,transcriber's ,note3 ,boldface is indicated by equals signs1 italics by underscores4 ,,science ,,in ,,short ,,chapters4 ,,by ,w4 ,,mattieu ,,williams1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,author ,,of 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun10 8,through ,norway with a ,knapsack10 8,a ,simple ,treatise on ,heat10 etc4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,john ,b4 ,,alden1 ,,publisher4 #ahhc4 ,,preface4 ,i am not aware that this reprint of some of my scattered notes and essays demands any apology4 ,the practice of making such collections and selections by the author himself has now become very general1 and is much better done thus than by friends after his death4 ,besides this1 it supplies a growing want of these busy times1 when so many of us are prevented by the struggles of business from sitting down to the consecutive systematic study of a formal treatise4 ,i have kept this demand steadily in view throughout1 by selecting subjects which are likely to be interesting to all readers who are sufficiently intelligent to prefer sober fact to sensational fiction1 but who1 at the same time1 do not profess to be scientific specialists4 ,in the writing of these papers my highest literary ambition has always been to combine clearness and simplicity with some attempt at philosophy4 ,w4 ,m4 ,w4 ,,willesden1 ,september1 #ahhb4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,the ,fuel of the ,sun #g ,dr4 ,siemens' ,theory of the ,sun #ch ,another ,world ,down ,here #da ,the ,origin of ,lunar ,volcanoes #ej ,note on the ,direct ,effect of ,sun-,spots on ,terrestrial ,climates #ef ,the ,philosophy of the ,radiometer and its ,cosmical ,revelations #ei ,on the ,social ,benefits of ,paraffin #fe ,the ,solidity of the ,earth #gb ,a ,contribution to the ,history of ,electric ,lighting #ge ,the ,formation of ,coal #hh ,the ,solar ,eclipse of #ahga #ic ,meteoric ,astronomy #ajd ,the 8,great ,ice ,age0 and the ,origin of the 8,till0 #aab ,the ,barometer and the ,weather #adj ,the ,chemistry of ,bog ,reclamation #aei ,aerial ,exploration of the ,arctic ,regions #agj ,the ,limits of our ,coal ,supply #ahi 8,the ,englishman's ,fireside0 #bac 8,baily's ,beads0 #bba ,the ,coloring of ,green ,tea #bbc 8,iron ,filings0 in ,tea #bbg ,concert-,room ,acoustics #bca ,science and ,spiritualism #bcg ,mathematical ,fictions #bea ,world-,smashing #beg ,the ,dying ,trees in ,kensington ,gardens #bfa ,the ,oleaginous ,products of ,thames ,mud3 ,where they ,come from and ,where they ,go #bff ,luminous ,paint #bfi ,the ,origin and ,probable ,duration of ,petroleum #bgc ,the ,origin of ,soap #bha ,oiling the ,waves #bhe ,on the so-called 8,crater ,necks0 and 8,volcanic ,bombs0 of ,ireland #bij ,travertine #bif ,the ,action of ,frost in ,water-,pipes and on ,building ,materials #cjj ,the ,corrosion of ,building ,stones #cjh ,fire-,clay and ,anthracite #cab ,count ,rumford's ,cooking-,stoves #cbj ,the 8,consumption of ,smoke0 #cbg ,the ,air of ,stove-,heated ,rooms #ccb ,ventilation by ,open ,fireplaces #ccg ,domestic ,ventilation #cda ,home ,gardens for ,smoky ,towns #cea ,solids1 ,liquids1 and ,gases #cfg ,murchison and ,babbage #chf ,atmosphere versus ,ether #chi ,a ,neglected ,disinfectant #cib ,another ,disinfectant #cic ,ensilage #cid ,the ,fracture of ,comets #cif ,the ,origin of ,comets #cih ,,science ,,in ,,short ,,chapters4 ,,the ,,fuel ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,i offer the following sketch of the main argument which is worked out more fully in the essay ,i published in ,january1 #ahgj1 under the above title1 hoping that many who hesitate to plunge into a presumptuous speculative work of more than #bjj octavo pages may read this article1 and reflect upon the subject4 ,the book has been handled in a most courteous and indulgent spirit by all the reviewers who have noticed it1 but none have ventured to grapple with the argument it contains1 although every possible opportunity and provocation for doing so is designedly afforded4 ,it all rests upon the question which is discussed in the first three chapters1 viz41 whether the atmosphere which surrounds our earth is limited or unlimited in extent8 ,if my reasoning upon this fundamental question is refuted1 all that follows necessarily falls to the ground4 ,if ,i am right1 all our standard treatises on pneumatics and meteorology1 which repeat the arguments contained in ,dr4 ,wollaston's celebrated paper1 must be remodeled4 ,at the outset1 ,i reprint that paper1 and point out a very curious and monstrous fallacy which1 for half a century1 remained undetected1 and had been continually repeated4 ,as the main point of issue between myself and ,dr4 ,wollaston is merely a question of very simple arithmetic and geometry1 nothing can be easier than to set me right if ,i am wrong2 and1 as the philosophical consequences depending upon this issue are of vast and fundamental importance1 the question cannot be ignored by those who stand before the world as scientific authorities1 without a practical abdication of their philosophical responsibilities4 ,any man who publishes an astronomical or meteorological treatise without discussing this question1 which stands before him at the threshold of his subject1 is unfit for the task he has undertaken1 and unworthy of public confidence4 ,this may appear a strong conclusion just now1 but a few years will be sufficient to graft it firmly into the growth of scientific public opinion4#a 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun0 is simply an attempt to trace some of the consequences which must of necessity result from the existence of an universal atmosphere1 and it differs from other attempts to explain the great solar mystery1 by making no demands whatever upon the imagination1 inventing nothing1--no outside meteors1 no new forces or materials4 ,it supposes nothing whatever to exist but the known facts of the laboratory--the familiar materials of the earth and its atmosphere4 ,it is shown that these materials and the forces residing within them must of necessity produce a sun1 and manifest eternally all the observed solar phenomena1 provided only they are aggregated in the quantities which our own central luminary presents1 and are surrounded by attendant planets1 such as his4 ,nothing is assumed or taken for granted beyond the simple fundamental hypothesis that the laws of nature are uniform throughout the universe4 ,the argument thus conducted leads us step by step to a natural and connected explanation of the following important phenomena3-- #a4 ,the sources of solar and stellar heat and light4 #b4 ,the means by which the present amount of solar heat and light must be maintained so long as the solar system continues in existence4 #c4 ,the origin of the general and particular phenomena of the sun-spots4 #d4 ,the cause of the varying splendor of the photosphere1 including such details as the 8facul10 8mottling10 8granulations10 etc41 etc4 #e4 ,the forces which upheave the solar prominences4 #f4 ,the origin of the corona and zodiacal light4 #g4 ,the origin of the meteorites and the asteroids4 #h4 ,the meteorological phenomena of the planets4 #i4 ,the origin of the rings of ,saturn4 #aj4 ,the origin of the special structure of the nebul4 #aa4 ,the source of terrestrial magnetism1 and its connection with solar activity4 ,the first and second chapters are devoted to an examination of the limits of atmospheric expansibility4 ,the experimental investigations of ,dr4 ,andrews1 ,mr4 ,grove1 ,mr4 ,gassiot1 and ,m4 ,geissler are cited to prove that the expansibility of the atmosphere is unlimited1 and other cosmical evidence is adduced in support of this conclusion4 ,as this1 which is really the foundation of the whole argument1 is directly opposed to the views expressed by ,dr4 ,wollaston1 in his celebrated paper on 8,the ,finite ,extent of the ,atmosphere10 published in #ahbb1 and generally accepted as established science1 this paper is reprinted in the second chapter1 and carefully examined4 ,dr4 ,wollaston says 8that air has been rarefied so as to sustain #a-ajjth of an inch of barometrical pressure10 and further1 that 8beyond this limit we are left to conjectures founded on the supposed divisibility of matter2 if this be infinite1 so also must be the extent of our atmosphere40 ,i contend that our knowledge of the whole subject is fundamentally altered since these words were written4 ,we are no longer 8left to conjectures founded on the supposed divisibility of matter0 to determine the possibility of further expansibility than that indicated by #a-ajjth of an inch of barometrical pressure1 as we now have means of obtaining ten times1 a hundred times1 a thousand times1 or even an infinitely greater rarefaction than ,wollaston's supposed limit1 an apparently absolute vacuum being now obtainable2 and although the transmission of electricity affords a means of testing the existence of atmospheric matter with a degree of delicacy of which ,wollaston had no conception1 we are still unable to detect any indication of any limit to its expansibility4 ,the most remarkable part of ,dr4 ,wollaston's paper is the reductio ad absurdum by which he seeks to finally demonstrate the finite extent of our atmosphere4 ,he maintains1 as ,i do1 that if the elasticity of our atmosphere is unlimited1 its extension must be commensurate with the universe1 that every orb in space will1 by gravitation1 gather around itself an atmosphere proportionate to its gravitating power1 and that1 by taking the known quantity of the earth's atmosphere as our unit1 we may calculate the amount of atmosphere possessed by any heavenly body of which the mass is known4 ,on this basis ,dr4 ,wollaston calculates the atmosphere of the sun1 and concludes that its extent will be so great as to visibly affect the apparent motions of ,mercury and ,venus1 when their declination makes its nearest approach to that of the sun4 ,no such disturbance being actually observable1 he concludes that such an atmosphere as he has calculated cannot exist4 ,in like manner he calculates the atmosphere of ,jupiter1 and finds it to be so great1 that its refraction would be sufficient 8to render the fourth satellite visible to us when behind the centre of the planet1 and consequently to make it appear on both 7or all7 sides at the same time40 ,on examining these calculations1 ,i have discovered the very curious error above referred to4 ,as this is a matter of figures that cannot be abridged1 ,i must refer the reader to the original calculations4 ,i will here merely state that ,wollaston's method of calculating the solar gravitation atmosphere and that of ,jupiter and the moon leads to the monstrous conclusion that1 in ascending from the surface of the given orb1 we always have the same limited amount of atmospheric matter above as that with which we started1 although we are continually leaving a portion of it below4 ,wollaston's mistake is based on the assumption that1 under the circumstances supposed1 the atmospheric pressure and density1 at any given distance from the centre of the given orb1 will vary inversely with the square of that distance4 ,as the area of the base upon which such pressure is exerted varies directly with the square of the distance1 the total atmosphere above every imaginable starting-distance would thus be ever the same4 ,that this assumption1 so utterly at variance with the known laws of atmospheric distribution1 should have remained unchallenged for half a century1 and that the conclusions based upon it should be accepted by the whole scientific world1 and repeated in standard treatises1 such as those of the 8,encyclopedia ,britannica10 etc41 etc41 is1 ,i think1 one of the most remarkable curiosities presented by the history of science4 ,if it were merely a little cobweb in some obscure corner of philosophy1 there would be nothing surprising in its escape from the besom of scientific criticism2 but this is so far from being the case1 that it has hung1 since #ahbb1 like a dark veil obscuring another1 a wider1 and more interesting view of the universe which the idea of an universal atmosphere opens out4 ,but ,i must now proceed to the next stage of the argument4 ,starting from the conclusion reached in the previous chapters1 that the atmosphere of our earth is but a portion of an universal elastic medium which it has attached to itself by its gravitation1 and that all the other orbs of space must1 in like manner1 have obtained their proportion1 ,i take the earth's mass1 and its known quantity of atmospheric envelope as units1 and calculating by the simple rule ,i have laid down in opposition to ,wollaston's1 ,i find that the total weight of the sun's atmosphere should be at least #aag1fha1fbc times that of the earth's1 and the pressure at its base equal1 at least1 to #ae1bcc atmospheres4 ,what must be the results of such an atmospheric accumulation8 ,the experiment of compressing air in the condensing syringe1 and thereby lighting a piece of ,german tinder1 is familiar to all who have studied even the rudiments of physical science4 ,taking the formul of ,leslie and ,dalton1 and applying them to the solar pressure of #ae1bcc atmospheres1 we arrive according to ,leslie1 at the inconceivable temperature of #chj1hcb ,c41 or #fhe1ebi ,f41 as that due to this amount of compression1 or1 according to ,dalton1 at #gfa1ffe ,f4 ,what will be the effects of such a degree of heat upon materials similar to those of which our earth is composed8 ,let us first take the case of water1 which1 for reasons ,i have stated1 should be regarded as atmospheric1 or universally diffused matter4 ,this brings us to a subject of the highest and widest philosophical and practical importance4 ,i refer to the antagonism between the force of heat and that of chemical combination1 to which the ,french chemists have given the name 8dissociation40 ,having myself been unable to find any satisfactory ,english account of this subject at a time when it had already been well treated by ,french and ,german authors1 in the form of published lectures and cyclopdia articles1 ,i assume that others may have encountered a similar difficulty1 and therefore dwell rather more fully upon this part of my present summary4 ,it appears that all chemical compounds may be decomposed by heat1 and that1 at a given pressure1 there is a definite and special temperature at which the decomposition of each compound is effected4 ,for the absolute and final establishment of the universality of this law further investigations are necessary1 actual investigations having established it as far as they have gone1 but these have not been exhaustive4 ,there appears to be a remarkable analogy between dissociation and evaporation4 ,when a liquid is vaporized1 a certain amount of heat is 8rendered latent10 and this quantity varies with the liquid and with the pressure1 but is definite and invariable for each liquid at a given pressure4 ,in like manner1 when a compound is dissociated1 a certain amount of heat is 8rendered latent10 or converted into dissociating force1 and this varies with each compound and with the pressure1 but is definite and invariable for each compound at a given pressure4 ,further1 when condensation occurs1 an amount of heat is evolved1 as temperature1 exactly equal to that which was rendered latent in the evaporation of the same substance under the same pressure2 and1 in like manner1 when chemical re-combination of dissociated elements occurs1 an amount of heat is evolved1 as temperature1 exactly equal to that which disappeared when the compound was dissociated by heat alone under the same pressure4 ,according to the recently adopted figures of ,m4 ,deville1 the temperature at which the vapor of water becomes dissociated under ordinary atmospheric pressure is #bhjj ,c41 and the1 quantity of heat which disappears1 as temperature1 in the course of dissociation is #baec calorics1 i4e41 sufficient to raise #baec times its own weight of liquid water #a ,c42 but1 as the specific heat of aqueous vapor is to that of liquid water as #jdge to #a1 that latent heat expressed in the temperature it would have given to aqueous vapor is #decb ,c41 or #haeh ,f4 ,in order to render the analogy between the ebullition and dissociation of water more evident and intelligible1 ,i will state it as follows3-- ,to commence the ebullition of ,to commence the dissociation of water under ordinary pressure1 aqueous vapor under ordinary a temperature of #ajj ,c41 or pressures1 a temperature of #bab ,f41 must be attained4 #bhjj ,c41 or #ejgb ,f41 must be attained4 ,to complete the ebullition of a ,to complete the dissociation of given quantity of water1 an a given quantity of aqueous amount of heat must be applied1 vapor1 an amount of heat must sufficient to have raised be applied sufficient to have the water #ecg ,c41 or #ifh ,f41 raised the vapor #decb ,c41 or above its boiling-point1 had it #haeh ,f41 above its dissociation- not evaporated4 point had it not decomposed4 ,in order that a given quantity of ,in order that a given quantity of vapor of water shall condense1 the elements of water may combine1 it must give off sufficient heat they must give off sufficient to raise its own weight of water heat to raise their own #ecg ,c41 or #ifh ,f4 weight of aqueous vapor #decb ,c41 or #haeh ,f4 ,i have expressed these generalizations and analogies rather more definitely than they have been hitherto stated1 but those who are acquainted with the researches of ,deville1 ,cailletet1 ,bunsen1 etc41 will perceive that ,i am justified in doing so4#b ,with the general laws of the dissociation of water thus before us1 we may follow out the necessary action of the above-stated pressure and consequent evolution of heat in the lower regions of the solar atmosphere upon the large proportion of aqueous vapor which ,i have shown that it should contain4 ,it is evident that the first result will be separation of this water into its elements1 accompanied with a loss of temperature corresponding to the latent heat of dissociation4 ,we may assume that in the lower regions of the solar atmosphere the free heat evolved by mechanical compression will be more than sufficient to dissociate the whole of the aqueous vapor1 and thus the dissociated gases will be left at a higher temperature than was necessary to effect their dissociation4 ,their condition will thus be analogous to that of superheated steam3 they will have to give off some heat before they can begin to combine4#c ,there will1 however1 be somewhere an elevation at which the heat evolved by the joint compression of the elementary and combined gases will be just sufficient to dissociate the latter1 and here will be the meeting surface of the combined and the uncombined constituents of water4 ,there will be a sphere containing combined oxygen and hydrogen surrounded by an atmospheric envelope containing large quantities of aqueous vapor1 and the temperature at this limiting surface will be equal to that of the oxyhydrogen flame under a corresponding pressure4 ,what will occur under these conditions8 ,will the 8detonating gases0 behave as in the laboratory8 ,obviously not1 as a glance at the third of the above parallel propositions will show4 ,the dissociated gases cannot combine without giving off their #decb of latent heat as actual temperature4 ,this can only be effected by communication with matter which is cooler than itself4 ,if a bubble of steam is surrounded by water maintained at the boiling temperature1 it will not condense at all1 because any effort of condensation would be accompanied with an evolution of heat exactly sufficient to evaporate its own result4 ,if1 however1 the surrounding water is slowly radiating1 or otherwise losing its heat1 the enclosed bubble of steam will condense proportionately1 by giving off to its envelope an amount of its latent heat just sufficient to maintain the water at the boiling-point4 ,for further illustration1 let us conceive the case of a certain quantity of the elements of water heated exactly to the temperature of dissociation1 and confined in a vessel the sides of which are maintained externally at precisely the same temperature as the gases within1 so that no heat can be added or taken away from them4 ,no sensible amount of combination can take place1 as the first infinitesimal effort of combustion1 or combination1 would set free just the amount of heat required to decompose its own result4 ,let us now suppose a modification of these conditions1 viz41 that the vessel containing the dissociated gases1 at the temperature of dissociation1 shall be surrounded with bodies cooler than itself1 i4e41 capable of receiving more heat from it than they radiate towards it2 there would then take place just so much combustion as would set free the amount of heat required to maintain the temperature of the vessel at the dissociation-point2 or1 in other words1 combustion would go on to the extent of setting free just so much heat as the gaseous mass was capable of radiating1 or otherwise transmitting to surrounding bodies2 and this amount of combustion would continue till all the gases had combined4 ,we have only to give this hypothetical vessel a spherical form and an internal diameter of #hec1chj miles--to construct its enveloping sides of a thick shell of aqueous vapor1 etc41 and then1 by placing in the midst of the contained dissociated gases a nucleus of some kind1 we are hypothetically supplied with1 the main conditions which ,i suppose to exist in the sun4 ,a little reflection upon the application of the above-stated laws to these conditions will show that the stupendous ocean of explosive gases would constitute an enormous stock of fuel capable1 by its combustion1 of setting free exactly the same quantity of heat as had previously been converted into decomposing or separating force2 the amount of combustion would always be limited by the possible amount of radiation1 and the radiation would again be limited by the resisting envelope of aqueous vapor produced by this combustion4 ,if these conditions existed in a perfectly calm and undisturbed solar atmosphere1 there would be a continually increasing external envelope of aqueous vapor1 and a continually diminishing inner atmosphere of combustible gases2 there would be a gradual diminution of the amount of solar radiation1 and a slow and perpetually retarding progress towards solar extinction4 ,it should be noted that1 according to this explanation1 the supply of heat is originally derived from atmospheric condensation due to gravitation1 that the storage of surplus heat is effected by dissociation1 and its evolution mainly by recombination or combustion4 ,the great difficulty1 that of the perpetual renewal of the solar fuel1 still remains unsolved2 the fact that during the millions of years of geological history we find no indications of any declining average of solar energy is so far still unexplained by this1 as by every other1 attempt to account for the origin of solar and stellar light and heat4 ,in his inaugural address to the ,british ,association ,meeting of #ahff1 ,mr4 ,grove put the following very suggestive question3--8,our sun1 our earth1 and planets are constantly radiating heat into space2 so1 in all probability1 are the other suns1 the stars1 and their attendant planets4 ,what becomes of the heat thus radiated into space8 ,if the universe has no limit--and it is difficult to conceive one--there is a constant evolution of heat and light2 and yet more is given off than is received by each cosmical body1 for otherwise night would be as light and as warm as day4 ,what becomes of the enormous force thus apparently non-recurrent in the same form80 ,this is a grand question1 a philosophical thought worthy of the author of 8,the ,correlation of ,physical ,forces40 ,most philosophical thinkers will1 ,i believe1 agree with me in concluding that a sound reply to it will solve the great mystery of the everlasting radiations of our sun and all the other suns of the universe4 ,so long as we regard these suns as the sources of continually expended forces of light and heat1 their everlasting and unabated renewal becomes a mystery utterly inscrutable to the human intellect1 since the creation of new force1 or any addition to the total forces of the universe1 is as inconceivable to us as any addition to the total matter of the universe4 ,the great solar question assumes a far more hopeful shape when we admit that all the forces of past radiations are somewhere diffused in space1 and we ask whether a sun contains any mechanism by which it may collect and concentrate this diffused force1 and thus perpetually gather from surrounding suns as much as it radiates towards them4 ,the next part of my work is an attempt to show that such a mechanism does exist in our solar system1 and to explain its action4 ,we know that if atmospheric air is compressed it becomes heated1 that if this heat is allowed to radiate and the air is again expanded to its original dimensions1 it will be cooled below its original temperature to an extent precisely equal to the heat which it gave out when compressed4 ,on this principle ,i endeavor to explain the everlasting maintenance of the solar and stellar radiations4 ,the sun is attended by his train of planets whose orbital motion he controls1 but they in return react upon him as the moon does upon the earth4 ,if this reaction were regular1 like that of the moon upon the earth1 a regular atmospheric tide would result2 but the great irregularity of the dimensions1 distances1 and velocities of the planets produces a result equivalent to a number of clashing irregular tides in the solar atmosphere2 or1 otherwise stated1 the centre of motion and centre of gravity of the whole system will be perpetually varying with the varying relative positions of the planets1 and thus the solar nucleus and solar atmosphere will be subject to irregularities of motion1 which1 though very small relatively to the enormous magnitude of the sun1 must be sufficient to produce mighty vortices1 and thus effect a continual commingling between the outer and inner atmospheric strata4 ,it must be remembered that1 according to the preceding1 the inner or lower strata of the solar atmosphere should consist of our ordinary atmospheric mixture of oxygen and nitrogen1 and the dissociated elements of water and carbonic acid1 besides some of the more volatile elements of the solar nucleus4 ,outside of this there should be a boundary limit where the dissociated gases are combining as rapidly as their latent heat can be evolved by radiation2 this will form a shell or sphere of flame1--the photosphere1--and above or beyond this will be the sphere of vapors resulting from this combustion1 which1 by their resistance to radiation1 will limit the evolution of heat and consequent combustion4 ,now the vortices above referred to will break through the shell of combustion1 and drag down more or less of the outer vapor into the lower and hotter regions of dissociated gases4 ,as there can be no action without equal and contrary reaction1 there can be no vortices1 either in the solar atmosphere or a terrestrial stream1 without corresponding upheavals4 ,these upheavals will eject the lower dissociated gases more or less completely through the vaporous jacket which restrains their normal radiations1 and1 thus liberated1 they will rush into combination with an explosive energy comparable to that which they display in our laboratories2 not1 however1 with an instantaneous flash1 but with a continuous rocket-like combustion1 the rapidity of which will be determined by the possibility of radiation4 ,the heat evolved by this combustion1 acting simultaneously with the diminution of pressure1 will effect a continually augmenting expansion of these upheaved gases1 and as the rapidity of combustion will be accelerated in proportion to elevation above the restraining vapors1 an outspreading far in excess of that which would be due to the original upheaving force1 is to be expected4 ,the reader who is acquainted with the phenomena of the solar prominences will at once perceive how all these expectations are fulfilled by actual observations1 especially by the more recent observations of ,zllner1 ,secchi1 etc41 which exhibit the typical solar prominence as a stem or jet rushing upwards through some restraining medium1 and then expanding into a cloud-like or palm-tree form after escaping from this restraint4 ,i need scarcely add that the clashing tide waves are the facul1 and the vortices the sun-spots4 ,my present business1 however1 is to show how these vortices and eruptions--this down-rush in one part of the solar atmosphere and up-rush in another--contribute to the permanent maintenance of the solar light and heat4 ,it must be understood that these outbursts are only visible to us as luminous prominences during the period of their explosive outburst1 and while still subject to great expansive tension4 ,long after they have ceased to be visible to us their expansion must continue1 until they finally and fully mingle with the medium into which they are flung1 and attain a corresponding degree of rarefaction4 ,this must occur at tens and hundreds of thousands of miles above the photosphere1 according to the magnitude of the ejection4 ,the spectroscopic researches of ,frankland and ,lockyer having shown that the atmospheric pressure at about the outer surface of the photosphere does not far exceed that of our atmosphere1 ,i may safely regard all the upper portion of these solar ejections as having left the solar atmosphere proper1 and become commingled with the general interstellar medium4 ,if the sun were stationary1 or merely rotating1 in the midst of this universal atmosphere1 the same material that is ejected to-day would in the course of time return1 and be whirled into the great sun-spot eddies2 but such is not the case2 the sun is driving through the ether with a velocity of about #dej1jjj miles per twenty four hours4 ,what must be the consequence of this motion8 ,the sun will carry its own special atmospheric matter with it2 but it cannot thus carry the whole of the interstellar medium4 ,there must be a limit1 graduated no doubt1 but still a practical limit1 at which its own atmosphere will leave behind1 or pass through1 the general atmospheric matter4 ,there must be a heaping or condensation of this matter in the front1 a rarefaction or wake in the rear1 and a continuous bow of newly encountered atmosphere around the boundaries in the opposite direction to that of the sun's motion4 ,the result of this must be that a great portion of the ejected atmospheric matter of the prominences will be swept permanently to the rear1 and its place supplied by the material occupying the space into which the sun is advancing4 ,we are thus presented with a mighty machinery of solar respiration2 some of this newly arriving atmospheric matter must be stirred into the vortices1 its quantity being exactly equivalent to that of the old material expired by the explosive eruptions1 and left in the rear4 ,now1 the new atmospheric matter which is thus encountered and inspired1 is the recipient of the everlasting radiations whose destination is the subject of ,mr4 ,grove's inquiry2 and these1 when thus encountered and compressed1 will of necessity evolve more or less of the heat which1 through millions of millions of centuries they have been gradually absorbing2 while1 on the other hand1 the expired or ejected matter of the gaseous eruptions will1 like the artificially compressed air above referred to1 have lost all the heat which during its solar existence it had by compression1 dissociation1 and re-combination contributed to the solar radiations4 ,therefore1 when again fully expanded1 it will be cooler than the general medium from which it was originally inspired by the advancing sun4 ,the daily supply of fresh atmospheric fuel will be a cylinder of ether of the same diameter as the sun1 and #dej1jjj miles in length6 ,i have calculated the weight of this cylinder of ether on the assumption 7which of course is purely arbitrary7 that the density of the interstellar medium is one ten-thousandth part of that of our atmosphere4 ,it amounts to #ad1cac1iae1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj tons1 affording a supply of #afe millions of millions of tons per second2 or1 if we assume the interstellar medium to have a density of only one-millionth of that of our atmosphere1 the supply would be rather more than one and a half millions of millions of tons per second4 ,the proportion of this which is effective in the manner above stated is that which becomes stirred into the lower regions of the sun in exchange for the ejected matter of the prominences4 ,i will not here dwell upon the bombardment hypothesis1 beyond observing that my explanation of solar phenomena supplies a continuous bombardment of the above-stated magnitude without adding anything to the magnitude of the sun4 ,so far1 then1 ,i answer ,mr4 ,grove's question1 by showing that the heat radiated into space by each of the solid orbs that people its profundities1 is received by the universal atmospheric medium2 is gathered again by the breathing of wandering suns1 who inspire as they advance the breath of universal heat and light and life2 then by impact1 compression1 and radiation1 they concentrate and re-distribute its vitalizing power2 and after its work is done1 expire it in the broad wake of their retreat1 leaving a track of cool exhausted ether--the ash-pits of the solar furnaces--to reabsorb the general radiations1 and thus maintain the eternal round of life4 ,but ere this1 a great difficulty has probably presented itself to the mind of the reader4 ,he will refer to the calculations that have been made in order to determine the actual temperature of the solar surface and the intensity of its luminosity4 ,both of these are vastly in excess of those obtained in our laboratory experiments by the combustion of the elements of water4 ,even taking into consideration the dissociated carbonic acid whose elements should be burning in the photosphere with those of water1 and adding to these the volatile metals of the solar nucleus whose dissociated vapors must1 under the circumstances stated1 be commingled with those of the solar atmosphere1 and therefore contribute to the luminosity by their combustion1 still by burning here on the earth a jet of such mixed gases and vapors we should not obtain any approach to either the luminosity or the temperature which is usually attributed to the sun4 ,i have made a very few simple experiments1 the results of which remove these difficulties4 ,they were conducted with the assistance of ,mr4 ,jonathan ,wilkinson1 the official gas examiner to the ,sheffield ,corporation1 using his photometric and gas-measuring apparatus4 ,we first determined the amount of light radiated by a single fish-tail gas-burner consuming a measured quantity of gas per hour4 ,we found when another was placed behind this1 so that all the light of the second had to pass through the first1 that the light of the two 7measured by the illuminating intensity of their radiations upon a screen just as the solar luminosity has been measured7 was just double that of one flame1 three flames 7still presenting to the photometric screen only the surface of one7 gave it three times the amount of illumination1 and so on with any number of flames we were able to test4 ,mr4 ,wilkinson has since arranged #ajj flames on the same1 principle1 i4e41 so that the #ii hinder flames shall all radiate through the one presented to the screen1 thus affording the same surface as a single flame1 but having #ajj times its thickness or depth1 and he finds that the law indicated by our first experiments is fully verified2 that the #ajj flames thus arranged illuminate the screen #ajj times as intensely as the single flame4 ,other modifications of these experiments1 described in ,chapter vii4 of 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun10 establish the principle that a common hydrocarbon gas flame is transparent to its own radiations1 or1 in other words1 that the amount of light radiated from such a flame1 and its apparent intensity of luminosity1 is proportionate to its thickness2 therefore the luminosity of the sun may be produced by a photosphere having no greater intrinsic brilliancy than the flame of a tallow candle1 provided the flame is of sufficient depth or thickness4 ,i see good reasons for inferring that its intrinsic brilliancy is less than that of a candle--somewhere between that and a ,bunsen's burner4 ,a similar series of experiments upon the radiation of the heat of flames through each other1 indicated similar results2 but my apparatus for these experiments was not so delicate and reliable as in the experiments on light1 and1 therefore1 ,i cannot so decidedly affirm the absolute diathermancy of flame to its own radiations4 ,within the limits of error of these experiments1 ,i found that with the same radiant surface presented to the thermometer1 every addition to the thickness of the flame produced a proportionate increase of radiation4 ,this important law1 though hitherto unnoticed by philosophers1 is practically understood and acted upon by workmen who are engaged in furnace operations4 ,present space will not permit me to illustrate this by examples1 but in passing ,i may mention the 8mill furnaces10 where armor-plates and other large masses of iron are raised to a welding temperature by radiant heat1 and the ordinary puddling furnace1 where iron is melted by radiant heat4 ,in both of these special arrangements are made to obtain a 8body0 or thickness of radiant flame1 while intensity of combustion is neglected and even carefully avoided4 ,according to this there are two factors engaged in producing the radiant effect from a given surface1 intensity and quantity1 i4e41 brilliancy and thickness in the case of light1 and temperature and thickness in the case of heat4 ,in the ,bude light1 for example1 consisting of concentric rings of coal-gas1 we have small intensity with great quantity1 in the lime-light we have a mere surface of great brilliancy but no thickness4 ,if ,i am right1 the surface of the moon maybe brighter than the luminous surface of the sun1 the peculiarities of moonlight depending upon intensity1 those of sunlight upon quantity of light4 ,the flame that roars from the mouth of a ,bessemer converter has but small intrinsic brilliancy1 far less than that of an ordinary gas flame1 as may be seen by observing the thin waifs that sometimes project beyond the body of the flame4 ,nevertheless1 its radiations are so effective that it is a painfully dazzling object even in the midst of sunny daylight2 but then we have here not a hollow flame fed only by outside oxygen1 but a solid body of flame several feet in thickness4 ,even the pallid carbonic acid flame which accompanies the pouring of the spiegeleisen has marvellous illuminating power4 ,the reader will now be able to understand my explanation of the sun-spots1 of their nucleus1 umbra1 and penumbra4 ,from what ,i have stated respecting the planetary disturbances or the solar rotation1 the photosphere should present all the appearances due to the movements of a fiery ocean1 raging and seething in the maddest conceivable fury of perpetual tempest4 ,if the surface of a river flowing peacefully between its banks is perforated with conical eddies whenever it meets with a projecting rock or obstacle1 or other agency which disturbs the regularity of its course1 what must be the magnitude of the eddies in this ocean of flame and heated gases1 when stirred to the lowest depths of its vast profundity by the irregular reeling of the solar nucleus within8 ,obviously1 nothing less than the sunspots2 those mighty maelstrms into which a world might be dropped like a pea into an egg-cup4 ,when the photosphere or shell of combining gases is thus ripped open1 the telescopic observer looks down the vortex1 which1 if deep enough1 reveals to him the inner regions of dissociated gases and vapors4 ,but these have the opposite property to that which ,i have shown to belong to flame2 they are opaque to their own special radiations1 while the flame is transparent to the light of the inner portions of itself4 ,thus1 the dissociated interior of the solar envelope1 though absolutely white-hot1 will be comparatively dark 7direct experiment has proved that the darkness of the spots is only relative74 ,the sides of the vortex funnel will consist of a mixture of dissociated gases1 flaming gases1 and combined gases1 and will thus present various thicknesses of flame1 and thereby display the various shades of the penumbra4 ,space will not permit me here to follow up the details of this subject1 as ,i have done in the original work1 where it is shown that if the telescope had not yet been invented1 all the telescopic details of spot phenomena might have been described priori as necessary consequences of the constitution ,i have above ascribed to the sun4 ,not merely the great spot phenomena1 but all the minor irregularities of the photosphere follow with similarly demonstrable necessity4 ,thus the many interfering solar tides must throw up great waves1 literally mountainous in their magnitude1 the summits and ridges of which1 being raised into higher regions of the absorbing vaporous atmosphere that envelopes the photosphere1 will radiate more freely1 its dissociated matter will combine more abundantly1 and will thicken the photosphere immediately below2 this thicker flame will be more luminous than the normal surface1 and thus produce the phenomena of the facul4 ,besides these great ground-swells of the flaming ocean of the photosphere1 there must be lesser billows1 and ripples upon these1 and mountain tongues of flame all over the surface4 ,the crests of these waves1 and the summits of these flame-alps1 presenting to the terrestrial observer a greater depth of flaming matter1 must be brighter than the hollows and valleys between2 and their splendor must be further increased by the fact1 that such upper ridges and summits are less deeply immersed in the outer ocean of absorbing vapors1 which limits the radiation of the light as well as the heat of the photosphere4 ,the effect of looking upon the surface of such a wild fury of troubled flame1 with its confused intermingling of gradations of luminosity1 must be very puzzling and difficult to describe2 and hence the 8willow leaves10 8rice grains10 8mottling10 8granules10 8things10 8flocculi10 8bits of white thread10 8cumuli of cotton wool10 8excessively minute fragments of porcelain10 8untidy circular masses10 8ridges10 8waves10 8hill knolls10 etc41 etc41 to which the luminous irregularities have been compared4 ,at the time ,i wrote1 the means of examination of the edge of the sun by the spectroscope was but newly discovered1 and the results then published referred chiefly to the prominences proper4 ,since that1 a new term has been introduced to solar technology1 the 8sierra10 and the observations of the actual appearances of this sierra precisely correspond to my theoretical description of the limiting surface of the photosphere1 which was written before ,i was acquainted with these observed facts4 ,this will be seen by reference to ,chapter x41 the subject of which is1 8,the ,varying ,splendor of ,different ,portions of the ,photosphere40#d ,but ,i must not linger any further upon this part of the subject1 but proceed to another1 where subsequent discoveries have strongly confirmed my speculations4 ,the mean specific gravity of the sun is not quite #a times that of water4 ,the vapors of nickel1 cobalt1 copper1 iron1 chromium1 manganese1 titanium1 zinc1 cadmium1 aluminium1 magnesium1 barium1 strontium1 calcium1 and sodium1 have been shown by the spectroscope to be floating on the outer regions of the sun4 ,none of these could constitute the body of the sun in a solid or liquid state1 and be subjected to the enormous pressure which such a mass must exert upon itself without raising the mean specific gravity vastly above this2 nor is there any other kind of matter with which we are acquainted which could exist within so large a mass in a liquid or solid state1 and retain so low a density4 ,i must confess that my faith in the logical acumen of mathematicians has been rudely shaken by the manner in which eminent astronomers have described the umbra or nucleus of the sun-spots as the solid body of the sun seen through his luminous atmosphere1 and the solid surface of ,jupiter seen through his belts1 and have discussed the habitability of ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and ,neptune always on the assumption of their solidity1 while the specific-gravity of all of these renders this surface solidity a demonstrable physical impossibility4 ,if the sun 7or either of these planets7 has a solid or liquid nucleus1 it must be a mere kernel in the centre of a huge orb of gaseous matter1 and though ,i have spoken rather definitely of the solar atmosphere in order to avoid complication1 ,i must not1 therefore1 be understood to suppose that there exists in the sun any such definite boundary to the base of the atmospheric matter as we find here on the earth4 ,the temperature1 the density1 and all we know of the chemistry of the sun justify the conclusion that in its outer regions1 to a considerable depth below the photosphere1 there must be a commingling of the atmospheric matter with the vapors of the metals whose existence the spectroscope has revealed4 ,some of these must be upheaved together with the dissociated elements of water4 ,they are all combustible1 and1 with a few exceptions1 the products of their combustion would solidify after they were projected beyond the photosphere4 ,much of the iron1 nickel1 cobalt1 and copper might pass through the fiery ordeal of such projection1 and solidify without oxidation1 especially when more or less enveloped in uncombined hydrogen4 ,it is obvious that1 under these circumstances1 there must occur a series of precipitations analogous to those from the aqueous vapor of our atmosphere4 ,these gaseous metals1 or their oxides1 must be condensed as clouds1 rain1 snow1 and hail1 according to their boiling and metal points1 and the conditions of their ejection4 ,we know that sudden and violent atmospheric disturbance1 accompanied with fierce electrical discharges1 especially favor the formation of hailstones in our terrestrial atmosphere4 ,all such violence must be displayed on a hugely exaggerated scale in the solar outbursts1 and therefore the hailstone formation should preponderate1 especially as the metallic vapors condense more rapidly than those of water on account of the much smaller amount of their specific heat1 and of the latent heat of their vapors4 ,what will become of these volleys of solid matter thus ejected with the furious and protracted explosions forming the solar prominences8 ,in order to answer this question1 we must remember that the spectroscope1 as recently applied1 merely displays the gaseous1 chiefly the hydrogen1 ejections2 that these great gaseous flames bear a similar relation to the solid projectiles that the flash of a gun does to the grape-shot or cannon-ball4 ,mr4 ,lockyer says3 8,in one instance ,i saw a prominence #bg1jjj miles high change enormously in the space of ten minutes2 and1 lately1 ,i have seen prominences much higher born and die in an hour40 ,he has recently measured an actual velocity of #abj miles per second in the movements of this gaseous matter of the solar eruptions1 the initial velocity of which must have been much greater4#e ,if such is the velocity of the gaseous ejections1 what must be that of the solid projectiles1 and where must they go8 ,a cosmical cannonade is a necessary result of the conditions ,i have sketched1 and as prominence-ejections are continually in progress1 there must be a continual outpouring from the sun of solid fragments1 which must be flung far beyond the limits of the gaseous prominences4 ,as the luminosity of these glowing particles must be very small compared with that of the photosphere1 they will be invisible in the glare of ordinary sunshine2 but if our eyes be protected from this1 they may then be rendered visible1 both by their own glow and the solar light they are capable of reflecting4 ,they should be seen during a total eclipse1 and should exhibit radiant streams proceeding irregularly from different parts of the sun1 but most abundantly from the neighborhood of the spot regions4 ,as these spot regions occupy the intermediate latitudes between the poles and the equator of the sun1 the greatest extensions of the outstreamings should be ,n4,e4 and ,s4,w41 and ,s4,e4 and ,n4,w41 while to the ,n41 ,s41 ,e41 and ,w4--that is1 opposite the poles and equator of the sun--there should be a lesser extension4 ,the result of this must be an approximation to a quadrilateral figure1 the diagonals of which should extend in a ,n4,e4 and ,s4,w41 and a ,s4,e4 and ,n4,w4 direction1 or thereabouts4 ,i say 8thereabouts10 because the zone of greatest activity is not exactly intermediate between the poles and the equator1 but lies nearer to the solar equator4 ,examined with the polariscope1 these radiant streams should display a mixture of reflected light and self-luminosity4 ,examined with the spectroscope1 a faint continuous spectrum due to such luminosity of solid particles should be exhibited1 with possibly a few lines due to the small amount of vapor which1 in their glowing condition1 they might still give off4 ,besides this1 there should appear the spectroscope indications of violent electrical discharges1 which must occur as a necessary concomitant of the furious ejections of aqueous vapor and solid particles4 ,all these metallic hailstones must be highly charged1 like the particles of vesicular vapor ejected from the hydro-electric machine1 or the vapors and projectiles of a terrestrial volcanic eruption4 ,i need scarcely add that this exactly describes the actually-observed results of the recent observations on the corona1 and that all the phenomena of this great solar mystery are but necessary and predicable results of the constitution ,i ascribe to the sun4 ,there is a method of manufacturing hypotheses which has become rather prevalent of late1 especially among mathematicians1 who take observed phenomena1 and then arbitrarily and purely from the raw material of their own imagination construct explanatory atoms1 media1 and actions1 which are shaved and pared1 scraped and patched1 lengthened and shortened1 thickened and narrowed1 till they are made to fit the phenomena with mathematical accuracy4 ,these laborious creations are then put forth as philosophical truths1 and1 afterwards1 the accuracy of their fitting to the phenomena is quoted as evidence of the positive reality of the ethers1 atoms1 undulations1 gyrations1 collisions1 or whatever else the mathematician may have thus skilfully created and fitted4 ,it appears to me that such fitness only proves the ingenuity of the fitter--the skill of the mathematician--and that all such hypotheses belong to the poetry of science2 they should be distinctly labelled as products of mathematical imagination1 and nowise be confounded with objective natural truths4 ,such products of the imagination of the expert may assist the imagination of the student in comprehending some phenomena1 just as 8,jack ,frost0 and 8,billy ,wind0 may represent certain natural forces to babies2 but if ,jack ,frost1 ,billy ,wind1 electric and magnetic fluids1 ultimate atoms1 interatomic ethers1 nervous fluids1 etc41 are allowed to invade the intellect1 and are accepted as actual physical existences1 they become very mischievous philosophical superstitions4 ,i make this digression in order to repudiate any participation in this kind of speculation4 ,though 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun0 is avowedly a very bold attempt to unravel majestic mysteries1 ,i have not sought to elucidate the known by means of the unknown1 as do these inventors of imaginary agents1 but have scrupulously followed the opposite principle4 ,i have invented nothing1 but have started from the experimental facts of the laboratory1 the demonstrated laws of physical action1 and have followed up step by step what ,i understand to be the necessary consequences of these4 ,many years ago ,i convinced myself that our atmosphere is but a portion of universal atmospheric matter2 that ,dr4 ,wollaston was wrong1 and that the compression of this universal atmospheric matter is possibly the source of solar light and heat2 but as this was long before ,m4 ,deville had investigated the subject of dissociation by heat1#f ,i was unable to work out the problem at all satisfactorily4 ,when ,i subsequently resumed the subject1 ,i knew nothing about the corona1 and had only read of the 8red prominences0 as possible lunar appendages1 or solar clouds1 or optical illusions4 ,i had worked out the necessity of the gaseous eruptions1 and their action in effecting an interchange of solar and general atmospheric matter1 as the means of maintaining the solar light and heat1 with no idea of proceeding further with the problem1 when the announcement that the prominences were not merely unquestionable solar appendages1 but were actually upheaved mountains of glowing hydrogen1 suddenly and unexpectedly suggested their identity with my required atmospheric upheavals4 ,it is true that their observed magnitude far exceeded my theoretical anticipations1 and in this respect ,i have made some posteriori adaptations1 especially with the aid of a clearer understanding of the laws of dissociation which almost simultaneously became attainable4 ,in like manner1 the necessity of the solid ejections presented themselves before ,i knew anything of the recently discovered details of the coronal phenomena--when ,i had merely read of a luminous halo which had been seen around the sun1 and relying upon ,mr4 ,lockyer1 vaguely supposed it to be an effect of atmospheric illumination4 ,i inferred that streams of solid particles must be pouring from the sun1 and showering back again1 but had no idea that such streams and showers were actually visible until ,i was rather startled on learning that the corona1 instead of being1 as ,i had loosely supposed1 a mere uniform filmy halo1 had been described by ,mr4 ,de la ,rue1 in his ,bakerian ,lecture on the ,eclipse of #ahfj1 as 8softening off with very irregular outline1 and sending off some long streams10 etc4 ,i was then living on the sides of a ,welsh mountain far away from public libraries1 and being no astronomer1 my own books kept me better acquainted with the current progress of experimental than with astronomical science4 ,even when 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun0 was published ,i knew nothing of the ,american observations of the quadrangular figure of the corona1 or should certainly have then quoted them1 nor of the fact revealed by the ,eclipse of ,december1 #ahgj1 that1 8wherever on the solar disc a large group of prominences was seen on ,mr4 ,seabroke's map1 there a corresponding bulging out of the corona was chronicled on ,professor ,watson's drawing2 and at the positions where no prominences presented themselves1 there the bright portions of the corona extended to the smallest distances from the sun's limb20 and that ,mr4 ,brothers's photographs all show the corona extending much further towards the west than towards the east1 the west being 8the region richest in solar prominences40 ,i am sorry that the limits of this paper will not permit me to enter more fully into the bearings of the recent studies of the corona and the prominences upon my explanations of solar phenomena1 especially as the differences between the inner and outer corona1 which still appear to puzzle astronomers1 are exactly what my explanation demands4 ,i must make this the subject of a separate paper1 and proceed at once to the next step of the general argument4 ,assuming that such ejections of solid matter are poured from the prominences1 to what distances may they travel8 ,in attempting to answer this question1 ,i avowedly ventured upon dangerous ground1 for at the time of writing ,i only knew that the force of upheaval of the prominences must be enormous1 probably sufficient to eject solid matter beyond the orbit of the earth and even beyond that of ,mars4 ,actual measurements of the eruptive velocity of the solar prominences have since been made1 and they are so great as to relieve me of my quantitative difficulty1 and show that ,i was quite justified in the bold inference that these eruptions may account for the zodiacal light1 the zones of meteors into which our earth is sometimes plunged1 and even the outer zone of larger bodies1 the asteroids4 ,but how1 the reader will ask1 can such solids1 ejected from the sun1 acquire orbital paths around him8 8,we have been taught that the parabola is the necessary path of such ejections40 ,mr4 ,proctor has evidently reasoned in this manner1 for in last ,april number of 8,fraser's ,magazine0 he says that some of my ideas are 8opposed to any known laws1 physical or dynamical10 that 8there is nothing absolutely incredible in the conception that masses of gaseous1 liquid1 or solid matter should be flung to a height exceeding manifold that of the loftiest of the colored prominences2 whereas it is not only incredible1 but impossible1 that such matter should in any case come to circle in a closed orbit round the sun40 ,more careful reading would have shown ,mr4 ,proctor that ,i have considered other conditions besides those of the textbooks1 that the case is by no means one of simple radial projection from a fixed body into free space and undisturbed return4 ,i distinctly stated that 8the recent ejections may have any form of orbit within the boundaries of the conic sections10 from a straight line returning upon itself1 due to absolutely vertical projection1 to a circular orbit produced by the tangential projection of such curving prominences as the ram's horn1 etc4 ,the outline of the zodiacal light would be formed by the termination or aphelion portion of these excursions1 or of such a number of them as should be sufficient to produce a visible result4 ,again1 speaking of the asteroids1 in ,chapter xiv41 ,i state that 8,i should have expected a still greater elongation and eccentricity in some of them1 and such orbits may have existed2 but an asteroid with an orbit of cometary eccentricity that would in the course of each revolution cross the paths of ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 and ,mars in nearly the same plane1 and dive through the thickly scattered zodiacal cluster1 both in going to the sun and returning from it1 would be subject to disturbances which would continue until one of two things occurred4 ,its tangential force might become so far neutralized and its orbit so much elongated1 that finally its perihelion distance should not exceed the solar radius1 when it would finish its course by returning to the sun4 ,on the other hand1 its tangential velocity might be increased by heavy pulls from ,jupiter1 when slowly turning its aphelion path1 and be similarly influenced by friendly jerks in crossing the orbits of the inferior planets2 and thus its orbit might be widened1 until it ceased periodically to cross the path of any of the planets by establishing itself in an orbit constantly intermediate between any two4 ,having once settled into such a path1 it would remain there with comparative stability and permanency4 ,if ,i am right in this view of the dynamical history of these older ejections1 all the long elliptical paths of zodiacal particles1 meteorites1 or asteroids1 would thus in the course of ages become eliminated1 and the remaining orbits would be of planetary rather than cometary proportions40 ,a little reflection on the above-stated laws of dissociation will show that the maximum violence of hydrogen explosion will not occur at the birth of the ejections1 but afterwards1 when the dissociated gases have been already hurled beyond the sphere of restraining vapors4 ,if my explanation is correct1 the typical form of a solar prominence should be that of a spreading tree with a tall stem4 ,at first the least resistence to radiation and consequent explosive combination must be in the vertical direction1 as this will afford the shortest line that can be drawn through the thickness of the surrounding jacket of resisting vapor2 but when raised above this envelope1 the dissociated gases1 cooled by their own expansion and comparatively free to radiate in all directions except downwards1 will explode laterally as well as vertically1 and thus spread out into a head4 ,my theoretical prominence will be1 in short1 a monster rocket proceeding steadily upwards to a certain extent1 and then gradually bursting and projecting its missiles in every direction from the vertical to the absolutely horizontal4 ,should the latter acquire a velocity of about #cjj miles per second1 not merely a closed but even an absolutely circular orbit would be possible4 ,these and the multitude of weaker lateral ejections1 reaching the sun by short parabolic paths1 explain the mystery of the inner corona4 ,i need only refer ,mr4 ,proctor to his own recently published book on the ,sun1 where he will find on plates #d1 #e1 and #f a number of drawings from ,zllner and ,respighi1 which so thoroughly confirm my necessary theoretical deductions that they might be a series of fancy sketches of my own4 ,when we consider that the base of a prominence is only visible when it happens to start exactly from the limb of the sun1 while the vastly greater proportion of those which are observed1 and have been drawn1 have much of the stem cut off from view by the solar rotundity1 the evidence afforded by such drawings in support of my theoretical deduction1 that the typical form of the solar prominences is that of a palm-tree or bursting rocket1 is greatly strengthened4#g ,in a paper by ,p4 ,secchi1 dated ,rome1 ,march #bj1 #ahga1 and published in the 8,comptes ,rendus10 ,march #bg1 this veteran solar observer speaks of the prominences as composed of jets1 which1 8upon reaching a certain elevation1 stop and whirl upon themselves1 giving birth to a brilliant cloud40 ,this cloud is represented as spreading out on all sides from the summit of the combined jets4 ,again he says1 8,it is very common to see a little jet spot at a certain elevation above the chromosphere1 and there spread itself out into a wide hat 78un large chapeau07 of an absolutely nebulous constitution40 ,this outspreading nebulosity is the flash of the incandescent vapors produced by the explosion which is theoretically demanded by my explanation to occur exactly in the manner and place described4 ,these expanded incandescent gases will be rendered visible by the spectroscopic dilution of the continuous spectrum of the denser photosphere1 while the solid projectiles that must proceed from them in every direction can only be seen during a solar eclipse4 ,the observations and drawings of ,zllner and ,respighi were1 for the most part1 made while my book was in the press1 and1 like those of ,secchi above quoted1 were unknown to me when ,i wrote2 ,i was then only able to quote1 in support of my theoretical requirements1 the evidences of actually observed tangential ejection afforded by ,sir ,john ,herschel's account of the great solar storm of ,september #a1 #ahei4 ,besides this direct tangential projection there are other elements of motion contributing to the same result1 such as the whirl of the prominences on themselves1 their motion of translation on the sun's disk1 and the rotation of the sun itself4 ,i must now bring this sketch to a close by stating that1 in order to submit the fundamental question of an universal atmosphere to an experimentum crucis analogous to that by which ,pascal tested the atmospheric theory of ,torricelli1 ,i have calculated the theoretical density of the atmosphere of the moon and of each of the planets1 and compared the results as severely as ,i could with the observed facts4 ,as ,jupiter is #bg1ajj times heavier than the moon1 and between these wide extremes there are six planets presenting great variations of mass1 the probabilities of accidental coincidence are overwhelmingly against me1 and a close concurrence of observed telescopic refraction and other phenomena with the theoretical atmospheric density must afford the strongest possible confirmation of the soundness of the basis of my whole argument4 ,such a concurrence exists1 and some new and very curious light is unexpectedly thrown upon the meteorology of ,mars and the constitution of the larger planets4 ,the latter1 if ,i am right1 must be miniature suns1 permanently red or white-hot1 must be something like a photosphere1 surrounded by a sphere of vapor 7the outside of which we see71 must have mimic spot vortices and prominences1 and in the case of ,saturn must eject volleys of meteoric matter1 some of which should finally settle down into orbital paths1 and thus produce the rings4 ,these are startling conclusions1 and when ,i reached them they were utterly at variance with general astronomical opinion1 but ,i find since their publication that some astronomers have already shown considerable readiness to adopt them4 ,in my case this view of the solar constitution of the larger planets is not a matter of mere opinion1 or guessing1 or probability1 but it follows of necessity1 and as stated on page #bjj1 8the great mystery of ,saturn's rings is resolved into a simple consequence1 a demonstrable and necessary result of the operation of the familiar forces1 whose laws of action have been demonstrated here upon the earth by experimental investigation in our laboratories4 ,no strained hypotheses of imaginary forces are required1 no ethers or other materials are demanded1 beyond those which are beneath our feet and around our heads here upon our own planet2 all that is necessary is to grant that the well-known elements and compounds of the chemist1 and the demonstrated forces of the experimental physicist1 exist and operate in the places1 and have the quantities and modes of distribution described by the astronomer2 this simple postulate admitted1 these wondrous appendages spring into rational existence1 and like the eternal fires of the sun1 the barren surface of the moon1 the dry valleys of ,mercury1 the hazy equivocations of ,venus1 the seas and continents and polar glaciers of ,mars1 and the cloud-covered face of ,jupiter1 follow as necessary consequences of an universal atmosphere40 ,if ,i am right in ascribing a gaseous condition to the sun and the larger planets1 and tracing the maintenance of this condition to the disturbing gravitation of the attendant planets or satellites1 a solution of the riddle of the nebul at once presents itself4 ,we have only to suppose a star cluster or group composed of orbs of solar or great planetary dimensions1 and that these act mutually upon each other as the planets on our sun1 or the satellites upon ,saturn1 but in a far more violent degree owing to the far greater relative masses of the reacting elements1 and we obtain the conditions under which great gaseous orbs would be not merely pitted on their surface1 but riven to their very centres1 moulded and shaped throughout by the whirling hurricane of their whole substance4 ,when thus in the centre of a tornado of opposing gravitations the tortured orb would be twisted bodily into a huge vorticose crater1 into the bowels of which the aqueous vapor would be dragged and dissociated1 and then1 entangled with the inner matter of the riven sphere1 would be hurled upwards1 again to burst forth in an explosion of such magnitude that the original body would be measurably presented as a mere appendage1 the rocket case of the flood of fire it had vomited forth4 ,the reader must complete the picture4 ,if he will take a little trouble in doing so he will find that it becomes a portrait of one or the other of the nebul1 according to the kind of intergravitating star-cluster from which he starts4 ,i have endeavored to work out some of the details of the nebular conditions in ,chapter xx4 ,in ,chapter xxi4 ,i have concluded by showing the analogy between a sun and the hydro-electric machine1 the sun being the cylinder and the prominences the steam jets4 ,if issuing jets of high-pressure steam have the same properties at a distance of #ic millions of miles from the earth as upon its surface1 the body of the sun and the issuing steam must be in opposite electrical conditions1 and furious electrical excitation must result2 and if the laws of electrical induction are constant throughout the universe1 the earth must be as necessarily subject to solar electrical influence as to his thermal radiations4 ,thus the same reasoning which explains the origin and maintenance of the solar heat and light1 the sun-spots1 the photosphere1 the chromosphere1 the sierra1 the prominences1 the zodiacal light1 the aerolites and asteroids2 the meteorology of the planets and the rings of ,saturn1 also shows how the electrical disturbances which produce the aurora borealis and direct the needle may originate4 ,electrical theories of the corona and zodiacal light1 and their connection of some kind with the aurora borealis1 have been put forth in many shapes1 but so far as ,i have learned none afford any explanation of the origin of the electrical disturbance4 ,without this they are like the vortices of ,descartes1 which explained the movements of the planets by supposing another kind of motion still more incomprehensible4 ,explanations which are more difficult to explain than the phenomena they propose to elucidate only obscure the light of true science1 and stand as impedimente to the progress of sound philosophy4 ,,dr ,,siemens' ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,a paper was read on ,march #b1 #ahhb1 by ,dr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,siemens at the ,royal ,society1 and he published an article on 8,a ,new ,theory of the ,sun0 in the ,april number of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,all who have read my essay on 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun0 are surprised at the statement with which the magazine article opens1 viz43 that this 8may be termed a first attempt to open for the sun a debtor and creditor account1 inasmuch as he has hitherto been regarded only as a great almoner pouring forth incessantly his boundless wealth of heat1 without receiving any of it back40 ,some of my friends suppose that ,dr4 ,siemens has wilfully ignored the most important element of my theory1 and have suggested indignation and protest on my part4 ,i am quite satisfied1 however1 that they are mistaken4 ,i see plainly enough that although ,dr4 ,siemens quotes my book1 he had not read it when he did so2 that in stating that 8,grove1 ,humboldt1 ,zoellner1 and ,mattieu ,williams have boldly asserted the existence of a space filled with matter10 he derived this information from the paper of ,dr4 ,sterry ,hunt which he afterward quotes4 ,this inference has been confirmed by subsequent correspondence with ,dr4 ,siemens1 who tells me that he saw the book some years since but had not read it4 ,my contributions to the philosophy of solar physics would have been far more widely known and better appreciated had ,i followed the usual course of announcing firstly 8a working hypothesis10 to warn others off the ground1 then reading a preliminary paper1 then another and another1 and so on during ten or a dozen years1 instead of publishing all at once an octavo volume of #bdj pages1 which has proved too formidable even to many of those who are specially interested in the subject4 ,i am compelled to infer that this is the reason why so many of the speculations1 which were physical heresies when expounded therein1 have since become so generally adopted1 without corresponding acknowledgment4 ,this is not the place for specifying the particulars of such adoptions1 but ,i may mention that in due time 8,an ,appendix to the ,fuel of the ,sun10 including the whole history of the subject1 will be published4 ,the materials are all in hand1 and only await arrangement4 ,in the meantime ,i will briefly state some of the points of agreement and difference between ,dr4 ,siemens and myself4 ,in the first place1 we both take as our fundamental basis of speculation the idea of an universal extension of atmospheric matter1 and we both regard this as the recipient of the diffused solar radiations1 which are afterwards recovered and recondensed1 or concentrated4 ,thus our 8fuel of the sun0 is primarily the same1 but1 as will presently be seen1 our machinery for feeding the solar furnace is essentially different4 ,certain desiccated pedants have sneered at my title1 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun10 as 8sensational10 and have refused to read the book on this account2 but ,dr4 ,sterry ,hunt has provided me with ample revenge4 ,he has disentombed an interesting paper by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 dated #afge1 in which the same sensationalism is perpetrated with very small modification1 ,sir ,isaac ,newton's title being 8,solary ,fuel40 ,besides this1 his speculations are curiously similar to my own1 his fundamental idea being evidently the same1 but the chemistry of his time was too vague and obscure to render its development possible4 ,this paper was neglected and set aside1 was not printed in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society1 and remained generally unknown till a few months ago1 when the energetic ,american philosopher brought it forth1 and discussed its remarkable anticipations4 ,dr4 ,siemens supposes that the rotation of the sun effects a sort of 8fan action10 by throwing off heated atmospheric matter from his equatorial regions1 which atmospheric matter is afterwards reclaimed and passed over to the polar regions of the sun4 ,this interchange he describes as effected by the differences of pressure on the fluid envelope of the sun2 the portion over the polar regions being held down by the whole force of solar gravitation1 while the equatorial atmosphere is subject to this pressure1 or attraction1 minus the centrifugal impulse due to solar rotation4 ,he maintains that this 8centrifugal action1 however small in amount as compared with the enormous attraction of the sun1 would destroy the balance1 and determine a motion towards the sun as regards the mass opposite the polar surface1 and into space as regards the equatorial mass40 ,he adds that 8the equatorial current so produced1 owing to its mighty proportions1 would flow outwards into space1 to a practically unlimited distance40 ,i will not here discuss the dynamics of this hypothesis2 whether the reclaiming action of the superior polar attraction would occur at the vast distances from the sun supposed by ,dr4 ,siemens1 or much nearer home1 and produce an effect like the recurving of the flame of his own regenerative gas-burner2 or1 whether he is right in comparing the centrifugal force at the solar equator with that of the earth1 by simply measuring the relative velocity of translation irrespective of angular velocity4 ,i will merely suggest that in discussing these1 it is necessary1 in order to do justice to ,dr4 ,siemens1 to always keep in mind the assumed condition of an universal and continuous atmospheric medium1 and not to reason1 as some have done already1 upon the basis of a limited solar atmosphere with a definite boundary1 from beyond which particles of atmospheric matter are to be flung away into vacuous space1 without the intervention of all-pervading fluid pressure4 ,it is evident that if such fan action can bring back all the material that has received the solar radiations1 and which holds them either as temperature or otherwise1 the restoration and perpetuation of solar energy will be complete1 for even the heat received by our earth and its brother and sister planets would still remain in the family1 as they would radiate it into the interplanetary atmospheric matter supposed to be reclaimed by the sun4 ,but1 as ,mr4 ,proctor has clearly shown1 the rays of the sun cannot do all the work thus required for his own restoration without becoming extinguished as regards the outside universe2 and if the other suns--i4e41 the stars--do the same they could not be visible to us4 ,thus ,dr4 ,siemens' theory removes our sun from his place among the stars1 and renders the great problem of stellar radiation more inscrutable than ever by thus putting the evidence of our great luminary altogether out of court4 ,my theory1 on the contrary1 demands only a gradual absorption of solar and stellar rays1 such as actual observation of their varying splendor indicates4 ,if space were absolutely transparent1 and its infinite depths peopled throughout1 the firmament would present to our view one continuous blazing dome1 as all the spaces between the nearer stars would be filled by the infinity of radiations from the more distant4 ,,another ,,world ,,down ,,here4 ,what a horrible place must this world appear when regarded according to our ideas from an insect's point of view6 ,the air infested with huge flying hungry dragons1 whose gaping and snapping mouths are ever intent upon swallowing the innocent creatures for whom1 according to the insect1 if he were like us1 a properly constructed world ought to be exclusively adapted4 ,the solid earth continually shaken by the approaching tread of hideous giants--moving mountains--that crush out precious lives at every footstep1 an occasional draught of the blood of these monsters1 stolen at life-risk1 affording but poor compensation for such fatal persecution4 ,let us hope that the little victims are less like ourselves than the doings of ants and bees might lead us to suppose2 that their mental anxieties are not proportionate to the optical vigilance indicated by the four thousand eye-lenses of the common house-fly1 the seventeen thousand of the cabbage butterfly and the wide-awake dragon-fly1 or the twenty-five thousand possessed by certain species of still more vigilant beetles4 ,each of these little eyes has its own cornea1 its lens1 and a curious six-sided1 transparent prism1 at the back of which is a special retina spreading out from a branch of the main optic nerve1 which1 in the cockchafer and some other creatures1 is half as large as the brain4 ,if each of these lenses forms a separate picture of each object rather than a single mosaic picture1 as some anatomists suppose1 what an awful army of cruel giants must the cockchafer behold when he is captured by a schoolboy6 ,the insect must see a whole world of wonders of which we know little or nothing4 ,true1 we have microscopes1 with which we can see one thing at a time if carefully laid upon the stage2 but what is the finest instrument that ,ross can produce compared to that with twenty-five thousand object-glasses1 all of them probably achromatic1 and each one a living instrument1 with its own nerve-branch supplying a separate sensation8 ,to creatures thus endowed with microscopic vision1 a cloud of sandy dust must appear like an avalanche of massive rock-fragments1 and everything else proportionally monstrous4 ,one of the many delusions engendered by our human self-conceit and habit of considering the world as only such as we know it from our human point of view1 is that of supposing human intelligence to be the only kind of intelligence in existence4 ,the fact is1 that what we call the lower animals have special intelligence of their own as far transcending our intelligence as our peculiar reasoning intelligence exceeds theirs4 ,we are as incapable of following the track of a friend by the smell of his footsteps as a dog is of writing a metaphysical treatise4 ,so with insects4 ,they are probably acquainted with a whole world of physical facts of which we are utterly ignorant4 ,our auditory apparatus supplies us with a knowledge of sounds4 ,what are these sounds8 ,they are vibrations of matter which are capable of producing corresponding or sympathetic vibrations of the drums of our ears or the bones of our skull4 ,when we carefully examine the subject1 and count the number of vibrations that produce our world of sounds of varying pitch1 we find that the human ear can only respond to a limited range of such vibrations4 ,if they exceed three thousand per second1 the sound becomes too shrill for average people to hear it1 though some exceptional ears can take up pulsations or waves that succeed each other more rapidly than this4 ,reasoning from the analogy of stretched strings and membranes1 and of air vibrating in tubes1 etc41 we are justified in concluding that the smaller the drum or the tube the higher will be the note it produces when agitated1 and the smaller and the more rapid the aerial wave to which it will respond4 ,the drums of insect ears1 and the tubes1 etc41 connected with them1 are so minute that their world of sounds probably begins where ours ceases2 that the sound which appears to us as continuous is to them a series of separated blows1 just as vibrations of ten to twelve per second appear to us4 ,we begin to hear such vibrations as continuous sounds when they amount to about thirty per second4 ,the insect's continuous sound probably begins beyond three thousand4 ,the blue-bottle may thus enjoy a whole world of exquisite music of which we know nothing4 ,there is another very suggestive peculiarity in the auditory apparatus of insects4 ,its structure and position are something between those of an ear and of an eye4 ,careful examination of the head1 of one of our domestic companions--the common cockroach or black-beetle--will reveal two round white points1 somewhat higher than the base of the long outer antenn1 and a little nearer to the middle line of the head4 ,these white projecting spots are formed by the outer transparent membrane of a bag or ball filled with fluid1 which ball or bag rests inside another cavity in the head4 ,it resembles our own eye in having this external transparent tough membrane1 which corresponds to the cornea or transparent membrane forming the glass of our eye-window2 which1 like the cornea1 is backed by the fluid in an ear-ball corresponding to our eye-ball1 and the back of this ear-ball appears to receive the outspreadings of a nerve1 just as the back of our eye is lined with that outspread of the optic nerve forming the retina4 ,there does not appear to be in this or other insects a tightly stretched membrane which1 like the membrane of our ear-drum1 is fitted to take up bodily air-waves and vibrate responsively to them4 ,but it is evidently adapted to receive and concentrate some kind of vibration1 or motion1 or tremor4 ,what kind of motion can this be8 ,what kind of perception does this curious organ supply8 ,to answer these questions we must travel beyond the strict limits of scientific induction and enter the fairyland of scientific imagination4 ,we may wander here in safety1 provided we always remember where we are1 and keep a true course guided by the compass-needle of demonstrable facts4 ,i have said that the cornea-like membrane of the insect's ear-bag does not appear capable of responding to bodily air-waves4 ,this adjective is important1 because there are vibratory movements of matter that are not bodily but molecular4 ,an analogy may help to render this distinction intelligible4 ,i may take a long string of beads and shake it into wavelike movements1 the waves being formed by the movements of the whole string4 ,we may now conceive another kind of movement or vibration by supposing one bead to receive a blow pushing it forward1 this push to be communicated to the next1 then to the third1 and so on1 producing a minute running tremor passing from end to end4 ,this kind of action may be rendered visible by laying a number of billiard balls or marbles in line and bowling an outside ball against the end one of the row4 ,the impulse will be rapidly and invisibly transmitted all along the line1 and the outer ball will respond by starting forward4 ,heat1 light1 and electricity are mysterious internal movements of what we call matter 7some say 8ether10 which is but a name for imaginary matter74 ,these internal movements are as invisible as those of the intermediate billiard balls2 but if there be a line of molecules acting thus1 and the terminal one strikes an organ of sense fitted to receive its motion1 some sort of perception may follow4 ,when such movements of certain frequency and amplitude strike our organs of vision1 the sensation of light is produced4 ,when others of greater amplitude and smaller frequency strike the terminal outspread of our common sensory nerves1 the sensation of heat results4 ,the difference between the frequency and amplitude of the heat waves and the light waves is but small1 or1 strictly speaking1 there is no actual line of separation lying between them2 they run directly into each other4 ,when a piece of metal is gradually heated1 it is first 8black-hot20 this is while the waves or molecular tremblings are of a certain amplitude and frequency2 as the frequency increases and amplitude diminishes 7or1 to borrow from musical terms1 as the pitch rises71 the metal becomes dull red-hot2 greater rapidity1 cherry red2 greater still1 bright red2 then yellow-hot and white-hot3 the luminosity growing as the rapidity of molecular vibration increases4 ,there is no such gradation between the most rapid undulations or tremblings that produce our sensation of sound and the slowest of those which give rise to our sensations of gentlest warmth4 ,there is a huge gap between them1 wide enough to include another world or several other worlds of motion1 all lying between our world of sounds and our world of heat and light1 and there is no good reason whatever for supposing that matter is incapable of such intermediate activity1 or that such activity may not give rise to intermediate sensations1 provided there are organs for taking up and sensifying 7if ,i may coin a desirable word7 these movements4 ,as already stated1 the limit of audible tremors is three to four thousand per second1 but the smallest number of tremors that we can perceive as heat is between three and four millions of millions per second4 ,the number of waves producing red light is estimated at four hundred and seventy-four millions of millions per second2 and for the production of violet light1 six hundred and ninety-nine millions of millions4 ,these are the received conclusions of our best mathematicians1 which ,i repeat on their authority4 ,allowing1 however1 a very large margin of possible error1 the world of possible sensations lying between those produced by a few thousands of waves and any number of millions is of enormous width4 ,in such a world of intermediate activities the insect probably lives1 with a sense of vision revealing to him more than our microscopes show to us1 and with his minute eye-like ear-bag sensifying material movements that lie between our world of sounds and our other far-distant worlds of heat and light4 ,there is yet another indication of some sort of intermediate sensation possessed by insects4 ,many of them are not only endowed with the thousands of lenses of their compound eyes1 but have in addition several curious organs that have been designated 8ocelli0 and 8stemmata40 ,these are generally placed at the top of the head1 the thousand-fold eyes being at the sides4 ,they are very much like the auditory organs above described--so much so that in consulting different authorities for special information on the subject ,i have fallen into some confusion1 from which ,i can only escape by supposing that the organ which one anatomist describes as the ocelli of certain insects is regarded as the auditory apparatus when examined in another insect by another anatomist4 ,all this indicates a sort of continuity of sensation connecting the sounds of the insect world with the objects of their vision4 ,but these ocular ears or auditory eyes of the insect are not his only advantage over us4 ,he has another sensory organ to which1 with all our boasted intellect1 we can claim nothing that is comparable1 unless it be our olfactory nerve4 ,the possibility of this ,i will presently discuss4 ,i refer to the antenn1 which are the most characteristic of insect organs1 and wonderfully developed in some1 as may be seen by examining the plumes of the crested gnat4 ,everybody who has carefully watched the doings of insects must have observed the curiously investigative movements of the antenn1 which are ever on the alert1 peering and prying to right and left and upwards and downwards4 ,huber1 who devoted his life to the study of bees and ants1 concluded that these insects converse with each other by movements of the antenn1 and he has given to the signs thus produced the name of 8antennal language40 ,they certainly do communicate information or give orders by some means2 and when the insects stop for that purpose1 they face each other and execute peculiar wavings of these organs that are highly suggestive of the movements of the old semaphore telegraph arms4 ,the most generally received opinion is that these antenn are very delicate organs of touch1 but some recent experiments made by ,gustav ,hansen indicate that they are organs of smelling or of some similar power of distinguishing objects at a distance4 ,flies deprived of their antenn ceased to display any interest in tainted meat that had previously proved very attractive4 ,other insects similarly treated appear to become indifferent to odors generally4 ,he shows that the development of the antenn in different species corresponds to the power of smelling which they seem to possess4 ,i am sorely tempted to add another argument to those brought forward by ,hansen1 viz43 that our own olfactory nerves1 and those of all our near mammalian relations1 are curiously like a pair of antenn4 ,there are two elements in a nervous structure--the gray and the white2 the gray1 or ganglionic portion1 is supposed to be the centre or seat of nervous power1 and the white medullary or fibrous portion merely the conductor of nervous energy4 ,the nerves of the other senses have their ganglia seated internally1 and bundles of tubular white threads spread outwards therefrom2 but not so with the olfactory nervous apparatus4 ,these present two horn-like projections that are thrust forward from the base of the brain1 and have white or medullary stems that terminate outwardly or anteriorly in ganglionic bulbs resting upon what ,i may call the roof of the nose2 these bulbs throw out fibres that are composed1 rather paradoxically1 of more gray matter than white4 ,in some quadrupeds with great power of smell1 the olfactory nerves extend so far forward as to protrude beyond the front of the hemispheres of the brain1 with bulbous terminations relatively very much larger than those of man4 ,they thus appear like veritable antenn4 ,in some of our best works on anatomy of the brain 7,solly1 for example7 a series of comparative pictures of the brains of different animals is shown1 extending from man to the cod-fish4 ,as we proceed downwards1 the horn-like projection of the olfactory nerves beyond the central hemispheres goes on extending more and more1 and the relative magnitude of the terminal ganglia or olfactory lobes increases in similar order4 ,we have only to omit the nasal bones and nostrils1 to continue this forward extrusion of the olfactory nerves and their bulbs and branches1 to coat them with suitable sheaths provided with muscles for mobility1 and we have the antenn of insects4 ,i submit this view of the comparative anatomy of these organs as my own speculation1 to be taken for what it is worth4 ,there is no doubt that the antenn of these creatures are connected by nerve-stalks with the anterior part of their supra-sophageal ganglia1 i4e41 the nervous centres corresponding to our brain4 ,but what kind and degree of power must such olfactory organs possess8 ,the dog has1 relatively to the rest of his brain1 a much greater development of the olfactory nerves and ganglia than man has4 ,his powers of smell are so much greater than ours that we find it difficult to conceive the possibility of what we actually see him do4 ,as an example1 ,i may describe an experiment ,i made upon a bloodhound of the famous ,cuban breed4 ,he belonged to a friend whose house is situated on an eminence commanding an extensive view4 ,i started from the garden and wandered about a mile away1 crossed several fields by sinuous courses1 climbing over stiles1 and jumping ditches1 always keeping the house in view2 ,i then returned by quite a different track4 ,the bloodhound was set upon the beginning of my track4 ,i watched him from a window galloping rapidly1 and following all its windings without the least halting or hesitation4 ,it was as clear to his nose as a gravelled path or a luminous streak would be to our eyes4 ,on his return ,i went down to him1 and without approaching nearer than five or six yards1 he recognized me as the object of his search1 proving this by circling round me1 baying deeply and savagely though harmlessly1 as he always kept at about the same distance4#h ,if the difference of development between the human and canine internal antenn produces all this difference of function1 what a gulf may there be between our powers of perceiving material emanations and those possessed by insects6 ,if my anatomical hypothesis is correct1 some insects have protruding nasal organs or out-thrust olfactory nerves as long as all the rest of their bodies4 ,the power of movement of these in all directions affords the means of sensory communication over a corresponding range1 instead of being limited merely to the direction of the nostril openings4 ,in some insects1 such as the plumed gnat1 the antenn do not appear to be thus moveable1 but this want of mobility is more than compensated by the multitude of branchings of these wonderful organs1 whereby they are simultaneously exposed in every direction4 ,this structure is analogous to the fixed but multiplied eyes of insects1 which1 by seeing all round at once1 compensate for the want of that mobility possessed by others that have but a single eyeball mounted on a flexible and mobile stalk2 that of the spider1 for example4 ,such an extension of such a sensory function is equivalent to living in another world of which we have no knowledge and can form no definite conception4 ,we1 by our senses of touch and vision1 know the shapes and colors of objects1 and by our very rudimentary olfactory organs form crude ideas of their chemistry or composition1 through the medium of their material emanations2 but the huge exaggeration of this power in the insect should supply him with instinctive perceptive powers of chemical analysis1 a direct acquaintance with the inner molecular constitution of matter far clearer and deeper than we are able to obtain by all the refinements of laboratory analyses or the hypothetical formulating of molecular mathematicians4 ,add this to the other world of sensations producible by the vibratory movements of matter lying between those perceptible by our organs of hearing and vision1 then strain your imagination to its cracking point1 and you will still fail to picture the wonderland in which the smallest of our fellow-creatures may be living1 moving1 and having their being4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,lunar ,,volcanoes4 ,many theoretical efforts1 some of considerable violence1 have been made to reconcile the supposed physical contradiction presented by the great magnitude and area of former volcanic activity of the ,moon1 and the present absence of water on its surface4 ,so long as we accept the generally received belief that water is a necessary agent in the evolution of volcanic forces1 the difficulties presented by the lunar surface are rather increased than diminished by further examination and speculation4 ,we know that the lava1 scori1 dust and other products of volcanic action on this earth are mainly composed of mixed silicates--those of alumina and lime preponderating4 ,when we consider that the solid crust of the ,earth is chiefly composed of silicic acid1 and of basic oxides and carbonates which combine with silicic acid when heated1 a natural necessity for such a composition of volcanic products becomes evident4 ,if the ,moon is composed of similar materials to those of the ,earth1 the fusion of its crust must produce similar compounds1 as they are formed independently of any atmospheric or aqueous agency4 ,this being the case1 the phenomena presented by the cooling of fused masses of mixed silicates in the absence of water become very interesting4 ,opportunities of studying such phenomena are offered at our great iron-works1 where fused masses of iron cinder1 composed mainly of mixed silicates1 are continually to be seen in the process of cooling under a variety of circumstances4 ,i have watched the cooling of such masses very frequently1 and have seen abundant displays of miniature volcanic phenomena1 especially marked where the cooling has occurred under conditions most nearly resembling those of a gradually cooling planet or satellite2 that is1 when the fused cinder has been enclosed by a solid resisting and contracting crust4 ,the most remarkable that ,i have seen are those presented by the cooling of the 8tap cinder0 from puddling furnaces4 ,this1 as it flows from the furnace1 is received in stout iron boxes 78cinder-bogies07 of circular or rectangular horizontal section4 ,the following phenomena are usually observable on the cooling of the fused cinder in a circular bogie4 ,first a thin solid crust forms on the red-hot surface4 ,this speedily cools sufficiently to blacken4 ,if pierced by a slight thrust from an iron rod1 the red-hot matter within is seen to be in a state of seething activity1 and a considerable quantity exudes from the opening4 ,if a bogie filled with fused cinder is left undisturbed1 a veritable spontaneous volcanic eruption takes place through some portion1 generally near the centre1 of the solid crust4 ,in some cases1 this eruption is sufficiently violent to eject small spurts of molten cinder to a height equal to four or five diameters of the whole mass4 ,the crust once broken1 a regular crater is rapidly formed1 and miniature streams of lava continue to pour from it2 sometimes slowly and regularly1 occasionally with jerks and spurts due to the bursting of bubbles of gas4 ,the accumulation of these lava-streams forms a regular cone1 the height of which goes on increasing4 ,i have seen a bogie about #aj or #ab inches in diameter1 and #i or #aj inches deep1 thus surmounted by a cone above #e inches high1 with a base equal to the whole diameter of the bogie4 ,these cones and craters could be but little improved by a modeler desiring to represent a typical volcano in miniature4 ,similar craters and cones are formed on the surface of cinder which is not confined by the sides of the bogie4 ,i have seen them well displayed on the 8running-out beds0 of refinery furnaces4 ,these1 when filled1 form a small lake of molten iron covered with a layer of cinder4 ,this cinder first skins over1 as in the bogies1 then small crevasses form in this crust1 and through these the fused cinder oozes from below4 ,the outflow from this chasm soon becomes localized1 so as to form a single crater1 or a small chain of craters2 these gradually develop into cones by the accumulation of outflowing lava1 so that when the whole mass has solidified1 it is covered more or less thickly with a number of such hillocks4 ,these1 however1 are much smaller than in the former case1 reaching to only one or two inches in height1 with a proportionate base4 ,it is evident that the dimensions of these miniature volcanoes are determined mainly by the depth of the molten matter from which they are formed4 ,in the case of the bogies1 they are exaggerated by the overpowering resistance of the solid iron bottom and sides1 which force all the exudation in the one direction of least resistance1 viz41 towards the centre of the thin upper crust1 and thus a single crater and a single cone of the large relative dimensions above described are commonly formed4 ,the magnitude and perfection of these miniature volcanoes vary considerably with the quality of the pig-iron and the treatment it has received1 and the difference appears to depend upon the evolution of gases1 such as carbonic oxide1 volatile chlorides1 fluorides1 etc4 ,i mention the fluorides particularly1 having been recently engaged in making some experiments on ,mr4 ,henderson's process for refining pig-iron1 by exposing it when fused to the action of a mixture of fluoride of calcium and oxides of iron1 alumina1 manganese1 etc4 ,the cinder separated from this iron displayed the phenomena above described very remarkably1 and jets of yellowish flame were thrown up from the craters while the lava was flowing4 ,the flame was succeeded by dense white vapors as the temperature of the cinder lowered1 and a deposit of snow-like1 flocculent crystals was left upon and around the mouth or crater of each cone4 ,the miniature representation of cosmical eruptions was thus rendered still more striking1 even to the white deposit of the haloid salts which ,palmieri has described as remaining after the recent eruption of ,vesuvius4 ,the gases thus evolved have not yet been analytically examined1 and the details of the powerful reactions displayed in this process still demand further study2 but there can be no doubt that the combination of silicic acid with the base of the fluor spar is the fundamental reaction to which the evolution of the volatile fluorides1 etc41 is mainly due4 ,a corresponding evolution of gases takes place in cosmical volcanic action1 whenever silicic acid is fused in contact with limestone or other carbonate1 and a still closer analogy is presented by the fusion of silicates in contact with chlorides and oxides1 in the absence of water4 ,if the composition of the ,moon is similar to that of the ,earth1 chlorides of sodium1 etc41 must form an important part of its solid crust2 they should correspond in quantity to the great deposit of such salts that would be left behind if the ocean of the ,earth were evaporated to dryness4 ,the only assumptions demanded in applying these facts to the explanation of the surface configuration of the ,moon are1 #ast1 that our satellite resembles its primary in chemical composition2 #b;d1 that it has cooled down from a state of fusion2 and #c;d1 that the magnitude of the eruptions1 due to such fusion and cooling1 must bear some relation to the quantity of matter in action4 ,the first and second are so commonly made and understood1 that ,i need not here repeat the well-known arguments upon which they are supported1 but may remark that the facts above described afford new and weighty evidence in their favor4 ,if the correspondence between the form of a freely suspended and rotating drop of liquid and that of a planet or satellite is accepted as evidence of the exertion of the same forces of cohesion1 etc41 on both1 the correspondence between the configuration of the lunar surface1 and that of small quantities of fused and freely cooled earth-crust matter1 should at least afford material support to the otherwise indicated inference1 that the materials of the ,moon's crust are similar to those of the ,earth's1 and that they have been cooled from a state of fusion4 ,i think ,i may safely generalize to the extent of saying1 that no considerable mass of fused earthy silicates can cool down under circumstances of free radiation without first forming a heated solid crust1 which1 by further radiation1 cooling1 and contraction1 will assume a surface configuration resembling more or less closely that of the ,moon4 ,evidence of this is afforded by a survey of the spoil-banks of blast furnaces1 where thousands of blocks of cinder are heaped together1 all of which will be found to have their upper surfaces 7that were freely exposed when cooling7 corrugated with radiating miniature lava streams1 that have flowed from one or more craters or openings that have been formed in the manner above described4 ,the third assumption will1 ,i think1 be at once admitted1 inasmuch as it is but the expression of a physical necessity4 ,according to this1 the ,earth1 if it has cooled as the ,moon is supposed to have done1 should have displayed corresponding irregularities1 and generally1 the magnitude of mountains of solidified planets and satellites should be on a scale proportionate to their whole mass4 ,in comparing the mountains of the ,moon and ,mercury with those of the ,earth1 a large error is commonly made by taking the customary measurements of terrestrial mountain-heights from the sea-level4 ,as those portions of the ,earth which rise above the waters are but its upper mountain slopes1 and the ocean bottom forms its lower plains and valleys1 we must add the greatest ocean depths to our customary measurements1 in order to state the full height of what remains of the original mountains of the ,earth4 ,as all the stratified rocks have been formed by the wearing down of the original upper slopes and summits1 we cannot expect to be able to recognize the original skeleton form of our water-washed globe4 ,if my calculation of the atmosphere of ,mercury is correct1 viz41 that its pressure is equal to about one seventh of the ,earth's1 or #d inches of mercury1 there can be no liquid water on that planet1 excepting perhaps over a small amount of circumpolar area1 and during the extremes of its aphelion winter4 ,thus the irregularities of the terminator1 indicating mountain elevations calculated to reach to #a_/bec of the diameter of the planet1 are quite in accordance with the above-stated theoretical consideration4 ,there is one peculiar feature presented by the cones of the cooling cinder which is especially interesting4 ,the flow of fused cinder from the little crater is at first copious and continuous2 then it diminishes and becomes alternating1 by a rising and falling of the fused mass within the cone4 ,ultimately the flow ceases1 and then the inner liquid sinks1 more or less1 below the level of the orifice4 ,in some cases1 where much gas is evolved1 this sinking is so considerable as to leave the cone as a mere hollow shell2 the inner liquid having settled down and solidified with a flat or slightly rounded surface1 at about the level of the base of the cone1 or even lower4 ,these hollow cones were remarkably displayed in some of the cinder of the ,henderson iron1 and their formation was obviously promoted by the abundant evolution of gas4 ,if such hollow cones were formed by the cooling of a mass like that of the ,moon1 they would ultimately and gradually subside by their own weight4 ,but how would they yield8 ,obviously by a gradual hinge-like bending at the base towards the axis of the cone4 ,this would occur with or without fracture1 according to the degree of viscosity of the crust1 and the amount of inclination4 ,but the sides of the hollow-cone shell1 in falling towards the axis1 would be crushing into smaller circumferences4 ,what would result from this8 ,i think it must be the formation of fissures1 extending1 for the most part1 radially from the crater towards the base1 and a crumpling up of the shell of the cone by foldings in the same direction4 ,am ,i venturing too far in suggesting that in this manner may have been formed the mysterious rays and rills that extend so abundantly from several of the lunar craters8 ,the upturned edges or walls of the broken crust1 and the chasms necessarily gaping between them1 appear to satisfy the peculiar phenomena of reflection which these rays present4 ,these edges of the fractured crust would lean towards each other1 and form angular chasms2 while the foldings of the crust itself would form long concave troughs1 extending radially from the crater4 ,these1 when illuminated by rays falling upon them in the direction of the line of vision1 must reflect more light towards the spectator than does the general convex lunar surface1 and thus they become especially visible at the full ,moon4 ,such foldings and fractures would occur after the subsidence and solidification of the lava-forming liquid--that is1 when the formation of new craters had ceased in any given region2 hence they would extend across the minor lateral craters formed by outbursts from the sides of the main cone1 in the manner actually observed4 ,the fact that the bottoms of the great walled craters of the ,moon are generally lower than the surrounding plains must not be forgotten in connection with this explanation4 ,i will not venture further with the speculations suggested by the above-described resemblances1 as my knowledge of the details of the telescopic appearances of the ,moon is but second-hand4 ,i have little doubt1 however1 that observers who have the privilege of direct familiarity with such details1 will find that the phenomena presented by the cooling of iron cinder1 or other fused silicates1 are worthy of further and more careful study4 ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,direct ,,effect ,,of ,,sun-,,spots ,,on ,,terrestrial ,,climates4 ,professor ,langley determines quantitatively the effects respectively produced by the radiations from the solar spots1 penumbra1 and photosphere upon the face of a thermopile1 and infers that these effects measure their relative influence on terrestrial climate4 ,in thus assuming that the heat communicated to the thermopile measures the solar contribution to terrestrial climate1 ,professor ,langley omits an important factor1 viz41 the amount of heat absorbed in traversing the earth's atmosphere2 and in measuring the relative efficiency of the spots1 penumbra1 and photosphere1 he has not taken into account the variations of diathermancy of the intervening atmospheric matter1 which are due to the variations in the source of heat4 ,speaking generally1 it may be affirmed that the radiations of obscure heat are more largely absorbed by the gases and vapors of our atmosphere than those of luminous heat1 and the great differences in the mere luminosity of the spots1 penumbra1 and photosphere justify the assumption that the radiations of a sun-spot will 7to use the expressive simile of ,tyndall7 lose far more by atmospheric sifting than will those from the photosphere4 ,but the spot areas will be none the less effective on terrestrial climate on that account4 ,a given amount of heat arrested by the earth's atmosphere will have even greater climatic efficiency than if received upon its solid surface1 inasmuch as the gases are worse radiators than the rocks1 and will therefore1 cteris paribus1 retain a larger proportion of the heat they receive4 ,i have long ago endeavored to show#i that the depth of the photosphere1 from the solar surface inwards1 is limited by dissociation2 that the materials of the ,sun within the photosphere exist in a dissociated1 elementary condition2 that at the photosphere they are1 for the most part1 combined4 ,this view has since been adopted by many eminent solar physicists1 and if correct1 demands a much higher temperature within the depths revealed by that withdrawal of the photospheric veil which constitutes a sun-spot4 ,if ,i am right in this1 and also in supposing the spot-radiations to be so much more abundantly absorbed than those of the photosphere1 and if in spite of this higher temperature of the spots1 the surface of the earth receives from them the lower degree of heat measured by ,professor ,langley1 another interesting consequence must follow4 ,the excess of spot-heat directly absorbed by the atmosphere1 and mainly by the water dissolved or suspended in its upper regions1 must be especially effective in dissipating clouds and checking or modifying their formation4 ,the meteorological results of this may be important1 and are worthy of careful study4 ,in thus venturing to question some of ,professor ,langley's inferences ,i am far from underrating the interest and importance of his researches4 ,on the contrary1 ,i regard the quantitative results he has obtained as especially valuable and opportune1 in affording means of testing the above-named and other speculations in solar physics4 ,similar observations repeated at different elevations would decide1 so far as the lower regions are concerned1 whether or not there is any difference in the quantity of heat imparted by the bright and obscure portions of the ,sun to our atmosphere4 ,if the differences already observed by ,professor ,langley vary in ascending1 a new means will be afforded of studying the constitution of the interior of the ,sun and its relations to the photosphere4 ,direct evidence of selective absorption by our atmosphere may thus be obtained1 which would go far towards solving one of the crucial solar problems1 viz41 whether the darker regions are hotter or cooler than the photosphere4 ,the obscure radiations from the moon must be absorbed by our atmosphere like those from the sun-spot1 and may be sufficiently effective to account for the alleged dissipation of clouds by the full moon4 ,in both cases the climatic influence is greatly heightened by the fact that all the heat thus absorbed is directly effective in raising the temperature of the air4 ,the action of the absorbed heat in reference to cloud-formation is directly opposite to that of the transmitted solar heat1 as this reaching the surface of the earth evaporates the superficial water1 and thereby produces the material of clouds4 ,on the other hand1 the heat which is absorbed by the air increases its vapor-holding capacity1 and thus prevents the formation of clouds1 or even effects the dissolution of clouds already formed4 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,radiometer ,,and ,,its ,,cosmical ,,revelations4 ,so much speculation1 and not a little extravagant speculation1 has been devoted to the dynamics of the radiometer1 that ,i feel some compunction in adding another stone to the heap1 my only apology and justification for so doing being that ,i propose to regard the subject from a very unsophisticated point of view1 and with somewhat heretical directness of vision--i4e41 quite irrespective of atoms1 molecules1 or ether1 or any other specific preconceptions concerning the essential kinetics of radiant forces1 beyond that of regarding such forces as affections or conditions of matter which are transmitted radially in constant quantity1 and therefore obey the necessary law of radial diffusion or inverse squares4 ,the primary difficulty which appears to have generally been suggested by the movements of the radiometer1 is the case which it seems to present of mechanical action without any visible basis of corresponding reaction3 a visible tangible object pushed forward1 without any visible pushing agent or resisting fulcrum against which the moving body reacts4 ,this difficulty has been met by the invocation of obedient and vivacious molecules of residual atmospheric matter1 which have been called upon to bound and rebound between the vanes and the inner surfaces of the glass envelope of the instrument4 ,how is it that the advocates of these activities have not sought to verify their speculations by modifying the shape and dimensions of the exhausted glass bulb or receiver8#aj ,if the motion of the radiometer is due to such excursions and collisions1 the length of excursion and the angles of collision must modify its motions2 and such modification under given conditions would form a fine subject for the exercise of the ingenuity of molecular mathematicians4 ,if their hypothetical data are sound1 they should be able to predict the relative velocities or torsion-force of a series of radiometers of similar construction in all other respects1 but with variable shapes and diameters of enclosing vessels4 ,if we divest our minds of all visions of hypothetical atoms1 molecules1 ethers1 etc41 and simply look at the facts of radiation with the same humility of intellect as we usually regard gravitation1 this primary difficulty of the radiometer at once vanishes4 ,the force of gravitation is a radiant force acting somehow between1 or upon1 or by distant bodies2 and these bodies1 however far apart1 act and react upon each other with mutual forces1 precisely equal and exactly contrary4 ,we conceive the sun pulling the earth in a certain direction1 and receiving from the earth an equal pull in a precisely contrary direction1 and we have hitherto demanded no ethereal or molecular link for the transmission of these mutually attractive forces4 ,why1 then1 should we not regard radiant repulsive energy in the same simple manner8 ,if we do this there is no difficulty in finding the ultimate reaction fulcrum of the radiometer vanes4 ,it is simply the radiating body1 the match1 the candle1 the lamp1 the sun1 or whatever else may be the source of the impelling radiations4 ,according to this view1 the radiant source must be repelled with precisely the same energy as the arms or pendulum of the radiometer2 and it would move backward or in opposite direction if equally free to move4 ,if1 by any means1 we cause the glass envelope of the radiometer to become the radiant source1 it should be repelled1 and may even rotate in opposite direction to the vanes1 or vice vers4 ,this has been done with floating radiometers4 ,viewed thus as simple matter of fact1 irrespective of any preconceived kinetics of intervening media1 the net result of ,mr4 ,crookes's researches become nothing less than the discovery of a new law of nature of great magnitude and the broadest possible generality1 viz41 that the sun and all other radiant bodies--i4e41 all the materials of the universe--exert a mechanical repulsive force1 in addition to the calorific1 luminous1 actinic1 and electrical forces with which they have hitherto been credited4 ,he has shown that this force is refrangible and dispersible1 that it is outspread with the spectrum1 but is most concentrated1 or active1 in the region of the ultra-red rays1 and progressively feeblest in the violet2 or1 otherwise stated1 it exists in closer companionship with heat than with light1 and closer with light than with actinism4 ,according to the doctrine of exchanges1 which has now passed from the domain of theory to that of demonstrated law1 all bodies1 whatever be their temperature1 are perpetually radiating heat-force1 the amount of which varies1 cteris paribus1 with their temperature4 ,if we now add to this generalization that all bodies are similarly radiating mechanical force and suffering corresponding mechanical reaction1 the theoretical difficulties of the radiometer vanish4 ,what must follow in the case of a freely suspended body unequally heated on opposite sides8 ,it must be repelled in a direction perpendicular to the surface of its hottest side4 ,if two rockets were affixed to opposite sides of a pendant body1 and were to exert unequal ejective forces1 the reaction of the stronger rocket would repel the body in the opposite direction to its preponderating ejection4 ,this represents the radiometer vane with one side blackened and the other side bright4 ,when exposed to luminous rays the black side becomes warmer than the bright side by its active absorption and conversion of light into heat1 and thus the blackened face radiates in excess and recedes4 ,we may regard it thus as acting by its own radiations1 or otherwise as acted upon by the more powerful radiant whose rays are differentially received by the black and bright sides4 ,these different modes of regarding the action are perfectly consistent with each other1 and analogous to the two different modes of regarding gravitation1 when we describe the sun as attracting the earth1 or1 otherwise1 the earth as gravitating to the sun4 ,strictly speaking1 neither of these descriptions is correct1 as the gravitation is mutual1 and the total quantity exerted between the sun and the earth is equal to the sum of their energies1 but it is sometimes convenient to regard the action from a solar standpoint1 and at others from a terrestrial4 ,so with the radiometer and the strictly mutual repulsions between it and the predominating radiant4 ,it appears to me that this unsophisticated conception of radiant mechanical repulsive force1 and its necessary mechanical reaction on the radiant body1 meets all the facts at present revealed by the experiments of ,mr4 ,crookes and others4 ,the attraction which occurs when the disc of the radiometer is surrounded with a considerable quantity of atmospheric matter is probably due to inequality of atmospheric pressure4 ,the absorbing face of the disc becomes heated above the temperature of the opposite face1 the film of air in contact with the warmer face rises1 leaving a relatively vacuous space in front4 ,this produces a rush of air from back to front which carries the radiometer vane with it4 ,when the exhaustion of the radiometer is carried so far that the residual air is only just sufficiently dense to neutralize the direct repulsion of radiation1 the neutral point is reached4 ,when exhaustion is carried beyond this1 repulsion predominates4 ,taking ,mr4 ,crookes's estimate of the mechanical energy of solar radiation at #cb grains per square foot1 #b cwts4 per acre1 #eg tons per square mile1 etc41 and accepting these as they are offered1 i4e41 merely as provisional and approximate estimates1 we are led to a cosmical inference of the highest importance1 one that must materially modify our interpretations of some of the grandest phenomena of the universe4 ,although the estimated sunlight pressure upon the earth1 the three thousand millions of tons1 is too small a fraction of the earth's total weight to effect an easily measurable increase of the length of our year1 the case is quite otherwise with the asteroids and the zones of meteoric matter revolving around the sun4 ,the mechanical repulsion of radiation is a superficial action1 and must1 therefore1 vary with the amount of surface exposed1 while that of gravitation varies with the mass4 ,thus the ratio of radiant repulsion to the attraction of gravitation goes on increasing with the subdivison of masses1 and becomes an important fraction in the case of the smaller bodies of the solar system4 ,a zone of meteorites traveling around the sun would be broken up1 sifted1 and sorted into different orbits1 according to their diameters1 if this superficial repulsion operated against gravitation without any compensating agency4 ,gravitation would be opposed in various degrees1 neutralized1 and1 in the case of cosmic dust1 even reversed4 ,comets presenting so large a surface in proportion to their mass would either be driven away altogether or forced to move in orbits utterly disobedient to present calculations4 ,this would occur if the inter-planetary spaces were as nearly vacuous as the torsion instrument with which ,mr4 ,crookes made his measurements4 ,regarding the properties of our atmosphere only in the light of experimental data1 irrespective of imaginary molecules1 and their supposed gyrations or oscillations1 we see at once that an inter-planetary or inter-stellar vacuum must act like a ,sprengel pump upon our atmosphere1 upon the atmosphere of other planets1 and upon those of the sun and the stars1 and would continue such action until an equilibrium between the repulsive energy of the gas and the gravitation of the solid orbs had been established4 ,atmospheric matter would thus be universally diffused1 with special accumulations around solid orbs1 varying in quantity with their respective gravitating energy4 ,such a universal atmosphere would accelerate orbital motion1 and this acceleration would vary with the surface of bodies4 ,its action being thus exactly opposed to that of radiant repulsion1 it must1 at a certain density1 exactly neutralize it4 ,that it does this is evident from the obedience of all the elements of the solar system to the calculated action of gravitation2 and thus ,mr4 ,crookes's researches not only confirm the idea of universal atmospheric diffusion1 but they afford a means by which we may ultimately measure the actual density of the universal atmosphere4 ,if1 as ,i have endeavored to show in my essay on 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun10 the initial radiant energy of every star depends upon its mass1 and its consequent condensation of atmospheric matter1 the density of inter-planetary atmosphere sufficient to neutralize the radiant mechanical energy of our sun may be the same as is demanded to perform the same function for all the stars of the universe1 and all their attendant worlds1 comets1 and meteors4 ,in order to prevent misunderstanding of the above1 ,i must add that ,i have therein studiously assumed a negative position in reference to all hypothetical conceptions of the nature of heat1 light1 etc41 and their modes of transmission1 simply because ,i feel satisfied that the subject has hitherto been obscured and complicated by overstrained efforts to fit the phenomena to the excessively definite hypotheses of modern molecular mathematicians4 ,the atoms invented by ,dalton for the purpose of explaining the demonstrated laws of chemical combination performed this function admirably1 and had great educational value1 so long as their purely imaginary origin was kept in view2 but when such atoms are treated as facts1 and physical dogmas are based upon the assumption of their actual existence1 they become dangerous physical superstitions4 ,regarding matter as continuous1 i4e41 supposing it to be simply as it appears to be1 and co-extensive with the universe1 in accordance with the experimental evidences of the unlimited expansibility of gaseous matter1 we need only assume that our sensations of heat1 light1 etc41 are produced by active conditions of such matter analogous to those which are proved to produce our sensations of sound4 ,on this basis there is no difficulty in conceiving the rationale of the reaction which produces the repulsion of the radiometer4 ,i may even go further1 and affirm that it is impossible to rationally conceive radiation producing any mechanical effects without mechanical reaction4 ,if heat be motion1 and actual motion of actual matter1 mechanical force must be exerted to produce it1 and a body which is warmer on one side than the other1 i4e41 which is exerting more outward motion-producing force on one side than on the other1 must be subject to proportionally unequal reaction1 and1 therefore1 if free to move1 must retreat in a direction contrary to that of its greater activity4 ,regarded thus1 the residual air of the radiometer does act1 not by collisions of particles between the vane and inside of the glass vessel1 but by the direct reaction of the radiant energy which would operate irrespective of vessels1 i4e41 upon naked radiometer vanes if carried halfway to the moon1 or otherwise freed from excess of atmospheric embarrassment4 ,the recent experiments of ,mr4 ,crookes1 showing retardation of the radiometer with extreme exhaustion1 seem to indicate that heat-rays1 like the electric discharge1 demand a certain amount of atmospheric matter as their carrier4 ,i cannot conclude these hasty and imperfect notes1 written merely with suggestive intent1 without quoting a passage from the preface to the 8,correlation of ,physical ,forces10 which1 though written so long ago1 appears to me worthy of the profoundest present consideration4 8,it appears to me that heat and light maybe considered as affections2 or1 according to the undulatory theory1 vibrations of matter itself1 and not of a distinct ethereal fluid permeating it3 these vibrations would be propagated just as sound is propagated by vibrations of wood or as waves by water4 ,to my mind all the consequences of the undulatory theory flow as easily from this as from the hypothesis of a specific ether2 to suppose which1 namely1 to suppose a fluid sui generis and of extreme tenuity penetrating solid bodies1 we must assume1 first1 the existence of the fluid itself2 secondly1 that bodies are without exception porous2 thirdly1 that these pores communicate2 fourthly1 that matter is limited in expansibility4 ,none of these difficulties apply to the modification of this theory which ,i venture to propose3 and no other difficulty applies to it which does not equally apply to the received hypothesis40 ,,on ,,the ,,social ,,benefits ,,of ,,paraffin4 ,to the inhabitants of ,jupiter1 who have always one1 two1 or three of their four moons in active and efficient radiation1 or of ,saturn displaying the broad luminous oceans of his mighty rings in addition to the minor lamps of his eight ever-changeful satellites1 the relative merits of rushlights1 candles1 lamps1 and gaslights may be a question of indifference2 but to us1 the residents of a planet which has but one small moon that only displays her nearly full face during a few nights of each month1 the subject of artificial light is only second in importance to those of food and artificial heat1 and every step that is made in the improvement of our supplies of this primary necessary must have a momentous influence on the physical comfort1 and also upon the intellectual and moral progress1 of this world's human inhabitants4 ,if a cockney ,rip ,van ,winkle were to revisit his old haunts1 the changes produced by the introduction of gas would probably surprise him the most of all he would see4 ,he would be astonished to find respectable people1 and even unprotected females1 going alone1 unarmed and without fear1 at night1 up the by-streets which in his days were deemed so dangerous1 and he would soon perceive that the bright gaslights had done more than all the laws1 the magistrates1 and the police1 to drive out those crimes which can only flourish in darkness4 ,the intimate connection between physical light and moral and intellectual light and progress is a subject well worthy of an exhaustive treatise4 ,we must1 however1 drop the general subject and come down to our particular paraffin lamp4 ,in the first place1 this is the cheapest light that has ever been invented--cheaper than any kind of oil lamp--cheaper than the cheapest and nastiest of candles1 and1 for domestic purposes1 cheaper than gas4 ,for large warehouses1 shops1 streets1 public buildings1 etc41 it is not so cheap as gas should be1 but is considerably cheaper than gas actually is at the price extorted by the despotism of commercial monopoly4 ,the reason why it is especially cheaper for domestic purposes is1 first1 because the small consumer of gas pays a higher price than the large consumer2 and secondly1 because a lamp can be placed on a table or wherever else its light is required1 and therefore a small lamp flame will do the work of a much larger gas flame4 ,we must remember that the intensity of light varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source of light2 thus the amount of light received by this page from a light at one foot distance is four times as great as if it were two feet distant1 nine times as great as at three feet1 sixteen times as great as at four feet1 one hundred times as great as at ten feet1 and so on4 ,hence the necessity of two or three great flames in a gas chandelier suspended from the ceiling of a moderate-sized room4 ,in a sitting-room lighted thus with gas1 we are obliged1 in order to read comfortably by the distant source of light1 to burn so much gas that the atmosphere of the room is seriously polluted by the products of this extravagant combustion4 ,a lamp at a moderate distance--say eighteen inches or two feet1 or thereabouts--will enable us to read or work with one-tenth to one-twentieth the amount of combustion1 and therefore with so much less vitiation of the atmosphere1 and1 if we use a paraffin lamp1 at much less expense4 ,but the chief value of the paraffin lamp is felt where gas is not obtainable--in the country mansion or villa1 the farmhouse1 and1 most of all1 in the poor man's cottage4 ,we have ,bible ,societies for providing cheap ,bibles2 we have cheap standard works1 cheap magazines1 cheap newspapers1 etc42 but all these are unavailable to the poor man until he can get a good and cheap light wherewith to read them at the only time he has for reading1 viz41 in the evenings1 when his work is done4 ,one shilling's worth of cheap literature will require two shillings' worth of dear candles to supply the light necessary for reading it4 ,therefore1 the cheapening of light has quite as much to do with the poor man's intellectual progress as the cheapening of books and periodicals4 ,for a man to read comfortably1 and his wife to do her needlework1 they must have a candle for each1 if dependent on tallow dips4 ,they may1 and do1 struggle on with one such candle1 but the inconvenience soon sickens them of their occupation2 the man lolls out for an idle stroll1 soon encounters a far more bright and cheerful room than the gloomy one he has just left1 and1 moth-like1 he is attracted by the light1 and finishes up his evening in the public-house4 ,we may preach1 we may lecture1 we may coax1 wheedle1 or anathematize1 but no amount of words of any kind will render a gloomy ill-lighted cottage so attractive as the bright bar and tap-room2 and human nature1 irrespective of conventional distinctions of rank and class1 always seeks cheerfulness after a day of monotonous toil4 ,fifty years ago the middle classes were accustomed to spend their evenings in taverns1 but now they prefer their homes1 simply because they have learned to make their homes more comfortable and attractive4 ,we have not yet learned how to supply the working millions with suburban villas1 but if their small rooms can be made bright and cheerful during the long evenings1 a most important step is made towards that general improvement of social habits which necessarily results from a greater love of home4 ,we may safely venture to predict that the paraffin lamp will have as much influence in elevating the domestic character of the poorer classes as the street lamps have had in purging the streets of our cities from the crimes of darkness that once infested them4 ,a great deal has been said about the poisonous character of paraffin works4 ,i admit that they have much to answer for in reference to trout--that the clumsy and wasteful management of certain ill-conducted works has interfered with the sport of the anglers of one or two of the trout streams of the ,united ,kingdom--but all the assertions that have been made relative to injury to human health are quite contrary to truth4 ,the fact is that the manufacture of mineral oils from cannel and shale is an unusually healthful occupation4 ,the men certainly have dirty faces1 but are curiously exempt from those diseases which are most fatal among the poor4 ,i allude to typhus fever1 and all that terrible catalogue of ills usually classed under the head of zymotic diseases4 ,this has been strikingly illustrated in the ,flintshire district4 ,the very sudden development of the oil trade in the neighborhood of ,leeswood caused that little village and the scattered cottages around to be crowded to an extent that created the utmost alarm among all who are familiar with the results of such overcrowding in poor1 ill-drained1 and ill-ventilated cottages4 ,rooms were commonly filled with lodgers who economized the apartments on the ,box and ,cox principle1 the night workers sleeping during the day1 and the day workers during the night1 in the same beds4 ,the extent to which this overcrowding was carried in many instances is hardly credible4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,platt1 who is surgeon to most of the collieries and oilworks of this district1 reports that ,leeswood has enjoyed a singular immunity from typhus and fever--that1 during a period when it was prevalent as a serious epidemic among the agricultural population living on the slopes of the surrounding mountains1 no single case occurred among the oil-making population of ,leeswood1 though its position and overcrowding seemed so directly to court its visitation4 ,if space permitted ,i might give further illustrations in reference to allied diseases4 ,there is no difficulty in accounting for this4 ,carbolic acid1 one of the most powerful of our disinfectants1 is abundantly produced in the oilworks1 and this is carried by the clothes of the men1 and with the fumes of the oil1 into the dwellings of the workmen and through all the atmosphere of the neighborhood1 and has thereby counteracted some of the most deadly agencies of organic poisons4 ,besides this1 the paraffin oil itself is a good disinfectant4 ,even the mischief done to the trout is more than counterbalanced by the destruction of those mysterious fungoid growths which result from the admixture of sewage matter with the water of our rivers1 and are so destructive to human health and life4 ,the carbolic acid and paraffin oil1 in destroying these as well as the trout1 are really acting as great purifiers of the river1 so that1 after all1 the only interest that has suffered is the sporting interest4 ,this same interest has otherwise suffered4 ,the old haunts of the snipe and woodcock1 of partridges1 hares1 and pheasants1 are being ruthlessly and barbarously destroyed1 and--horrible to relate--hundreds of cottages1 inhabited by vulgar1 hard-handed1 thick-booted human beings1 are taking their place4 ,churches are being extended1 school-houses and chapels built2 penny readings1 lectures1 concerts1 etc41 are in active operation1 and even drinking fountains are in course of construction2 but the trout have suffered and the woodcocks are gone4 ,we may thus measure the good against the evil as it stands here in the headquarters of oil-making1 and should add to one side the advantages which the cheap and brilliant light affords--advantages which we might continue to enumerate1 but they are so obvious that it is unnecessary to go further4 ,there is one important and curious matter which must not be omitted4 ,this1 like the moral and intellectual advantages of the cheap paraffin light1 has hitherto remained unnoticed1 viz41 that the introduction of mineral oils and solid paraffin for purposes of illumination and lubrication has largely increased the world's supply of food4 ,this may not be generally obvious at first sight2 but to him1 who1 like the writer1 has had many a supper at an ,italian osteria with peasants and carbonari1 it is obvious enough4 ,he will remember how often he has seen the lamp that has lighted himself and companions to their supper filled from the same flask as supplied the salad which formed so important a part of the supper itself4 ,throughout the ,south of ,europe salads are most important elements of national food1 and when thus abundantly eaten the oil is quite necessary1 the oil is also used for many of the cookery operations where butter is used here1 and this same olive oil has hitherto been the chief1 and in some places the sole1 illuminating agent4 ,the poor peasant of the ,south looks jealously at his lamp1 and feeds its stingily1 for it consumes his richest and choicest food1 and1 if well supplied1 would eat as much as a fair-sized baby4 ,the ,russian peasant and other ,northern people have a similar struggle in the matter of tallow4 ,it is their choicest dainty1 and yet1 to their bitter grief1 they have been compelled to burn it4 ,hundreds and thousands of tons of this and of olive oil have been annually consumed for the lubrication of our steam engines and other machines4 ,a better time is approaching now that paraffin lamps are so rapidly becoming the chief illuminators of the whole civilized world1 superseding the crude tallow candle and the antique olive-oil lamp1 while1 at the same time1 the tallow candle is gradually being replaced by the beautiful sperm-like paraffin candle2 and1 in addition to this1 the greedy engines that have consumed so much of the olive oil and the tallow are learning to be satisfied with lubricators made from minerals kindred to themselves4 ,the peasants of the sunny ,south will feed upon salads made doubly unctuous and nutritious by the abundant oil2 their fried meats1 their pastry1 omelettes1 and sauces will be so much richer and better than heretofore1 and the ,russian will enjoy more freely his well-beloved and necessary tallow1 when the candle is made and the engine lubricated with the fat extracted from coals and stones which no human stomach can envy4 ,i might travel on to ,china and tell of the work that paraffin and paraffin oils have yet to do among the many millions there and in other countries of the ,east4 ,the great wave of mineral light has not yet fairly broken upon their shores2 but when it has once burst through the outer barriers1 it will1 without doubt1 advance with great rapidity1 and with an influence whose beneficence can scarcely be exaggerated4 7,the above was written in the early days of paraffin lamps1 and while the writer was engaged in the distillation of paraffin oils1 etc41 from the ,leeswood cannel4 ,these are now practically superseded by ,american petroleum of similar composition1 but distilled in ,nature's oilworks4 ,the anticipations that appeared ,utopian at the time of writing have since been fully realized1 or even exceeded1 as the wholesale price of mineral oil has fallen from two shillings per gallon to an average of about eightpence1 and lamps have been greatly improved4 ,at this price the cost of maintaining a light of given power in an ordinary lamp is about equal to that of ordinary ,london gas1 if it were supplied at one shilling per thousand cubic feet4 ,the mineral oil1 being a fine hydrocarbon1 does far less mischief than gas by its combustion1 as may be proved by warming a conservatory with a paraffin stove and another with a stove4 ,in the latter all the delicate plants will be killed2 in the first they scarcely suffer at all4 ,if these facts were generally understood we should be in a better position for battle with the gas monopolies4 ,the importation of petroleum to the ,united ,kingdom during the first five months of #ahhb amounted to #bf1big1cdf gallons47 ,,the ,,solidity ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,in his opening address to the ,mathematical and ,physical ,section of the ,british ,association1 ,sir ,william ,thomson affirmed1 8with almost perfect certainty1 that1 whatever may be the relative densities of rock1 solid and melted1 or at about the temperature of liquefaction1 it is1 ,i think1 quite certain that cold solid rock is denser than hot melted rock2 and no possible degree of rigidity in the crust could prevent it from breaking in pieces and sinking wholly below the liquid lava10 and that 8this process must go on until the sunk portions of the crust build up from the bottom a sufficiently close-ribbed skeleton or frame1 to allow fresh incrustations to remain bridged across the now small areas of lava-pools or lakes40#aa ,this would doubtless be the case if the material of the earth were chemically homogeneous or of equal specific gravity throughout1 and if it were chemically inert in reference to its superficial or atmospheric surroundings4 ,but such is not the case4 ,all we know of the earth shows that it is composed of materials of varying specific gravities1 and that the range of this variation exceeds that which is due to the difference between the theoretical internal heat of the earth and its actual surface temperature4 ,we know by direct experiment that these materials1 when fused together1 arrange themselves according to their specific gravities1 with the slight modification due to their mutual diffusibilities4 ,if we take a mixture of the solid elements of which the earth1 so far as we know it1 is composed1 fused them1 and leave them exposed to atmospheric action1 what will occur8 ,the heavy metals will sink1 the heaviest to the bottom1 the lighter metals 7i4e41 those that we call the metals of the earths1 because they form the basis of the earth's superficial crust7 will rise along with the silicon1 etc41 to the surface2 these and the silicon will oxidize and combine1 forming silicates1 and with a sufficient supply of carbonic acid1 some of them1 such as calcium1 magnesium1 etc41 will form carbonates when the temperature sinks below that of the dissociation of such compounds4 ,the scoria thus formed will float upon the heavy metals below and protect them from cooling by resisting their radiation2 but if in the course of contraction of this crust some fissures are formed reaching to the melted metals below1 the pressure of the floating solid will inject the fluid metal upwards into these fissures to a height corresponding to the flotation depth of the solid1 and thus form metallic veins permeating the lower strata of the crust4 ,i need scarcely add that this would rudely but fairly represent what we know of the earth4 ,but it may be objected that ,i only describe an imaginary experiment4 ,this is true as regards the whole of the materials united in a single fusion4 ,nobody has yet produced a complete model with platinum and gold in the centre1 and all the other metals arranged in theoretical order with the oxidized1 silicated1 and carbonated crust outside2 but with a limited number of elements this has been done1 is being done daily1 on a scale of sufficient magnitude to amply refute ,sir ,william ,thomson's description of a fused earth solidifying from the centre outwards4 ,this refutation is to be seen in our blast furnaces1 refining furnaces1 puddling furnaces1 ,bessemer ladles1 steel melting-pots1 cupels1 foundry crucibles2 in fact1 in almost every metallurgical operation down to the simple fusion of lead or solder in a plumber's ladle1 with its familiar floating crust of dross or oxide4 ,as an example ,i will1 on account of its simplicity1 take the open hearth finery and the refining of pig-iron4 ,here a metallic mixture of iron1 silicon1 carbon1 sulphur1 etc41 is simply fused and exposed to the superficial action of atmospheric air4 ,what is the result8 ,oxidation of the more oxidizable constituents takes place1 and these oxides at once arrange themselves according to their specific gravities4 ,the oxidized carbon forms atmospheric matter and rises above all as carbonic acid1 then the oxidized silicon1 being lighter than the iron1 floats above that1 and combines with aluminium or calcium that may have been in the pig and with some of the iron2 thus forming a silicious crust closely resembling the predominating material of the earth's crust4 ,when the oxidation in the finery is carried far enough1 the melted material is tapped out into a rectangular basin or mould1 usually about #aj feet long and about #c feet wide1 where it settles and cools4 ,during this cooling the silica and silicates--i4e41 the rock matter--separate from the metallic matter and solidify on the surface as a thin crust1 which behaves in a very interesting and instructive manner4 ,at first a mere skin is formed4 ,this gradually thickens1 and as it thickens and cools becomes corrugated into mountain chains and valleys much higher and deeper1 in proportion to the whole mass1 than the mountain chains and valleys of our planet4 ,after this crust has thickened to a certain extent volcanic action commences4 ,rifts1 dykes1 and faults are formed by the shrinkage of the metal below1 and streams of lava are ejected4 ,here and there these lava streams accumulate around their vent and form insulated conical volcanic mountains with decided craters1 from which the eruption continues for some time4 ,these volcanoes are relatively far higher than ,chimborazo4 ,the magnitude of these actions varies with the quality of the pig-iron4 ,the open hearth finery is now but little used1 but probably some are to be seen at work occasionally in the neighborhood of ,glasgow1 and ,i am sure that ,sir ,william ,thomson will find a visit to one of them very interesting4 ,failing this1 he may easily make an experiment by tapping into a good-sized 8cinder bogie0 some melted pig-iron from a pudding furnace 7taking it just before the iron 8comes to nature071 and leaving the melted mixture to cool slowly and undisturbed4 ,the cinder of the blast furnace1 which in like manner floats on the top of the melted pig-iron1 resembles still more closely the prevailing rock-matter of the earth1 on account of the larger proportion1 and the varied compounds1 of earth-metals it contains4 ,for the volcanic phenomena alone he need simply watch what occurs when in the ordinary course of puddling the cinder is run into a large bogie1 and the bogie is left to cool standing upright4 ,i need scarcely add that these phenomena strikingly illustrate and confirm ,mr4 ,mallett's theory of earthquakes1 volcanoes1 and mountain-formation4 ,in merely passing through an iron-making district one may see the results of what ,i have called the volcanic action1 by simply observing the form of those oyster-shaped or cubical blocks of cinder that are heaped in the vicinity of every blast furnace that has been at work for some time4 ,radial ridges or consolidated miniature lava-streams are visible on the exposed face of nearly1 if not quite all of these4 ,they were ejected or squeezed up from below while the mass was cooling1 when the outer crust had consolidated but the inner portion still remained liquid4 ,many of these are large enough1 and sufficiently well-marked1 to be visible from a railway carriage passing a cinder heap near the road4#ab ,a ,,contribution ,,to ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,electric ,,lighting4 ,as the subject of lighting by electricity is occupying so much public attention1 and the merits of various inventors and inventions are so keenly discussed1 the following facts may have some historical interest in connection with it4 ,in ,october1 #ahde1 ,i was consulted by some ,american gentlemen concerning the construction of a large voltaic battery for experimenting upon an invention1 afterwards described and published in the specification of 8,king's ,patent ,electric ,light0 7,letters ,patent granted for ,scotland1 ,november #bf1 #ahde2 enrolled ,march #be1 #ahdf2 ,english ,patent sealed ,november #d1 #ahde74 ,mr4 ,king was not the inventor1 but he and ,mr4 ,dorr supplied capital1 and ,mr4 ,snyder also held a share1 which was afterwards transferred to myself4 ,the inventor was ,mr4 ,starr1 a young man about twenty-five years of age1 and one of the ablest experimental investigators with whom ,i have ever had the privilege of near acquaintance4 ,he had been working for some years on the subject1 commencing with the ordinary arc between charcoal points4 ,his first efforts were directed to maintaining constancy1 and he showed me1 in ,january of #ahdf1 an arrangement by which he succeeded in effecting an automatic renewal of contact by means of an electro-magnet1 the armature of which received the electric flow1 when the arc was broken1 and which thus magnetized brought the carbons together and then allowed them to be withdrawn to their required separation1 when the flow returned4 ,this device was almost identical with that subsequently re-invented and patented by ,mr4 ,staite 7quite independently1 ,i believe71 and which1 with modifications1 has since been rather extensively used4 ,although successful so far1 he was not satisfied4 ,he reasoned out the subject1 and concluded that the electric spark between metals1 the electric arc between the carbons1 and other luminous electric phenomena are secondary effects due to the heating and illumination of electric carriers2 that the electric spark of the conductors of ordinary electrical machines is simply a transfer of incandescent particles of metal1 which effect a kind of electric convection1 known as the disruptive discharge2 and that the more brilliant arc between the carbon points is simply due to the use of a substance which breaks up more readily1 and gives a longer1 broader1 and more continuous stream of incandescent convection particles4 ,this is now readily accepted1 but at that time was only dawning upon the understanding of electricians4 ,i am satisfied that ,mr4 ,starr worked out the principle quite originally4 ,he therefore concluded that1 the light being due to solid particles heated by electric disturbance1 it would be more advantageous--as regards steadiness1 economy1 and simplicity--to place in the current a continuous solid barrier1 which should present sufficient resistance to its passage to become bodily incandescent without disruption4 ,this was the essence of the invention specified in ,king's ,patent as 8a communication from abroad10 which claims the use of continuous metallic and carbon conductors1 intensely heated by the passage of a current of electricity1 for the purposes of illumination4 ,the metal selected was platinum1 which1 as the specification states1 8though not so infusible as iridium1 has but little affinity for oxygen1 and offers a great resistance to the passage of the current40 ,the form of thin sheets known by the name of leaf-platinum is described as preferable4 ,these to be rolled between sheets of copper in order to secure uniformity1 and to be carefully cut in strips of equal width1 and with a clean edge1 in order that one part may not be fused before the other parts have obtained a sufficiently high temperature to produce a brilliant light4 ,this strip to be suspended between forceps4 ,i need not describe the arrangement for regulating the distance between the forceps1 for directing the current1 etc41 as we soon learned that this part of the invention was of no practical value1 on account of the narrow margin between efficient incandescence and the fusion of the platinum4 ,the experiments with the large battery that ,i made--consisting of #ajj ,daniell cells1 with two square feet of working surface of each element in each cell1 and the copper-plates about three-quarters of an inch distant from the zinc--satisfied all concerned that neither platinum nor any available alloy of platinum and iridium could be relied upon2 especially when the grand idea of subdividing the light by interposing several platinum strips in the same circuit1 and working with a proportionally high power1 was carried out4 ,this drove ,mr4 ,starr to rely upon the second part of the specification1 viz41 that of using a small stick of carbon made incandescent in a ,torricellian vacuum4 ,he commenced with plumbago1 and1 after trying many other forms of carbon1 found that which lines gas-retorts that have been long in use to be the best4 ,the carbon stick of square section1 about one tenth of an inch thick and half an inch working length1 was held vertically1 by metallic forceps at each end1 in a barometer tube1 the upper part of which1 containing the carbon1 was enlarged to a sort of oblong bulb4 ,a thick platinum wire from the upper forceps was sealed into the top of the tube and projected beyond2 a similar wire passed downwards from the lower forceps1 and dipped into the mercury of the tube1 which was so long that when arranged as a barometer the enlarged end containing the carbon was vacuous4 ,considerable difficulty was at first encountered in supporting this fragile stick4 ,metallic supports were not available1 on account of their expansion2 and1 finally1 little cylinders of porcelain were used1 one on each side of the carbon stick1 and about three eighths of an inch distant4 ,by connecting the mercury cup with one terminal of the battery1 and the upper platinum-wire with the other1 a brilliant and perfectly steady light was produced1 not so intense as the ordinary disruption arc between carbons1 but equally if not more effective1 on account of the magnitude of brilliant radiating surface4 ,some curious phenomena accompanied this illumination of the carbon4 ,the mercury column fell to about half its barometric height1 and presently the glass opposite the carbon stick became slightly dimmed by the deposition of a thin film of sooty deposit4 ,at first the depression of the mercury was attributed to the formation of mercurial vapor1 and is described accordingly in the specification2 but further observation refuted this theory1 for no return of the mercury took place when the tube was cooled4 ,the depression was permanent4 ,the formation of vaporous carbon was suggested by one of the capitalists2 but neither ,mr4 ,starr nor myself was satisfied with this1 nor with any other surmise we were able to make during ,mr4 ,starr's lifetime1 nor up to the period of final abandonment of the enterprise4 ,when this occurred the remaining apparatus was assigned to me1 and ,i retained possession of the finally arranged tube and carbon for many years1 and have shown it in action worked by a small ,grove's battery in the ,town ,hall of ,birmingham1 and many times to my pupils at the ,birmingham and ,midland ,institute4 ,these exhibitions suggested an explanation of the mysterious gaseous matter1 which ,i believe to be the correct one1 and also of the carbon deposit4 ,it is this3--,that the carbon contains occluded oxygen2 that when the carbon is heated some of this oxygen combines with the carbon1 forming carbonic oxide and carbonic acid1 and a little smoke4 ,i proved the presence of carbonic acid by the usual tests1 but did not quantitatively determine its proportion of the total atmosphere4 ,if ,i were fitting up another tube on this principle ,i should wash it with a strong solution of caustic potash before filling with mercury1 and allow some of the potash solution to float on the mercury surface1 by filling the tube while the glass remained moistened with the solution4 ,my object would be to get rid of the carbonic acid as soon as formed1 as the observations ,i have made lead me to believe that--when the carbon stick is incandescent in an atmosphere of carbonic acid or carbonic oxide--a certain degree of dissociation and re-combination is continually occurring1 which weakens and would ultimately break up the carbon stick1 and increases the sooty deposit4 ,the large battery was arranged for intensity1 but even then it was found that the quantity 7,i use the old-fashioned terms7 of electricity was excessive1 and that it worked more advantageously when the cells were but partially filled with acid and sulphate4 ,a larger stick of carbon might have been used with the whole surface in full action4 ,after working the battery in various ways1 and duly considering the merits of the other forms of battery then in use1 ,mr4 ,starr was driven to the conclusion that for the purposes of practical illumination the voltaic battery is a hopeless source of power1 and that magneto-electric machinery driven by steam-power must be used4 ,i fully concurred with him in this conclusion1 so did ,mr4 ,king1 ,mr4 ,dorr1 and all concerned4 ,mr4 ,starr then set to work to devise a suitable dynamo-electric machine1 and1 following his usual course of starting from first principles1 concluded that all the armatures hitherto constructed were defective in one fundamental element of their arrangement4 ,the thick copper wire surrounding the soft iron core necessarily follows a spiral course1 like that of a coarse screw-thread2 but the electric current or lines of force1 which it is designed to pick up and carry1 circulate at right angles to the axis of the core1 and extend to some distance beyond its surface4 ,the problem thus presented is to wind around the soft iron a conductor that shall be broad enough to grasp a large proportion of this outspread force1 and yet shall follow its course as nearly as possible by standing out at right angles to the axis of the armature4 ,this he endeavored to effect by using a core of square section1 and winding round it a broad ribbon of sheet copper1 insulated on both sides by cementing on its surfaces a layer of silk ribbon4 ,this armature was laid with one edge against one side of the core1 and carried on thus to the angle2 then turned over so that its opposite edge should be presented to the next side of the core2 this side to be followed in like manner1 the ribbon similarly turned again at the next corner1 and so on till the core became fully enclosed or armed with the continuous ribbon1 which thus encircled the core with its edges outwards1 and nearly at right angles to the axis1 in spite of its width1 which might be increased to any extent found by experiment to be desirable4 ,at this stage my direct co-operation and confidential communication with ,mr4 ,starr ceased1 as ,i remained in ,london while he went to ,birmingham in order to get his machinery constructed1 and to apply it at the works of ,messrs4 ,elkington1 who had then recently introduced the principle of dynamo-electric motive-power for electro-plating1 etc41 and were1 ,i believe1 using ,woolrich's apparatus1 the patent for which was dated ,august #a1 #ahdb1 and enrolled ,february #a1 #ahdc4 ,i am unable to state the results of his efforts in ,birmingham4 ,i only heard the murmurs of the capitalists1 who loudly complained of expenditure without results4 ,they had dreamed the same dream that ,mr4 ,edison has recently re-dreamed1 and has told the world so loudly4 ,they supposed that the mechanically excited current might be carried along great lengths of wire1 and the carbons interposed wherever required1 and that the same electricity would flow on and do the duty of illumination over and over again as a river may fall over a succession of weirs and turn water-wheels at each4 ,mr4 ,starr knew better2 his scepticism was misinterpreted2 he was taunted with failure and non-fulfilment of the anticipations he had raised1 and with the fruitless expenditure of large sums of other people's money4 ,he was a high-minded1 honorable1 and very sensitive man1 suffering already from overworked brain before he went to ,birmingham4 ,there he worked again still harder1 with further vexation and disappointment1 until one morning he was found dead in his bed4 ,having1 during my short acquaintance with him1 enjoyed his full confidence in reference to all his investigations1 ,i have no hesitation in affirming that his early death cut short the career of one who otherwise would have largely contributed to the progress of experimental science1 and have done honor to his country4 ,his martyrdom1 for such it was1 taught me a useful lesson ,i then much needed1 viz41 to abstain from entering upon a costly series of physical investigations without being well assured of the means of completing them1 and1 above all1 of being able to afford to fail4 ,there are many others who sorely need to be impressed with the same lesson1 especially at this moment and in connection with this subject4 ,the warning is the most applicable to those who are now misled by a plausible but false analogy4 ,they look at the progress made in other things1 the mighty achievements of modern ,science1 and therefore infer that the electric light--even though unsuccessful hitherto--may be improved up to practical success1 as other things have been4 ,a great fallacy is hidden here4 ,as a matter of fact the progress made in electric lighting since ,mr4 ,starr's death1 in #ahdf1 has been very small indeed4 ,as regards the lamp itself no progress whatever has been made4 ,i am satisfied that ,starr's continuous carbon stick1 properly managed in a true vacuum1 or an atmosphere free from oxygen1 carbonic oxide1 carbonic acid1 or other oxygen compound1 is the best that has yet been placed before the public for all purposes where exceptionally intense illumination 7as in lighthouses7 is not demanded4#ac ,comparing electric with gas-lighting1 the hopeful believers in progressive improvement appear to forget that gas-making and gas-lighting are as susceptible of further improvement as electric lighting1 and that1 as a matter of fact1 its practical progress during the last forty years is incomparably greater than that of the electric light4 ,i refer more particularly to the practical and crucial question of economy4 ,the bi-products1 the ammoniacal salts1 the liquid hydrocarbons1 and their derivatives1 have been developed into so many useful forms by the achievements of modern chemistry1 that these1 with the coke1 are of sufficient value to cover the whole cost of manufacture1 and leave the gas itself as a volatile residuum that costs nothing4 ,it would actually and practically cost nothing1 and might be profitably delivered to the burners of gas consumers 7of far better quality than now supplied in ,london7 at one shilling per thousand cubic feet1 if gas-making were conducted on sound commercial principles1--that is1 if it were not a corporate monopoly1 and were subject to the wholesome stimulating influence of free competition and private enterprise4 ,as it is1 our gas and the price we pay for it are absurdities2 and all calculations respecting the comparative cost of new methods of illumination should be based not on what we do pay per candle-power of gas-light1 but what we ought to pay and should pay if the gas companies were subjected to desirable competition1 or visited with the national confiscation ,i consider they deserve4 ,having had considerable practical experience in the commercial distillation of coal for the sake of its liquid and solid hydrocarbons1 ,i speak thus plainly and with full confidence4 ,there is yet another consideration1 and one of vital importance1 to be taken into account1 viz41 that--whether we use the electric light derived from a dynamo-electric source1 or coal-gas--our primary source of illuminating power is coal1 or rather the chemical energy derivable from the combination of its hydrogen and carbon with oxygen4 ,now this chemical energy is a limited quantity1 and the progress of ,science can no more increase this quantity than it can make a ton of coal weigh #ba cwts4 by increasing the quantity of its gravitating energy4 ,the demonstrable limit of scientific possibilities is the economical application of this limited store of energy1 by converting it into the demanded form of force without waste4 ,the more indirect and roundabout the method of application1 the greater must be the loss of power in the course of its transfer and conversion4 ,in heating the boiler that sets the dynamo-electric machine to work1 about one-half the energy of the coal is wasted1 even with the best constructed furnaces4 ,this merely as regards the quantity of water evaporated4 ,in converting the heat-force into mechanical power--raising the piston1 etc41 of the steam-engine--this working half is again seriously reduced4 ,in further converting this residuum of mechanical power into electrical energy1 another and considerable loss is suffered in originating and sustaining the motion of the dynamo-electric machine1 in the dissipation of the electric energy that the armature cannot pick up1 and in overcoming the electrical resistances to its transfer4 ,i am unable to state the amount of this loss in trustworthy figures1 but should be very much surprised to learn that1 with the best arrangements now known1 more than one-tenth of the original energy of the coal is made practically available4 ,this small illuminating residuum may1 and doubtless will1 be increased by the progress of practical improvement2 but from the necessary nature of the problem1 the power available for illumination at the end of the series must always be but a small portion of that employed at the beginning4 ,in burning the gas derived from coal we obtain its illuminating power directly1 and if we burn it properly we obtain nearly all4 ,the coke residuum is also directly used as a source of heat4 ,the chief waste of the original energy in the gas-works is represented by that portion of the coke that is burned under the retorts1 and in obtaining the relatively small amount of steam-power demanded in the works4 ,these are far more than paid for by the value of the liquid hydrocarbons and the ammonia salts1 when they are properly utilized4 ,in concluding my narrative1 ,i may add that after ,mr4 ,starr's death the patentees offered to engage me on certain terms to carry on his work4 ,i declined this1 simply because ,i had seen enough to convince me of the impossibility of any success at all corresponding to their anticipations4 ,during the intervening thirty years ,i have abstained from further meddling with the electric light1 because all that ,i had seen then1 and have heard of since1 has convinced me that--although as a scientific achievement the electric light is a splendid success--its practical application to all purposes where cost is a matter of serious consideration is hopeless1 and must of necessity continue to be so4 ,whoever can afford to pay some shillings per hour for a single splendid light of solar completeness can have it without difficulty1 but not so where the cost in pence per hour per burner has to be counted4 ,i should add that before the publication of ,king's specification1 ,mr4 7now ,sir ,william7 ,grove proposed the use of a helix or coil of platinum1 made incandescent by electricity1 as a light to be used for certain purposes4 ,this was shown at the ,royal ,society on or about ,december #a1 #ahde4 ,since the publication of the above in #ahgi1 ,i have learned1 from a paper in the 8,quarterly ,journal of ,science10 by ,professor ,ayrton1 that in #ahda an ,english patent was granted to ,de ,moylens for electric lighting by incandescence4 ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,coal4 ,in the course of a pedestrian excursion made in the summer of #ahee ,i came upon the ,aachensee1 one of the lakes of ,north ,tyrol1 rarely visited by tourists4 ,it is situated about #cj miles ,n4,e4 of ,innispruck1 and fills the basin of a deep valley1 the upper slopes of which are steep and richly wooded4 ,the water of this lake is remarkably transparent and colorless4 ,with one exception1 that of the ,fountain of ,cyane--a deep pool forming the source of the little ,syracusan river--it is the most transparent body of water ,i remember to have seen4 ,this transparency revealed a very remarkable sub-aqueous landscape4 ,the bottom of the lake is strewn with branches and trunks of trees1 which in some parts are in almost forest-like profusion4 ,as ,i was alone in a rather solitary region1 and carrying only a satchel of luggage1 my only means of further exploration were those afforded by swimming and diving4 ,being an expert in these1 and the ,july summer day very calm and hot1 ,i remained a long time in the water1 and1 by swimming very carefully to avoid ripples1 was able to survey a considerable area of the interesting scene below4 ,the fact which struck me the most forcibly1 and at first appeared surprising1 was the upright position of many of the large trunks1 which are of various lengths--some altogether stripped of branches1 others with only a few of the larger branches remaining4 ,the roots of all these are more or less buried1 and they present the appearance of having grown where they stand4 ,other trunks were leaning at various angles and partly buried1 some trunks and many branches lying down4 ,on diving ,i found the bottom to consist of a loamy powder of gray color1 speckled with black particles of vegetable matter--thin scaly fragments of bark and leaves4 ,i brought up several twigs and small branches1 and with considerable difficulty1 after a succession of immersions1 succeeded in raising a branch about as thick as my arm and about eight feet long1 above three-fourths of which was buried1 and only the end above ground in the water4 ,my object was to examine the condition of the buried and immersed wood1 and ,i selected this as the oldest piece ,i could reach4 ,i found the wood very dark1 the bark entirely gone1 and the annual layers curiously loosened and separable from each other1 like successive rings of bark4 ,this continued till ,i had stripped the stick to about half of its original thickness1 when it became too compact to yield to further stripping4 ,this structure apparently results from the easy decomposition of the remains of the original cambium of each year1 and may explain the curious fact that so many specimens of fossilized wood exhibit the original structure of the stem1 although all the vegetable matter has been displaced by mineral substances4 ,if this stem had been immersed in water capable of precipitating or depositing mineral matter in very small interstices1 the deposit would have filled up the vacant spaces between these rings of wood as the slow decomposition of the vegetable matter proceeded4 ,at a later period1 as the more compact wood became decomposed1 it would be substituted by a further deposit1 and thus concentric strata would be formed1 presenting a mimic counterpart of the vegetable structure4 ,the stick examined appeared to be a branch of oak1 and was so fully saturated with water that it sank rapidly upon being released4 ,on looking around the origin of this sub-aqueous forest was obvious enough4 ,here and there the steep wooded slopes above the lake were broken by long alleys or downward strips of denuded ground1 where storm torrents1 or some such agency1 had cleared away the trees and swept most of them into the lake4 ,a few uprooted trees lying at the sides of these bare alleys told the story plainly enough4 ,most of these had a considerable quantity of earth and stones adhering to their roots3 this explains the upright position of the trees in the lake4 ,such trees falling into water of sufficient depth to enable them to turn over must sink root downwards1 or float in an upright position1 according to the quantity of adhering soil4 ,the difference of depth would tend to a more rapid penetration of water in the lower parts1 where the pressure would be greatest1 and thus the upright or oblique position of many of the floating trunks would be maintained till they absorbed sufficient water to sink altogether4 ,it is generally assumed that fossil trees which are found in an upright position have grown on the spot where they are found4 ,the facts ,i have stated show that this inference is by no means necessary1 not even when the roots are attached and some soil is found among them4 ,in order to account for the other surroundings of these fossil trees a very violent hypothesis is commonly made1 viz41 that the soil on which they grew sank down some hundreds of feet without disturbing them4 ,this demands a great strain upon the scientific imagination1 even in reference to the few cases where the trees stand perpendicular4 ,as the majority slope considerably the difficulty is still greater4 ,i shall presently show how trees like those immersed in ,aachensee may have become1 and are now becoming1 imbedded in rocks similar to those of the ,coal ,measures4 ,in the course of subsequent excursions on the fjords of ,norway ,i was reminded of the sub-aqueous forest of the ,aachensee1 and of the paper which ,i read at the ,british ,association meeting of #ahfe1 of which the above is an abstract--not by again seeing such a deposit under water1 for none of the fjords approach the singular transparency of the lake1 but by a repetition on a far larger scale of the downward strips of denuded forest ground4 ,here1 in ,norway1 their magnitude justifies me in describing them as vegetable avalanches4 ,they may be seen on the ,sognefjord1 and especially on those terminal branches of this great estuary1 of which the steep slopes are well wooded4 ,but the most remarkable display that ,i have seen was in the course of the magnificent1 and now easily made1 journey up the ,storfjord and its extension and branches1 the ,slyngsfjord1 ,sunelvsfjord1 ,nordalsfjord1 and ,geirangerfjord4 ,here these avalanches of trees1 with their accompaniment of fragments of rock1 are of such frequent occurrence that sites of the farm-houses are commonly selected with reference to possible shelter from their ravages4 ,in spite of this they do not always escape4 ,in the ,october previous to my last visit a boat-house and boat were swept away2 and one of the most recent among the tracks that ,i saw reached within twenty yards of some farm-buildings4 ,what has become of the millions of trees that are thus falling1 and have fallen1 into the ,norwegian fjords during the whole of the present geological era8 ,in considering this question we must remember that the mountain slopes forming the banks of these fjords continue downwards under the waters of the fjords which reach to depths that in some parts are to be counted in thousands of feet4 ,it is evident that the loose stony and earthy matter that accompanies the trees will speedily sink to the bottom and rest at the foot of the slope somewhat like an ordinary sub-aerial talus1 but not so the trees4 ,the impetus of their fall must launch them afloat and impel them towards the middle of the estuary1 where they will be spread about and continue floating1 until by saturation they become dense enough to sink4 ,they will thus be pretty evenly distributed over the bottom4 ,at the middle part of the estuary they will form an almost purely vegetable deposit1 mingled only with the very small portion of mineral matter that is held in suspension in the apparently clear water4 ,this mineral matter must be distributed among the vegetable matter in the form of impalpable particles having a chemical composition similar to that of the rocks around4 ,near the shores a compound deposit must be formed consisting of trees and fragments of leaves1 twigs1 and other vegetable matter mixed with larger proportions of the mineral dbris4 ,if we look a little further at what is taking place in the fjords of ,norway we shall see how this vegetable deposit will ultimately become succeeded by an overlying mineral deposit which must ultimately constitute a stratified rock4 ,all these fjords branch up into inland valleys down which pours a brawling torrent or a river of some magnitude4 ,these are more or less turbid with glacier mud or other detritus1 and great deposits of this material have already accumulated in such quantity as to constitute characteristic modern geological formations bearing the specific ,norsk name of ren1 as ,laerdalsren1 ,sundalsren1 etc41 describing the small delta plains at the mouth of a river where it enters the termination of the fjord1 and which1 from their exceptional fertility1 constitute small agricultural settlements bearing these names1 which signify the river sands of ,laerdal1 ,sundal1 etc4 ,these deposits stretch out into the fjord1 forming extensive shallows that are steadily growing and advancing further and further into the fjord4 ,one of the most remarkable examples of such deposits is that brought by the ,storelv 7or ,justedals ,elv71 which flows down the ,justedal1 receiving the outpour from its glaciers1 and terminates at ,marifjren4 ,when bathing here ,i found an extensive sub-aqueous plain stretching fairly across that branch of the ,lyster fjord into which the ,storelv flows4 ,the waters of the fjord are whitened to a distance of two or three miles beyond the mouth of the river4 ,these deposits must1 if the present conditions last long enough1 finally extend to the body1 and even to the mouth1 of the fjords1 and thus cover the whole of the bottom vegetable bed with a stratified rock in which will be entombed1 and well preserved1 isolated specimens of the trees and other vegetable forms corresponding to those accumulated in a thick bed below1 but which have been lying so long in the clear waters that they have become soddened into homogeneous vegetable pulp or mud1 only requiring the pressure of solid superstratum to convert them into coal4 ,the specimens of trees in the upper rock1 ,i need scarcely add1 would be derived from the same drifting as that which produced the lower pulp2 but these coming into the water at the period of its turbidity and of the rapid deposition of mineral matter1 would be sealed up one by one as the mineral particles surrounding it subsided4 ,fossils of estuarine animals would1 of course1 accompany these1 or of fresh-water animals where1 instead of a fjord1 the scene of these proceedings is an inland lake4 ,in reference to this ,i may state that at the inner extremities of the larger ,norwegian fjords the salinity of the water is so slight that it is imperceptible to taste4 ,i have freely quenched my thirst with the water of the ,srfjord1 the great inner branch of the ,hardanger1 where pallid specimens of bladder wrack were growing on its banks4 ,in the foregoing matter-of-fact picture of what is proceeding on a small scale in the ,aachensee1 and on a larger in ,norway1 we have1 ,i think1 a natural history of the formation1 not only of coal seams1 but also of the ,coal ,measures around and above them4 ,the theory which attributed our coal seams to such vegetable accumulations as the rafts of the ,mississippi is now generally abandoned4 ,it fails to account for the state of preservation and the position of many of the vegetable remains associated with coal4 ,there is another serious objection to this theory that ,i have not seen expressed4 ,it is this3 rivers bringing down to their mouths such vegetable deltas as are supposed1 would also bring considerable quantities of earthy matter in suspension1 and this would be deposited with the trees4 ,instead of the #b or #c per cent of incombustible ash commonly found in coal1 we should thus have a quantity more nearly like that found in bituminous shales which may thus be formed1 viz41 from #bj to #hj per cent4 ,the alternative hypothesis now more commonly accepted--that the vegetation of our coal-fields actually grew where we find it--is also refuted by the composition of coal-ash4 ,if the coal consisted simply of the vegetable matter of buried forests its composition should correspond to that of the ashes of plants2 and the refuse from our furnaces and fireplaces would be a most valuable manure4 ,this we know is not the case4 ,ordinary coal-ash1 as ,bischof has shown1 nearly corresponds to that of the rocks with which it is associated2 and he says that 8the conversion of vegetable substances into coal has been effected by the agency of water20 and also that coal has been formed1 not from dwarfish mosses1 sedges1 and other plants which now contribute to the growth of our peat-bogs1 but from the stems and trunks of the forest trees of the ,carboniferous ,period1 such as ,sigillari1 ,lepdodendra1 and ,conifer4#ad ,all we know of these plants teaches us that they could not grow in a merely vegetable soil containing but #b or #c per cent of mineral matter4 ,such must have been their soil for hundreds of generations in order to give a depth sufficient for the formation of the ,south ,staffordshire ten-yard seam4 ,all these and other difficulties that have stood so long in the way of a satisfactory explanation of the origin of coal appear to me to be removed if we suppose that during the ,carboniferous ,period ,britain and other coal-bearing countries had a configuration similar to that which now exists in ,norway1 viz41 inland valleys terminating in marine estuaries1 together with inland lake basins4 ,if to this we superadd the warm and humid climate usually attributed to the ,carboniferous ,period1 on the testimony of its vegetable fossils1 all the conditions requisite for producing the characteristic deposits of the ,coal ,measures are fulfilled4 ,we have first the under-clay due to the beginning of this state of things1 during which the hill slopes were slowly acquiring the first germs of subsequent forest life1 and were nursing them in their scanty youth4 ,this deposit would be a mineral mud with a few fossils and that fragmentary or fine deposit of vegetable matter that darkens the carboniferous shales and strips the sandstones4 ,such a bed of dark consolidated mud1 or fine clay1 is found under every seam of coal1 and constitutes the 8floor0 of the coal pit4 ,the characteristic striped rocks--the 8linstey0 or 8linsey0 of the ,welsh colliers--is just such as ,i found in the course of formation in the ,aachensee near the shore1 as described above4 ,the prevalence of estuarine and lacustrine fossils in the ,coal ,measures is also in accordance with this3 the constitution of coal-ash is perfectly so4 ,its extreme softness and fineness of structure2 its chemical resemblance to the rocks around1 and above1 and below2 and oblong basin form common to our coal seams2 the apparent contradiction of such total destruction of vegetable structure common to the true coal seams1 while immediately above and below them are delicate structures well preserved1 is explained by the more rapid deposition of the latter1 and the slow soddening of the former as above described4 ,i do not1 however1 offer this as an explanation of the formation of every kind of coal4 ,on the contrary1 ,i am satisfied that cannel coal1 and the black shales usually associated with it1 have a different origin from that of the ordinary varieties of bituminous coal4 ,the fact that the products of distillation of cannel and these shales form different series of hydrocarbons from those of common coal1 and that they are nearly identical with those obtained by the distillation of peat1 is suggestive of origin in peat-bogs1 or something analogous to them4 ,to the above ,i may add the concluding sentences of the chapter on ,coal in ,lyell's 8,elements of ,geology40 ,speaking of fossils in the ,coal ,measures1 he says3 8,the rarity of air-breathers is a very remarkable fact when we reflect that our opportunities of examining strata in close connection with ancient land exceed in this case all that we enjoy in regard to any other formations1 whether primary1 secondary1 or tertiary4 ,we have ransacked hundreds of soils replete with the fossil roots of trees1 have dug out hundreds of erect trunks and stumps which stood in the position in which they grew1 have broken up myriads of cubic feet of fuel still retaining its vegetable structure1 and1 after all1 we continue almost as much in the dark respecting the invertebrate air-breathers of this epoch1 as if the coal had been thrown down in mid-ocean4 ,the early date of the carboniferous strata cannot explain the enigma1 because we know that while the land supported a luxuriant vegetation1 the contemporaneous seas swarmed with life--with ,articulata1 ,mollusca1 ,radiata1 and ,fishes4 ,we must1 therefore1 collect more facts if we expect to solve a problem which1 in the present state of science1 cannot but excite our wonder2 and we must remember how much the conditions of this problem have varied within the last twenty years4 ,we must be content to impute the scantiness of our data and our present perplexity partly to our want of diligence as collectors1 and partly to our want of skill as interpreters4 ,we must also confess that our ignorance is great of the laws which govern the fossilization of land animals1 whether of low or high degree40 ,the explanation of the origin of coal which ,i have given in the foregoing meets all these difficulties4 ,it shows how vast accumulations of vegetable matter may have been formed 8in close connection with the ancient land10 and yet 8as if the coal had been thrown down in mid-ocean0 as far as the remains of terrestrial animals are concerned4 ,it explains the nearly total absence of land shells1 and of the remains of other animals that must have lived in the forests producing the coal1 and which would have been buried there with the coal had it been formed on land as usually supposed4 ,it also meets the cases of the rare and curious exceptions1 seeing that occasionally a land animal would here and there be drowned in such fjords under circumstances favorable to its fossilization4 ,,the ,,solar ,,eclipse ,,of #ahga4 ,,the ,,first ,,telegrams4 ,this time we may fairly expect some approach to a solution of the riddle of the corona1 as the one essential which neither scientific skill nor ,government liberality could secure to the eclipse observers1 has been afforded1 viz41 fine weather4 ,the telegraph has already informed us of this1 and also that good use has been made of the good weather4 ,from one station we are told3 8,thin mist2 spectroscope satisfactory2 reversion of lines entirely confirmed2 six good photographs40 ,from another3 8,weather fine2 telescopic and camera photographs successful2 ditto polarization2 good sketches2 many bright lines in spectrum40 ,this is very different from the gloomy accounts of the expedition of last year2 when we consider that the different observers are far apart1 and that if all or some of them are similarly favored we shall have in the photographs a series of successive pictures taken at intervals of time sufficiently distant to reveal any progressive changes that may have occurred in the corona while the moon's shadow was passing from one station to the other4 ,i anticipate some curious revelations from these progressive photographs1 that may possibly reconcile the wide differences in the descriptions that competent observers have given of the corona of former eclipses1 which they had seen at stations distant from each other4 ,barely two years have elapsed since ,i suggested1 in 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun10 that the great solar prominences and the corona are due to violent explosions of the dissociated elements of water2 that the prominences are the gaseous flashes1 and the corona the ejected scoria1 or solidified metallic matter belched forth by the furious cannonade continually in progress over the greater portion of the solar surface4 ,this explanation at first appeared extravagant1 especially as it was carried so far as to suggest that not merely the corona1 but the zodiacal light1 the zone of meteors which occasionally drop showers of solid matter upon the earth1 and even the 8pocket-planets0 or asteroids so irregularly scattered between the orbits of ,mars and ,jupiter1 consist of solid matter thus ejected by the great solar eruptions4 ,even up to the spring of the present year1 when ,mr4 ,lockyer and other leaders of the last year's expeditions reported their imperfect results1 and compared them with various theories1 this one was not thought worthy of their attention4 ,since that time--during the past six or eight months--a change has taken place which strikingly illustrates the rapid progress of solar discovery4 ,observations and calculations of the force and velocity of particular solar eruptions have been made1 and the results have proved that they are amply sufficient to eject solid missiles even further than ,i supposed them to be carried4 ,mr4 ,proctor1 basing his calculations upon the observations of ,respighi1 ,zllner1 and ,professor ,young1 has concluded that it is even possible that meteoric matter may be ejected far beyond the limits of our solar system into the domain of the gravitation of other stars1 and that other stars may in like manner bombard the sun4 ,this appears rather startling2 but1 as ,i have already said1 the imagination of the poet and the novelist is beggared by the facts revealed by the microscope1 so ,i may now repeat the assertion1 and state it still more strongly1 in reference to the revelations of the telescope and the spectroscope4 ,as a sample of these1 ,i take the observations of ,professor ,young1 made on ,september #gth last1 and described fully in 8,nature0 on ,october #ai4 ,he first observed a number of the usual flame-prominences having the typical form which has been compared to a 8banyan grove40 ,one of these banyans was greater than the rest4 ,this monarch of the solar flame-forest measured fifty-four thousand miles in height1 and its outspreading measured in one direction about one hundred thousand miles4 ,it was a large eruption-flame1 but others much larger have been observed1 and ,professor ,young would probably have merely noted it among the rest1 had not something further occurred4 ,he was called away for twenty-five minutes1 and when he returned 8the whole thing had been literally blown to shreds by some inconceivable uprush from beneath40 ,the space around 8was filled with flying dbris--a mass of detached vertical fusiform filaments1 each from #aj sec4 to #cj sec4 long by #b sec4 or #c sec4 wide1 brighter and closer together where the pillars had formerly stood1 and rapidly ascending40 ,professor ,young goes on to say1 that 8,when ,i first looked1 some of them had already reached a height of #ajj1jjj miles1 and while ,i watched they rose1 with a motion almost perceptible to the eye1 until in ten minutes the uppermost were #bjj1jjj miles above the solar surface4 ,this was ascertained by careful measurement40 ,here1 then1 we have an observed velocity of #aj1jjj miles per minute1 and this is the gaseous matter1 merely the flash of the gun by which the particles of solidified solar matter are supposed to be projected4 ,the reader must pause and reflect1 in order to form an adequate conception of the magnitudes here treated--#ajj1jjj miles long and #ed1jjj miles high6 ,what does this mean8 ,twelve and a half of our worlds placed side by side to measure the length1 and six and three quarters1 piled upon each other1 to measure the height6 ,a few hundred worlds as large as ours would be required to fill up the whole cubic contents of this flame-cloud4 ,the spectroscope has shown that these prominences are incandescent hydrogen4 ,most of my readers have probably seen a soap-bubble or a bladder filled with the separated elements of water1 and then exploded1 and have felt the ringing in their ears that has followed the violent detonation4 ,let them struggle with the conception of such a bubble or bladder magnified to the dimensions of only one such a world as ours1 and then exploded2 let them strain their power of imagination even to the splitting point1 and still they must fail most pitifully to picture the magnitude of this solar explosion observed on ,september #gth last1 which flashed out to a magnitude of more than five hundred worlds1 and then expanded to the size of more than five thousand worlds1 even while ,professor ,young was watching it4 ,professor ,young concludes his description by stating that 8it seems far from impossible that the mysterious coronal streamers1 if they turn out to be truly solar1 as now seems likely1 may find their origin and explanation in such events40 ,this1 and a number of similar admissions1 suggestions1 and conclusions from the leading astronomers1 indicate that the eruption theory of the corona will not be passed over in silence by the observers of this eclipse1 and it is to this that ,i have referred in the above remarks respecting the interest attaching to a series of photographs showing successive states of this outspreading enigma4 ,father ,secchi's spectroscopic observations on the uneclipsed sun led him to assert the existence of a stratum of glowing metallic vapors immediately below the envelope connected with the hydrogen of the eruptions4 ,this is just what is required by my eruption theory to supply the solid materials of the ejections forming the corona4 ,professor ,young's announcement of the reversal of the spectroscopic lines at the moment when the stratum was seen independently of the general solar glare1 startled ,mr4 ,lockyer and others who had disputed the accuracy of the observations of the great ,italian observer1 as it confirmed them so completely4 ,scepticism still prevailed1 and ,young's observation was questioned2 but now even our slender telegraphic communication from ,colonel ,tenant to ,dr4 ,huggins indicates that the question must be no longer contested4 8,reversion of lines entirely confirmed0 is a message so important that if the expeditions had done no more than this1 all their cost in money and scientific labor would be amply repaid in the estimation of those who understand the value of pure truth4 ,a few more fragments of intelligence respecting the ,eclipse ,expedition have reached us1 the last ,indian mail having started just after the eclipse occurred4 ,they fully confirm the first telegraphic announcement1 rather strengthening than otherwise the expectations of important results1 especially in reference to the photographs of the corona4 ,i have read in the ,ceylon newspapers some full descriptions by amateur observers1 in which the general magnificence of the phenomena is described4 ,from these it is evident that the corona must have been displayed in its full grandeur2 but as the writers do not attempt to describe those features which have at the present moment a special scientific interest1 ,i shall not dwell upon them1 but await the publication of the official report of the chief1 and of the more important collateral observing expeditions4 ,the unsophisticated reader may say 8,are not one man's eyes as good as another's1 and why should the observations of the learned men of the expeditions be so much better than those of any other clear-sighted persons80 ,this is a perfectly fair question1 and admits of a ready answer4 ,all that can be known by mere unprepared naked-eye observation is tolerably well known already2 the questions which await solution can only be answered by putting the sun to torture by means of instruments specially devised for that purpose2 and by a skillful organization1 and division of labor among the observers4 ,there is so much to be seen during the few seconds of total obscuration that no one human being1 however well trained in the art of observing1 could possibly see all4 ,therefore it is necessary to pre-arrange each observer's part1 to have careful rehearsals of what is to be done by each during the precious seconds2 and each man must exercise a vast amount of self-control in order to confine his attention to his own particular bit of observation1 while he is surrounded with such marvellous phenomena as a total eclipse presents4 ,the grandeur of the gloomy landscape1 the sudden starting out of the greater stars1 the seeming falling of the vault of heaven1 the silence of the animal world1 the closing of the flowers1 and all that the ordinary observer would regard with so much awe and wondering delight1 must be sacrificed by the philosopher1 whose business is to confine his gaze to a narrow slit between two strips of metal1 and to watch nothing else but the exact position and appearance of a few bright or dark lines across what appears but a strip of colored riband4 ,he must resist the temptation to look aside and around with the stubbornness of self-denial of another ,st4 ,antonio4 ,besides this1 he must thoroughly understand exactly what to look for1 and how to find it4 ,by combining the results of his observations with those of the others1 who in like manner have undertaken to work with another instrument1 or upon another part of the phenomena1 we get a scientific result comparable to that which in a manufactory we obtain by the division of labor of many skilled workmen1 each doing only that which by his training he has learned to do the best and the most expeditiously4 ,,further ,,details ,,by ,,post4 ,although the formal official reports of the ,eclipse ,expedition are not yet published1 and may not be for some weeks or months1 we are able from the letters of ,lockyer1 ,jannsen1 ,respighi1 ,maclear1 etc41 to form some idea of the general results4 ,we may already regard two or three important questions as fairly answered4 ,the reversal of the dark solar lines of the spectrum which was first announced by the great ,roman observer1 ,father ,secchi1 and seen by him without an eclipse1 may now be considered as established4 ,it is true that all the observers of #ahga did not witness this4 ,some were doubtful1 but others observed it positively and distinctly4 ,in such a case negative results do not refute the positive observations of qualified men1 especially when several of such observations have been made independently2 the phenomenon is but instantaneous1 a mere flash of bright stripes in place of dark lines across the colored riband of the spectroscope1 which happens just at the moment before and after totality1 and is presented only when the instrument is accurately directed to the delicate curved vanishing thread of light which is the last visible fragment of the solar outline1 and that which makes the first flash of his re-appearance4 ,a little explanation is necessary to render the significance of this 8reversal0 intelligible to those who have not specially studied the subject4 #ast4 ,when the spectroscope is directed to a luminous solid a simple rainbow-band or 8continuous spectrum0 is seen4 ,when1 on the other hand1 the object is a luminous gas or vapor of moderate density1 the spectrum is not a continuous band with its colors actually blending2 it consists only of certain luminous stripes with blank spaces between them1 each particular gas or vapor showing its own particular set of stripes of certain colors1 and always appearing at exactly the same place1 so invariably and certainly1 that1 by means of such luminous stripes1 the composition of the gas or vapor may be determined4 ,if1 however1 the gas be much compressed1 the stripes widen as the condensation proceeds2 they may even spread out sufficiently to meet and form a continuous spectrum like that from a solid4 ,liquids also produce continuous spectra4 #b;d4 ,when a luminous solid or liquid1 or very dense gas1 capable of producing a continuous spectrum1 is viewed through an intervening body of other gas or vapor of moderate or small density1 fine dark lines cross the spectrum in precisely the same places as the bright stripes would appear if this intervening gas or vapor were luminous and seen by itself4 ,when the spectroscope is directed to the face of the sun under ordinary circumstances1 it presents a brilliant continuous spectrum1 striped with a multitude of the dark lines4 ,from this it has been inferred that the luminous face of the sun is that of an incandescent solid or liquid1 and that it is surrounded by the gases and vapors whose bright stripes1 when artificially produced1 occupy precisely the same places as the dark lines of the solar spectrum4 ,this was the theory of ,kirchoff and others in the early days of spectrum analysis1 when it was only known that solids and liquids were capable of producing a continuous spectrum4 ,the important discovery that gases and vapors1 if sufficiently condensed1 will also produce a continuous spectrum1 opened another speculation1 far more consistent with the other known facts concerning the constitution of the sun1 viz41 that the sun may be a great gaseous orb1 blazing at its surface and gradually increasing in density from the surface towards the centre4 ,according to this1 the metals sodium1 calcium1 barium1 magnesium1 iron1 chromium1 nickel1 copper1 zinc1 strontium1 cobalt1 manganese1 aluminium1 and titanium1 whose vapors1 with those of some few other substances1 give the dark lines that cross the solar spectrum1 should exist neither as solids nor liquids on the solar surface1 but as blazing gases4 ,but such blazing gases1 according to what ,i have stated above1 should give us bright stripes instead of dark lines4 ,why1 then1 are not such bright stripes seen under ordinary circumstances8 ,this is easily answered4 ,these blazing gases must1 as we proceed from the surface of the sun downwards1 become so condensed by the pressure of their own superincumbent strata1 as to produce a continuous spectrum of great brilliancy4 ,with such a background the bright stripes would be confounded and lost to sight4 ,besides this1 the outer film of cooler vapor through which our vision must necessarily penetrate before reaching the luminous solar surface1 will produce the dark lines exactly where the bright stripes should be1 and thus effectually obliterate them2 or1 in other words1 the intervening non-luminous vapors are opaque to the particular rays of light which the bright vapors of the same substance emits4 ,therefore1 according to this theory1 if we could sweep away these outside darkening vapors1 and screen off the inner layers of denser blazing matter which produces the continuous background1 we should have a spectrum displaying a multitude of bright stripes exactly where the black lines of the ordinary solar spectrum appear4 ,secchi announced that these bright lines were to be seen under favorable circumstances1 when1 by skillful management1 the rays from the edge of the sun were so caught by the slit of the spectroscope as to exhibit only the spectrum of the superficial layer of the sun's bright surface4 ,this was disputed at the time by ,mr4 ,lockyer1 who1 ,i suspect1 omitted to consider the atmospheric difficulties under which ,english astronomers work1 and the fact that the atmosphere of ,italy is exceptionally favorable for delicate astronomical observation4 ,if he had fairly considered this ,i think he would agree with me in concluding that an observation of this kind1 avowedly made with great difficulty and questionable distinctness by so skillful a spectroscopic observer as ,father ,secchi1 could not possibly be seen by any human eyes through a ,london atmosphere4 ,subsequently ,professor ,young startled the astronomical world by the announcement that1 at the moment when the thinnest perceptible thread of the sun's edge was alone displayed during the eclipse which he observed1 the whole of the dark lines of the solar spectrum flashed out as bright stripes in a most unmistakable manner4 ,this observation is now fully confirmed4 ,the first telegrams from ,mr4 ,pogson1 the ,government astronomer of ,madras1 and from ,colonel ,tennant1 both announce this most positively1 ,colonel ,tennant's words being1 8the reversion of the lines fully confirmed40 ,a similar result was obtained by some1 but not by all1 of the ,ceylon observers4 ,to understand this clearly1 we must consider the fact that what appears to us as the outline of a flat disc is really that part of the sun which we see by looking horizontally athwart his rotundity1 just as we look at the ocean surface of our own earth when we stand upon the shore and see its horizon outline4 ,when the moon obscures all but the last film of this solar edge1 we see only the surface of the supposed gaseous orb1 just that portion of the blazing gases which are not greatly compressed by those above them1 and which accordingly should1 if they consist of the vapors or the gases above named1 display a bright-striped spectrum1 provided the intervening non-luminous vapors of the same metals are not sufficiently abundant to obscure them--at this particular moment1 when only the absolute horizon-line is seen1 and the body of the moon cuts off all the intervening solar surface1 and the lower or denser portion of the intervening super-solar vapors1 though1 of course1 these are not so entirely cut off as the continuous background4 ,the reversion of the dark lines therefore reveals to us the stupendous fact that the surface of the mighty sun1 which is as big as a million and a quarter of our worlds1 consists of a flaming ocean of hydrogen and of the metals above-named in a gaseous condition1 similar to that of the hydrogen itself4 ,this fact1 coupled with the other revelations of the spectroscope1 which1 without the help of an eclipse1 reveals the surface outline of the sun1 the 8sierra0 and the 8prominences0 tell us that this flaming ocean is in a state of perpetual tempest1 heaving up its billows and flame-,alps hundreds and thousands of miles in height1 and belching forth above all these still taller pillars of fire that even reach an elevation of more than a hundred thousand miles1 and then burst out into mighty clouds of flame and vapor1 bigger than five hundred worlds4 ,what does the last eclipse teach us in reference to the corona8 ,firstly and clearly1 that ,lockyer's explanation which attributed it to an illumination of the upper regions of the earth's atmosphere must be now forever abandoned4 ,this theory has died hard1 but1 in spite of ,mr4 ,lockyer's proclamation of 8victory all along the line10 it is now past galvanizing4 ,there can be no further hesitation in pronouncing that the corona actually belongs to the sun itself1 that it is a marvelous solar appendage extending from the sun in all directions1 but by no means regularly4 ,the immensity of this appendage will be best understood by the fact that the space included within the outer limits of the visible corona is at least twenty times as great as the bulk of the sun itself1 that above twenty-five millions of our worlds would be required to fill it4 ,jannsen says3 8,i believe the question whether the corona is due to the terrestrial atmosphere is settled1 and we have before us the prospect of the study of the extra-solar regions1 which will be very interesting and fertile40 ,the spectroscope1 the polariscope1 and ordinary vision all concur in supporting the explanation that the corona is composed of solid particles and gaseous matter intermingled4 ,it fulfils exactly all the requirements of the hypothesis which attributes it to the same materials as those which in a gaseous state cause the reversion of the dark lines above described1 but which have been ejected with the great eruptions forming the solar prominences1 and have become condensed into glowing metallic hailstones as their distance from the central heat has increased4 ,these must necessarily be accompanied by the vapors of the more volatile materials1 and should give out some of the lighter gases1 such as hydrogen1 which1 under greater pressure1 would be occluded within them1 just as the hydrogen gas occluded within the substance of the ,lenarto meteor 7a mass of iron which fell from the sky upon the earth7 was extracted by the late ,master of the ,mint by means of his mercurial air-pump4 ,the rifts or gaps between the radial streamers1 which have been so often described and figured1 but were regarded by some as optical illusions1 are now established as unquestionable facts4 ,mr4 ,lockyer1 the last to be convinced1 is now compelled to admit this1 which overthrows the supposition that this solar appendage is a luminous solar atmosphere of any kind4 ,if it were gaseous or true vapor1 it must obey the law of gaseous diffusion1 and could not present the phenomena of bright radial streamers1 with dark spaces between them1 unless it were in the course of very rapid radial motion either to or from the sun4 ,the photographs have not yet been published4 ,when they have all arrived1 and can be compared1 we shall learn something that ,i anticipate will be extremely interesting respecting the changes of the corona1 as they have been taken at the different stations at different times4 ,i alluded to this subject before1 when it was only a matter of possibility that such a succession of pictures might have been taken4 ,we now have the assurance that such pictures have been obtained4 ,there can be no question about optical illusion in these2 they are original affidavits made by the corona itself1 signed1 sealed1 and delivered as its own act and deed4 ,,meteoric ,,astronomy4 ,the number of the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science for ,may1 #ahgb1 contains some articles of considerable interest4 ,the first is by the indefatigable ,mr4 ,proctor1 on 8,meteoric ,astronomy10 in which he embodies a clear and popular summary of the researches which have earned for ,signor ,schiaparelli this year's gold medal of the ,astronomical ,society4 ,like all who venture upon a broad1 bold effort of scientific thought1 extending at all into the regions of philosophical theory1 ,schiaparelli has had to wait for recognition4 ,a simple and merely mechanical observation of a bare fact1 barely and mechanically recorded without the exercise of any other of the intellectual faculties than the external senses and observing powers1 is at once received and duly honored by the scientific world2 but any higher effort is received at first indifferently1 or sceptically1 and is only accepted after a period of probation1 directly proportionate to its philosophical magnitude and importance1 and inversely proportionate to the scientific status of the daring theorist4 ,at first sight this appears unjust1 it looks like honoring the laborers who merely make the bricks1 and despising the architect who constructs the edifice of philosophy from the materials they provide4 ,many a disappointed dreamer1 finding that his theory of the universe has not been accepted1 and that the expected honors have not been showered upon him1 has violently attacked the whole scientific community as a contemptible gang of low-minded mechanical plodders1 void of imagination1 blind to all poetic aspirations1 and incapable of any grand and comprehensive flight of intellect4 ,had these impulsive gentlemen been previously subjected to the strict discipline of inductive scientific training1 their position and opinions would have been very different4 ,their great theories would either have had no existence1 or have been much smaller1 and they would understand that philosophic caution is one of the characteristic results of scientific training4 ,simple facts1 which can be immediately proved by simple experiments and simple observations1 are at once accepted1 and their discoverers duly honored1 without any hesitation or delay1 but the grander efforts of generalization require careful thought and laborious scrutiny for their verification1 and therefore the acknowledgment of their merits is necessarily delayed2 but when it does arrive full justice is usually done4 ,thus ,grove's 8,correlation of the ,physical ,forces10 the greatest philosophical work on purely physical science of this generation1 was commenced in #ahdb1 when its author occupied but a humble position at the ,london ,institution4 ,the book was but little noticed for many years1 and1 had ,mr4 ,grove 7now ,sir ,william ,grove7 not been duly educated by the discipline above referred to1 he might have become a noisy cantankerous martyr1 one of those 8ill-used men0 who have been made familiar to so many audiences by ,mr4 ,george ,dawson4 ,instead of this1 he patiently waited1 and1 as we have lately seen1 the well-deserved honors have now been liberally awarded4 ,in a very few years hence we shall be able to say the same of the once diabolical ,darwin1 and eight or nine other theorists1 who must all be content to take their trial and patiently await the verdict2 the time of waiting being of necessity proportionate to the magnitude of the issue4 ,the theories of ,schiaparelli1 which1 as ,mr4 ,proctor says1 8after the usual term of doubt have so recently received the sanction of the highest astronomical tribunal of ,great ,britain10 are not of so purely speculative a character as to demand a very long 8term of doubt40 ,they are directly based on observations and mathematical calculations which bring them under the domain of the recognized logic of mathematical probability4 ,those who are specially interested in the modern progress of astronomy should read this article in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science1 which is illustrated with the diagrams necessary for the comprehension of the researches and reasoning of ,schiaparelli and others who have worked on the same ground4 ,i can only state the general results1 which are that the meteors which we see every year1 more or less abundantly1 on the nights of the #ajth and #aath of ,august1 and which always appear to come from the same point in the heavens1 are then and thus visible because they form part of an eccentric elliptical zone of meteoric bodies which girdle the domain of the sun2 and that our earth1 in the course of its annual journey around the sun1 crosses and plunges more or less deeply into this ellipse of small attendant bodies1 which are supposed to be moving in regular orbits around the sun4 ,schiaparelli has compared the position1 the direction1 and the velocity of motion of the ,august meteors with the orbit of the great comet of #ahfb1 and infers that there is a close connection between them1 so close that the meteors may be regarded as a sort of trail which the comet has left behind4 ,he does not exactly say that they are detached vertebr of the comet's tail1 but suggests the possibility of their original connection with its head4 ,similar observations have been made upon the ,november meteoric showers1 which by similar reasoning1 are associated with another comet2 and further yet1 it is assumed upon analogy that other recognized meteor systems1 amounting to nearly two hundred in number1 are in like manner associated with other comets4 ,if these theories are sound1 our diagrams and mental pictures of the solar system must be materially modified4 ,besides the central sun1 the eight planets and the asteroids moving in their nearly circular orbits1 and some eccentric comets traveling in long ellipses1 we must add a countless multitude of small bodies clustered in elliptical rings1 all traveling together in the path marked by their containing girdle1 and following the lead of a streaming vaporous monster1 their parent comet4 ,we must count such comets1 and such rings filled with attendant fragments1 not merely by tens or hundreds1 but by thousands and tens of thousands1 even by millions2 the path of the earth being but a thread in space1 and yet a hundred or two are strung upon it4 ,in this article ,mr4 ,proctor seems strongly disposed to return to the theory which attributes solar heat and light to a bombardment of meteors from without1 and the solar corona and zodiacal light as visible presentments of these meteors4 ,still1 however1 he clings to the more recent explanation which regards the corona1 the zodiacal light1 and the meteors as matter ejected from the sun by the same forces as those producing the solar prominences4 ,for my own part ,i shall not be at all surprised if we find that1 ere long1 these two apparently conflicting hypotheses are fully reconciled4 ,the progress of solar discovery has been so great since ,january1 #ahgj1 when my ejection theory was published1 that ,i may now carry it out much further than ,i then dared1 or was justified in daring to venture4 ,actual measurement of the projectile forces displayed in some of the larger prominences renders it not merely possible1 but even very probable1 that some of the exceptionally great eruptive efforts of the sun may be sufficiently powerful to eject solar material beyond the reclaiming reach of his own gravitating power4 ,in such a case the banished matter must go on wandering through the boundless profundity of space until it reaches the domain of some other sun1 which will clutch the fragment with its gravitating energies1 and turn its straight and ever onward course into the curved orbit4 ,thus the truant morsel from our sun will become the subject of another sun--a portion of another solar system4 ,what one sun may do1 another and every other may do likewise1 and1 if so1 there must be a mutual bombardment1 a ceaseless interchange of matter between the countless suns of the universe4 ,this is a startling view of our cosmical relations1 but we are driving rapidly towards a general recognition of it4 ,the ,november star showers have perpetrated some irregularities this year4 ,they have been very unpunctual1 and have not come from their right place4 ,we have heard something from ,italy1 but not the tidings of the ,leonides that were expected4 ,instead of the great display of the month occurring on the #acth and #adth1 it was seen on the #bgth4 ,we have accounts from different parts of ,england1 ,ireland1 ,scotland1 and ,wales1 also from ,italy1 ,greece1 ,egypt1 etc4 ,mr4 ,slinto1 in a letter to the ,times1 estimates the number seen at ,suez as reaching at least #cj1jjj1 while in ,italy and ,athens about #bjj per minute were observed4 ,they were not1 however1 the ,leonides1 that is1 they did not radiate from a point in the constellation ,leo1 but from the region of ,andromeda4 ,therefore they were distinct from that system of small wanderers usually designated the 8,november meteors10 were not connected with ,tempel's comet 7comet #a1 #ahff71 but belong to quite another set4 ,the question now discussed by astronomers is whether they are connected with any other comet1 and1 if so1 with which comet8 ,in the 8,monthly ,notices0 of the ,royal ,astronomical ,society1 published ,october #bdth last1 is a very interesting paper by ,professor ,herschel1 on 8,observations of ,meteor ,showers10 supposed to be connected with 8,biela's comet10 in which he recommends that 8a watch should be kept during the last week in ,november and the first week in ,december10 in order to verify 8the ingenious suggestions of ,dr4 ,weiss10 which1 popularly stated1 amount to this1 viz41 that a meteoric cloud is revolving in the same orbit as ,biela's comet1 and that in #aggb the earth dashed through this meteoric orbit on ,december #ajth4 ,in #ahbf it did the same1 on ,december #dth2 in #aheb the earth passed through the node on ,november #bhth1 and there are reasons for expecting a repetition at about the same date in #ahgb4 ,the magnificent display of the #bgth has afforded an important verification of these anticipations1 which become especially interesting in connection with the curious history of ,biela's comet1 which receives its name from ,m4 ,biela1 of ,josephstadt1 who observed it in #ahbf1 calculated its orbit1 and considered it identical with the comets of #aggb1 #ahje1 etc4 ,it travels in a long eccentric ellipse1 and completes its orbit in #bdaj days--about #f years4 ,it appeared again1 as predicted1 in #ahcb and #ahdf4 ,its orbit very nearly intersects that of the earth1 and thus affords a remote possibility of that sort of collision which has excited so much terror in the minds of many people1 but which an enthusiastic astronomer of the present generation would anticipate with something like the sensational interest which stirs the soul of a ,london street-boy when he is madly struggling to keep pace with a fire-engine4 ,the calculations for #ahcb showed that this comet should cross the earth's orbit a little before the time of the earth's arrival at the same place2 but as such a comet1 traveling in such an orbit1 is liable to possible retardations1 the calculations could only be approximately accurate1 and thus the sensational astronomer was not altogether without hope4 ,this time1 however1 he was disappointed2 the comet was punctual1 and crossed the critical node about a month before the earth reached it4 ,as though to compensate for this disappointment1 the comet at its next appearance exhibited some entirely new phenomena4 ,it split itself into two comets1 in such a manner that the performance was visible to the telescopic observer4 ,both of these comets had nuclei and short tails1 and they alternately varied in brightness1 sometimes one1 then the other1 having the advantage4 ,they traveled on at a distance of about #aef1jjj miles from each other1 with parallel tails1 and with a sort of friendly communication in the form of a faint arc of light1 which extended as a kind of bridge1 from one to the other4 ,besides this1 the one which was first the brighter1 then the fainter1 and finally the brighter again1 threw out two additional tails1 one of which extended lovingly towards its companion4 ,the time of return in #aheb was of course anxiously expected by astronomers1 and careful watch was kept for the wanderers4 ,they came again at the calculated time1 still separated as before4 ,they were again due in #ahei1 in #ahff1 and1 finally1 at about the end of last ,november1 or the beginning of the present month4 ,though eagerly looked for by astronomers in all parts of the civilized world1 they have been seen no more since #aheb4 ,what1 then1 has become of them8 ,have they further subdivided8 ,have they crumbled into meteoric dust8 ,have they blazed or boiled into thin air8 or have they been dragged by some interfering gravitation into another orbit8 ,the last supposition is the most improbable1 as none of the visible inhabitants of space have come near enough to disturb them4 ,the possibility of a dissolution into smaller fragments is suggested by the fact that1 instead of the original single comet1 or the two fragments1 meteoric showers have fallen towards the earth at the time when it has crossed the orbit of the original comet1 and these showers have radiated from that part of the heavens in which the comet should have appeared4 ,such was the case with the magnificent display of ,november #bgth1 and astronomers are inclining more and more to the idea that comets and meteors have a common origin--the meteors are little comets1 or comets are big meteors4 ,in the latest of the 8,monthly ,notices10 of the ,royal ,astronomical ,society1 published last week1 is a paper by ,mr4 ,proctor1 in which he expands the theory expounded three years ago by an author whom your correspondent's modesty prevents him from naming1 viz41 that the larger planets--,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and ,neptune--are minor suns1 ejecting meteoric matter from them by the operation of forces similar to those producing the solar prominences4 ,mr4 ,proctor subjects this bold hypothesis to mathematical examination1 and finds that the orbit of ,tempel's comet and its companion meteors correspond to that which would result from such an eruption occurring on the planet ,uranus4 ,an eruptive force effecting a velocity of about thirteen miles per second1 which is vastly smaller than the actually measured velocity of the matter of the solar eruptions1 would be sufficient to thrust such meteoric or cometary matter beyond the reclaiming reach of the gravitation of ,uranus1 and hand it over to the sun1 to make just such an orbit as that of ,tempel's comet and the ,leonides meteors4 ,he shows that other comets and meteoric zones are similarly allied to other planets1 and thus it may be that the falling stars and comets are fragments of ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 or ,neptune4 ,verily1 if an astronomer of the last generation were to start up among us now1 he would be astounded at modern presumption4 ,the star shower of ,november #bgth1 and its connection with ,biela's broken and lost comet1 referred to in my last letter1 are still subjects of research and speculation4 ,on ,november #cjth ,professor ,klinkerfues sent to ,mr4 ,pogson1 of the ,madras ,observatory1 the following startling telegram3 8,biela touched earth on #bgth4 ,search near ,theta ,centauri40 ,mr4 ,pogson searched accordingly from comet-rise to sunrise on the two following mornings1 but in vain2 for even in ,india they have had cloudy weather of late4 ,on the third day1 however1 he had 8better luck10 saw something like a comet through an opening between clouds1 and on the following days was enabled to deliberately verify this observation and determine the position and some elements of the motion of the comet1 which displayed a bright nucleus1 and faint but distinct tail4 ,this discovery is rather remarkable in connection with the theoretical anticipation of ,professor ,klinkerfues2 but the conclusion directly suggested is by no means admitted by astronomers4 ,some1 have supposed that it is not the primary ,biela1 but the secondary comet1 or offshoot1 which grazed the earth1 and was seen by ,mr4 ,pogson2 others that it was neither the body1 the envelope1 nor the tail of either of the comets which formed the star shower1 but that the meteors of ,november #bgth were merely a trail which the comet left behind4 ,a multitude of letters were read at the last and previous meeting of the ,astronomical ,society1 in which the writers described the details of their own observations4 ,as these letters came from nearly all parts of the world1 the data have an unusual degree of completeness1 and show very strikingly the value of the work of amateur astronomical observers4 ,by the collation and comparison of these1 important inductions are obtainable4 ,thus ,professor ,a4 ,s4 ,herschel concludes that the earth passed through seven strata of meteoric bodies1 having each a thickness of about #ej1jjj miles--in all about #cej1jjj miles4 ,as the diameter of the visible nebulosity of ,biela's comet was but #dj1jjj miles when nearest the earth in #ahcb1 the great thickness of these strata indicates something beyond the comet itself4 ,besides this1 ,mr4 ,hind's calculation for the return of the primary comet shows that on ,november #bgth it was #bej millions of miles from the earth4 ,those1 however1 who are determined to enjoy the sensation of supposing that they really have been brushed by the tail of a comet1 still have the secondary comet to fall back upon4 ,this1 as already described1 was broken off the original1 from which it was seen gradually to diverge1 but was still linked to it by an arch of nebulous matter4 ,if this divergence has continued1 it must now be far distant--sufficiently far to afford me an opportunity of safely adding another to the numerous speculations1 viz41 that we may1 on ,november #bgth1 have plunged obliquely through this connecting arm of nebulous matter1 which was seen stretching between the parent comet and its offshoot4 ,the actual position of the meteoric strata above referred to is quite consistent with the hypothesis4 ,,the 8,,great ,,ice ,,age0 ,,and ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the 8,,till40 ,the growth of science is becoming so overwhelming that the old subdivisions of human knowledge are no longer sufficient for the purpose of dividing the labor of experts4 ,it is scarcely possible now for any man to become a naturalist1 a chemist1 or a physicist in the full sense of either term2 he must1 if he aims at thoroughness1 be satisfied with a general knowledge of the great body of science1 and a special and a full acquaintance with only one or two of its minor subdivisions4 ,thus geology1 though but a branch of natural history1 and the youngest of its branches1 has now become so extensive that its ablest votaries are compelled to devote their best efforts to the study of sections which but a few years ago were scarcely definable4 ,glaciation is one of these1 which now demands its own elementary text-books over and above the monographs of original investigators4 ,this demand has been well supplied by ,mr4 ,james ,geikie in the 8,the ,great ,ice ,age10#ae of which a second edition has just been issued4 ,every student of glacial phenomena owes to ,mr4 ,geikie a heavy debt of gratitude for the invaluable collection of facts and philosophy which this work presents4 ,it may now be fairly described as a standard treatise on the subject which it treats4 ,one leading feature of the work offers a very aggressive invitation to criticism4 ,scotchmen are commonly accused of looking upon the whole universe through ,scotch spectacles1 and here we have a ,scotchman treating a subject which affects nearly the whole of the globe1 and devoting about half of his book to the details of ,scottish glacial deposits2 while ,england has but one-third of the space allowed to ,scotland1 ,ireland but a thirtieth1 ,scandinavia less than a tenth1 ,north ,america a sixth1 and so on with the rest of the world4 ,disproportionate as this may appear at first glance1 further acquaintance with the work justifies the pre-eminence which ,mr4 ,geikie gives to the ,scotch glacial deposits4 ,excepting ,norway1 there is no country in ,europe which affords so fine a field for the study of the vestiges of extinct glaciers as ,scotland1 and ,scotland has an advantage even over ,norway in being much better known in geological detail4 ,besides this1 we must always permit the expounder of any subject to select his own typical illustrations1 and welcome his ability to find them in a region which he himself has directly explored4 ,mr4 ,geikie's connection with the geological survey of ,scotland has afforded him special facilities for making good use of ,scottish typical material1 and he has turned these opportunities to such excellent account that no student after reading 8,the ,great ,ice ,age0 will find fault with its decided nationality4 ,the leading feature--the basis1 in fact--of this work deserves especial notice1 as it gives it a peculiar and timely value of its own4 ,this feature is that the subject--as compared with its usual treatment by other leading writers--is turned round and presented1 so to speak1 bottom upwards4 ,de ,saussure1 ,charpentier1 ,agassiz1 ,humboldt1 ,forbes1 ,hopkins1 ,whewell1 ,stark1 ,tyndall1 etc41 have studied the living glaciers1 and upon the data thus obtained have identified the work of extinct glaciers4 ,chronologically speaking1 they have proceeded backwards1 a method absolutely necessary in the early stages of the inquiry1 and which has yielded admirable results4 ,geikie1 in the work before us1 proceeds exactly in the opposite order4 ,availing himself of the means of identifying glacial deposits which the retrogressive method affords1 he plunges at once to the lowest and oldest of these deposits1 which he presents the most prominently1 and then works upwards and onwards to recent glaciation4 ,the best illustration ,i can offer of the timely advantage of this reversed treatment is 7with due apology for necessary egotism7 to state my own case4 ,in #ahda1 when the 8glacial hypothesis10 as it was then called1 was in its infancy1 ,professor ,jamieson1 although very old and nearly at the end of his career1 took up the subject with great enthusiasm1 and devoted to it a rather disproportionate number of lectures during his course on ,natural ,history4 ,like many of his pupils1 ,i became infected by his enthusiasm1 and went from ,edinburgh to ,switzerland1 where ,i had the good fortune to find ,agassiz and his merry men at the 8,hotel des ,neufchatelois0--two tents raised upon a magnificent boulder floating on the upper part of the ,aar glacier4 ,after a short but very active sojourn there ,i 8did10 not without physical danger1 many other glaciers in ,switzerland and the ,tyrol1 and afterwards practically studied the subject in ,norway1 ,north ,wales1 and wherever else an opportunity offered1 reading in the meantime much of its special literature2 but1 like many others1 confining my reading chiefly to authors who start with living glaciers and describe their doings most prominently4 ,when1 however1 ,i read the first edition of ,mr4 ,geikie's 8,great ,ice ,age10 immediately after its publication1 his mode of presenting the phenomena1 bottom upwards1 suggested a number of reflections that had never occurred before1 leading to other than the usual explanations of many glacial phenomena1 and correcting some errors into which ,i had fallen in searching for the vestiges of ancient glaciers4 ,as these suggestions and corrections may be interesting to others1 as they have been to myself1 ,i will here state them in outline4 ,the most prominent and puzzling reflection or conclusion suggested by reading ,mr4 ,geikie's description of the glacial deposits of ,scotland was1 that the great bulk of them are quite different from the deposits of existing glaciers4 ,this reminded me of a previous puzzle and disappointment that ,i had met in ,norway1 where ,i had observed such abundance of striation1 such universality of polished rocks and rounded mountains1 and so many striking examples of perched blocks1 with scarcely any decent vestiges of moraines4 ,this was especially the case in ,arctic ,norway4 ,coasting from ,trondhjem to ,hammerfest1 winding round glaciated islands1 in and out of fjords banked with glaciated rock-slopes1 along more than a thousand miles of shore line1 displaying the outlets of a thousand ancient glacier valleys1 scanning eagerly throughout from sea to summit1 landing at several stations1 and climbing the most commanding hills1 ,i saw only one ancient moraine--that at the ,oxfjord station described in 8,through ,norway with ,ladies40#af ,but this negative anomaly is not all4 ,the ancient glacial deposits are not only remarkable on account of the absence of the most characteristic of modern glacial deposits1 but in consisting mainly of something which is quite different from any of the deposits actually formed by any of the modern glaciers of ,switzerland or any other country within the temperate zones4 ,i have seen nothing either at the foot or the sides of any living ,alpine or ,scandinavian glacier that even approximately represents the 8till0 or 8boulder clay10 nor any description of such a formation by any other observer2 and have met with no note of this very suggestive anomaly by any writer on glaciers4 ,yet the till and boulder clay form vast deposits1 covering thousands of square miles even of the limited area of the ,british ,isles1 and constitute the main evidence upon which we base all our theories respecting the existence and the vast extent and influence of the 8,great ,ice ,age40 ,although so different from anything at present produced by the ,alpine or ,scandinavian glaciers1 this great deposit is unquestionably of glacial origin4 ,the evidences upon which this general conclusion rests are fully stated by ,mr4 ,geikie1 and may safely be accepted as incontrovertible4 ,whence1 then1 the great difference8 ,one of the suggestions to which ,i have already alluded as afforded by reading ,mr4 ,geikie's book was a hypothetical solution of this difficulty1 but the verification of the hypothesis demanded a re-visit to ,norway4 ,an opportunity for this was afforded in the summer of #ahgd1 during which ,i traveled round the coast from ,stavanger to the ,arctic frontier of ,russia1 and through an interesting inland district4 ,the observations there made and strengthened by subsequent reflections1 have so far confirmed my original speculative hypothesis that ,i now venture to state it briefly as follows3 ,that the period appropriately designated by ,mr4 ,geikie as the 8,great ,ice ,age0 includes at least two distinct periods or epochs--the first of very great intensity or magnitude1 during which the ,arctic regions of our globe were as completely glaciated as the ,antarctic now are1 and the ,british islands and a large portion of ,northern ,europe were glaciated as completely1 and nearly in the same manner1 as ,greenland is at the present time2 that long after this1 and immediately preceding the present geological epoch1 there was a minor glacial period1 when only the now existing valleys1 favorably shaped and situated for glacial accumulations1 were partially or wholly filled with ice4 ,there may have been many intermediate fluctuations of climate and glaciation1 and probably were such1 but as these do not affect my present argument they need not be here considered4 ,so far ,i agree with the general conclusions of ,mr4 ,geikie as ,i understand them1 and with the generally received hypotheses1 but in what follows ,i have ventured to diverge materially4 ,it appears to me that the existing ,antarctic glaciers and some of the glaciers of ,greenland are essentially different in their conformation from the present glaciers of the ,alps1 and from those now occupying some of the fjelds and valleys of ,norway2 and that the glaciers of the earlier or greater glacial epoch were similar to those now forming the ,antarctic barrier1 while the glaciers of the later or minor glacial epoch resembled those now existing in temperate climates1 or were intermediate between these and the ,antarctic glaciers4 ,the nature of the difference which ,i suppose to exist between the two classes of glaciers is this3 ,the glaciers 7properly so called7 of temperate climates are the overflow of the nev 7the great reservoir of ice and snow above the snow line74 ,they are composed of ice which is protruded below the snow-line into the region where the summer thaw exceeds the winter snow-fall4 ,this ice is necessarily subject to continual thinning or wasting from its upper or exposed surface1 and thus finally becomes liquefied1 and is terminated by direct solar action4 ,many of the characteristic phenomena of ,alpine glaciers depend upon this2 among the more prominent of which are the superficial extrusion of boulders or rock fragments that have been buried in the nev or have fallen into the crevasses of the upper part of the true glacier1 and the final deposit of these same boulders of fragments at the foot of the glaciers forming ordinary moraines4 ,but this is not all4 ,the thawing which extrudes1 and finally deposits the larger fragments of rock1 sifts from them the smaller particles1 the aggregate bulk of which usually exceeds very largely that of the larger fragments4 ,this fine silt or sand thus washed away is carried by the turbid glacier torrent to considerable distances1 and deposited as an alluvium wherever the agitated waters find a resting-place4 ,thus the dbris of the ordinary modern glacier is effectively separated into two or more very distinct deposits2 the moraine at the glacier foot consisting of rock fragments of considerable size with very little sand or clay or other fine deposit between them1 and a distant deposit of totally different character1 consisting of gravel1 sand1 clay1 or mud1 according to the length and conditions of its journey4 ,the 8chips10 as they have been well called1 are thus separated from what ,i may designate the filings or sawdust of the glacier4 ,the filings from the existing glaciers of the ,bernese ,alps are gradually filling up the lake-basins of ,geneva and ,constance1 repairing the breaches made by the erosive action of their gigantic predecessors2 those of the southern slope of the ,alps are doing a large share in filling up the ,adriatic2 while the chips of all merely rest upon the glacier beds forming the comparatively insignificant terminal moraine deposits4 ,the same in ,scandinavia4 ,the ,storelv of the ,jostedal is fed by the melting of the ,krondal1 ,nygaard1 ,bjornestegs1 and soldal glaciers4 ,it has filled up a branch of the deep ,sogne fjord1 forming an extensive fertile plain at the mouth of its wild valley1 and is depositing another subaqueous plain beyond1 while the moraines of the glaciers are but inconsiderable and comparatively insignificant heaps of loose boulders1 spread out on the present and former shores of the above-named glaciers1 which are overflows from one side of the great nev1 the ,jostedal ,sneefond4 ,all of these glaciers flow down small lateral valleys1 spread out1 and disappear in the main valley1 which has now no glacier of its own1 though it was formerly glaciated throughout4 ,what must have been the condition of this and the other great ,scandinavian valleys when such was the case8 ,to answer this question rationally we must consider the meteorological conditions of that period4 ,either the climate must have been much colder1 or the amount of precipitation vastly greater than at present1 in order to produce the general glaciation that rounded the mountains up to a height of some thousands of feet above the present sea-level4 ,probably both factors co-operated to effect this vast glaciation1 the climate colder1 and the snow-fall also greater4 ,the whole of ,scandinavia1 or as much as then stood above the sea1 must have been a nev or sneefond on which the annual snow-fall exceeded the annual thaw4 ,this is the case at present on the largest nev of ,europe1 the #ejj square miles of the great plateau of the ,jostedals and ,nordfjords ,sneefond1 on all the overflowing nev or snow-fields of the ,alps above the snow-line2 over the greater part of ,greenland2 and 7as the structure of the southern icebergs prove7 everywhere within the great ,antarctic ice barrier4 ,what1 then1 must happen when the snow-line comes down1 or nearly down1 to the sea-level8 ,it is evident that the out-thrust glaciers1 the overflow down the valleys1 cannot come to an end like the present ,swiss and ,scandinavian glaciers1 by the direct melting action of the sun4 ,they may be somewhat thinned from below by the heat of the earth1 and that generated by their own friction on the rocks1 but these must be quite inadequate to overcome the perpetual accumulation due to the snow-fall upon their own surface and the vast overflow from the great snow-fields above4 ,they must go on and on1 ever increasing1 until they meet some new condition of climate or some other powerful agent of dissipation--something that can effectively melt them4 ,this agent is very near at hand in the case of the ,scandinavian valleys and those of ,scotland4 ,it is the sea4 ,i think ,i may safely say that the valley glaciers of these countries during the great ice age must have reached the sea1 and there have terminated their existence1 just as the ,antarctic glaciers terminate at the present ,antarctic ice-wall4 ,what must happen when a glacier is thus thrust out to sea8 ,this question is usually answered by assuming that it slides along the bottom until it reaches such a depth that flotation commences and then it breaks off or 8calves0 as icebergs4 ,this view is strongly expressed by ,mr4 ,geikie 7p4 #dg7 when he says that--8,the seaward portion of an ,arctic glacier cannot by any possibility be floated up without sundering its connection with the frozen mass behind4 ,so long as the bulk of the glacier much exceeds the depth of the sea1 the ice will of course rest upon the bed of the fjord or bay without being subjected to any strain or tension4 ,but when the glacier creeps outwards to greater depths1 then the superior specific gravity of the sea-water will tend to press the ice upward4 ,that ice1 however1 is a hard continuous mass1 with sufficient cohesion to oppose for a time this pressure1 and hence the glacier crawls on to a depth far beyond the point at which1 had it been free1 it would have risen to the surface and floated4 ,if at this great depth the whole mass of the glacier could be buoyed up without breaking off1 it would certainly go to prove that the ice of ,arctic regions1 unlike ice anywhere else1 had the property of yielding to mechanical strain without rupturing4 ,but the great tension to which it is subjected takes effect in the usual way1 and the ice yields1 not by bending and stretching1 but by breaking40 ,mr4 ,geikie illustrates this by a diagram showing the 8calving0 of an iceberg4 ,in spite of my respect for ,mr4 ,geikie as a geological authority1 ,i have no hesitation in contradicting some of the physical assumptions included in the above4 ,ice has no such rigidity as here stated4 ,it does possess in a high degree 8the property of yielding to mechanical strain without rupturing40 ,we need not go far for evidence of this4 ,everybody who has skated or seen others skating on ice that is but just thick enough to 8bear0 must have felt or seen it yield to the mechanical strain of the skater's weight4 ,under these conditions it not only bends under him1 but it afterwards yields to the reaction of the water below1 rising and falling in visible undulations1 demonstrating most unequivocally a considerable degree of flexibility4 ,it may be said that in this case the flexibility is due to the thinness of the ice2 but this argument is unsound1 inasmuch as the manifestation of such flexibility does not depend upon absolute thickness or thinness1 but upon the relation of thickness to superficial extension4 ,if a thin sheet of ice can be bent to a given arc1 a thick sheet may be bent in the same degree1 but the thicker ice demands a greater radius and proportionate extension of circumference4 ,but we have direct evidence that ice of great thickness--actual glaciers--may bend to a considerable curvature before breaking4 ,this is seen very strikingly when the uncrevassed ice-sheet of a slightly inclined nev suddenly reaches a precipice and is thrust over it4 ,if ,mr4 ,geikie were right1 the projecting cornice thus formed should stand straight out1 and then1 when the transverse strain due to the weight of this rigid overhang exceeded the resistance of tenacity1 it should break off short1 exposing a face at right angles to the general surface of the supported body of ice4 ,had ,mr4 ,geikie ever seen and carefully observed such an overhang or cornice of ice1 ,i suspect that the above-quoted passage would not have been written4 ,some very fine examples of such ice-cornices are well seen from the ridge separating the ,handspikjen ,fjelde from the head of the ,jostedal1 where a view of the great nev or sneefond is obtained4 ,this side of the nev terminates in precipitous rock-walls2 at the foot of one of these is a dreary lake1 the ,styggevand4 ,the overflow of the nev here forms great bending sheets that reach a short way down1 and then break off and drop as small icebergs into the lake4#ag ,the ordinary course of glaciers affords abundant illustrations of the plasticity of such masses of ice4 ,they spread out where the valley widens1 contract where the valley narrows1 and follow all the convexities or concavities of the axial line of its bed4 ,if the bending thus enforced exceeds a certain degree of abruptness crevasses are formed1 but a considerable bending occurs before the rupture is effected1 and crevasses of considerable magnitude are commonly formed without severing one part of a glacier from another4 ,they are usually ,v-shaped1 in vertical section1 and in many the rupture does not reach the bottom of the glacier4 ,very rarely indeed does a crevasse cross the whole breadth of a glacier in such a manner as to completely separate1 even temporarily1 the lower from the upper part of the glacier4 ,if a glacier can thus bend downwards without 8sundering its connection with the frozen mass behind10 surely it may bend upwards in a corresponding degree1 either with or without the formation of crevasses1 according to the thickness of the ice and the degree of curvature4 ,a glacier reaching the sea by a very steep incline would probably break off1 in accordance with ,mr4 ,geikie's description1 just as an ,alpine glacier is ruptured fairly across when it makes a cascade over a suddenly precipitous bend of its path4 ,one entering the sea at an inclination somewhat less precipitous than the minor limit of the effective rupture gradient would be crevassed in a contrary manner to the crevassing of ,alpine glaciers4 ,its crevasses would gape downwards instead of upwards--have -shaped instead of a ,v-shaped section4 ,with a still more moderate slope1 the up-floating of the termination of the glacier1 and a concurrent general up-lifting or upbending of the whole of its submerged portion might occur without even a partial rupture or crevasse formation occurring4 ,let us now follow out some of the necessary results of these conditions of glacier existence and glacial prolongation4 ,the first and most notable1 by its contrast with ordinary glaciers1 is the absence of lateral1 medial1 or terminal moraines4 ,the larger masses of dbris1 the chippings that may have fallen from the exposed escarpments of the mountains upon the surface of the upper regions of the glacier1 instead of remaining on the surface of the ice and standing above its general level by protecting the ice on which they rest from the general snow-thaw1 would become buried by the upward accretion of the ice due to the unthawed stratum of each year's snow-fall4 ,the thinning agency at work upon such glaciers during their journey over the terra firma being the outflow of terrestrial heat and that due to their friction upon their beds1 this thinning must all take place from below1 and thus1 as the glaciers proceed downwards1 these rock fragments must be continually approaching the bottom instead of continually approaching the top1 as in the case of modern ,alpine glaciers flowing below the snow-line1 and thawing from surface downwards4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that such glaciers could not deposit any moraines such as are in course of deposition by existing ,alpine and ,scandinavian glaciers4 ,what1 then1 must become of the chips and filings of these outfloating glaciers8 ,they must be carried along with the ice so long as that ice rests upon the land2 for this dbris must consist partly of fragments imbedded in the ice1 and partly of ground and re-ground excessively subdivided particles1 that must either cake into what ,i may call ice-mud1 and become a part of the glacier1 or flow as liquid mud or turbid water beneath it1 as with ordinary glaciers4 ,the quantity of water being relatively small under the supposed conditions1 the greater part would be carried forward to the sea by the ice rather than by the water4 ,an important consequence of this must be that the erosive power of these ancient glaciers was1 cteris paribus1 greater than that of modern ,alpine glaciers1 especially if we accept those theories which ascribe an actual internal growth or regeneration of glaciers by the relegation below of some of the water resulting from the surface-thaw4 ,as the glacier with its lower accumulation advances into deeper and deeper water1 its pressure upon its bed must progressively diminish until it reaches a line where it would just graze the bottom with a touch of feathery lightness4 ,somewhere before reaching this it would begin to deposit its burden on the sea-bottom1 the commencement of this deposition being determined by the depth whereat the tenacity of the deposit1 or its friction against the sea-bottom1 or both combined1 becomes sufficient to overpower the now-diminished pressure and forward thrusting1 or erosive power of the glacier4 ,further forward1 in deeper water1 where the ice becomes fairly floated above the original sea-bottom1 a rapid under-thawing must occur by the action of the sea-water1 and if any communication exists between this ice covered sea and the waters of warmer latitudes this thawing must be increased by the currents that would necessarily be formed by the interchange of water of varying specific gravities4 ,deposition would thus take place in this deeper water1 continually shallowing it or bringing up the sea-bottom nearer to the ice-bottom4 ,this raising of the sea-bottom must occur not only here1 but farther back1 i4e41 from the limit at which deposition commenced4 ,this neutral ground1 whereat the depth is just sufficient to allow the ice to rest lightly on its own deposit and slide over it without either sweeping it forward or depositing any more upon it1 becomes an interesting critical region1 subject to continuous forward extension during the lifetime of the glacier1 as the deposition beyond it must continually raise the sea-bottom until it reaches the critical depth at which the deposition must cease4 ,this would constitute what ,i may designate the normal depth of the glaciated sea1 or the depth towards which it would be continually tending1 during a great glacial epoch1 by the formation of a submarine bank or plain of glacier deposit1 over which the glacier would slide without either grinding it lower by erosion or raising it higher by deposition4 ,but what must be the nature of this deposit8 ,it is evident that it cannot be a mere moraine consisting only of the larger fragments of rock such as are now deposited at the foot of glaciers that die out before reaching the sea4 ,neither can it correspond to the glacial silt which is washed away and separated from these larger fragments by glacial streams1 and deposited at the outspreadings of glacier torrents and rivers4 ,it will correspond to neither the assorted gravel1 sand1 nor mud of these alluvial deposits1 but must be an agglomeration of all the infusible solid matter the glacier is capable of carrying4 ,it must contain1 in heterogeneous admixture1 the great boulders1 the lesser rock fragments1 the gravel chips1 the sand1 and the slimy mud2 these settling down quietly in the cold1 gloomy waters1 overshadowed by the great ice-sheet1 must form just such an agglomeration as we find in the boulder clay and tills1 and lie just in those places where these deposits abound1 provided the relative level of land and sea during the glacial epoch were suitable4 ,i should make one additional remark relative to the composition of this deposit1 viz41 that under the conditions supposed1 the original material detached from the rocks around the upper portions of the glaciers would suffer a far greater degree of attrition at the glacier bottom than it obtains in modern ,alpine glaciers1 inasmuch as in these it is removed by the glacier torrent when it has attained a certain degree of fineness1 while in the greater glaciers of the glacial epoch it would be carried much further in association with the solid ice1 and be subjected to more grinding and regrinding against the bottom4 ,hence a larger proportion of slimy mud would be formed1 capable of finally induring into stiff clay such as forms the matrix of the till and boulder clay4 ,the long journey of the bottom dbris stratum of the glacier1 and its final deposition when in a state of neutral equilibrium between its own tendency to repose and the forward thrust of the glacier1 would obviously tend to arrange the larger fragments of rock in the manner in which they are found imbedded in the till1 i4e41 the oblong fragments lying with their longer axes and their best marked stri in the direction of the motion of the glacier4 ,the 8striated pavements0 of the till are thus easily explained2 they are the surface upon which the ice advanced when its deposits had reached the critical or neutral height4 ,such a pavement would continually extend outwards4 ,the only sorting of the material likely to occur under these conditions would be that due to the earlier deposition and entanglement of the larger fragments1 thus producing a more stony deposit nearer inland1 just as ,mr4 ,geikie describes the actual deposits of till where1 8generally speaking1 the stones are most numerous in the till of hilly districts2 while at the lower levels of the country the clayey character of the mass is upon the whole more pronounced40 ,these 8hilly districts10 upon the supposition of greater submergence1 would be the near shore regions1 and the lower levels the deeper sea where the glacier floated freely4 ,the following is ,mr4 ,geikie's description of the distribution of the till 7page #ac73--8;,it is in the lower-lying districts of the country where till appears in greatest force4 ,wide areas of the central counties are covered up with it continuously1 to a depth varying from two or three feet up to one hundred feet and more4 ,but as we follow it towards the mountain regions it becomes thinner and more interrupted--the naked rock ever and anon peering through1 until at last we find only a few shreds and patches lying here and there in sheltered hollows of the hills4 ,throughout the ,northern ,highlands it occurs but rarely1 and only in little isolated patches4 ,it is not until we get way from the steep rocky declivities and narrow glens and gorges1 and enter upon the broader valleys that open out from the base of the highland mountains to the low-lying districts beyond1 that we meet with any considerable deposits of stony clay4 ,the higher districts of the ,southern ,uplands are almost equally free from any covering of till40 ,this description is precisely the same as ,i must have written1 had ,i so far continued my imaginary sketch of the results of ancient glaciation as to picture what must remain after the glaciers had all melted away1 and the sea had receded sufficiently to expose their submarine deposits4 ,throughout the above ,i have assumed a considerable submergence of the land as compared with the present sea-level on the coasts of ,scotland1 ,scandinavia1 etc4 ,the universality of the terraces in all the ,norwegian valleys opening westward proves a submergence of at least #fjj or #gjj feet4 ,when ,i first visited ,norway in #ahef1 ,i accepted the usual description of these as alluvial deposits2 was looking for glacial vestiges in the form of moraines1 and thus quite failed to observe the true nature of these vast accumulations1 which was obvious enough when ,i re-examined them in the light of more recent information4 ,some few are alluvial1 but they are exceptional and of minor magnitude4 ,as an example of such alluvial terraces ,i may mention those near the mouth of the ,romsdal1 that are well seen from the ,aak ,hotel1 and which a ,russian prince1 or other soldier merely endowed with military eyes1 might easily mistake for artificial earthworks erected for the defence of the valley4 ,in this case1 as in the others where the terraces are alluvial1 the valley is a narrow one1 occupied by a relatively wide river loaded with recent glacial dbris4 ,it evidently filled the valley during the period of glacial recession4 ,the ordinary wider valleys1 with a river that has cut a narrow channel through the outspread terrace-flats1 display a different formation4 ,near the mouth of such valleys ,i have seen cuttings of more than a hundred feet in depth1 through an unbroken terrace of most characteristic till1 with other traces rising above it4 ,this is the ordinary constitution of the lower portions of most of the ,scandinavian terraces4 ,these terraces are commonly topped with quite a different stratum1 which at first ,i regarded as a subsequent alluvial or estuarine deposit1 but further examination suggested another explanation of the origin of some portions of this superficial stratum1 to which ,i shall refer hereafter4 ,such terraces prove a rise of sea or depression of land1 during the glacial epoch1 to the extent of #fjj feet as a minimum1 while the well-known deposits of ,arctic shells at ,moel ,tryfaen and the accompanying drift have led ,prof4 ,ramsay to estimate 8the probable amount of submergence during some part of the glacial period at about #bcjj feet40#ah ,it would be out of place here to reproduce the data upon which geologists have based their rather divergent opinions respecting the actual extent of the submergence of the western coast of ,north ,europe4 ,all agree that a great submergence occurred1 but differ only as to its extent1 their estimates varying between #a1jjj and #c1jjj feet4 ,there is one important consideration that must not be overlooked1 viz41 that--if my view of the submarine origin of the till be correct--the mere submergence of the land at the glacial period does not measure the difference between the depth of the sea at that and the present time1 seeing that the deposits from the glaciers must have shallowed it very materially4 ,it is only after contemplating thoroughly the present form of the granitic and metamorphic hills of ,scandinavia1--hills that are always angular when subjected only to subaerial weathering1--that one can form an adequate conception of the magnitude of this shallowing deposit4 ,the rounding1 shaving1 grinding1 planing1 and universal abrasion everywhere displayed appear to me to justify the conclusion that if the sea were now raised to the level of the terraces1 i4e41 #fjj feet higher than at present1 the mass of matter abraded from the original ,scandinavian mountains1 and lying under the sea1 would exceed the whole mass of mountain left standing above it4 ,the first question suggested by reading ,mr4 ,geikie's book was whether the terraces are wholly or partially formed of till1 and more especially whether their lower portions are thus composed4 ,this1 as already stated1 was easily answered by the almost unanimous reply of all the many ,norwegian valleys ,i traversed4 ,any tourist may verify this4 ,the next question was whether this same till extends below the sea4 ,this was not so easily answered by the means at my disposal1 as ,i travelled hastily round the coast from ,stavanger via the ,north ,cape to the frontier of ,russian ,lapland in ordinary passenger steam-packets1 which made their stoppages to suit other requirements than mine4 ,still1 ,i was able to land at many stations1 and found1 wherever there was a gently sloping strand at the mouth of an estuary1 or of a valley whose river had already deposited its suspended matter 7a common case hereabouts1 where so many rivers terminate in long estuaries or open out into bag-shaped lakes near the coast71 and where the bottom had not been modified by secondary glaciation1 that the receding tide displayed a sea-bottom of till1 covered with a thin stratum of loose stones and shells4 ,in some cases the till was so bare that it appeared like a stiff mud deposited but yesterday4 ,at ,bod1 an arctic coast station on the north side of the mouth of the ,salten fjord 7lat4 #fg #bj71 where the packets make a long halt1 is a very characteristic example of this2 a deposit of very tough till forming an extensive plain just on the sea-level4 ,the tide rises over this1 and the waves break upon it1 forming a sort of beach by washing away some of the finer material1 and leaving the stones behind4 ,the ground being so nearly level1 the reach of the tide is very great1 and thus a large area is exposed at low tide4 ,continuous with this1 and beyond the limit of high tide1 is an extensive inland plain covered with coarse grass and weeds growing directly upon the surface of the original flat pavement of till4 ,there is no river at ,bod2 the sea is clear1 leaves no appreciable deposit1 and the degree of denudation of the clayey matrix of the till is very much smaller than might be expected4 ,the limit of high water is plainly shown by a beach of shells and stones1 but at low tide the ground over which the sea has receded is a bare and scarcely modified surface of till4 ,i have observed the same at low water at many other arctic stations4 ,in the ,troms ,sund there are shallows at some distance from the shore which are just covered with water at low tide4 ,i landed and waded on these1 and found the bottom to consist of till covered with a thin layer of shells1 odd fragments of earthenware1 and other rubbish thrown overboard from vessels4 ,it is evident that breakers of considerable magnitude are necessary for the loosening of this tough compact deposit--that it is very slightly1 if at all1 affected by the mere flow of running water4 ,i specify these instances as characteristic and easy of verification1 as the packets all stop at these stations2 but a yachtsman sailing at leisure amidst the glorious coast scenery of the ,arctic ,ocean might multiply such observations a hundredfold by stopping wherever such strands are indicated in passing4 ,i saw a multitude of these in places where ,i was unable to go ashore and examine them4 ,a further question in this direction suggested itself on the spot1 viz41 what is the nature of the 8banks0 which constitute the fishing-grounds of ,norway1 ,iceland1 ,newfoundland1 etc4 ,they are submarine plains unquestionably--they must have a high degree of fertility in order to supply food for the hundreds of millions of voracious cod-fish1 coal-fish1 haddocks1 hallibut1 etc41 that people them4 ,these large fishes all feed on the bottom1 their chief food being mollusca and crustacea1 which must find1 either directly or indirectly1 some pasture of vegetable origin4 ,the banks are1 in fact1 great meadows or feeding grounds for the lower animals which support the higher4 ,from the ,lofoten bank alone twenty millions of cod-fish are taken annually1 besides those devoured by the vast multitude of sea-birds4 ,now this bank is situated precisely where1 according to the above-stated view of the origin of the till1 there should be a huge deposit4 ,it occupies the ,vest fjord1 i4e41 the opening between the mainland and the ,lofoden ,islands1 extending from ,moskenes1 to ,lodingen on ,hind1 just where the culminating masses of the ,kjolen ,mountains must have poured their greatest glaciers into the sea by a westward course1 and these glaciers must have been met by another stream pouring from the north1 formed by the glaciers of ,hind and ,senjen1 and both must have coalesced with a third flood pouring through the ,ofoten fjord1 the ,tys fjord1 etc41 from the mainland4 ,the ,vest fjord is about sixty miles wide at its mouth1 and narrows northward till it terminates in the ,ofoten fjord1 which forks into several branches eastward4 ,a glance at a good map will show that here1 according to my explanation of the origin of the till1 there should be the greatest of all the submarine plains of till which the ancient ,scandinavian glaciers have produced1 and of which the plains of till ,i saw on the coast at ,bod 7which lies just to the mouth of the ,vest fjord1 where the ,salten fjord flows into it71 are but the slightly inclined continuation4 ,some idea of this bank may be formed from the fact that outside of the ,lofodens the sea is #ajj to #bjj fathoms in depth1 that it suddenly shoals up to #af or #bj fathoms on the east side of these rocks1 and this shallow plain extends across the whole #ej or #fj miles between these islands and the mainland4#ai ,it must not be supposed the fjords or inlets of ,scandinavia are usually shallower than the open sea2 the contrary is commonly the case1 especially with the narrowest and those which run farthest inland4 ,they are very much deeper than the open sea4 ,if space permitted ,i could show that the great ,storregen bank1 opposite ,aalesund and ,molde1 where the ,stor fjord1 ,mold fjord1 etc41 were the former outlets of the glaciers from the highest of all the ,scandinavian mountains1 and the several banks of ,finmark1 etc41 from which1 in the aggregate1 are taken another #bj or #cj millions of cod-fish annually1 are all situated just where theoretically they ought to be found4 ,the same is the case with the great bank of ,newfoundland and the banks around ,iceland1 which are annually visited by large numbers of ,french fishermen from ,dunkerque1 ,boulogne1 and other ports4 ,whenever the packet halted over these banks during our coasting trip we demonstrated their fertility by casting a line or two over the bulwark4 ,no bait was required1 merely a double hook with a flat shank attached to a heavy leaden plummet4 ,the line was sunk till the lead touched the bottom1 a few jerks were given1 and then a tug was felt3 the line was hauled in with a cod-fish or hallibut hooked1 not inside the mouth1 but externally by the gill-plates1 the back1 the tail1 or otherwise4 ,the mere jerking of a hook near the bottom was sufficient to bring it in contact with some of the population4 ,there is a very prolific bank lying between the ,north ,cape and ,nordkyn1 where the ,porsanger and ,laxe fjords unite their openings4 ,here we were able1 with only three lines1 to cover the fore-deck of the packet with struggling victims in the course of short halts of fifteen to thirty minutes4 ,not having any sounding apparatus by which to fairly test the nature of the sea-bottom in these places1 ,i cannot offer any direct proof that it was composed of till4 ,by dropping the lead ,i could feel it sufficiently to be certain that it was not rock in any case1 but a soft deposit1 and the marks upon the bottom of the lead1 so far as they went1 afforded evidence in favor of its clayey character4 ,a further investigation of this would be very interesting4 ,but the most striking--,i may say astounding--evidence of the fertility of these banks1 one which appeals most powerfully to the senses1 is the marvelous colony of sea-birds at ,sverholtklubben1 the headland between the two last-named fjords4 ,i dare not estimate the numbers that rose from the rocks and darkened the sky when we blew the steam-whistle in passing4 ,i doubt whether there is any other spot in the world where an equal amount of animal life is permanently concentrated4 ,all these feed on fish1 and an examination of the map will show why--in accordance with the above speculations--they should have chosen ,sverholtklubben as the best fishing-ground on the arctic face of ,europe4 ,i am fully conscious of the main difficulty that stands in the way of my explanation of the formation of the till1 viz41 that of finding sufficient water to float the ice1 and should have given it up had ,i accepted ,mr4 ,geikie's estimate of the thickness of the great ice-sheet of the great ice age4 ,he says 7page #ahf7 that 8,the ice which covered the low grounds of ,scotland during the early cold stages of the glacial epoch was certainly more than #bjjj feet in thickness1 and it must have been even deeper than this between the mainland and the ,outer ,hebrides4 ,to cause such a mass to float1 the sea around ,scotland would require to become deeper than now by #adjj or #aejj feet at least40 ,i am unable to understand by what means ,mr4 ,geikie measured this depth of the ice which covered these low grounds1 except by assuming that its surface was level with that of the upper ice-marks of the hills beyond4 ,the following passage on page #fc seems to indicate that he really has measured it thus3-- 8,now the scratches may be traced from the islands and the coast-line up to an elevation of at least #c1ejj feet2 so that ice must have covered the country to that height at least4 ,in the ,highlands the tide of ice streamed out from the central elevations down all the main straths and glens2 and by measuring the height attained by the smoothed and rounded rocks we are enabled to estimate roughly the probable thickness of the old ice-sheet4 ,but it can only be a rough estimate1 for so long a time has elapsed since the ice disappeared1 the rain and frost together have so split up and worn down the rocks of these highland mountains that much of the smoothing and polishing has vanished4 ,but although the finer marks of the ice-chisel have thus frequently been obliterated1 yet the broader effects remain conspicuous enough4 ,from an extensive examination of these we gather that the ice could not have been less1 and was probably more than #c1jjj feet thick in its deepest parts40 ,page #hj he says3 8,bearing in mind the vast thickness reached by the ,scotch ice-sheet1 it becomes very evident that the ice would flow along the bottom of the sea with as much ease as it poured across the land1 and every island would be surmounted and crushed1 and scored and polished just as readily as the hills of the mainland were40 ,mr4 ,geikie describes the ,scandinavian ice-sheet in similar terms1 but ascribes to it a still greater thickness4 ,he says 7page #djd7--8,the whole country has been moulded and rubbed and polished by an immense sheet of ice1 which could hardly have been less than #f1jjj or even #g1jjj feet thick10 and he maintains that this spread over the sea and coalesced with the ice-sheet of ,scotland4 ,my recollection of the ,lofoden ,islands1 which from their position afford an excellent crucial test of this question1 led me to believe that their configuration presented a direct refutation of ,mr4 ,geikie's remarkable inference2 but a mere recollection of scenery being too vague1 a second visit was especially desirable in reference to this point4 ,the result of the special observations ,i made during this second visit fully confirmed the impression derived from memory4 ,i found in the first place that all along the coast from ,stavanger to the ,varanger fjord every rock near the shore is glaciated2 among the thousands of low-lying ridges that peer above the water to various heights none near the mainland are angular4 ,the general character of these is shown in the sketch of 8,my ,sea ,serpent10 in the last edition of 8,through ,norway with a ,knapsack40 ,the rocks which constitute the extreme outlying limits of the ,lofoden group1 and which are between #fj and #gj miles from the shore1 although mineralogically corresponding with those near the shore1 are totally different in their conformation1 as the sketch of three characteristic specimens plainly shows4 ,mr4 ,everest very aptly compares them to shark's teeth4 ,proceeding northward1 these rocks gradually progress in magnitude1 until they become mountains of #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet in height2 their outspread bases form large islands1 and the ,vest fjord gradually narrows4 ,the remarkably angular and jagged character of these rocks when weathered in the air renders it very easy to trace the limits of glaciation on viewing them at a distance4 ,the outermost and smallest rocks show from a distance no signs of glaciation4 ,if submerged1 the ice of the great ice age was then enough to float over without touching them2 if they stood above the sea1 as at present1 they suffered no more glaciation than would be produced by such an ice-sheet as that of the 8paleocrystic0 ice recently found by ,captain ,nares on the north of ,greenland4 ,progressing northward1 the glaciation begins to become visible1 running up to about #ajj feet above the sea-level on the islands lying westward and southward of ,ost ,vaagen4 ,further northward along the coast of ,ost ,vaagen and ,hind1 the level gradually rises to about #ejj feet on the northern portion of ,ost ,vaagen1 and up to more than #a1jjj feet on ,hind1 while on the mainland it reaches #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet4 ,a remarkable case of such variation1 or descent of ice-level1 as the ice-sheet proceeded seaward1 is shown at ,troms4 ,this small oblong island 7lat4 #fi #dj71 on which is the capital town of ,finmark1 lies between the mainland and the large mountainous island of ,kval1 with a long sea-channel on each side1 the ,tromsund and the ,sandesund2 the total width of these two channels and the island itself being about four or five miles4 ,the general line of glaciation from the mainland crosses the broad side of these channels and the island1 which has evidently been buried and ground down to its present moderate height of two or three hundred feet4 ,both of the channels are till-paved4 ,on the east or inland side the mountains near the coast are glaciated to their summits--are simply roches moutonnes1 over which the reindeer of the ,tromsdal ,lapps range and feed4 ,on the west the mountains are dark1 pyramidal1 non-glaciated peaks1 with long vertical snow-streaks marking their angular masses4 ,the contrast is very striking when seen from the highest part of the island1 and is clearly due to a decline in the thickness of the ice-sheet in the course of its journey across this narrow channel4 ,speaking roughly from my estimation1 ,i should say that this thinning or lowering of the limits of glaciation exceeds #ejj feet between the opposite sides of the channel1 which1 allowing for the hill slopes1 is a distance of about #f miles4 ,this very small inclination would bring a glacier of #c1jjj feet in thickness on the shore down to the sea-level in an outward course of #cj miles1 or about half the distance between the mainland and the outer rocks of the ,lofodens shown in the engraving4 ,i am quite at a loss to understand the reasoning upon which ,mr4 ,geikie bases his firm conviction respecting the depth of the ice-sheet on the low grounds of ,scotland and ,scandinavia4 ,he seems to assume that the glaciers of the great ice age had little or no superficial down slope corresponding to the inclination of the base on which they rested4 ,i have considerable hesitation in attributing this assumption to ,mr4 ,geikie1 and would rather suppose that ,i have misunderstood him1 as it is a conclusion so completely refuted by all we know of glacier phenomena and the physical laws concerned in their production2 but the passages ,i have quoted1 and several others1 are explicit and decided4 ,those geologists who contend for the former existence of a great polar ice-cap radiating outwards and spreading into the temperate zones1 might adopt this mode of measuring its thickness1 but ,mr4 ,geikie rejects this hypothesis1 and shows by his map of 8,the ,principal ,lines of ,glacial ,erosion in ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,finland10 that the glaciation of the extreme north of ,europe proceeded from south to north2 that the ice was formed on land1 and proceeded seawards in all directions4 ,i may add to this testimony that presented by the ,north ,cape1 ,sverholt1 ,nordkyn1 and the rest of the magnificent precipitous headlands that constitute the characteristic feature of the arctic-face of ,europe4 ,they stand forth defiantly as a phalanx of giant heralds proclaiming aloud the fallacy of this idea of southward glacial radiation2 and in concurrence with the structure and striation of the great glacier troughs that lie between them1 and the planed table-land at their summits1 they establish the fact that during the greatest glaciation of the glacial epoch the ice-streams were formed on land and flowed out to sea1 just as they now do at ,greenland1 or other parts of the world where the snow line touches or nearly approaches the level of the sea4 ,all such streams must have followed the slope of the hill-sides upon which they rested and down which they flowed1 and thus the upper limits of glaciation afford no measure whatever of the thickness of the ice upon 8the low grounds of ,scotland10 or of any other glaciated country4 ,as an example1 ,i may refer to ,mont ,blanc4 ,in climbing this mountain the journey from the lower ice-wall of the ,glacier de ,bessons up to the bergschrund above the ,grand ,plateau is over one continuous ice-field1 the level of the upper part of which is more than #aj1jjj feet above its terminal ice-wall4 ,thus1 if we take the height of the striations or smoothings of the upper nev above the low grounds on which the ice-sheet rests1 and adopt ,mr4 ,geikie's reasoning1 the lower ice-wall of the ,glacier de ,bessons should be #aj1jjj feet thick4 ,its actual thickness1 as nearly as ,i can remember1 is about #aj or #ab feet4 ,every other known glacier presents the same testimony4 ,the drawing of a ,greenland glacier opposite page #dg of ,mr4 ,geikie's book shows the same under arctic conditions1 and where the ice-wall terminates in the sea4 ,i have not visited the ,hebrides1 but the curious analogy of their position to that of the ,lofodens suggests the desirability of similar observations to those ,i have made in the latter4 ,if the ice between the mainland and the ,outer ,hebrides was1 as ,mr4 ,geikie maintains1 8certainly more than #bjjj feet in thickness10 and this stretched across to ,ireland1 besides uniting with the still thicker ice-sheet of ,scandinavia1 these islands should all be glaciated1 especially the smaller rocks4 ,if ,i am right1 the smaller outlying islands1 those south of ,barra1 should1 like the corresponding rocks of the ,lofodens1 display no evidence of having been overswept by a deep 8mer de glace40 ,i admit the probability of an ice-sheet extending as ,mr4 ,geikie describes1 but maintain that it thinned out rapidly seaward1 and there became a mere ice-floe1 such as now impedes the navigation of ,smith's ,sound and other portions of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the ,orkneys and ,shetlands1 with which ,i am also unacquainted1 must afford similar crucial instances1 always taking into account the fact that the larger islands may have been independently glaciated by the accumulations due to their own glacial resources4 ,it is the small rocks standing at considerable distance from the shores of larger masses of land that supply the required test-conditions4 ,from the above it will be seen that ,i agree with ,mr4 ,geikie in regarding the till as a 8moraine profonde10 but differ as to the mode and place of its deposition4 ,he argues that it was formed under glaciers of the thickness he describes1 while their whole weight rested upon it4 ,this appears to me to be physically impossible4 ,if such glaciers are capable of eroding solid rocks1 the slimy mud of their own deposits could not possibly have resisted them4 ,the only case where this might have happened is where a mountain-wall has blocked the further downward progress of a glacier1 or in pockets1 or steep hollows which a glacier might have bridged over and filled up2 but such pockets are by no means the characteristic localities of till1 though the till of ,switzerland may possibly show examples of the first case4 ,the great depth of the inland lakes of ,norway1 their bottoms being usually far below that of the present sea-bottom1 is in direct contradiction of this4#bj ,they should1 before all places1 be filled with till1 if the till were a ground moraine formed on land2 but all we know of them confirms the belief that the glaciers deepened them by erosion instead of shallowing them by deposition4 ,mr4 ,geikie's able defence of ,ramsay's theory of lake-basin erosion is curiously inconsistent with his arguments in favor of the ground moraine4 ,i fully concur with ,mr4 ,geikie's arguments against the iceberg theory of the formation of the till4 ,this1 ,i think1 he has completely refuted4 ,before concluding ,i must say a few words on those curious lenticular beds of sand and gravel in the till which appear so very puzzling4 ,a simple explanation is suggested in connection with the above-sketched view of the formation of the till4 ,all glaciers1 whether in arctic or temperate climates1 are washed by streamlets during summer1 and these commonly terminate in the form of a stream or cascade pouring down a 8moulin0--a well bored by themselves and reaching the bottom of the glacier4 ,now what must be the action of such a downflow of water upon my supposed submarine bed of till just grazing the bottom of the glacier8 ,obviously1 to wash away the fine clayey particles1 and leave behind the coarser sand or gravel4 ,it must form just such a basin or lenticular cavity as ,mr4 ,geikie describes4 ,the oblong shape of these1 their longer axis coinciding with the general course of the glacier1 would be produced by the onward progress of the moulin4 ,the accordance of their other features with this explanation will be seen on reading ,mr4 ,geikie's description 7pp4 #ah1 #ai1 etc74 ,the general absence of marine animals and their occasional exceptional occurrence in the intercalated beds is just what might be expected under the conditions ,i have sketched4 ,in the gloomy subglacial depths of the sea1 drenched with continual supplies of fresh water and cooled below the freezing-point by the action of salt water on the ice1 ordinary marine life would be impossible2 while1 on the other hand1 any recession of the glacial limit would restore the conditions of arctic animal life1 to be again obliterated with the renewed outward growth of the floating skirts of the inland ice-mantle4 ,but ,i must now refrain from the further discussion of these and other collateral details1 but hope to return to them in another paper4 ,in 8,through ,norway with ,ladies0 ,i have touched lightly upon some of these1 and have more particularly described some curious and very extensive evidences of secondary glaciation that quite escaped my attention on my first visit1 and which1 too1 have been equally overlooked by other observers4 ,in the above ,i have endeavored to keep as nearly as possible to the main subject of the origin of the till and the character of the ancient ice-sheet4 ,,the ,,barometer ,,and ,,the ,,weather4 ,the barometer was invented by ,torricelli1 an ,italian philosopher of the seventeenth century4 ,it consists essentially of a long tube open at one end and closed at the other1 and partly filled with mercury2 but instead of being filled like ordinary vessels1 with the open end or mouth upwards and the closed end or bottom downwards1 the barometer-tube is inverted1 and has its open mouth downwards4 ,this open mouth is either dipped into a little cup of mercury or bent a little upwards4 ,why does not the mercury run out of this lower open end and overflow the little cup when it is inverted after being filled8 ,the answer to this question includes the whole mystery and principle of the barometer4 ,the mercury does not fall down because something pushes it up and supports it with a certain degree of pressure1 and that something is the atmosphere which extends all round the world1 and presses downwards and sideways and upwards--in every direction1 in fact--with a force equal to its weight1 i4e41 with a pressure equal to about #ae lbs4 on every square inch4 ,a column or perpendicular square stick of air one inch thick each way1 and extending from the surface of the sea up to the top of the atmosphere1 weighs about #ae lbs42 other columns or sticks next to it on all sides weigh the same1 and so on with every portion2 and all these are for ever squeezing down and against each other1 and1 being fluid1 transmit their pressure in every direction1 and against the earth and everything upon it1 and therefore upon the mercury of the barometer-tube4 ,we have supposed the air to be made up of columns or sticks of air one inch each way1 but might have taken any other size1 and the weight and pressure would be proportionate4 ,now mercury1 bulk for bulk1 is so much heavier than air1 that a stick or column of this liquid metal about #cj inches high weighs as much as a stick or column of air of same thickness reaching from the surface of the earth to the top of the atmosphere2 therefore1 the #cj-;inch stick of mercury balances the pressure of the many miles of atmosphere1 and is supported by it4 ,thus the column of mercury may be used to counterbalance the atmosphere and show us its weight2 and such a column of mercury is a barometer1 or 8weight measure40 ,the word barometer is compounded of the two ,greek words--baros1 weight1 and metron1 a measure4 ,if you take a glass tube a yard long1 stopped at one end and open at the other1 fill it with mercury1 stop the open end with your thumb1 then invert the tube and just dip the open end in a little cup of mercury1 some of the mercury in the tube will fall into the cup1 but not all2 only six inches will fall1 the other #cj inches will remain1 with an empty space between it and the stopped end of the tube4 ,when you have done this you will have made a rude barometer4 ,if you prop up the tube1 and watch it carefully from day to day1 you will find that the height of the column of mercury will continually vary4 ,if you live at the sea-level1 or thereabouts1 it will sometimes rise more than #cj inches above the level of the mercury in the cup1 and frequently fall below that height4 ,if you live on the top of a high mountain1 or on any high ground1 it will never reach #cj inches1 will still be variable1 its average height less than if you lived on lower ground2 and the higher you go the less will be this average height of the mercury4 ,the reason of this is easily understood4 ,when we ascend a mountain we leave some portion of the atmosphere below us1 and of course less remains above2 this smaller quantity must have less weight and press the mercury less forcibly4 ,if the barometer tells the truth1 it must show this difference2 and it does so with such accuracy that by means of a barometer1 or rather of two barometers--one at the foot of the mountain and one at its summit--we may1 by their difference1 measure the height of the mountain provided we know the rules for making the requisite calculations4 ,the old-fashioned barometer1 with a large dial-face and hands like a clock1 is called the 8wheel barometer10 because the mercury1 in rising and falling1 moves a little glass float resting upon the mercury of the open bent end of the tube2 to this float and its counterpoise a fine cord is attached2 and this cord goes round a little grooved wheel to which the hands are attached4 ,thus the rising and falling of the mercury moves the float1 the float-cord turns the wheel1 and the wheel moves the hand that points to the words and figures on the dial4 ,when this hand moves towards the right1 or in the direction of an advancing clock-hand1 the barometer is rising2 when it goes backwards1 or opposite to the clock-hand movement1 the mercury is falling4 ,by opening the little door at the back of such a barometer1 the above-described mechanism is seen4 ,in doing this1 or otherwise moving your barometer1 be careful always to keep it upright4 ,it sometimes happens to these wheel barometers that they1 suddenly cease to act2 and in most cases the owner of the barometer may save the trouble and expense of sending it to the optician by observing whether the cord has slipped from the little wheel1 and if so1 simply replacing it in the groove upon its edge4 ,if1 however1 the mischief is caused by the tube being broken1 which is seen at once by the mercury having run out1 the case is serious1 and demands professional aid4 ,the upright barometer1 which shows the surface of the mercury itself1 is the most accurate instrument1 provided it is carefully read4 ,this form of instrument is always used in meteorological observatories1 where minute corrections are made for the expansion and contraction which variations of temperature produce upon the length of the mercury without altering its weight1 and for the small fluctuations in the level of the mercury cistern4 ,with such instruments1 fitted with an apparatus called a 8vernier0 the height of the mercury may be read to hundredths of an inch4 ,the necessity for the #cj inches of mercury renders the mercurial barometer a rather cumbrous instrument3 it must be more than #cj inches long1 and is liable to derangement from the spilling of the mercury4 ,on this account portable barometers of totally different construction have been invented4 ,the 8aneroid0 barometer is one of these--the only one that is practically used to any extent4 ,it contains a metal box partly filled with air2 one face of the box is corrugated1 and so thin that it can rise and fall like a stretched covering of india-rubber4 ,as the pressure of the outside air varies it does rise and fall1 and by a beautifully-delicate apparatus this rising and falling is magnified and represented upon the dial4 ,such barometers are made small enough to be carried in the pocket1 and are very useful for measuring the heights of mountains2 but they are not quite so accurate as the mercurial barometer1 and are therefore not used for rigidly scientific measurements2 but for all ordinary purposes they are accurate enough1 provided they are occasionally compared with a standard mercurial barometer1 and adjusted by means of a watch-key axis provided for that purpose1 and seen on the back of the instrument4 ,they are sufficiently delicate to tell the traveller in a railway whether he is ascending or descending an incline1 and will indicate the difference of height between the upper and lower rooms of a three-story house4 ,with due allowance for variations of level1 the traveler may use them as weather indicators2 especially as it is the direction in which the barometer is moving 7whether rising or falling7 rather than its absolute height that indicates changes of weather4 ,thus by placing the aneroid in his room on reaching his hotel at night1 carefully marking its height then and there1 and comparing this with another observation made on the following morning1 he may use it as a weather-glass in spite of hill and dale4 ,water barometers have been made on the same principle as the mercury barometer2 but as water is #ac times lighter1 bulk for bulk1 than mercury1 the height of the column must be #ac times #cj inches1 or1 allowing for variations1 not less than #cd feet4 ,this1 of course1 is very cumbrous2 the evaporation of the water presents another considerable difficulty1#ba still such a barometer is a very interesting instrument1 as it shows the atmospheric fluctuations on #ac times the scale of the ordinary barometer4 ,a range of about five feet is thus obtained2 and not only the great waves1 but even the comparatively small ripples of the atmospheric ocean are displayed by it4 ,in stormy weather it may be seen to rise and fall and pulsate like a living creature1 so sensitively does it respond to every atmospheric fluctuation4 ,but why should the height of the barometer vary while it remains in the same place8 ,if the quantity of air surrounding the earth remains the same1 and if the barometer measures its weight correctly1 why should the barometer vary8 ,does the atmosphere grow bigger and smaller1 lighter and heavier1 from time to time8 ,these are fair questions1 and they bring us at once to some of the chief uses of the barometer4 ,the atmosphere is a great gaseous ocean surrounding the earth1 and we are creeping about on the bottom of this ocean4 ,it has its tides and billows and whirling eddies1 but all these are vastly greater than those of the watery ocean4 ,at one time we are under the crest or rounded portion of a mighty atmospheric wave1 at another the hollow between two such waves is over our heads1 and thus the depth of atmosphere1 or quantity of air1 above us is variable4 ,this variation is the combined result of many co-operating causes4 ,in the first place1 there are great atmospheric tides1 caused1 like those of the sea1 by the attraction of the sun and moon2 but these do not directly affect the barometer1 because the attracting body supports whatever it lifts4 ,variations of temperature also produce important fluctuations in the height and density of the atmosphere1 some of which are indicated by the barometer--others are not4 ,thus a mere expansion or contraction of dry air1 increasing the depth or the density of the atmospheric ocean1 would not affect the barometer1 as mere expansion and contraction only alter the bulk without affecting the weight of the air4 ,but our atmosphere consists not only of the permanent gases1 nitrogen and oxygen2 it contains besides these and carbonic acid1 a considerable quantity of gaseous matter1 which is not permanent1 but which may be a gas at one moment--contributing its whole weight to that of the general atmosphere--and at another moment some of it may be condensed into liquid particles that fall through it more or less rapidly1 and thus contribute nothing to its weight4 ,what1 then1 is this variable constituent that sometimes adds to the weight of the atmosphere and the consequent height of the barometer1 and at others may suddenly cease to afford its full contribution to atmospheric pressure8 ,it is simply water1 which1 as we all know1 exists as solid1 liquid1 or gas1 according to the temperature and pressure to which it is exposed4 ,we all know that steam when it first issues from the spout of a tea-kettle is a transparent gas1 or true vapor1 but that presently1 by contact with the cool air1 it becomes white1 cloudy matter1 or minute particles of water2 and that1 if these are still further cooled1 they will become hoar-frost or snow1 or solid ice4 ,artificial hoar-frost and snow may be formed by throwing a jet of steam into very cold1 frosty air4 ,if you take a tin canister or other metal vessel1 fill it with a mixture of salt with pounded ice or snow1 and then hold the outside of the canister against a jet of steam1 such as issues from the spout of a tea-kettle1 a snowy deposit of hoar-frost will coat the outside of the tin4 ,now let us consider what takes place when a warm south-westerly wind1 that has swept over the tropical regions of the ,atlantic ocean1 reaches the comparatively cold shores of ,britain4 ,it is cooled thereby1 and some of its gaseous water is condensed--forming mists1 clouds1 rain1 hoar-frost or snow4 ,the greater part of this forms and falls on the western coasts1 on ,cornwall1 ,ireland1 the ,western ,highlands of ,scotland4 ,ireland gets the lion's share of this humidity1 and hence her 8emerald0 verdure4 ,the western slope of a mountain1 in like manner1 receives more rain than the side facing the east4 ,how does this condensation affect the barometer8 ,it must evidently cause it to fall1 inasmuch as the air must be lightened to the exact extent of all that is taken out of it and precipitated4 ,but the precipitation is not completed immediately the condensation occurs4 ,it takes some time for the minute cloudy particles to gather into rain drops and fall to the earth1 while the effect of the condensation upon the barometer is instantaneous2 the air begins to grow lighter immediately the gas is converted into cloud or mist1 and the barometer falls just at the same time and same rate as this is produced2 but the rain comes some time afterwards4 ,hence the use of the barometer as a 8weather glass40 ,when intelligently and properly used it is very valuable in this capacity2 but1 like most things1 it may easily be misunderstood and misused4 ,the most common error in the use of the barometer is that to which people are naturally led by the words engraved upon it1 8,stormy1 ,much ,rain1 ,rain1 ,change1 ,fair1 ,set ,fair10 etc4 ,a direct and absolute blunder or falsehood is usually short-lived1 and deceives but few people2 but a false statement1 with a certain amount of superficial truth1 may survive for ages1 and deceive whole generations4 ,now this latter is just the character of the weather signs that are engraved on our popular barometers2 they are unsound and deceptive1 but not utterly baseless4 ,stormy1 ,much ,rain1 and ,rain are marked against the low readings of the barometer1 and ,very ,dry1 ,set ,fair1 and ,fair against the higher readings4 ,a low barometer is not a reliable sign of wet or stormy weather1 neither is a high barometer to be depended upon for expecting fine weather2 and yet it is true that we are more likely to have fine weather with a high than with a low barometer1 and also the liability to rain and storms is greater with a low than with a high barometer4 ,the best indications of the weather are those derived from the direction in which the barometer is moving--whether rising or falling--rather than its mere absolute height4 ,a sudden and considerable fall is an almost certain indication of strong winds and stormy weather4 ,this is the most reliable of the prophetic warnings of the barometer1 and the most useful1 inasmuch as it affords the mariner just the warning he requires when lying off a dangerous coast1 or otherwise in peril by a coming gale4 ,many a good ship has been saved by intelligent attention to the barometer1 and by running into haven1 or away from a rocky shore when the barometer has fallen with unusual rapidity4 ,the next in order of reliability is the indication afforded by a steady and continuous fall after a long period of fine weather4 ,this is usually followed by a decided change of weather1 and the greater the fall the more violent the change4 ,if the fall is slow1 and continues steadily for a long time1 the change is likely to be less sudden but more permanent1 i4e41 the rain will probably arrive after some time1 and then continue steadily for a long period4 ,in like manner1 a steady1 regular rise1 going on for some days in the midst of wet weather1 may be regarded as a hopeful indication of coming continuous fine weather--the more gradual and steady the rise1 the longer is the fine weather likely to last4 ,the least reliable of all the barometric changes is a sudden rise4 ,in winter it may be followed by hard and sudden frost1 in summer by sultry weather and thunder-storms4 ,all that may be safely said of such sudden rise is1 that it indicates a change of some sort4 ,the barometer is usually high with ,n4,e4 winds1 and low with ,s4,w4 winds4 ,the preceding explanations show the reason of this4 ,in a given place the extreme range of variation is from #b to #b inches4 ,it has been proposed that the following rules should be engraved on barometer-plates instead of the usual words3-- #ast4 ,generally1 the rising of the mercury indicates the approach of fair weather2 the falling of it shows the approach of foul weather4 #b;d4 ,in sultry weather1 the fall of the barometer indicates coming thunder4 ,in winter1 the rise of the mercury indicates frost4 ,in frost1 its fall indicates thaw1 and its rise indicates snow4 #c;d4 ,whatever change in the weather suddenly follows a change in the barometer1 may be expected to last but a short time4 #dth4 ,if fair weather continues for several days1 during which the mercury continually falls1 a long succession of foul weather will probably ensue2 and again1 if foul weather continues for several days1 while the mercury continually rises1 a long succession of fair weather will probably follow4 #eth4 ,a fluctuating and unsettled state of the mercurial column indicates changeable weather4 ,as the barometer is subject to slight diurnal variations1 irrespective of those atmospheric changes which affect the weather1 it is desirable in making comparative observations to do so at fixed hours of the day4 ,nine or ten in the morning and same hour in the evening are good times for observations that are to be recorded4 ,these are about the hours of daily maxima or highest readings due to regular diurnal variation4 ,the true reading of the barometer is the height at which it would stand if placed at the level of the sea at high tide2 but1 as barometers are always placed more or less above this level1 a correction for elevation is necessary4 ,when the height of the place is known this correction may be made by adding one tenth of an inch to the actual reading for every #he feet of elevation up to #eaj feet2 the same for every #ij feet between #eaj and #aadj feet1 for every #ie feet between #aadj and #aijj feet1 and for every #ajj feet above this and within our mountain limits4 ,this simple and easy rule is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes4 ,thus1 a barometer on ,bray ,head1 or any place #hjj feet above the sea1 would require a correction of six-tenths for the first #eaj feet1 and a little more than three-tenths more for the remaining #bij feet4 ,therefore1 if such a barometer registered the pressure at #bi-a_/aj1 the proper sea-level reading would be a little above #cj inches4 ,the most important prognostications of the barometer are those afforded by what is called the 8barometric gradient or incline10 showing the up-hill and down-hill direction of the atmospheric inequalities2 but this can only be ascertained by comparing the state of the barometer at different stations at the same time4 ,thus1 if the barometer is one-fourth of an inch higher at ,dublin than at ,galway1 and the intermediate stations show intermediate heights1 there must be an atmospheric down-hill gradient from ,dublin to ,galway2 ,dublin must be under the upper and ,galway under the lower portion of a great atmospheric wave or current4 ,it is evident that when there is thus more air over ,dublin than over ,galway1 there must follow 7if nothing else interferes7 a flow of air from ,dublin towards ,galway4 ,it is also evident that1 in order to tell what else may interfere1 we must know the atmospheric gradients beyond and around both ,dublin and ,galway1 and for considerable distances4 ,we are now beginning to obtain such information by organizing meteorological stations and observatories1 and transmitting the results of simultaneous observations by means of the electric telegraph to certain head-quarters4 ,the subject is occupying much attention1 and the managers of those splendid monuments of ,british energy--our daily newspapers--are publishing daily weather charts1 and therefore a few simple explanations of the origin1 nature1 and significance of such charts will doubtless be appreciated by our readers4 ,the grand modern improvement of the barometer1 the thermometer1 the anemometer1 the pluviometer1 etc41 is that of making them 8self-registering40 ,we are told that ,cadmus invented the art of writing1 and we honor his memory accordingly4 ,but he ventured no further than teaching human beings to write4 ,modern meteorologists have gone much further2 they have taught the winds and the rains and the subtle heavings of the invisible air to keep their own diaries1 to write their own histories on paper that is laid before them1 with pencils that are placed in their fleshless1 boneless1 and shapeless fingers4 ,this achievement is wrought by comparatively simple means4 ,the paper is wound upon an upright drum or cylinder1 and this cylinder is made to revolve by clock-work1 in such a manner that a certain breadth travels on during the twenty-four hours4 ,this breadth of paper is divided by vertical lines into twenty-four parts1 each of which passes onward in one hour4 ,connected with the barometer is a pencil which1 by means of a spring1 presses lightly upon the revolving sheet1 and this pencil1 while thus pressing1 rises and falls with the mercury4 ,it is obvious that1 in this manner1 a line will be drawn as the paper moves4 ,if the mercury is stationary1 the line will be horizontal--only indicating the movement of the drum2 if the mercury falls1 the line will slope downwards2 if it rises1 it will incline upwards4 ,by ruling horizontal lines upon the paper1 representing inches1 tenths1 and smaller fractions1 if desired1 the whole history of the barometrical movements will be graphically recorded by the waving or zigzag lines thus drawn by the atmosphere itself4 ,the subjoined copy of the ,daily ,telegraph ,barometer ,chart represents1 on a small scale1 a four days' history of barometrical movements3 ,the large figures at the side 7#bi and #cj7 represent inches2 the smaller figures tenths of inches4 ,illustration ,the pressure of the wind is similarly pictured by means of a large vane which turns with the wind1 and to the windward face of which a flat board or plate of metal1 one foot square1 is attached perpendicularly4 ,as the wind strikes this it presses against it with a force corresponding to a certain number of pounds1 ounces1 and fractions of an ounce4 ,a spring like that of an ordinary spring letter-balance is compressed in proportion to this pressure4 ,this movement of the spring is transmitted mechanically to another pencil like the above described1 working against the same drum2 thus another history is written on the same paper--the horizontal lines now representing fractions of pounds of pressure1 instead of fractions of inches of mercury4 ,it has been found that if a semi-globular cup of thin metal is exposed to the wind1 the pressure upon the round or convex side of the hemisphere is equal to two thirds of that upon the hollow or concave side4 ,by placing four such cups upon cross-arms1 and the arms on a pivot1 the wind1 from whatever quarter it may come1 will always blow them round with their convex faces foremost2 and they will move with one third of the actual velocity of the wind4 ,by a simple clock-work arrangement1 these arms move another pencil1 in such a manner that it strikes the paper hammer-fashion every time the wind has completed a journey of one mile1 or other given distance2 and thus a series of dots upon the revolving paper records the velocity of the wind according to their distances apart4 ,as the pressure of the wind is governed by two factors1 viz41 the density and velocity of the moving air1 the relations between the barometer curve1 the pressure curve1 and the velocity dots1 are very interesting4 ,the direction of the wind is written by a pencil fixed to a quick worm--a screw-thread upon the axis of the vane4 ,as the vane turns round--,n41 ,e41 ,s41 or ,w4--it screws the pencil up or down1 and thus the horizontal lines first described as registering tenths of inches of barometric pressure do duty as showing the points of the compass from which the wind is blowing2 and1 by reference to the zigzag line drawn by this pencil of the wind1 its direction at any particular time of day may be ascertained as certified by its own sign-manual4 ,the wind-gauge is called an anemometer4 ,connected with this is the pluviometer1 or rain-gauge--an upright vessel with an open mouth of measured area--say #ajj square inches4 ,this receives the rain that falls4 ,by means of a pipe the water is conveyed to a vessel having a surface of--say one square inch4 ,by this arrangement1 when sufficient rain has fallen to cover the surface of the earth to the depth of one hundredth of an inch1 the little vessel below will contain water one inch in depth4 ,by balancing this vessel at the end of a long arm1 it is made to preponderate gradually as the weight of water it receives increases1 and finally1 when filled1 it tips over altogether1 empties itself1 and then rises to its starting place in equilibrium4 ,to the other end of this arm a pencil is attached1 which inscribes all these movements on the revolving paper1 and thus tells the history of the rainfall4 ,the line is zigzag while the rain is falling1 and horizontal while the weather is fair4 ,the amount of inclination of the zigzag line measures the depth of rain by means of the same ruled lines on the paper as measure the height of the barometer1 etc4 ,every time the measuring vessel tips over a perpendicular line is drawn1 and the pencil resumes its starting level4 ,the papers containing these autographs of the elements may1 of course1 be kept as permanent records for reference whenever needed1 or the results may be tabulated in other forms4 ,there are many modifications in the details of these self-registering instruments4 ,in some of them photography is made to do a part of the work4 ,the above description indicates the main principles of their construction1 without attempting to enter upon minute details4 ,meteorological observatories are provided with these instruments1 and all nations worthy of the name of civilized co-operate with more or less efficiency in providing and endowing such establishments4 ,they are placed in suitable localities1 and communicate with each other1 and with certain head-quarters1 by means of the electric telegraph4 ,one of these head-quarters is the ,meteorological ,office1 at ,no4 #aaf ,victoria ,street1 ,westminster1 ,s4,w41 which daily receives the results of the observations taken at about fifty stations on the ,british ,islands and the ,continent4 ,the chief observations are made simultaneously--at #h ,a4,m4--and telegraphed in cypher to ,london1 where they usually arrive before #aj ,a4,m4 ,as they come in they are marked down in their proper places upon a large chart1 and when this chart is sufficiently completed1 a condensed or abstract copy is made containing as much information as may be included in the small newspaper charts4 ,this is copied mechanically on a reduced scale on a slab on which the outline chart has been already engraved4 ,this engraving completed1 casts are made in fusible metal with the black lines in relief1 for printing with ordinary type1 and the casts are set up with the ordinary newspaper types1 and printed with the letterpress matter4 ,the engravings overleaf are taken from two of the newspaper weather charts for the dates of ,october #eth and #fth4 ,they are enlarged and printed more clearly than the originals1 with an explanation of signs at foot of the charts4 ,it will be observed that1 in the chart for ,october #eth1 an isobar of #bi4b runs up in a ,n4,e4 direction from between the ,orkney and ,shetland islands1 crosses the ,north ,sea1 strikes the coast of ,norway near ,bergen1 and then proceeds onwards towards ,throndhjem4 ,an isobar of #bi4e crosses ,scotland1 following very nearly the line of the ,grampians1 enters the ,north ,sea about ,aberdeen1 and crosses to ,christiansund2 then runs up the ,skager ,rack and ,christiania ,fjord towards ,christiania4 ,another isobar of #bi4h crosses ,ireland through ,connaught to ,dublin1 onward across ,england by ,liverpool and the ,humber1 over the ,north ,sea1 and through ,sleswig to the ,baltic4 ,these three are nearly parallel2 but now we find another isobar--that of #cj4b--taking quite a different course1 by starting from the ,bay of ,biscay about ,nantes2 running on towards ,paris and ,strasbourg1 and then bending sharp round1 as though frightened by the ,germans1 and retreating to the ,gulf of ,lyons by an opposite course to that on which it started4 ,on the following day all has changed2 the northern isobars are running down south-eastwards instead of north-east1 and are remarkably parallel4 ,in the left-hand upper corner of this chart is a note that 8our west1 north1 and eastern coasts were warned yesterday40 ,why was this8 ,it was mainly because the barometric gradient or incline was so steep4 ,on the #eth there was one inch of difference between the ,orkneys and the ,bay of ,biscay1 or between ,bergen and ,paris1 while the barometer was still falling in ,norway and at the same moment rising in ,ireland and ,france4 ,on the following day these movements culminated in a gradient of #a4d--nearly one and a half inches--between ,cornwall and the ancient capital of ,norway4 ,illustration3 ,,weather ,,chart1 ,,october #e1 #ahge4 ,illustration3 ,,weather ,,chart1 ,,october #f1 #ahge4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,weather ,,chart4 ,in these charts the state of the sea--whether 8rough10 8smooth10 8moderate10 8slight10 etc41 is marked in capital letters2 and the state of the weather--as 8clear10 8dull10 8cloudy10 8showery10 etc41 in small letters4 ,the direction of the wind is indicated by the arrows4 ,unlike the arrows of a vane1 these do not point towards the direction from which the wind is coming1 but are flying arrows represented as moving with the wind1 and consequently pointing to where the wind is going4 ,the force of the wind is represented in five degrees of strength4 #ast4 ,a calm1 by a horizontal line and zero--#j thus #j2 #bnd4 ,a light wind1 by an arrow with one barb and no feathers 2 #crd4 ,a fresh to strong breeze1 by an arrow with two barbs and no feathers ------------2 #dth4 ,a gale1 by an arrow with two feathers ------------2 and #eth4 ,a violent gale1 by an arrow with four feathers ------------4 ,the temperature--in the shade--is marked in figures with a small circle to the right1 indicating degrees--as #fj4 ,these figures stand in the places where the observations are made4 ,the other figures--usually with decimals1 and placed at the end of the dotted lines--give the height of the barometer--the dotted line showing where this particular height remained the same at the time of observation4 ,these dotted lines are called 8isobars10 or equal weights--the weight or over-head pressure of the atmosphere being the same all along the line4 ,what must follow from this condition of the atmosphere8 ,clearly a great flow or rush of air from the south towards the comparatively vacuous regions of the north4 ,the gases of our atmosphere1 like the waters of the ocean1 are always struggling to find their level1 and thereby the winds are produced4 ,the air flows from all sides towards the lowest isobar4 ,but what1 then1 must be the course of the wind8 ,will it be in straight lines towards this point8 ,if so1 a strange conflict must result when all these currents meet from opposite directions4 ,what will follow from this conflict8 ,a skillful physicist can work out this problem mathematically1 but we are not all mathematicians1 some of us are not able to follow his formul1 and1 therefore1 will do better by resorting to simple observation of other analogous and familiar phenomena4 ,a funnel or any vessel with a hole in the bottom will answer our purpose4 ,let us fill such a vessel with water1 then open the hole1 and see what will be the course of the water when it is struggling to flow from all sides to the one point of vacuity4 ,it will very soon establish a vortex or whirlpool1 i4e41 the water instead of flowing directly by straight lines from the sides to the centre of the funnel1 will take a roundabout1 spiral course1 and thus screw its way down the outlet of the funnel4 ,this is just what occurs when the air is rushing to fill a comparatively vacuous atmospheric space4 ,it moves in a spiral2 and in the ,northern ,hemisphere this spiral always turns in the same way1 viz41 in the opposite direction to the hands of a clock when flowing inwards1 and vice vers1 or with the clock hands1 when the air is overflowing from a centre of high pressure4 ,in the chart for ,october #eth both these cases are illustrated4 ,north of ,dublin there is a curvature of isobars and an inrush of winds towards a northward low pressure1 or vacuous region2 while south of ,dublin the isobar tends sharply round a high-pressure focus1 and the overflowing wind is correspondingly reversed in direction1 as shown by the arrows4 ,the next chart1 for ,october #fth1 shows that the overflow has spread northwards as far as ,dublin1 and the high-pressure focus has also moved northwards4 ,it follows from this that if you know the barometric gradient1 and stand with your left hand to the region of low barometer and your right hand to that of the high barometer1 the wind will blow against your back1 i4e41 you will face the direction of the wind1 or of those flying arrows on the chart4 ,this interesting and important generalization is called 8,buys ,ballot's ,law40 ,in spite of the proverbial fickleness of the winds this simple law is rarely infringed1 though it may require a slight modification of statement--inasmuch as the wind does not move in circles round the vacuous space1 but in spirals1 and thus it blows not quite square to the back1 but rather obliquely1 or a little on the right side4 ,this is shown by the arrows in the charts1 and is most strikingly displayed in the chart for ,october #fth1 between the isobars of #cj4c and #cj4e4 ,to take1 in ,ireland1 the position required by ,buys ,ballot's ,law1 one must have stood facing the east1 and accordingly1 the westerly wind would then blow upon one's back4 ,in ,paris1 at the same moment1 the position would be facing south-east1 and the wind was curving round accordingly4 ,further south--at ,bordeaux or the ,pyrenees--the position becomes almost reversed1 i4e41 facing south-west1 and the wind is reversed in equal degree4 ,here1 then1 on these days we had the chief conditions of wind and rain1 a steep and increasing barometric gradient1 and a flow over our islands of humid air from the south and west regions of the great ,atlantic4 ,strong winds and heavy rains did follow accordingly2 and the prophetic warnings of the ,meteorological ,office1 which are conveyed by means of signals displayed on prominent parts of the coast1 were fulfilled4 ,mr4 ,scott1 the ,director of the ,meteorological ,office1 tells us that 8,the degree of success that has attended our warnings in these islands1 on the average of the last two years1 has been that over #de per cent have been followed by severe gales2 and over #cc per cent in addition have been followed by wind too strong for fishing-boats and yachts1 though in themselves not severe gales2 this gives a total percentage of success of nearly #hj40 ,in winter the movements of the air are more decided1 and the changes are often so rapid that the warning sometimes comes too late4 ,with increased means--i4e41 more money to cover additional work1 and more stations--better results might be obtained4 ,the ,united ,states expend #ej1jjjl4 a year in weather telegraphy1 exclusive of salaries1 while the ,united ,kingdom only devotes #c1jjjl4 a year to the same purpose4 ,the difficulties on our side of the ,atlantic are greater than on the ,american coasts1 on account of the greater changeableness of our weather--mainly due to the more irregular distribution of land and water on this side4 ,this1 however1 instead of discouraging national effort1 should be regarded as a reason for increasing it4 ,the greater the changes1 the greater is the need for warnings1 and the greater the difficulty the greater should be the effort4 ,with our multitude of coastguard stations and naval men without employment1 we ought to surpass all the world in such a work as this4 ,those among our readers who are sufficiently interested in this subject to devote a little time to it1 may make a very interesting weather scrap-book by cutting out the newspaper chart for each day1 pasting it in a suitable album1 and appending their own remarks on the weather at the date of publication1 i4e4 the day after the chart observations are made4 ,such an album would be far more interesting than the postage stamp and monogram albums that are so abundant4 ,parents who desire their children to acquire habits of systematic observation1 and to cultivate an intelligent interest in natural phenomena1 will do well to supply such albums to their sons or daughters1 and to hand over to them the daily paper for this purpose4 ,the ,meteorological ,office supplies by post copies of 8,daily ,weather ,reports0 to any subscriber who pays five shillings per quarter in advance2 such subscriptions payable to ,robt4 ,h4 ,scott1 ,esq41 ,director ,meteorological ,office1 #aaf ,victoria ,street1 ,westminster1 ,s4,w4 ,these daily reports are printed on a large double sheet1 on one half of which are four charts1 representing separately the four records which are included in the one smaller newspaper chart--viz41 those of the barometer1 the thermometer1 the rain-gauge1 and the anemometer4 ,on the other half of the sheet is a detailed separate tabular statement of the results of observations made at the following stations3 ,haparanda ,hernsand ,stockholm ,wisby ,christiansund ,skudesnaes ,ox 7,christiansund7 ,skagen 7,the ,skaw7 ,fan ,cuxhaven ,sumburgh ,head ,stornoway ,thurso ,wick ,nairn ,aberdeen ,leith ,shields ,york ,scarborough ,nottingham ,ardrossan ,greencastle ,donaghadee ,kingstown ,holyhead ,liverpool ,valencia ,roche's ,point ,pembroke ,portishead ,scilly ,plymouth ,hurst ,castle ,dover ,london ,oxford ,cambridge ,yarmouth ,the ,helder ,cape ,griznez ,brest ,l',orient ,rochefort ,biarritz ,corunna ,brussels ,charleville ,paris ,lyons ,toulon ,on ,winds and ,currents1 from the ,admiralty ,physical ,atlas4 ,in the ,northern ,hemisphere the effect of the veering of the wind on the barometer is according to the following law3 ,with ,east1 ,south-east1 and ,south winds1 the barometer falls4 ,with ,south-west winds1 the barometer ceases to fall and begins to rise4 ,with ,west1 ,north-west1 and ,north winds1 the barometer rises4 ,with ,north-east winds1 the barometer ceases to rise and begins to fall4 ,in the ,northern ,hemisphere the thermometer rises with ,east1 ,south-east1 and ,south winds2 with a ,south-west wind it ceases to rise and begins to fall2 it falls with ,west1 ,north-west1 and ,north winds2 and with a ,north-east wind it ceases to fall and begins to rise4 ,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,,bog ,,reclamation4 ,the mode of proceeding for the reclamation of bog-land at ,kylemore is first to remove the excess of water by 8the big drain and the secondary drains10 which must be cut deep enough to go right down to the gravel below4 ,these are supplemented by the 8sheep drains10 or surface-drains1 which are about twenty inches wide at top1 and narrow downwards to six inches at bottom4 ,they run parallel to each other1 with a space of about ten yards between1 and cost one penny per six yards4 ,this first step having been made1 the bog is left for two years1 during which it drains1 consolidates1 and sinks somewhat4 ,if the bog is deep1 the turf1 which has now become valuable by consolidation1 should be cut4 ,after this it is left about two years longer1 with the drains still open4 ,then the drains are cleared and deepened1 and a wedge-shaped sod1 too wide to reach the bottom1 is rammed in so as to leave below it a permanent tubular covered drain1 which is thus made without the aid of any tiles or other outside material4 ,the drainage is now completed1 and the surface prepared for the important operation of dressing with lime1 which1 as the people expressively say1 8boils the bog10 and converts it into a soil suitable for direct agricultural operations4 ,potatoes and turnips may now be set in 8lazy bed0 ridges4 ,mr4 ,mitchell ,henry says1 8,good herbage will grow on the bog thus treated2 but as much as possible should at once be put into root-crops1 with farm-yard manure for potatoes and turnips4 ,the more lime you give the better will be your crop2 and treated thus there is no doubt that even during the first year land so reclaimed will yield remunerative crops40 ,and further1 that 8after being broken up a second time the land materially improves1 and becomes doubly valuable40 ,also that he has no doubt that 8all bog-lands may be thus reclaimed1 but it is uphill work1 and not remunerative to attempt the reclamation of bogs that are more than four feet in depth40 ,there is another and a simpler method of dealing with bogs--viz41 setting them into narrow ridges2 cutting broad trenches between the ridges2 piling the turf cut out from these trenches into little heaps a few feet apart1 burning them1 and spreading the ashes over the ridges4 ,this is rather largely practiced on the coast of ,donegal1 in conjunction with sea-weed manuring1 and is prohibited in other parts of ,ireland as prejudicial to the interests of the landlord4 ,we shall now proceed to the philosophy of these processes4 ,first1 the drainage4 ,everybody in ,ireland knows that the bog holds water like a sponge1 and in such quantities that ordinary vegetation is rotted by the excess of moisture4 ,there is good reason to believe that the ancient forests1 which once occupied the sites of most of the ,irish bogs1 were in some cases destroyed by the rotting of their stems and roots in the excess of vegetable soil formed by generations upon generations of fallen leaves1 which1 in a humid climate like that of ,ireland1 could never become drained or air-dried4 ,but this is not all4 ,there is rotting and rotting4 ,when the rotting of vegetable matter goes on under certain conditions it is highly favorable to the growth of other vegetation1 even of the vegetation of the same kind of plants as those supplying the rotting material4 ,thus1 rotten and rotting straw is a good manure for wheat2 and the modern scientific vine-grower carefully places the dressing of his vines about their roots1 in order that they may rot1 and supply the necessary salts for future growth4 ,the same applies generally2 rotting cabbage-leaves supply the best of manure for cabbages2 rotting rhubarb-leaves for rhubarb2 rose-leaves for rose-trees2 and so on throughout the vegetable kingdom4 ,why1 then1 should the bog-rotting be so exceptionally malignant8 ,as ,i am not aware that any answer has been given to this question1 ,i will venture upon one of my own4 ,it appears to be mainly due to the excess of moisture preventing that slow combustion of vegetable carbon which occurs wherever vegetable matter is heaped together and slightly moistened4 ,we see this going on in steaming dung-hills2 in hayricks that have been stacked when imperfectly dried2 in the spontaneous combustion of damp cotton in the holds of ships1 and in factories where cotton-waste has been carelessly heaped2 and in cucumber-frames and the other 8hot-beds0 of the gardener4 ,in ordinary soils this combustion goes on more slowly1 but no less effectively1 than in these cases4 ,in doing so it maintains a certain degree of warmth about the roots of the plants that grow there1 and gradually sets free the soluble salts which the rotting vegetables contain1 and supplies them to the growing plants as manure1 at the same time forming the humus so essential to vegetation4 ,a great excess of water1 such as soddens the bog1 prevents this1 and also carries away any small quantity of soluble nutritious salts the soil may contain4 ,thus1 instead of being warmed and nourished by slight humidity1 and consequent oxidation1 the bog soil is chilled and starved by excess of water4 ,the absolute necessity of the first operation--that of drainage--is thus rendered obvious2 and ,i suspect that the need of four years' rest1 upon which ,mr4 ,mac,alister insists1 is somehow connected with a certain degree of slow combustion that accompanies and partially causes the consolidation of the bog4 ,i have not yet had an opportunity of testing this by inserting thermometers in bogs under different conditions1 but hope to do so4 ,the liming next demands explanation4 ,mr4 ,henry says that 8it leaves the soil sweetened by the neutralization of its acids40 ,in order to test this theory ,i have digested 7i4e41 soaked7 various samples of turf cut from ,irish bogs in distilled water1 filtered off the water1 and examined it4 ,i find that when this soaking has gone far enough to give the water a coloring similar to that which stands in ordinary bogs1 the acidity is very decided--quite sufficiently so to justify this neutralization theory as a partial explanation4 ,there is little reason to doubt that the lime is further effective in enriching the soil2 or1 in the case of pure bogs1 that it forms the soil by disintegrating and decomposing the fibrous vegetable matter1 and thus rendering it capable of assimilation by the crops4 ,another effect which the lime must produce is the liberation of free ammonia from any fixed salts that may exist in the bog4 ,the bog-burning method of reclamation is easily explained4 ,in the first place1 the excessive vegetable encumbrance is reduced in quantity1 and the remaining ashes supply the surface of the bog on which they rest with the non-volatile salts that originally existed in the burnt portions of the bog4 ,in other words1 they concentrate in a small space the salts that were formerly distributed too sparsely through the whole of the turf which was burnt4 ,as there are great differences in the composition of different bogs1 especially in this matter of mineral ash1 it is evident that the success of this method must be very variable1 according to the locality4 ,on discussing this method with ,mr4 ,mac,alister 7,mr4 ,henry's steward1 under whose superintendence these reclamation works are carried out71 he informed me that the bogs on the ,kylemore estate yield a very small amount of ash--a mere impalpable powder that a light breath might blow away2 that it was practically valueless1 excepting from the turf taken at nearly the base of the bog4 ,the ash ,i examined where the bog-burning is extensively practiced in ,donegal1 was quite different from this4 ,the quantity was far greater1 and its substance more granular and gritty4 ,it1 in fact1 formed an important stratum1 when spread over the surface of the ridges4 ,these differences of composition may account for the differences of opinion and practice which prevail in different districts4 ,it affords a far more rational explanation than the assumption that all such contradictions arise from local stupidities4 ,there is one evil1 however1 which is common to all bog-burning as compared with liming--it must waste the ammoniacal salts1 as they are volatile1 and are driven away into the air by the heat of combustion4 ,somebody may get them when the rain washes them down to the earth's surface again2 but the burner himself obtains a very small share in this way4 ,we may therefore conclude that where lime is near at hand1 bog-burning is a rude and wasteful1 a viciously indolent mode of reclamation4 ,it is only desirable where limestone is so distant that the expense of carriage renders lime practically unattainable1 and where the bog itself is rich in mineral matter1 and so deep and distant from a fuel demand1 that it may be burned to waste without any practical sacrifice4 ,under such conditions it may be better to burn the bog than leave it in hopeless and worthless desolation4 ,i cannot conclude without again adverting to the importance of this subject1 and affirming with the utmost emphasis1 that the true ,irish patriot is not the political orator1 but he who by practical efforts1 either as capitalist1 laborer1 or teacher1 promotes the reclamation of the soil of ,ireland1 or otherwise develops the sadly neglected natural resources of the country4 ,with ,mr4 ,mitchell ,henry's permission ,i append to the above his own description of the results of his experiment1 originally communicated in a letter to the ,times2 at the same time thanking him for his kind reception of a stranger at ,kylemore ,castle1 and the facilities he afforded me for studying the subject on the spot4 8,the interesting account you lately published of the extensive reclamations of ,his ,grace the ,duke of ,sutherland1 under the title of #8,an ,agricultural ,experiment1' has been copied into very many newspapers1 and must have afforded a welcome relief to thousands of readers glad to turn for a time from the terrible narratives that come to us from the east4 ,if you will allow me1 ,i should like to supplement your narrative by a rapid sketch of what has been done here during the last few years1 on a much humbler scale1 in the case of land similar1 and some of it almost identical1 with that in ,sutherlandshire4 8,the twelve corps d'arme under the ,duke's command1 in the shape of the twelve steam-engines and their ploughs1 engaged in subduing the stubborn resistance of the unreclaimed wilds of ,sutherlandshire1 suggest to the mind the triumphs of great warriors1 and fill us with admiration--not always excited by the details of great battle2 but1 as great battles can be fought seldom1 and only by gigantic armies and at prodigious expense1 so reclamation on such a scale is far beyond the opportunities or the means of most of us2 while many may1 perhaps1 be encouraged to attempt work similar to that which has been successfully carried out here4 8,and1 first of all1 a word as to the all-important matter of cost4 ,does it pay8 8,including farm-buildings and roads1 the reclamations here have cost on an average #acl4 an acre1 which1 at #e per cent1 means an annual rent-charge of #acs41 to which is to be added a sum of from #as4 to #cs41 the full annual value of the unreclaimed land4 ,it is obvious that if we start with an outlay of #cjl4 plus the #as4 to #cs4 of original rent1 such an amount would usually be found prohibitory2 but1 on the other hand1 excellent profits may be made if the expenditure is so kept down that the annual rent is not more than from #aes4 to #ahs4 per acre4 ,before entering into further details1 let me say that ,i claim no credit for originality in what has been done4 ,the like has been effected on numerous properties in ,ireland in bygone days1 and is daily being carried out by the patient husbandman who year by year with his spade reclaims a little bit from the mountain side4 ,and you must allow me emphatically to say that what has been done here economically and well would not have been done except for the prudence1 patience1 and thoughtful mind of my steward1 ,archibald ,mac,alister1 a ,county ,antrim man1 descended from one of the race of ,highland ,catholic ,scotch settlers1 who have peopled the north of ,ireland and added so much to its prosperity4 8,the ,pass of ,kylemore1 in which ,i live1 is undoubtedly favorably situated for reclamation1 for there is but little very deep bog1 and there is abundance of limestone4 ,in former ages it must have been an estuary of the sea1 with a river flowing through it1 now represented by a chain of lakes and the small rapid river ,dowris4 ,the subsoil is sand1 gravel1 and schist rock1 with peat of various depths grown upon it4 ,as by the elevation of the land the sea long ages ago was driven back1 the mossy growth of peat commenced1 followed by pine and yew trees1 of which the trunks and roots are abundantly found2 but1 except over a space of about #djj acres1 every tree that formerly clothed the hillsides has been cut down or has totally disappeared4 ,the general result is that we have a pass several miles long1 bounded on the north and south by a chain of rugged mountains of some #aejj or #ahjj feet in height1 while the east is blocked up by a picturesque chain running north and south1 and separating the ,joyce country from ,connemara proper1 the west being open to the ,atlantic4 ,the well-known ,killery ,bay1 or ,fiord1 would1 ,i doubt not1 present an exact resemblance to ,kylemore if the sea1 which now flows up to its head1 were driven out4 ,there are miles of similar country in ,ireland1 waiting only for the industry of man1 where1 as here1 there exist extensive stretches of undulating eskers1 covered with heather growing on the light clay1 with a basis of gravel or sand4 8,a considerable difference exists between the reclamation of the flat parts1 where the bog is pretty deep1 and the hillsides1 where there is little or no bog4 ,yet it is to be remembered that bog is nothing more than vegetable matter in a state of partial decomposition1 and holding water like a sponge4 ,the first thing is to remove the water by drains1 some of which--that is1 the big drain and the secondary drains--must go right down to the gravel below2 but the other drains--called sheep-drains--need not1 and1 indeed1 must not be cut so deep4 ,the drains are cut wedge-shape by what are called ,scotch tools1 which employ three men--two to cut and one to hook out the sods2 and all that is requisite to form a permanent drain is to replace the wedge-shaped sod1 and ram it down between the walls of the drain1 where it consolidates and forms a tube which will remain open for an indefinite number of years4 ,we have them here as good as new1 made twenty-five years ago2 and at ,chat ,moss1 in ,lancashire1 they are much older4 ,after land has been thus drained--but not too much drained1 or it will become dry turf--the surface begins to sink2 what was tumid settles down1 and in the course of a few months the land itself becomes depressed on the surface and much consolidated4 ,next it is to be dug by spade-labor or ploughed4 ,we use oxen largely for this purpose1 and1 strange to say1 the best workers we find to be a cross with the ,alderney1 the result being a light1 wiry little animal1 which goes gayly over the ground1 is easy to feed1 and is very tractable4 ,the oxen are trained by the old wooden neck-yoke2 but1 when well broken1 work in collars1 which seem more easy to them4 ,horses on very soft land work well in wooden pattens4 ,after the land has been broken up1 a good dressing of lime is to be applied to it1 and this1 in the expressive language of the people here1 #8boils the bog'--that is1 the lime causes the vegetable matter1 formerly half decomposed1 to become converted into excellent manure4 ,this leaves the soil sweetened by the neutralization of its acids1 and in a condition pretty easily broken up by the chain-harrow2 or1 what is better still1 by ,randall's ,american revolving harrow4 8,good herbage will grow on bog thus treated1 but as much as possible should at once be put into root-crops1 with farmyard manure for potatoes and turnips4 ,the more lime you give the better will be your crop1 and1 treated thus1 there is no doubt that even during the first year1 land so reclaimed will yield remunerative crops4 ,people ask1 #8,but will not the whole thing go back to bog8' ,of course it will if not kept under proper rotation1 which we find to be one of five years--namely1 roots followed by oats1 laid down with clover and grass seed1 which remains for two years4 ,after being broken up a second time1 the land materially improves and becomes doubly valuable4 ,i have no doubt that all bog-lands may be thus reclaimed1 but it is up-hill work and not remunerative to attempt the reclamation of bogs that are more than four feet in depth4 8,and here ,i will make a remark as to the effects of drainage in a wet country4 ,by no means does the whole effect result from raising the temperature of the soil2 there is something else as important1 and that is the supply of ammonia1 brought down from the skies in the rain1 which1 with other fertilizing matter1 is caught1 detained1 and absorbed in the soil4 ,a well-drained field becomes1 in fact1 just like a water-meadow over which a river flows for a part of a year2 and thus the very wetness of the climate may be made to reduce the supply of ammoniacal manures1 so expensive to buy4 8,the porous1 well-drained soil carries quickly off the superfluous moisture1 while the ammonia is absorbed by the roots and leaves of the plants4 ,an excessive bill for ammoniacal manures has been the ruin of many a farmer2 and our aim in ,ireland should be to secure good crops by thorough drainage and constant stirring of the soil1 without much outlay for concentrated manures4 ,at the same time ,i ought to remark that we have grown excellent potatoes by using #el4 worth per acre of superphosphate and nitrate of soda in cases in which our farmyard manure has fallen short4 8,the reclamation of mountain-land as distinguished from bog-land can best be illustrated by a record of what has been accomplished on two farms here4 ,three years ago the leases of two upland farms fell in1 and ,i took them into my own hands4 ,the first consists of #fjj acres1 one-half a nearly level flat of deepish bog running alongside the river1 the other half moor heath1 which with difficulty supported a few sheep and cattle4 8,there had never been any buildings on this land1 nor had a spade ever been put into it2 and the tenant1 being unable to pay his rent of #ael4 a year for the #fjj acres1 was glad to give it up for a moderate consideration4 ,the first thing accomplished was to fence and drain thoroughly as before described1 and the best half of the land was then divided into forty-acre fields4 ,exactly now two years ago--on ,september #aeth--a little cottage and a stable for a pair of horses and a pair of bullocks was completed and tenanted by two men and a boy4 ,they ploughed all the week and came home on ,saturdays to draw their supply of food and fodder for the ensuing seven days1 thus approximating very nearly to the position of settlers in a new country4 ,we limed all the land we could1 manured part of it with seaweed and part with the farm manure made by the horses and oxen which were at work1 and cropped with roots such as turnips and potatoes4 ,a good portion we sowed with oats out of the lea1 but the most satisfactory crop we found to be rape and grasses mixed1 for on the best of the land they form at once an excellent permanent pasture4 ,we have now had two crops from this land2 and ,i venture to say that the thirteen stacks of oats and hay gathered in in good condition1 and the turnips and roots now growing1 which are not excelled in the county ,galway--except those of ,lord ,clancarty at ,ballinasloe1 who has grown #aaj tons of turnips to the ,irish acre1 equal to upwards of #fh tons to the acre here--present a picture most gratifying and cheering in every way4 8,the second farm1 of #bdj acres1 which adjoins this1 had a good building on it2 but1 having been let on lease at about #ajs4 an acre to a large grazier whose stock-in-trade was a horse1 a saddle1 and a pair of shears1 had not been cultivated or improved4 8,similar proceedings on this farm have produced similar results2 and1 if now let in the market1 ,i have no doubt that after two years of good treatment these farms would be let at #bjs4 an acre1 and ,i do not despair of doubling this figure in the course of time4 8,the exact weight of the turnip crop this season is1 on raw bog1 drained1 limed1 and cropped this year for the first time1 #bd tons per acre2 manure1 seaweed4 ,on land ploughed but not cropped1 last year #bc tons2 mixed mineral manure4 ,on land from which a crop of oats had previously been taken1 #bi tons2 manure1 farmyard1 with #c cwt4 per acre mineral manure4 8,last year my excellent steward1 ,mr4 ,mac,alister1 visited the ,duke of ,sutherland's reclamations in ,scotland1 and was kindly and hospitably received4 ,he found the land and the procedure adopted almost identical1 with the conviction that oxen and horses will suit us better at the present time than steam culture1 chiefly on the score of economy4 ,he also visited the ,bridgewater ,estate at ,chat ,moss1 near ,manchester1 where so much has been done to bring the deep peat into cultivation1 and he found the system that has been followed there for so many years to be like that described above1 marl1 however1 being used in the place of lime40 ,at the time of my visit to ,kylemore the hay crops were down and partly carried on the reclaimed bog-land above described4 ,the contrast of its luxuriance with the dark and dreary desolation of the many estates ,i had seen during three summers' wanderings through ,ireland added further proof of the infamy of the majority of ,irish landlords1 by showing what ,ireland would have been had they done their duty4 ,,aerial ,,exploration ,,of ,,the ,,arctic ,,regions4 ,on our own hemisphere1 and separated from our own coasts by only a few days' journey on our own element1 there remains a blank circle of unexplored country above #hjj miles in diameter4 ,we have tried to cross it1 and have not succeeded4 ,nothing further need be said in reply to those who ask1 8,why should we start another ,arctic ,expedition80 ,the records of previous attempts to penetrate this area of geographical mystery prove the existence of a formidable barrier of mountainous land1 fringed by fjords or inlets1 like those of ,norway1 some of which may be open1 though much contracted northward1 like the ,vestfjord that lies between the ,lofoden ,islands and the mainland of ,scandinavia4 ,the majority evidently run inland like the ordinary ,norwegian fjords or the ,scotch firths1 and terminate in land valleys that continue upwards to fjeld regions1 or elevated humpy land which acts as a condenser to the vapor-laden air continually flowing towards the ,pole from the warmer regions of the earth1 and returning in lower streams when cooled4 ,the vast quantities of water thus condensed fall upon these hills and table lands as snow crystals4 ,what becomes of this everlasting deposit8 ,unlike the water that rains on temperate hill-sides1 it cannot all flow down to the sea as torrents and liquid rivers1 but it does come down nevertheless1 or long ere this it would have reached the highest clouds4 ,it descends mainly as glaciers1 which creep down slowly1 but steadily and irresistibly1 filling up the valleys on their way2 and stretching outwards into the fjords and channels1 which they block up with their cleft and chasmed crystalline angular masses that still creep outward to the sea until they float1 and break off or 8calve0 as mountainous icebergs and smaller masses of ice4 ,these accumulations of ice thus formed on land constitute the chief obstructions that bar the channels and inlets fringing the unknown ,polar area4 ,the glacier fragments above described are cemented together in the winter time by the freezing of the water between them4 ,an open frozen sea1 pure and simple1 instead of forming a barrier to arctic exploration1 would supply a most desirable highway4 ,it must not be supposed that1 because the liquid ocean is ruffled by ripples1 waves1 and billows1 a frozen sea would have a similar surface4 ,the freezing of such a surface could only start at the calmest intervals1 and the ice would shield the water from the action of the wave-making wind1 and such a sea would become a charming skating rink1 like the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 the ,swedish and ,norwegian lakes1 and certain fjords1 which1 in the winter time1 become natural ice-paved highways1 offering incomparable facilities for rapid locomotion4 ,in spite of the darkness and the cold1 winter is the traveling season in ,sweden and ,lapland4 ,the distance that can be made in a given time in summer with a wheeled vehicle on well-made post roads can be covered in half the time in a pulk or reindeer sledge drawn over the frozen lakes4 ,from ,spitzbergen to the ,pole would be an easy run of five or six days if nothing but a simply frozen sea stood between them4 ,this primary physical fact1 that arctic navigators have not been stopped by a merely frozen sea1 but by a combination of glacier fragments with the frozen water of bays1 and creeks1 and fjords1 should be better understood than it is at present2 for when it is understood1 the popular and fallacious notion that the difficulties of arctic progress are merely dependent on latitude1 and must therefore increase with latitude1 explodes4 ,it is the physical configuration of the fringing zone of the arctic regions1 not its mere latitude1 that bars the way to the ,pole4 ,i put this in italics because so much depends upon it--,i may say that all depends upon it--for if this barrier can be scaled at any part we may come upon a region as easily traversed as that part of the ,arctic ,ocean lying between the ,north ,cape and ,spitzbergen1 which is regularly navigated every summer by hardy ,norsemen in little sailing sloops of #cj to #dj tons burden1 and only six or eight pair of hands on board2 or by overland traveling as easily as the ,arctic winter journey between ,tornea and ,alten4 ,this trip over the snow-covered mountains is done in five or six days1 at the latter end of every ,november1 by streams of visitors to the fair at ,alten1 in latitude #gj1 #c degrees ,n4 of the ,arctic circle2 its distance1 #dcj miles1 is just about equal to that which stands between the ,north ,pole and the northernmost reach of our previous ,arctic expeditions4 ,one or the other of the above-named conditions1 or an enclosed frozen ,polar ocean1 is what probably exists beyond the broken fjord barrier hitherto explored2 a continuation of such a barrier is1 in fact1 almost a physical impossibility2 and therefore the ,pole will be ultimately reached1 not by a repetition of such weary struggles as those which ended in the very hasty retreat of our last expedition1 but by a bound across about #djj miles of open or frozen ,polar ocean1 or a rapid sledge-run over snow-paved fields like those so merrily traversed in ,arctic ,norway by festive bonders and their families on their way to ,yule-time dancing parties4 ,reference to a map of the circumpolar regions1 or1 better1 to a globe1 will show that the continents of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america surround the ,pole1 and hang1 as it were1 downwards or southwards from a latitude of #gj and upwards4 ,there is but one wide outlet for the accumulations of ,polar ice1 and that is between ,norway and ,greenland1 with ,iceland standing nearly midway4 ,davis's and ,behring's ,straits are the narrower openings2 the first may be only a fjord1 rather than an outlet4 ,the ice-block1 or crowding together and heaping up of the glacier fragments and bay ice1 is thus explained4 ,attempts of two kinds have been made to scale this icy barrier4 ,ships have sailed northwards1 threading a dangerous course between the floating icebergs in the summer1 and becoming fast bound in winter1 when the narrow spaces of brackish water lying between these masses of land ice become frozen1 and the 8ice-foot0 clinging to the shore stretches out seaward to meet that on the opposite side of the fjord or channel4 ,the second method1 usually adopted as supplementary to the first1 is that of dragging sledges over these glacial accumulations4 ,the pitiful rate of progress thus attainable is shown by the record of the last attempt1 when ,commander ,markham achieved about one mile per day1 and the labor of doing this was nearly fatal to his men4 ,any tourist who has crossed or ascended an ,alpine glacier with only a knapsack to carry1 can understand the difficulty of dragging a cartload of provisions1 etc41 over such accumulations of iceberg fragments and of sea-ice squeezed and crumbled up between them4 ,it is evident that we must either find a natural breach in this ,arctic barrier or devise some other means of scaling it4 ,the first of these efforts has been largely discussed by the advocates of rival routes4 ,i will not go into this question at present1 but only consider the alternative to all land routes and all water routes1 viz43 that by the other available element--an aerial route--as proposed to be attempted in the new ,arctic expedition projected by ,commander ,cheyne1 and which he is determined to practically carry out1 provided his own countrymen1 or1 failing them1 others more worthy1 will assist him with the necessary means of doing so4 ,to reach the ,pole from the northernmost point already attained by our ships demands a journey of about #djj miles1 the distance between ,london and ,edinburgh4 ,with a favorable wind1 a balloon will do this in a few hours1 ,on ,november #bg1 #ahgj1 ,captain ,roher descended near ,lysthuus1 in ,hitterdal 7,norway71 in the balloon 8,ville d',orleans10 having made the journey from ,paris in fifteen hours4 ,the distance covered was about #ijj miles1 more than double the distance between the ,pole and the accessible shores of ,greenland4 ,on ,november #g1 #ahcf1 ,messrs4 ,holland1 ,mason1 and ,green ascended from ,vauxhall ,gardens1 at #a4cj ,p4,m41 with a moderate breeze1 and descended eighteen hours afterwards 8in the ,duchy of ,nassau1 about two leagues from the town of ,weilburg10 the distance in a direct line being about #ejj miles4 ,a similar journey to this would carry ,commander ,cheyne from his ship to the ,north ,pole1 or thereabouts1 while a fresh breeze like that enjoyed by ,captain ,roher would1 in the same time1 carry him clear across the whole of the circumpolar area to the neighborhood of ,spitzbergen1 and two or three hours more of similar proceeding would land him in ,siberia or ,finland1 or even on the shores of ,arctic ,norway1 where he could take the ,vads or ,hammerfest packet to meet one of ,wilson's liners at ,trondhjem or ,bergen1 and thus get from the ,north ,pole to ,london in ten days4 ,lest any of my readers should think that ,i am writing this at random1 ,i will supply the particulars4 ,i have before me the 8,norges ,communicationer0 for the present summer season of #ahhj4 ,twice every week a passenger excursion steam packet sails round the ,north ,cape each way1 calling at no less than twenty stations on this ,arctic face of ,europe to land and embark passengers and goods4 ,by taking that which stops at ,gjesvaer 7an island near the foot of the ,north ,cape7 on ,saturday1 or that which starts from ,hammerfest on ,sunday morning1 ,trondhjem is reached on ,thursday1 and ,wilson's liner1 the 8,tasso10 starts on the same day for ,hull1 8average passage seventy hours40 ,thus ,hammerfest1 the northernmost town in the world1 is now but eight days from ,london1 including a day's stop at ,troms1 the capital of ,lapland1 which is about #c degrees ,n4 of the ,arctic circle1 and within a week of ,london4 ,at ,captain ,roher's rate of traveling ,troms would be but twenty-three hours from the ,pole4 ,these figures are1 of course1 only stated as possibilities on the supposition that all the conditions should be favorable1 but by no means as probable4 ,what1 then1 are the probabilities and the amount of risk that will attend an attempt to reach the ,pole by an aerial route8 ,i have considered the subject carefully1 and discussed it with many people2 the result of such reflection and conversation is a conviction that the prevalent popular estimate of the dangers of ,commander ,cheyne's project extravagantly exaggerates them on almost all contingencies4 ,i do not affirm that there is no risk1 or that the attempt should be made with only our present practical knowledge of the subject1 but ,i do venture to maintain that1 after making proper preliminary practical investigations at home1 a judiciously conducted aerostatic dash for the ,pole will be far less dangerous than the ,african explorations of ,livingstone1 ,stanley1 and others that have been accomplished and are proposed4 ,and further1 that a long balloon journey starting in summer-time from ,smith's ,sound1 or other suitable ,arctic station1 would be less dangerous than a corresponding one started from ,london2 that it would involve less risk than was incurred by ,messrs4 ,holland1 ,mason1 and ,green1 when they traveled from ,vauxhall ,gardens to ,nassau4 ,the three principal dangers attending such a balloon journey are3 #ast4 ,the variability of the wind4 #b;d4 ,the risk of being blown out about the open ocean beyond the reach of land4 #c;d4 ,the utter helplessness of the aeronaut during all the hours of darkness4 ,i will consider these seriatim in reference to ,arctic ballooning versus ,vauxhall or ,crystal ,palace ballooning4 ,as regards the first danger1 ,vauxhall and ,sydenham are in a position of special disadvantage1 and all the ideas we ,englishmen may derive from our home ballooning experience must tend to exaggerate our common estimate of this danger1 inasmuch as we are in the midst of the region of variable winds1 and have a notoriously uncertain climate1 due to this local exaggeration of the variability of atmospheric movements4 ,if instead of lying between the latitudes of #ej and #fj1 where the ,n4,e4 ,polar winds just come in collision with the ,s4,w4 tropical currents1 and thereby effect our national atmospheric stir-about1 we were located between #aj and #cj 7where the ,canary ,islands are1 for example71 our notions on the subject of balloon traveling would be curiously different4 ,the steadily blowing trade-wind would long ere this have led us to establish balloon mails to ,central and ,south ,america1 and balloon passenger expresses for the benefit of fast-going people or luxurious victims of sea-sickness4 ,to cross the ,atlantic--three thousand miles--in forty-eight hours1 would be attended with no other difficulty than the cost of the gas1 and that of the return carriage of the empty balloon4 ,it is our exceptional meteorological position that has generated the popular expression 8as uncertain as the wind40 ,we are in the very centre of the region of meteorological uncertainties1 and cannot go far1 either northward or southward1 without entering a zone of greater atmospheric regularity1 where the direction of the wind at a given season may be predicted with more reliability than at home4 ,the atmospheric movements in the ,arctic regions appear to be remarkably regular and gentle during the summer and winter months1 and irregular and boisterous in spring and autumn4 ,a warm upper current flows from the tropics towards the ,pole1 and a cold lower one from the ,arctic circle towards the equator4 ,commander ,cheyne1 who has practical experience of these ,arctic expeditions1 and has kept an elaborate log of the wind1 etc41 which he has shown me1 believes that1 by the aid of pilot balloons to indicate the currents at various heights1 and by availing himself of these currents1 he may reach the ,pole and return to his ship1 or so near as to be able to reach it by traveling over the ice in light sledges that will be carried for that purpose4 ,in making any estimate of the risk of ,arctic aerostation1 we must banish from our minds the preconceptions induced by our ,british experience of the uncertainties of the wind1 and only consider the atmospheric actualities of the ,polar regions1 so far as we know them4 ,let us now consider the second danger1 viz41 that of being blown out to sea and there remaining until the leakage of gas has destroyed the ascending power of the balloon1 or till the stock of food is consumed4 ,a glance at a map of the world will show how much smaller is the danger to the aeronaut who starts from the head of ,baffin's ,bay than that which was incurred by those who started from ,vauxhall in the ,nassau balloon1 or by ,captain ,roher1 who started from ,paris4 ,both of these had the whole breadth of the ,atlantic on the ,w4 and ,s4,w41 and the ,north ,sea and ,arctic ,ocean ,n4 and ,n4,e4 ,the ,arctic balloon1 starting from ,smith's ,sound or thereabouts1 with a wind from the ,south 7and without such a wind the start would not1 of course1 be made71 would1 if the wind continued in the same direction1 reach the ,pole in a few hours2 in seven or eight hours at ,roher's speed2 in fourteen or fifteen hours at the average rate made by the ,nassau balloon in a 8moderate breeze40 ,now look again at the map and see what surrounds them4 ,simply the continents of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 by which the circumpolar area is nearly land-locked1 with only two outlets1 that between ,norway and ,greenland on one side1 and the narrow channel of ,behring's ,straits on the other4 ,the wider of these is broken by ,spitzbergen and ,iceland1 both inhabited islands1 where a balloon may descend and the aeronauts be hospitably received4 ,taking the #cfj degrees of the zone between the #gjth parallel of latitude and the ,arctic circle1 #cbj are land-locked and only #dj open to the sea2 therefore the chances of coming upon land at any one part of this zone is as #cbj to #dj2 but with a choice of points for descent such as the aeronauts would have unless the wind blew precisely down the axis of the opening1 the chances would be far greater4 ,if the wind continued as at starting1 they would be blown to ,finland2 a westerly deflection would land them in ,siberia1 easterly in ,norway2 a strong ,e4 wind at the later stage of the trip would blow them back to ,greenland4 ,in all the above ,i have supposed the aeronauts to be quite helpless1 merely drifting at random with that portion of the atmosphere in which they happened to be immersed4 ,this1 however1 need not be the case4 ,within certain limits they have a choice of winds1 owing to the prevalence of upper and lower currents blowing in different and even in opposite directions4 ,suppose1 for example1 they find themselves ,n4 of ,spitzbergen1 where 8,parry's furthest0 is marked on some of our maps1 and that the wind is from the ,n4,e41 blowing them towards the ,atlantic opening4 ,they would then ascend or descend in search of a due ,n4 or ,n4 by ,w4 wind that would blow them to ,norway1 or ,w4,n4,w4 to ,finland1 or ,n4,w4 to ,siberia1 or due ,e4 back to ,greenland1 from whence they might rejoin their ships4 ,one or other of these would almost certainly be found4 ,a little may be done in steering a balloon1 but so very little that small reliance should be placed upon it4 ,only in a very light wind would it have a sensible effect1 though in case of a 8near shave0 between landing1 say at the ,lofodens or ,iceland1 and being blown out to sea1 it might just save them4 ,as already stated1 ,commander ,cheyne believes in the possibility of returning to the ship1 and bases his belief on the experiments he made from winter quarters in ,northumberland ,sound1 where he inflated four balloons1 attached to them proportionately different weights1 and sent them up simultaneously4 ,they were borne by diverse currents of air in four different directions according to the different altitudes1 viz41 ,n4,w41 ,n4,e41 ,s4,e41 and ,s4,w41 8thus proving that in this case balloons could be sent in any required direction by ascending to the requisite altitude4 ,the war balloon experiments at ,woolwich afford a practical confirmation of this important feature in aerostation40 ,cheyne proposes that one at least of the three balloons shall be a rover to cross the unknown area1 and has been called a madman for suggesting this merely as an alternative or secondary route4 ,i am still more lunatic1 for ,i strongly hold the opinion that the easiest way for him to return to his ship will be to drift rapidly across to the first available inhabited land1 thence come to ,england1 and sail in another ship to rejoin his messmates2 carrying with him his bird's-eye chart1 that will demonstrate once for all the possibility or impossibility of circumnavigating ,greenland1 or of sailing1 or sledging1 or walking to the ,pole4 ,the worst dilemma would be that presented by a dead calm1 and it is not improbable that around the ,pole there may be a region of calms similar to that about the ,equator4 ,then the feather-paddle or other locomotive device worked by man-power would be indispensable4 ,better data than we at present possess are needed in order to tell accurately what may thus be done4 ,putting various estimates one against the other1 it appears likely that five miles an hour may be made4 ,taking turn and turn about1 two or three aeronauts could thus travel fully #ajj miles per day1 and return from the ,pole to the ship in less than five days4 ,or take the improbable case of a circular wind blowing round the ,pole1 as some have imagined4 ,this would simply demand the working of the paddle always northwards in going to the ,pole1 and always southwards in returning4 ,the resultant would be a spiral course winding inwards in the first case1 and outwards in the second4 ,the northward or southward progress would be just the same as in a calm if the wind were truly concentric to the ,pole4 ,some rough approximation to such currents may exist1 and might be dealt with on this principle4 ,let us now consider the third danger1 that of the darkness4 ,the seriousness of this may be inferred from the following description of the journey of the ,nassau balloon1 published at the time3 8,it seemed to the aeronauts as if they were cleaving their way through an interminable mass of black marble in which they were imbedded1 and which1 solid a few inches before them1 seemed to soften as they approached in order to admit them still further within its cold and dusky enclosure4 ,in this way they proceeded blindly1 as it may well be called1 until about #c4cj ,a4,m41 when in the midst of the impenetrable darkness and profound stillness an unusual explosion issued from the machine above1 followed by a violent rustling of the silk1 and all the signs which might be supposed to accompany the bursting of the balloon4 ,the car was violently shaken4 ,a second and a third explosion followed in quick succession4 ,the danger seemed immediate1 when suddenly the balloon recovered her usual form and stillness4 ,these alarming symptoms seemed to have been produced by collapsing of the balloon under the diminished temperature of the upper regions after sunset1 and the silk forming into folds under the netting4 ,now1 when the guide rope informed the voyagers that the balloon was too near the earth1 ballast was thrown out1 and the balloon rising rapidly into a thinner air experienced a diminution of pressure1 and consequent expansion of the gas4 8,the cold during the night ranged from a few degrees below to the freezing point4 ,as morning advanced the rushing of waters was heard1 and so little were the aeronauts aware of the course which they had been pursuing during the night1 that they supposed themselves to have been thrown back upon the shores of the ,german ,ocean1 or about to enter the ,baltic1 whereas they were actually over the ,rhine1 not far from ,coblentz40 ,all this blind drifting for hours1 during which the balloon may be carried out to sea1 and opportunities of safe descent may be lost1 is averted in an ,arctic balloon voyage1 which would be made in the summer1 when the sun never sets4 ,there need be no break in the survey of the ground passed over1 no difficulty in pricking upon a chart the course taken and the present position at any moment4 ,with an horizon of #ej to #ajj miles' radius the approach of such a danger as drifting to the open ocean would be perceived in ample time for descent1 and as a glance at the map will show1 this danger cannot occur until reaching the latitudes of inhabited regions4 ,the ,arctic aeronauts will have another great advantage over those who ascend from any part of ,england4 ,they can freely avail themselves of ,mr4 ,green's simple but most important practical invention--the drag-rope4 ,this is a long and rather heavy rope trailing on the ground4 ,it performs two important functions4 ,first1 it checks the progress of the balloon1 causing it to move less rapidly than the air in which it is immersed4 ,the aeronaut thus gets a slight breeze equivalent to the difference between the velocity of the wind and that of the balloon's progress4 ,he may use this as a fulcrum to effect a modicum of steerage4 ,the second and still more important use of the drag-rope is the very great economy of ballast it achieves4 ,suppose the rope to be #ajjj feet long1 its weight equal to #a lb4 for every ten feet1 and the balloon to have an ascending power of #ej lbs4 ,it is evident that under these conditions the balloon will retain a constant elevation of #ejj feet above the ground below it1 and that #ejj feet of rope will trail upon the ground4 ,thus1 if a mountain is reached no ballast need be thrown away in order to clear the summit1 as the balloon will always lift its #ejj feet of rope1 and thus always rise with the up-slope and descend with the down-slope of hill and dale4 ,the full use of this simple and valuable adjunct to aerial traveling is prevented in such a country as ours by the damage it might do below1 and the temptation it affords to mischievous idiots near whom it may pass4 ,in the course of many conversations with various people on this subject ,i have been surprised at the number of educated men and women who have anticipated with something like a shudder the terrible cold to which the poor aeronauts will be exposed4 ,this popular delusion which pictures the ,arctic regions as the abode of perpetual freezing1 is so prevalent and general1 that some explanation is demanded4 ,the special characteristic of ,arctic climate is a cold and long winter and a short and hot summer4 ,the winter is intensely cold simply because the sun never shines1 and the summer is very hot because the sun is always above the horizon1 and1 unless hidden by clouds or mist1 is continually shining4 ,the summer heat of ,siberia is intense1 and the vegetable proportionately luxuriant4 ,i have walked over a few thousand miles in the sunny ,south1 but never was more oppressed with the heat than in walking up the ,tromsdal to visit an encampment of ,laplanders in the summer of #ahef4 ,on the #agth ,july ,i noted the temperature on board the steam packet when we were about three degrees north of the ,arctic circle4 ,it stood at #gg well shaded in a saloon under the deck2 it was #ib in the 8rk lugar10 a little smoking saloon built on deck2 and #ajh in the sun on deck4 ,this was out at sea1 where the heat was less oppressive than on shore4 ,the summers of ,arctic ,norway are very variable on account of the occasional prevalence of misty weather4 ,the balloon would be above much of the mist1 and would probably enjoy a more equable temperature during the twenty-four hours than in any part of the world where the sun sets at night4 ,i am aware that the above is not in accordance with the experience of the ,arctic explorers who have summered in such places as ,smith's ,sound4 ,i am now about to perpetrate something like a heresy by maintaining that the summer climate there experienced by these explorers is quite exceptional1 is not due to the latitude1 but to causes that have hitherto escaped the notice of the explorers themselves and of physical geographers generally4 ,the following explanation will probably render my view of this subject intelligible3 ,as already stated1 the barrier fringe that has stopped the progress of ,arctic explorers is a broken mountainous shore down which is pouring a multitude of glaciers into the sea4 ,the ice of these glaciers is1 of course1 fresh-water ice4 ,now1 we know that when ice is mixed with salt water we obtain what is called 8a freezing mixture0--a reduction of temperature far below the freezing point1 due to the absorption of heat by the liquefaction of the ice4 ,thus the heat of the continuously shining summer sun at this particular part of the ,arctic region is continuously absorbed by this powerful action1 and a severity quite exceptional is thereby produced4 ,every observant tourist who has crossed an ,alpine glacier on a hot summer day has felt the sudden change of climate that he encounters on stepping from terra firma on to the ice1 and in which he remains immersed as long as he is on the glacier4 ,how much greater must be this depression of temperature where the glacier ice is broken up and is floating in sea-water1 to produce a vast area of freezing mixture1 which would speedily bring the hottest blasts from the ,sahara down to many degrees below the freezing point4 ,a similar cause retards the beginning of summer in ,arctic ,norway and in ,finland and ,siberia4 ,so long as the winter snow remains unmelted1 i4e41 till about the middle or end of ,june1 the air is kept cold1 all the solar heat being expended in the work of thawing4 ,this work finished1 then the warming power of a non-setting sun becomes evident1 and the continuously accumulating heat of his rays displays its remarkable effect on vegetable life1 and everything capable of being warmed4 ,these peculiarities of ,arctic climate must become exaggerated as the ,pole is approached1 the winter cold still more intense1 and the accumulation of summer heat still greater4 ,in the neighborhood of the ,north ,cape1 where these contrasts astonish ,english visitors1 where inland summer traveling becomes intolerable on account of the clouds of mosquitoes1 the continuous sunshine only lasts from ,may #aa to ,august #a4 ,at the ,north ,pole the sun would visibly remain above the horizon during about seven months--from the first week in ,march to the first week in ,october 7this includes the effect of refraction and the prolonged summer of the northern hemisphere due to the eccentricity of the earth's orbit74 ,this continuance of sunshine1 in spite of the moderate altitude of the solar orb1 may produce a very genial summer climate at the ,pole4 ,i say 8may10 because mere latitude is only one of the elements of climate1 especially in high latitudes4 ,very much depends upon surface configuration and the distribution of land and water4 ,the region in which our ,arctic expedition ships have been ice-bound combines all the most unfavorable conditions of ,arctic summer climate4 ,it is extremely improbable that those conditions are maintained all the way to the ,pole4 ,we know the configuration of ,arctic ,europe and ,arctic ,asia1 that they are masses of land spreading out northward round the ,arctic circle and narrowing southward to angular terminations4 ,the southward configuration and northward outspreading of ,north ,america are the same1 but we cannot follow the northern portion to its boundary as we may that of ,europe and ,asia1 both of which terminate in an ,arctic ,ocean4 ,greenland is remarkably like ,scandinavia2 ,davis's ,strait1 ,baffin's ,bay1 and ,smith's ,sound corresponding with the ,baltic and the ,gulf of ,bothnia4 ,the deep fjords of ,greenland1 like those of ,scandinavia1 are on its western side1 and the present condition of ,greenland corresponds to that of ,norway during the milder period of the last glacial epoch4 ,if the analogy is maintained a little further north than our explorers have yet reached we must come upon a ,polar sea1 just as we come upon the ,white ,sea and the open ,arctic ,ocean if we simply travel between #djj and #ejj miles due north from the head of the frozen ,gulf of ,bothnia4 ,such a sea1 if unencumbered with land ice1 will supply the most favorable conditions for a genial arctic summer1 especially if it be dotted with islands of moderate elevation1 which the analogies of the known surroundings render so very probable4 ,such islands may be inhabited by people who cannot reach us on account of the barrier wall that has hitherto prevented us from discovering them4 ,some have even supposed that a ,norwegian colony is there imprisoned4 ,certainly the early colonists of ,greenland have disappeared1 and their disappearance remains unexplained4 ,they may have wandered northwards1 mingled with the ,esquimaux1 and have left descendants in this unknown world4 ,if any of ,franklin's crew crawled far enough they may still be with them1 unable to return4 ,in reference to these possibilities it should be noted that a barrier fringe of mountainous land like that of ,greenland and arctic ,america would act as a condensing ground upon the warm air flowing from the south1 and would there accumulate the heavy snows and consequent glaciers1 just as our western hills take so much of the rain from the vapor-laden winds of the ,atlantic4 ,the snowfall immediately round the ,pole would thus be moderated1 and the summer begin so much earlier4 ,i have already referred to the physical resemblances of ,baffin's ,bay1 ,smith's ,sound1 etc41 to the ,baltic1 the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 and ,gulf of ,finland4 ,these are frozen every winter1 but the ,arctic ,ocean due north of them is open all the winter1 and every winter4 ,the hardy ,norse fishermen are gathering their chief harvest of cod fish in the open sea around and beyond the ,north ,cape1 ,nordkyn1 etc41 at the very time when the ,russian fleet is hopelessly frozen up in the ,gulf of ,finland4 ,but how far due north of this frozen ,baltic are these open-sea fishing banks8 ,more than #ad degrees--more than double the distance that lies between the winter quarters of some of our ships in ,smith's ,sound and the ,pole itself4 ,this proves how greatly physical configuration and oceanic communication may oppose the climatic influences of mere latitude4 ,if the analogy between ,baffin's ,bay and the ,baltic is complete1 a ,polar sea will be found that is open in the summer at least4 ,on the other hand1 it may be that ranges of mountains covered with perpetual snow1 and valleys piled up with huge glacial accumulations1 extend all the way to the ,pole1 and thus give to our globe an arctic ice-cap like that displayed on the planet ,mars4 ,this1 however1 is very improbable1 for1 if it were the case1 we ought to find a circumpolar ice-wall like that of the antarctic regions2 the ,arctic ,ocean beyond the ,north ,cape should be crowded with icebergs instead of being open and iceless all the year round4 ,with such a configuration the ice-wall should reach ,spitzbergen and stretch across to ,nova ,zembla2 but1 instead of this1 we have there such an open stretch of arctic water1 that in the summer of #ahgf ,captain ,kjelsen1 of ,troms1 sailed in a whaler to lat4 #ha #cj without sighting ice4 ,he was then but #eaj geographical miles from the ,pole1 with open sea right away to his north horizon1 and nobody can say how much farther4 ,these problems may all be solved by the proposed expedition4 ,the men are ready and willing2 one volunteer has even promised #ajjjl4 on condition that he shall be allowed to have a seat in one of the balloons4 ,all that is wanted are the necessary funds1 and the amount required is but a small fraction of what is annually expended at our racecourses upon villainous concoctions of carbonic acid and methylated cider bearing the name of 8champagne40 ,arrangements are being made to start next ,may1 but in the meantime many preliminary experiments are required4 ,one of these1 concerning which ,i have been boring ,commander ,cheyne and the committee1 is a thorough and practical trial of the staying properties of hydrogen gas when confined in given silken or other fabrics saturated with given varnishes4 ,we are still ignorant on this fundamental point4 ,we know something about coal-gas1 but little or nothing of the hydrogen1 such as may be used in the foregoing expedition4 ,its exosmosis1 as proved by ,graham1 depends upon its adhesion to the surface of the substance confining it4 ,every gas has its own speciality in this respect1 and a membrane that confines a hydrocarbon like coal-gas may be very unsuitable for pure hydrogen1 or vice vers4 ,hydrogen passes through hard steel1 carbonic oxide through red-hot iron plates1 and so on with other gases4 ,they are guilty of most improbable proceedings in the matter of penetrating apparently impenetrable substances4 ,the safety of the aeronauts and the success of the aerial exploration primarily depends upon the length of time that the balloons can be kept afloat in the air4 ,a sort of humanitarian cry has been raised against this expedition1 on the ground that unnaturally good people 7of whom we now meet so many7 should not be guilty of aiding and abetting a scheme that may cause the sacrifice of human life4 ,these kind friends may be assured that1 in spite of their scruples1 the attempt will be made by men who share none of their fears1 unless the preliminary experiments prove that a balloon cannot be kept up long enough4 ,therefore the best way to save their lives is to subscribe at once for the preliminary expense of making these trials1 which will either discover means of traveling safely1 or demonstrate the impossibility of such ballooning altogether4 ,such experiments will have considerable scientific value in themselves1 and may solve other problems besides those of arctic exploration4 ,why not apply balloons to ,african exploration or the crossing of ,australia8 ,the only reply to this is that we know too little of the practical possibilities of such a method of traveling when thus applied4 ,hitherto the balloon has only been a sensational toy4 ,we know well enough that it cannot be steered in a predetermined line1 i4e41 from one point to another given point1 but this is quite a different problem from sailing over a given surface of considerable area4 ,this can be done to a certain extent1 but we want to know definitely to what extent1 and what are the limits of reliability and safety4 ,with this knowledge1 and its application by the brave and skillful men who are so eager to start1 the solution of the ,polar mystery assumes a new and far more hopeful phase than it has ever before presented4 ,,the ,,anglo-,,american ,,arctic ,,expedition4 ,commander ,cheyne has gone to ,america to seek the modest equipment that his own countrymen are unable to supply4 ,he proposes now that his expedition shall be 8,anglo-,american40 ,i have been asked to join an arctic council1 to coperate on this side1 and have refused on anti-patriotic grounds4 ,as a member of the former arctic committee1 ,i was so much disgusted with the parsimony of our millionaires and the anti-geographical conduct of the ,savile ,row ,mutual ,admiration ,society1 that ,i heartily wish that in this matter our ,american grandchildren may 8lick the ,britishers quite complete40 ,it will do us much good4 ,my views1 expressed in the 8,gentleman's ,magazine0 of ,july #ahhj1 and repeated above1 remain unchanged1 except in the direction of confirmation and development4 ,i still believe that an enthusiastic1 practically trained1 sturdy arctic veteran1 who has endured hardship both at home and abroad1 whose craving eagerness to reach the ,pole amounts to a positive monomania1 who lives for this object alone1 and is ready to die for it1 who will work at it purely for the work's sake--will be the right man in the right place when at the head of a modestly but efficiently equipped ,polar expedition1 especially if ,lieutenant ,schwatka is his second in command4 ,they will not require luxurious saloons1 nor many cases of champagne2 they will care but little for amateur theatricals2 they will follow the naval traditions of the old ,british 8sea-dogs0 rather than those of our modern naval lap-dogs1 and will not turn back after a first struggle with the cruel arctic ice1 even though they should suppose it to be 8paleocrystic40 ,,mr4 ,,walter ,,powell4 ,scientific aerostation has lost its most promising expert by the untimely death of ,walter ,powell4 ,he was not a mere sensational ballooner1 nor one of those dreamers who imagine they can invent flying machines1 or steer balloons against the wind by mysterious electrical devices or by mechanical paddles1 fan-wheels1 or rudders4 ,he perfectly understood that a balloon is at the mercy of atmospheric currents and must drift with them1 but nevertheless he regarded it as a most promising instrument for geographical research4 ,i had a long conference with him on the subject in ,august last1 when he told me that the main objects of the ascents he had already made1 and should be making for some little time forward1 were the acquisition of practical skill1 and of further knowledge of atmospheric currents2 after which he should make a dash at the ,atlantic with the intent of crossing to ,america4 ,on my part1 ,i repeated with further argument what ,i have already urged on page #aac of the 8,gentleman's ,magazine0 for ,july1 #ahhj1 viz41 the primary necessity of systematic experimental investigation of the rate of exosmosis 7oozing out7 of the gas from balloons made of different materials and variously varnished4 ,professor ,graham demonstrated that this molecular permeation of gases and liquids through membranes mechanically air-tight1 depends upon the adhesive affinities of particular solids for other particular fluids1 and these affinities vary immensely1 their variations depending on chemical differences rather than upon mechanical impermeability4 ,my project to attach captive balloons of small size to the roof of the ,polytechnic ,institution1 holding them by a steelyard that should indicate the pull due to their ascending power1 and the rate of its decline according to the composition of the membrane1 was heartily approved by ,mr4 ,powell1 and1 had the ,polytechnic survived1 would have been carried out1 as it would have served the double purpose of scientific investigation and of sensational advertisement for the outside public4 ,if the aeronaut were quite clear on this point--could calculate accurately how long his balloon would float--he might venture with deliberate calculation on journeys that without such knowledge are mere exploits of blind daring4 ,the varnishes at present used are all permeable by hydrogen gas and hydrocarbon coal-gas1 as might be expected1 priori1 from the fact that they are themselves solid hydrocarbons1 soluble in other liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons4 ,nothing1 as far as ,i can learn1 has yet been done with silicic or boracic varnishes1#bb which are theoretically impermeable by hydrogen and its carbon compounds2 but whether they are practically so under ballooning conditions1 and can be made sufficiently pliable and continuous1 are questions only to be solved by practical experiments of the kind above named4 ,now that the best man for making these experiments is gone1 somebody else should undertake them4 ,unfortunately1 they must of necessity be rather expensive4 ,,the ,,limits ,,of ,,our ,,coal ,,supply4#bc ,estimating the actual consumption of coal for home use in ,great ,britain at #aaj millions of tons per annum1 a rise of eight shillings per ton to consumers is equivalent to a tax of #dd millions per annum4 ,these are the figures taken by ,sir ,william ,armstrong in his address at ,newcastle last ,february4 ,as the recent abnormal rise in the value of coal has amounted to more than this1 consumers have been paying at some periods above a million per week as premium on fuel1 even after making fair deduction for the rise of price necessarily due to the diminishing value of gold4 ,are we1 the consumers of coal1 to write off all this as a dead loss1 or have we gained any immediate or prospective advantage that may be deducted from the bad side of the account8 ,i suspect that we shall gain sufficient to ultimately balance the loss1 and1 even after that1 to leave something on the profit side4 ,the abundance of our fuel has engendered a shameful wastefulness that is curiously blind and inconsistent4 ,as a typical example of this inconsistency1 ,i may mention a characteristic incident4 ,a party of young people were sitting at supper in the house of a colliery manager4 ,among them was the vicar of the parish1 a very jovial and genial man1 but most earnest withal in his vocation4 ,jokes and banterings were freely flung across the table1 and no one enjoyed the fun more heartily than the vicar2 but presently one unwary youth threw a fragment of bread-crust at his opposite neighbor1 and thus provoked retaliation4 ,the countenance of the vicar suddenly changed1 and in stern clerical tones he rebuked the wickedness of thus wasting the bounties of the ,almighty4 ,a general silence followed1 and a general sense of guilt prevailed among the revellers4 ,at the same time1 and in the same room1 a blazing fire1 in an ill-constructed open fire-place1 was glaring reproachfully at all the guests1 but no one heeded the immeasurably greater and utterly irreparable waste that was there proceeding4 ,to every unit of heat that was fully utilized in warming the room1 there were eight or nine passing up the chimney to waste their energies upon the senseless clouds and boundless outer atmosphere4 ,a large proportion of the vicar's parishioners are colliers1 in whose cottages huge fires blaze most wastefully all day1 and are left to burn all night to save the trouble of re-lighting4 ,the vicar diligently visits these cottages1 and freely admonishes where he deems it necessary2 yet he sees in this general waste of coal no corresponding sinfulness to that of wasting bread4 ,why is he so blind in one direction1 while his moral vision is so microscopic in the other8 ,why are nearly all ,englishmen and ,englishwomen as inconsistent as the vicar in this respect8 ,there are doubtless several combining reasons for this1 but ,i suspect that the principal one is the profound impression which we have inherited from the experience and traditions of the horrors of bread-famine4 ,a score of proverbs express the important practical truth that we rarely appreciate any of our customary blessings until we have tasted the misery of losing them4 ,englishmen have tasted the consequences of approximate exhaustion of the national grain store1 but have never been near to the exhaustion of the national supply of coal4 ,i therefore maintain most seriously that we need a severe coal famine1 and if all the colliers of the ,united ,kingdom were to combine for a simultaneous winter strike of about three or six months' duration1 they might justly be regarded as unconscious patriotic martyrs1 like soldiers slain upon a battle-field4 ,the evils of such a thorough famine would be very sharp1 and proportionally beneficent1 but only temporary2 there would not be time enough for manufacturing rivals to sink pits1 and at once erect competing iron-works2 but the whole world would partake of our calamity1 and the attention of all mankind would be aroused to the sinfulness of wasting coal4 ,six months of compulsory wood and peat fuel1 with total stoppage of iron supplies1 would convince the people of these islands that waste of coal is even more sinful than waste of bread1--would lead us to reflect on the fact that our stock of coal is a definite and limited quantity that was placed in the present storehouse long before human beings came upon the earth2 that every ton of coal that is wasted is lost for ever1 and cannot be replaced by any human effort1 while bread is a product of human industry1 and its waste may be replaced by additional human labor2 that the sin of bread-wasting does admit of agricultural atonement1 while there is no form of practical repentance that can positively and directly replace a hundredweight of wasted coal4 ,nothing short of the practical and impressive lesson of bitter want is likely to drive from our households that wretched fetish of ,british adoration1 the open 8,englishman's fireside40 ,reason seems powerless against the superstition of this form of fire-worship4 ,tell one of the idolaters that his household god is wasteful and extravagant1 that five-sixths of the heat from his coal goes up the chimney1 and he replies1 8,i don't care if it does2 ,i can afford to pay for it4 ,i like to see the fire1 and have the right to waste what is my own40 ,tell him that healthful ventilation is impossible while the lower part of a room opens widely into a heated shaft1 that forces currents of cold air through doors and window leakages1 which unite to form a perpetual chilbrain stratum on the floor1 and leaves all above the mantel-piece comparatively stagnant4 ,tell him that no such things as 8draughts0 should exist in a properly warmed and ventilated house1 and that even with a thermometer at zero outside1 every part of a well-ordered apartment should be equally habitable1 instead of merely a semicircle about the hearth of the fire-worshiper2 he shuts his ears1 locks up his understanding1 because his grandfather and grandmother believed that the open-mouthed chimney was the one and only true ,english means of ventilation4 ,but suppose we were to say1 8,you love a cheerful blaze1 can afford to pay for it1 and therefore care not how much coal you waste in obtaining it4 ,we also love a cheerful blaze1 but have a great aversion to coal-smoke and tarry vapors2 and we find that we can make a beautiful fire1 quite inoffensive even in the middle of the room1 provided we feed it with stale quartern loaves4 ,we know that such fuel is expensive1 but can afford to pay for it1 and choose to do so40 ,would he not be shocked at the sight of the blazing loaves1 if this extravagance were carried out8 ,this popular inconsistency of disregarding the waste of a valuable and necessary commodity1 of which the supply is limited and unrenewable1 while we have such proper horror of wilfully wasting another similar commodity which can be annually replaced as long as man remains in living contact with the earth1 will gradually pass away when rational attention is directed to the subject4 ,if the recent very mild suggestion of a coal-famine does something towards placing coal on a similar pedestal of popular veneration to that which is held by the 8staff of life10 the million a week that it has cost the coal consumer will have been profitably invested4 ,many who were formerly deaf to the exhortations of fuel economists are now beginning to listen4 8,forty shillings per ton0 has acted like an incantation upon the spirit of ,count ,rumford4 ,after an oblivion of more than eighty years1 his practical lessons have again sprung up among us4 ,some are already inquiring how he managed to roast #aab lbs4 of beef at the ,foundling ,hospital with #bb lbs4 of coal1 and to use the residual heat for cooking the potatoes1 and why it is that with all our boasted progress we do not now in the latter third of the nineteenth century1 repeat that which he did in the eighteenth4 ,the fact that the consumption of coal in ,london during the first four months of #ahgc has1 in spite of increasing population1 amounted to #di1gjg tons less than the corresponding period of #ahgb1 shows that some feeble attempts have been made to economize the domestic consumption of fuel4 ,one very useful result of the recent scarcity of coal has been the awakening of a considerable amount of general interest in the work of stock-taking1 a tedious process which improvident people are too apt to shirk1 but which is quite indispensable to sound business proceedings1 either of individuals or nations4 ,there are many discrepancies in the estimates that have been made of the total available quantity of ,british coal4 ,the speculative nature of some of the data renders this inevitable1 but all authorities appear to agree on one point1 viz41 that the amount of our supplies will not be determined by the actual total quantity of coal under our feet1 but by the possibilities of reaching it4 ,this is doubtless correct1 but how will these possibilities be limited1 and what is the extent or range of the limit8 ,on both these points ,i venture to disagree with the eminent men who have so ably discussed this question4 ,first1 as regards the nature of the limit or barrier that will stop our further progress in coal-getting4 ,this is generally stated to be the depth of the seams4 ,the ,royal ,commissioners of #ahgj based their tables of the quantity of available coal in the visible and concealed coal-fields upon the assumption that #djjj feet is the limit of possible working4 ,this limit is the same that was taken by ,mr4 ,hull ten years earlier4 ,mr4 ,hull1 in the last edition of 8,the ,coal ,fields of ,great ,britain10 p4 #cbf1 referring to ,professor ,ramsay's estimate1 says1 8,these estimates are drawn up for depths down to #djjj feet below the surface1 and even beyond this limit2 but with this latter quantity it is scarcely necessary that we should concern ourselves40 ,i shall presently show reasons for believing that the time may ultimately arrive when we shall concern ourselves with this deep coal1 and actually get it2 while1 on the other hand1 that remote epoch will be preceded by another period of practical approximate exhaustion of ,british coal supply1 which is likely to arrive long before we reach a working depth of #djjj feet4 ,the ,royal ,commissioners estimate that within the limits of #djjj feet we have hundreds of square miles of attainable coal capable of yielding1 after deducting #dj per cent for loss in getting1 etc41 #adf1dhj millions of tons2 or1 if we take this with ,mr4 ,hull's deduction of one-twentieth for seams under two feet in thickness1 there remains #aci1jjj millions of tons1 which1 at present rate of consumption1 would last about #abjj years4 ,but the rate of consumption is annually increasing1 not merely on account of increasing population1 but also from the fact that mechanical inventions are perpetually superseding hand labor1 and the source of power in such cases1 is usually derived from coal4 ,this consideration induced ,professor ,jevons1 in #ahfe1 to estimate that between #ahfa and #ahga the consumption would increase from #hc1ejj1jjj tons to #aah1jjj1jjj tons4 ,mr4 ,hunt's official return for #ahga shows that this estimate was a close approximation to the truth1 the actual total for #ahga having been #aag1ceb1jbh tons4 ,at this rate of an arithmetical increase of three and a half tons per annum1 #aci1jjj millions of tons would last but #bej years4 ,mr4 ,hull1 taking the actual increase at three millions of tons per annum1 extends it to #bgf years4 ,hitherto the annual increase has followed a geometrical1 rather than arithmetical progress1 and those who anticipate a continuance of this allow us a much shorter lease of our coal treasures4 ,mr4 ,price ,williams maintains that the increase will proceed in a diminishing ratio like that of the increase of population2 and upon this basis he has calculated that the annual consumption will amount to #bgd millions of tons a hundred years hence1 and the whole available stock of coal will last about #cfj years4 ,the latest returns show1 for #ahgb1 an output of #abc1edf1geh tons1 which1 compared with #ahga1 gives a rate of increase of more than double the estimate of ,mr4 ,hull1 and indicate that prices have not yet risen sufficiently to check the geometrical rate of increase4#bd ,mr ,hull very justly points out the omission in those estimates which do not 8take into account the diminishing ratio at which coal must be consumed when it becomes scarcer and more expensive20 but1 on the other hand1 he omits the opposite influence of increasing prices on production1 which has been strikingly illustrated by the extraordinary number of new coal-mining enterprises that have been launched during the last six months4 ,if we continue as we are now proceeding1 a practical and permanent coal famine will be upon us within the lifetime of many of the present generation4 ,by such a famine1 ,i do not mean an actual exhaustion of our coal seams 7which will never be effected71 but such a scarcity and rise of prices as shall annihilate the most voracious of our coal-consuming industries1 those which depend upon abundance of cheap coal1 such as the manufacture of pig-iron1 etc4#be ,the action of increasing prices has been but lightly considered hitherto1 though its importance is paramount in determining the limits of our coal supply2 ,i even venture so far as to affirm that it is not the depth of the coal seams1 not the increasing temperature nor pressure as we proceed downwards1 nor even thinness of seam1 that will practically determine the limits of ,british coal-getting1 but simply the price per ton at the pit's mouth4 ,in proof of this1 ,i may appeal to actual practice4 ,mr4 ,hull and others have estimated the working limit of thinness at two feet1 and agree in regarding thinner seams than this as unworkable4 ,this is unquestionably correct so long as the getting is effected in the usual manner4 ,a collier cannot lie down and hew a much thinner seam than this1 if he works as colliers work at present4 ,but the lead and copper miners succeed in working far thinner lodes1 even down to the thickness of a few inches1 and the gold-digger crushes the hardest component of the earth's crust to obtain barely visible grains of the precious metal4 ,this extension of effort is entirely determined by market value4 ,at a sufficiently high price the two-feet limit of coal-getting would vanish1 and the collier would work after the manner of the lead-miner4 ,we may safely apply the same reasoning to the limits of depth4 ,the #djjj feet limit of the ,royal ,commissioners is at present unattainable1 simply because the immediately prospective price of coal would not cover the cost of such deep sinking and working2 but as prices go up1 pits will go down1 deeper and deeper still4 ,the obstacles which are assumed to determine the #djjj feet limit are increasing density due to greater pressure1 and the elevation of temperature which proceeds as we go downwards4 ,the first of these difficulties has1 ,i suspect1 been very much overstated1 if not altogether misunderstood2 though it is but fair to add that ,mr4 ,hull1 who most prominently dwells upon it1 does so with all just and philosophic caution4 ,he says that 8it is impossible to speak with certainty of the effect of the accumulative weight of #cjjj or #djjj feet of strata on mining operations4 ,in all probability one effect would be to increase the density of the coal itself1 and of its accompanying strata1 so as to increase the difficulty of excavating10 and he concludes by stating that 8in the face of these two obstacles--temperature and pressure1 ever increasing with the depth--,i have considered it utopian to include in calculations having reference to coal supply any quantity1 however considerable1 which lies at a greater depth than #djjj feet4 ,beyond that depth ,i do not believe that it will be found practicable to penetrate4 ,nature rises up1 and presents insurmountable barriers40#bf ,on one point ,i differ entirely from ,mr4 ,hull1 viz41 the conclusion that the increased 8density of the coal itself and of its accompanying strata0 will offer any serious obstacle4 ,on the contrary1 there is good reason to believe that such density is one of the essential conditions for working deep coal4 ,even at present depths of working1 density and hardness of the accompanying strata is one of the most important aids to easy and cheap coal-getting4 ,with a dense roof and floor the collier works vigorously and fearlessly1 and he escapes the serious cost of timbering4 ,those who have never been underground1 and only read of colliery disasters1 commonly regard the fire-damp and choke-damp as the collier's most deadly enemies1 but the collier himself has quite as much dread of a rotten roof as of either of these3 he knows by sad experience how much bruising1 and maiming1 and crushing of human limbs are due to the friability of the rock above his head4 ,mr4 ,hull quotes the case of the ,dunkinfield colliery1 where1 at a depth of about #bejj feet1 the pressure is 8so resistless as to crush in circular arches of brick four feet thick10 and to snap a cast-iron pillar in twain2 but he does not give any account of the density of the accompanying strata at the place of these occurrences4 ,i suspect that it was simply a want of density that allowed the superincumbent pressure to do such mischief4 ,the circular arches of brick four feet thick were but poor substitutes for a roof of solid rock of #dj or #djj feet in thickness2 an arch cut in such a rock would be all key-stone3 and ,i may safely venture to affirm that if1 in the deep sinkings of the future1 we do encounter the increased density which ,mr4 ,hull anticipates1 this will be altogether advantageous4 ,i fear1 however1 that it will not be so1 that the chief difficulty of deep coal-mining will arise from occasional 8running in0 due to deficient density1 and that this difficulty will occur in about the same proportion of cases as at present1 but will operate more seriously at the greater depths4 ,a very interesting subject for investigation is hereby suggested4 ,do rocks of given composition and formation increase in density as they dip downwards2 and if so1 does this increase of density follow any law by which we may determine whether their power of resisting superincumbent pressure increases in any approach to the ratio of the increasing pressure to which they are naturally subjected8 ,if the increasing density and power of resistance reaches or exceeds this ratio1 deep mining has nothing to fear from pressure4 ,if they fall short of it1 the difficulties arising from pressure may be serious4 ,friability1 viscosity1 and power of resisting a crushing strain must be considered in reference to this question4 ,mr4 ,hull has collected a considerable amount of data bearing upon the rate of increase of temperature with depth4 ,his conclusions give a greater rate of increase than is generally stated by geologists2 but for the present argument ,i will accept1 without prejudice1 as the lawyers say1 his basis of a range of #a ,f4 for #fj feet4 ,according to this1 the rocks will reach #ii4f1 a little above blood-heat1 at #cjjj feet1 and #aaf4c at the supposed limit of #djjj feet4 ,it is assumed by ,mr4 ,hull1 by the ,commissioners1 and most other authorities1 that this rock temperature of #aaf will limit the possibilities of coal-mining4 ,at the average prices of the last three years1 or the prospective prices of the next three years1 this temperature may be1 like difficulties of the thin seams1 an insurmountable barrier2 but ,i contend that at higher prices we may work coal at this1 and even far higher1 rock temperatures2 that it matters not how high the thermometer rises as we descend1 we shall still go lower and still get coal so long as prices rise with the mercury4 ,given this condition1 and ,i have no doubt that coal may be worked where the rock temperature shall reach or even exceed #bab4 ,i do not say that we shall actually work coal at such depths2 but if we do not1 the reason will be1 not that the thermometer is too high1 but that prices are too low2 in other words1 value1 not temperature1 will determine the working limits4 ,mr4 ,leifchild1 in the last number of the 8,edinburgh ,review10 in discussing this question1 tells us that 8the normal heat of our blood is #ih1 and fever heat commences at #ajj1 and the extreme limit of fever heat may be taken at #aab4 ,dr4 ,thudichum1 a physician who has specially investigated this subject1 has concluded from experiments on his own body at high temperatures1 that at a heat of #adj no work whatever could be carried on1 and that at a temperature of from #acj to #adj only a very small amount of labor1 and that at short periods1 was practicable2 and further1 that human labor daily1 and at ordinary periods1 is limited by #ajj of temperature1 as a fixed point1 and then the air must be dry1 for in moist air he did not think men could endure ordinary labor at a temperature exceeding #ij40 ,it may be presumptuous on my part to dispute the conclusions of a physician on such a subject1 but ,i do so nevertheless1 as the data required are simple practical facts such as are better obtained by furnace-working than by sick-room experience4 ,during the hottest days of the summer of #ahfh ,i was engaged in making some experiments in the re-heating furnaces at ,sir ,john ,brown ,co4's works1 ,sheffield1 and carried a thermometer about with me which ,i suspended in various places where the men were working4 ,at the place where ,i was chiefly engaged 7a corner between two sets of furnaces71 the thermometer1 suspended in a position where it was not affected by direct radiations from the open furnaces1 stood at #abj while the furnace doors were shut4 ,the radiant heat to which the men themselves were exposed while making their greatest efforts in placing and removing the piles was far higher than this1 but ,i cannot state it1 not having placed the thermometer in the position of the men4 ,in one of the ,bessemer pits the thermometer reached #adj1 and men worked there at a kind of labor demanding great muscular effort4 ,it is true that during this same week the puddlers were compelled to leave their work2 but the tremendous amount of concentrated exertion demanded of the puddler in front of a furnace1 which1 during the time of removing the balls1 radiates a degree of heat quite sufficient to roast a sirloin of beef if placed in the position of the puddles hands1 is beyond comparison with that which would be demanded of a collier working even at a depth giving a theoretical rock temperature of #bab1 and aided by the coal-cutting and other machinery that sufficiently high prices would readily command4 ,in some of the operations of glass-making1 the ordinary summer working temperature is considerably above #ajj1 and the radiant neat to which the workmen are subjected far exceeds #bab4 ,this is the case during a 8pot setting10 and in the ordinary work of flashing crown glass4 ,as regards the mere endurance of a high temperature1 the well-known experiments of ,blagden1 ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 and others have shown that the human body can endure for short periods a temperature of #bfj ,f41 and upwards4 ,my own experience of furnace-work1 and of ,turkish baths1 quite satisfies me that ,i could do a fair day's work of six or eight hours in a temperature of #acj ,f41 provided ,i were free from the encumbrances of clothing1 and had access to abundance of tepid water4 ,this in a still atmosphere2 but with a moving current of dry air capable of promoting vigorous evaporation from the skin1 ,i suspect that the temperature might be ten or fifteen degrees higher4 ,i enjoy ordinary walking exercise in a well-ventilated ,turkish bath at #aej1 and can endure it at #ahj4 ,in order to obtain further information on this point1 ,i have written to ,mr4 ,tyndall1 the proprietor of the ,turkish baths at ,newington ,butts4 ,he is an architect1 who has had considerable experience in the employment of workmen and in the construction of ,turkish baths and other hot-air chambers4 ,he says3 8,shampooers work in my establishment from four to five hours at a time in a moist atmosphere at a temperature ranging from #aje to #aaj4 ,i have myself worked twenty hours out of twenty-four in one day in a temperature over #aaj4 ,once for one half-hour ,i shampooed in #ahe4 ,at the enamel works in ,pimlico1 belonging to ,mr4 ,mackenzie1 men work daily in a heat of over #cjj4 ,the moment a man working in a #aaj heat begins to drink alcohol1 his tongue gets parched1 and he is obliged to continue drinking while at work1 and the brain gets so excited that he cannot do half the amount4 ,i painted my skylights1 taking me about four hours1 at a temperature of about #ade2 also the hottest room skylights1 which took me one hour1 coming out at intervals for 8a cooler10 at a temperature of #ahj4 ,i may add in conclusion1 that a man can work well in a moist temperature of #aaj if he perspires freely40 ,the following1 by a writer whose testimony may be safely accepted1 is extracted from an account of ordinary passenger ships of the ,red ,sea1 in the 8,illustrated ,news10 of ,november #i1 #ahgb3 8,the temperature in the stoke-hole was #ade4 ,the floor of this warm region is close to the ship's keel1 so it is very far below4 ,there are twelve boilers1 six on each side1 each with a blazing furnace1 which has to be opened at regular intervals to put in new coals1 or to be poked up with long iron rods4 ,this is the duty of the poor wretches who are doomed to this work4 ,it is hard to believe that human beings could be got to labor under such conditions1 yet such persons are to be found4 ,the work of stoking or feeding the fires is usually done by ,arabs1 while the work of bringing the coal from the bunkers is done by sidi-wallahs or negroes4 ,at times some of the more intelligent of these are promoted to the stoking4 ,the negroes who do this kind of work come from ,zanzibar4 ,they are generally short men1 with strong limbs1 round bullet heads1 and the very best of good nature in their dispositions4 ,some of them will work half an hour in such a place as the stoke-hole without a drop of perspiration on their dark skins4 ,others1 particularly the ,arabs1 when it is so hot as it often is in the ,red ,sea1 have to be carried up in a fainting condition1 and are restored to animation by dashing buckets of water over them as they lie on deck40 ,it must be remembered that the theoretical temperature of #aaf at #djjj feet1 the #acc at #ejjj feet1 or the #aej at #fjjj feet1 are the temperatures of the undisturbed rock2 that this rock is a bad conductor of heat1 whose surface may be considerably cooled by radiation and convection2 and therefore we are by no means to regard the rock temperature as that of the air of the roads and workings of the deep coal-pits of the future4#bg ,it is true that the ,royal ,commissioners have collected many facts showing that the actual difference between the face of the rocks of certain pits and the air passing through them is but small2 but these data are not directly applicable to the question under consideration for the three following reasons3 ,first4 ,the comparisons are made between the temperature of the air and the actual temperature of the opened and already cooled strata1 while the question to be solved is the difference between the theoretical temperature of the unopened earth depths and that of the air in roads and working's to be opened through them4 ,second4 ,the cooling effect of ventilation must 7as the ,commissioners themselves state7 increase in a ratio which 8somewhat exceeds the ratio of the difference between the temperature of the air and that of the surrounding surface with which it is in contact40 ,thus1 the lower we proceed the more and more effectively cooling must a given amount of ventilation become4 ,the third1 and by far the most important1 reason is1 that in the deep mining of the future1 special means will be devised and applied to the purpose of lowering the temperature of the workings2 that as the descending efforts of the collier increase with the ascending value of the coal1 a new problem will be offered for solution1 and the method of working coal will be altered accordingly4 ,in the cases quoted by the ,commissioners1 the few degrees of cooling were effected by a system of ventilation that was devised to meet the requirements of respiration1 and not for the purpose of cooling the mine4 ,it would be very presumptuous for anyone in #ahgc to say how this special cooling will actually be effected1 but ,i will nevertheless venture to indicate one or two principles which may be applied to the solution of the problem4 ,first of all1 it must be noted that very deep mines are usually dry2 and there is good reason to believe that1 before reaching the ,commissioners' limit of #djjj feet1 dry mining would be the common1 and at and below #djjj feet the universal1 case4 ,at present we usually obtain coal from water-bearing strata1 and all our arrangements are governed by this very serious contingency4 ,with water removed1 the whole system of coal-mining may be revolutionized1 and thus the aspect of this problem of cooling the workings would become totally changed4 ,those who are acquainted with the present practice of mining are aware that when an estate is taken1 and about to be worked for coal1 the first question to be decided is the dip of the measures1 in order that the sinking may be made 8on the deep0 of the whole range4 ,the pits are not sunk at that part of the same range where1 at first sight1 the coal appears the most accessible1 but1 on the contrary1 at the deepest part4 ,it is then carried on to some depth below the coal seam which is to be worked1 in order to form a 8sumpf0 or receptacle from which the water may be wound or pumped4 ,the necessity for this in water-bearing strata is obvious enough4 ,if the collier began at the shallowest portion of his range1 and attempted to proceed downwards1 he would be 8drowned out0 unless he worked as a coal-diver rather than a coal-miner4 ,by sinking in the deep he works upwards1 away from the water1 which all drains down to the sumpf1 from which it is pumped4 ,the modern practice is to sink 8a pair of pits10 both on the deep1 and within a short distance of each other4 ,the object of the second is ventilation4 ,by contrivances1 which ,i need not here detail1 the air is made to descend one of the pits1 8the downcast shaft10 then to traverse the roads and workings wherein ventilation is required1 and return by a reverse route to the 8upcast shaft10 by which it ascends to the surface4 ,thus it will be seen that1 whenever the temperature of the roads and workings exceeds that of the outer atmosphere2 the air currents have to be forced to travel through the mine in a direction contrary to their natural course4 ,the cooler air of the downcast shaft has to climb the inclined roads1 and then after attaining its maximum temperature in the fresh workings must descend the roads till it reaches the upcast shaft4 ,the cool air must rise and the warmer air descend4 ,what1 then1 would be the course of the mining engineer when all the existing difficulties presented by water-bearing strata should be removed1 and their place taken by a new and totally different obstacle1 viz41 high temperature8 ,obviously to reverse the present mode of working--to sink on the upper part of the range and drive downwards4 ,in such a system of working the ventilation of the pit will be most powerfully aided or altogether effected by natural atmospheric currents4 ,an upcast once determined by artificial means1 it will thereafter proceed spontaneously1 as the cold air of the downcast shaft will travel by a descending road to the workings1 and then after becoming heated will simply obey the superior pressure of the heavy column behind1 and proceed by an upward road to the upcast shaft4 ,as the impelling force of the air current will be the difference between the weight of the cool column of air in the downcast shaft and roads and the warm column in the upcast1 the available force of natural ventilation and cooling will increase just as demanded1 i4e41 it will increase with the depth of the workings and the heat of the rocks4 ,a mining engineer who knows what is actually done with present arrangements1 will see at once that with the above-stated advantages a gale of wind or even a hurricane might be directed through any particular roads or long-wall workings that were once opened4 ,let us suppose the depth to be #ejjj feet1 the rock temperature at starting #acc1 and that of the outer air #fj1 we should have a torrent of air1 #gc cooler than the rocks1 rushing furiously downwards1 then past the face of the heated strata1 and absorbing its heat to such an extent that the upcast shaft would pour forth a perpetual blast of hot air like a gigantic furnace chimney4 ,but this is not all2 the heat and dryness of these deep workings of the future place at our disposal another and still more efficient cooling agency than even that of a hurricane of dry-air ventilation4 ,in the first part of the sinking of the deep shafts the usual water-bearing strata would be encountered1 and the ordinary means of 8tubbing0 or 8coffering0 would probably be adopted for temporary convenience during sinking4 ,doorways1 however1 would be left in the tubbing at suitable places for tapping at pleasure the wettest and most porous of the strata4 ,streams of cold water could thus be poured down the sides of the shaft1 which1 on reaching the bottom1 would flow by a downhill road into the workings4 ,the stream of air rushing by the same route and becoming heated in its course would powerfully assist the evaporation of the water4 ,the deeper and hotter the pit1 the more powerful would be these cooling agencies4 ,as the specific heat of water is about five times that of the coal-measure rocks1 or the coal itself1 every degree of heat communicated to each pound of water would abstract one degree from five pounds of rocks4 ,but in the conversion of water at #fj into vapor at say #ajj1 the amount of heat absorbed is equivalent to that required to raise the same weight of water about #ajjj1 and thus the effective cooling power on the rock would be equivalent to #ejjj4 ,the workings once opened 7,i assume as a matter of course that by this time pillar-and-stall working will be entirely abandoned for long-wall or something better71 there would be no difficulty in thus pouring streams of water and torrents of air through the workings during the night1 or at any suitable time preparatory to the operations of the miner1 who long before the era of such deep workings will be merely the director of coal-cutting and loading machinery4 ,given a sufficiently high price for coal at the pit's mouth to pay wages and supply the necessary fixed capital1 ,i see no insuperable difficulty1 so far as mere temperature is concerned1 in working coal at double the depth of the ,royal ,commissioners' limit of possibility4 ,at such a depth of #hjjj feet the theoretical rock-temperature is #ahc4 ,by the means above indicated1 ,i have no doubt that this could be reduced to an air temperature below #aaj--that at which ,mr4 ,tyndall's shampooers ordinarily work4 ,of course the newly-exposed face of the coal would have its initial temperature of #ahc2 but this is a trivial heat compared to the red-hot radiant surfaces to which puddlers1 shinglers1 glassmakers1 etc41 are commonly exposed4 ,divested of the incumbrance of clothing1 with the whole surface of the skin continuously fanned by a powerful stream of air--which1 during working hours need be but partly saturated with vapor--a sturdy midland or north-countryman would work merrily enough at short hours and high wages1 even though the newly-exposed face of coal reached #bab2 for we must remember that this new coal-face would only correspond to the incomparably hotter furnace-doors and fires of the steamship stoke-holes4 ,the high temperature at #hjjj or even #aj1jjj feet would present a really serious difficulty during the first opening of communications between the two pits4 ,a spurt of brave effort would here be necessary1 and if anybody doubts whether ,englishmen could be found to make the effort1 let him witness a 8pot-setting0 at a glass-house4 ,negro labor might be obtained if required1 but my experience among ,english workmen leads me to believe that they will never allow negroes or any others to beat them at home in any kind of work where the wages paid are proportionate to the effort demanded4 ,if ,i am right in the above estimates of working possibilities1 our coal resources may be increased by about forty thousand millions of tons beyond the estimate of the ,commissioners4 ,to obtain such an additional quantity will certainly be worth an effort1 and unless we suffer a far worse calamity than the loss of all our minerals1 viz41 a deterioration of ,british energy1 the effort will assuredly be made4 ,i have said repeatedly that it is not physical difficulties but market value that will determine the limits of our coal-mining4 ,this1 like all other values1 is of course determined by the relation between demand and supply4 ,fuel being one of the absolute necessaries of life1 the demand for it must continue so long as the conditions of human existence remain as at present1 and the outer limits of the possible value of coal will be determined by that of the next cheapest kind of fuel which is capable of superseding it4 ,we begin by working the best and most accessible seams1 and while those remain in abundance the average value of coal will be determined by the cost of producing it under these easy conditions4 ,directly these most accessible seams cease to supply the whole demand1 the market value rises until it becomes sufficient to cover the cost of working the less accessible2 and the average value will be regulated not by the cost of working what remains of the first or easy mines1 but by that of working the most difficult that must be worked in order to meet the demand4 ,this is a simple case falling under the well-established economic law1 that the natural or cost value of any commodity is determined by the cost value of the most costly portion of it4 ,thus1 the only condition under which we can proceed to sink deeper and deeper1 is a demand of sufficient energy to keep pace with the continually increasing cost of production4 ,this condition can only be fulfilled when there is no competing source of cheaper production which is adequate to supply the demand4 ,the question then resolves itself into this3 ,is any source of supply likely to intervene that will prevent the value of coal from rising sufficiently to cover the cost of working the coal seams of #djjj feet and greater depth8 ,without entering upon the question of peat and wood fuel1 both of which will for some uses undoubtedly come into competition with ,british coal as it rises in value1 ,i believe that there are sound reasons for concluding that our ,london fireplaces1 and those of other towns situated on the sea-coast and the banks of navigable rivers1 will be supplied with transatlantic coal long before we reach the ,commissioner's limit of #djjj feet4 ,the highest prices of last winter1 if steadily maintained1 would be sufficient to bring about this important change4 ,temporary upward jerks of the price of coal have very little immediate effect upon supply1 as the surveying1 conveyance1 boring1 sinking1 and fully opening of a new coal estate is a work of some years4 ,the ,royal ,commissioners estimate that the ,north-,american coal-fields contain an untouched coal area equal to seventy times the whole of ours4 ,further investigation is likely to increase rather than diminish this estimate4 ,an important portion of this vast source of supply is well situated for shipment1 and may be easily worked at little cost4 ,hitherto1 the ,american coal-fields have been greatly neglected1 partly on account of the temptations to agricultural occupation which are afforded by the vast area of the ,american continent1 and partly by the barbarous barriers of ,american politics4 ,large amounts of capital which1 under the social operation of the laws of natural selection1 would have been devoted to the unfolding of the vast mineral resources of the ,united ,states1 are still wastefully invested in the maintenance of protectively nursed and sickly imitation of ,english manufactures4 ,when the political civilization of the ,united ,states become sufficiently advanced to establish a national free-trade policy1 this perverted capital will flow into its natural channels1 and the citizens of the ,states will be supplied with the more highly elaborated industrial products at a cheaper rate than at present1 by obtaining them in exchange for their superabundant raw material from those ,european countries where population is overflowing the raw material supplies4 ,when this time arrives1 and it may come with the characteristic suddenness of ,american changes1 the question of ,american versus ,english coal in the ,english markets will reduce itself to one of horizontal versus vertical difficulties4 ,if at some future period the average depth of the ,newcastle coal-pits becomes #cjjj feet greater than those of the pits near the coast of the ,atlantic or ,american lakes1 and if the horizontal difficulties of #cjjj miles of distance are less than the vertical difficulties of #cjjj feet of depth1 then coals will be carried from ,america to ,newcastle4 ,they will reach ,london and the towns on the ,south ,coast before this1 that is1 when the vertical difficulties at ,newcastle plus those of horizontal traction from ,newcastle to the south1 exceed those of eastward traction across the ,atlantic4 ,as the cost of carriage increases in a far smaller ratio than the open ocean distance1 there is good reason for concluding that the day when ,london houses will be warmed by ,american coal is not very far distant4 ,we1 in ,england1 who have outgrown the pernicious folly of 8protecting native industry0 will heartily welcome so desirable a consummation4 ,it will render unnecessary any further inquiry into the existence of ,london 8coal rings0 or combinations for restricted output among colliers or their employers4 ,if any morbid impediments to the free action of the coal trade do exist1 the stimulating and purgative influence of foreign competition will rapidly restore the trade to a healthy condition4 ,the effect of such introduction of ,american coal will not be to perpetually lock up our deep coal nor even to stop our gradual progress towards it4 ,we shall merely proceed downwards at a much slower rate1 for in ,america1 as with ourselves1 the easily accessible coal will be first worked1 and as that becomes exhausted1 the deeper1 more remote1 thinner1 and inferior will only remain to be worked at continually increasing cost4 ,when both our own and foreign coal cost more than peat1 or wood1 or other fuel1 then and therefore will coal become quite inaccessible to us1 and this will probably be the case long before we are stopped by the physical obstacles of depth1 density1 or high temperature4 ,as this rise of value must of necessity be gradual1 and as the superseding of ,british by foreign coal1 as well as the final disuse of coal1 will gradually converge from the circumference towards the centres of supply1 from places distant from coal-pits to those close around them1 we shall have ample warning and opportunity for preparing for the social changes that the loss of the raw material will enforce4 ,the above-quoted writer1 in the 8,edinburgh ,review10 expresses in strong and unqualified terms an idea that is very prevalent in ,england and abroad3 he says that1 8,the course of manufacturing supremacy of wealth and of power is directed by coal4 ,that wonderful mineral1 of the possession of which ,englishmen have thought so little but wasted so much1 is the modern realization of the philosopher's stone4 ,this chemical result of primeval vegetation has been the means by its abundance of raising this country to an unprecedented height of prosperity1 and its deficiency might have the effect of lowering it to slow decline40 999999 8,it raises up one people and casts down another2 it makes railways on land and paths on the sea4 ,it founds cities1 it rules nations1 it changes the course of empires40 ,the fallacy of these customary attributions of social potency to mere mineral matter is amply shown by facts that are previously stated by the reviewer himself4 ,he tells us that 8the coal-fields of ,china extend over an area of #djj1jjj square miles2 and a good geologist1 ,baron ,von ,richthofen1 has reported that he himself has found a coal-field in the province of ,hunau covering an area of #ba1gjj square miles1 which is nearly double our ,british coal area of #ab1jjj square miles4 ,in the province of ,shansi1 the ,baron discovered nearly #cj1jjj square miles of coal with unrivaled facilities for mining4 ,but all these vast coal-fields1 capable of supplying the whole world for some thousands of years to come1 are lying unworked40 ,if 8the course of manufacturing supremacy of wealth and of power0 were directed by coal1 then ,china1 which possesses #ccc times more of this directive force than ,great ,britain1 and had so early a start in life1 should be the supreme summit of the industrial world4 ,if this solid hydrocarbon 8raises up one people and casts down another10 the ,chinaman should1 be raised thirty-three times and three tenths higher than the ,englishman2 if it 8makes railways on land and paths on the sea10 the ,chinese railways should be #ccc times longer than ours1 and the tonnage of their mercantile marine #ccc times greater4 ,every addition to our knowledge of the mineral resources of other parts of the world carries us nearer and nearer to the conclusion that the old idea of the superlative abundance of the natural mineral resources of ,england is a delusion4 ,we are gradually discovering that1 with the one exception of tin-stone1 we have but little if any more than an average supply of useful ores and mineral fuel4 ,it is a curious fact1 and one upon which we may profitably ponder1 that the poorest and the worst iron ores that have ever been commercially reduced1 are those of ,south ,staffordshire and the ,cleveland district1 and these are the two greatest iron-making centres of the world4 ,there are no ores of copper1 zinc1 tin1 nickel1 or silver in the neighborhood of ,birmingham1 nor any golden sands upon the banks of the ,rea1 yet this town is the hardware metropolis of the world1 the fatherland of gilding and plating1 and is rapidly becoming supreme in the highest art of gold and silver work4 ,these1 and a multitude of other analogous facts1 abundantly refute the idea that the native minerals1 the natural fertility1 the navigable rivers1 or the convenient seaports1 determine the industrial and commercial supremacy of nations4 ,the moral forces exerted by the individual human molecules are the true components which determine the resulting force and direction of national progress4 ,it is the industry and skill of our workmen1 the self-denial1 the enterprise1 and organizing ability of our capitalists1 that has brought our coal so precociously to the surface and redirected for human advantage the buried energies of ancient sunbeams1 while the fossil fuel of other lands has remained inert4 ,the foreigner who would see a sample of the source of ,british prosperity must not seek for it in a geological museum or among our subterranean rocks2 let him rather stand on the ,surrey side of ,london ,bridge from #h to #aj ,a4,m4 and contemplate the march of one of the battalions of our metropolitan industrial army1 as it pours forth in an unceasing stream from the railway stations towards the ,city4 ,an analysis of the moral forces which produce the earnest faces and rapid steps of these rank and file and officers of commerce will reveal the true elements of ,british greatness1 rather than any laboratory dissection of our coal or ironstone4 ,fuel and steam-power have been urgently required by all mankind4 ,englishmen supplied these wants4 ,their urgency was primary and they were first supplied1 even though the bowels of the earth had to be penetrated in order to obtain them4 ,in the present exceptional and precocious degree of exhaustion of our coal treasures1 we have the effect not the cause of ,british industrial success4 ,if in a ruder age our greater industrial energy enabled us to take the lead in supplying the ruder demands of our fellow-creatures1 why should not a higher culture of those same abundant energies qualify us to maintain our position and enable us to minister to the more refined and elaborate wants of a higher civilization8 ,there are other necessary occupations quite as desirable as coal-digging1 furnace-feeding1 and cotton-spinning4 ,the approaching exhaustion of our coal supplies should therefore serve us as a warning for preparation4 ,britain will be forced to retire from the coal trade1 and should accordingly prepare her sons for higher branches of business1--for those in which scientific knowledge and artistic training will replace mere muscular strength and mechanical skill4 ,we have attained our present material prosperity mainly by our excellence in the use of steam-power2 let us now struggle for supremacy in the practical application of brain-power4 ,we have time and opportunity for this4 ,the exhaustion of our coal supplies will go on at a continually retarding pace--we shall always be approaching the end1 but shall never absolutely reach it1 as every step of approximation will diminish the rate of approach2 like the everlasting process of reaching a given point by continually halving our distance from it4 ,first of all we shall cease to export coal2 then we shall throw up the most voracious of our coal-consuming industries1 such as the reduction of iron-ore in the blast-furnace2 then copper-smelting and the manufacture of malleable iron and steel from the pig1 and so on progressively4 ,if we keep in view the natural course and order of such progress1 and intelligently prepare for it1 the loss of our coal need not in the smallest degree retard the progress of our national prosperity4 ,if1 however1 we act upon the belief that the advancement of a nation depends upon the mere accident of physical advantages1 if we fold our arms and wait for ,providence to supply us with a physical substitute for coal1 we shall become ,chinamen1 minus the unworked coal of ,china4 ,if our educational efforts are conducted after the ,chinese model2 if we stultify the vigor and freshness of young brains by the weary1 dull1 and useless cramming of words and phrases2 if we poison and pervert the growing intellect of ,british youth by feeding it upon the decayed carcases of dead languages1 and on effete and musty literature1 our progress will be proportionately ,chinaward2 but if we shake off that monkish inheritance which leads so many of us blindly to believe that the business of education is to produce scholars rather than men1 and direct our educational efforts towards the requirements of the future rather than by the traditions of the past1 we need have no fear that ,great ,britain will decline with the exhaustion of her coal-fields4 ,the teaching and training in schools and colleges must be directly and designedly preparatory to those of the workshop1 the warehouse1 and the office2 for if our progress is to be worthy of our beginning1 the moral and intellectual dignity of industry must be formally acknowledged and systematically sustained and advanced4 ,hitherto1 we have been the first and the foremost in utilizing the fossil forces which the miner has unearthed2 hereafter we must in like manner avail ourselves of the living forces the philosopher has revealed4 ,science must become as familiar among all classes of ,englishmen as their household fuel4 ,the youth of ,england must be trained to observe1 generalize1 and investigate the phenomena and forces of the world outside themselves2 and also those moral forces within themselves1 upon the right or wrong government of which the success or failure1 the happiness or misery of their lives will depend4 ,with such teaching and training the future generations of ,england will make the best and most economical use of their coal while it lasts1 and will still advance in material and moral prosperity in spite of its progressive exhaustion4 8,,the ,,englishman',s ,,fireside40 ,during the investment of ,paris1 the ,comptes ,rendus of the ,acadamy of ,sciences were mainly filled with papers on the construction and guidance of balloons2 with the results of ingenious researches on methods of making milk and butter without the aid of cows2 on the extraction of nutritious food from old boots1 saddles1 and other organic refuse2 and other devices for rendering the general famine more endurable4 ,in like manner1 our present coal famine is directing an important amount of scientific1 as well as commercial1 attention to the subject of economizing coal and finding substitutes for it4 ,a few thoughtful men have shocked their fellow-sufferers very outrageously by wishing that coal may reach #cl4 per ton1 and remain at that price for a year or two4 ,i confess that1 in spite of my own empty coal-cellar and small income1 ,i am one of those hard-hearted cool calculators1 being confident that1 even from the narrow point of view of my own outlay in fuel1 the additional amount ,i should thus pay in the meantime would be a good investment1 affording by an ample return in the saving due to consequent future cheapness4 ,regarded from a national point of view1 ,i am convinced that #cl4 a ton in ,london1 and corresponding prices in other districts1 if thus maintained1 would be an immense national blessing4 ,i say this1 being convinced that nothing short of pecuniary pains and penalties of ruinous severity will stir the blind prejudices of ,englishmen1 and force them to desist from their present stupid and sinful waste of the greatest mineral treasure of the island4 ,one of the grossest of our national manifestations of ,conservative stupidity is our senseless idolatrous worship of that domestic fetish1 8the ,englishman's fireside40 ,we sacrifice health1 we sacrifice comfort1 we begrime our towns and all they contain with sooty foulness1 we expend an amount far exceeding the interest of the national debt1 and discount our future prospects of national prosperity1 in order that we may do what8 ,enjoy the favorite recreation of idiots4 ,it is a well-known physiological fact that an absolute idiot1 with a cranium measuring sixteen inches in circumference1 will sit and stare at a blazing fire for hours and hours continuously1 all the day long1 except when feeding1 and that this propensity varies with the degree of mental vacuity4 ,few sights are more melancholy than the contemplation of a party of ,english fire-worshipers seated in a semicircle round the family fetish on a keen frosty day4 ,they huddle together1 roast their knees1 and grill their faces1 in order to escape the chilling blast that is brought in from all the chinks of leaky doors and windows by the very agent they employ1 at so much cost1 for the purpose of keeping the cold away4 ,the bigger the fire the greater the draught1 the hotter their faces the colder their backs1 the greater the consumption of coal the more abundant the crop of chilblains1 rheumatism1 catarrh1 and other well-deserved miseries4 ,the most ridiculous element of such an exhibition is the complacent self-delusion of the victims4 ,they believe that their idol bestows upon them an amount of comfort unknown to other people1 that it affords the most perfect and salubrious ventilation1 and1 above all1 that it is a 8cheerful0 institution4 ,the 8cheerfulness0 is1 perhaps1 the broadest part of the whole caricature1 especially when we consider that1 according to this theory of the cheerfulness of fire-gazing1 the #af-;inch idiot must be the most cheerful of all human beings4 ,the notion that our common fireplaces and chimneys afford an efficient means of ventilation1 is almost too absurd for serious discussion4 ,everybody who has thought at all on the subject is aware that in cold weather the exhalations of the skin and lungs1 the products of gas-burning1 etc41 are so much heated when given off that they rise to the upper part of the room 7especially if any cold outer air is admitted71 and should be removed from there before they cool again and descend4 ,now1 our fireplace openings are just where they ought not to be for ventilation2 they are at the lower part of the room1 and thus their action consists in creating a current of cold air or 8draught0 from doors and windows1 which cold current at once descends1 and then runs along the floor1 chilling our toes and provoking chilblains4 ,this cold fresh air having done its worst in the way of making us uncomfortable1 passes directly up the chimney without doing us any service for purposes of respiration4 ,our mouths are usually above the level of the chimney opening1 and thus we only breathe the vitiated atmosphere which it fails to remove4 ,not only does the fire-opening fail to purify the air we breathe1 it actually prevents the leakage of the lower part of the windows and doors from assisting in the removal of the upper stratum of vitiated air1 for the strong up-draught of the chimney causes these openings to be fully occupied by an inflowing current of cold air1 which at once descends1 and then proceeds1 as before stated1 to the chimney4 ,if the leakage is insufficient to supply the necessary amount of chilblain-making and bronchitis-producing draught1 it has to enter by way of the chimney-pot in the form of occasional spasms of down-draught1 accompanied by gusts of choking and blackening smoke4 ,it is a fact not generally known1 that smoky chimneys are especial ,english institutions1 one of the peculiar manifestations of our very superior domestic comfortableness4 ,it is true that1 in some of our rooms1 an ,arnott's ventilator opens into the upper part of the chimney1 but this was intended by ,dr4 ,arnott as an adjunct to his modification of the ,german stove1 and such ventilator can only act efficiently where a stove is used4 ,the pressure required to fairly open it can only be regularly obtained when the chimney is closed below1 or its lower opening is limited to that of a stovepipe4 ,the mention of a ,german stove has upon an ,english fire-worshiper a similar effect to the sight of water upon a mad dog4 ,again and again1 when ,i have spoken of the necessity of reforming our fireplaces1 the first reply elicited has been1 8,what1 would you have us use ,german stoves80 ,in every case where ,i have inquired of the exclaimer1 8,what sort of a thing is a ,german stove80 the answer has proved that the exclamation was but a manifestation of blind prejudice based upon total ignorance4 ,these people who are so much shocked at the notion of introducing 8,german stoves0 have no idea of the construction of the stoves which deservedly bear this title4 ,their notion of a ,german stove is one of those wretched iron boxes of purely ,english invention known to ironmongers as 8shop stoves40 ,these things get red hot1 their red-hot surface frizzles the dust particles that float in the atmosphere and perfume the apartment accordingly4 ,this1 however disagreeable1 is not very mischievous1 perhaps the reverse1 as many of these dust particles1 which are revealed by a sunbeam1 are composed of organic matter which1 as ,dr4 ,tyndall argues1 may be carriers of infection4 ,if we must inhale such things1 it is better that we should breathe them cooked than take them raw4 ,the true cause of the headaches and other mischief which such stoves unquestionably induce is very little understood in this country4 ,it has been falsely attributed to over-drying of the atmosphere1 and accordingly evaporating pans and other contrivances have been attached to such stoves1 but with little or no advantage4 ,other explanations are given1 but the true one is that iron when red hot is permeable by carbonic oxide4 ,this was proved by the researches of ,professor ,graham1 who showed that this gas not only can pass through red-hot iron with singular facility1 but actually does so whenever there is atmospheric air on one side and carbonic oxide on the other4 ,for the benefit of my non-chemical readers1 ,i may explain that when any of our ordinary fuel is burned1 there are two products of carbon combustion1 one the result of complete combustion1 the other of semi-combustion--carbonic acid and carbonic oxide--the former1 though suffocating when breathed alone or in large proportion1 is not otherwise poisonous1 and has no disagreeable odor2 it is in fact rather agreeable in small quantities1 being the material of champagne bubbles and of those of other effervescing drinks4 ,carbonic oxide1 the product of semi-combustion1 is quite different4 ,breathed only in small quantities1 it acts as a direct poison1 producing peculiarly oppressive headaches4 ,besides this1 it has a disagreeable odor4 ,it thus resembles many other products of imperfect combustion1 such as those which are familiar to everybody who has ever blown out a tallow candle1 and left the red wick to its own devices4 ,on this account alone any kind of iron stove capable of becoming red-hot should be utterly condemned4 ,if ,englishmen did their traveling in ,north ,europe in the winter1 their self-conceit respecting the comfort of ,english houses would be cruelly lacerated1 and none such would perpetrate the absurdity of applying the name of 8,german stove0 to the iron fire-pots that are sold as stoves by ,english ironmongers4 ,as the ,germans use so great a variety of stoves1 it is scarcely correct to apply the title of ,german to any kind of stove1 unless we limit ourselves to ,north ,germany4 ,there1 and in ,sweden1 ,denmark1 ,norway1 and ,russia1 the construction of stoves becomes a specialty4 ,the ,russian stove is perhaps the most instructive to us1 as it affords the greatest contrast to our barbarous device of a hole in the wall into which fuel is shoveled1 and allowed to expend nine-tenths of its energies in heating the clouds1 while only the residual ten per cent does anything towards warming the room4 ,with the thermometer outside below zero1 a house in ,moscow or ,st4 ,petersburg is kept incomparably more warm and comfortable1 and is better ventilated 7though1 perhaps1 not so much ventilated7 than a corresponding class of house in ,england1 where the outside temperature is #bj or #cj degrees higher1 and this with a consumption of about one-fourth of the fuel which is required for the production of ,british bronchitis4 ,this is done by1 first of all1 sacrificing the idiotic recreation of fire-gazing1 then by admitting no air into the chimney but that which is used for the combustion of the fuel2 thirdly1 by sending as little as possible of the heat up the chimney2 fourthly1 by storing the heat obtained from the fuel in a suitable reservoir1 and then allowing it gradually and steadily to radiate into the apartment from a large but not overheated surface4 ,the ,russian stove by which these conditions are fulfilled is usually an ornamental1 often a highly artistic1 handsome article of furniture1 made of fire-resisting porcelain1 glazed and otherwise decorated outside4 ,internally it is divided by thick fire-clay walls into several upright chambers or flues1 usually six4 ,some dry firewood is lighted in a suitable fireplace1 and is supplied with only sufficient air to effect combustion1 all of which enters below and passes fairly through the fuel4 ,the products of combustion being thus undiluted with unnecessary cold air1 are very highly heated1 and in this state pass up compartment or flue ,no4 #a2 they are then deflected1 and pass down ,no4 #b2 then up ,no4 #c1 then down ,no4 #d1 then up ,no4 #e1 then down ,no4 #f4 ,at the end of this long journey they have given up most of their heat to the #bd heat-absorbing surfaces of the fire-clay walls of the six flues4 ,when the interior of the stove is thus sufficiently heated1 the fire-door and the communication with the chimney are closed1 and the fire is at once extinguished1 having now done its day's work2 the interior of the stove has bottled up its calorific force1 and holds it ready for emission into the apartment4 ,this is effected by the natural properties of the walls of the earthenware reservoir4 ,they are bad conductors and good radiators4 ,the heat slowly passes through to the outside of the stove1 is radiated into the apartment from a large and moderately-heated surface1 which affords a genial and well-diffused temperature throughout4 ,there is no scorching in one little red-hot hole1 or corner1 or box1 and freezing in the other parts of the room4 ,there are no draughts1 as the chimney is quite closed as soon as the heat reservoir is supplied4 ,if one of these heat reservoirs is placed in the hall1 where it may form a noble ornament and can easily communicate with an underground flue1 it warms every part of the house1 and enables the ,russian to enjoy a luxurious temperate climate indoors in spite of arctic winter outside4 ,in a house thus warmed and free from draughts or blasts of cold air1 ventilation becomes the simplest of problems4 ,nothing more is required than to provide an inlet and outlet in suitable places1 and of suitable dimensions1 when the difference between the specific gravity of the cold air without and warm air within does all the rest4 ,nothing is easier to arrange than to cause all the entering air to be warmed on its way by the hall stove1 and to regulate the supply which each apartment shall receive from this general or main stream by adjusting its own upper outlet4 ,in our ,english houses1 with open chimneys1 all such systematic1 scientific ventilation is impossible1 on account of the dominating1 interfering1 useless1 and comfort-destroying currents produced by these wasteful air-shafts4 ,i should add that the ,russian porcelain reservoirs may be constructed for a heat supply of a few hours or for a whole day1 and ,i need say nothing further in refutation of the common ,british prejudice which confounds so admirable and truly scientific a contrivance with the iron fire-pot above referred to4 ,there is another kind of stove1 which1 for the sake of distinction1 ,i may call ,scandinavian1 as it is commonly used in ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark1 besides some parts of ,north ,germany4 ,this is a tall1 hollow iron pillar1 of rectangular section1 varying from three to six feet in width1 and rising half-way to the ceiling of the room1 and sometimes higher4 ,a fire is lighted at the lower part1 and the products of combustion1 in their way upwards1 meet with horizontal iron plates1 which deflect them first to the right1 then to the left1 and thus compel them to make a long serpentine journey before they reach the chimney4 ,by this means they give off their heat to the large surface of iron plate1 and enter the chimney at a comparatively low temperature4 ,the heat is radiated into the apartment from the large metal surface1 no part of which approaches a red-heat4 ,a further economy is commonly effected by placing this iron pillar in the wall separating two rooms1 so that one of its faces is in each room4 ,thus two rooms are heated by one fire4 ,one of these may be the kitchen1 and the same fire that prepares the food may be used to warm the dining-room4 ,the fire-worshiper is of course deprived of his 8cheerful0 occupation of staring at the coals1 and he also loses his playthings1 as neither poker1 tongs1 nor coal-scuttle are included in the furniture of an apartment thus heated4 ,people differently constituted consider that an escape from the dust1 dirt1 and clatter of these is a decided advantage4 ,of course these stoves of our northern neighbors are costly--may be very costly when highly ornamental4 ,the stove of a ,norwegian 8bonder10 or peasant proprietor1 costs nearly half as much as the two-roomed wooden house in which it is erected1 but the saving it effects renders it a good investment4 ,it would cost #ajjl4 or #bjjl4 to fit up an ,english mansion with suitable porcelain stoves of the ,russian pattern1 but a saving of #bjl4 a year in fuel would yield a good return as regards mere cost1 while the gain in comfort and healthfulness would be so great that1 once enjoyed and understood1 such outlay would be willingly made by all who could afford it1 even if no money saving were effected4 ,only last week ,i was discussing this question in a railway carriage1 where one of my fellow-passengers was an intelligent ,holsteiner4 ,he confirmed the heresy by which ,i had shocked the others1 in exulting in the high price of coal1 and wishing it to continue4 ,he told us that when wood was abundant in his country1 fuel was used as barbarously1 as wastefully1 and as inefficiently as it now is here1 but that the deforesting of the land1 and the great cost of fuel1 forced upon them a radical reform1 the result of which is that they now have their houses better warmed1 and at a less cost than when fuel was obtainable at one fourth of its present cost4 ,such will be the case with us also if we can but maintain the present coal famine during one or two more winters1 especially if we should have the further advantage of some very severe weather in the meantime4 ,hence the cruel wishes above expressed4 ,the coal famine would scarcely be necessary if we had ,russian winters1 for in such case our houses1 instead of being as they are1 merely the most uncomfortable in ,north ,europe1 would be quite uninhabitable4 ,with our mild winters we require the utmost severity of fuel prices to civilize our warming and ventilating devices4 8,,baily',s ,,beads40 ,,to ,,the ,,editor ,,of ,,the ,times4 ,,sir1--,the curious breaking up of the thin annular rim of the sun which is uncovered just before and just after totality1 or which surrounds the moon during an annular eclipse1 has been but occasionally observed1 and some scepticism as to the accuracy of ,baily's observations has lately arisen4 ,having attempted an explanation of the 8beads10 ,i have looked with much interest for the reports of the eclipse of #ahgj1 for1 if ,i am right1 they ought to have been well seen on this occasion4 ,this has been the case4 ,we are informed that both ,lord ,lindsay and the ,rev4 ,s4 ,j4 ,perry have observed them1 and that ,lord ,lindsay has set aside all doubts respecting their reality by securing a photographic record of their appearance4 ,my explanation is that they are simply sun-spots seen in profile--spots just caught in the fact of turning the sun's edge4 ,all observers are now agreed as to the soundness of ,galileo's original description of the spots--that they are huge cavities1 great rifts of the luminous surface of the sun1 many thousands of miles in diameter1 and probably some thousand miles deep4 ,let us suppose the case of a spot--say1 #b1jjj miles deep and #aj1jjj miles across 7,sir ,w4 ,herschel has measured spots of #ej1jjj miles diameter74 ,when such a spot in the course of the sun's rotation reaches that part which forms the visible edge of the sun1 it must1 if rendered visible1 be seen as a notch2 but what will be the depth of such a notch8 ,only about #a-dcjth of the sun's diameter4 ,but the apparent depth would be much less as the edge or rim of the spot next to the observer would cut off more or less of its actually visible depth1 this amount depending upon the lateral or east and west diameter of the spot and its position at the time of observation4 ,thus1 the visible depth of such a notch would rarely exceed one thousandth of the sun's apparent diameter1 or might be much less4 ,the sun being globular1 the edge which is visible to us is but our horizon of his fiery ocean1 which we see athwart the intervening surface as it gradually bends away from our view4 ,so small an indent upon this edge would1 under ordinary circumstances of observation1 be rendered quite invisible by the irradiation of the vast globular surface of the glaring photosphere1 upon which it would visually encroach4 ,if1 however1 this body of glare could be screened off1 and only a line of the sun's edge1 less than one thousandth of his diameter1 remain visible1 the notch would appear as a distinct break in this curved line of light4 ,if a group of spots1 or a great irregular spot with several umbr1 were at such a time situated upon the sun's edge1 the appearance of a series of such notches or breaks leaving intermediate detachments of the visible ring of the photosphere would be the necessary result1 and thus would be presented exactly the appearance described as 8,baily's beads40 ,i have been led to anticipate a display of these beads during the late eclipse by the fact that some days preceding it a fine group of spots--visible to the naked eye through a ,london fog--were traveling towards the eastern edge of the sun1 and should have reached the limb at about the time of the eclipse4 ,the beads were observed by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,j4 ,perry just where ,i expected them to appear4 ,i have not yet learnt on which side of the sun they were observed and photographed by ,lord ,lindsay4 ,baily's first observation of the beads was made during the annular eclipse of ,may #ae1 #ahcf4 ,that year1 like #ahgj1 was remarkable for a great display of sun-spots4 ,as in #ahgj1 they were then visible to the naked eye4 ,i well remember my own boyish excitement when1 a few weeks before the eclipse of #ahcf1 ,i discovered a spot upon the reddened face of the setting sun--a thing ,i had read about1 and supposed that only great astronomers were privileged to see4 ,the richness of this sun-spot period is strongly impressed on my memory by the fact that ,i continued painfully watching the dazzling sun1 literally 8watching and weeping10 up to the ,sunday of the eclipse1 on which day also ,i saw a large spot through my bit of smoked glass4 ,the previous records of these appearances of fracture of the thin line of light are those of ,halley1 in his memoir on the total eclipse of #agae1 and ,maclauren's on that of #agcg4 ,both of these correspond to great spot periods2 the intervals between #agae1 #agcg1 #ahcf1 and #ahgj are all divisible by eleven4 ,the observed period of sun-spot occurrence is eleven years and a small fraction4 ,i am anxiously awaiting the arrival of ,lord ,lindsay's long-exposure photographs of the corona1 for if they represent the varying degrees of splendor of this solar appendage1 the explanations offered in ,chapter xii4 of my essay on 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun0 will be very severely tested by them4 ,yours respectfully1 ,w4 ,,mattieu ,,williams4 ,woodside ,green1 ,croydon1 ,january #d1 #ahga4 ,,the ,,coloring ,,of ,,green ,,tea4 ,the following is a copy of my report to the ,grocer on a sample of the ingredients actually used by the ,chinese for coloring of tea1 which sample was sent to the ,grocer office by a reliable correspondent at ,shanghai 7,november1 #ahgc74 ,i reprint it because the subject has a general interest and is commonly misunderstood3 ,i have examined the blue and the yellowish-white powders received from the office1 and find that the blue is not indigo1 as your ,shanghai correspondent very naturally supposes1 but is an ordinary commercial sample of ,prussian blue4 ,it is not so bright as some of our ,english samples1 and by mere casual observation may easily be mistaken for indigo4 ,prussian blue is a well-known compound of iron1 cyanogen1 and potassium4 ,commercial samples usually contain a little clayey or other earthy impurities1 which is the case with this ,chinese sample4 ,there are two kinds of ,prussian blue--the insoluble1 and the basic or soluble4 ,the ,chinese sample is insoluble4 ,this is important1 seeing that we do not eat our tea-leaves1 but merely drink an infusion of them2 and thus even the very small quantity which faces the tea-leaf remains with the spent leaves1 and is not swallowed by the tea-drinker1 who therefore need have no fear of being poisoned by this ornamental adulterant4 ,its insolubility is obvious1 from the fact that green tea does not give a blue infusion1 which would be the case if the ,prussian blue were dissolved4 ,there are some curious facts bearing on this subject and connected with the history of the manufacture of ,prussian blue4 ,messrs4 ,bramwell1 of ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 who may be called the fathers of this branch of industry1 established their works about a century ago4 ,it was first sold at two guineas per lb42 in #ahae it had fallen to #ajs4 #f;d41 in #ahbj to #bs4 #f;d41 then down to #as4 #i;d4 in #ahej4 ,i see by the ,price ,current of the ,oil ,trade ,review that the price has recently been somewhat higher4 ,in the early days of the trade a large portion of ,messrs4 ,bramwell's produce was exported to ,china4 ,the ,chinese then appear to have been the best customers of the ,british manufacturers of this article4 ,presently1 however1 the ,chinese demand entirely ceased1 and it was discovered that a common ,chinese sailor1 who had learned something of the importation of this pigment to his native country1 came to ,england in an ,east ,indiaman1 visited1 or more probably obtained employment at a ,prussian blue manufactory1 learned the process1 and1 on his return to ,china1 started there a manufactury of his own1 which was so successful that in a short time the whole of the ,chinese demand was supplied by native manufacture2 and thus ended our export trade4 ,those who think the ,chinese are an unteachable and unimprovable people may reflect on this little history4 ,the yellowish powder is precisely what your ,shanghai correspondent supposes4 ,it is steatite1 or 8soapstone40 ,this name is very deceptive1 and coupled with the greasy or unctuous feel of the substance1 naturally leads to the supposition that it is really as it appears1 an oleaginous substance4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,it is a compound of silicia1 magnesia1 and water1 with which are sometimes associated a little clay and oxide of iron4 ,like most magnesian minerals1 it has a curiously smooth or slippery surface1 and hence its name4 ,it nearly resembles meerschaum1 the smoothness of which all smokers understand4 ,when soapstone is powdered and rubbed over a moderately rough surface1 it adheres1 and forms a shining film2 just as another unctuous mineral1 graphite 7the 8black-lead0 of the housemaid71 covers and polishes ironwork4 ,on this account1 soapstone is used in some lubricating compounds1 for giving the finishing polish to enameled cards1 and for other similar purposes4 ,with a statement of these properties before us1 and the interesting description of the process by your ,shanghai correspondent1 the whole riddle of green-tea coloring and facing is solved4 ,the ,prussian blue and soapstone being mixed together when dry in the manner described1 the soapstone adheres to the surface of the particles of blue1 and imparts to them not only a pale greenish color1 but also its own unctuous1 adhesive1 and polishing properties4 ,the mixture being well stirred in with the tea-leaves1 covers them with this facing1 and thus gives both the color and peculiar pearly lustre characteristic of some kinds of green tea4 ,i should add that the soapstone1 like the other ingredient1 is insoluble1 and therefore perfectly harmless4 ,considering the object to be attained1 it is evident from the above that ,john ,chinaman understands his business1 and needs no lessons from ,european chemists4 ,it would puzzle all the ,fellows of the ,chemical ,society1 though they combined their efforts for the purpose1 to devise a more effective1 cheap1 simple1 and harmless method of satisfying the foolish demand for unnaturally colored tea-leaves4 ,when the tea-drinking public are sufficiently intelligent to prefer naturally colored leaves to the ornamental stuff they now select1 ,mr4 ,chinaman will assuredly be glad enough to discontinue the addition of the ,prussian blue1 which costs him so much more per pound than his tea-leaves1 and will save him the trouble of the painting and varnishing now in demand4 ,in the meantime1 it is satisfactory to know that1 although a few silly people may be deceived1 nobody is poisoned by this practice of coloring green tea4 ,i say 8a few silly people10 for there can be only a few1 and those very silly indeed1 who judge of their tea by its appearance rather than by the quality of the infusion it produces4 ,with these facts before us it is not difficult to trace the origin of the oft-repeated and contradicted statement that copper is used in coloring green tea4 ,one of the essential ingredients in the manufacture of ,prussian blue is sulphate of iron1 the common commercial name which is 8green copperas40 ,it is often supposed to contain copper1 but this is not the case4 ,your ,shanghai correspondent overrates the market value of soapstone when he supposes that ,chinese wax may be used as a cheap substitute4 ,in many places--as1 for instance1 the 8,lizard0 district of ,cornwall--great veins of this mineral occur1 which1 if needed1 might be quarried in vast abundance1 and at very little cost on account of its softness4 ,the romantic scenery of ,kynance ,cove1 its caverns1 its natural arches1 the 8,devil's ,bellows10 the 8,devil's ,post-office10 the 8,devil's ,cauldrons10 and other fantastic formations of this part of the coast1 attributed to his ,satanic ,majesty or the ,druids1 are the natural results of the waves beating away the veins of soft soapstone1 and leaving the deformed skeleton rocks of harder serpentine behind4 8,,iron ,,filings0 ,,in ,,tea4 ,i have watched the progress of the tea controversy and the other public performances of the public analysts with considerable interest2 it might have been with amusement1 but for the melancholy degradation of chemical science which they involve4 ,among the absurdities and exaggerations which for some years past have been so industriously trumpeted forth by the pseudo-chemists who trade upon the adulteration panic and consequent demand for chemical certificates of purity1 the continually repeated statements concerning the use of iron filings as a fraudulent adulterant of tea take a prominent place4 ,i need scarcely remark that1 in order to form such an adulterant1 the quantity added must be sufficiently great to render its addition commercially profitable to an extent commensurate with the trouble involved4 ,the gentlemen who1 since the passing of the ,adulteration ,act1 have by some kind of inspiration suddenly become full-blown chemists1 have certified to wilful adulteration of tea with iron filings1 and have obtained convictions on such certificates1 when1 according to their own statement1 the quantity contained has not exceeded #e per cent in the cheapest qualities of tea4 ,now1 the price of such tea to the ,chinaman tea-grower1 who is supposed to add these iron filings1 is about fourpence to sixpence per pound2 and we are asked to believe that he will fraudulently deteriorate the market value of his commodity for the sake of this additional #a-bjth of weight4 ,supposing that he could obtain his iron filings at twopence per pound1 his total gain would thus be about #a-ajth of a penny per pound4 ,but can he obtain such iron filings in the quantity required at such a price8 ,a little reflection on a few figures will render it evident that he cannot1 and that such adulteration is utterly impossible4 ,i find by reference to ,the ,grocer of ,november #hth1 that the total deliveries of tea into the port of ,london during the first ten months of #ahgb were #adb1dbi1ccg lbs41 and during the corresponding period of #ahgc1 #aci1jib1dji lbs4 ,of this about #h millions of pounds in #ahgc1 and #aj millions of pounds in #ahgb1 were green1 the rest black4 ,this gives in round numbers about #afj millions of pounds of black tea per annum1 of which above #adj millions come from ,china4 ,as the ,russians are greater tea-drinkers than ourselves--the ,americans and ,british colonists are at least equally addicted to the beverage1 and other nations consume some quantity--the total exports from ,china may be safely estimated to reach #djj or #ejj millions of pounds4 ,let us take the smaller figure1 and suppose that only one fourth of this is adulterated1 to the extent of #e per cent1 with iron filings4 ,how much would be required8 ,just five millions of pounds per annum4 ,it must be remembered that coarse filings could not possibly be used2 they would show themselves at once to the naked eye as rusty lamps1 and would shake down to the bottom of the chest2 neither could borings1 nor turnings1 nor plane-shavings be used4 ,nothing but fine filings would answer the supposed purpose4 ,i venture to assert that if the ,china tea-growers were to put the whole world under contribution for their supposed supply of fine iron filings1 this quantity could not be obtained4 ,let anyone who doubts this borrow a blacksmith's vice1 a fine file1 and a piece of soft iron1 then take off his coat and try how much labor will be required to produce a single ounce of filings1 and also bear in mind that fine files are but very little used in the manufacture of iron4 ,as the price of a commodity rises when the demand exceeds the supply the ,chinaman would have to pay far more for his adulterant than for the leaves to be adulterated4 ,as ,chinese tea-growers are not public analysts1 we have no right to suppose that they would perpetrate any such foolishness4 ,the investigations recently made by ,mr4 ,alfred ,bird1 of ,birmingham1 show that the iron found in tea-leaves is not in the metallic state1 but in the condition of oxide2 and he confirms the conclusions of ,zller1 quoted by ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,wanklyn in the ,chemical ,news of ,october #ajth--viz41 that compounds of iron naturally exist in genuine tea4 ,it appears1 however1 that the ash of many samples of black tea contains more iron than naturally belongs to the plant2 and1 accepting ,mr4 ,bird's statement1 that this exists in the leaf as oxide mixed with small siliceous and micaceous particles ,i think we may find a reasonable explanation of its presence without adopting the puerile theory of the adulteration maniac1 who1 in his endeavor to prove that everybody who buys or sells anything is a swindler1 has at once assumed the impossible addition of iron filings as a makeweight4 ,in the first place we must remember that the commodity in demand is black tea1 and that ordinary leaves dried in an ordinary manner are not black1 but brown4 ,tea-leaves1 however1 contain a large quantity of tannin1 a portion of which is1 when heated in the leaves1 rapidly convertible into gallo-tannic or tannic acid4 ,thus a sample of tea rich in iron would1 when heated in the drying process1 become1 by the combination of this tannic acid with the iron it contains1 much darker than ordinary leaves or than other teas grown upon less ferruginous soils and containing less iron4 ,this being the case1 and a commercial demand for black tea having become established1 the tea-grower would naturally seek to improve the color of his tea1 especially of those samples naturally poor in iron1 and a ready mode of doing this is offered by stirring in among the leaves while drying a small additional dose of oxide of iron1 if he can find an oxide in such a form that it will spread over the surface of the leaf as a thin film4 ,now1 it happens that the ,chinaman has lying under his feet an abundance of material admirably adapted for this purpose--viz41 red hmatite1 some varieties of which are as soft and unctuous as graphite1 and will spread over his tea-leaves exactly in the manner required4 ,the micaceous and siliceous particles found by ,mr4 ,bird are just what should be found in addition to oxide of iron1 if such hmatite were used4 ,the film of oxide thus easily applied1 and subjected to the action of the exuding and decomposing extractive matter of the heated leaves1 would form the desired black dye or 8facing40 ,the knotty question of whether this is or is not an adulteration is one that ,i leave to lawyers to decide1 or for those debating societies that discuss such interesting questions as whether an umbrella is an article of dress4 ,if it is an adulteration1 and1 as already admitted1 is not at all injurious to health1 then all other operations of dyeing are also adulterations2 for the other dyers1 like the ,chinaman1 add certain impurities to their goods--the silk1 wool1 or cotton--in order to alter their natural appearance1 and to give them the false facing which their customers demand1 but with this difference1 if ,i am right in the above explanation3 that in darkening tea nothing more is done but to increase the proportion of one of its natural ingredients1 and to intensify its natural color2 while in the dyeing of silk1 cotton1 or wool1 ingredients are added which are quite foreign and unnatural1 and the natural color of the substance is altogether falsified4 ,the above appeared in the ,chemical ,news ,november #ba1 #ahgc1 when the adulteration in question was generally believed to be commonly perpetrated1 and many unfortunate shop-keepers had been and were still being summoned to appear at ,petty ,sessions1 etc41 and publicly branded as fraudulent adulterators on the evidence of the newly-fledged public analysts1 who confidently asserted that they found such filings mixed with the tea4 ,some discussion followed in subsequent numbers of the ,chemical ,news2 but it only brought out the fact that 8finely divided iron0 exists in considerable quantities in ,sheffield1--may be 8begged10 as ,mr4 ,alfred ,h4 ,allen 7an able analytical chemist1 resident in ,sheffield17 said4 ,the fact that such finely divided iron is thus without commercial value still further confirms my conclusion that it is not used for the adulteration of tea4 ,if it were1 its collection would be a regular business1 and truck-loads would be transmitted from ,sheffield to ,london1 the great centre of tea-importation4 ,no evidence of any commercial transactions in iron filings or iron dust for such purposes came forward in reply to my challenge4 ,the practical result of the controversy is that iron filings are no longer to be found in the analytical reports of the adulteration of tea4 ,,concert-,,room ,,acoustics4 ,the acoustics of public buildings are now occupying considerable attention in ,london4 ,the vast audiences which any kind of sensational performance in the huge metropolis is capable of attracting1 is forcing the subject upon all who cater for public amusement or instruction4 ,there was probably no building in ,london1 or anywhere else1 more utterly unfit for musical performances than the ,crystal ,palace in its original condition2 but1 nevertheless1 the ,handel ,festival of last week was a great success4 ,i attended the first of these immense gatherings1 and this last2 but nothing of the kind intermediate1 and1 therefore1 am the better able to make comparisons4 ,my recollections of the first were so very unsatisfactory that ,i gladly evaded the grand rehearsal of ,friday week1 and went to the 8,messiah0 on ,monday with an astronomical treatise in my pocket1 in order that my time should not be altogether wasted4 ,being seated at the further end of the transept1 in a gallery above the level of the general ridge-and-furrow roof of the nave1 the plump little ,birmingham tenor1 who rose to sing the first solo1 appeared1 under the combined optical conditions of distance and vertical foreshortening1 like a chubby cheese-mite viewed through a binocular microscope4 ,taking it for granted that his message of comfort could not possibly reach my ear1 ,i determined to anticipate the exhortation by settling down for a comfortable reading of a chapter or two1 but was surprised to find ,i could hear every note1 both of recitative and air4 ,it thus became obvious that the alterations that have gradually grown since the time when ,clara ,novello's voice was the only one that could be heard across the transept are worthy of study2 that the advertised success of the 8velarium0 is something more than mere puffery4 ,i accordingly used my eyes as well as my ears1 and made a few notes which may be interesting to musical and architectural1 as well as to scientific readers4 ,sound1 like light1 heat1 and all other radiations1 loses its intensity as it is outwardly dispersed1 is enfeebled in the ratio of the squares of distance2 thus at twenty feet from the singer the loudness of the sound is one fourth of that at ten feet1 at thirty feet one ninth1 at forty feet one sixteenth1 at fifty feet one twenty-fifth1 and so on2 that is1 supposing the singer or other source of sound is surrounded on all sides by free1 open1 and still air4 ,but this condition is never fulfilled in practice1 excepting1 perhaps1 by ,simeon ,stylites when he preached to the multitude from the top of his column4 ,if ,mr4 ,vernon ,rigby had stood on the top of one of his native ,south ,staffordshire chimney-shafts1 of the same height above the ground as the upper press gallery of the ,crystal ,palace is above the front of the orchestra1 and ,i had stood on the open ground at the same distance away and below him1 his solo of 8,comfort ye1 my ,people0 would have been utterly inaudible4 ,what1 then1 is the reason of this great difference of effect at equal distances8 ,if we can answer this question1 we shall know something about the acoustics of concert-rooms4 ,the uninitiated reader will at once begin by saying that 8sound rises40 ,this is almost universally believed1 and yet it is a great mistake1 as commonly understood4 ,sound radiates equally in every direction--downwards1 upwards1 north1 south1 east1 or west1 unless some special directive agency is used4 ,the directive agency commonly used is a reflecting or reverberating surface4 ,thus the voice of the singer travels forward more abundantly than backward1 because he uses the roof1 and1 to some extent1 the walls and floor of his mouth1 as a sound reflector4 ,the roof of his mouth being made of concave plates of bone with a thin velarium of integument stretched tightly over them1 supplies a model sound reflector2 and ,i strongly recommend every architect who has to build a concert or lecture-room1 or theatre1 to study the roof of his own mouth1 and imitate it as nearly as he can in the roof of his building4 ,the great ,italian singing masters of the old school1 who1 like the father of ,persiani1 could manufacture a great voice out of average raw material1 studied the physiology of the vocal organs1 and one of their first instructions to their pupils was that they should sing against the roof of the mouth1 then throw the head back and open the mouth1 so that the sound should reverberate forwards1 clear of the teeth and lips4 ,for the first year or two the pupil had to sing only 8la1 la10 for several hours per day1 until the faculty of doing this effectually and habitually was acquired4 ,the popular notion that sound rises has probably originated from the fact that in our common experience the sounds are produced near to some kind of floor1 which reflects the sounds upwards1 and thus adds the reflected sound to that which is directly transmitted1 and thereby the general result is materially augmented4 ,but if we would economize sound most effectively1 we must have not only a reflecting floor1 but also a reflecting roof and reflecting walls on all sides of the concert room4 ,these are the conditions that were wanting in the original structure of the ,crystal ,palace transept1 for then the sound of the singer's voice could travel upwards to that lofty arch and sidewise in all directions1 almost as freely as in the open air4 ,this defect has been remedied to a very great extent by the velarium stretched across from the springing of the great arch of glass and iron1 and forming a ceiling to the concert-room part of the building4 ,besides this1 a wall of drapery is stretched across each side of the transept1 and the orchestra has its special walls1 roof1 and back4 ,there are other minor arrangements for effecting lateral reverberation2 that is1 for returning the sound into the auditorium proper instead of allowing it to wander feebly throughout the building4 ,the general result of these arrangements is to render that portion of the building in which the reserved seats are placed a really luxurious and efficient concert-room1 of magnificent proportions2 but1 very unfortunately and inevitably1 these conditions1 which are so favorable for the happy eight or nine thousand who can afford reserved seats1 render the position of the other half-dozen thousand outsiders more disappointing and vexatious than ever4 ,for my own part ,i would rather spend a holiday afternoon in the mild atmosphere and the quiet1 soothing gloom of a coal-pit than be teased and irritated by a strained listening to the indefinite roar of a grand choir1 and the occasional dying vibrations of ,sims ,reeves' 8top ,a40 ,i have in the above advocated reverberation as a remedy for diffusion of sound4 ,this may1 perhaps1 appear rather startling to some musicians who have a well-founded dread of echoes1 and who read the words echo and reverberation as synonymous4 ,this requires a little explanation4 ,as light is transmitted1 reflected1 and absorbed in the same manner as sound1 and as light is visible--or1 rather1 renders objects visible--,i will illustrate my meaning by means of light4 ,let us suppose three apartments of equal size and same shape1 one having its walls covered with mirrors1 the second with white paper1 and the third with black woollen cloth1 and all lighted with central chandeliers of equal brilliancy4 ,the first and second will be much lighter than the third1 but they will be illuminated very differently4 ,in the first1 there will be a repetition of chandeliers in the mirrored walls1 each wall definitely reflecting the image of each particular light4 ,in the second room there will be reflection also1 and economy of light1 but no reflection of definite images2 the apartment will appear to be filled with a general and well-diffused luminosity1 rendering every object distinctly visible1 and there will be no deep shadows anywhere4 ,in scientific language1 we shall have1 in the first room1 regular reflection2 in the second1 scattering reflection2 in the third room we should have comparative gloom1 owing to the absorption of the light by the black cloth4 ,we may easily suppose the parallels of these in the case of sound4 ,if the velarium and side walls of the transept and orchestra were made of sheet iron1 or smooth1 bare1 unbroken vibrating wooden boards1 we should have a certain amount of regular reflection of sound or echo4 ,just as we should see the particular lights of the chandelier reflected in the first room1 so should we hear the particular notes of the singer or player echoed by such regularly vibrating walls and ceiling4 ,if1 again1 the velarium and side drapery of the transept and orchestra had been thick1 soft woollen cloths1 the sound1 like the light1 would have been absorbed or 8muffled10 and1 though very clear1 it would be weak and insufficient4 ,the reader will now ask--,what1 then1 is the right material for such velarium and walls8 ,i cannot pretend to say what is the best possible1 believing that it has yet to be discovered4 ,the best yet known1 and attainable at moderate expense1 is common canvas or calico1 washed or painted over with a mixture of size and lime1 or other attainable material that will fill up the pores of the fabric1 and give it a moderately smooth face or surface4 ,thus prepared1 it is found to reflect sound1 as paper1 ground glass1 etc41 reflect light1 by scattering reverberation1 but without definite echo4 ,it will now be understood how the velarium acted in rendering the solos so clearly audible at the great height and distance of the ,upper ,press ,gallery4 ,instead of being wasted by diffusion in the great vault above1 they were stopped and reflected by the velarium1 but not so reflected as to produce disagreeable repetition notes1 just audible at particular points1 as the lights of the mirror reflections of the chandeliers would be4 ,flat surfaces reflect radially1 while concave surfaces with certain curves reflect sound1 light1 heat1 etc41 in parallel lines4 ,the walls and roof of a music-hall should scatter their reflections on all sides1 and1 therefore1 should be flat1 or nearly so1 excepting at the angles1 which should be curved or hollowed4 ,from the orchestra the sound is chiefly required to be projected forward as from the singer's mouth2 and1 therefore1 an orchestra should have curved walls and roof4 ,space will not permit a dissertation here on the particular curve required4 ,this has1 ,i believe1 been carefully calculated in constructing the ,crystal ,palace orchestra4 ,viewed from a distance1 the whole orchestra is curiously like a huge wide-opened mouth that only requires to close a little and open a little more1 according to the articulations of the choir1 to represent the vocal effort of one gigantic throat4 ,there is1 ,i think1 one fault in the shape of this mouth4 ,it extends too far laterally in proportion to its perpendicular dimensions4 ,the angles of the mouth are too acute2 the choir extends too far on each side4 ,the singers should be packed more like those of the ,birmingham ,festival ,choir4 ,there is an acoustic limit to the magnitude of choirs4 ,sound travels at about #aajj feet per second1 and thus1 if one of the singers of a choir is #aaj feet nearer than another singer to any particular auditor1 the near singer will be heard one-tenth of a second before the more distant1 though they actually sing exactly together4 ,in rapid staccato passages this would produce serious confusion1 though in such music as most of ,handel's it would be scarcely observable4 ,some observations which ,i have made convince me that the actual choir of the ,handel ,festivals has reached1 if not exceeded1 the acoustic limits even for ,handel's music1 and decidedly exceeds the limits permissible for ,mendelsshon and most other composers4 ,i found that when standing on the floor of the building in front of the orchestra1 and on one side1 ,i could plainly distinguish the wave of difference of time due to the traveling of the sound1 and in all the passages which required to be taken up smartly and simultaneously by the opposite sides of the choir1 the effect was very disagreeable4 ,the defect1 however1 was not observable from the press gallery1 which is placed as nearly as may be to the focus of the orchestral curve1 so that radial lines drawn from the auditor to different parts of the orchestra do not differ so much in length as to effect perceptible differences in the moment at which the different sounds reach the ear4 ,my conclusion1 therefore1 is that if any amendment is to be made in the numbers of the ,handel ,festival choir1 it should rather be done by a reduction than an increase2 that the four thousand voices should rather be reduced to three thousand than increased to five thousand4 ,with greater severity of selection as regards quality1 power1 and training of each individual voice1 and with better packing1 the three thousand would be more effective than the four thousand4 ,,science ,,and ,,spiritualism4 ,a rather startling paper in the current number of the 8,quarterly ,journal of ,science10 from the pen of ,william ,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s4 7who is well known in the scientific world by his discovery of the metal thallium1 his investigations of its properties and those of its compounds1 besides many other important researches1 and also as the able and spirited editor of the ,chemical ,news71 is now the subject of much scientific gossip and discussion4 ,mr4 ,crookes has for some time past been engaged in investigating some of the phenomena which are attributed on one hand to the agency of spiritual visitors1 and on the other side to vulgar conjuring4 ,nobody acquainted with ,mr4 ,crookes can doubt his ability to conduct such an investigation1 or will hesitate for a moment in concluding that he has done so with philosophical impartiality1 though many think it quite possible that he may have been deceived4 ,none1 however1 can yet say how4 ,for my own part1 ,i abstain from any conclusion in the meantime1 until ,i have time and opportunity to witness a repetition of some of these experiments1 and submitting them to certain tests which appear to me desirable4 ,though struggling against a predisposition to prejudge1 and to conclude that the phenomena are the results of some very skillful conjuring1 ,i very profoundly respect the moral courage that ,mr4 ,crookes has displayed in thus publicly grappling with a subject which has been soiled by contact with so many dirty fingers4 ,nothing but a pure love of truth1 overpowering every selfish consideration1 could have induced ,mr4 ,crookes to imperil his hard-earned scientific reputation by stepping thus boldly on such very perilous ground4 ,it is only fair1 at the outset1 to state that ,mr4 ,crookes is not what is called 8a spiritualist40 ,this ,i infer1 both from what he has published and from conversation ,i have had with him on the subject4 ,he has witnessed some of the 8physical manifestations10 and1 while admitting that many of these may be produced by the jugglery of impostors1 he has concluded that others cannot be thus explained2 but1 nevertheless1 does not accept the spiritual theory which attributes them to the efforts of departed human souls4 ,he suspects that the living human being may have the power of exerting some degree of force or influence upon bodies external to himself--may1 for instance1 be able to counteract or increase the gravitation of substances by an effort of the will4 ,he calls this power the 8psychic force10 and supposes that some persons are able to manifest it much more powerfully than others1 and thus explains the performances of those 8mediums0 who are not mere impostors4 ,there is nothing in this hypothesis which the sternest1 the most sceptical1 and least imaginative of physical philosophers may not unhesitatingly investigate1 provided some first-sight evidence of its possibility is presented to him4 ,we know that the ,torpedo1 the ,gymnotus1 the ,silurus ,electricus1 and other fishes1 can1 by an effort of the will1 act upon bodies external to themselves4 ,faraday showed that the electric eel exhibited some years ago at the ,adelaide ,gallery was able1 by an effort of its will1 to make a magnetic needle suddenly turn thirty degrees aside from its usual polar position2 that this same animal could--still by an effort of will--overpower the gravitation of pieces of gold leaf1 cause them to be uplifted and outstretched from their pendent position1 could decompose iodide of potassium1 and perform many other 8physical manifestations10 simply by a voluntary nervous effort1 and without calling in the aid of any souls of other departed eels4 ,before this gymnotus was publicly exhibited it was deposited at a ,french hotel in the neighborhood of ,leicester ,square4 ,a burly fishmonger's man1 named ,wren1 brought in the daily supply of fish to the establishment1 when some of the servants told him they had an eel so large that he would be afraid to pick it up4 ,he laughed at the idea of being afraid of an eel1 and when taken to the tub boldly plunged in both hands to seize the fish4 ,a hideous roar followed this attempt4 ,wren had experienced a demonstration of the 8psychic force0 of the electrical eel1 and his terror so largely exaggerated the actual violence of the shock1 that he believed for the remainder of his life that he was permanently injured by it4 ,he had periodical spasms across the chest1 which could only be removed by taking a half-quartern of gin4 ,as he was continually narrating his adventure to public-house audiences1 and always had a spasm on concluding1 which his hearers usually contributed to relieve1 the poor fellow's life was actually shortened by the shock from the gymnotus4 ,the experiments which ,mr4 ,crookes relates in support of his psychic force hypothesis are as follows3--,in the first place he contrived an apparatus for testing ,mr4 ,home's alleged power of modifying the gravitation of bodies4 ,as ,mr4 ,home requires to lay his hands1 or at least his finger-ends1 upon the body to be influenced1 ,mr4 ,crookes attached one end of a long board to a suspended spring steelyard of delicate construction2 the other end of the board rested on a fulcrum in such a manner that one half of the weight of the board was supported by the fulcrum and the other half by the steelyard4 ,the weight of the board thus suspended was carefully noted1 and then ,mr4 ,home put his fingers upon that end of the board immediately resting on the fulcrum in such a manner that he could not by simple pressure affect the dependent end of the board4 ,dr4 ,huggins1 the eminent astronomer1 was present1 and also ,serjeant ,cox1 besides ,mr4 ,crookes4 ,they all watched ,mr4 ,home1 the board1 and the steelyard2 they observed first a vibration and fluctuation of the index1 and finally that the steelyard indicated an increase of weight amounting to about three pounds4 ,mr4 ,crookes tried to produce the same effect by mechanical pressure exerted in a similar manner1 but failed to do so4 ,the details of the experiment are fully described and illustrated by an engraving4 ,another and still more striking experiment is described4 ,mr4 ,crookes purchased a new accordion from ,messrs4 ,wheatstone1 and himself constructed a wire cage open at top and bottom1 and large enough for the accordion to be suspended within it by holding it over the open top1 while the bottom of the cage rested on the floor4 ,the accordion was then handed to ,mr4 ,home1 who held it with one hand by the wooden framework of the bottom of the instrument1 as shown in an illustrative drawing4 ,the keys were thus hanging downwards and the bellows distended by the weight of the instrument thus pendent4 ,it was then held so that it should be entirely surrounded by the wire-work of the cage1 and the results were1 as before1 watched keenly by ,mr4 ,crookes1 ,dr4 ,huggins1 and ,serjeant ,cox4 ,after a while the instrument began to wave about1 then the bellows contracted1 and the lower part 7i4e41 the key-board end7 rose a little1 presently sounds were produced1 and finally the instrument played a tune upon itself in obedience1 as ,mr4 ,crookes supposes1 to the psychic force which ,mr4 ,home exerted upon it4 ,before the publication of the paper describing these experiments a proof was sent to both ,dr4 ,huggins and ,serjeant ,cox1 and each has written a letter testifying to its accuracy1 which letters are printed with the paper in the 8,quarterly ,journal of ,science40 ,here1 then1 we have the testimony of an eminent lawyer1 accustomed to sifting evidence1 that of the most distinguished of experimental astronomers1 the man whose discoveries in celestial physics have justly excited the admiration of the whole civilized world2 and besides these1 of another ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 who has been severely trained in 8putting nature to the torture0 by means of the most subtle devices of the modern physical and chemical laboratory4 ,such testimony must not be treated lightly4 ,it would be simple impertinence for any man dogmatically to assert that these have been deceived merely because he is unconvinced4 ,though one of the unconvinced myself1 ,i would not dare to regard the investigations of these gentlemen with any other than the profoundest respect4 ,still a suggestion occurs to me which may appear very brutal1 but ,i make it nevertheless4 ,it is this3--,that the testimony of another witness--of an expert of quite a different school--should have been added4 ,i mean such a man as ,dbler1 ,houdin1 or the ,wizard of the ,north4 ,he might possibly have detected something which escaped the scrutiny of the legitimate scientific experimentalist4 ,there is one serious defect in the accordion experiment4 ,the cage is represented in the engraving as placed under a table2 ,mr4 ,home holds the instrument in his hand1 which is concealed by the table1 and it does not appear that either ,mr4 ,crookes1 ,dr4 ,huggins1 or ,serjeant ,cox placed themselves under the table during the concertina performance1 and thus neither of them saw ,mr4 ,home's hand4 ,such1 at least1 appears from the description and the engraving4 ,a story being commonly circulated respecting some of ,mr4 ,home's experiments in ,russia1 according to which he failed entirely when a glass table was provided instead of a wooden one1 it would be well1 if only in justice to ,mr4 ,home1 to get rid of the table altogether4 ,it is very desirable that these experiments should be continued1 for two distinct reasons2 first1 as a matter of ordinary investigation for philosophical purposes1 and1 secondly1 as a means of demolishing the most degrading superstition of this generation4 ,if ,mr4 ,crookes succeeds in demonstrating the existence of the psychic force and reducing it to law--as it must be reducible if it is a force--then the ground will be cut from under the feet of spiritualism1 just as the old superstitions1 which attributed thunder and lightning to ,divine anger1 were finally demolished by ,franklin's kite4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the arch-medium1 ,mr4 ,home1 is proved to be a common conjuror1 then surely the dupes of the smaller 8mediumistic0 fry will have their eyes opened1 provided the cerebral disturbance which spiritualism so often induces has not gone so far as to render them incurable lunatics4 ,it is very likely that ,i shall be accused of gross uncharitableness in thus applying the term lunatic to 8those who differ from me10 and therefore state that ,i have sad and sufficient reasons for doing so4 ,the first spiritualist ,i ever knew1 and with whom ,i had many conferences on the subject many years ago1 was a lady of most estimable qualities1 great intellectual attainments1 and distinguished literary reputation4 ,i watched the beginning and the gradual progress of her spiritual 8investigations10 as she called them1 and witnessed the melancholy end--shocking delusions1 intellectual shipwreck1 and confirmed1 incurable insanity1 directly and unmistakably produced by the action of these hideous superstitions upon an active1 excitable imagination4 ,i well remember the growing symptoms of this case1 have seen their characteristic features repeated in others1 and have now before me some melancholy cases where the same changes1 the same decline of intellect and growth of ravenous credulity1 is progressing with most painfully visible distinctness4 ,the necessity for some strong remedy is the more urgent1 inasmuch as the diabolical machinery of the spiritual impostors has been so much improved of late4 ,the lady whose case ,i first referred to had reached the highest stage of spiritualistic development--viz41 the lunatic asylum--before 8dark sances0 had been invented1 or1 at any rate1 before they were introduced into this country4 ,when the conditions of these sances are considered1 it is not at all surprising that persons of excitable temperament1 especially women1 should be morbidly affected by them4 ,we are endowed with certain faculties1 and placed in a world wherein we may exercise them healthfully upon their legitimate objects4 ,such exercise1 properly limited1 promotes the growth and vigor of our faculties2 but if we pervert them by directing them to illegitimate objects1 we gradually become mad4 ,god has created the light1 and fitted our eyes to receive it2 ,he has endowed us with the sense of touch1 by which we may confirm and verify the impressions of sight4 ,all physical phenomena are objects of sense1 and the senses of sight and touch are the masters of all the other senses4 ,can anything1 then1 be more atrociously perverse1 more utterly idiotic1 and ,i may even say impious1 than these dark sance investigations8 ,is it possible to conceive a more melancholy spectacle of intellectual degradation than that presented by a group of human victims assembled for the purpose of 8investigating physical manifestations10 and submitting1 as a primary condition1 to be blinded and handcuffed1 the room in which they sit being made quite dark1 and both hands of each investigator being firmly held by those of his neighbors4 ,that is to say1 the primary conditions of making these physical investigations is that each investigator shall be deprived of his natural faculties for doing so4 ,when we couple this with the fact that these meetings are got up--publicly advertised by adventurers who make their livelihood by the fees paid by their hoodwinked and handcuffed customers--is it at all surprising that those who submit to such conditions should finish their researches in a lunatic asylum8 ,the gloom1 the mystery1 the unearthly objects of search1 the mysterious noises1 and other phenomena so easily manipulated in the presence of those who can see nothing and feel only the sympathetic twitching of another pair of trembling hands1 naturally excites very powerfully the poor creatures who pay their half-crowns and half-guineas with any degree of faith2 and this unnatural excitement1 if frequently repeated1 goes on increasing till the brain becomes incurably diseased4 ,present space will not permit me to enter upon another branch of this subject1 viz43 the moral degradation and the perversion of natural1 unsophisticated1 and wholesome theology1 which these spiritual delusions are generating4 ,i am no advocate for rectifying moral and intellectual evils by police interference1 or ,i should certainly recommend the bracing air of ,dartmoor for the mediums who publicly proclaim that their familiar spirit 8,katey0 has lately translated a lady through a space of three miles1 and through the walls1 doors1 and ceiling of the house in which a dark sance was being held1 and placed her upon the table in the midst of the circle so rapidly that the word 8onions0 she had just written in her domestic inventory was not yet dried when the lights were brought and she was found there4 ,this 8lady10 which her name is ,guppy1 is1 of course1 another professional medium1 and yet there are people in ,london who gravely believe this story1 and also the appendix1 viz43 that another member of the mediumistic firm1 finding that ,mrs4 ,g4 was very incompletely dressed1 and much abashed thereby1 was translated by the same spirit1 ,katey1 to her house and back again through the door-panel to fetch proper garments4 ,if ,i could justify the apprehension and imprisonment of poor gipsy fortune-tellers1 ,i certainly should advocate the close confinement of ,mrs4 ,guppy and her male associates1 and thus afford the potent spirit1 ,katey1 an opportunity of further manifestation by translating them through the prison walls and back to ,lamb's ,conduit ,street4 7,the above letter appeared in the 8,birmingham ,morning ,news0 of ,july #ah1 #ahga2 the following on ,november #ae4 ,it refers to an article in the 8,quarterly ,review0 of ,october1 #ahga47 ,the interest excited by ,mr4 ,crookes's investigations on ,psychic ,force is increasing2 the demand for the 8,quarterly ,review0 and the 8,quarterly ,journal of ,science0 is so great that ,mudie and other proprietors of lending libraries have largely increased their customary supplies1 and are still besieged with further excess of demand4 ,not only borrowers1 but purchasers also are supplied with difficulty4 ,i yesterday received a post-card from a bookseller1 inscribed as follows3 8,cannot get a #8,quarterly ,review' in the ,city1 so shall be unable to send it to you until to-morrow40 ,i have waited three days1 and am now obliged to go to the reading-room to make my quotations4 ,there is good and sufficient reason for this1 independently of the absence of ,parliamentary and war news1 and the dearth of political revolutions4 ,either a new and most extraordinary natural force has been discovered1 or some very eminent men specially trained in rigid physical investigation have been the victims of a marvelous1 unprecedented1 and inexplicable physical delusion4 ,i say unprecedented1 because1 although we have records of many popular delusions of similar kind and equal magnitude1 and speculative delusions among the learned1 ,i can cite no instance of skillful experimental experts being utterly and repeatedly deceived by the mechanical action of experimental test apparatus carefully constructed and used by themselves4 ,as the interest in the subject is rapidly growing1 my readers will probably welcome a somewhat longer gossip on this than ,i usually devote to a single subject4 ,such an extension is the more demanded as the newspaper and magazine articles which have hitherto appeared have1 for the most part1 by following the lead of the 8,quarterly ,review10 strangely muddled the whole subject1 and misstated the position of ,mr4 ,crookes and others4 ,in the first place1 all the writers who follow the 8,quarterly0 omit any mention or allusion to ,mr4 ,crookes's preliminary paper published in ,july1 #ahgj1 which has a most important bearing on the whole subject1 as it expounds the object of all the subsequent researches4 ,mr4 ,crookes there states that 8,some weeks ago the fact that ,i was engaged in investigating ,spiritualism1 so-called1 was announced in a contemporary 7the 8,athenum071 and in consequence of the many communications ,i have since received1 ,i think it desirable to say a little concerning the investigations which ,i have commenced4 ,views or opinions ,i cannot be said to possess on a subject which ,i do not profess to understand4 ,i consider it the duty of scientific men1 who have learned exact modes of working1 to examine phenomena which attract the attention of the public1 in order to confirm their genuineness1 or to explain1 if possible1 the delusions of the honest1 and to expose the tricks of the deceivers40 ,he then proceeds to state the case of ,science versus ,spiritualism thus3--8,the ,spiritualist tells of bodies weighing #ej or #ajj lbs4 being lifted up into the air without the intervention of any known force2 but the scientific chemist is accustomed to use a balance which will render sensible a weight so small that it would take ten thousand of them to weigh one grain2 he is1 therefore1 justified in asking that a power1 professing to be guided by intelligence1 which will toss a heavy body to the ceiling1 shall also cause his delicately-poised balance to move under test conditions40 8,the ,spiritualist tells of rooms and houses being shaken1 even to injury1 by superhuman power4 ,the man of science merely asks for a pendulum to be sent vibrating when it is in a glass-case1 and supported on solid masonry40 8,the ,spiritualist tells of heavy articles of furniture moving from one room to another without human agency4 ,but the man of science has made instruments which will divide an inch into a million parts1 and he is justified in doubting the accuracy of the former observations1 if the same force is powerless to move the index of his instrument one poor degree40 8,the ,spiritualist tells of flowers with the fresh dew on them1 of fruit1 and living objects being carried through closed windows1 and even solid brick walls4 ,the scientific investigator naturally asks that an additional weight 7if it be only the #ajjjth part of a grain7 be deposited on one pan of his balance when the case is locked4 ,and the chemist asks for the #ajjjth part of a grain of arsenic to be carried through the sides of a gas tube in which pure water is hermetically sealed40 ,these and other requirements are stated by ,mr4 ,crookes1 together with further exposition of the principles of strict inductive investigation1 as it should be applied to such an inquiry4 ,a year after this he published an account of the experiments1 which ,i described in a former letter1 and added to his own testimony that of the eminent physicist and astronomer1 ,dr4 ,huggins and ,serjeant ,cox4 ,subsequently1 that is1 in the last number of the 8,quarterly ,journal of ,science10 he has published the particulars of another series of experiments4 ,i will not now enter upon the details of these1 but merely state that the conclusions of ,mr4 ,crookes are directly opposed to those of the ,spiritualists4 ,he positively1 distinctly1 and repeatedly repudiates all belief in the operations of the supposed spirits1 or of any other supernatural agency whatever1 and attributes the phenomena he witnessed to an entirely different organ1 viz43 to the direct agency of the medium4 ,he supposes that a force analogous to that which the nerves convey from their ganglionic centres to the muscles1 in producing muscular contraction1 may by an effort of the will be transmitted to external inanimate matter1 in such a manner as to influence1 in some degree1 its gravitating power1 and produce vibratory motion4 ,he calls this the psychic force4 ,now1 this is direct and unequivocal anti-spiritualism4 ,it is a theory set up in opposition to the supernatural hypotheses of the ,spiritualists1 and ,mr4 ,crookes's position in reference to ,spiritualism is precisely analogous to that of ,faraday in reference to table-turning4 ,for the same reasons as those above-quoted1 the great master of experimental investigation examined the phenomena called table-turning1 and he concluded that they were due to muscular force1 just as ,mr4 ,crookes concludes that the more complex phenomena he has examined are due to psychic force4 ,speaking of the theories of the ,spiritualists1 ,mr4 ,crookes1 in his first paper 7,july1 #ahgj71 says3 8,the pseudo-scientific ,spiritualist professes to know everything4 ,no calculations trouble his serenity2 no hard experiments1 no laborious readings2 no weary attempts to make clear in words that which has rejoiced the heart and elevated the mind4 ,he talks glibly of all sciences and arts1 overwhelming the inquirer with terms like #8electro-biologise1' #8psychologise1' #8animal magnetism1' etc41 a mere play upon words1 showing ignorance rather than understanding40 ,and further on he says3 8,i confess that the reasoning of some ,spiritualists would almost seem to justify ,faraday's severe statement--that many dogs have the power of coming to more logical conclusions40 ,i have already referred to the muddled misstatement of ,mr4 ,crookes's position by the newspaper writers1 who almost unanimously describe him and ,dr4 ,huggins as two distinguished scientific men who have recently been converted to ,spiritualism4 ,the above quotations1 to which1 if space permitted1 ,i might add a dozen others from either the first1 the second1 or the third of ,mr4 ,crookes's papers1 in which he as positively and decidedly controverts the dreams of the ,spiritualists1 will show how egregiously these writers have been deceived4 ,they have relied very naturally on the established respectability of the 8,quarterly ,review10 and have thus deluded both themselves and their readers4 ,considering the marvelous range of subjects these writers have to treat1 and the acres of paper they daily cover1 it is not surprising that they should have been thus misled in reference to a subject carrying them considerably out of their usual track2 but the offence of the 8,quarterly0 is not so venial4 ,it assumes1 in fact1 a very serious complexion when further investigated4 ,the title of the article is 8,spiritualism and its ,recent ,converts10 and the 8recent converts0 most specially and prominently named are ,mr4 ,crookes and ,dr4 ,huggins4 ,serjeant ,cox is also named1 but not as a recent convert2 for the reviewer describes him as an old and hopelessly infatuated ,spiritualist4 ,knowing nothing of ,serjeant ,cox1 ,i am unable to say whether the reviewer's very strong personal statements respecting him are true or false--whether he really is 8one of the most gullible of the gullible10 etc41 though ,i must protest against the bad taste which is displayed in the attack which is made upon this gentleman4 ,the head and front of his offending consists in having certified to the accuracy of certain experiments2 and for having simply done this1 the reviewer proceeds1 in accordance with the lowest tactics of ,old ,bailey advocacy1 to bully the witness1 and to publish disparaging personal details of what he did twenty-five years ago4 ,dr4 ,huggins1 who has had nothing further to do with the subject than simply to state that he witnessed what ,mr4 ,crookes described1 and who has not ventured upon one word of explanation of the phenomena1 is similarly treated4 ,the reviewer goes out of his way to inform the public that ,dr4 ,huggins is1 after all1 only a brewer1 by artfully stating that1 8like ,mr4 ,whitbread1 ,mr4 ,lassell1 and other brewers we could name1 ,dr4 ,huggins attached himself in the first place to the study of astronomy40 ,he then proceeds to sneer at 8such scientific amateurs10 by informing the public that they 8labor1 as a rule1 under a grave disadvantage1 in the want of that broad basis of scientific culture which alone can keep them from the narrowing and pervertive influence of a limited specialism40 ,the reviewer proceeds to say that he has 8no reason to believe that ,dr4 ,huggins constitutes an exception0 to this rule1 and further asserts that he is justified in concluding that ,dr4 ,huggins is ignorant of 8every other department of science than the small subdivision of a branch to which he has so meritoriously devoted himself40 ,mark the words1 8small subdivision of a branch40 ,merely a twig of the tree of science is1 according to this most unveracious writer1 all that ,dr4 ,huggins has ever studied4 ,if a personal vindication were the business of this letter ,i could easily show that these statements respecting the avocations1 the scientific training1 and actual attainments of ,dr4 ,huggins are gross and atrocious misrepresentations2 but ,dr4 ,huggins has no need of my championship2 his high scientific position1 the breadth and depth of his general attainments1 and the fact that he is not ,huggins the brewer1 are sufficiently known to all in the scientific world1 with the exception of the 8,quarterly0 reviewer4 ,my object is not to discuss the personal question whether book-making and dredging afford better or worse training for experimental inquiry than the marvelously exact and exquisitely delicate manipulations of the modern observatory and laboratory1 but to protest against this attempt to stop the progress of investigation1 to damage the true interests of science and the cause of truth1 by throwing low libellous mud upon any and everybody who steps at all aside from the beaten paths of ordinary investigation4 ,the true business of science is the discovery of truth2 to seek it wherever it may be found1 to pursue it through bye-ways as well as highways1 and1 having found it1 to proclaim it plainly and fearlessly1 without regard to authority1 fashion1 or prejudice4 ,if1 however1 such influential magazines as the 8,quarterly ,review0 are to be converted into the vehicles of artful and elaborate efforts to undermine the scientific reputation of any man who thus does his scientific duty1 the time for plain speaking and vigorous protest has arrived4 ,my readers will be glad to learn that this is the general feeling of the leading scientific men of the metropolis2 whatever they may think of the particular investigations of ,mr4 ,crookes1 they are unanimous in expressing their denunciations of this article4 ,the attack upon ,mr4 ,crookes is still more malignant than that upon ,dr4 ,huggins4 ,speaking of ,mr4 ,crookes's fellowship of the ,royal ,society1 the reviewer says3 8,we speak advisedly when we say that this distinction was conferred on him with considerable hesitation20 and further that 8,we are assured1 on the highest authority1 that he is regarded among chemists as a specialist of specialists1 being totally destitute of any knowledge of chemical philosophy1 and utterly untrustworthy as to any inquiry which requires more than technical knowledge for its successful conduct40 ,the italics in these quotations are my own1 placed there to mark certain statements to which no milder term than that of falsehood is applicable4 ,the history of ,mr4 ,crookes's admission to the ,royal ,society will shortly be published1 when the impudence of the above statement respecting it will be unmasked2 and the other quotations ,i have emphasized are sufficiently and abundantly refuted by ,mr4 ,crookes's published works1 and his long and able conduct of the ,chemical ,news1 which is the only and the recognized ,british periodical representative of chemical science4 ,if space permitted1 ,i could go on quoting a long series of misstatements of matters of fact from this singularly unveracious essay4 ,the writer seems conscious of its general character1 for1 in the midst of one of his narratives1 he breaks out into a foot-note1 stating that 8,this is not an invention of our own1 but a fact communicated to us by a highly intelligent witness1 who was admitted to one of ,mr4 ,crookes's sances40 ,i have taken the liberty to emphasize the proper word in this very explanatory note4 ,the full measure of the injustice of prominently thrusting forward ,dr4 ,huggins and ,mr4 ,crookes as 8recent converts0 to ,spiritualism will be seen by comparing the reviewer's own definition of ,spiritualism with ,mr4 ,crookes's remarks above quoted4 ,the reviewer says that 8,the fundamental tenet of the ,spiritualist is the old doctrine of communication between the spirits of the departed and souls of the living40 ,this is the definition of the reviewer1 and his logical conclusion is that ,mr4 ,crookes is a ,spiritualist because he explicitly denies the fundamental tenet of ,spiritualism1 and ,dr4 ,huggins is a ,spiritualist because he says nothing whatever about it4 ,if examining the phenomena upon which the ,spiritualist builds his 8fundamental tenet10 and explaining them in some other manner1 constitutes conversion to ,spiritualism1 then the reviewer is a far more thoroughgoing convert than ,mr4 ,crookes1 who only attempts to explain the mild phenomena of his own experiments1 while the reviewer goes in for everything1 including even the apotheosis of ,mrs4 ,guppy and her translation through the ceiling1 a story which is laughed at by ,mr4 ,crookes and everybody else1 excepting a few of the utterly crazed disciples of the 8,lamb's ,conduit ,mediums0 and the 8,quarterly0 reviewer1 who actually attempts to explain it by his infallible and ever applicable physiological nostrum of 8unconscious cerebration40 ,no marvelous story either of ancient or modern date is too strong for this universal solvent1 which according to the reviewer1 is the sole and glorious invention of ,dr4 ,carpenter4 ,space will not now permit me to further describe 8unconscious cerebration0 and its vast achievements1 but ,i hope to find a corner for it hereafter4 ,i may add that the name of the reviewer is kept a profound secret1 and yet is perfectly well-known1 as everybody who reads the article finds it out when he reaches those parts which describe ,dr4 ,carpenter's important physiological researches and discoveries4 ,,mathematical ,,fictions4 7,,british ,,association1 #ahga47 ,the ,president's inaugural address1 which was going through the press in ,london while being spoken in ,edinburgh1 has already been subject to an unusual amount of sharp criticism4 ,for my own part ,i cannot help regarding it as one of the least satisfactory of all the inaugural addresses that have yet been delivered at these annual meetings4 ,they have been of two types1 the historical and the controversial2 the former prevailing4 ,in the historical addresses the ,president has usually made a comprehensive and instructive survey of the progress of the whole range of science during the past year1 and has dwelt more particularly on some branch which from its own intrinsic merits has claimed special attention1 or which his own special attainments have enabled him to treat with the greatest ability and authority4 ,a few ,presidents have1 like ,dr4 ,huxley last year1 taken up a particular subject only1 and have discussed it more thoroughly than they could have done had they also attempted a general historical survey4 ,every ,president until #ahga has scrupulously kept in view his judicial position1 and the fact that he is addressing1 not merely a few learned men1 but the whole of ,england1 if not the whole civilized world4 ,they have therefore clearly distinguished between the established and the debatable conclusions of science1 between ascertained facts and mere hypotheses1 have kept this distinction so plainly before their auditors that even the most uninitiated could scarcely confound the one with the other4 ,in ,sir ,william ,thomson's address this desirable rule is recklessly violated4 ,he tells his unsophisticated audience that ,joule was able 8to estimate the average velocity of the ultimate molecules or atoms0 of gases1 and thus determined the atomic velocity of hydrogen 8at #fbbe feet per second at temperature #fj degs4 ,fahr41 and #fjee feet at the freezing point20 that 8,clausius took fully into account the impacts of molecules upon one another1 and the kinetic energy of relative motion of the matter constituting an individual atom20 and that 8he investigated the relation between their diameters1 the number in a given space1 and the mean length of path from impact to impact1 and so gave the foundation for estimates of the absolute dimensions of atoms40 ,also that 8,loschmidt1 in ,vienna1 had shown1 and not much later ,stoney1 independently1 in ,england1 showed how to reduce from ,clausius and ,maxwell's kinetic theory of gases a superior limit to the number of atoms in a given measurable space40 ,the confiding auditor follows the ,president through further disquisitions on the 8superlatively grand question1 what is the inner mechanism of an atom80 and a minute and most definite description of the 8regular elastic vibrations0 of 8the ultimate atom of sodium10 of the manner in which 8any atom of gas1 when struck and left to itself1 vibrates with perfect purity its fundamental note or notes10 and how1 8in a highly attenuated gas1 each atom is very rarely in collision with other atoms1 and therefore is nearly at all times in a state of true vibration10 while 8in denser gases each atom is frequently in collision20 besides1 a great deal more1 in all of which the existence of these atoms is coolly taken for granted1 and treated as a fundamental established scientific fact4 ,after hearing all these oracular utterances concerning atoms1 the unsophisticated listener before mentioned will be surprised to learn that no human being has ever seen an atom of any substance whatever2 that there exists absolutely no direct evidence of the existence of any such atoms2 that all these atoms of which ,sir ,w4 ,thomson speaks so confidently and familiarly1 and dogmatically1 are pure fragments of the imagination4 ,he will be still further surprised to learn that the bare belief in the existence of ultimate atoms as a merely hypothetical probability is rejected by many of the most eminent of scientific men1 and that among those who have disputed the idea of the atomic constitution of matter1 is the great ,faraday himself2 that the question of the existence or non-existence of atoms has recently been rather keenly discussed2 and that even on the question of the permissibility of admitting their hypothetical existence1 scientific opinion is divided2 and that such a confident assumption of their existence as forms the basis of this part of the ,president's address is limited to only a small section of mutually admiring transcendental mathematicians1 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson being the most admired among them1 as shown by the address of ,professor ,tait to ,section ,a4 ,it would have been perfectly legitimate and most desirable that ,sir ,w4 ,thomson should give the fullest and most favorable possible statement of the particular hypotheses upon which he and his friends have exercised their unquestionably great mathematical skill2 but he should have stated them as what they are1 and for what they are worth1 and have clearly distinguished between such hypotheses and the established facts of universally admitted science4 ,instead of doing this1 he has so mixed up the actual discoveries of indisputable facts with these mere mathematical fancies as to give them both the semblance of equally authoritative scientific acceptance1 and thus1 without any intention to deceive anybody1 must have misled nearly all the outside public who have heard or read his address4 ,as these letters are mainly intended for those who are too much engaged in other pursuits to study science systematically1 and as most of the readers of such letters will1 as a matter of course1 read the inaugural address of the ,president of the ,british ,association1 ,i have accepted the duty of correcting among my own readers the false impression which this address may create4 ,as a set-off to the authoritative utterances of ,sir ,w4 ,thomson on the subject of atoms1 ,i quote the following from an ,italian philosopher1 who1 during the present year1 is holding in ,italy a position very similar to that of the annual ,president of our ,british ,association4 ,professor ,cannizzaro has been elected by a society of ,italian chemists to act as this year's director of a ,chronicle of the ,progress of ,chemical ,science in ,italy and abroad4 ,in this capacity he has published an inaugural treatise on the history of modern chemical theory1 in the course of which he thus speaks of the over-confident atomic theorists3 8,they often speak on molecular subjects with as much dogmatic assurance as though they had actually realized the ingenious fiction of ,laplace--had constructed a microscope by which they could detect the molecules1 and observe the number1 forms1 and arrangements of their constituent atoms1 and even determine the direction and intensity of their mutual actions4 ,many of these things1 offered at what they are worth--that is1 as hypotheses more or less probable1 or as simple artifices of the intellect--may serve1 and really have served1 to collocate facts and incite to further investigations which1 one day or other1 may lead to a true chemical theory2 but1 when perverted by being stated as truths already demonstrated1 they falsify the intellectual education of the students of inductive science1 and bring reproach on the modern progress of chemistry40 ,i translate the above from the first page of the first number of the 8,gazetta ,chimica ,italiana10 published at ,palermo in ,january last4 ,had these words been written in ,edinburgh on the evening of the #b;d of ,august1 in direct application to ,sir ,william ,thomson's address1 they could not have described more pointedly and truly the prevailing vice of this production4 ,if space permitted1 ,i could go further back and quote the words of ,lord ,bacon1 from the great text-book of inductive philosophy1 wherein he denounces the worship of all such intellectual idols as our modern mathematical dreamers have created1 and which they so fervently adore4 ,an able writer in the ,daily ,news of last ,friday is very severe upon the biological portion of the ,president's address1 which contains a really original hypothesis4 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson having stated that he is 8ready to adopt as an article of scientific faith1 true through all space and through all time1 that life proceeds from life1 and from nothing but life10 asks the question1 8,how then did life originate on the earth80 and tells us that 8if a probable solution consistent with the ordinary course of nature can be found1 we must not invoke an abnormal act of creative power40 ,he assumes1 with that perfect confidence in mathematical hypotheses which is characteristic of the school of theorists which he leads1 that 8tracing the physical history of the earth backwards1 on strictly dynamical principles1 we are brought to a red-hot melted globe1 on which no life could exist20 and then1 to account for the beginning of life on our earth as it cooled down1 he creates another imaginary world1 which he brings in collision with a second similar creation1 and thereby shatters it to fragments4 ,he further imagines that one of these imaginary broken-up worlds was already stocked with the sort of life which he says can only proceed from life1 and that from such a world thus stocked and thus smashed 8many great and small fragments carrying seed and living plants and animals would undoubtedly be scattered through space20 and that1 8if at the present instant no such life existed upon this earth1 one such stone falling upon it might1 by what we blindly call natural causes1 lead to its becoming covered with vegetation40 ,the conclusion of this paragraph is instructively characteristic of the philosophy of ,sir ,william ,thomson and his admirers4 ,he says that 8the hypothesis that life originated on this earth through moss-grown fragments of another world may seem wild and visionary2 all ,i maintain is that it is not unscientific40 ,i have italicized the phrases which1 put together1 express the philosophy of this school of modern manufacturers of mathematical hypotheses4 ,it matters not to them how 8wild and visionary10 how utterly gratuitous any assumption may be1 it is not unscientific provided it can be invested in formul1 and worked out mathematically4 ,these transcendental mathematicians are struggling to carry philosophy back to the era of ,duns ,scotus1 when the greatest triumph of learning was to sophisticate so profoundly an obvious absurdity that no ordinary intellect could refute it4 ,fortunately for the progress of humanity1 there are other learned men who firmly maintain that the business of science is the discovery and teaching of simple sober truth4 ,the writer of the ,daily ,news article above referred to very charitably suggests that ,sir ,w4 ,thomson may be 8poking fun at some of his colleagues10 and compares the moss-grown meteorite hypothesis with the ,hindoo parable which explains the stability of the earth by stating that it stands on the back of a monster tortoise1 that the tortoise rests upon the back of a gigantic elephant1 which stands upon the shell of a still bigger tortoise1 resting on the back of another still more gigantic elephant1 and so on4 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson1 of course1 requires to smash two more worlds in order to provide a moss-grown fragment for starting the life upon the world which was broken up for our benefit1 and so on backwards ad infinitum4 ,,world-,,smashing4 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson's moss-grown fragment of a shattered world is not yet forgotten4 ,in the current number of the ,cornhill ,magazine 7,january1 #ahgb7 it is very severely handled2 the more severely1 because the writer1 though treating the subject quite popularly1 shows the fallacy of the hypothesis1 even when regarded from the point of view of ,sir ,w4 ,thomson's own special department of study4 ,that an eminent mathematician should make a great slip when he ventures upon geological or physiological ground is not at all surprising2 it is1 in fact1 quite to be expected1 as there can be no doubt that the close study of pure mathematics1 by directing the mind to processes of calculation rather than to phenomena1 induces that sublime indifference to facts which has characterized the purely mathematical intellect of all ages4 ,it is not surprising that a philosopher who has been engaged in measuring the imaginary diameter1 describing the imaginary oscillations and gyrations of imaginary atoms1 and the still more complex imaginary behavior of the imaginary constituents of the imaginary atmospheres by which the mathematical imagination has surrounded these imaginary atoms1 should overlook the vulgar fact that neither mosses nor other vegetables1 nor even their seeds1 can possibly retain their vitality when alternately exposed to the temperature of a blast furnace1 and that of two or three hundred degrees below the freezing point2 but it is rather surprising that the purely mathematical basis of this very original hypothesis of so great a mathematician should be mathematically fallacious--in plain language1 a mathematical blunder4 ,in order to supply the seed-bearing meteoric fragment by which each planet is to be stocked with life1 it is necessary1 according to ,sir ,w4 ,thomson1 that two worlds--one at least flourishing with life--shall be smashed2 and1 in order to get them smashed with a sufficient amount of frequency to supply the materials for his hypothesis1 the learned ,president of the ,british ,association has1 in accordance with the customary ingenuity of mathematical theorists1 worked out the necessary mathematical conditions1 and states with unhesitating mathematical assurance that--8,it is as sure that collisions must occur between great masses moving through space1 as it is that ships1 steered without intelligence directed to prevent collision1 could not cross and recross the ,atlantic for thousands of years with immunity from collision40 ,the author of the paper in the ,cornhill denies this very positively1 and without going into the mathematical details1 points out the basis upon which it may be mathematically refuted--viz41 that all such worlds are traveling in fixed or regular orbits around their primaries or suns1 while each of these primaries travels in its own necessary path1 carrying with it all its attendants1 which still move about him1 just as though he had no motion of his own4 ,these are the conclusions of ,newtonian dynamics1 the sublime simplicity of which contrasts so curiously with the complex dreams of the modern atom-splitters1 and which make a further and still more striking contrast by their exact and perfect accordance with actual and visible phenomena4 ,newton has taught us that there can be no planets traveling at random like the ,sir ,w4 ,thomson's imaginary ships with blind pilots1 and by following up his reasoning1 we reach the conclusion1 that among all the countless millions of worlds that people the infinity of space1 there is no more risk of collision than there is between any two of the bodies that constitute our own solar system4 ,all the observations of astronomers1 both before and since the discovery of the telescope1 confirm this conclusion4 ,the long nightly watching of the ,chaldean shepherds1 the star-counting1 star-gauging1 star-mapping1 and other laborious gazing of medival and modern astronomers1 have failed to discover any collision1 or any motion tending to collision1 among the myriads of heavenly bodies whose positions and movements have been so faithfully and diligently studied4 ,thus1 the hypothesis of creation which demands the destruction of two worlds in order to effect the sowing of a seed1 is as inconsistent with sound dynamics as it is repugnant to common sense4 ,this subject suggests a similar one1 which was discussed a few months since at the ,acadamy of ,sciences of ,paris4 ,on ,january #cjth last ,m4 ,st4 ,meunier read a paper on 8,the mode of rupture of a star1 from which meteors are derived40 ,the author starts with the assumption that meteors have been produced by the rupture of a world1 basing this assumption upon the arguments he has stated in previous papers4 ,he discards altogether ,sir ,w4 ,thomson's idea of a collision between two worlds1 but works out a conclusion quite as melancholy4 ,he begins1 like most other builders of cosmical theories1 with the hypothesis that this and all the other worlds of space began their existence in a condition of nebulous infancy2 that they gradually condensed into molten liquids1 and then cooled down till they obtained a thin outside crust of solid matter1 resting upon a molten globe within2 that this crust then gradually thickened as the world grew older and cooled down by radiation4 ,i will not stop to discuss this nebular and cooling-down hypothesis at present1 though it is but fair to state that 8,i don't believe a bit of it40 ,taking all this for granted--a considerable assumption--,m4 ,st4 ,meunier reasons very ably upon what must follow1 if we further assume that each world is somehow supplied with air and water1 and that the atmosphere and the ocean of each world are limited and unconnected with those of any other world1 or with any general interstellar medium4 ,what1 then1 will happen as worlds grow old8 ,as they cool down1 they must contract2 the liquid inside can manage this without any inconvenience to itself1 but not so with the outer spherical shell of solid matter4 ,as the inner1 or hotter part of this contracts1 the cool outside must crumple up in order to follow it1 and thus mountain chains and great valleys1 lesser hills and dales1 besides faults and slips1 dykes1 earthquakes1 volcanoes1 etc41 are explained4 ,according to ,m4 ,st4 ,meunier1 the moon has reached a more advanced period of cosmical existence than the earth4 ,she is our senior2 and like the old man who shows his gray hairs and tottering limbs to inconsiderate youth1 she shines a warning upon our gay young world1 telling her that-- ,let her paint an inch thick1 to this favor she must come --that the air and ocean must pass away1 that all the living creatures of the earth must perish1 and the desolation shall come about in this wise4 ,at present1 the interior of our planet is described as a molten fluid1 with a solid crust outside4 ,as the world cools down with age1 this crust will thicken and crack1 and crack again1 as the lower part contracts4 ,this will form rainures1 i4e41 long narrow chasms1 of vast depth1 which1 like those on the moon1 will traverse1 without deviation1 the mountains1 valleys1 plains1 and ocean-beds2 the waters will fall into these1 and1 after violent catastrophes1 arising from their boiling by contact with the hot interior1 they will finally disappear from the surface1 and become absorbed in the pores of the vastly-thickened earth-crust1 and in the caverns1 cracks1 and chasms which the rending contraction will open in the interior4 ,these cavities will continue to increase1 will become of huge magnitude when the outside crust grows thick enough to form its own supporting arch1 for then the fused interior will recede1 and form mighty vaults that will engulf not the waters merely1 but all the atmosphere likewise4 ,at this stage the earth1 according to ,m4 ,st4 ,meunier1 will be a middle-aged world like the moon2 but as old age advances the contraction of the fluid1 or viscous interior beneath the outside solid crust will continue1 and the rainures will extend in length and depth and width1 as he maintains they are now growing in the moon4 ,this1 he says1 must continue till the centre solidifies1 and then these cracks will reach that centre1 and the world will be split through in fragments corresponding to the different rainures4 ,thus we shall have a planet composed of several solid fragments held together only by their mutual attractions1 but the rotary movement of these will1 according to the ,french philosopher1 become unequal1 as 8the fragments present different densities1 and are situated at unequal distances from the centre2 some will be accelerated1 others retarded2 they will rub against each other1 and grind away those portions which have the weakest cohesion40 ,the fragments thus worn off will1 8at the end of sufficient time1 girdle with a complete ring the central star40 ,at this stage the fragments become real meteors1 and then perform all the meteoric functions excepting the seed-carrying of ,sir ,w4 ,thomson4 ,it would be an easy task to demolish these speculations1 though not within the space of one of my letters4 ,a glance at the date of this paper1 and the state of ,paris and the ,french mind at the time1 may1 to some extent1 explain the melancholy relish with which the ,parisian philosopher works out his doleful speculations4 ,had the ,french army marched vigorously to ,berlin1 ,i doubt whether this paper would ever have found its way into the 8,comptes ,rendus40 ,after the fall of ,paris1 and the wholesale capitulation of the ,french armies1 it was but natural that a patriotic ,frenchman1 howsoever strong his philosophy1 should speculate on the collapse of all the stars1 and the general winding-up of the universe4 ,,the ,,dying ,,trees ,,in ,,kensington ,,gardens4 ,a great many trees have lately been cut down in ,kensington ,gardens1 and the subject was brought before the ,house of ,commons at the latter part of its last session4 ,in reply to ,mr4 ,ritchie's question1 ,mr4 ,adam1 the then ,first ,commissioner of ,works1 made explanations which1 so far as they go1 are satisfactory--but the distance is very small4 ,he states that all who have watched the trees must have seen that their decay 8has become rapid and decided in the last two years10 that when the vote for the parks came on many 8were either dead or hopelessly dying10 that in the more thickly planted portions of the gardens the trees were dead and dying by hundreds1 owing to the impoverished soil and the terrible neglect of timely thinning fifty or sixty years ago4 ,knowing the sensitiveness of the public regarding tree-cutting1 ,mr4 ,adam obtained the co-operation of a committee of experts1 consisting of ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 ,mr4 ,clutton1 and ,mr4 ,thomas1 8so distinguished as a landscape gardener10 and the late ,first ,commissioner of ,works4 ,they had several meetings1 and1 as ,mr4 ,adam informs us1 8the result has been a unanimous resolution that we ought to proceed at once to clear away the dead and dying trees40 ,this is being done to the extent of 8an absolute clearance0 in some places1 and the removal of numerous trees all over the gardens4 ,we are further told that 8the spaces cleared will either be trenched1 drained1 and replanted1 or will be left open1 as may appear best40 ,mr4 ,adam adds that 8the utmost care is being used in the work2 that not a tree is being cut that can properly be spared2 and that every effort will be made to restore life to the distinguished trees that are dying40 ,i have watched the proceedings in ,kensington ,gardens and also in ,bushey ,park1 and have considerable difficulty in describing the agricultural vandalism there witnessed1 and expressing my opinion on it1 without transgressing the bounds of conventional courtesy towards those who are responsible4 ,i do not refer to the cutting down of the dead and dying trees1 but to the proceedings by which they have been officially and artificially killed by those who ought to possess sufficient knowledge of agricultural chemistry to understand the necessary consequences of their conduct4 ,about forty years have elapsed since ,liebig taught to all who were able and willing to learn that trees and other vegetables are composed of two classes of material3 #ast1 the carbon and elements of water derived from air and rain2 and #b;d1 the nitrogenous and incombustible saline compounds derived from the soil4 ,the possible atmospheric origin of some of the nitrogen is still under debate1 but there is no doubt that all which remains behind as incombustible ash1 when we burn a leaf1 is so much matter taken out of the soil4 ,every scientific agriculturist knows that certain crops take away certain constituents from the soil1 and that if this particular cropping continues without a replacing of those particular constituents of fertility1 the soil must become barren in reference to the crop in question1 though other crops demanding different food may still grow upon it4 ,the agricultural vandalism that ,i have watched with so much vexation is the practice of annually raking and sweeping together the fallen leaves1 collecting them in barrows and carts1 and then carrying them quite away from the soil in which the trees are growing1 or should grow4 ,i have inquired of the men thus employed whether they put anything on the ground to replace these leaves1 and they have not merely replied in the negative1 but have been evidently surprised at such a question being asked4 ,what is finally done with the leaves ,i do not know2 they may be used for the flower-beds or sold to outside florists4 ,i have seen a large heap accumulated near to the ,round ,pond4 ,now1 the leaves of forest trees are just those portions containing the largest proportion of ash2 or1 otherwise stated1 they do the most in exhausting the soil4 ,in ,epping ,forest1 in the ,new ,forest1 and other forests where there has been still more 8terrible neglect of timely thinning10 the trees continue to grow vigorously1 and have thus grown for centuries2 the leaves fall on the soil wherein the trees grow1 and thus continually return to it all they have taken away4 ,they do something besides this4 ,during the winter they gradually decay4 ,this decay is a process of slow combustion1 giving out just as much heat as though all the leaves were gathered together and used as fuel for a bonfire2 but the heat in the course of natural decay is gradually given out just when and where it is wanted1 and the coating of leaves1 moreover1 forms a protecting winter jacket to the soil4 ,i am aware that the plea for this sweeping-up of leaves is the demand for tidiness2 that people with thin shoes might wet their feet if they walked through a stratum of fallen leaves4 ,the reply to this is that all reasonable demands of this class would be satisfied by clearing the footpaths1 from which nobody should deviate in the winter time4 ,before the season for strolling in the grass returns1 ,nature will have disposed of the fallen leaves4 ,a partial remedy may be applied by burning the leaves1 then carefully distributing their ashes2 but this is after all a clumsy imitation of the natural slow combustion above described1 and is wasteful of the ammoniacal salts as well as of the heat4 ,the avenues of ,bushey ,park are not going so rapidly as the old sylvan glories of ,kensington ,gardens1 though the same robbery of the soil is practiced in both places4 ,i have a theory of my own in explanation of the difference1 viz41 that the cloud of dust that may be seen blowing from the roadway as the vehicles drive along the ,chestnut ,avenue of ,bushey ,park1 settles down on one side or the other1 and supplies material which to some extent1 but not sufficiently1 compensates for the leaf-robbery4 ,the ,first ,commissioner speaks of efforts being made to restore life to the distinguished trees that are dying4 ,let us hope that these include a restoration to the soil of those particular salts that have for some years past been annually carted away from it in the form of dead leaves1 and that this is being done not only around the 8distinguished0 trees1 but throughout the gardens4 ,any competent analytical chemist may supply ,mr4 ,adam with a statement of what are these particular salts4 ,this information is obtainable by simply burning an average sample of the leaves and analyzing their ashes4 ,while on this subject ,i may add a few words on another that is closely connected with it4 ,in some parts of the parks gardeners may be seen more or less energetically occupied in pushing and pulling mowing-machines2 and carrying away the grass which is thus cut4 ,this produces the justly admired result of a beautiful velvet lawn2 but unless the continuous exhaustion of the soil is compensated1 a few years of such cropping will starve it4 ,this subject is now so well understood by all educated gardeners that it should be impossible to suppose it to be overlooked in our parks1 as it is so frequently in domestic gardening4 ,many a lawn that a few years ago was the pride of its owner is now becoming as bald as the head of the faithful1 8practical10 and obstinate old gardener who so heartily despises the 8fads0 of scientific theorists4 ,when natural mowing-machines are used1 i4e41 cattle and sheep1 their droppings restore all that they take away from the soil1 minus the salts contained in their own flesh1 or the milk that may be removed4 ,an interesting problem has been for some time past under the consideration of the more scientific of the ,swiss agriculturists4 ,from the mountain pasturages only milk is taken away1 but this milk contains a certain quantity of phosphates1 the restoration of which must be effected sooner or later1 or the produce will be cut off1 especially now that so much condensed milk is exported4 ,the wondrously rich soil of some parts of ,virginia has been exhausted by unrequited tobacco crops4 ,the quantity of ash displayed on the burnt end of a cigar demonstrates the exhausting character of tobacco crops4 ,that which the air and water supplied to the plant is returned as invisible gases during combustion1 but all the ash that remains represents what the leaves have taken from the soil1 and what should be restored in order to sustain its pristine fertility4 ,the ,west ,india ,islands have similarly suffered to a very serious extent on account of the former ignorance of the sugar planters1 who used the canes as fuel in boiling down the syrup1 and allowed the ashes of those canes to be washed into the sea4 ,they were ignorant of the fact that pure sugar maybe taken away in unlimited quantities without any impoverishment of the land1 seeing that it is composed merely of carbon and the elements of water1 all derivable from air and rain4 ,all that is needed to maintain the perennial fertility of a sugar plantation is to restore the stems and leaves of the cane1 or carefully to distribute their ashes4 ,the relation of these to the soil of the sugar plantations is precisely the same as that of the leaves of the trees to the soil of ,kensington ,gardens1 and the reckless removal of either must produce the same disastrous consequences4 ,,the ,,oleaginous ,,products ,,of ,,thames ,,mud3 ,,where ,,they ,,come ,,from ,,and ,,where ,,they ,,go4 ,once upon a time--and not a very long time since--a ,french chemist left the land of superexcellence1 and crossed to the shores of foggy ,albion4 ,he proceeded to ,yorkshire1 his object being to make his fortune4 ,he was so presumptuous as to believe that he might do this by picking up something which ,yorkshiremen threw away4 ,that something was soapsuds4 ,his chemistry taught him that soap is a compound of fat and alkali1 and that if a stronger acid than that belonging to the fat is added to soapsuds1 the stronger acid will combine with the alkali and release the fat1 the which fat thus liberated will float upon the surface of the liquid1 and may then be easily skimmed off1 melted together1 and sold at a handsome profit4 ,but why leave the beautiful ,france and desolate himself in dreary ,yorkshire merely to do this8 ,his reason was1 that the cloth workers of ,yorkshire use tons and tons of soap for scouring their materials1 and throw away millions of gallons of soapsuds4 ,besides this1 there are manufactories of sulphuric acid near at hand1 and a large demand for machinery grease just thereabouts4 ,he accordingly bought iron tanks1 and erected works in the midst of the busiest centre of the woolen manufacture4 ,but he did not make his fortune all at once4 ,on the contrary1 he failed to pay expenses1 for in his calculations he had omitted to allow for the fact that the soap liquor is much diluted1 and therefore he must carry much water in order to obtain a little fat4 ,this cost of carriage ruined his enterprise1 and his works were offered for sale4 ,the purchaser was a shrewd ,yorkshireman1 who then was a dealer in second-hand boilers1 tanks1 and other iron wares4 ,when he was about to demolish the works1 the ,frenchman took him into confidence1 and told the story of his failure4 ,the ,yorkshireman said little1 but thought much2 and having finally assured himself that the carriage was the only difficulty1 he concluded1 after the manner of ,mahomet1 that if the mountain would not come to him1 he might go to the mountain2 and then made an offer of partnership on the basis that the ,frenchman should do the chemistry of the work1 and that he 7the ,yorkshireman7 should do the rest4 ,accordingly1 he went to the works around1 and offered to contract for the purchase of all their soapsuds1 if they would allow him to put up a tank or two on their premises4 ,this he did2 the acid was added1 the fat rose to the surface1 was skimmed off1 and carried1 without the water1 to the central works1 where it was melted down1 and1 with very little preparation1 was converted into 8cold-neck grease10 and 8hot-neck grease10 and used1 besides1 for other lubricating purposes4 ,the ,frenchman's science and skill1 united with the ,yorkshireman's practical sagacity1 built up a flourishing business1 and the grease thus made is still in great demand and high repute for lubricating the rolling-mills of iron works1 and for many other kinds of machinery4 ,my readers need not be told that there are soapsuds in ,london as well as in ,yorkshire1 and they also know that the ,london soapsuds pass down the drains into the sewers4 ,i may tell them that besides this there are many kinds of acids also passed into ,london sewers1 and that others are generated by the decompositions there abounding4 ,these acids do the ,frenchman's work upon the ,london soapsuds1 but the separated fat1 instead of rising slowly and undisturbed to form a film upon the surface of the water1 is rolled and tumbled amongst its multifarious companion filth1 and it sticks to whatever it may find congenial to itself4 ,hairs1 rags1 wool1 ravellings of cotton1 and fibres of all kinds are especially fraternal to such films of fat3 they lick it up and stick it about and amid themselves2 and as they and the fat roll and tumble along the sewers together1 they become compounded and shaped into unsavory balls that are finally deposited on the banks of the ,thames1 and quietly repose in its hospitable mud4 ,but there is no peace even there1 and the gentle rest of the fat nodules is of short duration4 ,the mud-larks are down upon them1 in spite of all their burrowing2 they are gathered up and melted down4 ,the filthiest of their associated filth is thus removed1 and then1 and with a very little further preparation1 they appear as cakes of dark-colored hard fat1 very well suited for lubricating machinery1 and indifferently fit for again becoming soap1 and once more repeating their former adventures4 ,those gentlemen of the ,british press whose brilliant imagination supplies the public with their intersessional harvests of sensational adulteration panics1 have obtained a fertile source of paragraphs by co-operating with the mud-larks in the manufacture of butter from ,thames mud4 ,the origin of these stories is traceable to certain officers of the ,thames police1 who1 having on board some of these gentlemen of the press engaged in hunting up information respecting a body found in the river1 supplied their guests with a little supplementary chaff by showing them a mud-lark's gatherings1 and telling them that it was raw material from which 8fine ,dorset0 is produced4 ,a communication from 8,our ,special ,correspondent0 on the manufacture of butter from ,thames mud accordingly appeared in the atrocity column on the following morning1 and presently 8went the round of the papers40 ,although it is perfectly possible by the aid of modern chemical skill to refine even such filth as this1 and to churn it into a close resemblance to butter1 the cost of doing so would exceed the highest price obtainable for the finest butter that comes to the ,london market4 ,a skillful chemist can convert all the cotton fibres that are associated with this sewage fat into pure sugar or sugar-candy1 but the manufacture of sweetmeats from ,thames mud would not pay any better than the production of butter from the same source1 and for the same reason4 ,mutton-suet1 chop-parings1 and other clean1 wholesome fat can be bought wholesale for less than fivepence per pound4 ,it would cost above three times as much as this to bring the fat nodules of the ,thames mud to as near an approach to butter as this sort of fat4 ,therefore the ,thames mud-butter material would be three times as costly as that obtainable from the butcher4 ,while the supply of mutton-suet is so far in excess of the butter-making demand that tons of it are annually used in the ,north for lubricating machinery1 we need not fear that anything less objectionable--i4e41 more costly to purify--will be used as a butter substitute4 ,,luminous ,,paint4 ,the sun is evidently going out of fashion1 and is more and more excluded from 8good society0 as our modern substitute for civilization advances4 8,serve him right60 many will say1 for behaving so badly during the last two summers4 ,the old saw1 which says something about 8early to bed and early to rise0 is forgotten3 we take 8luncheon0 at dinner-time1 dine at supper-time1 make 8morning0 calls and go to 8morning0 concerts1 etc41 late in the afternoon1 say 8,good morning0 until #f or #g ,p4,m42 and thus1 by sleeping through the bright hours of the morning1 and waking up fully only a little before sunset1 the demand for artificial light becomes almost overwhelming4 ,not only do we require this during a longer period each day1 but we insist upon more and more1 and still more yet1 during that period4 ,the rushlight of our forefathers was superseded by an exotic luxury1 the big-flame candle made of ,russian tallow1 with a wick of ,transatlantic cotton4 ,presently this luxurious innovation was superseded by the 8mould candle20 the dip was consigned to the kitchen1 and the bloated aristocrats of the period indulged in a pair of candlesticks1 alarming their grandmothers by the extravagance of burning two candles on one table4 ,presently the mould candle was snuffed out by the composite2 then came the translucent pearly paraffin candle1 gas light1 solar lamps1 moderator lamps1 and paraffin lamps4 ,even these1 with their brilliant white flame from a single wick1 are now insufficient1 and we have duplex and even triplex wicks to satisfy our demand for glaring mockeries of the departed sun4 ,some are still living who remember the oil lamps in ,cheapside and ,piccadilly1 and the excitement caused by the brilliancy of the new gas lamps2 but now we are dissatisfied with these1 and demand electric lights for common thoroughfares1 or some extravagant combination of concentric or multiplex gas-jets to rival it4 ,the latest novelty is a device to render darkness visible by capturing the sunbeams during the day1 holding them as prisoners until after sunset1 and then setting them free in the night4 ,the principle is not a new discovery2 the novelty lies in the application and some improvements of detail4 ,in the 8,boy's ,own ,book10 or 8,endless ,amusement10 of thirty or forty years ago1 are descriptions of 8,canton's phosphorus10 or 8solar phosphori10 and recipes for making them4 ,burnt oyster-shells or oyster-shells burnt with sulphur1 was one of these4 ,various other methods of effecting combination between lime or baryta with sulphur are described in old books1 the result being the formation of more or less of what modern chemists call calcium sulphide and barium sulphide 7or otherwise sulphide of calcium or sulphide of barium74 ,these compounds1 when exposed to the sun1 are mysteriously acted upon by the solar rays1 and put into such a condition that their atoms or molecules1 or whatever else constitutes their substance1 are set in motion--in that sort of motion which communicates to the surrounding medium the wavy tremor which agitates our optic nerve and produces the sensation of light4 ,until lately1 this property has served no other purpose than puzzling philosophers1 and amusing that class of boys who burn their fingers1 spoil their clothes1 and make holes in their mothers' table-covers1 with sulphuric acid1 nitric acid1 and other noxious chemicals4 ,the first idea of turning it to practical account was that of making a sort of enamel of one or the other of these sulphides1 and using it as a coating for clock-faces4 ,a surface thus coated and exposed to the light during the day becomes faintly luminous at night4 ,anybody desirous of seeing the sort of light which it emits1 may do so very easily by purchasing an unwashed smelt from the fishmonger1 and allowing it to dry with its natural slime upon it1 then looking at it in the dark4 ,a sole or almost any other fish will answer the purpose1 but ,i name the smelt from having found it the most reliable in the course of my own experiments4 ,it emits a dull1 ghostly light1 with very little penetrating power1 which shows the shape of the fish1 but casts no perceptible light on objects around4 ,thus the phosphorescent parish-clock face1 with non-phosphorescent figures and hands1 would look like a pale ghost of the moon with dark figures round it1 and dark hands stretching across1 by which the time of the night might possibly be discovered there or thereabouts4 ,this invention has already appeared in a great many paragraphs1 but1 hitherto1 upon very few clock-faces4 ,recently it has assumed a more ambitions form--patented1 of course4 ,the patentees claim an improved phosphorescent powder1 which is capable of being worked up with the medium of paints and varnishes1 and thus applied1 not merely to clock-faces1 but to the whole of the walls and ceilings of any apartment4 ,in this case the faintness of the light will be in some degree compensated by the extent of phosphorescent surface1 and it is just possible that the sum total of the light emitted from walls and ceiling may be nearly equal to that of one mould candle4 ,if so1 it will have some value as a means of lighting powder magazines and places for storage of inflammable compounds4 ,it is stated that one of the ,london ,dock companies is about to use it for its spirit vaults2 also that the ,admiralty has already tried the paint at ,whitehall1 and has ordered two compartments of the ,comus to be painted with it1 in order to test its capability of lighting the dark regions of ironclad ships4 ,this application can1 however1 only be limited to those parts which receive a fair amount of light during the day1 for unless the composition first receives light1 it is not able afterwards to emit it1 and this emission or phosphorescence only continues a few hours after the daylight has passed away2 five or six hours is the time stated4 ,a theatrical manager is said to be negotiating for the exclusive right to employ this weird illumination for scenic purposes4 ,the sepulchre scene in 8,robert le ,diable10 or the incantation in 8,der ,freischutz10 or 8,the ,sorcerer10 might be made especially effective by its ghostly aid4 ,the name-plates of streets1 and buoys at sea might be advantageously coated with such a composition2 and many other uses suggest themselves4 ,there are rival inventors1 as a matter of course4 ,the ,french patentees claim the use of cuttle-fish bones1 various sea-shells1 etc41 mixed with pure lime1 sulphur1 and calcined sea-salt1 besides sulphides of calcium1 barium1 strontium1 uranium1 magnesium1 or aluminium4 ,they also add phosphorus itself1 though for what purpose is questionable1 seeing that this substance is only luminous during the course of its oxidation or slow combustion1 and after this has ended the resultant phosphoric acid is no more luminous than linseed oil or turpentine4 ,an admixture of phosphorus might temporarily increase the luminosity of a sample1 but any conclusions based upon this would be quite delusive4 ,they also assert that electrical discharges passed through the paint increase its luminosity4 ,according to some enthusiasts1 electricity is to do everything2 but these ladies and gentlemen omit to calculate the cost of rousing and feeding this omnipotent giant4 ,in this case electrical machinery for stimulating the paint for anything outside of lecture-table experiments or theatrical and other sensational displays1 would be a commercial absurdity4 ,the ,americans1 of course1 are re-inventing in this direction1 but ,mr4 ,edison has not yet appeared on the luminous-paint scene4 ,if he does we shall doubtless hear of something very brilliant1 even though we never see it4 ,in the meantime we may safely hope that this application of an old scientific plaything to useful purposes may become of considerable utility1 as it evidently opens a wide field for further investigation and progressive improvement1 by the application of the enlarged powers which modern science places at the disposal of ingenious inventors4 ,we hope1 for the sake of all concerned1 that it will not fall into the hands of professional prospectus manufacturers and joint-stock-company mongers1 and that the story of its triumphs will be told without any newspaper exaggerations4 ,since the above was written--in ,february1 #ahhj--;,i have tested this luminous paint 7,balmain's patent74 ,practically1 ,i find it unsatisfactory4 ,in the first place1 its endurance is far shorter than is stated4 ,it begins to fade almost immediately the light is withdrawn1 and in the course of an hour or two it is1 for all practical use--though not absolutely--extinguished4 ,besides this it emits a very unpleasant odor painfully resembling sewage and sulphureted hydrogen4 ,this is doubtless due to the sulphur compound1 but is1 ,i have no doubt1 quite harmless in spite of its suggestions4 ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,probable ,,duration ,,of ,,petroleum4 ,in spite of the enormous quantities of mineral oil that are continuously drawn from the earth1 and the many places from which it may thus be drawn1 geologists are still puzzled to account for it4 ,if it were commonly associated with coal the problem of its origin would be solved at once4 ,we should then be satisfied that natural mineral oil is produced in the same manner as the artificial product1 i4e41 by the heating and consequent distillation of certain kinds of coal or of bituminous shales2 but1 as a matter of fact1 it is but rarely that petroleum is found in the midst of coal seams1 though it is sometimes so found4 ,i visited1 some years ago1 a coal-mine in ,shropshire1 known as 8the tarry pit10 thus named on account of the large quantity of crude mineral oil of a rather coarse quality that exuded from the strata pierced by the shaft4 ,it ran down the sides of the shaft1 filled the 8sumph0 7i4e41 the well at the bottom of the shaft in which the water draining from the mine should accumulate for pumping71 and annoyed the colliers so seriously that they refused to work in the mine unless the nuisance were abolished4 ,it was abolished by 8tubbing0 the shaft with an oil-proof lining built round that part from which the oil issued4 ,the 8tar0 as the crude oil was called1 was then pumped out of the sumph1 and formed a pool which has since been filled up by the dbris of the ordinary mine workings4 ,a publican in the ,black ,country of ,south ,staffordshire discovered an issue of inflammable vapor in his cellar1 collected it by thrusting a pipe into the ground1 and used it for lighting and warming purposes1 as well as an attraction to customers4 ,these and other cases that might be cited1 although exceptional1 are of some value in helping us to form a simple and rational theory of the origin of this important natural product4 ,they prove that mineral oil may be produced in connection with coal seams and apparently from the coal itself4 ,a sound theory of the origin of petroleum is of practical as well as theoretical value1 inasmuch as the very practical question of the probable permanency of supply depends entirely on the nature of the origin of that supply4 ,some very odd theories have been put forth1 especially in ,america4 ,seeing that petroleum is commonly found associated with sandstone and limestone1 especially in cavities of the latter1 it has been supposed that these minerals somehow produce it4 ,turning back to the ,grocer for ,april #ah1 #ahgb1 ,i find some speculations of this kind quoted from the ,petroleum ,monthly4 ,the writer sets aside altogether1 as an antiquated and exploded fallacy1 the idea that petroleum is produced from coal1 and maintains 8that petroleum is mainly produced from1 or generated through1 limestone10 and argues that the generation of petroleum by such rocks is a continuous process1 from the fact that exhausted wells have recovered after being abandoned1 his explanation being 8that the formerly abandoned territory was given up because the machinery for extracting petroleum from the earth exceeded in its power of exhausting the fluid the generative powers by which it is produced20 these generative powers somehow residing in the limestone and sandstone1 but how is not specified4 ,some writers have1 however1 gone a little further toward answering the question of how limestone may generate petroleum4 ,they have pointed to the fossilized remains of animals1 their shells1 etc41 existing in the limestone1 and have supposed that the animal matter has been distilled1 and has thus formed the oil4 ,if such a process could be imitated artificially by distilling some of the later deposits of similar fossil character this theory would have a better basis1 or even if a collection of oysters1 mussels1 or any other animal matters could by distillation be shown to produce an oil similar to petroleum4 ,the contrary is the case4 ,we may obtain oil from such material1 but it is utterly different from any kind of mineral oil1 while1 on the other hand1 by distilling natural bituminous shales1 or cannel coal1 or peat1 we obtain a crude oil almost identical with natural petroleum1 and the little difference between the two is perfectly accounted for by the greater rapidity of our methods of distillation as compared with the slow natural process4 ,we may go on approximating more and more nearly to the natural petroleum by distilling more and more slowly4 ,as it is1 the refined products of the natural and artificial oil which is commercially distilled in ,scotland1 are scarcely distinguishable--some of them are not at all distinguishable--the solid paraffin1 for example4 ,i now offer my own theory of the origin of oil springs4 ,to render this the more intelligible1 let us first consider the origin of ordinary water springs4 ,st4 ,winifred's ,well1 at ,holywell1 in ,flintshire1 maybe taken as an example1 not merely on account of its magnitude1 but because it is quite typical1 and is connected with limestone and sandstone in about the same manner as are the petroleum wells of ,pennsylvania4 ,here we have a wondrous uprush of water just between the sandstone and mountain limestone rocks1 which amounts to above twenty tons per minute1 and flows down to the ,dee1 a small river turning several water-mills4 ,it is certain that all this water is not generated either by the limestone or the sandstone from which it issues1 nor can it be all 8generated0 on the spot4 ,the true explanation of its origin is simple enough4 ,the mountain limestone underlies the coal measures and crops up obliquely at ,holywell2 against this oblique subterranean wall of compact rock impermeable to water1 abuts a great face of down-sloping strata of porous sandstone and porous shales4 ,these porous rocks receive the rain which falls on the slopes of the ,hope ,mountain and other hills which they form2 this water sinks into the millstone grit of these hills and percolates downwards until it reaches the limestone barrier1 into which it cannot penetrate4 ,it here accumulates as a subterranean reservoir which finds an outlet at a convenient natural fissure1 and1 as the percolation is continuous1 the spring is a constant one4 ,some of the water travels many miles underground before it thus escapes4 ,hundreds of other smaller instances might be quoted1 the above being the common history of springs which start up whenever the underground waters that flow through porous rocks or soil meet with compact rocks or impermeable clay1 and thus1 being able to proceed no further downwards1 accumulate and produce an overflow which we call a 8spring40 ,if water can thus travel underground1 why not oil8 ,although the oil springs or oil wells are not immediately above or below coal seams1 they are all within 8measurable distance0 of great coal formations--the oil territory of ,pennsylvania is1 in fact1 surrounded by coal1 some of it anthracite1 which is really a coke1 such as would be produced if we artificially distilled the hydrocarbons from coal1 and then compressed the residue1 as the anthracite has certainly been pressed by the strata resting upon it4 ,the rocks in immediate contact and proximity to coal seams--8the coal measures10 as they are called--are mostly porous1 some of them very porous1 and thus if at any period of the earth's long history a seam of coal became heated1 as we know so many strata are1 and have been heated1 a mineral oil would certainly be formed1 would first permeate the porous rocks as vapor1 then be condensed and make its way through them1 following their 8dip0 or inclination until it reached a barrier such as the limestone forms4 ,it would thus in after-ages be found1 not among the coal where it was formed1 but at the limestone or other impermeable rock by which its further percolation was arrested4 ,this is just where it actually is found4 ,limestone1 although not porous like shales and sandstones1 is specially well adapted for storing large subterranean accumulations1 on account of the great cavities to which it is liable4 ,nearly all the caverns in this country1 in ,ireland where they abound1 in ,america1 and other parts of the world1 are in limestone rocks2 they are especially abundant in the 8carboniferous limestone0 which underlies the coal measures1 and this is explained by the fact that limestone may be dissolved by rain-water that has oozed through vegetable soil or has soaked fallen leaves or other vegetable matter1 and thereby become saturated with carbonic acid4 ,where the petroleum finds a crevice leading to such cavities it must creep through it and fill the space1 thereby forming one of the underground reservoirs supplying those pumping wells that have yielded such abundance for a while and then become dry4 ,but if this theory is correct it does not follow that the drying of such a well proves a final stoppage of the supply1 for if the cavity and crevice are left1 more oil may ooze into the crevice and flow into the cavity1 and this may continue again and again throughout the whole oil district so long as the surrounding feeders of permeable strata continue saturated1 or nearly so4 ,the magnitude of these feeding grounds may far exceed that of the district wherein the springs occur1 or where profitable wells may be sunk1 seeing that the localizing of profitable supply depends mainly on the stoppage of further oozing away by the action of the impermeable barrier4 ,a well sunk into the oozing strata itself would receive a very small quantity1 only that which1 in the course of its passage came upon the well sides1 while at the junction between the permeable and the impermeable rocks the accumulation may include all that reached the whole surface of such junction or contact--many square miles4 ,to test this theory thoroughly it would be necessary to make borings1 not merely at the wells1 but in their neighborhood1 where the porous rocks dip towards the limestone1 and to bring up sample cores of these porous rocks1 and carefully examine them4 ,dr4 ,sterry ,hunt has done this in the oil-yielding limestone rocks of ,chicago1 but not in those of the nearest coal-measures4 ,as the oil industry of ,america is of such great national importance1 an investigation of this kind is worthy of the energies of the ,american ,government geologists4 ,it would throw much light on the whole subject1 and supply data from which the probable duration of the oil supply might be approximately calculated4 ,such an investigation might even do more than this4 ,by proving the geological conditions upon which depend the production of petroleum springs1 new sources may be discovered1 just as new coal-seams have been discovered1 in accordance with geological prediction1 or as the practical discovery of the ,austrian gold-fields was so long preceded by ,sir ,roderick ,murchison's theoretical announcement of their probable existence4 ,when the 8kerosene wells0 were first struck1 the speculations concerning their probable permanency were wild and various4 ,some maintained that it was but a spurt1 a freak of nature limited to a narrow locality1 and would soon be over2 others asserted forthwith that ,american oil1 like everything else ,american1 was boundless4 ,neither had any grounds for their assertions1 and therefore made them with the usual boldness of mere dogmatism4 ,then came a period of scare1 started by the fact that wells which at first spouted an inflammable mixture of oil and vapor high into the air soon became quiescent1 and from 8spouting wells0 became 8flowing wells10 merely pouring out on the surface a small stream at first1 which gradually declined to a dribble1 and finally ceased to flow at all4 ,even those that started modestly as flowing wells did the latter1 and thus appeared to become exhausted4 ,this exhaustion1 however1 was only apparent1 as was proved by the application of pumps1 which drew up from wells1 that had ceased either to spout or flow1 large and apparently undiminishing quantities of crude oil4 ,further observation and thought revealed the cause of these changes4 ,it became understood that the spouting was due to the tapping of a rock-cavity containing oil of such varying densities and volatility that some of it flew out as a vapor1 or boiled at the mean temperature of the air of the country or that of the surrounding rocks4 ,such being the case1 the cavity was filled with high-pressure oil-vapor straining to escape4 ,if the bore-hole tapped the crown or highest curve of the roof of such an oil-cavern1 it opened directly into the vapor there accumulated1 and the vapor itself rushed out with such force that a pillar of fire was raised in the air if a light came within some yards of the orifice4 ,we are told of heavy iron boring-rods that were shot up to wondrous heights--and we may believe these stories if we please4 ,if the bore-hole struck lower down1 somewhere on the sloping sides or in the shallow lower branches of the oil-cavern1 it dipped at once into liquid oil1 and this oil1 being pressed by the elastic vapor of the upper part1 was forced up as a jet of spouting oil4 ,in either case these violent proceedings soon came to an end1 for as the vapor or oil poured out1 the space above the oil-level where the vapor had been confined was increased1 and its pressure diminished1 till at last it barely sufficed to raise the oil to the surface1 and afterwards failed to do that4 ,it is quite clear from this that the supplies are not 8inexhaustible40 ,the quantity of vapor having been limited1 there must also be a limit to the quantity of oil giving off this vapor2 the space in the oil-cavern occupied by this vapor having been limited1 there must be a limit to the space occupied by the oil4 ,the quantity of oil may be ten times1 a hundred times1 a thousand times1 or ten thousand times1 greater than that of the vapor1 but in either or any case it must come to an end at last1 sooner later4 ,if there were but a few wells here and there1 as at other similar places1 such as ,rangoon1 the ,persian oil-wells1 etc41 the pumping might continue for centuries and centuries2 but this is not the case in ,america4 ,the final boundaries of the oil-bearing strata may not yet have been reached2 but so far as they are known they are riddled through and through1 and pumped in every direction1 so that the end must come at last1 though with our present knowledge we cannot say when4 ,we can1 however1 say how it must come4 ,it will not be a sudden stoppage1 but a gradual exhaustion indicated by progressive diminution of supply4 ,we shall not be suddenly deprived of this important source of light and cheerfulness2 but we may at any time begin to feel the pinch of scarcity and consequent rise of price4 ,this rise of price will check the demand1 and bring forth other supplies from sources that now cannot be profitably worked on account of the cheapness of ,american petroleum4 ,many of the countries now largely supplied from ,america have oil-springs of their own1 which a rise of price will speedily bring into paying operation4 ,we have nothing to fear4 ,the fact that in spite of the ruinous prices that have recently prevailed the ,scotch oil-makers continue to exist at all1 shows us what they may do with a rise of even a few pence per gallon4 ,the thickness and area of the dark shales from which their oil is distilled are so great that their exhaustion is very far remote indeed4 ,the ,americans have similar shales to fall back upon when the spontaneous product ceases to flow1 but they are quite incapable of competing with us at home on equal terms--that is1 when both have to obtain the oil as a manufactured product of artificial distillation4 ,if anything like moderation were possible in ,america1 the first indications of scarcity would be followed by some economy in working2 but this is not to be anticipated4 ,it is more likely that the first rise of prices will attract additional speculation1 and the sinking of more wells in the hope of large profits1 and this of course will shorten the period of gradual exhaustion1 the commencement of which may1 for aught we know1 be very near at hand1 especially if the new projects for using petroleum as furnace fuel under steam boilers1 and for the smelting1 puddling1 and founding of iron and other metals1 are carried out as they may be so easily at present prices1 and with the aid of pipe-lines to carry the crude or refined oil from the wells to any part of the great ,american continent where it may be required in large quantities4 ,the old story of the goose that laid the golden eggs seems to be in course of repetition in ,transatlantic ,petrolia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,since the above was written ,i have received from ,dr4 ,sterry ,hunt a copy of his interesting 8,chemical and ,geological ,essays10 in one of which he expounds a theory of the origin of petroleum4 ,he states that it appears to him 8that the petroleum1 or rather the materials from which it has been formed1 existed in the limestone rocks from the time of their first deposition10 and 8that petroleum and similar bitumens have resulted from a peculiar transformation of vegetable matters1 or in some cases of animal tissues analogous to these in composition40 ,the objections on page #bge apply to the animal tissues of this theory1 and as regards the vegetable matter ,i think it fails from the want of anything like an adequate supply in these limestone rocks4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,soap4 ,a history of soap would be very interesting4 ,who invented it8 ,when and where did it first come into common use8 ,how did our remote ancestors wash themselves before soap was invented8 ,these are historical questions that naturally arise at first contemplation of the subject2 but1 as far as we are aware1 historians have failed to answer them4 ,we read a great deal in ancient histories about anointing with oil and the use of various cosmetics for the skin1 but nothing about soap4 ,these ancients must have been very greasy people1 and ,i suspect that they washed themselves pretty nearly in the same way as modern engine-drivers clean their fingers1 by wiping off the oil with a bit of cotton-waste4 ,we are taught to believe that the ancient ,romans wrapped themselves round with togas of ample dimensions1 and that these togas were white4 ,now1 such togas1 after encasing such anointed oily skins1 must have become very greasy4 ,how did the ,roman laundresses or launders--historians do not indicate their sex--remove this grease8 ,historians are also silent on this subject4 ,a great many curious things were found buried under the cinders of ,vesuvius in ,pompeii1 and sealed up in the lava that flowed over ,herculaneum4 ,bread1 wine1 fruits1 and other domestic articles1 including several luxuries of the toilet1 such as pomades or pomade-pots1 and rouge for painting ladies' faces1 but no soap for washing them4 ,in the ,british ,museum is a large variety of household requirements found in the pyramids of ,egypt1 but there is no soap1 and we have not heard of any having been discovered there4 ,finding no traces of soap among the ,romans1 ,greeks1 or ,egyptians1 we need not go back to the pre-historic 8cave men10 whose flint and bone implements were found embedded side by side with the remains of the mammoth bear and hyena in such caverns as that at ,torquay1 where ,mr4 ,pengelly has1 during the last eighteen years1 so industriously explored4 ,all our knowledge1 and that still larger quantity1 our ignorance1 of the habits of antique savages1 indicate that solid soap1 such as we commonly use1 is a comparatively modern luxury2 but it does not follow that they had no substitute4 ,to learn what that substitute may probably have been we may observe the habits of modern savages1 or primitive people at home and abroad4 ,this will teach us that clay1 especially where it is found having some of the unctuous properties of fuller's-earth1 is freely used for lavatory purposes1 and was probably used by the ,romans1 who were by no means remarkable for anything approaching to true refinement4 ,they were essentially a nasty people1 the habits of the poor being 8cheap and nasty20 of the rich1 luxurious and nasty4 ,the ,roman nobleman did not sit down to dinner1 but sprawled with his face downwards1 and took his food as modern swine take theirs4 ,at grand banquets1 after gorging to repletion1 he tickled his throat in order to vomit and make room for more4 ,he took baths occasionally1 and was probably scoured and shampooed as well as oiled1 but it is doubtful whether he performed any intermediate domestic ablutions worth naming4 ,a refinement upon washing with clay is to be found in the practice once common in ,england1 and still largely used where wood fires prevail4 ,it is the old-fashioned practice of pouring water on the wood ashes1 and using the 8lees0 thus obtained4 ,these lees are a solution of alkaline carbonate of potash the modern name of potash being derived from the fact that it was originally obtained from the ashes under the pot4 ,in like manner soda was obtained from the ashes of seaweeds and of the plants that grow near the seashore1 such as the salsover soda1 etc4 ,the pot-ashes or pearl-ashes being so universal as a domestic bi-product1 it was but natural that they should be commonly used1 especially for the washing of greasy clothes1 as they are to the present day4 ,upon these facts we may build up a theory of the origin of soap4 ,it is a compound of oil or fat with soda or potash1 and would be formed accidentally if the fat on the surface of the pot should boil over and fall into the ashes under the pot4 ,the solution of such a mixture if boiled down would give us soft soap4 ,if oil or fat became mixed with the ashes of soda plants1 it would produce hard soap4 ,such a mixture would most easily be formed accidentally in regions where the olive flourishes near the coast1 as in ,italy and ,spain for example1 and this mixture would be ,castile soap1 which is still largely made by combining refuse or inferior olive oil with the soda obtained from the ashes of seaweed4 ,the primitive soap-maker would1 however1 encounter one difficulty--that arising from the fact that the potash or soda obtained by simple burning of the wood or seaweed is more or less combined with carbonic acid1 instead of being all in the caustic state which is required for effective soap-making4 ,the modern soap-maker removes this carbonic acid by means of caustic lime1 which takes it away from the carbonate of soda or carbonate of potash by simple exchange--i4e41 caustic lime plus carbonate of soda becoming caustic soda plus carbonate of lime1 or carbonate of potash plus caustic lime becoming caustic potash plus carbonate of lime4 ,how the possibility of making this exchange became known to the primitive soap-maker1 or whether he knew it at all1 remains a mystery1 but certain it is that it was practically used long before the chemistry of the action was at all understood4 ,it is very probable that the old alchemists had a hand in this4 ,in their search for the philosopher's stone1 the elixir of life1 or drinkable gold1 and for the universal solvent1 they mixed together everything that came to hand1 they boiled everything that was boilable1 distilled everything that was volatile1 burnt everything that was combustible1 and tortured all their 8simples0 and their mixtures by every conceivable device1 thereby stumbling upon many curious1 many wonderful1 and many useful results4 ,some of them were not altogether visionary--were1 in fact1 very practical1 quite capable of understanding the action of caustic lime on carbonate of soda1 and of turning it to profitable account4 ,it is not1 however1 absolutely necessary to use the lime1 as the soda plants when carefully burned in pits dug in the sand of the sea-shore may contain but little carbonic acid if the ash is fluxed into a hard cake like that now commonly produced1 and sold as 8soda ash40 ,this contains from three to thirty per cent of carbonate1 and thus some samples are nearly caustic1 without the aid of lime4 ,as cleanliness is the fundamental basis of all true physical refinement1 it has been proposed to estimate the progress of civilization by the consumption of soap1 the relative civilization of given communities being numerically measured by the following operation in simple arithmetic3--,divide the total quantity of soap consumed in a given time by the total population consuming it1 and the quotient expresses the civilization of that community4#bh ,the allusion made by ,lord ,beaconsfield1 at the ,lord ,mayor's dinner in #ahgi1 to the prosperity of our chemical manufactures was a subject of merriment to some critics1 who are probably ignorant of the fact that soap-making is a chemical manufacture1 and that it involves many other chemical manufactures1 some of them1 in their present state1 the results of the highest refinements of modern chemical science4 ,while the fishers of the ,hebrides and the peasants on the shores of the ,mediterranean are still obtaining soda by burning seaweed as they did of old1 our chemical manufacturers are importing sulphur from ,sicily and ,iceland1 pyrites from all quarters1 nitrate of soda from ,peru and the ,east ,indies1 for the manufacture of sulphuric acid1 by the aid of which they now make enormous quantities of caustic soda from the material extracted from the salt mines of ,cheshire and ,droitwich4 ,these sulphuric acid works and these soda works are among the most prosperous and rapidly growing of our manufacturing industries1 and their chief function is that of ministering to soap-making1 in which ,britain is now competing triumphantly with all the world4 ,by simply considering how much is expended annually for soap in every decent household1 and adding to this the quantity consumed in laundries and by our woolen and cotton manufacturers1 a large sum total is displayed4 ,formerly1 we imported much of the soap we used at home2 now1 in spite of our greatly magnified consumption1 we supply ourselves with all but a few special kinds1 and export very large and continually increasing quantities to all parts of the world2 and if the arithmetical rule given above is sound1 the demand must steadily increase as civilization advances4 ,,oiling ,,the ,,waves4 ,the recent gales have shown that if 8,britannia rules the waves0 her subjects are very turbulent and costly4 ,our shipping interests are now of enormous magnitude1 and they are growing year by year4 ,we are1 in fact1 becoming the world's carriers on the ocean1 and are thus ruling the waves in a far better sense than in the old one4 ,our present mercantile rule adds to the wealth of our neighbors instead of destroying it1 as under the old warlike rule4 ,everything concerning these waves is thus of great national interest1 the loss of life and sacrifice of wealth by marine casualties being so great4 ,some curious old stories are extant1 describing the exploits of ancient mariners in stilling the waves by pouring oil upon them4 ,both ,plutarch and ,pliny speak of it as a regular practice4 ,much later than this1 in a letter dated ,batavia1 ,january #e1 #aggj1 written by ,m4 ,tengragel1 and addressed to ,count ,bentinck1 the following passage occurs3--8,near the islands ,paul and ,amsterdam we met with a storm1 which had nothing particular in it worthy of being communicated to you1 except that the captain found himself obliged1 for greater safety in wearing the ship1 to pour oil into the sea to prevent the waves breaking over her1 which had an excellent effect1 and succeeded in preserving us4 ,as he poured out but a little at a time1 the ,east ,india ,company owes1 perhaps1 its ship to only six demi-aumes of olive oil4 ,i was present on deck when this was done1 and should not have mentioned this circumstance to you1 but that we have found people here so prejudiced against the experiment as to make it necessary for the officers on board and myself to give a certificate of the truth on this head1 of which we made no difficulty40 ,the idea was regarded with similar prejudice by scientific men until ,benjamin ,franklin had his attention called to it1 as he thus narrates3--8,in #ageg1 being at sea in a fleet of ninety-six sail1 bound for ,louisbourg1 ,i observed the wakes of two of the ships to be remarkably smooth1 while all the others were ruffled by the wind1 which blew fresh4 ,being puzzled with the differing appearance1 ,i at last pointed it out to the captain1 and asked him the meaning of it4 #8,the cooks1' said he1 #8have1 ,i suppose1 been just emptying their greasy water through the scuppers1 which has greased the sides of the ships a little4' ,and this answer he gave me with an air of some little contempt1 as to a person ignorant of what everybody else knew4 ,in my own mind1 ,i first slighted the solution1 though ,i was not able to think of another40 ,franklin was not a man to remain prejudiced2 he accordingly investigated the subject1 and the results of his experiments1 made upon a pond on ,clapham ,common1 were communicated to the ,royal ,society4 ,he states that after dropping a little oil on the water1 8,i saw it spread itself with surprising swiftness upon the surface1 but the effect of smoothing the waves was not produced2 for ,i had applied it first upon the leeward side of the pond1 where the waves were largest1 and the wind drove my oil back upon the shore4 ,i then went to the windward side1 where they began to form2 and there the oil1 though not more than a teaspoonful1 produced an instant calm over a space several yards square1 which spread amazingly1 and extended itself gradually till it reached the lee side1 making all that quarter of the pond 7perhaps half an acre7 as smooth as a looking-glass40 ,franklin made further experiments at the entrance of ,portsmouth ,harbor1 opposite the ,haslar ,hospital1 in company with ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 ,dr4 ,blagden1 and ,dr4 ,solander4 ,in these experiments the waves were not destroyed1 but were converted into gentle swelling undulations with smooth surfaces4 ,thus it appeared that the oil destroys small waves1 but not large billows4 ,franklin's explanation is1 8that the wind blowing over water covered with a film of oil cannot easily catch upon it1 so as to raise the first wrinkles1 but slides over it and leaves it smooth as it finds it40 ,further investigations have since been made which confirm this theory4 ,the first action of the wind in blowing up what the sailors call 8a sea10 is the production of a ripple on the surface of the water4 ,this ripple gives the wind a strong hold1 and thus larger waves are formed1 but on these larger there are smaller waves1 and on these smaller waves still smaller ripples4 ,all this roughness of surface goes on helping the wind1 till at last the mightiest billows are formed1 which then have an oscillation independent of the wind that formed them4 ,hence the oil cannot at once subdue the great waves that are already formed1 but may prevent their formation if applied in time4 ,even the great waves are moderated by the oil stopping the action of the wind which sustains and augments them4 ,quite recently1 ,captain ,david ,gray made some experiments at the north bar of ,peterhead1 where a very heavy surf breaks over in rough weather4 ,on a rough day he dropped a bottle full of oil into the sea4 ,the oil floating out of the bottle1 converted the choppy waves over a large area 8into an expanse of long undulating rollers1 smooth and glassy1 and so robbed of all violence that a small open boat could ride on them in safety40 ,this result is quite in accordance with what we are told respecting the ancient practice of the fishermen of ,lisbon1 who were accustomed to empty a bottle of oil into the sea when they found on their return to the river that there was a dangerous surf on the bar1 which might fill their boats in crossing it4 ,as regards ,peterhead1 it is proposed to lay perforated pipes across the mouth of the harbor1 and to erect tanks from which these pipes may be supplied with oil1 and thus pour a continuous and widely distributed stream into the sea in bad weather4 ,the scheme was mooted some time ago1 but ,i am not aware whether it has yet been carried out4 ,its success or failure must mainly be determined by the cost1 and this will largely depend upon the kind of oil that is used4 ,a series of well-conducted experiments upon the comparative areas protected by different kinds of oil would be very interesting and practically useful1 for1 until this has been ascertained1 a proper selection cannot be made4 ,how long will it last8 is another question4 ,i have frequently seen such tracks as ,franklin observed out at sea1 and have climbed to the masthead in order to sight the ship that produced them1 without seeing any4 ,several of such smooth shining tracks have been observed at the same time1 but no ship visible1 and this in places where no sail has been seen for days before or after4 ,the poet's description of 8the trackless ocean0 is by no means 8founded on fact40 ,the ,plymouth ,breakwater contains #c1cfi1bfa tons of stone1 and cost the ,british ,government a million and a half4 ,the interest on this at #d per cent amounts to #fj1jjjl4 per annum4 ,if the above statements are reliable1 some of the wholesale oil merchants who read this might contract to becalm a considerable area of the ,channel for a smaller amount4 ,further experiments have been made at ,peterhead since the above was written4 ,the following account1 from the ,times of those made on ,february #bg1 #ahhb1 is interesting3 8,on ,monday the long-wished-for easterly gale to test the experiment of throwing oil on the troubled waters reached ,peterhead4 ,it may be mentioned that the harbor of ,peterhead is singularly exposed1 and with an east or north-east gale is very dangerous of approach4 ,mr4 ,shields1 of ,perth1 has laid the oil apparatus to be used in quelling the troubled waters4 ,it consists of an iron pipe which conveys oil and extends from a wooden house behind the seawall at ,roanhead down through a natural gullet in the rocks about #aej yards long and about #ej yards beyond the mouth of the gullet into about seven fathoms of water2 at this point the iron pipe is joined to a guttapercha pipe1 which extends across the harbor entrance outside the bar and is perforated at distances #ab yards apart4 ,through the guttapercha pipe the oil reaches the sea4 ,on ,monday the wind was not so strong as to make the experiment so complete as could have been wished2 still1 there was a heavy swell4 ,early in the forenoon the pumps were put in motion and the leakage space in the pipe filled2 but unfortunately it was found1 soon after the oil began to rise to the surface of the bay1 that the supply in the cask had become exhausted1 and those who were conducting the experiment did not consider themselves at liberty to order a fresh cask of oil without ,mr4 ,shield's sanction4 ,but while the experiment was only partial it was highly satisfactory4 ,at the same time1 the film did not extend sufficiently far to prevent the waves forming and curving to broken water4 ,as soon1 however1 as they reached the oil-covered neck the observers from the pier-head could easily discern the influence at work4 ,waves which came in crested gradually assumed the shape of undulating bodies of water1 and1 once formed1 they rolled unbroken towards the breakwater4 ,on ,wednesday morning there was a heavy sea at the north breakwater4 ,the oil valves were opened1 and immediately the effect was manifest4 ,the waves1 which had before clashed with fury against the breakwater1 assumed a rolling motion and were quite crestless4 ,indeed1 it was admitted that the oil had rendered the entrance comparatively safe1 but the effect was not so abiding as could have been wished40 ,as regards the want of duration there noted1 ,i venture to make a suggestion4 ,oils vary so greatly in their rate of outspreading over water and the character of the film they form1 that some years ago ,mr4 ,moffatt1 of ,glasgow1 proposed to use these differences as a test for the adulterations of one kind of oil with other and cheaper kinds4 ,i made a number of experiments verifying some of his results4 ,from these it is evident that the duration of the becalming effect will vary with different oils1 and therefore further experiments upon these difference should be made1 in order to select that kind which is the most effective1 with due regard1 of course1 to cost4 ,the oil indicated by my experiments as combining permanency and cheapness1 and altogether the most suitable and attainable is the 8dead oil0 refuse of the gas-works4 ,this may be used in its crude and cheapest condition4 ,,on ,,the ,,so-,,called 8,,crater ,,necks0 ,,and 8,,volcanic ,,bombs0 ,,of ,,ireland4 ,a ,,paper ,,read ,,at ,,the ,,geologists' ,,association1 ,,december #f1 #ahgh4 ,mr4 ,hull1 8,physical ,geography and ,geology of ,ireland10 p4 #fh1 under the head of 8,volcanic ,necks and ,basaltic ,dykes10 says that 8although the actual craters and cones of eruption have been swept from the surface of the country by the ruthless hand of time1 yet the old 8necks0 by which the volcanic mouths were connected with the sources of eruption can occasionally be recognized2 they sometimes appear as masses of hard trap1 columnar or otherwise1 projecting in knolls or hills above the upper surface of the sheets through which they pierce40 ,in other cases1 the 8neck0 consists of a great pipe choked up by bombs and blocks of trap1 more or less consolidated1 bombs which have been shot into the air and have fallen back again4 ,he then refers to one of these near ,portrush1 and proceeds to state that the rock on which stands the ruined ,castle of ,dunluce1 8is formed of bombs of all sizes up to six feet in diameter1 of various kinds of basalt1 dolerite1 and amygdaloid firmly cemented1 and presenting a precipitous face to the sea40 ,in a note dated ,september1 #ahgg1 ,mr4 ,hull states that subsequent examination1 since the above was written1 of the rock of ,dunluce ,castle and the cliffs adjoining1 has led him 8to suspect that we have here1 instead of old volcanic necks1 simply pipes1 formed by the filtration out of the chalk into which the basaltic masses have fallen and slipped down1 thus giving rise to their fragmental appearance40 ,further on 7page #adf7 he describes without any sceptical comment1 8the remarkable mass of agglomerate made up 7as on the southern flanks of ,slieve ,gullion7 of bombs of granite1 which have been torn up from the granite mass of the hills below1 and blown through the throat of an old crater40 ,other geologists still adhere firmly to the bomb theory1 some ascribing the bombs to subaqueous rather than subaerial ejection4 ,immediately under ,dunluce ,castle is a sea-worn cavern or tunnel1 which is about #dj or #ej feet high at its mouth1 affording a fine section of this curious conglomerate4 ,the floor of the cavern which slopes upwards from the sea is strewn with a beach of boulders4 ,the resemblance of this beach to those ,i had recently examined at the foot of the boulder-clay cliffs of ,galway ,bay 7and described in a paper read to the ,british ,association71 suggested the explanation of the origin of the rock ,i am about to offer4 ,in shape and size they are exactly like the ,galway shore boulders1 those nearest the sea being the most rounded2 higher up the slope1 where less exposed to wave action1 they are subangular4 ,they differ from the ,galway boulders in being chiefly basaltic instead of being mainly composed of carboniferous limestone4 ,some of these at ,dunluce are granitic1 and a few1 if ,i am not greatly mistaken1 are of carboniferous limestone4 ,i had not at hand the means of positively deciding this4 ,neither could ,i find any unquestionable examples of glacial striation among them1 though at the upper part ,i saw some lines on boulders that were very suggestive of partially obliterated scratches4 ,on looking at the cavern walls surrounding me the theory so obviously suggested by the boulders on the floor was strikingly confirmed by their structure and general appearance4 ,the imbedded 8bombs0 are subangular1 and of irregular shape and varying composition1 and the matrix of the rock is a brick-like material just such as would be formed by the baking of boulder clay2 the inference that ,i was looking upon a bank or deposit of glacier drift that had been baked by volcanic agency was irresistible4 ,i was unable to see on any part of the extensive section1 or among the fragments below1 a single specimen of an unequivocal volcanic bomb2 no approach to anything like those described by ,sir ,samuel ,baker in his 8,nile ,tributaries of ,abyssinia10 the miniature representatives of which1 ejected from the ,bessemer converter1 ,i have figured and described in ,nature1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #chi and #daj1 where ,sir ,samuel ,baker's description is quoted4 ,i have witnessed the fall of masses of lava during a minor eruption of an inner crater of ,mount ,vesuvius4 ,these as they fell upon the ground around me were flattened out into thin cakes4 ,there was no approach to the formation of subangular masses1 like those displayed upon the ,dunluce cavern walls4 ,some years ago a project for melting the basaltic rock known as 8,rowley ,rag10 and casting it into moulds for architectural purposes was carried out near ,oldbury1 and ,i had an opportunity of watching the experiment1 which was conducted on a large scale at great expense by ,messrs4 ,chance4 ,it was found that if the basalt cooled rapidly it became a black obsidian1 and to prevent the formation of such brittle material1 the castings1 and the moulds1 which enclosed them1 had to be kept at a red-heat for some days1 and very gradually cooled4#bi ,it is physically impossible that lava ejected under water1 in lumps no larger than these boulders1 could have the granular structure which they display4 ,the fundamental idea upon which this bomb theory is based will not bear examination4 ,such bombs could not have been shot into either air or water and have fallen back again into the volcanic neck at any other time than during an actual eruption2 and at such time they could not have remained where they fell1 and have become embedded in any such matrix as now contains them4 ,true volcanic bombs and ordinary spattering lumps of lava1 are1 as we know1 flung obliquely out of active craters1 and distributed around1 while those which are ejected perpendicularly into the air and return are re-ejected1 and finally pulverized into volcanic dust if this perpendicular ejection and return are continued long enough4 ,in the course of a rapid drive round the ,antrim coast ,i observed other examples of this peculiar conglomerate1 and have reason to believe that it is far more common than is generally supposed4 ,i found it remarkably well displayed at a place almost as largely visited as the ,giant's ,causeway1 and where it nevertheless appears to have been hitherto unnoticed1 viz41 ,carrick-a-,rede1 where the public car stops to afford visitors an opportunity of examining or crossing the rope bridge1 etc4 ,here the whole formation is displayed in a manner that strikingly illustrates my theory4 ,there is an overlying stream of basalt forming the surface of the isolated rock1 and this basalt rests directly upon a base of conglomerate1 having exactly the appearance that would result from the slow baking of a mass of boulder clay4 ,the sea gully that separates the insular rock from the mainland displays a fine section above eighty feet in thickness1 and has the advantage of full daylight as compared with ,dunluce ,cave4 ,that this is no mere neck or pipe is evident from its extent4 ,its position below the basalt cap refutes the above quoted subsequent explanation1 which ,mr4 ,hull and others have recently adopted4 ,the heterogeneous bomb-like character of the boulders is not so strongly marked as in the ,dunluce rock1 and this may arise from the closer proximity of the basalt1 which1 coming here in direct contact1 would be likely to heat the clay matrix 7itself formed mainly of ice-ground basalt7 to incipient fusion1 and thereby render it more like the basalt boulders it contains than the other clay that had been less intensely heated on account of greater distance from the lava-flow4 ,the path leading to the ladder by which the bridge is approached passes over such conglomerate1 and further extensions are seen in sections around4 ,i saw sufficient in the course of my hurried visit to indicate the existence of a large area of this particular formation4 ,at a short distance from ,carrick-a-,rede1 on the way to ,ballycastle1 the car passes in sight of considerable deposits of ordinary boulder clay uncovered and unaltered4 ,the blocks of basalt1 etc41 embedded in this correspond in general size and shape with the 8bombs10 excepting that some of the latter have a laminated1 or shaly1 character near their surfaces4 ,i regret my inability to do justice to this subject in consequence of the fact that the above explanation of the origin of this curious formation only suggested itself when hurrying homeward after a somewhat protracted visit to ,ireland4 ,as ,i may not have an opportunity of further investigation for some time to come1 ,i offer the hypothesis in this crude form in order that it may be discussed1 and either confirmed or refuted by the geologists of the ,ordnance ,survey1 or others who have better opportunities of observation than ,i can possibly command4 ,should this conglomerate prove to be1 as ,i suppose1 a drift deposit altered by a subsequent flow of lava1 it will supply exceedingly interesting data for the determination of the chronological relations of the glacial epoch to that period of volcanic activity to which the lavas of the ,n4,e4 of ,ireland are due4 ,though it will nowise disturb the general conclusion that the great eruptions that overspread the cretaceous rocks of this region1 and supplied the boulders of my supposed metamorphosed drift1 occurred during the ,miocene period1 it will show that this volcanic epoch was of vastly greater duration than is usually supposed2 or that there must have been two or more volcanic epochs--pre-glacial1 as usually understood1 and post-glacial1 in order to supply the lava overflowing the drift4 ,this post-glacial extension of the volcanic period has an especial interest in ,ireland1 as the 8,annals of the ,four ,masters10 and other records of ancient ,irish history and tradition1 abound in accounts of physical changes1 many of which correspond remarkably with those of recent occurrence in the neighborhood of active and extinct volcanoes4 ,in a paper read before the ,royal ,irish ,academy1 ,june #bc1 #ahgc1 and published in its 8,proceedings10 ,dr4 ,sigerson has collected some of the best authenticated of these accounts1 and compares them with similar phenomena recently observed in ,naples1 ,sicily1 ,south ,america1 ,siberia1 etc4 etc4 ,the 8great sobriety of diction1 and circumstantial precision of statement10 of names1 dates1 etc41 which characterize these accounts render them well worthy of the sort of comparison with strictly scientific data which ,dr4 ,sigerson has made4 ,as we now know that man existed in ,britain during the inter-glacial1 if not the pre-glacial period1 and as so violent a volcanic disturbance as that which poured out the lavas of ,antrim and the ,mourne district could scarcely have subsided suddenly1 but was probably followed by ages of declining activity1 it is not at all surprising that this period of minor activity should have extended into that of tradition and the earliest of historical records4 ,,travertine4 ,the old exclamation about ,augustus finding ,rome of brick and leaving it of marble1 deceives many4 ,ancient ,rome was by no means a marble city1 although the quarries of ,massa and ,carrara are not far distant4 ,the staple-building materials of the ,imperial ,city1 even in its palmiest days1 were brick and travertine4 ,the brick1 however1 was very different from the porous cakes of crudely burnt clay of which the modern metropolis of the world is built4 ,i have examined on the spot a great many specimens1 and found them all to be of remarkably compact structure1 somewhere between the material of modern terra-cotta and that of common flower-pots1 and similarly intermediate in color4 ,the ,roman builders appear to have had no standard size2 the bricks vary even in the same building--the ,coliseum for example2 all that ,i have seen are much thinner than our bricks--we should call them tiles4 ,but the most characteristic material is the travertine4 ,the walls of the ,coliseum are made up of a mixture of this and the tiles above-mentioned4 ,the same is the case with most of the other very massive ruins1 as the baths1 etc4 ,many of the temples with columns and facing of marble have inner walls built of this mixture1 while others are entirely of travertine4 ,i was greatly surprised at the wondrous imperishability of this remarkable material4 ,in buildings of which the smooth crystalline marble had lost all its sharpness and original surface1 this dirty1 yellow1 spongy-looking limestone remained without the slightest indication of weathering4 ,a most remarkable instance of this is afforded by the temple of ,neptune at ,paestum1 in ,calabria4 ,this is the most perfect ruin of a pure classic temple that now remains in existence1 and in my opinion is the finest4 ,i prefer it even to the ,parthenon4 ,we have a little sample of it in ,london4 ,the ,doric columns at the entrance of the ,euston station are copies of those of its peristyle4 ,the originals are of travertine1 the blocks forming them are laid upon each other without mortar or cement1 and so truly flattened that in walking round the building and carefully prying1 ,i could find no crevice into which a slip of ordinary writing paper1 or the blade of a pen-knife could be inserted4 ,yet this temple was an antiquarian monument in the days of the ,roman emperors4 ,the rough natural surface of the stone is exposed1 and at first sight appears as though weathered1 but this appearance is simply due to its natural sponge-like structure4 ,it appears to have been coated with some sort of stucco or smoothing film1 which1 either by forming a thin layer1 or possibly by only filling up the pores of the travertine1 gave a smooth surface upon which the coloring was applied4 ,this is now only indistinctly visible here and there1 and if ,i remember rightly1 some have disputed its existence4 ,but this travertine1 though so familiar to the ,italian1 is such a rarity here that some further description of its structure and composition may be demanded4 ,it is a limestone formed by chemical precipitation4 ,most limestones are more or less of organic origin1 are agglomerations of shells1 corals1 etc41 but this is formed by the same kind of action as that which produces the stalactites in limestone caverns4 ,it has some resemblance to the incrustation formed on boilers by calcareous water4 ,although the material of so many ancient edifices1 it is1 geologically speaking1 the youngest of all the hard rocks4 ,its formation is now in progress at some of the very quarries that supplied ,imperial ,rome4 ,on the ,campagna1 between ,rome and ,tivoli1 is a small circular lake1 from which a stream of tepid water1 that wells up from below1 is continually flowing4 ,its local name is the 8,the ,lake of ,tartarus40 ,the water1 like that of ,zoedone1 or soda-water or champagne1 is supersaturated with carbonic acid that was forced into it while under pressure down below4 ,this carbonic acid has dissolved some of the limestones through which the subterranean water passes1 and when it comes to the surface1 the carbonic acid flies away like that which escapes when we uncork a bottle of soda-water1 though less suddenly1 and the lime losing its solvent is precipitated1 and forms a crust on whatever is covered by the water4 ,when ,i visited this lake in the month of ,february it was surrounded by a chevaux de frise of an extraordinary character2 thousands of tubes of about half an inch to one inch in diameter outside1 with calcareous walls about one eighth of an inch in thickness4 ,these were standing up from two to three feet high1 and so close together that we had to break our way through the dense palisade they formed in order to reach the margin of the lake4 ,after some consideration and inquiry1 their origin was discovered4 ,they are the encrusted remains of bullrushes that had flourished in the summer and died down since4 ,during the time of their growth the water had risen1 and thus they became coated with a crust of compact travertine4 ,this deposition takes place so rapidly that a piece of lace left in the lake for a few hours comes out quite stiff1 every thread being coated with limestone4 ,such specimens1 and twigs similarly covered1 are sold to tourists or prepared by them if they have time to stop4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy drove a stick into the bottom of the lake and left it standing upright in the water from ,may to the following ,april1 and then had some difficulty in breaking with a sharp pointed hammer the crust formed round the stick4 ,this crust was several inches in thickness4 ,that which ,i saw round the ex-bullrushes may have all been formed in a few days or weeks4 ,the rivulet that flows from the lake deposits travertine throughout its course1 and when it overflows leaves every blade of grass that it covers encrusted with this limestone4 ,near to the ,lake of ,tartarus is the ,solfatara lake which contains similar calcareous water1 but strongly impregnated with sulphureted hydrogen2 it consequently deposits a mixture of carbonate and sulphide of calcium1 a sort of porous tufa1 some of it so porous that it floats like a stony scum1 forming what the cicerone call 8floating islands40 ,lyell1 in his 8,principles of ,geology10 confounds these lakes1 and describes ,tartarus under the name of ,solfatara4 ,the travertine used as a building stone is chiefly derived from the quarries of ,ponte ,lucano1 and is the deposit that was formed on the bed of a lake like that of ,tartarus4 ,the celebrated cascade of the ,anio at ,tivoli forms calcareous stalactites1 and all the country round has rivulets1 caverns1 and deposits1 where this formation may be seen in progress or completed4 ,it varies considerably in structure1 some specimens are compact and smooth1 others have the appearance of a petrified moss1 and great varieties may be found among the materials of a single building4 ,it is1 however1 usually rough and more or less spongy-looking1 as above stated1 but this structure does not seem to affect its stability1 at least1 not in the climate of ,italy4 ,whether it would stand long frosts is an open question4 ,the night frosts at and about ,rome are rather severe1 but usually followed by a warm sunny day2 thus there is no great penetration of ice4 ,every specimen ,i have examined shows a remarkable compactness of molecular structure in spite of visible porosity4 ,all give out a clear metallic ring when struck1 and the intimate surface1 if ,i may so describe the surface of the warm-like structure it sometimes displays1 is always clear and smooth as though varnished4 ,to this ,i attribute its durability4 ,lest the above description should appear self-contradictory1 ,i will explain a little further4 ,if melted glass were run into threads1 and those threads while soft were allowed to agglomerate loosely into a convoluted mass1 it would1 as regarded in mass1 have a porous or spongy-looking structure1 but nevertheless its molecular structure would be compact and vitreous2 there would be mechanical but not molecular1 porosity4 ,travertine is similar4 ,have we any travertine in ,england8 ,this is a practical question of some importance1 and one to which ,i have no hesitation in replying1 ,yes4 ,there is plenty formed and forming in the neighborhood of ,matlock1 but that which ,i have seen on the face of caverns1 etc41 is not so compact and metal-like as the ,italian4 ,this1 however1 does not prove the entire absence of the useful travertine4 ,not having any commercial interest in the search1 ,i have only looked at what has come in my way1 but have little doubt that there are other kinds besides those ,i saw4 ,i have also seen travertine in course of formation in ,ireland1 where ,i think there is a fine field for exploration in the mountain limestone regions1 which have been disturbed by volcanic action of the ,miocene period4 ,the travertines of ,italy are found in the neighborhood of extinct volcanoes4 ,the classic associations of this material1 its remarkable stability1 and the faculty with which it may be worked1 render it worthy of more attention than it has yet received from ,british builders4 ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,frost ,,in ,,water-,,pipes ,,and ,,on ,,building ,,materials4 ,popular science has penetrated too deeply now to render necessary any refutation of the old popular fallacy which attributed the bursting of water-pipes to the thaw following a frost2 everybody now understands that the thaw merely renders the work of the previous freezing so disastrously evident4 ,nevertheless1 the general subject of the action of freezing water upon our dwellings is not so fully understood by all concerned as it should be4 ,builders and house-owners should understand it thoroughly1 as most of the domestic miseries resulting from severe winters may be greatly mitigated1 if not entirely prevented1 by scientific adaptation in the course of building construction4 ,now-a-days tenants know something about this and select accordingly4 ,thus the market value of a building may be increased by such adaptation4 ,solids1 liquids1 and gases expand as they are heated4 ,this great general law is1 however1 subject to a few exceptions1 the most remarkable of which is that presented by water4 ,let us suppose a simple experiment4 ,imagine a thermometer tube with its bulb and stem so filled with water that when the water is heated nearly to its boiling point it will rise to nearly the top of the long stem4 ,now let us cool it4 ,as the cooling proceeds the water will descend1 and this descending will continue until it attains the temperature marked on our ordinary thermometer as #ci1 or more strictly #ci-b_/aj2 then a strange inversion occurs4 ,as the temperature falls below this1 the water rises gradually in the stem until the freezing point is reached4 ,this expansion amounts to #a_/gfib part of the whole bulk of the water1 or #ajj1jjj parts become #ajj1jac4 ,so far the amount of expansion is very small1 but this is only a foretaste of what is coming4 ,lower the temperature still further1 the water begins to freeze1 and at the moment of freezing it expands suddenly to an extent equalling #a_/ae of its bulk1 i4e41 of the bulk of so much water as becomes solidified4 ,the temperature remains at #cb until the whole of the water is frozen4 ,fortunately for us1 the freezing of water is always a slow process1 for if this conversion of every #ae gallons into #af took place suddenly1 all our pipes would rip open with something like explosive violence4 ,but such sudden freezing of any considerable quantity of water is practically impossible1 on account of the 8latent heat0 of liquid water1 which amounts to #adb4 ,all this is given out in the act of freezing4 ,it is this giving out of so much heat that keeps the temperature of freezing water always at #cb1 even though the air around may be much colder4 ,no part of the water can fall below #cb without becoming solid1 and that portion which solidifies gives out enough heat to raise #adb times its own quantity from #ca to #cb4 ,the slowness of thawing is due to the same general fact4 ,an instructive experiment may be made by simply filling a saucepan with snow or broken ice1 and placing it over a common fire4 ,the slowness of the thawing will surprise most people who have not previously tried the experiment4 ,it takes about as long to melt this snow as it would to raise an equal weight of water from #cb to #agd4 ,or1 if a pound of water at #agd be mixed with a pound of snow at #cb1 the result will be two pounds of water at #cb2 #adb will have disappeared without making the snow any warmer1 it will all have been used up in doing the work of melting4 ,the force with which the great expansion due to freezing takes place is practically irresistible4 ,strong pieces of ordnance have been filled with water1 and plugged at muzzle and touch-hole4 ,they have burst in spite of their great thickness and tenacity4 ,such being the case1 it is at first sight a matter of surprise that frozen water-pipes1 whether of lead or iron1 ever stand at all4 ,they would not stand but for another property of ice1 which is but very little understood1 viz41 its viscosity4 ,this requires some explanation4 ,though ice is what we call a solid1 it is not truly solid4 ,like other apparent solids it is not perfect rigid1 but still retains some degree of the possibility of flowing which is the characteristic of liquids4 ,this has been shown by filling a bombshell with water1 leaving the fuse-hole open and freezing it4 ,a shell of ice is first formed on the outside1 which of course plugs up the fuse-hole4 ,then the interior gradually freezes1 but the expansion due to this forces the ice out of the fuse-hole as a cylindrical stick1 just as putty might be squeezed out1 only that the force required to mould and eject the ice is much greater4 ,i have constructed an apparatus which illustrates this very strikingly4 ,it is an iron syringe with cylindrical interior of about half an inch in diameter1 and a terminal orifice of less than #a_/bj of an inch in diameter4 ,its piston of metal is driven down by a screw4 ,into this syringe ,i place small fragments of ice1 or a cylinder of ice fitted to the syringe1 and then screw down the piston4 ,presently a thin wire of ice is squirted forth like vermicelli when the dough from which it is made is similarly treated1 showing that the ice is plastic like the dough1 provided it is squeezed with sufficient force4 ,this viscosity of ice is displayed on a grand scale in glaciers1 the ice of which actually flows like a river down the glacier valley1 contracting as the valley narrows and spreading out as it widens1 just as a river would2 but moving only a few inches daily according to the steepness of the slope and the season1 slower in winter than in summer4 ,upon this1 and the slowness of the act of freezing1 depends the possibility of water in freezing in iron pipes without bursting them4 ,even iron yields a little before bursting1 but ordinary qualities not sufficiently to bear the expansion of #a_/ae of their contents4 ,what happens then8 ,the cylinder of ice contained in the tube elongates as it freezes1 provided always the pipe is open at one or both ends4 ,but there is a limit to this1 seeing that the friction of such a tight-fitting core1 even of slippery ice1 is considerable1 and if the pipe be too long1 the resistance of this friction may exceed the resistance of tenacity of the pipe4 ,i am unable to give any figures for such length2 the subject does not appear to have been investigated as it should be1 and as it might well be by our wealthy water companies4 ,we all know that lead pipes frequently succumb1 but a little observation shows that they do so only after a struggle4 ,the tenacity of lead is much less than that of iron 7about #a_/bj of that of ordinary wrought iron71 but it yields considerably before breaking4 ,it has1 in fact1 the property of viscosity similar to that of ice4 ,at ,woolwich the lead used for elongated rifle bullets is squirted like the ice in my syringe above described1 powerful hydraulic pressure being used4 ,this yielding saves many pipes4 ,it would save all new pipes if the lead were pure and uniform2 but as this is not the case1 they may burst at a weak place1 the yielding being shown by the bulge that commonly appears at the broken part4 ,from the above it will be easily understood that a pipe which is perfectly cylindrical--other conditions equal--will be less likely to burst than one which is of varying diameter1 as the sliding from a larger to a smaller portion of the pipe must be attended with great resistance1 or a certain degree of block1 beyond what would be due to the mere friction along a pipe of uniform diameter4 ,let us now consider the relative merits of lead and iron as material for water-pipes in places where exposure to frost is inevitable4 ,lead yields more than iron1 and so far has an advantage2 this1 however is but limited4 ,as lead is practically inelastic1 every stretch remains1 and every stretch diminishes the capacity for further stretching2 the lead thus stretched at one frost is less able to stretch again1 and has lost some of its original tenacity4 ,hence the superiority of new leaden pipes4 ,iron is elastic within certain limits1 and thus the iron pipe may yield a little without permanent strain or 8distress10 and if its power of elastic resistance is not exceeded1 it regains its original size without becoming sensibly weaker4 ,add to this its great tenacity1 its nonliability to be indented1 or otherwise to vary in diameter1 and we have a far superior material4 ,but this conclusion demands some qualification4 ,there is iron and iron1 cast-iron and wrought-iron1 and very variable qualities of each of these4 ,i need scarcely add that common brittle cast-iron is quite out of the question for such purposes1 though there is a new kind of cast-iron or semi-steel coming forward that may possibly supersede all other kinds2 but this opens too wide a subject for discussion in the present paper1 the main object of which has been a popular exposition of the general physical laws which must be obeyed by the builder1 or engineer1 who desires to construct domestic or other buildings that will satisfy the wants of intelligent people4 ,the mischievous action of freezing water is not confined to the pipes that are constructed to receive or convey it4 ,wherever water may be1 if that water freezes1 it must expand in the degree and with the force already described4 ,if it penetrates stone or brick1 or mortar or stucco1 and freezes therein1 one of two things must occur--either the superfluous ice must exude at the surface or to neighboring cavities1 or the saturated material must give way1 and split or crumble according to the manner and degree of penetration4 ,to understand this1 the reader must remember what ,i stated about the little-understood viscosity of ice1 as well as its expansion at the moment of freezing4 ,bricks are punished1 but not so severely as might be anticipated1 seeing how porous are some of the common qualities1 especially those used in ,london4 ,they are so amply porous that the water not only finds its way into them1 but the pores are big enough and many enough for the ice to demonstrate its viscosity by squeezing out and displaying its crystalline structure in the form of snow-like efflorescence on the surface4 ,this may have been observed by some of my readers during a severe frost4 ,it is commonly confounded with the hoar-frost that whitens the roofs of houses1 but which is very rarely deposited on perpendicular wall faces4 ,the mortar most liable to suffer is that which is porous and pulverulent within1 but has been cleverly faced or pointed with a crust of more compact material4 ,this outer film prevents the exuding of the expanding ice crystals1 is thrust forth bodily1 and retained by ice-cement during the frost1 but it falls in scales when this temporary binding material thaws4 ,mortar that is compact throughout does not suffer to any appreciable extent4 ,this is proved by the condition of the remains of ,roman brickwork that still exist in ,britain and other parts of ,europe4 ,some of the old shingle walls at ,brighton and other parts of the south coast1 where the chalk for lime-burning was at the builder's feet1 and where his mortar is so thickly laid between the irregular masses of flint1 also show the possible duration of good mortar4 ,the jerry builder's mortar1 made of the riddlings of burnt clay ballast and dust-hole refuse just flavored with lime1 crumbles immediately1 because these materials do not combine with the lime as fine siliceous sand gradually does1 to form an impermeable glassy silicate4 ,stucco is punished by two distinct modes of action4 ,the first is where the surface is porous1 and the water permeates accordingly and freezes4 ,this1 of course1 produces superficial crumbling1 which should not occur at all upon good material protected by suitable paint4 ,the other case1 very deplorable in many instances1 is where the water finds a space between the inner surface of the stucco and the outer surface of the material upon which it is laid4 ,this water1 when frozen1 of course1 expands1 and wedges away the stucco bodily1 causing it to come down in masses at the thaw4 ,this1 however1 only occurs after severe frosts1 as the ordinary mild frosts of our favored climate seldom endure long enough to penetrate to any notable depth of so bad a conductor as stone or stucco4 ,it is worthy of note that water is a still worse conductor than stone4 ,building stones are so various both in chemical composition and mechanical structure that the action of freezing water is necessarily as varied as the nature of the material4 ,the highly siliceous granites 7or1 rather1 porphyries that commonly bear the name of granite7 are practically impermeable to water so long as they are free from any chemical decomposition of their feldspathic constituents2 but when we come to sandstones and limestones1 or intermediate material1 very wide differences prevail4 ,the possible width of this difference is shown in the behavior of the unselected material in its natural home4 ,certain cliffs and mountains have stood for countless ages almost unchanged by the action of frost2 others are breaking up with astonishing rapidity in spite of apparent solidity of structure4 ,the ,matterhorn1 or ,mont ,cervin1 one of the most gigantic of the giant ,alps1 #ae1bjj feet high1 is rendered especially dangerous to ambitious climbers by the continual crashing down of fragments that are loosened when the summer sun melts the ice that first separated and then for a while held them in their original places4 ,all the glaciers of the ,alps are more or less streaked with 8moraines10 which are fragments of the mountains that freezing water has detached4 ,our stone buildings would suffer proportionally if some selection of material were not made4 ,generally speaking1 this selection is based upon the experience of previous practical trials4 ,certain quarries are known to have supplied good material of a certain character1 and this quarry has1 therefore1 a reputation which is usually of no small value to its fortunate owner4 ,other quarries are opened in the neighborhood wherever the rock resembles that of the tested quarry4 ,sometimes1 however1 materials are open for selection that have not been so well tested1 and a method of testing which is more expeditious and less expensive than constructing a building and watching the result1 is very desirable4 ,the subject of testing building materials in special reference to their resistance of frost was brought before the ,academy of ,science of ,paris by ,m4 ,brard some years since4 ,in his preliminary experiments he used small cubes of the stone to be tested1 soaked them in water1 and then exposed them to the air in frosty weather1 or subjected them to the action of freezing mixtures4 ,afterwards he found that by availing himself of the expansive force which certain saline solutions exert at the moment of crystallization1 he could conveniently imitate the action of freezing without the aid of natural or artificial frost4 ,epsom salts1 nitre1 alum1 sulphate of iron1 ,glauber's salts1 etc41 were tried4 ,the last named1 ,glauber's salt 7or sulphate of soda71 which is very cheap1 was found to be the best for the purpose4 ,his method of applying the test is as follows3 ,cut the specimens into two-inch cubes1 with flat sides and sharp edges and corners1 mark each specimen with a number1 either by ink or scratching1 and enter in a book all particulars concerning it4 ,make a saturated solution of the sulphate of soda in rain or distilled water1 by adding the salt until no more will dissolve2 perfect saturation being shown by finding1 after repeated stirring1 that a little of the salt remains at the bottom an hour or two after the solution was made4 ,heat this solution in a suitable vessel1 and when it boils put in the marked specimens one by one1 and keep them immersed in the boiling solution for half an hour4 ,take out the specimens separately and suspend them by threads1 each over a separate vessel containing some of the liquid in which they were boiled1 but which has been carefully strained to free it from any solid particles4 ,in the course of a day or two1 as the cubes dry1 they will become covered with an efflorescence of snow-like crystals2 wash these away by simply plunging the specimen into the vessel below1 and repeat this two or three times daily for four or five days or longer4 ,the most suitable vessel for the purpose is a glass 8beaker10 sold by vendors of chemical apparatus4 ,in comparing competing samples1 be careful to treat all alike1 i4e41 boil them together in the same solution1 and dip them an equal number of times at equal intervals4 ,having done this1 the result is now to be examined4 ,if the stone is completely resistant the cube will remain smooth on its surfaces and sharp at its edges and corners1 and there will be no particles at the bottom of the vessel4 ,otherwise1 the inability of the stone to resist the test will be shown by the disfigurement of the cube or the small particles wedged off and lying at the bottom of the liquid4 ,care must be taken not to confound these with crystals of the salt which may also be deposited4 ,these crystals are easily removed by adding a little more water or warming the solution4 ,for strict comparison the fragments thus separated should be weighed in a delicate balance1 such as is used in chemical analysis4 ,,the ,,corrosion ,,of ,,building ,,stones4 ,about fifty years ago two eminent ,french chemists visited ,london1 and rather 8astonished the natives0 by a curious feature of their dress4 ,they wore on their hats large patches of colored paper4 ,coming1 as they did1 from ,paris1 many supposed that this was one of the latest ,paris fashions1 and the dandies of the period narrowly escaped the compulsion to follow it4 ,they probably would have done so had the ,frenchmen shown any attempt at decorative shaping of the paper4 ,they neglected this because it was litmus paper1 and their object in attaching it to their hats was to test the impurities of the ,london atmosphere4 ,blue litmus paper1 as everybody knows now-a-days1 turns red when exposed to an acid4 ,the ,french chemists found that their hat-decorations changed color1 and indicated the presence of acid in the air of ,london2 but when they left the metropolis and wandered in the open fields their blue litmus paper retained its original color4 ,by using alkaline paper they contrived to collect enough of the acid to test its composition4 ,they found it to be the acid which is formed by the burning of sulphur1 and attributed its existence to the sulphur of our coal4 ,at this time the domestic use of coal was scarcely known in ,paris4 ,subsequent experiments have proved that they were right2 that the air of ,london contains a very practical quantity of sulphurous and sulphuric acids1 which are due to the combustion of that yellow shining material more or less visible in most kinds of coal1 and has been occasionally supposed to be gold4 ,it is iron pyrites1 a compound of iron and sulphur4 ,when heated the sulphur is separated and burns1 producing sulphurous acid1 which1 exposed to moist air1 gradually takes up more oxygen and becomes sulphuric acid1 which in concentrated solution is oil of vitriol4 ,in the air it is very much diluted by diffusion1 but is still strong enough to do mischief to some kinds of building materials4 ,in manufacturing towns1 such as ,birmingham and ,sheffield1 the quantity of this acid in the air is much greater than in ,london1 and there its mischief is consequently more distinctly visible4 ,the church of ,st4 ,philip1 which stands nearly in the middle of ,birmingham1 and is surrounded by an old churchyard1 was so corroded by this acid that the stone peeled away on all sides1 and its condition was most deplorable4 ,the tombstones were similarly disintegrated on their surfaces1 and inscriptions quite obliterated4 ,it became so bad that a few years ago restoration was necessary1 and it was newly faced accordingly4 ,some of the old tombstones that are preserved may still be seen against the church wall1 and their peculiar structure is well worthy of study4 ,they display a lamination or peeling away due to unequal corrosion1 certain layers of the material of the stone having been evidently eaten away more rapidly than others4 ,anybody visiting ,birmingham may easily examine these1 as ,st4 ,philip's churchyard is situated between the two railway stations of ,new ,street and ,snow ,hill1 and is but two minutes' walk from either4 ,other stone buildings in the town have suffered1 but in very different degrees1 and some have quite escaped1 proving the necessity of careful selection of material wherever coal fires abound4 ,in ,birmingham the action of coal fires is assisted by other sources of acid vapor4 ,the process of 8pickling0 brass castings1 i4e41 brightening their surface1 by dipping first in common nitric acid 78pickle acky07 and then in water1 is attended with considerable evolution of acid fumes4 ,besides this very widespread use of acid1 there are several chemical manufactories that throw still more acid into the air immediately surrounding them4 ,as an example of the action of the atmospheric acids of ,london upon building stones1 ,i have but to name the ,houses of ,parliament1 which have only been rescued from superficial ruin by the patchwork replacing of certain blocks of stone1 and various devices of siliceous and other washings that have been carried out at great cost to the nation4 ,that such an unsuitable material should have been used is disgraceful to all concerned4 ,the ruin commenced before the building was finished4 ,at the time when its erection commenced there were abundant evidences of the ruinous action of ,london atmosphere on some kinds of stone and the capability of others to resist it1 for while many modern buildings are peeling and crumbling1 some of the oldest in the midst of the city show scarcely any signs of corrosion4 ,the ,birmingham and ,midland ,institute was established and in practical operation a few years before the present noble building was erected4 ,i was the first teacher there and conducted the ,science classes in the temporary premises in ,cannon street4 ,having observed with some interest the disintegration of ,st4 ,philip's ,church and other buildings1 ,i was anxious for the safety of the new ,institute buildings1 and accordingly made some experiments upon the material proposed to be used by the architect4 ,my method of testing was very simple1 and as the practical result has verified my anticipations ,i think it might be adopted by others4 ,first1 ,i immersed some lumps of the stone in moderately strong solutions of sulphuric and hydrochloric acids successively1 and observed whether any visible action occurred after some days4 ,there was none4 ,i then roughly tested the crushing pressure of small samples in their natural state1 and subjected similar sized pieces to the same test after they had been immersed in the acids4 ,i found thus that there were no evidences of internal disintegration even after several days' immersion1 and therefore inferred that the stone would stand the acid vapors of the ,birmingham atmosphere4 ,this has been the case with that portion of the building that was built of the material ,i tested4 ,as ,i know nothing of the stone which is used for the extension of the building under the present architect1 ,mr4 ,chamberlain1 ,i am unable to make any forecast of its probable durability4 ,the experiments ,i made at the time named with this and other building materials justified the conclusion that the worst of all material for exposure to acid atmospheres is a sandstone1 the particles of which are held together by limestone1 or are otherwise surrounded by or intermingled with limestone2 and that the best of ordinary material is a pure sandstone quite free from lime4 ,i do not here consider such luxurious material as granite or porphyries4 ,compact limestone1 such as good homogeneous marble1 stands fairly well1 although it is slowly corroded4 ,the corrosion1 however1 in this case1 is purely superficial and tolerably uniform4 ,it is a very slow washing away of the surface1 without any disintegration such as occurs where a small quantity of limestone acts as binding material to hold together a large quantity of siliceous or sandy material1 and where the agglomeration is porous1 and the stone is so laid that a downward infiltration of water can take place2 for it must be remembered that although the acid originally exists as vapor in the air1 it is taken up by the falling rain1 and the mischief is directly done to the stone by the acidified water4 ,this1 of course1 is very weak acid indeed4 ,that which ,i used for testing the stone was many thousand times stronger1 but then ,i exposed the stone for only a few days instead of many thousand days4 ,as above stated1 my experiments were but rude1 but ,i think it would be quite worth while to construct crushing apparatus capable of registering accurately the pressure used1 and to operate with standard solutions of acid upon carefully squared blocks of standard size1 and thus to make comparative tests of various samples of stone when competitions for building materials are offered4 ,in the case of the ,birmingham and ,midland ,institute building there was no such competition1 the choice was left entirely to the architect1 and my examination was unofficially conducted upon the material already chosen with the intent of protesting if it failed4 ,as it stood the test ,i merely reported the results informally to the architect1 the late ,sir ,edward ,barry1 no further action being demanded4 ,,fire-,,clay ,,and ,,anthracite4 ,for household fire-places1 whether open or closed1 these may be regarded as the material and the fuel of the future1 and should be more generally and better understood than they are4 ,the merits of fire-clay were fully appreciated and described nearly a hundred years ago by that very remarkable man1 ,benjamin ,thompson1 ,count of ,rumford4 ,any sound scientific exposition of the relative value of fire-clay and iron as fire-place materials can be little more or less than a repetition of what he struggled to teach at the beginning of the present century4 ,it is impossible to fairly understand this subject unless we start with a firm grasp of first principles4 ,the business before us is to get as much heat as possible from fuel burning in a certain fashion1 and to do this with the smallest possible emission of smoke4 ,substances that are hotter than their surroundings communicate their excess of temperature in three different ways2 #ast1 by ,conduction2 #b;d1 by ,convection2 #c;d1 by ,radiation4 ,all of these are operating in every form of fire-place1 but in very different proportions according to certain variations of construction4 ,to demonstrate the conduction of heat1 hold one end of a pin between the finger and thumb1 and the other end in the flame of a candle4 ,the experiment will terminate very speedily4 ,then take a piece of a lucifer match of the same length as the pin1 and hold that in the candle4 ,this may become red-hot and flaming without burning the fingers1 as the pin did at a much lower temperature4 ,it matters not whether the pin be held upwards1 downwards1 or sideways1 the heat will travel throughout its substance1 and this sort of traveling is called 8conduction10 and the pin a 8conductor0 of heat4 ,the conducting power of different substances varies greatly1 as the above experiment shows4 ,metals generally are the best conductors1 but they differ among themselves2 silver is the best of all1 copper the next4 ,calling 7for comparison sake7 the conductivity of silver #ajjj1 that of copper is #gcf1 gold #ecb1 brass #bcf1 iron #aai1 marble and other building stones #f to #ab1 porcelain #e1 ordinary brick earth only #d1 and fire-brick earth less than this4 ,thus we may at once start upon our subject1 with the practical fact that iron conducts heat thirty times more readily than does fire-brick4 ,convection is different from conduction1 inasmuch as it is effected by the movements of the something which has been heated by contact with something else4 ,water is a very bad conductor of heat1 much worse than fire-brick1 and yet1 as we all know1 heat is freely transmitted by it1 as when we boil water in a kettle4 ,if1 however1 we placed the water in a fire-clay kettle1 and applied the heat at the top we should have to wait for our tea until to-morrow or the next day4 ,when the heat is applied below1 the hot metal of the kettle heats the bottom film of water by direct contact2 this film expands1 and thus1 being lighter1 rises through the rest of the water1 heating other portions by contact as it meets them1 and so on throughout4 ,the heat is thus conveyed1 and the term 8convection0 is based on the view that each particle is a carrier of heat as it proceeds4 ,air conveys heat in the same manner2 so may all gases and liquids1 but no such convection is possible in solids4 ,the common notion that 8heat ascends0 is based on the well-known facts of convection4 ,it is the heated gas or liquid that really ascends4 ,no such preference is given to an upward direction1 when heat is conducted or radiated4 ,radiation is a flinging off of heat in all directions by the heated body4 ,radiation from solids is mainly superficial1 and it depends on the nature of the heated surface4 ,the rougher and the more porous the surface of a given substance the better it radiates4 ,bright metals are the worst radiators2 lampblack the best1 and fire-brick nearly equal to it4 ,to show the effect of surface1 take three tin canisters of equal size1 one bright outside1 the second scratched and roughened1 the third painted over with a thin coat of lampblack4 ,fill each with hot water of the same temperature1 and leave them equally exposed4 ,their rates of radiation will then be measurable by their rates of cooling4 ,the black will cool the most rapidly1 the rough canister next1 and the bright one the slowest4 ,radiant heat may be reflected like light from bright surfaces1 the reflecting substance itself becoming heated in a proportion which diminishes just as its reflecting powers increase4 ,good reflectors are bad radiators and bad absorbers of heat1 and the power of absorbing heat1 or becoming superficially hot when exposed to radiant heat1 is exactly proportionate to radiating efficiency4 ,fire-clay is a good absorber of radiant heat1 i4e41 it becomes readily heated when near to hot coals or flames1 without requiring actual contact with them4 ,it is an equally good radiator4 ,let us now apply these facts to fire-clay in fireplaces1 beginning with ordinary open grates used for the warming of apartments2 first supposing that we have an ordinary old-fashioned grate all made of iron--front1 sides1 and back1 as well as bars1 and next that we have another of similar form and position1 but all the fire-box and the back and cheeks of the grate made of fire-clay4 ,it is evident that the fire-clay not in actual contact with the coals1 but near to them1 will absorb more heat than the iron1 and thus become hotter4 ,even at the same temperature it will radiate much more heat than iron1 but being so much hotter this advantage will be proportionately increased4 ,an open fireplace lined throughout with fire-clay thus throws into the room a considerable amount of its own radiation in addition to that thrown out from the coal4 ,but what becomes of this portion of the heat when the fireplace is all of metal8 ,it is carried up the chimney by convection1 for the metal1 while it parts with less heat by radiation1 gives up more to the air by direct contact4 ,therefore1 if we must burn our coals inside the chimney1 we lose less by burning them in a fire-clay box than in a metal box4 ,count ,rumford demonstrates this1 and described the best form of open firegrate that can be placed in an ordinary ,english hole-in-the-wall fireplace4 ,the first thing to be done1 according to his instructions1 is to brick up your large square fireplace recess1 so that the back of it shall come forward to about #d inches from the front inside face of the chimney1 thus contracting the throat of the chimney1 just behind the mantel1 to this small depth 7,rumford's device for sweeping need not be here described74 ,the sides or 8covings0 of this shallowed recess are now to be sloped inwards so that each one shall horizontally be at an angle of #ace deg4 to the plane of this new back1 and meet it at a distance of six or more inches apart1 according to the size of grate required4 ,the covings will thus spread out at right angles with each other1 and leave an annular opening to be lined with fire-brick1 and run straight up to the chimney4 ,the fire-bars and grate-bottom to be simply let into this as far forward as possible4 ,by this simple arrangement we get a fire-grate with a narrow flat back and out-sloping sides2 all these three walls are of fire-brick2 the back radiates perpendicularly across the room2 and the sloping sides radiate outwards1 instead of merely across the fire from one to the other1 as when they are square to the walls4 ,at ,rumford's time our ordinary fireplaces were square recesses2 now we have adopted something like his suggestion in the sloping sides of our register grates1 and we bring our fireplaces forward4 ,we have gone backwards in material1 by using iron1 but this1 after all1 may be merely due to the ironmongery interest overpowering that of the bricklayers4 ,the preponderance of this interest in the ,south ,kensington ,exhibition may account for the fact that ,rumford's simple device was not to be seen in action there4 ,it could not pay anybody to exhibit such a thing1 as nobody can patent it1 and nobody can sell it4 ,i have seen the ,rumford arrangement carried out in office fireplaces with remarkable success4 ,to apply it anywhere requires only an intelligent bricklayer1 a few bricks1 and some iron bars4 ,although nobody exhibited this1 a very near approach to it was described in an admirable lecture delivered at ,south ,kensington1 by ,mr4 ,fletcher1 of ,warrington4 ,in one respect ,mr4 ,fletcher goes further than ,count ,rumford in the application of fire-clay4 ,he makes the bottom of the fire-box of a slab of fire-clay instead of ordinary iron fire-bars4 ,this demands a little more trouble and care in lighting the fire1 owing to the absence of bottom-draught1 but when the fire is well started the advantages of this further encasing in fire-clay are considerable4 ,they depend upon another effect of the superior radiant and absorbent properties of fire-clay that ,i will now explain4 ,so far1 ,i have only described the beneficial effect of its radiation on the room to be heated1 but it performs a further duty inside the fireplace itself4 ,being a bad conductor1 it does not readily carry away the heat of the burning coal that rests upon it1 and being also an excellent absorber1 it soon becomes very hot--i4e41 superficially hot1 or hot where its heat is effective4 ,this action may be seen in a common register stove with fire-clay back and iron sides4 ,when the fire is brisk the back is visibly red-hot1 while the sides are still dull4 ,if1 after such a fire has burnt itself out1 we carefully examine the ashes1 there will be found more fine dust in contact with the fire-brick than with the iron--i4e41 evidence of more complete combustion there2 and one of the advantages justly claimed by ,mr4 ,fletcher is1 that with his solid fire-clay bottom there will be no unburnt cinders--nothing left but the incombustible mineral ash of the coal4 ,economy and abatement of smoke are the necessary concomitants of such complete combustion4 ,a valuable 8wrinkle0 was communicated by ,mr4 ,fletcher4 ,the powdered fire-clay that is ordinarily sold is not easily applied on account of its tendency to crumble and peel off the back and sides of the stove after the first heating4 ,in order to overcome this1 and obtain a fine compact lining1 ,mr4 ,fletcher recommends the mixing of the fireclay powder with a solution of water-glass 7silicate of soda7 instead of simple water4 ,it acts by forming a small quantity of glassy silicate of alumina1 which binds the whole of the clay together by its fusion when heated4 ,londoners1 and1 in fact1 ,englishmen generally1 have hitherto regarded anthracite as a museum mineral and a curiosity1 rather than an everyday coal-scuttle commodity4 ,if it is to be the fuel of the future1 it is very desirable that we should all know something about its merits and demerits1 as well as the possibilities of supply4 ,anthracite is a natural coke4 ,from its position in the earth1 and its relations to bituminous coal1 as well as from its composition1 we are justified in regarding it as a coal that was originally bituminous1 but which has been altered by heat1 acting under great pressure4 ,in the great coal-field of ,south ,wales1 to which we must look for our main supply of anthracite1 we are able to trace the action of heat in producing a whole series of different classes of coal in a single seam1 which at one part is highly bituminous--soft1 flaming coal1 like the ,wallsend1 then it becomes harder and less bituminous1 then semi-bituminous 8steam coal10 then less and less flaming1 until at last we have the hard1 shiny form of purely carbonaceous coal1 that may be handled without soiling the fingers1 and which burns without flame1 like coke or charcoal4 ,this change proceeds as the seam extends from the east towards the west4 ,in some places the coal at the base of a hill may be anthracite1 while that on the outcrop above it may be bituminous4 ,an artificial anthracite may be made by heating coal in a closed vessel of sufficient strength to resist the expansion of the gases that are formed4 ,it differs from coke in being compact1 is not porous1 and therefore1 of course1 much denser1 a given weight occupying less space4 ,that we ,englishmen should be about the last of all the coal-using peoples to apply anthracite to domestic purposes is a very curious fact1 but so it is4 ,in ,america it is the ordinary fuel1 and this is the case in all other countries where it is obtainable at the price of bituminous coal4 ,our perversity in this respect shows out the more strikingly when we go a little further into the subject by comparing the two classes of coal in reference to our methods of using them1 and when we consider the fact that our ,south ,wales anthracite is far superior to the ,american4 ,our open fires only do their small fraction of useful work by radiation4 ,their convection is all up the chimney4 ,such being the case1 and we being theoretically regarded as rational beings1 it might be supposed that for our national and especially radiating fireplaces we should have selected a coal of especial radiating efficiency1 but1 instead of this1 we do the opposite4 ,the flaming coal is just that which flings the most heat up the chimney1 and the least into the room1 and1 as though we were all struggling to destroy as speedily as possible the supposed physical basis of our prosperity1 we select that coal which in our particular fire-places burns the most wastefully4 ,if we had closed iron stoves with long stove-pipes in the room1 giving to the air the heat they had obtained by the convective action of the flame and smoke1 there might be some reason for using the flaming coal1 as the flame would thereby do useful work1 but1 as it is1 we stubbornly persist in using only the radiated heat1 and at the same time select just the coal which supplies the smallest quantity of what we require4 ,no scientific dissertation is necessary to prove the superior radiating power of an anthracite fire to anybody who has ever stood in the front of one4 ,this is most strikingly demonstrated by those grates that stand well forward1 and are kept automatically filled with the radiant-carbon4 ,let us now see why anthracite is a better radiator than bituminous coal4 ,this is due to its chemical composition4 ,of all the substances that we have upon the earth carbon in its ordinary black form is the best radiator4 ,anthracite contains from #ij to #id per cent of pure carbon1 bituminous coal from #gj to #he1 and much of this being combined with hydrogen burns away as flame4 ,on a rough average we may say that the fixed or solid carbon capable of burning with a smokeless flameless glow1 amounts to #fe per cent in ordinary ,british bituminous coal1 against an average of #ib per cent in ,british anthracite4 ,the advantages of anthracite as a fuel for open radiating grates are nearly in the proportion of these figures4 ,besides this it contains about half the quantity of ash4 ,thus we see that from a purely selfish point of view1 and quite irrespective of our duty to our fellow-citizens as regards polluting the atmosphere1 anthracite is preferable to ordinary coal on economical grounds1 supposing we can obtain it at the same price as bituminous coal1 which is now the case4 ,another great advantage of anthracite is its cleanliness1 ,it may be picked up in the fingers without soiling them1 and it is similarly cleanly throughout the house4 ,it produces no 8blacks10 no grimy dust1 and if it were generally in use throughout ,london one half of the house-cleaning would be saved4 ,white curtains1 blinds1 etc41 might hang quite four times as long1 and then come down not half so dirty as now4 ,the saving in soap alone1 without counting labor1 would at once return a handsome percentage on the capital outlay required for reconstructing all our fireplaces4 ,let us now look on the other side1 and ask what are the disadvantages of anthracite1 and why is it not at once adopted by everybody8 ,there is really only one disadvantage1 viz41 the greater difficulty of starting an anthracite fire4 ,practically this is considerable1 seeing that laziness is universal and ever ready to find excuses when an innovation is proposed that stands in its way4 ,to light an anthracite fire in an ordinary fireplace the bellows are required unless a specially suitable draught or fire-lighter is used4 ,some recommend that an admixture of bituminous coal should be used to start it1 but this is a feeble device calculated to lead to total failure1 seeing that the sole originator and sustainer of our ordinary use of bituminous coal is domestic ignorance and indolence1 and if both kinds of coal are kept in a house a common ,english servant will stubbornly use the easy-lighting kind1 and solemnly assert that the other cannot be used at all4 ,the only way to deal with this obstacle1 the human impediment1 is to say1 8,this you must use1 or go40 ,this is strictly just1 as a simple enforcement of duty4 ,at the same time some help should be supplied in the way of artificial modes of creating a draught in starting an anthracite fire4 ,this may be done by temporarily closing the front of the fire by a 8blower10 or better still by selecting one of the grates specially devised for burning anthracite1 of which so many now are made4 ,another and rather important matter is to obtain the anthracite in suitable condition4 ,it is a very hard coal1 too hard to be broken by the means usually at hand in ordinary houses4 ,for domestic purposes it should always be delivered broken up of suitable size1 from that of an egg to a cocoa-nut4 ,for furnaces1 of course1 large lumps are preferable4 ,then1 again1 anthracite must not be stirred and poked about2 once fairly started it burns steadily and brightly1 demanding only a steady feeding4 ,the best of the special grates are more or less automatic in the matter of feeding1 and thus the trouble of lighting is fully compensated by the absence of any further trouble4 ,as regards the supply4 ,this for ,london and the greater part of ,england will doubtless be derived from the great coal-field of ,south ,wales4 ,the total quantity of available coal in this region after deducting the waste in getting1 was estimated by the ,government ,commissioners at #cb1def millions of tons4 ,it is very difficult or impossible to correctly estimate the proportion of anthracite in this1 but supposing it to be one tenth of true anthracite it gives us #cbde millions of tons1 or about enough for the domestic supply of the whole country during #ajj years1 assuming that it shall be used less wastefully than we are now using bituminous coal1 which would certainly be the case4 ,but1 including the imperfect anthracite1 the quantity must be far larger than this1 and we have to add the other sources of anthracite4 ,we need not1 therefore1 have any present fear of insufficient supply2 probably before the #ajj years are ended we shall find other sources of anthracite1 or even have become sufficiently civilized to abolish altogether our present dirty devices1 and to adopt rational methods of warming and ventilating our houses4 ,when we do this any sort of coal may be used4 ,,count ,,rumford',s ,,cooking-,,stoves4 ,in the preceding chapter ,i described ,count ,rumford's modification of the ,english open firegrate which eighty years ago was offered to the ,british nation without any patent or other restrictions4 ,its non-adoption ,i believe to be mainly due to this--it was nobody's monopoly1 nobody's business to advertise it1 and1 therefore1 nobody took any further notice of it2 especially as it cannot be made and sold as a separate portable article4 ,an ironmonger or stove-maker who should go to the expense of exhibiting ,rumford's simple structure of fire-bricks and a few bars1 described in the last chapter1 would be superseding himself by teaching his customers how they may advantageously do without him4 ,the same remarks apply to his stoves for cooking purposes4 ,they are not iron boxes like our modern kitcheners1 but are brick structures1 matters of masonry in all but certain adjuncts1 such as bars1 fire-doors1 covers1 oven-boxes1 etc41 which are very simple and inexpensive4 ,even some of ,rumford's kitchen utensils1 such as the steamers1 were cheaply covered with wood1 because it is a bad conductor1 and therefore wastes less heat than an iron saucepan lid4 ,rumford was no mere theorist1 although he contributed largely to pure science4 ,his greatest scientific discoveries were made in the course of his persevering efforts to solve practical problems4 ,i must not be tempted from my immediate subject by citing any examples of these1 but may tell a fragment of the story of his work so far as it bears upon the subject of cooking-ranges4 ,he began life as a poor schoolmaster in ,new ,hampshire1 when it was a ,british colony4 ,he next became a soldier2 then a diplomatist2 then in strange adventurous fashion he traveled on the ,continent of ,europe1 entered the ,bavarian service and began his searching reform of the ,bavarian army by improving the feeding and the clothing of the men4 ,he became a practical working cook in order that they should be supplied with good1 nutritious1 and cheap food4 ,but this was not all4 ,he found ,munich in a most deplorable condition as regards mendicity2 and took in hand the gigantic task of feeding1 clothing1 and employing the overwhelming horde of paupers1 doing this so effectually that he made his 8,house of ,industry0 a true workhouse2 it paid all its own expenses1 and at the end of six years left a net profit of #ajj1jjj florins4 ,i mention these facts in conformation of what ,i said above concerning his practical character4 ,economical cookery was at the root of his success in this maintenance of a workhouse without any poor-rates4 ,after doing all this he came to ,england1 visited many of our public institutions1 reconstructed their fireplaces1 and then cooked dinners in presence of distinguished witnesses1 in order to show how little need be expended on fuel1 when it is properly used4 ,at the ,foundling ,institution in ,london he roasted #aab lbs4 of beef with #bb lbs4 of coal1 or at a cost of less than threepence4 ,the following copy of certificate1 signed by the ,councillor of ,war1 etc41 shows what he did at ,munich3 8,we whose names are underwritten certify that we have been present frequently when experiments have been made to determine the expense of fuel in cooking for the poor in the public kitchen of the military workhouse at ,munich1 and that when the ordinary dinner has been prepared for #ajjj persons1 the expense for fuel has not amounted to quite #ab kreutzers40 ,twelve kreutzers is about #d;d4 of our money4 ,thus only #a-ejth of a farthing was expended on cooking each person's dinner1 although the peas which formed the substantial part of the soup required five hours1 boiling4 ,the whole average daily fuel expenses of the kitchen of the establishment amounted to #a-bjth of a farthing for each person1 using wood1 which is much dearer than coal4 ,at this rate1 one ton of wood should do the cooking for ten persons during two years and six days1 or one ton of coal would supply the kitchen of such a family three and a half years4 ,the following is an abstract of the general principles which he expounds for the guidance of all concerned in the construction of cooking stoves4 #a4 ,all cooking fires should be enclosed4 #b4 ,air only to be admitted from below and under complete control4 ,all air beyond what is required for the supply of oxygen 8is a thief40 #c4 ,all fireplaces to be surrounded by non-conductors1 brickwork1 not iron4 #d4 ,the residual heat from the fireplace to be utilized by long journeys in returning flues1 and by doing the hottest work first4 #e4 ,different fires should be used for different work4 ,the first of these requirements encounters one of our dogged insular prejudices4 ,the slaves to these firmly believe that meat can only be roasted by hanging it up to dry in front of an open fire2 their savage ancestors having held their meat on a skewer or spit over or before an open fire1 modern science must not dare to demonstrate the wasteful folly of the holy sacrifice4 ,their grandmothers having sent joints to a bakehouse1 where other people did the same1 and having found that by thus cooking beef1 mutton1 pork1 geese1 etc41 some fresh1 and some stale1 in the same oven1 the flavors became somewhat mixed1 and all influenced by sage and onions1 these people persist in believing that meat cannot be roasted in any kind of closed chamber4 ,rumford proved the contrary1 and everybody who has fairly tried the experiment knows that a properly ventilated and properly heated roasting oven produces an incomparably better result than the old desiccating process4 ,rumford's roaster was a very remarkable contrivance1 that seems to have been forgotten4 ,it probably demands more intelligence in using it than is obtainable in a present-day kitchen4 ,when the ,school ,boards have supplied a better generation of domestic servants we may be able to restore its use4 ,it is a cylindrical oven with a double door to prevent loss of heat4 ,in this the meat rests on a grating over a specially constructed gravy and water dish4 ,under the oven are two 8blow-pipes10 i4e41 stout tubes standing just above the fire so as to be made red hot1 and opening into the oven at the back1 and above the fireplace in front1 where there is a plug to be closed or open as required4 ,over the front part of the top of the oven is another pipe for carrying away the vapor4 ,it is thus used3 ,the meat is first cooked in an atmosphere of steam formed by the boiling of water placed in the bottom of the double dish1 over which the meat rests4 ,when by this means the meat has been raised throughout its whole thickness to the temperature at which its albumen coagulates1 the plugs are removed from the blow-pipes1 and then the special action of roasting commences by the action of a current of superheated air which enters below and at the back of the oven1 travels along and finds exit above and in front of the steam-pipe before named4 ,the result is a practical attainment of theoretical perfection4 ,instead of the joint being dried and corticated outside1 made tough1 leathery1 and flavorless to about an inch of depth1 then fairly cooked an inch further1 and finally left raw1 disgusting1 and bloody in the middle1 as it is in the orthodox roasting by ,british cooks1 the whole is uniformly cooked throughout without the soddening action of mere boiling or steaming1 as the excess of moisture is removed by the final current of hot dry air thrown in by the blow-pipes1 which at the same time give the whole surface an uniform browning that can be regulated at will without burning any portion or wasting the external fat4 ,rumford's second rule1 that air be admitted only from below1 and be limited to the requirements1 is so simple that no comment upon it is needed4 ,although we have done so little in the improvement of domestic fireplaces1 great progress has been made in engine furnaces1 blast furnaces1 and all other fireplaces for engineering and manufacturing purposes4 ,every furnace engineer now fully appreciates ,rumford's assertion that excess of cold air is a thief4 ,the third rule is one which1 as ,i have already stated1 stands seriously in the way of any commercial 8pushing0 of ,rumford's kitchen ranges4 ,those which he figures and describes are all of them masonic structures1 not ironmongery2 the builder must erect them1 they cannot be bought ready-made2 but1 now that public attention is roused1 ,i believe that any builder who will study ,rumford's plans and drawings1 which are very practically made1 may do good service to himself and his customers by fitting up a few houses with true ,rumford kitcheners1 and offering to reconstruct existing kitchen ranges1 especially in large houses4 ,the fourth rule is one that is sorely violated in the majority of kitcheners1 and without any good reason4 ,the heat from the fire of any kitchener1 whether it be of brick or iron1 should first do the work demanding the highest temperature1 viz41 roasting and baking1 then proceed to the boiler or boilers1 and after this be used for supplying the bed-rooms and bath-room1 and the housemaid1 etc41 with hot water for general use1 as ,rumford did in his house at ,brompton ,row1 where his chimney terminated in metal pipes that passed through a water-tank at the top of the house4 ,linen-closets may also be warmed by this residual heat4 ,the fifth rule is also violated to an extent that renders the words uttered by ,rumford nearly a century ago as applicable now as then4 ,he said1 8,nothing is so ill-judged as most of those attempts that are frequently made by ignorant projectors to force the same fire to perform different services at the same time40 ,note the last words1 8same time40 ,in the uses above mentioned the heat does different work successively1 which is quite different from the common practice of having flues to turn the flame of one fire in opposite directions1 to split its heat and make one fireplace appear to do the work of two4 ,every householder knows that the kitchen fire1 whether it be an old-fashioned open fireplace1 or a modern kitchener of any improved construction1 is a very costly affair4 ,he knows that its wasteful work produces the chief item of his coal bill1 but somehow or other he is helpless under its infliction4 ,if he has given any special attention to the subject he has probably tried three or four different kinds without finding any notable relief4 ,why is this8 ,i venture to make a reply that will cover #ij per cent1 or probably #ii per cent of these cases1 viz41 that he has never considered the main source of waste1 which ,rumford so clearly defines as above1 and which was eliminated in all the kitchens that he erected4 ,let us suppose the case of a household of ten persons1 but which in the ordinary course of ,english hospitality sometimes entertains twice that number4 ,what do we find in the kitchen arrangements8 ,simply that there is one fireplace suited for the maximum requirements1 i4e41 sufficient for twenty1 even though that number may not be entertained more than half a dozen times in the course of a year4 ,to cook a few rashers of bacon1 boil a few eggs1 and boil a kettle of water for breakfast1 a fire sufficient to cook for a dinner party of twenty is at work4 ,this is kept on all day long1 because it is just possible that the master of the house may require a glass of grog at bedtime4 ,there may be dampers and other devices for regulating this fire1 but such regulation1 even if applied1 does very little so long as the capacity of the grate remains1 and as a matter of ordinary fact the dampers and other regulating devices are neglected altogether2 the kitchen fire is blazing and roaring to waste from #f or #g ,a4,m4 to about midnight1 in order to do about three hours and a half work1 i4e41 the dinner for ten1 and a nominal trifle for the other meals4 ,in ,rumford's kitchens1 such as those he built for the ,baron de ,lerchenfeld and for the ,house of ,industry at ,munich1 the kitchener is a solid block of masonry of work-bench height at top1 and with a deep bay in the middle1 wherein the cook stands surrounded by his boilers1 steamers1 roasters1 ovens1 etc41 all within easy reach1 each one supplied by its own separate fire of very small dimensions1 and carefully closed with non-conducting doors4 ,each fire is lighted when required1 charged with only the quantity of fuel necessary for the work to be done1 and then extinguished or allowed to die out4 ,it is true that ,rumford used wood1 which is more easily managed in this way than coal4 ,if we worked as he did1 we might use wood likewise1 and in spite of its very much higher price do our cooking at half its present cost4 ,this would effect not merely 8smoke abatement0 but 8smoke extinction0 so far as cooking is concerned4 ,but the lighting of fires is no longer a troublesome and costly process as in the days of halfpenny bundles of firewood4 ,to say nothing of the improved fire-lighters1 we have gas everywhere1 and nothing is easier than to fix or place a suitable ,bunsen or solid flame burner under each of the fireplaces 7an iron gaspipe1 perforated below to avoid clogging1 will do71 and in two or three minutes the coals are in full blaze2 then the gas may be turned off4 ,the writer has used such an arrangement in his study for some years past1 and starts his fire in full blaze in three minutes quite independent of all female interference4 ,i have no doubt that ultimately gas will altogether supersede coal for cooking2 but this and all other scientific improvements in domestic comfort and economy must be impossible with the present generation of uneducated domestics1 whose brains 7with few exceptions7 have become torpid and wooden from lack of systematic exercise during their period of growth4 ,,the 8,,consumption ,,of ,,smoke40 ,a great deal has been spoken and written on this subject1 but practically nothing has been done4 ,at one time ,i shared the general belief in its possibility1 and accordingly examined a multitude of devices for smoke-consuming1 and tried several of the most promising1 chiefly in furnaces for metallurgical work1 for steam boilers and stills4 ,none of them proved satisfactory1 and ,i was driven to the conclusion that smoke-consumption is a delusion1 and further1 that economical consumption of smoke is practically impossible4 ,when smoke is once formed1 the cost of burning it far exceeds the value of the heat that is produced by the combustion of its very flimsy flocculi of carbon4 ,it is a fiend that once raised cannot be exorcised1 a ,frankenstein that haunts its maker1 and will not be appeased4 ,to describe in detail the many ingenious devices that have been proposed and expensively patented and advertised for this object1 would carry me far beyond the intended limits of this paper4 ,i must not even attempt this for a selected few1 as even among them there is none that can be pronounced satisfactory4 ,the common idea is that if the smoke be carried back to the fire that produced it1 and made to pass through it again1 a recombustion or consumption of the smoke will take place4 ,this is a mistake1 as a little reflection will show4 ,first1 let us ask why did this particular fire produce such smoke8 ,everybody now-a-days can answer this question1 as we all know that smoke is a result of imperfect combustion1 and1 knowing this1 it can easily be understood that to return the carbonic acid and excess of carbon to the already suffocated fire can only add smother to smotheration1 and make the smoky fire more smoky still4 ,there is1 however1 one case in which a fire appears to thus consume its own smoke1 but the appearance is delusive4 ,i refer to fires lighted from above4 ,these1 if properly managed1 are practically smokeless1 and it is commonly supposed that smoke passes from the raw coal below through the burning coal above1 and is thereby consumed4 ,the fact is1 however1 that no such smoke is formed4 ,that which under these conditions comes from the coal beneath1 when gradually heated by the fire above1 is combustible gas1 and this gas is burned as it passes through the fire4 ,in this case the formation or non-formation of smoke depends mainly on how this gas is burned1 whether completely or incompletely4 ,if the air supplied for its combustion is insufficient1 smoke will be formed as it is when we turn up an ,argand gas-flame so high that the gas is too great in proportion to the quantity of air that can enter the glass chimney4 ,herein lies the fundamental principle4 ,we may prevent smoke1 though we cannot cure it1 and this prevention depends upon how we supply air to the gas which the coal gives off when heated1 and upon the condition of this gas when we bring it in contact with the air by which its combustion is to be effected4 ,we must always remember that coal when its temperature is sufficiently heated1 whether in a gas retort or fireplace1 gives off a series of combustible hydrocarbon gases and vapors1 and all we have to do in order to obtain smokeless fires is to secure the complete combustion of these4 ,now we know that to burn a given quantity of gas we must supply it with a sufficient quantity of oxygen1 i4e41 of the active principle of the air2 but this is not all3 we all know well enough that if cold coal-gas and cold air be brought together in any proportion whatever no combustion occurs4 ,a certain amount of heat is necessary to start the chemical combination of oxygen with hydrogen and carbon1 which combination is the combustion1 or burning4 ,therefore1 when the coal gas and the air are brought together one or the other1 or both1 must be heated up to a certain point in order that the combustion be complete4 ,if cold there is no combustion2 if insufficiently heated1 there is imperfect combustion1 however well the supplies may be regulated4 ,a very simple experiment that anybody may make illustrates this4 ,when an ordinary open fire is burning brightly and clearly without flame1 throw a few small pieces of raw coal into the midst of the glowing coals4 ,they will flame fiercely1 but without smoking4 ,then throw a heap of coal or one large lump on a similar fire4 ,now you will have dense volumes of smoke1 and little or no flame1 simply because the cooling action of the large bulk of coal in the course of distillation brings the temperature of its gases below that required for their complete combustion4 ,this simple experiment supplies a most important practical lesson1 as well as a philosophical example4 ,the best of all smoke-abatement machines is an intelligent and conscientious stoker1 and every contrivance for smoke abatement must1 in order to be efficient1 either be fed by such a stoker or provided with some automatic arrangement by which the apparatus itself does the work of such a stoker by supplying the fresh fuel just when and where it is wanted4 ,cornish experience is very instructive in this respect4 ,the engines that pump the water from the mines do a definitely measurable amount of work1 and are made to register this4 ,the stoker is a skilled workman1 and prizes are given to those who obtain the largest amount of 8duty0 from given engines per ton of coal consumed4 ,instead of pitching his coal in anyhow1 cramming his fire-hole1 and then sitting down to sleep or smoke in company with his chimney1 the ,cornish1 or other good fireman1 feeds little and often1 and deftly sprinkles the contents of his shovel just where the fire is the brightest and the hottest1 and the bars are the least thickly covered4 ,the result is remarkable4 ,a colliery proprietor of ,south ,staffordshire was visiting ,cornwall1 and went with a friend to see his works4 ,on approaching the engine-house and seeing a whitewashed shaft with no smoke issuing from its mouth1 he expressed his disappointment at finding that the engine was not at work4 ,to all who have been accustomed to the 8,black ,country10 where coal is so shamefully wasted because it is cheap1 the tall clean whitewashed shafts of ,cornwall1 all so smokeless1 present quite an astonishing appearance4 ,this is not a result of 8smoke-consuming0 apparatus1 but mainly of careful firing4 ,it was in the first place promoted by the high price of coal due to the cost of carriage before the ,cornish railways were constructed1 and it brought about a curious result4 ,horse-power for horse-power the cost of fuel for working ,cornish pumping engines has been brought below that of pumping engines in the places where the price of coal per ton was less than one-half4 ,another coal famine that should raise the price of coal in ,london to #fjs4 per ton1 and keep it there for two or three years1 would effect more smoke abatement than we can hope to result from the present and many future ,south ,kensington efforts4 ,i need scarcely dwell upon the necessity for a due supply of air4 ,this is well understood by everybody4 ,an over supply of air does mischief1 by carrying away wastefully a proportionate quantity of heat4 ,the waste due to this is sometimes very serious4 ,after reviewing all that has been done1 the conclusion that ,london cannot become a clean1 smokeless1 and beautiful city1 so long as we are dependent upon open fire-grates of anything like ordinary construction1 and fed with bituminous coal1 is inevitable4 ,the general use of anthracite would effect the desired change1 but there is no hope of its becoming general without legislative compulsion1 and ,englishmen will not submit to this4 ,one of the most hopeful schemes is that which was propounded a short time since by ,mr4 ,scott ,moncrieff4 ,instead of receiving our coal in its crude state he proposes that we should have its smoke-producing constituents removed before it is delivered to us2 that it should be made into a sort of artificial semi-anthracite at the gas-works by a process of half distillation1 which would take away not all the flaming gas as at present1 but that portion which is by far the richest to the gas-maker and the most unmanageable in common fires4 ,we should thus have a material which1 instead of being so difficult to light as coke and anthracite1 would light more easily than crude coal1 and at the same time our gas would have far greater illuminating power1 as it would all be drawn off during the early period of distillation1 when it is at its richest4 ,from a given quality of coal the difference would be as twenty-four candles to sixteen4 ,the ammonia which we now throw into the air1 the naphtha and coal-tar products1 which we waste1 are so valuable that they would pay all the expenses at the gas-works and leave a handsome profit4 ,we should thus get gas so much better that two burners would do the work now obtained from three4 ,we should get all we require for lighting purposes and plenty more for heating2 the intermediate profits of the coal merchant would be abolished1 and our solid fuel of far better quality could be supplied twenty or thirty per cent cheaper than at present1 provided always that the gas monopoly were abolished1 8a consummation most devoutly to be wished for40 ,mr4 ,moncrieff 7who brought forward his scheme without any company-mongering1 or claims for patent rights7 estimates the saving to ,london at #b1abe1jjj per annum1 over and above the far greater saving that would result from the abolition of smoke4 ,in connection with this scheme ,i may mention a fact that has not been hitherto noted1 viz41 that we have perforce and unconsciously done a little in this direction already4 ,formerly ,london was supplied almost exclusively with 8,wallsend0 and other sea-borne coals of a highly bituminous composition--soft coals that fused in the grate and caked together4 ,partly owing to exhaustion of the seams1 and partly to the competition of railway transit1 we now obtain a large proportion of hard coal from the ,midlands4 ,this is less smoky and less sooty1 and hence the ,metropolitan smoke nuisance has not increased quite as greatly as the population4 ,but ,i will now conclude by repeating that whatever scheme be chosen1 8smoke abatement0 is to be achieved1 not by smoke-consumption1 but by smoke-prevention4 ,,the ,,air ,,of ,,stove-,,heated ,,rooms4 ,whatever opinions may be formed of the merits of the exhibits at ,south ,kensington1 one result is unquestionable--the exhibition itself has done much in directing public attention to the very important subject of economizing fuel and the diminution of smoke4 ,we sorely need some lessons4 ,our national progress in this direction has been simply contemptible1 so far as domestic fireplaces are concerned4 ,to prove this we need only turn back to the essays of ,benjamin ,thompson1 ,count of ,rumford1 published in ,london just eighty years ago1 and find therein nearly all that the ,smoke ,abatement ,exhibition ought to teach us1 both in theory and practice--lessons which all our progress since #ahjb1 plus the best exhibits at ,south ,kensington1 we have yet to learn4 ,this small progress in domestic heating is the more remarkable when contrasted with the great strides we have made in the construction and working of engineering and metallurgical furnaces1 the most important of which is displayed in the ,siemens regenerative furnace4 ,a climax to this contrast is afforded by a speech made by ,dr4 ,siemens himself1 in which he defends our domestic barbarisms with all the conservative inconvincibility of a born and bred ,englishman1 in spite of his ,german nationality4 ,the speech to which ,i refer is reported in the 8,journal of the ,society of ,arts10 ,december #i1 #ahha1 and contains some curious fallacies1 probably due to its extemporaneous character2 but as they have been quoted and adopted not only in political and literary journals1 but also by a magazine of such high scientific standing as ,nature 7see editorial article ,january #e1 #ahhb1 p4 #bai71 they are likely to mislead many4 ,having already1 in my 8,history of ,modern ,invention1 etc410 and in other places1 expressed my great respect for ,dr4 ,siemens and his benefactions to ,british industry1 the spirit in which the following plain-spoken criticism is made will not1 ,i hope1 be misunderstood either by the readers of 8,knowledge0 or by ,dr4 ,siemens himself4 ,i may further add that ,i am animated by a deadly hatred of our barbarous practice of wasting precious coal by burning it in iron fire-baskets half buried in holes within brick walls1 and under shafts that carry #hj or #ij per cent of its heat to the clouds2 that pollute the atmosphere of our towns1 and make all their architecture hideous2 that render scientific and efficient ventilation of our houses impossible2 that promote rheumatism1 neuralgia1 chilblains1 pulmonary diseases1 bronchitis1 and all the other 8ills that flesh is heir to0 when roasted on one side and cold-blasted on the other2 that ,i am so rabid on this subject1 that if ,dr4 ,siemens1 ,sir ,f4 ,bramwell1 and all others who defend this ,english abomination1 were giant windmills in full rotation1 ,i would emulate the valor of my chivalric predecessor1 whatever might be the personal consequences4 ,dr4 ,siemens stated that the open fireplace 8communicates absolutely no heat to the air of the room1 because air1 being a perfectly transparent medium1 the rays of heat pass clean through it40 ,here is an initial mistake4 ,it is true that air which has been artificially deprived of all its aqueous vapor is thus completely permeable by heat rays1 but such is far from being the case with the water it contains4 ,this absorbs a notable amount even of bright solar rays1 and a far greater proportion of the heat rays from a comparatively obscure source1 such as the red-hot coals and flame of a common fire4 ,tyndall has proved that #h to #aj per cent of all the heat radiating from such a source as a common fire is absorbed in passing through only #e feet of air in its ordinary condition1 the variation depending upon its degree of saturation with aqueous vapor4 ,starting with the erroneous assumption that the rays of heat pass 8clean through0 the air of the room1 ,dr4 ,siemens went on to say that the open fireplace 8gives heat only by heating the walls1 ceiling1 and furniture1 and here is the great advantage of the open fire20 and1 further1 that 8if the air in the room were hotter than the walls1 condensation would take place on them1 and mildew and fermentation of various kinds would be engendered2 whereas1 if the air were cooler than the walls1 the latter must be absolutely dry40 ,upon these assumptions1 ,dr4 ,siemens condemns steam-pipes and stoves1 hot-air pipes1 and all other methods of directly heating the air of apartments1 and thereby making it warmer than were the walls1 the ceiling1 and furniture when the process of warming commenced4 ,it is quite true that stoves1 stove-pipes1 hot-air pipes1 steam-pipes1 etc41 do this2 they raise the temperature of the air directly by convection1 i4e41 by warming the film of air in contact with their surfaces1 which film1 thus heated and expanded1 rises towards the ceiling1 and1 on its way1 warms the air around it1 and then is followed by other similarly-heated ascending films4 ,when we make a hole in the wall1 and burn our coals within such cavity1 this convection proceeds up the chimney in company with the smoke4 ,but is ,dr4 ,siemens right in saying that the air of a room1 raised by convection above its original temperature1 and above that of the walls1 deposits any of its moisture on these walls8 ,i have no hesitation in saying very positively that he is clearly and demonstrably wrong2 that no such condensation can possibly take place under the circumstances4 ,suppose1 for illustration sake1 that we start with a room of which the air and walls are at the freezing point1 #cb ,f41 before artificial heating 7any other temperature will do71 and1 to give ,dr4 ,siemens every advantage1 we will further suppose that the air is fully saturated with aqueous vapor1 i4e41 just in the condition at which some of its water might be condensed4 ,such condensation1 however1 can only take place by cooling the air below #cb1 and unless the walls or ceiling or furniture are capable of doing this they cannot receive any moisture due to such condensation1 or1 in other words1 they must fall below #cb in order to obtain it by cooling the film in contact with them4 ,of course ,dr4 ,siemens will not assert that the stoves or steam-pipes 7enclosing the steam1 of course71 or the hot-air or hot-water pipes1 will lower the absolute temperature of the walls by heating the air in the room4 ,but if the air is heated more rapidly than are the walls1 etc41 the relative temperature of these will be lower4 ,will condensation of moisture then follow1 as ,dr4 ,siemens affirms8 ,let us suppose that the air of the room is raised from #cj to #ej by convection purely2 reference to tables based on the researches of ,regnault1 shows that at #cb the quantity of vapor required to saturate the air is sufficient to support a column of #jahb inch of mercury1 while at #ej it amounts to #jcfa1 or nearly double4 ,thus the air1 instead of being in a condition of giving away its moisture to the walls1 has become thirsty1 or in a condition to take moisture away from them if they are at all damp4 ,this is the case whether the walls remain at #cb or are raised to any higher temperature short of that of the air4 ,thus the action of close stoves and of hot surfaces or pipes of any kind is exactly the opposite of that attributed to them by ,dr4 ,siemens4 ,they dry the air1 they dry the walls1 they dry the ceiling1 they dry the furniture and everything else in the house4 ,in our climate1 especially in the infamous jerry-built houses of suburban ,london1 this is a great advantage4 ,dr4 ,siemens states his ,american experience1 and denounces such heating by convection because the close stoves there made him uncomfortable4 ,this was due to the fact that the winter atmosphere of the ,united ,states is very dry1 even when at zero4 ,but air1 when raised from #j to #fj1 acquires about twelve times its original capacity for water4 ,the air thus simply heated is desiccated1 and it desiccates everything in contact with it1 especially the human body4 ,the lank and shriveled aspect of the typical ,yankee is1 ,i believe1 due to this4 ,he is a desiccated ,englishman1 and we should all grow like him if our climate were as dry as his4#cj ,the great fires that devastate the cities of the ,united ,states appear to me to be due to this general desiccation of all building materials1 rendering them readily inflammable and the flames difficult of extinction4 ,when an undesiccated ,englishman1 or a ,german endowed with a wholesome ,john ,bull rotundity1 is exposed to this superdried air1 he is subjected to an amount of bodily evaporation that must be perceptible and unpleasant4 ,the disagreeable sensation experienced by ,dr4 ,siemens in the stove-heated railway cars1 etc41 were probably due to this4 ,an ,english house1 enveloped in a foggy atmosphere1 and encased in damp surroundings1 especially requires stove-heating1 and the most inveterate worshipers of our national domestic fetish1 the open grate1 invariably prefer a stove or hot-pipe-heated room1 when they are unconscious of the source of heat1 and their prejudice hoodwinked4 ,i have observed this continually1 and have often been amused at the inconsistency thus displayed4 ,for example1 one evening ,i had a warm contest with a lady1 who repeated the usual praises of a cheerful blaze1 etc41 etc4 ,on calling afterwards1 on a bitter snowy morning1 ,i found her and her daughters sitting at work in the billiard-room1 and asked them why4 8,because it is so warm and comfortable40 ,this room was heated by an eight-inch steam-pipe1 running around and under the table1 to prevent the undue cooling of the indiarubber cushions1 and thus the room was warmed from the middle1 and equally and moderately throughout4 ,the large reception-room1 with blazing fire1 was scorching on one side1 and freezing on the other1 at that time in the morning4 ,the permeability of ill-constructed iron stoves to poisonous carbonic oxide1 which riddles through red-hot iron1 is a real evil1 but easily obviated by proper lining1 ,the frizzling of particles of organic matter1 of which we hear so much1 is--if it really does occur--highly advantageous1 seeing that it must destroy organic poison-germs4 ,under some conditions1 the warm air of a room does deposit moisture on its cooler walls4 ,this happens in churches1 concert-rooms1 etc41 when they are but occasionally used in winter time1 and mainly warmed by animal heat1 by congregational emanations of breath-vapor1 and perspiration--i4e41 with warm air supersaturated with vapor4 ,also1 when we have a sudden change from dry1 frosty weather to warm and humid4 ,then our walls may be streaming with condensed water4 ,such cases were probably in the mind of ,dr4 ,siemens when he spoke2 but they are quite different from stove-heating or pipe-heating1 which increase the vapor capacity of the heated air1 without supplying the demand it creates4 ,,ventilation ,,by ,,open ,,fireplaces4 ,the most stubborn of all errors are those which have been acquired by a sort of inheritance1 which have passed dogmatically from father to son1 or1 still worse1 from mother to daughter4 ,they may become superstitions without any theological character4 ,the idea that the weather changes with the moon1 that wind 8keeps off the rain10 are physical superstitions in all cases where they are blindly accepted and promulgated without any examination of evidence4 ,the idea that our open fireplaces are necessary for ventilation is one of these physical superstitions1 which is producing an incalculable amount of physical mischief throughout ,britain4 ,a little rational reflection on the natural and necessary movements of our household atmospheres demonstrates at once that this dogma is not only baseless1 but actually expresses the opposite of the truth4 ,i think ,i shall be able to show in what follows1 #ast1 that they do no useful ventilation2 and1 #b;d1 that they render systematic and really effective ventilation practically impossible4 ,everybody knows that when air is heated it expands largely1 becomes lighter1 bulk for bulk1 than other air of lower temperature2 and therefore1 if two portions of air of unequal temperatures1 and free to move1 are in contact with each other1 the colder will flow under the warmer1 and push it upwards4 ,the latter postulate must be kept distinctly in view1 for the rising of warm air is too commonly regarded as due to some direct uprising activity or skyward affinity of its own1 instead of being understood as an indirect result of gravitation4 ,it is the downfalling of the cooler air that causes the uprising of the warmer4 ,now1 let us see what1 in accordance with the above-stated simple laws1 must happen in an ordinary ,english apartment that is fitted1 as usual1 with one or more windows more or less leaky1 and one or more doors in like condition1 and a hole in the wall in which coal is burning in an iron cage immediately beneath a shaft that rises to the top of the house1 the fire-hole itself having an extreme height of only #bd to #cj inches above the floor1 all the chimney above this height being entirely closed4 7,i find by measurement that #bd inches is the usual height of the upper edge of the chimney opening of an ordinary 8register0 stove4 ,old farm-house fireplaces are open to the mantlepiece47 ,now1 what happens when a heap of coal is burning in this hole8 ,some of the heat--from #aj to #bj per cent1 according to the construction of the grate--is radiated into the room1 the rest is conveyed by an ascending current of air up the chimney4 ,as this ascending current is rendered visible by the smoke entangled with it1 no further demonstration of its existence is needed4 ,but how is it pushed up the chimney8 ,evidently by cooler air1 that flows into the room from somewhere1 and which cooler air must get under it in order to lift it4 ,in ordinary rooms this supply of air is entirely dependent upon their defective construction--bad joinery2 it enters only by the crevices surrounding the ill-fitting windows and doors1 no specially designed opening being made for it4 ,usually the chief inlet is the space under the door1 through which pours a rivulet of cold air1 that spreads out as a lake upon the floor4 ,this may easily be proved by holding a lighted taper in front of the bottom door-chink when the window and other door--if any--are closed1 and the fire is burning briskly4 ,at the same time more or less of cold air is poured in at the top and the side spaces of the door and through the window-chinks4 ,the proportion of air entering by these depends upon the capacity of the bottom door-chink4 ,if this is large enough it will do nearly all the work1 otherwise every other possible leakage1 including the key-hole1 contributes4 ,but what is the path of the air which enters by these higher level openings8 ,the answer to this is supplied at once by the fact that such air being colder than that of the room1 it must fall immediately it enters4 ,the rivulet under the door is thus supplemented by cascades pouring down from the top and sides of the door and the top and sides of the windows1 all being tributaries to the lake of cold air covering the floor4 ,the next question to be considered is1 what is the depth of this lake8 ,in this1 as in every other such accumulation of either air or water1 the level of the upper surface of the lake is determined by that of its outlet4 ,the outlet in this case is the chimney hole1 through which all the overflow pours upwards2 and1 therefore1 the surface of the flowing stratum of cold air corresponds with the upper part of the chimney hole1 or of the register1 where register stoves are used4 ,below this level there is abundant ventilation1 above it there is none4 ,the cat that sits on the hearth-rug has an abundant supply of fresh air1 and if we had tracheal breathing apertures all down the sides of our bodies1 as caterpillars have1 those on our lower extremities might enjoy the ventilation4 ,if we squatted on the ground like savages something might be said for the fire-hole ventilator4 ,but as we are addicted to sitting on chairs that raise our breathing apparatus considerably above the level of the top of the register1 the maximum efficiency of the flow of cold air in the lake below is expressed by the prevalence of chilblains and rheumatism4#ca ,the atmosphere in which our heads are immersed is practically stagnant2 the radiations from the fire1 plus the animal heat from our bodies1 just warm it sufficiently to enable the cool entering air to push it upwards above the chimney outlet and the surface of the lower moving stratum1 and to keep it there in a condition of stagnation4 ,if anybody doubts the correctness of this description1 he has only to sit in an ordinary ,english room where a good fire is burning--the doors and windows closed1 as usual--and then to blow a cloud by means of pipe1 cigar1 or by burning brown paper or otherwise1 when the movements below and the stagnation above1 which ,i have described1 will be rendered visible4 ,if there is nobody moving about to stir the air1 and the experiment is fairly made1 the level of the cool lake below will be distinctly shown by the clearing away of the smoke up to the level of the top of the register opening1 towards which it may be seen to sweep4 ,above this the smoke-wreaths will remain merely waving about1 with slight movements due to the small inequalities of temperature caused by the fraction of heat radiated into the room from the front of the fire4 ,these movements are chiefly developed near the door and windows1 where the above-mentioned cascades are falling1 and against the walls and furniture1 where feeble convection currents are rising1 due to the radiant heat absorbed by their surfaces4 ,the stagnation is the most complete about the middle of the room1 where there is the greatest bulk of vacant airspace4 ,when the inlet under the door is of considerable dimensions1 there may be some escape of warmer upper air at the top of the windows1 if their fitting is correspondingly defective4 ,these1 however1 are mere accidents2 they are not a part of the vaunted chimney-hole ventilation1 but interferences with it4 ,there is another experiment that illustrates the absence of ventilation in such rooms where gas is burning4 ,it is that of suspending a canary in a cage near the roof4 ,but this is cruel2 it kills the bird4 ,it would be a more satisfactory experiment to substitute for the canary-bird any wingless biped who1 after reading the above1 still maintains that our fire-holes are effective ventilators4 ,not only are the fire-holes worthless and mischievous ventilators themselves1 but they render efficient ventilation by any other means practically impossible4 ,the 8,arnott's ventilator0 that we sometimes see applied to the upper part of chimneys is marred in its action by the greedy 8draught0 below4 ,the tall chimney-shaft1 with a fire burning immediately below it1 dominates all the atmospheric movement in the house1 unless another and more powerful upcast shaft be somewhere else in communication with the apartments4 ,but in this case the original or ordinary chimney would be converted into a downcast shaft pouring air downwards into the room1 instead of carrying it away upwards4 ,i need not describe the sort of ventilation thus obtainable while the fire is burning and smoking4 ,effective sanitary ventilation should supply gentle and uniformly-diffused currents of air of moderate and equal temperature throughout the house4 ,we talk a great deal about the climate here and the climate there2 and when we grow old1 and can afford it1 we move to ,bournemouth1 ,torquay1 ,mentone1 ,nice1 ,algiers1 etc41 for better climates1 forgetting all the while that the climate in which we practically live is not that out-of-doors1 but the indoor climate of our dwellings1 the which1 in a properly constructed house1 may be regulated to correspond to that of any latitude we may choose4 ,i maintain that the very first step towards the best attainable approximation to this in our existing houses is to brick up1 cement up1 or otherwise completely stop up1 all our existing fire-holes1 and abolish all our existing fires4 ,but what next8 ,the reply to this will be found in the next chapter4 ,,domestic ,,ventilation4 ,a ,,lesson ,,from ,,the ,,coal-,,pits4 ,we require in our houses an artificial temperate climate which shall be uniform throughout1 and at the same time we need a gentle movement of air that shall supply the requirements of respiration without any gusts1 or draughts1 or alternations of temperature4 ,everybody will admit that these are fundamental desiderata1 but whoever does so becomes thereby a denouncer of open-grate fireplaces1 and of every system of heating which is dependent on any kind of stoves with fuel burning in the rooms that are to be inhabited4 ,all such devices concentrate the heat in one part of each room1 and demand the admission of cold air from some other part or parts1 thereby violating the primary condition of uniform temperature4 ,the usual proceeding effects a specially outrageous violation of this1 as ,i showed in the last chapter4 ,i might have added domestic cleanliness among the desiderata2 but in the matter of fireplaces1 the true-born ,briton1 in spite of his fastidiousness in respect to shirt-collars1 etc41 is a devoted worshiper of dirt4 ,no matter how elegant his drawing-room1 he must defile it with a coal-scuttle1 with dirty coals1 poker1 shovel1 and tongs1 dirty ash-pit1 dirty cinders1 ashes1 and dust1 and he must amuse himself by doing the dirty work of a stoker towards his 8cheerful1 companionable1 pokeable0 open fire4 ,it is evident that1 in order to completely fulfil the first-named requirements1 we must1 in winter1 supply our model residence with fresh artificially-warmed air1 and in summer with fresh cool air4 ,how is this to be done8 ,an approach to a practical solution is afforded by examining what is actually done under circumstances where the ventilation problem presents the greatest possible difficulties1 and where1 nevertheless1 these difficulties have been effectually overcome4 ,such a case is presented by a deep coal mine4 ,here we have a little working world1 inhabited by men and horses1 deep in the bowels of the earth1 far away from the air that must be supplied in sufficient quantities1 not only to overcome the vitiation due to their own breathing1 but also to sweep out the deadly gaseous emanations from the coal itself4 ,imagine your dwelling-house buried a quarter of a mile of perpendicular depth below the surface of the earth1 and its walls giving off suffocating and explosive gases in such quantities that steady and abundant ventilation shall be a matter of life or death1 and that in spite of this it is made so far habitable that men who spend half their days there retain robust health and live to green old age1 and that horses after remaining there day and night for many months actually improve in condition4 ,imagine1 further1 that the house thus ventilated has some hundreds of small1 very low-roofed rooms1 and a system of passages or corridors with an united length of many miles1 and that its inhabitants count by hundreds4 ,such dwellings being thus ventilated and rendered habitable for man and beast1 it is idle to dispute the practical possibility of supplying fresh air of any given temperature to a mere box of brick or stone1 standing in the midst of the atmosphere1 and containing but a few passages and apartments4 ,the problem is solved in the coal-pit by simply and skilfully controlling and directing the natural movements of unequally-heated volumes of air4 ,complex mechanical devices for forcing the ventilation by means of gigantic fan-wheels1 etc41 or by steam-jets1 have been tried1 and are now generally abandoned4 ,an inlet and an outlet are provided1 and no air is allowed to pass inwards or outwards by any other course than that which has been pre-arranged for the purposes of efficient ventilation4 ,i place especial emphasis on this condition1 believing that its systematic violation is the primary cause of the bungling muddle of our domestic ventilation4 ,let us suppose that we are going to open a coal-pit to mine the coal on a certain estate4 ,we first ascertain the 8dip0 of the seam1 or its deviation from horizontality1 and then start at the lowest part1 not1 as some suppose1 at that part nearest to the surface4 ,the reason for this is obvious on a little reflection1 for if we began at the shallowest part of an ordinary water-bearing stratum we should have to drive down under water2 but1 by beginning at the lowest part and driving upwards1 we can at once form a 8sumpf10 or bottom receptacle1 to receive the drainage1 and from which the accumulated water may be pumped4 ,this1 however1 is only by the way1 and not directly connected with our main subject1 the ventilation4 ,in order to secure this1 the modern practice is to sink two pits1 8a pair10 as they are called1 side by side1 at any convenient distance from each other4 ,if they are deep1 it becomes necessary to commence ventilation of the mere shafts themselves in the course of sinking4 ,this is done by driving an air-way--a horizontal tunnel from one to the other1 and then establishing an 8upcast0 in one of them by simply lighting a fire there4 ,this destroys the balance between the two communicating columns of air2 the cooler column in the shaft without a fire1 being heavier1 falls against the lighter column1 and pushes it up just as the air is pushed up one leg of an ,u tube when we pour water down the other4 ,even in this preliminary work1 if the pits are so deep that more than one air-way is driven1 it is necessary to stop the upper ways and leave only the lowest open1 in order that the ventilation shall not take a short and useless cut1 as it does up our fireplace openings4 ,let us now suppose that the pair of pits are sunk down to the seam1 with a further extension below to form the water sumpf4 ,there are two chief modes of working a coal-seam3 the 8pillar and stall0 and the 8long wall10 or more modern system4 ,for present illustration1 ,i select the latter as the simplest in respect to ventilation4 ,this method1 as ordinarily worked1 consists essentially in first driving roads through the coal1 from the pits to the outer boundary of the area to be worked1 then cutting a cross road that shall connect these1 thereby exposing a 8long wall0 of coal1 which1 in working1 is gradually cut away towards the pits1 the roof remaining behind being allowed to fall in4 ,let us begin to do this by driving1 first of all1 two main roads1 one from each pit4 ,it is evident that as we proceed in such burrowing1 we shall presently find ourselves in a cul de sac so far away from the outer air that suffocation is threatened4 ,this will be equally the case with both roads4 ,let us now drive a cross-cut from the end of each main road1 and thus establish a communication from the downcast shaft through its road1 then through the drift to the upcast road and pit4 ,but in order that the air shall take this roundabout course1 we must close the direct drift that we previously made between the two shafts1 or it will proceed by that shorter and easier course4 ,now we shall have air throughout both our main roads1 and we may drive on further1 until we are again stopped by approximate suffocation4 ,when this occurs1 we make another cross-cut1 but in order that it may act we must stop the first one4 ,so we go on until we reach the working1 and then the long wall itself becomes the cross communication1 and through this working-gallery the air sweeps freely and effectually4 ,in the above ,i have only considered the simplest possible elements of the problem4 ,the practical coal-pit in full working has a multitude of intervening passages and 8splits10 where the main current from the downcast is divided1 in order to proceed through the various streets and lanes of the subterranean town as may be required1 and these divided currents are finally reunited ere they reach the upcast shaft which casts them all out into the upper air4 ,in a colliery worked on the pillar and stall system--i4e41 by taking out the coal so as to leave a series of square chambers with pillars of coal in the middle to support the roof--the windings of the air between the multitude of passages is curiously complex1 and its absolute obedience to the commands of the mining engineer proves how completely the most difficult problems of ventilation may be solved when ignorance and prejudice are not permitted to bar the progress of the practical applications of simple scientific principles4 ,here the necessity of closing all false outlets is strikingly demonstrated by the mechanism and working of the 8stoppings0 or partitions that close all unrequired openings4 ,the air in many pits has to travel several miles in order to get from the downcast to the upcast shaft1 though they may be but a dozen yards apart4 7,formerly the same shaft served both for up and down cast1 by making a wooden division 7a brattice7 down the middle4 ,this is now prohibited1 on account of serious accidents that have been caused by the fracture of the brattice47 ,but it would not do to carry the coal from the workings to the pit by these sinuous air-courses4 ,what1 then1 is done8 ,a direct road is made for the coal1 but if it were left open1 the air would choose it3 this is prevented by an arrangement similar to that of canal locks4 ,valve-doors or 8stoppings0 are arranged in pairs1 and when the 8hurrier0 arrives with his corve1 or pit carriage1 one door is opened1 the other remaining shut2 then the corve is hurried into the space between the doors1 and the entry-door is closed2 now the exit-door is opened1 and thus no continuous opening is ever permitted4 ,only one such opening would derange the ventilation of the whole pit1 or of that portion fed by the split thus allowed to escape4 ,it would1 in fact1 correspond to the action of our open fireplaces in rendering effective ventilation impossible4 ,the following1 from the report of the ,lords' ,committee on ,accidents in ,coal ,mines1 #ahdi1 illustrates the magnitude of the ventilation arrangements then at work4 ,in the ,hetton ,colliery there were two downcast shafts and one upcast1 the former about #ab feet and the latter #ad feet diameter4 ,there were three furnaces at the bottom of the upcast1 each about #i feet wide with about #d feet length of grate-bars2 the depth of the upcast and one downcast #ijj feet1 and of the other downcast #ajef feet4 ,the quantity of air introduced by the action of these furnaces was #afh1efj cubic feet per minute1 at a cost of about eight tons of coal per day4 ,the rate of motion of the air was #ajig feet per minute 7above #ab miles per hour74 ,this whole current was divided by splitting into #af currents of about #aa1jjj cubic feet each per minute1 having1 on an average1 a course of #d miles each4 ,this distance was1 however1 very irregular--the greatest length of course being #i-a_/aj miles2 total length #gj miles4 ,thus #afh1efj cubic feet of air were driven through these great distances at the rate of #ab miles per hour1 and at a cost of #h tons of coal per day4 ,all these magnitudes are greatly increased in coal-mines of the present time4 ,as much as #bej1jjj cubic feet of air per minute are now passed through the shafts of one mine4 ,the problem of domestic ventilation as compared with coal-pit ventilation involves an additional requirement1 that of warming1 but this does not at all increase the difficulty1 and ,i even go so far as to believe that cooling in summer may be added to warming in winter by one and the same ventilating arrangement4 ,as ,i am not a builder1 and claim no patent rights1 the following must be regarded as a general indication1 not as a working specification1 of my scheme for domestic ventilation and the regulation of home climate4 ,the model house must have an upcast shaft1 placed as nearly in the middle of the building as possible1 with which every room must communicate either by a direct opening or through a lateral shaft4 ,an ordinary chimney built in the usual manner is all that is required to form such a main shaft4 ,there must be no stoves nor any fireplaces in any room excepting the kitchen1 of which anon4 ,all the windows must be made to fit closely1 as nearly air-tight as possible4 ,no downcast shaft is required1 the pressure of the surrounding outer atmosphere being sufficient4 ,outside of the house1 or on the ground floor 7on the north side1 if possible71 should be a chamber heated by flues1 hot air1 steam1 a suitable stove1 or water-pipes1 and with one adjustable opening communicating with the outer fresh air1 and another on the opposite side connected by a shaft or air-way with the hall of the ground floor and the general staircase4 ,each room to have an opening at its upper part communicating with the chimney1 like an ,arnott's ventilator1 and capable of adjustment as regards area of aperture1 and other openings of corresponding or excessive combined area leading from the hall or staircase to the lower part of the room4 ,these may be covered with perforated zinc or wire gauze1 so that the air may enter in a gentle1 broken stream4 ,all the outer house-doors must be double1 i4e41 with a porch or vestibule1 and only one of each pair of doors opened at once4 ,these should be well fitted1 and the staircase air-tight4 ,the kitchen to communicate with the rest of the house by similar double doors1 and the kitchen fire to communicate directly with the upcast shaft or chimney by as small a stove-pipe as practicable4 ,the kitchen fire will thus start the upcast and commence the draught of air from the warm chamber through the house towards the several openings into the shaft4 ,in cold weather1 this upcast action will be greatly reinforced and maintained by the general warmth of all the air in the house1 which itself will bodily become an upcast shaft immediately the inner temperature exceeds that of the air outside4 ,but the upcast of warm air can only take place by the admission of fresh air through the heating chamber1 thence to hall and staircase1 and thence onward through the rooms into the final shaft or chimney4 ,the openings into and out of the rooms being adjustable1 they may be so regulated that each shall receive an equal share of fresh warm air2 or1 if desired1 the bedroom chimney valves may be closed in the daytime1 and thus the heat economized by being used only for the day rooms2 or1 vice vers1 the communication between the upcast shaft and the lower rooms may be closed in the evening1 and thus all the warm air be turned into the bedrooms at bedtime4 ,if the area of the entrance apertures of the rooms exceeds that of the outlet1 only the latter need be adjusted2 the room doors may1 in fact1 be left wide open without any possibility of 8draught10 beyond the ventilation current1 which is limited by the dimension of the opening from the room into the shaft or chimney4 ,so far1 for winter time1 when the ventilation problem is the easiest1 because then the excess of inner warmth converts the whole house into an upcast shaft1 and the whole outer atmosphere becomes a downcast4 ,in the summer time1 the kitchen fire would probably be insufficient to secure a sufficiently active upcast4 ,to help this there should be in one of the upper rooms--say an attic--an opening into the chimney secured by a small well-fitting door2 and altogether enclosed within the chimney a small automatic slow-combustion stove 7of which many were exhibited in ,south ,kensington1 that require feeding but once in twenty-four hours71 or a large gas-burner4 ,the heating-chamber below must now be converted into a cooling chamber by an arrangement of wet cloths1 presently to be described1 so that all the air entering the house shall be reduced in temperature4 ,or the winter course of ventilation may be reversed by building a special shaft connected with the kitchen fire1 which1 in this case1 must not communicate with the house shaft4 ,this special shaft may thus be made an upcast1 and the rooms supplied with air from above down the house shaft1 through the rooms1 and out of the kitchen vi the winter heating-chamber1 which now has its communication with the outside air closed4 ,reverting to the first-named method1 which ,i think is better than the second1 besides being less expensive1 ,i must say a few concluding words on an important supplementary advantage which is obtainable wherever all the air entering the house passes through one opening1 completely under control1 like that of our heating-chamber4 ,the great evil of our town atmosphere is its dirtiness4 ,in the winter it is polluted with soot particles2 in the dry summer weather1 the traffic and the wind stir up and mix with it particles of dust1 having a composition that is better ignored1 when we consider the quantity of horse-dung that is dried and pulverized on our roadways4 ,all the dust that falls on our books and furniture was first suspended in the air we breathe inside our rooms4 ,can we get rid of any practically important portion of this8 ,i am able to answer this question1 not merely on theoretical grounds1 but as a result of practical experiments described in the following chapter1 in which is reprinted a paper ,i read at the ,society of ,arts1 ,march #ai1 #ahgi1 recommending the enclosure of ,london back yards with a roofing of 8wall canvas10 or 8paperhanger's canvas10 so as to form cheap conservatories4 ,this canvas1 which costs about threepence per square yard1 is a kind of coarse1 strong1 fluffy gauze1 admitting light and air1 but acting very effectively as an air filter1 by catching and stopping the particles of soot and dust that are so fatal to urban vegetation4 ,i propose1 therefore1 that this well-tried device should be applied at the entrance aperture of our heating chamber1 that the screens shall be well wetted in the summer1 in order to obtain the cooling effect of evaporation1 and in the winter shall be either wet or dry1 as may be found desirable4 ,the ,parliament ,house experiments prove that they are good filters when wetted1 and mine that they act similarly when dry4 ,by thus applying the principles of colliery ventilation to a specially-constructed house1 we may1 ,i believe1 obtain a perfectly controllable indoor climate1 with a range of variation not exceeding four or five degrees between the warmest and the coldest part of the house1 or eight or nine degrees between summer and winter1 and this may be combined with an abundant supply of fresh air everywhere1 all filtered from the grosser portions of its irritant dust1 which is positively poisonous to delicate lungs1 and damaging to all4 ,the cost of fuel would be far less than with existing arrangements1 and the labor of attending to the one or two fires and the valves would also be less than that now required in the carrying of coal-scuttles1 the removal of ashes1 the cleaning of fireplaces1 and the curtains and furniture they befoul by their escaping dust and smoke4 ,it is obvious that such a system of ventilation may even be applied to existing houses by mending the ill-fitting windows1 shutting up the existing fire-holes1 and using the chimneys as upcast shafts in the manner above described4 ,this may be done in the winter1 when the problem is easiest1 and the demand for artificial climate the most urgent2 but ,i question the possibility of summer ventilation and tempering of climate in anything short of a specially-built house or a materially altered existing dwelling4 ,there are doubtless some exceptions to this1 where the house happens to be specially suitable and easily adapted1 but in ordinary houses we must be content with the ordinary devices of summer ventilation by doors and windows1 plus the upper openings of the rooms into the chimneys expanded to their full capacity1 and thus doing1 even in summer1 far better ventilating work than the existing fire-holes opening in the wrong place4 ,i thus expound my own scheme1 not because ,i believe it to be perfect1 but1 on the contrary1 as a suggestive project to be practically amended and adapted by others better able than myself to carry out the details4 ,the feature that ,i think is novel and important is that of consciously and avowedly applying to domestic ventilation the principles that have been so successfully carried out in the far more difficult problem of subterranean ventilation4 ,the dishonesty of the majority of the modern builders of suburban 8villa residences0 is favorable to this and other similar radical household reforms1 as thousands of these wretched tenements must sooner or later be pulled down1 or will all come down together without any pulling the next time we experience one of those earthquake tremors which visit ,england about once in a century4 ,,home ,,gardens ,,for ,,smoky ,,towns4 ,the poetical philanthropists of the shepherd and shepherdess school1 if any still remain1 may find abundant material for their doleful denunciations of modern civilization on journeying among the house-tops by any of our over-ground metropolitan and suburban railways1 and contemplating therefrom the panorama presented by a rapid succession of ,london back yards4 ,the sandy ,sahara1 and the saline deserts of ,central ,asia1 are bright and breezy1 rural and cheerful1 compared with these foul1 soot-smeared1 lumber-strewn areas of desolation4 ,the object of this paper is to propose a remedy for these metropolitan measle-spots1 by converting them into gardens that shall afford both pleasure and profit to all concerned4 ,a very obvious mode of doing this would be to cover them with glass1 and thus convert them into winter gardens or conservatories4 ,the cost of this at once places it beyond practical reach2 but even if the cost were disregarded1 as it might be in some instances1 such covering in would not be permissible on sanitary grounds2 for1 doleful and dreary as they are1 the back yards of ,london perform one very important and necessary function2 they act as ventilation-shafts between the house-backs of the more densely populated neighborhoods4 ,at one time ,i thought of proposing the establishment of horticultural home missions for promoting the dissemination of flower-pot shrubs in the metropolis1 and of showing how much the atmosphere of ,london would be improved if every ,london family had one little sweetbriar bush1 a lavender plant1 or a hardy heliotrope to each of its members2 so that a couple of million of such ozone generators should breathe their sweetness into the dank and dead atmosphere of the denser central regions of ,london4 ,a little practical experience of the difficulty of growing a clean cabbage1 or maintaining alive any sort of shrub in the midst of our soot-drizzle1 satisfied me that the mission would fail1 even though the sweetbriars were given away by the district visitors2 for these simple hardy plants perish in a mid-,london atmosphere unless their leaves are periodically sponged and syringed1 to wash away the soot particles that otherwise close their stomata and suffocate the plant4 ,it is this deposit that stunts or destroys all our ,london vegetation1 with the exception of those trees which1 like the planes have a deciduous bark and cuticle4 ,some simple and inexpensive means of protecting vegetation from ,london soot are1 therefore1 most desirable4 ,when the ,midland ,institute commenced its existence in temporary buildings in ,cannon ,street1 ,birmingham1 in #ahed1 ,i was compelled to ventilate my class-rooms by temporary devices1 one of which was to throw open the existing windows1 and protect the students from the heavy blast of entering air by straining it through a strong gauze-like fabric stretched over the opening4 ,after a short time the tammy became useless for its intended purpose2 its interstices were choked with a deposit of carbon4 ,on examining this1 ,i found that the black deposit was all on the outside1 showing that a filtration of the air had occurred4 ,even when the tammy was replaced by perforated zinc1 puttied into the window frames in the place of glass panes1 it was found necessary to frequently wash the zinc1 in order to keep the perforations open4 ,the recollection of this experience suggested that if a gauze-like fabric1 cheaper and stronger than the tammy1 can be obtained1 and a sort of greenhouse made with this in the place of glass1 the problem of converting ,london back-yards into gardens might be solved4 ,after some inquiries and failures in the trial of various cheap fabrics1 ,i found one that is already to be had1 and well adapted to the purpose4 ,it is called 8wall canvas10 or 8scrim10 is retailed at #c;d4 per yard1 and is one yard wide4 ,if ,i am rightly informed1 it may be bought in wholesale quantities at about #b;d4 per square yard1 i4e41 one farthing per square foot4 ,this fabric is made of coarse unbleached thread yarn1 very strong and open in structure4 ,the light passes so freely through it that when hung before a window the loss of light in the room is barely perceptible4 ,when a piece is stretched upon a frame1 a printed placard1 or even a newspaper1 may be read through it4 ,the yarn being loosely spun1 fine fluffy filaments stand out and bar the interstices against the passage of even very minute carbonaceous particles4 ,these filaments may be seen by holding it up to the light4 ,the fabric being one yard wide1 and of any length required1 all that is needed for a roof or side walls is a skeleton made of lines or runs of quartering1 at #c feet distance from each other4 ,the cost of such quartering1 made of pitch pine1 the best material for outside work1 is under one penny per foot run2 of common white deal1 about three farthings4 ,thus the cost of material for a roof1 say a lean-to from a wall-top to the side of a house1 which would be the most commonly demanded form of #cj feet by #aj feet1 i4e41 #cjj square feet1 would be-- s4 d4 #aaj feet of quartering 7#aa lengths7 at #a;d4 #i #b #cjj square feet of canvas1 at #a #f #ccb ,nails and tacks1 say #a #j --------- #af #e ,the size of the quartering proposed is #b by #a inch1 which1 laid edgewise1 would bear the weight of a man on a plank while nailing down the canvas4 ,the canvas has a stout cord-like edge or selvage1 that holds the nails well4 ,i find that what are called 8,french tacks0 are well suited for nailing it down4 ,they are made of wire1 well pointed1 have good-sized flat clout heads1 and are very cheap4 ,they are incomparably superior to the ordinary rubbish sold as 8tin tacks0 or 8cut tacks40 ,the construction of such a conservatory is so simple that any industrious artisan or clerk with any mechanical ingenuity could1 with the aid of a boy1 do it all himself4 ,no special skill is required for any part of the work1 and no other tools than a rule1 a saw1 and a hammer4 ,side posts and stronger end rails would in some cases be demanded4 ,i have not been able to fairly carry out this project1 inasmuch as ,i reside at ,twickenham1 beyond the reach of the black showers of ,london soot4 ,i have1 however1 made some investigations relative to the climate which results from such enclosure4 ,this was done by covering a small skeleton frame with the canvas1 putting it upon the ground over some cabbage plants1 etc41 and placing registering thermometers on the ground inside1 and in similar position outside the frame2 also by removing the glass cover of a cucumber frame1 and replacing it by a frame on which the canvas is stretched4 ,i planted #cjj cabbages in ,november last1 in rows on the open ground1 and placed the canvas-covered frame over #ah of them4 ,at the present date1 ,march #ae1 only #bf of the #bhb outside plants are visible above the ground4 ,all the rest have been cut off by the severe frost4 ,under the frame all are flourishing4 ,i find that the difference between the maximum and the minimum temperatures varies with the condition of the sky4 ,in cloudy weather1 the difference between the inside and the outside rarely exceeds #b ,fahr41 and occasionally there is no difference4 ,in clear weather the difference is considerable4 ,during the day the outside thermometer registers from four or five to seven or eight degrees above that within the screen during the sunshine4 ,at night the minimum thermometers show a difference which in one case reached #ad1 i4e41 between #bc;d and #bdth ,february1 when the lowest temperature ,i have observed was reached4 ,the outside thermometer then fell to #h ,fahr41 the inside to #bb4 ,on the night of the #bdth and #beth they registered #ae outside1 #be inside4 ,on other1 or ordinary clear frosty nights1 with ,e4 and ,n4 and ,n4,e4 winds1 the difference has ranged between #d and #f1 usually within a fraction of the average1 #e4 ,the uniformity of this during the recent bright frosty nights1 followed by warm sunny days1 has been very remarkable1 so much so that ,i think ,i may venture to state that #e may be expected as the general protecting effect of a covering of such canvas from the mischievous action of our spring frosts which are due to nocturnal radiation into free space4 ,thus we obtain a climate1 the mean of which would be about the same as outside1 but subject to far less variation4 ,how will this affect the growth of plants desirable to cultivate in the proposed canvas conservatories8 ,in the first place1 we must not expect the results obtainable under glass1 which by freely transmitting the bright solar rays1 and absorbing or resisting the passage of the obscure rays from the heated soil1 produces1 during sunshine1 a tropical climate here in our latitudes4 ,we may therefore at once set aside any expectation of rearing exotic plants of any kind2 even our native and acclimatized plants1 which require the maximum heat of ,english sunshine1 are not likely to flourish4 ,on the other hand1 all those which demand moderate protection from sudden frosts1 especially from spring frosts1 and which flourish when we have a long mild spring and summer1 are likely to be reared with especial success4 ,this includes nearly all our table vegetables1 our salads1 kitchen herbs1 and ,british fruits1 all our ,british and many exotic ferns1 and1 ,i believe1 most of our out-of-door plants1 both wild and cultivated4 ,as the subject of ornamental flowers is a very large one1 and one with the cultivation of which ,i have very little practical acquaintance1 ,i will pass it over2 but must simply indicate that1 in respect to ferns1 the canvas enclosure offers a combination of most desirable conditions4 ,the slight shade1 the comparatively uniform temperature1 and the moderated exhalation1 are just those of a luxuriant fern dingle4 ,respecting the useful or economic products ,i can speak with more confidence1 that being my special department in our family or home gardening1 which1 as physical discipline1 ,i have always conducted myself1 with a minimum of professional aid4 ,my experience of a small garden leads me to give first place to salads4 ,a yard square of rich soil1 well managed1 will yield a handsome and delicious weekly dish of salad nearly all the year round2 and1 at the same rate1 seven or eight square yards will supply a daily dish--including lettuces1 endives1 radishes1 spring onions1 mustard1 and various kinds of cress1 and fancy salads1 all in a state of freshness otherwise unattainable by the ,londoner4 ,my only difficulty has arisen from irregularity of supply4 ,from the small area allowed for salads1 ,i have been over-supplied in ,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 and reduced to in-door or frame-grown mustard and cress during the winter4 ,with the equable insular climate obtainable under the canvas1 this difficulty will be greatly diminished2 and besides this1 most of the salads are improved by partial shade1 lettuces and endives more blanched and delicate than when exposed to scorching sun1 radishes less fibrous1 mustard1 cress1 etc41 milder in flavor and more succulent4 ,the multitude of savory kitchen herbs that are so sadly neglected in ,english cookery 7especially in the food of the town artisan and clerk71 all1 with scarcely an exception1 demand an equable climate and protection from our destructive spring frosts4 ,these occupy very little space1 less even than salads1 and are wanted in such small quantities at a time1 and so frequently1 that the hard-worked housewife commonly neglects them altogether1 rather than fetch them from the greengrocer's in their exorbitantly small pennyworths4 ,if she could step into the back yard1 and gather her parsley1 sage1 thyme1 winter savory1 mint1 marjoram1 bay leaf1 rosemary1 etc41 the dinner would become far more savory1 and the demand for the alcoholic substitutes for relishing food proportionably diminished4 ,my strongest anticipations1 however1 lie in the direction of common fruits--apples1 pears1 cherries1 plums of all kinds1 peaches1 nectarines1 gooseberries1 currants1 raspberries1 strawberries1 etc4 ,the most luxuriant growth of cherries1 currants1 gooseberries1 and raspberries ,i have ever seen in any part of the world that ,i have visited1 is where they might be least expected1 viz41 ,norway2 not the ,south of ,norway merely1 but more particularly in the valleys that slope from the #ejj square miles of the perpetual ice desert of the ,justedal down to the ,sognefjord1 latitude #fa to #fa1 considerably to the north of the northernmost of the ,shetland ,islands4 ,the cherry and currant trees are marvelous there4 ,in the garden of one of the farm stations 7,sande7 ,i counted #gj fine bunches of red currants growing on six inches of one of the overladen down-hanging stems of a currant bush4 ,cherries are served for dessert by simply breaking off a small branch of the tree and bringing it to the table--the fruit almost as many as the leaves4 ,this luxuriance ,i attribute to two causes4 ,first1 that in that part of ,norway the winter breaks up suddenly at about the beginning of ,june1 and not until then1 when night frosts are no longer possible1 do the blossoms appear4 ,it was on the #bdth ,august that ,i counted the #gj bunches of ripe currants4 ,the second cause is the absence of sparrows and other destructive small birds that devour our currants for the seeds' sake before they ripen1 and our cherries immediately on ripening4 ,these are preceded by the bullfinches that feed on the tender hearts of the buds of most of our fruit trees4 ,those who believe the newspaper myths which represent such thick-billed birds eating caterpillars1 should make observations and experiments for themselves as ,i have done4 ,in our canvas conservatories neither sparrows nor caterpillars1 nor wasps1 or other fruit-stealers will penetrate1 nor will the spring frosts nip the blossoms that open out in ,april4 ,all the conditions for full bearing are there fulfilled1 and the ripening season1 though not so intense1 will be prolonged4 ,we shall have an insular ,jersey climate in ,london1 where the mean temperature is higher than in the country around1 and1 if ,i am not quite deluded1 we shall be able to grow the choicest ,jersey pears1 those that best ripen by hanging on the tree until the end of ,december1 and fine peaches1 which are commonly destroyed by putting forth their blossoms so early4 ,all the hundred and one varieties of plums and damsons1 greengages1 etc41 that can grow in temperate climates will be similarly protected from the frosts that kill their early blossoms1 and the birds and the wasps that will not give them time to ripen slowly4 ,i have little doubt that if my project is carried out1 any ,london householder1 whether rich or poor1 may indulge in delicious desserts of rich fruit all grown on the sites of their own now dirty and desolate back-yards2 that if prizes be given for the most prolific branches of cherry and plum trees1 gooseberry and currant bushes1 the gardens of the ,seven-dials and of classic ,st4 ,giles's may carry off some of the gold medals2 and that1 by judicious economy of space and proper pruning of the trees1 the canvas conservatories may be made not only to serve as orchard houses1 but also to grow the salads1 kitchen herbs1 and green vegetables for cookery1 under the fruit trees or close around their stems4 ,among the suitable vegetables1 ,i may name a sort of perennial spinach which yields a wonderful amount of produce on a small area4 ,four years ago ,i took the house in which ,i now reside1 and found the garden overgrown with a weed that appeared like beet1 the leaves being much larger than ordinary spinach4 ,i tried in vain to eradicate it1 then gave some leaves to my fowls4 ,they ate them greedily4 ,after this ,i had some boiled1 and found that the supposed weed is an excellent spinach1 which may be sown broadcast in thick patches1 without any interspaces1 and cut down again and again all the year round1 fresh leaves springing up from the roots until the autumn1 when it throws up tall flowering stems1 and yields an abundant crop of seeds4 ,i have some now1 self-sown1 that have survived the whole of the late severe winter1 while turnip-tops1 cabbages1 and everything else have perished4 ,i have sown the ordinary spinach seed in the usual manner in rows1 and comparing it with the self-sown dense patches of this intruder1 find the latter produces1 square yard against square yard1 six or eight times as much of available eatable crop4 ,none of my friends who are amateur gardeners know this variety2 but a few days since1 ,i called on ,messrs4 ,james ,carter and ,co41 the wholesale seedsmen of ,holborn1 and described it4 ,they gave me a packet of what they call 8,perpetual spinach beet10 which1 as may be seen by comparison with the seeds of those ,i have here of my own growing1 is probably the same4 ,messrs4 ,carter and ,co4 tell me that the plant is very little known1 and the seed scarce from want of cultivation and demand4 ,i therefore step so far aside to describe and recommend it as specially suited for obtaining large crops on small areas4#cc ,i also recommend a mode of growing cabbages that ,i have found very profitable1 viz41 to sow the seed broadcast in richly manured beds or patches and leave the plants crowding together2 cut them down while very young1 without destroying the centre bud2 let them sprout again and again4 ,they thus yield a succession of crops1 every leaf of which is eatable4 ,this1 instead of transplanting and growing large plants1 which1 however desirable for sale in the market1 are far less profitable for home use4 ,celery may be grown in like manner1 and cut down young and green for boiling4 ,some collateral advantages may be fairly anticipated in cases where the back-yard is fully enclosed by the canvas4 ,in the first place1 the air coming into the house from the back will be more or less filtered from the grimy irritant particles with which our ,london atmosphere is loaded1 besides obtaining the oxygen given off by the growing plants1 and the ozone which recent investigations have shown to be produced where aromatic plants--such as kitchen herbs--are growing4 ,lavender1 which is very hardy1 and spreads spontaneously1 might be grown for this purpose4 ,back-doors might be left open for ventilation1 without danger of intrusion or of slamming by gusts of wind4 ,the air thus admitted would be tempered both in summer and winter4 ,by wetting the canvas1 which may easily be done by means of a small garden engine1 or hand syringe1 the exceptionally hot summer days that are so severely felt in ,london might be moderated to a considerable extent4 ,the air under the canvas being cooler than that in front would enter from below1 while the warmer air would be pushed upwards and outwards to the front4 ,although such conservatories may be erected1 as already stated1 by artisans or other tenants of small houses1 ,i do not advocate dependence on this2 but1 on the contrary1 regard them as more properly constituting landlord's fixtures1 and recommend their erection by owners of small house property in ,london and other large towns4 ,a workman who will pay a trifle extra for such a garden1 is likely to be a better and more permanent tenant than one who is content with the slovenly squallor of ordinary back premises4 ,i base this opinion on some experience of holding small houses in the outskirts of ,birmingham 7,talbot ,street1 ,winson ,green47 ,these have small gardens1 while most of those around have none4 ,they are held by weekly tenure1 and1 during eighteen years1 ,i have not lost a week's rent from voids2 the men who would otherwise shift their dwelling when they change workshops1 prefer to remain and walk some distance rather than lose their little garden crops2 and when obliged to leave1 have usually found me another tenant1 a friend who has paid them a small tenant-right premium for what is left in the garden1 or for the privilege of getting a house with such a garden4 ,a small garden is one of the best rivals to the fascinations of the tap-room2 the strongest argument in favor of my canvas conservatories1 and that which ,i reserve as the last1 is that they are likely to become the poor man's drawing-room1 where he may spend his summer evenings1 smoke his pipe1 contemplate his growing plants1 and show them in rivalry to his friends1 rather than slink away from an unattractive home to seek the sensual excitements that ruin so many of our industrious fellow-countrymen4 ,as above stated1 ,i have not been able practically to test the filtering capabilities of the canvas1 owing to my residence out of town1 but since the above was written1 i4e41 on last ,wednesday evening1 ,i visited the ,houses of ,parliament1 where1 as ,i had been told1 the ventilation arrangements include some devices for filtering the air by cotton1 wool or otherwise4 ,i was much interested on finding that the long experience and many trials of ,dr4 ,percy and his assistant engineer1 ,mr4 ,prim1 have resulted in the selection of the identical material which ,i have chosen1 and with which the above-described experiments have been made4 ,a wall of such canvas surrounds a lower region of the ,houses1 and all the air that is destined to have the privilege of being breathed by ,british legislators is passed through this vertical screen1 for the purpose of separating from it the sooty impurities that constitute the special abomination of our metropolitan atmosphere1 and that of our great manufacturing towns4 ,the quantity of sooty matter thus arrested is shown by the fact that it is found necessary to take the screens down once a week and wash them1 the wash water coming away in a semi-inky condition4 ,i anticipate that the conservatory filters will rapidly clog1 and1 therefore1 require washing4 ,this may easily be done by means of a jet from a hand-syringe directed from within outwards1 especially if the slope of the roof is considerable1 which is to be recommended4 ,the filtering screen of the ,houses of ,parliament is made by sewing the canvas edges together1 to form a large continuous area1 then edging the borders of this with tape1 and stretching it bodily on to a stout frame4 ,this method may be found preferable to that which ,i proposed above1 and cheaper than ,i have estimated1 as only very light intermediate cross-pieces would thus be required1 merely to prevent bagging1 the parliamentary quartering above described being nine feet apart instead of three4 ,this would reduce the cost of timber to about one half of the above estimate4#cd ,the perpendicular walls of a conservatory1 where such are required1 may certainly be made thus1 and ,i think the roof also1 if the slope is considerable4 ,or1 if in demand1 the material may be made of greater width than the three feet4 ,so far1 ,i have only mentioned back-yards2 but1 besides these1 there are many very melancholy front areas1 called 8gardens10 attached to good houses in some of the once suburban1 but now internal regions of ,london1 where the houses stand some distance back from the formerly rural highway4 ,these spaces might be cheaply enclosed with canvas1 and cultivated as kitchen gardens1 orchard houses1 flower gardens1 or ferneries1 thus forming elegant1 refreshing1 and profitable vestibules between the highway and the house-door1 and also serve as luxurious summer drawing-rooms4 ,the only objection ,i foresee to these bright enclosures will be their tendency to encourage the consumption of tobacco4 ,the ,discussion which followed the reading of the preceding paper at the ,society of ,arts4 ,a member asked if ,mr4 ,williams had observed the effect of wind and rain on this material8 ,mr4 ,w4 ,p4 ,b4 ,shepheard said he was interested in a large square in ,london1 and he had hoped to hear something about the cultivation of flowers in such places4 ,last year1 they tried the experiment with several varieties of flower seeds1 and they came up and bloomed well in the open ground without any protection whatever4 ,in most ,london squares1 the difficulty was to find anyone bold enough to try the experiment at all1 and nothing but experience would prove what flowers would succeed and what would not4 ,they were so successful last year that several fine bouquets were gathered in ,july and ,august1 and sent to some of the gardening magazines1 who expressed their astonishment that such good results were possible in the circumstances4 ,if flowers would answer1 there would1 of course1 be more encouragement to try vegetables4 ,one of the practical difficulties which occurred to him1 with regard to this plan1 was that the screens would be somewhat unsightly1 and then again they might shrink1 from alteration in the temperature and getting wet and dry4 ,he would repeat1 however1 that1 for a very small expense in seeds1 a very good show of hardy annuals and perennials might be obtained in ,july and ,august even in ,london4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,cooke said a flower-garden had recently been opened in ,drury ,lane1 on the site of an old churchyard1 to which children were admitted2 and he wished a similar arrangement might be made in some of the squares in crowded neighborhoods1 such as ,golden ,square1 and especially in ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields4 ,there were lots of children playing about in the streets1 and he wished the good example set by the ,templars might be followed4 ,mr4 ,liggins1 as an old member of the ,royal ,horticultural ,society1 felt a great interest in this subject4 ,among his poorer neighbors in the district of ,kensington1 cottage and window gardening had been encouraged for some years past1 prizes having been awarded to those who were most successful1 much to their gratification4 ,this was a novel idea1 but he felt quite sure that it would enable those who adopted it to obtain the crops which had been described4 ,there were many collateral advantages which it would bestow on the working classes if largely followed by them1 especially the one mentioned by ,mr4 ,williams1 that those who devoted their spare time to the cultivation of fruit and flowers would not be so open to the attractions of the public-house4 ,when traveling through the ,united ,states some years ago1 he was much struck with the difference in appearance of the houses in districts where the ,maine liquor law was in force1 and soon learned to distinguish where it was adopted by the clean1 cheerful look of the workmen's dwellings1 the neatness of the gardens1 and the presence of trees and flowers which1 in other districts1 were wanting4 ,he was not a teetotaler himself1 and was not advocating such restrictions1 but he could not help noticing the contrast2 and he felt sure that in all our large towns great progress in civilization and morals would be effected if such an attraction were offered to the working classes4 ,he believed there was so much intelligence and good sense among them1 that if they only knew what could be done in this way they would attempt it2 and when an ,englishman attempted anything1 he generally succeeded4 ,mr4 ,william ,botly said they were much indebted to ,mr4 ,williams for having called attention to this important subject4 ,he quite agreed with the observations of the last speaker1 for his own experience in building cottages showed him that the addition of a piece of garden ground had an excellent effect on the social1 moral1 and religious welfare of the inmates4 ,it kept them from the public-house1 and the children who were brought up to hoe and weed their parents' gardens turned out the most industrious laborers on his property4 ,he had known of instances where houses had been built with flat concrete roofs1 and covered in with glass1 so as to form a conservatory1 in which vegetables and salads grow very well1 and he believed the cost was little1 if any1 more than ordinary slating4 ,the ,chairman 7,lord ,alfred ,churchill7 in moving a vote of thanks to ,mr4 ,williams1 said there could be no doubt that if his suggestion were adopted it would lead to great economy1 and have many other attractions for the working classes4 ,during the last few years they had heard a good deal about floriculture in windows1 and no doubt it was an excellent proposal1 but if they could add to this the growth of vegetables it would have economical advantages also4 ,the proposal to erect temporary conservatories on the roofs of some of these small houses was an admirable one4 ,he saw no reason why you should not have a peach tree growing against many a tall chimney2 you would only want a metal-lined tub filled with a good mold2 the warmth of the chimney would aid in promoting the growth of the tree1 and it could be protected from the smoke and frost by this canvas4 ,one point he should like to know was1 whether the fabric would not become rotted by the weather1 and perhaps it might be protected by tanning1 or some chemical preparation4 ,the effect of the canvas in maintaining an equable temperature was a great consideration2 the difference stated by ,mr4 ,williams1 of about five degrees in winter1 in many cases would be just enough to save the life of a plant4 ,practical gardeners knew the value of placing a covering over a peach tree in early spring to keep off the frosts1 and also to protect it from the attacks of birds4 ,it was also a curious fact that even a slip of wood or slate a few inches wide1 put on the top of a wall to which a fruit tree was nailed1 acted as a protection from frost4 ,he trusted that ,mr4 ,williams' idea would find favor among the working classes1 and thought it was a subject the ,royal ,horticultural ,society might well take up and offer prizes for4 ,he hoped in a short time1 when that ,society had passed through a crisis which was impending1 it might emerge in a condition to devote attention to this matter4 ,it already offered prizes for small suburban flower-shows1 but had not yet turned its attention to the larger class aimed at by ,mr4 ,williams4 ,mr4 ,botly said he had forgotten to mention that he had a friend1 a very excellent gardener1 who always loosened his fruit trees from the wall for about three weeks before the time of blooming4 ,the consequence was1 they did not get so much heat from the wall1 and the bloom was two or three weeks later in forming4 ,after the spring frosts1 the trees were again nailed up close1 and he never failed in getting an excellent crop1 when his neighbors often had none4 ,mr4 ,trewby wished to caution those who read the paper against using what was commonly known as paperhangers' canvas1 because it was made of two materials1 hemp and jute1 and if a piece of it were put into water it would soon be nothing but a lot of strings1 the jute being all dissolved4 ,it did very well for paper-hanging1 but would be quite unsuitable for this purpose4#ce ,the vote of thanks having been passed-- ,mr4 ,williams1 in reply1 said he had had a piece of this canvas stretched on a frame exposed all the winter1 and the only result was to make it rather dirty4 ,he stretched it as tightly as he could in putting it on1 but when it got wet it became still more tight1 and gave a little again on becoming dry4 ,it bore the weight of the snow which had fallen very well1 and two or three spadefuls had been added to try it4 ,he had a note from ,mr4 ,prim1 saying that at the ,houses of ,parliament the screens last about two sessions1 being washed once a week1 and the destruction is due to the wringing4 ,but there is really no occasion for this1 for if you syringe the stuff well from the inside1 you make it sufficiently clear to allow the air and light to pass through1 and it would probably last many years4 ,he had tried the experiment of dipping it in a very weak solution of tar1 but this had the effect of matting together the fine filaments1 so that it did not act so effectually as a strainer4 ,it acted best when wet1 because the fine particles of soot adhered to it1 and moist weather was just the time when the greatest quantity of soot fell4 ,it might be easily tried in ,london squares to aid in the growth of flowers2 he found that the cabbage plants which were so protected throve remarkably well1 and he had no doubt that if flowers were planted and a screen put over them until they were ready to bloom1 it would be a great advantage4 ,the action of a little peat on the top of a wall to protect fruit trees is very simple1 and the explanation was afforded by the experiments of ,dr4 ,wells on dew4 ,the frosts which did the greatest mischief1 were due to radiation from the ground on clear nights2 and it would be found that if one thermometer were placed in a garden under an umbrella1 and another on the open ground near it1 the differences of temperature would be very considerable2 on cloudy nights there was very little difference4 ,last night there was only a difference of #b1 but a few nights before it was #f4 ,the period of greatest cold might not probably be more than hour1 but it would be sufficient to do a great deal of mischief1 and anything which would check the radiation would have the required effect4 ,in the case of loosening the fruit trees from the wall there was1 probably1 a double action2 it prevented the tree being forced on by the warmth or the wall in the daytime1 and also avoided the chilling effect at night1 a rough wall being a good radiator1 and sinking to a low temperature4 ,he did not think there was much danger to be apprehended from wind1 because the canvas being so open1 the wind would pass freely through it2 but he had not seen it subjected to any violent gale4 ,,solids1 ,,liquids1 ,,and ,,gases4 ,the growth of accurate knowledge is continually narrowing1 and often obliterating1 the broad lines of distinction that have been drawn between different classes of things4 ,i well remember when our best naturalists regarded their 8species0 of plants and animals as fundamental and inviolable institutions1 separated by well-defined boundaries that could not be crossed4 ,darwin has upset all this1 and now we cannot even draw a clear1 sharp line between the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,the chemist is even crossing the boundary between these and the mineral kingdom1 by refuting the once positive dictum that organic substances 7i4e41 the compounds ordinarily formed in the course of vegetable or animal growth7 cannot be produced directly from dead matter by any chemical device4 ,many of such organic compounds are now made in the laboratory from mineral materials4 ,we all know1 broadly1 what are the differences between solids1 liquids1 and gases1 and1 until lately1 they have been very positively described as the three distinct states or modes of existence of matter4 ,mr4 ,crookes suggests a fourth4 ,i will not discuss this at present1 but merely consider the three old-established claimants to distinctive existence4 ,a solid is usually defined as a body made up of particles which hold together rigidly or immovably1 in contradistinction to a fluid1 of which the particles move freely over each other4 8,fluids0 is the general term including both gases and liquids1 both being alike as regards the mobility of their particles4 ,at present1 let us confine our attention to liquids and solids4 ,the theoretical or perfect fluid which is imagined by the mathematician as the basis of certain abstract reasonings has no real existence4 ,he assumes 7and the assumption is legitimate and desirable1 provided its imaginary character is always remembered7 that the supposed particles move upon each other with perfect freedom1 without any friction or other impediment2 but1 as a matter of fact1 all liquids exert some amount of resistance to their own flowing2 they are more or less viscous1 have more or less of that sluggishness in their obedience to the law of finding their own level which we see so plainly displayed by treacle or castor oil4 ,this viscosity1 added to the friction of the liquid against the solid on which it rests1 or in which it is enclosed1 may become1 even in the case of water1 a formidable obstacle to its flow4 ,thus1 if we make a hole in the side of a tank at a depth of #af feet below the surface1 the water will spout from that hole at the rate of #cb feet per second1 but if we connect with this hole a long horizontal pipe of the same internal diameter as the hole1 and then observe the flow from the outlet of the pipe1 we shall find its velocity visibly diminished1 and we shall be greatly deceived if we make arrangements for carrying swift-flowing water thus to any great distances4 ,three or four years ago an attempt was made to supersede the water-carts of ,london by laying down on each side of the road a horizontal pipe1 perforated with a row of holes opening towards the horse-way4 ,the water was to be turned on1 and from these holes it was to jet out to the middle of the road from each side1 and thus water it all4 ,i watched the experiment made near the ,bank of ,england4 ,instead of spouting across the road from all these holes1 as it would have done from any one of them1 it merely dribbled2 the reason being that1 in order to supply them all1 the water must run through the whole of the long pipe with considerable velocity1 and the viscosity and friction to be overcome in doing this nearly exhausted the whole force of water-head pressure4 ,many other similar blunders have been made by those who have sought to convey water-power to a distance by means of a pipe of such diameter as should demand a rapid flow through a long pipe4 ,the resistance which water offers to the stroke of the swimmer or the pull of the rower is partly due to its viscosity1 and partly to the uplifting or displacement of some of the water4 ,if it were perfectly fluid1 our movements within it1 and those of fishes1 etc41 would be curiously different2 the whole face of this globe would be strangely altered in many respects4 ,i will not now follow up this idea1 but leave it as a suggestion for the reader to work out for himself1 by considering what would remain undone upon the earth if water flowed perfectly1 without any internal resistance1 or friction upon the earth's surface4 ,the degrees of approach to perfect fluidity vary greatly with different liquids4 ,is there any such a thing as an absolute solid1 or a body that has no degree of fluidity1 the particles or parts of which will admit of no change of their relative positions1 no movement upon each other without fracture of the mass8 ,this would constitute perfect rigidity1 or the opposite to fluidity4 ,take a piece of copper or soft iron wire1 about one eighth of an inch in diameter1 or thereabouts1 and bend it backwards and forwards a few times as rapidly as possible1 but without breaking it2 then1 without loss of time1 feel the portion that has been bent4 ,it is hot--painfully so--if the experiment is smartly made4 ,how may this be explained8 ,it is evident that in the act of bending there must have been a displacement of the relative positions of the particles of the metal1 and the force demanded for the bending indicated their resistance to this movement upon each other2 or1 in other words1 that there was friction between them1 or something equivalent to such internal friction1 and thus the mechanical force exerted in the bending was converted into heat-force4 ,here1 then1 was fluidity1 according to the above definition2 not perfect fluidity1 but fluidity attended with resistance to flow1 or what we have agreed to call viscosity4 ,but water also offers such resistance to flow1 or viscosity1 therefore the difference between iron or copper wire and liquid water as regards their fluidity is only a difference of degree1 and not of kind2 the demarcation between solids and liquids is not a broad1 clearly-defined line1 but a band of blending shade1 the depths of tint representing varying degrees of viscosity4 ,multitudes of examples may be cited illustrating the viscosity of bodies that we usually regard as types of solidity1 such1 for example1 as the rocks forming the earth's crust4 ,in the 8,black ,country0 of ,south ,staffordshire1 which is undermined by the great ten-yard coal-seam1 cottages1 chimney-shafts1 and other buildings may be seen leaning over most grotesquely1 houses split down the middle by the subsidence or inclination of one side1 great hollows in fields or across roads that were once flat1 and a variety of other distortions1 due to the gradual sinking of the rock-strata that have been undermined by the colliery workings4 ,in some cases the rocks are split1 but usually the subsidence is a bending or flowing down of the rocks to fill up the vacuity1 as water fills a hollow1 or 8finds its own level40 ,i have seen many cases of the downward curvature of the roof of a coal-pit1 and have been told that in some cases the surrounding pressure causes the floor to curve upwards1 but have not seen this4 ,earthquakes afford another example4 ,the so-called solid crust of the earth is upheaved1 and cast into positive billows that wave away on all sides from the centre of disturbance4 ,the earth-billows of the great ,lisbon earthquake of #agee traveled to this country1 and when they reached ,loch ,lomond1 were still of sufficient magnitude to raise and lower its banks through a perpendicular range of two feet four inches4 ,it is quite possible1 or1 ,i may say1 probable1 that there are tides of the earth as well as of the waters1 and the subject has occupied much attention and raised some discussion among mathematicians4 ,if the earth has a fluid centre1 and only a comparatively thin crust1 as some suppose1 there must be such tides1 produced by the gravitation of the moon and sun4 ,ice presents some interesting results of this viscosity4 ,at a certain height1 varying with latitude1 aspect1 etc41 we reach the 8snow line0 of mountain slopes1 above which the snow of winter remains unmelted during summer1 and1 in most cases1 goes on accumulating4 ,it soon loses its flocculent1 flaky character1 and becomes coherent1 clear blue ice by the pressure of its own weight4 ,a rather complex theory has been propounded to explain this change--the theory of regelation--i4e41 re-freezing2 a theory which assumes that the pressure first thaws a film of ice at the surface of contact1 and that presently this re-freezes1 and thus effects a healing or general solidification4 ,faraday found that two pieces of ice with moistened surfaces united if pressed together when at just about the temperature of freezing1 but not if much colder4 ,tyndall has further illustrated this by taking fragments of ice and squeezing them in a mould1 whereby they became a clear1 transparent ball1 or cake4 ,schoolboys did the like long before1 when snowballing with snow at about the thawing point4 ,such snow1 as we all remember1 became converted into stony lumps when firmly pressed together4 ,we also remember that in much colder weather no such cohesion occurred1 but our snowballs remained powdery in spite of all our squeezing4 ,i am a sceptic as regards this theory of regelation4 ,i believe that the true explanation is much simpler2 that the crystals of snow or fragments of ice in these experiments are simply welded1 as the smith unites two pieces of iron1 by merely pressing them together when they are near their melting point4 ,other metals and other fusible substances may be similarly welded1 provided they soften or become sufficiently viscous before fusing4 ,platinum is a good example of this4 ,it is infusible in ordinary furnaces1 but becomes pasty before melting1 and therefore1 one method adopted in the manufacture of platinum ingots or bars from the ore1 is to precipitate a sort of platinum snow 7spongy platinum7 from its solution in acid1 and then compress this metallic snow in red-hot steel moulds by means of pistons driven with great force4 ,the flocculent metal thus becomes a solid1 coherent mass1 just as the flocculent ice became coherent ice in ,tyndall's experiment or in making hard snowballs4 ,wax1 pitch1 resin1 and all other solid that fuse gradually1 cohere1 are weldable1 or1 in very plain language1 8stick together10 when near their fusing point4 ,i have made the following experiment to prove that when this so-called regelation of snow or ice-fragments occurs1 the ice is viscous or plastic1 like wax or pitch4 ,a strong iron squirt1 with a cylindrical bore of half an inch in diameter1 is fitted with an iron piston4 ,this piston is driven forth by a screw working in a collar at one end of the squirt4 ,into the other end is screwed a brass nozzle with an aperature about one twentieth of an inch diameter1 tapering or opening inwards gradually to the half-inch bore4 ,into this bore ,i place snow or fragments of ice1 then1 holding the body of the squirt firmly in a vice1 ,i work the lever of the screw1 and thus drive forward the piston and crush down the snow or ice-fragments1 which presently become coherent and form a half-inch solid cylinder of clear ice4 ,applying still more pressure1 this cylinder is forced like a liquid through the small orifice of the nozzle of the squirt1 and it jets or spouts out as a thin stick of ice like vermicelli1 or the 8leads0 of ever-pointed pencils1 for the moulding of which the squirt was originally constructed4 ,i find that ice at #cb can thus be squirted more easily than beeswax of the same temperature1 and such being the case1 ,i see no reason for imagining any complex operation of regelation in the case of the ice1 but merely regard the adhesion of two pieces of ice when pressed together as similar to the sticking together of two pieces of cobblers'-wax1 or softened sealing-wax1 or beeswax1 or the welding of iron or glass when heated to their welding temperatures1 i4e41 to a certain degree of incipient fluidity or viscosity4 ,if a leaden bullet be cut in half1 and the two fresh-cut faces pressed forcibly together1 they cohere at ordinary atmospheric temperatures1 but we have no occasion for a regelation theory here4 ,the viscosity of the lead accounts for all4 ,at ,woolwich ,arsenal there is a monster squirt1 similar to my little one4 ,this is charged with lead1 and1 by means of hydraulic pressure1 the lead is squired out of the nozzle as a cylindrical jet of any required diameter4 ,this jet or stick of lead is the material of which the elongated cylindrical rifle bullets are now made4 ,but returning to the point at which we started1 on the subject of ice1 viz41 its ,alpine accumulation above the snow-line4 ,if the snow-fall there exceeds the amount that is thawed and evaporated1 it must either go on growing upward until it reaches the highest atmospheric region from which it falls1 or is formed1 or it must descend somehow4 ,if ice can be squirted through a syringe by mere hand-pressure1 we are justified in expecting that it would be forced down a hill slope1 or through a gully1 or across a plain1 by the pressure of its own weight when the accumulation is great4 ,such is the case1 and thus are glaciers formed4 ,they are1 strictly speaking1 rivers or torrents of ice2 they flow as liquid water does1 and down the same channels as would carry the liquid surface drainage of the hills1 were rain to take the place of snow4 ,like rivers1 they flow with varying speed1 according to the slope2 like rivers1 their current is more rapid in the middle than the sides2 like rivers1 they exert their greatest tearing force when squeezed narrow through gullies2 and1 like rivers1 they spread out into lakes when they come upon an open basin-like valley1 with narrow outlet4 ,the ,justedalsbrae of ,norway is a great ice-lake of this character1 covering a surface of about #ejj square miles1 and pouring down its ice-torrents on every side1 wherever there is a notch or valley descending from the table-land it covers4 ,the rate of flow of such downpouring glaciers varies from two or three inches to as many feet per day1 and they present magnificent examples of the actual fluidity or viscosity of an apparently solid mass4 ,this viscosity has been disputed1 and attempts have been made to otherwise explain the motion of glaciers2 but while it is possible that it may be assisted by varying expansion and contraction1 the downflow due to viscosity is now recognized as unquestionably the main factor of glacier motion4 ,cascades of ice may be sometimes seen4 ,in the course of my first visit to ,norway1 ,i wandered alone over a very desolate mountain region towards the head of the ,justedal1 and unexpectedly came upon a gloomy lake1 the ,styggevand1 which lies at the foot of a precipice-boundary of the great ice-field above named4 ,here1 the ice having no sloping valley-trough by which to descend1 poured over the edge of the precipice as a great overhanging sheet or cornice1 which bent down as it was pushed forward1 and presented on the convex side of the sheet some fine blue cracks1 or 8crevasses0 as they are called4 ,these gradually widened and deepened1 until the overhanging mass broke off and fell into the lake1 on the surface of which ,i saw the result1 in the form of several floating icebergs that had previously fallen4 ,something like this1 on a small scale1 may be seen at home on the edge of a house roof1 on which there has been an accumulation of snow2 but1 in this case1 it is rather sliding than flowing that has made the cornice2 but its down-bending is a result of viscosity4 ,these and a multitude of other facts that might be stated1 many of which will occur to the reader1 prove clearly enough that the solid and liquid states of matter are not distinctly and broadly separable1 but are connected by an intermediate condition of viscosity4 ,we now come to the question whether there is any similar continuity between liquids and gases4 ,ordinary experience decidedly suggests a negative answer4 ,we can point to nothing within easy reach that has the properties of a liquid and gaseous half-and-half2 that stands between gases and liquids as pitch and treacle stand between solids and liquids4 ,some1 perhaps1 may suggest that cloud-matter--,london fog1 for example--is in such an intermediate state4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,white country fog1 ordinary clouds1 or the so-called 8steam0 that is seen assuming cloud forms as it issues from the spout of a tea-kettle or funnel of a locomotive1 consists of minute particles of water suspended in air1 as solid particles of dust are also suspended4 ,it has been called 8vesicular vapor10 on the supposition that it has the form of minute vesicles1 like soap-bubbles on a very small scale1 but this hypothesis remains unproven4 ,london fog consists of similar particles1 varnished with a delicate film of coal-tar1 and intersprinkled with particles of soot4 ,in order to clearly comprehend the above-stated question1 we must define the difference between liquids and gases4 ,in the first place1 they are both fluids1 as already agreed4 ,what1 then1 is the essential difference between liquid fluidity and gaseous fluidity8 ,the expert in molecular mathematics1 discoursing to his kinematical brethren1 would produce a tremendous reply to this question4 ,he would describe the oscillations1 gyrations1 collisions1 mean free paths1 and mutual obstructions of atoms and molecules1 and1 by the aid of a maddening array of symbols1 arrive at the conclusion that gases1 unless restrained1 expand of their own accord1 while liquids retain definite limits or dimensions4 ,the matter-of-fact experimentalist demonstrates the same by methods that are easily understood by anybody4 ,i shall1 therefore1 both for my own sake and my readers'1 describe some of the latter4 ,in the first place1 we all see plainly that liquids have a surface1 i4e41 a well-defined boundary1 and also that gases1 unless enclosed1 have not4 ,but as this may be due to the invisibility of the gas1 we must question it further4 ,the air we breathe may be taken as a type of gases1 as water may of liquids4 ,it has weight1 as we may prove by weighing a bottle full of air1 then pumping out the contents1 weighing the empty bottle1 and noting the difference4 ,having weight1 it presses towards the earth1 and is squeezed by all that rests above it2 thus the air around us is constrained air4 ,it is very compressible1 and is accordingly compressed by the weight of all the air above it4 ,this being understood1 let us take a bottle full of water and another full of air1 and carry them both to the summit of ,mont ,blanc1 or to a similar height in a balloon4 ,we shall then have left nearly half of the atmosphere below1 and thus both liquid and gas will be under little more than half of the ordinary pressure4 ,what will happen if we uncork them both8 ,the liquid will still display its definite surface1 and remain in the bottle1 but not so the gas4 ,it will overflow upwards1 downwards1 or sideways1 no matter how the bottle is held1 and if we had tied an empty bladder over the neck before uncorking1 we should find this overflow or expansion of the gas exactly proportionate to the removal of pressure1 provided the temperature remained unaltered4 ,thus1 at just half the pressure under which a pint bottle was corked1 the air would measure exactly one quart1 at one-eighth of the pressure one gallon1 and so on4 ,we cannot get high enough for the latter expansion1 but can easily imitate the effect of further elevation by means of an air-pump4 ,thus1 we may put one cubic inch of air into a bladder of #ajj cubic inches capacity1 then place this under the receiver of an air-pump1 and reduce the pressure outside the bladder to #a_/ajjth of its original amount4 ,with such atmospheric surrounding1 the one cubic inch of air will plump out the flaccid bladder1 and completely fill it4 ,the pumpability of the air from the receiver shows that it goes on overflowing from it into the piston of the pump as fast as its own elastic pressure on itself is diminished4 ,numberless other experiments may be made1 all proving that all gases are composed of matter which is not merely incohesive1 but is energetically self-repulsive2 so much so1 that it can only be retained within any bounds whatever by means of some external pressure or constraint4 ,for aught we know experimentally1 the gaseous contents of one of ,mr4 ,glaisher's baloons would outstretch itself sufficiently to occupy the whole sphere of space that is spanned by the earth's orbit1 provided that space were perfectly vacuous1 and the baloon were burst in the midst of it1 the temperature of the expanding gas being maintained4 ,here1 then1 in this self-repulsiveness1 instead of self-cohesion1 this absence of self-imposed boundary or dimensions1 we have a very broad and well-marked distinction between gases and liquids1 so broad that there seems no bridge that can possibly cross it4 ,this was believed to be the case until recently4 ,such a bridge has1 however1 been built1 and rendered visible1 by the experimental researches of ,dr4 ,andrews2 but further explanation is required to render this generally intelligible4 ,until quite lately it was customary to divide gases into two classes--8permanent gases0 and 8condensable gases10 or 8vapors40 ,gaseous water or steam was usually described as typical of the latter2 oxygen1 hydrogen1 or nitrogen of the former4 ,earlier than this1 many other gases were included in the permanent list2 but ,faraday made a serious inroad upon this classification when he liquefied chlorine by cooling and compressing it4 ,long after this1 the gaseous elements of water1 and the chief constituents of air1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen1 resisted all efforts to condense them2 but now they have succumbed to great pressure and extreme cooling4 ,we thus arrive at a very broad generalization1 viz41 that all gases are physically similar to steam 7,i mean1 of course1 8dry steam10 i4e41 true invisible steam1 and not the cloudy matter to which the name of steam is popularly given71 that they are all formed by raising liquids above their boiling point1 just as steam is formed when we boil water and maintain the steam above the boiling-point of the water4 ,but some liquids boil at temperatures far below that at which others freeze2 liquid chlorine boils at a temperature below that of freezing water1 and liquid carbonic acid below even that of freezing mercury1 and liquid hydrogen far lower still4 ,these are cases of boiling1 nevertheless1 though it seems a paradox according to the ideas we commonly attach to this word4 ,but such ideas are based on our common experience of the properties of our commonest of liquids1 viz41 water4 ,when water boils under the conditions of our ordinary experience1 the passage from the liquid to the gaseous state is a sudden leap1 with no intermediate state of existence that we are able to perceive2 and the conditions upon which water is converted into steam--the liquid into the gas--while both are at the bottom of our atmospheric ocean1 are such as to render an intermediate condition rationally1 as well as practically1 impossible4 ,we find that the expansive energy by which the steam is enabled to resist atmospheric pressure is conferred upon it by its taking into itself1 and utilizing for its expansive efforts a large amount of calorific energy4 ,when any given quantity of water is converted into steam1 under ordinary circumstances1 its bulk suddenly becomes above #agjj times greater--a cubic inch of water forms about a cubic foot of steam1 and nearly #ajjj degrees of heat 7#ifff7 disappears as temperature4 ,otherwise stated1 we must give to the cubic inch of water at #bab as much heat as would raise it to a temperature of #bab plus #ifff1 or #a1aghf1 if it remained liquid4 ,this is about the temperature of the glowing coals of a common fire2 but the steam that has thus taken enough heat to make the water red-hot is still at #bab--no hotter than the water was while boiling4 ,this heat1 which thus ceases to exhibit itself as temperature1 is otherwise occupied4 ,its energy is partly devoted to the work of increasing the bulk of the water to the above-named extent1 and partly in conferring on the steam its gaseous specialty--that is1 in overcoming liquid cohesion1 and substituting for it the opposite property of internal repulsive energy which is characteristic of gases4 ,my reasons for thus defining and separating these two functions of the so-called 8latent0 heat will be seen when we come to the philosophy of the interesting researches of ,dr4 ,andrews4 ,as already explained1 all gases are now proved to be analogous to steam1 they are matter expanded and rendered self-repulsive by heat4 ,all elementary matter may exist in either of the three forms--solid1 liquid1 or gas1 according to the amount of heat and pressure to which it is subjected4 ,i limit this wide generalization to elementary substances for the following reasons3 ,many compounds are made up of elements so feebly held together that they become 8dissociated0 when heated to a temperature below their boiling-point2 or1 their condition maybe otherwise defined by stating that the bonds of chemical energy1 which hold their elements together1 are weaker than the cohesion which binds and holds them in the condition of solid or liquid1 and are more easily broken by the expansive energy of heat4 ,to illustrate this1 let us take two common and well-known oils--olive oil and turpentine4 ,the first belongs to the class of 8fixed oils10 and second to the 8volatile oils40 ,if we apply heat to liquid turpentine1 it boils1 passes into the state of gaseous turpentine1 which is easily condensible by cooling it4 ,if the liquid result of this condensation is examined1 we find it to be turpentine as before4 ,not so with the olive oil4 ,just as this reaches its boiling point1 the heat1 which would otherwise convert it into olive-oil vapor1 begins to dissociate its constituents1 and if the temperature be raised a little higher1 we obtain some gases1 but these are the products of decomposition1 not gaseous olive oil4 ,this is called 8destructive0 distillation4 ,in olive oil1 the boiling-point and dissociation point are near to each other4 ,in the case of glycerine1 these points so nearly approximate that1 although we cannot distil it unbroken under ordinary atmospheric pressure1 we may do so if some of this pressure is removed4 ,under such diminished pressure1 the boiling-point is brought down below the dissociation point1 and condensible glycerine gas comes over without decomposition4 ,sugar affords a very interesting example of dissociation1 commencing far below the boiling-point1 and going on gradually and visibly1 with increasing rapidity as the temperature is raised4 ,put some white sugar into a spoon1 and heat the spoon gradually over the smokeless gas-flame or spirit-lamp4 ,at first the sugar melts1 then becomes yellow 7barley sugar72 this color deepens to orange1 then red1 then chestnut-brown1 then dark brown1 then nearly black 7caramel71 then quite black1 and finally it becomes a mere cinder4 ,sugar is composed of carbon and water2 the heat dissociates this compound1 separates the water1 which passes off as vapor1 and leaves the carbon behind4 ,the gradual deepening of the color indicates the gradual carbonization1 which is completed when only the dry insoluble cinder remains4 ,an appearance of boiling is seen1 but this is the boiling of the dissociated water1 not of the sugar4 ,the dissociation temperature of water is far above its boiling-point4 ,it is #ejgb ,fahr41 under conditions corresponding to those which make its boiling-point #bab4 ,if we examine the variations of the boiling-point of water1 as the atmospheric pressure on its surface varies1 some curious results follow4 ,to do this the reader must endure some figures4 ,they are extremely simple1 and perfectly intelligible1 but demand just a little attention4 ,following are three columns of figures4 ,the first represents atmospheres of pressure--i4e41 taking our atmospheric pressure when it supports #cj inches of mercury in the barometer tube as a unit1 that pressure is doubled1 trebled1 etc41 up to twenty times in the first column4 ,the second column states the temperature at which water boils when under the different pressures thus indicated4 ,the third column1 which is the subject for special study just now1 shows how much we must rise the temperature of the water in order to make it boil as we go on adding atmospheres of pressure2 or1 in other words1 the increase of temperature due to each increase of one atmosphere of pressure4 ,the figures are founded on the experiments of ,regnault4 ,pressure in ,temperature1 ,f4 ,rise of ,temperature ,atmospheres for each additional ,atmosphere #a #bab #b #bdie #cge #c #bgcc #bch #d #biab #agi #e #cjfj #adh #f #cahb #abb #g #cbif #aad #h #ccie #ii #i #cdhd #hi #aj #ceff #hb #aa #cfdb #gf #ab #cgaa #fi #ac #cggh #fg #ad #chdj #fb #ae #cijj #fj #af #cied #ed #ag #djjh #ed #ah #djei #ea #ai #dajh #di #bj #daed #df ,it may be seen from the above that1 with the exception of one irregularity1 there is a continual diminution of the additional temperature which is required to overcome an additional atmosphere of pressure1 and if this goes on as the pressure and temperatures advance1 we may ultimately reach a curious condition--a temperature at which additional pressure will demand no additional temperature to maintain the gaseous state2 or1 in other words1 a temperature may be reached at which no amount of pressure can condense steam into water1 or at which the gaseous and liquid states merge or become indifferent4 ,but we must not push this mere numerical reasoning too far1 seeing that it is quite possible to be continually approaching a given point1 without ever reaching it1 as when we go on continually halving the remaining distance4 ,the figures in the above do not appear to follow according to such a law--nor1 indeed1 any other regularity4 ,this probably arises from experimental error1 as there are discrepancies in the results of different investigators4 ,they all agree1 however1 in the broad fact of the gradation above stated4 ,dulong and ,arago1 who directed the experiments of the ,french ,government ,commission for investigating this subject1 state the pressure at #bj atmospheres to be #dahd1 at #ba #dbbi1 at #bb #dbgc1 at #bc #dcad1 and at #bd atmospheres1 their highest experimental limit1 #dcee1 thus reducing the rise of temperature between the #bc;d and #bdth atmospheres to #da4 ,if we could go on heating water in a transparent vessel until this difference became a vanishing quantity1 we should probably recognize a visible physical change coincident with this cessation of condensibility by pressure2 but this is not possible1 as glass would become red-hot and softened1 and thus incapable of bearing the great pressure demanded4 ,besides this1 glass is soluble in water at these high temperatures4 ,if1 however1 we can find some liquid with a lower boiling-point1 we may go on piling atmosphere upon atmosphere of elastic expansive pressure1 as the temperature is raised1 without reaching an unmanageable degree of heat4 ,liquid carbonic acid1 which1 under a single atmosphere of pressure1 boils at #aab below the zero of our thermometer1 may thus be raised to a temperature having the same relation to its boiling-point that a red-heat has to that of water1 and may be still confined within a glass vessel1 provided the walls of the vessel are sufficiently thick to bear the strain of the elastic outstriving pressure4 ,in spite of its brittleness glass is capable of bearing an enormous strain steadily applied1 as may be proved by trying to break even a mere thread of glass by direct pull4 ,dr4 ,andrews thus treated carbonic acid1 and the experiment1 as ,i have witnessed its repetition1 is very curious4 ,a liquid occupies the lower part of a very strong glass tube1 which appears empty above4 ,but this apparent void is occupied by invisible carbonic acid gas1 evolved by the previous boiling of the liquid carbonic acid below4 ,we start at a low temperature--say #dj ,fahr4 ,then the temperature is raised2 the liquid boils until it has given off sufficient gas or vapor to exert the full expansive pressure or tension due to that temperature4 ,this pressure stops the boiling1 and again the surface of the liquid is becalmed4 ,this is repeated at a higher temperature1 and thus continued until we approach nearly to #hh ,fahr41 when the surface of the liquid loses some of its sharp outline4 ,then #hh is reached1 and the boundary between liquid and gas vanishes2 liquid and gas have blended into one mysterious intermediate fluid2 an indefinite fluctuating something is there filling the whole of the tube--an etherealized liquid or a visible gas4 ,hold a red-hot poker between your eye and the light2 you will see an upflowing wavy movement of what appears like liquid air4 ,the appearance of the hybrid fluid in the tube resembles this1 but is sensibly denser1 and evidently stands between the liquid and gaseous states of matter1 as pitch or treacle stands between solid and liquid4 ,the temperature at which this occurs has been named by ,dr4 ,andrews the 8critical temperature02 here the gaseous and liquid states are 8continuous10 and it is probable that all other substances capable of existing in both states have their own particular critical temperatures4 ,having thus stated the facts in popular outline1 ,i shall conclude the subject by indulging in some speculations of my own on the philosophy of these general facts or natural laws1 and on some of their possible consequences4 ,as already stated1 the conversion of water into steam under ordinary atmospheric pressure demands #ifff of heat over and above that which does the work of raising the water to #bab1 or1 otherwise stated1 as much heat is at work in a given weight of steam at #bab1 as would raise the same quantity of water to #aaghf if it remained liquid4 ,james ,watt concluded from his experiments that a given weight of steam1 whatever may be its density1 or1 in other words1 under whatever pressure it may exist1 contains the same quantity of heat4 ,according to this1 if we reduced the pressure sufficiently to bring down the boiling-point to #aab1 instead of #bab1 the latent heat of the steam thus formed would be #ajfff instead of #ifff1 or if1 on the other hand1 we placed it under sufficient pressure to raise the boiling-point to #cab1 the latent heat of the steam would be reduced to #hfff1 i4e41 only #hfff more would be required to convert the water into steam4 ,if the boiling-point were #dab1 as it is between #ai and #bj atmospheres of pressure1 only #gfff more heat would be required1 and so on1 till we reached a pressure which raised the boiling-point to #aaghf2 the water would then become steam without further heating1 i4e41 the critical point would be reached1 and thus1 if ,watt is right1 we can easily determine1 theoretically1 the critical temperature of water4#cf ,mr4 ,perkins1 who made some remarkable experiments upon very high pressure steam many years ago1 and exhibited a steam gun at the ,adelaide ,gallery1 stated that red-hot water does not boil2 that if the generator be sufficiently strong to stand a pressure of #fj1jjj lbs4 load on the safety-valve1 the water may be made to exert a pressure of #ef1jjj lbs4 on the square inch at a cherry-red heat without boiling4 ,he made a number of rather dangerous experiments in thus raising water to a red-heat1 and his assertion that red-hot water does not boil is curious when viewed in connection with ,dr4 ,andrews' experiments4 ,i cannot tell how he arrived at this conclusion1 having been unable to obtain the original record of his experiments1 and only quote the above second hand4 ,it is worthy of remark that the temperature he names is about #aagj1 or that which1 if ,watt is right1 must be the critical temperature of the water4 ,perkins' red-hot water would not boil1 being then in the intermediate condition4 ,so far1 we have a nice little theory1 which not only shows how the critical state of water must be reached1 but also its precise temperature2 but all this is based on the assumption that ,watt made no mistake4 ,unfortunately for the simplicity of this theory1 ,regnault states that his experiments contradict those of ,watt1 and prove that the latent heat of steam does not diminish just in the same degree as the boiling-point is raised1 but that instead of this the diminution of the latent heat progresses #cj per cent more slowly than the rise of temperature1 so that1 instead of the latent heat of steam between boiling-points of #bab and #cab falling from #ifff to #hfff it would only fall to #hiea or #fie of latent heat for every #ajj of temperature4 ,if this is correct1 the temperature at which the latent heat of steam is reduced to zero is much higher than #aaghf1 and is1 in fact1 a continually receding quantity never absolutely reached2 but ,i am not prepared to accept these figures of ,regnault as implicitly as is now done in text-books 7,i was nearly saying 8as is now the fashion071 seeing that they are not the actual figures obtained by his experiments1 but those of his 8empirical formul0 based upon them4 ,his actual experimental figures are very irregular2 thus1 between steam temperature of #agaf and #ahcb a difference of #aaf1 the experimental difference in the latent heat came out as #dg2 between steam temperature of #ahcb and #aidh1 or #aaf again1 the latent heat difference is tabulated as #hj4 ,regnault's experiments were not carried to very high temperatures and pressures1 and indicate that as these advance the deviation from ,watt's law diminishes1 and may finally vanish at about #aejj or #afjj1 where the latent heat would reach zero1 and there1 according to the above1 the critical temperature would be reached4 ,any additional heat applied after this will have but one function to perform1 viz41 the ordinary work of increasing the bulk of the heated body without doing anything further in the way of conferring upon it any new self-repulsive properties4 ,our notions of solids1 liquids1 and gases are derived from our experiences of the state of matter here upon this earth4 ,could we be removed to another planet1 they would be curiously changed4 ,on ,mercury water would rank as one of the condensible gases2 on ,mars1 as a fusible solid2 but what on ,jupiter8 ,recent observations justify us in regarding this as a miniature sun1 with an external envelope of cloudy matter1 apparently of partially condensed water1 but red-hot1 or probably still hotter within4 ,his vaporous atmosphere is evidently of enormous depth1 and the force of gravitation being on his visible outer surface two and a half times greater than that on our earth's surface1 the atmospheric pressure in descending below this visible surface must soon reach that at which the vapor of water would be brought to its critical condition4 ,therefore we may infer that the oceans of ,jupiter are neither of frozen liquid nor gaseous water1 but are oceans or atmospheres of critical water4 ,if any fish-birds swim or fly therein they must be very critically organized4 ,as the whole mass of ,jupiter is three hundred times greater than that of the earth1 and its compressing energy towards the centre proportional to this1 its materials1 if similar to those of the earth and no hotter1 would be considerably more dense1 and the whole planet would have a higher specific gravity2 but we know by the movement of its satellites that1 instead of this1 its specific gravity is less than a fourth of that of the earth4 ,this justifies the conclusion that it is intensely hot1 for even hydrogen1 if cold1 would become denser than ,jupiter under such pressure4 ,as all elementary substances may exist as solids1 liquids1 or gases1 or critically1 according to the conditions of temperature and pressure1 ,i am justified in hypothetically concluding that ,jupiter is neither a solid1 a liquid1 nor a gaseous planet1 but a critical planet1 or an orb composed internally of dissociated elements in the critical state1 and surrounded by a dense atmosphere of their vapors1 and those of some of their compounds1 such as water4 ,the same reasoning applies to ,saturn and the other large and rarefied planets4 ,the critical temperature of the dissociated elements of the sun is probably reached at the base of the photosphere1 or that region revealed to us by the sun-spots4 ,when ,i wrote 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun10 thirteen or fourteen years ago1 ,i suggested1 on the above grounds1 the then heretical idea of the red-heat of ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and ,neptune1 and showed that all such compounds as water must be dissociated at the base of the sun's atmosphere2 but being then unacquainted with the existence of this critical state of matter1 ,i supposed the dissociated elements to exist as gases with a small solid nucleus or kernel in the centre4 ,applying now the researches of ,dr4 ,andrews to the conditions of solar existence1 as ,i formerly applied the dissociation researches of ,deville1 ,i conclude that the sun has no nucleus1 either solid1 liquid1 or gaseous1 but is composed of dissociated matter in the critical state1 surrounded1 first1 by a flaming envelope due to the re-combination of the dissociated matter1 and outside of this another envelope of vapors due to this combination4 ,,murchison ,,and ,,babbage4 ,the curious contrast of character presented by these two eminent men1 and the very different course of their lives1 conveys a striking lesson to all those superficial thinkers and unthinking talkers who make sweeping generalizations concerning human character2 who assume as a matter of course that any man who writes poetry must be merely a dreamer of day-dreams1 incapable of transacting any practical daily business1 and not at all reliable in money matters2 whose eyes are always 8in a fine frenzy rolling02 that he is1 in short1 a sort of amiable1 harmless lunatic4 ,all actors1 according to such people1 are dissipated spendthrifts2 and if ,sims ,reeves1 or any other public performer1 is prevented by delicate larynx or other indisposition from appearing1 they look knowing1 shrug their shoulders1 wink wisely1 and assume1 without the faintest shadow of evidence1 that he is drunk4 ,in like manner they set up a typical philosopher of their own manufacture1 and attribute his imaginary character to all who devote themselves to science4 ,their philosopher is a musty1 dried-up1 absent-minded pedant1 whose ordinary conversation is conducted in words of seven syllables1 who is always lost in profound abstractions2 takes no interest in common things2 regards music1 dancing1 play-acting1 poetry1 and every cheerful pursuit as frivolous and contemptible--a creature who never makes a joke1 seldom laughs1 and who in matters of business is even more incapable than the poet4 ,the singular contrast of character presented by ,babbage and ,murchison affords at once a most complete refutation of such generalizations4 ,here were two men1 both philosophers1 one the very type of amiability1 suavity1 and all conceivable polish1 the very perfection of a courtier1 but differing from the vulgar courtier of the ,court in this respect1 that his high-toned courtesy was not bestowed upon kings only1 but also upon all his human brethren1 and with especial gracefulness upon those whose rank was below his own4 ,i doubt whether there is any man now living1 or has lived during this generation1 that could equal ,sir ,roderick ,murchison in the art of distributing showers of compliments upon a large number of different people in succession1 and making each recipient delightfully satisfied with himself4 ,in his position as ,chairman to the ,geological ,section of the ,british ,association1 he did this with marvelous tact1 without the least fulsomeness or repetition1 or any display of patronizing4 ,every man who read a paper before that section was better than ever satisfied with the great merits and vast importance of his communication1 after hearing the ,chairman's comments upon it4 ,none but a most detestably strong-minded and logical brute could resist the insinuating flattery of ,sir ,roderick4 ,how different was poor ,babbage6 ,who that attends any sort of scientific gatherings has not seen ,sir ,roderick8 but who in the world1 excepting the organ-grinders and the police magistrate has ever seen ,babbage1 or even his portrait8 ,what a contrast between the seclusion and the public existence2 between the hedgehog bristles and the velvet softness1 of the one and the other6 ,those who were on intimate terms with ,babbage 7,i have never met or heard of such a person7 could probably tell us that all his irritability and roughness were outside1 and that1 in the absence of organ-grinders1 he was a kind and amiable gentleman2 but1 even admitting this1 the contrast between the two philosophers is as great as could well be found between any two men following the most widely divergent studies or professions4 ,those who would reply that mathematics and geology are such different studies have only to go a little further back on the death-roll1 and they will find the name of ,de ,morgan1 a pure mathematician1 like ,babbage4 ,he was a man of exuberant fun and humor1 and so far from hating music of either a humble or pretentious character1 was a highly accomplished musician1 both theoretical and practical1 and if we are to believe confidential communications1 one of his favorite instruments was the penny whistle1 on which he was a most original and peculiar performer4 ,i had not intended to reprint the above1 which was written just after the death of ,murchison and ,babbage1 but the comments that have recently followed the death of ,darwin induce me to do so4 ,many have expressed their surprise at the unanimous expressions of ,darwin's friends concerning the geniality of his disposition1 his gentleness1 cheerfulness2 his genuine humility and simplicity of character4 ,a third type of character is here presented1 and that which corresponds most correctly with the true ideal of a modern philosopher1 also represented by that great master of experimental science1 ,faraday4 ,in both of these there was the full measure of ,murchison's amiability1 but without the courtly polish of the ex-soldier4 ,philosophic meditation and close application to original research may1 and often does1 induce a certain degree of shyness due to a consciousness of the social disqualification which arises from that inability to fulfil all the demands for small attentions which constitute conventional politeness2 a disability due to habits of consecutive thought and mental abstraction4 ,a sensitive and amiable man would suffer much pain on finding that he had neglected to supply the small wants of the lady sitting next to him at a dinner party1 and would withdraw himself from the risk of repeating such unwitting rudeness4 ,this holding back from ordinary society1 though really due to a conscientious sense of social duty and tender regard for the feelings of others1 is too often referred to a churlish unsociality or arrogant assumption of superiority4 ,if ,newton really did mistake the lady's finger for a tobacco-stopper1 depend upon it the pain he suffered was far more acute than that which he inflicted1 and was suffered over and over again whenever the incident was recollected4 ,,atmosphere versus ,,ether4 ,one of the most remarkable meteors of which we have a reliable record appeared on ,february #f1 #ahah4 ,several accounts of it were published1 the fullest being that in ,the ,gentleman's ,magazine of the time4 7,i may here add1 parenthetically1 that one reason why ,i have especial pleasure in writing these notes is that they contribute something towards the restoration of the ancient status of this magazine1 which was at one time the only ,english serial that ventured upon any notable degree of exposition of popular science47 ,upon the data supplied by this account1 ,mr4 ,joule has calculated the height of the meteor to have been #fa miles above the surface of the earth1 and he states that 8this meteor is one of the few that have been seen in the daytime1 and is also interesting as having been one of the first whose observation afforded materials for the estimation of its altitude40 ,it was seen in the neighborhood of ,cambridge at #b ,p4,m41 also at ,swaffham in ,norfolk1 and at ,middleton ,cheney near ,banbury4 ,the distance between this and ,cambridge is sufficient to afford a measurement of its height1 provided its position above the horizon at both places was determined with tolerable accuracy4 ,according to the orthodox text-books1 the atmosphere of this earth terminates at a height of about #de or #ej miles1 or1 if not absolutely ended there1 it ceases to be of appreciable density anywhere above this elevation4 ,but here we have a fact which flatly contradicts the calculation4 ,at #fa miles above the earth's surface there must be atmospheric matter of sufficient density to offer to the passage of this meteor through it an amount of resistance which produced an intense white heat1 visible by its luminosity in broad daylight4 ,in the above-quoted paper1 read by ,mr4 ,joule before the ,manchester ,literary and ,philosophical ,society on ,december #a1 #ahfc1 he refers to subsequent observations and estimates #aaf miles as 8the elevation at which meteors in general are first observed0--i4e41 where our atmosphere is sufficiently dense to generate a white-heat by the resistance it offers to the rapidly flying meteor4 ,it is curious to observe how1 in dealing with actual physical facts1 a mathematician of the solid practical character of ,joule becomes compelled to practically throw overboard the orthodox theory of limited atmospheric extension4 ,here1 in making his calculations of the resistance of atmospheric matter at this elevation1 he bases them on the assumption of a decrease of density at the rate of 8one quarter for every seven miles10 and indicates no limit at which this rate shall vary4 ,very simple arithmetic is sufficient to show that this leads us to the unlimited atmospheric extension1 for which ,i have contended we may go on for ever taking off a quarter at every seven miles1 and there will still remain the three quarters of the quantity upon which we last operated1 or1 more practically stated1 we shall thus go on seven after seven until we reach the boundaries of the atmospheric grasp of the gravitation of some other sphere4 ,surely the time has arrived for the full reconsideration of this fundamental question of whether the universe is filled with atmospheric matter or is the vacuum of the molecular mathematicians plus the imaginary 8ether10 which has been invented by its mathematical creators only to extricate them from the absurd dilemma into which they are plunged when they attempt to explain the transmission of light and heat by undulations traveling through space containing nothing to undulate4 ,they have filled it with immaterial matter evolved entirely from their own consciousness1 which they have gratuitously endowed with whatever properties are required for the fitting of their theories--properties that are self-contradictory and without any counterpart in anything seen or known outside of the fertile imagination of these reckless theorists4 ,we know of nothing that can penetrate every form of matter without adding either to its weight or its bulk2 we know of nothing that can communicate motion to ponderable matter without itself being ponderable--i4e41 having the primary property of matter1 viz41 mass1 or weight1 and consequent vis viva when moving2 we know of nothing that can set bodies in motion without proportionally resisting the motion of bodies through it2 and if the waving of the ether is 7as ,tyndall describes it7 8as real and as truly mechanical as the breaking of sea-waves upon the shore10 the material of the breakers must be like the 8jelly0 to which he compares it1 and have some viscosity1 or resistance to penetration1 or pushing aside4 ,we have not a shadow of direct evidence of the existence of the 8interatomic0 spaces occupied by the other1 and in the midst of which the atoms are made to theoretically swing1 nor even of the existence of the atoms themselves4 ,the 8ether0 of to-day1 with its imaginary penetration and its material action without material properties1 has merely taken the place of the equally imaginary phlogiston1 caloric1 electric1 and magnetic fluids1 the 8imponderables0 of the past4 ,i have little doubt that ere long the modern modification of these physical superstitions will share their fate1 and we shall all adopt the simple conception that heat1 light1 end electricity are1 like sound1 merely transmissible states or affections of matter itself regarded bodily1 as it is seen and felt to exist4 ,this may possibly throw a good many mathematicians out of work--or into more useful work2 but1 however that may be1 it will certainly aid the general diffusion of science as the intellectual inheritance of every human being4 ,at present the explanations of the simple phenomena of light and heat are incomparably more difficult to understand and to account for than the facts which they attempt to elucidate4 ,a ,,neglected ,,disinfectant4 ,when the household of our grandmothers was threatened with infection1 the common practice was to sprinkle brimstone on a hot shovel or on hot coals on a shovel1 and carry the burning result through the house4 ,but now this simple method of disinfecting has gone out of fashion without any good and sufficient reason4 ,the principal reason is neither good nor sufficient1 viz41 that nobody can patent it and sell it in shilling and half-crown bottles4 ,on ,september #ahth last1 ,m4 d',abbadie read a paper at the ,academy of ,sciences on 8,marsh ,fevers10 and stated that in the dangerous regions of ,african river mouths immunity from such-fevers is often secured by sulphur fumigations on the naked body4 ,also that the ,sicilian workers in low ground sulphur mines suffer much less than the rest of the surrounding population from intermittent fevers4 ,m4 ,fouqu has shown that ,zephyria 7on the volcanic island of ,milo or ,melos1 the most westerly of the ,cyclades71 which had a population of #dj1jjj when it was the centre of sulphur-mining operations1 became nearly depopulated by marsh fever when the sulphur-mining was moved farther east1 and the emanations prevented by a mountain from reaching the town4 ,other similar cases were stated4 ,it is well understood by chemists that bleaching agents are usually good disinfectants2 that which can so disturb an organic compound as to destroy its color1 is capable of either arresting or completing the decompositions that produce vile odors and nourish the organic germs or ferments which usual accompany1 or1 as some affirm1 cause them4 ,sulphurous acid is1 next to hypochlorous acid1 one of the most effective bleaching agents within easy reach4 ,i should add that sulphurous acid is the gas that is directly formed by burning sulphur4 ,by taking up another dose of oxygen it becomes sulphuric acid1 which1 combined with water1 is oil of vitriol4 ,the bleaching and disinfecting action of the sulphurous acid is connected with its activity in appropriating the oxygen which is loosely held or being given off by organic matter4 ,chlorine and hypochlorous acid 7which is still more effective than chlorine itself7 act in the opposite way1 so do the permanganates1 such as ,condy's fluid1 etc4 ,they supply oxygen in the presence of water4 ,it is curious that opposite actions should produce like results4 ,a disquisition on this and its suggestions would carry me beyond the limits of a note4 ,,another ,,disinfectant4 ,the above-named disinfectants are objectionable on account of their own odors and their corrosive action4 ,both sulphurous acid and hypochlorous acid 7the active principle of the so-called 8chloride of lime07 have a disagreeable habit of rusting iron and suggesting antique green bronzes by their action on brass ornaments4 ,under serious conditions this should be endured1 but in many cases where the danger is not already developed1 the desired end may be attained without these annoyances4 ,sulphate of copper1 which is not patented or 8brought out0 by a limited company1 may be bought at its fair retail value of #f;d4 or less per lb4 7the oil-shop name for it is 8blue vitriol071 in crystals1 readily soluble in water4 ,i have lately used it in the case of a trouble to which ,english households are too commonly liable1 and one that has in many cases done serious mischief4 ,the stoppage of a soil-pipe caused the overflow of a closet1 and a consequent saturation of floor boards1 that in time would probably have developed danger by nourishing and developing those germs of bacteria1 bacilli1 etc41 which abound in the air1 and are ready to increase and multiply wherever their unsavory food abounds4 ,by simply mopping the floor with a solution of these green crystals1 and allowing it to soak well into the pores of the wood1 they cease to become a habitat for such microscopic abominations4 ,the copper-salt poisons the poisoners4 ,dr4 ,burg goes so far as to recommend that building materials1 articles of furniture1 and clothing1 etc41 should be injected with sulphate of copper1 in order to avert infection1 and in support of this refers to the immunity of workers in copper from cholera1 typhoid fever1 and infectious diseases generally4 ,i agree with him to the extent of suggesting the desirability of occasionally mopping house floors with this solution4 ,its visible effects on the wood are first to stain it with a faint green tinge which gradually tones down to a brown stain1 giving to deal the appearance of oak1 a change which has no disadvantage from an artistic point of view4 ,if the wood is already tainted with organic matter capable of giving off sulphureted hydrogen1 the darkening change is more rapid and decided1 owing to the formation of sulphide of copper4 ,the solution of sulphate should not be put into iron or zinc vessels1 as it rapidly corrodes them1 and deposits a non-adherent film of copper4 ,it will even disintegrate common earthenware1 by penetrating the glaze1 and crystallizing within the pores of the ware1 but this is a work of time 7weeks or months74 ,stoneware resists this1 and wooden buckets may be used safely4 ,it is better to keep the crystals and dissolve when required4 ,ordinary earthenware may be used with impunity if washed immediately afterwards4 ,,ensilage4 ,this subject has been largely expounded and discussed lately in the ,times and other newspapers4 ,as most of my readers are doubtless aware1 it is simply a substitute for haymaking1 by digging pits1 paving and building them round with stone or concrete1 then placing the green fodder therein and covering it over with sufficient earth to exclude the air4 ,we are told that very inferior material 7such as coarse maize grass mixed with chaff7 when thus preserved gives better feeding and milking results than good ,english hay4 ,i may mention a very humble experience of my own that bears upon this4 ,when a boy1 ,i was devoted to silkworms1 and my very small supply of pocket-money was over-taxed in the purchase of exorbitantly small pennyworths of mulberry leaves at ,covent ,garden4 ,but a friend in the country had a mulberry tree1 and at rather long intervals ,i obtained large supplies1 which1 in spite of all my careful wrapping in damp cloths1 became rotted in about ten days4 ,i finally tried digging a hole and burying them4 ,they remained fresh and green until all my silkworms commenced the working and fasting stage of their existence4 ,this was ensilage on a small scale4 ,the correspondence in the newspapers has suggested a number of reasons why ,english farmers do not follow the example of their continental neighbors in this respect2 climate1 difference of grasses1 etc41 etc41 are named1 but the real reason why this is commercially impossible1 and farming1 properly so called1 is becoming a lost art in ,england 7mere meadow or prairie grazing gradually superseding it7 is not named in any part of the discussion that ,i have read4 ,i refer to the cause which is abolishing the ,english dairy1 which drives us to the commercial absurdity of importing fragile eggs from ,france1 ,italy1 ,spain1 etc41 apples from the other side of the ,atlantic1 tame house-fed rabbits from ,belgium1 and so on1 with all other agricultural products which are precisely those we are naturally best able to produce at home2 ,i mean those demanding a small area of land and a proportionately large amount of capital and labor4 ,a poultry or rabbit farm1 acre for acre1 demands fully ten times the capital1 ten times the labor1 and yields ten times the produce obtained by our big-field beef and mutton graziers4 ,the scientific and economic merits of ensilage are probably all that is claimed for it1 and it is especially adapted for our uncertain haymaking climate1 but what farmer who is merely a lodger on the land1 holding it as an annual tenant-at-will or under a stinted beggarly lease of #ba years1 would expend his capital in building a costly silo1 which becomes by our feudal laws and usages the absolute property of the landlord8 ,our tenant farmers employ the latest and best achievements of engineering science in the form of implements1 but take care that they shall be upon wheels1 or otherwise non-fixtures1 and use rich chemically prepared manures1 provided they are not permanent1 while they abstain from improvements which involve any serious outlay in the form of fixtures on the land4 ,those who lecture them about their want of enterprise should always remember that their condition is merely a form of feudal serfdom1 tempered by the possession of capital1 and that all their agricultural operations are influenced by a continual struggle to prevent their capital from falling into the hands of the feudal lord4 ,anybody who has ever read an ordinary form of ,english farm-lease1 with its prohibitions concerning the sale of hay and straw1 and restrictions to 8four-course10 or other mode of cultivation1 must see the hopelessness of any development of ,british agriculture comparable to that of ,british commerce and manufactures4 ,imagine the condition of a ,london shopkeeper or ,midland manufacturer holding his business premises as a yearly tenant1 liable at six months' notice to quit1 with confiscation of all his business fixtures4 ,,the ,,fracture ,,of ,,comets4 ,the view of the constitution of comets expounded in one of my notes of ,april last1 viz41 that they are meteoric systems consisting of a central mass1 or masses1 round which a multitude of minor bodies are revolving like satellites around their primary1 is strongly confirmed by the curious proceedings of the present comet1 which proceedings also justify my last note of last month pointing out the omission of our astronomers1 who have neglected the positive and irregular repulsive action of the sun upon comets1 that1 like the great comets of #ahdc1 #ahhj1 and #ahhb1 come within a few hundred thousand miles of the visible solar surface4 ,the solar prominences are stupendous eruptions from the sun1 consisting1 as the spectroscope demonstrates1 of hydrogen flames and incandescent metallic vapors ejected with furious violence to visible distances ranging from ten or twenty to above three hundred thousand miles1 but this flame shown by the spectroscope is but the flash of the gun1 the actual ejection proceeding vastly farther1 far beyond the limits of the corona1 as described in last month's notes4 ,these eruptions are so abundant that ,secchi alone observed and recorded #bgfg in one year 7#ahga74 ,speaking generally1 the sun is never free from them1 and they proceed from all parts of the sun1 but most abundantly from the sun-spot zones4 ,a system of meteoric bodies such as ,i suppose to form a comet 7,i mean the comet as it exists in space before the generation of its tail1 which is only formed as it approaches the sun7 could not approach so near to the sun as did the present comet at perihelion1 without encountering more or less of these furious blasts the flash of some of which have been seen to move with a measurable mean velocity of above #cjj miles per second1 and a probable maximum velocity sufficient to eject solid matter beyond the reclaiming grasp of solar gravitation4 ,it is evident that such a meteoric system as ,i suppose to constitute a comet would1 in the course of a rapid perihelion flight crossing these outblasts1 be liable to various degrees of ejection in different parts1 that would disturb its original structure by blowing some of its constituents out of their orbits1 or even quite away from the control of the feeble gravitation of the general meteoric mass1 and thus effecting a rupture of the comet4 ,now such a disintegration or dispersion of the present comet has been actually observed4 ,several able observers have described a breaking of the head of this comet shortly after its perihelion passage4 ,commander ,sampson's observations with the great #bf-;inch equatorial telescope of the ,washington ,naval ,observatory are very explicit4 ,on ,october #be he saw the nucleus as a single well-defined globular body4 ,on ,november #c1 with the same telescope1 he saw a triple nucleus1 due to the formation of two additional minor bodies4 ,these were more distinctly seen on ,november #f4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,brooks1 of ,new ,york1 saw a detached fragment of the comet which afterwards faded out of view4 ,professor ,schmidt observed another and similar fragment which has likewise disappeared4 ,all these observations indicate disruption due to some disturbing force1 acting with different degrees of violence upon different portions of the comet4 ,minor disturbances of this kind will1 ,i think1 account for the trail of meteoric bodies which ,schiaparelli has shown to follow the paths of other comets4 ,a great disturbance might give quite a new orbit to the meteoric fragments4 ,these considerations suggest another and a curious view of the question of possible cometary collision with the sun1 viz41 that a comet might be traveling in such an orbit as to make it mathematically due to plunge obliquely beneath the solar surface at its next perihelion2 but on its approach to the surface of the sun it might encounter so violent an outrush of solar-prominence matter as to drive it bodily out of its course1 and avert the threatened peril to its existence4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,comets4 ,we read in story-books of uncomfortable people who have cherished a guilty secret in their bosoms1 that it has 8gnawed their vitals10 until at last they have carried it to the grave4 ,i have such a secret that does the gnawing business whenever ,i write or speak of comets1 concerning the origin of which ,i am guilty of an hypothesis that has hitherto been cherished as aforesaid from the very shame of adding another to an already exaggerated heap of speculations on celestial physics4 ,it assumes1 in the first place1 that all the other suns which we see as stars are constituted like our own sun2 that they eject great eruptions similar to the prominences above described1 and even of vastly greater magnitude1 as in the case of the flashing stars that have excited so much wonderment among astronomers1 but which ,i regard simply as suns like ours1 subject1 like ours1 to periodic maximum and minimum activities1 but of greater magnitude4 ,if such is the case1 some of the prominence matter or vaporous constituents of these suns must be ejected with much greater proportional violence than are those from our sun4 ,but those from our sun have been proved to rush out on some occasions with a velocity so great that the solar gravitation cannot bring them back4 ,if such is ever the case with the explosions of our sun1 it must be of frequent occurrence with the greater explosions of certain stars1 and therefore vast quantities of meteoric matter are continually ejected into space1 and traveling there until they come within the gravitation domain of some other sun like ours1 when they will necessarily be bent into such orbits as those of comets4 ,but what will be the nature of this meteoric matter8 ,if from our sun1 it would be a multitude of metallic hailstones1 due to the condensation of the metallic vapor by cooling as it leaves the sun1 and such meteoric hail would correspond to the meteoric stones that fall upon our earth1 and which1 for reasons stated in 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun10 ,i believe to be of solar origin4 ,besides these1 there would be ice-hail1 such as ,schevedorf claims to be meteoric4 ,a star mainly composed of hydrogen and carbon1 or densely enveloped in these gases 7as the spectroscope indicates to be the case in some of these flashing stars71 would eject hydrocarbon vapors1 condensible by cooling into solids similar to those we obtain by the condensation of terrestrial hydrocarbon vapors 7paraffin1 camphor1 turpentine1 and all the essential oils1 for example71 and thus we should have the meteoric systems composed of these particles circulating about their own common centre of mass as above stated1 and displaying the spectrum which ,dr4 ,huggins has found common to comets4 ,if this is correct1 the present comet comes from a sun that contains metallic sodium in addition to the hydrocarbons1 as the spectrum of this metal was seen when this comet was near enough to the sun to render its vapor incandescent4 ,,footnotes #a ,up to the present date 7#ahhb7 nobody1 as far as ,i know1 has questioned my figures or defended those of ,wollaston4 ,sir ,william ,grove has written to me1 pointing out his own anticipations of my conclusions respecting the universality of atmospheric matter4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 before his death1 expressed very strong approval of my conclusions1 and many other men of scientific eminence have done the same4 ,to expect any immediate1 unreserved adoption of such bold speculations would be unreasonable4 #b ,since the above was written these analogies have been generally accepted4 #c ,since the publication of 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun10 ,mr4 ,norman ,lockyer has adopted this view of solar dissociation1 and has gone so far as to suppose that it splits metals and other substances regarded by modern chemists as simple elements into more elementary and simple constituents4 ,he assumes that the temperature of the solar atmosphere1 growing higher at increasing depths1 becomes somewhere capable of doing far greater dissociation work than that which separates the hydrogen of the prominences revealed by the spectroscope4 ,in putting forth this 8working hypothesis0 he seems to have lost sight of the fact clearly proved by ,deville's experiments1 that the temperature of dissociation rises with the pressure to which the compound is subjected1 and thus that within the bowels of the sun the metals will be far less dissociable than they are on the surface of our earth4 #d ,still more recently 7#ahhb7 the magnificent photographs of ,jannsen have displayed further evidence of the flame-tongue character of the mottling4 #e ,subsequent observations 7#ahhb7 by ,secchi1 ,young1 and others have demonstrated velocities far exceeding this2 quite sufficient to project the solid matter clearly beyond the sphere of solar attraction4 #f ,my first memorandum on this subject is dated ,april #bc1 #ahdj1 in a ,register of ,ideas1 then commenced in very early student days4 #g ,any reader of 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun0 will perceive that the vaporous envelope which ,i have described as 8an effectual jacket for limiting the amount of radiation10 is a complete theoretical anticipation and explanation of the 8solar crust0 of ,respighi and the 8,trennungschicht0 of ,zllner4 ,we agree perfectly in our conclusions1 though arriving at them by such very different paths1 and so independently of each other4 #h ,what did he smell8 ,was it an emanation from the soles of my feet8 ,if so1 how did this aura get through the soles of my boots1 which were thick8 ,it could scarcely have been the odor of the boot soles themselves that he followed1 as he recognized me afterwards at some distance4 ,this suggests an interesting experiment1 that anybody owning one of these dogs may easily try4 ,make a similar track to mine1 but when on the way1 take off the boots you wore on starting and change them for some one else's boots1 or a new pair1 and watch the result from the window4 #i 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun10 ,chapters iv4 to x4 #aj ,since this was written some such modifications have been made with equivocal results4 #aa ,nature1 vol4 xiv4 p4 #dbi4 #ab ,see ,chapter on 8,the ,origin of ,lunar ,volcanoes40 #ac ,the burnt card1 burnt bamboo1 and other flimsy incandescent threads now 7#ahhb7 in vogue1 merely represent ,starr's preliminary failures prior to his adoption of the hard adamantine stick of retort-carbon1 which ,i suppose will be duly re-invented1 patented again1 and form the basis of new ,limited ,companies1 when the present have collapsed4 #ad ,hull1 8,on the ,coal-fields of ,great ,britain40 #ae 8,the ,great ,ice ,age1 and its ,relation to the ,antiquity of ,man40 ,by ,james ,geikie1 ,f4,r4,s41 etc4 ,second edition1 revised1 #ahgg4 ,daldy and ,isbister4 #af ,the terminal moraine at the ,oxfjord station1 which ,i have already mentioned as the only ancient example of an ordinary moraine that ,i have seen in ,arctic ,norway1 was1 of course1 a special object of interest to me4 ,further observation showed that it does not merely consist of the heap of stones ,i noticed in #ahef1 which appears like a disturbed talus cut through and heaped up at its lower part1 but that there is another moraine adjoining it1 or in continuation with it1 which is covered with vegetation1 and stretches quite across the mouth of the valley4 ,the ,duke of ,roxburgh1 who is well acquainted with this neighborhood1 having spent sixteen summers in ,arctic ,norway1 was one of our fellow-passengers1 and told me that this moraine forms a barrier that dams up the waters of a considerable lake1 abounding with remarkably fine char4 ,i learned this just as the packet was starting1 too late to go on shore even for a few minutes1 and obtain a view of this lake and the valley beyond4 ,this ,i regret1 as it might have revealed some explanation of the exceptional nature of this moraine4 ,it would be interesting to learn whether it belongs to the greater ice age1 or to that period of minor glaciation that fashioned the farm patches already described4 ,the formation of the lake is easily understood in the latter case4 ,it is only required that such a minor reglaciated valley as one of these should be of larger magnitude and of very gentle inclination at its lower part1 so that the secondary glacier should die out before reaching the present seashore4 ,it would then deposit its moraine across the mouth of the valley1 and this moraine would dam up the waters which such a valley must necessarily receive from the drainage of its hilly sides4 ,llyn ,idwal1 in ,north ,wales1 is a lake thus formed4 #ag ,see 8,through ,norway with a ,knapsack10 chapters xi4 and xii41 for further descriptions of these4 #ah ,lyell1 8,elements of ,geology10 p4 #aei4 #ai ,the celebrated 8,maelstrm0 is one of the currents that flow down the submarine incline between these islands when the tide is falling4 ,although ,i have ridiculed some of the accounts of this now innocent stream1 ,i am not prepared to assert that it was always as mild as at present4 ,if the ancient glaciers were stopped suddenly1 as they may well have been1 by the rocky barrier of ,mosken1 between ,vaer and ,moskenes1 and they then suddenly concluded their deposition of till1 a precipice must have been formed between this and the deep sea outside the islands1 down which the sea would pitch when the tide was falling1 and thus form some dangerous eddies4 ,this cascade would gradually obliterate itself by wearing down the precipitous wall to an inclined plane such as at present exists1 and down which the existing current flows4 #bj ,the largest of the ,norwegian lakes1 the ,mjosen1 is #aeej feet deep1 and its surface #che feet above the sea-level4 ,its bottom is about #ajjj feet lower than the sea outside1 or #ejj to #hjj feet below the bottom of the ,christiana ,fjord4 ,the fjords1 generally speaking1 are very much shallower near their mouths than further inland1 as though their depth had been determined by the thickness of the glaciers flowing down them1 and the consequent limits of flotation and deposition4 #ba ,this has been recently overcome to a great extent by using glycerine instead of water4 #bb ,since the above was written ,i have made some experiments with a solution of shellac in borax 7obtained by long boiling71 and hereby claim the invention of its application to this purpose1 in order to prevent anybody from patenting it4 ,i shall not do so myself4 #bc ,written during the coal famine of #ahgb-gc4 #bd ,from #ahgj to #ahhj the amount has risen from #aaj1dca1aib to #adf1hah1fbb tons per annum1 an average increase of #c1fch1gdc tons per annum4 #be ,at the present time 7#ahhb7 we are receiving the excessive supplies consequent upon the opening of new pits that1 under the stimulus of high prices1 were in the course of sinking when the above was written4 ,hence the present low prices4 ,presently the annual increase of consumption will overtake this increased supply1 and another 8coal famine0 like that then existing will follow4 ,this is not far distant4 #bf 8,the ,coal ,fields of ,great ,britain10 pp4 #ddg1 #ddh4 #bg ,in a paper on the ,comstock mines1 read at the ,pittsburg meeting of the ,american ,institute of ,mining ,engineers in #ahgi1 by ,mr4 ,john ,a4 ,church1 the hot mine waters are described as reaching #aeh ,fahr4 7so hot that men have been scalded to death by falling into them74 ,the highest recorded air temperature there is #abh4 ,these are silver mines1 and vigorously worked in spite of this temperature and great humidity4 ,a much higher temperature is endurable in dry air4 #bh ,the scientific pedant of the ,middle ,ages displayed his profundity by continually quoting ,aristotle and other 8ancients40 ,his modern successor does the like by decorating his pages with displays of algebraical formul4 ,in order to secure the proper respect of my readers ,i here repeat the equation that ,i enunciated many years ago1 8c s_/p0 where c stands for civilization1 s for the quantity of soap consumed per annum1 and p the population of a given community4 #bi ,geologists who may be interested in seeing the results of this experiment1 will find on the ,edgbaston ,vestry ,hall1 in ,enville ,road1 near the ,five ,ways1 ,birmingham1 some columns1 massive window pieces1 doorways1 and ornamental steps cast from the fused ,rowley ,rag and slowly cooled4 #cj ,in each of my three visits to ,america #a lost about thirty pounds in weight1 which ,i recovered within a few months of my return to the 8home country0 7of ,english-speaking nations74--,,richard ,a4 ,,proctor4 #ca ,since the above was written1 a correspondent in ,paris tells me that a caricature exists1 representing a ,frenchman enjoying an open fire by standing on his head in the middle of the room4 #cb ,see foot-note1 page #cfe4 #cc ,i tried the seeds given to me by ,messrs4 ,carter1 and find them to produce the same plant as my own1 which ,i still cultivate very successfully4 ,i now sow it in the spring as a kitchen garden border4 #cd ,subsequent experiments induce me not to recommend this economy1 on account of the bagging which results from excessive width between the frames2 #c feet should not be exceeded4 #ce ,i have followed up ,mr4 ,trewby's hint1 and find that more than one quality of scrim is made4 ,the best1 made entirely of flax1 costs rather more than the #b;d4 stated in the estimate1 but it is the cheapest practically4 ,the best ,i have seen is that used in the ,houses of ,parliament4 #cf ,watt's own figure for the latent heat of steam at #bab was #iej1 but ,i adopt that which is now generally accepted4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,the original text contained many typographical errors4 ,the simple ones were corrected without comment here2 others are noted below4 ,unbalanced quotation marks were corrected1 as proper placement always could be determined4 ,some typographical errors probably remain undetected4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained2 occurrences of inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed4 ,text uses both 8,acadamy0 and 8,academy02 both retained here4 ,page #ccf3 8,the disagreeable sensation experienced by ,dr4 ,siemens in the stove-heated railway cars1 etc41 were probably due to this0 was printed that way4 ,either 8sensation0 should be 8sensations0 or 8were0 should be 8was04