,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,italic text is indicat$ by und]scores2 boldface text is indicat$ by equals signs4 ,!re is an actual equals sign 9 ! li/ on page #aca4 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,sci5ces ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,by ,,sir ,,edw>d ,,?orpe1 ,c4,b41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,au?or ,,( 8,,essays ,,9 ,,hi/orical ,,*emi/ry10 8,,humphry ,,davy3 ,,poet ,,& ,,philosoph]10 8,,joseph ,,prie/ley10 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,,two ,,volumes ,i4 ,f ! ,e>lie/ ,times to ! ,middle ( ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury ,,) ,,illu/rations ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,london ,! ,knick]bock] ,press #aiji ,,copyright1 #aiji1 ,,by ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,?is s]ies is publi%$ 9 ,london by ,,! ,,rationali/ ,,press ,,association1 ,,limit$ ,,publi%]s' ,,note ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,sci5ces has be5 plann$ to pres5t = ! in=mation ( ! g5]al public a hi/oric record ( ! great divisions ( sci5ce4 ,ea* volume is ! "w ( a writ] :o is accept$ z an au?ority on 8 own subject-matt]4 ,! books are n to be consid]$ z prim]s1 b pres5t ?or\ghly dige/$ in=mation on ! relations borne by ea* great division ( sci5ce to ! *anges 9 human ideas & to ! intellectual developm5t ( mank9d4 ,! monographs expla9 h[ ! pr9cipal sci5tific discov]ies h be5 arriv$ at & ! names ( ! work]s to :om su* discov]ies are due4 ,! books w comprise ea* ab\t #bjj pages4 ,ea* volume w conta9 f #ab to #af illu/rations1 includ+ portraits ( ! discov]]s & explanatory views & diagrams4 ,ea* volume conta9s also a concise b compreh5sive bibliography ( ! subject-matt]4 ,! foll[+ volumes w be issu$ dur+ ! c\rse ( ! autumn ( #aiji4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy4 ,by ,,george ,,=bes1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4 ,in/4 ,c4,e42 au?or ( ,! ,transit ( ,v5us1 etc4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry3 ,vol4 ,i4 circa #bjjj ,b4,c4 to #ahej ,a4,d4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #ahej ,a4,d4 to date4 ,by ,,sir ,,edw>d ,,?orpe1 ,c4,b41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,director ( ! ,gov]nm5t ,laboratories1 ,london2 ,pr(essor-elect & ,director ( ! ,*emical ,laboratories ( ! ,imp]ial ,college ( ,sci5ce & ,te*nology2 au?or ( ,a ,diction>y ( ,appli$ ,*emi/ry4 ,to be foll[$ by3 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,geography4 ,by ,dr4 ,,john ,,scott ,,keltie1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,f4,s4,s41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,hon4 ,mem4 ,geographical ,societies ( ,p>is1 ,b]l91 ,rome1 ,brussels1 ,am/]dam1 ,g5eva1 etc42 au?or ( ,report on ,geographical ,education1 ,appli$ ,geography4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,geology4 ,by ,,horace ,b4 ,,woodw>d1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,assi/ant-,director ( ,geological ,survey ( ,engl& & ,wales2 au?or ( ,! ,geology ( ,engl& & ,wales1 etc4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,an?ropology4 ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,haddon1 ,m4,a41 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,lectur] 9 ,e?nology1 ,cambridge & ,london2 au?or ( ,/udy ( ,man1 ,magic & ,feti%ism1 etc4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,old ,te/am5t ,criticism4 ,by ,,ar*ibald ,,duff1 ,pr(essor ( ,hebrew & ,old ,te/am5t ,!ology 9 ! ,unit$ ,college1 ,brad=d2 au?or ( ,!ology & ,e?ics ( ! ,hebrews1 ,mod]n ,old ,te/am5t ,!ology1 etc4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,new ,te/am5t ,criticism4 ,by ,f4 ,c4 ,,conybe>e1 ,m4,a41 late ,fell[ & ,praelector ( ,univ4 ,coll41 ,ox=d2 ,fell[ ( ! ,briti% ,academy2 ,doctor ( ,!ology1 honoris causa1 ( ,giess52 ,(fic] d' ,academie2 au?or ( ,old ,arm5ian ,texts ( ,revelation1 etc4 ,fur!r volumes are 9 plan on ! foll[+ subjects3 ,ma!matics & ,me*anics4 ,molecul> ,physics1 ,heat1 ,life1 & ,electricity4 ,human ,physiology1 ,embryology1 & ,h]$ity4 ,ac\/ics1 ,h>monics1 & ! ,physiology ( ,he>+1 toge!r ) ,optics ,*romatics1 & ,physiology ( ,see+4 ,psy*ology1 ,analytic1 ,comp>ative1 & ,exp]im5tal4 ,sociology & ,economics4 ,e?ics4 ,comp>ative ,philology4 ,criticism1 ,hi/orical ,rese>*1 & ,leg5ds4 ,comp>ative ,my?ology & ! ,sci5ce ( ,religions4 ,! ,criticism ( ,ecclesia/ical ,in/itutions4 ,culture1 ,moral & ,intellectual1 z ,reflect$ 9 ,imag9ative ,lit]ature & 9 ! ,f9e ,arts4 ,logic4 ,philosophy4 ,education4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i ,,page ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,anci5ts #a ,egypt1 ! alleg$ bir?place ( *emi/ry4 ,orig9 ( ! ^w 8*emi/ry40 ,*emical arts kn[n to ! anci5ts4 ,metallurgy ( ! anci5ts4 ,*emical products ( ! ,*9ese1 ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 & ,romans4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,*emical ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,anci5ts #ai ,anci5t speculations z to ! orig9 & nature ( matt]4 ,wat] ! primal pr9ciple4 ,?ales ( ,miletus4 ,p]si/5cy ( 8 doctr9e4 ,its influ5ce on sci5ce4 ,!ories ( ,anaxim5es1 ,h]akleitos1 & ,ph]ekides4 ,fire z ! primal pr9ciple4 ,! conception ( f\r primal pr9ciples--fire1 air1 wat]1 & e>?4 ,deification ( ^! by ,emp$ocles4 ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,! doctr9e ( ! f\r ,elem5ts4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,p]ipatetic ,philosophy on sci5ce4 ,arabian sci5ce4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,moors 9 ,spa94 ,atomic conceptions ( ,anaxagoras1 ,leukippos1 & ,demokritos4 ,g]ms ( ! atomic !ory4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,al*emy #bh ,influ5ce ( ! ,hell5ic m9d on ! developm5t ( *emi/ry4 ,orig9 ( ! idea ( ! transmutation ( metals4 ,philosophical f\ndation = ! belief 9 al*emy4 ,al*emi/ic !ory ( ! nature ( metals4 ,orig9 ( ! conception ( ! ,philosoph]'s ,/one4 ,geb]4 ,association ( al*emy ) a/rology4 ,rhazes4 ,avic5na4 ,*emical processes & sub/ances kn[n to ! ,arabian *emi/s4 ,! ,we/]n ,al*emi/s4 ,alb]tus ,magnus4 ,rog] ,bacon4 ,raymond ,lully4 ,arnoldus ,villanovanus4 ,johannes de ,rupecissa4 ,george ,ripley4 ,basil ,val5t9e4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,philosoph]',s ,,/one #df ,al*emy 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,association ( religion ) al*emy by ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,alleg$ nature ( ! ,philosoph]'s ,/one4 ,its "* describ$4 ,its p[]4 ,! ,univ]sal ,m$ic9e4 ,! ,elixir ( ,y\?4 ,! ,alkahe/4 ,oppon5ts ( al*emy3 ,era/ius1 ,conr+ius1 & ,kir*]4 8,! ,h]mes ( ,g]many03 ,rudolph ,,ii4 ,*ri/ian pr9ces :o _h deal+s ) al*emi/s4 ,fate ( c]ta9 al*emi/s4 ,p]si/5cy ( al*emy & h]metic societies4 ,"l ,bacon on al*emy4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,iatro-,,*emi/ry #eg ,!ories ( ! iatro-*emi/s4 ,p>acelsus4 ,doctr9e ( ! tria prima4 ,! ,p>acelsian h>monies4 ,libavius4 ,van ,helmont4 ,sylvius4 ,willis4 ,s]vices ( iatro-*emi/ry to sci5ce4 ,influ5ce ( iatro-*emi/ry on te*nology4 ,agricola4 ,palissy4 ,glaub]4 ,*emical products made kn[n by ! al*emi/s4 ,,*apt] ,,vi 8,,! ,,sceptical ,,*emi/03 ,,! ,,dawn ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,*emi/ry #gj ,! f\ndation ( ! ,royal ,society & o!r sci5tific academies4 ,! appe>ance ( 8,! ,sceptical ,*emi/03 its attack on ! doctr9es ( ! ,spagyri/s4 ,boyle3 8 life & "*4 ,8 s]vices to le>n+4 ,kunkel4 ,be*]4 ,may[4 ,lem]y4 ,homb]g4 ,bo]haave4 ,/eph5 ,hales4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,phlogi/onism #ia ,be*]'s hypo!sis ( ! ,t]ra ,p+uis4 ,its developm5t into ! !ory ( phlogi/on4 ,/ahl4 ,phlogi/on1 prim>ily a !ory ( combu/ion1 becomes a !ory ( *emi/ry4 ,its g5]al acceptance 9 ,europe until ! la/ qu>t] ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,prom95t phlogi/ians4 ,pott4 ,m>ggraf4 ,s*eele3 8 discov]ies4 ,duhamel4 ,macqu]4 ,black3 8 essay on ,magnesia ,alba4 ,recognition ( ! individuality ( c>bon dioxide4 ,prie/ley3 8 life & "*4 ,8 discov]ies 9 pneumatic *emi/ry4 ,8 obs]vations on ! influ5ce ( vegetable life on ! "* ( ! atmosph]e4 ,cav5di%3 8 life & "w4 ,discov]y ( composition ( wat]4 ,influ5ce ( phlogi/onism on ! developm5t ( *emi/ry4 ,advances made dur+ ! p]iod ( phlogi/onism4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,lavoisi] ,,& ,,la ,r,,volution ,,*imique #aji ,d[nfall ( phlogi/onism4 ,lavoisi]3 8 life & "w4 ,8 dea?4 ,le pr9cipe oxyg9e4 ,pr9ciple ( ! cons]vation ( matt]4 ,*emi/ry a sci5ce ( quantitative relations4 ,prom95t anti-phlogi/ians4 ,b]?ollet4 ,! ,/atique ,*imique4 ,f\rcroy4 ,vauquel94 ,klapro?4 ,pr\/4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,atomic ,,!ory #abc ,! atomic hypo!ses ( ! anci5ts4 ,newton4 ,b]gmann4 ,lavoisi]4 ,ri*t]4 ,/o*iometry4 ,john ,dalton3 sket* ( 8 life & "*4 ,h[ he 0 l$ to 8 explanation ( ! laws ( *emical comb9ation4 ,! ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy4 ,reception ( 8 !ory by ,davy & ,wolla/on4 ,b]zelius3 8 life & "w4 ,8 s]vices to *emi/ry4 ,fir/ accurate s]ies ( atomic weight det]m9ations4 ,avogadro4 ,pr\t's hypo!sis4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,! ,,beg9n+s ,,( ,,electro-,,*emi/ry #adj ,! ,voltaic ,pile4 ,electrolytic decomposition ( wat] by ,ni*olson & ,c>lisle4 ,application ( voltaic electricity to ! decomposition ( ! alkalis by ,davy4 ,8 life & "w4 ,wolla/on3 8 life & "w4 ,electro-*emical sy/em ( ,b]zelius4 ,dualism4 ,b]zelius re=ms *emical notation & nom5clature4 ,gay ,lussac3 8 life & "w4 ,?n>d3 8 life & "w4 ,f>aday & ! law ( def9ite electrolytic action4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,! ,,f\ndations ,,( ,,organic ,,*emi/ry #aed ,nicolas ,lem]y divides *emi/ry into its two ma9 bran*es ( inorganic & organic *emi/ry4 ,/ate ( k ( products ( organic orig9 dur+ ! e>ly ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,animal *emi/ry4 ,doctr9e ( vital =ce4 ,whl]'s syn!sis ( urea4 ,organic *emi/ry is ! *emi/ry ( ! c>bon comp\nds4 ,e>ly attempts at organic analysis by ,lavoisi]1 ,b]zelius1 ,gay ,lussac1 & ,?n>d4 ,liebig4 ,discov]y ( isom]ism & allotropy4 ,cyanog54 ,!ory ( comp\nd radicals4 ,e!r9 !ory ( ,dumas & ,b\llay4 ,memoir ( ,liebig & ,whl] on oil ( bitt] almonds4 ,b5zoyl !ory4 ,inve/igation ( alk>s9 by ,buns54 ,cacodyl4 ,discov]y ( z9c e?yl by ,frankl&4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,! ,,rise ,,( ,,physical ,,*emi/ry #agj ,relations ( *emi/ry to physics4 ,relations ( heat to *emical ph5om5a4 ,improvem5ts 9 ! m]curial !rmomet]4 ,newton4 ,%uckburgh4 ,brooke ,taylor4 ,cav5di%4 ,black4 ,discov]y ( lat5t heat by ,black4 ,discov]y ( specific heat4 ,exp]im5ts ( ,lavoisi] & ,laplace4 ,law ( ,dulong & ,petit3 its value 9 det]m9+ atomic weights4 ,specific heat ( comp\nds4 ,neumann4 ,discov]y ( isomorphism by ,mits*]li*4 ,=e%ad[+ ( ! k9etic !ory ( gases4 ,discov]y ( ! law ( gase\s diffusion by ,graham4 ,liquefaction ( gases4 ,monge & ,cl\et4 ,nor?more4 ,f>aday4 ,value ( a k ( weights ( unit volumes ( gases 9 det]m9+ _! molecul> weights4 ,me?ods ( vap\r-det]m9ation by ,dumas & ,gay ,lussac4 ,dalton & ,h5ry's law ( gase\s solubility4 ,"w ( ,s*rd] & ,kopp on volume relations ( liquids & solids4 ,connection betwe5 ! *emical nature ( a liquid & its boil+-po9t4 ,,bibliography #ahc ,,index #ahg ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,anci5ts ,*emi/ry1 z an art1 0 practis$ ?\s&s ( ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era2 z a sci5ce1 x dates no fur!r back ?an ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,! monum5tal records ( ,egypt & ! acc\nts left u by ,h]odotus & o!r writ]s %[ t ! anci5t ,egyptians1 among ! e>lie/ nations ( :om we h any records1 _h a consid]able k ( processes ess5tially *emical 9 _! nature4 ,_! prie/s 7 adepts 9 c]ta9 *emical arts1 & *emical laboratories 7 occasionally atta*$ to _! temples1 z at ,!bes1 ,memphis1 & ,heliopolis4 ,x is to be suppos$1 too1 t 9 a cultur$ class1 z ! prie/hood und\bt$ly 01 !re w\ld be n[ & aga9 curi\s & +5i\s p]sons :o w\ld speculate on ! nature & causes ( ! ph5om5a :i* !y obs]v$4 ,b !re is no c]ta9 evid5ce t ! ,egyptians ev] pursu$ *emi/ry 9 ! _s ( sci5ce1 or ev5 9 ! mann] 9 :i* !y & ! ,*aldans foll[$1 = example1 a/ronomy or ma!matics4 ,! op]ations ( *emi/ry z p]=m$ by !m 7 ( ! nature ( manufactur+ processes1 empirical 9 "* & utilit>ian 9 result4 ,x 0 comp>atively late 9 ! _w's hi/ory t m5 7 f\nd will+ to occupy !mselves 9 *emical pursuits 9 ord] to ga9 an insight into ! nature ( *emical *ange1 & to le>n ! causes & conditions ( its action4 ,al?\gh we h cit$ ! anci5t ,egyptians z practis+ ! *emical arts1 !re is no pro( t ^! arts actually orig9at$ ) !m4 ,*9a1 ,india1 ,*alda h ea* 9 turn be5 reg>d$ z ! bir?place ( ! v>i\s te*nical processes f :i* *emi/ry may be said to h tak5 its rise4 ,nev]!less1 x is ma9ly f ,egyptian records1 or f writ+s av[$ly bas$ on in=mation f ,egyptian s\rces1 t su* k z we possess ( ! e>lie/ *emical processes is d]iv$4 ,x is significant t ! ^w 8*emi/ry0 has its orig9 9 *emi1 8! black l&10 ! anci5t "n = ,egypt4 ,! art itself 0 con/antly spok5 ( z ! 8,egyptian art40 8,! ^w *emi/ry10 says ,bo]haave 9 ! ,prolegom5a ( 8 ,new ,me?od ( ,*emi/ry 7,%aw & ,*amb]s's translation1 ,london1 #agbg71 9 ,greek %\ld be wrote 1 & 9 ,lat9 & ,engli% *emia & *emi/ry2 n z usual1 *ymia & *ymi/ry4 ,! fir/ au?or 9 :om ! ^w is f\nd is ,plut>*1 :o liv$ "u ! ,emp]ors ,domitian1 ,n]va1 & ,trajan4 ,t philosoph]1 9 8 treatise ( ,isis & ,osiris1 takes occasion to obs]ve t ,egypt1 9 ! sacr$ dialect ( ! c\ntry1 0 call$ by ! same "n z ! black ( ! eye--viz41 --by :i* he seems to intimate t ! ^w *emia 9 ! ,egyptian language signifi$ black1 & t ! c\ntry1 ,egypt1 might take its d5om9ation f ! blackness ( ! soil4 ,b cont9ues ,bo]haave ! etymology & grammatical signification ( ! "n is n s easily dispat*$4 ,! critics & antiqu>ies1 among :om x has be5 a great subject ( inquiry1 w n let x pass )\t "s fur!r disquisition4 ,in/ead ( black1 "s w h x orig9ally d5ote secret1 or occult2 & h5ce d]ive x f ! ,hebrew *aman1 or haman--a my/]y1 ^: radix is *am4 ,&1 accord+ly1 ,plut>* obs]ves t ,egypt1 9 ! same sacr$ dialect1 is sometimes wrote 9 ,greek --*amia2 :5ce ! ^w is easily d$uc$ fur!r f ,*am1 elde/ son ( ,noah1 by :om ,egypt 0 fir/ peopl$ aft] ! deluge1 & f :om1 9 ! ,scripture /yle1 x is call$ ! l& ( ,*am1 or ,*em4 ,n[1 t *aman1 or haman1 prop]ly signifies secret appe>s f ! same ,plut>*1 :o1 m5tion+ an anci5t au?or nam$ ,m5e!s ,sibonita1 :o _h ass]t$ t ,ammon & ,hammon 7 us$ to d5ote ! god ( ,egypt1 ,plut>* takes ?is occasion to obs]ve t 9 ! ,egyptian language any?+ secret or occult 0 call$ by ! same "n1 --,hammon4444 ,la/ly1 ! le>n$ ,bo*>t1 keep+ to ! same s5se ( ! ^w1 *ooses to d]ive x f ! ,arabic *ema1 or kema--to hide2 add+ t !re is an ,arabic book ( secrets call$ by ! same "n ,kemi4 ,f ! :ole ( :i* ,bo]haave ga!rs t *emi/ry 0 ?us orig9ally d5om9at$ because x 0 consid]$ ( old z 8n fit to be divulg$ to ! populace1 b treasur$ up z a religi\s secret40 ,if we are to cr$it ,zozimus ! ,panopolite1 :o is said to h liv$ ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! fif? c5tury1 !re 7 s\nd reasons = ?us treasur+ up *emi/ry z a religi\s secret1 s9ce1 z x sprang f ! pretium amoris1 its orig9 0 n too reputable4 8,:at ! div9e writ+s relate is t ! angels1 enflam$ ) ! desire ( wom51 in/ruct$ 'em 9 all ! works & my/]ies ( nature4 ,= :i* indiscretion !y 7 exclud$ heav51 z hav+ taught m5 ?+s unfit = 'em to "k40 ,& ,scalig] ass]ts t 8,h]mes te/ifies z mu*2 & all our le>n+1 bo? op5 & occult1 confirms ! acc\nt40 ,b :o ,h]mes 01 adds t au?or1 is h>d to say1 = none ( 8 writ+s has surviv$ to our age1 8t lately publi%$ 9 ,italy "u ! "n ( ,h]mes ,trismegi/us be+ a manife/ =g]y40 ,?is leg5d ( ! 8fem9i/ic0 orig9 ( *emi/ry is 9 reality mu* old] ?an ! fif? c5tury ( our era1 & is b a v>iant ( t :i*1 accord+ to ,jewi% writ]s1 l$ to ! expulsion ( man f ,p>adise4 ,a simil> my? 0 curr5t among ! ,phnicians1 ,p]sians1 ,greeks1 & ,magi4 ,we trace x 9 ! leg5d ( ,sibylla1 :o dem&$1 z ! price ( h] fav\r to ,phbus1 n only l5g? ( ye>s1 b a k ( ! div9e arcanum4 ,"s ( ! ecclesia/ics :o elaborat$ ^! my?s are p>ticul> 9 _! acc\nts ( ! my/]ies ?us imp>t$4 ,!y includ$ ! use ( *>ms1 a k ( gold & silv] & preci\s /ones1 ! art ( dye+1 ( pa9t+ ! eyebr[s1 etc4--! k9d ( arcana1 9 fact1 :i* wom5 9 all ages 7 presumably mo/ ke5 to "k4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 significant t 9 all allusions to *emia1 ev5 aft] ! translation ( ! seat ( ! ,roman ,empire to ,con/ant9ople1 x is impli$ t a k ( x 0 a sacr$ my/]y to be kn[n only to ! prie/hood1 & jeal\sly gu>d$ by !m4 ,x 0 *>act]i/ic ( writ]s :o _h affix$ an et]nal /igma on ,eve to make ! sex 9 g5]al answ]able = an illicit k ( 8?+s unfit = m5 to "k40 ,=1 9 reality1 *emi/ry orig9at$ ) m51 & x 0 n s mu* 9 ! love ( wom5 z ( w9e t x took its rise4 ,! manufacture ( alcohol by processes ( f]m5tation is probably ! olde/ ( ! *emical arts4 ,! ^w w9e means1 9 fact1 a product ( f]m5tation4 ,mosaic hi/ory relates t ,noah1 soon aft] he got to dry l&1 8plant$ a v9ey>d & drank ( ! w9e10 ) results t w\ld appe> to %[ t ! pot5cy ( w9e 0 n unfamili> to him4 ,diodorus ,siculus1 :o /udi$ ,egyptian antiquities :5 ,egypt 0 a ,roman prov9ce1 /ates t ! anci5t ,egyptians ascrib$ ! orig9 ( w9e to ,osiris4 ,x 0 a sacrificial (f]+ ev5 9 ! e>lie/ times1 z 0 bread4 ,w9e seems to h be5 prep>$ by ! ,*9ese z f> back z ! "t ( ! ,emp]or ,y1 circa #bbbj ,b4,c4 ,be] 0 manufactur$ 9 ,egypt 9 ! "t ( ,s5wosret ,,iii4 7,seso/ris7 ,b4,c4 #ahhj4 ,! ,egyptians 7 skill$ 9 dye+ & 9 ! manufacture ( lea!r1 & 9 ! production & work+ ( metals & alloys4 ,!y 7 famili> ) ! me?ods ( temp]+ iron4 ,!y made glass1 artificial gems1 & enamels4 ,! olde/ kn[n enamel 0 f\nd z an amulet on ! ,egyptian ,que5 ,aahotep 7#agjj ,b4,c471 & glass beads 7 made be=e ! "t ( ,?utmosis ,,iii4 7#adge ,b4,c474 ,! ,jews knew ( gold1 silv]1 copp]1 iron1 lead1 & t94 ,inde$1 x is ?r\gh !m & ! ,phnicians1 :o 7 among ! e>lie/ ( trad]s1 t ,europe 0 gradually made acqua9t$ ) _m te*nical products ( ,ea/]n orig94 ,! beg9n+s ( ! art ( extract+ & work+ ( metals are lo/ 9 ! mi/s ( antiquity2 ! *emi/ry ( metals1 inde$1 has be5 said to be almo/ coeval ) mank9d4 ,diodorus ,siculus f\nd traditions 9 ,egypt z to ! fir/ inv5tor ( metallurgical processes id5tical ) t ( ! son ( ,lame* & ,zillah1 ,tubal-ca91 or ,tuval-ca91 ( ! ,hebrews--! ,vulcan ( ! ,romans4 ,gold 0 und\bt$ly "o ( ! e>lie/ metals to be made use ( by m51 z x probably 0 "o ( ! fir/ to be discov]$4 ,x occurs free 9 nature1 & is met ) 9 _m rocks & 9 ! s&s ( riv]s4 ,its col\r1 lu/re1 & d5sity w\ld e>ly attract att5tion to x2 & its malleability & ductility & ! ease ) :i* x c\ld be fa%ion$1 toge!r ) its unalt]ability1 w\ld r5d] x valuable4 ,e?iopian & ,nubian gold 7 kn[n f ! e>lie/ times1 & qu>tz cru%+ & gold wa%+ 7 practis$ by ! ,egyptians4 ,repres5tations ( ^! processes h be5 f\nd on ,egyptian tombs dat+ f #bejj ,b4,c4 ,gold-wire 0 us$ by ! ,egyptians = embroid]y1 & !y practis$ plat+1 gild+1 & inlay+ z f> back z #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,silv] also 0 employ$ by !m1 & appe>s1 l gold1 to h be5 co9$ into money4 ,x 0 orig9ally kn[n z 8:ite gold40 ,"s ( ! olde/ co9s 9 exi/5ce are alloys ( silv] & gold1 obta9$ probably by ! fusion ( naturally occurr+ arg5tif]\s gold1 su* z ! pale gold ( ! ,pactolus4 ,su* an alloy 0 t]m$ electrum1 f its resemblance 9 col\r to amb]4 ,copp] is also f\nd to a limit$ ext5t 9 ! metallic /ate1 b probably ! great] "p ( t us$ by ! anci5ts 0 obta9$ f its ores1 :i* are comp>atively abundant & readily smelt$4 ,x 0 also us$ = co9age by ! ,egyptians1 & 0 fa%ion$ by !m into a v>iety ( ut5sils & implem5ts4 ,! old] writ]s drew no cle> di/9ction betwe5 copp]1 bronze1 & brass1 & ! t]ms designat+ !m--s & --are frequ5tly employ$2 z by ,pl9y1 indiscrim9ately4 ,! /atem5t 9 ,deut4 viii4 #i--8,out ( ^: hills ?\ maye/ dig brass0--obvi\sly _c mean an alloy ( copp] & z9c1 s9ce ?is does n occur naturally4 ,pure copp] is too s(t a metal to be us$ = swords & cutt+ in/rum5ts1 b copp] ores frequ5tly conta9 associat$ metals1 z1 = example1 t91 :i* w\ld conf] ^u ! copp] ! necess>y h>dness to enable x to be fa%ion$ into weapons4 ,su* copp] w\ld be ( ! "* ( bronze1 & x 0 kn[n to ! e>ly work]s t ! nature ( ! metal 0 greatly modifi$ by ! selection ( ores f p>ticul> localities4 ,x 0 comp>atively late 9 ! metallurgical hi/ory ( copp] t bronze 0 produc$ by kn[+ly add+ t9 to ! metal4 ,copp] 0 l>gely us$ by ! ,romans1 :o obta9$ x f ,cyprus2 x 0 kn[n to !m z s ,cyprium1 & ev5tually ,cuprum1 :5ce we obta9 ! *emical symbol ,cu4 ,:at ! ,romans call$ s 0 f\nd also at ,*alkis1 9 ,euba1 :5ce 1 ! ,greek ^w = copp]4 ,auri*alcum1 or gold5 copp]--t is1 brass--0 well kn[n to ! e>ly work]s 9 copp]1 & 0 made 9 ,pl9y's "t by heat+ toge!r copp]1 cadmia 7calam9e71 & *>coal4 ,bell metal 0 employ$ by ! ,assyrians1 & bronze 0 ca/ by ! ,egyptians = ! manufacture ( mirrors1 vases1 %ields1 etc41 z f> back z #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,/atu>y bronze1 l>gely us$ by ! ,romans1 usually conta9$ m or less lead4 ,t91 :i* 0 also kn[n to ! e>ly ,egyptians1 w\ld appe> to h be5 fir/ obta9$ f ! ,ea/ ,indies1 & to h be5 kn[n "u ! ,sanscrit "n ( ,ka/ra 7,ks1 to %9e71 :5ce we h ! ,arabic ^w = t91 ,ksdir1 & ! ,greek 1 us$ by ,hom] & ,hesiod4 ,t9 ores are f\nd 9 ,brita9 7,cornwall71 & 7 br\ght !nce by ! ,phnicians4 ,! gr\p ( isl&s1 includ+ ! ,scilly ,isl&s & ! l>g] isl& to ! ea/ 7,brita971 0 kn[n to ! ,romans z ! ,insul ,cassit]ides4 ,pl9y /ates t ! t9 is f\nd 9 gra9s 9 alluvial soil1 f :i* x is obta9$ by wa%+2 b he gives no description ( ! me?od ( smelt+4 ,! ,lat9 ^w = t9 0 /annum2 x 0 also kn[n z plumbum album1 9 contradi/9ction to lead1 :i* 0 call$ plumbum nigrum4 ,t9 0 us$ by ! ,romans = cov]+ ! inside ( copp] vessels1 & 0 also occasionally employ$ 9 ! con/ruction ( mirrors4 ,lead 0 well kn[n to ! ,egyptians4 ,9 ,pl9y's "t x 0 ma9ly procur$ f ,spa9 & f ,brita9 7,d]by%ire74 ,lead5 pipes 7 us$ by ! ,romans = ! conveyance ( wat]1 & %eet lead 0 employ$ by !m = ro(+ purposes4 ,! ,romans 7 also aw>e ( alloys ( lead & t94 ,arg5t>ium 0 compos$ ( equal p>ts ( lead & t92 t]ti>ium1 us$ z a sold]1 consi/$ ( two p>ts ( lead & "o "p ( t94 ,iron1 al?\gh n[ ! mo/ important ( ! common metals1 0 n 9 g5]al use until long aft] ! discov]y ( gold1 silv]1 & copp]4 ,?is 0 probably due to ! fact t1 al?\gh its ores are relatively abundant & widely di/ribut$1 its extraction z a metal dem&$ great] skill & m appliances ?an 7 possess$ by ! e>li] races4 ,metallic iron 01 h[ev]1 well kn[n to ! ,egyptians1 :o employ$ x 9 ! manufacture ( swords1 knives1 axes1 & /one-*isels1 bo? z malleable iron & z /eel4 ,/eel 0 also kn[n to ! ,*9ese z f> back z #bbbj ,b4,c41 & !y 7 acqua9t$ ) ! me?ods ( temp]+ x4 ,! good quality ( ,*9ese /eel caus$ x to be highly priz$ by ,we/]n nations4 ,! e>lie/ p to smelt iron are suppos$ to h be5 ! ,*alybes1 a nation inhabit+ ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,black ,sea2 x is f !m t ! anci5t "n = /eel--*alybs--is d]iv$1 & also our ^w 8*alybeate40 ,m]cury has long be5 kn[n1 b !re is no evid5ce t ! anci5t ,egyptians 7 aw>e ( its exi/5ce1 or x w\ld probably h be5 m5tion$ by ,h]odotus4 ,x 0 famili> to ,ari/otle1 & its mode ( manufacture f c9nab> is describ$ by ,!ophra/us 7#cbj ,b4,c471 :o t]ms x 8liquid silv]40 ,processes ( amalgamation 7 kn[n to ,pl9y1 :o notes ! read9ess ) :i* m]cury dissolves gold4 ,pl9y appe>s to di/+ui% ! native metal f\nd 9 ,spa91 :i* he t]ms arg5tum vivum 7quicksilv]71 f t obta9$ by sublimation or di/illation f c9nab>1 :i* he calls hydr>gyrum1 f :i* we get ! *emical symbol = m]cury ,hg4 ,a consid]able numb] ( metallic comp\nds 7 kn[n to ! anci5ts1 & 7 employ$ by !m z m$ic9es & z pigm5ts4 ,! oxides ( copp]1 kn[n z flos ris1 & scoria ris1 obta9$ by heat+ copp] b>s to r$ness & expos+ !m to air1 7 us$ z es*>otics4 ,v]digris1 or rugo1 0 made by ! same me?ods z n[4 ,blue vitriol1 or *alcantum1 is describ$ by ,pl9y1 :o says t ! blue transp>5t cry/als are =m$ on /r+s susp5d$ 9 its solution4 ,*rysocolla1 mala*ite1 or copp] c>bonate1 0 us$ z a gre5 pigm5t4 ,! blue ( ! ,greeks1 or cruleum ( ! ,romans1 0 obta9$ by fritt+ toge!r alkali1 s&1 & oxide ( copp]4 ,botryitis1 placitis1 ony*itis1 o/racitis1 7 v>ieties ( cadmia or oxide ( z9c1 obta9$ by calc9+ calam9e1 & 7 us$ 9 ! treatm5t ( ulc]s1 etc4 ,molybd5a1 :i* 0 ! ,lat9 "n = li?>ge1 0 employ$ ext]nally z an a/r+5t & 9 ! manufacture ( pla/]4 ,! lead pla/] employ$ by ,roman surgeons 0 practically id5tical 9 "* & mode ( prep>ation ) t 9 use to-day4 ,c]ussa1 or :ite lead1 0 made z n[ by expos+ %eets ( lead to ! fumes ( v9eg>4 ,x 0 us$ 9 m$ic9e1 z a pigm5t1 & 9 ! prep>ation ( cosmetics4 ,c]ussa u/a 0 probably r$ lead4 ,its pres5t "n ( m9ium 0 orig9ally appli$ to c9nab>1 ! r$ sulphide ( m]cury1 :i* 0 frequ5tly adult]at$ ) r$ lead4 ,c9nab>1 =m]ly obta9$ f ,africa1 &1 by ! ,romans1 f ,spa91 0 also us$ ext]nally 9 m$ic9e1 & 0 a highly priz$ pigm5t1 ^: value 0 kn[n to ! ,*9ese f v e>ly times4 ,! black sulphide ( antimony1 ! /immi & /ibium ( ,dioscorides & ,pl9y1 0 employ$ by wom5 9 ,asia1 ,greece1 & latt]ly 9 ,we/]n ,europe1 & is /ill s us$ 9 ! ,ea/1 = black5+ _! eyela%es4 ,prep>ations ( antimony 7 us$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,realg>1 ! sc>let sulphide ( ars5ic1 ! s&>a* ( ,ari/otle1 & ! arr5i*on ( ,!ophra/us1 0 employ$ z a pigm5t1 & also 9 m$ic9e1 bo? int]nally & ext]nally4 ,! yell[ sulphide ( ars5ic or auri pigm5tum 7orpim5t71 0 also us$ = ! same purposes4 ,a v>iety ( yell[ & r$ o*res1 9 addition to ! pigm5ts above m5tion$1 7 us$ by pa9t]s1 su* z rubrica1 an iron o*re ( a d>k r$ col\r1 & s9opis1 or r$dle1 obta9$ f ,egypt1 ,lemnos1 & ! ,bale>ic ,isles4 ,oxides ( manganese 7 us$ z br[n pigm5ts4 ,! :ite pigm5t1 p>atonium1 0 probably me]s*aum4 ,mel9um 0 a v>iety ( *alk f\nd 9 ,samos4 ,! anci5ts 7 well acqua9t$ ) indigo & madd]1 & ) ! me?od ( manufactur+ lakes1 :i* 0 employ$ by ,grecian arti/s4 ,! fam\s purpurissum 0 *alk or clay /a9$ by imm]sion 9 a solution ( ,tyrian purple4 ,atram5tum 0 lamp-black3 ivory-black 0 us$ by ,apelles1 & 0 kn[n z elephant9um4 ,! ink ( ! anci5ts consi/$ ( lamp-black susp5d$ 9 a solution ( gum or glue4 ,! atram5tum indicum1 import$ f ! ,ea/1 0 id5tical ) ,*9a ink4 ,! anci5ts 7 well skill$ 9 ! art ( dye+1 & ev5 ( calico pr9t+4 ,! ,tyrians produc$ _! fam\s purple dye z f> back z #aejj ,b4,c4 ,x 0 obta9$ f %ell-fi%1 ma9ly species ( ,murex1 inhabit+ ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,tyrian purple has be5 %[n to be dibrom-indigo1 & to h be5 produc$ by ! action ( air & light ^u ! juices exud$ f ! %ell-fi%4 ,! f9e l95 ( ! ,old ,te/am5t 0 probably cotton1 = ! production ( :i* ,egypt 0 long celebrat$4 ,t ! ,egyptians 7 acqua9t$ ) ! use ( mordants seems evid5t f ! foll[+ passage f ,pl9y1 quot$ by ,?omson3-- ,!re exi/s 9 ,egypt a wond]ful me?od ( dye+4 ,! :ite clo? is /a9$ 9 v>i\s places1 n ) dye /uffs1 b ) sub/ances :i* h ! prop]ty ( absorb+ col\rs2 ^! applications are n visible ^u ! clo?1 b :5 !y are dipp$ into a hot caldron ( ! dye !y are drawn out an in/ant aft] dy$4 ,! rem>kable circum/ance is t1 ?\gh !re be only "o dye 9 ! vat1 yet diff]5t col\rs appe> ^u ! clo?2 nor c ! col\r be aft]w>ds remov$4 ,?is passage accurately describes ! process ( madd] dye+ on cotton1 :]eby a v>iety ( fa/ col\rs--r$s1 br[ns & purples--c be obta9$ f ! same vat by ! employm5t ( diff]5t mordants1 su* z alum9a1 oxide ( iron1 or oxide ( t91 etc4 ,glass has be5 kn[n f v e>ly times4 ,repres5tations ( glass-bl[+ 7 f\nd on ! monum5ts ( ,!bes & ,b5i ,hassan1 & l>ge quantities ( glass 7 export$ to ,greece & ,rome f ,egypt1 ma9ly by ,phnicians4 ,ari/ophanes m5tions x z hyalos1 & speaks ( x z ! beautiful transp>5t /one us$ = k9dl+ fire4 ,! ,egyptians made use ( v>i\s metallic oxides 9 col\r+ glass4 ,! hmat9on ( ,pl9y 0 a r$ glass col\r$ ) cupr\s oxide4 ,cupric oxide 0 us$ to col\r glass gre52 & anci5t blue glass has be5 f\nd to conta9 cobalt4 ,! co/ly vasa murrh9a ( ! ,romans1 obta9$ f ,egypt1 probably consi/$ ( fluorsp>1 id5tical ) ! ,blue ,john ( ! ,d]by%ire m9es4 ,/onew>e has be5 made f "t immemorial1 & ! ,*9ese h manufactur$ porcela9 f v remote p]iods4 ,bricks & tiles 7 made by ! ,romans1 & mort> & /ucco 7 employ$ by ! anci5t ,egyptians4 ,soap 7sapo7 is m5tion$ by ,pl9y1 b its det]g5t prop]ties 7 app>5tly unkn[n to him4 ,x appe>s to h be5 fir/ made by ! ,gauls1 :o prep>$ x f ! a%es ( ! bee* & ! fat ( goats1 & us$ x z a pomatum1 z did ! jeunesse d'ore ( ,rome4 ,wood a%es1 z well z natron1 71 h[ev]1 us$ by ! anci5ts = _! cleans+ prop]ties4 ,/>*1 acetic acid1 sulphur1 alum5 or crude sulphate ( alum9a1 beeswax1 camphor1 bitum51 naph?a1 asphalt1 nitrum 7c>bonate ( soda71 common salt1 & lime1 7 all kn[n to ! ,egyptians1 & 7 us$ by !m = _m ( ! purposes 9 :i* !y are employ$ to-day4 ,x w be evid5t f ?is brief survey t ! anci5ts possess$ a consid]able acqua9tance ) _m op]ations ( te*nical *emi/ry2 b1 al?\gh !y mu/ necess>ily h accumulat$ a l>ge am\nt ( k1 v little has come d[n to u conc]n+ ! mode 9 :i* _! processes 7 conduct$1 or z to ! precautions !y employ$ to ensure uni=m results4 ,_! me?ods 7 probably jeal\sly gu>d$ & h&$ d[n by successive memb]s ( ! crafts z preci\s secrets4 ,! exp]i5c$ ma/]s ( ^! crafts mu/ h met ) _m /range & p]plex+ ph5om5a 9 ! c\rse ( _! op]ations1 & a _s ( inquiry mu/ !reby at times h be5 awak5$4 ,b1 "u ! conditions 9 :i* _! indu/ries 7 prosecut$1 ! sci5tific _s 0 n free to develop1 = sci5ce dep5ds ess5tially ^u free int]communication ( facts & ! spread ( k ( natural ph5om5a4 ,moreov]1 ! great intellects ( antiquity1 = ! mo/ "p1 _h little sympa?y ) ! op]ations ( artisans1 :o1 at lea/ among ! ,greeks & ,romans1 71 = ! mo/ "p1 slaves4 ,philosoph]s taught t indu/rial "w t5d$ to l[] ! /&>d ( ?\ght4 ,! prie/s1 9 mo/ ages1 h look$ m or less askance at attempts1 on ! "p ( ! laity1 to inquire too closely into ! causes ( natural ph5om5a4 ,! inve/igation ( nature 9 e>ly times 0 impossible = religi\s reasons4 ,!re 0 an outcry 9 ,a!ns :5 ! ?und]bolts ( ,zeus 7 ascrib$ to ! collision ( cl\ds4 ,anaxagoras1 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ,diagoras1 & ,protagoras 7 *>g$ by ! prie/s ) blasphemy & driv5 into exile4 ,prodikos1 :o deifi$ ! natural =ces1 z did ,emp$okles ! primal elem5ts1 0 execut$ = impiety4 ,sac]dotalism 9 ,a!ns _h no m sympa?y ) sci5ce ?an _h ! ,holy ,congregation 9 ,italy :5 x bann$ ! writ+s ( ,cop]nicus1 ,kepl]1 & ,galileo1 & s5t ,giordano ,bruno to ! /ake4 ,! educat$ ,greeks _h no int]e/ 9 obs]v+ or 9 expla9+ ! ph5om5a ( te*nical processes4 ,h[ev] prone !y might be to speculation1 !y _h no incl9ation to exp]im5t or to engage 9 ! pati5t accumulation ( ! k ( physical facts4 8,y ,greeks10 says ,plato 9 "o ( 8 ,dialogues1 8are ev] *ildr51 hav+ no k ( antiquity1 nor antiquity ( k60 ,! influ5ce ( a spuri\s ,ari/otelianism1 :i* la/$ ?r\gh _m c5turies & ev5 beyond ! "t ( ,boyle1 0 :olly oppos$ to ! true me?ods ( sci5ce1 & x 0 only :5 philosophy _h %ak5 itself free f s*ola/icism t *emi/ry1 z a sci5ce1 0 able to develop4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,*emical ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,anci5ts ,speculations z to ! orig9 & nature ( matt]1 & z to ! conditions & =ces :i* affect x1 are to be f\nd1 m or less imp]fectly develop$1 9 ! olde/ sy/ems ( philosophy ( :i* we h any record4 ,^! speculations are n bas$1 9 any real s5se1 ^u ! sy/ematic obs]vation ( natural ph5om5a4 ,/ill1 z !y appeal$ to human reason1 !y mu/ be held to be f\nd$ ^u exp]i5ce1 or at lea/ n to be consci\sly inconsi/5t ) x3 ,all ! olde/ cosmogonies reg>d$ wat] z ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ?+s3 f ,okeanos sprang ! gods--!mselves deifi$ p]sonifications ( ! 8elem5ts0 or pr9ciples ( :i* ! _w 0 made4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t ?is doctr9e ( ! orig9 & ess5tial nature ( matt] came to be m p>ticul>ly associat$ ) ! "n ( ,?ales ( ,miletus1 :o liv$ six c5turies be=e our era1 & :o1 accord+ to ,t]tullian1 is to be reg>d$ z ! fir/ ( ! race ( ! natural philosoph]s--t is1 ! fir/ ( ^? :o made x _! bus9ess to inquire aft] natural causes & ph5om5a4 ,?ales is kn[n to h pass$ "s ye>s ( 8 life 9 ,egypt1 & to h be5 in/ruct$ 9 sci5ce by ! prie/s ( ,!bes & ,memphis2 & x is !re=e possible t he may h be5 influ5c$ by ! ,egyptian tea*+ 9 ! =mulation ( 8 cosmological !ories4 ,x is significant ( ! t5acity ) :i* ! m9d cl+s to dogma & rev]es au?ority t ! tea*+ ( ,?ales %\ld h surviv$ ?r\gh ! space ( tw5ty-f\r c5turies4 ,x c be %[n to h affect$ ! c\rse ( *emical inquiry d[n to ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,x influ5c$ ! exp]im5tal lab\rs ( philosoph]s s div]se 9 "* z ,van ,helmont1 ,boyle1 ,bo]haave1 ,prie/ley1 & ,lavoisi]--all ( :om made attempts to prove or disprove its adequacy4 ,van ,helmont1 inde$1 0 "o ( ! mo/ /r5u\s support]s ( ! doctr9e ( ,?ales1 & s\ght to e/abli% x by obs]vations :i*1 9 ! abs5ce ( all k ( ! true nature ( air & wat]1 seem$ at ! "t irrefutable4 ,p]haps ! "o mo/ frequ5tly cit$ is 8 obs]vation on ! gr[? ( a plant :i* app>5tly _h no o!r =m ( su/5ance ?an wat]4 ,he describes h[ he plant$ a will[ weigh+ #e lbs4 9 #bjj lbs4 ( e>? previ\sly dri$ 9 an ov54 ,! plant 0 regul>ly wat]$1 :5 at ! end ( five ye>s x 0 f\nd to weigh #afi lbs4 #c oz41 :]eas ! e>?1 aft] r$ry+1 _h lo/ only #b oz4 9 weight4 ,h5ce1 #afd lbs4 ( woody matt]1 leaves1 roots1 etc41 _h be5 produc$ seem+ly f wat] alone4 ,m ?an a c5tury _h to elapse be=e any clue to ! true int]pretation ( ,van ,helmont's exp]im5t 0 ga9$4 ,x 0 fir/ furni%$ by ! obs]vations ( ,+5h\sz & ,prie/ley4 ,al?\gh ! idea ( a primal 8elem5t0 or common pr9ciple is to be f\nd 9 e old-_w philosophical sy/em1 ! anci5t philosoph]s 7 by no means 9 agreem5t z to its "*4 ,anaxim5es1 :o liv$ circa #ejj ,b4,c41 taught t x 0 air1 ,h]akleitos ( ,ephesus t x 0 fire1 & ,ph]ekides t x 0 e>?4 ,! supposition t a s+le primordial pr9ciple c\ld be made to acc\nt = all =ms ( matt] & all ! ph5om5a & manife/ations ( ! mat]ial _w _h its difficulties4 ,attempts to gr\p qualities z pr9ciples1 & to con/ruct f ^! pr9ciples ! univ]se1 7 inde$ made ev5 prior to ! age ( ,?ales4 ,x 0 a comp>atively simple evolution>y /ep to reg>d ^! pr9ciples or 8elem5ts0 z mutually conv]tible4 ,anaxim5es' !ory ( ! =mation ( ra9 0 an implicit admission ( su* conv]tibility4 ,?is philosoph] taught t ra9 came by ! cond5sation ( cl\ds1 :i* 9 _! turn 7 =m$ by ! cond5sation ( air4 ,ev]y?+ comes f air & ev]y?+ returns to air4 ,t wat] might be conv]t$ by fire into air 0 surmis$ f ! e>lie/ times4 ,su* a supposition naturally sprung f ! circum/ance t wat] 0 ev]y:]e recognis$ to disappe> or to pass into ! air "u ! influ5ce ( fire or sol> heat4 ,! supposition _h gr[n into a fix$ belief 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,ev5 ,prie/ley1 z late z ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 imag9$ = a "t t he _h obta9$ pro( ( su* a mutual conv]sion4 ,! possibility ( ! transmutation ( wat] into e>? 0 a belief curr5t ?r\gh tw5ty c5turies1 & 0 only def9itely & f9ally disprov$ by ,lavoisi] 9 #aggj4 ,! conception ( fire z ! primal pr9ciple has its g]m 9 ! fire- or sun-wor%ip ( ! ,*aldeans1 ,scy?ians1 ,p]sians1 ,p>sees1 & ,h9dus1 & x is n difficult to trace1 !re=e1 h[ heat came to be reg>d$ ei!r z antec$5t to1 or z associat$ )1 ! o!r primal pr9ciples4 ,emp$okles1 app>5tly1 0 ! fir/ ^: "n has come d[n to u to re9troduce ! def9ite conception ( f\r primal elem5ts--fire1 air1 wat]1 & e>?4 ,^! he reg>d$ z di/9ct1 & incapable ( be+ transmut$1 b z =m+ all v>ieties ( matt] by int]mixture 9 v>i\s proportions4 ,^! pr9ciples he deifi$1 ,zeus be+ ! p]sonification ( ! elem5t ( fire1 ,"h ( air1 ,ne/is ( wat]1 & ,aidone\s ( e>?4 ,! doctr9e ( ! f\r elem5ts 0 also adopt$ by ,plato & amplifi$ by ,ari/otle1 ) ^: "n inde$ x is commonly associat$4 ,ari/otle1 ! greate/ sci5tific ?9k] among ! ,greeks1 ex]cis$ an au?ority almo/ supreme 9 ,europe dur+ ne>ly tw5ty c5turies4 ,8 influ5ce is to be trac$ ?r\gh\t ! lit]ature ( *emi/ry long aft] ! "t ( ,boyle4 ,x may be detect$ ev5 n[4 ,probably few :o write *emical memoirs to-day1 & :o foll[ ! "t-hon\r$ practice ( prefac+ _! own contributions to k by a /atem5t ( :at is already kn[n on ! subject1 are aw>e t 9 s do+ !y are obey+ ! injunctions ( ,ari/otle4 ,8 !ory ( ! nature ( matt] is conta9$ 9 8 treatise on ,g5]ation & ,de/ruction4 ,x ma9ly diff]$ f t ( ,emp$okles 9 reg>d+ ! f\r 8elem5ts0 z mutually conv]tible4 ,ea* 8elem5t0 or pr9ciple 0 reg>d$ z be+ possess$ ( two qualities1 "o ( :i* 0 %>$ by ano!r elem5t or pr9ciple4 ,?us3 ,fire is hot & dry2 air is hot & wet2 wat] is cold & wet2 e>? is cold & dry4 ,9 ea* primal 8elem5t0 "o quality prevails4 ,fire is m hot ?an dry2 air is m wet ?an hot2 wat] is m cold ?an wet2 e>? is m dry ?an cold4 ,! relative proportion & mutual work+ ( ^! qualities det]m9$ ! specific "* ( ! 8elem5t40 ,?us1 if ! dryness ( fire is ov]come by ! moi/ure ( wat]1 air is produc$2 if ! heat ( air is ov]come by ! coldness ( e>?1 wat] is =m$2 if ! moi/ure ( wat] is ov]come by ! dryness ( fire1 e>? results4 ,anci5t *emical lit]ature conta9s _m illu/rations or diagrams symbolis+ ! conv]tibility or mutual relations ( ! f\r 8elem5ts40 ,x has be5 frequ5tly /at$ t ! influ5ce ( ! ,p]ipatetic philosophy has be5 inimical to ! developm5t ( sci5ce4 ,b1 9 reality1 ! f\nd] ( t s*ool1 a desc5dant ( ,esculapius1 & und\bt$ly "o ( ! greate/ & mo/ enlight5$ ?9k]s ( antiquity1 0 an ideal man ( sci5ce4 ,?is is abundantly evid5t f su* ( 8 works z c be prov$ to be g5u9e4 ,mu* ( :at is call$ ,ari/otelianism is entirely =eign to ! _s ( ! tea*+ ( ,ari/otle4 ,! ,ari/otelians ( ! ,middle ,ages 7 ma9ly dialecticians1 & almo/ :olly conc]n$ ) ! =mul ( syllogi/ic inf]5ce1 & )\t real sympa?y )1 or k (1 8 sy/em4 ,mu*1 too1 t 0 attribut$ to him1 & :i* 0 v5]at$ accord+ly1 is und\bt$ly spuri\s4 ,! fame ( ! ,ma/] has consequ5tly suff]$ at ! h&s ( ^? :o1 call+ !mselves ,p]ipatetics1 7 9 no prop] s5se foll[]s ( 8 me?od or int]pret]s ( 8 dogma4 ,ari/otle affirm$ t natural sci5ce c only be f\nd$ ^u a k ( facts1 & facts c only be asc]ta9$ ?r\gh obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,he illu/rates ?is p>ticul>ly by a ref]5ce to a/ronomy1 8:i*10 he says1 8is bas$ on ! obs]vation ( a/ronomical ph5om5a1 & x is ! case ) e bran* ( sci5ce or art40 ,x is errone\s & unju/1 !re=e1 to suppose t ,ari/otle's philosophy1 z he taught x1 is oppos$ to ! true me?ods ( sci5ce4 ,a k ( ,ari/otle's works 0 transf]r$ by ,byzant9e writ]s to ,egypt2 &1 :5 t l& 0 ov]run by ! ,arabs 9 ! sev5? c5tury1 !y adopt$ 8 sy/em1 spread+ x abroad :]ev] _! conque/s ext5d$4 ,9 ! eigh? c5tury !y c>ri$ x into ,spa91 :]e x fl\ri%$ ?r\gh\t _! occupation ( t c\ntry4 ,f ! n9? to ! elev5? c5tury ! great] "p ( ,europe 0 9 a /ate ( b>b>ism4 ,! ,moslem caliphate 9 ,spa91 "u ! b5efic5t rule ( ,jusuf & ,jakb1 alone pres]v$ sci5ce f ext9ction4 ,cordova1 ,seville1 ,gr5ada1 & ,tol$o 7 ! *ief seats ( le>n+ 9 ,we/]n ,europe2 & x 0 ma9ly ?r\gh 8! p]fect & mo/ glori\s physici/10 ! ,moslem ,ibn-,ro%d--bett] kn[n z ,av]roes--7#aabf-aaih71 t ,*ri/ian s*olia/s l ,rog] ,bacon acquir$ _! k ( ! philosophical sy/em ( ,ari/otle1 & ma9ly ?r\gh ! ,moslems ,geb] & ,avic5na t !y ga9$ acqua9tance ) ! sci5ce ( ! ,ea/4 ,! conception t matt] is made up ( p>ticles or atoms1 & t ^! p>ticles are 9 a /ate ( ceaseless motion1 is to be met ) 9 ,h9du & ,phnician philosophy4 ,x 0 taught by ,anaxagoras1 ,leukippos1 & ,demokritos to ! ,greeks1 & by ,lucretius to ! ,romans4 ,leukippos & ,demokritos expla9$ ! creation ( ! _w z due solely to physical ag5cies )\t ! int]v5tion ( a creative intellig5ce4 ,accord+ to _! !ories1 ! atoms are v>iable1 n only 9 size1 b 9 weight4 ,! smalle/ atoms are also ! lighte/4 ,atoms are imp5etrable2 no two atoms c simultane\sly occupy ! same place4 ,! collision ( ! atoms gives !m an oscillatory movem5t1 :i* is communicat$ to adjac5t atoms1 & ^!1 9 _! turn1 transmit x to ! mo/ di/ant ones4 ,anaxagoras taught t e atom is a _w 9 m9iature1 & t ! liv+ body is a cong]ies ( atoms d]iv$ f ! alim5ts :i* su/a9 x4 ,plants are liv+ ?+s1 end[$ l animals ) respiratory functions1 &1 l !m1 atomically con/itut$4 ,?is philosoph] 0 s f> 9 advance ( 8 age t 8 c\ntrym5 accus$ him ( sacrilege1 & he only escap$ dea? by flight4 ,fur!r1 ! assumption t ^! atoms ex]t mutual attractions & repulsions is probably z old z ! fundam5tal conception itself4 ,at lea/1 s f> z c be trac$1 ! conceptions ( atoms & atomic motion are indissolubly connect$4 ,?is is n ! place to develop ! subsequ5t hi/ory ( ! doctr9e ( ! atom1 nor ne$ we n[ conc]n ourselves ) ! old metaphysical quibble ( its divisibility or indivisibility4 ,x may be1 z ,lucretius said1 t ! orig9al atom is v f> d[n4 ,x may be t ! physical atom is some?+ :i* is n divid$1 n some?+ t _c be divid$4 ,?is !ory1 dimly p]ceiv$ 9 ! mi/s ( antiquity1 has gr[n & /r5g!n$ ) ! ages1 & 9 its mod]n application to ! facts ( *emi/ry has acquir$ a precision & h>mony unimag9$ ev5 by ! poets & ?9k]s ( old4 ,we %all see lat] h[ ! :ole c\rse ( ! sci5ce has be5 controll$1 illum9$1 & vivifi$ by x4 ,x is n too mu* to say t ! *emi/ry ( to-day is "o va/ elaboration ( ?is primeval doctr9e4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,al*emy ,al?\gh ! intellectual t5d5cies ( ! ,hell5ic m9d 7 h>dly calculat$ to fav\r ! developm5t ( *emi/ry z a sci5ce1 ! speculations ( ! ,greeks conc]n+ ! ess5tial nature ( matt] & ! mutual conv]tibility ( ! 8elem5ts0 l$ incid5tally to an ext5sion ( ! art ( op]ative *emi/ry4 ,?is ext5sion result$ f attempts to realise :at 0 ! logical outcome ( ! tea*+ ( _! philosoph]s--viz41 ! possibility ( ! transmutation ( metals4 ,! idea ( transmutation has its g]m 9 ! olde/ sy/ems ( philosophy4 ,x 0 a plausible doctr9e1 n :olly unsupport$ by ! ph5om5a ( ! organic _w2 & x naturally comm5d$ itself to m5 :o 7 only too prone to adopt :at _! cupidity & love ( weal? pr$ispos$ !m to believe4 ,x has be5 assum$ t al*emy at no "t 9 its hi/ory _h ! slighte/ claim to a philosophical f\ndation1 b t its pr(essors & adepts1 ev5 at ! outset1 consci\sly trad$ on ! cr$ulity & gre$ ( _! dupes4 ,mu* may be urg$ aga9/ su* a p>tial view4 ,! supposition is n consi/5t ) hi/ory or ) evolutional t5d5cies4 ,x may be1 z ,davy once said1 t 8analogy is ! fruitful p>5t ( error20 b ! idea t metals c\ld be modifi$--c\ld ev5 be *ang$ "o into ! o!r--seem$ to f9d support 9 innum]able *emical ph5om5a well kn[n b imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,! fact t al*emy--t is ! pr(ession ( mak+ gold f o!r metals--came to be practis$ by rogues is no pro( t x nev] _h1 & nev] c\ld h _h1 a philosophical basis4 ,! *anges :i* sub/ances exp]i5ce "u ! influ5ce ( fire1 air1 & wat]1 or z ! result ( _! action on ea* o!r1 are frequ5tly s pr(\nd t ev5 ! mo/ sup]ficial ( ! e>ly obs]v]s ( *emical processes c\ld n fail to be impress$ by !m4 ,_m ( ^! *anges are1 9 fact1 f> m /rik+ z reg>ds alt]ation 9 outw>d *>act]s--su* z col\r1 lu/re1 d5sity1 etc4--?an are ! diff]5ces betwe5 individual metals2 say1 betwe5 lead & t91 or betwe5 t9 & silv]1 or betwe5 brass & gold4 ,t copp] ores1 by appropriate treatm5t ) o!r ores1 or t copp] itself by ! addition ( ano!r metal1 c\ld be made to furni% a metallic-look+ sub/ance hav+ c]ta9 ( ! attributes ( gold 0 kn[n to ! e>lie/ work]s 9 metals4 ,:at is ?\ght to be ! olde/ *emical treatise 9 exi/5ce is a papyrus 9 ! possession ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,leyd54 ,x consi/s ( a numb] ( receipts = ! work+ ( metals & alloys1 & describes me?ods ( imitat+ & falsify+ ! noble metals4 ,x expla9s h[1 by means ( ars5ic1 a :ite col\r may be giv5 to c]ta9 metals1 & h[1 by ! addition ( cadmia1 copp] acquires ! col\r ( gold4 ,! same papyrus describes a me?od ( black5+ metals by ! use ( prep>ations ( sulphur4 ,! limit$ k ( *emical ph5om5a & ( *emical processes :i* ^! e>ly work]s necess>ily possess$1 s f> f preclud+ a belief 9 ! possibility ( transmutation1 actually enc\rag$ x4 ,z no?+ 0 kn[n ( ! true nature ( brass or ( its exact relation to copp]1 x 0 n unreasonable to suppose t1 if ?is sub/ance c\ld be made to acquire "s ( ! attributes ( gold by a process ess5tially *emical1 processes ( a l nature might cause x to acquire1 if n all1 at lea/ s _m ( !m z to enable x to pass = gold ( great] or less f95ess4 ,to !m1 z to u1 p]fection 01 9 te*nical practice1 a "q ( degree3 ! v language ( ! metallurgi/s ( old 0 9 ?is respect n[ise diff]5t f t ( ! metallurgi/s ( to-day4 ,x is n necess>y to suppose t ^! e>ly attempts 7 delib]ately & consci\sly fraudul5t1 l ^? ( co9]s :o kn[+ly seek to make an alloy ( lead & t9 simulate silv]4 ,! fir/ al*emi/s s\ght 9 good fai? to make some?+ :i* %\ld be ( ! true nature & ess5ce ( gold z !y conceiv$ x to be4 ,9 fact1 ! idea ( transmutation _h a rational f\ndation 9 a !ory ( ! intr9sic nature ( metals :i* may be look$ ^u z a developm5t ( ! anci5t beliefs conc]n+ ! ess5tial nature ( all =ms ( matt]4 ,j z ! ,ari/otelian 8elem5ts0 7 qualities :i*1 accord+ to _! degree1 det]m9$ ! nature ( sub/ances1 s1 9 l mann]1 ! specific "* ( a metal dep5d$ ^u ! relative proportion ( its 8sulphur0 & 8m]cury40 ,^! t]ms _h no c]ta9 ref]5ce to :at we to-day und]/& by sulphur & m]cury4 ,!y d5ot$ simply qualities4 ,! ess5ce or 8elem5t0 ( m]cury conf]r$ lu/re1 malleability1 ductility1 & fusibility1 or1 speak+ g5]ally1 ! prop]ties :i* we connote z metallic2 :ile to ! ess5ce or 8elem5t0 ( sulphur 0 to be attribut$ ! combu/ibility--or1 speak+ g5]ally1 ! alt]ability--( ! metal by fire4 ,by modify+ ! relative proportion ( ^! con/itu5t elem5ts1 or by purify+ !m f extrane\s sub/ances by ! op]ations ( *emi/ry1 x 0 conceiv$ t ! sev]al metals c\ld be *ang$ "o into ! o!r4 ,to effect ?is purification x 0 necess>y to add v>i\s prep>ations kn[n z 8m$ic9es10 *ief among :i* 0 ! ,great ,elixir1 or ,magi/]ium1 or ! ,philosoph]'s ,/one1 by :i* ! f9al trans=mation into ! noble/ ( ! metals c\ld alone be a*iev$4 ,! ,arabic words kmy & iksr 7 orig9ally synonym\s & ea* 0 us$ to d5ote ! ag5t by :i* ! bas] metals c\ld be transmut$ into silv] & gold4 ,ultimately ! =m] t]m became re/rict$ to indicate ! art ( transmutation 7al*emy71 :]eas iksr1 or al-iksr1 cont9u$ to d5ote ! m$ium by :i* ! transmutation 0 effect$4 ,by lat] writ]s ! t]m 0 us$ to indicate a liquid prep>ation--! qu9tess5ce ( ! philosoph]s--:5ce we h ! ^w elixir1 :i* always means a liquid4 ,! al*emi/ic !ory ( ! comp\nd nature & mutual relations ( ! metals is usually ascrib$ to ,geb]2 b1 al?\gh he adopt$ x1 he di/9ctly /ates t x did n orig9ate ) him1 b t he f\nd x 9 ! writ+s ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,! idea ( ! /one1 ! philosophical p[d]1 ! gr& magi/]ium1 ! elixir1 ! t9cture1 ! qu9tess5ce--by all ( :i* t]ms ! transmut+ m$ium is kn[n 9 ! lit]ature ( al*emy--is probably connect$ ) ano!r conception respect+ ! orig9 ( metals :i* c be trac$ to v e>ly times & 0 preval5t ?r\gh\t ! ,middle ,ages4 ,x 0 suppos$ ( old t metals 7 g5]at$ )9 ! e>?1 z animals & plants 7 g5]at$ on its surface1 & t some?+ ak9 to a se$1 or sem51 0 ne$$ to initiate _! =mation4 ,! great problem ( al*emy 0 to discov] ?is fecundat+ sub/ance1 z ^u x dep5d$ ! g5esis ( ! p]fect metal4 ,?is idea ( ! conception ( metals runs ?r\gh ! lit]ature ( al*emy4 ,x expla9s _m allusions & mu* ( ! t]m9ology ( its writ]s4 ,= example1 ! furnace 9 :i* ! al*emi/ makes 8 projection is con/antly spok5 ( z ! philosophical egg4 ,x is impossible to say ) c]ta9ty :5 & :]e ! art ( al*emy orig9at$4 ,!re is no evid5ce t x has ! antiquity :i* c]ta9 ( its adepts claim$ = x4 ,oleus ,borri*ius ref]r$ x to ! "t ( ,tubal-ca94 ,! e>lie/ writ]s on al*emy 7 probably ,byzant9e ecclesia/ics1 "s ( :om pr(ess$ to ascribe ! art to ,egypt1 & ev5tually to ! my?ological deity ,h]mes1 ^: association ) *emi/ry 9 su* t]ms z 8! h]metic art10 8h]metically seal$10 etc41 is ?us expla9$4 ,?is mu* is e/abli%$--t at "s p]iod prior to ! t5? c5tury !re arose a special class ( op]ative *emi/s1 = ! mo/ "p m le>n$ 9 ! k ( *emical ph5om5a 9 g5]al1 & m skill$ 9 *emical manipulation1 ?an ! craftsm5 & artisans engag$ 9 ! manufacture ( te*nical products4 ,!y devot$ !mselves to se>*+ = me?ods :]eby ! common & bas] metals might be conv]t$ into silv] & gold4 ,! fir/ kn[n def9ition ( *emi/ry relates to ! aim & op]ations ( ?is special class4 ,x occurs 9 ! lexicon ( ,suidas1 a ,greek writ] ( ! elev5? c5tury1 :o def9es *emi/ry1 z ! prep>ation ( silv] & gold4 ,attempts at ! artificial prep>ation ( ! noble metals probably orig9at$ ) ! ,arabians1 :o foll[$ ! ,egyptians & ! ,greeks 9 ! cultivation ( *emical pursuits4 ,nei!r ,hesiod nor ,hom] makes m5tion ( ! art ( produc+ gold f any o!r metal1 or speaks ( ! univ]sal m$ic9e4 ,nor are !y ref]r$ to by ,ari/otle or by 8 pupil ,!ophra/us4 ,pl9y n[h]e speaks ( ! philosoph]'s /one1 al?\gh he tells ! /ory ( ,caligula1 :o1 tempt$ by 8 av>ice1 s\ght to make gold f orpim5t 7auripigm5tum7 by di/illation4 8,! result 0 t he did inde$ obta9 bo?1 & ( ! f9e/ k9d2 b 9 s small quantity1 & ) s mu* lab\r & app>atus1 t1 ! pr(it n c\nt]vail+ ! exp5se1 he desi/$40 ,accord+ to ,bo]haave1 ! fir/ au?or :o m5tions al-*emia is ,julius ,firmicus ,mat]nus1 :o liv$ "u ,con/ant9e ! ,great1 & :o1 9 8 ,ma!sis1 c4 #ae1 speak+ ( ! influ5ces ( ! heav5ly bodies1 affirms 8t1 if ! moon be 9 ! h\se ( ,saturn :5 a *ild is born1 he %all be skill$ 9 al*emy40 ,! fir/ writ] :o m5tions ! possibility ( transmut+ metals w\ld appe> to be a ,greek div9e call$ neas ,g>u1 :o liv$ t[>ds ! close ( ! fif? c5tury1 & :o wrote a comm5t>y on ,!ophra/us4 ,he 0 foll[$ by ,ana/atius ! ,s9aite1 ,syncellus1 ,/ephanus1 ,olimpiodorus2 &1 says ,bo]haave1 8a cr[d ( no less ?an fifty m1 all ,greeks1 & mo/ or all ( !m monks40 8,! art seem$ n[ conf9$ to ! ,greeks1 & among !m few wrote b ! religi\s1 :o f _! great laz9ess & solit>y way ( life 7 l$ into va91 en?usia/ical speculations1 to ! great diss]vice & adult]ation ( ! art4444 ,!y all wrote 9 ! natural /yle ( ! ,s*oolm51 full ( j>gon1 grimace1 & obscurity40 ,exp]im5tal al*emy1 z di/+ui%$ f indu/rial *emi/ry1 may1 z already /at$1 be said to h orig9at$ ) ! ,arabians4 ,at fir/1 al*emy 0 reg>d$ z a bran* ( ! art ( heal+1 & its pr(essors 7 inv>iably physicians :o occupi$ !mselves ) ! prep>ation ( *emical m$ic9es4 ,9 fact1 9 ! beg9n+ its true aim 0 reg>d$ z t :i* ,p>acelsus & ! s*ool ( iatro-*emi/s subsequ5tly def9$ x to be4 ,"u ! rule ( ! ,caliphs ! /udy ( *emi/ry made consid]able progress1 & its lit]ature 0 greatly augm5t$4 ,! mo/ notable "n 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry dur+ ! eigh? c5tury 0 ,abu-,m\ssah-,ds*abir-,al-,sufi--o!rwise ,geb]--7born #gjb1 di$ #gfe71 :o is /at$ to h be5 ei!r a native ( ,mesopotamia1 or a ,greek & a ,*ri/ian1 :o aft]w>ds embrac$ ,mahometanism1 w5t to ,asia1 & acquir$ a k ( ,arabic4 ,accord+ to ,leo ,africanus1 a ,greek :o wrote ( ! antiquity ( ! ,arabs1 ,geb]'s book 0 orig9ally writt5 9 ,greek & translat$ !nce into ,arabic1 & he 0 n kn[n by ! "n ,geb]1 :i* signifies a great man or a pr9ce1 till aft] ?is v]sion4 ,lat9 translations ( :at purport$ to be 8 works 7 fir/ publi%$ 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 & an ,engli% r5d]+ appe>$ 9 #afgh4 ,accord+ to ?is x w\ld seem t ,geb] reg>d$ all ! metals z comp\nds ( 8sulphur0 & 8m]cury10 ! diff]5ces betwe5 !m dep5d+ ^u ! relative proportion & degree ( purity ( ^! con/itu5ts4 ,he is said to h di/+ui%$ !m by ! a/rological names ( ! planets3 ?us gold became ,sol1 silv] ,luna1 copp] ,v5us1 iron ,m>s1 t9 ,jupit]1 & lead ,saturn4 ,t an occult connection ( ! metals ) ! />s exi/$ 0 "p ( ! cre$ ( al*emy1 & ! influ5ce ( t belief is /ill traceable 9 *emical1 & especially 9 ph>maceutical1 lit]ature2 z1 = example1 9 su* t]ms z ,lun> cau/ic1 ,m>tian prep>ations1 ,saturn9e solutions1 etc4 ,x has be5 held t ! idea ( a univ]sal m$ic9e _h its orig9 ) ,geb]4 ,b ?is may be due to a misread+ ( 8 words1 :i* 9 reality may h ref]5ce to ! transmutation ( metals4 ,he tells ( a m$ic9e :i* cures all lep]s4 ,b ?is may be no?+ b allegory4 ,by man is probably meant gold1 & by lep]s ! o!r metals2 & ! m$ic9e is ! univ]sal solv5t or ag5t :i* transmutes4 ,al*emi/ic lit]ature is full ( allegories ( ?is "*4 ,b]!lot has %[n t 9 reality !re 7 two ,geb]s--"o :o is g5]ally consid]$ to be ( ,arab orig91 & ano!r ^: id5tity is n e/abli%$1 b :o 0 probably a ,we/]n ,european :o appe>s to h liv$ ab\t ! ye> #acjj4a #a ,!re is v little d\bt t ! "w ( 8,philele?a10 :i* pr(ess$ to be tak5 f an 8,uhralt5 ,,ms40 pres]v$ 9 ! ,vatican ,libr>y1 entitl$ ,geb]i des ,kniges d] ,arab]1 & publi%$ by ,hi]on4 ,philipp4 ,nits*el1 ,frankfur? & ,leipzig1 9 #agaj1 is spuri\s4 ,o!r notable names 9 ! hi/ory ( ,arabian al*emy are ,rhazes1 or ,ab ,bakr ,mohamm$ ibn ,zak>y el-,rzi1 :o liv$ circa #ibe1 & ,avic5na1 or 9 ,arabic ,ab ,ali el-,hose9 ibn-,abdallah ibn-,s9a1 born #ihj1 di$ #ajcg4 ,! =m]1 a ,p]sian1 practis$ m$ic9e at ,baghdad z a foll[] ( ,gal5 & ,hippocrates4 ,! latt]1 "o ( ! mo/ em95t ( ,moslem physicians & a volum9\s writ]1 0 a native ( ,bokh>a4 ,he is ma9ly kn[n 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce by 8 ,canon ( ,m$ic9e1 9 :i* he describes ! composition & prep>ation ( rem$ies4 ,he wrote at lea/ "o treatise on al*emy1 b o!rs attribut$ to him are probably apocryphal4 ,( 8 ,philosophia ,ori5talis1 m5tion$ by ,rog] ,bacon & ,av]roes1 no trace rema9s4 ,al?\gh x is reasonably c]ta9 t ! al*emi/s ( ! "t ( ,geb] & ( 8 successors _h a consid]able acqua9tance ) manipulative *emi/ry1 !re 7 s _m impud5t lit]>y =g]ies dur+ ! al*emical p]iod t ! precise ext5t ( ! k possess$ by ! e>ly *emi/s mu/ always rema9 unc]ta94 ,a numb] ( ! ord9>y *emical processes1 su* z di/illation1 sublimation1 calc9ation1 filtration1 appe> to h be5 kn[n to1 & to h be5 commonly practis$ by1 ! ,arabian *emi/s2 & _m sal9e sub/ances1 su* z c>bonate ( soda1 pe>la%1 sal-ammoniac1 alum1 copp]as1 borax1 silv] nitrate1 c9nab>1 & corrosive sublimate1 7 prep>$ by !m4 ,!y seem to h kn[n ( c]ta9 ( ! m9]al acids1 & 7 famili> ) ! solv5t prop]ties ( aqua regia4 ,an exam9ation ( ! lit]ature ( al*emy s]ves to %[ h[ its pr9ciples & t5ets develop$4 ,! philosoph]'s /one is fir/ he>d ( 9 ! twelf? c5tury4 ,prior to t p]iod ! great] numb] ( ! ,greek & ,arabian writ]s cont5t$ !mselves ) affirm+ ! fact ( transmutation1 )\t indicat+ h[ x might be accompli%$4 ,! univ]sal m$ic9e & ! elixir ( life 7 ! products ( a lat] age2 no m5tion ( !m is kn[n be=e ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,al*emy fl\ri%$ vigor\sly dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 & l+]$ on ev5 until ! e>ly "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,its hi/ory is simply a long *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( human cr$ulity4 ,= ! mo/ "p x is a record ( self-deception1 impo/ure1 & fraud4 ,x produc$ an abundant lit]ature1 ma9ly ! "w ( ecclesia/ics1 betwe5 ! sev5? & f\rte5? c5turies2 b z reg>ds ! artificial prep>ation ( ! noble metals or ! discov]y ( ! univ]sal m$ic9e or ! elixir ( life x 0 b>r5 ( result4 ,al?\gh no cle> l9e ( dem>cation is possible1 x may be conv5i5t1 9 deal+ ) ! p]sonal hi/ory ( al*emy1 to divide x into ! two p]iods be=e & aft] ,p>acelsus1 s9ce "u 8 inspiration & example al*emy und]w5t a great developm5t z reg>ds its pr(ess$ objects4 ,^! ev5tually became s extravagant t1 wide z are ! limits ( human cr$ulity1 its pret5sions gradually br\ght x into disrepute1 & x fell by ! weight ( its own absurdities4 ,"o ( ! mo/ reputable ( ! e>ly ,we/]n al*emi/s 0 ,alb]t ,groot1 or ,alb]tus ,magnus1 born at ,lau+5 9 #aaic4 ,he 0 a ,dom9ican monk1 :o became ,bi%op ( ,reg5sburg1 b1 resign+ 8 bi%opric1 retir$ to a conv5t at ,cologne1 :]e he devot$ himself to sci5ce until 8 dea? 9 #abhb4 ,he is cr$it$ ) hav+ writt5 a numb] ( *emical tracts1 = ! mo/ "p 9 cle> & intelligible language1 :i* is m ?an c be said ( ! great] portion ( al*emi/ical lit]ature4 ,he gives an acc\nt ( ! orig9 & ma9 prop]ties ( ! *emical sub/ances kn[n 9 8 "t1 & describes ! app>atus & processes us$ by *emi/s1 su* z ! wat]-ba?1 alembics1 aludels1 & cupels4 ,he speaks ( cream ( t>t>1 alum & cau/ic alkali1 r$ lead1 liv] ( sulphur & ars5ic1 gre5 vitriol & iron pyrites4 ,contemporane\sly ) him 0 ,rog] ,bacon1 ,doctor ,mirabilis1 "o ( ! mo/ erudite m5 ( 8 age1 :o 0 born ne> ,il*e/] 9 ,som]set 9 #abad1 &1 aft] /udy+ at ,ox=d1 became a fri>1 occupi$ himself 9 philosophical pursuits1 & wrote num]\s tracts on al*emy4 ,he describes :at 0 probably gunp[d]1 b !re is no c]ta9 pro( t he inv5t$ x4 ,9 8 ,de ,secretis ,artis et ,natur1 writt5 be=e #abdi1 he gives in/ructions = ref9+ saltpetre1 & 9 an anagram :i* ,colonel ,hime1 9 8 ,gunp[d] & ,ammunition1 has int]pret$1 he /ates t a mixture 8:i* w produce a ?und]+ noise & a bright fla%0 may be made by tak+ 8#g p>ts ( saltpetre1 #e ( "y hazel wood1 & #e ( sulphur40 ,he di$ 9 #abhe4 ,raymund ,lully1 a fri5d & s*ol> ( ,bacon1 0 born 9 ,majorca 9 #abbe 7o!rs say #abce71 & 0 buri$ !re 9 #acae4 ,a memb] ( ! ,ord] ( ,m9orites1 he _h a great reputation z an al*emi/2 & a numb] ( books on al*emy & *emical processes are ascrib$ to him4 ,he describ$ modes ( obta9+ nitric acid & aqua regia1 & /udi$ _! action ^u metals4 ,he obta9$ alcohol by di/illation1 & knew h[ to dehydrate x by ! aid ( c>bonate ( pota%1 :i* he obta9$ by calc9+ cream ( t>t>4 ,he prep>$ v>i\s t9ctures & ess5tial oils1 & a numb] ( metallic comp\nds1 su* z r$ & :ite precipitate4 ,to him is usually ascrib$ ! fir/ idea ( a univ]sal m$ic9e4 ,!re is "s difficulty 9 believ+ t all t is ascrib$ to ,lully 0 actually ! "w ( 8 age1 = x w\ld appe> to h be5 a common practice ) ! disciples & foll[]s ( a notable s*ol> to u%] 9 _! p]=mances "u _! ma/]'s "n--a practice n unkn[n 9 lat] days4 8,s full are !y ( ! exp]im5ts & obs]vations :i* occur 9 our lat] writ]s t ei!r ! books mu/ be suppositi\s1 or ! anci5t *emi/s mu/ h be5 acqua9t$ ) a _w ( ?+s :i* pass = ! discov]ies ( mod]n practice0 7,bo]haave74 ,! /ory is t ,lully plung$ into ! /udy ( *emi/ry f ! desire to cure a maid5 ( a canc]$ brea/1 & t he 0 /on$ to dea? 9 ,africa1 :i!r he _h j\rney$ z a mission>y4 ,x has be5 fur!r alleg$ t at "o p]iod ( 8 life he made gold 9 ! ,t[] ( ,london by ! ,k+'s ord]1 & t he (f]$ ,edw>d ,,iii4 a supply ( six millions to make w> aga9/ ! infidels4 ,z ,bo]haave drily rem>ks1 8! hi/ory ( ?is em95t adept is v mu* imbroil$40 ,arnoldus ,villanovanus1 or ,arnaud de ,vill5euve1 a ,fr5*man1 is said to h be5 born 9 #abdj1 & to h practis$ m$ic9e 9 ,b>celona1 :]e he incurr$ ! enmity ( ! ,*ur* by reason ( 8 h]etical op9ions1 & 0 oblig$ to leave ,spa94 ,he l$ a w&]+ life1 ev5tually settl+ 9 ,sicily1 "u ! protection ( ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 & acquir$ a great reputation z a physician4 ,summon$ !nce by ,clem5t ,v41 :o lay sick at ,avignon1 he lo/ 8 life by %ipwreck 9 #acac4 ,johannes de ,rupecissa1 or ,jean de ,raquetaillade1 a ,franciscan fri> :o liv$ f ab\t ! middle to ! end ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 wrote a numb] ( treatises on al*emy1 & describ$ me?ods ( mak+ calomel & corrosive sublimate4 ,he 0 accus$ ( ! practice ( magic1 &1 by ord] ( ,innoc5t ,,vi41 0 ?r[n into prison1 :]e he di$4 ,he 0 buri$ at ,villefran*e4 ,george ,ripley1 an ,engli%man1 ,canon ( ,bridl+ton1 practis$ al*emy dur+ ! second half ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,he sp5t "s "t 9 ,italy 9 ! s]vice ( ,innoc5t ,,viii4 ,on 8 return to ,engl& he became a ,c>melite1 & di$ 9 #adij4 ,l ,bacon1 he 0 *>g$ ) magic4 ,accord+ to ,mundanus1 he foll[$ al*emy ) su* success t he 0 able to advance to ! knights ( ,/4 ,john ( ,j]usalem l>ge am\nts ( gold = ! def5ce ( ! ,isle ( ,rhodes aga9/ ! ,turks4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important names 9 connection ) ! hi/ory ( al*emy is t ( ,basil ,val5t9e4 ,( 8 p]sonal hi/ory no?+ is kn[n4 ,he 0 suppos$ to be a ,b5$ict9e monk :o liv$ 9 ,saxony dur+ ! latt] half ( ! fifte5? c5tury2 b !re are gr\nds = ! belief t ! num]\s writ+s attribut$ to him are 9 reality ! "w ( v>i\s h&s4 ,! attempt made by ,maximilian ,i4 to discov] ! id5tity ( ! au?or 0 unavail+1 nor h subsequ5t inquiries _h any bett] result4 ,! collection ( books be>+ 8 "n1 fir/ publi%$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 reveals q a rem>kable numb] ( *emical facts up to t "t n g5]ally kn[n4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! relate to antimony & its prep>ations1 su* z butt] ( antimony1 p[d] ( alg>o?1 oxide ( antimony1 etc4 ,he seems to h kn[n ( ars5ic1 z9c1 bismu?1 & manganese4 ,he describ$ a numb] ( m]curial prep>ations1 & _m ( ! salts ( lead 7 kn[n to him4 ,he m5tions fulm9at+ gold1 & 0 aw>e t iron c\ld be coat$ ) copp] by imm]sion 9 a solution ( blue vitriol4 ,he knew ( gre5 vitriol & ! d\ble *loride ( iron & ammonium1 & gave ! modes ( mak+ a consid]able numb] ( o!r metallic salts1 su* z ! sal armoniacum1 :i* we n[ "k z sal ammoniac4 ,he also appe>s to h prep>$ e!r & ! *loride & nitrate ( e?yl4 ,!re is reason to believe1 z /at$ already1 t _m ( ! publi%$ works ascrib$ to ^! le>n$ m5 are ! "w ( obscure individuals :o trad$ on _! fame4 ,:at may ) c]ta9ty be cr$it$ to !m s]ves to %[ t _! !oretical op9ions _h mu* 9 common4 ,!y all reg>d$ ! transmutation ( metals & ! exi/5ce ( ! philosoph]'s /one z facts :i* c\ld n be controv]t$4 ,!y foll[$ ,geb] 9 assum+ t all ! metals 7 ess5tially comp\nd 9 _! nature1 & consi/$ ( ! ess5ce or 8elem5t0 ( m]cury1 unit$ ) diff]5t proportions ( ! ess5ce or 8elem5t0 ( sulphur4 ,! al*emi/s 7 ! pr(essional *emi/s ( _! "t1 & _m ( !m 7 practis+ physicians4 ,inde$1 pr(essional *emi/ry may be said to h orig9at$ out ( ! practice ( physic4 ,z ! numb] ( *emical products increas$ & _! value 9 !rapeutics became m & m appreciat$1 !re arose ano!r s*ool ( al*emi/s1 ^: en]gies 7 devot$1 n to ! transmutation ( metals--:i*1 h[ev] plausible z a belief1 seem$ hopeless ( a*ievem5t--b to ! m imm$iate practical b5efits :i* x 0 recognis$ mu/ foll[ f ! clos] association ( *emi/ry & m$ic9e4 ,?is s*ool came to be kn[n z ! iatro-*emi/s4 ,z _! doctr9es ex]cis$ a great influ5ce ^u ! developm5t ( *emi/ry1 x w be desirable to treat ( !m & _! pr(essors 9 a special *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,philosoph]',s ,,/one ,dur+ ! f\rte5?1 fifte5?1 & sixte5? c5turies ! cult ( al*emy atta9$ to ! dignity ( a religion4 ,belief 9 transmutation & 9 ! virtues & p[]s ( ! philosoph]'s /one1 9 ! univ]sal m$ic9e1 ! alkahe/1 & ! elixir ( life1 =m$ its articles ( fai?4 ,! position x acquir$ 0 due to "s ext5t to ! attitude t[>ds x ( ! ,romi% ,*ur*4 ,_m reputable bi%ops & fa!rs 7 pr(ess$ al*emi/s2 & *emical laboratories1 z 9 ! ,egyptian temples1 7 to be f\nd 9 mona/]ies ?r\gh\t ,*ri/5dom4 ,pope ,john ,,xxii41 :o _h a laboratory 9 8 palace at ,avignon1 is ! reput$ au?or ( a "w1 ,ars ,transmutatoria1 publi%$ 9 #aeeg4 ,b to a /ill l>g] ext5t x 0 due to ! fact t al*emy appeal$ to "s ( ! /ronge/ ( human motives--! wi% = heal?1 ! fe> ( dea?1 & ! love ( weal?4 ,x 0 a cunn+ly devis$ sy/em1 :i* exploit$ ! foibles & frailties ( human nature4 ,! policy ( ! ,*ur*1 h[ev]1 x %\ld be said1 0 n consi/5tly & uni=mly fav\rable to al*emy4 ,its practices occasionally came "u ! papal ban1 al?\gh at times1 to suit ! exig5cies ( ,*ri/ian pr9ces1 ! int]dict 0 remov$4 ,!osophy & my/icism 7 fir/ import$ into al*emy1 n by ,arabs1 b by ,*ri/ian work]s4 ,! intimate association ( religion ) al*emy dur+ ! ,middle ,ages is obvi\s 9 ! writ+s ( ,lully1 ,alb]tus ,magnus1 ,arnaud de ,vill5euve1 ,basil ,val5t9e1 & o!r ecclesia/ics4 ,invocations to div9e au?ority are freely scatt]$ ov] _! pages4 ,ev5 ! lay al*emi/ pr(ess$ to rule 8 life & conduct by ! example & precepts ( ! good ,bi%op ( ,reg5sburg4 ,he 0 direct$ to be pati5t1 assidu\s1 & p]sev]+2 discreet & sil5t2 to "w alone2 to %un ! fav\r ( pr9ces & nobles1 & to ask ! div9e bless+ on ea* op]ation ( trituration1 sublimation1 fixation1 calc9ation1 solution1 di/illation1 & coagulation4 ,al?\gh al*emy1 at lea/ 9 its decad5t days1 liv$ = ! mo/ "p by its appeal to "s ( ! l[e/ in/9cts ( mank9d1 & is only wor? notice z a transi5t phase 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 a few details conc]n+ ! t5ets & practices ( its pr(essors may be ( int]e/ to ! curi\s read]4 ,& fir/ z reg>ds ! nature ( ! philosoph]'s /one--! gr& magi/]y1 ! qu9tess5ce4 ,_m al*emi/s pr(ess$ to h se5 & h&l$ x4 ,x is usually describ$ z a r$ p[d]4 ,lully m5tions x "u ! "n ( ,c>bunculus4 ,p>acelsus says t x 0 l a ruby1 transp>5t & brittle z glass2 ,b]ig>d de ,pisa t x 0 ( ! col\r ( a wild poppy1 ) ! smell ( heat$ sea salt2 ,van ,helmont t x 0 l saffron1 ) ! lu/re ( glass4 ,helvetius describes x z ( ! col\r ( sulphur4 ,la/ly1 an unkn[n writ]1 "u ! pseudonym ( 8,kalid10 says t x may be ( any col\r--:ite1 r$1 yell[1 sky-blue1 or gre54 ,z ! sub/ance 0 :olly my?ical1 a c]ta9 latitude ( description may reasonably be expect$4 ,"s ( ! al*emi/s 7 ( op9ion t ! magi/]y 0 ( two k9ds--! fir/1 ! gr& magi/]y1 ne$$ = ! production ( gold2 ! second1 ! small magi/]y1 only capable ( ennobl+ a metal z f> z ! /age ( silv]4 ,!n1 z to ! am\nts requir$ to effect a transmutation1 acc\nts are equally discrepant4 ,arnaud de ,vill5euve & ,rupescissa ass]t t "o "p ( ! gr& magi/]y w conv]t a hundr$ p>ts ( a base metal into gold2 ,rog] ,bacon1 a hundr$ ?\s& p>ts2 ,isaac ( ,holl&1 a million4 ,raymond ,lully /ates t philosoph]'s /one is ( su* p[] t ev5 ! gold produc$ by means ( x w ennoble an inf9itely l>ge am\nt ( a base metal4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to /ate t a prep>ation ( su* pot5cy is capable ( effect+ any?+ or ev]y?+2 & accord+ly1 z "t w5t on1 o!r attributes ?an t ( transmutation came to be associat$ ) x4 ,x may be1 z ,bo]haave surmises1 t ! idea ( a univ]sal m$ic9e _h its orig9 9 a too lit]al int]pretation ( ,geb]'s allegory ( ! six lep]s4 ,be ?is z x may1 dur+ ! f\rte5? & fifte5? c5turies ! philosoph]'s /one 0 gravely prescrib$ z a means ( pres]v+ heal? & prolong+ life4 ,9 case ( illness "o gra9 0 direct$ to be dissolv$ 9 a suffici5t quantity ( good :ite w9e1 conta9$ 9 a silv] vessel1 ! draught to be tak5 aft] midnight4 ,recov]y w\ld foll[ aft] an int]val dep5d+ ^u ! sev]ity & age ( ! compla9t4 ,to keep 9 good heal?1 ! dose 0 to be repeat$ at ! beg9n+ ( spr+ & autumn4 8,by ?is means10 says ,daniel ,za*>ias1 8"o may enjoy p]fect heal? until ! end ( ! days assign$ to "o40 ,isaac ( ,holl& & ,basil ,val5t9e are equally explicit1 b 9 _! case x is recomm5d$ t ! dose %\ld be tak5 once a mon?3 ?us life w\ld be prolong$ 8until ! supreme h\r fix$ by ! k+ ( heav540 ,o!r al*emi/s 7 n always s prud5t 9 prophecy4 ,artephius gave ! limit ( human life ?us prolong$ z a ?\s& ye>s2 ,gualdo1 a ,rosicrucian1 0 /at$ to h liv$ f\r hundr$ ye>s4 ,raymond ,lully & ,salomon ,trismos91 we are told1 r5ew$ _! y\? by means ( x4 ,! advanc$ age at :i* ,noah begat *ildr5 c\ld only be due1 says ,v9c5t de ,beauvais1 to 8 use ( ! philosoph]'s /one4 ,dick9son wrote a le>n$ book to prove t ! great age ( ! patri>*s 0 ow+ to ! same secret4 ,b n only 7 heal? & l5g? ( days ! =tunate lot ( him :o possess$ ! philosoph]'s /one2 increase ( wisdom & virtue equally foll[$ f its use4 ,z x ennobl$ metals1 s x fre$ ! he>t f evil4 ,x made m5 z wise z ,ari/otle or ,avic5na1 sweet5$ adv]sity1 bani%$ va9-glory1 ambition1 & vici\s desires4 ,adam receiv$ x at ! h&s ( ,god1 & x 0 giv5 also to ,solomon1 al?\gh ! comm5tators 7 r ex]cis$ to "k :y1 z he possess$ ! philosoph]'s /one1 he %\ld h s5t to ,ophir = gold4 ,x w\ld s]ve no good purpose to attempt to describe ! recipes giv5 by v>i\s al*emi/s to prep>e ?is preci\s sub/ance4 ,) an affectation at times ( precision1 !y 7 purposely obscure1 & always enigmatical4 ,z ,boyle said ( !m1 !y c\ld sc>cely keep !mselves f be+ confut$ except by keep+ !mselves f be+ cle>ly und]/ood4 ,"o example ( _! recipes mu/ suffice3 8,to fix quicksilv]4--,( sev]al ?+s take #b1 #c & #c1 #a2 #a to #c is #d2 #c1 #b & #a4 ,betwe5 #d & #c !re is #a2 #c f #d is #a2 !n #a & #a1 #c & #d2 #a f #c is #b4 ,betwe5 #b & #c !re is #a1 betwe5 #c & #b !re is #a4 #a1 #a1 #a1 & #a1 #b1 #b & #a1 #a & #a to #b4 ,!n #a is #a4 ,i h told y all40 ,no wond]1 aft] an equally lum9\s explication1 a pupil ( ,arnaud de ,vill5euve %\ld h exclaim$3 8,b1 ma/]1 ,i d n und]/&40 ,^u :i* ! ma/] rejo9$ t he w\ld be cle>] ano!r "t4 ,nor is x necess>y to dilate ^u ! o!r virtues :i* 7 ascrib$ at v>i\s times to ! philosophical p[d]1 z1 = example1 its p[] ( mak+ pe>ls & preci\s /ones1 or ( its use 9 prep>+ ! alkahe/1 or univ]sal solv5t1 inv5t$ by ,p>acelsus4 ,9 _! attempts to fa?om ! dep?s ( human cr$ulity ! al*emi/s at l5g? ov]-rea*$ !mselves4 ,! idea ( a univ]sal solv5t c>ri$ ) x1 z ,kunkel po9t$ out1 its own refutation3 if x dissolv$ ev]y?+1 no vessel c\ld conta9 x4 ,& yet1 says ,bo]haave1 a :ole libr>y c\ld be fill$ ) writ+s by ! s*ool ( ,p>acelsus on ! alkahe/4 ,f ! latt] end ( ! sixte5? c5tury repeat$ attempts 7 made to expose ! pret5sions & demon/rate ! absurdities ( al*emy4 ,among its adv]s>ies may be cit$ ,?omas ,era/ius1 ,h]mann ,conr+ius1 & ! ,jesuit ,kir*]4 ,_m ( _! dupes1 pot5tates & pr9ces :o 7 p[]ful en\gh to ex]cise x1 occasionally visit$ ) _! v5geance ^? :o1 unm9dful ( ! injunctions ( ,alb]t ! ,great1 _h trad$ too long ^u _! cr$ulity4 ,! ,emp]or ,rudolph ,,ii41 :o e>n$ ! title ( 8,! ,h]mes ( ,g]many10 0 a zeal\s cultivator ( al*emy1 & _h a well-equipp$ laboratory 9 8 palace at ,prague1 to :i* e adept 0 welcome4 ,f]d9& ,,iii4 & ,leopold ,i4 7 also patrons ( ! h]metic art1 z 7 ,fr$]ick ,i4 & 8 successor1 ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 ,k+s ( ,prussia4 ,inde$1 at "o p]iod ne>ly e ,c\rt 9 ,europe _h its al*emi/1 ) ! privileges ( ! ,c\rt fool or ! poet laureate4 ,! fraud & impo/ure to :i* ! practice gave rise l$ occasionally to ! promulgation ( /r+5t laws aga9/ x1 & at times ! pursuit ( op]ative *emi/ry became well-nigh impossible 9 "s c\ntries4 ,9 ! fif? ye> ( ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,iv4 7#adjd7 x 0 enact$ t 8,none f h5ce=? %all use to multiply gold or silv]1 or use ! craft ( multiplication2 & if ! same d he %all incur ! pa9 ( felony40 ,accord+ to ,watson1 ! true reason = pass+ ?is ,act 0 n an appreh5sion t m5 %\ld ru9 _! =tunes by endeav\r+ to make gold1 b a jeal\sy le/ ,gov]nm5t %\ld be above ask+ aid ( ! subject4 ,at ! same "t1 lett]s pat5t 7 grant$ to sev]al p]sons1 p]mitt+ !m to inve/igate ! univ]sal m$ic9e & p]=m ! transmutation ( metals4 ,alphonse ,x41 ( ,ca/ille1 ! au?or ( ! ,key ( ,wisdom1 practis$ al*emy4 ,h5ry ,,vi41 ( ,engl&1 & ,edw>d ,,iv4 _h deal+s ) adepts4 ,ev5 ,elizabe? ,tudor1 :o 0 a %rewd en\gh sov]eign1 _h ! notori\s ,dr4 ,dee 9 h] pay4 ,*>les ,,vii4 & ,*>les ,,ix41 ( ,france1 ,*ri/ian ,,iv41 ( ,d5m>k1 & ,*>les ,,xii41 ( ,sw$51 s\ght to repl5i% _! exhau/$ treasuries by ! aid ( ! philosoph]'s /one4 ,if pr9ces ev5tually le>n$ n to put _! tru/ 9 al*emi/s1 al*emi/s le>n$ equally to _! co/ n to put _! tru/ 9 pr9ces4 ,duke ,julius1 ( ,brunswick1 9 #aege1 burnt a female al*emi/1 ,m>ie ,zigl]91 :o _h fail$ 9 h] promise to furni% him ) a prescription = ! mak+ ( gold4 ,david ,b5!r kill$ himself to escape ! fury ( ! ,elector ,augu/us1 ( ,saxony4 ,bragad9o 0 hang$ at ,muni* 9 #aeij by ! ,elector ( ,bav>ia4 ,leon>d ,?urneyss]1 :o ga9$ an evil notoriety 9 8 day z "o ( ! mo/ unscrupul\s ( ! foll[]s ( ,p>acelsus1 & :o amass$ consid]able weal? by ! sale ( cosmetics & no/rums1 0 depriv$ ( 8 ill-gott5 ga9s 9 #aehd by ! ,elector ( ,br&5burg1 & di$ 9 mis]y 9 ! conv5t4 ,borri1 a ,milanese adv5tur]1 :o _h deceiv$ ,fr$]ick ,,iii41 ( ,d5m>k1 0 imprison$ = ye>s by t mon>*1 & di$ 9 captivity 9 #afie4 ,william de ,krohnemann 0 hang$ by ! ,m>grave ( ,byreu?1 :o1 ) grim irony1 caus$ ! inscription to be fix$ to 8 gibbet3 8,i once knew h[ to fix m]cury1 & n[ ,i am myself fix$40 ,hector de ,klett5b]g 0 behead$ 9 #agbj by ,augu/us ,,ii41 ,k+ ( ,pol&4 ,all ! foll[]s ( ,h]mes 7 n s w>y or s c&id z ! arti/ :o decl9$ an invitation to visit ! ,c\rt ( ,rudolph ,,ii41 say+3 8,if ,i am an adept1 ,i h no ne$ ( ! ,emp]or2 if ,i am n1 ! ,emp]or has no ne$ ( me40 ,well might ,john ,clytemius1 ,abbot ( ,wiez5b]g1 write3 8,vanitas1 fraus1 dolus1 sophi/icatio1 cupiditas1 falsitas1 m5dacium1 /ultitia1 paup]tas1 desesp]atio1 fuga1 proscriptio et m5dicitas1 p]disque sunt *emi40 ,despite ! attacks ( ,kunkel1 ,bo]haave1 ! eld] ,ge(froy1 ,klapro?1 & o!r *emi/s ( influ5ce & repute1 al*emy di$ h>d4 ,x f\nd believ]s 9 ,engl& until ne> ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & 0 pr(ess$ ev5 by a ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,society--,dr4 ,james ,price1 ( ,guild=d1 :o1 9 *agr9 at ! exposure ( 8 pret5sions1 put an end to 8 exi/5ce 9 #aghc4 ,h]metic societies exi/$ 9 ,we/phalia1 at ,knigsb]g1 & at ,c>lsruhe d[n to ! fir/ decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,m4 ,*evreul1 :o liv$ well into t c5tury1 relates t he knew ( sev]al p]sons :o 7 conv9c$ ( ! tru? ( al*emy1 among !m 8g5]als1 doctors1 magi/rates1 & ecclesia/ics40 ,! /range m$ley ( al*emy1 !osophy1 ?aumaturgy1 & cabali/icism pr(ess$ by ,*ri/ian ,ros5kreuz is n )\t its adh]5ts1 ev5 9 ?is tw5tie? c5tury4 ,if ! bas] metals h n be5 made to furni% gold1 tru? at lea/ has foll[$ f ! practice ( error4 ,?is is ! only transmutation :i* ! art ( ,h]mes has succe$$ 9 effect+4 ,to err is human4 ,al?\gh al*emy is n )\t its special int]e/ z "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ab]rations 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 "s ( its practition]s1 x mu/ be admitt$1 deceiv$ only !mselves3 if misguid$1 !y 7 at lea/ hone/1 & pursu$ _! call+ 9 a settl$ conviction ( ! s\ndness ( _! fai?4 ,al?\gh !y nev] rea*$ _! goal--! discov]y ( ! ,philosoph]'s ,/one & ! ,elixir ( ,life--_! lab\rs 7 n :olly va91 = _m new & unexpect$ facts came to light z ! result ( _! assiduity4 8,cr$ulity 9 arts & op9ions10 wrote ,"l ,bacon 9 ,de ,augm5tis ,sci5ti>um1 is likewise ( two k9ds--viz41 :5 m5 give too mu* belief to arts !mselves1 or to c]ta9 au?ors 9 any art4 ,! sci5ces t sway ! imag9ation m ?an ! reason are pr9cipally ?ree--viz41 a/rology1 natural magic1 & al*emy4444 ,al*emy may be comp>$ to ! man :o told 8 sons t he _h left !m gold1 buri$ some:]e 9 8 v9ey>d2 :ile !y by digg+ f\nd no gold1 b by turn+ up ! m\ld ab\t ! roots ( ! v9es procur$ a pl5tiful v9tage4 ,s ! se>* & endeav\rs to make gold h br\ght _m useful inv5tions ( light4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,iatro-,,*emi/ry ,! t]m 8iatro-*emi/ry0 d5otes a p>ticul> phase 9 ! hi/ory ( m$ic9e & ( *emi/ry4 ,! iatro-*emi/s 7 a s*ool ( physicians :o s\ght to apply *emical pr9ciples to ! elucidation ( vital ph5om5a4 ,accord+ to !m1 human illnesses result f abnormal *emical processes )9 ! body1 & ^! c\ld only be c\nt]act$ by appropriate *emical rem$ies4 ,al?\gh ?is idea did n orig9ate ) him1 ! *ief expon5t ( ?is s*ool is commonly said to be ,p>acelsus4 ,a man ( viol5t passions1 co>se1 drunk51 arrogant1 & unscrupul\s1 ,philippus ,aureolus ,!ophra/us ,p>acelsus ,bomba/us von ,hoh5heim--to give him 8 full "n--w\ld seem to h possess$ none ( ! attributes ne$$ by ! successful lead] ( an intellectual revolution4 ,born at ,etzel 9 ,switz]l& 9 #adic1 son ( a physician1 ,william ,bomba/ von ,hoh5heim1 :o comb9$ ! practice ( a/rology ) t ( al*emy1 ,p>acelsus1 ev5 z a y\?1 became a w&]]1 pass+ f prov9ce to prov9ce & cloi/] to cloi/]1 liv+ by tell+ =tunes & practis+ sometimes z a quack & at o!r times z an army surgeon1 & ga9+1 z he tells u1 mu* curi\s in=mation f old wom51 gipsies1 conjur]s1 & *emi/s4 ,if we may tru/ 8 own acc\nt ( himself1 he _h1 be=e he 0 ?irty-?ree1 w&]$ ov] ! :ole ( ,europe1 & ev5 into ,africa & ,asia1 ev]y:]e p]=m+ miracul\s cures & con/antly gett+ into tr\ble4 ,9 #aebf he secur$ ! appo9tm5t ( ,pr(essor ( ,physic 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,basle1 & signalis$ 8 occupancy ( ! *air by a c\rse ( lectures--a f>rago ( confus$ ,g]man & b>b>\s ,lat9--9 :i* he assail$ ) extraord9>y vig\r & unexampl$ co>s5ess ! m$ical sy/em ( ! s*ool ( ,gal54 ,sc&alis$ z 8 pr(essional bre?r5 might be1 ,p>acelsus express$1 int5tionally or un9t5tionally1 ! feel+ ( impati5ce ) :i* ! laity view$ a sy/em ( !rapeutics bas$ only on tradition4 ,9 ?is revolt aga9/ au?ority he initiat$ a movem5t :i*1 :atev] might h be5 its influ5ce on m$ic9e1 s]v$ ev5tually1 "u ! guidance ( wor?i] m51 to emancipate *emi/ry f ! ?raldom ( al*emy4 ,p>acelsus did little m ?an initiate4 ,al?\gh 8 _m tracts %[ t he 0 famili> ) ne>ly e *emical prep>ation ( 8 "t1 _m ( :i* he us$ 9 8 practice1 he add$ no new sub/ance to sci5ce4 ,a man ( great ability & extraord9>y tal5t1 he squ&]$ 8 p[]s 9 dissipation4 ,8 intemp]ate conduct soon lo/ him 8 *air at ,basle2 &1 aft] an ignoble qu>rel ) ! magi/racy1 he fl$ ! t[n1 &1 resum+ 8 w&]+ life1 di$1 "u wret*$ circum/ances1 at ,salzburg1 9 8 =ty-eigh? ye>4 ,space w n p]mit ( any acc\nt ( ! philosophical op9ions ( ,p>acelsus--( 8 my/icism1 8 !osophy1 8 pan!ism1 8 extraord9>y doctr9e ( ! ,ar*u & ,t>t>us1 8 association ( a/rology ) m$ic9e4 ,8 *ief m]it lies 9 8 insi/5ce t ! true function ( *emi/ry 0 n to make gold artificially1 b to prep>e m$ic9es & sub/ances useful to ! arts4 ,he !reby made *emi/ry indisp5sable to m$ic9e1 & !nce=w>d *emi/ry began to be taught 9 ! univ]sities & 9 ! s*ools z an ess5tial "p ( a m$ical education4 ,p>acelsus is usually reg>d$ z a typical al*emi/--! k9d ( man made famili> to u by ! pa9t+s ( ,t5i]s1 ,van ,o/ade1 & ,/e9--a boori%1 maudl9 knave1 :o divid$ 8 "t betwe5 ! po?\se & ! kit*5 9 :i* he prep>$ 8 extracts1 simples1 t9ctures1 & ! o!r no/rums :i* he palm$ (f ^u a cr$ul\s _w1 z ignorant & sup]/iti\s z himself4 ,!re is mu* 9 ! p]sonal hi/ory ( ,p>acelsus t s]ves to ju/ify su* a view ( him4 ,t he 0 9 ! ma9 an impud5t *>latan1 ignorant1 va91 & pret5ti\s1 !re c be little d\bt4 ,he _h an a/oni%+ audacity & a b\ndless effront]y2 & x 0 l>gely by ! ex]cise ( ^! qualities t he secur$ su* pr(essional success z he enjoy$4 ,to judge f ! numb] ( ! publi%$ works associat$ ) 8 "n1 he 0 an active & indu/ri\s writ]4 ,consid]+ t dur+ ! great] "p ( 8 wak+ "t he 0 m or less intoxicat$1 x is difficult to conceive :at opportunity he _h = compos+ !m4 ,only "o or two are kn[n to be g5u9e4 ,^!1 accord+ to ,op]9us1 8 publi%]1 he dictat$2 & f _! incoh]5ce & obscurity1 _! my/ical j>gon1 & misuse ( t]ms1 !y read l ! rav+s ( "o :om drunk5ness _h depriv$ ( reason4 ,_m ( ! tracts & l>g] works appe>$ aft] 8 dea?--"s ( !m ye>s aft]2 & !re is no c]ta9 pro( t he 0 ! actual au?or4 ,ev5 if we reg>d !m z suppositi\s1 ! fact t !y %\ld be publi%$ "u 8 "n is significant ( ! influ5ce & notoriety :i* ?is extraord9>y man succe$$ 9 a*iev+ dur+ 8 %ort & *equ]$ c>e]4 ,! imm$iate foll[]s ( ,p>acelsus--among :om may be nam$ ,?urneyss]1 ,dorn1 ,sev]9us1 ,du*esne--di/+ui%$ !mselves only by ! boldness ) :i* !y promulgat$ 8 doctr9es1 & ! unscrupul\s use :i* !y made ( 8 me?ods4 ,!y 7 all zeal\s anti-,gal5i/s1 :o pr(ess$ to believe t ! sum & p]fection ( human k 0 to be f\nd 9 ! ,cabala1 & t ! secrets ( magical m$ic9e 7 conta9$ 9 ! ,apocalypse4 ,!y adopt$ pan!ism 9 all its grossness3 ev]y?+ t exi/s eats1 dr9ks1 & voids excrem5t2 ev5 m9]als & liquids assimilate food1 & elim9ate :at !y d n incorporate4 ,sylphs inhabit ! air1 nymphs ! wat]1 pigmies ! e>?1 & salam&]s ! fire4 ,?us ev5 ! ,ari/otelian elem5ts 7 animat$4 ,m]cury1 sulphur1 & salt 71 accord+ to ,p>acelsus1 ! primal pr9ciples :i* ent]$ into ! composition ( all ?+s1 mat]ial & immat]ial1 visible & invisible4 ,! foll[+ s-call$ 8h>monies0 7 ess5tial articles ( fai? ) a ,p>acelsian3-- ,s\l ,_s ,body ,m]cury ,sulphur ,salt ,wat] ,air ,e>? ,! laws ( ! ,cabala 7 held to expla9 ! functions ( ! body4 ,! sun rules ! he>t1 ! moon ! bra91 ,jupit] ! liv]1 ,saturn ! sple51 ,m]cury ! lungs1 ,m>s ! bile1 ,v5us ! kidneys4 ,gold 0 a specific aga9/ diseases ( ! he>t2 ! liquor ( ,luna 7solution ( silv]7 cures diseases ( ! bra94 8,! rem$ies10 said ,p>acelsus1 8are subject$ to ! w ( ! />s1 & direct$ by !m4 ,y ought1 !re=e1 to wait until heav5 is fav\rable be=e ord]+ a m$ic9e40 ,! ,p>acelsian physicians1 = ! mo/ "p1 7 a set ( dang]\s fanatics1 :o1 9 _! contempt = ! pr9ciples ( ,hippocrates1 ,gal51 & ,avic5na1 & 9 _! reckless use ( p[]ful rem$ies1 _m ( !m metallic poisons1 wr\ght untold mis]y & mis*ief4 ,! inevitable reaction set 91 & c]ta9 ( ! faculties1 p>ticul>ly t ( ,p>is1 prohibit$ _! lic5tiates1 "u sev]e p5alties1 f us+ *emical rem$ies4 ,x is n to be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t all iatro-*emi/s 7 unscrupul\s *>latans4 ,"s ( !m cle>ly p]ceiv$ ! significance & true value ( ! movem5t :i* ,p>acelsus may be cr$it$ ) hav+ orig9at$4 ,&reas ,libavius1 or ,libau1 orig9ally a physician1 born 9 ,halle1 is be/ kn[n by 8 ,al*ymia1 publi%$ 9 #aeie1 :i* conta9s an acc\nt ( ! ma9 *emical facts kn[n 9 8 "t1 & is writt5 9 cle> & intelligible language1 9 /rong contra/ to ! my/]y & obscurity ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,he 0 ! discov]] ( /annic *loride1 /ill kn[n z ! fum+ liquor ( ,libavius1 & describ$ a me?od ( prep>+ oil ( vitriol 9 pr9ciple id5tical ) t n[ made use ( on a manufactur+ scale4 ,he di$ 9 #afaf4 ,john ,bapti/ van ,helmont1 a scion ( a noble ,brabant family1 0 born 9 ,brussels 9 #aegg4 ,aft] /udy+ philosophy & !ology at ! ,univ]sity ( ,l\va91 he direct$ 8 att5tion to m$ic9e1 & made himself famili>1 9 turn1 ) e sy/em f ,hippocrates to ,p>acelsus4 ,hav+ sp5t "s "t 9 travel1 he settl$ on 8 e/ate at ,vilvorde1 & occupi$ himself ) laboratory pursuits until 8 dea? 9 #afdd4 ,van ,helmont 0 a s*ol>ly1 /udi\s man1 & a philosoph]4 ,a !osophi/ & prone to my/icism1 he _h _m ( ! m5tal *>act]i/ics ( ,p>acelsus1 )\t 8 fanaticism & ov]we5+ egotism4 ,he n>r[$ ! numb] ( ,ari/otle's elem5ts d[n to "o1 &1 l ,?ales1 consid]$ wat] to be ! true pr9ciple ( all ?+s1 support+ 8 !ory by +5i\s obs]vations on ! gr[? ( plants 7see p4 #bj74 ,he fir/ employ$ ! t]m gas1 & 0 aw>e ( ! exi/5ce ( v>i\s ri=m sub/ances1 anticipat+ ,hales1 :o has be5 /yl$ ! fa!r ( pneumatic *emi/ry1 9 ! discov]y ( _m gase\s ph5om5a4 ,he gave an accurate description ( c>bonic acid gas1 :i* he t]m$ gas sylve/re1 & %[$ t x is produc$ f lime/one & pota%es 9 ! f]m5tation ( w9e & be]1 & t x is =m$ 9 ! body & 9 ! e>?4 ,! doctr9es ( ! iatro-*emi/s 7 fur!r spread by ,sylvius 9 ,holl&1 & by ,willis 9 ,engl&4 ,francis de le ,bo ,sylvius1 born at ,hanau 9 #afad1 became ,pr(essor ( ,m$ic9e 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,leyd51 :]e he ex]cis$ great influ5ce z a tea*] until 8 dea? 9 #afgb4 ,m$ic9e he treat$ simply z a bran* ( appli$ *emi/ry1 & ! vital processes ( ! animal body z purely *emical4 ,he fre$ ! !ory ( physic f mu* ( ! my/ical absurdity introduc$ into x by ,p>acelsus & van ,helmont1 & by 8 practice br\ght *emical rem$ies once m into vogue4 ,he 0 aw>e ( ! di/9ction betwe5 v5\s & art]ial blood1 & t ! r$ col\r ( ! latt] 0 due to ! influ5ce ( air4 ,combu/ion & respiration he reg>d$ z analog\s ph5om5a4 ,?omas ,willis 0 born 9 ,wilt%ire 9 #afba1 & :ile a /ud5t at ,*ri/*ur* bore arms 9 ! ,royali/ army :5 ,ox=d 0 g>rison$ = ,*>les ,i4 ,9 #affj he became ,s$leian ,pr(essor ( ,natural ,philosophy1 & ultimately settl$ 9 ,london z a physician4 ,he di$ 9 #afge1 & 0 buri$ 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey4 ,willis imag9$ t all vital actions 7 due to diff]5t k9ds ( f]m5tation1 & t diseases 7 caus$ by abnormalities 9 ! f]m5tative process4 ,al?\gh a ,p>acelsian z reg>ds 8 !ory ( ! con/itution ( matt]1 he foll[$ ,sylvius & 8 pupil ,ta*5ius 9 bani%+ my/icism f m$ic9e4 ,he 0 a skilful anatomi/1 & gave ! fir/ accurate description ( ! bra9 & n]ves4 ,o!r notable iatro-*emi/s 7 ,angelus ,sala1 ,daniel ,s5n]t1 ,turquet de ,may]ne 7:o became body physician to ,james ,i471 ,oswald ,croll1 ,adrian van ,mynsi*t1 & ,?omas ,lieb]4 ,croll introduc$ ! use ( potassium sulphate & succ9ic acid into m$ic9e1 & ,van ,mynsi*t t ( t>t> emetic4 ,v>i\s antimonial prep>ations _h previ\sly be5 employ$ by *emical physicians s9ce ! "t ( ,basil ,val5t9e1 despite ! ban ( ! ,p>liam5t ( ,p>is on _! use4 ,! *ief s]vice ( iatro-*emi/ry to sci5ce consi/$ 9 its influ5ce 9 br++ *emi/ry )9 ! range ( pr(essional /udy1 :]eby a great ext5sion 9 its pursuit 0 effect$1 ) ! result t a l>gely increas$ numb] ( sub/ances 0 discov]$4 ,moreov]1 ?is wid] exp]i5ce ( *emical processes famili>is$ work]s ) *emical ph5om5a 9 g5]al1 & !reby contribut$ to lay ! f\ndations ( a g5]al !ory ( *emical action1 :i* a succe$+ age /rove to complete4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( iatro-*emi/ry1 :i* may be said to h ext5d$ f ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! sixte5? c5tury to ! latt] half ( ! sev5te5?1 *emi/ry 0 advanc$ along practical l9es by ! lab\rs ( _m m51 *ief ( :om 7 ,agricola ! metallurgi/1 ,palissy ! pott]1 & ,glaub] ! te*nologi/4 ,^! m5 7 prim>ily exp]im5tal *emi/s1 :o took little or no "p 9 ! fruitless polemics ( ! p]iod1 b foll[$ _! avocation 9 ! true _s ( inve/igators1 & !reby enri*$ sci5ce ) _m new & well-asc]ta9$ facts4 ,george ,agricola1 born at ,glau*au 9 ,saxony 9 #adid1 0 a contempor>y ( ,p>acelsus4 ,aft] /udy+ m$ic9e at ,leipzig1 he devot$ himself to metallurgy & m9]alogy1 fir/ at ,joa*im/hal1 & publi%$ a numb] ( works :i* 7 long des]v$ly reg>d$ z ! lead+ treatises on ^! subjects4 ,9 8 ,libri ,,xii4 de re ,metallica he gives an acc\nt ( :at 0 kn[n 9 8 "t respect+ ! extraction1 prep>ation1 & te/+ ( ores4 ,he describes ! smelt+ ( copp] & ! recov]y ( ! silv] :i* might be associat$ ) x4 ,he also describes me?ods ( obta9+ quicksilv]1 & ( purify+ x by treatm5t ) salt & v9eg>4 ,he gives a full description ( ! me?od ( obta9+ gold by amalgamation1 & ( recov]+ ! m]cury by di/illation4 ,he gives acc\nts ( ! smelt+ ( lead1 t91 iron1 bismu?1 & antimony1 & describes ! manufacture ( salt1 nitre1 alum1 & gre5 vitriol4 ,! :ole "w1 :i* is ( folio size1 is illu/rat$ by wood-cuts1 :i* give a fai?ful idea ( ! nature ( ! sev]al op]ations1 & ( ! "* ( furnaces1 trompes1 bell[s1 & tools employ$ 9 !m4 ,x is by f> ! mo/ important te*nical "w ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 & x ex]cis$ great influ5ce on ! art ( metallurgy4 ,! descriptions--at lea/ z reg>ds ,european processes--are evid5tly ! result ( p]sonal obs]vation4 ,agricola visit$ ! m9es1 & fai?fully not$ ! diff]5t me?ods ( sort+ & wa%+ ! ores1 ! *>act]s ( :i* he accurately describes4 ,8 acc\nts ( ! v>i\s smelt+ op]ations are s detail$ t x is obvi\s !y mu/ h be5 put toge!r aft] p]sonal inquiry4 ,! /udy ( metallurgy1 inde$1 0 ! ma9 object ( 8 life2 & he devot$ to its pursuit ev5 ! p5sion :i* _h be5 settl$ on him by ,maurice1 ,elector ( ,saxony4 ,he became ,mayor ( ,*emnitz1 di$ !re 9 #aeee1 & 0 buri$ at ,zeitz4 ,b]n>d ,palissy liv$ ?r\gh\t ! great] portion ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,al?\gh n a pr(ess$ *emi/1 nor a foll[] ( any p>ticul> s*ool1 he 0 an ard5t self-taught exp]im5tali/ & a ke5 & accurate obs]v]1 :o greatly enri*$ c]amic art by 8 discov]ies4 ,johann ,rudolf ,glaub] 0 born at ,k>l/adt1 9 ,bav>ia1 9 #afjd1 & aft] a re/less life di$ 9 ,am/]dam 9 8 sixty-f\r? ye>4 ,he publi%$ an encyclopdia ( *emical processes1 9 :i* he describes ! prep>ation ( a great v>iety ( sub/ances ( te*nical importance4 ,! great] numb] ( ! ph>macopias ( ! sev5te5? c5tury are indebt$ to him = _! descriptions ( ! mode ( manufacture ( _! (ficial prep>ations4 ,he discov]$ sodium sulphate--8 sal mirabile1 /ill frequ5tly nam$ aft] him--& introduc$ x into m$ic9e4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ! common m9]al acids--sulphuric1 hydro*loric1 & nitric--became ord9>y articles ( comm]ce1 & 7 us$ 9 ! manufacture ( a numb] ( useful products1 *iefly inorganic salts4 ,a consid]able numb] ( metallic oxides 7 also 9 common use1 & 7 appli$ to a v>iety ( purposes 9 ! arts4 ,! k ( def9ite organic sub/ances 0 mu* m limit$4 ,acetic acid _h long be5 kn[n1 b 0 fir/ obta9$ 9 a conc5trat$ =m dur+ ?is p]iod by ! di/illation ( v]digris4 ,a numb] ( o!r acetates 7 also kn[n1 z well z c]ta9 t>trates--z1 = example1 salt ( sorrel1 ,ro*elle or seignette salt1 & t>t> emetic4 ,succ9ic & b5zoic acid 7 introduc$ into m$ic9e1 & ,ta*5ius discov]$ "o ( ! *>act]i/ic acids ( fat & oil 7/e>ic acid74 ,_s ( w9e 01 ( c\rse1 l>gely made & us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( t9ctures & ess5ces4 ,e!r1 orig9ally kn[n z oleum vitrioli dulce v]um1 0 fir/ discov]$ by ,val]ius ,cordus2 & a mixture ( x ) alcohol1 long kn[n z ,h(fmann's drops1 appe>s to h be5 employ$ z a m$ic9e by ,p>acelsus4 ,,*apt] ,,vi 8,,! ,,sceptical ,,*emi/03 ,,! ,,dawn ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,*emi/ry4 ,! latt] half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury 0 a rem>kable p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ! intellectual developm5t ( ,europe4 ,at t "t ne>ly e dep>tm5t ( human k seem$ to h become p]meat$ by an eag] _s ( scepticism1 inquiry1 & re=m4 ,! f\ndation ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,london = ,improv+ ,natural ,k1 ! ,accademia del ,cim5to ( ,flor5ce1 ! ,academie ,royale at ,p>is1 ! ,b]l9 ,academy1 all )9 a few ye>s ( ea* o!r1 0 significant ( ! times4 ,*emi/ry 0 no long] to be a sacr$ my/]y1 to be kn[n only to prie/s1 & its secrets jeal\sly gu>d$ by !m4 ,sci5ce _h *af$ "u ! dom9ation ( ! s*oolm52 x 0 n[ contemptu\s ( ! dialectics ( ! ,spagyri/s4 ,exp]im5t>ian philosophy became ev5 fa%ionable2 & ! purely d$uctive me?ods ( ! ,p]ipatetics gradually gave place to ! only s\nd me?od ( advanc+ natural k4 ,! supremacy ( ! old philosophy may be said to h be5 fir/ di/9ctly *all5g$ by ,rob]t ,boyle4 ,! appe>ance 9 #affa ( 8 book1 ,! ,sceptical ,*emi/1 m>ks a turn+-po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry4 ,! 8,*emico-physical ,d\bts & ,p>adoxes0 rais$ by ,boyle 8t\*+ ! exp]im5ts :]eby vulg> ,spagyri/s are wont to endeav\r to ev9ce _! ,salt1 ,sulphur1 & ,m]cury to be ! true ,pr9ciples ( ,?+s10 ev5tually seal$ ! fate ( ! doctr9e ( ! tria prima1 & ( ! t5ets ( ! s*ool ( ,p>acelsus4 ,9 ?is treatise ,boyle sets out to prove t ! numb] ( ! p]ipatetic elem5ts or pr9ciples hi!rto assum$ by *emi/s is1 to say ! lea/1 d\btful4 ,! words 8elem5t0 & 8pr9ciple0 are us$ by him z equival5t t]ms1 & signify ^? primitive & simple bodies ( :i* comp\nds may be said to be compos$1 & into :i* ^! comp\nds are ultimately resolvable4 ,he consid]$ t ! matt] ( all bodies 0 orig9ally divid$ into small p>ticles ( diff]5t %apes & sizes1 & t ^! p>ticles might unite into small 8p>cels10 n easily sep>able aga92 t a great v>iety ( comp\nds may arise f a few +r$i5ts2 t v>i\s sub/ances are obta9able f bodies by fire2 t fire is n ! true & g5u9e analys] ( bodies1 s9ce x does n sep>ate ! pr9ciples ( a body1 b v>i\sly alt]s its nature2 & t "s ?+s obta9$ f a body by fire 7 n its prop] or ess5tial +r$i5ts4 ,?ree is n precisely & univ]sally ! numb] ( ! di/9ct sub/ances or elem5ts into :i* all comp\nd bodies are resolvable by fire1 inasmu* z "s bodies af=d m ?an ?ree pr9ciples4 ,e>? & wat] are z mu* *emical pr9ciples z salt1 sulphur1 & m]cury4 ,ev5 ! limitation to five *emical pr9ciples is too n>r[4 ,su* is prov$ to be ! case by ! mode 9 :i* bodies1 animals & vegetable1 gr[1 & by ! analysis ( m9]als & metals4 ,! *emical !ory ( 8qualities0 ( ! ,spagyri/s is n>r[1 defective1 & unc]ta92 supposes ?+s n prov$2 is (t5 sup]flu\s1 & frequ5tly contradicts ! ph5om5a ( nature4 ,! 8pr9ciples0 f\nd 9 bodies _c be ! cause ( _! qualities1 s9ce contr>y qualities are ascrib$ to ! same body4 ,he concludes1 !re=e1 t ! ,p>acelsian elem5ts--_! 8salt10 8sulphur10 & 8m]cury0--are n ! fir/ & mo/ simple pr9ciples ( bodies2 b t ^! consi/1 at mo/1 ( concretions ( corpuscles or p>ticles m simple ?an !y1 & possess+ ! radical & univ]sal prop]ties ( volume1 %ape1 & motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,rob]t ,,boyle4 ,f a pa9t+ by ,f4 ,k]seboom 9 ! possession ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,rob]t ,boyle1 f\rte5? *ild & ! sev5? & y\nge/ son ( ,ri*>d ! 8,great0 ,e>l ( ,cork1 & ,"l ,high ,*ancellor ( ,irel&1 0 born at ,lismore 9 #afbf4 ,he 0 educat$ at ,eton "u ,sir ,h5ry ,wotton1 &1 aft] sp5d+ "s ye>s on ! ,cont95t1 settl$ at ,/albridge 9 ,dorset1 :]e he own$ a manor4 ,he became a memb] ( :at 0 kn[n z ! ,invisible ,college1 a small association ( m5 int]e/$ 9 ! new philosophy1 :o met at ea* o!r's h\ses 9 ,london1 & occasionally at ,gre%am ,college1 8to disc\rse & consid] ( philosophical inquiries & su* z relat$ !reunto40 ,! meet+s 7 subsequ5tly held 9 ,ox=d1 & ,boyle took up 8 resid5ce !re 9 #afed4 ,"h--9 association ) ,wilk9s2 ,john ,wallis & ,se? ,w>d1 ! two ,savilian ,pr(essors ( ,geometry & ,a/ronomy2 ,?omas ,willis1 ! physician1 !n /ud5t ( ,*ri/ ,*ur*2 ,*ri/oph] ,wr51 !n ,fell[ ( ,all ,s\ls' ,college2 ,godd>d1 ,w>d5 ( ,m]ton2 & ,ralph ,ba?ur/1 ,fell[ ( ,tr9ity1 & aft]w>ds its ,presid5t--!y s\ght to cultivate ! new philosophy1 8be+ satisfi$ t !re 0 no c]ta9 way ( arriv+ at any compet5t k unless !y made a v>iety ( exp]im5ts ^u natural bodies4 ,9 ord] to discov] :at ph5om5a !y w\ld produce1 !y pursu$ t me?od by !mselves ) great indu/ry1 & !n communicat$ _! discov]ies to ea* o!r40 ,! ,invisible ,college ev5tually grew into ! ,royal ,society1 :i* receiv$ its *>t] 9 #affc4 ,boyle remov$ to ,london 9 #affh1 & di$ !re on ,decemb] #ca/1 #afia1 9 ! sixty-fif? ye> ( 8 age4 ,a man ( integrity1 mode/1 simple1 & unassum+1 ,boyle 0 an assidu\s & true /ud5t ( sci5ce1 & practically ! :ole ( 8 life 0 giv5 to its pursuit4 ,8 social position1 8 example1 ! purity ( 8 private life1 & ! fame ( 8 discov]ies made 8 p]sonal influ5ce v consid]able1 to ! great advantage ( sci5ce 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,8 exp]im5tal "w 0 ( a high ord]4 ,he introduc$ ! air-pump into ,engl&1 & 8 8pneumatical eng9e0 enabl$ him to discov] _m ( ! fundam5tal prop]ties ( a gas1 notably ! relation ( its volume to pressure4 ,he also discov]$ ! dep5d5ce ( ! boil+ po9t ( a liquid ^u atmosph]ic pressure1 expla9$ ! action ( ! syphon1 ! effect ( ! air on ! vibration ( a p5dulum & on ! propagation ( s\nd1 & made exp]im5ts on ! nature ( flame1 & on ! relation ( air to combu/ion & respiration4 ,9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,fluidity he seeks to %[ t a body seems to be fluid by consi/+ ( corpuscles t\*+ "o ano!r only 9 "s p>ts ( _! surfaces2 :5ce1 by reason ( ! num]\s spaces betwe5 !m1 !y easily glide along ea* o!r till !y meet ) "s resi/+ body to ^: int]nal surface !y exquisitely accommodate !mselves4 ,he consid]s ! requisites ( fluidity to be *iefly ^!3 ,! smallness ( ! compon5t p>ticles1 _! det]m9ate figure1 ! vacant spaces betwe5 !m1 & ! fact ( _! be+ agitat$ v>i\sly & ap>t by _! own innate motion or by "s ?9n] sub/ance :i* tosses !m ab\t 9 its passage ?r\gh !m4 ,8 publi%$ works conta9 _m well-au!nticat$ *emical facts1 :i* are commonly held to be ! discov]y ( a lat] "t4 ,he prep>$ acetone by ! di/illation ( ! acetates ( lead & lime2 & he isolat$ me?yl alcohol f ! products ( ! de/ructive di/illation ( wood4 ,he 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ to insi/ on ! necessity ( /udy+ ! =ms ( cry/als4 ,he saw 9 _! =mation pro( t ! int]nal motions1 configuration1 & position ( ! integral p>ts are all t is necess>y to acc\nt = alt]ations & div]sities 9 outw>d "*4 ,"s ( ! /ock illu/rations ( our lecture-rooms 7 ( 8 contrivance4 ,?us he illu/rat$ ! expansive p[] ( freez+ wat] by bur/+ a plugg$ gun-b>rel fill$ ) wat] by solidify+ ! wat] by means ( a mixture ( sn[ & salt--a freez+ mixture :i* he fir/ introduc$4 ,boyle 0 ! fir/ to =mulate our pres5t conception ( an elem5t 9 contradi/9ction to t ( ! ,greeks & ! s*oolm5 :o influ5c$ ! !ories ( ! iatro-*emi/s4 ,9 ! s5se und]/ood by him1 ! ,ari/otelian elem5ts 7 n true elem5ts1 nor 7 ! salt1 sulphur1 & m]cury ( ! s*ool ( ,p>acelsus4 ,he 0 also ! fir/ to def9e ! relation ( an elem5t to a comp\nd1 & to draw ! di/9ction we /ill make betwe5 comp\nds & mixtures4 ,he reviv$ ! atomic hypo!sis1 & expla9$ *emical comb9ation on ! basis ( aff9ity4 ,he cont5d$ t "o ( ! ma9 objects ( ! *emi/ 0 to asc]ta9 ! nature ( comp\nds2 & !reby he /imulat$ ! application ( analysis to *emi/ry4 ,boyle discov]$ a numb] ( qualitative reactions1 & appli$ !m to ! detection ( sub/ances1 ei!r free or 9 comb9ation4 ,b ,boyle's greate/ s]vice to le>n+ consi/$ 9 ! new _s he introduc$ into *emi/ry4 ,h5ce=w>d *emi/ry 0 no long] ! m]e helpmeet ( m$ic9e4 ,%e became an indep5d5t sci5ce1 ! pr9ciples ( :i* 7 to be asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t2 a sci5ce to be /udi$ ) ! object ( discov]+ ! laws regulat+ ! ph5om5a ) :i* x is conc]n$--& h5ce elucidat+ tru? = tru?'s sake4 ,! old philosophy ( ! ,greeks _h1 z we h se51 become m]g$ into ! doctr9e ( ! iatro-*emi/s2 & ?is 0 n[ to be purifi$ f ! !osophical my/icism ) :i* ,p>acelsus & 8 foll[]s _h en%r\d$ x4 8,! dialectical subtleties ( ! s*oolm5 mu* m10 says ,boyle1 8decl>e ! wit ( him t uses !m ?an increase ! k or remove ! d\bts ( sob] lov]s ( tru?4444 ,= 9 su* speculative inquiries :]e ! nak$ k ( ! tru? is ! ?+ pr9cipally aim$ at1 :at does he tea* me wor? ?anks1 t does n1 if he c1 make 8 notion intelligible to me1 b by my/ical t]ms & ambigu\s phrases d>k5s :at he %\ld cle> up1 & makes me add ! tr\ble ( guess+ at ! s5se ( :at he equivocally expresses1 to t ( le>n+ ! tru? ( :at he seems to deliv]40 ,! influ5ce ( ! new _s ?us infus$ into ! sci5ce by ,boyle is se5 9 ! g5]al /yle ( *emical lit]ature at ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 :5 comp>$ ) t ( ! close ( ! sixte5?4 ,! my/icism & obscurity ( ! al*emi/s 7 no long] tol]at$4 ,boyle 0 sl5d] & tall1 ) a c\nt5ance pale & emaciat$4 ,8 con/itution 0 delicate & 8 body feeble1 & x 0 only by /rict att5tion to diet & regul>ity ( ex]cise t he accompli%$ :at he did4 ,al?\gh he suff]$ occasionally f an excessive l[ness ( spirits1 !re 0 no?+ morose or ascetic 9 8 nature4 ,he 0 nev] m>ri$1 al?\gh1 says 8 fri5d ,john ,evelyn1 8few m5 7 m faceti\s & agreeable 9 conv]sation ) ! ladies :5ev] he happ5$ to be engag$ among !m40 ,k9dly1 c\rte\s1 *>itable2 unaffect$1 & temp]ate 9 8 mann] ( life1 ,boyle enjoy$ ! respect & e/eem ( all 8 contempor>ies4 ,x 0 said ( him t he 0 nev] kn[n to h (f5d$ any p]son 9 8 :ole life by any "p ( 8 deportm5t4 ,he all[$ himself a great deal ( dec5t *e]fulness1 & _h ab\t him all ! t5d]ness ( good nature1 z well z all ! s(tness ( fri5d%ip4 ,^! gave him a l>ge %>e ( o!r m5's conc]ns1 = he _h a quick s5se ( ! mis]ies ( mank9d4 ,al?\gh a philosoph] 9 ! broade/ s5se ( t t]m1 8 peculi> & fav\rite /udy 0 *emi/ry1 89 :i*10 says ,bi%op ,burnet1 8he engag$ ) none ( ^? rav5\s & ambiti\s designs t drew _m into !m4 ,8 design 0 only to f9d out nature1 to see into :at pr9ciples ?+s might be resolv$1 & ( :at !y 7 comp\nd$40 ,john ,kunkel1 born 9 #afcj1 0 ! son ( an al*emi/ atta*$ to ! ,c\rt ( ! ,duke ( ,hol/e94 ,aft] s]v+ 8 fa!r = "s ye>s1 he obta9$ employm5t z *emi/ & ph>maci/ "u ! ,dukes ,*>les & ,h5ry1 ( ,lau5burg4 ,he subsequ5tly ent]$ ! laboratory at ,dresd5 ( ,john ,george ,,ii41 ,elector ( ,saxony1 &1 aft] tea*+ *emi/ry at ! ,univ]sity ( ,witt5burg1 !n fam\s z a m$ical s*ool1 he accept$ an invitation to take *>ge ( ! glass works & laboratory ( ! ,elector ( ,br&5burg1 at ,b]l94 ,! laboratory 0 burnt d[n1 & !n ,*>les ,,xi4 ( ,sw$5 call$ him to ,/ockholm & ennobl$ him z ,b>on von ,l[5/i]n4 ,he di$ 9 ,/ockholm 9 #agjb4 ,kunkel's *ief "w is 8 ,laboratorium ,*ymicum1 publi%$ aft] 8 dea?4 ,x 0 writt5 9 ,g]man4 ,9 x ,kunkel relates h[ he acquir$ possession ( a k ( ! manufacture ( ,baldw9's phosphorus1 & ( ! phosphorus discov]$ by ,br&--p]haps ! mo/ important1 z x c]ta9ly 0 "o ( ! mo/ /rik+1 ( ! *emical discov]ies ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,kunkel did mu* to lib]ate *emical lit]ature f ! my/icism & obscurity ( al*emy4 ,he 0 scornful ( ! !ories ( ! adepts1 & contemptu\s ( _! tria prima4 ,i1 old man t ,i am1 :o h be5 occupi$ ) *emi/ry = sixty ye>s1 h nev] yet be5 able to discov] _! fix$ sulphur1 or h[ x ent]s into ! composition ( metals4444 ,moreov]1 !y are n agre$ among !mselves respect+ ! k9d ( sulphur4 ,! sulphur ( "o is n ! sulphur ( ! o!r4 ,to t "o may reply t ea* is at lib]ty to baptise 8 *ild z he likes4 ,i agree3 y may ev51 if y are s dispos$1 call an ass a c[2 b y w nev] make anyone believe t y\r c[ is an ass4 ,z to ! alkahe/ he says3-- ,!re has be5 mu* discussion conc]n+ ?is gr& natural solv5t4 ,"s d]ive x f ! ,lat9--akali e/2 o!rs f ! two ,g]man words all gei/ 7all gas72 la/ly1 o!rs say x is f alles e/ 7t's all74 ,z to myself1 ,i d n believe 9 ,van ,helmont's univ]sal solv5t4 ,i call x by its true "n--alles ,lg5 hei/1 or alles ,lg5 i/ 7x is all a lie74 ,kunkel discov]$ ! secret ( ! manufacture ( av5tur9e glass & ( ruby glass by means ( ! purple ( ,cassius--a product f gold fir/ obta9$ by a doctor ( m$ic9e ( t "n 9 ,hamburg4 ,he made obs]vations on f]m5tation & putrefaction--recognis$ t alum 0 a d\ble salt 7salduplicatum72 describ$ ! pres5t me?od ( repair+ pure silv]1 & ( p>t+ gold & silv] by means ( sulphuric acid4 ,he also describ$ ! mode ( prep>+ a numb] ( ess5tial oils1 detect$ ! pres5ce ( /e>opt5 9 oils1 & discov]$ nitr\s e!r4 ,john ,joa*im ,be*]1 ! son ( a ,lu!ran m9i/]1 0 born at ,spey] 9 #afce4 ,ow+ to ! dea? ( 8 fa!r & ! deva/ation ( ! family prop]ty dur+ ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>1 ,be*] _h a h>d /ruggle ) pov]ty dur+ 8 y\?1 & l$ a re/less1 w&]+ life4 ,9 #afff he 0 ,pr(essor ( ,m$ic9e 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,may5ce4 ,subsequ5tly he w5t to ,muni* z head ( ! f9e/ laboratory 9 ,europe1 b1 qu>rell+ ) ! ,*ancellor ( ! ,bav>ian ,c\rt1 betook himself to ,vi5na4 ,aft] a %ort /ay !re1 he quitt$ ,au/ria = ,holl&1 & e/abli%$ himself 9 ,ha>lem4 ,"h he propos$ to ! ,/ates-,g5]al to extract gold f ! s&-dunes2 b1 ! project fail+1 he left = ,engl& & visit$ ! ,corni% m9es4 ,on ! invitation ( ! ,duke ( ,meckl5burg-,g/r[1 he return$ to ,g]many4 ,%ortly aft]w>ds 79 #afhb7 he di$1 9 ! =ty-sev5? ye> ( 8 age4 ,be*]'s "n is rememb]$ ma9ly 9 connection ) 8 !ory ( combu/ion1 :i*1 z we %all see1 0 subsequ5tly develop$ by ,/ahl into ! !ory ( ,phlogi/on--a g5]alisation :i* dom9at$ *emi/ry until ne> ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,john ,may[1 born 9 ,cornwall 9 #afde1 0 a practis+ physician1 ^: "n *iefly lives by virtue ( 8 cle> recognition ( ! sub/ance or pr9ciple 9 ! air :i* is conc]n$ 9 combu/ion1 ! calc9ation ( metals1 respiration1 & ! conv]sion ( v5\s into art]ial blood4 ,?is sub/ance1 :i* he f\nd to be conta9$ 9 saltpetre1 he call$ spiritus igno-areus or nitro areu/4 ,may[ di$ at ! age ( ?irty-f\r4 ,_h he be5 able to foll[ up 8 obs]vations1 he might h influ5c$ v mat]ially ! developm5t ( !oretical *emi/ry4 ,z x 01 he 0 practically ov]look$ by 8 contempor>ies1 & ! real significance ( 8 "w 0 n appreciat$ until long aft]w>ds4 ,nicolas ,lem]y1 also born 9 #afde1 wrote a ,c\rs de ,*imie1 "o ( ! be/ text-books ( ! "t1 :i* pass$ ?r\gh z _m z ?irte5 editions1 & 0 translat$ into ,engli%1 ,g]man1 ,lat91 ,italian1 & ,spani%4 ,9 ?is book he /rove1 z he says1 to express himself cle>ly1 & to avoid ! obscurities :i* 7 to be f\nd 9 ! au?ors :o _h prec$$ him4 ,! f9e imag9ations ( o!r philosoph]s conc]n+ _! physical pr9ciples may elevate ! _s by _! gr& ideas1 b !y prove no?+ demon/ratively4 ,&1 z *emi/ry is a sci5ce ( obs]vation1 x c only be bas$ on :at is palpable & demon/rative4 ,nicolas ,lem]y1 :o is n to be conf\nd$ ) 8 son ,l\is1 also a *emi/1 made a consid]able numb] ( contributions to ph>maceutical *emi/ry2 & 8 ,ph>macope ,univ]selle1 ,dictionnaire ,univ]sel des ,drogues ,simples1 & ,trait de l',antimo9e 7 /&>d works 9 _! day4 ,lem]y 0 at "o "t a ,prote/ant1 & on ! revocation ( ! ,edict ( ,nantes fl$ to ,engl&2 b1 embrac+ ,ca?olicism1 he return$ to ,p>is1 re-e/abli%$ 8 ph>macy1 & 0 elect$ into ! ,academy 9 #afii4 ,he di$ 9 #agae4 ,william ,homb]g1 born 9 ,batavia 9 #afeb1 0 orig9ally int5d$ = ! pr(ession ( law1 b1 becom+ atta*$ to sci5ce1 /udi$ botany & m$ic9e 9 ,padua1 *emi/ry at ,bologna & 9 ,london1 me*anics & optics at ,rome1 & anatomy at ,leyd54 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8 travels he visit$ ! m9es ( ,g]many1 ,hung>y1 ,bohemia1 & ,sw$54 ,9 #afhb he 0 invit$ to ,p>is by ,colb]t1 & 9 #afia 0 made a memb] ( ! ,academy & 0 plac$ by ! ,duke ( ,orleans 9 *>ge ( 8 laboratory--!n "o ( ! f9e/ 9 ,europe4 ,homb]g m>ri$ ! daught] ( ,dod>t1 ! physician4 ,%e became an exp]t prp>ateur1 & 0 ( great assi/ance to him 9 8 exp]im5tal inquiries4 ,he fir/ made kn[n ! exi/5ce ( phosphorus 9 ,france1 discov]$ by ,br&1 ( ,hamburg1 & he describ$ ! phosphoresc5t salt associat$ ) 8 "n4 ,he made important obs]vations on ! saturation ( alkalis by acids1 & 0 aw>e t !y comb9$ 9 diff]5t proportions4 ,he 0 an indu/ri\s work]1 &1 ) ! exception ( ,cass9i1 0 ! mo/ active memb] ( ! ,academy4 ,he di$ on ,septemb] #bd?1 #agae4 ,next to ,boyle1 p]haps ! mo/ active ag5t 9 emancipat+ *emi/ry f ! yoke ( al*emy 0 ,bo]haave1 :o1 by 8 tea*+ z ,pr(essor ( ,physic1 rais$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,leyd5 to ! summit ( its fame4 ,h]mann ,bo]haave1 ! son ( a m9i/]1 0 born ne> ,leyd51 9 #affh4 ,he occupi$ himself 9 turn ) !ology1 classics1 ma!matics1 *emi/ry1 & botany1 :5 he turn$ to physic1 &1 aft] a c\rse ( /udy at ! ,univ]sity ( ,h>d]wyk1 9 ,geld]l&1 began to practise4 ,9 #agjb he 0 appo9t$ to a lecture%ip1 & ev5tually to ! ,*air ( ,m$ic9e1 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,leyd51 ( :i* he became ,rector 9 #agad4 ,8 reputation z a tea*] spread ?r\gh\t ,europe1 & /eadily increas$ until 8 dea?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,h]mannus ,,bo]haave ,m$ic91 ,botanices1 ,*emi ,collegii practici1 9 ,,acad4 ,,lugd4 ,,bat4 ,,pr(essor ,,ord9>ius4 ,aft] a pa9t+ by ,t4 ,w&ela> ,bo]haave 0 "o ( ! mo/ le>n$ m5 ( 8 age1 & s+ul>ly well cultur$1 n only 9 sci5ce b 9 hi/ory1 poetry1 & polite lit]ature4 ,he conv]s$ 9 ,engli%1 ,fr5*1 & ,g]man1 & read ,italian & ,spani% ) facility4 8,! ,lat9 he spoke extempore 9 lectures or conv]sation 0 s cle> t1 ) 8 action1 me?od1 & ! aptness ( 8 similes1 he c\ld level ! mo/ ab/ruse po9ts to ! meane/ capacities40#b ,he 0 fond ( music1 & a good p]=m] on sev]al in/rum5ts1 p>ticul>ly ! lute4 ,he delight$ to welcome musicians to 8 h\se4 ,8 pr(ession z a physician br\ght him weal?1 mu* ( :i* he sp5t 9 horticulture2 & ! g>d5 ( 8 c\ntry seat1 ne>ly eight acres 9 ext5t1 0 enri*$ ) all ! exotic trees he c\ld procure & induce to fl\ri% 9 ! climate ( ,holl&4 #b ,burton1 ,life ( ,bo]haave1 p4 #eh et seq4 ,bo]haave 0 ( a robu/ frame & heal?y con/itution1 e>ly inur$ to con/ant ex]cise & ! inclem5cies ( wea!r4 ,8 /ature 0 r tall1 & 8 habit corpul5t4 ,he _h a l>ge head1 %ort neck1 florid complexion1 light br[n curl$ hair 7= he did n we> a wig71 an op5 c\nt5ance1 & resembl$ ,socrates 9 ! flatness ( 8 nose & 8 natural urbanity4 ,he di$ at ,leyd5 on ,septemb] #bcrd1 #agch1 9 ! sev5tie? ye> ( 8 age4 ,z a *emi/ ,bo]haave is *iefly kn[n by 8 ,elem5ta ,*emia1 publi%$ 9 #agcb--! mo/ complete & mo/ lum9\s *emical treatise ( its "t1 translations ( :i* appe>$ 9 ! *ief ,european languages4 ,! "w is divid$ into ?ree ma9 p>ts4 ,! fir/ is conc]n$ ) ! orig9 & progress ( ! art1 & ) ! p]sonal hi/ory ( its mo/ di/+ui%$ cultivators4 ,! second & l>ge/ "p deals ) ! attempt to =m a sy/em ( *emi/ry bas$ on su* obs]vational matt] z seem$ well e/abli%$4 ,! ?ird consi/s ( a collection ( *emical processes relat+ to ! analysis or decomposition ( bodies1 gr\p$ "u ! heads ( 8vegetables10 8animals10 & 8fossils0--! beg9n+s1 9 fact1 ( subdivision ( ! sci5ce into organic & inorganic *emi/ry4 ,z reg>ds 8 belief 9 al*emy1 ,bo]haave 0 an agno/ic3 he nei!r affirm$ nor d5i$ ! possibility ( transmutation4 ,9 ?is respect he resembl$ ,newton & ,boyle4 ,boyle1 inde$1 0 s+ul>ly cauti\s & retic5t 9 8 ref]5ces to al*emi/ic matt]s4 ,z 0 said ( him by ,%aw1 he 0 too wise to set any b\nds to nature3 he 0 n prone to say t e /range ?+ mu/ ne$s be impossible1 = he saw /range ?+s e day1 & 0 well aw>e t !re are p[]ful =ces 9 ! _w ( ^: laws & modes ( action he knew no?+4 ,) t w>9ess :i* 0 habitual to him1 he 0 wont to say t 8^? :o _h se5 !m might bett] believe !m ?an ^? :o _h n02 & he 0 mode/ en\gh to suppose t ,p>acelsus or ,helmont might conceivably "k ( ag5ts ( :i* he 0 ignorant4 ,bo]haave unque/ionably sp5t mu* "t 9 ! /udy ( al*emical works1 p>ticul>ly ^? ( ,p>acelsus & ,helmont1 :i* he repeat$ly read4 ,! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society conta9 ! results ( a labori\s b fruitless inve/igation by him on quicksilv]1 :i* he und]took 9 ! hope ( discov]+ ! sem9al or eng5d]+ matt] :i*1 on ! old !ory ( ! g5]ation ( metals1 0 suppos$ to be conta9$ 9 m]cury4 ,b al?\gh1 z he relates1 he tortur$ x by 8conquassation1 trituration1 dige/ion1 & by di/illation1 ei!r alone or amalgamat$ ) lead1 t91 or gold1 repeat+ ?is op]ation to #eaa or ev5 to #hgg di/illations10 ! m]cury appe>$ only 8r m bright & liquid1 )\t any o!r v>iation 9 its =m or virtues1 & acquir$ v little1 if any1 increase ( its specific gravity40 ,/eph5 ,hales 7#afgg-agfa71 an +5i\s div9e--he held ! p]petual curacy ( ,t$d+ton1 & liv$ practically ! great] "p ( 8 life !re--di/+ui%$ z a physiologi/ & inv5tor1 occupi$ himself 9 *emical pursuits1 & made a numb] ( obs]vations on ! production ( gase\s sub/ances4 ,8 results 7 communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society & subsequ5tly republi%$1 9 a collect$ =m1 "u ! title ( ,/atical ,essays4 ,9 ^! exp]im5ts he us$ me?ods v simil> 9 pr9ciple to ^? subsequ5tly employ$ by ,prie/ley4 ,x is evid5t f 8 description ( 8 exp]im5ts t he mu/ h prep>$ a consid]able numb] ( gase\s sub/ances--hydrog51 c>bonic acid1 c>bonic oxide1 sulphur dioxide1 m>% gas1 etc4--b he seems to h made no sy/ematic attempt to /udy _! prop]ties1 z he consid]$ t !y 7 simply air1 modifi$ or 8t9ctur$0 by ! pres5ce ( sub/ances :i* he reg>d$ z m or less =tuit\s4 ,prior to ! "t ( ,black all =ms ( gase\s sub/ance 7 reg>d$ z sub/antially id5tical--9 fact1 z be+ air1 z und]/ood by ! ,anci5ts--a simple elem5t>y sub/ance4 ,x 0 ,black's /udy ( c>bonic acid :i* fir/ cle>ly e/abli%$ t !re 7 ess5tially di/9ct v>ieties ( gase\s matt]4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,phlogi/onism ,ev5 be=e ! appe>ance ( ,! ,sceptical ,*emi/ !re 0 a gr[+ conviction t ! old hypo!ses z to ! ess5tial nature ( matt] 7 inadequate & mislead+4 ,we h se5 h[ ! f\r 8elem5ts0 ( ! ,p]ipatetics _h become m]g$ into ! tria prima--! 8salt10 8sulphur10 & 8m]cury0--( ! ,p>acelsians4 ,z ! ph5om5a ( *emical action became bett] kn[n1 ! latt] iatro-*emi/s--or1 r1 t section ( !m :i* recognis$ t *emi/ry _h wid] aims ?an to m9i/] m]ely to m$ic9e--felt t ! conception ( ! tria prima1 z und]/ood by ,p>acelsus & 8 foll[]s1 0 incapable ( be+ g5]alis$ into a !ory ( *emi/ry4 ,be*]1 :ile cl++ to ! conception ( ?ree primordial sub/ances z mak+ up all =ms ( matt]1 *ang$ ! qualities hi!rto associat$ ) !m4 ,accord+ to ! new !ory1 all matt] 0 compos$ ( a m]curial1 a vitre\s1 & a combu/ible sub/ance or pr9ciple1 9 v>y+ proportions1 dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ! p>ticul> =m ( matt]4 ,:5 a body 0 burnt or a metal calc9$1 ! combu/ible sub/ance--! t]ra p+uis ( ,be*]--escap$4 ,?is attempt to connect ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion & calc9ation ) ! g5]al ph5om5a ( *emi/ry 0 /ill fur!r develop$ by ,/ahl1 & 0 ev5tually ext5d$ into a compreh5sive !ory ( *emi/ry1 :i* 0 fairly satisfactory s long z no ef=t 0 made to te/ its suffici5cy by an appeal to ! balance4 ,george ,erne/ ,/ahl1 :o develop$ ,be*]'s notion into ! !ory ( phlogi/on 7--burnt71 & !reby creat$ a g5]alisation :i* fir/ made *emi/ry a sci5ce1 0 born at ,anspa* 9 #affj1 became ,pr(essor ( ,m$ic9e & ,*emi/ry at ,halle 9 #afic1 physician to ! ,k+ ( ,prussia 9 #agaf1 & di$ 9 ,b]l9 9 #agcd4 ,/ahl contribut$ little or no?+ to practical *emi/ry2 & no new fact or discov]y is associat$ ) 8 "n4 ,8 s]vice to sci5ce consi/s 9 ! tempor>y success he a*iev$ 9 gr\p+ *emical ph5om5a1 & 9 expla9+ !m consi/5tly by a compreh5sive hypo!sis4 ,! !ory ( phlogi/on 0 orig9ally broa*$ z a !ory ( combu/ion4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 bodies su* z coal1 *>coal1 wood1 oil1 fat1 etc41 burn because !y conta9 a combu/ible pr9ciple1 :i* 0 assum$ to be a mat]ial sub/ance & uni=m 9 "*4 ,?is sub/ance 0 kn[n z phlogi/on4 ,all combu/ible bodies 7 to be reg>d$1 !re=e1 z comp\nds1 "o ( _! con/itu5ts be+ phlogi/on3 _! diff]5t natures dep5d$ p>tly ^u ! proportion ( phlogi/on !y conta91 & p>tly ^u ! nature & am\nt ( _! o!r con/itu5ts4 ,a body1 :5 burn+1 0 p>t+ ) its phlogi/on2 & all ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion--! flame1 heat1 & light--7 caus$ by ! viol5ce ( ! expulsion ( t sub/ance4 ,c]ta9 metals--z1 = example1 z9c--c\ld be caus$ to burn1 & !reby to yield e>?y sub/ances1 sometimes :ite 9 col\r1 at o!r times v>i\sly col\r$4 ,^! e>?y sub/ances 7 call$ calces1 f _! g5]al resemblance to lime4 ,o!r metals1 l lead & m]cury1 did n appe> to burn2 b on heat+ !m !y gradually lo/ _! metallic appe>ance1 & became conv]t$ into calces4 ,?is op]ation 0 kn[n z calc9ation4 ,9 ! act ( burn+ or ( calc9ation phlogi/on 0 expell$4 ,h5ce metals 7 ess5tially comp\nd3 !y consi/$ ( phlogi/on & a calx1 ! nature ( :i* det]m9$ ! "* ( ! metal4 ,by add+ phlogi/on to a calx ! metal 0 reg5]at$4 ,?us1 on heat+ ! calx ( z9c or ( lead ) coal1 or *>coal1 or wood1 metallic z9c or lead 0 aga9 =m$4 ,:5 a c&le burns1 its phlogi/on is transf]r$ to ! air2 if burn$ 9 a limit$ supply ( air1 combu/ion ceases1 because ! air becomes saturat$ ) phlogi/on4 ,respiration is a k9d ( combu/ion :]eby ! temp]ature ( ! body is ma9ta9$4 ,x consi/s simply 9 ! transf]5ce ( ! phlogi/on ( ! body to ! air4 ,if we attempt to brea! 9 a conf9$ space1 ! air becomes ev5tually saturat$ ) ! phlogi/on1 & respiration /ops4 ,! v>i\s manife/ations ( *emical action1 9 l mann]1 7 attribut$ to ?is pass+ to & fro ( phlogi/on4 ,! col\r ( a sub/ance is connect$ ) ! am\nt ( phlogi/on x conta9s4 ,?us1 :5 lead is heat$1 x yields a yell[ sub/ance 7li?>ge72 :5 /ill fur!r heat$1 x yields a r$ sub/ance 7r$ lead74 ,^! diff]5ces 9 col\r 7 suppos$ to dep5d ^u ! v>y+ am\nt ( phlogi/on expell$4 ,! doctr9e ( phlogi/on 0 embrac$ by ne>ly all ,/ahl's ,g]man contempor>ies1 notably by ,m>ggraf1 ,neumann1 ,ell]1 & ,pott4 ,x spread into ,sw$51 & 0 accept$ by ,b]gman & ,s*eele2 into ,france1 :]e x 0 taught by ,duhamel1 ,r\elle1 & ,macqu]2 & into ,great ,brita91 :]e its mo/ influ5tial support]s 7 ,prie/ley & ,cav5di%4 ,x cont9u$ to be ! or?odox fai? until ! la/ qu>t] ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 :51 aft] ! discov]y ( oxyg51 x 0 ov]turn$ by ,lavoisi]4 ,dur+ ! sway ( phlogi/on *emi/ry made _m notable advances--n by its aid1 b r 9 spite ( x4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 until ! "t ( ,lavoisi] few1 if any1 inve/igations 7 made ) ! express int5tion ( te/+ x1 or ( e/abli%+ its suffici5cy4 ,:5 new ph5om5a 7 obs]v$ ! attempt 0 no d\bt made to expla9 !m by its aid1 frequ5tly ) no satisfactory result4 ,inde$1 ev5 9 ! "t ( ,/ahl1 facts 7 kn[n :i* x 0 difficult or impossible to reconcile ) 8 doctr9e2 b ^! 7 ei!r ignor$1 or _! true import expla9$ away4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 ^! advances 7 9 no way connect$ ) phlogi/on1 x w be conv5i5t to deal ) ! m important ( !m n[1 inasmu* z !y 7 made dur+ ! phlogi/ic p]iod4 ,) ! exception ( ,m>ggraf1 ,/ahl's ,g]man contempor>ies contribut$ few facts ( fir/-rate importance to *emi/ry4 ,pott1 :o 0 born at ,halb]/adt 9 #afib & become ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ,b]l9 9 #agcg1 is *iefly rememb]$ by 8 "w on porcela91 ! *emical nature & mode ( orig9 ( :i* he fir/ elucidat$4 ,m>ggraf1 born 9 ,b]l9 9 #agji1 0 "o ( ! be/ analy/s ( 8 age4 ,he fir/ cle>ly di/+ui%$ betwe5 lime & alum9a1 & 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ to po9t out t ! vegetable alkali 7pota%7 diff]$ f ! m9]al alkali 7soda74 ,he also %[$ t gypsum1 heavy sp>1 & potassium sulphate 7 analog\s 9 composition4 ,he cle>ly indicat$ ! relation ( phosphoric acid to phosphorus1 describ$ a numb] ( me?ods ( prep>+ t acid1 & expla9$ ! orig9 ( ! phosphoric acid 9 ur9e4 ,( ! ,sw$i% *emi/s ( t p]iod1 ! mo/ notable 0 ,s*eele4 ,c>l ,wilhelm ,s*eele 0 born 9 #agdb at ,/ralsund4 ,:5 f\rte5 ye>s ( age he 0 appr5tic$ to an apo!c>y at ,go!nburg1 & began ! /udy ( exp]im5tal *emi/ry1 :i* he cont9u$ to prosecute z an apo!c>y at ,malm1 ,/ockholm1 ,upsala1 & ev5tually at ,kp+ on ,lake ,mal>1 :]e he di$ 9 #aghf1 9 ! =ty-?ird ye> ( 8 age4 ,dur+ ! comp>atively %ort p]iod ( 8 sci5tific activity ,s*eele made himself ! greate/ *emical discov]] ( 8 "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,c>l ,,wilhelm ,,s*eele4 ,f ! /atue by ,brjeson at ,/ockholm4 ,he fir/ isolat$ *lor9e1 & det]m9$ ! individuality ( manganese & b>yta4 ,he 0 an indep5d5t discov]] ( oxyg51 ammonia1 & hydrog5 *loride4 ,he discov]$ also hydr(luoric1 nitro-sulphonic1 molybdic1 tung/ic1 & ars5ic1 among ! inorganic acids2 & lactic1 gallic1 pyrogallic1 oxalic1 citric1 t>t>ic1 malic1 mucic1 & uric acids among ! organic acids4 ,he isolat$ glyc]9e & milk-sug>2 det]m9$ ! nature ( microcosmic salt1 borax1 & ,prussian blue1 & prep>$ hydrocyanic acid4 ,he demon/rat$ t graphite is a =m ( c>bon4 ,he discov]$ ! *emical nature ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 ars5urett$ hydrog51 & ! gre5 ars5ical pigm5t kn[n by 8 "n4 ,he inv5t$ new processes = prep>+ e!r1 p[d] ( alg>o?1 phosphorus1 calomel1 & magnesia alba4 ,he fir/ prep>$ f]r\s ammonium sulphate1 %[$ h[ iron may be analytically sep>at$ f manganese2 & describ$ ! me?od ( break+ up m9]al silicates by fusion ) alkal9e c>bonates4 ,s*eele's contributions to *emical !ory 7 slight & unimportant1 b z a discov]] he /&s pre-em95t4 ,( ! ,fr5* phlogi/ians we h space only to m5tion ,duhamel & ,macqu]4 ,h5ry ,l\is ,duhamel du ,monceau 0 born at ,p>is 9 #agjj4 ,he 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ to make exp]im5ts on ossification1 & "o ( ! fir/ to detect ! diff]5ce betwe5 pota% & soda4 ,pet] ,joseph ,macqu] 0 born 9 #agah at ,p>is4 ,he inve/igat$ ! nature ( ,prussian blue 7discov]$ by ,diesba*1 ( ,b]l91 9 #agaj71 work$ on plat9um1 wrote "o ( ! be/ text-books ( 8 "t1 publi%$ a diction>y ( *emi/ry1 & 0 an au?ority ( ! *emi/ry ( dye+4 ,9 addition to ^? already m5tion$1 ! mo/ notable names z work]s 9 *emi/ry 9 ,great ,brita9 dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury are ,black1 ,prie/ley1 & ,cav5di%4 ,joseph ,black 0 born 9 #agbh at ,bordeaux1 :]e 8 fa!r 0 engag$ 9 ! w9e trade4 ,a /ud5t ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[1 he became its ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 #agef4 ,9 #agff he 0 transf]r$ to ! ,*emical ,*air ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 & di$ 9 #agii4 ,black publi%$ only ?ree pap]s1 ! mo/ important ( :i* is entitl$ ,exp]im5ts ^u ,magnesia ,alba1 ,quicklime1 & ,o!r ,alkal9e ,sub/ances4 ,he prov$ t magnesia is a peculi> e>? diff]+ 9 prop]ties f lime4 ,lime is a pure e>?1 :ile lime/one is c>bonate ( lime4 ,he %[$ t magnesia w also comb9e ) c>bonic acid1 & he expla9$ t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! mild & cau/ic alkalis is t ! =m] conta9 c>bonic acid1 :]eas ! latt] d n4 ,he also expla9$ h[ lime is able to conv]t ! mild alkalis into cau/ic alkalis4 ,simple & well kn[n z ^! facts are to-day1 _! discov]y 9 #agee excit$ great int]e/1 & m>k$ an epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry4 ,black's "n is associat$ ) ! discov]y ( lat5t & specific heat1 & he made ! fir/ det]m9ations ( ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to conv]t ice into wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,joseph ,,prie/ley4 ,f a mezzot9t aft] ,fuseli 9 ! possession ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,joseph ,prie/ley1 ! son ( a clo?dress]1 0 born 9 #agcc at ,fieldhead1 ne> ,le$s4 ,:5 sev5 ye>s ( age1 on ! dea? ( 8 "m1 he 0 tak5 *>ge ( by 8 aunt1 & 0 educat$ = ! ,noncon=mi/ m9i/ry1 ev5tually becom+ a ,unit>ian4 ,he 0 fir/ attract$ to sci5ce by ! /udy ( electricity1 ( :i* he compil$ a hi/ory4 ,at ,le$s1 :]e he _h *>ge ( ! ,mill ,hill congregation1 he turn$ 8 att5tion to *emi/ry1 ma9ly f ! circum/ance t he liv$ ne> a brew]y & _h ! opportunity ( procur+ l>ge quantities ( c>bonic acid1 ! prop]ties ( :i* he c>efully /udi$4 ,he ab&on$ ! m9i/ry = a "t to become libr>ian & lit]>y companion to ,"l ,%elburne1 ) :om he rema9$ sev5 ye>s4 ,dur+ ?is "t he indu/ri\sly pursu$ *emical inquiry1 & discov]$ a l>ge numb] ( ri=m bodies--viz41 nitric oxide1 hydrog5 *loride1 sulphur dioxide1 silicon fluoride1 ammonia1 nitr\s oxide1 &1 mo/ important ( all f ! po9t ( view ( *emical !ory1 oxyg5 gas4 ,prie/ley's "w gave a rem>kable impetus to ! /udy ( pneumatic *emi/ry4 ,x ex]cis$ great influ5ce on ! ext5sion ( *emical sci5ce1 &--9 o!r h&s ?an 8--on ! developm5t ( *emical !ory4 ,! mo/ important ( 8 contributions to sci5ce are conta9$ 9 8 ,exp]im5ts & ,obs]vations on ,diff]5t ,k9ds ( ,air4 ,?is "w n only gives an acc\nt ( ! me?ods by :i* he isolat$ ! gases he discov]$1 b describes a great numb] ( incid5tal obs]vations1 su* z ! action ( vegetation on respir$ air1 %[+ t ! gre5 p>ts ( plants are able 9 sunlight to decompose c>bonic acid & to re/ore oxyg5 to ! atmosph]e4 ,he 01 9 fact1 "o ( ! e>lie/ to trace ! specific action ( animals & plants on atmosph]ic air1 & to %[ h[ ^! specific actions ma9ta9$ its purity & con/ancy ( composition4 ,he initiat$ ! art ( eudiometry 7gas analysis71 & 0 ! fir/ to e/abli% t ! air is n a simple sub/ance1 z imag9$ by ! anci5ts4 ,prie/ley is to be cr$it$ ) ! inv5tion ( soda-wat]1 :i* he prep>$ z a rem$y = scurvy2 & 8 "n is connect$ ) ! s-call$ pneumatic tr\gh--a simple en\gh piece ( app>atus1 b "o :i* prov$ to be ( ! greate/ s]vice to him 9 8 inquiries4 ,aft] leav+ ,"l ,%elburne1 ,prie/ley remov$ to ,birm+ham & resum$ 8 m9i/ry4 ,8 religi\s & political op9ions made him obnoxi\s to ! ,*ur* & ,/ate p>ty2 & dur+ ! riots ( #agia 8 h\se 0 wreck$1 8 books & app>atus de/roy$1 & 8 life endang]$4 ,ev5tually he emigrat$ to ,am]ica1 & settl$ at ,nor?umb]l&1 :]e he di$ on ,febru>y #f?1 #ahjd1 9 ! sev5ty-fir/ ye> ( 8 age4 ,illu/ration3 ,f a draw+ by ,alex&] 9 ! ,pr9t ,room ( ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,h5ry ,cav5di% 0 born at ,nice 9 #agca1 & di$ 9 ,london 9 #ahaj4 ,he 0 a natural philosoph] 9 ! wide/ s5se ( t t]m1 & occupi$ himself 9 turn ) ne>ly e bran* ( physical sci5ce4 ,he 0 a capable a/ronom] & an excell5t ma!matician1 & he 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ to "w on ! subject ( specific heat1 & to improve ! !rmomet] & ! me?ods ( mak+ !rmometric obs]vations4 ,he also det]m9$ ! mean d5sity ( ! e>?4 ,he made accurate obs]vations on ! prop]ties ( c>bonic acid & hydrog51 greatly improv$ ! me?ods ( eudiometry1 & fir/ e/abli%$ ! practical uni=mity ( ! composition ( atmosph]ic air4 ,8 greate/ discov]y1 h[ev]1 0 8 det]m9ation ( ! composition ( wat]4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to prove t wat] is n a simple or elem5t>y sub/ance1 z suppos$ by ! anci5ts1 b is a comp\nd ( hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,9 c]ta9 ( 8 trials he f\nd t ! wat] =m$ by ! union ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 0 acid to ! ta/e2 & ! se>* = ! cause ( ?is acidity l$ him to ! discov]y ( ! composition ( nitric acid4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to make a fairly accurate analysis ( a natural wat]1 & to expla9 :at is kn[n z ! h>dness ( wat]4 ,phlogi/onism may be said to h dom9at$ *emi/ry dur+ ?ree-f\r?s ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,al?\gh radically false z a conception & ( little use 9 ! true int]pretation ( *emical ph5om5a1 x _c be said to h actually ret>d$ ! pursuit ( *emi/ry4 ,m5 w5t on work+ & accumulat+ *emical facts un9spir$ &1 = ! mo/ "p1 un9flu5c$ by x4 ,ev5 ,prie/ley1 p]haps "o ( ! mo/ cons]vative ( ! foll[]s ( ,/ahl1 reg>d$ 8 dogma ) a complac5t tol]ance2 & z its inconsi/5cies became app>5t he 0 m ?an once on ! po9t ( r5\nc+ x4 ,( "o ?+ he 0 q conv9c$1 & t 0 t ,/ahl _h greatly err$ 9 8 conception ( ! real nature ( phlogi/on4 ,p]haps ! mo/ signal diss]vice :i* phlogi/on did to *emi/ry 0 to delay ! g5]al recognition ( ,boyle's views ( ! nature ( ! elem5ts4 ,! al*emi/s1 x w be rememb]$1 reg>d$ ! metals z ess5tially comp\nd4 ,boyle 0 dispos$ to believe t !y 7 simple4 ,be*] & ,/ahl & _! foll[]s1 until ! la/ qu>t] ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 also reg>d$ !m z comp\nds1 phlogi/on be+ "o ( _! con/itu5ts4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :at we n[ "k to be comp\nds--su* z ! calces1 ! acids1 & wat] itself--7 held by ! phlogi/ians to be simple sub/ances4 ,! discov]y1 9 #aggd1 ( oxyg5--! dephlogi/icat$ air ( ,prie/ley--& ! recognition ( ! "p x plays 9 ! ph5om5a :i* phlogi/on 0 invok$ to expla91 m>k ! t]m9ation ( "o era 9 *emical hi/ory & ! beg9n+ ( ano!r4 ,be=e ent]+ ^u an acc\nt ( ! new era x is desirable to take /ock ( ! actual condition ( *emical k at ! end ( ! phlogi/ic p]iod1 & to %[ :at advances _h be5 made 9 pure & appli$ *emi/ry dur+ t "t4 ,dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury great] insight 0 ga9$ into ! op]ations ( ! =m ( en]gy ) :i* *emi/ry is ma9ly conc]n$1 & views conc]n+ *emical aff9ity & its causes began to assume m def9ite %ape1 *iefly ow+ to ! lab\rs ( ,bo]haave1 ,b]gman1 ,ge(froy1 & ,r\elle4 ,x 0 cle>ly recognis$ t ! l>ge gr\p ( sub/ances compris$ "u ! t]m 8salts0 7 comp\nd1 & made up ( two contra/$ &1 9 a s5se1 antagoni/ic con/itu5ts1 class$ g5]ically z acids & bases4 ,on ! practical side *emi/ry made consid]able progress4 ,analysis--a t]m orig9ally appli$ by ,boyle--greatly advanc$4 ,x 01 ( c\rse1 ma9ly qualitative2 b1 ?anks to ! lab\rs ( ,boyle1 ,h(fmann1 ,m>ggraf1 ,s*eele1 ,b]gman1 ,gahn1 & ,cron/$t1 c]ta9 reactions & reag5ts came to be sy/ematically appli$ to ! recognition ( *emical sub/ances1 & ! precision ) :i* ^! reag5ts 7 us$ l$ to ! detection ( hi!rto unkn[n elem5ts4 ,! beg9n+s ( a quantitative analysis 7 made ev5 be=e ! "t ( ,boyle1 b its pr9ciples 7 greatly develop$ by him1 & 7 fur!r ext5d$ by ,homb]g1 ,m>ggraf1 & ,b]gman4 ,m>ggraf accurately det]m9$ ! am\nt ( silv] *loride =m$ by add+ common salt to a solution ( a kn[n weight ( silv]1 & ,b]gman fir/ po9t$ out t e/imations ( sub/ances might be conv5i5tly made by weigh+ !m 9 ! =m ( suitably prep>$ comp\nds1 :i*1 x 0 implicitly assum$1 7 ( uni=m & con/ant composition4 ,! f\ndations ( an accurate sy/em ( gase\s analysis 7 made by ,cav5di%2 & v>i\s =ms ( physical app>atus 7 appli$ to ! s]vice ( *emi/ry4 ,to ! elem5ts :i* 7 kn[n prior to ,boyle's "t1 al?\gh n recognis$ z su*1 !re 7 add$ phosphorus 7,br&1 #affi71 nitrog5 7,ru!r=d71 *lor9e 7,s*eele1 #aggd71 manganese 7,gahn1 #aggd71 cobalt 7,br&t1 #agdb71 nickel 7,cron/$t1 #agej71 & plat9um 7,watson1 #agej74 ,b>yta 0 discov]$ by ,s*eele1 & /rontia by ,craw=d4 ,phosphoric acid 0 discov]$ by ,boyle1 & its true nature det]m9$ by ,m>ggraf2 ,cav5di% fir/ made kn[n ! composition ( nitric acid4 ,z already /at$1 ,s*eele fir/ isolat$ molybdic & tung/ic acids & det]m9$ ! exi/5ce ( a numb] ( ! organic acids 7p4 #ge74 ,o!r discov]ies--su* z ! true nature ( lime/one & magnesia alba & _! relations respectively to lime & magnesia by ,black1 ! _m gase\s sub/ances by ,prie/ley1 & ! comp\nd nature ( wat] by ,cav5di%--h already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,te*nical *emi/ry also greatly develop$ dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury1 ?anks to ! ef=ts ( ,gahn1 ,m>ggraf1 ,duhamel1 ,reaumur1 ,macqu]1 ,kunkel1 & ,hellot2 & _m important indu/rial processes--su* z ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid by ,w>d ( ,ri*mond1 & subsequ5tly by ,roebuck at ,birm+ham1 & ! ,leblanc process ( conv]sion ( common salt into alkali--_h _! orig9 dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,lavoisi] ,,& ,,la ,r,,volution ,,*imique ,we h se5 h[ *emi/ry made a new dep>ture dur+ ! political upheaval :i* occurr$ 9 ?is c\ntry ab\t ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,x acquir$ a new impetus & took a fre% c\rse dur+ ! political cataclysm :i* ov]:elm$ ,france & al>m$ ,europe t[>ds ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! in/igator & lead] ( ?is second revolution 9 *emi/ry 0 ,lavoisi]1 "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ m5 ( 8 age1 & himself a victim ( ! political fury ( 8 own p4 ,anto9e-,laur5t ,lavoisi] 0 born 9 ,p>is 9 #agdc4 ,at ! ,j>d9 du ,roi he came "u ! influ5ce ( ,r\elle1 "o ( ! be/ tea*]s ( 8 "t1 :o ev5tually %ap$ 8 c>e] z a *emi/4 ,9 #agfe he s5t to ! ,academy 8 fir/ pap] on gypsum1 :i* is notewor?y z giv+ = ! fir/ "t ! true explanation ( ! 8sett+0 ( pla/] ( ,p>is1 & ! reason :y ov]burnt gypsum w n rehydrate4 ,?ree ye>s lat] he became a memb] ( ! ,f]me-gnral--a company ( f9anci]s to :om ! ,/ate conc$$1 = a fix$ annual sum1 ! "r ( collect+ ! indirect taxes ( ! c\ntry4 ,x 0 ?is connection t br\ght ,lavoisi] to ! scaffold dur+ ! revolution ( #agid4 ,l ,/ahl1 ,lavoisi] discov]$ no new sub/ance2 b1 also l ,/ahl1 he creat$ a new epo* by de/roy+ ! philosophical sy/em :i* ,/ahl _h e/abli%$4 ,x is commonly /at$ t ! exception is a pro( ( ! rule4 ,! hi/ory ( sci5ce c %[ _m in/ances :]eby ! rule has be5 demoli%$ by ! exception4 ,little facts h kill$ big !ories1 ev5 z a pebble has sla9 a giant4 ,dur+ ! reign ( phlogi/on a few ( su* facts 7 n unkn[n--at lea/ to "s ( ! bett] in=m$ ( ,/ahl's foll[]s4 ,"s ( ! al*emi/s _h discov]$ t a metal ga9$1 n lo/1 weight by calc9ation4 ,?is 0 kn[n z f> back z ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,x _h be5 po9t$ out by ,c>dan & by ,libavius4 ,sulzba* %[$ t su* 0 ! case ) m]cury4 ,boyle prov$ x 9 ! case ( t91 & ,rey 9 t ( lead4 ,moreov]1 z k increas$ x became c]ta9 t ,/ahl's orig9al conception ( ! pr9ciple ( combu/ion z a pond]able sub/ance--he imag9$1 ) ,be*]1 t x 0 ( ! nature ( an e>?--0 n t5able4 ,! lat] phlogi/ians 7 dispos$ to reg>d x z probably id5tical ) hydrog54 ,b ev5 hydrog5 has weight1 & facts seem$ to require t phlogi/on1 if x exi/$ at all1 %\ld be devoid ( weight4 ,t[>ds ! latt] half ( ! eighte5? c5tury cle>] views began to be held conc]n+ ! relations ( atmosph]ic air to ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion & ( calc9ation2 _m half-=gott5 facts relat+ to ^! ph5om5a 7 recall$1 & ! inconsi/5cies & insuffici5cy ( phlogi/on z a dogma became gradually manife/4 ,?ree c>d9al facts conspir$ to br+ ab\t its ov]?r[--! isolation ( oxyg5 by ,prie/ley2 ! recognition by him ( ! nature ( atmosph]ic air1 & ( ! fact t "o ( its con/itu5ts is oxyg52 &1 la/ly1 ! discov]y by ,cav5di% t wat] is a comp\nd1 & t its con/itu5ts are oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,! significance ( ^! facts 0 fir/ cle>ly grasp$ by ,lavoisi]1 & to him is due ! cr$it ( _! true int]pretation4 ,by reason+ & exp]im5t he prov$ conclusively t all ord9>y ph5om5a ( burn+ are s _m in/ances ( ! comb9ation ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air ) ! combu/ible sub/ance2 t calc9ation is a process ( comb9ation ( ! oxyg5 9 ! air ) ! metal1 :i* !reby increases 9 weight by ! am\nt ( oxyg5 comb9$4 ,wat]--no long] a simple sub/ance--is =m$ by ! union1 weight = weight1 ( oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,lavoisi]'s reason+ 0 s s\nd & 8 exp]im5tal evid5ce s complete t 8 views gradually ga9$ acceptance 9 ,france4 ,! phlogi/on my? 0 ?us explod$4 ,inspir$ by ,lavoisi]1 a small b& ( ,fr5* *emi/s--,b]?ollet1 ,f\rcroy1 ,guyton de ,morveau--!reupon set to "w to remodel ! sy/em ( *emi/ry & to reca/ its nom5clature s z to elim9ate all ref]5ce to phlogi/on4 ,! v names 8oxyg510 8hydrog510 8nitrog510 correspond+ respectively to ! 8dephlogi/icat$ air10 8phlogi/on10 & 8phlogi/icat$ air0 ( ,prie/ley1 7 co9$ by ! new ,fr5* s*ool4 ,= a "t le pr9cipe oxyg9e 0 reg>d$ by ?is s*ool 9 mu* ! same relation z phlogi/on 0 reg>d$ by ,/ahl & 8 foll[]s4 ,! "o feti* 0 ex*ang$ = ! o!r4 ,! combu/ible pr9ciple--phlogi/on--0 r5\nc$ = ! acidify+ pr9ciple--oxyg54 ,! new *emi/ry = a "t c5tr$ itself r\nd oxyg51 j z ! old *emi/ry _h c5tr$ itself r\nd phlogi/on4 ,! views ( ! ,fr5* s*ool met ) no imm$iate acceptance 9 ,g]many1 ! home ( phlogi/onism1 or 9 ,sw$5 or ,engl&1 possibly ow+1 to "s ext5t1 to national prejudices4 ,! _s ( revolution1 ev5 al?\gh x might be an intellectual revolution1 _h n ext5d$ to ^! c\ntries4 ,prie/ley1 ,cav5di%1 & ,s*eele c\ld n be induc$ to accept ! new doctr9e4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 accept$ by ,black1 & its pr9ciples taught by him 9 ,ed9burgh2 & be=e ! end ( ! c5tury x _h practically supplant$ phlogi/onism 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,"s ( ^? :o1 l ,kirwan1 _h en]getically oppos$ ! new !ory end$ by en?usia/ically embrac+ x4 ,its introduction into ,g]many 0 ma9ly due to ! influ5ce ( ,klapro?4 ,we fur!r owe to ,lavoisi] ! recognition ( ! pr9ciple :i* lies at ! basis ( *emical sci5ce--! pr9ciple ( ! cons]vation ( matt]4 ,lavoisi] 0 n ! fir/ to introduce ! use ( ! balance into *emi/ry3 quantitative *emi/ry did n actually orig9ate ) him4 ,boyle1 ,black1 & ,cav5di%1 z a matt] ( fact1 prec$$ him 9 recognis+ ! importance ( /udy+ ! quantitative relations ( sub/ances4 ,nev]!less1 no "o be=e him s cle>ly =e%ad[$ ! doctr9e ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]1 & x 0 ma9ly ?r\gh 8 tea*+ t ! balance came to be recognis$ z indisp5sable to ! pursuit ( *emi/ry4 ,be=e 8 untimely dea? he _h succe$$ 9 impress+ ^u ! sci5ce ! ma9 features :i* at pres5t *>act]ise x4 ,lavoisi] 0 "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ m5 ( 8 age1 & 8 m]its z a philosoph] 7 recognis$ ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,inde$1 x is n too mu* to say t at ! "t ( 8 dea? he 0 ! dom9ant figure 9 ! *emical _w ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,9 addition to 8 position z a memb] ( ! ,f]me-gnral he 0 made by ,turgot a commission] ( ! ,rgie des ,p\dres2 & 9 ?is capacity he effect$ improvem5ts 9 ! manufacture & ref9+ ( saltpetre1 & greatly increas$ ! balli/ic prop]ties ( gunp[d]4 ,he became ,secret>y ( ! ,committee ( ,agriculture1 & drew up reports on ! cultivation ( flax1 ( ! potato1 & on ! lim+ ( :eat2 he prep>$ a s*eme = ! e/abli%m5t ( exp]im5tal f>ms1 & = ! collection & di/ribution ( agricultural implem5ts4 ,he introduc$ ! cultivation ( ! beet root 9 ! ,blesois1 & improv$ ! bre$ ( %eep by ! importation ( rams & ewes f ,spa94 ,he 0 successively memb] ( ! ,assembly ( ! ,orlanais1 ,dput supplant ( ! ,/ates-,g5]al1 & ( ! ,commune ( ,p>is4 ,9 #agia he 0 nam$ ,secret>y & ,treasur] ( ! fam\s ,commission ( ,weights & ,measures1 out ( :i* grew ! int]national sy/em1 bas$ !oretically on a natural unit1 kn[n z ! metric sy/em1 & n[ adopt$ by mo/ civilis$ c\ntries 9 ! _w4 ,he 0 n only ! adm9i/rative (fic] ( ! ,commission3 he contribut$ to ! nom5clature ( ! sy/em1 & direct$ ! det]m9ation ( ! physical con/ants on :i* ! measurem5ts re/$1 & especially ! det]m9ation ( ! weight ( ! unit volume ( wat] on :i* ! value ( ! /&>d ( mass 0 bas$4 ,la/ly he 0 ,treasur] ( ! ,fr5* ,academy until its suppression 9 #agic by ! ,conv5tion1 :i* %ortly aft]w>ds ord]$ ! arre/ ( ,lavoisi] & o!rs ( ! ,f]mi]s-gnraux--tw5ty-eight 9 all4 ,!y 7 s5t5c$ to be execut$ )9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & _! prop]ty confiscat$4 ,c(f9hal1 :o pron\nc$ _! doom1 decl>$3 8,la republique n'a pas beso9 de savants40 ,?us 9 ! fifty-fir/ ye> ( 8 age1 p]i%$ ! creator ( mod]n *emi/ry--a victim to ! s5seless1 sangu9>y fury ( ! 8,fri5ds ( ! ,p40 ,8 rectitude1 8 public s]vices1 ! purity ( 8 private life1 ! spl5d\r ( 8 sci5tific a*ievem5ts--all 7 unhe$$4 ,z ,lagrange said to ,delambre3 8,x requir$ b a mom5t to /rike (f ?is head2 a hundr$ ye>s may n suffice to reproduce su* ano!r40 ,illu/ration3 ,,lavoisi] ,,& ,,b]?ollet 9 ! ,laboratory ( ! ,sorbonne1 ,p>is4 ,( ! m5 :o 7 associat$ ) ,lavoisi] 9 ! creation ( :at 0 kn[n at ! p]iod z ! antiphlogi/ic *emi/ry1 ! mo/ em95t 0 ,b]?ollet4 ,claude-,l\is ,b]?ollet 0 born 9 ,savoy 9 #agdh1 &1 aft] a m$ical education1 became physician to ! ,duke ( ,orleans4 ,devot+ himself to *emi/ry1 9 #agha he 0 made a memb] ( ! ,academy1 & he became ,gov]nm5t ,commiss>y & ,director ( ! ,gobel9s1 ! *ief t9ctorial e/abli%m5t ( ,france4 ,al?\gh 9 ! ma9 9 agreem5t ) ,lavoisi]1 he nev] :olly subscrib$ to ! idea t all acids conta9$ oxyg54 ,he discov]$ ! blea*+ p[] ( *lor9e1 prep>$ potassium *lorate1 & inve/igat$ prussic acid & fulm9at+ silv]4 ,9 8 ,/atique ,*imique1 publi%$ 9 #ahjc1 he combat$ ! p>tial & imp]fect views ( ,b]gman & ,ge(froy ) reg>d to ! op]ation ( *emical aff9ity1 & %[$ t ! direction ( a *emical *ange is modifi$ by ! relative proportion ( ! react+ sub/ances & ! physical conditions--temp]ature1 pressure1 etc4--"u :i* ! *ange is effect$4 ,he 0 "o ( ! fir/ to draw att5tion to a class ( ph5om5a kn[n z rev]sible reactions1 & gave a numb] ( in/ances ( _! occurr5ce4 ,b]?ollet pu%$ 8 conclusions s f> t he 0 l$ to d\bt t *emical comb9ation took place 9 fix$ & def9ite proportions2 & 8 views gave rise to a memorable controv]sy betwe5 him & ,pr\/1 9 :i* ! latt] ev5tually triumph$4 ,b]?ollet enjoy$ a great reputation 9 8 "t1 & play$ a consid]able "p 9 ! political hi/ory ( 8 c\ntry4 ,x 0 l>gely to 8 zeal1 sagacity1 & skill 9 develop+ h] int]nal res\rces at a critical p]iod :5 %e 0 hemm$ r\nd by =eign troops & h] ports blockad$ by ,briti% %ips1 t ,france 0 sav$ f conque/4 ,8 life 0 m ?an once 9 jeop>dy :5 ,france 0 gov]n$ by a ,committee ( ,public ,safety2 b 8 hone/y1 s9c]ity1 & c\rage ev5 impress$ ,robespi]re1 & he escap$ ! p]ils ( ! ,great ,t]ror4 ,he 0 an intimate fri5d ( ,napoleon1 & accompani$ him to ,egypt z a memb] ( ! ,in/itute4 ,he di$ at ,arcueil 9 #ahbb4 ,davy1 :o visit$ him at 8 c\ntry h\se 9 #ahac1 says ( him3-- ,b]?ollet 0 a mo/ amiable man2 :5 ! fri5d ( ,napoleon1 ev51 always good1 conciliatory1 & mode/1 frank & c&id4 ,he _h no airs1 & _m graces4 ,9 e way bel[ ,la ,place 9 intellectual p[]s1 he appe>$ sup]ior to him 9 moral qualities4 ,b]?ollet _h no appe>ance ( a man ( g5ius2 b "o c\ld n look on ,la ,place's physiognomy )\t be+ conv9c$ t he 0 a v extraord9>y man4 ,o!r notable m5 ( ?is p]iod 7 ,f\rcroy1 ,vauquel91 ,klapro?1 & ,pr\/4 ,anto9e-,franois ,f\rcroy1 ! son ( a ph>maci/1 0 born at ,p>is 9 #agee1 & />t$ 8 c>e] z a dramatic au?or4 ,on ! advice ( ,vicq d',azir1 ! anatomi/1 he turn$ to m$ic9e1 & 9 #aghd1 by ! influ5ce ( ,buffon1 obta9$ ! *air ( ,*emi/ry at ! ,j>d9 du ,roi1 9 succession to ,macqu]4 ,he 0 an excell5t tea*]--cle>1 ord]ly1 & me?odical4 ,he _h1 inde$1 a tal5t = oratory4 ,?is he assidu\sly cultivat$1 & became "o ( ! mo/ popul> lectur]s ( 8 "t 9 ,france4 ,ambiti\s & "t-s]v+1 he became embroil$ 9 ! turbul5t politics ( ! p]iod1 &1 aft] a *equ]$ c>e]1 di$1 embitt]$ & disappo9t$1 9 ! fifty-f\r? ye> ( 8 age4 ,8 *ief s]vices to sci5ce consi/$ 9 8 works1 ,sy/me des ,connaissances ,*imiques & ,philosophie ,*imique4 ,^!1 no less ?an 8 public lectures1 did mu* to popul>ise ! doctr9es ( ,lavoisi] among 8 c\ntrym54 ,l\is ,nicolas ,vauquel91 ! son ( a ,norman peasant1 0 born 9 #agfc1 & :ile a boy became assi/ant to an apo!c>y 9 ,r\54 ,9 #aghj he came to ,p>is1 & ent]$ ,f\rcroy's laboratory4 ,mu* ( ! exp]im5tal "w publi%$ 9 ,f\rcroy's "n 0 actually done by ,vauquel94 ,he became a memb] ( ! ,academy 9 #agia1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ! ,m9+ ,s*ool1 ,assay] to ! ,m9t1 & subsequ5tly ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ! ,j>d9 des ,plantes4 ,on ,f\rcroy's dea? he 0 made ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry ( ! ,m$ical ,faculty ( ,p>is4 ,vauquel9 0 no !ori/2 he 01 h[ev]1 an excell5t practical *emi/1 & "o ( ! be/ analy/s ( ! p]iod4 ,he made a l>ge numb] ( m9]al analyses1 m p>ticul>ly = ,hauy1 ! cry/allograph]4 ,he discov]$ ! elem5t *romium 9 ! s-call$ r$-lead ore 7lead *romate7 f ,sib]ia4 ,he also fir/ made kn[n ! exi/5ce ( gluc9um 9 b]yl4 ,he describ$ a me?od ( sep>at+ ! plat9um metals1 & work$ ^u iridium & osmium4 ,he inve/igat$ ! hyposulphites1 cyanates1 & malates4 ,he discov]$ ! pres5ce ( b5zoic acid 9 ! ur9e ( animals2 ) ,robiqet1 he fir/ isolat$ asp>ag92 ) ,buniva1 allantoic acid2 & ) ,b\illon de la ,grange1 camphoric acid4 ,vauquel9 liv$ :olly = sci5ce1 & _h no o!r int]e/s ?an 9 8 laboratory4 ,he 0 p5sion$ 9 #ahbb1 & di$ at 8 bir?place--,/4 ,&r d',hb]lot--9 ! sixty-six? ye> ( 8 age4 ,m>t9 ,he9ri* ,klapro?1 born 9 #agdc at ,w]nig]ode1 9 ! ,h>tz1 began life1 l ,vauquel91 z an apo!c>y's appr5tice at ,qu$l9burg4 ,!nce he w5t to ,hanov]1 & ultimately to ,b]l91 :]e he /udi$ "u ,pott & ,m>ggraf & ent]$ ! ph>macy ( ,val5t9e ,rose1 fa!r ( ,he9ri* ,rose1 ! di/+ui%$ *emi/1 & ,gu/av ,rose1 ! m9]alogi/4 ,9 #aghh he became a memb] ( ! ,b]l9 ,academy1 &1 on ! creation ( ! ,b]l9 ,univ]sity 9 #ahji1 0 made ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry4 ,z already /at$1 he 0 ! fir/ *emi/ ( em95ce 9 ,g]many to adopt ! antiphlogi/ic !ory4 ,he 0 di/+ui%$ z an analy/4 ,he discov]$ tellurium1 analys$ pit*bl5de & uranit1 & fir/ made kn[n ! exi/5ce ( uranium1 zirconium1 & c]ium1 :i* he t]m$ 8o*roita40 ,he analys$ corundum1 & 0 an indep5d5t discov]] ( titanium & gluc9um1 t]m$ by him b]yllium4 ,he made a l>ge numb] ( analyses ( m9]als1 su* z leucite1 *rysob]yl1 hyac9?1 granite1 oliv91 wolfram1 mala*ite1 pyromorphite1 etc4 ,he cont9u$ actively at "w until 8 dea?1 9 ! sev5ty-f\r? ye> ( 8 age4 ,analytical *emi/ry is "u great obligations to ,klapro?4 ,he e/abli%$ a /&>d ( accuracy nev] be=e approa*$2 & mu* ( 8 analytical "w1 bo? z reg>ds processes & results1 is ( p]man5t value4 ,joseph ,l\is ,pr\/1 ! son ( a ph>maci/ 0 born at ,ang]s 9 #agfa4 ,he receiv$ 8 e>ly tra9+ 9 *emi/ry f 8 fa!r1 &1 aft] /udy+ "u ,r\elle 9 ,p>is1 obta9$ an appo9tm5t at ! ,salpetrire4 ,pr\/ has ! cr$it ( be+ ! fir/ *emi/ to make a balloon asc5t--9 a ,montgolfi] balloon ) ,pilatre de ,rozi]4 ,on ! invitation ( ! ,k+ ( ,spa91 he w5t to t c\ntry to sup]9t5d c]ta9 *emical manufactur+ processes4 ,he became ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ! ,univ]sity ( ,salamanca1 & subsequ5tly w5t to ,madrid1 :]e he 0 in/all$ 9 a well-equipp$ laboratory to enable him to exam9e ! m9]al ri*es ( ,spa94 ,on ! break+ out ( w> 8 "w 0 int]rupt$1 & he 0 oblig$ to leave ,madrid4 ,8 laboratory 0 completely de/roy$1 & 8 valuable collection ( app>atus & specim5s dissipat$4 ,?r\gh ! good (fices ( ,b]?ollet1 ,pr\/ 0 (f]$ a consid]able sum ( money by ,napoleon 9 ord] to induce him to turn 8 discov]y ( grape sug> to practical acc\nt4 ,pr\/ 01 h[ev]1 too brok5 9 heal? to und]take ! "w ( a factory manag]1 & he retir$ to ,may5ce4 ,on ! re/oration ( ! ,mon>*y he 0 made a memb] ( ! ,fr5* ,academy1 8 honor>ium z an ,academician be+ augm5t$ by a p5sion f ,l\is ,,xviii4 ,he di$ 9 #ahbf1 :ile on a visit to ,ang]s1 8 native place4 ,pr\/ is ! discov]] ( :at is n[ /yl$ 8! law ( con/ant proportion10 :i* /ates t ! same body is inv>iably compos$ ( ! same elem5ts1 unit$ 9 ! same proportion4 ,he 0 a skilful analy/1 & made num]\s analyses ( m9]als2 & he 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ to und]take a sy/ematic /udy ( metallic salts ( organic acids4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,atomic ,,!ory ,! op5+ ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 7 made memorable by ! promulgation ( ! atomic !ory by ,john ,dalton4 ,! enunciation ( ?is !ory1 :i* af=ds a simple & adequate explanation ( ! fundam5tal laws ( *emical comb9ation1 m>ks an epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry4 ,x may be desirable to trace1 z briefly z possible1 ! successive /eps :i* l$ up to ! g5]alisation :i* m ?an any o!r has s]v$ to /amp *emi/ry z an exact sci5ce4 ,t matt] 0 discrete--t is1 t x 0 n cont9u\s1 b 0 compos$ ( ultimate p>ticles--01 z already /at$1 imag9$ by ! anci5ts1 & 0 "p ( ! philosophy ( ,leukippus1 ,demokritus1 & ,leucretius4 ,b ?is supposition1 al?\gh fav\r$ by ,newton & o!r ?9k]s1 _h little or no sci5tific basis prior to ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,f t "t onw>d a v>iety ( *emical facts gradually accumulat$1 _m ( :i* at ! "t ( _! discov]y _h no obvi\s connection ) pre-exi/+ facts4 ,x 0 res]v$ = ,dalton to po9t out h[ an ext5sion & m precise def9ition ( ! old doctr9e w\ld suffice to connect & expla9 !m4 ,! fir/ g]m ( an atomic !ory bas$ on *emical fact may be trac$ 9 ! obs]vation ( ,toburn ,b]gmann 7b4 #agce1 d4 #aghd71 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ,upsala1 t neutral solutions ( c]ta9 metals 9 contact ) o!r metals gave a precipitate )\t ! neutrality ( ! solution be+ di/urb$1 & )\t gas be+ evolv$4 ,"o metal _h simply replac$ ! o!r 9 solution4 ,b]gmann ?us incid5tally discov]$ ! fact ( ! *emical equival5ce ( metals4 ,he 0 ( op9ion1 h[ev]1 t ! ph5om5on meant a transf]5ce ( phlogi/on f "o metal to ano!r1 & t ! process might be made a mode ( det]m9+ ! relative am\nt ( phlogi/on 9 v>i\s metals4 ,lavoisi] ext5d$ ,b]gmann's obs]vations1 & s\ght to %[1 9 effect1 t ! process af=d$ a means ( det]m9+ ! am\nts ( ! sev]al metals :i* comb9$ ) "o & ! same quantity ( oxyg54 ,b nei!r ,b]gmann nor ,lavoisi] really grasp$ ! idea ( equival5ce z we und]/& x to-day4 ,x began to be appreciat$ z ! result ( ! "w ( ,j]emiah ,b5jam9 ,ri*t] 7b4 #agfb1 d4 #ahjg7 & ( ,g4 ,e4 ,fis*] on ! mutual action ( salts 9 solutions1 & on ! det]m9ations ( ! am\nts ( acid & bases :i* respectively comb9e ) "o ano!r4 ,me?ods ( measurem5t ( ! proportions 9 :i* sub/ances comb9e 7 gr\p$ by ,ri*t] "u ! t]m ,/o*iometry4 ,h[ev] desirable x may be 9 ! int]e/s ( hi/ory to indicate ! sequ5ce ( ! surmises & facts :i* prec$$ ! =mulation ( ! atomic !ory1 x is v d\btful :e!r ,dalton 01 to any mat]ial ext5t1 influ5c$ by !m4 ,a self-educat$ man ( l[ly orig91 /urdily indep5d5t & highly orig9al1 he 0 accu/om$ to rely ^u 8 own faculty ( obs]vation & exp]im5t = 8 facts1 & ^u 8 own intellectual p[]s & m5tal en]gy = _! int]pretation4 ,john ,dalton1 ! son ( a ,quak] h&-loom weav]1 0 born at ,eaglesfield1 9 ,cumb]l&1 9 #agff4 ,:ile /ill a boy he took to s*ool-tea*+1 & acquir$1 9 8 leisure & by 8 own ex]tions1 a compet5t k ( ma!matics & physical sci5ce4 ,9 #agic he 0 call$ to give in/ruction 9 ma!matics1 natural philosophy1 & *emi/ry at ! ,man*e/] ,new ,college1 ! ,noncon=mi/ academy--n[ mov$ f ,w>r+ton--9 :i* ,prie/ley _h =m]ly lectur$4 ,"h he rema9$ six ye>s1 leav+ ! college to take up an indep5d5t position z a private tutor1 s z to enable him ! m freely to pursue 8 sci5tific inquiries4 ,9 #ahjj he became ,secret>y ( ! ,philosophical ,society ( ,man*e/]1 & rema9$ connect$1 z an (ficial1 ) t in/itution until 8 dea? 9 #ahdd4 ,! great] numb] ( 8 sci5tific communications 7 publi%$ by t society4 ,9 ! outset ( 8 sci5tific c>e] he 0 attract$ to meteorology2 & x 0 probably its problems :i* l$ him 9 ! fir/ place to exp]im5t1 & to speculate on ! physical con/itution ( gases4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! obs]vations he 0 l$ to ! discov]y ( ! law ( !rmal expansion ( gases1 ) :i* 8 "n is n[ g5]ally associat$4 ,8 speculations conc]n+ ! physical con/itution ( gase\s sub/ances1 aris+ f ! contemplation ( gase\s ph5om5a1 l$ him to ! conception t a gas is compos$ ( p>ticles t repel "o ano!r ) a =ce decreas+ z ! di/ance ( _! c5tres f ea* o!r2 & x is probable t 9 ?is mann] he famili>is$ himself ) ! idea ( ! exi/5ce ( atoms4 ,8 fir/ insight into ! laws ( ! *emical comb9ation ( ^! atoms seems to h orig9at$ f 8 discov]y t1 :5 two sub/ances unite 9 diff]5t proportions1 ^! proportions may be express$ 9 simple multiples ( :ole numb]s4 ,?us he f\nd1 on exam9+ ! composition ( m>% gas & ( e?yl5e1 bo? hydroc>bons1 t = ! same weight ( hydrog5 !re 0 twice ! am\nt ( c>bon 9 e?yl5e t !re 0 9 m>% gas4 ,he !n exam9$ ! oxides ( nitrog51 & f\nd a simil> regul>ity to hold good 9 ^! comp\nds4 ,"s "t prior to ! autumn ( #ahjc ,dalton 0 l$ to ! supposition t ^! regul>ities c\ld be satisfactorily expla9$ by ! assumption t matt] is compos$ ( atoms hav+ sizes & weights diff]+ ) ea* sub/ance1 b ( id5tical weight & size = any p>ticul> sub/ance1 & t *emical comb9ation consi/s 9 ! approximation ( ^! atoms4 ,?is simple hypo!sis expla9$ all ! facts !n kn[n4 ,x expla9$ ! con/ancy 9 ! *emical composition ( sub/ances1 :i* may be said to h be5 e/abli%$ by ,pr\/1 & :i* is n[ =mulat$ z ! ,law ( ,con/ant ,proportion--t ! same body is inv>iably compos$ ( ! same elem5ts1 unit$ 9 ! same proportion4 ,x expla9$ also ! fact discov]$ by ,dalton t1 :5 an elem5t unites ) ano!r 9 diff]5t proportions1 ! high] proportions are multiples ( ! l[e/--n[ =mulat$ z ! ,law ( ,multiple ,proportion4 ,x fur!r expla9$ ! fact1 :i* may be said to h be5 =e%ad[$ by ,ri*t]1 t :5 two bodies1 ,a & ,b1 sep>ately comb9e ) a ?ird body1 ,c1 ! proportions ( ,a & ,b :i* unite ) ,c are measures or multiples ( ! proportions 9 :i* ,a & ,b comb9e toge!r4 ,?is is kn[n z ! ,law ( ,reciprocal ,proportion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,john ,,dalton4 ,f a pa9t+ by ,b4 ,r4 ,faulkn] 9 ! possession ( ! ,royal ,society ,dalton's !ory 0 fir/ made g5]ally kn[n by ,?omas ,?omson1 9 ! ?ird edition ( 8 ,sy/em ( ,*emi/ry1 publi%$ 9 #ahjg1 & 0 employ$ by ,?omson 9 8 pap] on 8,! ,oxalates ( ,/rontium10 publi%$ ! same ye> 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,! fir/ pr9t$ acc\nt by ,dalton himself is conta9$ 9 ,"p ,i4 ( 8 ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy1 publi%$ 9 #ahjh1 ! sub/ance ( :i* _h be5 previ\sly giv5 9 a c\rse ( lectures at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 ,london1 & subsequ5tly repeat$ 9 ,ed9burgh & ,glasg[4 ,! /atem5t ( 8 !ory is conta9$ 9 *apt] iii4 ( ?is "w1 "u ! head+ 8,( ,*emical ,syn!sis10 & is accompani$ by a plate & explanation1 ( :i* a facsimile is giv5 on pp4 #acj-a4 ,! facts ^u :i* ,dalton bas$ 8 !ory are incontrov]tible2 b ,dalton's explanation ( !m 0 n univ]sally accept$ at ! "t he gave x4 ,davy1 :o1 ( c\rse1 0 famili> ) ! conception ( atoms z "p ( ! ,newtonian philosophy1 object$ to ! t]m 8atomic weight0 introduc$ by ,dalton1 & sugge/$ ! expression 8comb9+ proportion02 & ,wolla/on1 = simil> reasons1 propos$ ! t]m 8equival5t10 z d5ot+ ! con/ant quantity ) :i* bodies w5t 9 & out ( comb9ation4 ,!re is no d\bt t ! use ( ^! t]ms ret>d$ ! g5]al acceptance ( ,dalton's doctr9e1 &1 moreov]1 br\ght into ! sci5ce a confusion :i* 0 n f9ally dispell$1 z we %all see1 until dur+ ! second half ( ! c5tury4 ,illu/ration3 ,,elem5ts ,simple ,b9>y ,t]n>y ,quat]n>y ,qu9qu5>y ,sext5>y ,sept5>y ,! illu/ration on ! prec$+ page conta9s ! arbitr>y m>ks or signs *os5 to repres5t ! sev]al *emical elem5ts or ultimate p>ticles4 ,fig4 #a4 ,hydro4 its rel4 weight #a #b4 ,azote #e #c4 ,c>bone or *>coal #e #d4 ,oxyg5 #g #e4 ,phosphorus #i #f4 ,sulphur #ac #g4 ,magnesia #bj #h4 ,lime #bc #i4 ,soda #bh #aj4 ,pota% #db #aa4 ,/rontites #df #ab4 ,b>ytes #fh #ac4 ,iron #ch #ad4 ,z9c #ef #ae4 ,copp] #ef #af4 ,lead #ie #ag4 ,silv] #ajj #ah4 ,plat9a #ajj #ai4 ,gold #adj #bj4 ,m]cury #afg #ba4 ,an atom ( wat] or /eam1 compos$ ( #a ( oxyg5 & #a ( hydrog51 reta9$ 9 physical contact by a /rong aff9ity1 & suppos$ to be surr\nd$ by a common atmosph]e ( heat2 its relative weight #h #bb4 ,an atom ( ammonia1 compos$ ( #a ( azote & #a ( hydrog5 #f #bc4 ,an atom ( nitr\s gas1 compos$ ( #a ( azote & #a ( oxyg5 #ab #bd4 ,an atom ( olefiant gas1 compos$ ( #a ( c>bone & #a ( hydrog5 #f #be4 ,an atom ( c>bonic oxide compos$ ( #a ( c>bone & #a ( oxyg5 #ab #bf4 ,an atom ( nitr\s oxide1 #b azote #a oxyg5 #ag #bg4 ,an atom ( nitric acid1 #a azote #b oxyg5 #ai #bh4 ,an atom ( c>bonic acid1 #a c>bone #b oxyg5 #ai #bi4 ,an atom ( c>burett$ hydrog51 #a c>bone #b hydrog5 #g #cj4 ,an atom ( oxynitric acid1 #a azote #c oxyg5 #bf #ca4 ,an atom ( sulphuric acid1 #a sulphur #c oxyg5 #cd #cb4 ,an atom ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 #a sulphur #c hydrog5 #af #cc4 ,an atom ( alcohol1 #c c>bone #a hydrog5 #af #cd4 ,an atom ( nitr\s acid1 #a nitric acid #a nitr\s gas #ca #ce4 ,an atom ( acet\s acid1 #b c>bone #b wat] #bf #cf4 ,an atom ( nitrate ( ammonia1 #a nitric acid #a ammonia #a wat] #cc #cg4 ,an atom ( sug>1 #a alcohol #a c>bonic acid #ce ,dalton's e/imations ( ! relative weights ( ! atoms1 or1 to use ,davy's phrase1 ! values ( _! comb9+ proportions1 71 z might be expect$1 v r\gh approximations to ! tru?4 ,?is arose p>tly f inadequate exp]im5tal data1 & p>tly f unc]ta9ty z to ! relative numb] ( ! con/itu5t atoms :i* made up a comp\nd4 ,nei!r ,dalton nor 8 imm$iate successors _h any rational or consi/5t me?od ( det]m9+ ! latt] po9t4 ,! view tak5 ( ! composition ( ! comp\nd decid$ :at p>ticul> multiples or sub-multiples ( ! values ( ! atomic weights ( its con/itu5ts 7 to be adopt$4 ,z ,dalton1 9 _m cases1 _h no real crit]ion to guide him1 he made ! simple/ possible assumptions2 b ^! might or might n be valid2 & subsequ5t exp]i5ce %[$ t 9 "s cases !y 7 errone\s4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 g5]ally recognis$ t ^! atomic weights1 comb9+ proportions1 or equival5ts1 z !y 7 = a "t indiff]5tly t]m$1 7 *emical con/ants ( ! highe/ importance1 bo? to ! sci5tific *emi/1 :o1 ap>t f _! !oretic int]e/1 _h ne$ ( !m 9 ! c\rse ( quantitative analysis1 & to ! manufactur+ *emi/1 :o requir$ !m = ! intellig5t ex]cise ( 8 op]ations2 & accord+ly a numb] ( *emi/s1 v %ortly aft] ! promulgation ( ,dalton's !ory1 attempt$ to det]m9e _! values ) all possible precision4 ,*ief among ^! 0 ! ,sw$i% *emi/ ,b]zelius1 to :om sci5ce 0 indebt$ = a s]ies ( e/imations ( atomic weights1 :i* 7 long reg>d$ z models ( quantitative accuracy1 & /amp$ _! au?or z ! greate/ ma/] ( det]m9ative *emi/ry ( 8 age4 ,jns ,jakob ,b]zelius1 ! son ( a s*oolma/]1 0 born ne> ,l9kp+1 9 ,ea/ ,go?l&1 ,sw$51 9 #aggi4 ,ent]+ ,upsala ) a view to ! pr(ession ( m$ic9e1 he 0 attract$1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,afzelius--or1 r1 9 spite ( x--to ! /udy ( *emi/ry1 &1 lat]1 ( voltaic electricity1 !n 9 its infancy4 ,:ile hold+ a numb] ( m9or appo9tm5ts z a tea*] ( m$ic9e1 ph>macy1 physics1 & *emi/ry1 he 0 elect$1 9 #ahjh1 a memb] ( ! ,sw$i% ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ( :i* he became ,presid5t 9 #ahaj4 ,9 #ahah he 0 made p]man5t ,secret>y ( ! ,academy1 &1 by means ( a ye>ly subsidy1 0 enabl$ to devote himself :olly to exp]im5tal sci5ce4 ,he 0 ennobl$ 9 #ahah1 & on ! occasion ( 8 m>riage1 9 #ahce1 0 creat$ a b>on ( ! ,sc&9avian k+dom4 ,he di$ 9 #ahdh4 ,b]zelius occupies a pre-em95t position 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry1 & dur+ a consid]able portion ( 8 lifetime ex]cis$ an almo/ unassailable au?ority z a *emical philosoph]4 ,he is di/+ui%$ z an exp]im5t]1 z a discov]]1 z a critic & int]pret]1 & z a lawgiv]4 ,8 contributions to *emical k range ov] e dep>tm5t ( ! sci5ce4 ,he %>es ) ,davy ! hon\r ( hav+ e/abli%$ ! fundam5tal laws ( electro-*emi/ry4 ,8 exp]im5tal "w on ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts--! great "w ( 8 life--0 ( supreme importance at ?is p>ticul> p]iod ( ! developm5t ( *emi/ry3 x s]v$ n only to give precision to1 & enhance ! significance & value (1 ,dalton's g5]alisation1 b x furni%$ *emi/s1 = ! fir/ "t1 ) a set ( con/ants1 asc]ta9$ ) ! highe/ exactitude ( :i* op]ative *emi/ry 0 !n capable1 !reby contribut+ to ! expansion ( quantitative analysis1 & to a m exact k ( ! composition ( sub/ances4 ,b]zelius1 inde$1 0 an analy/ ( ! fir/ rank--consci5ti\s1 pati5t1 & pa9/ak+2 an +5i\s & skilful manipulator2 inv5tive & res\rceful4 ,:at det]m9ative *emi/ry owes to 8 lab\rs1 & n less to 8 example1 is obvi\s f ev5 ! mo/ sup]ficial exam9ation ( its lit]ature dur+ ! fir/ ?ird ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,z a discov]]1 ,b]zelius fir/ made kn[n ! exi/5ce ( c]ium 7#ahjc71 ( sel5ium 7#ahah71 & ( ?orium 7#ahbh72 & he prep>$ & inve/igat$ a l>ge numb] ( _! comb9ations4 ,he isolat$ silicon 7#ahbc71 zirconium 7#ahbd71 tantalum 7#ahbd71 & /udi$ ! comp\nds ( vanadium1 discov]$ by 8 c\ntryman ,sef/rm4 ,he l>gely ext5d$ our k ( gr\ps ( sub/ances 9 :i* sulphur replaces oxyg52 inve/igat$ comp\nds ( fluor9e 7#ahbd71 plat9um 7#ahbh71 & tellurium 7#ahca-ahcc71 & made _m analyses ( m9]als1 meteorites1 & m9]al-wat]s4 ,he discov]$ racemic acid & inve/igat$ ! f]rocyanides4 ,x 0 8 inve/igation ( racemic acid--:i* has ! same p]c5tage composition z t>t>ic acid--t fir/ enabl$ him to grasp ! conception ( isom]ism1 a t]m :i* we owe to him1 & ( metam]ism & polym]ism4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to /udy ! ph5om5a ( contact-actions1 :i* he compreh5d$ "u ! t]m catalysis4 ,illu/ration3 ,j,,ns ,,jakob ,,b]zelius4 ,f a pa9t+ by ,j4 ,g4 ,s&b]g4 ,z an au?or 8 lit]>y activity 0 a/oni%+4 ,8 new sy/em ( m9]alogy m>ks an epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( t bran* ( sci5ce4 ,8 text-book on *emi/ry 0 long ! lead+ manual1 & w5t ?r\gh _m editions1 be+ con/antly revis$ by him4 ,8 annual reports on ! progress ( physics & *emi/ry ext5d$ to tw5ty-sev5 volumes & con/itute a monum5t to 8 indu/ry1 ?or\ghness1 p]spicacity1 & critical ability4 ,al?\gh hold+ no univ]sity appo9tm5t1 & ) a laboratory ( ! mo/ mode/ dim5sions & "*1 ,b]zelius1 ex]cis$ great influ5ce z a tea*]4 ,"s ( ! mo/ notable *emi/s ( ! la/ c5tury1 su* z ,he9ri* & ,gu/av ,rose1 ,dulong1 ,mits*]li*1 ,whl]1 ,*r4 ,gmel91 & ,mos&]1 7 among 8 pupils2 & _m ( !m h te/ifi$ to 8 /imulat+ p[] z an inve/igator ( nature1 & to 8 m]its z a wor?y1 g5ial man4 ,! reasonabl5ess ( ,dalton's conjecture receiv$ fur!r support f ! discov]y by ,gay ,lussac 9 #ahjh1 t gases always comb9e 9 simple proportions by volume1 & t ! volume ( ! gase\s product =m$1 :5 measur$ "u comp>able conditions ( temp]ature & pressure1 /&s 9 a simple relation to ! volumes ( ! con/itu5ts4 ,! law ( pressure discov]$ by ,boyle1 t ( !rmal expansion by ,dalton1 & ( volumes by ,gay ,lussac 7:i*1 x ought to be /at$1 0 previ\sly & indep5d5tly made by ,dalton71 are expla9$ on ! assumption t equal numb]s ( ! p>ticles--ei!r z simple p>ticles or z comp\nd p>ticles--are pres5t 9 ! same volume ( ! gas4 ,?is me?od ( explanation 0 fir/ cle>ly /at$ by ! ,italian physici/ ,avogadro 9 #ahaa1 b its significance1 z w be se5 subsequ5tly1 0 n appreciat$ until half a c5tury lat]4 ,z ! values = ! atomic weights gradually became m exact1 speculations arose z to ! significance ( ! num]ical relations :i* 7 obs]v$ to exi/ among !m4 ,9 #ahae ,william ,pr\t ?rew out ! supposition t ! atomic weights ( ! gase\s elem5ts are multiples by :ole numb]s ( t ( hydrog54 ,ext5d$ into a g5]alisation1 ?is might be held to indicate t all k9ds ( matt] are s _m =ms ( a primordial sub/ance4 ,subsequ5t inquiry %[$ t ,pr\t's 8,law10 z x is sometimes call$1 0 n t5able 9 its orig9al =m4 ,c]ta9 elem5ts1 x 0 conclusively prov$1 _h atomic weights :i* 7 n :ole numb]s4 ,dumas subsequ5tly modifi$ ! law1 aft] a r$et]m9ation ( a l>ge numb] ( atomic weights1 by assum+ t ! sub/ance common to ! s-call$ elem5ts _h a l[] atomic weight ?an unity4 ,al?\gh !re are a consid]able numb] ( elem5ts ^: atomic weights1 bas$ ^u ! mo/ accurate det]m9ations1 are rem>kably close to :ole numb]s1 ! inve/igations ( ,/as & o!rs af=d no valid reason = believ+ t ,pr\t's hypo!sis1 & ! und]ly+ supposition to :i* x has be5 held to po9t1 are ju/ifi$ by exp]im5tal evid5ce4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,! ,,beg9n+s ,,( ,,electro-,,*emi/ry ,! fir/ ye> ( ! n9ete5? c5tury is fur!r memorable on acc\nt ( ! inv5tion ( ! voltaic pile1 & by reason ( its application by ,william ,ni*olson & ,sir ,an?ony ,c>lisle to ! electrolytic decomposition ( wat]4 ,?is mode ( resolv+ wat] into its con/itu5ts made a great s5sation at ! "t1 ma9ly because ( ! extraord9>y me?od by :i* x 0 effect$4 ,x af=d$ an indep5d5t & unlook$-= pro( ( ! comp\nd nature ( wat] by a me?od altoge!r diff]+ 9 pr9ciple f t by :i* its composition _h be5 previ\sly asc]ta9$4 ,! =mation ( wat] by ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 br\ght no conviction ( its real nature to a confirm$ phlogi/ian l ,prie/ley2 & x is ev5 d\btful :e!r ,cav5di% ev] fully realis$ ! true significance ( 8 great discov]y4 ,b ! fact t ! quantitative results ( ! analysis ?us effect$ 7 id5tical ) ^? ( its syn!sis1 z made by ,cav5di% & ,lavoisi]1 admitt$ ( only "o int]pretation4 ,?is c>d9al discov]y may be said to h complet$ ! d[nfall ( phlogi/on4 ,! value ( ! voltaic pile z an analytical ag5t 0 n[h]e m quickly appreciat$ ?an 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ! h&s ( ,humphry ,davy its application to ! analysis ( ! alkalis & alkal9e e>?s l$ to discov]ies ( ! greate/ magnitude4 ,humphry ,davy 0 born 9 ,p5zance 9 #aggh4 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8 /udies = ! pr(ession ( m$ic9e he 0 attract$ to *emi/ry2 & he became *emical assi/ant to ,dr4 ,b$does1 a =m] tea*] ( *emi/ry at ,ox=d1 b !n liv+ at ,clifton1 ne> ,bri/ol4 ,:ile 9 ! capacity ( assi/ant & op]ator 9 ,b$does's ,pneumatical ,in/itute1 ,davy discov]$ ! intoxicat+ prop]ties ( nitr\s oxide 7s call$ laugh+ gas71 :i* br\ght him into prom95ce & l$ to 8 engagem5t by ! manag]s ( ! newly-creat$ ,royal ,in/itution 9 ,london z lectur] 9 *emi/ry 9 succession to ,g>nett4 ,he e>ly began to exp]im5t on galvanism1 & soon succe$$ 9 develop+ ! fundam5tal laws ( electro-*emi/ry2 & 9 #ahjg he effect$ ! decomposition ( pota% & soda by ! application ( voltaic electricity--!reby e/abli%+1 :at inde$ _h be5 surmis$ previ\sly1 t ! alkalis are comp\nd sub/ances4 ,he subsequ5tly prov$ t ?is 0 also ! case ) ! alkal9e e>?s4 ,davy ?us add$ "s five or six metallic elem5ts to ^? already kn[n4 ,^! discov]ies1 p]haps ! mo/ brilliant ( _! "t1 af=d$ additional evid5ce ( ! invalidity ( ,lavoisi]'s assumption t oxyg51 z ! "n implies1 0 ! 8pr9ciple ( acidity40 ,! surmise1 9 fact1 0 already disprov$ by ! case ( wat]--a neutral sub/ance & devoid ( all ! recognis$ attributes ( an acid4 ,x 0 /ill fur!r disprov$ by ! cases ( pota% & soda--/rongly alkal9e comp\nds4 ,additional evid5ce 0 adduc$ by ,davy 9 demon/rat+1 9 #ahaj1 t ! s-call$ oxymuriatic acid1 ! dephlogi/icat$ m>9e acid discov]$ by ,s*eele1 conta9$ no oxyg51 b 0 a simple1 indivisible sub/ance4 ,= ! old designation1 :i* connot$ a comp\nd body1 he sub/itut$ ! "n *lor9e1 9 allusion to ! *>act]i/ic col\r ( ! elem5t4 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8 inve/igation on ?is sub/ance he discov]$ ! p5ta- & tri*loride ( phosphorus1 *lorophosphamide & *lor9e p]oxide4 ,he 0 also ! discov]] ( tellurett$ hydrog5 & an indep5d5t discov]] ( nitrosulphonic acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sir ,,humphry ,,davy4 ,f a pa9t+ by ,lawr5ce 9 ! possession ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,he work$ on iod9e & ! iodates1 on ! diamond1 on ! s-call$ fum+ liquor ( ,cadet1 on nitrog5 *loride1 & on ! pigm5ts ( ! anci5ts4 ,la/ly1 he inv5t$ ! m9]'s safety lamp1 ) :i* 8 "n w always be associat$1 effect+ !reby :at 0 practically a revolution 9 coal-m9+4 ,he became ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society 9 #ahbj1 & di$ at ,g5eva on ,may #bi?1 #ahbi1 9 ! fifty-fir/ ye> ( 8 age4 ,davy 0 a s+ul>ly gift$ man1 ( great m5tal vig\r & imag9ative p[]2 quick1 lively & +5i\s2 an eloqu5t tea*] & a d>+ & brilliant exp]im5t]4 ,ano!r notewor?y "n 9 ! *emical hi/ory ( ?is p]iod is ,wolla/on4 ,william ,hyde ,wolla/on1 born at ,ea/ ,d]eham1 9 ,norfolk1 9 #agff1 0 educat$ at ,cambridge ) a view to ! pr(ession ( m$ic9e1 b1 fail+ to secure a practice1 he devot$ himself to ! pursuit ( sci5ce1 & especially to optics & *emi/ry4 ,he devis$ a me?od ( work+ plat9um1 & 0 ! fir/ to make kn[n ! exi/5ce ( palladium & rhodium4 ,he 0 "o ( ! mo/ +5i\s & acute analy/s ( 8 "t1 & possess$ rem>kable inv5tive p[]s4 ,he inve/igat$ ! nature ( ur9>y calculi & *alk /ones4 ,8 pap] on ! oxalates ( pota% 0 ( great s]vice at ! "t z a demon/ration ( ! law ( multiple proportions4 ,he fir/ drew att5tion to ! exi/5ce 9 ! sol> spectrum ( :at 7 subsequ5tly t]m$ ! ,fraunh(] l9es2 & he inv5t$ ! reflect+ goniomet] & ! cam]a lucida1 & a slide rule = *emical calculations4 ,he resembl$ ,cav5di% 9 temp]am5t & m5tal habitudes1 &1 l him1 0 di/+ui%$ = ! range & exactitude ( 8 sci5tific k1 8 habitual caution1 & 8 cold & res]v$ disposition4 ,he di$ 9 #ahbh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,william ,,hyde ,,wolla/on4 ,f a pa9t+ by ,j4 ,jackson1 ,r4,a41 9 ! possession ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,almo/ imm$iately aft] ! publication ( ,volta's discov]y attempts 7 made--notably by ,b]zelius 9 ,sw$5 & by ,davy 9 ,engl&--to prove t electrical & *emical ph5om5a are correlat$ & mutually dep5d5t4 ,?is assumption 0 m fully work$ out by ,b]zelius 9 #ahab1 & x s]v$ z ! basis ( a *emical sy/em :i* ex]cis$ consid]able influ5ce on *emical doctr9e dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,b]zelius assum$ t electric pol>ity 0 an attribute ( all atoms--t ^! 7 bipol>1 9 fact1 b t 9 !m ei!r positive or negative electricity pr$om9at$4 ,h5ce ! elem5ts 7 capable ( be+ divid$ into two classes--t is1 positive or negative1 dep5d+ ^u ! excess ( ei!r *>ge4 ,:i* ( ! electricities pr$om9at$ might be asc]ta9$ by det]m9+ ! p>ticul> pole at :i* ! elem5t 0 sep>at$ on electrolysis4 ,comb9ations ( dissimil> elem5ts--or1 9 o!r words1 *emical comp\nds--7 also end[$ ) pol>ity4 ,! *emical aff9ities ( elem5ts & comp\nds 7 relat$ to ! excess ( ei!r k9d ( electricity resid5t 9 !m2 & *emical comb9ation result$ f1 & 0 a consequ5ce (1 ! m or less p]fect neutralisation ( ! two k9ds4 ,f a /udy ( ! electrical deportm5t ( ! elem5ts ,b]zelius s\ght to arrange !m 9 s]ies1 />t+ ) oxyg5 z ! mo/ electro-negative memb]4 ,^! conceptions 7 employ$ by him z ! basis ( a me?od ( classification4 ,! attempt is hi/orically int]e/+ z be+ ! fir/ sy/ematic endeav\r to ga9 an insight into ! con/itution ( *emical comp\nds--t is1 to det]m9e ! mann] 9 :i* ! con/itu5t atoms are gr\p$ or arrang$ ) respect to "o ano!r1 or1 9 o!r words1 to di/+ui% betwe5 ! empirical & ! rational composition ( sub/ances1 :i* is ! ultimate aim ( mod]n *emi/ry4 ,a necess>y consequ5ce ( ^! views 0 t e comp\nd 0 to be consid]$ z made up ( two p>ts 9 electrically diff]5t /ates4 ,?us b>yta1 consi/$ ( a comb9ation ( ! electro-positive b>ium1 comb9$ ) ! electro-negative oxyg52 x comb9$ ) sulphuric oxide because ! prepond]at+ positive electricity x conta9$ met ) ! negative electricity :i* prevail$ 9 ! sulphuric oxide4 ,g5]alis+1 x may be said t ! basic oxides are inv>iably ! positive con/itu5ts ( salts1 :]eas ! acid oxides are ! negative con/itu5ts1 z prov$ by ! mode 9 :i* ! two k9ds ( oxides sep>at$ at ! poles on electrolysis4 ,b>ium sulphate1 !n1 0 to be reg>d$ z made up ( two entities--,ba,o & ,,s#c--;& h5ce 0 to be call$ sulphate ( b>yta4 ,b]zelius ext5d$ ?is conception 9 ord] to expla9 ! =mation ( d\ble salts--su*1 = example1 z pota% alum1 :i* he reg>d$ z a b9>y comp\nd ( positive potassium sulphate & negative alum9ium sulphate1 ea* ( :i*1 9 its turn1 c\ld be resolv$ into an acidic & a basic oxide ( opposite electricities4 ,! duali/ic notions ( ,b]zelius l$ him to ! con/ruction ( a sy/em ( *emical nom5clature & notation :i*1 9 its ma9 features1 has p]si/$ to ?is day1 & is univ]sally curr5t1 ) c]ta9 modifications1 9 mod]n *emical lit]ature4 ,we owe to him ! gr\p+ ( ! elem5ts into metals & metalloids1 & also our pres5t sy/em ( symbolic notation1 :]eby ev5 complicat$ *emical reactions may be express$ 9 a concise & intelligible mann]4 ,*emical symbols 7 us$ by ! al*emi/s2 b ,b]zelius fir/ sugge/$ t a *emical symbol %\ld n only repres5t ! elem5t to :i* x ref]s1 b also its relative atomic weight4 ,*emical equations became quantitative z well z qualitative expressions ( ! facts !y d5ote4 ,su* equations implicitly assum$ t1 to use ,davy's words1 *emi/ry _h pass$ "u ! dom9ion ( ! ma!matical sci5ces4 ,pr(ess$ ma!maticians 71 h[ev]1 sl[ to recognise t ! ph5om5a ( *emical action 7 capable ( =mal ma!matical treatm5t4 ,davy relates t on speak+ to ,laplace ( ! atomic !ory 9 *emi/ry1 & express+ 8 belief t ! sci5ce w\ld ultimately be ref]r$ to ma!matical laws simil> to ^? he _h s pr(\ndly & successfully e/abli%$ ) respect to ! me*anical prop]ties ( matt]1 ! idea 0 treat$ 9 a tone bord]+ on contempt4 ,b]zelius's electro-*emical sy/em1 & ! duali/ic ideas associat$ ) x1 7 ( consid]able s]vice :5 appli$ to ! inorganic bran* ( ! sci5ce2 b attempts to fit !m to ! facts ( organic *emi/ry1 :i* began to accumulate rapidly aft] ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! c5tury1 fail$4 ,its inadequacy z a compreh5sive g5]alisation became m & m manife/1 & x ev5tually fell4 ,9 fact1 x may be said to h receiv$ its dea?-bl[ by ,davy's discov]y ( ! elem5t>y nature ( *lor9e1 & by ! recognition ( ! fact t ! acids d n necess>ily conta9 oxyg54 ,davy &1 lat]1 ,dulong made x obvi\s t1 if any "o elem5t 0 to be reg>d$ z ! acidify+ pr9ciple1 x 0 hydrog51 & n oxyg52 &1 9 a s5se1 ?is view ultimately prevail$ 9 ! recognition ( ! acids z salts ( hydrog54 ,9 ,france ! /udy ( electro-*emi/ry 0 und]tak5 by ,gay ,lussac & ,?n>d1 l>gely ow+ to ! action ( ! ,emp]or ,napoleon1 :o furni%$ ! funds = ! con/ruction ( a p[]ful galvanic batt]y4 ,! results 7 publi%$1 9 #ahaa1 "u ! title1 ,re*]*es ,physico-,*imiques1 faites sur la ,pile1 etc4 ,gay ,lussac1 ^: "n has already be5 m5tion$ z "o ( ! discov]]s ( ! ,law ( ,comb9ation ( ,gases1 play$ a consid]able "p 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry at ?is p]iod4 ,he 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ to appreciate ! importance ( ,dalton's g5]alisation1 & to po9t out ! significance ( 8 own discov]y 9 /r5g!n+ x4 ,he 0 probably l$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to ! recognition ( ! law ( gase\s comb9ation by ,b]?ollet's "w on ! volumetric composition ( ammonia gas1 & by 8 own discov]y--made 9 #ahje1 9 conjunction ) ,humboldt1 9 ! c\rse ( _! analysis ( atmosph]ic air--t "o volume ( oxyg5 comb9$ ) exactly two volumes ( hydrog5 to =m wat]4 ,! regul>ities ?us indicat$ he f\nd to be g5]al3 all gases :i* are capable ( *emical union comb9e 9 simple proportions by volume1 & ! volume ( ! product1 if a gas1 always /&s 9 "s simple relation to ! volumes ( ! con/itu5ts4 ,joseph ,l\is ,gay ,lussac 0 born 9 #aggh1 at ,sa9t ,leon>d1 /udi$ *emi/ry 9 ,p>is1 & 0 associat$ 9 *emical inquiry ) ,b]?ollet4 ,z ,eleve-,+5ieur 9 ! cole ,nationale des ,ponts et des ,*ausses he began ! exp]im5tal "w 9 physics & *emi/ry ^u :i* 8 fame re/s4 ,9 #ahjd he und]took1 ) ,biot1 a s]ies ( balloon asc5ts = ! purpose ( inve/igat+ ! physics & *emi/ry ( ! upp] regions ( ! atmosph]e4 ,9 #ahjf he became ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ! cole ,polyte*nique1 & 9 #ahcb ,pr(essor at ! ,j>d9 des ,plantes4 ,he 0 "o ( ! *ief assay]s ( ! ,fr5* ,m9t1 &1 z memb] ( _m commissions1 ex]t$ consid]able influ5ce 9 (ficial circles4 ,he di$ 9 #ahej4 ,gay ,lussac & ,?n>d 7 ! fir/ to devise a me?od ( obta9+ potassium & sodium by a purely *emical process1 :]eby ^! metals c\ld be procur$ 9 f> l>g] quantities ?an 0 at t "t possible by electrolytic means4 ,!y 7 ?us enabl$ to make use ( ! /rong deoxidis+ p[] ( ^! metals to effect a numb] ( r$uctions1 notably t ( boric oxide to boron4 ,gay ,lussac & ,?n>d 7 also ! fir/ to make kn[n ! exi/5ce ( boron fluoride4 ,we fur!r owe to ,gay ,lussac ! discov]y ( cyanog51 ! fir/ ( ! s-call$ comp\nd radicals4 ,he fir/ prep>$ e?yl iodide1 inve/igat$ sulphov9ic acid & grape sug>1 /udi$ e!rification & f]m5tation1 etc4 ,we are also indebt$ to him = a me?od ( det]m9+ vap\r d5sities :i* prov$ ( great s]vice 9 asc]ta9+ ! molecul> weights ( sub/ances4 ,he work$ on iod9e & its comp\nds1 discov]$1 ) ,welt]1 ?iosulphuric acid1 & inve/igat$ fulm9ic acid 9 collaboration ) ,liebig4 ,among 8 s]vices to analytical *emi/ry 7 8 me?od = ! analysis ( gunp[d]1 8 volumetric e/imation ( silv] 7wet silv] assay71 *lorometric analysis1 alkalimetry1 etc4 ,he devis$ ! sy/em /ill 9 use 9 ,france = ! e/imation ( alcohol 9 spirits ( w9e4 ,l\is ,jacques ,?n>d 0 born 9 #aggg at ,nog5t-,sur-,se9e1 & 0 a pupil ( ,vauquel9 & ( ,b]?ollet4 ,9 #agig he became reptiteur at ! ,polyte*nic ,s*ool ( ,p>is1 & ev5tually its pr(essor4 ,he subsequ5tly occupi$ ! *air ( *emi/ry at ! ,collge de ,france1 & ( ! ,faculty ( ,sci5ce ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is4 ,he 0 ennobl$ by ,*>les ,x4 9 #ahbd1 & di$ at ,p>is 9 ! eightie? ye> ( 8 age4 ,9 addition to 8 "w ) ,gay ,lussac already m5tion$1 we owe to ,?n>d ! discov]y ( hydrog5 p]oxide & hydrog5 p]sulphide4 ,toge!r ) ,dulong he /udi$ ! catalytic action ( plat9um on mixtures ( oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,he inve/igat$ ! fatty acids1 & work$ on f]m5tation & on e!r-=mation2 & he 0 ! fir/ to isolate citric & malic acids4 ,he also occupi$ himself ) ! *emi/ry ( bile1 p]spiration1 album51 ! acids ( ur9e & milk1 & ) ! !ory ( mordants4 ,9 #ahcd ,f>aday made kn[n ! important fact t on pass+ ! same galvanic curr5t ?r\gh a numb] ( electrolytes--wat]1 hydro*loric acid1 solutions ( metallic *loride--^! 7 decompos$ 9 su* mann] t def9ite am\nts ( hydrog5 or metal 7 sep>at$ at ! negative pole1 & correspond+ am\nts ( oxyg5 or *lor9e 7 evolv$ at ! positive pole4 ,^! obs]vations 7 compreh5d$ by ,f>aday "u 8 8law ( def9ite electrolytic action40 ,! electro-*emical equival5ts ?us obta9$ 7 9 "s cases id5tical ) ! atomic weights d$uc$ by ,b]zelius2 9 o!rs !y 7 n2 b1 nev]!less1 :5 !y diff]$1 !y /ood 9 "s simple relation to ! assum$ atomic weight4 ,! significance ( ,f>aday's obs]vation 0 n lo/ sight (1 al?\gh 8 anticipation t ! det]m9ation ( electro-*emical equival5ts w\ld be ( use 9 fix+ atomic weights 0 n imm$iately appreciat$4 ,a cle> di/9ction betwe5 ! equival5t1 ! atom1 & ! molecule 0 n !n appreh5d$4 ,z w be subsequ5tly %[n1 x 0 only dur+ ! latt] half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury t ! discrepancies & inconsi/5cies ?us reveal$ 7 def9itely reconcil$ & cle>$ up4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,! ,,f\ndations ,,( ,,organic ,,*emi/ry ,z ! horizon ( *emi/ry wid5$ & its op]ations ext5d$1 x became necess>y to treat its subject-matt] me?odically4 ,accord+ly attempts 7 made 9 ! v>i\s sy/ematic treatises :i* began to appe> 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury to gr\p its facts into an ord]ly & rational arrangem5t4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ ( su* sy/ematic treatises 0 ! ,c\rs de ,*imie ( ,nicolas ,lem]y1 publi%$ 9 #afge4 ,al?\gh ?is "w 0 /yl$ by ,bo]haave 8a tumultu>y mass ( ph>maceutical processes1 )\t any c]ta9 design or coh]5ce10 x is notewor?y z be+ ! fir/ ( its k9d to divide ! sci5ce into its pres5t ma9 bran*es ( inorganic & organic *emi/ry4 ,x may be desirable to indicate1 z briefly z possible1 ! g5]al /ate ( k respect+ ! *emi/ry ( organic sub/ances d[n to ! e>ly ye>s ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,z already m5tion$1 su* sub/ances z acetic acid1 turp5t9e1 />*1 sug>1 c]ta9 dye /uffs1 & oils1 _h long be5 kn[n2 & su* processes z saponification & f]m5tation _h be5 practis$ f v e>ly times4 ,! al*emi/s _h prep>$ a v>iety ( ess5tial oils1 aliphatic e!rs1 & e/]s2 & ! iatro-*emi/s _h obta9$ b5zoic & succ9ic acids1 & acetic acid f wood4 ,milk sug> 0 fir/ prep>$ by ,fabrizio ,b>toletti 9 #afai4 ,grape sug> 0 fir/ m5tion$ z occurr+ 9 honey by ,glaub] 9 #affj4 ,boyle fir/ detect$ ! pres5ce ( a _s among ! products ( ! de/ructive di/illation ( wood4 ,few ( ! foll[]s ( ,/ahl occupi$ !mselves ) organic products2 & x 0 only t[>ds ! end ( ! phlogi/ic p]iod t att5tion 0 once m direct$ to products ( animal & vegetable orig94 ,s*eele isolat$ glyc]9 9 #aghd1 & obta9$ e?yl *loride by ! di/illation ( a mixture ( common salt1 pyrolusite1 oil ( vitriol1 & alcohol4 ,e?yl acetate 0 fir/ prep>$ by ,lauraquais 9 #agei4 ,arvidson obta9$ e?yl =mate 9 #aggg4 ,oxalic e!r 0 fir/ made by ,sav>y 9 #aggc4 ,:at 0 long kn[n z oil ( w9e appe>s to h be5 fir/ m5tion$ by ,libavius1 b its true nature 0 discov]$ by ,h5nel 9 #ahbf4 ,! =mation ( aldehyde 0 fir/ recognis$ by ,s*eele 9 #aggd1 & x 0 9 turn inve/igat$ by ,f\rcroy & ,vauquel91 ,db]e9]1 & ,gay ,lussac2 b x 0 fir/ def9itely isolat$ 9 #ahce by ,liebig1 :o gave x its "n4 ,! fir/ organic acid kn[n 0 v9eg> 7acetic acid71 & = a long "t all naturally occurr+ organic acids hav+ a s\r ta/e 7 reg>d$ z id5tical ) or z =ms ( v9eg>4 ,x 0 only dur+ ! second half ( ! eighte5? c5tury t x 0 cle>ly asc]ta9$ t a v>iety ( organic acids exi/1 p]fectly di/9ct f acetic acid4 ,glacial acetic acid 0 fir/ obta9$ by ,lwiz 9 #aghi4 ,acetic acid1 z a product ( ! de/ructive di/illation ( wood1 0 fir/ obta9$ by ,gttl+ 9 #aggi4 ,! acetic f]m5tation has be5 /udi$ f v e>ly times4 ,surmises z to ! mode 9 :i* w9e 0 conv]t$ into v9eg> are to be met ) 9 ! works ( ,basil ,val5t9e1 ,be*] 7#affi71 ,lem]y 7#afge71 & ,/ahl 7#affg74 ,prie/ley1 = a "t1 held ! op9ion t v9eg> conta9$ a vegetable acid air1 b he subsequ5tly discov]$ & correct$ 8 error4 ,! direct conv]sion ( _s ( w9e 7e?yl alcohol7 into acetic acid 0 /udi$ by ,lavoisi] & ,b]?ollet1 :o fir/ cle>ly recognis$ t x 0 a process ( oxidation4 ,! quantitative composition ( acetic acid 0 fir/ e/abli%$ by ,b]zelius 9 #ahad4 ,_m ( ! acetates h be5 kn[n f e>ly times4 ,v]digris is m5tion$ by ,!ophra/us1 ,dioscorides1 & ,pl9y4 ,z9c acetate 0 kn[n to ,geb]1 & potassium acetate to ,pl9y1 :o m5tions its use 9 m$ic9e4 ,ammonium acetate 0 also us$ 9 m$ic9e z f> back z ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 & 0 p>ticul>ly recomm5d$ by ! physician1 ,raymond ,m9d]]4 ,sodium acetate 0 prep>$ by ,duhamel 9 #agcf4 ,lead acetate 0 kn[n 9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 & 0 /yl$ by ,libavius sac*>um plumbi qu9tess5tiale1 9 allusion to its sweet ta/e4 ,:at 0 call$ by ! al*emi/s lac virg9is 0 a turbid solution ( basic lead acetate1 & x 0 frequ5tly us$ 9 m$ic9e1 m p>ticul>ly by ,g\l>d 9 #agfj4 ,:at we n[ call acetone 0 fir/ obs]v$ by ,libavius1 9 #aeie1 & subsequ5tly by ,boyle1 dur+ ! de/ructive di/illation ( lead acetate3 its =mation f o!r acetates 0 notic$ by ,trommsdorff1 ,d]osne1 & ,*5evix1 by :om x 0 t]m$ pyroacetic _s4 ,its true nature & composition 7 fir/ asc]ta9$ by ,liebig 9 #ahca4 ,! =mation ( t>t> 9 ! manufacture ( w9e has be5 kn[n f ! e>lie/ times4 ,x 0 reg>d$ z1 & orig9ally /yl$1 ! faex v9i4 ,! ^w 8,t>t>us0 is fir/ met ) 9 al*emi/ic lit]ature 9 ! elev5? c5tury1 & is ! ,lat9is$ =m ( an ,arabic ^w4 ,m>ggraf1 9 #agfd1 recognis$ t ! t>t> ( w9e conta9$ pota%2 b t>t>ic acid itself 0 fir/ isolat$ by ,s*eele 9 #agfi4 ,! d\ble t>trate ( pota% & soda 0 fir/ prep>$ 9 #afgb by ,pet] ,seignette1 an apo!c>y ( ,ro*elle1 & 0 us$ by him 9 m$ic9e4 ,t>t> emetic 0 discov]$ by ,adrian von ,mynsi*t 9 #afca1 & its true nature expla9$ by ,b]gmann 9 #aggc4 ,racemic acid 0 fir/ m5tion$ by a w9e manufactur] nam$ ,ke/n]1 & 0 recognis$ z an acid 9 #ahai4 ,its relation to t>t>ic acid1 ) :i* x is isom]ic1 0 fir/ expla9$ by ,b]zelius1 :o gave x its "n4 ,! naturally occurr+ oxalates 7 long consid]$ z id5tical ) t>t>4 ,oxalic acid 0 obta9$ by ,s*eele 9 #aggf by means ( ! action ( nitric acid ^u sug>4 ,?is acid 0 fur!r inve/igat$ by ,b]gmann1 :o obs]v$ its decomposition by heat ) ! =mation ( a gas burn+ ) a blue flame4 ,! id5tity ( ! naturally occurr+ oxalic acid ) t prep>$ f sug> 0 e/abli%$ by ,s*eele 9 #aghd4 ,! quantitative composition ( oxalic acid 0 fir/ asc]ta9$ by ,dulong 9 #ahae4 ,mucic acid 0 discov]$ by ,s*eele 9 #aghj1 & 0 /udi$ by ,f\rcroy1 :o gave x ! "n x n[ be>s4 ,pyromucic acid 0 also kn[n to ,s*eele1 & 0 obs]v$ by ,h]mb/dt & ,h\ton-,labill>dire4 ,camphoric acid 0 fir/ recognis$ by ,b\illon-,lagrange & ,vauquel94 ,sub]ic acid 0 discov]$ by ,brugnatelli 9 #aghg4 ,t gum b5zo9 yield$ a product 7b5zoic acid7 by sublimation 0 kn[n 9 ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,x 0 introduc$ into m$ic9e by ,turquet de ,may]ne z fl[]s ( b5zo94 ,s*eele %[$ h[ ?is acid might be obta9$ by wet me?ods f gum-b5zo94 ,x 0 detect$ 9 ,p]u-balsam by ,lehmann 9 #agji4 ,r\elle f\nd x 9 ! ur9e ( ! c[ & ! camel4 ,liebig1 9 #ahbi1 detect$ ! diff]5ce betwe5 hippuric acid & b5zoic acid4 ,! *>act]i/ic acid 9 amb] 7succ9ic acid7 0 fir/ detect$ by ,pott 9 #agec4 ,=mic acid 0 fir/ isolat$ by ,wray 9 #afgf4 ,lactic acid 0 discov]$ by ,s*eele 9 s\r milk 9 #aghj4 ,= a "t x 0 reg>d$ z impure acetic acid1 until x 0 detect$ 9 muscle juice by ,b]zelius1 & its individuality e/abli%$4 ,its true composition 0 asc]ta9$ by ,mits*]li* & by ,liebig 9 #ahcb4 ,citric acid has be5 kn[n s9ce ! ?irte5? c5tury1 b x 0 fir/ def9itely isolat$ by ,s*eele 9 #aghd4 ,apple juice 0 us$ 9 m$ic9e 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 & ! soda salt ( its *>act]i/ic acid 7malic acid7 0 prep>$ by ,donald ,monro 9 #agfg4 ,x 0 kn[n to ! anci5ts t extract ( gall nuts acquir$ a black col\r :5 mix$ ) a solution ( iron vitriol2 & ,boyle & ,b]gmann ascrib$ ?is ph5om5on to ! pres5ce ( a peculi> acid4 ,gallic acid 0 fir/ isolat$ by ,s*eele 9 #aghe1 & its composition e/abli%$ by ,b]zelius 9 #ahad4 ,tannic acid 0 def9itely recognis$ z di/9ct f gallic acid by ,segu9 9 #agie4 ,mellite1 or honey-/one1 is m5tion$ 9 m9]alogical treatises 9 ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,t x consi/$ ( ! alum9a salt ( a special acid 7mellic acid7 0 %[n by ,klapro? 9 #agii4 ,prussian blue 0 accid5tally discov]$ 9 #agaj by a dy] nam$ ,diesba*4 ,its mode ( manufacture 0 fir/ made kn[n by ,woodw>d 9 #agbd4 ,! peculi> reaction by :i* x 0 obta9$ 0 made ! subject ( inve/igation by _m *emi/s ( ! p]iod )\t any decisive result4 ,s*eele obs]v$ t1 :5 ! salt :i* occasion$ ! blue col\r ) vitriol 0 di/ill$ ) sulphuric acid1 a volatile acid1 inflammable & soluble 9 wat]1 0 obta9$4 ,?is acid receiv$ f ,b]gmann ! "n ( acidum crulei b]ol95sis1 or 8,b]l9-blue acid10 subsequ5tly %ort5$ by ,guyton de ,morveau to prussic acid4 ,s*eele also prep>$ ! cyanides ( silv] & ammonium4 ,t prussic acid 0 free f oxyg5 0 e/abli%$ by ,b]?ollet4 ,anhydr\s prussic acid 0 fir/ obta9$ by ,von ,ittn]1 :o fir/ e/abli%$ its highly poison\s nature4 ,bolim1 9 #ahjb1 _h previ\sly obs]v$ ! pres5ce ( prussic acid 9 oil ( bitt] almonds1 ! poison\s "* ( :i* 0 kn[n to ,dioscorides4 ,porret fir/ def9itely isolat$ potassium f]rocyanide1 & subsequ5tly discov]$ ! ?iocyanates1 ! quantitative composition ( :i* 0 asc]ta9$ by ,b]zelius 9 #ahbj4 ,t prussic acid 0 a comp\nd ( hydrog5 & cyanog5 0 e/abli%$ by ,gay ,lussac 9 #ahae4 ,cyanic acid 0 discov]$ by ,whl] 9 #ahbb1 9 :i* ye> also ,l4 ,gmel9 discov]$ ! f]ricyanides4 ,fulm9at+ m]cury 0 fir/ prep>$ by ,h[>d 9 #ahjj1 & fulm9at+ silv] by ,brugnatelli 9 #ahjb4 ,^! 7 recognis$ by ,liebig1 9 #ahbb1 to conta9 a peculi> acid1 :i* he t]m$ fulm9ic acid1 & :i* he %[$ to h ! same composition z ! cyanic acid discov]$ by ,whl]4 ,uric acid1 s nam$ by ,f\rcroy1 0 discov]$ 9 gall /ones by ,s*eele 9 #aggf4 ,urea 0 fir/ def9itely isolat$ by ,f\rcroy & ,vauquel9 9 #agii1 & 0 syn!tically prep>$ by ,whl] 9 #ahbh4 ,! bitt] pr9ciples ( plants & _! m$ic9al virtues e>ly attract$ att5tion1 b ! fir/ attempt to isolate !m 0 made by ,f\rcroy & ,vauquel9 9 ! case ( ! ,p]uvian b>k1 long kn[n = its p[] z a febrifuge4 ,9 #ahjf ,vauquel9 obta9$ qu9ic acid4 ,c9*on9e 0 fir/ isolat$ by ,gomes 9 #ahaa4 ,! *emical nature ( opium 0 ! subject ( num]\s inquiries 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,9 #ahje ,s]trn] detect$ ! exi/5ce ( meconic acid1 & 9 #ahag t ( morph9e1 :i* he recognis$ z an alkaloid4 ,n>cot9e 0 discov]$ by ,robiquet 9 #ahce4 ,! inve/igation ( o!r bitt] sub/ances 0 und]tak5 by ,pelleti] & ,cav5t\1 :o 9 #ahah discov]$ /ry*n9e1 bruc9e 7#ahai71 & v]atr9e 7#ahbj74 ,! contempor>ies & imm$iate foll[]s ( ,lavoisi] 7 ! fir/ to make a sy/ematic attempt to elucidate ! *emical nature ( organic products ( animal orig94 ,to ?is p]iod belongs ! "w ( ,f\rcroy & ,vauquel9 on animal *emi/ry4 ,*evreul1 a pupil ( ,f\rcroy work$ on ur9e1 adipocire1 & ! animal fats 9 ! fir/ decade ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,kir*h(f 9 #ahaa1 discov]$ ! me?od ( conv]t+ />* into sug>2 & ,db]e9]1 9 #ahbb1 describ$ a me?od ( prep>+ =mic acid artificially4 ,dumas & ,b\llay1 9 #ahbg-ahbh1 prep>$ a numb] ( new d]ivatives ( e?yl alcohol2 & 9 #ahcd ,dumas & ,peligot /udi$ 9 l mann] ! *emi/ry ( me?yl alcohol1 & po9t$ out _m analogies :i* _! comp\nds possess$1 n only among !mselves1 b also to inorganic sub/ances4 ,al?\gh a consid]able am\nt ( in=mation z to ! exi/5ce1 modes ( occurr5ce1 & prop]ties ( bodies f\nd 9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms _h be5 accumulat$ by ! end ( ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 no s]i\s attempt 0 made to /udy !m sy/ematically until aft] t p]iod4 ,9 fact1 !y 7 n ev5 reg>d$ z com+ )9 ! op]ations ( laws f\nd to be applicable to ! products ( ! inorganic _w1 by ! inve/igation1 ( :i* products1 inde$1 ^? laws _h be5 discov]$4 ,d[n to #ahbh x 0 consid]$ t inorganic & organic sub/ances 7 %>ply diff]5tiat$ by ! circum/ance t1 :]eas ! =m] might be prep>$ by artificial means1 & ev5 built up f _! elem5ts by syn!tic processes 9 ! laboratory1 ! latt] c\ld only be =m$ 9 ! bodies ( animals & plants z ! result ( vital =ce4 ,9 t ye> ,whl] %[$ t urea1 pre-em95tly a product ( animal metabolism1 c\ld be prep>$ syn!tically f inorganic mat]ials4 ,o!r in/ances ( a simil> k9d 7 discov]$ 9 rapid succession2 & ! idea t organic sub/ances c\ld alone be =m$ by vital processes 0 prov$ to be invalid4 ,moreov]1 l>ge numb]s ( sub/ances ( a "* analog\s to ^? produc$ by physiological action1 b n kn[n to occur 9 ! animal or vegetable k+dom1 7 prep>$4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no absolute di/9ction to be drawn betwe5 ! *emi/ry ( ! inorganic & organic worlds4 ,at ! pres5t day we mean by 8organic comp\nds0 simply ! comp\nds ( c>bon4 ,^! are s num]\s1 & frequ5tly s complex1 t x is conv5i5t to gr\p !m toge!r & /udy !m z a special section ( ! sci5ce4 ,at ! outset x 0 suppos$ t only v few elem5ts ent]$ into ! composition ( organic sub/ances4 ,?is1 inde$1 0 held to be a po9t ( fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 organic & inorganic comp\nds4 ,lavoisi] 0 ( op9ion t all organic bodies 7 comb9ations ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg54 ,b]?ollet fir/ discov]$ ! pres5ce ( nitrog5 9 a product ( animal orig94 ,sulphur & phosphorus 7 detect$ lat]4 ,!re is app>5tly no priori reason :y any elem5t %\ld n be associat$ ) c>bon1 & ent] into ! composition ( an organic comp\nd4 ,lavoisi] 0 "o ( ! fir/ to devise me?ods = asc]ta9+ ! composition ( organic 7c>bon7 comp\nds1 & to indicate ! g5]al pr9ciples by :i* ! proportion ( ! elem5ts met ) 9 ^! sub/ances c be asc]ta9$4 ,s imp]fectly1 h[ev]1 7 ^! me?ods work$ out t x 0 n e/abli%$ until ! close ( ! fir/ decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury t organic comp\nds ev5 obey$ ! law ( multiple proportions4 ,?anks to ! ef=ts ( ,b]zelius1 ,gay ,lussac1 & ,?n>d1 & especially ( ,liebig1 9 #ahcj1 me?ods ( organic analysis 7 s f> p]fect$ t x became possible to asc]ta9 ! empirical composition ( ^! comp\nds ) c]ta9ty4 ,?is po9t rea*$1 ! developm5t ( ?is section ( *emi/ry proce$$ ) unexampl$ rapidity4 ,n only 0 ! composition ( numb]s ( products1 su* z sug>1 />*1 ! vegetable acids1 c]ta9 alkaloids1 etc41 e/abli%$1 b altoge!r unlook$-= facts became manife/4 ,"o ( ! mo/ surpris+ ( ^! 0 t ( isom]ism4 ,up to ! close ( ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury x seem$ self-evid5t t sub/ances ( ! same p]c5tage composition are necess>ily id5tical4 ,9 #ahbc ,liebig %[$ t ! silv] cyanate ( ,whl] _h ! same composition z silv] fulm9ate4 ,f>aday1 9 #ahbe1 f\nd a hydroc>bon 9 oil gas1 :i* _h ! same composition z olefiant gas1 b 0 o!rwise diff]5t f x2 & 9 #ahbh ,whl] discov]$ t urea & ammonium cyanate--p]fectly dissimil> sub/ances--7 id5tical 9 elem5t>y composition4 ,la/ly1 ,b]zelius f\nd ?is to be true ( t>t>ic & racemic acids2 & he !reupon propos$ ! t]m isom]ism to d5ote ! g5]al fact4 ,he fur!r po9t$ out t ! ph5om5on c\ld only be expla9$ by suppos+ t ! relative positions ( ! atoms 9 isom]ic comp\nds are diff]5t4 ,b ! influ5ce ( molecul> or atomic gr\p+ 9 det]m9+ ! specific "* ( a sub/ance is n conf9$ to comp\nds4 ,! same ph5om5on is obs]v$ to occur among ! elem5ts4 ,x 0 conclusively e/abli%$ by ,lavoisi] t ! diamond & *>coal are *emically ! same ?+--bo? =ms ( c>bon4 ,s*eele %[$ t graphite 0 a ?ird =m ( c>bon4 ,phosphorus1 sulphur1 & oxyg5 7 subsequ5tly %[n to be ea* capable ( exi/5ce 9 v>i\s modifications4 ,in/ances ( ?is "* 7 gr\p$ toge!r 9 #ahda by ,b]zelius "u ! t]m allotropy4 ,! recognition ( ! fact ( isom]ism ex]t$ a great influ5ce on ! developm5t ( organic *emi/ry4 ,x ultimately l$ to ! assumption t p>ticul> gr\ps ( elem5ts or atomic complexes1 s-call$ radicals1 7 to be f\nd 9 organic comp\nds--a conception bas$ orig9ally on ,gay ,lussac's discov]y ( cyanog51 a comb9ation ( c>bon & nitrog51 :i* 0 f\nd to behave l a simple sub/ance1 su* z *lor9e1 & to give rise to comp\nds analog\s to ! correspond+ *lorides4 ,?is idea ( ! exi/5ce ( comp\nd radicals 0 greatly /r5g!n$ by a memorable inve/igation by ,liebig & ,whl]1 9 #ahcb1 on oil ( bitt] almonds & its d]ivatives1 9 :i* !y %[$ t ^! sub/ances might be repres5t$ z conta9+ a special gr\p or radical t]m$ b5zoyl1 :i* behav$ l an elem5t4 ,! idea ( gr\ps ( elem5ts go+ 9 & out ( comb9ation l a simple sub/ance 0 n new to *emi/s3 !re 0 n only ! case ( cyanog51 discov]$ by ,gay ,lussac 9 #ahae4 ,! attempt _h be5 made by ,dumas & ,b\llay 9 #ahbh to classify ! d]ivatives ( alcohol & e!r z comp\nds conta9+ a common radical e!r94 ,gay ,lussac _h po9t$ out t ! vap\r d5sity ( e?yl alcohol seem$ to %[ t x consi/$ ( equal volumes ( e?yl5e & wat]4 ,robiquet _h also %[n t e?yl *loride might be assum$ to be a comp\nd ( hydro*loric acid & e?yl5e2 & ,db]e9] _h reg>d$ anhydr\s oxalic acid z a comb9ation ( c>bonic acid ) c>bonic oxide4 ,b ! inve/igation ( ,liebig & ,whl] s]v$ to give precision to ! conception4 ,x !reby ex]cis$ a pr(\nd influ5ce on ! developm5t ( organic *emi/ry by demon/rat+1 9 effect1 t ?is bran* ( ! sci5ce might be reg>d$ z ! *emi/ry ( ! comp\nd radicals1 9 contradi/9ction to inorganic *emi/ry--! *emi/ry ( ! simple radicals4 ,additional support = ?is view 0 af=d$ by ! rem>kable rese>* by ,buns5 on ! s-call$ alk>s91 ! 8fum+ liquor ( ,cadet0--an evil-smell+ sub/ance long kn[n z be+ =m$ :5 an acetate is heat$ ) ars5i\s oxide4 ,buns5 %[$ t ?is liquid conta9$ a comp\nd radical hav+ ars5ic z a con/itu5t2 & he prep>$ a s]ies ( d]ivatives1 all ( :i* might be =mulat$ z comb9ations ( ?is radical1 :i* he t]m$ cacodyl4 ,! /udy ( ! electrolytic decomposition ( ! acetates by ,kolbe & ! discov]y ( z9c-e?yl by ,frankl& af=d$ p[]ful support to ! doctr9e ( comb9$ radicals4 ,al?\gh !re c be no d\bt t ?is doctr9e greatly /imulat$ ! pursuit ( organic *emi/ry1 x 0 gradually p]ceiv$ t to reg>d inorganic & organic *emi/ry z ! *emi/ry respectively ( ! simple & ( ! comp\nd radicals 0 an imp]fect & mislead+ conception ( ! true relations ( ! two ma9 divisions ( ! sci5ce4 ,facts %[$ t ! prop]ties ( a sub/ance dep5d m on ! arrangem5t ( its atoms ?an on _! nature4 ,! doctr9e ( comp\nd radicals 0 implicitly an attempt to ext5d ! duali/ic conceptions ( ,b]zelius to ! facts ( organic *emi/ry2 & z su* x 0 welcom$ by ! great ,sw$i% *emi/4 ,b dualism 0 f\nd to h its limitations1 ev5 9 inorganic *emi/ry2 & ^! 7 /ill m app>5t :5 x 0 s\ght to apply x 9 ! o!r ma9 bran* ( ! sci5ce4 ,attempts 7 !re=e made--notably by ! ,fr5* *emi/s ,laur5t1 ,dumas1 & ,g]h>dt--to =mulate organic sub/ances by me?ods 9 :i* ! electro-*emical & duali/ic conceptions ( ,b]zelius & 8 foll[]s _h no "p4 ,h[ ^! attempts develop$1 & h[ !y subsequ5tly grew into ! organic *emi/ry ( to-day1 w be %[n 9 ! second "p ( ?is "w4 ,x w be conv5i5t also to delay any acc\nt ( ! p]sonal hi/ory ( ! creators ( ! sci5ce ( organic *emi/ry--,liebig1 ,whl]1 ,dumas--until we are 9 a position to give a full] /atem5t ( _! lab\rs1 & ( ! results :i* fl[$ f !m4 ,al?\gh ! f\ndations ( organic *emi/ry may be said to h be5 laid dur+ ! clos+ ye>s ( ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ! sup]/ructure 0 n erect$ until ! second half4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,! ,,rise ,,( ,,physical ,,*emi/ry ,physics & ,*emi/ry are tw9 si/]s--daught]s ( ,natural ,philosophy2 l ,juno's swans1 c\pl$ & insep>able4 ,physics is conc]n$ ) ! =ms ( en]gy :i* affect matt]2 *emi/ry ) ! /udy ( matt] s affect$4 ,ea*1 !n1 is complem5t>y to ! o!r4 ,philosoph]s ( old drew no practical di/9ction betwe5 !m1 at lea/ z reg>ds _! own /udies4 ,m5 l ,boyle1 ,black1 ,cav5di%1 ,lavoisi]1 ,dalton1 ,f>aday1 ,graham1 ,buns51 7 pione]s 8on a v broad gauge10 pu%+ _! inquiries into t]ritories common to ! two bran*es z _! g5ius or incl9ations direct$ !m4 ,accord+ly1 x has happ5$ t _m s-call$ physical laws h be5 discov]$ by m5 :o 7 pr(ess$ *emi/s4 ,x has also happ5$ t m5 :o began _! sci5tific c>e] z *emi/s1 l ,dalton1 ,regnault1 & ,magnus1 ev5tually gave ! :ole ( _! en]gies to physical measurem5ts2 or1 l ,black1 ,f>aday1 & ,graham1 devot$ !mselves to ! elucidation ( physical problems4 ,z c]ta9 ( ^! physical laws & problems h greatly influ5c$ ! progress ( *emi/ry1 x becomes necess>y1 9 any hi/orical treatm5t ( ! subject1 to give "s acc\nt ( _! orig91 & to %[ h[ !y affect$ ! developm5t ( *emical !ory4 ,! relations ( heat to *emical ph5om5a are s obvi\s & s intimate t ! /udy ( _! connection necess>ily attract$ att5tion 9 v e>ly times4 ,b x 0 only :5 ?is /udy became quantitative t any important g5]alisations became possible4 ,mo/ quantitative e/imations ( heat dep5d ev5tually ^u ! !rmomet]2 & !rmometry is indebt$ to ,engli%m5 9 ! fir/ in/ance = attempts to r5d] ! in/rum5t tru/wor?y4 ,9 ?is connection may be m5tion$ ! names ( ,newton & ,%uckburgh4 ,brooke ,taylor1 9 #agbc1 made a special /udy ( ! m]curial !rmomet] z a measur] ( temp]ature4 ,9 o!r words1 he s\ght to discov] :e!r equal diff]5ces ( expansion or contraction ( m]cury correspond$ to equal additions or ab/ractions ( heat4 ,! results %[$ t ! pr9ciple ( ! m]curial !rmomet] is valid )9 at lea/ ! limits ( temp]ature betwe5 ! boil+ & freez+-po9ts ( wat]4 ,^! exp]im5ts 7 subsequ5tly repeat$ & confirm$ by ,cav5di%1 &1 indep5d5tly1 by ,black4 ,! discov]y ( ! ph5om5on ( lat5t heat by ,black "s "t prior to #agfj m>ks an epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,x 0 !n = ! fir/ "t cle>ly recognis$ t ! /ate ( aggregation ( a sub/ance is associat$ ) a def9ite !rmal quantity1 & t1 9 ord] to effect a *ange1 a def9ite am\nt ( en]gy1 9 ! =m ( heat1 mu/ be employ$4 ,! quantitative connection t exi/s betwe5 "w & en]gy 0 ?us =e%ad[$4 ,! doctr9e ( specific heat 0 taught by ,black 9 8 lectures at ,glasg[ betwe5 #agfa & #agfe4 ,! subject 0 subsequ5tly inve/igat$ exp]im5tally by ,irv9e betwe5 #agfe & #aggj1 & by ,craw=d 9 #aggi4 ,a s]ies ( det]m9ations 0 publi%$ 9 #agha by ,wilcke1 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,sw$i% ,academy4 ,9 ^! ! t]m specific caloric1 s9ce *ang$ to specific heat1 0 fir/ us$4 ,ab\t ?is "t ! det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise sub/ances ?r\gh a def9ite int]val ( temp]ature 0 made ! subject ( exp]im5t by _m obs]v]s1 notably by ,lavoisi] & ,laplace1 :o greatly improv$ ! calorimetric arrangem5ts4 ,! values !y obta9$ long rema9$ ! mo/ tru/wor?y e/imations ( ! specific heats ( sub/ances4 ,_! jo9t rese>* _h a fur!r influ5ce on ! developm5t ( !rmo-*emi/ry by indicat+ ! g5]al exp]im5tal conditions :i* 7 ne$$ to ensure accuracy 9 su* det]m9ations4 ,lavoisi] & ,laplace also measur$1 9 #aghb-aghc1 ! heat dis5gag$ by ! combu/ion ( sub/ances1 & t evolv$ dur+ respiration4 ,9 #ahai ,dulong & ,petit po9t$ out t ! specific heat ( a numb] ( sub/ances1 m p>ticul>ly ! metals1 7 inv]sely proportional to _! atomic weights2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! product ( ! specific heat into ! atomic weight 0 a con/ant4 ,! nature ( ! relation w be se5 f ! foll[+ table ( c]ta9 ( ! results obta9$ by ,dulong & ,petit3-- ,elem5t4 ,at4 wt4 ,spec4 heat4 ,atomic heat4 ,bismu? #bjh #j4jbhh #f4j ,lead #bjg #j4jbic #f4j ,gold #aig #j4jbih #e4h ,plat9um #aie #j4jcad #f4a ,silv] #ajh #j4jegj #f4a ,copp] #fc #j4jieb #f4j ,iron #ef #j4aach #f4d ,x w be se5 t ^! v>i\s elem5ts h an uni=m1 or ne>ly uni=m1 atomic heat--approximately #f4b on ! av]age4 ,?is w\ld appe> to prove t1 z ,dulong & ,petit express$ x1 8! atoms ( simple sub/ances h equal capacities = heat40 ,! v>iations f a con/ant value are due p>tly to errors ( obs]vation1 b m p>ticul>ly to ! circum/ance t ! sub/ances comp>$ are n all 9 a /rictly comp>able condition--e4g41 !y are n all equally remote f _! melt+ po9ts4 ,x 0 %[n1 moreov]1 t ! am\nt ( heat ne$$ to raise a sub/ance ?r\gh a def9ite int]val ( temp]ature increas$ ) ! temp]ature4 ,! range ( temp]ature ?r\gh :i* a det]m9ation 0 made 9 a p>ticul> in/ance affect$1 !re=e1 ! value ( ! specific heat4 ,! mo/ notewor?y dep>tures f a uni=m value 7 obs]v$ to occur among ! metalloids--e4g41 c>bon1 ! v>i\s modifications ( :i* _h diff]5t specific heats--& g5]ally among elem5ts ( l[ atomic weight1 9 :i* ! v>iation ( specific heat ) temp]ature 0 p>ticul>ly rapid4 ,nev]!less1 ! significance ( ! g5]alisation discov]$ by ,dulong & ,petit1 9 spite ( its limitations1 0 quickly appreciat$1 z x 0 p]ceiv$ t a k ( ! specific heat ( an elem5t might be ( great value 9 det]m9+ its atomic weight4 ,! imm$iate effect 0 t a c]ta9 numb] ( ! atomic weights fix$ by ,b]zelius ma9ly on *emical consid]ations 7 requir$ to be halv$4 ,al?\gh subsequ5t exp]i5ce has prov$ t ! law ( ,dulong & ,petit is n capable ( ! simple ma!matical expression !y gave x1 x has %[n itself to be ( great value 9 fix+ d\btful atomic weights4 ,pi]re ,l\is ,dulong 0 born 9 #aghe at ,r\51 &1 aft] /udy+ *emi/ry & physics at ! ,polyte*nic ,s*ool at ,p>is1 became its ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry & subsequ5tly its ,pr(essor ( ,physics4 ,9 #ahcj he 0 made its ,director ( ,/udies2 & 9 #ahcb he became p]man5t ,secret>y ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,z a "y man he work$ ) ,b]zelius1 ) :om he made ! fir/ approximately accurate det]m9ation ( ! gravimetric composition ( wat]4 ,9 #ahaa he discov]$ ! highly explosive nitrog5 *loride1 9 ! inve/igation ( :i* he 0 sev]ely injur$1 los+ an eye & sev]al f+]s4 ,he di$ 9 #ahch4 ,8 collaborator1 ,alexis ,!rese ,petit1 0 born 9 #agia at ,ves\l1 & di$1 :5 hold+ ! position ( ,pr(essor ( ,physics at ! ,lyce ,bonap>te1 9 #ahbj4 ,! attempt made by ,neumann to ext5d ,dulong & ,petit's 8law0 to comp\nd sub/ances 0 only p>tially successful4 ,nor has any important g5]alisation foll[$ f our k ( ! specific heat ( liquids4 ,almo/ simultane\sly ) ! publication ( ,dulong & ,petit's 8law10 ,mits*]li* made kn[n ! fact t simil>ity 9 *emical con/itution is frequ5tly accompani$ by id5tity ( cry/all9e =m4 ,boyle1 z f> back z ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 _h insi/$ ^u ! importance ( ! =ms ( cry/als 9 ?r[+ light ^u ! int]nal /ructure ( bodies4 ,rom de l',isle & ,hauy _h rem>k$ t _m diff]5t sub/ances _h ! same cry/all9e =m4 ,x _h be5 obs]v$ t a cry/al ( pota% alum w\ld cont9ue to gr[ & pres]ve its %ape 9 a solution ( ammonia alum2 & simil> obs]vations _h be5 %[n to occur 9 ! case ( vitriols4 ,! inv5tion ( ! reflect+ goniomet] by ,wolla/on greatly facilitat$ ! inve/igation ( su* ph5om5a4 ,mits*]li* %[$ t ! phosphates & ars5iates ( analog\s composition _h ! same cry/all9e %ape1 or1 9 o!r words1 7 isomorph\s4 ,! same fact 0 obs]v$ to occur 9 ! case ( ! analog\sly con/itut$ sulphates & sel5ates1 & 9 t ( ! oxides ( magnesium & z9c1 etc4 ,! value ( isomorph\s relations 9 det]m9+ ! gr\p-relation%ips ( ! elem5ts & 9 d$uc+ ! composition ( salts 0 at once recognis$ by ,b]zelius1 :o /yl$ ! discov]y ( isomorphism by 8 pupil ,mits*]li* z 8! mo/ important s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ! doctr9e ( *emical proportions40 ,! quantities ( ! isomorph\sly replac+ elem5ts 9 a comp\nd 7 reg>d$ by him z a measure ( _! atomic weights2 & ! pr9ciple 0 subsequ5tly con/antly employ$ by him1 :5ev] possible1 z a crit]ion 9 fix+ _! values4 ,o!r inve/igators h foll[$ 8 example 9 ?is respect2 & isomorphism is /ill reg>d$ z an important consid]ation 9 e/abli%+ ! g5etic relations ( an elem5t4 ,eilh>d ,mits*]li*1 ! son ( a m9i/]1 0 born 9 #agid at ,neu ,ende1 ne> ,jev]1 9 ,old5burg1 &1 aft] /udy+ philology & ori5tal languages at ,heidelb]g1 w5t to ,p>is1 & !nce to ,gtt+51 :]e he occupi$ himself ) natural sci5ce4 ,9 #ahah he repair$ to ,b]l9 & comm5c$ to "w on ! ars5iates & phosphates1 ! simil>ity 9 ! cry/al-=ms ( :i* he 0 ! fir/ to detect4 ,8 fri5d ,gu/av ,rose1 ! m9]alogi/1 !reupon in/ruct$ him 9 ! me?ods ( cry/allography2 to enable him to v]ify 8 discov]y & to e/abli% x by goniometric measurem5ts4 ,9 #ahba he jo9$ ,b]zelius at ,/ockholm1 :]e he pursu$ 8 inquiries on ! connection betwe5 cry/al-=m & *emical composition4 ,x 0 at ! sugge/ion ( ,b]zelius t he adopt$ ! t]m 8isomorphy0 to express ?is connection--! me*anical consequ5ce ( id5tity ( atomic con/itution4 ,9 ! same ye> he 0 appo9t$ ,klapro?'s successor 9 ,b]l91 :]e he di$ 9 #ahfc4 ,mits*]li* also work$ on ! manganates & p]manganates1 on sel5ic acid1 on b5z5e & its d]ivatives1 & on ! artificial production ( m9]als4 ,! /udy ( ! physical ph5om5a ( gases1 initiat$ 9 #affj by ,boyle's discov]y ( ! law ( gase\s pressure1 has greatly contribut$ to our k ( _! intr9sic nature4 ,boyle himself only prov$ 8 law 9 ! case ( atmosph]ic air2 b ! obs]vation 0 subsequ5tly 7#afgf7 g5]alis$ by ,m>riotte4 ,*>les1 ,dalton1 & ,gay ,lussac indep5d5tly %[$ t gases h ! same rate ( !rmal expansion4 ,t gases are made up ( p>ticles possess+ an int]nal movem5t 0 surmis$ by ! ,greeks2 b exp]im5tal evid5ce = su* a view ( _! con/itution 0 fir/ pres5t$ by ,?omas ,graham 9 #ahbi-ahca1 :5 he discov]$ t gases move1 or are diffus$1 at rates inv]sely proportional to ! squ>e roots ( _! d5sities4 ,obs]vations ( a l "*1 :i* f\nd _! explanation 9 ,graham's discov]y1 _h previ\sly be5 made by ,prie/ley1 ,db]e9]1 & ,saussure4 ,?is int]*ange 9 ! position ( _! p>ticles is a prop]ty inh]5t 9 gases4 ,inequality ( d5sity is n ess5tial to diffusion4 ,graham prov$ ?is by connect+ toge!r two vessels1 "o conta9+ nitrog5 & ! o!r c>bonic oxide1 :i* h ! same d5sity4 ,aft] ! expiration ( a c]ta9 "t bo? gases 7 f\nd to be uni=mly diffus$ ?r\gh ! vessels4 ,h[ ^! laws 7 f\nd to be int]dep5d5t & mutually connect$1 & h[ !y l$ up to a molecul> !ory ( gases :i* s]ves to expla9 !m1 z well z c]ta9 o!r gase\s ph5om5a to be subsequ5tly not$1 w be %[n 9 ! second "p ( ?is "w4 ,by ! end ( ! p]iod ) :i* we are conc]n$--t is1 ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury--a consid]able body ( in=mation _h be5 accumulat$ z to ! conditions :i* det]m9e ! diff]5t /ates ( aggregation ( matt]--t is1 ! conditions :i* all[ ( ! passage ( ! gase\s /ate into t ( ! liquid1 & ( ! liquid into t ( ! solid4 ,t ! same sub/ance 0 capable ( exi/5ce 9 ! ?ree /ates ( gas1 liquid1 & solid 0 ( c\rse evid5t f ! case ( wat]4 ,ev5 ! mo/ primitive races mu/ h realis$ t /eam1 dew1 ra91 sn[1 hail1 & ice 7 only modifications ( "o & ! same sub/ance4 ,z k increas$1 o!r sub/ances came to be kn[n :i* resembl$ wat] 9 _! capacity = exi/5ce 9 v>i\s physical /ates4 ,x 0 b natural to assume t ?is 0 a g5]al attribute1 & t all sub/ances w\ld1 soon] or lat]1 be f\nd capable ( exi/5ce 9 ea* ( ! diff]5t conditions ( aggregation4 ,attempts 7 made dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! la/ c5tury to prove t all ! ri=m bodies !n kn[n 7 simply vap\rs m or less remote f _! po9t ( liquefaction1 & /ill fur!r remov$ f _! po9t ( congelation4 ,monge & ,cl\et cond5s$ sulphur dioxide "s "t be=e #ahjj2 & ,nor?more1 9 #ahje1 liquefi$ *lor9e4 ,b ^! obs]vations attract$ little att5tion until ,f>aday1 9 #ahbc1 indep5d5tly effect$ ! liquefaction ( *lor9e1 & ,davy t ( hydro*loric acid4 ,f>aday almo/ imm$iately aft]w>ds liquefi$ sulphur dioxide1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 c>bon dioxide1 eu*lor9e1 nitr\s oxide1 cyanog51 & ammonia4 ,o!r exp]im5t]s1 among :om may be m5tion$ ,?ilori] & ,natt]]1 greatly improv$ ! me*anical appliances = liquefy+ ^! gases2 liquid c>bonic acid & nitr\s oxide 7 obta9$ 9 consid]able quantities1 & employ$ 9 ! production ( cold4 ,c]ta9 ( ! gases--hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 nitric oxide1 c>bonic oxide1 etc4--resi/$ all attempts to liquefy !m2 & h5ce gase\s sub/ances came to be classifi$ z p]man5t & non-p]man5t1 dep5d+ ^u :e!r !y c\ld or c\ld n be liquefi$4 ,! division 0 felt to be irrational ev5 at ! "t x 0 made4 ,!re seem$ no priori reason :y c>bon dioxide & nitr\s oxide %\ld be liquefiable1 :ile c>bonic oxide & nitric oxide %\ld resi/ all attempts to co]ce !m into *ang+ _! /ate4 ,! real clue to ! conditions requir$ to effect ! liquefaction ( a gas 0 n discov]$ until ne>ly half a c5tury lat]1 :51 z w be %[n subsequ5tly1 ! arbitr>y division ( gases into p]man5t & non-p]man5t 0 swept away4 ,! discov]y ( ! law ( gase\s comb9ation by ,gay ,lussac1 & ! recognition by ,ampre & ,avogadro ( ! relation betwe5 ! d5sity ( a gas or a vap\r & its atomic weight1 e>ly l$ to improvem5ts 9 ! me?ods ( det]m9+ ! absolute weights ( gases & vap\rs1 especially by ,fr5* *emi/s4 ,bo? ,gay ,lussac & ,dumas devis$ processes = det]m9+ vap\r d5sities :i* 7 9 use until late 9 ! c5tury1 & :i*1 al?\gh n[ sup]s$$ by m conv5i5t & m rapid modifications af=d$ valuable in=mation conc]n+ ! molecul> weights ( sub/ances & ! ph5om5a ( gase\s dissociation4 ,dur+ ! fir/ decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ,dalton & ,h5ry discov]$ ! simple law :i* connects pressure ) ! solubility ( a gas 9 any solv5t ^u :i* x ex]ts no specific action4 ,dalton fur!r develop$ ! law s z to include ! absorption by a solv5t ( ! sev]al con/itu5ts ( a gase\s mixture4 ,attempts 7 made by ,s*rd]1 ,kopp1 & o!rs1 to discov] relations betwe5 ! weights ( unit volumes ( liquids & solids & _! *emical nature2 b su* attempts 7 only p>tially successful1 ow+ to ! difficulty ( f9d+ valid conditions ( comp>ison4 ,by comp>+ ! specific gravities ( liquids at _! boil+-po9ts ,kopp succe$$ 9 detect+ a numb] ( regul>ities among _! specific volumes :i* seem to indicate t a compreh5sive g5]alisation connect+ !m may yet be discov]$4 ,kopp has also %[n t regul>ities exi/ among ! boil+-po9ts ( correlat$ sub/ances1 & t !re is an int]dep5d5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( _! ebullition & ! *emical *>act]s ( comp\nds4 ,?is %ort summ>y w suffice to %[ t attempts to discov] relations betwe5 ! physical attributes ( sub/ances & _! *emical nature 7 made m or less sporadically f ! "t t *emi/ry 0 pursu$ 9 ! _s ( sci5ce4 ,b x is only 9 rec5t times t any great accession to k has result$ f su* ef=ts4 ,! sci5ce ( physical *emi/ry is practically a creation ( our own p]iod4 ,its sy/ematic /udy may be said to date only f ! la/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 s9ce :i* "t x has made extraord9>y progress4 ,its broad features w be dealt ) 9 ! second volume ( ?is "w4 ,,bibliography ,,relat+ ,,to ,,! ,,p]iod ,,cov]$ ,,by ,,vol4 ,i4 ,agricola1 ,georg4 ,de ,re ,metallica4 ,agricola1 ,georg4 ,vom ,b]gw]ck ,,xii4 ,b*] d>9n mit s*n] ,figur51 etc4 ,alembic ,club1 ,publications ( !4 ,w4 ,clay1 ,ed9burgh4 ,b$does1 ,?omas4 ,*emical ,essays ( ,s*eele4 ,murray1 ,london1 #aghf4 ,b]!lot1 ,m>cell94 ,la ,*imie des ,anci5s et du ,moy5ge4 ,/e9heil1 ,p>is1 #ahhi4 ,b]!lot1 ,m>cell94 ,la ,rvolution ,*imique4 ,flix ,alcan1 ,p>is1 #ahij4 ,b]?ollet1 ,c4 ,l4 ,essai de ,/atique ,*imique4 ,firm9 ,didot1 ,p>is1 #ahjc4 ,bir*1 ,?omas4 ,life ( ,boyle4 ,mill>1 ,london1 #agdd4 ,bo]haave1 ,h]mann4 ,new ,me?od ( ,*emi/ry4 ,%aw & ,*amb]s1 ,london1 #agbg4 ,b\lton1 ,ri*>d4 ,boyle's ,works ,epitomis$4 ,phillips & ,taylor1 ,london1 #afii4 ,burton1 ,w4 ,life ( ,bo]haave4 ,l9tot1 ,london1 #agdf4 ,dalton1 ,john4 ,a ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy4 ,two ,vols4 ,bick]/aff1 ,london1 #ahjg-ahaj4 ,davy1 ,john4 ,life ( ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,longmans1 ,london1 #ahcf4 ,davy1 ,humphry4 ,collect$ ,works4 ,edit$ by ,john ,davy4 ,smi?1 ,eld]1 & ,co41 ,london1 #ahci4 ,figui]1 ,l\is4 ,l',al*imie et les ,al*imi/es4 ,victor ,lecon1 ,p>is1 #ahee4 ,gay ,lussac & ,?n>d4 ,re*]*es ,physico-,*imiques4 ,det]ville1 ,p>is1 #ahaa4 ,g]d+1 ,?4 ,ges*i*te d] ,*emie4 ,zweite ,ausgabe4 ,grun[1 ,leipzig1 #ahfi4 ,grimaux1 ,ed\>d4 ,lavoisi]1 #agdc-agid4 ,flix ,alcan1 ,p>is1 #ahhh4 ,h5ry1 ,william ,*>les4 ,life ( ,dalton4 ,cav5di% ,society1 ,london1 #ahed4 ,hoef]1 ,f]d9&4 ,hi/oire de la ,*imie4 ,two vols41 ,deuxime dition4 ,firm9 ,didot ,frres1 ,p>is1 #ahff4 ,jones1 ,b5ce4 ,life & ,lett]s ( ,f>aday4 ,longmans1 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,kopp1 ,h]mann4 ,ges*i*te d] ,*emie4 ,f\r vols4 ,brauns*weig1 #ahdc-dg4 ,kopp1 ,h]mann4 ,die ,al*emie 9 lt]] und neu]] ,zeit4 ,heidelb]g1 #ahhf4 ,lad5b]g1 ,alb]t4 ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry ,s9ce ! ,"t ( ,lavoisi]4 ,translat$ by ,leon>d ,dobb94 ,alembic ,club1 ,ed9burgh1 #aijj4 ,lavoisi]4 ,complete ,works4 ,edit$ by ,dumas4 ,f\r vols4 ,p>is1 #ahfd4 ,lem]y1 ,nicolas4 ,c\rs de ,*imie4 ,p>is1 #afge4 ,mey]1 ,ern/ v4 ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry4 ,translat$ by ,george ,m',g[an4 ,macmillian & ,co41 ,london1 #ahia4 ,nord5skild1 ,a4 ,e4 ,c>l ,wilhelm ,s*eele4 ,norsl$t & ,sn]1 ,/ockholm4 ,o/wald's ,klassik] d] ,exakt5 ,wiss5s*aft54 ,p>is1 ,john ,ayrton4 ,life ( ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,colb\rne & ,b5tley1 ,london1 #ahca4 ,prie/ley1 ,joseph4 ,exp]im5ts & ,obs]vations on ,diff]5t ,k9ds ( ,air4 ,six vols4 ,j4 ,johnson1 ,london1 #agge et seq4 ,roscoe1 ,h4 ,e41 & ,h>d51 ,a4 ,a ,new ,view ( ! ,orig9 ( ,dalton's ,atomic ,!ory4 ,macmillian & ,co41 ,london4 ,s*mi$]4 ,ges*i*te d] ,al*imie4 ,halle1 #ahcb4 ,s*ub]t1 ,e41 und ,sudh(f1 ,k4 ,p>acelsus's ,=s*ung54 ,frankfurt1 #ahhg-hi4 ,%aw1 ,pet]4 ,/ahl's ,*emi/ry4 ,osborn & ,longman1 ,london4 ,/ahl1 ,g4 ,e4 ,*eimia ,rationalis 7#agbj74 ,/ahl1 ,g4 ,e4 ,zymote*nia ,fundam5talis1 etc4 7#afig74 ,/ange1 ,alb]t4 ,zeitalt] d] ,*emie4 ,otto ,wig&1 ,leipzig1 #aijh4 ,?omson1 ,?omas4 ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry4 ,two vols4 ,colb\rne & ,b5tley1 ,london1 #ahcj4 ,?orpe1 ,t4 ,e4 ,essays 9 ,hi/orical ,*emi/ry4 ,second edition4 ,macmillian & ,co41 ,london1 #aijb4 ,?orpe1 ,t4 ,e4 ,humphry ,davy1 ,poet & ,philosoph]4 ,cassells1 ,london1 #ahie4 ,?orpe1 ,t4 ,e4 ,joseph ,prie/ley4 ,d5t & ,co41 ,london1 #aijf4 ,wilson1 ,george4 ,life ( ,cav5di%4 ,cav5di% ,society1 ,london1 #ahea4 ,,index neas ,g>u1 #ce ,agricola1 ,georg1 #ff ,aidone\s1 god ( e>?1 #bb ,alb]tus ,magnus1 #dj1 #dg ,al*emy1 #bh & a/rology1 #cf its "*1 #ci ,alkahe/1 #ea ,ana/atius ! ,s9aite1 #ce ,anaxagoras1 #bf ,anaxim5es1 #ba ,aqua regia1 #ci ,arabian le>n+1 influ5ce on ,we/]n ,europe1 #be ,ar*u1 #ei ,arg5t>ium1 #aj ,arg5tum vivum1 #aa ,ari/otle1 8 doctr9e ( 8elem5ts01 #bc 8 "* z a man ( sci5ce1 #bd ,arnoldus ,villanovanus 7,arnaud de ,vill5euve71 #db1 #dg1 #dh1 #ea ,arvidson1 #aee ,arr5i*on1 #ac ,ars ,transmutatoria1 #df ,artephius1 #di ,a/rology & al*emy1 #cf ,atoms1 anci5t !ories (1 #bf ,atram5tum1 #ad ,auri*alcum1 #i ,auri pigm5tum 7orpim5t71 #ac ,av]roes1 #be1 #ch ,avic5na1 #ch ,avogadro1 #aha ,bacon1 ,rog]1 #dj1 #da ,bacon1 ,"l1 #ee ,baldw9's phosphorus1 #hj ,b>toletti1 ,fabrizio1 #aee ,basil ,val5t9e1 #dc1 #dg1 #di1 #aef ,ba?ur/1 ,ralph1 #gd ,be*]1 ,john ,joa*im1 #ha1 #aef ,b5!r1 ,david1 al*emi/1 #ec ,b]gman1 #id1 #ajg1 #abd1 #aeh1 #afj ,b]ig>d de ,pisa1 #dh ,b]?ollet1 ,claude-,l\is1 #aaf et seq41 #aef1 #afj1 #afd ,b]!lot1 #cg ,b]zelius1 ,jns ,jakob1 #acc1 #aef1 #aei1 #afj1 #afd ,black1 ,joseph1 #ih et seq41 #aga ,bo*>t1 #d ,bo]haave1 #c-bj1 #ce1 #db1 #di1 #ea1 #ajf 8 life & "w1 #hd et seq4 ,bolim1 #afj ,borri1 #ec ,botryitis1 #ab ,b\illon-,lagrange1 #aeh ,b\llay1 #afb1 #afg ,boyle1 ,rob]t #bj1 #gb et seq41 #ajg1 #aac1 #aee1 #aeg1 #aei1 #age1 #agg ,bragad9o1 al*emi/1 #ec ,brooke ,taylor1 #aga ,brugnatelli1 #aeh1 #afa ,cadmia1 #ab ,cruleum1 #ab ,caligula1 #cd ,c>bunculus1 #dh ,c>dan1 #aaj ,cav5di%1 #id1 #ajb et seq41 #ajg1 #aga ,cav5t\1 #afb ,c]ium1 its discov]y1 #aba ,c]ussa1 #aj u/a1 #ab ,*alcantum 7copp] sulphate71 #ab ,*>les1 #agh ,*alybes1 smelt]s ( iron1 #aa ,*emi/ry ( ! anci5ts1 #a ,*5evix1 #aeg ,*evreul1 #ed1 #afb ,*lor9e1 discov]y (1 #ajg ,*romium1 discov]y (1 #abj ,*rysocolla1 #ab ,c9nab>1 use z pigm5t1 #ac ,cl\et1 #ahj ,clytemius1 ,john1 #ed ,cobalt1 discov]$ by ,br&t1 #ajg ,comb9+ proportion1 #abi ,cons]vation ( matt]1 #aac ,conr+ius1 ,h]mann1 #ea ,copp]1 ,egyptian1 #h ,roman1 #i ,cordus ,val]ius1 #fi ,craw=d1 #ajg1 #agb ,croll1 ,oswald1 #fe ,cron/$t1 #ajg ,cyanog51 discov]y (1 #aea ,dalton1 #abe et seq41 #agh1 #aha ,davy1 #bi1 #ada ,dee1 ,john1 #ec ,delambre1 #aaf ,demokritos1 #bf ,de ,re ,metallica1 #ff ,d]osne1 #aeg ,dick9son1 #ej ,diodorus ,siculus1 #g ,dioscorides1 #aef1 #afj ,db]e9]1 #aee1 #afb1 #afg ,dorn1 #fj ,du*esne1 #fa ,duhamel1 #ih1 #aeg ,dumas1 #afb1 #afg1 #afh1 #aha ,dulong1 #aeh1 #agc1 #agd ,dye+ by ! ,egyptians1 #ad ,egypt1 bir?place ( *emi/ry1 #a ,electrum1 #h ,elem5ta ,*emia1 #hg 8,elem5ts10 ,ari/otelian1 qualities (1 #bc ,elephant9um1 #ad ,elixir1 #cb ,ell]1 #id ,emp$okles1 #bc ,era/ius1 ,?omas1 #ea ,equival5t1 #abi ,fx v9i1 #acg ,fis*]1 ,g4 ,e41 #abd ,flos ris1 #ab ,f\rcroy1 #aab1 #aah1 #aee1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb ,frankl&1 #afh ,gahn1 #ajh ,gas sylve/re1 #fc ,gay ,lussac1 #aej1 #aee1 #afa1 #afd1 #afg1 #agh1 #aha ,geb]1 #cf !ory ( metals1 #cg1 #aef ,g5]ation ( metals1 #cc ,ge(froy1 #ajf ,g]h>dt1 #afh ,glass1 kn[n to ! anci5ts1 #ae ,glaub]1 ,johann ,rudolf1 #fh ,gluc9um1 its discov]y1 #abj ,gmel91 ,l4 #afa ,gold1 extraction by anci5ts1 #g ,g\l>d1 #aeg ,gomes1 #afa ,gttl+1 #aef ,graham1 ,?omas1 #agh ,gre%am ,college1 #gd ,gualdo1 #di ,guyton de ,morveau1 #aab1 #afj ,hmat9on1 #ae ,hales1 ,/eph51 #hi 8,h>monics10 ,p>acelsian1 #fa ,hauy1 #agf ,hellot1 #ajh ,helmont1 ,john ,bapti/ van1 #fc ,helvetius1 #dh ,h5nel1 #aee ,h5ry1 #aha ,h]akleitos1 #ba ,"h1 god ( air1 #bb ,h]mb/dt1 #aeh ,h]mes ,trismegi/us1 #d1 #cc 8,h]mes ( ,g]many1 !01 #eb ,h(fmann1 #ajf ,homb]g1 ,william1 #hd ,h\ton-,labill>dire1 #aeh ,h[>d1 #afa ,hyalos1 use (1 = k9dl+ fire1 #ae ,hydr>gyrum1 #aa ,iatro-*emi/ry1 #eg ,ink ( ! anci5ts1 #ad ,+5h\sz1 #ba ,invisible ,college1 !1 #gd ,iron1 use (1 by ! anci5ts1 #aj ,irv9e1 #agb ,isaac ( ,holl&1 #di ,isom]ism1 #afe ,isomorphism1 discov]y (1 #agf 8,kalid10 8 philosoph]'s /one1 #dh ,key ( ,wisdom1 #ec ,kir*]1 #ea ,kir*h(f1 #afb ,kirwan1 #aac ,klapro?1 #abj1 #afj ,klett5b]g1 ,hector de1 #ed ,kopp1 #aha ,krohnemann1 ,william de1 #ec ,kunkel1 ,john1 #ea1 #gi ,laboratorium ,*ymicum1 #hj ,lac ,virg9is1 #aeg ,lagrange1 #aaf ,laplace1 #agb ,lat5t heat1 #ii1 #agb ,lauraquais1 #aee ,laur5t1 #afh ,lavoisi]1 #bj1 #bb1 #aji antiphlogi/ic !ory1 #aab1 #aaf1 #aef1 #afd1 #aff1 #agc ,law ( ,dulong & ,petit1 #agc1 #agd ,law ( electrolytic action1 #aec ,lead1 kn[n to ! anci5ts1 #aj ,leblanc1 #ajh ,lehmann1 #aei ,lem]y1 ,nicolas1 #hc1 #aed1 #aef ,leo ,africanus1 #cf ,leukippos1 #bf ,libavius1 ,&reas 7,libau71 #fb1 #aee1 #aeg ,lieb]1 ,?omas1 #fe ,liebig1 #aee1 #aef1 #aei1 #afd1 #afg ,lwiz1 #aef ,lucretius1 #bf1 #bg ,lully1 ,raymund1 #da1 #dg1 #di ,macqu]1 #ih ,magi/]y1 gr&1 #dh small1 #dh ,magnesia alba1 nature (1 #ajg ,manganese1 discov]y (1 #ajg ,m>ggraf1 #ie1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aeg ,m>ie ,zigl]9 burnt1 #ec ,m>tian prep>ations1 #cg ,m>riotte1 #agh ,mat]nus1 ,julius ,firmicus1 #ce ,may]ne1 ,turquet de1 #fe ,may[1 ,john1 #hb et seq4 ,m$ic9e & ,a/rology1 #eh ,mel9um1 #ac-ad ,m5e!s ,sibonita1 #c 8,m]cury10 z 8elem5t01 #ca ,m]cury1 receipt = fix+1 #ej ,metallurgy ( ! anci5ts1 #g ,metals ( ! phlogi/ians1 #ajd ,m9d]]1 ,raymond1 #aeg ,m9ium1 #ab ,mits*]li*1 #aei1 #age1 #agf1 #agg ,molybd5a1 #ab ,monge1 #ahj ,monro1 ,donald1 #aei ,mordants1 ,egyptian1 #ae ,mundamus1 #dc ,mynsi*t1 ,adrian van1 #fe1 #aeh ,n>cot9e1 #afa ,natron1 us$ z a det]g5t1 #af ,natt]]1 #ahj ,ne/is1 god ( wat]1 #bb ,neumann1 #id1 #age ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy1 ,dalton's1 #abi ,nickel1 discov]y (1 #ajg ,nitrog51 discov]y (1 #ajg ,nor?more1 #ahj rugo1 #ab ,oil ( w9e1 #aee ,okeanos1 #ai ,oleus ,borri*ius1 #cc ,olimpiodorus1 #ce ,ony*itis1 #ab ,op]9us1 #fj ,o/racitis1 #ab ,oxides1 metallic1 us$ by anci5ts to col\r glass #ae ,oxyg51 its discov]y1 #aje influ5ce (1 on *emi/ry1 #aje ,palissy1 ,b]n>d1 #fg ,p>acelsus1 #dj1 #dh1 #eg ,p>atonium1 #ac ,pelleti]1 #afb ,peligot1 #afb ,p]ipatetic philosophy1 influ5ce on sci5ce1 #bd ,petit1 ,alexis ,!rese1 #agc1 #age ,ph]ekides1 #ba ,philosophia ,ori5talis1 #ch ,philosoph]'s ,/one1 #cb1 #df1 #di ,philosophical egg1 #cc ,phlogi/onism1 #ie et seq4 ,phosphorus1 discov]y (1 #hj1 #ajg ,placitis1 #ab ,plat9um1 discov]y (1 #ajg ,plato's doctr9e ( 8elem5ts01 #bc ,pl9y1 #aef ,plumbum album1 #aj nigrum1 #aj ,pope ,john ,,xxii41 al*emi/1 #df ,porret1 #afj ,pott1 #id1 #ie1 #aei ,price1 ,james ( ,guild=d1 #ed ,prie/ley1 ,joseph1 #bj1 #bb 8 life & "w1 #ii et seq4 ,pr\/1 ,joseph ,l\is1 #aba ,purple ( ,cassius1 #ha ,purpurissum1 #ac ,qu9tess5ce ( philosoph]s1 #cb ,raquetaillade1 ,jean de1 #dc ,realg>1 #ac ,reaumur1 #ajh ,rey1 #aaj ,rhazes1 #ch ,ri*t]1 ,j]emiah ,b5jam91 #abd ,ripley1 ,george1 #dc ,robiquet1 #afa1 #afg ,roebuck1 #ajh ,rom de ,l',isle1 #agf ,rose1 ,gu/av1 #agg ,ros5kreutz1 ,*ri/ian1 #ee ,r\elle1 #id1 #ajf1 #aei ,royal ,society1 f\ndation (1 #gd ,rubrica1 #ac ,rupecissa1 ,johannes de1 #dc ,sac*>um plumbi qu9tess5tiale1 #aeg ,sala1 ,angelus1 #fe ,sal ,armoniacum1 #dd ,sal ,duplicatum1 #ha ,sal mirabile1 #fh ,s&>a*1 #ac ,saturn9e solutions1 #cg ,sav>y1 #aee ,sceptical ,*emi/1 ,!1 #gj ,s*eele1 #if et seq41 #ajg1 #aee1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #aff ,s*ro$]1 #aha ,scoria ris1 #ab ,sef/rm1 #ace ,segu91 #aei ,seignette1 ,pet]1 #aeg ,sel5ium1 its discov]y1 #ace ,s5n]t1 ,daniel1 #fe ,s]trn]1 #afa ,sev]9us1 #fa ,silv]1 kn[n to ! anci5ts1 #g ,s9opis1 #ac ,soap1 manufacture by ,gauls1 #ae ,specific heat1 discov]y (1 #ii ,spiritus igno-areus1 #hb ,/ahl1 ,george ,ern/1 #ib1 #aef ,/annum1 #aj ,/atical ,essays ( ,hales1 #hi ,/atique ,*imique1 #aag ,/ephanus1 #ce ,/ibium1 #ac ,/immi1 #ac ,/rontia1 discov]y (1 #ajg ,suidas1 #cd 8,sulphur10 z 8elem5t01 #ca ,sulzba*1 #aaj ,sun wor%ip1 #bb ,sylvius1 ,francis de le ,bo1 #fd ,syncellus1 #ce ,ta*5ius1 #fi ,t>t>us1 doctr9e (1 #ei1 #aeg ,tellurium1 discov]y (1 #aba ,t]ra p+uis ( ,be*]1 #ib ,t]ti>ium1 #aj ,t]tullian1 #ai ,?ales ( ,miletus1 #ai ,?n>d1 #aeb1 #afd ,!ophra/us1 #aef ,! ,t9cture1 #cb ,?ilori]1 #ahj ,?omson1 ,?omas1 #abi ,?orium1 its discov]y1 #ace ,?urneyss]1 ,leon>d1 #ec1 #fj ,t91 kn[n to ! ,egyptians1 #i ,transmutation1 #bh1 #cj ,trommsdorff1 #aeg ,tubal ,ca9 7,tuval-,ca971 #g ,turquet de ,may]ne1 #aeh ,tyrian purple1 #ad ,val5t9e1 ,basil1 #dc1 #dg1 #di1 #aef ,van ,helmont1 #bj1 #dh1 #fc ,vasa murrh9a1 #ae ,vauquel91 #aai1 #aee1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb ,v]digris1 #ef ,v9c5t de ,beauvais1 #ej ,von ,ittn]1 #afj ,wallis1 ,john1 #gd ,w>d1 ,se?1 #gd 8,:ite0 gold1 #g ,wilcke1 #agb ,willis1 ,?omas1 #fd1 #gd ,whl]1 #afa1 #afc1 #afg ,wolla/on1 #add1 #agf ,woodw>d1 #afj ,wray1 #aei ,wr51 ,*ri/oph]1 #gd ,za*>ias1 ,daniel1 #di ,zozimus ! ,panopolite1 #d ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,punctuation & spell+ 7 made consi/5t :5 a pr$om9ant pref]5ce 0 f\nd 9 ?is book2 o!rwise !y 7 n *ang$4 ,simple typographical errors 7 correct$2 occasional unbalanc$ quotation m>ks reta9$4 ,ambigu\s hyph5s at ! ends ( l9es 7 reta9$2 occurr5ces ( inconsi/5t hyph5ation h n be5 *ang$4 ,index n *eck$ = prop] alphabetization or correct page ref]5ces4 ,page #af3 8jeunesse d'ore0 0 pr9t$ t way1 b %\ld be 8jeunesse dore04 ,page #ahc3 8,moy5ge0 0 pr9t$ t way1 b %\ld be 8,moy5 ge04