,mondes tincelants voils par d'autres mondes4 ,le seul livre divin dans lequel il crit ,son nom toujours croissant1 homme1 c'est ,ton ,esprit6 ,c'est ta ,raison1 miroir de la ,raison suprme1 ,o se peint dans ta nuit quelque ombre de lui-mme4 ,il vous parle1 ,mortel1 mais c'est par ce seul sens4 ,toute bouche de chair altre ses accents40 ,in pronouncing the following code of morality1 the voice of conscience and of reason coincides with the divine voice in our hearts3-- 8,tu ne leveras point la main contre ton frre3 ,et tu ne verseras aucun sang sur la terre1 ,ni celui des humains1 ni celui des troupeaux ,ni celui des animaux1 ni celui des oiseaux3 ,un cri sourd dans ton cur dfend de le rpandre1 ,car le sang est la vie1 et tu ne peux la rendre4 ,tu ne te nourriras qu'avec les pis blonds ,ondoyant comme l'onde aux flancs de tes vallons1 ,avec le riz croissant en roseaux sur tes rives-- ,table que chaque t renouvelle aux convives1 ,les racines1 les fruits sur la branche mris1 ,l'excdant des rayons par l'abeille ptris1 ,et tous ces dons du sol o la sve de vie ,vient s'offrir de soi-mme ta faim assouvie4 ,la chair des ,animaux crierait comme un remord1 ,et la ,mort dans ton sein engendrerait la ,mort60 ,not only is the human animal sternly forbidden to imbrue his hands in the blood of his innocent earth-mates3 it is also enjoined upon him to respect and cultivate their undeveloped intelligence and reason3-- 8,vous ferez alliance avec les #8brutes' mme3 ,car ,dieu1 qui les cra1 veut que l'homme les aime4 ,d'intelligence et d'me1 diffrents degrs1 ,elles ont eu leur part1 vous la reconnatrez3 ,vous livez dans leurs yeux1 douteuse comme un rve1 ,l'aube de la raison qui commence et se lve4 ,vous n'toufferez pas cette vague clart1 ,prsage de lumire et d'immortalit3 ,vous la respecterez4 ,la chane mille anneaux va de l'homme l'insecte3 ,que ce soit le premier1 le dernier1 le milieu1 ,n'en insultez aucun1 car tous tiennent ,dieu60 ,from such more rational estimate should follow1 necessarily1 just treatment3-- 8,ne les outragez pas par des noms de colre3 ,que la verge et le fouet ne soient pas leur salaire4 ,pour assouvir par eux vos brutaux apptits1 ,ne leur drobez pas le lait de leurs petits3 ,ne les enchanez pas serviles et farouches3 ,avec des mors de fer ne brisez pas leurs bouches ,ne les crasez pas sous de trop lourds fardeaux3 ,comprenez leur nature1 adoucissez leur sort3 ,le pacte entre eux et vous1 hommes1 n'est pas la ,mort4 sa meilleure fin faonnez chaque engeance1 ,prtez-leur un rayon de votre intelligence3 ,adoucissez leurs murs en leur tant plus doux1 ,soyez mdiateurs et juges entre eux tous4 99 99 99 99 99 ,le plus beau don de l'homme1 c'est la ,misricorde40 ,consistently with1 and consequently from1 such just human relations with the lower species are the admonitions to break down the walls of partition between the various human races1 and to the proper cultivation of the ,earth1 the common mother of all3-- 8,vous n'tablirez pas ces sparations ,en races1 en tribus1 peuples ou nations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,vous n'arracherez pas la branche avec le fruit3 ,gloire la main qui sme1 honte la main qui nuit6 ,vous ne laisserez pas le terre aride et nue1 ,car vos pres par ,dieu la trouvrent vtue4 ,que ceux qui passeront sur votre trace un jour ,passent en bnissant leurs pres leur tour4 ,vous l'aimerez d'amour comme on aime sa mre1 ,vous y possderez votre place phmre1 ,comme an soleil assis les hommes1 tour tour1 ,possednt le rayon tant que dure le jour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,par un inconcevable et maternel mystre1 ,l'homme en la fatiguant fertilise la ,terre4 ,nulle bouche ne sent sa tendresse tarir3 ,tout ce qu'elle a port1 son flanc peut le nourrir4 99 99 99 99 99 ,vous vous assisterez dans toutes vos misres1 ,vous serez l'un l'autre enfants1 pres1 et mres3 ,le fardeau de chacun sera celui de tous1 ,la ,charit sera la justice entre vous4 ,votre ombre ombragera le passant1 votre pain ,restera sur le seuil pour quiconque aura faim3 ,vous laisserez toujours quelques fruits sur la branche ,pour que le voyageur vers ses lvres la penche4 ,et vous n'amasserez jamais que pour un temps1 ,car la ,terre pour vous germe chaque printemps1 ,et ,dieu1 qui verse l'onde et fait fleurir ses rives1 ,sait au festin des champs le nombre des convives4#bec ,it is hardly necessary to record that ,the ,fall of an ,angel was far from receiving1 from the world of fashion1 the applause of his earlier and more conventional productions4 ,lamartine was still in the ,east 7we refer to an earlier period71 when news of his election to the ,chambre des ,deputs by a ,legitimist constituency brought him back to ,paris4 ,among the prominent political leaders of the day he figured 8as a progressive ,conservative1 strongly blending reverence for the antique with a kind of philosophical democracy4 ,he spoke frequently on social and philanthropic questions40 ,in #ahch he became deputy for ,macon1 his native town4 ,during the ,orleanist rgime he refused to hold office1 professing aversion for the 8vulgar utility0 of the government of ,guizot and the ,bourgeois ,king1 and in #ahde he openly joined the ,liberal opposition4 ,his ,histoire des ,girondins 7#ahdg7 probably contributed to the expulsion of the ,orleanist dynasty in the next year4 ,in the scenes of the ,revolution of ,february1 #ahdh1 he occupied a prominent position as mediator between the two opposite parties2 and the retention of the tricolour1 in place of the ,red flag1 is attributed to his intervention4 ,elected a member of the ,provisional ,government1 ,lamartine served as ,foreign ,minister of the ,republic4 ,in this capacity he published his well-known ,manifesto l',europe4 ,but1 in spite of the fact that ten departments had elected him as representative in the ,assemble ,constituante1 and that he was also made one of the five members of the ,executive ,commission1 his popularity was short-lived4 ,with all his1 apparently1 sincere sympathy with the cause of the ,oppressed1 traditionary associations and strong family attachments 7sufficiently manifest in his ,mmoirs7 impeded him in his political course2 and his compromising attitude provoked the distrust of more advanced political reformers4 ,in competition with ,louis ,napolon and ,cavaignac1 he was nominated for the presidency2 but he received the support of few votes4 ,from this period he withdrew into private life and devoted himself entirely to literature4 ,his ,histoire de la ,rvolution 7#ahdi71 ,histoire de la ,restauration1 ,histoire de la ,russie1 ,histoire de la ,turquie1 ,raphael 7a narrative of his childhood and youth7 ,confidences 7#ahdi-ahea71 a further autobiography--one of the most interesting of all his prose productions--and various other writings1 most of them appearing1 in the first instance1 in the periodicals of the day1 attested the activity and versatility of his genius4 ,he also for some time conducted a journal--,conseiller du ,peuple4 ,in #ahfj he collected his entire writings into forty-one volumes4 ,of them his ,histoire des ,girondins is1 probably1 the most widely known4 ,but1 next to ,the ,fall of an ,angel1 it is his own ,memoirs which will always have most interest and instruction for those who know how to appreciate true refinement of soul1 and1 making due deductions from political or traditionary prejudice1 can discern essential worth of mind4 ,in ,les ,confidences he allows us to see the natural sensibility and superiority of his disposition in his deep repugnance to the orthodox table--none the less real because he seems1 unhappily1 to have deemed himself forced to comply with the universal or1 rather1 fashionable barbarism4 ,writing of his early education1 he tells us3-- 8,physically it was derived 7dcoulait7 in a large measure from ,pythagoras and from the ,emile4 ,thus it was based upon the greatest simplicity of dress and the most rigorous frugality with regard to food4 ,my mother was convinced1 as ,i myself am1 that killing animals for the sake of nourishment from their flesh and blood1 is one of the infirmities of our human condition2 that it is one of those curses imposed upon man either by his fall1 or by the obduracy of his own perversity4 ,she believed1 as ,i do still1 that the habit of hardening the heart towards the most gentle animals1 our companions1 our helpmates1 our brothers in toil1 and even in affection1 on this earth2 that the slaughtering1 the appetite for blood1 the sight of quivering flesh are the very things to have the effect 7sont faits pour7 to brutalise and harden the instincts of the heart4 ,she believed1 as ,i do still1 that such nourishment1 although1 apparently1 much more succulent and active 7nergique7 contains within itself irritating and putrid principles which embitter the food and shorten the days of man4 8,to support these ideas she would instance the numberless refined and pious people of ,india who abstain from everything that has had life1 and the hardy1 robust pastoral race1 and even the labouring population of our fields1 who work the hardest1 live the longest and most simply1 and who do not eat meat ten times in their lives4 ,she never allowed me to eat it until ,i was thrown into the rough-and-tumble 7ple-mle7 life of the public schools4 ,to wean me from the liking for it she used no arguments1 but availed herself of that instinct in us which reasons better than logic4 ,i had a lamb1 which a peasant of ,milly had given me1 and which ,i had trained to follow me everywhere1 like the most attached and faithful dog4 ,we loved each other with that first love 7premire passion7 which children and young animals naturally have for each other4 ,one day the cook said to my mother in my presence 8,madame1 the lamb is fat1 and the butcher has come for it2 must ,i give it him80 ,i screamed and threw myself on the lamb1 asking what the butcher would do with it1 and what was a #8butcher4' ,the cook replied that he was a man who gained his living by killing lambs1 sheep1 calves and cows4 ,i could not believe it4 ,i besought my mother and readily obtained mercy for my favourite4 ,a few days afterwards my mother took me with her to the town and led me1 as by chance1 through the shambles4 ,there ,i saw men with bared and blood-stained arms felling a bullock4 ,others were killing calves and sheep1 and cutting off their still palpitating limbs4 ,streams ,of blood smoked here and there upon the pavement4 ,i was seized with a profound pity1 mingled with horror1 and asked to be taken away4 ,the idea of these horrible and repulsive scenes1 the necessary preliminaries of the dishes ,i saw served at table1 made me hold animal food in disgust1 and butchers in horror4 8,although the necessity of conforming to the customs of society has since made me eat what others eat1 ,i shall preserve a rational 7raisonne7 dislike to flesh dishes1 and ,i have always found it difficult not to consider the trade of a butcher almost on a par with that of the executioner4 ,i lived1 then1 till ,i was twelve on bread1 milk-products1 vegetables and fruit4 ,my health was not the less robust1 nor my growth the less rapid2 and perhaps it is to that regimen that ,i owed the beauty of feature1 the exquisite sensibility1 the serene sweetness of character and temper that ,i preserved till that date40#bed ,some years before the publication of his ,fall of an ,angel1 ,lamartine1 from the height of the ,national ,tribune1 had given significant expression to the feeling of all the more thoughtful minds1 vague though it was1 of the urgent need of some new and better principle to inspire and govern human actions than any hitherto tried3-- 8,i see he exclaimed men who1 alarmed by the repeated shocks of our political commotions1 await from providence a social revolution1 and look around them for some man1 a philosopher1 to arise--a doctrine which shall come to take violent possession of the government of minds 7une doctrine qui vienne s'emparer violemment du gouvernement des esprits71 and reinvigorate the staggered 7branl7 world4 ,they hope1 they invoke1 they look for this power1 which shall impose itself by inherent right 7de son plein droit7 as the ,arbitrator and ,supreme ,ruler of the ,future40 ,but a few years earlier1 in the same place1 a still more positive protest--not the less noteworthy because futile--was heard upon the occasion of a discussion as to the introduction into ,france of foreign 8,cattle10 when one of the ,deputies1 ,alexandre de ,laborde1 maintained that flesh-meat is but an object of luxury2 and was supported1 at least1 by one or two other thoughtful deputies who had the courage of their better convictions4 ,it deserves to be noted that while the ,left seemed not unfavourable to the humaner feeling1 the ,centre apathetic1 and the ,right derisively antagonistic1 the minister of the ,king 7,charles ,x47 threw all the weight of his position into the materialistic side of the scales4 ,thus this feeble and last public attempt in ,france to stop the torrent of ,materialism proved abortive4#bee ,,xliv4 ,,michelet4 #agig-ahgd4 ,the early life of this most original and eloquent of ,french historians passed amidst much hardship and difficulty4 ,his father1 who was a printer1 had been employed by the government of the ,revolution period 7#agij-agid71 and at the political reaction1 a few years later1 he found himself reduced to poverty4 ,from the experiences of his earlier life ,jules ,michelet doubtless derived his contempt for the common rich and luxuriant manner of living4 ,until his sixteenth year1 flesh-meat formed no part of his food2 and his diet was of the scantiest as well as simplest kind4 ,naturally sensitive and contemplative1 and averse from the rough manners and petty tyranny of his schoolfellows1 the young student found companionship in a few choice books1 of which ,a',kempis' ,imitation of ,christ seems to have been at that time one of the most read4 ,at the ,sorbonne ,michelet carried away some of the most valued prizes1 which were conferred with all the clat of the public awards of the ,acadmie4 ,at the age of #bd1 having graduated as doctor in philosophy1 he obtained the chair of ,history in the ,rollin ,college4 ,his manner1 original and full of enthusiasm1 though wanting often in method and accuracy1 possessed an irresistible fascination for his readers2 and all1 who had the privilege of listening to him1 were charmed by his earnest eloquence4 ,his first principal work was his ,synopsis of ,modern ,history 7#ahbg74 ,his version of the celebrated ,scienza ,nuova of ,vico1 of whom he regarded himself as the especial disciple1 appeared soon after4 ,upon the revolution of ,july1 ,michelet received the important post of ,keeper of the ,archives1 by which appointment he was enabled to prosecute his researches in preparation for his magnum opus in history1 ,l',histoire de la ,france1 the successive volumes of which appeared at long intervals4 ,it contains some of the finest passages in ,french prose1 the episode of ,la ,pucelle d',orleans being1 perhaps1 the finest of all4 ,having previously held a professorship in the ,sorbonne 7of which he was deprived by ,guizot1 then minister71 he was afterwards invited to fill the chair of ,history in the ,collge de ,france4 ,in #ahdg his advanced political views deprived him once more of his professorial post and income1 in which the ,revolution of the next year1 however1 reinstated him4 ,the coup d'tat of #ahea finally banished him from public life--at least as far as teaching was concerned--for being too conscientious to subscribe the oath of allegiance to the new ,empire4 ,michelet1 like an eminent writer of the present day1 upon principle1 elected to be his own publisher2 a fact which1 in conjunction with the unpopularity of his opinions1 considerably lessened the sale and circulation of his books2 and1 by this independency of action1 the historian was a pecuniary loser to a great extent4 ,deprived of the means of subsistence by his conscientiousness1 he left ,paris almost penniless1 and sought an asylum successively in the ,pyrenees and on the ,normandy coast4 ,in #ahef appeared the book with which the name of ,michelet will hereafter be most worthily associated--the one which may be said to have been written with his heart's blood4 ,that the taste of the reading world was not entirely corrupt1 was proved by the rapid sale of this the most popular of all his productions4 ,a new edition of ,l',oiseau came from the press each year for a long period of time1 and it has been translated into various ,european languages4 ,how far the attractiveness of the book1 through the illustrative genius of ,giacomelli1 influenced the buying public2 how far the surpassing merits of the style and matter of the work--we will not stay to determine2 but it is certain that ,the ,bird at once established his popularity as a writer1 and relieved his pecuniary needs4 ,l',oiseau was followed by several other eloquent interpretations of ,nature4 ,but the first--there can be no question with persons of taste--remains the masterpiece4 ,it is1 indeed1 unique in its kind in literature--by the intense sympathy and love for the subject which inspired the writer4 ,it is the only book which treats the ,bird as something more than an object of interest to the mere classifier1 to the natural-history collector1 or to the 8sportsman40 ,it considers the winged tribes--those of the non-raptorial kinds--as possessed of a high intelligence1 of a certain moral faculty1 of devoted maternal affection--of a soul1 in fine4 ,of his remaining writings1 ,la ,bible de l',humanit 7#ahfc7 is one of the most notable1 characteristic as it is of the author's method of treatment of historical and ethnographical subjects4 ,the calamities of his native land he so greatly loved1 through the corrupt government which had brought upon it the devastations of a terrible war1 ending1 by a natural sequence1 in the fearful struggle of the suffering proletariat1 deeply affected the aged champion of the rights of humanity4 ,almost broken-hearted1 he withdrew from his accustomed haunts and went to ,switzerland1 and afterwards to ,italy4 ,he died at ,hyres1 in #ahgd1 in the #ggth year of his age4 ,a public funeral1 attended by great numbers of the working classes1 awaited him in the capital4 ,in the following passage ,michelet virtually subscribes to the creed of ,vegetarianism4 ,the saving clause1 in which he seems to suppose the diet of blood to be imposed upon our species by the 8cruel fatalities0 of life1 it is pretty certain he would have been the first to wish to cancel1 had he enjoyed the opportunity of investigating the scientific basis of dietetic reform3-- 8,there is no selfish and exclusive salvation4 ,man merits his salvation only through the salvation of all4 ,the animals below us have also their rights before ,god4 #8,animal life1 sombre mystery6 ,immense world of thoughts and of dumb sufferings6 ,but signs too visible1 in default of language1 express those sufferings4 ,all ,nature protests against the barbarity of man1 who misapprehends1 who humiliates1 who tortures his inferior brethren4' ,this sentence1 which ,i wrote in #ahdf1 has recurred to me very often4 ,this year 7#ahfc71 in ,october1 near a solitary sea1 in the last hours of the night1 when the wind1 the wave were hushed in silence1 ,i heard the voices of our humble domestics4 ,from the basement of the house1 and from the obscure depths1 these voices of captivity1 feeble and plaintive1 reached me and penetrated me with melancholy--an impression of no vague sensibility1 but a serious and positive one4 8,the further we advance in knowledge1 the more we apprehend the true meaning of realities1 the more do we understand simple but very serious matters which the hurry 7entranement7 of life makes us neglect4 ,life6 ,death6 ,the daily murder1 which feeding upon other animals implies--those hard and bitter problems sternly placed themselves before my mind4 ,miserable contradiction6 ,let us hope that there may be another globe in which the base1 the cruel fatalities of this may be spared to us40#bef ,extolling the greater respect of the ,hindus for other life1 as exhibited in their sacred scriptures1 ,michelet vindicates the pre-eminently beneficent character of the ,cow1 in ,europe so ungratefully treated by the recipients of her bounty3-- 8,let us name first1 with honour1 his beneficent nurse--so honoured and beloved by him--the sacred ,cow1 who furnished the happy nourishment--favourable intermediate between insufficient herbs and flesh1 which excites horror4 ,the ,cow1 whose milk and butter has been so long the sacred offering4 ,she alone supported the primitive people in the long journey from ,bactria to ,india4 ,by her1 in face of so many ruins and desolations--by this fruitful nurse1 who unceasingly renovates the earth for him1 he has lived and always lives40#beg ,in his ,bird he constantly preaches the faith that can remove mountains--the faith that regards the regeneration and pacification of earth as the proper destiny of our species3-- 8,the devout faith which we cherish at heart1 and which we teach in these pages1 is that man will peaceably subdue the whole earth1 when he shall gradually perceive that every adopted being1 accustomed to a domesticated life1 or at least to that degree of friendship and companionship of which his nature is susceptible1 will be a hundred times more useful to him than he can be with his throat cut 7qu'il ne pourrait l'tre gorg74 ,man will not be truly man until he shall labour seriously for that which the ,earth expects from him--the pacification and harmonious union 7ralliement7 of all living ,nature4 ,hunt and make war upon the lion and the eagle if you will1 but not upon the ,weak and ,innocent40 ,this ,michelet never wearies of repeating1 and he returns again and again to a truth which is scorned by the modern self-seeking and money-getting1 as it was by the fighting1 wholly barbarous1 world3-- 8,conquerors have never failed to turn into derision this gentleness1 this tenderness for animated ,nature4 ,the ,persians1 the ,romans in ,egypt1 our ,europeans in ,india1 the ,french in ,algeria1 have often outraged and stricken these innocent brothers of man--the objects of his ancient reverence4 ,cambyses slew the sacred ,cow2 a ,roman the ,ibis who destroyed unclean reptiles4 ,but what means the ,cow8 ,the fecundity of the country4 ,and the ,ibis8 ,its salubrity4 ,destroy these animals1 and the country is no longer habitable4 ,that which has saved ,india and ,egypt through so many misfortunes and preserved their fertility1 is neither the ,nile nor the ,ganges4 ,it is respect for other life1 the mildness and the comparatively gentle heart of man4 8,profound in meaning was the speech of the ,priest of ,sas to the ,greek ,herodotus--#8,you shall be children always4' 8,we shall always be so--we men of the ,west--subtle and graceful reasoners1 so long as we shall not have comprehended1 with a simple and more exhaustive view1 the motive of things4 ,to be a child1 is to seize life only by partial glimpses4 ,to be a man is to be fully conscious of all its harmonious unity4 ,the child disports himself1 shatters and destroys2 he finds his happiness in undoing4 ,and science1 in its childhood1 does the same4 ,it cannot study unless it kills4 ,the sole use which it makes of a living mind1 is1 in the first place1 to dissect it4 ,none carry into scientific pursuits that tender reverence for life which ,nature rewards by unveiling to us her mysteries40#beh ,like ,shelley1 he firmly believed in the indefinite amelioration of our world by the ultimate triumph of principles of humaneness1 so that the 8sting of death0 and of pain might almost1 if not entirely1 be removed3-- ,to prevent death is1 undoubtedly1 impossible2 but we may prolong life4 ,we may eventually render pain rarer1 less cruel1 and almost suppress it4 ,that the hardened old world laughs at our expression is so much the better4 ,we saw quite such a spectacle in the days when our ,europe1 barbarised by war1 centered all medical art in surgery1 and made the knife its only means of cure1 while young ,america discovered the miracle of that profound dream in which all pain is annihilated4 ,he upbraids the sportsman no less than he does the scientist1 and finds sufficient cause for the too general sterility of the intellect in the habituation to slaughter1 and in disregard for the subject species3-- 8,woe to the ungrateful6 ,by this phrase ,i mean the sporting crowd1 who1 unmindful of the numerous benefits we owe to other animals1 exterminate innocent life4 ,a terrible sentence weighs upon the tribes of #8sportsmen'--they can create nothing4 ,they originate no art1 no industry4 ,they have added nothing to the hereditary patrimony of the human species4444 8,do not believe the axiom1 that huntsmen gradually develope into agriculturalists4 ,it is not so--they kill or die4 ,such is their whole destiny4 ,we see it clearly through experience4 ,he who has killed will kill--he who has created will create4 8,in the want of emotion1 which every man suffers from his birth1 the child who satisfies it habitually by murder1 by a miniature ferocious drama of surprise and treason1 of the torture of the weak1 will find no great enjoyment in the gentle and tranquil emotions arising from the progressive success of toil and study1 from the limited industry which does everything itself4 ,to create1 to destroy--these are the two raptures of infancy4 ,to create is a long1 slow process2 to destroy is quick and easy4 8,it is a shocking and hideous thing to see a child partial to #8sport2' to see woman enjoying and admiring murder1 and encouraging her child4 ,that delicate and #8sensitive' woman would not give him a knife1 but she gives him a gun4 ,kill at a distance if it pleases you1 for we do not see the suffering4 ,and this ,mother will think it admirable that her son1 kept confined to his room1 will drive off ennui by plucking the wings from flies1 by torturing a bird or a little dog4 8,far-seeing mother6 ,she will know1 when too late1 the evil of having formed a bad heart4 ,aged and weak1 rejected of the world1 she will experience1 in her turn1 her son's brutality4 8,among too many children we are saddened by their almost incredible sterility4 ,a few recover from it in the long circle of life1 when they have become experienced and enlightened men4 ,but the first freshness of the heart8 ,it shall return no more40#bei ,although1 as has already been indicated1 ,michelet evidently had not examined the scientific basis of akreophagy1 yet all his aspirations and all his sympathies1 it is also equally evident1 were for the bloodless diet4 ,with ,locke and ,rousseau1 and many others before him1 he presses upon mothers the vital import of not perverting the early preferences of their children for the foods prescribed by unsophisticated nature and their own truer instincts4 ,in one of his books1 the most often republished1 in laying down rules for the education of young girls1 he thus writes3-- 8,purity1 above everything1 in regimen and nourishment4 ,what are we to understand by this8 8,i understand by it that the young girl should have the proper nourishment of a child--that she should continue the mild1 tranquilising1 unexciting regimen of milk2 that1 if she eats at your table1 she will be accustomed not to touch the dishes upon it1 which for her1 at least1 are poisons4 8,a revolution has taken place4 ,we have quitted the more sober ,french regimen1 and have adopted more and more the coarse and bloody diet of our neighbours1 appropriate to their climate much more than to ours4 ,the worst of it all is that we inflict this manner of living upon our children4 ,strange spectacle6 ,to see a mother giving her daughter1 whom but yesterday she was suckling at her breast1 this gross aliment of bloody meats1 and the dangerous excitant wine6 ,she is astonished to see her violent1 capricious1 passionate2 but it is herself whom she ought to accuse as the cause4 ,what she fails to perceive1 and yet what is very grave1 is that with the ,french race1 so precocious1 the arousing of the passions is so directly provoked by this food4 ,far from strengthening1 it agitates1 it weakens1 it unnerves4 ,the mother thinks it fine 7plaisant7 to have a child so preternaturally mature4 ,all this comes from herself4 ,unduly excitable1 she wishes her child to be such another as she1 and she is1 without knowing it1 the corruptress of her own daughter4 8,all this unnatural stimulation is of no good to her1 and is little better for you1 ,madame4 ,you have not the heart1 you say1 to eat anything in which she has no share4 ,ah1 well6 abstain yourself1 or1 at all events1 moderate your indulgence in this food1 good1 possibly1 for the hard-worked man1 but fatal in its consequences to the woman of ease and leisure--regimen which vulgarises her1 perturbs her1 renders her irritable1 or oppresses her with indigestion4 8,for the woman and the child it is a grace--an amiable grace 7grce d'amour7--to be1 above all things1 frugivorous--to avoid the coarseness and foulness 7ftidit7 of flesh-meats1 and to live rather upon innocent foods1 which bring death to no one 7qui ne cotent la mort personne7--sweet nourishment which charms the sense of smell as much as it does the taste4 ,the real reason why the beloved ones in nothing inspire in us repugnance but1 in comparison with men1 seem ethereal1 is1 in a special manner1 their presumed preference for herbs and for fruits--for that purity of regimen which contributes not a little to that of the soul1 and assimilates them to the innocency of the flowers of the field40#bfj ,,xlv4 ,,cowherd4 #agfc-ahaf4 ,in any history of ,vegetarianism it is impossible to omit record of the lives and labours of the institutors of a religious community who1 in establishing humane dietetics as an essential condition of membership1 may well claim the honourable title of religious reformers1 and to whom belongs the singular merit of being the first and only founders of a ,christian church who have inculcated a true religion of life as the basis of their teaching4 ,william ,cowherd1 the first founder of this new conception of the ,christian religion1 which assumed the name of the 8,bible ,christian ,church10 was born at ,carnforth1 near ,lonsdale1 in #agfc4 ,his first appearance in public was as teacher of philology in a theological college at ,beverley4 ,afterwards1 coming to ,manchester1 he acted as curate to the ,rev4 ,j4 ,clowes1 who1 while remaining a member of the ,established ,church1 had adopted the theological system of ,swedenborg4 ,cowherd attached himself to the same mystic creed1 and he is said to be one of the few students of him who have ever read through all the ,latin writings of the ,swedish theologian4 ,he soon resigned his curacy1 and for a short time he preached in the ,swedenborgian temple in ,peter ,street4 ,there he seems not to have found the freedom of opinion and breadth in teaching he had expected1 and he determined to propagate his own convictions1 independently of other authority4 ,in the year #ahjj he built1 at his own expense1 ,christ ,church1 in ,king ,street1 ,salford--the first meeting-place of the reformed church4#bfa ,his extraordinary eloquence and ability1 as well as earnestness of purpose1 quickly attracted a large audience1 and may well have brought to recollection the style and matter of the great orator of ,constantinople of the fourth century4 ,one characteristic of his ,church--perhaps unique at that time--was the non-appropriation of sittings4 ,another unfashionable opinion held by him was the ,pauline one of the obligation upon ,christian preachers to maintain themselves by some 8secular0 labour1 and he therefore kept a boarding school1 which attained extensive proportions4 ,in this college some zealous and able men1 who afterwards were ordained by him to carry on a truly beneficent ministry1 assisted in the work of teaching1 of whom the names of ,metcalfe1 ,clark1 and ,schofield are particularly noteworthy4 ,following out the principles of their ,master1 two of them took degrees in medicine1 and gained their living by that profession4 ,the ,principal himself built an institute1 connected with his church in ,hulme1 where1 more recently1 the late ,mr4 ,james ,gaskill presided1 who1 at his death1 left an endowment for its perpetuation as an educational establishment4 ,it was in the year #ahji that ,cowherd formally promulgated1 as cardinal doctrines of his system1 the principle of abstinence from flesh-eating1 which1 in the first instance1 he seems to have derived from 8the medical arguments of ,dr4 ,cheyne and the humanitarian sentiments of ,st4 ,pierre40 ,he died not many years after this formal declaration of faith and practice1 not without the satisfaction of knowing that able and earnest disciples would carry on the great work of renovating the religious sentiment for the humanisation of the world4 ,of those followers not the least eminent was ,joseph ,brotherton1 the first ,m4,p4 for ,salford1 than which borough none has been more truly honoured by the choice of its legislative representative4 ,a printing press had been set up at the ,institution1 and1 after the death of the ,master1 his ,facts ,authentic in ,science and ,religion towards a ,new ,foundation of the ,bible1 under which title he had collected the most various matter illustrative of passages in the ,bible1 and in defence of his own interpretation of them1 was there printed4 ,it is1 as his biographer has well described it1 8a lasting memorial of his wide reading and research--travellers1 lawyers1 poets1 physicians1 all are pressed into his service--the whole work forming a large quarto common-place book filled with reading as delightful as it is discursive4 ,some of his minor writings have also been printed4 ,he was1 besides his theological erudition1 a practical chemist and astronomer1 and he caused the dome of the church in ,king ,street to be fitted up for the joint purposes of an observatory and a laboratory4 ,his microscope is still preserved in the ,peel ,park ,museum4 ,his valuable library1 which at one time was accessible to the public on easy terms1 is now deposited in the new ,bible ,christian ,church in ,cross ,lane4 ,the books collected exhibit the strong mind which brought them together for its own uses4 ,this library is the workshop in which he wrought out a new mode of life and a new theory of doctrine--with these instruments he moulded minds like that of ,brotherton1 and so his influence has worked in many unseen channels40 ,he died in #ahaf1 and is buried in front of his chapel1 in ,king ,street1 ,salford4#bfb ,,xlvi4 ,,metcalfe4 #aghh-ahfb4 ,amongst the immediate disciples of the founder of the new community1 the most active apostle of the principles of ,vegetarianism1 ,william ,metcalfe1 to whom reference has been already made1 claims particular notice4 ,born at ,orton in ,westmoreland1 after instruction in a classical school kept by a philologist of some repute1 he began life as an accountant at ,keighley1 in ,yorkshire4 ,his leisure hours were devoted to mental culture1 both in reading and in poetic composition4 ,converted by ,cowherd in #ahji1 in the twenty-first year of his age1 he abandoned the flesh diet1 and remained to the end a firm believer in the truths of 8,the ,perfect ,way40 ,in the year following he married the daughter of the ,rev4 ,j4 ,wright who was at the head of the 8,new ,church0 at ,keighley1 and whom he assisted as curate4 ,his wife1 of highly-cultured mind1 equally with himself was a persistent follower of the reformed mode of living4 ,sharing the experiences of many other dietary reformers1 the young converts encountered much opposition from their family and friends1 who attempted at one moment ridicule1 at another dissuasion1 by appealing to medical authority4 ,unmoved from their purpose1 they continued unshaken in their convictions4 8,they assured me10 he writes at a later period1 8that ,i was rapidly sinking into a consumption1 and tried various other methods to induce me to return to the customary dietetic habits of society2 but their efforts proved ineffectual4 ,some predicted my death in three or four months2 and others1 on hearing me attempt to defend my course1 hesitated not to tell me ,i was certainly suffering from mental derangement1 and1 if ,i continued to live without flesh-food much longer1 would unquestionably have to be shut up in some insane asylum4 ,all was unavailing4 ,instead of sinking into consumption1 ,i gained several pounds in weight during the first few weeks of my experiment4 ,instead of three or four months bringing me to the silent grave1 they brought me to the matrimonial altar4 8,she his wife fully coincided with me in my views on vegetable diet1 and1 indeed1 on all other important points was always ready to defend them to the best of her ability--studied to show our acquaintances1 whenever they paid us a visit1 that we could live1 in every rational enjoyment1 without the use of flesh for food4 ,as she was an excellent cook1 we were never at a loss as to what we should eat4 ,we commenced housekeeping in ,january1 #ahaj1 and1 from that date to the present time1 we have never had a pound of flesh-meat in our dwelling1 have never patronised either slaughter-houses or spirit shops4 8,when1 again1 in the course of time we were about to be blessed with an addition to our family1 a renewed effort was made4 ,we were assured it was impossible for my wife to get through her confinement without some more strengthening food4 ,friends and physicians were alike decided upon that point4 ,we were1 notwithstanding1 unmoved and faithful to our principles4 ,next we were told by our kind advisers that the little stranger could not be sufficiently nourished unless the mother could eat a little #8meat' once a day2 or1 if not that1 drink a pint or half a pint of ale daily4 ,to both proposals my wife turned a deaf ear2 and both she and the child did exceedingly well4#bfc ,it may be proper to add here remarks the biographer1 that the #8little stranger' above referred to is the author of this ,memoir1--that he is in the fifty-sixth year of his age1 that he has never so much as tasted animal food1 nor used intoxicating drinks of any kind1 and that he is hale and hearty40 ,these experiences1 it is scarcely necessary to remark1 in the lives of followers of reformed dietetics1 have been not seldom repeated4 ,in the ,academy of ,sciences1 instituted by ,dr4 ,cowherd1 ,metcalfe was invited to assume the direction of the 8classical0 department 7#ahaa74 ,in the same year he took 8,orders10 and1 at the solicitation of the secessionists from the ,swedenborgian ,communion 7which1 with some inconsistency1 seems to have looked with indifference1 or even dislike1 upon the principles of akreophagy71 he officiated at ,adingham1 in ,yorkshire4 ,by the voluntary aid of one of his admirers a church was built1 to which was added a commodious school-room4 ,he then resigned his position under ,dr4 ,cowherd1 and opened a grammar school in ,adingham1 where he was well supported by his friends4 ,the ,united ,states of ,america1 however1 was the field to which he had long been looking as the most promising for the mission work to which he had devoted himself2 and in this hope he had been sustained by his ,master4 ,in the spring of #ahag a company of forty-one persons1 members of the ,bible ,christian community1 embarked at ,liverpool for ,philadelphia1 ,they comprised two clerics--,w4 ,metcalfe and ,jas4 ,clark--twenty other adults1 and nineteen children4 ,of this band only a part were able to resist the numerous temptations to conformity with the prevalent social practices2 and the vast distances which separated the leaders from their followers were almost an insuperable bar to sympathy and union4 ,settling in ,philadelphia--for them at least a name of real significance--,metcalfe supported his family by teaching1 while performing the duties of his position as head of the faithful few who formed his church4 ,his day-school1 which was attended by the sons of some of the leading people of the city1 proved to be pecuniarily successful until the appearance of yellow fever in ,philadelphia1 which broke up his establishment and involved him in great difficulties2 for upon his school he depended entirely for his living4 ,he had many influential friends1 who tempted him1 at this crisis of his fortunes1 with magnificent promises of support1 if only he would desert the cause he had at heart--the propagandism of a religion based upon principles of true temperance and active goodness4 ,both moral and physical superiority pointed him out as one who could not fail to bring honour to any undertaking1 and1 had he sacrificed conviction to interest1 he might have greatly advanced his material prospects4 ,all such seductions he firmly resisted4 ,meanwhile1 through the pulpit1 the schoolroom1 and1 more widely1 through the newspapers1 he scattered the seeds of the gospel of ,humanity4 ,but the spirit of intolerance and persecution1 of self-seeking religionism1 and of rancorous prejudice1 was by no means extinct even in the great republic1 and the 7so-called7 8religious0 press united to denounce his humane teaching as well as his more liberal theology4 ,nor did some of his more unscrupulous opponents hesitate1 in the last resort1 to raise the war-cry of 8infidel0 and 8sceptic40 ,these assailants he treated with contemptuous silence2 but the principle of moral dietetics he defended in the newspapers with ability and vigour4 ,in #ahba he published an essay on ,abstinence from the ,flesh of ,animals1 which was freely and extensively circulated4 ,for several years his missionary labours appear to have been unproductive4 ,in the year #ahcj he made two notable converts--,dr4 ,sylvester ,graham1 who was at that time engaged as a 8temperance0 lecturer1 and was deep in the study of human physiology2 and ,dr4 ,w4 ,alcott4 ,five years later1 the ,moral ,reformer was started as a monthly periodical1 which afterwards appeared under the title of the ,library of ,health4 ,in #ahch-i the ,graham ,journal was also published in ,boston1 and scientific societies were organised in many of the ,new ,england towns4 ,the ,bible was largely appealed to in the controversy1 and a sermon of ,metcalfe's had an extensive circulation through the ,united ,states4 ,with all this controversy upon his hands1 he was far from neglecting his private duties1 and1 in fact1 his health was over-taxed in the close and constant work in the schoolrooms1 overcrowded and ill-ventilated as they were4 ,in the day and night school he was constantly employed1 during one half of the year1 from eight in the morning until ten at night2 and ,sunday brought him no remission of labour4 ,in the propagandism of his principles through the press he was not idle4 ,the ,independent ,democrat1 and1 in #ahch1 the ,morning ,star1 was printed and published at his own office--by which latter journal1 in spite of the promise of support from political friends1 he was a pecuniary loser to a large amount4 ,the ,temperance ,advocate1 also issued from his office1 had no better success4 ,several years earlier1 about #ahbj1 it is interesting to note1 he had published a tract on ,the ,duty of ,abstinence from all ,intoxicating ,drinks2 and the founder of the ,bible ,christian ,church in ,america can claim the merit of having been the first systematically to inculcate this social reform4 ,in the year #ahdg the ,vegetarian ,society of ,great ,britain had been founded1 of which ,mr4 ,james ,simpson had been elected the first president4 ,metcalfe immediately proposed the formation of a like society in the ,united ,states4 ,he corresponded with ,drs4 ,graham1 ,alcott1 and others2 and finally an ,american ,vegetarian ,convention assembled in ,new ,york1 ,may #ae1 #ahej4 ,several promoters of the cause1 previously unknown to each other 7except through correspondence71 here met4 ,metcalfe was elected president of the ,convention2 addresses were delivered1 and the constitution of the society determined upon4 ,the ,society was organised by the election of ,dr4 ,william ,alcott as president1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,metcalfe as corresponding secretary1 and ,dr4 ,trall as recording secretary4 ,an organ of the society was started in ,november1 #ahej1 under the title of ,the ,american ,vegetarian and ,health ,journal1 and under the editorship of ,metcalfe4 ,its regular monthly publication1 however1 did not begin until #ahea4 ,in that year he was selected as delegate to the ,english ,vegetarian ,society1 as well as delegate from the ,pennsylvania ,peace ,society to the 8,world's ,peace ,convention10 which was fondly supposed to be about to be inaugurated by the ,universal ,exhibition of that year4 ,the proceedings at the annual meeting of the ,vegetarian ,society of ,great ,britain1 and the eloquent address1 amongst others1 of the ,american representative1 are fully recorded in the ,vegetarian ,messenger for #aheb4 ,on this occasion ,joseph ,brotherton1 ,m4,p4 presided4 ,two years later he suffered the irreparable loss of the sympathising sharer in his hopes for the regeneration of the world4 ,mrs4 ,metcalfe died in the seventy-fourth year of her age1 having been1 during forty-four years1 a strict abstinent4 ,her loss was mourned by the entire ,vegetarian community4 ,by far the larger part of the matter1 as well as the expenses of publication1 of the ,american ,vegetarian1 was supplied by the editor1 and1 being inadequately supported by the rest of the community1 the managers were forced to abandon its further publication4 ,the last volume appeared in #ahed4 ,it has been succeeded in later times1 under happier circumstances1 by the ,health ,reformer which is still in existence4 ,in #ahee ,metcalfe received an invitation to undertake the duties attached to the mother church at ,salford4 ,leaving his brother-in-law in charge of the church in ,philadelphia1 he embarked for ,england once more1 and the most memorable event1 during his stay in this country1 was the deeply and sincerely lamented death of ,joseph ,brotherton1 who for twenty years had represented ,salford in the ,legislature1 and whose true benevolence had endeared him to the whole community4 ,metcalfe was chosen to preach the funeral eulogy1 which was listened to by a large number of ,members of ,parliament and municipal officers1 and by an immense concourse of private citizens4 ,returning to ,america soon afterwards1 at the urgent request of his friends in ,philadelphia1 he was1 in #ahei1 elected to fill the place of ,president vacated by ,dr4 ,alcott1 whose virtues and labours in the cause he commemorated in a just eulogy4 ,his own death took place in the year #ahfb1 in the seventy-fifth year of his age1 caused by hemorrhage of the lungs1 doubtless the effect of excessive work4 ,his end1 like his whole interior if not exterior life1 was1 in the best meaning of a too conventional expression1 full of peace and of hope4 ,his best panegyric is to be found in his life-work2 and1 as the first who systematically taught the truths of reformed dietetics in the 8,new ,world10 he has deserved the unceasing gratitude of all sincere reformers in the ,united ,states1 and1 indeed1 throughout the globe4 ,by all who knew him personally he was as much loved as he was esteemed1 and the newspapers of the day bore witness to the general lamentation for his loss4#bfd ,,xlvii4 ,,graham4 #agid-ahea4 ,as an exponent of the physiological basis of the ,vegetarian theory of diet1 in the most elaborate minuteness1 the author of ,lectures on the ,science of ,human ,life has always had great repute amongst food reformers both in the ,united ,states and in this country4 ,collaterally connected with the ducal house of ,montrose1 his father1 a graduate of ,oxford1 emigrated to ,boston1 ,u4,s41 in the year #agah4 ,he must have attained an advanced age when his seventeenth child1 ,sylvester1 was born at ,suffield1 in ,connecticut4 ,yet he seems to have been of a naturally dyspeptic and somewhat feeble constitution1 which was inherited by his son1 whose life1 in fact1 was preserved only by the method recommended by ,locke--free exposure in the open air4 ,during several years he lived with an uncle1 on whose farm he was made to work with the labourers4 ,in his twelfth year he was sent to a school in ,new ,york1 and at fourteen he was set for a short time to learn the trade of paper-making4 8,he is described as handsome1 clever1 and imaginative4 #8,i had heard1' he says1 #8of noble deeds1 and longed to follow in the field of fame4' ,ill health soon obliged his return to the country1 and at sixteen symptoms of consumption appeared4 ,various occupations were tried until the time1 when about twenty years of age1 he commenced as a teacher of youth1 proving highly successful with his pupils4 ,again ill-health obliged the abandonment of this pursuit40#bfe ,at the age of thirty-two he married1 and soon after became a preacher in the ,presbyterian ,church4 ,deeply interested in the question of 8,temperance10 he was invited to lecture for that cause by the ,pennsylvania ,society 7#ahcj74 ,he now began the study of physiology and comparative anatomy1 in which his interest was unremitting4 ,these important sciences were used to good effect in his future dietetic crusade4 ,at this time he came in contact with ,metcalfe1 by whom he was confirmed in1 if not in the first instance converted to1 the principles of radical dietary reform4 8,he was soon led to believe that no permanent cure for intemperance could be found1 except in such change of personal and social customs as would relieve the human being from all desire for stimulants4 ,this idea he soon applied to medicine1 so that the prevention and cure of disease1 as well as the remedy for intemperance1 were seen to consist mainly in the adoption of correct habits of living1 and the judicious adaptation of hygienic agencies4 ,these ideas were elaborated in an ,essay on the ,cholera 7#ahcb71 and a course of lectures which were delivered in various parts of the country1 and subsequently published under the title of ,lectures on the ,science of ,human ,life 7#b vols41 ,boston1 #ahci74 ,this has been the leading text-book of all the dietetic and nearly all the health reformers since40#bff ,the ,science of ,human ,life is one of the most comprehensive as well as minute text books on scientific dietetics ever put forth4 ,if it errs at all1 it errs on the side of redundancy--a feature which it owes to the fact that it was published to the world as it was orally given4 ,it therefore well bears condensation1 and this has been judiciously done by ,mr4 ,baker1 whose useful edition is probably in the hands of most of our readers4 ,graham was also the author of a treatise on ,bread and ,bread-,making1 and 8,graham bread0 is now universally known as one of the most wholesome kinds of the 8staff of life40 ,besides these more practical writings1 for some time before his death he occupied his leisure in the production of a ,philosophy of ,sacred ,history1 the characteristic idea of which seems to have been to harmonise the dogmas of the ,jewish and ,christian ,scriptures with his published views on physiology and dietetics4 ,he lived to complete one volume only 7#abmo471 which appeared after his death4 ,tracing the history of ,medicine from the earlier times1 and its more or less of empiricism in all its stages1 ,graham discovers the cause of a vast proportion of all the egregious failure of its professors in the blind prejudice which induces them to apply to the temporary cure1 rather than to the prevention1 of disease4 ,as it was in its first barbarous beginning1 so it has continued1 with little really essential change1 to the present moment3-- 8,everything is done with a view to cure the disease1 without any regard to its cause1 and the disease is considered as the infliction of some supernatural being4 ,therefore1 in the progress of the healing art thus far1 not a step is taken towards investigating the laws of health and the philosophy of disease4 8,nor1 after ,medicine had received a more systematic form1 did it apply to those researches which were most essential to its success1 but1 like religion1 it became blended with superstitions and absurdities4 ,hence1 the history of ,medicine1 with very limited exceptions1 is a tissue of ignorance and error1 and only serves to demonstrate the absence of that knowledge upon which alone an enlightened system of ,medicine can be founded1 and to show to what extent a noble art can be perverted from its capabilities of good to almost unmixed evil by the ignorance1 superstition1 and cupidity of men4 ,in modern times1 anatomy and surgery have been carried nearly to perfection1 and great advance has been made in physiology4 ,the science of human life has been studied with interest and success1 but this has been confined to the few1 while even in our day1 and in the medical profession itself1 the general tendency is adverse to the diffusion of scientific knowledge4 99 99 99 99 99 8,the result is1 that men prodigally waste the resources as if the energies of life were inexhaustible2 and when they have brought on disease which destroys their comforts1 they fly to the physician1 not to learn by what violation of the laws of life they have drawn the evil upon themselves1 and by what means they can avoid the same2 but1 considering themselves visited with afflictions which they have in no manner been concerned in causing1 they require the physician's remedies1 by which their sufferings may be alleviated4 ,in doing this1 the more the practice of the physician conforms to the appetites of the patient1 the greater is his popularity and the more generously is he rewarded4 8,everything1 therefore1 in society tends to confine the practising physician to the department of therapeutics1 and make him a mere curer of disease2 and the consequence is1 that the medical fraternity have little inducement to apply themselves to the study of the science of life1 while almost everything1 by which men can be corrupted1 is presented to induce them to become the mere panderers of human ignorance and folly2 and1 if they do not sink into the merest empiricism1 it is owing to their own moral sensibility rather than to the encouragement they receive to pursue an elevated scientific professional career4 8,thus the natural and acquired habits of man concur to divert his attention from the study of human life1 and hence he is left to feel his way to1 or gather from what he calls experience1 all the conclusions which he embraces4 ,it has been observed that men1 in their 7so-called7 inductive reasonings deceive themselves continually1 and think that they are reasoning from facts and experience1 when they are only reasoning from a mixture of truth and falsehood4 ,the only end answered by facts so incorrectly apprehended is that of making error more incorrigible4 ,nothing1 indeed1 is so hostile to the interests of ,truth as facts incorrectly observed4 ,on no subjects are men so liable to misapprehend facts1 and mistake the relation between cause and effect1 as on that of human life1 health1 and disease40 ,by the opponents of dietetic reform it has been pretended that climate1 or individual constitution1 must determine the food proper for nations or individuals3-- 8,we have been told that some enjoy health in warm1 and others in cold climates some on one kind of diet1 and under one set of circumstances1 and some under another2 that1 therefore1 what is best for one is not for another2 that what agrees well with one disagrees with another2 that what is one man's meat is another man's poison2 that different constitutions require different treatment2 and that1 consequently1 no rules can be laid down adapted to all circumstances which can be made a basis of regimen to all4 8,without taking pains to examine circumstances1 people consider the bare fact that some intemperate individuals reach old age evidence that such habits are not unfavourable to life4 ,with the same loose reasoning1 people arrive at conclusions equally erroneous in regard to nations4 ,if a tribe1 subsisting on vegetable food1 is weak1 sluggish1 and destitute of courage and enterprise1 it is concluded that vegetable food is the cause4 ,yet examination might have shown that causes fully adequate to these effects existed1 which not only exonerated the diet1 but made it appear that the vegetable diet had a redeeming effect1 and was the means by which the nation was saved from a worse condition4 8,the fact that individuals have attained a great age in certain habits of living is no evidence that those habits are favourable to longevity4 ,the only use which we can make of cases of extraordinary old age1 is to show how the human constitution is capable of sustaining the vital economy1 and resisting the causes which induce death4 8,if we ask how we must live to secure the best health and longest life1 the answer must be drawn from physiological knowledge2 but if we ask how long the best mode of living will preserve life1 the reply is1 ,physiology cannot teach you that4 ,probably each aged individual has a mixture of good and bad habits1 and has lived in a mixture of favourable and unfavourable circumstances4 ,notwithstanding apparent diversity1 there is a pretty equal amount of what is salutary in the habits and circumstances of each4 ,some have been #8correct' in one thing1 some in another4 ,all that is proved by instances of longevity in connexion with bad habits is1 that such individuals are able to resist causes that have1 in the same time1 sent thousands of their fellow-beings to an untimely grave2 and1 under a proper regimen1 they would have sustained life1 perhaps1 a hundred and fifty years4 8,some have more constitutional or inherited powers to resist the causes of disease than others1 and1 therefore1 what will destroy the life of one may be borne by another a long time without any manifestations of immediate injury4 ,there are1 also1 constitutional peculiarities1 but these are far more rare than is generally supposed4 ,indeed1 such may1 in almost every case1 be overcome by a correct regimen4 ,so far as the general laws of life and the application of general principles of regimen are considered1 the human constitution is one3 there are no constitutional differences which will not yield to a correct regimen1 and thus improve the individual4 ,consequently1 what is best for one is best for all4444 ,some are born without any tendency to disease while others have the predisposition to particular diseases of some kind4 ,but differences result from causes which man has the power to control1 and it is certain that all can be removed by conformity to the laws of life for generations1 and that the human species can be brought to as great uniformity1 as to health and life1 as the lower animals40 ,with ,hufeland1 ,flourens1 and other scientific authorities1 he maintains that3-- 8,physiological science affords no evidence that the human constitution is not capable of gradually returning to the primitive longevity of the species4 ,the highest interests of our nature require that youthfulness should be prolonged4 ,and it is as capable of being preserved as life itself1 both depending on the same conditions4 ,if there ever was a state of the human constitution which enabled it to sustain life much beyond the present period1 that state involved a harmony of relative conditions4 ,the vital processes were less rapid and more complete than at present1 development was slower1 organisation more perfect1 childhood protracted1 and the change from youth to manhood took place at a greater remove from birth4 ,hence1 if we now aim at long life1 we can secure our object only by conformity to those laws by which youthfulness is prolonged40 ,as for the omnivorousness of the human animal3-- ,the ourang-outang1 on being domesticated1 readily learns to eat animal food4 ,but if this proves that animal to be omnivorous1 then the ,horse1 ,cow1 ,sheep1 and others are all omnivorous1 for everyone of them is easily trained to eat animal food4 ,horses have frequently been trained to eat animal food1#bfg and ,sheep have been so accustomed to it as to refuse grass4 ,all carnivorous animals can be trained to a vegetable diet1 and brought to subsist upon it1 with less inconvenience and deterioration than herbivorous or frugivorous animals can be brought to live on animal food4 ,comparative anatomy1 therefore1 proves that ,man is naturally a frugivorous animal1 formed to subsist upon fruits1 seeds1 and farinaceous vegetables4#bfh ,the stimulating1 or alcoholic1 property of flesh produces the delusion that it is1 therefore1 the most nourishing3-- 8,yet by so much as the stimulation exceeds that which is necessary for the performance of the functions of the organs1 the more does the expenditure of vital powers exceed the renovating economy2 and the exhaustion which succeeds is commensurate with the excess4 ,hence1 though food which contains the greatest proportion of stimulating power causes a feeling of the greatest strength1 it also produces the greatest exhaustion1 which is commensurately importunate for relief2 and1 as the same food affords such by supplying the requisite stimulation1 their feelings lead the consumers to believe that it is most strengthening4444 ,those substances1 the stimulating power of which is barely sufficient to excite the digestive organs in the appropriation of nourishment1 are most conducive to vital welfare1 causing all the processes to be most perfectly performed1 without any unnecessary expenditure1 thus contributing to health and longevity4 8,flesh-meats average about thirty-five per cent of nutritious matter1 while rice1 wheat1 and several kinds of pulse 7such as lentils1 peas1 and beans71 afford from eighty to ninety-five per cent2 potatoes afford twenty-five per cent of nutritious matter4 ,so that one pound of rice contains more nutritious matter than two pounds and a half of flesh meat2 three pounds of whole meal bread contain more than six pounds of flesh1 and three pounds of potatoes more than two pounds of flesh40 ,that the human species1 taken in its entirety1 is no more carnivorous de facto than it could be de jure1 is apparent on the plain evidence of facts4 ,in all countries of our ,globe1 with the exception of the most barbarous tribes1 it is1 in reality1 only the ruling and rich classes who are kreophagist4 ,the ,poor have1 almost everywhere1 but the barest sufficiency even of vegetable foods3-- 8,the peasantry of ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,denmark1 ,germany1 ,turkey1 ,greece1 ,italy1 ,switzerland1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,england1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 a considerable portion of ,prussia1 and other parts of ,europe subsist mainly on non-flesh foods4 ,the peasantry of modern ,greece like those of the days of ,perikles subsist on coarse brown bread and fruits4 ,the peasantry in many parts of ,russia live on very coarse bread1 with garlic and other vegetables1 and1 like the same class in ,greece1 ,italy1 c41 they are obliged to be extremely frugal even in this kind of food4 ,yet they are for the most part healthy1 vigorous1 and active4 ,many of the inhabitants of ,germany live mainly on rye and barley1 in the form of coarse bread4 ,the potato is the principal food of the ,irish peasantry1 and few portions of the human family are more healthy1 athletic1 and active1 when uncorrupted by intoxicating substances and1 it may be added1 when under favourable political and social conditions4 ,but alcohol1 opium1 c4 equally with bad laws have extended their blighting influence over the greater portion of the world1 and nowhere do these scourges so cruelly afflict the self-devoted race as in the cottages of the poor1 and when1 by these evils and neglect of sanitation1 c41 diseases are generated1 sometimes epidemics1 we are told that these things arise from their poor1 meagre1 low1 vegetable diet4 ,wherever the various sorts of intoxicating substances are absent1 and a decent degree of cleanliness is observed1 the vegetable diet is not thus calumniated4 8,that portion of the peasantry of ,england and ,scotland who subsist on their barley and oatmeal bread1 porridge1 potatoes1 and other vegetables1 with temperate1 cleanly habits and surroundings1 are able to endure more fatigue and exposure than any other class of people in the same countries4 ,three-fourths of the whole human family1 in all periods of time excepting1 perhaps1 in the primitive wholly predatory ages have subsisted on non-flesh foods1 and when their supplies have been abundant1 and their habits in other respects correct1 they have been well nourished40 ,that the sanguinary diet and savagery go hand in hand1 and that in proportion to the degree of carnivorousness is the barbarous or militant character of the people1 all ,history1 past and present1 too clearly testifies4 ,nor are the carnivorous tribes conspicuous by their cruel habits only3-- 8,taking all flesh-eating nations together1 though some1 whose other habits are favourable1 are1 comparatively1 well-formed1 as a general average they are small1 ill-formed races2 and taking all vegetable-eating nations1 though many1 from excessive use of narcotics1 and from other unfavourable circumstances1 are comparatively small and ill-formed1 as a general average they are much better formed races than the flesh-eaters4#bfi ,it is only among those tribes whose habits are temperate1 and who subsist on the non-flesh diet1 that the more perfect specimens of symmetry are found4 8,not one human being in many thousands dies a natural death4 ,if a man be shot or poisoned we say he dies a violent death1 but if he is ill1 attended by physicians1 and dies1 we say he dies a #8natural' death4 ,this is an abuse of language--the death in the latter case being as truly violent as if he had been shot4 ,whether a man takes arsenic and kills himself1 or by small doses or other means1 however common1 gradually destroys life1 he equally dies a violent death4 ,he only dies a natural death who so obeys the laws of his nature as by neither irritation nor intensity to waste his energies1 but slowly passes through the changes of his system to old age1 and falls asleep in the exhaustion of vitality40#bfi ,with ,flourens he adduces a number of instances both of individuals and of communities who have attained to protracted ages by reason of a pure diet4 ,he afterwards proceeds to prove from comparative physiology and anatomy1 and1 in particular1 from the conformation of the human teeth and stomach 7which1 by an astounding perversion of fact1 are sometimes alleged to be formed carnivorously1 in spite of often-repeated scientific authority1 as well as of common observation71 the natural frugivorous character of the human species1 and he quotes ,linn1 ,cuvier1 ,lawrence1 ,bell1 and many others in support of this truth4#bgj ,,xlviii4 ,,struve4 #ahje-ahgj4 ,germany1 at the present day able to boast so many earnest apostles of humanitarianism1 until the nineteenth century was some way advanced1 had contributed little1 definitely1 to the literature of ,humane ,dietetics4 ,a ,haller or a ,hufeland1 indeed1 had1 with more or less boldness1 raised the banner of partial revolt from orthodox medicine and orthodox living1 but their heterodoxy was rather hygienic than humane4 ,in the history of humanitarianism in ,germany the honour of the first place1 in order of time1 belongs to the author of ,pflanzenkost1 die ,grundlage einer ,neuen ,weltanschauung1 and of ,mandaras' ,wanderungen1 whose life1 political as well as literary1 was one continuous combat on behalf of justice1 freedom1 and true progress4 ,gustav von ,struve was born at ,mnchen 7,munich71 ,october #aa1 #ahje1 from whence his father1 who was residing there as ,russian ,minister1 shortly afterwards removed to ,stuttgart4 ,the foundation of his education was laid in the gymnasium of that capital1 where he remained until his twelfth year4 ,from #ahag to #ahbb he was a scholar in the ,lyceum in ,karlsruhe4 ,having finished his preparatory studies in those schools1 he proceeded to the ,university of ,gttingen1 which1 after a course of nearly two years1 he exchanged for ,heidelberg4 ,four years of arduous study enabled him to pass his first examination1 and1 as the result of his brilliant attainments and success1 he received the appointment of ,attach to the ,bundestag ,embassy at ,oldenberg4 ,with such an opening1 a splendid career in the service of courts and kings seemed to be reserved for him4 ,his family connexions1 his great abilities1 and his unusual acquirements at so early an age guaranteed to him quick promotion1 with reward and worldly honour4 ,but to figure in the service of the oppressors of the people--to waste in luxurious trifling the resources of a peasantry1 supplied by them only at the cost of a life-time of painful destitution1 to support the selfish greed and vain ostentation of the ,jew--such was not the career which could stimulate the ambition of ,struve4 ,the conviction that this was not his proper destiny grew stronger in him1 and he soon abandoned his diplomatic position and ,oldenberg at the same time4 ,without wealth or friends1 at variance with his relatives1 who could not appreciate his higher aims1 he settled himself in ,gttingen 7#ahca71 and in the following year in ,jena4 ,his attempts to obtain fixed employment as professor or teacher1 or as editor of a newspaper1 long proved unsuccessful1 for independent and honest thought1 never anywhere greatly in esteem1 at that time in ,germany was in especial disfavour with all who1 directly or indirectly1 were under court influences4 ,yet the three years which he lived in ,gttingen and ,jena supplied him with varied and useful experiences4 ,in #ahcc he went to ,karlsruhe4 ,after years of long patience and effort1 he at length effected his object 7to gain a position which should make it possible for him to carry out his schemes of usefulness for his fellow-beings71 and1 at the end of #ahcf1 he obtained the office of ,obergerichts-,advocat in ,mannheim4 ,this position gave leisure and opportunity for the prosecution of his various scientific and philosophic pursuits1 and to engage in literary undertakings4 ,he founded periodicals and delivered lectures1 the constant aim of which was the improvement of the world around him4 ,at this period he wrote his philosophic romance1 ,mandaras' ,wanderungen 78,the ,wanderings of ,mandaras071 through which he conveys distasteful truths in accordance with the principles of ,tasso4#bga ,struve's active political life began in #ahde4 ,in that year were published ,briefwechsel zwischen einen ehemaligen and einen jetzigen ,diplomaten178,correspondence between an ,old and a ,modern ,diplomatist071 which was soon followed by his ,oeffentliches ,recht des ,deutschen ,bundes 78,public ,rights of the ,german ,federation07 and his ,kritische ,geschichte des ,allgemeinen ,staats-,rechts 78,critical ,history of the ,common ,law of ,nations074 ,in the same year he undertook the editorship of the ,mannheimer ,journal1 in which he boldly fought the battles of political and social reform4 ,he was several times condemned to imprisonment1 as well as to payment of fines2 but1 undeterred by such persecution1 the champion of the oppressed succeeded in worsting most of his powerful enemies4 ,in the beginning of #ahdg he founded a weekly periodical1 the ,deutscher ,zuschauer 78,the ,german ,spectator071 in which1 without actually adopting the invidious names1 he maintained in their fullest extent the principles of ,freedom and ,fraternity2 and it was chiefly by the efforts of ,struve that the great popular demonstration at ,oldenberg of ,september #ab1 #ahdg1 took place1 which formulated what was afterwards known as the 8,demands of the ,people40 ,the public meeting1 assembled at the same town ,march #i1 #ahdh1 which was attended by #be1jjj persons1 and which1 without committing itself to the adoption of the term 8republican10 yet proclaimed the inherent ,rights of the ,people1 was also mainly the work of the indefatigable ,struve4 ,he took part1 too1 in the opening of the ,parliament at ,frankfurt4 ,his principal production at this time was ,grundzge der ,staats-,wischenschaft 78,outlines of ,political ,science074 ,this book1 inspired by the movement for freedom which was then agitating1 but1 as it proved1 for the most part ineffectually1 a large part of ,europe1 is not without significance in the education of the community for higher political conceptions4 ,struve and ,f4 ,hecker took a leading part in the democratic movements in ,baden4 ,these attempts failing1 after a short residence in ,paris1 he settled near ,basel 7,basle74 ,there he published his ,grundrechte des ,deutschen ,volkes 78,fundamental ,rights of the ,german ,people071 and1 in association with ,heinzen1 a ,plan fr ,revolutionierung und ,republikanisierung ,deutschlands4 ,the earnest and noble convictions apparent in all the writings of the author1 and the unmistakable purity of his aims1 forced from the more candid of the opponents of his political creed recognition and high respect4 ,nevertheless1 he narrowly escaped legal assassination and the fusillades of the ,kriegsgericht or ,military ,tribunal4 ,later the unsuccessful lover of his country sought refuge in ,england1 and from thence proceeded to the ,united ,states 7#ahej74 ,upon the breaking out of the desperate struggle between the ,north and ,south1 he threw in his lot with the former1 and took part in several battles4 ,in ,america he wrote his historical work ,weltgeschichte 7#ab vols47 and1 amongst others1 ,abeilard und ,heloise4 ,in #ahfa he returned to ,europe1 and1 at different periods1 wrote two of his most important books1 ,pflanzenkost1 die ,grundlage einer ,neuen ,weltanschauung 78,vegetable ,diet1 the ,foundation of a ,new ,world-,view071 and ,das ,seelenleben1 oder die ,naturgeschichte des ,menschen 78,the ,spiritual ,life1 or the ,natural ,history of ,man071 in both of which he earnestly insists1 not only upon the vast and incalculable suffering inflicted1 in the most barbarous manner1 upon the victims of the ,table1 but1 further1 upon the demoralising influence of living by pain and slaughter3-- 8,the thoughts and feelings which the food we partake of provokes are not remarked in common life1 but they1 nevertheless1 have their significance4 ,a man who daily sees ,cows and ,calves slaughtered1 or who kills them himself1 ,hogs #8stuck1' ,hens plucked1 or ,geese roasted alive1 c41 cannot possibly retain any true feeling for the sufferings of his own species4 ,he becomes hardened to them by witnessing the struggles of other animals as they are being driven by the butcher1 the groans of the dying ,ox1 or the screams of the bleeding ,hog1 with indifference4444 ,nay1 he may come even to find a devilish pleasure in seeing beings tortured and killed1 or in actually slaughtering them himself4444 8,but even those who take no part in killing1 nay1 do not even see it1 are conscious that the flesh-dishes upon their tables come from the ,shambles1 and that their feasting and the suffering of others are in intimate connexion4 ,doubtless1 the majority of flesh-eaters do not reflect upon the manner in which this food comes to them1 but this thoughtlessness1 far from being a virtue1 is the parent of many vices4444 ,how very different are the thoughts and sentiments produced by the non-flesh diet60#bgb ,the last period of his life was passed in ,wien 7,vienna71 and in that city his beneficently-active career closed in ,august1 #ahgj4 ,his last broken words to his wife1 some hours before his end1 were1 8,i must leave the world 444 this war 444 this conflict60 ,with the life of ,gustav ,struve was extinguished that of one of the noblest soldiers of the ,cross of ,humanity4 ,his memory will always be held in high honour wherever justice1 philanthropy1 and humane feeling are in esteem4 ,in ,mandaras' ,wanderungen1 of a different inspiration from that of ordinary fiction1 and which is full of refinement of thought and feeling1 are vividly represented the repugnance of a cultivated ,hindu when brought1 for the first time1 into contact with the barbarisms of ,european civilisation4 ,to few of our ,english readers1 it is presumable1 is this charming story known2 and an outline of its principal incidents will not be supererogatory here4 ,the hero1 a young ,hindu1 whose home is in one of the secluded valleys of the ,himalaya1 urged by the solicitude of the father of his betrothed1 who wishes to prove him by contact with so different a world1 sets out on a course of travel in ,europe4 ,the story opens with the arrival of his ship at ,leftheim 7,livorno7 on the ,italian coast4 ,mandaras has no sooner landed than he is accosted by two clerics 7ordensgeistliche71 who wish to acquire the honour and glory of making a convert4 ,but1 unhappily for their success1 like his predecessor ,amabed1 he had already on his voyage discovered that the religion of the people1 among whom he was destined to reside1 did not exclude certain horrible barbarisms hitherto unknown to him in his own unchristian land3-- 8,while still on board ship ,i had been startled when ,i saw the rest of the passengers feeding on the flesh of animals4 #8,by what right1' ,i asked them1 #8do you kill other animals to feed upon their flesh8' ,they could not answer1 but they continued to eat their salted flesh as much as ever4 ,for my part1 ,i would have rather died than have eaten a piece of it4 ,but now it is far worse4 ,i can pass through no street in which there are not poor slaughtered animals1 hung up either entire or cut into pieces4 ,every moment ,i hear the cries of agony and of alarm of the victims whom they are driving to the slaughter-house1--see their struggles against the murderous knife of the butcher4 ,ever and again ,i ask of one or other of the men who surround me1 by what right they kill them and devour their flesh2 but if ,i receive an answer1 it is returned in phrases which mean nothing or in repulsive laughter40 ,in fact the ,hindu traveller had been but a brief space of time in ,christian lands when he finds himself1 almost unconsciously1 in the position of a catechist rather than of a catechumen4 ,one day1 for example1 he finds himself in the midst of a vast crowd1 of all classes1 hurrying to some spectacle4 ,inquiring the cause of so vast an assemblage1 he learns that some persons are to be put to death with all the frightful circumstances of public executions4 ,after travelling through a great part of ,germany1 he fixes his residence1 for the purpose of study1 in the ,university of ,lindenberg4 ,in the society of that place he meets with a young girl1 ,leonora1 the daughter of a ,secretary of ,legation1 who engages his admiration by her exceptional culture and refinement of mind4 ,on the occasion of an excursion of a party of her father's visitors1 of some days1 to an island on the neighbouring coast1 the first discussion on humane dietetics takes place1 when1 being asked the reason of his eccentricity1 he appeals to the ladies of the party1 believing that he shall have at least their sympathy with the principles he lays down3-- 8,from you1 ladies1 doubtless ,i shall meet with approval4 ,tell me1 could you1 with your own hands1 kill to-day a gentle ,lamb1 a soft ,dove1 with whom perhaps you yesterday were playing8 ,you answer--,no8 ,you dare not say you could4 ,if you were to say yes1 you would1 indeed1 betray a hard heart4 ,but why could you not8 ,why did it cause you anguish1 when you saw a defenceless animal driven to slaughter8 ,because you felt1 in your inmost soul1 that it is wrong1 that it is unjust to kill a defenceless and innocent being6 ,with quite other feelings would you look on the death of a ,tiger that attacks men1 than on that of a ,lamb who has done harm to no one4 ,to the one action attaches1 naturally1 justice2 to the other1 injustice4 ,follow the inner promptings of your heart1--no longer sanction the slaughter of innocent beings by feeding on their bodies 7befrden ,sie nicht deren ,tdtung dadurch dass ,sie ihr ,fleisch essen740 ,this exhortation1 to his surprise1 was received by all 8the softer sex0 with coldness1 and even with signs of impatience1 excepting ,leonora1 who acknowledged the force of his appeal and promised to the best of her power to follow his example4 ,pleased and encouraged by her approval1 he proceeds3-- 8,assuredly it will not repent you to have formed this resolution4 ,the man who1 with firmly-grounded habits1 denies himself something which lies in his power1 to spare pain and death to living and sentient beings1 must become milder and more loving4 ,the man who steels himself against the feeling of compassion for the lower animals1 will be more or less hard towards his own species2 while he who shrinks from giving pain to other beings1 will so much the more shrink from inflicting it upon his fellow men40 ,leonora1 however1 was a rare exception in his experience2 and the more he saw of ,christian customs1 the less did he feel disposed to change his religion1 which1 by the way1 was of an unexceptionable kind4 ,some time before his leaving ,lindenberg1 the secretary's wife gave a dinner in his honour1 which1 in compliment to her guest1 was without any flesh-dish4 ,as a matter of course1 the conversation soon turned upon ,dietetics2 and one of the guests1 a cleric1 challenged the ,hindu to defend his principles4 ,mandaras had scarcely laid down the cardinal article of his creed as a fundamental principle in ,ethics--that it is unjust to inflict suffering upon a living and sensitive being1 which 7as he insists7 cannot be called in question without shaking the very foundations of ,morality 7welcher nicht die ,sittenlehre in ihren ,fundamenten erschttern will7--when opponents arise on all sides of him4 ,a doctor of medicine led the opposition1 confidently affirming that the human frame itself proved men to be intended for flesh-eating4 ,mandaras replied that3-- 8,it seemed to him1 on the contrary1 that it is the bodily frame of man that especially declares against flesh-eating4 ,the ,tiger1 the ,lion1 in short1 all flesh-eating animals seized their prey1 running1 swimming1 or flying1 and tore it in pieces with their teeth or talons1 devouring it there and then upon the spot4 ,man cannot catch other animals in this way1 or tear them in pieces1 and devour them as they are4444 ,besides he has higher1 and not merely animal1 impulses4 ,the latter lead him to gluttony1 intemperance1 and many other vices4 ,providence has given him reason to prove what is right and what wrong1 and power of will to avoid what he has discovered to be wrong4 ,the doctor1 however1 in place of admitting this argument1 grew all the warmer4 #8,in all ,nature1' said he1 #8one sees how the lower existence is serviceable to the higher4 ,as man does1 so do other animals seize upon the weaker1 and the weakest upon plants1 c4'0 ,to this the ,hindu philosopher in vain replies1 that the sphere of man1 is wider1 and ought therefore to be higher than that of other animals1 for the larger the circle in which a being can freely move1 the greater is the possible degree of his perfection2 that1 if we are to place ourselves on the plane of the carnivora in one point1 why not in all1 and recognise also treachery1 fierceness1 and murder in general1 as proper to man that the different character of the ,tiger1 the ,hyna1 the ,wolf on the one side1 and of the ,elephant1 the ,camel1 the ,horse on the other1 instruct us as to the mighty influence of food upon the disposition1 and certainly not to the advantage of the flesh-eaters2 that man is to strive not after the lower but the higher character1 c41 c4 ,to this the hostess replies3 8,this may be all very beautiful and good1 but how is the housekeeper to be so skilful as to provide for all her guests1 if she is to withhold from them flesh dishes80 8,exactly as our housekeepers do in the ,himalayan valley--exactly as our hostess does to-day10 rejoins ,mandaras4 ,he alleges many other arguments1 and in particular the high degree of reasoning faculty1 and even of moral feeling1 exhibited by the miserable slaves of human tyranny4 ,various are the objections raised1 which1 it is needless to say1 are successfully overthrown by the champion of ,innocence1 and the company disperse after a prolonged discussion4 ,the second division of the story takes us to the ,valley of ,suty1 the ,himalayan home of ,mandaras1 and introduces us to his amiable family4 ,a young ,german1 travelling in that region1 chances to meet with the father of ,urwasi 7,mandaras's betrothed71 whom he finds bowed down with grief for the double loss of his daughter1 who had pined away in the protracted absence of her lover and succumbed to the sickness of hope deferred1 and of his destined son-in-law1 who1 upon his return to claim his mistress1 had fallen 7as it appeared7 into a death-swoon at the shock of the terrible news awaiting him4 ,the old man conducts the stranger to the scene of mourning1 where ,damajanti1 the sister of ,mandaras1 with her friend ,sunanda1 is engaged in weaving garlands of flowers to deck the bier of her beloved brother4 ,an interesting conversation follows between the ,european stranger and the ,hindu ladies1 who are worthy representatives of their countrywoman1 ,sakuntal4#bgc ,accidentally they discover that he is a flesh-eater4 ,sunanda3 ,is it possible that you really belong to those men who think it lawful to kill other beings to feed upon their bleeding limbs8 ,theobald3 ,in my country it is the ordinary custom4 ,do you not1 in your country1 use such food8 ,damajanti3 ,can you ask8 ,have not other animals feeling8 ,do they not enjoy their existence8 ,theobald3 ,certainly2 but they are so much below us1 that there can be no reciprocity of duties between us4 ,damajanti3 ,the higher we stand in relation to other animals1 the more are we bound to disregard none of the eternal laws of ,morality1 and1 in particular1 that of ,love4 ,hateful is it1 at all events1 to inflict pain upon an innocent being capable of feeling pain4 ,or do you consider it permissible to strike a dog1 to witness the trembling of his limbs1 and to hear his cries8 ,theobald3 ,by no means4 ,i hold1 also1 that it is wrong to torture them1 because we ought to feel no pleasure in the sufferings of other animals4 ,damajanti3 ,we ought to feel no pleasure6 ,that is very cold reasoning4 ,detestation--disgust1 rather1 is the sensation we ought to have4 ,where this sentiment is real1 there can be no desire to profit by the sufferings of others4 ,yet1 where the feelings of disgust for what is bad are weaker than inclination to the self-indulgence which it promises1 there is no possibility of their triumphing4 ,for gain the butcher slaughters the victim2 for horrible luxury other men participate in this murder1 while they devour the pieces of flesh1 in which1 a few moments before1 the blood was still flowing1 the nerves yet quivering1 the life still breathing6 ,theobald3 ,i admit it3 but all this is new to me4 ,from childhood upwards ,i have been accustomed to see animals driven to the slaughter-house4 ,it gave me no pleasure rather it was a positively displeasing spectacle2 but ,i did not think about it--whether we have the right to slaughter for food1 because ,i had never heard doubt expressed on the matter4 ,sunanda3 ,ah6 ,now ,i can well believe that the men in your country must be hard and cold4 ,every softer feeling must be hardened1 every tenderer one be dulled in the daily scenes of murder which they have before their eyes1 by the blood which they shed daily1 which they taste daily4 ,happy am ,i that ,i live far from your world4 ,a thousand times would ,i rather endure death than live in so horrible a land4 ,damajanti3 ,to me1 too1 residence in such a land would be torture4 ,yet1 were ,i a man1 had ,i the power of eloquence1 ,i would go from village to village1 from town to town1 and vehemently denounce such horrors4 ,i should think that ,i had achieved more than the founders of all religions1 if ,i should succeed in inspiring men with sympathy for their fellow-beings4 ,what is religious belief1 if it tolerates this murder1 or rather sanctions it8 ,what is all ,belief without ,love8 ,and what is a ,love that excludes from its embrace the infinitely larger part of living beings8 ,sweet and fair indeed is it to live in a valley which harbours only mild and loving people2 but it is greater1 and worthier of the high destiny of human life1 to battle amongst the ,bad for ,goodness1 to contend for the ,light amongst the prisoners of ,darkness4 ,what is ,life without ,doing8 ,we women1 indeed1 cannot1 and dare not ourselves venture forth into the wild surge of rough and coarse men2 but it is our business at least to incite to all that is ,true1 ,beautiful1 and ,good2 to have regard for no man who is not ardent for what is noble1 to accept none of them who does not come before us adorned with the ornament of worthy actions 7der nicht mit dem ,schmucke wrdigen ,thaten vor uns tritt74 ,this eloquent discourse takes place while the three friends are watching1 during the night1 at the bier of the supposed dead4 ,at the moment when the last funeral rites are to be performed1 equally with the spectators we are surprised and pleased at the unexpected resuscitation of ,mandaras1 who1 it appeared1 had been in a trance1 from which at the critical moment he awoke4 ,with what transports he is welcomed back from the confines of the shadow-land1 may easily be divined4 ,for some time they live together in uninterrupted happiness2 the young ,german1 who had adopted their simple mode of living1 remaining with them4 ,in the intervals of pleasing labours in the field and the garden1 they pass their hours of recreation in refined intellectual discourse and speculation1 the younger ones deriving instruction from the experienced wisdom of the venerable sage4 ,the conversation often turns upon the relations between the human and non-human races2 and1 in the course of one of his philosophical prelections1 the old man1 with profound insight1 declares that 8so long as other animals continue to be excluded from the circle of ,moral ,existence1 in which ,rights and ,duties are recognised1 so long is there no step forward in ,morality to be expected4 ,so long as men continue to support their lives upon bodies essentially like to their own1 without misgiving and without remorse1 so long will they be fast bound by blood-stained fetters 7mit blutgetrnkten ,fesseln7 to the lower planes of existence40 ,at length the sorrowful day of separation arrives4 ,it is decided that ,mandaras should return to ,germany1 a wider sphere of useful action than the ,himalayan valleys presented2 and an additional reason is found in the discovery that his mother herself had been ,german4 ,with much painful reluctance in parting from beloved friends1 he recognises the force of their arguments1 and once more leaves his peaceful home for the turmoil of ,european cities4 ,after suffering shipwreck1 in which he rescues a mother and child--at the expense of what he had held as his most precious possession1 a casket of relics of his beloved ,urwasi--,mandaras lands once again at ,livorno4 ,he finds his old friends as eager as ever for proselytising 8the heathen10 and quite unconscious of the need of conversion for themselves4 ,at the death of the aged father of ,damajanti1 she1 with her friend ,sunanda and ,theobald1 who still remains with them1 and 7as may have been divined7 is the devoted lover of the charming ,sunanda1 determines to leave her ancestral abode and join her brother in his adopted ,german home4 ,when they arrive at the appointed place of meeting they are overwhelmed with grief to find that he1 for whose sake so long a pilgrimage had been undertaken1 had been taken from them for ever4 ,having lost his passport he had been arrested on suspicion and imprisoned4 ,in confinement he had shrunk from the ,european flesh-dishes1 and1 unsupplied with proper nourishment or a sufficiency of it1 had died 7in the true sense of the word7 a martyr1 to the last1 to his moral principles4 ,with great difficulty his final words in writing are discovered1 and these1 in the form of letters to his sister1 declare his unshaken faith and hopes for the future of the ,world4 ,there are1 also1 found short poems1 which are published at the end of his ,memoirs1 and are fully worthy of the refined mind of the author of ,mandaras4 ,thus ends a romance which1 for beauty of idea and sentiment1 may be classed with the ,aventures de ,tlmaque of ,fnlon and1 still more fitly1 with the ,paul et ,virginie of ,st4 ,pierre4#bgd ,the space we have been tempted to give to ,mandaras's ,wanderings precludes more than one or two further extracts from ,struve's admirable writings4 ,his ,pflanzenkost1 perhaps the best known1 as it is his most complete1 exposition of his views on ,humane ,dietetics1 appeared in the year #ahfi4 ,in it he examines ,vegetarianism in all its varied aspects--in regard to ,sociology1 ,education1 ,justice1 ,theology1 ,art and ,science1 ,natural ,economy1 ,health1 ,war and ,peace1 the practical and real ,materialism of the ,age1 ,health1 ,refinement of ,life1 c4 ,from the section which considers the ,vegetable ,diet in its relations to ,national ,economy we quote the following just reflections3-- 8,every step from a lower condition to a higher is bound up with certain difficulties4 ,this is especially the case when it is a question of shaking off habits strengthened by numbers and length of time4 ,had the human race1 however1 not the power to do so1 then the step from ,paganism to ,christianity1 from predatory life to tillage1 in particular from savage barbarousness to a certain stage in civilisation1 would have been impossible4 ,all these steps brought many struggles in their train1 which to many thousands produced some hardships 7,schaden72 to untold millions1 however1 incalculable benefits4 ,so1 also1 the steps onward from ,flesh-,diet cannot be established without some disturbances4 ,the great majority of men hold fast to old prejudices4 ,they struggle1 not seldom with senseless rage1 against enlightenment and reason1 and a century often passes away before a new idea has forced the way for the spread of new blessings4 8,therefore1 we need not wonder if we1 also1 who protest and stand out against the evils of ,flesh-,eating1 and proclaim the advantages of the ,vegetable ,diet1 find violent opponents4 ,the gain which would accrue to the whole race of man by the acceptance of that diet is1 however1 so great and so evidently destined1 that our final victory is certain4444 8,doubtless the ,political ,economy of our days will be shaken to its foundations by the step from the flesh to the non-flesh diet2 but this was also the case when the nomads began to practise tillage1 and the hunters found no more game4 ,the relics of certain barbarisms must be shaken off4 ,all barbarians1 or semi-barbarians1 will struggle desperately against this with their selfish coarseness 7eigenthmlichen ,rohheit74 ,but the result will be that the soil which1 under the influence of the ,flesh-,rgime supported one man only1 will1 with the unfettered advantages of the ,vegetable ,diet support five human beings4 ,liebig1 even1 recognised so much as this--that the ,flesh-,diet is twelve times more costly than the ,non-,flesh40#bge ,struve's ,seelenleben1#bgf published in the same year with the ,pflanzenkost1 and his last important work1 forms a sort of rsum of his opinions already given to the world1 and is1 therefore1 a more comprehensive exposition of his opinions on ,sociology and ,ethics than is found in his earlier writings4 ,it is full of the truest philosophy on the ,natural ,history of ,man1 inspired by the truest refinement of soul4 ,in the section entitled ,moral he well exposes the futility of hap-hazard speeches1 meaning nothing1 which1 vaguely and in an indefinite manner addressed to the child1 are allowed to do duty for practical moral teaching3-- 8,they tell children1 perhaps1 that they must not be cruel either to #8,animals' or to human beings weaker than themselves4 ,but when the child goes into the kitchen1 he sees ,pigeons1 ,hens1 and ,geese slaughtered and plucked2 when he goes into the streets1 he sees animals hung up with bodies besmeared with blood1 feet cut off1 and heads twisted back4 ,if the child proceeds still further1 he comes upon the slaughter-house1 in which harmless and useful beings of all kinds are being slaughtered or strangled4 ,we shall not here dwell upon all the barbarisms bound up in the butchery of animals2 but in the same degree in which men abuse their superior powers1 in regard to other species1 do they usually cause their tyranny to be felt by weaker human beings in their power4 8,what avails all the fine talk about morality1 in contrast with acts of barbarism and immorality presented to them on all sides8 8,it is no proof of an exalted morality when a man acts justly towards a person stronger than himself1 who can injure him4 ,he alone acts justly who fulfils his obligatory duties 7,verpflichtungen7 in regard to the weaker4 444 ,he1 who has no human persons under him1 at least can strike his horse1 barbarously drive his calf1 and cudgel his dog4 ,the relations of men to the inferior species are so full of significance1 and exercise so mighty an influence upon the development of human character1 that ,morality wants a wider province that shall embrace those beings within it40 ,in the chapter devoted especially to ,food and ,drinks 7,speise und ,trank7 ,struve warns those whom it most concerns that3-- 8,the monstrous evils and abuses1 which gradually and stealthily have invaded our daily foods and drinks1 have now reached to such a pitch that they can no longer be winked at4 ,he who desires to work for the improvement of the human species1 for the elevation of the human soul1 and for the invigoration of the human body1 dares not leave uncontested the general dominant unnaturalness of living4 8,with a people struggling for ,freedom the ,kitchen must be no murderous den 7,mrdergrube72 the ,larder no den of corruption2 the ,meal no occasion for stupefaction4 ,in despotic states the oppressors of the ,people may intoxicate themselves with spirituous drink1 and bring disease and feebleness upon themselves with unlawful and unwholesome meats4 ,the sooner such men perish 7zu grunde gehen7 the better4 ,but in free states 7or in such as are striving for ,freedom71 ,simplicity1 ,temperance1 ,soberness must be the first principles of citizen-life4 ,no people can be free whose individual members are still slaves to their own passions4#bgg ,man must first free himself from these before he can1 with any success1 make war upon those of his fellow-men40 ,weighty words coming from a student of ,science and of ,human ,life4 ,still weightier coming from one who had devoted so large a part of his existence to assist1 and had taken so active a part in1 the struggles of the people for ,justice and ,freedom4 ,,xlix4 ,,daumer4 #ahjj-ahge4 ,one of the earliest pioneers of the ,new ,reformation in ,germany1 chiefly from what may be termed the religious-philosophical standpoint1 and one whose useful learning was equalled only by his true conception of the significance of the religious sentiment1 was born at ,nrnberg1 in the last year of the eighteenth century4 ,of a naturally feeble constitution1 unable to mix in the ordinary amusements of school-life1 he found ample leisure for literature and for music1 to which especially he was devoted4 ,much of his time1 also1 was given to theological1 and1 in particular1 biblical reading1 so that his mother unhesitatingly fixed upon the clerical profession as his future career4 ,he attended the ,gymnasium of his native town1 at that time under the direction of ,hegel1 who exercised a permanent influence upon his mental development4 ,in the eighteenth year of his age he proceeded to the ,university of ,erlangen for the study of theology4 ,doubts1 however1 began to disturb his contentment with orthodoxy2 and1 more and more dissatisfied with its systems1 the young student relinquished the course of life for which he had believed himself destined2 and1 after attending the lectures of ,schelling1 he went to ,leipsic to apply himself wholly to philology4 ,having completed the usual course of study1 he was appointed teacher1 and afterwards ,professor of ,latin in the ,nrnberg ,gymnasium 7#ahbg74 ,unpleasant relations with the ,rector of the schools 7whose orthodoxy seems to have been less questionable than his amiability71 and also1 in part1 his feeble health1 obliged him to resign this post1 and from that time he gave himself up exclusively to literary occupations1 which were1 for the most part1 in the domain of philosophic theology4 ,during his professoriate ,daumer had written his ,urgeschichte des ,menschengeistes 78,primitive ,history of the ,human ,mind071 which was succeeded1 at an interval of some years1 by his ,andeutungen eines ,systems ,speculativer ,philosophie 78,intimations of a ,system of ,speculative ,philosophy071 in which he attempted to found and formulate a philosophic ,theism4 ,the unreality of the professions and trifling of those who had most reputation in the 8religious0 world1 estranged him more and more from the prevalent interpretations of ,christianity4 ,his ,philosophie1 ,religion1 und ,alterthum appeared in #ahcc4 ,two years later his ,zge zu einer neuen ,philosophie der ,religion and ,religionsgeschichte 78,indications for a ,new ,philosophy of ,religion and ,history of ,religion074 ,in #ahdb was published ,der ,feuer-und-,moloch-,dienst der ,hebrer 78,the ,fire and ,moloch-,worship of the ,hebrews071 and 7#ahdg7 ,die ,geheimnisse des ,christlichen ,alterthums 78,the ,mysteries of ,christian ,antiquity071 in which he pointed out that human sacrifice1 and even cannibalism1 were connected with the old ,baal-worship of the ,jews1 and maintained the newer religion to be1 in one important respect1 not so much a purification of ,judaism1 as an apparently retrograde movement to the still older religionism4 ,besides these and other philosophic writings1 ,daumer published a free translation of the ,persian poet ,hafiz4 ,hafiz was followed by ,mahomed und seine ,werke3 eine ,sammlung ,orientalischer ,geschichte 78,mahommed and his ,actions3 a ,rsum of ,oriental ,history07 #ahdh2 and in #ahee by ,polydora3 ein ,weltpoetisches ,liederbuch 78,polydora3 ,a ,book of ,lays from the ,world's ,poetry074 ,in his ,anthropologismus und ,kriticismus 78,anthropology and ,criticism071 #ahdd1 are many assaults upon the orthodox dietetic practices2 and in ,enthllungen ber ,kaspar ,hauser 78,revelations in regard to ,kaspar ,hauser07 he displays the noxious influences of flesh-eating upon a 8wild boy of the woods10 who had been deserted or lost by his parents in his childhood1 and who had lived an entirely natural life in the forests1 eating only wild fruits4 ,when he had been reclaimed from the savage state1 his guardians1 it seems1 thought that the most effectual method of 8civilising0 their charge was to force him to discard fruits for flesh4 ,the result1 as shown by ,professor ,daumer1 who watched the case with the greatest interest1 was not reassuring for the orthodox believers4 ,the inveteracy of the practice of kreophagy1 which blinds men to its essential barbarism1 as well as its anti-ethical1 anti-humanising influences1 is eloquently insisted upon3-- 8,among the reforms necessary for the triumph of true refinement and true morality1 which ought to be our earnest aim1 is the ,dietetic one1 which1 if not the weightiest of all 7allerwichtigste71 yet1 undoubtedly1 is one of the weightiest4 ,still is the #8civilised' world stained and defiled by the remains of a horrible barbarity2 while the old-world revolting practice of slaughter of animals and feeding on their corpses still is in so universal vogue1 that men have not the faculty even of recognising it as such1 as otherwise they would recognise it2 and aversion from this horror provokes censure of such eccentricity1 and amazement at any manifestion of tendency to reform1 as at something absurd and ridiculous--nay1 arouses even bitterness and hate4 ,to extirpate this barbarism is a task1 the accomplishment of which lies in the closest relationship with the most important principles of humaneness1 morality1 sthetics1 and physiology4 ,a foundation for real culture--a thorough civilising and refining of humanity--is clearly impossible so long as an organised system of murder and of corpse-eating 7organisirten ,mord-und-,leichenfratz ,system7 prevails by recognised custom4 8,that through a manner of living1 of a character so fostering of corrupting and putrefying principles1 is generated and nourished a whole host of diseases which1 otherwise1 would not exist1 is so easy to see1 that only an extremely obstinate love of flesh-meat can blind one to the fact4 ,before ,i renounced flesh-eating1 which1 unhappily1 ,i had not the courage to do before ,i had lived a half century1 ,i suffered from time to time from a frightful neuralgia1 which tortured me many long days and nights4 ,since ,i abstained from that diet ,i have rid myself of this evil entirely4 ,observations of other individuals1 in respect of the same and other maladies1 have led me to the same conclusion4 ,worms1 for instance1 from which it formerly suffered1 have entirely disappeared in a child1 when it no longer was fed upon flesh4 8,that through the cadaverous diet1 also1 very great disadvantages are derived to the spiritual and moral nature of men1 appears to me to be proved by my experience in the case of my former foster-son1 the celebrated ,kaspar ,hauser4 ,this young man1 maintained during his close confinement upon bread and water1 for a long time after his introduction to the world ate nothing else1 and wished for nothing else1 as food4 ,while he was accustomed1 without ill-effect1 to take bread-sops1 oatmeal1 and plain chocolate1 from flesh1 which had for him an intolerable odour1 he had conceived a violent aversion4 ,living in this way he always looked sufficiently well-nourished1 he developed a remarkable intelligence1 and exhibited an extraordinarily refined and tender feeling4 ,he was induced at last1 but only by the most extraordinary caution and gradually1 to take the usual flesh-dishes1 by being given at first only a few drops of flesh-soup in his bread-sops1 and1 when he had grown in some measure accustomed to it1 by infusing stronger ingredients1 and so on4 8,there was now manifested the most disastrous change in his mind and disposition3 learning became for him strangely difficult--the nobility of his nature disappeared into the background1 and he turned out to be nothing more than a very ordinary individual4 ,they ascribed this1 of course1 to every other cause than to his habituation to the flesh-diet4 ,i myself was at that time very remote from the opinion of which ,i now am4 ,from my present standpoint1 however1 ,i certainly cannot doubt that dietetic barbarism is for man of the most essential harm1 not alone in a physical1 but also in an intellectual and moral1 point of view1 however much it may1 at present1 be taken under the patronage of physiologists and physicians--upon no other ground1 apparently1 than because they themselves1 to a melancholy degree1 are devotedly attached to this inhuman diet4 ,for1 alas6 man is wont to make use of his reason to justify by specious show of reasoning what he likes and delights in upon quite other grounds40#bgh ,of the rest of the little band of the propagators of the truer ,philosophy in ,germany no longer living--who resolutely bore aloft the standard of the ,humanitarian ,creed1 at a time when it was yet more scouted and scorned by the infidels than even at the present day--deserving as they are of everlasting gratitude and remembrance at the hands of their more fortunate successors1 the limits of this book compel us to be content with recording here the witness of one or two more only2 while for acquaintance with the numerous able and eloquent expositions of their living representatives--of such earnest humanitarian and social reformers as ,ed4 ,baltzer1 ,emil ,weilshuser1 ,theodor ,hahn1 ,dr4 ,aderholdt1 ,a4 von ,seefeld1 ,r4 ,springer1 and others-- we must refer our readers1 who wish to form an adequate idea of contemporary ,german anti-kreophagistic literature 7as also in regard to the equally extensive contemporary ,english literature of the subject71 to the original works themselves4 ,from ,der ,weg zum ,paradiese 78,the ,way to ,paradise07 the following extract sufficiently represents the inspiration of the writer1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,zimmermann3-- 8,men are almost entirely everything that they are by the force of custom2 and this force1 for the most part1 resists every other power1 and remains victorious over all4 ,reason itself1 morality1 and conscience are submissive to it4 ,in the matter of ,dietary ,reform it displays itself as the enemy par excellence 7die ,hauptmacht74 ,people will fall back upon alleged impossibilities1 although it is a question only of will and resolution4 ,they will reject many of the dietetic propositions hitherto advanced as dangerous #8abstractions1' although they are founded in history1 reason1 and human destiny2 although a brief enquiry ought to suffice to convince one of the first importance of the ,reform4 ,for although one must suppose that all would prefer a long1 healthy1 and happy existence to a feeble1 painful life upon the old regimen1 yet will the majority of human beings think it easier to attempt to assuage their torments and pains by uncertain1 and1 by no means1 unhazardous medicine1 rather than to remove them by obedience to ,nature's laws4 ,as it is with most of the highest truths1 so is it especially with ,dietary ,reform4 ,people will reject it as an abstraction1 and pronounce it an impossibility4 ,in the future1 however1 by the greater number of the higher minds--for such a sacrifice of the lower and unnatural appetite we dare not expect from the ordinary run of men--will it be regarded in practice as a great blessing4 ,for even now there are many exceptions in the social organism for whom ,nature's laws are superior to unreasoning impulse2 for whom morality is superior to materialistic and mere sensual living2 for whom duty is superior to superfluity4 ,besides1 we are advancing towards a humaner century2 and1 as the present is a humaner time than the century before1 so later will there be a milder rgime than now4 ,just as1 in our days1 exposure of children1 combats of gladiators1 torture of prisoners1 and other atrocities are held to be scandalous and shameful1 while in earlier times they were thought quite justifiable and right1 so in the future will the murder of animals1 to feed upon their corpses1 be pronounced to be immoral and indefensible4 ,already 7#ahdf7 are associations being formed for the protection of these beings2 already now are there many who1 like the nobler spirits of antiquity1 apply to their diet the watchword of morality 7das ,losungswort der ,moral7 to do good and to abstain from wrong is always1 and above everything1 possible1 and no longer give their sanction1 by feeding on animals1 to the torture and killing of innocent sentient beings4 8,according to the number of proselytes will the importance of the evidence be adjudged4 ,when thousands1 practising natural diet1 are observed in the midst of diseased flesh-eaters to be in the enjoyment of a prolonged1 happy1 old age1 without disease and the sufferings of a vicious method of life1 then will the way be laid down for the many to abandon the living upon the corpses of other animals40 ,of a like inspiration is the indignant protest of another of the apostles of ,humanitarianism in ,germany3-- 8,what humiliation1 what disgrace for us all1 that it should be necessary for one man to exhort other men not to be inhuman and irrational towards their fellow-creatures6 ,do they recognise1 then1 no mind1 no soul in them--have they not feeling1 pleasure in existence1 do they not suffer pain8 ,do their voices of joy and sorrow indeed fail to speak to the human heart and conscience--so that they can murder the jubilant lark1 in the first joy of his spring-time1 who ought to warm their hearts with sympathy1 from delight in bloodshed or for their #8sport1' or with a horrible insensibility and recklessness only to practise their aim in shooting6 ,is there no soul manifest in the eyes of the living or dying animal--no expression of suffering in the eye of a deer or stag hunted to death--nothing which accuses them of murder before the avenging ,eternal ,justice8444 ,are the souls of all other animals but man mortal1 or are they essential in their organisation8 ,does the world-idea 7,welt-,idee7 pertain to them also--the soul of nature--a particle of the ,divine ,spirit8 ,i know not2 but ,i feel1 and every reasonable man feels like me1 it is in miserable1 intolerable contradiction with our human nature1 with our conscience1 with our reason1 with all our talk of humanity1 destiny1 nobility2 it is in frightful 7himmelschreinder7 contradiction with our poetry and philosophy1 with our nature and with our 7pretended7 love of nature1 with our religion1 with our teachings about benevolent design--that we bring into existence merely to kill1 to maintain our own life by the destruction of other life4444 ,it is a frightful wrong that other species are tortured1 worried1 flayed1 and devoured by us1 in spite of the fact that we are not obliged to this by necessity2 while in sinning against the defenceless and helpless1 just claimants as they are upon our reasonable conscience and upon our compassion1 we succeed only in brutalising ourselves4 ,this1 besides1 is quite certain1 that man has no real pity and compassion for his own species1 so long as he is pitiless towards other races of beings40#bgi ,l4 ,,schopenhauer4 #aghh-ahfj4 ,the chief interpreter of ,buddhistic ideas in ,europe1 and whose bias in this direction is exercising so remarkable an influence upon contemporaneous thought1 in ,germany in particular1 was born at ,dantzig1 the son of a wealthy merchant of that city4 ,his mother1 herself distinguished in literature1 was often the centre of the most eminent persons of the day at ,weimar4 ,at a very early age devoted to the philosophies of ,plato and of ,kant1 ,arthur ,schopenhauer studied at the ,universities of ,gttingen and ,berlin4 ,his course of studies1 both scientific and literary1 was1 even for a ,german1 unusually severe and searching2 and his acquirements were encyclopdic in their range4 ,unlike most ,german students1 it is worth noting1 he was addicted neither to beer-drinking nor to duelling4 ,his most important writings are3 ,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung 78,the ,world as ,will and ,representation071 #b vols2 ,die ,grundprobleme der ,ethik 78,the ,ground-,problems of ,ethics072 ,parerga und ,paralipomena 78,incidental and ,neglected ,subjects071 #b vols2 ,das ,fundament der ,moral 78,the ,foundation of ,morality071 #ahdj4 ,the peculiar characteristics of his philosophy are uncompromising opposition to the hollow doctrines of easy-going ,optimism--an antagonism which1 indeed1 assumes the form of an exaggerated ,pessimism--and 7what especially distinguishes him from most systematisers and formularisers of morals7 his making ,compassion the principal1 and1 indeed1 the exclusive source of moral action2 and it is his vindication of the rights of the subject species1 in marked contrast with the silence1 or even positive depreciation and contempt for them1 on the part of ordinary moralists1 which will always entitle him to take exceptionally high rank among reformers of ,ethical systems1 in spite of his exaggerations and short-comings in other respects4 ,dr4 ,david ,strauss 7,der ,alte und der ,neue ,glaube7 thus writes of his claims on these grounds3-- 8,criminal history shows us how many torturers of men1 and murderers1 have first been torturers of the lower animals4 ,the manner in which a nation1 in the aggregate1 treats the other species1 is one chief measure of its real civilisation4 ,the ,latin races1 as we know1 come forth badly from this examination2 we ,germans not half well enough4 ,buddhism has done more1 in this direction1 than ,christianity2 and ,schopenhauer more than all ancient and modern philosophers together4 ,the warm sympathy with sentient nature1 which pervades all the writings of ,schopenhauer1 is one of the most pleasing aspects of his thoroughly intellectual1 though often unhealthy and unprofitable1 philosophy40 ,this1 it is necessary to add1 plainly is written in ignorance of the numerous writings of earlier and contemporaneous humanitarian dietists1 to whom1 of course1 is due a higher1 because more consistent and more logical1 position than even ,schopenhauer can claim1 who1 from ignorance of the physical and moral arguments of anti-kreophagy 7it reasonably may be presumed71 at the same time that he established the rights of the subject species on the firmest basis1 and included them as an essential part of any moral code1 yet1 with a strange1 but too common1 inconsistency1 did not perceive that to hand over the ,cow1 the ,ox1 or the ,sheep1 c41 to the butcher1 is in most flagrant violation of his own ethical standard4 ,while1 then1 the author of the ,foundation of ,morality cannot claim the highest place1 absolutely2 outside the ranks of anti-kreophagistic writers1 a high rank may properly be conceded to him as one of the most eminent moralists who1 short of entire emancipation1 have done most to vindicate the position of the innocent non-human races4#bhj ,especially has he denounced the horrible outrage upon the commonest principles of justice by the pseudo-scientific torturers of the physiological laboratory4#bha ,it is thus that he lays the foundations of morality3-- 8,a ,pity1 without limits1 which unites us with all living beings--in that we have the most solid1 the surest guarantee of morality4 ,with that there is no need of casuistry4 ,whoso possesses it will be quite incapable of causing harm or loss to any one1 of doing violence to any one1 of doing ill in any way4 ,but rather he will have for all long-suffering1 he will aid the helpless with all his powers1 and each one of his actions will be marked with the stamp of justice and of love4 ,try to affirm3 #8this man is virtuous1 only he knows no pity1' or rather3 #8he is an unjust and wicked man3 nevertheless1 he is compassionate4' ,the contradiction is patent to everyone4 ,each one to his taste3 but for myself1 ,i know no more beautiful prayer than that which the ,hindus1 of old used in closing their public spectacles 7just as the ,english of to-day end with a prayer for their king74 ,they said3 #8,may ,all that have life be delivered from suffering6'0 ,enforcing his teaching that the principles and mainspring of all moral action must be justice and love1 ,schopenhauer maintains that the real influence of these first of virtues is tested1 especially1 by the conduct of men to other animals3-- 8,another proof that the moral motive1 here proposed1 is1 in fact1 the true one1 is1 that in accordance with it the lower animals themselves are protected4 ,the unpardonable forgetfulness in which they have been iniquitously left hitherto by all the popular moralists of ,europe is well known4 ,it is pretended that the so-called beasts have no rights4 ,they persuade themselves that our conduct in regard to them has nothing to do with morals1 or 7to speak in the language of their morality7 that we have no duties towards #8animals3' a doctrine revolting1 gross1 and barbarous1 peculiar to the west1 and which has its root in ,judaism4 ,in ,philosophy1 however1 it is made to rest upon a hypothesis1 admitted in the face of evidence itself1 of an absolute difference between man and #8beast4' ,it is ,descartes who has proclaimed it in the clearest and most decisive manner3 and1 in fact1 it was a necessary consequence of his errors4 ,the ,cartesian-,leibnitzian-,wolfian philosophy1 with the assistance of entirely abstract notions1 had built up the #8rational psychology1' and constructed an immortal anima rationalis3 but1 visibly1 the world of #8beasts1' with its very natural claims1 stood up against this exclusive monopoly--this brevet of immortality decreed to man alone--and1 silently1 ,nature did what she always does in such cases--she protested4 ,our philosophers1 feeling their scientific conscience quite disturbed1 were forced to attempt to consolidate their #8rational psychology' by the aid of empiricism4 ,they1 therefore1 set themselves to work to hollow out between man and #8beast' an enormous abyss1 of an immeasurable width2 by this they would wish to prove to us1 in contempt of evidence1 an impassable difference4 ,it was at all these efforts that ,boileau already laughed3-- #8,les animaux ont-ils des ,universits8 ,voit-on fleurir chez eux les ,quatre ,facults8' ,in accordance with this theory1 #8beasts' would have finished with no longer knowing how to distinguish themselves from the external world1 with having no more consciousness of their own existence than of mine4 ,against these intolerable assertions one remedy only was needed4 ,cast a single glance at an animal1 even the smallest1 the lowest in intelligence4 ,see the unbounded egoism of which it is possessed4 ,it is enough to convince you that #8beasts' have thorough consciousness of their ego1 and oppose it to the world--to the non-ego4 ,if a ,cartesian found himself in the claws of a ,tiger1 he would learn1 and in the most evident way possible1 whether the ,tiger can distinguish between the ego and the non-ego4 ,to these sophisms of the philosophers respond the sophisms of the people4 ,such are certain idiotisms1 notably those of the ,german1 who1 for eating1 drinking1 conception1 birth1 death1 corpse 7when #8beasts' are in question71 has special terms2 so much would he fear to employ the same words as for men4 ,he thus succeeds in dissimulating1 under this diversity of terms1 the perfect identity of things4 8,the ancient languages knew nothing of this sort of synonymy1 and they simply called things which are the same by one and the same name4 ,these artificial ideas1 then1 must needs have been an invention of the priesthood prtraille of ,europe1 a lot of sacrilegious people who knew not by what means to debase1 to vilipend the eternal essence which lives in the substance of every animated being4 ,in this way they have succeeded in establishing in ,europe those wicked habits of hardness and cruelty towards #8beasts1' which a native of ,high ,asia could not behold without a just horror4 ,in ,english we do not find this infamous invention2 that is owing1 doubtless1 to the fact that the ,saxons1 at the moment of the conquest of ,england1 were not yet ,christians4 ,nevertheless1 the pendent of it is found in this particularity of the ,english language3 all the names of animals there are of the neuter gender3 and1 as a consequence1 when the name is to be represented by the pronoun1 they use the neuter it1 absolutely as for inanimate objects4 ,nothing is more shocking than this idiom1 especially when the primates are spoken of--the ,dog1 for example1 the ,ape1 and others4 ,one cannot fail to recognise here a dishonest device 7fourberie7 of the priests to debase other animals to the rank of things4 ,the ancient ,egyptians1 for whom ,religion was the unique business of life1 deposed in the same tombs human mummies and those of the ,ibis1 c42 but in ,europe it would be an abomination1 a crime1 to inter the faithful ,dog near the place where his master lies2 and yet it is upon this tomb sometimes that1 more faithful and more devoted than man ever was1 he has awaited death4 8,if you wish to know how far the identity between #8beast' and man extends1 nothing will conduct to such knowledge better than a little ,zoology and ,anatomy4 ,yet what are we to say when an anatomical bigot is seen at this day 7#ahci7 to be labouring to establish an absolute1 radical1 distinction between man and other animals2 proceeding so far in enmity against true ,zoologists--those who1 without conspiracy with the priesthoods1 without platitude1 without tartuferie1 permit themselves to be conducted by ,nature and ,truth--as to attack them1 to calumniate them6 8,yet this superiority of man over other mammals of the higher species depends but upon a more ample development of the brain--upon a difference in one part of the body only2 this difference1 besides1 being but one of quantity4 ,yes1 man and other animals are1 both as regards the moral and the physical1 identical in kind1 without speaking of other points of comparison4 ,thus one might well recall to them--these ,judaising westerns1 these menagerie-keepers1 these adorers of #8reason'--that if their mother has given suck to them1 ,dogs also have theirs to suckle them4 ,kant fell into this error1 which is that of his time and of his country3 ,i have already brought the reproach against him4 ,the morality of ,christianity has no regard for #8beasts2' it is therein a vice1 and it is better to avow it than to eternise it4 ,we ought to be all the more astonished at it1 because this morality is in striking accord with the moral codes of ,brahmanism and of ,buddhism4 8,between pity towards #8beasts' and goodness of soul there is a very close connexion4 ,one might say without hesitation1 when an individual is wicked in regard to them1 that he cannot be a good man4 ,one might1 also1 demonstrate that this pity and the social virtues have the same source4444 ,that better section of the ,english nation1 with its greater delicacy of feeling1 we see it taking the initiative1 and distinguishing itself by its unusual compassion towards other species1 giving from time to time new proofs of it--this compassion1 triumphing over that #8cold superstition' which1 in other respects1 degrades the nation1 has had the strength to force it to fill up the chasm which ,religion had left in morality4 ,this ,chasm is1 in fact1 the reason why in ,europe and in ,n4 ,america1 we have need of societies for the protection of the lower animals4 ,in ,asia the ,religions suffice to assure to #8beasts' aid and protection 7871 and there no one thinks of ,societies of that kind4 ,nevertheless in ,europe1 also1 from day to day rather by intervals of decades is being awakened the feeling of the ,rights of the lower animals1 in proportion as1 little by little1 disappear1 vanish1 the strange ideas of man's domination over other animals1 as if they had been placed in the world but for our service and enjoyment1 for it is thanks to those ideas that they have been treated as ,things4 8,such are1 certainly1 the causes of that gross conduct1 of that absolute want of regard1 of which ,europeans are guilty towards the lower animals2 and ,i have shown the source of those ideas1 which is in the ,old ,testament1 in section #agg of the second volume of my ,parerga40#bhb 99 99 99 99 99 ,of the many eminent scientists who1 in recent times1 indirectly have affirmed the wantonness of slaughtering for human food1 the most famous of ,european ,chemists1 ,justus von ,liebig1 may seem to demand especial notice4 ,,the founder of the science of ,organic ,chemistry and the method of ,organic ,analysis 7#ahjc-ahgc71 educated at the ,universities of ,bonn and ,erlangen1 received his diploma of ,doctor in ,philosophy 7physical and mathematical sciences7 at the age of nineteen4 ,two years later1 chiefly by the influence of ,humboldt1 he was named ,professor ,extraordinary of ,chemistry at ,giessen1 whither a crowd of disciples flocked from all parts of ,germany and from ,england4 ,in #ahcb he accepted a ,chair at ,munich4 ,all the ,scientific ,societies of ,europe were eager in offering him honorary distinctions4 ,it is his application of his ,special ,science to the advancement of ,agriculture1 and his more philosophic1 though 7it must be added7 occasionally contradictory views upon the comparative values of ,foods1 which give him his best title to remembrance with posterity4 ,we can enumerate only a few of his numerous works3 ,ueber ,theorie und ,praxis der ,landwirthschaft 78,upon the ,theory and ,practice of ,agricultural ,economy710 ,brunswick1 #ahbd1 translated into ,english2 ,anleitung zur ,analyse ,organische ,krper 78,introduction to the ,organic ,analysis of ,bodies071 #ahcg2 ,die ,organische ,chemie in ihren ,anwendung auf ,physiologie und ,pathologie 78,organic ,chemistry in its ,relationship to ,physiology and ,pathology071 #ahci2 8,researches upon ,alimentary ,chemistry10 #ahdi2 ,chemische ,briefe 78,letters upon ,chemistry considered in ,relation with ,industry1 ,agriculture1 and ,physiology071 #aheb4 ,whatever opinions this eminent ,german ,chemist may have published elsewhere inconsistent with the statements below1 such inconsistency1 no more than in the case of ,buffon1 can weaken the force of his more reasonable utterance4 ,upon the essential ultimate identity of the nutritive properties of animal and vegetable substance he thus clearly pronounces3-- 8,vegetable fibrine and animal fibrine1 vegetable albumen and animal albumen1 differ at the most 7hchstens7 in form4 ,if these principles in nourishment fail1 the nourishment of the animal will be cut off2 if they obtain them1 then the grass-feeding animal gets the same principles in his food as those upon which the flesh-eater entirely depends4 ,vegetables produce in their organism the blood of all beings4 ,so that when the flesh-eaters consume the blood and flesh of the vegetable-eaters1 they take to themselves exactly and simply the vegetable principles4 8,vegetable ,foods1 in particular ,corn of all kinds1 and through these ,bread1 contain as much iron as the flesh of ,oxen or as other kinds of flesh4 8,certain it is1 that of three men1 of whom the one has fed upon ox-flesh and bread1 the other upon bread and cheese1 the third upon potatoes1 each considers it a peculiar hardship from quite different points of view2 yet in fact the only difference between them is the action of the peculiar elements of each food upon the brain and nervous system4 ,a ,bear1 who was kept in a zoological garden1 displayed1 so long as he had bread exclusively for nourishment1 quite a mild disposition4 ,two days of feeding with flesh made him vicious1 aggressive1 and even dangerous to his attendant4 ,it is well known that the vis irritabilis of the ,hog becomes so excessive through flesh-eating that he will then attack a man4 8,the flesh-eating man needs for his support an enormous extent of land1 wider and more extensive even than the ,lion and the ,tiger4 ,a nation of ,hunters in a circumscribed territory is incapable of multiplying itself for that reason4 ,the carbon necessary for maintaining life must be taken from animals1 of whom in the limited area there can be only a limited number4 ,these animals collect from the plants the elements of their blood and their organs1 and supply them to the ,indians living by the chase1 who devour them unaccompanied by the substance 7stoffen7 which during the life of the animal maintained the life processes4 ,while the ,indian1 by feeding upon a single animal1 might contrive to sustain his life and health a certain number of days1 he must1 in order to gain for that time the requisite heat1 devour five animals4 ,his food contains a superfluity of nitrogenous substance4 ,what is wanting to it during the greater portion of the year is the necessary quantity of carbon1 and hence the inveterate inclination of flesh consumers for brandy4 8,the practical illustration of agricultural superiority cannot be more clearly and profoundly given than in the speech of the ,north ,american ,chief1 which the ,frenchman ,crevecous has reported to us4 ,the ,chief1 recommending to his tribe the practice of ,agriculture1 thus addressed it3 #8,do you not observe that1 while we live upon ,flesh1 the white men live in part upon ,grain8 ,that ,flesh takes more than thirty months to grow to maturity1 and besides is often scarce8 ,that each of these miraculous grains of corn1 which they bury in the earth1 gives back to them more than a hundredfold8 ,that ,flesh has four legs upon which to run away1 and we have only two to overtake them8 ,that the ,corn remains and grows where the white men sow it2 that the winter1 which for us is a time of toilsome hunting1 is for them the time of rest8 ,therefore have they so many children1 and live so much longer than we4 ,i say1 then1 to each one who hears me3 ,before the trees over our wigwams have died from old age1 and the maples have ceased to supply us with sugar1 the race of the corn-planter will have exterminated the race of the flesh-eater1 because the hunters determine not to sow4'0#bhc ,liebig's views as to the mischievous effects of the propensity of farmers1 and of so-called agriculturists1 to convert arable into pasture land are sufficiently well known4#bhd ,,appendix4 ,i4 ,,hesiod4 ,the original of the ,english version1 given in the beginning of this work1 is as follows3-- 1 1 1 ' ' 4 99 99 99 99 99 ' 4 ' 1 1 ' ' ' 1 ' ' 1 1 #bhe 1 1 1 1#bhf 1 ' 1 4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 1 ' 1 4 7,works and ,days71 passim4 ,,ii4 ,extracts from 8,the ,golden ,verses0 7 74 ,an ,exposition of ,pythagorean ,doctrine1 of the ,third ,century1 ,b4,c41 in ,hexameters4 7,see pages #ba1 #bb47 ' -- 1 1 1 ' ' ' ' 4 4 ' 4 99 99 99 99 99 1 1 ' 1 4 99 99 99 99 99 ' ' -- ' -- ' 1 4 1 ' 4 1 99 99 99 99 99 1 ' 1 1 4 ' 1 ' 1 4 ' ' 1 ' 4 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 4 ' 1 1 1 1 ' ' 1 1 1 1 4#bhg ,,iii4 ,in ,texts from the ,buddhist ,canon1 ,love or ,compassion for all living beings is thus inculcated by ,buddha1 in a sermon addressed to a number of women 7belonging to a class of hunters7 whose husbands were then engaged on one of their predatory excursions3-- 8,he who is humane does not kill2 he is ever able to preserve his own8 life4 ,this principle is imperishable4 ,whosoever observes it1 no calamity shall betide that man4 ,politeness1 indifference to worldly things1 hurting no one1 without place for annoyance--this is the character of the ,brahma ,heaven4 ,ever exercising love towards the infirm2 pure1 according to the teaching of ,buddha2 knowing when sufficient has been had2 knowing when to stop4 8,there are eleven advantages which attend the man who practises compassion1 and is tender to all that lives3 his body is always in health 7happy72 he is blessed with peaceful sleep1 and when engaged in study he is also composed2 he has no evil dreams1 he is protected by ,heaven 7,devas7 and loved by men2 he is unmolested by poisonous things1 and escapes the violence of war2 he is unharmed by fire or water2 he is successful wherever he lives1 and1 when dead1 goes to the ,heaven of ,brahma40 ,when he had uttered these words1 both men and women were admitted into the company of his disciples1 and obtained rest4 ,there was1 in times gone by1 a certain mighty ,king1 called ,ho-meh 7love-darkness71 who ruled in a certain district where no tidings of ,buddha or his merciful doctrine had yet been heard2 but the religious practices were the usual ones of sacrifice and prayer to the gods for protection4 ,now it happened that the ,king's mother1 being sick1 the physicians having vainly tried their medicine1 all the wise men were called to consult as to the best means of restoring her health4444 ,on the ,king asking them the ,brahman priests what should be done1 they replied 444 sacrifices of a hundred beasts of different kinds should be offered on the four hills 7or to the four quarters71 with a young child1 as a crowning oblation to ,heaven4 ,here follows a description of the ,king ordering a hundred head of ,elephants1 ,horses1 ,oxen1 and ,sheep to be driven along the road from the ,eastern ,gate towards the place of sacrifice1 and how their piteous cries rang through heaven and earth4--,editor's ,note4 ,on this ,buddha1 moved with compassion1 came to the spot1 and preached a sermon on 8,love to all that ,live10 and added these words3-- 8,if a man live a hundred years1 and engage the whole of his time and attention in religious offerings to the gods1 sacrificing ,elephants and ,horses1 and other life1 all this is not equal to one act of pure love in saving life40 ,see ,texts from the ,buddhist ,canon1 commonly known as ,dhammapada--with accompanying ,narratives--,translated from the ,chinese1 by ,samuel ,beal1 ,professor of ,chinese1 ,university ,college1 ,london--,trbner1 #ahgh3 and the similar scene in ,the ,light of ,asia1 where ,buddha interposes at the moment of a religious sacrifice3-- 8,but ,buddha softly said1 #8,let him not strike1 great ,king6' and therewith loosed ,the victim's bonds1 none staying him1 so great ,his presence was4 ,then1 craving leave1 he spake ,of life which all can take but none can give1 ,life1 which all creatures love and strive to keep1 ,wonderful1 dear and pleasant unto each1 ,even to the meanest2 yea1 a boon to all ,where ,pity is1 for ,pity makes the world ,soft to the ,weak1 and noble for the ,strong4 ,unto the dumb lips of his flock he lent ,sad pleading words1 shewing how man1 who prays ,for mercy to the ,gods1 is merciless1 ,being as ,god to those3 albeit all ,life ,is linked and kin1 and what we slay have given ,meek tribute of the milk and wool1 and set ,fast trust upon the hands that murder them4 99 99 99 99 99 8,nor1 spake he1 shall one wash his spirit clean ,by blood2 nor gladden gods1 being good1 with blood2#bhh ,nor bribe them1 being evil3 nay1 nor lay ,upon the brow of innocent bound beasts ,one hair's weight of that answer all must give ,for all things done amiss or wrongfully1 ,alone--each for himself--reckoning with that ,the fixed arithmic of the ,universe1 ,which meteth good for good and ill for ill1 ,measure for measure1 unto deeds1 words1 thoughts4 99 99 99 99 99 8,while still our ,lord went on1 teaching how fair ,this earth were1 if all living things be linked ,in friendliness1 and common use of foods1 ,bloodless and pure2 the golden grain1 bright fruits1 ,sweet herbs which grow for all1 the waters wan1 ,sufficient drinks and meats--which when these heard1 ,the might of gentleness so conquered them1 ,the priests themselves scattered their altar-flames ,and flung away the steel of sacrifice3 ,and through the land next day passed a decree ,proclaimed by criers1 and in this wise graved ,on rock and column3 #8,thus the ,king's will is3-- ,there hath been slaughter for the ,sacrifice1 ,and slaying for the ,meat1 but henceforth none ,shall spill the blood of life1 nor taste of flesh1 ,seeing that ,knowledge grows1 and ,life is one1 ,and mercy cometh to the merciful4'0#bhi ,see also the annexed extracts from the ,buddhist ,sacred ,scriptures1 written probably about the third century ,b4,c43-- 8,the ,short ,paragraphs on ,conduct40--,the ,kla ,slam4 #a4 8,now wherein1 ,vsettha1 is his the true disciple's ,conduct good8 ,herein1 ,o ,vsettha1 that putting away the ,murder of that which lives1 he abstains from ,destroying ,life4 ,the cudgel and the sword he lays aside2 and1 full of ,modesty and ,pity1 he is compassionate and kind to all beings that have life4 8,this is the kind of ,goodness that he has4 ,after strict prohibitions of ,robbery and ,unchastity1 ,gautama ,buddha proceeds4 #d4 8,putting away ,lying1 he abstains from speaking ,falsehood4 ,he speaks ,truth4 ,from the ,truth he never swerves4 ,faithful and trustworthy1 he injures not his fellow-men by deceit4 8,this is the kind of ,goodness that he has4 #e4 8,putting away ,slander1 he abstains from ,calumny4 ,what he learns here he repeats not elsewhere1 to raise a quarrel against the people here4 ,what he learns elsewhere1 c4 ,thus he lives as a binder together of those who are divided1 an encourager of those who are friends1 impassioned for ,peace1 a speaker of words that make for ,peace4 8,this1 too1 c4 #f4 8,putting away ,bitterness of ,speech1 he abstains from harsh language4 ,whatever word is humane1 pleasant to the ear1 lovely1 reaching to the heart1 urbane--such are the words he speaks4 #g4 8,putting away ,foolish ,talk1 he abstains from ,vain ,conversation1 c4 #h4 8,he abstains from ,injuring any ,herb uselessly or any ,animal4 ,he takes but one meal a day1 abstaining from food at night-time1 or at the wrong time1 c4 #aj4 8,he abstains from ,bribery1 ,cheating1 ,fraud1 and ,crooked ,ways4 8,this1 too1 c4 #aa4 8,he refrains from ,maiming1 ,killing1 ,imprisoning1 ,highway-,robbery1 ,plundering ,villages1 or obtaining money by threats of ,violence4 99 99 99 99 99 #a4 8,and he lets his mind pervade one quarter of the ,world with thoughts of ,love1 and so the second1 and so the third1 and so the fourth4 ,and thus the whole ,wide ,world above1 below1 around1 and everywhere1 does he continue to pervade with heart of ,love--far-reaching1 grown great1 and beyond measure4 #b4 8,just1 ,vsettha1 as a mighty ,trumpeter makes himself heard1 and that without difficulty1 in all the four directions1 even so1 of all ,things that have ,shape or ,life1 there is not one that he passes by or leaves aside2 but he regards them all with mind set free1 and deep-felt love4 8,verily this1 ,vsettha1 is the way to a state of union with ,brahm4 #c4 8,and he lets his mind pervade all parts of the ,world with thoughts of ,pity1 ,sympathy1 and ,equanimity4 99 99 99 99 99 #i4 8,when he had thus spoken1 the young ,brhmans1 ,vsettha and ,bhradvga1 addressed the ,blessed ,one1 and said3-- #8,most excellent1 ,lord1 are the words of thy mouth1 most excellent6 ,just as if a man were to set up that which is thrown down1 or were to reveal that which is hidden away1 or were to point out the right road to him who has gone astray1 or were to bring a ,lamp into the ,darkness1 so that those who have eyes can see eternal forms--just even so1 ,lord1 has the ,truth been made known to us1 in many a figure1 by the ,blessed ,one4 ,and we1 even we1 betake ourselves1 ,lord1 to the ,blessed ,one1 as our ,refuge1 to the ,truth and to the ,brotherhood4 ,may the ,blessed ,one accept us as disciples1 as true believers from this time forth1 so long as life endures6'0--,buddhist ,suttas1 ,translated from ,pli1 by ,t4 ,w4 ,rhys ,davids4 ,sacred ,books of the ,east4 ,ed4 by ,max ,mller1 ,clarendon ,press1 ,oxford4 #ahha4 ,as for the older 7sacerdotal7 religionism of the ,peninsula--that of ,brahma--the force of ,truth obliges us here to remark that1 while the great mass of the ,hindus continue to shrink with disgust and abhorrence from the ,slaughter-house and from the sanguinary diet of their conquerors and rulers1 ,mohammedan and ,christian1 the richer classes1 and even many of the ,brahmins and priests have long conformed1 in great measure at least1 to ,western dietetic practices2 and 7the flesh of the ,cow or ,ox excepted71 no more than other religionists do they scruple to violate the laws of their ,sacred ,books--the ,vedas--which1 however1 are not so humane as the teaching of the great ,founder of ,buddhism1 as preserved in the ,buddhist ,sacred ,scriptures1 the ,tripataka1 being more essentially ritual and ceremonial than its popular off-shoot4 ,yet there are traces in the sacred writings of ,hinduism of a strong consciousness of the irreligionism of feeding upon slaughtered animals1 as in the ,laws of ,manu1 their ,sacred ,legislator1 where it is laid down that3-- 8,the man who forsakes not the ,laws1 and eats not flesh-meat like a blood-thirsty demon1 shall attain good-will in this world1 and shall not be afflicted with ,maladies40--7,quoted in the ,works of ,sir ,wm4 ,jones1 vol4 iii41 #bjf47 8,the man who perceives in his own soul the ,supreme ,good present in all beings acquires equanimity towards them all1 and shall be absorbed1 at last1 in the highest ,essence--even in that of the ,almighty himself40--,conclusion of the ,laws of ,manu4 ,it is superfluous to insist upon the fact that inhabitants of the hotter and1 in particular1 of the tropical regions of the globe have1 as a matter of course1 even less valid pretexts for resorting to butchering than have the natives of colder climates2 and that proportionally1 therefore1 is the reprobation to which they are obnoxious4 7,see1 among other recent testimony1 that of ,shib ,chunder ,bose in his interesting book--,the ,hindus as they ,are4 ,london3 ,ed4 ,stanford1 #ahha74 ,the writer has usefully exposed the yearly-increasing evils to ,india from the example of ,english dietetic habits4 ,,iv4 ,,ovid4 ,the original 7the peculiar beauties of which cannot easily be represented in a modern idiom7 of the ,english version already given in this work1 with the concluding verses omitted in that translation1 is here subjoined3-- ,primusque animalia mensis ,arcuit imponi3 primus quoque talibus ora ,docta quidem solvit1 sed non et credita1 verbis3-- 8,parcite1 mortales1 dapibus temerare nefandis ,corpora4 ,sunt ,fruges2 sunt deducentia ramos ,pondere ,poma suo1 tumidque in vitibus ,uv4 ,sunt ,herb ,dulces2 sunt1 qu mitescere flamm1 ,mollirique queant4 ,nec vobis lacteus ,humor ,eripitur1 nec ,mella thymi redolentia florem4 ,prodiga divitias alimentaque mitia ,tellus ,suggerit3 atque epulas sine ,cde et ,sanguine prbet4 ,carne ,fer sedant jejunia2 nec tamen ,omnes4 ,quippe ,equus1 et ,pecudes1 ,armentaque gramine vivunt4 ,at quibus ingenium est immansuetumque ferumque-- ,armeni ,tigres1 iracundique ,leones1 ,cumque ,lupis ,ursi--dapibus cum sanguine gaudent4 ,heu quantum ,scelus est--in viscera viscera condi1 ,congestoque avidum pinguescere corpore corpus1 ,alteriusque animantem animantis vivere leto6 ,scilicet in tantis opibus1 quas optima ,matrum ,terra parit1 nil to nisi tristia mandere svo ,vulnera dente juvat1 ritusque referre ,cyclopum8 ,nec1 nisi perdideris alium1 placare voracis ,et male morati poteris jejunia ventris8 ,at vetus illa tas1 cui fecimus ,aurea nomen1 ,ftibus arboreis et1 quas humus educat1 ,herbis ,fortunata fuit3 nee polluit ora ,cruore4 ,tunc et ,aves tutas movere per ara pennas1 ,et ,lepus impavidus mediis erravit in agris3 ,nec sua credulitas piscem suspenderat hamo4 ,cuncta sine insidiis1 nullamque timentia ,fraudem1 ,plenaque ,pacis erant4 ,postquam non utilis auctor ,victibus invidit 7quisquis fuit ille virorum71 ,corporeasque dapes avidam demersit in alvum4 ,fecit iter sceleri2 primque e cde ,ferarum ,incaluisse putem maculatum sanguine ferrum4 ,idque satis fuerat2 nostrumque petentia letum ,corpora missa neci1 salv pietate1 fatemur3 ,sed qum danda neci1 tm non epulanda1 fuerunt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,quid meruistis1 ,oves1 placidum pecus1 inque tuendos ,natum homines1 pleno qu fertis in ubere nectar8 ,mollia qu nobis vestras velamina ,lanas ,prbetis1 ,vitque magis qum morte juvatis4 ,quid merure ,boves--animal sine fraude dolisque ,innocuum1 simplex1 natum tolerare labores8 ,immemor est demm1 nee ,frugum1 munere dignus1 ,qui potuit1 curvi dempto modo pondere aratri1 ,ruricolam mactare suum3 qui trita labore ,illa1 quibus toties durum renovaverat ,arvum1 ,tot dederat messes1 percussit colla securi40 8,nec satis est qud tale nefas committitur3 ipsos ,inscripsre ,deos sceleri1 numenque ,supernum ,cde ,laboriferi credunt gaudere ,juvenci6 ,victima labe carens1 et prstantissima form1 7,nam placuisse nocet71 vittis prsignis et auro1 ,sistitur ante aras1 auditque ignara precantem3 ,imponique su videt1 inter cornua1 fronti ,quas coluit fruges1 percussaque sanguine cultros ,inficit in liquid prvisos forsitan und4 ,protinus ereptas viventi pectore fibras ,inspiciunt3 mentesque ,dem scrutantur in illis6#bij 8,unde fames ,homini vetitorum tanta ciborum8 ,audetis vesci1 genus ,o ,mortale6 ,quod1 oro1 ,ne facite3 et monitis animos advertite nostris4 ,cumque ,bom dabitis csorum membra palato ,mandere vos vestros scite et sentite ,colonos4 99 99 99 99 99 8,neve ,thyestis cumulemur viscera mensis4 ,qum male consuescit1 qum se parat ille cruori4 ,impius humano1 ,vituli qui guttura cultro ,rumpit1 et immotas prbet mugitibus aures6 ,aut qui vagitus similes puerilibus ,hdum ,edentem jugulare potest2 aut ,alite vesci ,cui dedit ipse cibos--,quantum est1 quod desit in istis ,ad plenum facinus6 ,qu transitus inde paratur6 8,bos aret1 aut mortem senioribus imputet annis3 ,horriferum contra ,borean ,ovis arma ministret2 ,ubera dent satur manibus prstanda ,capell4 ,retia cum pedicis1 laqueosque1 artesque dolosas ,tollite3 nec ,volucrem viscat fallite virg1 ,nec formidatis ,cervos eludite pinnis1 ,nec celate cibis uncos fallacibus hamos4 ,perdite1 si qua nocent3 verm hc quque perdite tantm3 ,ora vacent epulis1 alimentaque congrua carpant40 ,metamorphoseon1 ,lib4 xv4 #gb-adb1 #dfb-dgh4 ,nor is this the only passage in his writings in which the ,pagan poet proves himself to have been not without that humaneness and feeling so rare alike in non-,christian and in ,christian poetry4 ,in the charming story of the visit of the disguised and incarnate ,celestials to the cottage of the pious peasants1 ,philemon and ,baucis1 ,ovid takes the opportunity to present an alluring picture of the innocent fruits which were placed before the divine guests--a picture which1 probably1 was present to ,milton in recording the similar hospitality of ,eve4 ,among the fragrant dishes--8savoury fruits1 of taste to please true appetite0--appear ,figs1 ,nuts1 ,dates1 ,plums1 ,grapes1 ,apples1 ,olives1 ,radishes1 ,onions1 and ,endive1 with ,honey1 ,eggs1 and ,milk3-- 8,ponitur hc bicolor sincer bacca ,minerv1 ,conditaque in liquid ,corna autumnalia fce3 ,intubaque et ,radix1 et ,lactis massa ,coacti3 ,ovaque1 non acri leviter versata ,favill4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hc ,nux1 hc mista est rugosis ,carica ,palmis1 ,prunaque1 et in patulis redolentia ,mala canistris1 ,et de purpureis collect vitibus ,uv4 ,candidus in medio ,favus est3 super omnia vultus ,accessre boni40 444 ,we are not surprised1 however1 that1 notwithstanding all this variety of sufficient foods1 ignorant peasants1 imitating the vicious examples of their rich neighbours1 thought it due to 8hospitality0 to sacrifice life2 and they were on the point of slaughtering the only non-human being belonging to them--a ,goose1 the 8guardian of the cottage0--when the heavenly visitants intervene1 and forbid the unnecessary barbarism3-- 8,unicus anser erat1 minim custodia vill1 ,quem ,ds hospitibus domini mactare parabant4 ,ille celer penn tardos tate fatigat1 ,eluditque diu4 ,tandemque est visus ad ipsos ,confugisse ,deos4 ,superi veture necari3 #8,dque sumus1'0 c4 ,when the rest of the inhabitants of ,phrygia1 were1 for their wickedness1 destroyed by indignant ,heaven1 the two old peasants1 we may add1 found safety from the general ,deluge4 7,metam4 viii4 #ffd-fhh74bia ,it may be noted in this place that the great 8,epicurean0 poet1 ,horace 7,ovid's contemporary71 bon-vivant though he was1 and apparently uninspired by humanitarian feeling1 yet now and again expresses his conviction of the superiority of the ,fruit to the ,flesh banquet1 and of the greater compatibility of the former with the poetic genius4 ,e4g4 ,carmina ,i41 #ca4 ,ad ,apollinem3-- ,me pascunt ,oliv ,me ,cichorea levesque ,malv4 78,olives1 ,endives1 and easily-digested ,mallows are my fare407 ,satire ,,ii4 #b4 8,frugality430-- 8,qu virtus et quanta1 boni1 sit vivere ,parvo1 99 99 99 99 99 ,discite non inter lances mensasque nitentes1 ,cum stupet insanis acies fulgoribus1 et cum ,acclinis falsis animus meliora recusat1 ,verum hic impransi mecum disquirite-- ,male ,vervum examinat omnis ,corruptus judex4 99 99 99 99 99 ,cum labor extuderit fastidia1 siccus1 inanis ,sperne cibum vilem3 nisi ,hymettia mella ,falerno ,ne biberis diluta4444 ,cum sale ,panis ,latrantem stomachum bene leniet4444 ,non in caro nidore voluptas ,summa sed in te ipso4 ,tu pulmentaria qucere ,sudando3 pinguem vitiis albumque neque ostrea1 ,nec scarus aut poterit peregrina juvare lagois4 99 99 99 99 99 ,num vesceris ist ,quam laudas1 plum8 ,cocto num adest honor idem8 99 99 99 99 99 ,at vos ,prsentes ,austri1 coquite horum obsonia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ergo ,si quis nunc mergos suaves edixerit assos1 ,parebit pravi docilis ,romana juventus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,accipe nunc1 victus tenuis qu quantaque secum ,afferat4 ,imprimis valeas bene44440 ,his arraignment of the rich glutton1 who obliges and allows the poor man to starve in the midst of plenty1 is worthy of the morality of ,seneca3-- 8,ergo1 ,quod superat1 non est melius quo insumere possis8 ,cur eget indignus quisquam te divite80 ,v4 ,,musonius 7#a,,st ,,century1 ,a4,d471 a stoic writer of great repute with his contemporaries1 son of a ,roman ,eques1 was born at ,volsinii 7,bolsena71 in ,etruria1 at the end of the reign of ,augustus4 ,he was banished by ,nero1 who especially hated the professors of the ,porch2 but by ,vespasian he was held in extraordinary honour when the rest of the philosophers were expelled from ,rome4 ,the time of his death is uncertain4 ,he was the author of various philosophical works which are characterised by ,sudas as 8distinguished writings of a highly philosophic nature10 who also attributes to him 7but on uncertain evidence7 letters to ,apollonius of ,tyana4 ,we are indebted for knowledge of his opinions to a work 7of unknown authorship7 entitled ,memoirs of ,musonius the ,philosopher4 ,it is from this work that ,stobus 7,anthologion71 ,aulus ,gellius1 ,arrian1 and others seem to have borrowed1 in quoting the dicta of the great ,stoic teacher4 ,all the extant fragments of his writings are carefully collected by ,peerlkamp 7,haarlem1 #ahbb74 7,see also ,herr ,ed4 ,baltzer's valuable monograph1 ,musonius3 ,charakterbild aus ,der ,rmischen ,kaiserzeit4 ,nordhausen1 #ahga73-- 8,on diet he used to speak often and very earnestly1 as of a matter important in itself and in its effects4 ,for he thought that continence in meats and drinks is the beginning and groundwork of temperance4 ,once1 forsaking his usual line of argument1 he spoke as follows3-- 8#8,as we should prefer cheap fare to costly1 and that which is easy to that which is hard to procure1 so also1 that which is akin to man to that which is not so4 ,akin to us is that from plants1 grains1 and such other vegetable products as nourish him well2 also what is derived from 7other7 animals--not slaughtered1 but otherwise serviceable4 ,of these foods the most suitable are such as we may use at once without fire1 for such are readiest to hand4 ,such are fruits in season1 and some herbs1 milk1 cheese1 and honeycombs4 ,moreover such as need fire1 and belong to the classes of grains or herbs1 are also not unsuitable1 but are all1 without exception1 akin to man4' 8,eating of flesh-meat he declared to be brutal1 and adapted to savage animals4 ,it is heavier1 he said1 and hindering thought and intelligence2 the vapour arising from it is turbid and darkens the soul1 so that they who partake of it abundantly are seen to be slower of apprehension4 ,as man is at his best most nearly related to the ,gods of all beings on earth1 so1 also1 his food should be most like to that of the ,gods4 ,they1 he said1 are content with the steams that rise from earth and waters1 and we shall take the food most like to theirs1 if we take that which is lightest and purest4 8,so our soul also will be pure and clear1 and1 being so1 will be best and wisest1 as ,heracleitus judges when he says the clear soul is wisest and best4 ,as it is1 said ,musonius1 we are fed far worse than the irrational beings2 for they1 though they are driven fiercely by appetite as by a scourge1 and pounce upon their food1 still are devoid of cunning and contrivance in regard to their fare--being satisfied with what comes in their way1 seeking only to be filled and nothing further4 ,but we invent manifold arts and devices the more to sweeten the pleasure of food and to deceive the gullet4 ,nay1 to such a pitch of daintiness and greediness have we come1 that some have composed treatises1 as of music and medicine1 so also of cookery1 which greatly increase the pleasure in the gullet1 but ruin the health4 ,at any rate1 you may see that those who are fastidious in the choice of foods are far more sickly in body--some even1 like craving women1 loathing customary foods1 and having their stomachs ruined4 ,hence1 as good-for-nothing steel continually needs sharpening1 so their stomachs at table need the continual whet of some strong tasting food4444 ,hence1 too1 it is our duty to eat for life1 not for pleasure 7only71 at least if we are to follow the excellent saying of ,socrates1 that1 while most men lived to eat1 he ate to live4 ,for1 surely1 no one1 who aspires to the character of a virtuous man1 will deign to resemble the many1 and live for eating's sake as they do1 hunting from every quarter the pleasure which comes from food4 8,moreover1 that ,god1 who made mankind1 provided them with meats and drinks for preservation1 not for pleasure1 will appear from this4 ,when food is most especially performing its proper function in digestion and assimilation1 then it gives no pleasure to the man at all--yet we are then fed by it and strengthened4 ,then we have no sensation of pleasure1 and yet this time is longer than that in which we are eating4 ,but if it were for pleasure that ,god contrived our food1 we ought to derive pleasure from it throughout this longer time1 and not merely at the passing moment of consumption4 ,yet1 nevertheless1 for that brief moment of enjoyment we make provision of ten thousand dainties2 we sail the sea to its furthest bounds2 cooks are more sought after than husbandmen4 ,some lavish on dinners the price of estates1 and that though their bodies derive no benefit from the costliness of the viands4 8,quite the contrary2 it is those who use the cheapest food who are the strongest4 ,for example1 you may1 for the most part1 see slaves more sturdy than masters1 country-folk than towns-folk1 poor than rich--more able to labour1 sinking less at their work1 seldomer ailing1 more easily enduring frost1 heat1 sleeplessness1 and the like4 ,even if cheap food and dear strengthens the body alike1 still we ought to choose the cheap2 for this is more sober and more suited to a virtuous man2 inasmuch as what is easy to procure is1 for good men1 more proper for food than what is hard--what is free from trouble than what gives trouble--what is ready than what is not ready4 ,to sum up in a word the whole use of diet1 ,i say that we ought to make its aim health and strength1 for these are the only ends for which we should eat1 and they require no large outlay40#bib ,,vi4 ,,lessio4 #aeed-afbc1 ,born at ,brechten1 a town in ,brabant1 of influential family1 this noted ,hygeist1 at a very early age1 exhibited so exceptional a disposition as to be known among his school-fellows as the 8prophet40 ,his ardour for learning was so intense as to cause him to forget the hours of meals1 and to reduce his time for sleep to the shortest period possible4 ,having obtained a scholarship at the ,arras ,college in ,louvain1 ,lessio pursued the course of studies there with the greatest success1 and by his fellow-students was proclaimed 8prince of philologers40 ,at the age of seventeen he entered the ,society of ,jesus4 ,two years later he was elected to the ,chair of ,philosophy at ,douai4 ,in #aehe he accepted the ,professorship of ,theology at ,louvain4 ,so extraordinary were the respect and veneration which he had attracted in his ,order and from all who had access to him1 that not only did his death cause the greatest regret1 but 7as we are assured7 his friends contended among themselves for possession of every possible relic and memento 8of one who had composed so admirable works40 ,he was interred before the high altar of the church of his college in ,louvain4 ,held in high honour during life1 after his death so rare an ornament of his ,church was signally eulogised by the ,pope1 ,urbano ,,viii42 and he was even believed to have worked miracles4 ,his praises are especially recorded in a book entitled ,de ,vit et ,moribus ,r4 ,p4 ,leonardi ,lessii--reprinted at ,paris1 #afdd4 ,principal ,writings3 ,de ,justiti et de ,jure ,actionum1 ,humanarum1 c4 7reprinted seven times74 ,many of the propositions1 it seems1 eventually came under the censure of the ,theological ,faculty1 the ,bishops1 and the ,pontiffs4 ,qu ,fides et ,religio sit ,capessenda1 ,consultatio4 ,anvers1 #afaj4 ,in the estimation of ,s4 ,franois de ,sales1 a work 8not so much that of ,lessio as of an ,angel of the ,judgment 7,ange du ,grand ,conseil740 ,hygiasticon 7,anvers1 #afac-ad1 #hvo72 it is superfluous to remark1 his really valuable work4 ,it was translated from the ,latin into ,french by ,sebastian ,hardy1 with the title of ,le ,vrai ,rgime de ,vivre pour la ,conservation du ,corps et de l',ame4 ,paris1 #afdf4 ,another editor1 ,la ,bonnodire1 added notes1 republishing it under the title of ,de la ,sobrit et de ,ses ,avantages4 ,paris1 #agja4 8,lessio10 writes the author of the article in the ,biographie ,universelle1 8having been condemned by the physicians to have no more than two years longer to live1 himself studied the principles of ,hygiene1 was struck by the example of ,cornaro1 resolved to imitate him1 and found himself so well from such imitation that he translated his book 7,della ,vita ,sobria71 joining to it the results of his own experience1 to which he owed the prolongation of his life by forty years40 ,for the rest1 he was a man of extensive erudition2 and ,justus ,lipsius celebrates1 in some fine verse1 the variety of his talents4 7,see ,biog4 ,universelle ,ancienne et ,moderne4 ,paris1 chez ,michaud1 #ahai47 ,the ,hygiasticon is prefaced by testimonials from three eminent physicians1 setting forth their concurrence in the principles of the author4 ,the ,english translation 7#afcd7 has prefixed to it addresses1 in verse1 to him2 one of which is by ,crashaw1 the friend of ,cowley1 and a ,dialogue between ,glutton and ,echo1 also in verse4 ,affixed to this edition are an ,english version of ,cornaro1 by ,george ,herbert1 and a translation of an anonymous treatise by another ,italian writer--,that a ,spare ,diet is better than a ,splendid and ,sumptuous ,one3 ,a ,paradox4 ,in his chap4 v4 8,of the ,advantages which a ,sober ,diet brings to the ,body1 and first1 ,that it freeth almost from all ,diseases0--,lessio promises the adherents of it1 that in the first place3-- 8,it cloth free a man and preserve him from almost all manner of diseases4 ,for it rids him of catarrhs1 coughs1 wheezings1 dizziness1 and pain in the head and stomach4 ,it drives away apoplexies1 lethargies1 falling-sickness1 and other ill-affections of the brain4 ,it cures the gout in the feet and in the hands2 the sciatica and diseases in the joints4 ,it also prevents crudity 7indigestion71 the parent of all diseases4 ,in a word1 it so tempers the humours1 and maintains them in an equal proportion1 that they hurt not any way1 either in quantity or quality4 ,and this both reason and experience do confirm4 ,for we see that those who keep themselves to a sober course of diet are very seldom1 or rather never1 molested with diseases2 and if at any time they happen to be oppressed with sickness1 they do bear it much better1 and sooner recover than those others whose bodies are full fraught with ill-humours4 8,i know very many who1 though they be weak by natural constitution1 and well grown in years1 and continually busied in employments of the mind1 nevertheless by the help of this temperance1 live in health1 and have passed the greater part of their lives1 which have been many years long1 without any notable sickness4444 8,the self-same comes to pass in wounds1 bruises1 puttings out of joint1 and breaking of bones2 in regard that there is either no flux at all of ill-humours1 or1 at least1 very little of that part affected4444 ,furthermore an abstinent diet doth arm and fortify against the plague2 for the venom thereof is much better resisted if the body be clear and free--wherefore ,sokrates brought to pass that he himself was never sick of the plague1 which ofttimes greatly wasted the city of ,athens1 where he lived1 as ,laertius writeth4 ,the third commodity of the diet is that1 although it doth not cure such diseases as are incurable in their own nature1 yet it doth so much mitigate and allay them as that they are easily borne1 and do not much hinder the functions of the mind4 ,this is seen by daily experience40 ,lessio proceeds to descant upon the other benefits of the reformed regimen--such as that it prolongs life 7other things being equal7 to extreme old age1 produces cheerfulness1 activity1 memory1 and the like4#bic 99 99 99 99 99 ,moffet1 another hygienic writer of the sixteenth century1 demands indignantly3-- 8,till ,god 7i4e41 ,superstition or ,fraud7 would have it so the slaying of other animals for food1 who dared to touch with his lips the remnant of a dead carcase8 or to set the prey of a wolf1 or the meat of a falcon1 upon his table8 ,who1 ,i say1 durst feed upon those members which1 lately1 did see1 go1 bleat1 low1 feel1 and move8#bid 8,nay1 tell me1 can civil and human eyes yet abide the slaughter of an innocent #8beast1' the cutting of his throat1 the smashing him on the head1 the flaying of his skin1 the quartering and dismembering of his limbs1 the sprinkling of his blood1 the ripping up of his veins1 the enduring of ill-savours1 the heaving of heavy sighs1 sobs1 and groans1 the passionate struggling and panting for life1 which only hard-hearted butchers can endure to see8 8,is not the earth sufficient to give us meat1 but that we must also rend up the bowels of #8beasts1' birds1 and fishes8 ,yes1 truly1 there is enough in the earth to give us meat2 yea1 verily1 and choice of meats1 needing either none or no great preparation1 which we may take without fear1 and cut down without trembling2 which1 also1 we may mingle a hundred ways to delight our taste1 and feed on safely to fill our bellies40--,health's ,improvement1 by ,dr4 ,w4 ,moffet 7ed4 #agdf71 as quoted by ,ritson4 ,the author died in #afjd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the author of the ,anatomy of ,abuses1 a writer of the same period1 denouncing the unnatural and luxurious living of his time1 compares the two diets with equal force and truth3-- 8,i cannot persuade myself otherwise1 but that our niceness and cautiousness in diet hath altered our nature1 distempered our bodies1 and made us subject to hundreds of diseases and discrasies 7indigestions7 more than ever our forefathers were subject unto1 and consequently of shorter life than they4444 ,who are sicklier than they who fare deliciously every day8 ,who is corrupter8 ,who belcheth more8 ,who looketh worse8 ,who is weaker and feebler than they8 ,who hath more filthy phlegm and putrefaction 7replete with gross humours7 than they8 ,and1 to be brief1 who dieth sooner than they8 8,do we not see the poor man who eateth brown bread 7whereof some is made of rye1 barley1 peason1 beans1 oats1 and such other gross grains71 and drinketh small drink1 yea1 sometimes water1 and feedeth upon milk1 butter and cheese--,i say do we not see such a one healthfuller1 stronger1 fairer complexioned1 and longer-living than the other that fares daintily every day2 and how should it be otherwise80--,stubbes's ,anatomy of ,abuses1 #aehc4 ,quoted by ,ritson 7,abstinence from ,flesh3 ,a ,moral ,duty474 ,,vii4 ,,cowley4 #afbj-affg4 ,among the poets of the age second only to ,milton and to ,dryden4 ,the ,garden1 from which we extract the following just sentiments1 is prefixed by way of dedication to the ,kalendarium ,hortense of ,john ,evelyn1 his personal and political friend4 ,the ,gardener's ,almanac1 it is worthy of note1 is one of the earliest prototypes of the numerous more modern treatises of the kind4 ,it had reached a tenth edition in #agjf4 8,when ,epicurus to the world had taught ,that pleasure is the chiefest good1 7,and was1 perhaps1 i'th' right1 if rightly understood71 ,his life he to his doctrine brought1 ,and in a garden's shade that ,sovereign pleasure sought3 ,whoever a true ,epicure would be4 ,may there find cheap and virtuous luxury4 ,vitellius his table which did hold ,as many creatures as the ark of old-- ,that fiscal table to which every day ,all countries did a constant tribute pay-- ,could nothing more delectable afford ,than ,nature's ,liberality-- ,helped with a little ,art and ,industry-- ,allows the meanest gardener's board4 ,the wanton ,taste no ,flesh nor ,fowl can choose1 ,for which the ,grape or ,melon it would lose1 ,though all th' inhabitants of ,earth and ,air ,be listed in the ,glutton's bill of fare4 99 99 99 99 99 ,scarce any ,plant is growing here4 ,which against ,death some weapon does not bear4 ,let ,cities boast that they provide ,for life the ornaments of ,pride2 ,but 'tis the ,country and the ,field ,that furnish it with ,staff and ,shield4 ,the ,garden4 ,chertsey1 #afff4 ,,viii4 ,,tryon4 #afcd-agjc4 ,one of the best known of the seventeenth century humane ,hygeists1 was born at ,bibury1 a village in ,gloucestershire4 ,his father was a tiler and plasterer1 who by stress of poverty was forced to remove his son1 when no more than six years of age1 from the village school1 and to set him at the work of spinning and carding1 7the woollen manufacture being then extensively carried on in ,gloucestershire74 ,at eight years of age he became so expert1 he tells us1 as to be able to spin four pounds a day1 earning two shillings a week4 ,at the age of twelve he was made to work at his father's employment4 ,at this period he first learned to read4 ,he next took to keeping sheep4 ,with the sum of three pounds1 realised by the sale of his four sheep1 he went to ,london to seek his fortune1 when seventeen years old1 and bound himself apprentice to a 8castor-maker10 in ,fleet ,street4 ,his master was an ,anabaptist--8an honest and sober man20 and1 after two years' apprenticeship1 ,tryon adopted the same religious creed4 ,all his spare time was now devoted entirely to study2 and1 with the usual ardour of scholars who depend upon their own talents and exertions1 he scarcely gave any time to food or sleep4 ,the holiday period1 too1 spent by his fellow-apprentices in eating and drinking1 and gross amusements1 was utilised in the same way4 ,science1 and ,physiology in particular1 attracted his attention4 ,at the age of twenty-three he first adopted the reformed diet1 8my drink being only water1 and food only bread and some fruit1 and that but once a day for some time2 but afterwards ,i had more liberty given me by my guide1 ,wisdom1 to eat butter and cheese2 my clothing being mean and thin2 for1 in all things1 self-denial was now become my real business40 ,this strict life he maintained for more than a year1 when he relapsed1 at intervals1 during the next two years4 ,at the end of this period he had become confirmed in his reform1 and he remained to the end strictly akreophagist1 and1 indeed1 strictly frugal1 8contenting myself with herbs1 fruits1 grains1 eggs1 butter and cheese for food1 and pure water for drink40 ,about two years after his marriage he made voyages to ,barbadoes and to ,holland in the way of trade--8making beavers40 ,he finally settled himself in ,england1 and at the age of forty-eight he published his first book on ,dietetics4 ,his brief autobiography1 from which the above facts are drawn1 ends at this period4 ,his editor adds1 as to his appearance and character3 8his aspect easily discovered something extraordinary2 his air was cheerful1 lively1 and brisk2 but grave with something of authority1 though he was of the easiest access4 ,notwithstanding he was of no strong make1 yet1 through his great temperance1 regularity1 and by the strength of his spirits and vigour of his mind1 he was capable of any fatigue1 even to his last illness1 equally with any of the best constitutions of men half his years4 ,through all his lifetime he had been a man of unwearied application1 and so indefatigable that it may be as truly said of him as it can be of any man that he was never idle2 but of such despatch that1 though fortune had allotted him as great multiplicity of business as1 perhaps1 to any one of his contemporaries1 yet1 without any neglect thereof1 he found leisure to make such a search into ,nature1 that perhaps few of this age equalled him therein3 and not only into ,nature1 but also into almost all arts and sciences1 of some whereof he was an improver1 and of all innocent and useful ones an encourager and promoter40#bie ,in spite of that penetration of mind and justness of thought which influenced him to abandon the cruelty and coarseness of the orthodox diet1 the author of ,the ,way to ,health could not free himself from certain of the credulous fancies of his age2 and1 it must be admitted1 his writings are by no means exempt from such prejudices4 ,it is as a moral reformer that he has deserved our respect1 and of his numerous books the following are noteworthy3-- ,a ,treatise on ,cleanliness in ,meats and ,drinks4 ,london1 #afhb4 ,the ,way to ,health1 ,long ,life1 c4 #afhc1 #afid1 #afig4 #c vols41 #hvo4 ,friendly ,advice to the ,gentlemen-,planters of the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,london1 #afhd4 ,the ,way to ,make ,all ,people ,rich3 or1 ,wisdom's ,call to ,temperance and ,frugality4 #afhe4 ,wisdom's ,doctrine3 or1 ,aphorisms and ,rules for ,preserving the ,health of the ,body and the ,peace of the ,mind4 #afif4 ,england's ,grandeur and the ,way to ,get ,wealth3 or1 ,promotion of ,trade ,made ,easy and ,lands ,advanced4 #afii4 #dto4 ,nothing can be more just or forcible than these expostulations3-- 8,most men will1 in words1 confess that there is no blessing this world affords comparable to health4 ,yet rarely do any of them value it as they ought to do till they feel the want of it4 ,to him that hath obtained this goodly gift the meanest food--even bread and water--is most pleasant1 and all sorts of exercise and labour delightful4 ,but the contrary makes all things nauseous and distasteful4 ,what are full-spread ,tables1 ,riches1 or ,honours1 to him that is tormented with distempers8 ,in such a condition men do desire nothing so much as ,health4 ,but no sooner is that obtained1 but their thoughts are changed1 forgetting those solemn promises and resolutions they made to ,god and their own souls1 going on in the old road of ,gluttony1 taking little or no care to continue that which they so much desired when they were deprived of it4 8,happy it were if men did but use the tenth part of that care and diligence to preserve their minds and bodies in ,health1 as they do to procure those dainties and superfluities which do generate ,diseases1 and are the cause of committing many other evils1 there being but few men that do know how to use riches as they ought4 ,for there are not many of our wealthy men that ever consider that as little and mean food and drink will suffice to maintain a lord in perfect health as it will a peasant1 and render him more capable of enjoying the benefits of the ,mind and pleasures of the ,body1 far beyond all #8dainties and superfluities4' ,but1 alas6 the momentary pleasures of the ,throat-,custom1 vanity1 c41 do ensnare and entice most people to exceed the bounds of necessity or convenience2 and many fail through a false opinion or misunderstanding of ,nature--childishly imagining that the richer the food is1 and the more they can cram into their bellies1 the more they shall be strengthened thereby4 ,but experience shews to the contrary2 for are not such people as accustom themselves to the richest foods1 and most cordial drinks1 generally the most infirm and diseased8 8,now the sorts of foods and drinks that breed the best blood and finest spirits1 are ,herbs1 ,fruits1 and various kinds of ,grains2 also ,bread1 and sundry sorts of excellent food made by different preparations of ,milk1 and all dry food out of which the sun hath exhaled the gross humidity1 by which all sorts of ,pulses and ,grains become of a firmer substance4 ,so1 likewise1 ,oil is an excellent thing1 in nature more sublime and pure than ,butter40 444 ,as to the unsuspected cause of the various diseases so abundant3-- 8,many of the richest sort of people in this nation might know by woful experience1 especially in ,london1 who do yearly spend many hundreds1 ,i think ,i may say thousands1 of pounds on their ungodly paunches4 ,many of whom may save themselves that charge and trouble they are usually at in learning of ,monsieur ,nimble-heels1 the ,dancing-,master1 how to go upright2 for their bellies are swollen up to their chins1 which forces them #8to behold the sky1'#bif but not for contemplation sake you may be sure1 but out of pure necessity1 and without any more impressions of reverence towards the ,almighty ,creator than their fellow-brutes2 for their brains are sunk into their bellies2 injection and ejection is the business of their life1 and all their precious hours are spent between the platter and the glass and the close-stool4 ,are not these fine fellows to call themselves ,christians and ,right-,worshipfuls40#big ,in his xiv chapter1 8,of ,flesh and its ,operation on the ,body and ,mind10 ,tryon employs all his eloquence in proving that the practice of slaughtering for food is not only cruel and barbarous in itself1 but originates1 or1 at all events1 intensifies the worst passions of men4 ,eulogising the milder manners of the followers of ,pythagoras1 and of the ,hindus generally1 he tells his countrymen that3-- 8,the very same1 and far greater1 advantages would come to pass amongst ,christians1 if they would cease from contention1 oppression1 and 7what tends and disposes them thereunto7 the killing of other animals1 and eating their flesh and blood2 and1 in a short time1 human murders and devilish feuds and cruelties amongst each other would abate1 and1 perhaps1 scarce have a being amongst them4 ,for separation has greater power than most imagine1 whether it be from evil or from good2 for whatever any man separates himself from1 that property in him presently is weakened4 ,likewise1 separation from cruelty does wonderfully dispel the dark clouds of ignorance1 and makes the understanding able to distinguish between the good and evil principles--first in himself1 and then in all other things proportionably4 ,but so long as men live under the power of all kinds of uncleanness1 violence1 and oppression1 they cannot see any evil therein4 ,for this cause1 those who do not separate themselves from these evils1 but are contented to follow the multitude in the left-hand-way1 and resolve to continue the religion of their fore-fathers--though thereby they do but continue mere ,custom1 the greatest of tyrants--'tis1 ,i say1 impossible for such people ever to understand or know anything truly1 either of divine or of human things4444 8,it is a grand mistake of people in this age to say or suppose3 ,that ,flesh affords not only a stronger nourishment1 but also more and better than ,herbs1 ,grains1 c42 for the truth is1 it does yield more stimulation1 but not of so firm1 a substance1 nor so good as that which proceeds from the other food2 for flesh has more matter for corruption1 and nothing so soon turns to putrefaction4 ,now1 'tis certain1 such sorts of food as are subject to putrify before they are eaten1 are also liable to the same afterwards4 ,besides1 ,flesh is of soft1 moist1 gross1 phlegmy quality1 and generates a nourishment of a like nature2 thirdly1 ,flesh heats the body1 and causeth a drought2 fourthly1 ,flesh does breed great store of noxious humours2 fifthly1 it must be considered that #8beasts' and other living creatures are subject to diseases#bih and many other inconveniences1 and uncleannesses1 surfeits1 over-driving1 abuses of cruel butchers1 c41 which renders their flesh still more unwholesome4 ,but on the contrary1 all sorts of dry foods1 as ,bread1 ,cheese1 ,herbs1 and many preparations of ,milk1 ,pulses1 ,grains1 and ,fruits2 as their original is more clean1 so1 being of a sound firm nature1 they afford a more excellent nourishment1 and more easy of concoction2 so that if a man should exceed in quantity1 the ,health will not1 thereby1 be brought into such danger as by the superfluous eating of flesh4444 8,what an ill and ungrateful sight is it to behold dead carcasses1 and pieces of bloody1 raw1 flesh6 ,it would undoubtedly appear dreadful1 and no man but would abhor to think of putting it in his mouth1 had not ,use and ,custom from generation to generation familiarised it to us1 which is so prevalent1 that we read in some countries the mode is to eat the bodies of their dead parents and friends1 thinking they can no way afford them a more noble sepulchre than their own bowells4 ,and because it is usual1 they do it with as little regret or nauseousness as others have when they devour the leg of a ,rabbit or the wing of a ,lark4 ,suppose a person were bred up in a place where it were not a custom to kill and eat flesh1 and should come into our ,leadenhall ,market1 or view our ,slaughter ,houses1 and see the communication we have with dead bodies1 and how blythe and merry we are at their funerals1 and what honourable sepulchres we bury the dead carcasses of beasts in--nay1 their very guts and entrails--would he not be filled with astonishment and horror8 ,would he not count us cruel monsters1 and say we were brutified1 and performed the part of beasts of prey1 to live thus on the spoils of our fellow-creatures8 8,thus1 ,custom has awakened the inhuman1 fierce nature1 which makes killing1 handling1 and feeding upon flesh and blood1 without distinction1 so easy and familiar unto mankind4 ,and the same is to be understood of men killing and oppressing those of their own kind2 for do we not see that a soldier1 who is trained up in the wars of bloody-minded princes1 shall kill a hundred men without any trouble or regret of spirit1 and such as have given him no more offence than a sheep has given the butcher that cuts her throat4 ,if men have but ,power and ,custom on their side1 they think all is well40 ,whatever may be thought of the zealous attempt of the pious author to meet the assertions of the 7practical7 materialists1 who draw their arguments from the ,jewish ,sacred ,scriptures1 or elsewhere1 his replies to the common subterfuges or prejudices of the orthodox dietists are able and conclusive4 ,his humane arguments1 indeed1 are worthy of the most advanced thinkers of the present day2 and those who are versed in the anti-kreophagist literature of the last thirty years--in the controversy in the press1 and on the platform--will1 perhaps1 be surprised to find that the ordinary prejudices or subterfuges of this year 8of ,grace0 are identical with those current in the year #afhc4 ,we wish that we could transcribe some of these replies4 ,we cannot forbear1 however1 to quote his representation of the changed condition of things under the imagined humanitarian rgime3-- 8,here all contention ceaseth1 no hideous cries nor mournful groans are heard1 neither of man nor of #8beast4' ,no channels running with the blood of slaughtered animals1 no stinking shambles1 nor bloody butchers4 ,no roaring of cannons1 nor firing of towns4 ,no loathsome stinking prisons1 nor iron grates to keep men from enjoying their wife1 children1 and the pleasant air2 nor no crying for want of food and clothes4 ,no rioting1 nor wanton inventions to destroy as much in one day as a thousand can get by their hard labour and travel4 ,no dreadful execrations and coarse language4 ,no galloping horses up hills1 without any consideration or fellow-feeling of the victim's pains and burdens4 ,no deflowering of virgins1 and then exposing them and their own young to all the miseries imaginable4 ,no letting lands and farms so dear that the farmer must be forced to oppress himself1 servants1 and cattle almost to death1 and all too little to pay his rent4 ,no oppressions of inferiors by superiors2 neither is there any want1 because there is no superfluity nor gluttony4 ,no noise nor cries of wounded men4 ,no need of chirurgeons to cut bullets out of their flesh2 nor no cutting off hands1 broken legs1 and arms4 ,no roaring nor crying out with the torturing pains of the gout1 nor other painful diseases 7as leprous and consumptive distempers71 except through age1 and the relics of some strain they got whilst they lived intemperately4 ,neither are their children afflicted with such a great number of diseases2 but are as free from distempers as lambs1 calves1 or the young ones of any of the #8beasts' who are preserved sound and healthful1 because they have not outraged ,god's law in ,nature1 the breaking of which is the foundation of most1 or all1 cruel diseases that afflict mankind2 there being nothing that makes the difference between ,man and #8,beasts' in health1 but only superfluity and intemperance1 both in quality and in quantity40 ,his chapter1 in which he deals with the relations between the sexes and the married state1 shews him to have been as much in advance of his time1 in a sound knowledge and apprehension of ,physiology1 and of the laws of ,health1 in that important part of hygienic science1 as he was in the special branch of ,diet4#bii ,affixed to this work is a very remarkable ,essay1 in the shape of ,a ,dialogue between an ,east-,indian ,brachman and a ,french ,gentleman1 concerning the ,present ,affairs of ,europe4 ,in this admirable piece1 the author ably exposes the folly no less than the horrors of war--and1 in particular1 religious war--all which he ultimately traces to the first source--the iniquities and barbarism of the ,shambles4 ,the ,dialogue is worthy of the most trenchant of the humanitarian writers of the next century4 ,it was by meeting with ,the ,way to ,health that ,benjamin ,franklin1 in his youth1 was induced to abandon the flesh-diet1 to which revolutionary measure he ascribes his success1 as well as health in after life4 ,,ix4 ,,hecquet4 #affa-agcg4 ,this meritorious medical reformer1 at first intended for the ,church1 happily 7in the event7 adopted the profession which he has so truly adorned1 by his virtues1 as well as by his enlightened labours4 ,after a long and severe course of ,anatomy and ,physiology1 in #afhd he was admitted as 8,doctor0 at ,reims1 and as ,fellow 7,agrg7 in the ,college of ,physicians in his native town4 ,he then returned to ,paris to perfect himself in physiological science4 ,disgusted with the tricasseries which were excited against him by the members of his profession1 he withdrew 7in #afhh7 to ,port-,royal-des-,champs1 where he succeeded ,hamon1 who had just died1 as physician4 ,here he practised the reforms he taught1 while he devoted himself to the most laborious works of charity1 giving all his time and attention to the poor for several leagues round1 and travelling the distances1 great as they were1 on foot4 ,his health enfeebled by excessive labour in this way1 he was induced to retire from his post at ,port-,royal1 and he went back to the capital where1 having gone through the necessary formalities1 he was regularly enrolled as ,doctor of the ,paris ,university1 receiving the official hat after an examination of 8rare success0 7#afig74 ,soon afterwards the ,faculty named him ,docteur-,rgent1 and appointed him to the post of ,professor of ,materia ,medica4 8,hecquet had soon numerous and illustrious patients1 and his services were eagerly sought for1 particularly in religious communities and in hospitals4 ,he attached himself to that of ,charity40 ,in #agab he was named ,dean of the ,faculty4 ,in the midst of so much work1 he found time to publish several medical books4 8,he exercised his art with a noble disinterestedness4 ,the poor were his favourite patients4 ,he presented himself at the houses of the rich only when absolutely obliged1 or when courtesy required it4 ,he had much studied his art1 and contributed with all his power1 to advance it1 as well by his writings as by his guidance and encouragement of young physicians4444 ,he was in correspondence with the most famous savants and physicians of his age4 ,his style in ,latin is correct1 and does not want eloquence2 in ,french he is more negligent1 and a little unpolished4 ,he was animated 7vif7 in debate1 and strongly attached to his opinions2 but he sought ,truth in good faith40 ,amongst his numerous works are3-- ,de l',indcence aux ,hommes d',accoucher les ,femmes1 et de l',obligation1 de ,celles-ci de nourrir leurs enfants4 7,on the ,indecency of ,male ,physicians ,attending ,women in ,child-,birth7 #agjh4 ,trait des ,dispenses du ,carme1 #agji--;his most celebrated book4 ,de la ,digestion et des ,maladies de l',estomac1 #agab4 ,novus ,medicin ,conspectus cum ,appendice ,de ,peste1 #agbb4 8,he there combats the various systems upon the origin of diseases1 which he attributes to the disorders which supervene1 in accordance with the laws which direct the movement of the blood30 the ,plague1 upon which he writes1 was desolating the south of ,france at that time4 ,also1 at this period1 various brochures upon the ,small-,pox4 ,la ,mdecine1 la ,chirurgie1 et la ,pharmacie des ,pauvres 7#agdj-b71 his most popular book--,la ,brigandage de la ,mdecine 7#agee71 which he supplemented with ,brigandage de la ,chirurgie1 et de la ,pharmacie--will sufficiently mark his attitude towards the orthodox ,schools of ,medicine of his day4 ,le ,naturalisme des ,convulsions dans les ,maladies 7#agee71 with several other books upon the same subject4 ,the history of the ,convulsionnaires occupies a curious episode in the religious history of the period1 as it has occupied1 and1 in some measure still1 in fact1 occupies the attention of physiologists and psychologists of our own age4 ,hecquet1 with the physiologists of the present time1 attributes the phenomena to physical and natural causes4 ,la ,mdecine ,naturelle3 8in this work the author alleges that it is not in the blood only that is to be sought the causes of maladies1 but also in the nervous fluid40#cjj ,the books in which he treats of reform in ,dietetics are the ,trait des ,dispenses and ,la ,mdecine des ,pauvres4 ,however dietetically heterodox and heretical1 the author of ,the ,treatise on ,dispensations was of unsuspected ecclesiastical as well as theological orthodoxy2 yet he takes occasion1 at the outset of his book1 to reproach his ,church with its indifferentism towards so essentially important a matter as ,dietetics--scientific or moral3-- 8,it will1 perhaps1 be found that much theology enters into this undertaking4 ,we acknowledge it4 ,one might even expect that some zealous ecclesiastic or other would have done himself the credit of sustaining so beautiful a cause 7que quelque ecclesiastique zel se seroit fait gloire de soutenir une si belle cause74 ,it might be hoped1 especially in an age like ours1 when physical science is in honour and for the benefit of everyone1 and in which ,medicine has become the property of every condition4444 ,it ought then to have been the duty of so many ,abbs1 ,monks and ,religious ,orders1 who invest themselves with the titles of physicians--who receive their pay1 who fill their employments--to advocate this part of ecclesiastical discipline abstinence4 ,but1 instead of doing so1 though they undertake the care of the body1 they1 in fact1 apply themselves solely to the healing of maladies4444 ,one can see enough of it1 nevertheless1 to be convinced that the public has gained less from their secrets than they themselves1 while their patients die more than ever under their hands44440 ,in ,chap4 ,,vi41 ,que les ,fruits1 les ,grains1 les ,legumes sont les ,alimens les plus ,naturels l',homme1 after appealing to ,gen4 i4 and 8the ,garden of ,eden10 ,hecquet proceeds to insist that our foods should be analogous and consistent with the juices which maintain our life2 and these are ,fruits1 ,grains1 ,seeds1 and ,roots4 ,but prejudice1 of long standing1 opposes itself to this truth4 ,the false ideas attached to certain traditional terms have warped the minds of the majority of the world1 and they have succeeded in persuading themselves that it is upon stimulating foods that depend the strength and health of men4 ,from thence has come the love of wine1 of spirituous liquors1 and of gross meats4 ,the ambiguity 7quivoque7 comes from confounding the idea of ,remedy with that of ,food4 8,here the greater part of the world take alarm4 #8,how1' say they1 #8can we be supported on ,grains1 which furnish but dry meal1 fitter to cloy than to nourish2 on ,fruits1 which are but condensed water2 with vegetables1 which are fit but for manure 7fumier78' ,but this meal1 well prepared1 forms ,bread1 the strongest of all aliments1 this condensed water is the same that has caused the ,trees to attain so great bulk1 this fumier becomes such only because they prepare vegetables badly1 and eat of them to excess4 ,besides1 how can men affect to fear failure in strength1 in eating what nourishes even the most robust animals1 who would become even formidable to us1 if only they knew their own strength40 ,in ,chap4 ,,vii41 ,que l',usage de la ,viande n'est pas le plus naturel l',homme1 ni absolument ,ncessaire1 he remarks3-- 8,it is incredible how much ,prejudice has been allowed to operate in favour of flesh meat1 while so many facts are opposed to the pretended necessity of its use40 ,having entered into the physiological argument1 now so well-worn1 among other reasons he adduces the fact that 8the soundest part of the world1 or the most enlightened1 have believed in the obligation to abstain from flesh10 and 8the very nature of flesh1 which is digested with difficulty1 and which furnishes the worst juices40 ,nature being uniform in her method of procedure1 is anything else necessary to determine whether ,man is intended to live upon flesh-meats than to compare the organs which have to prepare them for his nourishment1 with those of animals whom ,nature manifestly has destined for carnage8 ,and herein it may be clearly recognised1 since men have neither fangs nor talons to tear flesh1 that it is very far from being the food most natural to them4 ,he quotes numerous examples of eminent persons1 as well as of nations in all times1 and adds1 as an argument not easy to be answered1 that3-- 8,it is proved it would not be difficult to nourish animals who live on flesh with non-flesh substances1 while it is almost impossible to nourish with flesh those who live ordinarily upon vegetable substances40 ,hecquet devotes several chapters to a description of various ,fruits and ,herbs1 and also of various kinds of ,fish1 which he holds to be much less objectionable and more innocent food than flesh4 ,comparing the two diets1 we must acknowledge3-- 8,it causes our nature to revolt1 and excites horror to eat raw flesh1 and as it is presented to us naturally2 and it becomes supportable for us to the taste and to the sight only after long preparation of cooking1 which deprives it of what is inhuman and disgusting in its original state2 and1 often1 it is only after many various preparations and strange seasonings that it can become agreeable or sanitarily good4 ,it is not so with other meats3 the majority1 as they come from the hand of ,nature1 without cookery and without art1 are found proper to nourish1 and are pleasant to the taste--plain proof that they are intended by ,nature to maintain our health4 ,fruits are of such property that1 when well-chosen and quite ripe1 they excite the appetite by their own virtue1 and might become1 without preparation1 sufficing4444 ,if ,vegetables or ,fish have need of fire to accommodate them to our nature1 the fire appears to be used less to correct these sorts of foods than to penetrate them1 to make them soft and tender1 and to develope what in them is most proper and suitable for health4444 ,in fine1 it is clear that vegetables and fish have need of less1 and less strange and rcherch1 condiments--all sensible marks that these aliments are the most natural and suited to man40#cja ,hecquet's ,trait des ,dispenses received the formal approval and commendation of several 8doctors regent0 of the ,faculty of ,medicine of the ,paris ,university1 which testimonies are prefixed to the second edition of #agaj4 ,with his ,english contemporary1 ,dr4 ,cheyne1 and other medical reformers1 however1 he experienced much insult and ridicule from anonymous professional critics4 ,x4 ,,pope4 #afhh-agdd4 ,primque e cde ferarum ,incaluisse putem maculatum sanguine ferrum4 7,ovid ,metam4 ,,xv4 #ajf74 8,i cannot think it extravagant to imagine that mankind are no less1 in proportion1 accountable for the ill use of their dominion over the lower ranks of ,beings1 than for the exercise of tyranny over their own species4 ,the more entirely the inferior creation is submitted to our power1 the more answerable we should seem for the mismanagement of it2 and the rather1 as the very condition of ,nature renders these beings incapable of receiving any recompense in another life1 for their ill-treatment in this4 8,it is observable of those noxious animals1 who have qualities most powerful to injure us1 that they naturally avoid mankind1 and never hurt us unless provoked1 or necessitated by hunger4 ,man1 on the other hand1 seeks out and pursues even the most inoffensive animals on purpose to persecute and destroy them4 ,montaigne thinks it some reflection on human nature itself1 that few people take delight in seeing #8beasts' caress or play together1 but almost every one is pleased to see them lacerate and worry one another4 8,i am sorry this temper is become almost a distinguishing character of our own nation1 from the observation which is made by foreigners of our beloved ,pastimes--,bear-baiting1 ,cock-fighting1 and the like4 ,we should find it hard to vindicate the destroying of anything that has ,life1 merely out of wantonness4 ,yet in this principle our children are bred1 and one of the first pleasures we allow them is the licence of inflicting ,pain upon poor animals4 ,almost as soon as we are sensible what ,life is ourselves1 we make it our ,sport to take it from other beings4 ,i cannot but believe a very good use might be made of the fancy which children have for ,birds and ,insects4 ,mr4 ,locke takes notice of a mother who permitted them to her children2 but rewarded or punished them as they treated well or ill4 ,this was no other than entering them betimes into a daily exercise of ,humanity1 and improving their very diversion to a ,virtue4 8,i fancy1 too1 some advantage might be taken of the common notion1 that 'tis ominous or unlucky to destroy some sorts of ,birds1 as ,swallows or ,martins4 ,this opinion might possibly arise from the confidence these ,birds seem to put in us1 by building under our roofs1 so that it is a kind of violation of the laws of ,hospitality to murder them4 ,as for ,robin-red-breasts1 in particular1 'tis not improbable they owe their security to the old ballad of the ,children in the ,wood4 ,however it be1 ,i don't know1 ,i say1 why this prejudice1 well-improved and carried as far as it would go1 might not be made to conduce to the preservation of many innocent beings1 who are now exposed to all the wantonness of an ignorant barbarity4444 8,when we grow up to be men we have another succession of sanguinary ,sports--in particular1 ,hunting4 ,i dare not attack a diversion which has such ,authority and ,custom to support it2 but must have leave to be of opinion1 that the agitation of that exercise1 with the example and number of the chasers1 not a little contribute to resist those checks which ,compassion would naturally suggest in behalf of the ,animal pursued4 ,nor shall ,i say1 with ,m4 ,fleury1 that this sport is a remain of the ,gothic ,barbarity2 but ,i must animadvert upon a certain custom yet in use with us1 barbarous enough to be derived from the ,goths or even the ,scythians--,i mean that savage compliment our ,huntsmen pass upon ladies of quality who are present at the death of a ,stag1 when they put the knife into their hands to cut the throat of a helpless1 trembling1 and weeping creature4 8,questuque cruentus1 ,atque imploranti similis40#cjb 8,but if our #8,sports' are destructive1 our ,gluttony is more so1 and in a more inhuman manner4 ,lobsters roasted alive1 ,pigs whipt to death1 ,fowls sewed up1#cjc are testimonies of our outrageous ,luxury4 ,those who 7as ,seneca expresses it7 divide their lives betwixt an anxious ,conscience and a ,nauseated ,stomach1 have a just reward of their gluttony in the diseases it brings with it4 ,for human savages1 like other wild beasts1 find snares and poison in the provisions of life1 and are allured by their appetite to their destruction4 ,i know nothing more shocking or horrid than the prospect of one of their kitchens covered with blood1 and filled with the cries of ,beings expiring in tortures4 ,it gives one an image of a giant's den in a romance1 bestrewed with the scattered heads and mangled limbs of those who were slain by his cruelty4 8,the excellent ,plutarch 7who has more strokes of good nature in his writings than ,i remember in any author7 cites a saying of ,cato to this effect3--,that 'tis no easy task to preach to the ,belly which has no ears4 ,yet if 7says he7 we are ashamed to be so out of fashion as not to offend1 let us at least offend with some discretion and measure4 ,if we kill an animal for our provision1 let us do it with the meltings of compassion1 and without tormenting it4 ,let us consider that it is1 in its own nature1 cruelty to put a living being to death--we1 at least destroy a soul that has sense and perception4#cjd 8,history tells us of a wise and polite nation that rejected a person of the first quality1 who stood for a justiciary office1 only because he had been observed1 in his youth1 to take pleasure in teasing and murdering of ,birds4 ,and of another that expelled a man out of the ,senate for dashing a bird against the ground who had taken refuge in his bosom4 ,every one knows how remarkable the ,turks are for their ,humanity in this kind4 ,i remember an ,arabian author1 who has written a ,treatise to show how far a man1 supposed to have subsisted in a desert island1 without any instruction1 or so much as the sight of any other man1 may1 by the pure light of ,nature1 attain the knowledge of ,philosophy and ,virtue4 ,one of the first things he makes him observe is the benevolence of ,nature1 in the protection and preservation of her creatures4#cje ,in imitation of which1 the first act of virtue he thinks his self-taught philosopher would1 of course1 fall into1 is to relieve and assist all the animals about them in their wants and distresses4444 8,perhaps that voice or cry1 so nearly resembling the human1 with which ,nature has endowed so many different animals1 might purposely be given them to move our ,pity1 and prevent those cruelties we are to apt to inflict upon our ,fellow ,creatures40 ,pope quotes1 in part1 the admirable verses of ,ovid1 ,metam4 ,,xv41 with ,dryden's translation--and an apposite fable of the ,persian ,pilpai1 which illustrates the base ingratitude of men who torture and slaughter their fellow labourers4--8,i know it0 7this common ingratitude7 said the ,cow1 8by woful experience2 for ,i have served a man this long time with milk1 butter1 and cheese1 and brought him1 besides1 a ,calf every year--but now ,i am old1 he turns me into this pasture with design to sell me to a butcher1 who1 shortly1 will make an end of me40--,the ,guardian1 ,,lxi1 ,may #ba1 #agac4 ,with ,pilpai or ,bidpai's fable1 compare that of ,la ,fontaine on the same subject--,l',homme et la ,couleuvre4 ,,xi4 ,,chesterfield4 #afid-aggc4 ,to the expression of the opinion or feeling of ,lord ,chesterfield on butchering1 given1 in its place1 in the body of this work 7page #adj71 is here subjoined the remainder of his paper in ,the ,world4 ,the value of such testimony may be deemed proportionate to the extreme rarity of any protests of this sort from those who1 by their influential position1 are the most bound to make them3-- 8,although this reflection the fact of the preying of the stronger upon the weaker throughout ,nature had force enough to dispythagorise me before my companions in his college at the ,university of ,oxford had time to make observations upon my behaviour1 which could by no means have turned to my advantage in the world1 ,i for a great while retained so tender a regard for all my fellow-creatures1 that ,i have several times brought myself into imminent peril by putting butcher-boys in mind1 that their ,sheep were going to die1 and that they walked full as fast as could reasonably be expected1 without the cruel blows they were so liberal in bestowing upon them4 ,as ,i commonly came off the worst in these disputes1 and as ,i could not but observe that ,i often aggravated1 never diminished1 the ill-treatment of these innocent sufferers1 ,i soon found it necessary to consult my own ease1 as well as security1 by turning down another street1 whenever ,i met with an adventure of this kind1 rather than be compelled to be a spectator of what would shock me1 or be provoked to run myself into danger1 without the least advantage to those whom ,i would assist4 8,i have kept strictly1 ever since1 to this method of fleeing from the sight of cruelty1 wherever ,i could find ground-room for it2 and ,i make no manner of doubt1 that ,i have more than once escaped the horns of a ,mad ,ox1 as all of that species are called1 that do not choose to be tortured as well as killed4 ,but1 on the other hand1 these escapes of mine have very frequently run me into great inconveniences4 ,i have sometimes been led into such a series of blind alleys1 that it has been matter of great difficulty to me to find my way out of them4 ,i have been betrayed by my hurry into the middle of a market--the proper residence of ,inhumanity4 ,i have paid many a six-and-eightpence for non-appearance at the hour my lawyer had appointed for business2 and1 what would hurt some people worse than all the rest1 ,i have frequently arrived too late for the dinners ,i have been invited to at the houses of my friends4 8,all these difficulties and distresses1 ,i began to flatter myself1 were going to be removed1 and that ,i should be left at liberty to pursue my walks through the straightest and broadest streets1 when ,mr4 ,hogarth first published his ,prints upon the subject of ,cruelty4#cjf ,but whatever success so much ingenuity1 founded upon so much humanity1 might deserve1 all the hopes ,i had built of seeing a ,reformation1 proved vain and fruitless4 ,i am sorry to say it1 but there still remain in the streets of this metropolis1 more scenes of ,barbarity than1 perhaps1 are to be met with in all ,europe besides4 ,asia 7at least in the larger population of it--the ,hindus7 is well known for compassion to #8brutes'2 and nobody who has read ,busbequius1 will wonder at me for most heartily wishing that our common people were no crueller than ,turks4 8,i should have apprehensions of being laughed at1 were ,i to complain of want of compassion in our ,laws 62 the very word seeming contradictory to any idea of it4 ,but ,i will venture to own that to me it appears strange1 that the men against whom ,i should be enabled to bring an action for laying a little dirt at my door1 may1 with impunity1 drive by it half-a-dozen ,calves1 with their tails lopped close to their bodies and their hinder parts covered with blood4444 8,to conclude this subject--as ,i cannot but join in opinion with ,mr4 ,hogarth1 that the frequency of murders among us is greatly owing to those scenes of ,cruelty1 which the lower ranks of people are so much accustomed to2 instead of multiplying such scenes1 ,i should rather hope that some proper method might be fixed upon either for preventing them1 or removing them out of sight2 so that our infants might not grow up into the world in a familiarity with blood4 8,if we may believe the ,naturalists1 that a ,lion is a gentle animal until his tongue has been dipped in blood1 what precaution ought we to use to prevent ,,man from being inured to it1 who has such superiority of power to do mischief40--,the ,world1 ,no4 ,,lxi41 ,aug4 #ai1 #agef4 ,,xii4 ,,jenyns4 #agjd-aghg4 ,a supporter of the ,walpole ,administration1 he represented the county of ,cambridge1 and during twenty-five years held the office of ,commissioner of the ,board of ,trade4 ,he wrote papers in ,the ,world and other periodicals1 and published two volumes of ,poems4 ,his principal book is the ,free ,enquiry into the ,origin of ,evil1 in which he seeks to reconcile the obvious evils in the constitution of things with his optimistic creed4 ,johnson1 who1 with all his orthodoxy1 was pessimistic1 severely criticised this apology for ,theism4 ,in striking contrast with the indifferentism of the vast majority of his class1 his just and humane feeling is sufficiently remarkable4 ,the line of reasoning1 in his comprehensive arraignment of the various atrocities perpetrated1 sanctioned1 or condoned by ,english ,society or ,english ,law in the last century1 and which1 for the most part1 still continue 7it is scarcely necessary to add71 logically leads to the abolition of the ,slaughter-,house--the fountain and origin of the evil3-- 8,how will ,man1 that sanguinary ,tyrant1 be able to excuse himself from the charge of those innumerable cruelties inflicted on his unoffending subjects1 committed to his care1 and placed under his authority1 by their common father8 ,to what horrid deviations from these benevolent intentions are we daily witnesses6 ,no small part of ,mankind derive their chief amusement from the deaths and sufferings of inferior ,animals4 ,a much greater part still1 consider them only as engines of wood or iron1 useful in their several occupations4 ,the ,carman drives his ,horse as the ,carpenter his nail by repeated blows2 and so long as these produce the desired effect1 and they both go1 they neither reflect nor care whether either of them have any sense of feeling4 8,the ,butcher knocks down the stately ,ox with no more compassion than the ,blacksmith hammers a horse-shoe1 and plunges his knife into the throat of the innocent ,lamb with as little reluctance as the ,tailor sticks his needle into the collar of a coat4#cjg ,if there are some few who1 formed in a softer mould1 view with pity the sufferings of these defenceless beings1 there is scarce one who entertains the least idea that ,justice or ,gratitude can be due to their ,merits or their ,services4 8,the social and friendly ,dog1 if by barking1 in defence of his master's person and property1 he happens unknowingly to disturb his rest--the generous ,horse1 who has carried his ungrateful master for many years1 with ease and safety1 worn out with age and infirmities contracted in his service1 is by him condemned to end his miserable days in a dust-cart1 where the more he exerts his little remains of spirit1 the more he is whipped to save his stupid driver the trouble of whipping some other less obedient to the lash4 ,sometimes1 having been taught the practice of many unnatural and useless feats in a ,riding-,house1 he is1 at last1 turned out and consigned to the dominion of a hackney-coachman1 by whom he is every day corrected for performing those tricks which he has learned under so long and severe a discipline4 ,add the final horrors of the ,knackers' ,yard1 to which sort of hell the worn-out ,horse is usually consigned4 8,the ,sluggish ,bear1 in contradiction to his nature1 is taught to dance1 for the diversion of an ignorant mob1 by placing red-hot irons under his feet4 ,the majestic ,bull is tortured by every mode that malice can invent1 for no offence but that he is unwilling to assail his diabolical tormentors4#cjh ,these and innumerable other acts of ,cruelty1 ,injustice1 and ,ingratitude are every day committed--not only with impunity1 but without censure1 and even without observation4444 8,the law of self-defence1 undoubtedly1 justifies us in destroying those animals that would destroy us1 that injure our properties1 or annoy our persons2 but not even these1 whenever their situation incapacitates them from hurting us4444 8,if there are any there are vast numbers even now1 whose tastes are so vitiated1 and whose hearts are so hardened1 as to delight in such inhuman sacrifices the tortures of the ,slaughter-,house and of the ,kitchen1 and to partake of them without remorse1 they should be looked upon as demons in human shape1 and expect a retaliation of those tortures which they have inflicted on the ,innocent for the gratification of their own depraved and unnatural appetites4 8,so violent are the passions of anger and revenge in the human breast1 that it is not wonderful that men should persecute their real or imaginary enemies with cruelty and malevolence4 ,but that there should exist in ,nature a being who can receive pleasure from giving pain would be totally incredible1 if we were not convinced by melancholy experience that there are not only many--but that this unaccountable disposition is in some manner inherent in the nature of men4#cji ,for as he cannot be taught by example1 nor led to it by temptation1 nor prompted to it by interest1 it must be derived from his native constitution4#caj 8,we see children laughing at the miseries which they inflict on every unfortunate animal who comes within their power4 ,all ,savages are ingenious in contriving and executing the most exquisite tortures1 and not alone the common people of all countries are delighted with nothing so much as with ,bull-,baitings1 ,prize-,fightings1 #8,executions1' and all spectacles of cruelty and horror4444 ,they arm ,cocks with artificial weapons which ,nature had kindly denied to their malevolence1 and with shouts of applause and triumph see them plunge them into each other's hearts4 ,they view with delight the trembling ,deer and defenceless ,hare flying for hours in the utmost agonies of terror and despair1 and1 at last1 sinking under fatigue1 devoured by their merciless pursuers4 ,they see with joy the beautiful ,pheasant and harmless ,partridge drop from their flight1 weltering in their blood1 or1 perhaps1 perishing with wounds and hunger under the cover of some friendly thicket1 to which they have in vain retreated for safety4444 ,and to add to all this1 they spare neither labour nor expense to preserve and propagate these innocent animals for no other end than to multiply the objects of their persecution4 8,what name should we bestow upon a ,supreme ,being whose whole endeavours were employed1 and whose whole pleasure consisted1 in terrifying1 ensnaring1 tormenting1 and destroying mankind2 whose superior faculties were exerted in fomenting animosities amongst them1 in contriving engines of destruction1 inciting them to use them in maiming and murdering each other2 whose power over them was employed in assisting the rapacious1 deceiving the simple1 and oppressing the innocent8 ,who1 without provocation or advantage1 should continue1 from day to day1 void of all pity and remorse1 thus to torment mankind for diversion2 and1 at the same time1 endeavouring1 with the utmost care1 to preserve their lives and propagate their species1 in order to increase the number of victims devoted to his malevolence8 ,i say1 what name detestable enough could we find for such a being4 ,yet if we impartially consider the case1 and our intermediate situation1 with respect to inferior animals1 just such a being is a #8,sportsman1' and let us add1 by way of corollary1 fortiori one who consciously sanctions the daily and hourly cruelties of the ,slaughter-,house and the ,butcher40--,disquisition ,,ii4 8,on ,cruelty to ,animals10 by ,soame ,jenyns4 ,,xiii4 ,,pressavin4 #agej4 ,an eminent ,surgeon of ,lyon1 in the ,medical and ,surgical ,college of which city he held a professorship1 and where he collected an extensive ,anatomical ,museum4 ,at the ,revolution of #aghi he embraced its principles with ardour1 and filled the posts of ,municipal ,officer and of ,procureur de la ,commune4 ,on the day of the ,lyon executions1 under the direction of the revolutionary tribunals1 ,sept4 #i1 #agib1 ,pressavin intervened1 and attempted to save several of the condemned4 ,in the ,convention ,nationale1 to which he had been elected deputy1 he voted for the execution of the ,king2 in other respects he was opposed to the extreme measures of the violent revolutionists1 and in ,sept41 #agic1 he was expelled from the ,society of the ,jacobins4 ,in #agih he was named ,member of the ,council of ,five ,hundred1 for two years1 by the department of the ,rhone4 ,the date of his death seems to be uncertain4 ,his chief writings are3-- ,trait des ,maladies des ,nerfs1 #agfi4 ,trait des ,maladies ,vnriennes1 o l'on indique un ,nouveau ,remde1 #hvo41 #aggc4 ,last1 and most important1 ,l',art de ,prolonger la ,vie et de ,conserver la ,sant1 #hvo4 ,paris1 #aghf4 ,it was translated into ,spanish1 ,madrid1 #hvo41 #agii4 ,pressavin thus expresses his convictions as to the fatal effects of ,kreophagy3-- 8,we cannot doubt that1 if ,man had always limited himself to the use of the nourishment destined for his organs1 he would not be seen1 to-day1 to have become the victim of this multitude of maladies which1 by a premature death1 mows down 7moissonne7 the greatest number of individuals1 before ,age or ,nature has put bounds to the career of his life4 ,other ,animals1 on the contrary1 almost all arrive at that term without having experienced any infirmity4 ,i speak of those who live free in the fields2 for those whom we have subjected to our needs 7real or pretended71 and whom we call domestic1 share in the penalty of our abuses1 experience nearly the same alteration in their temperament1 and become subject to an infinity of maladies from which ,wild ,animals are exempt4 8,men1 then1 coming from the hands of ,nature1 lived a long time without thinking of immolating living beings to gratify 7s'assouvir7 their appetite4 ,they are1 without doubt1 those happy times which our ancient poets have represented to us under the agreeable allegory of the ,golden ,age4 ,in fact ,man1 by natural organisation mild1 nourishing himself only on vegetable-foods1 must have been originally of pacific disposition1 quite fitted 7bien propre7 to maintain among his fellows that happy ,peace which makes the delights of ,society4 ,ferocity1 ,i repeat it1 is peculiar to carnivorous animals2 the blood which they imbibe maintains that character in them4444 8,but if this faculty 7reflection71 which is called ,reason1 has furnished ,man with so great resources for extending his enjoyments and increasing his well-being1 how many evils have not the multiplied abuses1 which he has made of them1 drawn upon him8 ,that which regards his ,food is not the one of them which has least contributed to his degradation1 as well physical as moral4444 8,among other evidences of this1 country-people1 who subsist upon the non-flesh diet1 are exempt from the multitude of maladies which engender corruption of the juices of the blood1 such as humoral1 putrid1 and malign fevers1 from ,apoplexy1 from ,cachexy1 from ,gout1 and from an infinity of miserable disorders--their offspring2 they arrive at a very advanced ,age1 free from the infirmities which early affect our old ,sybarites4 ,on the contrary1 the inhabitants of towns1 who make flesh their principal food1 pass their lives miserably1 a prey to all these maladies which one may regard1 for that reason1 endemic among them4 8,another very evident proof that ,flesh is not a food natural to man is that1 whoever has abstained1 during a certain time1 when he goes back to it--it is rare that this new regimen does not soon become in him the germ of a disease1 the graver in proportion to the abstinence from that food4 ,we have opportunities of observing this after the ,fasts of the ,catholics--in the majority of those who have faithfully practised abstinence from flesh40 ,he admits that there may be some constitutions1 whose organs of digestion have been so corrupted by the long use of flesh1 that a sudden change may be unadvisable2 but a gradual reform cannot but be always beneficial3-- 8,i do not doubt that ,apoplexy1 that fatal ,malady so common among the rich people of the towns1 might be escaped by those who are threatened with it1 by entire abstinence from flesh4 ,a ,sanguine or humoral plethora is always the predisposing cause of this disease4 ,a sudden rarefaction of the blood or of the humours in the vessels is the proximate cause of it2 this rarefaction takes place only by the predisposition of the juices of the body to corruption40 ,pressavin devotes a considerable proportion of his ,treatise to the arguments from ,comparative ,physiology4--,while firmly persuaded both of the unnaturalness1 and of the fatal mischiefs1 of the diet of blood1#caa he expresses his despair of an early triumph of ,reason and ,humanity by means of a general dietetic reformation4#cab ,,xiv4 ,,schiller4 #agei-ahje4 ,after ,goethe the greatest of ,german ,poets1 began life as a surgeon in the army4 ,in his twenty-second year he produced his first drama1 ,die ,ruber 78,the ,robbers074 ,some passages in it betrayed the 8cloven hoof0 of revolutionary1 or at least democratic1 bias1 and he brought upon himself the displeasure of the sovereign ,duke of ,wrtemberg1 in consequence of which he was forced to leave ,stuttgart4 ,his principal dramas are ,wallenstein1 ,wilhelm ,tell1 ,die ,jungfrau von ,orleans1 ,maria ,stuart1 and ,don ,carlos1 of which ,wallenstein is1 usually1 placed first in merit4 ,even greater than the dramatic power of ,schiller is the genius of his ballad poetry1 and in lyrical inspiration he is the equal of ,goethe4 ,das ,lied von der ,glocke 78,the ,lay of the ,bell071 one of his most widely-known ballads1 is also one of the most beautiful in its kind4 ,in prose literature1 his ,briefe ,philosophische 78,philosophical ,letters071 and his correspondence with his great poetical rival1 are the most interesting of his writings4 ,in ,das ,eleusische ,fest 78,the ,eleusinian ,feast07 and ,der ,alpenjger 78,the ,hunter of the ,alps07 are to be found the humanitarian sentiments as follow3-- ,schwelgend bei dem ,siegesmahle ,findet sie die rohe ,schaar1 ,und die blutgefllte ,schaale ,bringt man ihr zum ,opfer dar ,aber schauernd1 mit ,entsetzen1 ,wendet sie sich weg and spricht3 ',blut'ge ,tigermahle netzen ,eines ,gottes ,lippen nicht4 ,reine ,opfer will er haben ,frchte1 die der ,herbst bescheert-- ,mit des ,feldes frommen gaben ,wird der ,heilige verehrt4 ,und sie nimmt die ,wucht des ,speeres ,aus des ,jger's rauher hand2 ,mit dem ,schaft des ,mordgewehres ,furchet sie den leichten ,sand1 ,nimmt von ihres ,kranzes ,spitze ,einen ,kern mit ,kraft gefllt1 ,senkt ihn in die zarte ,ritze1 ,und der ,trieb des ,keimes schwillt4#cac 99 99 99 99 99 ,mit des ,jammers ,stummen ,blicken ,fleht sie zu dem harten ,mann1 ,fleht umsonst1 denn1 loszudrcken1 ,legt er schon den ,bogen an2 ,pltzlich aus der ,felsenspalte ,tritt der ,geist1 der ,bergesalte ,und mit seinen ,gtterhnden ,schtzt er das gequlte ,thier3 8,musst du ,tod und ,jammer ,senden0 ,ruft er 8bis herauf zu mir8 ,raum fur alle hat die ,erde ,was verfolgst du meine ,heerde80#cad ,,xv4 ,,bentham4 #agdi-ahcb4 ,this great legal reformer was educated at ,westminster1 and at the age of thirteen proceeded to ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford4 ,at the age of sixteen he took his first degree in ,arts4 ,the mental uneasiness with which he signed the obligatory test of the 8,thirty-nine ,articles0 he vividly recorded in after years4 ,at the ,bar1 which he soon afterwards entered1 his prospects were unusually promising2 but unable to reconcile his standard of ethics with the recognised morality of the ,profession1 he soon withdrew from it4 ,his first publication1--,a ,fragment on ,government1 #aggf--which appeared without his name1 was assigned to some of the most distinguished men of the day4 ,his next1 and principal work1 was his ,introduction to the ,principles of ,morals and ,legislation 7#aghj71 not published until #aghi4 ,at this period he travelled extensively in the ,east of ,europe4 ,panopticon3 or the ,inspection-,house 7on prison discipline71 appeared in #agia4 ,the ,book of ,fallacies 7reviewed by ,sidney ,smith1 in the ,edinburgh71 in which the 8wisdom of our ancestors0 delusion was1 mercilessly exposed 7#ahbd71 is the best known1 and is the most lively of all his writings4 ,rationale of ,judicial ,procedure1 and the ,constitutional ,code1 are those which have had most influence in effecting legislative and judicial reform4 ,bentham stands in the front rank of legal reformers2 and as a fearless and consistent opponent of the iniquities of the ,english ,criminal ,law1 in particular1 he has deserved the gratitude and respect of all thoughtful minds4 ,yet1 during some sixty years1 he was constantly held up to obloquy and ridicule by the enemies of ,reform1 in the ,press and on the ,platform2 and his name was a sort of synonym for utopianism1 and revolutionary doctrine4 ,in his own country his writings were long in little esteem2 but elsewhere1 and in ,france especially1 by the interpretation of ,dumont1 his opinions had a wider dissemination4 ,in ,morals1 the foundation of his teaching is the principle of the greatest ,happiness of the ,greatest ,number2 that other things are good or evil in proportion as they advance or oppose the general ,happiness1 which ought to be the end of all morals and legislation4 ,not the least of his merits as a moralist is his assertion of the rights of other animals than man to the protection of ,law1 and his protest against the culpable selfishness of the lawmakers in wholly abandoning them to the capricious cruelty of their human tyrants4 ,the most eminent of the disciples of ,bentham1 ,john ,stuart ,mill 7who found himself forced to defend the teaching of his master1 in this respect1 against the sneers of ,whately1 ,archbishop of ,dublin1 and others71 repeats this protest1 and declares that-- 8,the reasons for legal intervention in favour of children apply not less strongly to the case of those unfortunate slaves and victims of the most brutal part of mankind1 the lower animals4 ,it is by the grossest misunderstanding of the principles of ,liberty1 that the infliction of exemplary punishment on ruffianism practised towards these defenceless beings has been treated as a meddling by ,government with things beyond its province--an interference with domestic life4 ,the domestic life of domestic tyrants is one of the things which it is the most imperative on the ,law to interfere with4 ,and it is to be regretted that metaphysical scruples1 respecting the nature and source of the authority of governments1 should induce many warm supporters of laws against cruelty to the lower animals to seek for justification of such laws in the incidental consequences of the indulgence of ferocious habits to the interest of human beings1 rather than in the intrinsic merits of the thing itself4 ,what it would be the duty of a human being1 possessed of the requisite physical strength1 to prevent by force1 if attempted in his presence1 it cannot be less incumbent on society generally to repress4 ,the existing laws of ,england are chiefly defective in the trifling--often almost nominal--maximum to which the penalty1 even in the worst cases1 is limited40 7,principles of ,political ,economy1 ed4 #ahgc47 ,the observations both of ,bentham and of ,mill upon this subject1 slighted though they are1 are pregnant with consequences4 ,it is thus that the former authority expresses his opinion3-- 8,what other agents are those who1 at the same time that they are under the influence of man's direction1 are susceptible of ,happiness8 ,they are of two sorts3 7#a7 ,other ,human beings1 who are styled ,persons4 7#b7 ,other ,animals who1 on account of their interests having been neglected by the insensibility of the ancient ,jurists1 stand degraded into the class of ,things4 ,under the ,gentoo and ,mahometan religions1 the interests of the rest of the animal kingdom seem to have met with some attention4 ,why have they not1 universally1 with as much as those of human beings1 allowance made for the differences in point of sensibility8 ,because the ,laws that are have been the work of mutual fear--a sentiment which the less rational animals have not had the same means1 as men have1 of turning to account4 ,why ought they not to have the same allowance made8 ,no reason can be given4444 8,the day has been 7and it is not yet past7 in which the greater part of the ,species1 under the denomination of ,slaves1 have been treated by the ,laws exactly upon the same footing--as in ,england1 for example1 the inferior races of beings are still4 ,the day may come1 when other ,animals may obtain those rights which never could have been withholden from them but by the hand of ,tyranny4 ,the ,french have already 7#agij7 recognised that the blackness of the skin is no reason why a human being should be abandoned1 without redress1 to the caprice of a tormentor4 8,it may come one day to be recognised that the number of the legs1 the villosity of the skin1 or the termination of the os sacrum1 are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate4 ,what else is it should fix the insuperable line8 ,is it the faculty of reason1 or1 perhaps1 the faculty of discourse8 ,but a full-grown ,horse or ,dog is1 beyond comparison1 a more rational1 as well as more conversable animal1 than an infant of a day1 or a week1 or even of a month old4 ,but suppose the case were otherwise1 what would it avail8 ,the question is not1 can they reason8 ,nor is it1 can they talk8 ,but1 can they suffer80#cae ,,xvi4 ,,sinclair4 #aged-ahce4 ,this celebrated ,agricultural ,reformer and active promoter of various beneficent enterprises was a most voluminous writer4 ,during sixty years he was almost constantly employed in producing more or less useful books4 ,he was born at ,thurso ,castle1 in ,caithness1 and received his education at the ,edinburgh ,high ,school1 and at the ,universities of ,glasgow and ,oxford4 ,in #agge he was admitted a member of the ,faculty of ,advocates1 and afterwards was called to the ,english ,bar4 ,five years later he was elected to represent his county in the ,legislature2 and for more than half a century ,sir ,john ,sinclair occupied a prominent position in the world of politics1 as well as of science and literature4 ,his reputation as an ,agriculturist extended far and wide throughout ,europe and ,america2 and statesmen and political economists1 if they did not aid them as they ought to have done1 professed for his labours the highest esteem4 ,his principal writings are3 7#a7 ,a ,history of the ,revenue of ,great ,britain1 #c vols42 7#b7 ,a ,statistical ,account of ,scotland1 a most laborious work2 7#c7 ,considerations on ,militias and ,standing ,armies2 7#d7 ,essays on ,agriculture2 7#e7 ,not the least important1 ,the ,code of ,health and ,longevity1 in which the sagacious and indefatigable author has collected a large number of interesting particulars in regard to the diet of various peoples4 ,comparing the two diets1 he asserts3-- 8,the ,tartars1 who live wholly on animal food1 possess a degree of ferocity of mind and fierceness of character which form the leading feature of all carnivorous animals4 ,on the other hand1 an entire diet of vegetable matter1 as appears in the ,brahmin and ,gentoo1 gives to the disposition a softness1 gentleness1 and mildness of feeling directly the reverse of the former character4 ,it also has a particular influence on the powers of the mind1 producing liveliness of imagination and acuteness of judgment in an eminent degree40 ,sir ,john ,sinclair elsewhere quotes the following sufficiently condemnatory remarks from the ,encyclopdie ,methodique1 vol4 vii41 part #a3-- 8,the man who sheds the blood of an ,ox or a ,sheep will be habituated more easily than another to witness the effusion of that of his fellow-creatures4 ,inhumanity takes possession of his soul1 and the trades1 whose occupation is to sacrifice animals for the purpose of supplying the pretended necessities of men1 impart to those who exercise them a ferocity which their relative connections with ,society but imperfectly serve to mitigate40--,code of ,health and ,longevity1 vol4 i41 #dbc1 #dbi1 and vol4 iii41 #bhc4caf ,,xvii4 ,,byron4 #aghh-ahbd4 8,as we had none of us been apprised of his peculiarities with respect to food1 the embarrassment of our host ,samuel ,rogers was not little1 on discovering that there was nothing upon the table which his noble guest could eat or drink4 ,neither flesh meat1 fish1 nor wine would ,lord ,byron touch2 and of biscuits and soda water1 which he asked for1 there had been1 unluckily1 no provision4 ,he professed1 however1 to be equally well pleased with potatoes and vinegar2 and of these meagre materials contrived to make rather a hearty meal4444 8,we frequently1 during the first months of our acquaintance dined together alone4444 ,though at times he would drink freely enough of claret1 he still adhered to his system of abstinence in food4 ,he appeared1 indeed1 to have conceived a notion that animal food has some peculiar influence on the character2#cag and ,i remember one day1 as ,i sat opposite to him1 employed1 ,i suppose1 rather earnestly over a #8beef-steak1' after watching me for a few seconds1 he said in a grave tone of inquiry1--#8,moore1 don't you find eating beef-steak makes you ferocious8'0--,life1 ,letters1 and ,journals of ,lord ,byron1 by ,thomas ,moore4 ,new ,edition4 ,murray1 #ahfj4 ,in these ,memorials of ,byron1 reference to his aversion from all 8butcher's meat0 is frequent2 and for the greater part of his life1 he seems to have observed1 in fact1 an extreme abstinence as regards eating2 although he had by no means the same repugnance for fish as for flesh-eating4 ,that this abstinence from flesh-meats was founded upon physical or mental1 rather than upon moral1 reasons1 has already been pointed out4 ,nor1 unhappily1 was he as abstinent in drinking as in eating2 to which fact1 in great measure1 must be attributed the failure of his purer eating to effect all the good which1 otherwise1 it would have produced4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the observations of the author of a book entitled ,philozoa1 published in #ahci1 and noticed with approval by ,schopenhauer1 are sufficiently worthy of note1 and may fitly conclude this work3-- 8,many very intelligent men have1 at different times of their lives1 abstained wholly from flesh2 and this1 too1 with very considerable advantage to their health4 ,mr4 ,lawrence1 whose eminence as a surgeon is well known1 lived for many years on a vegetable diet4 ,byron1 the poet1 did the same1 as did ,p4 ,b4 ,shelley1 and many other distinguished literati whom ,i could name4 ,dr4 ,lambe and ,mr4 ,f4 ,newton have published very able works in defence of a diet of herbs1 and have condemned the use of flesh as tending to undermine the constitution by a sort of slow poisoning4 ,sir ,r4 ,phillips has published ,sixteen ,reasons for ,abstaining from the ,flesh of ,animals1 and a large society exists in ,england of persons who eat nothing which has had life4 8,the most attentive researches1 which ,i have been able to make into the health of all these persons1 induce me to believe that vegetable food is the natural diet of man4 ,i tried it once with very considerable advantage4 ,my strength became greater1 my intellect clearer1 my power of continued exertion protracted1 and my spirits much higher than they were when ,i lived on a mixed diet4 ,i am inclined to think that the #8inconvenience' which some persons profess to experience from vegetable food is only temporary4 ,a few repeated trials would soon render it not only safe but agreeable1 and a disgust for the taste of flesh1 under any disguise1 would be the result of the experiment4 ,the ,carmelites1 and other religious orders1 who subsist only on the productions of the vegetable world1 live to a greater age than those who feed on flesh2 and1 in general1 frugivorous persons are milder in their disposition than other people4 ,the same quantity of ground has been proved to be capable of sustaining a larger#cah and stronger population on a vegetable than on a flesh-meat diet2 and experience has shown that the juices of the body are more pure1 and the viscera much more free from disease1 in those who live in this simple way4 8,all these facts1 taken collectively1 point to a period in the history of civilisation when men will cease to slay their fellow-mortals for food1 and will tend to realise the fictions of ,antiquity1 and of the ,sybilline oracles respecting a #8,golden ,age4'0#cai ,,index4 ,abernethy ,john1 ,m4,d41 ,surgical ,observations on ,tumours1 quoted1 #aif ,aderholdt ,a41 ,m4,d41 referred to1 #bga-bhd sop1 ,fable of the ,wolf1 referred to1 #aag ,alcott ,wm41 ,m4,d41 referred to1 #bfb-bfd ,anquetil ,du ,perron1 ,rcherches sur les ,indes1 referred to1 #agg-baj ,apollonius of ,tyana 7,life by ,philostratus71 quoted and referred to1 #ej-ea1 #cjc ,arbuthnot ,john1 ,m4,d41 ,essay ,concerning ,aliments1 referred to1 #acb ,arnold ,edwin1 ,the ,light of ,asia1 quoted1 #bif ,attalus1 noticed by ,seneca1 #cj ,axon ,w4 ,e4 ,a417,biog4 ,sketches of ,george ,nicholson1 ,sir ,r4 ,phillips1 and ,william ,cowherd71 referred to1 #aia1 #bdd1 #bfj ,baker ,thomas1 ,abstract of ,graham's ,science of ,human ,life1 referred to1 #bfe1 #bff ,baltzer ,eduard1 ,porphyry and ,musonius1 #fh1 #bhd1 #cjd ,bartolini ,biagio1 ,m4,d4 7,notice of ,cornaro71 referred to1 #hi ,bentham ,jeremy1 quoted1 #cbg1 #cbh ,blot-,lequne1 ,critique of ,thalysie1 quoted by ,r4 ,springer1 #baa ,bonnodire ,la1 ,de la ,sobrit et de ses ,avantages1 referred to1 #cjf ,bossuet ,jacques ,bnigne1 ,discours sur l',histoire ,universelle1 quoted1 #aab ,brewster ,sir ,david1 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 quoted1 #bee ,brotherton ,joseph1 ,m4,p41 ,president of the ,english ,vegetarian ,society1 referred to1 #bjb1 #bei1 #bfd ,buddha ,gautama1 referred to and noticed1 #f1 #bie-bif ,buddhist ,sacred ,scriptures1 ,texts from the ,buddhist ,canon1 commonly known as ,dhammapada1 also the ,kla ,slam1 translated from the ,pli1 #bie-bii ,buffon ,george ,louis ,le ,clerc de1 ,histoire ,naturelle1 quoted and referred to1 #aff1 #bad ,burigni de 7,translator of ,porphyry1 and author of a ,treatise against ,flesh-,eating1 noticed by ,voltaire71 #fg ,busbecq ,augier de1 on the ,turks1 referred to by ,lord ,chesterfield1 #cba ,byron ,george ,gordon1 ,lord1 ,life1 ,letters1 and ,journals1 by ,moore1 and ,poems1 #bcd1 #cca ,cabantous ,j41 ,doyen de in ,facult de ,lettres1 ,toulouse1 noticed by ,r4 ,springer1 #baj ,chantrans ,girod de1 noticed by ,r4 ,springer1 #baj ,charron ,pierre1 ,de la ,sagesse1 referred to1 #ii ,chesterfield ,philip ,dormer1 ,lord1 ,the ,world1 ,,cxc41 quoted1 #aci1 #cbj-cba ,cheyne ,george1 ,m4,d41 ,essay on the ,gout2 ,of ,health and a ,long ,life2 ,english ,malady3 or1 a ,treatise of ,nervous ,diseases of all ,kinds2 ,essay on ,regimen2 ,natural ,method of ,curing the ,diseases of the ,body1 and the ,disorders of the ,mind ,depending on the ,body1 referred to and quoted1 #ig1 #abj-abh ,christian ,sacred ,scriptures1 #eb1 #ed1 #ee1 #gi ,chrysostom ,ioannes1 ,homilies1 ,golden ,book1 quoted1 #gf-ha ,cicero ,marcus ,tullius1 ,epistles vii4 #a1 quoted1 #bd ,clarke ,james1 referred to1 #bei ,clemens ,titus ,flavius 7of ,alexandria71 ,pdagogus or ,instructor1 ,stromata or ,miscellanies1 quoted1 #ef-fc ,clementine ,homilies1 quoted and referred to1 #ef ,cocchi ,antonio1 ,m4,d41 ,del ,vitto ,pithagorico ,per ,uso ,della ,medicina1 quoted1 #aeg-aei ,collyns ,c4 ,h41 ,the ,times1 referred to1 #bjb ,cornaro ,luigi di1 ,trattato della ,vita ,sobria1 ,amorevole ,esortazione1 c42 ,lettera a ,barbaro1 quoted and referred to1 #hc-ij1 #cjf ,cowherd ,william1 noticed1 #beh-bfj ,cowley ,abraham1 ,the ,garden1 quoted1 #cjh-cji ,cowper ,william1 ,the ,task1 quoted1 #agh ,cuvier ,george1 c41 ,baron de1 ,leons d',anatomie ,comparative1 ,,iii41 #afi1 #cgc1 #ddc1 #dfe1 #dhj ,rgne ,animal1 noticed by ,shelley1 #bbf ,daumer ,georg1 ,anthropologismus und ,kriticismus2 ,enthllungen ber ,kaspar ,hauser1 referred to and quoted1 #bha-bhc ,dietetic ,reformer1 referred to1 #bab1 #bea ,eden ,sir ,f4 ,m41 ,state of the ,poor1 referred to1 #agg1 #ahi ,epikurus1 ,de ,sobrietate ,contra ,gulam1 quoted by ,gassendi1 #aja1 #ajd ,erasmus ,desiderius1 ,encomium ,mori1 quoted1 #ib ,erskine ,thomas1 ,lord1 referred to1 #bjb ,essenians and ,essenism1 noticed1 #ef1 #gb ,euripides1 quoted by ,athenus1 #cb ,evelyn ,john1 ,acetaria3 ,on ,sallets1 quoted1 #ajg-aaj ,ferdusi1 quoted by ,sir ,william ,jones1 #ada ,ferguson ,adam1 referred to1 #bjh ,flaubert ,g41 ,lgende de ,st4 ,julien1 quoted in ,fortnightly ,review1 #ahg ,flourens1 ,i4 ,m4 ,p41 ,longvit de la ,race ,humaine1 referred to1 #age1 #bfh1 #bgj ,fontaine ,la1 ,jean de1 ,fables x4 #b1 quoted1 #aag ,forster ,t41 ,m4,d41 ,philozoa1 c41 quoted1 #ccb ,franklin ,benjamin1 ,autobiography1 referred to1 #agf ,galen1 ,greek ,physician1 referred to1 #ce ,gaskill ,james1 referred to1 #bei ,gay ,john1 ,fables--,pythagoras and the ,countryman2 ,the ,court of ,death2 ,the ,shepherd's ,dog and the ,boy2 ,the ,wild ,boar and the ,ram2 ,the ,philosopher and the ,pheasants1 quoted1 #aae-aai ,gassendi ,pierre1 ,letter to ,van ,helmont1 ,ethics1 quoted1 #ajj-ajd ,gibbon ,edward1 ,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 xxvi1 quoted and referred to1 #agg1 #bbj ,glezs ,jean ,antoine1 ,thalysie3 ou la ,nouvelle ,existence2 ,les ,nuits ,elysiennes1 c41 quoted1 #bjh-bah1 #beb ,glezs ,colonel1 referred to1 #baj ,grvius ,johann ,georg1 referred to1 #bic ,graham ,sylvester1 ,m4,d41 ,the ,science of ,human ,life1 referred to and quoted1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bga ,golden ,verses ,the1 referred to and quoted1 #ba1 #bid ,gthe ,johann ,wolfgang von1 ,italienische ,reise2 ,werther's ,leiden1 c41 referred to1 #cbg ,goltz ,bogumil1 ,das ,menschendasein in ,seinen ,weltewigen ,zgen und ,zeichen1 #bhe ,gompertz ,lewis1 referred to by ,forster1 #ccb ,greg ,w4 ,r41 ,social ,problems1 referred to and quoted1 #bae1 #ccb ,gtzlaff ,v41 ,m4,d41 ,schopenhauer ber die ,thiere und den ,thierschutz2 ,ein ,beitrag zur ethischen ,seite der ,vivisectionsfrage1 referred to1 #bhh ,hahn ,theodor1 ,die ,naturgemsse ,dit3 die ,dit der ,zukunft1 quoted1 #bhd1 #bib ,haller ,albrecht von1 ,m4,d41 quoted1 #aef1 #aeg ,hardy ,sebastian1 ,le ,vrai ,rgme de ,vivre1 c41 referred to1 #cjf ,hare ,edward1 ,life of ,william ,lambe1 ,m4,d41 quoted1 #bje ,hartley ,david1 ,m4,d41 ,observations on ,man1 quoted1 #ach1 #aci ,hartlib ,samuel1 ,a ,design for ,plenty1 by a ,universal ,planting of ,fruit-,trees1 referred to1 #ajh ,hawkesworth ,john1 ,edition of ,swift's ,works2 ,adventurer1 quoted and referred to1 #afh ,hecquet ,philippe1 ,m4,d41 ,de ,l',indcence aux ,hommes d',accoucher les ,femmes1 c42 ,trait des ,dispenses du ,carme2 ,la ,mdicine1 ,la ,chirurgie1 et la ,pharmacie des ,pauvres2 ,la ,brigandage de la ,mdicine1 c41 referred to and quoted1 #fh1 #acc1 #cad-cah ,helps ,sir ,arthur1 ,animals and ,their ,masters1 referred to1 #cbi ,hesiodos1 7,works and ,days71 quoted1 #a1 #c1 #bic ,hierokles1 7,golden ,verses71 referred to and quoted1 #ba1 #bid ,hindu ,sacred ,books1 ,laws of ,manu1 referred to and quoted1 #ahb1 #bih ,hippokrates1 7,on the ,healthful ,regimen71 referred to1 #ab ,hogarth ,william1 ,four ,stages of ,cruelty1 referred to1 #agi1 #cba ,hogg ,jefferson1 ,life of ,shelley1 quoted1 #bjf ,horatius ,flaccus1 ,odes1 ,ars ,poet41 ,sat4 ,,ii4 #b41 quoted1 #gd1 #bii-cjc ,howard ,john1 ,life of1 referred to1 #ahi ,hufeland ,christian ,wilhelm1 ,m4,d41 ,makrobiotik1 oder die ,kunst das ,menschliche ,leben zu ,verlngern1 c41 quoted and referred to1 #ahd1 #bfh ,hypatia1 referred to1 #fg1 #hb ,iamblichus1 ,life of ,pythagoras1 referred to1 #e1 #h ,jenyns ,soame1 quoted1 #cbb-cbd ,jewish ,sacred ,scriptures1 quoted and referred to1 #ed1 #fa1 #gi ,jones ,sir ,william1 ,asiatic ,researches1 iv4 #ab1 quoted1 #ada ,josephus ,flavius1 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 quoted1 #gc ,julianus1 ,emperor1 ,misopogon 7,beard ,hater71 noticed1 #gd-gf ,juvenalis ,decimus ,junius1 ,sat4 ,i41 xv41 c41 quoted1 #i1 #dh1 #he1 #ahb ,kalidsa1 ,sakntala1 referred to1 #ahb1 #bgg ,kingsford ,anna1 ,m4,d41 ,the ,perfect ,way in ,diet1 referred to1 #bga ,laborde ,alexandre de1 referred to1 #beb ,lamartine ,alphonse de1 ,mmoires2 ,la ,chute d'un ,ange1 quoted1 #bdg-beb ,lambe ,william1 ,m4,d41 ,additional ,reports on ,regimen1 referred to and quoted1 #aig1 #aih-bje1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #cca ,lawrence ,william1 ,professor1 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,lectures on ,physiology1 quoted1 #bgj ,lmery ,louis1 ,m4,d41 ,trait des ,alimens1 referred to1 ,lesage ,alain ,rn1 ,gil ,blas ii4 #b1 quoted1 #acd ,lessio ,leonard1 ,hygiasticon1 quoted1 #cje-cjg ,liebig ,justus von1 ,chemische ,briefe1 referred to and quoted1 #bae1 #bij-bib ,linn ,karl von1 ,amnitates ,accademic1 quoted1 #afd-afe ,lipsius ,justus von1 edition of ,seneca1 quoted1 #ca-cb ,locke ,john1 ,thoughts on ,education1 referred to1 #aji1 #bea ,lucretius ,titus ,carus1 ,de ,rerum ,natur ,,ii41 referred to and quoted1 #be1 #cjj ,lyford ,h4 ,g41 ,m4,d41 referred to1 #bje ,mahbhrata1 ,story of the ,princess ,savtri1 quoted1 #big ,mandeville ,bernard de1 ,m4,d41 ,fable of the ,bees1 quoted1 #aac-aae ,martin ,john1 referred to1 #agi1 #ahg ,mayor ,j4 ,e4 ,b41 ,professor1 ,musonius and ,juvenal1 quoted and referred to1 #cje ,metcalfe ,william1 ,m4,d41 ,essay on ,abstinence from the ,flesh of ,animals2 ,moral ,reformer2 ,american ,vegetarian and ,health ,journal1 c41 noticed1 #bfj-bfd ,michelet ,jules1 ,la ,bible de l',humanit2 ,la ,femme2 ,l',oiseau1 quoted1 #beb-beh ,mill ,john ,stuart1 ,principles of ,political ,economy2 ,dissertations1 referred to and quoted1 #cbh ,milton ,john1 ,paradise ,lost1 v41 xi42 ,latin ,poem addressed to ,diodati1 quoted1 #aaj-aab ,moffet ,thomas1 ,m4,d41 ,health's ,improvement1 quoted1 #cjg ,montaigne ,michel de1 ,essais1 quoted1 #id-ii ,more ,sir ,thomas1 ,utopia1 quoted1 #ij-id ,musonius ,rufus1 in ,anthologion of ,stobus1 quoted by ,professor ,mayor1 #cjc-cje ,neo-,platonism1 referred to1 #ef1 #fg1 #hb ,newman ,f4 ,w41 ,professor1 ,president of the ,english ,vegetarian ,society1 ,lectures on ,vegetarianism1 referred to1 #ic1 #agb1 #bae1 #bib ,newton ,sir ,isaac1 referred to by ,voltaire 7,elmens de la ,philosophie de ,newton71 and by ,haller1 #aja1 #ade ,newton ,j4 ,f41 ,the ,return to ,nature1 quoted and referred to1 #bje-bjh1 #cca ,nichols ,t4 ,l41 ,m4,d4 7,hygienic ,literature71 referred to1 #cad ,nicholson ,george1 ,on the ,conduct of ,man to ,inferior ,animals2 ,the ,primeval ,diet of ,man1 quoted1 #aij-aif ,nicholson ,e4 ,b41 ,the ,rights of an ,animal1 referred to1 #cbi ,nodier ,charles1 referred to1 #baj ,oswald ,john1 ,the ,cry of ,nature1 quoted1 #agi-ahc ,ovidius ,naso1 ,metamorphoses1 xv42 ,fasti1 iv41 quoted1 #bc-bg1 #di1 #bii-cjc ,paley ,william1 ,principles of ,moral and ,political ,philosophy1 quoted1 #afi-agb ,phillips ,sir ,richard1 ,golden ,rules of ,social ,philosophy2 ,medical ,journal 7,july #bg1 #ahaa72 ,dictionary of the ,arts of ,life and ,civilisation1 quoted and referred to1 #bce-bdd1 #cca ,philolaus1 ,pythagorean ,system1 referred to1 #e ,philostratus1 ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 quoted1 #ej-ea ,pilpai1 ,fable of the ,cow1 quoted by ,pope1 #cbj ,pitcairn ,archibald1 ,m4,d41 referred to1 #bjj ,plato1 ,republic ii2 ,laws1 quoted1 #ab-bb ,plinius the ,elder1 ,hist4 ,naturalis1 quoted1 #bd ,plotinus1 noticed by ,donaldson1 #fe-ff ,plutarch1 ,essay on ,flesh-,eating2 ,symposiacs2 ,parallel ,lives1 quoted1 #da-di ,pope ,alexander1 ,pastorals2 ,essay on ,man2 ,the ,guardian1 quoted1 #ga1 #abh-acb1 #cah-cbj ,porphyry1 7,on ,abstinence72 ,life of ,pythagoras1 quoted1 #fc-gd ,pressavin ,jean ,baptiste1 ,membre du ,collge ,royale de ,chirurgie1 ,lyon1 ,demonstrateur en ,matire ,mdicale-,chirurgicale ,lyon1 ,l',art de ,prolonger la ,vie et de ,conserver la ,sant1 quoted1 #cbd-cbf ,proklus1 referred to1 #hb ,pythagoras 7in ,hierokles1 ,diogenes1 ,iamblichus1 ,porphyry1 and ,cocchi7 noticed and quoted1 #d-aa1 #ba1 #aeh1 #bid ,ramazzini ,bernardo1 ,m4,d41 referred to1 #hi ,ray ,john1 ,historia ,plantarum1 quoted1 #ajf1 #ajg ,richardson ,b4 ,w41 ,m4,d41 ,salutisland2 ,hygieia1 referred to1 #cbf ,richter ,jean ,paul1 ,levana1 quoted1 #bhg1 #bhh ,ritson ,joseph1 ,abstinence from ,animal ,food3 a ,moral ,duty1 quoted1 #ahe-aij1 #cbc ,rorarius1 ,qud ,animalia ,bruta ,spe ,utantur ,ratione ,melius ,homine1 referred to1 #ii ,rousseau ,jean ,jacques1 ,de l',ingalit ,parmi les ,hommes2 ,emile2 ,julie3 ou la ,nouvelle ,hloise2 ,confessions1 referred to and quoted1 #aei-afd1 #aie ,sadi1 ,persian ,poet1 referred to1 #ada ,sakya ,muni1 referred to1 #ahb ,schiller ,johann ,friedrich1 ,das ,eleusische ,fest2 ,alpenjger1 quoted1 #cbf-cbg ,schopenhauer ,arthur1 ,fundament der ,moral 7,le ,fondement de la ,morale72 ,parerga und ,paralipomena1 quoted and referred to1 #bhf-bij ,seefeld ,a4 von1 referred to1 #bhd ,seneca ,marcus ,annus1 ,epistol ad ,lucilium2 ,de ,clententi2 ,de ,vit ,beat2 ,de ,ir2 ,questiones ,naturales1 quoted1 #bg-dj ,sextius ,quintus1 referred to1 #ca ,shelley ,percy ,bysshe1 ,queen ,mab and ,note2 ,the ,revolt of ,islam1 quoted1 #bah-bcd ,shakespeare ,william1 ,as ,you ,like ,it1 ii4 #a2 ,cymbeline1 i4 #f1 referred to and quoted1 #aje ,simpson ,james1 ,president of ,english ,vegetarian ,society1 referred to1 #bfc ,sinclair ,sir ,john1 ,the ,code of ,health and ,longevity1 quoted1 #ccj ,sloane ,sir ,hans1 ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,jamaica1 referred to1 #agg ,smith ,adam1 ,the ,wealth of ,nations1 quoted1 #agg ,smith ,john1 ,fruits and ,farinacea3 the ,proper ,food of ,man1 edited by ,professor ,newman1 quoted1 #ga ,smith ,sydney1 quoted1 #afh ,sotion1 referred to by ,seneca1 #ca ,sparrman ,andr1 referred to1 #agg ,sperone ,speroni1 referred to1 #hi ,springer ,robert1 ,german translator of ,thalysie1 ou la ,nouvelle ,existence1 quoted1 #baa ,strauss ,david ,friedrich ,dr41 ,der ,alte und der ,neue ,glaube1 quoted1 #bhg ,struve ,gustav1 ,mandaras' ,wanderungen2 ,das ,seelenleben2 ,die ,pflanzenkost1 quoted21 #bga-bha ,st4 ,pierre ,bernardin1 ,paul et ,virginie2 ,etudes de la ,nature1 quoted1 #agc-agf ,stubbs ,philip1 ,anatomy of ,abuses1 quoted by ,ritson1 #cjg ,swedenborg ,emanuel1 referred to1 #agf ,swift ,jonathan1 ,dean1 ,gulliver's ,travels1 #acc ,tertullianus ,quintus ,septimius1 ,de ,jejuniis ,adversus ,psychicos1 quoted1 #ea-ee ,thomson ,james1 ,the ,seasons1 quoted1 #acd-acg ,trelawney ,f41 ,life of ,shelley1 referred to1 #bbj ,tryon ,thomas1 ,the ,way to ,health and ,long ,life2 ,a ,treatise on ,cleanliness in ,meats and ,drinks2 ,the ,way to make all ,people ,rich2 ,england's ,grandeur2 ,dialogue between an ,east-,india ,brachman and a ,french ,gentleman1 c41 #cji-cad ,villeneuve ,c4 de1 ,m4,d41 referred to1 #bjb ,virgilius ,maro1 ,georgica2 neis1 quoted1 #ej1 #ea1 #if ,volney ,constantine ,comte de1 ,voyages en ,syrie et en ,egypte1 referred to and quoted1 #aji1 #ccj ,voltaire ,franois ,marie ,arouet de1 ,essai sur les ,murs et ,l',esprit des ,nations2 ,dictionnaire ,philosophique 7,art4 ,viande72 ,princesse de ,babylone2 ,lettres d',amabed ,shastasid2 ,dialogue du ,chapon et de la ,poularde1 quoted and referred to1 #ci1 #fh1 #aja1 #ada-aef ,weilshuser ,emil1 quoted by ,r4 ,springer1 #baa ,wesley ,john1 ,journals1 referred to1 #agf ,williamson ,john 7noticed by ,ritson1 and by writer in ,gentleman's ,magazine1 ,aug4 #aghg71 #ahi ,woman and the ,age1 an ,essay1 referred to1 #bef ,young ,thomas1 ,on ,cruelty1 referred to by ,forster 7,philozoa71 #ccc ,zimmerman ,w41 ,m4,d4 ,der ,weg zum ,paradiese 7,the ,way to ,paradise71 quoted1 #bhe ,,john ,,heywood1 ,excelsior ,steam ,printing and ,bookbinding ,works1 ,hulme ,hall ,road1 ,manchester4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,quoted by ,sir ,arthur ,helps in his ,animals and their ,masters4 7,strahan1 #ahgc47 ,the further just remark of ,arnold upon this subject may here be quoted3--8,kind1 loving1 submissive1 conscientious1 much-enduring we know them to be2 but because we deprive them of all stake in the future--because they have no selfish1 calculated aims--these are not virtues4 ,yet1 if we say a #8vicious' ,horse1 why not say a #8virtuous' ,horse80 #b ,that the indescribable atrocities inflicted in the final scene of the slaughter-house1 are far from being the only sufferings to which the victims of the ,table are liable1 is a fact upon which1 at this day1 it ought to be superfluous to insist4 ,the frightful sufferings during 8the middle passage10 in rough weather1 and especially in severe storms1 have over and over again been recounted even by spectators the least likely to be easily affected by the spectacles of lower animal suffering4 ,thousands of ,oxen and ,sheep1 year by year1 are thrown living into the sea during the passage from the ,united ,states alone4 ,in the year #ahgi1 according to the official report1 #ad1jjj thus perished1 while #a1bdj were landed dead1 and #dej were slaughtered on the quay upon landing to prevent death from wounds4--,see1 among other recent works on humane ,dietetics1 the ,perfect ,way in ,diet of ,dr4 ,anna ,kingsford for some most instructive details upon this subject4 ,the reader is also referred to the ,lecture recently addressed to the ,students of ,girton ,college1 ,cambridge1 by the same able and eloquent writer1 for other aspects of the humanitarian argument4 #c ,cf4 ,horace 7whom1 however1 we do not quote as an authority7-- 8,let olives1 endives1 mallows light ,be all my fare20 and ,virgil thus indicates the charm of a rural existence for him who realises it3-- 8,whatever fruit the branches and the mead ,spontaneous bring1 he gathers for his need40 #d ,the same apparent contradiction--the co-existence of 8flocks and herds0 with the prevalence of the non-flesh diet--appears in the ,jewish theology1 in ,genesis4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that in both cases the 8flocks and herds0 might be existing for other purposes than for slaughter4 #e ,daimones4 ,the dmon in ,greek theology was simply a lesser divinity--an angel4 #f ,compare ,spenser's charming verses 78,faery ,queen10 ,book ii41 canto #h73 8,and is there care in heaven10 c4 #g ,his moral principles are reduced to these3--8#a4 ,mercy established on an immovable basis4 #b4 ,aversion to all cruelty4 #c4 ,a boundless compassion for all creatures40 ,quoted from ,klaproth by ,huc1 ,chinese ,empire1 xv4 ,buddhism was to ,brahminism1 sacerdotally1 what early ,christianity was to ,mosaism4 #h ,all the varieties of the bear tribe1 it is perhaps scarcely necessary to observe1 are by organisation1 and therefore by preference1 frugivorous4 ,it is from necessity only1 for the most part1 that they seek for flesh4 #i ,compare ,montaigne 7,essais1 ,book ,,ii41 chap4 #ab71 who1 to the shame of the popular opinion of the present day1 ably maintains the same thesis4 #aj ,the allegory of the trials and final purification of the soul was a favourite one with the ,greeks1 in the charming story of the loves and sorrows of ,psyche and ,eros4 ,apuleius inserted it in his fiction of ,the ,golden ,ass1 and it constantly occurs in ,greek and modern art4 #aa ,beans1 like lean flesh1 are very nitrogenous1 and it is possible that ,pythagoras may have deemed them too invigorating a diet for the more aspiring ascetics4 ,this may seem at least a more solid reason than the absurd conjectures to which we have referred4 #ab 8,as regards the fruits of this system of training or belief 7the ,pythagorean71 it is interesting to remark10 says the author of the article ,pythagoras in ,dr4 ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,biography1 8that1 wherever we have notices of distinguished ,pythagoreans1 we usually hear of them as men of great uprightness1 conscientiousness1 and self-restraint1 and as capable of devoted and enduring friendship40 ,amongst them the names of ,archytas1 and ,damon1 and ,phintias are particularly eminent4 ,archytas was one of the very greatest geniuses of antiquity3 he was distinguished alike as a philosopher1 mathematician1 statesman1 and general4 ,in mechanics he was the inventor of the wooden flying dove--one of the wonders of the older world4 ,empedokles 7the ,apollonius of the #eth century ,b4,c471 who devoted his marvellous attainments to the service of humanity1 may be claimed as1 at least in part1 a follower of ,pythagoras4 #ac 8,qu ,philosophia fuit1 facta ,philologia est40 7,ep4 cviii47 ,compare ,montaigne1 ,essais1 i41 #bd1 on ,pedantry1 where he admirably distinguishes between wisdom and learning4 #ad ,the ,republic of ,plato4 ,by ,davies and ,vaughan4 #ae ,in support of this thesis ,plato adduces arguments derived from analogy4 ,amongst the non-human species the sexes1 he points out1 are nearly equal in strength and intelligence4 ,in human savage life the difference is far less marked than in artificial conditions of life4 #af --the name given by the ,greeks generally to everything which they considered rather as a 8relish0 than a necessary4 ,bread was held to be--not only in name but in fact--the veritable 8staff of life40 ,olives1 figs1 cheese1 and1 at ,athens especially1 fish were the ordinary 4 #ag ,translated by ,davies and ,vaughan4 #ahgd4 #ah ,the four sacred ,pythagorean virtues--justice1 temperance1 wisdom1 fortitude4 ,see notice of ,plato above4 #ai ,upon which excellent maxim ,hierokles justly remarks3 8,the judge here appointed is the most just of all1 and the one which is ought to be most at home with us1 viz43 conscience and right reason40 #bj ,nineteenth ,century1 ,october1 #ahgg4 ,the ,greek original of the ,golden ,verses is found in the text of ,mullach1 in ,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,grcorum4 ,paris1 #ahfj4 #ba ,the ,romans1 we may remark1 imported the gladiatorial fights from ,spain4 #bb ,hist4 ,naturalis ,,viii4 #g4 ,his nephew says of these huge slaughter-houses that 8there is no novelty1 no variety1 or anything that could not be seen once for all40 ,on one occasion1 in the year ,a4,d4 #bhd1 we are credibly informed that #a1jjj ostriches1 #a1jjj stags1 #a1jjj fallow-deer1 besides numerous wild sheep and goats1 were mingled together for indiscriminate slaughter by the wild beasts of the forest or the equally wild beasts of the city4 7,see ,decline and ,fall47 #bc ,some traces of it may be found1 e4g41 in ,lucretius 7,de ,rerum ,nat4 ,,ii41 where see his touching picture of the bereaved mother-cow1 whose young is ravished from her for the horrid sacrificial altar72 ,virgil 7neis ,,vii471 in his story of ,silvia's deer--the most touching passage in the poem2 ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,in earlier ,greek literature1 ,euripides seems most in sympathy with suffering--at least as regards his own species4 #bd ,i see and approve the better way2 ,i pursue the worse4--,metam4 vii41 #bj4 #be ,in a note on this passage ,lipsius1 the famous ,dutch commentator1 remarks3 8,i am quite in accord with this feeling4 ,the constant use of flesh meat 7assidua 7 by ,europeans makes them stupid and irrational 7brutos740 #bf ,lipsius suggests1 with much reason1 that ,seneca actually wrote the opposite respecting his father1 8who had no dislike for this philosophy1 but who feared calumny10 c4 #bg ,on this melancholy truth compare ,montaigne's ,essais4 #bh ,ep4 xxv4 ,lipsius here quotes ,lucan 8still more a philosopher than a poet03-- 8,discite quam parvo liceat producere vitam1 ,et quantum natura petat4 4 4 ,satis est populis fluviusque ,ceresque40 8,learn by how little life may he sustained1 and how much nature requires4 ,the gifts of ,ceres and water are sufficient nourishment for all peoples40--7,pharsalia47 ,also ,euripides3-- 8 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 ' 1 ' 40 ,which may be translated3-- 8,since what need mortals1 save twain things alone1 ,crush'd grain 7heaven's gift71 and streaming water-draught8 ,food nigh at hand1 and nature's aliment-- ,of which no glut contents us4 ,pampered taste ,hunts out device of other eatables40 7,fragment of lost drama of ,euripides1 preserved in ,athenus iv4 and in ,gellius vii47 ,see1 too1 the elder ,pliny1 who professes his conviction that 8the plainest food is also the most beneficial0 7cibus simplex utilissimus71 and asserts that it is from his eating that man derives most of his diseases1 and from thence that all the drugs and all the arts of physicians abound4 7,hist4 ,nat4 xxvi41 #bh47 #bi ,cf4 ,pope's accusation of the gluttony of his species3-- 8,of half that live1 the butcher and the tomb40 --,essay on ,man4 #cj ,compare ,juvenal passim1 ,martial1 ,athenus1 ,plutarch1 and ,clement of ,alexandria4 #ca ,ep4 cx4 ,cf4 ,st4 ,chrysostom 7,hom4 i4 on ,coloss4 i47 who seems to have borrowed his equally forcible admonition on the same subject from ,seneca4 #cb ,epistola vii4 and ,de ,brevitate ,vit xiv4 ,as to the effect of the gross diet of the later athletes1 ,ariston 7as quoted by ,lipsius7 compared them to columns in the gymnasium1 at once 8sleek and stony0-- 4 ,diogenes of ,sinope1 being asked why the athletes seemed always so void of sense and intelligence1 replied1 8,because they are made up of ox and swine flesh40 ,galen1 the great ,greek medical writer of the second century of our ra1 makes the same remark upon the proverbial stupidity of this class1 and adds3 8,and this is the universal experience of mankind--that a gross stomach does not make a refined mind40 ,the ,greek proverb1 8 10 exactly expresses the same experience4 #cc ,de ,clementi i4 and ii4 ,the author has been accused of flattering a notorious tyrant4 ,the charge is1 however1 unjust1 since ,nero1 at the period of the dedication of the treatise to him1 had not yet discovered his latent viciousness and cruelty4 ,like ,voltaire1 in recent times1 ,seneca bestowed perhaps unmerited praise1 in the hope of flattering the powerful into the practice of justice and virtue4 #cd ,cf4 the sad experiences of the great ,jewish prophet4 8,the prophets prophesy falsely10 c4 #ce ,in the original1 8dumb animals0 7mutis animalibus7--a term which1 it deserves special note1 ,seneca usually employs1 rather than the traditional expressions 8beasts0 and 8brutes40 ,the term 8dumb animals0 is not strictly accurate1 seeing that almost all terrestrials have the use of voice though it may not be intelligible to human ears4 ,yet it is1 at all events1 preferable to the old traditional terms still in general use4 #cf ,compare the advice of the younger ,pliny--8,read much rather than many books40 7,letters vii41 #i in the excellent revision of ,mr4 ,bosanquet1 ,bell and ,daldy1 #ahgg7 and ,gibbon's just remarks 7,miscellaneous ,works74 #cg ,see this finely and wittily illustrated in ,micromgas 7one of the most exquisite satires ever written71 where the philosopher of the star ,sirius proposes the same questions to the contending metaphysicians and savans of our planet4 #ch ,this essay ranks among the most valuable productions that have come down to us from antiquity4 ,its sagacious anticipation of the modern argument from comparative physiology and anatomy1 as well as the earnestness and true feeling of its eloquent appeal to the higher instincts of human nature1 gives it a special interest and importance4 ,we have therefore placed it separately at the end of this article4 #ci --8,an ,essay to prove that the ,lower ,animals reason40 #dj ,this essay is remarkable as being1 perhaps1 the first speculation as to the existence of other worlds than ours4 #da ,as regards this complete silence of ,plutarch1 it may be attributed to his eminently conservative temperament1 which shrank from an exclusive system that so completely broke with the sacred traditions of 8the venerable ,past40 ,besides1 ,christianity had not assumed the imposing proportions of the age of ,lucian1 whose indifference is therefore more surprising than that of ,plutarch4 #db ,see1 for example1 the ,isis and ,osiris1 #di4 ,and yet1 with ,francis ,bacon1 and ,bayle1 and ,addison1 he prefers ,atheism to fanatical ,superstition4 #dc ,of the many eminent persons who have been indebted to1 or who have professed the greatest admiration for1 the writings of ,plutarch are ,eusebius1 who places him at the head of all ,greek philosophers1 ,origen1 ,theodoret1 ,aulus ,gellius1 ,photius1 ,suidas1 ,lipsius4 ,theodore of ,gaza1 when asked what writer he would first save from a general conflagration of libraries1 answered1 8,plutarch2 for he considered his philosophical writings the most beneficial to society1 and the best substitute for all other books40 ,amongst moderns1 ,montaigne1 ,montesquieu1 ,voltaire1 and especially ,rousseau1 recognise him as one of the first of moralists4 #dd ,see ,milton 7,paradise ,lost1 xi471 and ,shelley 7,queen ,mab74 #de ,cf4 ,pope3--8,of half that live1 the butcher and the tomb40--,moral ,essays4 #df ,parallel ,lives3 ,cato the ,censor4 ,translated by ,john and ,william ,langhorne1 #ahbf4 #dg ,see ,odyssey1 xii41 #cie1 of the oxen of the sun impiously slaughtered by the companions of ,ulysses4 #dh 8,hinc subit mortes1 atque intestata ,senectus40--8,hence sudden deaths1 and age without a will40 ,juvenal1 ,sat4 ,i4 #di 8,the anarch ,custom's reign40 ,shelley3 ,revolt of ,islam4 #ej ,such it seems1 were some of the popular methods of torture in the ,slaughter ,houses in the first century of our ra4 ,whether the 8calf-bleeding10 and the preliminary operations which produce the pt de foie gras1 c41 or the older methods1 bear away the palm for ingenuity in culinary torture1 may be a question4 #ea ,see --in the ,latin title1 ,de ,esu ,carnium--8,on ,flesh-,eating10 ,parts #a and #b4 ,we shall here add the authority of ,pliny1 who professes his conviction that 8the plainest food is the most beneficial40 7,hist4 ,nat4 xi41 #aag72 and asserts that it is from his eating that man derives most of his diseases4 7xxv41 #bh47 ,compare the feeling of ,ovid1 whom we have already quoted--,metamorphoses xv4 ,we may here refer our readers also to the celebration1 by the same poet1 of the innocent and peaceful gifts of ,ceres1 and of the superiority of her pure table and altar--,fasti iv41 #cie-daf4 ,pace1 ,ceres1 lta est4 ,at vos optate1 ,coloni1 ,perpetuam pacem1 perpetuumque ducem4 ,farra ,de1 micque licet salientis honorem ,detis3 et in veteres turea grana focos4 ,et1 si thura aberant1 unctas accendite tdas4 ,parva bon ,cereri1 sint modo casta1 placent4 ,a ,bove succincti cultros removete ministri3 ,bos aret4444 ,apta jugo cervix non est ferienda securi3 ,vivat1 et in dur spe laboret humo4 ,and the fine picture of ,virgil of the agricultural life in the ideal 8,golden ,age10 in which slaughter for food and war was unknown3-- ,ante ,impia quam csis gens est epulata juvencis4 8,before ,an impious world the labouring oxen slew40--,georgics ,,ii4 #eb 8,the proclamation of the birth of ,apollonius to his mother by ,proteus1 and the incarnation of ,proteus himself--the chorus of swans which sang for joy on the occasion--the casting out of devils1 raising the dead1 and healing the sick--the sudden disappearances and reappearances of ,apollonius--his adventures in the ,cave of ,trophonius1 and the sacred ,voice which called him at his death1 to which may be added his claim as a teacher to reform the world--cannot fail to suggest the parallel passages in the ,gospel history4444 ,still1 it must be allowed that the resemblances are very general1 and on the whole it seems probable that the life of ,apollonius was not written with a controversial aim1 as the resemblances1 though real1 only indicate that a few things were borrowed1 and exhibit no trace of a systematic parallel40--,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,biography4 ,edited by ,wm4 ,smith1 ,,ll4,d4 ,so great was the estimation in which he was held1 that the emperor ,alexander ,severus 7one of the very few good ,roman princes7 placed his statue or bust in the imperial ,larium or private ,chapel1 together with those of ,orpheus and of ,christ4 #ec ,cf4 ,virgil1 ,georgics ,,ii43 8,fundit humo facilem victum justissima ,tellus40 #ed ,so greatly was he esteemed by the later and leading ,fathers of the ,church that ,cyprian1 the celebrated ,bishop of ,carthage1 and 8the doctor and guide of all the ,western ,churches10 was accustomed to say1 whenever he applied himself to the study of his writings1 8,da mihi magistrum0 78,give me my master074--,jerome1 ,de ,viris ,illustribus ,i41 #bhd4 #ee ,on ,fasting or ,abstinence ,against the ,carnal-,minded4 ,the style of ,tertullian1 we may remark1 is1 for the most part1 obscure and abrupt4 #ef ,it is worth noting that neither the original 77 of the 8,authorised ,version10 nor the meats of the 8,a4 ,v40 itself1 says anything about flesh-eating in this favourite resort of its apologists4 ,both expressions merely signify foods of any kind2 so that the passage in question of this ,pastoral ,letter--which is apparently post-,pauline--can be made to condemn absolute fasting only3 nor does the context warrant any other interpretation4 ,as to ,st4 ,paul1 the great opponent of the earlier ,christian belief and practice1 it must be conceded that he seems not to have shared the abhorrence of the immediately accredited disciples of ,jesus for the sanguinary diet1 especially of ,st4 ,matthew1 of ,st4 ,james1 and of ,st4 ,peter1 who1 as we are expressly assured by ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,st4 ,augustine1 and others1 lived entirely on non-flesh meats4 ,the apparent indifferentism of ,st4 ,paul upon the question of abstinence is best and most briefly explained by his avowed principle of action--from the missionary point of view useful1 doubtless1 but from the point of view of abstract ethics not always satisfactory--the being 8all things to all men40 #eg ,compare ,seneca1 ,epistles1 cx41 and ,chrysostom1 ,homilies4 #eh ,aquis sobrius1 et cibis ebrius4 ,this important truth we venture to commend to the earnest attention of those philanthropists1 or hygeists1 who are adherents of what may be termed the semi-temperance ,clause--who abstain from alcoholic drinks but not from flesh4 #ei ,a more accurate version of the original than that of the ,a4 ,v4 7#a ,cor4 viii41 #h-ac74 ,we may here quote the conclusion of the argument of the ,greek-,jew ,apostle--8,wherefore1 if the kind of meat is a cause of offence to my brother1 ,i will eat no flesh while the world stands1 that ,i may not be a cause of offence to my brother0--and press it1 more particularly1 upon the attention of ,english residents1 and especially of ,christian missionaries1 amongst the sensitive and refined ,hindus who form so overwhelming a proportion of the population of the ,british ,empire4 ,according to the evidence of the missionaries of the various ,christian churches themselves1 their habits of flesh-eating have not infrequently been found to prejudice all but the lowest caste of ,hindus against the reception of other ideas of ,christian and ,western 8civilisation40 #fj ,usque ad choleram ortygometras cruditando4 ,in the present case it seems that the wanderers in the ,arabian deserts were not so much clamorous for flesh as for some kind of sustenance1 or rather for something more than the manna with which they were supplied2 since the late ,egyptian slaves are reported to have said1 8,we remember the fish that we did eat in ,egypt freely--the cucumbers1 the melons1 and the leeks1 and the onions1 and the garlic2 but now our soul is dried away3 there is nothing at all besides this manna before our eyes40 ,we may here take occasion to observe that the fact of the existence of sacrifice throughout their history necessarily involves the practice of flesh-eating--indeed1 the two practices are1 historically1 clearly connected4 ,what1 however1 we may fairly deduce from their simple and frugal living in the ,egyptian slavery1 lasting1 as it did1 through several centuries1 during which period they must have been weaned from the gross living of their previous barbarous pastoral life1 is this--that but for the sacrificial rites 7and1 perhaps1 the necessities of the desert7 the ,jews would have1 like other ,eastern peoples1 probably adopted this frugal living--of cucumbers1 melons1 onions1 c4--in their new homes4 ,such1 at least1 seems to be a legitimate inference from the highly-significant fact that1 throughout their sacred scriptures1 not flesh-meats but corn1 and oil1 and honey1 and pomegranates1 and figs1 and other vegetable products 7in which their land originally abounded71 are their highest dietary ideal--e4g41 8,o that my people would have hearkened to me2 for if ,israel had walked in my ways4444 ,he should have fed them with the finest wheat flour3 and with honey out of the stony rock should ,i have satisfied thee40 7,ps4 lxxxi41 #ag2 cf4 also ,ps4 civ41 #ad1 #ae47 ,it is equally significant of the latent and secret consciousness of the unspiritual nature of the products of the ,slaughter-,house1 even in the ,western world1 that in the liturgies or 8public services0 of the ,christian churches1 wherever food is prayed for or whenever thanks are returned for it1 there is 7as it seems7 a natural shrinking from mention of that which is obtained only by cruelty and bloodshed1 and it is 8the kindly fruits of the earth0 which represent the legitimate dietary wants of the petitioners4 #fa 8,for they that are after the ,flesh do mind the things of the ,flesh2 but they that are after the ,spirit the things of the ,spirit4 ,for to be carnally minded is death2 but to be spiritually minded is life and peace4444 ,so then they that are in the flesh cannot please ,god4444 ,therefore1 brethren1 we are debtors not to the flesh1 to live after the flesh4 ,for if ye live after the flesh1 ye shall die2 but if ye1 through the spirit1 do mortify the deeds of the body1 ye shall live40 7,rom4 viii41 #e1 c47 ,a more spiritual apprehension of #8divine verities1' if we may so say1 than the apparently more equivocal utterance of the same great reformer elsewhere4 ,here it is well to observe1 once for all that the whole significance of the utterances of ,st4 ,paul upon flesh-eating depends upon the bitter controversies between the older ,jew and the newer ,greek or ,roman sections of the rising ,church4 ,it is1 in fact1 a question of the lawfulness of eating the flesh of the victims of the ,pagan and ,jewish sacrificial altars--not of the question of flesh-eating in the abstract at all4 ,in fine1 it is a question not of ethics1 but of theological ritual4 ,it is greatly to be lamented that the confused and obscure translation of the ,a4 ,v4 has for so many centuries hopelessly mystified the whole subject--as far1 at least1 as the mass of the community is concerned4 #fb ,see ,de ,jejuniis ,adversus ,psychicos4 7,quinti4 ,sept4 ,flor4 ,tertulliani ,opera4 ,edited by ,gersdorf1 ,tauchnitz47 #fc ,in the ,clementine ,homilies1 which had a great authority and reputation in the earlier times of ,christianity1 ,st4 ,peter is represented1 in describing his way of living to ,clement of ,rome1 as professing the strictest ,vegetarianism4 8,i live10 he declares1 8upon bread and olives only1 with the addition1 rarely1 of kitchen herbs0 7 xii4 #f47 ,clement of ,alexandria 7,pdagogus ii4 #a7 assures us that 8,matthew the apostle lived upon seeds1 and hard-shelled fruits1 and other vegetables1 without touching flesh20 while ,hegesippus1 the historian of the ,church 7as quoted by ,eusebius1 ,ecclesiastical ,hist4 ii4 #b1 #c7 asserts of ,st4 ,james that 8he never ate any animal food0-- 3 an assertion repeated by ,st4 ,augustine 7,ad4 ,faust1 xxii4 #c7 who states that ,james1 the brother of the ,lord1 8lived upon seeds and vegetables1 never tasting flesh or wine0 7,jacobus1 frater ,domini1 seminibus et oleribus usus est1 non carne nec vino74 ,the connexion of the beginnings of ,christianity with the sublime and simple tenets of the ,essenes1 whose communistic and abstinent principles were strikingly coincident with those of the earliest ,christians1 is at once one of the most interesting and one of the most obscure phenomena in its nascent history4 ,the ,essenes1 8the sober thinkers10 as their assumed name implies1 seem to have been to the more noisy and ostentatious ,jewish sects1 what the ,pythagoreans were to the other ,greek schools of philosophy--practical moralists rather than mere talkers and theorisers4 ,they first appear in ,jewish history in the first century ,b4,c4 ,their communities were settled in the recesses of the ,jordan valley1 yet their members were sometimes found in the towns and villages4 ,like the ,pythagoreans1 they extorted respect even from the worldly and self-seeking religionists and politicians of the capital4 ,see ,josephus 7,antiquities xiii4 and xviii471 and ,philo1 who speak in the highest terms of admiration of the simplicity of their life and the purity of their morality4 ,dean ,stanley 7,lectures on the ,jewish ,church1 vol4 iii47 regards ,st4 ,john the ,baptist as ,essenian in his substitution of 8reformation of life0 for 8the sanguinary1 costly gifts of the sacrificial slaughter-house40 #fd ,it is a curious and remarkable inconsistency1 we may here observe1 that the modern ardent admirers of the ,fathers and ,saints of the ,church1 while professing unbounded respect for their doctrines1 for the most part ignore the one of their practices at once the most ancient1 the most highly reputed1 and the most universal4 ,quod semper1 quod ubique1 c41 the favourite maxim of ,st4 ,augustine and the orthodox church1 is1 in this case1 8more honoured in the breach than in the observance40 ,partial and periodical ,abstinence1 it is scarcely necessary to add1 however consecrated by later ecclesiasticism1 is sufficiently remote from the daily frugal living of a ,st4 ,james1 a ,st4 ,anthony1 or a ,st4 ,chrysostom4 #fe ,the full title of the treatise is--,the ,miscellaneous ,collection of ,t4 ,f4 ,clemens of ,gnostic 7or ,speculative7 ,memoirs upon the true ,philosophy4 #ff ,this celebrated term distinguished the superiority of knowledge 7gnosis7 of 8the most polite1 the most learned1 and the most wealthy of the ,christian name40 ,during the first three or four centuries the ,gnostics formed an extremely numerous as well as influential section of the ,church4 ,they sub-divided themselves into more than fifty particular sects1 of whom the followers of ,marcion and the ,manicheans are the most celebrated4 ,holding opinions regarding the ,jewish sacred scriptures and their authority the opposite to those of the ,ebionites or ,jewish ,christians1 they agreed1 at least a large proportion of them1 with the latter on the question of kreophagy4 #fg ,history of the ,literature of ,ancient ,greece1 by ,k4 ,o4 ,mller1 continued by ,j4 ,w4 ,donaldson1 ,d4,d41 vol4 iii41 #eh4 #fh ,the argument here suggested1 although rarely1 if ever1 adduced1 may well be deemed worthy of the most serious consideration4 ,it is1 to our mind1 one of the most forcible of all the many reasons for abstinence4 ,that the life even of a really useful member of the human community should be supported by the slaughter of hundreds of innocent and intelligent beings is surely enough to 8give us pause40 ,what1 then1 shall be said of the appalling fact1 that every day thousands of worthless1 and too often worse than useless1 human lives go down to the grave 7to be thenceforth altogether forgotten7 after having been the cause of the slaughter and suffering of countless beings1 surely far superior to themselves in all real worth8 ,to object the privilege of an 8immortal soul0 is1 in this case1 merely a miserable subterfuge4 ,sidney ,smith calculated that forty-four wagon-loads of flesh had been consumed by himself during a life of seventy years6 7,see his letter to ,lord ,murray47 #fi ,it was the fond belief of the mediating ,christian writers that the best parts of ,greek philosophy were derived1 in whole or in part1 from the ,jewish ,sacred ,scriptures4 ,for this belief1 which has prevailed so widely1 which1 perhaps1 still lingers amongst us1 and which has engaged the useless speculation of so many minds1 an ,alexandrian ,jew of the age of the later ,ptolemies is responsible4 ,it is now well known that he deliberately forged passages in the 7so-called7 ,orphic poems and 8,sybilline0 predictions1 in order to gain the respect of the ,greek rulers of his country for the ,jewish ,scriptures4 ,this patriotic but unscrupulous ,jew is known by his ,greek name of ,aristobulus4 ,he was preceptor or counsellor of ,ptolemy ,,vi4 #gj #b ,sam4 vi41 #ai4 ,clement1 in common with all the first ,christian writers1 quotes from the ,septuagint version1 which differs considerably from the ,hebrew4 ,the ,english translators of the latter1 presuming that 8flesh0 must have formed part of the royal bounty1 gratuitously insert that word in the context4 #ga ,pdagogus ii4 #a1 8,on ,eating40 #gb ,these works1 which would have been highly interesting1 have1 with so many other valuable productions of ,greek genius1 long since perished4 #gc ,miscellanies vii4 8,on ,sacrifices40 #gd ,see ,plutarch's denunciation of the very same practice of the butchers of his day1 ,essay on ,flesh ,eating4 ,unfortunately for the credit of ,jewish humanity1 it must be added that the method of butchering 7enjoined1 it is alleged1 by their religious laws7 entails a greater amount of suffering and torture to the victim than even the ,christian4 ,this fact has been abundantly proved by the evidence of many competent witnesses4 ,the cruelty of the ,jewish method of slaughter was especially exposed at one of the recent ,international ,congresses of representatives of ,european ,societies for ,prevention of ,cruelty4 #ge ,miscellanies ii41 #ah4 ,we have used for the most part the translation of the writings of ,clement1 published in the ,ante-,nicene ,library1 by ,messrs4 ,clarke1 ,edinburgh1 #ahfi4 ,the ,greek text is corrupt4 #gf #gg 8,the first book discussed alleged contradictions and other marks of human fallibility in the ,scriptures2 the third treated of ,scriptural interpretation1 and1 strangely enough1 repudiated the allegories of ,origen2 the fourth examined the ancient history of the ,jews2 and1 the twelfth and thirteenth maintained the point now generally admitted by scholars--that ,daniel is not a prophecy1 but a retrospective history of the age of ,antiochus ,epiphanes40--,donaldson 7,hist4 of ,gr4 ,lit47 #gh ,in justice to the old ,greek ,theology which1 as it really was1 has enough to answer for1 it must be remarked that its ,demonology1 or belief in the powers of subordinate divinities--in the first instance merely the internunciaries1 or mediators1 or angels between ,heaven and ,earth--was a very different thing from the ,diabolism of ,christian theology1 a fact which1 perhaps1 can be adequately recognised by those only who happen to be acquainted with the history of that most widely-spread and most fearful of all superstitions4 ,necessarily1 from the vague and1 for the most part1 merely secular character of the earlier theologies1 the infernal horrors1 with the frightful creed1 tortures1 burnings1 c41 which characterised the faith of ,christendom1 were wholly unknown to the religion of ,apollo and of ,jupiter4 #gi ,neo or ,new-,platonism may be briefly defined as a spiritual development of the ,socratic or ,platonic teaching4 ,in the hands of some of its less judicious and rational advocates it tended to degenerate into puerile1 though harmless1 superstition4 ,with the superior intellects of a ,plotinus1 ,porphyry1 ,longinus1 ,hypatia1 or ,proclus1 on the other hand1 it was1 in the main at least1 a sublime attempt at the purification and spiritualisation of the established orthodox creed4 ,it occupied a position midway between the old and the new religion1 which was so soon to celebrate its triumph over its effete rival4 ,that ,christianity1 on its spiritual side 7whatever the ingratitude of its later authorities71 owes far more than is generally acknowledged to both the old and newer ,platonism1 is sufficiently apparent to the attentive student of theological history4 #hj ,author of a ,treatise on the ,abandonment of the ,flesh ,diet1 #agji4 ,he died in the year #agcg4 #ha ,voltaire might have added the examples of the ,greek ,coenobites4 ,there is at least one celebrated and long-established religious community1 in the ,sinaitic peninsula1 which has always rigidly excluded all flesh from their diet4 ,like the community of ,la ,trappe1 these religious ,vegetarians are notoriously the most free from disease and most long-lived of their countrymen4 #hb ,article ,viande 7,dict4 ,phil47 ,in other passages in his writings the philosopher of ,ferney1 we may here remark1 expresses his sympathy with the humane diet4 ,see especially his ,essai sur les ,murs et l',esprit des ,nations 7introduction71 and his ,romance of ,la ,princesse de ,babylone4 #hc strictly means adoption1 admission to intimacy and family life1 or 8domestication40 #hd ,the founder of the new ,academy at ,athens1 and the vigorous opponent of the ,stoics4 #he ,that unreasoning arrogance of human selfishness1 which pretends that all other living beings have come into existence for the sole pleasure and benefit of man1 has often been exposed by the wiser1 and therefore more humble1 thinkers of our race4 ,pope has well rebuked this sort of monstrous arrogance3-- 8,has ,god1 thou fool1 worked solely for thy good1 ,thy joy1 thy pastime1 thy attire1 thy food8 99 99 99 99 99 ,know1 ,nature's children all divide her care1 ,the fur that warms a monarch1 warmed a bear4 ,while man exclaims3 #8,see1 all things for my use6' #8,see1 man for mine1' replies a pampered goose4 ,and just as short of reason he must fall1 ,who thinks all made for one1 not one for all40 ,essay on ,man1 ,,iii4 ,and1 as a commentary upon these truly philosophic verses1 we may quote the words of a recent able writer1 answering the objection1 8,why were sheep and oxen created1 if not for the use of man8 replies to the same effect as ,porphyry #afjj years ago30 ,it is only pride and imbecility in man to imagine all things made for his sole use4 ,there exist millions of suns and their revolving orbs which the eye of man has never perceived4 ,myriads of animals enjoy their pastime unheeded and unseen by him--many are injurious and destructive to him4 ,all exist for purposes but partially known4 ,yet we must believe1 in general1 that all were created for their own enjoyment1 for mutual advantage1 and for the preservation of universal harmony in ,nature4 ,if1 merely because we can eat sheep pleasantly1 we are to believe that they exist only to supply us with food1 we may as well say that man was created solely for various parasitical animals to feed on1 8because they do feed on him40--7,fruits and ,farinacea3 the ,proper ,food of ,man4 ,by ,j4 ,smith4 ,edited by ,professor ,newman4 ,heywood1 ,manchester2 ,pitman1 ,london47 ,see1 also1 amongst other philosophic writers1 the remarks of ,joseph ,ritson in his 8,essay on ,abstinence from ,animal ,food a ,moral ,duty0--7,phillips1 ,london1 #ahjb74 ,as to ,oxen and ,sheep1 it must be further remarked that they have been made what they are by the intervention of man alone4 ,the original and wild stocks 7especially that of sheep7 are very different from the metamorphosed and almost helpless domesticated varieties4 ,naturam violant1 pacem appellant4 #hf ,the ,artificer or ,creator1 par excellence4 ,in the ,platonic language1 the usual distinguishing name of the subordinate creator of our imperfect world4 #hg ,cf4 ,ovid's ,metam41 xv42 ,plutarch's ,essay on ,flesh-,eating2 ,thomson's ,seasons4 #hh 4 4 4 ,in the number of the traditionary reformers and civilisers of the earlier nations1 the name of ,orpheus has always held a foremost place4 ,in early ,christian times ,orpheus and the literature with which his name is connected occupy a very prominent and important position1 and some celebrated forged prophecies passed current as the utterances of that half-legendary hero4 ,horace adopts the popular belief as to his radical dietetic reform in the following verses3-- ,silvestres homines sacer1 interpresque ,deorum1 ,cdibus et fdo victu deterruit ,orpheus4 --,ars ,poetica4 ,virgil assigns him a place in the first rank of the ,just in the ,elysian paradise4--n4 vi4 #hi ,in his witty satire1 the ,misopogon or ,beard-,hater--8a sort of inoffensive retaliation1 which it would be in the power of few princes to employ0--directed against the luxurious people of ,antioch1 who had ridiculed his frugal meals and simple mode of living1 8he himself mentions his vegetable diet1 and upbraids the gross and sensual appetite0 of that orthodox but corrupt ,christian city4 ,when they complained of the high prices of flesh-meats1 8,julian publicly declared that a frugal city ought to be satisfied with a regular supply of wine1 oil1 and bread40--,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 xxiv4 #ij ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 xxii4 ,the philosophical fable of ,julian--,the ,csars--has been pronounced by the same historian to be 8one of the most agreeable and instructive productions of ancient wit40 ,its purpose is to estimate the merits or demerits of the various ,emperors from ,augustus to ,constantine4 ,as for the ,enemy of the ,beard1 it may be ranked1 for sarcastic wit1 almost with the ,jupiter in ,tragedy of ,lucian4 #ia ,article1 8,chrysostom10 in the ,penny ,cyclopdia4 #ib ,baur's ,life and ,work of ,st4 ,paul4 ,part ii41 chap4 #c4 #ic ,we here take occasion to observe that1 while final appeals to our sacred ,scriptures to determine any sociological question--whether of slavery1 polygamy1 war1 or of dietetics--cannot be too strongly deprecated1 a candid and impartial inquirer1 nevertheless1 will gladly recognise traces of a consciousness of the unspiritual nature of the sacrificial altar and shambles4 ,he will gladly recognise that if--as might be expected in so various a collection of sacred writings produced by different minds in different ages--frequent sanction of the materialist mode of living may be urged on the one side2 on the other hand1 the inspiration of the more exalted minds is in accord with the practice of the true spiritual life4 ,cf4 ,gen4 i41 #bi1 #cj2 ,isaiah i41 #aa-ag1 and xi41 #i ,ps4 l41 #i-ad2 ,ps4 lxxxi41 #ad-ag2 ,ps4 civ41 #ad1 #ae2 ,prov4 xxiii41 #b1 #c1 #bj1 #ba2 ,prov4 xxvii41 #be-bg3 ,prov4 xxx41 #h1 #bb2 ,prov4 xxxi41 #d2 ,eccl4 vi41 #g2 ,matt4 vi4 #ca2 #a ,cor4 viii41 #ac1 and ix41 #be2 ,rom4 viii41 #e-h1 #ab1 #ac2 ,phil4 iii41 #ai1 and iv41 #h2 ,james ii41 #ac1 #d1 and iv41 #a-c2 #a ,pet4 ii41 #aa4 ,perhaps1 next to the alleged authority of ,gen4 ix4 7noticed and refuted by ,tertullian1 as already quoted71 the trance-vision of ,st4 ,peter is most often urged by the bibliolaters 7or those who revere the letter rather than the true inspiration of the ,sacred ,books7 as a triumphant proof of biblical sanction of materialism4 ,yet1 unless1 indeed1 literalism is to over-ride the most ordinary rules of common sense1 as well as of criticism1 all that can be extracted from the 8,vision0 7in which were presented to the sleeper 8all manner of four-footed beasts of the earth1 and wild beasts and creeping things10 which it will hardly be contented he was expected to eat7 is the fact of a mental illumination1 by which the ,jewish ,apostle recognises the folly of his countrymen in arrogating to themselves the exclusive privileges of the 8,chosen ,people40 ,besides1 as has already been pointed out1 the earliest traditions concur in representing ,st4 ,peter as always a strict abstinent1 insomuch that he is stated to have celebrated the 8,eucharist0 with nothing but bread and salt4--,clement ,hom41 xiv41 #a4 #id ,homily1 lxix4 on ,mat4 xxii41 #a-ad4 #ie ,the male sex1 according to our ideas1 might have been more properly apostrophised2 and ,st4 ,chrysostom may seem1 in this passage and elsewhere1 to be somewhat partial in his invective4 ,candour1 indeed1 forces us to remark that the 8,golden-mouthed10 in common with many others of the ,fathers1 and with the ,greek and ,eastern world in general1 depreciated the qualities1 both moral and mental1 of the feminine sex4 ,that the weaker are what the stronger choose to make them1 is an obvious truth generally ignored in all ages and countries--by modern satirists and other writers1 as well as by a ,simonides or ,solomon4 ,the partial severity of the ,archbishop of ,constantinople1 it is proper to add1 may be justified1 in some measure1 by the contemporary history of the ,court of ,byzantium1 where the beautiful and licentious empress ,eudoxia ruled supreme4 #if ,st4 ,chrysostom seems to have derived this forcible appeal from ,seneca4 ,compare the remarks of the latter1 ,ep4 cx43 8,at1 mehercule1 ista solicite scrutata varieque condita1 cum subierint ventrem1 una atque cadem fditas occupabit4 ,vis ciborum voluptatem contemnere8 ,exitum specta40 #ig ,the ,homilies of ,st4 ,john ,chrysostom1 ,archbishop of ,constantinople1 ,translated by ,members of the ,english ,church4 ,parker1 ,oxford4 ,see ,hom4 vii4 on ,phil4 ii4 for a forcible representation of the inferiority1 in many points1 of our own to other species4 #ih ,for example1 we may refer to the fact of trials of 8criminal0 dogs1 and other non-human beings1 with all the formalities of ordinary courts of justice1 and in the gravest manner recorded by credible witnesses4 ,the convicted 8felons0 were actually hanged with all the circumstances of human executions4 ,instances of such trials are recorded even so late as the sixteenth century4 #ii ,his biographer1 ,marinus1 writes in terms of the highest admiration of his virtues as well as of his genius1 and of the perfection to which he had attained by his unmaterialistic diet and manner of living4 ,he seems to have had a remarkably cosmopolitan mind1 since he regarded with equal respect the best parts of all the then existing religious systems2 and he is said even to have paid solemn honours to all the most illustrious1 or rather most meritorious1 of his philosophic predecessors4 ,that his intellect1 sublime and exalted as it was1 had contracted the taint of superstition must excite our regret1 though scarcely our wonder1 in the absence of the light of modern science2 nor can there be any difficulty in perceiving how the miracles and celestial apparitions--which form a sort of halo around the great teachers--originated1 viz41 in the natural enthusiasm of his zealous but uncritical disciples4 ,one of his principal works is ,on the ,theology of ,plato1 in six books4 ,another of his productions was a ,commentary on the ,works and ,days of ,hesiod4 ,both are extant4 ,he died at an advanced age in #dhe1 having hastened his end by excessive asceticism4 #ajj ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 xl4 ,this testimony of the great historian to the merits of the last of the ,new-,platonists is all the more weighty as coming from an authority notoriously the most unimpassioned and unenthusiastic1 perhaps1 of all writers4 ,compare his remarkable expression of personal feeling--guardedly stated as it is--upon the question of kreophagy in his chapter on the history and manners of the ,tartar nations 7chap4 xxvi74 #aja ,trattato della ,vita ,sobria1 #aedh4 #ajb ,svior armis ,luxuria4 ,we may be tempted to ask ourselves whether we are reading denunciations of the gluttony and profusion of the sixteenth century or contemporary reports of public dinners in our own country1 e4g41 of the ,lord ,mayor's annual dinner4 ,the vast amount of slaughter of all kinds of victims to supply the various dishes of one of these exhibitions of national gluttony can be adequately described only by the use of the ,homeric word hecatomb--slaughter of hundreds4 #ajc ,amorevole ,esortazione a ,seguire ,la ,vita ,ordinata e ,sobria4 #ajd ,cornaro's heterodoxy in dietetics was not allowed1 as may well be supposed1 to pass unchallenged by his contemporaries4 ,one of his countrymen1 a person of some note1 ,sperone ,speroni1 published a reply under the title of 8,contra la ,sobriet20 but soon afterwards recanting his errors 7rimettendosi spontaneamente nel buon sentiero7 he wrote a ,discourse in favour of ,temperance4 ,about the same time there appeared in ,paris an 8,anti-,cornaro10 written 8against all the rules of good taste10 and which the editors of the ,biographie ,universelle characterise as full of remarks 8tout fait oiseuses40 #aje ,more points out very forcibly that to hang for theft is tantamount to offering a premium for murder4 ,two hundred and fifty years later ,beccaria and other humanitarians vainly advanced similar objections to the criminal code of christian ,europe4 ,it is hardly necessary to remark that this ,draconian bloodthirstiness of ,english criminal law remained to belie the name of 8civilisation0 so recently as fifty years ago4 #ajf ,erasmus 7who1 to lash satirically and more effectively the various follies and crimes of men places the genius of ,folly itself in the pulpit7 seems to have shared the feeling of his friend in regard to the character of 8sport40 8,when they 7the #8sportsmen'7 have run down their victims1 what strange pleasure they have in cutting them up6 ,cows and sheep may be slaughtered by common butchers1 but those animals that are killed in hunting must be mangled by none under a gentleman1 who will fall down on his knees1 and drawing out a slashing dagger 7for a common knife is not good enough7 after several ceremonies shall dissect all the joints as artistically as the best skilled anatomist1 while all who stand round shall look very intently and seem to be mightily surprised with the novelty1 though they have seen the same thing a hundred times before2 and he that can but dip his finger and taste of the blood shall think his own bettered by it4 ,and yet the constant feeding on such diet does but assimilate them to the nature 787 of those animals they eat10 c4--,encomium ,mori1 or ,praise of ,folly4 ,if we recall to mind that three centuries and a half have passed away since ,more and ,erasmus raised their voices against the sanguinary pursuits of hunting1 and that it is still necessary to reiterate the denunciation1 we shall justly deplore the slow progress of the human mind in all that constitutes true morality and refinement of feeling4 #ajg ,utopia ,,ii4 #ajh ,for a full and eloquent exposition of the social evils which threaten the country from the natural but mischievous greed of landowners and farmers1 our readers are referred1 in particular1 to ,professor ,newman's admirable ,lectures upon this aspect of the ,vegetarian creed1 delivered before the ,society at various times4 7,heywood3 ,manchester47 #aji ,utopia4 ,translated into ,english by ,ralph ,robinson1 ,fellow of ,corpus ,christi ,college4 ,london3 #aeef2 reprinted by ,edward ,arber1 #ahfi4 ,we have used this ,english edition as more nearly representing the style of ,sir ,thomas ,more than a modern version4 ,it is a curious fact that no edition of the ,utopia was published in ,england during the author's lifetime--or1 indeed1 before that of ,robinson1 in #aeea4 ,it was first printed at ,louvain2 and1 after revision by the author1 it was reprinted at ,basle1 under the auspices of ,erasmus1 still in the original ,latin4 #aaj 8,with plaintive cries1 all covered with blood1 and in the attitude of a suppliant40 ,see the story of the death of ,silvia's deer 7neis1 viii47--the most touching episode in the whole epic of ,virgil4 ,the affection of the ,tuscan girl for her favourite1 her anxious care of her1 and the deep indignation excited amongst her people by the murder of the deer by the son of neas and his intruding followers--the cause of the war that ensued--are depicted with rare grace and feeling4 #aaa 8,it was in the slaughter1 in the primval times1 of wild beasts 7,i suppose7 the knife first was stained with the warm life-blood40--,see ,ovid ,metam4 xv4 #aab ,christian theology1 to which doubtless ,montaigne here refers1 the force of truth compels us to note1 has always uttered a very 8uncertain sound0 in regard to the rights and even to the frightful sufferings of the non-human species4 ,excepting1 indeed1 two or three isolated passages in the ,jewish and ,christian sacred ,scriptures which1 according to the theologians1 bear a somewhat equivocal meaning1 it is not easy to discover what particular theological or ecclesiastical maxims ,montaigne could adduce4 #aac ,we use the term in deference to universal custom1 although ,francis ,bacon protested #bej years ago that 8,antiquity1 as we call it1 is the young state of the world2 for those times are ancient when the world is ancient1 and not those we vulgarly account ancient by computing backwards--so that the present time is the real ,antiquity40--,advancement of ,learning1 ,i4 ,see also ,novum ,organum4 #aad ,compare ,shakspere's eloquent indignation3-- 8,man1 proud ,man1 ,dressed in a little brief authority1 ,most ignorant of what he's most assured-- ,his glassy essence--like an angry ape1 ,plays such fantastic tricks before high heaven10 c4 ,measure for ,measure4 #aae ,with these just and common-sense arguments of ,montaigne compare the very remarkable treatise 7remarkable both by the profession and by the age of the author7 of ,hieronymus or ,jerome ,rorarius1 published under the title--8,that the so-called irrational animals often make use of reason better than men40 7,quod ,animalia ,bruta ,spe ,utantur ,ratione ,melius ,homine47 ,it was given to the world by the celebrated physician1 ,gabriel ,naud1 in #afdh1 one hundred years after it was written1 and1 as pointed out by ,lange1 it is therefore earlier than the ,essais of ,montaigne4 8,it is distinguished10 according to ,lange1 8by its severe and serious tone1 and by the assiduous emphasising of just such traits of the lower animals as are most generally denied to them1 as being products of the higher faculties of the soul4 ,with their virtues the vices of men are set in sharp contrast4 ,we can therefore understand that the ,,ms41 although written by a priest1 who was a friend both of ,pope and ,emperor1 had to wait so long for publication40 7,hist4 of ,materialism4 ,vol4 i41 #bbe4 ,eng4 ,trans47 ,it is noteworthy that the title1 as well as the arguments1 of the book of ,rorarius reveals its original inspiration--the ,essay of ,plutarch4 ,equally heterodox upon this subject is the ,de ,la ,sagesse of ,montaigne's friend1 ,pierre ,charron4 #aaf ,essais de ,michel de ,montaigne1 ,,ii41 #ab4 #aag ,see ,article in ,english ,cyclopdia4 #aah ,see ,elmens de la ,philosophie de ,newton4 ,the whole passage breathes the true spirit of humanity and philosophy1 and deserves to be quoted in full in this place3 8,il y a surtout dans l'homme une disposition la compassion aussi gnralement rpandue que nos autres instincts4 ,newton avait cultiv ce sentiment d'humanit1 et il l'etendait jusqu'aux animaux4 ,il tait fortement convaincu avec ,locke1 que ,dieu a donn aux animaux une msure d'ides1 et les mmes sentiments qu' nous4 ,il ne pouvait penser que ,dieu1 qui ne fait rien en vain1 et donn aux animaux des organes de sentiment1 afin qu'elles n'eussent point de sentiment4 ,il trouvait une contradiction bien affreuse croire que les animaux sentent1 et les faire souffrir4 ,sa morale s'accordait en ce point avec sa philosophie4 ,il ne cdait qu'avec rpugnance l'usage barbare de nous nourrir du sang et de la chair des tres semblables nous1 que nous caressons tous les jours4 ,il ne permit jamais dans sa maison qu'on les fit mourir par des morts lentes et recherches1 pour en rendre la nourriture plus dlicieuse4 ,cette compassion qu'il avait pour les animaux se tournait en vraie charit pour les hommes4 ,en effet1 sans l'humanit--vertu qui comprend toutes les vertus--on ne mriterait gure le nom de philosophe40--,elmens v4 ,an expression of feeling in sufficiently striking contrast to the ordinary ideas4 ,compare ,essay on the ,human ,understanding1 ii41 #b4 #aai ,history of ,materialism4--,we may here observe that ,descartes seems to have adopted his extraordinary theory as to the non-human races as a sort of dernier resort4 ,in a letter to one of his friends 7,louis ,racine7 he declares himself driven to his theory by the rigour of the dilemma1 that 7seeing the innocence of the victims of man's selfishness7 it is necessary either that they should he insensible to suffering1 or that ,god1 who has made them1 should be unjust4 ,upon which ,glezs makes the following reflection3 8,this reasoning is conclusive4 ,one must either be a ,cartesian1 or allow that man is very vile4 ,nothing is more rigorous than this consequence40--7,thalysie ,ou ,la ,nouvelle ,existence74 ,la ,fontaine has well illustrated the absurdity of the animated machine theory in ,fables x4 #a4 #abj ,see 8,elmens de la ,philosophie de ,newton40 #aba ,suspecta mihi semper fuerit 7he writes7 ipsa hominis 4 #abb ,see ,gassendi's ,letter1 ,viro ,clarissimo et ,philosopho ac ,medico ,expertissimo ,joanni ,baptist ,helmontio ,amico ,suo ,singulari4 ,dated1 ,amsterdam1 #afbi4 #abc ,physics4 ,book ,,ii4 ,de ,virtutibus4 #abd ,see ,philosophi ,epicuri ,syntagma4 ,de ,sobrietate contra ,gulam4 78,view of the ,philosophy of ,epikurus3 ,on ,sobriety as opposed to ,gluttony407 ,part ,,iii4 ,florenti1 #agbg4 ,folio4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 #abe ,advancement of ,learning1 iv41 #b4 ,bacon's suggestion seems to imply that human beings were still vivisected1 for the 8good0 of science1 in his time4 ,celsus1 the well-known ,latin physician of the second century1 had protested against this cold-blooded barbarity of deliberately cutting up a living human body4 ,the wretched victims of the vivisecting knife were1 it seems1 slaves1 criminals1 and captives1 who were handed over by the authorities to the physiological 8laboratory40 ,harvey1 ,bacon's contemporary1 is notorious 7and1 it ought to be added1 infamous7 for the number and the unrelenting severity of his experiments upon the non-human slaves1 which1 though constantly alleged by modern vivisectors to have been the means by which he discovered the 8circulation of the blood10 have been clearly proved to have served merely as demonstrations in physiology to his pupils4 ,but we no longer wonder at ,harvey's indifference to the horrible suffering of which he was the cause1 when we read the similar atrocities of vivisection and 8pathology0 of our own time4 ,from the cold-blooded cruelties of ,harvey1 who was accustomed to amuse ,charles ,i4 and his family with his demonstrations1 it is a pleasant relief to turn to the better feeling of ,shakspere on that subject4 ,see his ,cymbeline 7i41 #f71 where the ,queen1 who is experimenting in poisons1 tells her physician1 8,i will try the force of these thy compounds on such creatures as ,we count not worth the hanging--but none human40 and is reminded that she would 8from this practice but make hard her heart40 ,such a rebuke is in keeping with the true feeling which inspired the poet to picture the undeserved pangs of the hunted ,deer in ,as ,you ,like ,it1 ii41 #a4 #abf ,advancement of ,learning4 viii41 #b4 #abg ,see ,acetaria 7page #agj74 ,by ,john ,evelyn4 #abh ,the tract of ,samuel ,hartlib1 entitled1 ,a ,design for ,plenty1 by a ,universal ,planting of ,fruit ,trees1 which appeared during the ,commonwealth ,government1 no doubt suggested to ,evelyn his kindred publication4 ,hartlib 7of a distinguished ,german family7 settled in this country somewhere about the year #afcj4 ,by his writings1 in advocacy of better agriculture and horticulture1 he has deserved a grateful commemoration from after-times4 ,cromwell gave him a pension of #cjj1 which was taken away by ,charles ,,ii41 and he died in poverty and neglect4 ,it was to him ,milton dedicated his ,tractate on ,education4 #abi ,locke 7one of the very highest names in ,philosophy7 had already exhorted ,english mothers to make their children abstain 8wholly from flesh10 at least until the completion of the fourth or fifth year4 ,he strongly recommends a very sparing amount of flesh for after years2 and thinks that many maladies may be traceable to the foolish indulgence of mothers in respect to diet4--,see ,thoughts on ,education1 #afij4 #acj ,he quotes1 amongst others1 ,tertullian ,de ,jejuniis 7,on ,fasting71 cap4 iv42 ,jerome 7,adv4 ,jovin72 ,clemens of ,alexandria 7,strom4 vii472 ,eusebius1 ,preparatio ,evangelica 7,preparation for the ,gospel71 who cites several abstinents from amongst the philosophers of the old theologies4 #aca ,acetaria 78,a ,discourse of ,salads074 ,dedicated to ,lord ,somers1 of ,evesham1 ,lord ,high ,chancellor of ,england1 and ,president of the ,royal ,society1 ,london1 #afii4 #acb ,translated by ,cowper from the ,latin poems of ,milton4 ,in a note to the original poem ,thomas ,warton justly remarks that 8,milton's panegyrics on temperance both in eating and in drinking1 resulting from his own practice1 are frequent40 #acc ,paradise ,lost1 v4 and xi4 ,cf4 ,queen ,mab4 #acd ,le sang humain abruti ne pouvait plus s'lever aux choses intellectuelles4 ,see ,discours sur ,l',histoire ,universelle1 a historical sketch which1 though necessarily infected by the theological prejudices of the bishop1 is1 for the rest1 considering the period in which it was written1 a meritorious production as one of the earliest attempts at a sort of 8philosophy of history40 #ace ,penny ,cyclopdia1 ,article ,mandeville4 #acf ,upon which ,ritson aptly remarks3 8,the sheep is not so much #8designed' for the man as the man is for the tiger1 this animal being naturally carnivorous1 which man is not4 ,but nature1 and justice1 and humanity are not always one and the same thing40 ,to this remark we may add with equal force1 that almost all the living beings upon whom our species preys have been so artificially changed from their natural condition for the gratification of its selfish appetite as to be with difficulty identified with the original stocks4 ,so much for this theory of creative design4 #acg ,fable of the ,bees1 i4 #ahg1 c4 #ach ,fable xxxvi41 ,pythagoras and the ,countryman4 ,this fable of ,gay may have been suggested by that of sop--preserved by ,plutarch--who represents a wolf watching a number of shepherds eating a sheep1 and saying to himself--8,if ,i were doing what you are now about1 what an uproar you would make60 ,see also the instructive fable of ,la ,fontaine--,l',homme et la ,couleuvre1 one of the finest in the whole twelve ,books 7,livre x41 #b71 in which the ,cow and ,ox accuse the base ingratitude of ,man for the cruel neglect1 and1 finally1 for the barbarous slaughter of his fellow-labourers4 ,the ,cow1 appealed to by the ,adder1 replies3-- 8,pourquoi dissimuler8 ,je nourris celui-ci depuis longues annes3 ,il n'a sans mes bienfaits pass nulles journes4 ,tout n'est que pour lui seul3 mon lait et mes enfants ,le font la maison revenir les mains pleines4 ,mme j'ai rtabli sa sant1 que les ans ,avaient altre2 et mes peines ,ont pour but son plaisir ainsi que son besoin4 ,enfin me voil vieille4 ,il me laisse ,sans herbe4 ,s'il voulait encore me laisser patre6 ,mais je suis attache44444 ,force coups1 peu de gr4 ,puis1 quand il tait vieux1 ,on croyait l'honorer chaque fois que les hommes ,achetaient de son sang l'indulgence des dieux40 #aci ,the ,wild ,boar and the ,ram4 ,for admirable rebukes of human arrogance1 see ,the ,elephant and the ,bookseller and ,the ,man and the ,flea4 #adj ,he was at one time so corpulent that he could not get in and out of his carriage in visiting his patients at ,bath4 #ada ,one of the many excellences of the non-flesh dietary is this essential quality of fruits and vegetables1 that they contain in themselves sufficient liquid to allow one to dispense with a large proportion of all extraneous drinks1 and certainly with all alcoholic kinds4 ,hence it is at once the easiest and the surest preventive of all excessive drinking4 ,much convincing testimony has been collected to this effect by the ,english and ,german ,vegetarian ,societies4 #adb ,it is neither necessary nor possible for everyone to practise so extreme abstemiousness2 but it is instructive to compare it for a moment with the ordinary and prevalent indulgence in eating4 #adc ,a ,life of ,george ,cheyne1 ,m4,d41 ,parker and ,churchill1 #ahdf4 ,see also ,biog4 ,britannica4 #add ,dr4 ,samuel ,johnson gave up wine by the advice of ,cheyne1 and drank tea with ,mrs4 ,thrale and ,boswell till he died1 t4 #ge4 #ade ,bayle1 the author of the great ,dictionnaire ,historique et ,critique 7#afij71 to whom belongs the lasting honour of having inaugurated the critical method in history and philosophy1 which has since led to such extensive and important results1 seems also to have been the first explicitly to state the difficulties of that greatest crux of ,theology--the problem of the existence1 or rather dominance1 of ,evil4 ,his rival ,le ,clerc1 in his ,bibliothque1 took up the orthodox cudgels4 ,lord ,shaftesbury1 the celebrated theologian and moralist1 wrote his dialogue--,the ,moralists 7#agji7--;in direct answer to ,bayle1 followed the next year by the ,theodike or ,vindication of the ,deity of ,leibnitz4 ,two of the most able and distinguished of the ,anti-,optimists are ,voltaire and ,schopenhauer1 the former of whom never wearies of using his unrivalled powers of irony and sarcasm on the ,tout est ,bien theory4 ,as for the latter philosopher1 he has carried his ,anti-,optimism to the extremes of ,pessimism4 #adf ,pope here is scarcely logical upon his own premiss4 ,it seems impossible1 upon any grounds of reason or analogy1 to deny to the lower animals a posthumous existence while vindicating it for ourselves1 inasmuch as the essential conditions of existence are identical for many other beings4 ,to the serious thinker the question of a post-terrestrial state of existence must stand or fall for both upon the same grounds4 ,yet what can well be more weak1 or more of a subterfuge1 than the pretence of many well-meaning persons1 who seek to excuse their indifferentism to the cruel sufferings of their humble fellow-beings by the expression of a belief or a hope that there is a future retributive state for them8 ,it must be added that this idle speculation--whether the non-human races are capable of post-terrestrial life or no--might1 to any serious apprehension1 seem to be wholly beside the mark4 ,but what can be more monstrously ridiculous 71 in ,lucian's language7 than the inconsistency of those who would maintain the affirmative1 and yet persist in devouring their clients8 ,risum teneatis1 amici6 #adg ,spence's ,anecdotes and ,the ,guardian1 ,may #ba1 #agac4 ,his indignation was equally aroused by the tortures of the vivisectors of the day4 ,and he demands how do men know that they have 8a right to kill beings whom they at least1 the vast majority are so little above1 for their own curiosity1 or even for some use to them40 #adh ,see ,travels1 c4 ,part ,,iv4 #adi ,dict4 ,phil41 in article ,viande1 where it is lamented that his book1 as far as appeared1 had made no more converts than had the ,treatise of ,porphyry fifteen centuries before4 #aej ,see the amusing scene of the gourmand ,canon ,sedillo and ,dr4 ,sangrado1 who had been called in to the gouty and fever-stricken patient3 8#8,pray1 what is your ordinary diet8' asks the physician4 #8,my usual food1' replied the ,canon1 #8is broth and juicy meat4' #8,broth and juicy meat6' cried the doctor1 alarmed4 #8,i do not wonder to find you sick2 such dainty dishes are poisoned pleasures and snares that luxury spreads for mankind1 so as to ruin them the more effectually4444 ,what an irregularity is here6 what a frightful regimen6 ,you ought to have been dead long ago4 ,how old are you1 pray8' #8,i am in my sixty-ninth year1' replied the ,canon4 #8,exactly1' said the physician2 #8an early old age is always the fruits of intemperance4 ,if you had drunk nothing else than pure water all your life1 and had been satisfied with simple nourishment--such as boiled apples1 for example--you would not now be tormented with the gout1 and all your limbs would perform their functions with ease4 ,i do not despair1 however1 of setting you to rights1 provided that you be wholly resigned to my directions4'0 7,adventures of ,gil ,blas1 ii41 #b47 ,we may comment upon the satire of the novelist 7for so it was intended71 that irony or sarcasm is a legitimate and powerful weapon when directed against falsehood2 that there was1 and is1 only too much in the practice and principles of the profession open to ridicule2 but that the attempted ridicule of the better living does not redound to the penetration or good sense of the satirist4 #aea ,compare the similar thoughts of the ,latin poet1 ,metam4 xv4 #aeb ,autumn4 ,read the verses which immediately follow1 describing1 with profound pathos1 the sufferings and anguish of the hunted ,deer and ,hare4 #aec ,summer4 #aed ,observations on ,man1 ,,ii41 #c4 #aee ,quam vehementes haberent tirunculi impetus primos ad optima quque si quis exhortaretur1 si quis impelleret6 ,the general failure ,seneca traces partly to the fault of the schoolmasters1 who prefer to instil into the minds of their pupils a knowledge of words rather than of things--of dialectics rather than of dietetics 7nos docent disputare non vivere71 and partly to the fault of parents who expect a head in place of a heart training4 7,see ,letters to ,lucilius1 cviii47 ,quis doctores docebit8 #aef ,an instance of the common confusion of thought and logic4 ,the too obvious fact that a large proportion of animals are carnivorous neither proves nor justifies the carnivorousness of the human species4 ,the real question is1 is the human race originally frugivorous or carnivorous8 ,is it allied to the ,tiger or to the ,ape8 #aeg 8,who is this female personification #8,nature'8 ,what are #8her principles1' and where does she reside80 asks ,ritson quoting this passage4 #aeh ,the ,world4 ,no4 #aij1 as quoted by ,ritson4 #aei ,persian poets of the tenth and thirteenth centuries of our era4 #afj ,asiatic ,researches4 iv4 #ab #afa ,elmens de la ,philosophie de ,newton1 v4 ,haller1 the founder of modern physiology1 assures us that 8,newton1 while he was engaged upon his ,optics1 lived almost entirely on bread1 and wine1 and water0 7,newtonus1 dum ,optica scribebat1 solo pn vino pane et aqu vixit74--,elements of ,physiology1 vi41 #aih4 #afb ,a fact which brings out into strong relief the entirely superfluous luxuries of living of the ,english residents4 #afc ,essai sur les ,murs et l',esprit des ,nations1 introduction section xvi41 and chap4 iii4 and iv4 #afd ,see ,gen4 ix4 and ,ecclesiastes iii41 #ah1 #ai4--,note by ,voltaire4 #afe ,see ,lettres d',amabed ,shastasid4 ,see also article ,viande in the ,dictionnaire ,philosophique4 #aff ,la ,princesse de ,babylone4 ,cf4 ,dialogue du ,chapon et de la ,poularde4 #afg ,see article ,btes in the ,dict4 ,phil4 #afh ,elements of ,physiology4 #afi ,cf4 ,virgil's 8,magna parens frugum40 #agj ,see the ,nouvelle ,biographie ,universelle4 ,didot1 ,paris4 #aga ,grcorum ,chirurgici ,libri4 ,firenze1 #aged4 #agb ,dissertazione sopra l'uso esterno appresso gli ,antichi dell'acqua fredda sul corpo umano4 ,firenze1 #agdg4 #agc ,del ,vitto ,pithagorico ,per ,uso ,della ,medicina3 ,discorso ,d',antonio ,cocchi4 ,firenze1 #agdc4 ,a translation appeared in ,paris in #agfb under the title of ,le ,rgime de ,pythagore4 #agd ,del ,vitto ,pithagorico4 ,amongst the heralds and forerunners of ,cocchi deserve to be mentioned with honour ,ramazzini 7#afcc-agad71 who earned amongst his countrymen the title of ,hippokrates the ,third2 ,lessio 7in his ,hygiastricon1 or ,treatise on ,health71 in the earlier part of the #agth century2 and ,lemcry1 the ,french ,physician and ,member of the ,acadmie1 author of ,a ,treatise on all ,sorts of ,food1 which was translated into ,english by ,d4 ,hay1 ,m4,d41 in #agde4 #age ,rousseau adds in a note3 8,i know that the ,english boast loudly of their humanity and of the good disposition of their nation1 which they term #8good nature1' but it is in vain for them to proclaim this far and wide4 ,nobody repeats it after them40 ,gibbon1 in the well-known passage in his xxvith chapter1 in which he speculates upon the influence of flesh-eating in regard to the savage habits of the ,tartar tribes1 quoting this remark of ,rousseau1 in his ironical way1 says3 8,whatever we may think of the general observation1 we shall not easily allow the truth of his example40--,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 xxvi4 #agf ,he corrects this mistake in a note3 8,one of my ,english translators has pointed out this error1 and both of my translators have rectified it4 ,butchers and surgeons are received as witnesses1 but the former are not admitted as jurymen or peers in criminal trials1 while surgeons are so40 ,even this amended statement needs revision4 #agg ,how the ,french apostle of humanitarianism and refinement of manners1 if he were living1 would regard the recently reported practice of ,french and other physicians of sending their patients to the slaughter-houses to drink the blood of the newly-slaughtered oxen may be more easily imagined than expressed4 #agh ,rather carnes consumere nati--8born simply to devour40--,see ,hor41 ,ep4 ,i41 #b4 #agi ,emile3 ou de l',education1 ,,ii4 #ahj ,julie ,,iv41 ,lettre #aj4 ,see also her protests against shooting and fishing4 #aha ,confessions4 ,one of his friends1 ,dussault1 surprised him1 it seems1 on one occasion eating a 8cutlet40 ,rousseau1 conscious of the betrayal of his principles1 8blushed up to the whites of his eyes40 7,see ,glez's ,thalysic47 ,in truth1 as we have already observed1 his principles on the subject of dietetics1 as on some other matters1 were better than his practice4 ,his sensibility was always greater than his strength of mind4 #ahb ,amnitates ,academic1 x41 #h4 #ahc ,this little word 8seems0 here1 as in very many other controversies1 has a vast importance and needs a double emphasis4 #ahd ,buffon here entirely ignores the true cause of the 8inanition0 of the poor classes of the community4 ,it is not the want of flesh-meats1 but the want of all solid and nutritious meat of any kind1 which is to be found amply in the abundant stores supplied by ,nature at first hand in the various parts of the vegetable world4 ,were the poor able to procure1 and were they instructed how best to use1 the most nourishing of the various farinacea1 fruits1 and kitchen herbs1 supplied by the home and foreign markets1 we should hear nothing or little of the scandalous scenes of starvation which are at present of daily occurrence in our midst4 ,the example of the ,irish living upon a few potatoes and buttermilk1 or of the ,scotch peasantry1 instanced by ,adam ,smith1 proves how all-sufficient would be a diet judiciously selected from the riches of the vegetable world4 ,for1 fortiori1 if the ,irish1 living thus meagrely1 not only support life1 but exhibit a physique which1 in the last century1 called forth the admiration of the author of ,the ,wealth of ,nations1 might not our ,english poor thrive upon a richer and more substantial vegetable diet which could easily be supplied but for the astounding indifference of the ruling classes8 #ahe ,hist4 ,naturelle1 ,le ,buf4 #ahf ,edition of ,swift's ,works4 ,canon ,sydney ,smith1 equally celebrated as a bon-vivant and as a wit1 at the termination of his life writes thus to his friend ,lord ,murray3 8,you are1 ,i hear1 attending more to diet than heretofore4 ,if you wish for anything like happiness in the fifth act of life eat and drink about one-half what you could eat and drink4 ,did ,i ever tell you my calculation about eating and drinking8 ,having ascertained the weight of what ,i could live upon1 so as to preserve health and strength1 and what ,i did live upon1 ,i found that1 between ten and seventy years of age1 ,i had eaten and drunk forty-four horse wagon-loads of meat and drink more than would have preserved me in life and health6 ,the value of this mass of nourishment ,i considered to be worth seven thousand pounds sterling4 ,it occurred to me that ,i must1 by my voracity1 have starved to death fully a hundred persons4 ,this is a frightful calculation1 but irresistibly true40 ,commentary upon this candid statement is superfluous4 ,ab uno disce omnes4 ,if amongst the richer classes the ordinary liver may consume a somewhat smaller quantity of life during his longer or shorter existence1 at all events the sum total must be a sufficiently startling one for all who may have the courage and candour to reflect upon this truly appalling subject4 ,another thought irresistibly suggests itself4 ,what proportion of human lives thus supported is of any real value in the world8 #ahg ,in reply to this sort of apology it is obvious to ask--8,have the frugivorous races1 who form no inconsiderable proportion of the mammals1 no claim to be considered80 #ahh ,to this very popular fallacy it is necessary only to object that ,nature may very well be supposed able to maintain the proper balance for the most part4 ,for the rest1 man's proper duty is to harmonise and regulate the various conditions of life1 as far as in him lies1 not indeed by satisfying his selfish propensities1 but by assuming the part of a benevolent and beneficent superior4 ,to this we may add with some force1 that man appeared on the scene within a comparatively very recent geological period1 so that the ,earth fared1 it seems1 very well without him for countless ages4 #ahi ,and1 in point of fact1 two-thirds at least of the whole human population of our globe4 #aij ,this popular excuse is perhaps the feeblest and most disingenuous of all the defences usually made for flesh-eating4 ,can the mere gift of life compensate for all the horrible and frightful sufferings inflicted1 in various ways1 upon their victims by the multiform selfishness and barbarity of man8 ,to what unknown1 as well as known1 tortures are not every day the victims of the slaughter-house subjected8 ,from their birth to their death1 the vast majority--it is too patent a fact--pass an existence in which freedom from suffering of one kind or other--whether from insufficient food or confined dwellings on the one hand1 or from the positive sufferings endured in transitu to the slaughter-house by ship or rail1 or by the brutal savagery of cattle-drivers1 c4--is the exception rather than the rule4 #aia ,moral and ,political ,philosophy1 i41 #b4 ,it is deeply to be deplored that ,dr4 ,paley is in a very small minority amongst christian theologians1 of candour1 honesty1 and feeling sufficient to induce them to dispute at all so orthodox a thesis as the right to slaughter for food4 ,that he is compelled1 by the force of truth and honesty1 to abandon the popular pretexts and subterfuges1 and to seek refuge in the supposed authority of the book of ,genesis1 is significant enough4 ,of course1 to all reasonable minds1 such a course is tantamount to giving up the defence of kreophagy altogether2 and1 if it were not for theological necessity1 it would be sufficiently surprising that ,paley's intelligence or candour did not discover that if flesh-eating is to be defended on biblical grounds1 so1 by parity of reasoning1 are also to be defended--slavery1 polygamy1 wars of the most cruel kind1 c4 #aib ,the ,principles of ,moral and ,political ,philosophy1 xii41 #aa4 ,see1 amongst others1 the philosophical reflections of ,mr4 ,greg in his ,enigmas of ,life1 ,appendix4 ,but the subject has been most fully and satisfactorily dealt with by ,professor ,newman in his various ,addresses4 #aic ,compare the similar observation of ,flourens1 ,secretary of the ,french ,academy of ,sciences1 in his ,treatise on the ,longevity of ,man 7,paris1 #ahab74 ,he quotes ,cornaro1 ,lessio1 ,haller1 and other authorities on the reformed regimen4 #aid ,he well exposes the fatal mischief of emulation 7in place of love of truth and of love of knowledge1 for its own sake7 in schools which tends to intensify1 if not produce1 the selfism dominant in all ranks of the community4 ,not the least meritorious of his exhortations to ,governments is his desire that they would employ themselves in such useful works as the general planting of trees1 producing nourishing foods1 in place of devastating the earth by wars1 c4 #aie ,the reason1 as given by himself1 for his abandonment in after years of his self-imposed reform1 is worthy neither of his philosophic acumen nor of his ordinary judgment4 ,it seems that on one occasion1 while his companions were engaged in sea-fishing1 he observed that the captured fish1 when opened1 revealed in its interior the remains of another fish recently devoured4 ,the young printer seemed to see in this fact the ordinance of ,nature1 by which living beings live by slaughter1 and the justification of human carnivorousness4 7,see ,autobiography47 ,this was1 however1 to use the famous ,sirian's phrase1 8to reason badly20 for the sufficient answer to this alleged justification of man's flesh-eating propensity is simply that the fish in question was1 by natural organisation1 formed to prey upon its fellows of the sea1 whereas man is not formed by ,nature for feeding upon his fellows of the land2 and1 further1 that the larger proportion of terrestrials do not live by slaughter4 #aif ,wealth of ,nations iii41 #cda4 ,see1 too1 ,sir ,hans ,sloane 7,natural ,history of ,jamaica1 i41 #ba1 #bb71 who enumerates almost every species of vegetable food that has been1 or may be1 used for food1 in various parts of the globe2 the philosophic ,french traveller1 ,volney 7,voyages71 who1 in comparing flesh with non-flesh feeders1 is irresistibly forced to admit that the 8habit of shedding blood1 or even of seeing it shed1 corrupts all sentiment of humanity20 the ,swedish traveller ,sparrman1 the disciple of ,linn1 who corrects the astonishing physiological errors of ,buffon as to the human digestive apparatus2 ,anquetil 7,rcherches sur les ,indes71 the ,french translator of the ,zend-,avesta who1 from his sojourn with the vegetarian ,hindus and ,persians1 derived those more refined ideas which caused him to discard the coarser ,western living2 and ,sir ,f4 ,m4 ,eden 7,state of the ,poor74 #aig ,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 xxvi4 ,notwithstanding ,gibbon's expression of horror1 we shall venture to remark that the 8unfeeling murderers0 of the ,tartar steppes1 in slaughtering each for himself1 are more just than the civilised peoples of ,europe1 with whom a pariah-class is set apart to do the cruel and degrading work of the community4 #aih ,the ,task4 ,when ,cowper wrote this 7in #aghb7 the ,law was entirely silent upon the rights of the lower animals to protection4 ,it was not until nearly half a century later that the ,british ,legislature passed the first ,act 7and it was a very partial one7 which at all considered the rights of any non-human race4 ,yet ,hogarth's ,four ,stages of ,cruelty--to say nothing of literature--had been several years before the world4 ,it was passed by the persistent energy and courage of one man--an ,irish member--who braved the greatest amount of scorn and ridicule1 both within and without the ,legislature1 before he succeeded in one of the most meritorious enterprises ever undertaken4 ,martin's ,act has been often amended or supplemented1 and always with no little opposition and difficulty4 #aii ,the term 8,mercy10 it is important to observe1 is one of those words of ambiguous meaning1 which are liable1 in popular parlance1 to be misused4 ,it seems to have a double origin--from misericordia1 8,pity0 7its better parentage71 and merces1 8,gain10 and1 by deduction1 8,pardon0 granted for some consideration4 ,it is in this latter sense that the term seems generally to be used in respect of the non-human races4 ,but it is obvious to object that 8pardon10 applicable to criminals1 can have no meaning as applied to the innocent4 ,pity or ,compassion1 still more ,justice--these are the terms properly employed4 #bjj ,the observation of a non-,christian moralist 7,juvenal1 xv47 ,it is the motto chosen by ,oswald for his title page4 #bja ,in the ,hindu sacred scriptures1 and especially in the teaching of the great founder of the most extensive religion on the globe1 this regard for non-human life1 however originating1 is more obvious than in any other sacred books4 ,but it is most charmingly displayed in that most interesting of all ,eastern poetry and drama--,sakuntala2 or ,the ,fatal ,ring1 of the ,hindu ,kalidsa1 the most frequently translated of all the productions of ,hindu literature4 ,we may refer our readers also to ,the ,light of ,asia1 an interesting versification of the principal teaching of ,sakya-,muni or ,gautama4 #bjb ,the ,cry of ,nature3 an ,appeal to ,mercy and to ,justice on behalf of the ,persecuted ,animals4 ,by ,john ,oswald4 ,london1 #agia4 #bjc ,long ,life1 or the ,art of ,prolonging ,human ,existence4 #bjd ,see the ,nouvelle ,biographie ,universelle for complete enumeration of his writings4 #bje ,makrobiotik4 #bjf ,afterwards ,sir ,richard ,phillips1 whose admirable exposition of his reasons for abandoning flesh-eating1 published in the ,medical ,journal1 ,july #ahaa1 is quoted in its due place4 #bjg ,abstinence from ,animal ,food a ,moral ,duty1 ,,ix4 ,ritson1 in a note1 quotes the expression of surprise of a ,french writer1 that whereas abstinence 8from blood and from things strangled0 is especially and solemnly enjoined by the immediate successors of ,christ1 in a well-known prohibition1 yet this sacred obligation is daily 8made of none effect0 by those calling themselves ,christians4 #bjh 8,i have known10 says ,dr4 ,arbuthnot1 8more than one instance of irascible passions having been much subdued by a vegetable diet40--,note by ,ritson4 #bji ,written in #ahjb4 ,since that time the 8pastime0 of worrying bulls and bears1 has in this country become illegal and extinct4 ,cock-fighting1 though illegal1 seems to be still popular with the 8sporting0 classes of the community4 #baj ,general ,advertiser1 ,march #dth1 #aghd4 ,since ,ritson quoted this from the newspaper of his day1 #hj years ago1 the same scenes of equal and possibly of still greater barbarity have been recorded in our newspapers1 season after season1 of the royal and other hunts1 with disgusting monotony of detail4 ,voltaire's remarks upon this head are worthy of quotation3 8,it has been asserted that ,charles ,,ix4 was the author of a book upon hunting4 ,it is very likely that if this prince had cultivated less the art of torturing and killing other animals1 and had not acquired in the forests the habit of seeing blood run1 there would have been more difficulty in getting from him the order of ,st4 ,bartholomew4 ,the chase is one of the most sure means for blunting in men the sentiment of pity for their own species2 an effect so much the more fatal1 as those who are addicted to it1 placed in a more elevated rank1 have more need of this bridle40--uvres ,,lxxii41 #bac4 ,in ,flaubert's remarkable story of ,la ,lgende de ,st4 ,julien the hero 8developes by degrees a propensity to bloodshed4 ,he kills the mice in the chapel1 the pigeons in the garden1 and soon his advancing years gave him opportunity of indulging this taste in hunting4 ,he spends whole days in the chase1 caring less for the #8sport' than for the slaughter40 ,one day he shoots a ,fawn1 and while the despairing mother1 8looking up to heaven1 cried with a loud voice1 agonising and human10 ,st4 ,julien remorselessly kills her also4 ,then the male parent1 a noble-looking ,stag1 is shot last of all2 but1 advancing1 nevertheless1 he comes up to the terrified murderer1 and 8stopped suddenly1 and with flaming eyes and solemn tone1 as of a just judge1 he spoke three times1 while a bell tolled in the distance1 #8,accursed one6 ruthless of heart6 thou shalt slay thy father and mother also1' and tottering and closing his eyes he expired40 ,the blood-stained man on one occasion is followed closely by all the victims of his wanton cruelty1 who press around him with avenging looks and cries4 ,he fulfils the prophecy of the ,stag1 and murders his parents4--,see ,fortnightly ,review1 ,april1 #ahgh4 #baa ,it is scarcely necessary to remind our readers that a quarter of a century later 7#ahbg71 when ,martin had the courage to introduce the first bill for the prevention of cruelty to certain of the domesticated animals 7a very partial measure after all71 the humane attempt was greeted by an almost universal shout of ridicule and derision1 both in and out of the ,legislature4 #bab ,see ,appendix4 #bac ,quoted from an article in the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 7,august1 #aghg71 signed ,etonenss1 who1 amongst other particulars1 states of the hero of his sketch that he was 8one of the most original geniuses who have ever existed4444 ,he was well skilled in natural philosophy1 and might be said to have been a moral philosopher1 not in theory only1 but in strict and uniform practice4 ,he was remarkably humane and charitable2 and1 though poor1 was a bold and avowed enemy to every species of oppression4444 ,certain it is1 that he accounted the murder 7as he called it7 of the meanest animal1 except in self defence1 a very criminal breach of the laws of nature2 insisting that the creator of all things had constituted man not the tyrant1 but the lawful and limited sovereign1 of the inferior animals1 who1 he contended1 answered the ends of their being better than their little despotic lord4444 ,he did not think it #8,enough ,in this late age1 advent'rous to have touched ,light on the precepts of the ,samian ,sage1' for he acted in strict conformity with them4444 ,his vegetable and milk diet afforded him1 in particular1 very sufficient nourishment2 for when ,i last saw him1 he was still a tall1 robust1 and rather corpulent man1 though upwards of fourscore40 ,he was reported it seems1 to be a believer in the ,metempsychosis4 8,it was probably so said10 remarks ,ritson1 8by ignorant people who cannot distinguish justice or humanity from an absurd and impossible system4 ,the compiler of the present book1 like ,pythagoras and ,john ,williamson1 abstains from flesh-food1 but he does not believe in the ,metempsychosis1 and much doubts whether it was the real belief of either of those philosophers40--,abstinence from ,animal ,food a ,moral ,duty1 by ,joseph ,ritson4 ,r4 ,phillips1 ,london1 #ahjb4 #bad ,in a sketch of the life of ,george ,nicholson1 contributed to a ,manchester journal1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,a4 ,axon4 #bae ,perhaps the fallacy of this line of apology1 on the part of the ordinary dietists1 cannot be better illustrated than by the example of the man-eating tribes of ,new ,zealand1 ,central ,africa1 and other parts of the world1 who confessedly are 7or were7 hominivorous1 and who have been by travellers quoted as some of the finest races of men on the globe4 ,the 8wholesome nutriment0 of their human food was as forcible an argument for their stomach as the 8agreeable flavour0 was attractive for their palates4 ,such glaring fallacy might be illustrated further by the example of the man-eating tiger who1 we may justly imagine1 would use similar apologies for his practice4 #baf ,on the ,conduct1 c41 and ,the ,primeval ,diet of ,man1 c41 by ,george ,nicholson1 ,manchester and ,london1 #agig1 #ahja4 ,the author assumes as his motto for the title-page the words of ,rousseau--,hommes1 soyez humains6 ,c'est votre premier devoir4 ,quelle sagesse y a-t-il pour vous hors de l'humanit8 8,humans1 be humane6 ,it is your first duty4 ,what wisdom is there for you without humanity80 #bag ,surgical ,observations on ,tumours4 ,john ,abernethy1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 #bah ,excessive poverty of blood1 it is obvious to remark1 is caused1 not by abstaining from flesh but by abstaining from a sufficient amount of nutritious non-flesh foods4 #bai ,additional ,reports1 #ahad4 ,amongst valuable diagnoses of this kind the reader may be referred in particular to the highly interesting one of the ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,collyns1 ,m4,a41 ,oxon1 which originally appeared in the ,times newspaper1 and which twice has been republished by the ,vegetarian ,society4 ,the success of the pure regimen in first mitigating and1 finally1 in altogether subduing long-inherited gouty affections1 was complete and certain4 ,the recently published evidence of the ,president of the newly-formed ,french ,society1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,h4 de ,villeneuve1 is equally satisfactory4 7,see ,bulletin de la ,socit ,vgtarienne of ,paris1 as quoted in ,nature1 ,jan41 #ahha47 #bbj ,see1 too1 the testimony of ,newton1 ,return to ,nature1 and of ,shelley in his ,essay on the ,vegetable ,diet1 in which he describes these children as 8the most beautiful and healthy beings it is possible to conceive4 ,the girls are the most perfect models for a sculptor4 ,their dispositions1 also1 are the most gentle and conciliating40 #bba ,the ,life of ,william ,lambe1 ,m4,d41 ,fellow of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians4 ,by ,e4 ,hare1 ,c4,s4,i41 ,inspector-,general of ,hospitals1 to which valuable biography we are indebted for the present sketch4 ,in ,mr4 ,hare's memoir will be found1 among other testimonies to the truths of ,vegetarianism1 a highly-interesting letter1 written to him by his friend ,dr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,lyford1 an eminent physician of ,winchester4 #bbb ,life of ,shelley1 by ,jefferson ,hogg1 quoted by ,mr4 ,hare in ,life of ,dr4 ,lambe4 ,hogg adds that he conformed for good fellowship1 and found the purer food an agreeable change4 #bbc ,see the ,dietetic ,reformer and ,vegetarian ,messenger1 ,august1 #ahgc4 #bbd ,pythagoran1 ,anytique reum1 doctumque ,platona3 8,pythagoras and the ,man accused by ,anytus ,socrates and the learned ,plato40--,satires of ,horace4 #bbe ,this is1 perhaps1 scarcely just to ,pythagoras and his school4 ,it is1 without doubt1 deeply to be lamented that they did not more widely promulgate a doctrine of such vital importance to the world2 but the reasons of their reserve and partial reticence have been indicated already in our notice of the founder of ,akreophagy4 ,in a word--like the ,founder of ,christianity in a later age--they had many things to say which the world could not then learn4 ,moreover1 as ,glezs remarks1 the teachers themselves could not have1 from the nature of the case1 the full knowledge of later times4 #bbf ,the eloquence and style of ,buffon1 it need scarcely be remarked1 are more indisputable than his scientific accuracy4 ,amongst his many errors1 none1 however1 is more surprising than his assertion of the carnivorous anatomical organisation of man1 which has been corrected over and over again by physiologists and savants more profound than ,buffon4 #bbg 8,lachrymas--nostri pars optima sensus40 #bbh ,in newly-discovered countries1 no decided predominance of one species over another has been found2 and the reason is1 that qualities are pretty nearly equally divided1 and that the strongest animal is not at the same time the most agile or the most intelligent4--,note by ,glezs4 #bbi ,upon this1 not the least interesting and important of the side views of ,vegetarianism1 we refer our readers1 amongst numerous authorities1 to the opinions of ,paley1 ,adam ,smith1 ,prof4 ,newman1 ,liebig1 and ,w4 ,r4 ,greg 7in ,social ,problems74 #bcj ,that the victims of the ,slaughter-,house have1 in fact1 a full presentiment of the fate in store for them1 must be sufficiently evident to every one who has witnessed a number of oxen or sheep driven towards the scene of slaughter--the frantic struggles to escape and rush past the horrible locality1 the exertions necessary on the part of the drovers or slaughtermen to force them to enter as well as the frequent breaking away of the maddened victim--maddened alike by the blows and clamours of its executioners and the presentiment of its destiny--who frantically rushes through the public streets and scatters the terrified human passengers--all this abundantly proves the transparent falsity of the assertion of the unconsciousness or indifference of the victims of the shambles4 ,see a terribly graphic description of a scene of this kind in ,household ,words1 ,no4 #ad1 quoted in ,dietetic ,reformer 7#aheb71 in ,thalysie1 and in the ,dietetic ,reformer1 passim4 ,also in ,animal ,world1 c41 c4 #bca ,thalysie3 ou ,la ,nouvelle ,existence3 ,par ,j4 ,a4 ,glezs4 ,paris1 #ahdj1 in #c vols41 #hvo4 ,see also preface to the ,german version of ,r4 ,springer1 ,berlin1 #ahgb4 ,our ,english readers will be glad to learn that a translation by the ,english ,vegetarian ,society is now being contemplated4 #bcb ,poeta1 in its original ,greek meaning1 marks out a creator of new1 and1 therefore1 7it is presumable7 true ideas4 #bcc ,compare the fate of ,gibbon1 who1 at the same age1 found himself an outcast from the ,university for a very opposite offence--for having embraced the dogmas of ,catholicism4 7,see ,memoirs of my ,life and ,writings1 by ,edw4 ,gibbon47 ,the future historian of ,the ,decline and ,fall1 it may be added1 speedily returned to ,protestantism1 though not to that of his preceptors4 #bcd ,shelley4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds4 ,macmillan1 #ahhg4 #bce ,hogg's ,life of ,shelley4 ,moxon 7#aheh74 #bcf ,shelley4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds4 #bcg ,cuvier's ,leons d',anatomie ,comp41 ,tom4 ,,iii41 pages #afi1 #cgc1 #ddc1 #dfe1 #dhj4 ,rees' ,cyclop41 ,art ,man4 #bch ,inasmuch as at this moment there are in this country more than two thousand persons of all classes1 very many for thirty or forty years strict abstinents from flesh-meat1 enrolled members of the ,vegetarian ,society 7not to speak of a probably large number of isolated individual abstinents scattered throughout these islands1 who1 for whatever reason1 have not attached themselves to the ,society71 and that there have long been ,anti-flesh eating ,societies in ,america and in ,germany1 the fortiori argument in the present instance will be allowed to be of double weight4 #bci 8,see ,mr4 ,newton's ,book ,return1 to ,nature4 ,cadell1 #ahaa4 ,his children are the most beautiful and healthy creatures it is possible to conceive4 ,the girls are perfect models for a sculptor2 their dispositions also are the most gentle and conciliating4 ,the judicious treatment they receive may be a correlative cause of this4 ,in the first five years of their life1 of #ah1jjj children that are born1 #g1ejj die of various diseases--and how many more that survive are rendered miserable by maladies not immediately mortal6 ,the quality and quantity of a mother's milk are materially injured by the use of dead flesh4 ,on an island1 near ,iceland1 where no vegetables are to be got1 the children invariably die of tetanus before they are three weeks old1 and the population is supplied from the mainland4--,sir ,g4 ,mackenzie's ,history of ,iceland--note by ,shelley40 #bdj ,revolt of ,islam1 v4 #ea1 #ee1 #ef4 #bda ,lately given to the world by ,mr4 ,forman who has carefully collated and printed from ,shelley's ,,mss4 #bdb ,english ,cyclopdia4 #bdc ,works of ,percy ,bysshe ,shelley4 ,edited by ,mrs4 ,shelley4 ,moxon4 #bdd ,shelley4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds4 #bde ,see preface to ,the ,poetical ,works of ,percy ,bysshe ,shelley4 ,edited by ,mrs4 ,shelley4 ,new edition4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,the increasing reputation of ,shelley is proved1 at the present time1 by the increasing number of editions of his writings1 and by the increasing number of thoughtful criticisms and biographies of the poet1 by some of the most cultured minds of the day4 ,since the time1 indeed1 when a popular writer but sometimes rash critic1 with condemnable want of discernment and still more condemnable prejudice1 so egregiously misrepresented to his readers the character as well of the poet as of his poems--which latter1 nevertheless1 he was constrained to admit to be the most 8melodious0 of all ,english poetry excepting ,shakespere1 and 7their 8utopian0 inspiration apart7 the most 8perfect0--7,thoughts on ,shelley and ,byron1 by ,rev4 ,c4 ,kingsley1 8,fraser10 #ahec17 the pre-eminence of the poet1 both morally and sthetically1 has been sufficiently established4 #bdf ,in another place he indulges his ironical wit at the expense of the beef-eaters1 in representing a certain ,cretan personage in ,greek story to have 8,promoted breeding cattle1 ,to make the ,cretans bloodier in battle2 ,for we all know that ,english people are ,fed upon beef44444 ,we know1 too1 they are very fond of war-- ,a pleasure--like all pleasures--rather dear40 #bdg ,see ,life and ,letters4 ,murray4 #bdh ,memoirs of the ,public and ,private ,life of ,sir ,r4 ,phillips4 ,london1 #ahjh4 #bdi ,they had been published by him several years earlier in the ,medical ,journal for ,july #bg #ahaa4 #bej ,golden ,rules of ,social ,philosophy3 being a ,system of ,ethics4 #ahbf4 #bea ,a ,dictionary of the ,arts of ,life and ,civilisation4 #ahcc4 ,london3 ,sherwood ,co4 ,it will be seen that the origin of his revolt from orthodox dietetics1 given by himself1 differs from that narrated in the ,life from which we have quoted above4 ,it is possible that both incidents may have equally affected him at the moment1 but that the spectacle of the ,london slaughter-house remained most vividly impressed upon his mind4 #beb ,million of ,facts1 p4 #agf4 ,for the substance of the greater part of this biography1 our acknowledgments are due to the researches of ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,a4 ,axon1 ,f4,r4,s4,l41 ,f4,s4,s4 #bec ,la ,chute d'un ,ange4 ,huitime ,vision4 #bed ,les ,confidences1 par ,alphonse de ,lamartine1 ,paris1 #ahdi-ea1 quoted in ,dietetic ,reformer1 ,august1 #ahha4 ,it is in this book1 too1 that he commemorates some of the many atrocities perpetrated by schoolboys with impunity1 or even with the connivance of their masters1 for their amusement1 upon the helpless victims of their unchecked cruelty of disposition4 #bee ,the question of kreophagy and anti-kreophagy had already been mooted1 it appears1 in the ,institut1 at the period of the great ,revolution of #aghi1 as a legitimate consequence of the apparent general awakening of the human conscience1 when slavery also was first publicly denounced4 ,what was the result of the first raising of this question in the ,french ,chamber of ,savans does not appear1 but1 as ,glezs remarks1 we may easily divine it4 ,one interesting fact was published by the discussion in the ,deputies' ,chamber--viz41 that in the year #ahag1 in ,paris1 the consumption of flesh was less than that of the year #aghj by #dj1jjj1jjjlb41 in proportion to the population 7see ,glezs1 ,thalysie1 ,quatrime ,discours71 a fact which can only mean that the rich1 who support the butchers1 had been forced by reduced means to live less carnivorously4 #bef ,in the same strain an eminent savan1 ,sir ,d4 ,brewster1 has given expression to his feeling of aversion from the slaughter-house--a righteous feeling which 7strange perversion of judgment7 is so constantly repressed in spite of all the most forcible promptings of conscience and reason6 ,these are his words3 8,but whatever races there be in other spheres1 we feel sure that there must be one amongst whom there are no man-eaters--no heroes with red hands--no sovereigns with bloody hearts--and no statesmen who1 leaving the people untaught1 educate them for the scaffold4 ,in the ,decalogue of that community will stand pre-eminent1 in letters of burnished gold1 the highest of all social obligations--#8,thou shalt not kill1 neither for territory1 for fame1 for lucre1 nor for food1 nor for raiment1 nor for pleasure4' ,the lovely forms of life1 and sensation1 and instinct1 so delicately fashioned by the ,master-hand1 shall no longer be destroyed and trodden under foot1 but shall be the objects of increasing love and admiration1 the study of the philosopher1 the theme of the poet1 and the companions and auxiliaries of ,man40--,more ,worlds than ,one4 #beg ,bible de l',humanit--,redemption de la ,nature1 ,,vi4 #beh ,cf4 a recently published ,essay1 in the form of a letter to the present ,premier1 ,mr4 ,gladstone1 entitled ,the ,woman and the ,age4 ,the author1 one of the most refined thinkers of our times1 has at once admirably exposed the utter sham as well as cruelty of a vivisecting science1 and demonstrated the necessary and natural results to the human race from its shameless outrage upon1 and cynical contempt for1 the first principles of morality4 #bei ,the ,bird1 by ,jules ,michelet4 ,english ,translation4 ,nelson1 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,see1 too1 his eloquent exposure of the scientific or popular error which1 denying conscious reason and intelligence1 in order to explain the mental constitution of the non-human races 7as well that of the higher mammals as of the inferior species71 has invented the vague and mystifying term 8instinct40 #bfj ,la ,femme1 vi4 ,onzime ,edition4 ,paris1 #ahgi4 #bfa ,this memorable building has been succeeded by the present well-known one in ,cross ,lane1 where the ,rev4 ,james ,clark1 one of the most esteemed1 as well as one of the oldest1 members of the ,vegetarian ,society is the able and eloquent officiating minister4 #bfb ,these biographical facts we have transferred to our pages from an interesting notice by ,mr ,w4 ,e4 ,a4 ,axon1 ,f4,r4,s4,l4 #bfc ,memoir of the ,rev4 ,william4 ,metcalfe1 ,m4,d4 ,by his son1 ,rev4 ,joseph ,metcalfe1 ,philadelphia1 #ahfe4 #bfd ,see ,memoir of the ,rev4 ,william ,metcalfe4 ,by his son1 the ,rev ,j4 ,metcalfe4 ,philadelphia2 ,j4 ,capen4 #ahff4 #bfe ,see ,memoir in ,sylvester ,graham's ,lectures on the ,science of ,human ,life4 ,condensed by ,t4 ,baker1 ,esq41 of the ,inner ,temple1 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,manchester3 ,heywood2 ,london3 ,pitman4 #bff ,the ,new ,american ,cyclopdia4 ,appleton1 ,new ,york1 #ahfa4 ,it deserves remark in this place that1 in no ,english cyclopdia or biographical dictionary1 as far as our knowledge extends1 is any sort of notice given of this great sanitary reformer4 ,the same disappointment is experienced in regard to not a few other great names1 whether in hygienic or humanitarian literature4 ,the absence of the names of such true benefactors of the world in these books of reference is all the more surprising in view of the presence of an infinite number of persons--of all kinds--who have contributed little to the stock of true knowledge or to the welfare of the world4 #bfg ,the ,greek story of the savage horses of the ,thracian king who were fed upon human flesh1 therefore1 may very well be true4 #bfh ,graham here quotes various authorities--,linn1 ,cuvier1 ,lawrence ,bell1 and others4 #bfi ,professor ,lawrence instances particularly 8the ,laplanders1 ,samoides1 ,ostiacs1 ,tungooses1 ,burats1 and ,bamtschatdales1 in ,northern ,europe and ,asia1 as well as the ,esquimaux in the northern1 and the natives of ,tierra del ,fuego in the southern1 extremity of ,america1 who1 although they live almost entirely on flesh1 and that often raw1 are the smallest1 weakest1 and least brave people of the globe40--,lectures on ,physiology4 ,of all races the ,north ,american native tribes1 who subsist almost entirely by the chase1 are notoriously one of the most ferocious and cruel4 ,that the omnivorous classes in 8civilised0 ,europe--in this country particularly--have attained their present position1 political or intellectual1 in spite of their kreophagistic habits is attributable to a complex set of conditions and circumstances 7an extensive inquiry1 upon which it is impossible to enter here7 which have1 in some measure1 mitigated the evil results of a barbarous diet1 will be sufficiently clear to every unprejudiced inquirer4 ,if flesh-eating be the cause1 or one of the principal causes1 of the present dominance of the ,european1 and especially ,english-speaking peoples1 it may justly be asked--how is to be explained1 e4g41 the dominance of the ,saracenic power 7in ,s4 ,europe7 during seven centuries--a dominance in arms as well as in arts and sciences--when the semi-barbarous ,christian nations 7at least as regards the ruling classes7 were wholly kreophagistic4 #bgj ,for one of the ablest and most exhaustive scientific arguments on the same side ever published we refer our readers to ,the ,perfect ,way in ,diet1 by ,mrs4 ,algernon ,kingsford1 ,m4,d4 7,kegan ,paul1 ,london1 #ahha74 ,originally written and delivered as a ,thesis for le ,doctorat en ,mdicine at the ,paris ,university1 under the title of ,l',alimentation ,vgtale ,chez ,l',homme 7#ahhj71 it was almost immediately translated into ,german by ,dr4 ,a4 ,aderholdt under the same title of ,die ,pfanzennahrung bei dem ,menschen4 ,it is1 we believe1 about to be translated into ,russian4 ,the humane and moral argument of this eloquent work is equally admirable and equally persuasive with the scientific proofs4 #bga 8,sai1 che l corre il mondo ove pi versi ,di sue dolcesse il lusinghier ,parnaso1 ,e che'l ,vero condito in molli versi ,i pi schivi allettando ha persuaso4 ,cosi all' egro fanciul porgiamo aspersi ,di soave licor gli orli del vaso3 ,succhi amari ingannato intanto ei beve1 ,e dall' inganno sua vita riceve40 ,gerusalemme ,liberata1 ,i4 #bgb ,see ,pflanzenkost2 oder die ,grundlage einer ,neuen ,weltanschauung1 ,von ,gustav ,struve1 ,stuttgart1 #ahfi4 ,for the substance of the brief sketch of the life of ,struve we are indebted to the courtesy of ,herr ,emil ,weilshaeuser1 the recently-elected ,president of the ,vegetarian ,society of ,germany 7,jan41 #ahhb71 himself the author of some valuable words on ,reformed ,dietetics4 #bgc ,see ,sakuntal1 or the ,fatal ,ring1 of the ,hindu ,shakspere ,kalidsa1 the most interesting production of the ,hindu ,poetry4 ,it has been translated into almost every ,european language4 #bgd ,mandaras' ,wanderungen4 ,zweite ,ausgabe4 ,mannheim4 ,friedrich ,gtz4 #ahde4 ,for a copy of this now scarce book we are indebted to the courtesy of ,herr ,a4 von ,seefeld1 of ,hanover4 #bge ,pflanzenkost1 die ,grundlage einer neuen ,weltanschauung4 ,stuttgart1 #ahfi4 ,cf4 ,liebig's ,chemische ,briefe 78,letters on ,chemistry407 #bgf ,das ,seelenleben2 oder die ,naturgeschichte des ,menschen4 ,von ,gustav ,struve4 ,berlin3 ,theobald ,grieben4 #ahfi4 #bgg 8,weh' denen1 die dem ,ewigblinden ,des ,lichtes ,himmelsfackel leihen60 ,,schiller4 ,das ,lied von der ,glocke4 #bgh ,quoted in ,die ,naturgemsse ,dit3 die ,dit der ,zukunft1 von ,theodor ,hahn1 ,cthen1 #ahei4 ,for the substance of biographical notice prefixed to this article we are again indebted to the kindness of ,herr ,emil ,weilshuser1 of ,oppeln4 #bgi ,das ,menschendasein in seinen ,weltewigen ,zgen und ,zeichen4 ,von ,bogumil ,goltz4 ,frankfurt4 #bhj ,compare the remarks of ,jean ,paul ,richter 7#agfc-ahbe71 in his treatise on ,education1 ,levana1 in which he1 too1 in scarcely less emphatic language1 protests against the general neglect of this department of morals4 ,among other references to the subject1 the celebrated novelist thus writes3 8,love is the second hemisphere of the moral heaven4 ,yet is the sacred being of love little established4 ,love is an inborn but differently distributed force and blood-heat of the heart 7blutwrme des herzens74 ,there are cold and warm-blooded souls1 as there are animals4 ,as for the child1 so for the lower animal1 love is1 in fact1 an essential impulse2 and this central fire often1 in the form of compassion1 pierces its earth-crust1 but not in every case4444 ,the child 7under proper education7 learns to regard all animal life as sacred--in brief1 they impart to him the feeling of a ,hindu in place of the heart of a ,cartesian philosopher4 ,there is here a question of something more even than compassion for other animals2 but this also is in question4 ,why is it that it has so long been observed that the cruelty of the child to the lower animals presages cruelty to men1 just as the ,old-,testament sacrifice of animals preshadowed that of the sacrifice of a man8 ,it is for himself only the undeveloped man can experience pains and sufferings1 which speak to him with the native tones of his own experience4 ,consequently1 the inarticulate cry of the tortured animal comes to him just as some strange1 amusing sound of the air2 and yet he sees there life1 conscious movement1 both which distinguish them from the inanimate substances4 ,thus he sins against his own life1 whilst he sunders it from the rest1 as though it were a piece of machinery4 ,let life be to him the child sacred 7heilig71 even that which may be destitute of reason2 and1 in fact1 does the child know any other8 ,or1 because the heart beats under bristles1 feathers1 or wings1 is it1 therefore1 to be of no account80 #bha ,see a pamphlet upon this subject by ,dr4 ,v4 ,gtzlaff--,schopenhauer ueber die ,thiere und den ,thierschutz3 ,ein ,beitrag zur ethischen ,seite der ,vivisectionsfrage4 ,berlin1 #ahgi4 #bhb ,le ,fondement de ,la ,morale1 par ,arthur ,schopenhauer1 traduit de l',allemand par ,a4 ,burdeau4 ,paris1 ,baillire et ,cie1 #ahgi4 #bhc ,quoted in ,die ,naturgemsse ,dit1 die ,dit der ,zukunft1 von ,theodor ,hahn1 #ahei4 ,we may note here that ,moleschott1 the eminent ,dutch physiologist1 and a younger contemporary of ,liebig1 alike with the distinguished ,german ,chemist and with the ,french zoologist1 ,buffon1 is chargeable with a strange inconsistency in choosing his place among the apologists of kreophagy1 in spite of his conviction that 8the legumes are superior to flesh-meat in abundance of solid constituents which they contain2 and1 while the amount of albuminous substances may surpass that in flesh-meat by one-half1 the constituents of fat and the salts are also present in a greater abundance40 7,see ,die ,naturgemsse ,dit1 von ,theodor ,hahn1 #ahei74 ,but1 in fact1 it is only too obvious why at present the large majority of ,scientists1 while often fully admitting the virtues1 or even the superiority of the purer diet1 yet after all enrol themselves on the orthodox side4 ,either they are altogether indifferent to humane teaching1 or they want the courage of their convictions to proclaim the ,truth4 #bhd ,among ,english philosophic writers1 the arguments and warnings 7published in the ,dietetic ,reformer during the past fifteen years7 of the present head of the ,society for the promotion of ,dietary ,reform in this country1 ,professor ,newman1 in regard to ,national ,economy and to the enormous evils1 present and prospective1 arising from the prevalent insensibility to this aspect of ,national ,reform are at once the most forcible and the most earnest4 ,it would be well if our public men1 and all who are in place and power1 would give the most earnest heed to them4 ,but this1 unhappily1 under the present prevailing political and social conditions1 experience teaches to be almost a vain expectation4 #bhe ,grvius1 the famous ,german ,scholar of the #agth century1 maintains to mean here ,fruits1 not 8,flocks10 according to the vulgar interpretation1 and the translation of ,grvius1 it will be allowed1 is at least more consistent with the context than is the latter4 ,it must be added that the whole verse bracketed is of doubtful genuineness4 #bhf ,this remarkable passage1 it is highly interesting to note1 is the earliest indication of the idea of 8guardian angels10 which afterwards was developed in the ,platonic philosophy2 and which1 considerably modified by ,jewish belief1 derived from the ,persian theology1 finally took form in the ,christian creed4 ,compare the beautiful idea of guardian angels1 or spirits in the ,prologue of the ,shipwreck of ,plautus4 #bhg ,see ,poet ,minores ,grci 444 ,aliisque ,accessionibus ,aucta4 ,edited by ,thomas ,gaisford4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,lipsi1 #ahbc4 #bhh 8,quum sis ipse nocens1 moritur cur victima pro te8 ,stultitia est1 morte alterius sperare ,salutem40 #bhi ,the ,light of ,asia3 or1 ,the ,great ,renunciation 7,mahbhinishkramana74 ,being the ,life and ,teaching of ,gautama1 ,prince of ,india1 and ,founder of ,buddhism 7as told in verse by an ,indian ,buddhist74 ,by ,edwin ,arnold4 ,london3 ,trbner4--,in the ,hindu ,epic1 the ,mahbhrata1 the same great principle is apparent1 though less conspicuously3-- 8,the constant virtue of the ,good is tenderness and love ,to all that live in earth1 air1 sea--great1 small--below1 above3 ,compassionate of heart1 they keep a gentle will to each3 ,who pities not1 hath not the ,faith4 ,full many a one so lives40 ,,iii4--,story of ,savtri #bij ,compare the beautiful verses of ,lucretius--who1 almost alone amongst the poets1 has indignantly denounced the vile and horrible practice of sacrifice--picturing the inconsolable grief the ,mother ,cow bereft of her young1 who has been ravished from her for the sacrificial altar3-- 8,spe ante ,dem vitulus delubra decora ,thuricremas propter mactatus concidit aras ,sanguinis expirans calidum de pectore flumen1 ,at mater viridis saltus orbata peragrans ,noacit humi pedibus vestigia pressa bisulcis1 ,omnia convisens oculis loca1 si queat usquam ,conspicere amissum ftum1 completque querellis ,frondiferum nemus absistens1 et crebra revisit ,ad stabulum desiderio perfixa ,juvenci2 ,nec tener salices atque herb rore vigentes1 ,fluminaque illa queunt summis labentia ripis ,oblectare animum1 subitamque avertere curam1 ,nee vitulorum ali species per pabula lta ,derivare queunt animum curque levare40 7,de ,rerum ,natur ,,ii47 ,see also the memorable verses in which the rationalist poet stigmatises the vicarious sacrifice of ,iphigeneia4--,tantum ,religio potuit suadere ,malorum 7,l74 #bia ,see1 also1 ,fasti1 already quoted above4 8,pace ,ceres lta est444444 ,a ,bove succincti cultros removete ,ministri1 c40 ,,iv4 #djg-daf4 #bib ,florilegium of ,stobus--7#ag-dc and #ah-ch71 quoted by ,professor ,mayor in ,dietetic ,reformer1 ,july1 #ahha4 ,in the erudite and exhaustive edition of ,juvenal1 by ,professor ,mayor 7,macmillan1 ,cambridge71 will be found a large number of quotations from ,greek and ,latin writers1 and a great deal of interesting matter upon frugal living4 #bic 8,hygiasticon3 ,on the ,right ,course of ,preserving ,life and ,health unto ,extreme ,old ,age2 together with ,soundness and ,integrity of the ,senses1 ,judgment1 and ,memory4 ,written in ,latin by ,leonard ,lessius1 and now done into ,english4 ,the second edition4 ,printed by the printers to the ,universitie of ,cambridge1 #afcd40 ,lessio1 like his master ,cornaro1 ,haller1 and many other advocates of a reformed diet1 was influenced not at all by humanitarian1 but by health reasons only4 #bid ,cf4 ,plutarch--,essay on ,flesh-,eating4 #bie ,some ,memoirs of the ,life of ,mr4 ,thomas ,tryon1 late of ,london1 ,merchant4 ,written by ,himself4 ,london1 #agje4 #bif ,os homini sublime dedit1 clumque tueri4--,ovid1 ,met4 ,i4 #big ,compare ,seneca and ,chrysostom1 above4 #bih ,if ,tryon could point to diseases among the victims of the shambles in the #agth century1 what use might he not make of the epidemics or endemics of the present day8 #bii ,the ,way to ,health1 ,long ,life1 and ,happiness3 or a ,discourse of ,temperance1 and the ,particular ,nature of all things ,requisite for the ,life of ,man4444 ,the ,like never before ,published4 ,communicated to the ,world1 for the ,general ,good1 by ,philotheos ,physiologus ,tryon's nom de plume4 ,london1 #afhc4 ,it is 7in its best parts7 the worthy precursor of ,the ,herald of ,health1 and of the valuable hygienic philosophy of its able editor--,dr4 ,t4 ,l4 ,nichols4 #cjj ,see ,biog4 ,universelle1 ,art4 ,philippe ,hecquet #cja ,trait des ,dispenses1 c4 ,par ,philippe ,hecquet1 ,m4,d41 ,paris4 ,ed4 #agji4 #cjb 8,that lies beneath the knife1 ,looks up1 and from her butcher begs her life40 n4 ,,vii4 7,pope's translation47 ,quoted first by ,montaigne4 ,essais4 #cjc ,and1 ,pope might have added1 a more diabolical torture still--calves bled to death by a slow and lingering process--hung up 7as they often are7 head downwards4 ,although not universal as it was some ten years ago1 this1 among other ,christian practices1 yet flourishes in many parts of the country1 unchecked by legal intervention4 #cjd ,see ,article1 ,plutarch1 above4 #cje ,so far1 at least1 as the natural and necessary wants of each species are concerned4--,that 8,nature0 is regardless of suffering1 is but too apparent in all parts of our globe4 ,it is the opprobrium and shame of the human species that1 placed at the head of the various races of beings1 it has hitherto been the ,tyrant1 and not the ,pacificator4 #cjf ,the ,four ,stages of ,cruelty1 in which1 beginning with the torture of other animals1 the legitimate sequence is fulfilled in the murder of the torturer's mistress or wife4 #cjg ,which is the accomplice really guilty8 ,the ignorant1 untaught1 wretch who has to gain his living some way or other1 or those who have been entrusted with1 or who have assumed1 the control of the public conscience--the statesman1 the clergy1 and the schoolmaster8 ,undoubtedly it is upon these that almost all the guilt lies1 and always will lie4 #cjh ,bull-baiting1 in this country1 has been for some years illegal2 but that moralists1 and other writers of the present day1 while boasting the abolition of that popular pastime1 are silent1 upon the equally barbarous1 if more fashionable sports of ,deer-hunting1 c41 is one of those inconsistencies in logic which are as unaccountable as they are common4 #cji 8,that is10 remarks ,ritson1 8in a state of ,society influenced by ,superstition1 ,pride1 and a variety of prejudices equally unnatural and absurd40 #caj 8,the converse of all this is true4 ,he is certainly taught by example1 and by temptation1 and prompted by 7what he thinks is7 interest40--,note by ,ritson in ,abstinence from ,flesh a ,moral ,duty4 #caa ,among living enlightened medical authorities of the present day1 ,dr4 ,b4 ,w4 ,richardson1 ,f4,r4,s41 perhaps the most eminent hygeist and sanitary reformer in the country now living1 has delivered his testimony in no doubtful terms to the superiority of the purer diet4 ,in his recent publication ,salutisland he has banished the slaughter-house1 with all its abominations1 from that model ,state4 ,see also his ,hygieia4 #cab ,l',art de ,prolonger la ,vie et de ,conserver la ,sant3 ou1 ,trait d',hygine4 ,par ,m4 ,pressavin1 ,gradu de l',universit de ,paris2 ,membre du ,collge ,royal de ,chirurgie de ,lyon1 et ,ancien ,demonstrateur en ,matire ,medicale-,chirurgicale4 ,a ,lyon1 #aghf4 #cac ,die ,eleusische ,fest4 #cad ,der ,alpenjger4 ,see also ,gthe--,italienische ,reise1 ,,xxiii4 #db2 ,aus ,meinem ,leben1 ,,xxiv4 #bc2 ,werther's ,leiden2 ,brief #ab4 #cae ,introduction to the ,principles of ,morals and ,legislation 7page #caa74 ,by ,jeremy ,bentham1 ,m4,a41 ,bencher of ,lincoln's ,inn1 c42 ,oxford3 ,clarendon ,press1 #ahgf4 ,it must be added that the assumption 7on the same page on which this cogent reasoning is found71 that man has the right to kill his fellow-beings1 for the purpose of feeding upon their flesh1 is one more illustration of the strange inconsistencies into which even so generally just and independent a thinker as the author of the ,book of ,fallacies may be forced by the 8logic of circumstances40 ,among recent notable ,essays upon the ,rights of the ,lower ,animals 7the right to live excepted7 may here be mentioned--,animals and their ,masters1 by ,sir ,arthur ,helps 7#ahgc71 and ,the ,rights of an ,animal1 by ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,nicholson1 librarian of the ,bodleian1 ,oxford 7#ahgg74 #caf ,compare the ,voyages of ,volney1 one of the most philosophical of the thinkers of the eighteenth century1 who himself for some time seems to have lived on the non-flesh diet4 ,attributing the ferocious character of the ,american savage1 8hunter and butcher1 who1 in every animal sees but an object of prey1 and who is become an animal of the species of wolves and of tigers10 to such custom1 this celebrated traveller adds the reflection that 8the habit of shedding blood1 or simply of seeing it shed1 corrupts all sentiments of humanity40 7,see ,voyage en ,syrie et en ,egypte47 ,see1 too1 ,thevenot 7the younger71 an earlier ,french traveller1 who describes a ,banian hospital1 in which he saw a number of sick ,camels1 ,horses1 and ,oxen1 and many invalids of the feathered race4 ,many of the lower ,animals1 he informs us1 were maintained there for life1 those who recovered being sold to ,hindus exclusively4 #cag ,this feeling occasionally appears in his poems1 as1 for instance1 when describing a 8banquet0 and its flesh-eating guests1 he wonders how 8,such bodies could have souls1 or souls such bodies40 #cah ,note on this point the words of the late ,w4 ,r4 ,greg1 to the effect that 8the amount of human life sustained on a given area may be almost indefinitely increased by the substitution of vegetable for animal food20 and his further statement--8,a given acreage of wheat will feed at least ten times as many men as the same acreage employed in growing #8mutton4' ,it is usually calculated that the consumption of wheat by an adult is about one quarter per annum1 and we know that good land produces four quarters4 ,but let us assume that a man living on grain would require two quarters a year2 still one acre would support two men4 ,but1 a man living on flesh meat would need #clbs4 a day1 and it is considered a liberal calculation if an acre spent in grazing sheep and cattle will yield in #8beef' and #8mutton' more than #ejlb4 on an average--the best farmer in ,norfolk having averaged #ijlb41 but a great majority of farms in ,great ,britain only reach #bjlb4 ,on these data it would require #bb acres of pasture land to sustain one adult person living on flesh meat4 ,it is obvious that in view of the adoption of a vegetable diet lies the indication of a vast increase in the population sustainable on a given area40--,social and ,political ,problems 7,trbner74 #cai 8,of the ,cruelty connected with he ,culinary ,arts0 in ,philozoa2 or1 ,moral ,reflections on the ,actual ,condition of the ,animal ,kingdom1 and on the ,means of ,improving the ,same2 with numerous ,anecdotes and ,illustrative ,notes1 addressed to ,lewis ,gompertz1 ,esq41 ,president of the ,animals' ,friend ,society3 ,by ,t4 ,forster1 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ,f4,l4,s41 c4 ,brussels1 #ahci4 ,the writer well insists that1 however remote may be a universal ,reformation1 every individual person1 pretending to any culture or refinement of mind1 is morally bound to abstain from sanctioning1 by his dietetic habits1 the revolting atrocities 8connected with the culinary arts1 of which ,mr4 ,young1 in his ,book on ,cruelty1 has given a long catalogue40