,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,fine ,,art ,,by ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,hegel ,,translated1 ,,with ,,notes1 ,,by ,f4 ,p4 ,b4 ,,osmaston1 ,b4,a4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,and ,,genius ,,of ,,tintoret1 ,,an ,,essay ,,on ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,poetry1 ,,and ,,other ,,works ,,vol4 ,,iii ,,london ,g4 ,,bell ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 #aibj ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,,iii ,,third ,,part ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,the ,,particular ,,arts ,,introduction ,summary4 ,nature of the relation between the system of ,art-types1 or the collective totality of ideal world-presentments1 and their objective realization in independent works of art4 ,nature of the process in the evolution of the specific arts themselves1 and of the aspects identical in all4 ,the origins of art4 ,grace1 ,charm1 and severe or agreeable ,style ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,subject ,the principle of differentiation as determined by the sensuous aspect of the subject-matter1 and the relation thereto of the human senses of ,sight1 ,hearing1 and intellectual ,conception4 ,insufficiency of such a principle of classification4 ,alternative principle discussed and illustrated of more concrete nature1 in which the evolution of truth as the reality of the ,idea itself is presented ,,subsection ,i ,,architecture ,,introduction ,of the beginnings of human art1 and that of building in particular4 ,of the nature of the subordinate classification of architecture viewed as symbolic1 classical and romantic ,division of ,subject ,,chapter ,i ,,independent ,,and ,,symbolic ,,architecture ,introduction and ,subdivision #a4 ,works of architecture erected in order to unite peoples #b4 ,works of architecture intermediate between the arts of building and sculpture 7a7 ,the influence of the generative activity of ,nature on the form of buildings 7b7 ,further modification of similar conceptions in the obelisks of ,egypt and other examples 7c7 ,temple enclosures1 labyrinths1 etc4 #c4 ,the transition from self-substantive architecture to the classical type 7a7 ,the nature of subterranean dwellings 7b7 ,construction raised to house the dead in ,egypt and elsewhere4 ,the ,pyramids 7c7 ,buildings that directly subserve a purpose as the point of transition to the classical type4 ,the ordinary dwelling4 ,the environment of the sculptured image4 ,the adoption of the principle of expediency4 ,the abstraction of parts of a building from the organic form1 e4g41 in the column ,,chapter ,,ii ,,classical ,,architecture ,introduction and ,subdivision #a4 ,the general character of classical architecture 7a7 ,serviceableness to a definite end 7b7 ,the nature of the fitness or power of adaptation of such a structure to such an end 7c7 ,the relatively greater artistic freedom of such architecture4 ,architecture as frozen music4 ,the dwelling-house #b4 ,the fundamental determinants of architectural forms in their separation 7a7 ,buildings of wood and stone4 ,the question of their historical priority 7b7 ,the specific forms of the parts of a temple-dwelling4 77 ,features of support4 ,the column 77 ,the thing supported4 ,the entablature1 in its architecture1 cornice1 etc4 77 ,that which encloses4 ,the walls and partitions 7c7 ,the classical temple in its entirety 77 ,the horizontal rather than soaring-up character 77 ,the simplicity and proportion 77 ,the nature of its elaboration #c4 ,the different constructive types of classical architecture 7a7 ,the ,doric1 ,ionian1 and ,corinthian types1 compared and contrasted 7b7 ,the ,roman type of building4 ,the vault 7c7 ,general character of ,roman architecture ,,chapter ,,iii ,,roman ,,architecture #a4 ,general ,architecture #b4 ,particular architectural modes of configuration 7a7 ,as the basic form we have the wholly shut away dwelling-house 77 ,relation of this form to the ideal character of the ,christian religion 77 ,exclusion of light and access to mundane life 77 ,the aspect of soaring in tower and pinnacle 7b7 ,the form of the exterior and interior 77 ,the figure of the square and rectangular roofing not appropriate4 ,parallel between the vaulting of a ,gothic church and a roofing of forest trees4 ,distinction between piers and columns4 ,the pointed arch4 ,distinction between choir1 transept1 nave1 and aisles4 ,the baptismal font and entrance 77 ,in contrast to the ,greek temple decoration and and general coordination of parts determined from within outwards4 ,the form of ,cross4 ,the doors4 ,flying buttresses1 pinnacles1 and towers 7c7 ,the mode of decoration 77 ,importance of ornament to ,gothic architecture 77 ,lightness and delicacy a prevailing feature1 especially on the outside 77 ,display of romantic imagination therein #c4 ,different types of building in romantic architecture 7a7 ,the pre-,gothic architecture distinct from it4 ,the basilica 7b7 ,genuine ,gothic architecture of the thirteenth century 7c7 ,secular architecture of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the art of garden-making ,,subsection ,,ii ,,sculpture ,,introduction ,sculpture makes a direct use of the human form instead of accepting a symbolical mode of expression merely suggestive of spiritual import4 ,does not primarily express emotion or spiritual life in action or the focus of soul-life4 ,absence of colour ,division of subject ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,genuine ,,sculpture #a4 ,the essential content of sculpture 7a7 ,the twofold aspect of subjectivity4 ,the province of subjective life as such to be excluded from sculpture4 ,the ,divine presented in its infinite repose and sublimity 7b7 ,presents a spiritual content only as explicit in bodily shape #b4 ,the beautiful form of sculpture 7a7 ,the exclusion of the particularity of the appearance4 ,how far relative 7b7 ,the exclusion of incidental facial expression 7c7 ,substantive individuality #c4 ,sculpture as the art of the classical ,ideal ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,ideal ,,of ,,sculpture ,introduction and division of subject #a4 ,the general character of the ideal form of sculpture 7a7 ,the free product of the genius of the artist4 ,general content borrowed from mythology1 etc4 7b7 ,the animation which results from the plastic perfection of the integrated coalescence of the whole throughout its definition and relief 7c7 ,no mere imitation of ,nature4 ,the external shape must be suffused with ideal content #b4 ,the particular aspects of the ideal form of sculpture as such 7a7 ,the ,greek profile4 ,contrast of the human mouth with that of animals4 ,the projection of the forehead4 ,position of nose4 ,consideration of the human eye and ear4 ,beauty of the human mouth4 ,treatment of the chin in sculpture1 also the hair 7b7 ,position of other parts of the human body and the motion thereof 77 ,the nature of the relation under which the limbs are associated in their contribution to spiritual ideality4 ,the upright position 77 ,the motion and repose of the same in their freedom and beauty 77 ,the type of position and motion adapted to a situation 7habitus7 or bodily habit under which the ,ideal is expressed 7c7 ,drapery 77 ,ethical origin and artistic justification of1 in sculpture 77 ,treatment of it by ,greek sculpture 77 ,artistic principle as determining the right emphasis on ideal significance4 ,contrast between antique and modern sculpture in the use of it #c4 ,the individuality of the ideal figures of ,sculpture 7a7 ,incidental attributes and style of drapery1 armour1 etc41 treated by sculpture4 ,distinguishing symbolic accessories of ,greek gods 7b7 ,distinctions of age and sex in gods1 heroes1 human figures1 and animals 7c7 ,representation of particular gods ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,representation1 ,,material1 ,,and ,,the ,,historical ,,stages ,,of ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,sculpture ,introduction and division of subject #a4 ,modes of ,representation 7a7 ,the single statue 7b7 ,the group4 ,tranquil juxtaposition4 ,conflicting actions4 ,niobe4 ,lacoon 7c7 ,the relief #b4 ,the material of sculpture 7a7 ,wood 7b7 ,ivory1 gold1 bronze1 and marble 7c7 ,precious stones and glass #c4 ,the historical evolution of sculpture 7a7 ,egyptian sculpture4 ,deficiency of ideal spontaneity4 ,position of hands and arms4 ,position of eyes 7b7 ,sculpture of the ,greeks and ,romans 7c7 ,christian sculpture ,,subsection ,,iii ,,the ,,romantic ,,arts ,,introduction ,the principle of subjectivity as such4 ,how it is accepted as the essential principle by romantic art4 ,the contrast presented by romantic and classical art in the changed point of view4 ,the effect of such a change on both the subjective side of soul-life and the external aspect of objective presentment4 ,the process of the gradual idealization of the external medium of art itself as illustrated by the particular romantic arts and the necessity thereof ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,painting ,introduction and division of subject ,i4 ,general character of ,painting 7a7 ,fundamental definition of the art4 ,combines the subject-matter of architecture and sculpture4 ,more popular than sculpture 77 ,individuality must not be suffered to pass wholly into the universality of its substance4 ,introduction of accidental features as in ,nature 77 ,greatly extended field of subject-matter4 ,the entire world of the religious idea1 history1 ,nature1 all that concerns humanity included 77 ,a revelation further of the objective existence of soul-life4 ,vitality of artist imported into his presentation of natural objects 7b7 ,the sensuous medium of ,painting 77 ,compresses the three dimensions of ,space into two4 ,its greater abstraction1 as compared with sculpture1 implies an advance ideally4 ,its object is semblance merely1 its interest that of contemplation4 ,the nature of its locale 77 ,its higher power of differentiation4 ,light its medium4 ,this implies1 even in ,nature1 a movement towards ideality4 ,the appearance of light and shadow in painting intentional4 ,form is the creation of light and shadow simply4 ,this fact supplies rationale of the removal of one dimension from spatial condition 77 ,this medium enables the art to elaborate the entire extent of the phenomenal world 7c7 ,the principle of the artistic mode of treatment ,two opposed directions in painting1 one the expression of spiritual significance by interfusion with or abstraction from objective phenomena1 the other the reproduction of every kind of detail as not alien to its fundamental principle4 ,illustrations of the two methods and their relative opposition1 or reconciliation #b4 ,particular modes in the definition of ,painting 7a7 ,the romantic content 77 ,the ,ideal which consists in the reconciliation of the soul with ,god as revealed in ,his human passage through suffering4 ,the religious content4 ,the ,love of religion 77 ,the representation of ,god the ,father4 ,generally beyond the scope of painting4 ,the famous picture of ,van ,eyck at ,ghent 77 ,christ the more essential object4 ,modes of depicting him in his absolute ,godhead or his humanity4 ,scenes of ,childhood and ,passion most fitted to express religious aspect4 ,love of the ,virgin ,mary4 ,contrast with ,niobe 77 ,the ideas of devotion1 repentance1 and conversion as such affect humanity in general when included in the religious sphere4 ,the pictorial treatment of martyrdom 77 ,the pictorial treatment of landscape 77 ,the pictorial treatment of objects in natural or secular associations4 ,the vitality and delight of independent human existence4 ,art secures the stability of evanescent phenomena4 ,the influence of artistic personality on the interest 7b7 ,the more detailed definition of the material of pictorial representation 77 ,linear perspective 77 ,accuracy of drawing of form4 ,the plastic aspect of a pictorial work 77 ,the significance of colour4 ,modelling4 ,of gradations of colour and its symbolism4 ,of various schemes of colour4 ,colour harmony4 ,the painting of the human flesh4 ,the mystery of colour ,the creative impulse of the artist 7c7 ,artistic conception1 composition1 and characterization ,painting can only embody one moment of time4 ,concentration of interest4 ,the law of intelligibility4 ,religious subjects1 their advantage in this respect4 ,historical scenes as appropriate to particular buildings4 ,unity of entire effect4 ,raphael's ,transfiguration4 ,of the treatment of landscape as subordinate4 ,the grouping of figures4 ,the form of the pyramid4 ,comparison of the characteristic in painting and sculpture4 ,the treatment of love's expression in religious subjects4 ,the gradual elaboration of the portrait4 ,the situation which is itself a critical moment in characterization #c4 ,the historical development of ,painting 7a7 ,byzantine painting 7b7 ,italian painting4 ,general review of its spirit in religious and romantic subject-matter 77 ,characteristic features of early type3 austerity1 solemnity1 and religious elevation 77 ,the free acceptance of all that is human and individual4 ,the influence of ,giotto4 ,later schools mark a still further advance in naturalism4 ,masaccio and ,fra ,angelico4 ,the pictorial representation of secular subjects 77 ,further advance in power of emotional expression4 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,perugino1 ,raphael1 and ,correggio4 7c7 ,the ,flemish1 ,dutch1 and ,german schools 77 ,the brothers ,van ,eyck4 ,innocence1 navet1 and piety of early ,flemish ,school4 ,contrast with ,italian masters 77 ,the emphasis by ,north ,german painting on ugliness and brutality 77 ,dutch painting4 ,historical conditions of its appearance4 ,general characteristics of ,dutch art ,,chapter ,,ii ,,music ,,introduction ,summary4 ,the principle of subjectivity1 as realized in painting1 contrasted with its complete emancipation in the art of music4 ,annihilation of spatial objectivity4 ,motion with its resultant effect in musical tone4 ,analysis of the twofold negation of externality in which the fundamental principle of musical tone consists4 ,the inner soul-life exclusively the subject-matter of music4 ,addressed also in its effect to such ,division of subject #a4 ,the ,general ,character of ,music 7a7 ,comparison of music with the plastic arts and poetry 77 ,both affiliated to and strongly contrasted with architecture4 ,it resembles architecture in the nature of the configuration of its content as based on rigorously rational principles directed by human invention4 ,it supplies the architectonic of the extreme of ideality as architecture supplies that of the external material of sense4 ,the quantitative or measure relation is the basis of both 77 ,music further removed from sculpture than painting4 ,this is not merely due to the greater ideality of latter1 but also to its treatment of its medium4 ,the unity realized by a musical composition of a different kind to that realized by the plastic arts4 ,in the former case subject to the condition of a time-series 77 ,most nearly related to poetry4 ,employ the same medium of tone4 ,poetry possible without speech-utterance4 ,ideal objectivity of poetry as contrasted with the independence of musical tone as the sensuous medium of music4 ,music as an accompaniment of the voice 7b7 ,musical grasp and expression of ,content 77 ,primarily must not minister to sense-perception4 ,must make soul-life intelligible to soul4 ,this abstract inwardness differentiated in human feeling1 of every description 77 ,natural interjections not music4 ,they are the point of departure4 ,to music belongs intelligible structure1 a totality of differences capable of union and disunion in concords1 discords1 oppositions and transitions4 ,the nature of its relation to positive ideas 7c7 ,effect of music 77 ,the evanescent character of the objectivity of music4 ,it seizes on conscious life where it is not confronted with an object4 ,its effect due to an elementary force4 ,appeal to man as a particular person4 ,the soul made aware of its association with ,time4 ,analysis of the notion of ,time 77 ,must also possess a content4 ,orpheus4 ,incentive to martial ardour and enthusiasm 77 ,necessity of repeated reproduction4 ,personal relation of the executive artist to the same4 ,excess of this influence #b4 ,the particular definition of the means of expression in music 7a7 ,time-measure1 beat1 and rhythm ,the relation of ,time to the fundamental principle of subjective life4 ,time-measure prevents the series being indefinite and devoid of content1 and further regulates by intelligible division the nature of its advance4 ,time-beat possesses the same function as the principle of symmetry in architecture4 ,coordinates a fortuitous variety4 ,distinct kinds of time-measure4 ,rhythm gives vital significance to the time-measure and beat4 ,the accent4 ,the rhythm of melody4 ,the analogous example of verse4 ,handelian music 7b7 ,harmony 77 ,difference of sound through different instruments of music4 ,artificially made4 ,instruments which possess an oscillating column of air1 or a stretched string of gut or metal which vibrates4 ,the kettledrum and harmonica4 ,the human voice4 ,can be employed in separation or combination 77,tone in its own essential definition4 ,the constitution of harmony as such4 ,the theory of intervals4 ,the scales and keys4 ,numerical relations of tones and their pitch4 ,accordant and discordant tones4 ,the octave and other intervals 77 ,the system of chords4 ,the triad4 ,dissonant chords of the seventh and ninth4 ,the resolution of a dissonance4 ,transitions and modulations of harmony 7c7 ,melody 77 ,the more poetic aspect of music4 ,inseparable from the theoretical means which creates it4 ,no real surrender involved in its subjection to rules of harmony 77 ,simple melodies4 ,folk-songs4 ,part chorales where each note of melody represented by a chord4 ,musical composition as an illustration of the conflict between the principles of freedom and necessity 77 ,general character of genuine melody4 ,as such reflects free self-consciousness of soul-life #c4 ,the relation between means of expression in music and its content 7a7 ,music as an accompaniment 77 ,the melodic expression of such music4 ,ought not to fall into excess of tumult4 ,palestrina1 ,durante1 ,haydn1 ,mozart1 etc4 ,beauty of ,italian music 77 ,the differentiation of the mode of musical expression must correspond with the nature of a specific content and its situation4 ,such a content supplied by the libretto4 ,distinction from this of a song4 ,the recitative4 ,defective unity 77 ,the nature of the condition of concrete unity in the libretto and declamatory recitative4 ,a good libretto not wholly unimportant4 ,must be stamped with self-consistency4 ,the libretto of ,mozart's ,magic ,flute4 ,comparison of the sustaining soul of music with the fundamental beauty of ,raphael's paintings4 ,different forms of music as accompaniment4 ,church1 lyrical1 and dramatic music 7b7 ,independent music 7c7 ,the artist as ,executant 77 ,the ordinary executant who simply executes what lies before him4 ,comparison with the rhapsodist or reciter of ,epos4 ,player must lose himself in music and reproduce composer 77 ,the virtuoso1 who himself creates and makes the music a means of personal display4 ,must not merely show eccentricity1 but reveal the life of music and the force of a personality ,,third ,,part ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,the ,,particular ,,arts ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,fine ,,art ,,introduction ,the objects treated by our science in the first part were the general notion and the reality of beauty in ,nature and art1 in other words beauty in its truth1 and art in its truth1 the ,ideal in the as yet undeveloped unity of its fundamental principles1 independent of its specific content and its distinguishing modes of envisagement4 ,this essentially genuine#a unity of the beautiful in art1 in the second place1 unfolded itself within its own resources in a totality of art-forms1 whose determinate structure defined at the same time the content which the art-spirit was impelled to fashion from itself in an essentially articulate system of manifestations of beauty under which the ,divine and human is envisaged to the world4 ,what still is absent from both these spheres is the reality that is present within the elementary substance of the external phenomenon itself4 ,for although both in our examination of the ,ideal as such1 and in that of the specific modes of symbolic1 classical1 and romantic art1 we throughout referred to the relation or complete mediation which obtains between the significance conceived as an ideal principle and its embodiment in the external or phenomenal materia1 yet this realization merely retained its validity as that which was still exclusively the ideal art-activity in the sphere of general world-impressions#b of beauty1 in and through which it is diffused4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as the fundamental conception of beautiful implies1 that it make itself objective for the immediate vision1 that is to say for the senses and sensuous perception as an external work of art1 so that what is beautiful becomes only then itself through such a definite form appropriate to itself explicitly united with the beautiful and the ,ideal1 we have in the third place to review this territory of the art-product as actually self-realized in the entirely sensuous medium4 ,for it is only through this final configuration that the work of art is truly concrete1 an individual entity which is at once real1 self-contained1 and singular4 ,the ,ideal can only constitute the content of this third sphere of our aesthetic philosophy for the reason that it is the idea of the beautiful1 in the collective totality of all its world presentments1 which is thus self-realized in objective form#c4 ,for this reason the art-product is still1 even up to this point1 to be conceived as a totality articulated in itself1 nevertheless as an organism1 whose organic parts1 which--while in the second part of our inquiry they were differentiated under a collective concept of essentially disparate world-aspects--now fall asunder as isolated members1 every one of which becomes independently a self-subsistent whole1 and in this singularity is capable of bringing into display the totality of the different art-types4 ,essentially and in accordance with its notion it is quite true that the collective result of this new reality of art belongs to one single totality4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as it is a portion of the realm of the sensuous#d present1 in which the same is made real to itself1 the ,ideal is now resolved into its phasal states as a process#e1 and confers on them an independent and self-subsistent stability1 albeit they are capable of coming into juxtaposition1 essential relation1 and reciprocal reintegration with one another4 ,and this real world of art is the system of the separate arts4 ,just as then the particular types of art1 regarded throughout as totality1 expose intrinsically a process1 an evolution1 that is1 of the symbolical to the classical and romantic types1 we find also1 on the one hand1 a similar advance in the particular arts1 in so far as it is the very art-types themselves which receive their determinate existence through these specific arts4 ,from another point of view1 however1 the particular arts have also themselves within them a process1 a progression1 independently of the art-types to which they attach an objective reality1 a process which in this its more abstract relation is common to all4 ,every art possesses its spring-time of perfected elaboration as art1 and on the one side or the other a history that precedes or follows this period of full-bloom4 ,for the products of the arts collectively are spiritual products1 and consequently are not at once to hand in their own specialized province respectively1 as are the forms of ,nature1 but are subject to a beginning1 progression1 completion1 and termination1 a growth1 a blooming1 and a decay4 ,these more abstract differences1 whose devolution we propose at the very commencement of our inquiry briefly to indicate1 since it asserts itself equally in all the arts1 are identical with that which it is usual to define under the name of rigorous1 ideal1 and approved style1 when indicating the specific styles of art in each case1 which are mainly related to the general mode of embodiment and representation1 partly as considered in its external shape1 and its possession or lack of spontaneity1 its simplicity1 its surfeit of detail1 briefly in all its various aspects1 according to which the definition of the content emerges in the external appearance2 partly no less in its aspect of the technical elaboration of its sensuous material1 in which the art in question gives determinate existence to its content4 ,it is a common assumption that art finds its beginnings in what is devoid of complexity and is natural4 ,in a certain sense1 no doubt1 we may accept this as true4 ,in other words what is rude and barbarous is without question1 when contrasted with the genuine spirit of art1 something both nearer to ,nature and less complex4 ,what is1 however1 natural1 vital1 and simple in art1 regarded as fine art1 is something quite different to this4 ,all beginnings which are merely simple and natural1 in the sense of uncouthness1 do not as yet belong to the province of art and the beautiful at all as1 for example1 in the case where children scrawl simple figures1 and with a few formless strokes would indicate thereby a human form1 a horse1 and so forth4 ,beauty1 considered as a spiritual product1 demands even from the start an elaborate technique1 implies a long series of experiment and practice4 ,simplicity1 when we refer to it as the simplicity of the beautiful1 its ideal proportions1 is rather a result1 which only succeeds in overcoming the variety1 medley1 confusion1 excess and incumbrance of its matter1 and in concealing and effacing its preparatory studies1 after much mediating work1 so that at last ,beauty1 with all its unfettered spontaneity1 appears to us as though liberated in one cast#f4 ,what we find here is very analogous to the behaviour of a man of education1 who1 in all that he says and does1 moves simply1 spontaneously1 and with ease1 albeit he did not by any means start in the possession of such simple spontaneity1 but rather has only secured such as the result of a thorough self-training4 ,for this reason it is no less in accordance with the nature of the fact than it is with the actual course of history that art in its beginnings rather presents us the appearance of artificiality and clumsiness1 running largely into incidental detail1 and generally overloaded with the elaboration of drapery and the environment of its subject-matter2 and precisely in the degree that this external material is more compact and multifarious1 to that extent that which is really expressive is reduced to its baldest terms2 in other words what is truly the free and vital expression of ,spirit in its forms and motion is that which is here least in evidence4 ,in this respect consequently the primitive and most ancient art-products in all the particular arts are the vehicle of a content that is essentially most abstract1 such as simple tales in poetry1 theogonies effervescent with abstract thoughts and their incomplete elaboration1 single objects of sacred association in stone and wood and so forth1 and the representation remains unaccommodating1 monotonous or confused1 stiff and dry4 ,more especially in plastic art the facial expression is insipid with a repose which does not so much express spirituality in its essential penetration as a purely animal emptiness1 or conversely is remorseless and exaggerated in its emphasis on characteristic traits4 ,in the same way the bodily forms and their motion are devoid of life1 the arms1 for example1 are glued to the body1 the legs are not divided1 or are clumsily moved1 or in angular and constrained modes2 and in other respects such figures are ill-shaped1 suffer from narrow compression1 or are excessively lank and extended4 ,on the other hand we find that much more devotion and industry is spent upon accessories such as drapery1 hair1 weapons1 and ornaments of a similar nature2 the folds of the drapery remain wooden and independent1 without being able to accommodate themselves to the limbs1 just as we may often see for ourselves in images of the ,virgin and saints of early times1 where they are in part run together in monotonous regularity1 and in part are continually broken up in harsh corners1 not flowing freely in their lines1 but scattered about with diffuseness over too wide a surface4 ,and in the same way the first attempts at poetry are full of breaks1 devoid of connection1 monotonous1 dominated in an abstract way by one idea or emotion1 or elsewhere wild1 violent1 the particular being obscurely assimilated1 and the whole as yet not bound together in a secure and ideal organic unity4 ,it is only1 however1 after such preparatory work as the above that the style which is the main subject of our present inquiry commences with what is truly genuine fine art4 ,in this it is no doubt in the first instance at the same time still austere1 but already moderated with more beauty in its severity4 ,this severe style is the more lofty abstraction of the beautiful1 which comes to a stop with that which is of real importance1 expresses and reproduces the same in its broad outlines1 still disdains all amiability and grace1 suffers the main subject-matter alone to assert itself1 and preeminently expends very little industry and elaboration on what is incidental4 ,and in doing so1 this severe style also still adheres to the imitation of that which is immediately given to sense4 ,in other words1 just as1 in regard to content1 it takes its stand1 so far as ideas and representation are concerned1 in what is given it1 in the tradition1 for example1 of a revered religion1 so also1 to take the opposite point of view1 namely1 that of external form1 it will merely render assured the fact itself1 and not its own invention4 ,it is1 in short1 satisfied with the general broad effect that is educed from the fact1 and follows in expression closely upon the growth and definite existence of this4 ,in the same way everything that is accidental is held aloof from this type of style1 in order that the caprice and spontaneity of the individual mind#g may not appear to be involved in it4 ,the motives are simple1 the objects of representation few#h2 and for this reason no considerable variety in the detail of configuration1 muscles and motion1 is apparent4 ,secondly1 the ideal1 purely beautiful style hovers between the simply substantive expression of fact and the fullest exposition of all that immediately pleases4 ,we may define the character of this style as the highest degree of vitality compatible with a beautiful and reposeful greatness1 such as we admire in the works of ,pheidias or ,homer4 ,it is a living presentment of all traits1 shapes1 modifications of such1 motions1 limbs1 in which there is nothing without significance and expression1 but everything is instinct with life and action1 and testifies to the breath1 or very pulse of free life itself on the merest glance at the work of art in question2 a vitality1 however1 which essentially makes visible one totality1 and only one1 is the expression of one content1 of one individuality of action4 ,it is in such a truly vital atmosphere that we find moreover the breath of grace poured forth over the entire work4 ,grace is indeed a concession to the hearer and spectator1 which the severe style despises4 ,at the same time1 whenever ,charis1 that is ,grace1 is asserted in the presence of an onlooker1 if only as an acknowledgement1 a means of conveying pleasure1 yet in the ideal style we find that such a presence appears entirely divested of any craving to confer merely pleasure4 ,we may perhaps explain our meaning in more technical language4 ,the fact or subject-matter is here the substantive in its concentration and self-absorption4 ,during the process1 however1 that it is manifested through the medium of art1 and is1 so to speak1 concerned to actually exist for others1 to pass over1 that is1 from its simplicity and essential solidarity to particularization1 articulation1 and individualization1 we may regard this development to an existent form for others as at the same time a kind of complaisance on the part of the predominant matter1 in so far1 that is1 as it does not appear to require this more concrete mode of existence1 and yet is wholly poured forth into it for us4 ,such a charm as this is only entitled to assert itself in such a style so long as what is really substantive also persists in undisturbed self-possession1 as we may call it1 over against the grace of its manifestation1 which blooms forth entirely in outward guise as an original type of superfluity4 ,this indifference of the ideal or inner self-assurance#i for its existence1 this repose of itself on itself is precisely that which constitutes the beautiful negligence of the grace1 which attributes no immediate value to this1 its mode of manifestation4 ,and it is just in this that we must look for the loftiness of the beautiful style4 ,beautiful free art is careless in its attitude to the external form1 in which it refuses to let us see any peculiar movement of the mind1 or any end or intention4 ,rather in every expression1 every modification1 it points to one thing only1 and that is the idea and vital principle of the whole4 ,it is only by this means that the ,ideal of the beautiful style asserts itself1 which is neither harsh nor severe1 but already shows the softening influence of the cheerful notes of the beautiful4 ,though no violence is done either to any feature of expression1 any part of the whole1 and every member appears in its independence1 and rejoices in its own existence1 yet each and all is content at the same time to be only an aspect in the total evolved presentment4 ,this it is which alone displays1 alongside of the depth and determinacy of individuality and character1 the grace of ,life itself4 ,on the one side we have indeed merely the substantial subject-matter predominant1 but in the detailed exposition1 in the lucid1 and at the same time exhaustive variety of traits1 which complete the definition of the appearance1 and place it before us in its transparent vitality1 the spectator is at the same time freed from the thing in its baldness1 in so far as he possesses and is wholly face to face with its concrete life4 ,by virtue1 however1 of the last mentioned fact1 this ideal style1 so soon as it carries this modification in its external aspect to yet further lengths1 passes over into the so-called agreeable or pleasing style4 ,here we have the assertion of another intent than the mere vitality of the fact#aj4 ,the giving of pleasure1 the active elaboration in the direction of externality is asserted as itself an object1 and is a matter of independent concern4 ,as an example we may take the famous ,belvedere ,apollo1 not indeed as itself belonging to this latter style1 but at least marking the transition from the lofty style to that of sensuous attraction4 ,and inasmuch as in an art of this kind it is no longer the single actuality itself to which the entire embodiment is referable1 the particular details become under this mode1 even though in the first instance still deducible from the central object itself and rendered necessary by means of it1 more and more for all that independent4 ,we feel that they are introduced1 or interpolated1 as ornaments1 intentional additions of episodical import4 ,and yet for the very reason that they are only related to the object accidentally and only receive their essential definition in a personal relation to the spectator or reader1 they flatter the individual taste#aa of such1 to which their workmanship is primarily directed4 ,virgil and ,horace1 for example1 delight us in this respect by an educated style1 in which we can trace a variety of things aimed at1 and an effort deliberately made to give pleasure4 ,in architecture1 sculpture1 and painting1 owing to this spirit of complaisance1 simple and imposing effects of size disappear1 and we find on every side small pictures standing by themselves1 ornamentation1 fineries1 dimples on cheeks1 elegant hair-dress1 smiles1 all the varied folding of draperies1 enchanting colours and shapes1 exceptional1 difficult1 but for all that unconstrained movements in the pose of the figure#ab4 ,in the so-called ,gothic or ,german art of building1 where the same is carried in the direction of this spirit1 we find decoration elaborated without limit1 so that the whole appears to be little more than a collection of little columns with all the utmost variety of ornamentations1 diminutive towers1 spires1 and so forth1 which1 in their isolation1 please us1 without1 however1 destroying the impression of the larger connections of the whole and the still insistent masses of the same4 ,in so far1 however1 as the province of art we have been discussing in its entirety gives way to this activity of externalization1 this presentment of what is purely exterior1 we may emphasize it in its further generalization as the effect1 which makes use of as a means of expression what is unpleasing1 strained1 and colossal1 the type of uncouth contrasts such as the prodigious genius of ,michael ,angelo often exploits to excess4 ,the effect may be generally indicated as the excessive leaning towards an ulterior public1 which results in the form no longer being asserted in its independent1 self-sufficient and buoyant repose4 ,rather it turns round1 as it were1 and makes an appeal at the same time to the onlooker1 and strives to place itself in a relation to him by means of this manner of presentment4 ,both aspects1 namely essential repose and the address to the spectator1 must no doubt be present in a work of art2 but these aspects should fall together in complete equilibrium4 ,if the work of art in the severe style is wholly without qualification self-contained1 without any appeal to the spectator1 it leaves him cold4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the appeal is made too directly to him1 it creates indeed a sensuous pleasure1 but loses to that extent its substantive thoroughness#ac1 or it does so without this thoroughness of content and the simple character of the conception and delineation therein contained4 ,this passage from itself then merges in the accidental characterization of the appearance2 as a result the image itself shares this accidental character1 in which we no longer recognize the actual subject-matter and the form which is imperatively rooted in itself1 but rather the poet and artist with his own personal designs1 his peculiar type of production and skill4 ,and for this reason the public is entirely released from the essential content of the work1 finding itself by means of it placed in a personal relation#ad to the artist1 inasmuch as everything now wholly depends on its seeing that which the artist through his art intended1 that is1 the cunning and personal skill which is embodied in his grasp of his subject and its execution4 ,to be thus brought into personal community of insight and critical acumen with the artist is for most people a flattering concession2 and our reader or audience1 and very possibly the spectator of plastic art1 with even more readiness wonder at their poet1 musician1 or painter or sculptor respectively2 and the vanity of such is all the better satisfied in proportion as the work invites them to this personal criticism1 and supplies them openly with hints of such designs and points of view4 ,in the severe style1 on the contrary1 no such confidences are made over to the spectator at all4 ,what we have is just the substantive nature of the content1 which in its representation austerely1 and even harshly1 repulses the purely personal quest4 ,a repulse of this kind will often be no doubt merely indicative of the spleen of the artist1 who1 after entrusting a profound significance to his work1 instead of making the exposition of the same free1 transparent1 and buoyant1 deliberately makes it hard to follow4 ,a trade in mysteries of this kind is also nothing but another form of affectation1 and a spurious alternative to the complaisance we have criticized4 ,it is pre-eminently in the work of the ,french school that we find this tendency to flatter1 attract1 and create effect1 and they have in this way elaborated this easy-going and complaisant attitude to the public as the main object of their efforts4 ,they seek to find the real importance of their artistic work in the satisfaction such affords others1 whose interest they would arouse and whom they would duly impress4 ,this tendency is particularly marked in their dramatic poetry4 ,marmontel1 for example1 gives us the following anecdote in connection with the performance of his drama ,dnis1 the ,tyrant4 ,the crisis culminated in a question asked the ,tyrant4 ,clairon1 in whose mouth this question was put1 when the moment for asking it had arrived1 and when actually in conversation with ,dionysius1 made a forward step in front of the audience and dramatically addressed them instead4 ,by this rhetorical effect the enthusiastic support of the entire piece was assured4 ,we ,germans1 on the other hand1 require too much a content in our works of art1 in the depths of which the artist finds a deliverance from himself1 without troubling himself about the public1 who is just left to look at it1 take trouble over it1 and help himself out with it1 as he pleases or is able4 ,,division ,,of ,,subject ,approaching now1 after these general observations we have made with reference to the distinctions of style common to all the arts1 the division of the third fundamental section of our inquiry we may observe that the one-sided understanding has looked about in many directions for various principles of differentiation in its classification of the specific arts severally4 ,the true division can1 however1 only be deduced from the nature of the work of art1 which in the entire complexus of its forms#ae explicitly unfolds the totality of the aspects and phases which are referable to its own notion4 ,and the first thing which asserts itself in this connection as important is the consideration that art1 in accordance with the fact that its presentments now have definitely to pass into sensuous reality1 becomes on account of this also art for the senses1 so that the definition of this sense and the material medium which is applicable to it1 and in which the work of art is made objective1 must necessarily furnish us with the principles of subdivision in the several arts4 ,now the senses1 for the reason that they are senses1 or in other words1 are related to a given material1 a disparate exterior medium#af and an essential multiplicity1 are themselves different1 namely1 feeling1 smell1 taste1 hearing1 and sight4 ,it is not our business in this place to demonstrate the ideal necessity of this totality and its disparate parts2 that is the function of the philosophy of ,nature4 ,our problem is limited to the inquiry whether all these senses1 or if not1 which of them are capable1 by virtue of their notional significance1 of being organs for the reception of works of art4 ,we have already at a previous stage excluded feeling1 taste1 and smell4 ,botticher's mere feeling with the hand of the effeminately smooth portions of statues of goddesses is not a part of artistic contemplation or enjoyment at all4 ,by the sense of touch the individual merely comes1 as an individual endowed with sense1 into contact with the purely sensuous particular thing and its gravity1 hardness1 softness1 and material resistance4 ,a work of art is1 however1 not merely a sensuous thing1 but ,spirit manifested through a sensuous medium4 ,as little can we exercise our sense of taste on a work of art as such1 because taste is unable to leave the object in its free independence1 but is concerned with it in a wholly active way1 resolves it1 in fact1 and consumes it4 ,a cultivation and refinement of taste is only possible and desirable in connection with dishes of food and their preparation1 or the chemical qualities of objects4 ,an object of art1 however1 should be contemplated in its independent and self-contained objective presence1 which no doubt is there for the mind that perceives it1 but only as an appeal to soul and intelligence1 not in some active relation1 and with none whatever to the appetites and volition4 ,as for the sense of smell it is just as little able to become an organ of artistic enjoyment1 inasmuch as things are only presented to this sense in so far as they are themselves in a condition of process1 and are dissolved through the air and its direct influence4 ,sight1 on the other hand1 possesses a purely ideal relation to objects by means of light1 a material1 which is at the same time immaterial1 and which suffers on its part the objects to continue in their free self-subsistence1 making them appear and re-appear1 but which does not1 as the atmosphere or fire does1 consume them actively either by imperceptible degrees or patently4 ,everything1 then1 is an object of the appetiteless vision1 which materially exists in ,space as a disparate aggregate1 which1 however1 in so far as it remains unimpaired in its integrity1 merely is disclosed in its form and colour4 ,the remaining ideal sense is hearing4 ,this is in signal contrast to the one just described4 ,hearing is concerned with the tone1 rather than the form and colour of an object1 with the vibration of what is corporeal2 it requires no process of dissolution1 as the sense of smell requires1 but merely a trembling of the object1 by which the same is in no wise impoverished4 ,this ideal motion1 in which through its sound what is as it were the simple individuality#ag1 the soul of the material thing expresses itself1 the ear receives also in an ideal way1 just as the eye shape and colour1 and suffers thereby what is ideal or not external in the object to appeal to what is spiritual or non-corporeal4 ,as a third accretion to these two senses we have the sensuous conception1 memory1 the retention of images1 which appear in consciousness by means of the isolated perception1 in this way subsumed under universals1 and become related and united to the same by means of the imagination1 so that now in one particular aspect the external reality itself exists both as ideal and spiritual1 while that which is spiritual from another point of view accepts under the imaginative conception the form of what is external1 and is brought to consciousness as a disparate and correlated aggregate4 ,this triple mode of seizing on reality offers art the well-known division into first1 the plastic arts1 which elaborate their content for vision in the external form and colour of objects1 secondly1 in the art of sound1 music1 and thirdly1 into poetry1 which as the art of speech uses tone merely as a symbol1 in order1 by means of it1 to address itself directly to what is ideal in the contemplation1 emotion1 and imagination of our spiritual life4 ,if we rest satisfied with this sensuous aspect of our subject-matter1 as the final principle of its differentiation1 we shall1 in respect to our first principles1 find ourselves in a difficulty1 because the grounds of this division1 instead of being deduced from the concrete notion of our subject-matter1 are merely borrowed from the most abstract features of it4 ,we have consequently to look about us once more for a principle of division that has deeper roots1 which has1 in fact1 already been put forward in the introduction of this work as the truly systematic mode of dividing this third section of it4 ,the function of art is just this and only this1 namely1 to bring before the grasp of the senses truth1 as it is in the world of spirit1 reconciled1 that is1 in its unity as a whole with objectivity and the sensuous material4 ,in so far1 then1 as this is possible at this stage in the element of the external reality of the art-product to that extent the totality1 which the ,absolute is in its very truth1 breaks apart into the various modes that differentiate it as a process4 ,the middle point1 the truly substantive centrum1 is given us here in the representation of the ,absolute1 ,god ,himself as ,god1 in ,his independent self-subsistence1 not as yet developed to the point of motion and difference1 or advanced to the active operation of and separation from what is ,his1 but presented essentially self-absorbed in supreme divine repose and stillness1 briefly the ,ideal embodied in a form essentially adequate to itself1 which persists in its determinate existence in correspondent identity with itself4 ,and in order that it may appear in infinite self-subsistency the ,absolute must be conceived as ,spirit1 as conscious ,subject1 but as ,subject which possesses essentially itself its own adequate mode of external appearance4 ,as divine subject1 however1 which passes forth into actual reality1 it has confronting it an external world for environment1 which1 in conformity with the ,absolute1 must be built up to an appearance harmonious with the same1 an appearance permeated with the ,absolute4 ,this environing world is then on one side the objective as such1 the basis1 the embrace of external ,nature1 which1 taken by itself1 possesses no absolute significance for ,spirit1 nor any ideality such as is present to individual consciousness#ah1 and consequently is only able to express by suggestion the spiritual ,ideal which its appearance must seek to secure by embodying its embraced content in a world of ,beauty4 ,in opposition to external ,nature we find the ideal realm of consciousness#ai1 the human soul as the medium#bj for the existence and manifestation of the ,absolute4 ,together with this subjectivity is conjoined the multiplicity and differentiation of individuality1 particularization1 distinction1 action1 and development1 that is1 in general terms the full and varied world of the reality of ,spirit#ba1 in which the ,absolute is known1 willed1 experienced1 and actively present4 ,we may already infer from what we have indicated above that the differences under which the total content of art is differentiated are in essential consonance1 both for our grasp and presentation of them1 with what we have previously in the second portion of our inquiry examined as the symbolical1 classical1 and romantic types of art4 ,in other words symbolic art only carries the art-process to the point of marking an affinity between content and form1 instead of their identity1 of only suggesting the ideal significance in itself and the content which that suggestion purports to express1 in other words the external appearance#bb4 ,it furnishes consequently the fundamental type to that specific art1 whose function it is to elaborate the objective world as such1 ,nature's environment in the beautiful conclusion given by ,art to ,spirit 7mind71 and to image by suggestion the ideal significance of what is spiritual in this external medium4 ,the classical ,ideal1 on the contrary1 meets the case of the presentation of the ,absolute as such1 in its self-subsistent external reality1 its essential self-repose1 while the romantic ,spirit 7mind7 type of art is1 both in content and form1 identical with the internal life of the soul1 and the emotional life both in its infinite aspect and its finite particularity4 ,it is1 then1 on a principle such as the above that the system of the particular arts is differentiated as follows3 ,first1 we have architecture1 the beginning of all1 whose foundation reposes in the very nature of its subject-matter4 ,it is the commencement of art for this reason1 that art at the start has in general terms neither discovered for the presentation of its spiritual content the adequate material1 nor the forms that fully express it1 and is consequently compelled to rest content in the mere search after such true satisfaction1 and to do so in the externality of its content and its mode of presentation4 ,the medium of this primary art is that which is essentially unspiritual1 gross matter1 that is1 only capable of configuration according to physical laws of gravity4 ,its form is the image of external ,nature1 united by its regularity and symmetry in the whole of a work of art to express merely an external reflection of ,spirit4 ,the second art is sculpture4 ,both for its principle and content it possesses spiritual individuality under the mode of the classic ,ideal in the sense1 namely1 that the ideal and spiritual finds its expression in the corporeal appearance pertinent to spiritual life1 which it is the function here of ,art to present in existent artistic actuality4 ,it consequently still accepts for its material gross matter in its spatial extension1 without1 however1 shaping the same in conformity to rule merely in respect to its gravity and its natural conditions according to the forms of the organic or inorganic1 or in relation to its visibility in bringing it down to1 and in all essential respects particularizing it in1 a simple repetition of the external appearance4 ,the form which is here1 however1 determined by virtue of the content itself is the actual life of ,spirit1 human form1 and its objective organism permeated with ,spirit's own breath1 whose function it is to embody in adequate shape the self-subsistence of the ,divine in its supreme repose and unperturbed greatness1 unaffected by the divisions and limitations of human affairs1 their conflicts and endurances4 ,thirdly1 we have to render intelligible in one final whole those arts whose province it is to give form to the ideal content of the individual soul-life4 ,the art of painting marks the beginning of this final totality4 ,it converts the external form itself entirely into an expression of what is ideal#bc1 which within the limits of the environing world not merely reproduces the ideal self-containedness of the ,absolute1 but also brings to the vision the same as essentially a personal possession#bd in its spiritual existence1 volition1 feeling1 action1 in its activity and relation to another1 and consequently also in its sufferings1 pain1 death1 in the entire series of passions and satisfaction4 ,its object is for this reason no longer ,god simply1 that is1 as object of the human consciousness1 but this consciousness itself1 ,god1 that is1 either in ,his reality present in the action and suffering of individual life1 or as spirit of the community1 as the spiritual related through feeling to itself1 soul-life in its resignation1 its sacrifice of1 or joy and blessedness in1 life and action within the limits of the natural world4 ,as a means to the presentation of this content the art of painting is bound to utilize the external phenomenon in respect to its form1 not merely the human organism1 but also ,nature in its simplicity in so far as the same suffers what is of spirit to shine through with clarity4 ,it is1 however1 unable to utilize as material physical matter and its spatial existence just as it is2 it is compelled1 in working it up into its forms1 essentially to idealize the same4 ,the first step by means of which the sensuous material is raised in this respect to confront mind#be1 consists1 on the one hand1 in the uplifting of the actual sensuous appearance1 whose visibility is converted into the mere show by art1 and on the other in colour by means of the distinctions1 transitions1 and modulations of which this transformation is effected4 ,the art of painting1 consequently1 in order to express the soul in its ideality1 resolves the three dimensions of space into that of superficies as that which most intimately asserts the ideality of what is external1 and represents spatial distance and form by means of the phenomena of colour4 ,for painting is not concerned with producing mere visibility in its general significance1 but with that form of visibility which1 if it is ideally produced1 is also quite as much essentially particularized4 ,in sculpture and the art of building forms are visible by means of external light4 ,in the art of painting1 on the contrary1 the material which is itself essentially obscure possesses intrinsically within itself its inward or ideal1 light in short4 ,it is itself transfused in its own medium1 and mere light is to that extent essentially obscured4 ,the unity1 however1 and blending of light and dark is colour#bf4 ,secondly1 the art of music offers a contrast to that of painting in one and the same sphere as the latter4 ,its real element is the ideal realm as such1 emotion in its formless independence1 capable of asserting itself not in externality and its reality1 but purely through the external medium which disappears immediately when it is expressed and thereby cancels itself4 ,its content consequently consists of the internal life of ,spirit in its immediate1 essential subjective unity1 emotion simply2 its material is musical tone1 its form and configuration1 the concord1 discord1 harmony1 contrast1 opposition1 and resolution of such tones according to the laws of their quantitative intervals respectively and their artistically elaborated time measure4 ,finally1 in the third place1 after painting and music we get the art of speech1 poetry in its general terms1 the absolutely genuine art of ,spirit and its expression as such4 ,for everything which the human consciousness conceives and spiritually embodies in the chamber of spirit speech is able to accept1 express1 and bring imaginatively before us1 and only speech is thus able4 ,in respect to its content1 therefore1 poetry is the richest and its boundaries are the widest4 ,but in proportion as it gains as the vehicle of ,spirit it loses on the side of the material object4 ,in other words1 for the reason that it neither works for the perception of the sense as the plastic arts1 nor merely for the ideal emotion1 as music does1 but is concerned to create its spiritual significances under the form of its own spiritual medium merely for the conception and contemplation of mind1 the material through which its constructive activity is asserted only retains for it the value of a means1 however much it may be elaborated in an artistic sense1 by which ,spirit is expressed for ,spirit1 and no longer counts as a sensuous mode of existence1 in which the spiritual content is capable of finding a reality adequate to it4 ,such a means can in the light of our previous consideration only be tone regarded as the still relatively most adequate material of spiritual expression4 ,tone here1 however1 does not in the present case preserve1 as was the case with music1 an independent validity of its own for which the unique and essential aim of art could be exhausted in finding an artistic form1 but conversely is entirely steeped in the world of ,spirit and the definite content of conception and contemplation1 and appears simply as the external symbol of this content4 ,so far as the embodiment which the poetry receives is concerned1 in this respect poetry may claim to include the whole field of art in the sense1 that is1 that it repeats in its own province the modes of presentation adopted by the other arts1 which is only in a qualified degree the case with painting and music4 ,in other words poetry gives1 on the one hand1 as epic poetry the form of objectivity to its content1 which no doubt here does not1 as in the plastic arts1 attain to an external existence4 ,it is none the less a world conceived by the mind in the form of the objective world and represented as objective for the individual imagination4 ,this it is which constitutes human speech as such1 which finds satisfaction in its own content and its expression by means of speech4 ,on the other hand1 however1 poetry is conversely to an equal degree speech of the soul1 the ideal medium1 which1 as that inward content returns to itself1 is lyrical poetry1 which invokes the aid of music in order to penetrate yet more deeply the world of souls and emotion4 ,finally1 to take the third example1 poetry proceeds through speech within the limits of a self-contained action1 which it at the same time makes an object of its presentment1 and consequently is able to ally itself closely to music1 gesture1 mimicry1 and the dance4 ,this is dramatic art1 in which man1 in all that the term implies#bg1 creatively presents the work of art which is the product of human life4 ,these five arts form the system of realized and actual art1 essentially determined by itself and differentiated as such4 ,in addition to them there are no doubt other incomplete arts1 for example1 the arts of gardening and dance4 ,these we shall only refer to incidentally as the opportunity recurs4 ,a philosophical investigation must perforce restrict itself entirely to distinctions referable to the notion1 and develop and grasp these adequate and veritable modes of embodiment4 ,nature and reality is not1 it is true1 confined to these circumscribed limits1 but is more liberal in its movement1 and we not unfrequently hear it made a matter of praise that in this respect the products of genius are perforce compelled to expand themselves beyond just such limitations4 ,in ,nature1 however1 transitional organisms of either hybrid or amphibian type1 instead of emphasizing the spontaneity and excellence of ,nature1 merely demonstrate its inability to hold fast to the essential differentiations of species which are rooted in that process1 or to prevent their deterioration before external conditions and influences4 ,the same thing may be affirmed in art with regard to these intermediate forms1 although the same are capable of producing much1 too1 that delights us1 is full of charm and utility1 albeit not in the highest class of perfection4 ,if we turn our attention now after these introductory remarks and considerations to the more specific examination of the separate arts1 we shall find ourselves from another point of view in some difficulty4 ,for inasmuch as we have hitherto concerned ourselves with art as such1 the ,ideal and the general types1 under which its evolution according to its notion proceeds1 it is imperative to pass over into the concrete existence of art1 and by doing so into the world of experience4 ,here we find a condition very analogous to that we observe in ,nature1 the provinces of which are readily grasped in their generality and the necessary laws which distinguish them1 in whose actual material existence1 however1 the individual objects and their species1 not merely in the aspects which they present to observation1 but also in the form under which they exist1 are of such a wealth of variety that1 as a part of the difficulty1 they offer as feasible every conceivable way of approaching them2 and in addition to this the philosophical notion1 when we are desirous of applying the standard of its simple lines of distinction1 appears as insufficient for this purpose and the mere grasp of thought incapable of taking in the breath of such fulness4 ,if1 however1 we merely rest satisfied with mere description and superficial reflections we fall short no less of the object we have set before us1 that is1 a development which is both scientific and systematic4 ,added to which difficulties we have the further one that nowadays every particular art makes the independent demand for a special science1 inasmuch as with the continuous growth of connoisseurship in art the range of such special knowledge has become ever more rich and extensive4 ,this science of the connoisseur1 or dilettante1 has1 however1 in our own times become fashionable under the direct teaching of philosophy itself4 ,it has1 in short1 been maintained that it is in art we must look for real religion1 the discovery of truth and the ,absolute1 that1 in short1 it stands on a loftier pedestal than philosophy for the reason that it is not abstract1 but receives at the same time the ,idea in reality and for a contemplation and emotion which are concrete#bh4 ,and on the other hand it is regarded nowadays as of august importance in art#bi to occupy one's attention with an infinite superfluity of detail of this kind1 in the interests of which the demand is made from everyone that he should have observed some novelty or other4 ,such critical labour is a kind of learned trifling which may very readily be overdone4 ,it causes1 no doubt1 considerable pleasure to examine works of art1 to grasp the thoughts and reflections which such may suggest1 to give currency to the points of view1 which others have pointed out1 and by this means to become judges and critics4 ,the more rich1 however1 by this means1 namely1 that everybody is intent on having discovered on his own account something uniquely his own1 a learning and process of reflection has become1 the more every particular art1 nay1 every branch of the same1 now renders necessary the completeness of a treatment of it from the individual's standpoint4 ,as a corollary the historical aspect of such a survey and the criticism of works of art1 which becomes inevitable1 only add yet further to the learning and range of the subject4 ,it is1 moreover1 essential before we take part in any discussion over the details of matters of artistic import that we should already have seen much and many times4 ,personally ,i have no doubt seen a considerable amount1 but by no means all that is necessary to enable me to discuss the material of art exhaustively4 ,all such difficulties1 however1 we may meet with the simple response that it does not lie within the aim of the present work to teach art-criticism1 or to bring forward an historical review of such learning1 or only to the extent such is necessary to apprehend on philosophical principles the essential and universal aspects of our subject1 and their relation to the idea of the beautiful in its realization within the sensuous medium of art4 ,if we keep this aim before us the variety of artistic effects we above indicated need cause us no embarrassment2 for despite this complexity the essential character of the subject-matter according to its notional idea is the controlling factor2 and although this is frequently lost in accidental matter by virtue of the medium in which it is realized1 points of view are none the less in evidence1 in which it is as clearly proclaimed4 ,to grasp these aspects1 and to develop them in a scientific way1 is the very problem which it is the function of philosophy to elucidate4 ,,first ,,subsection ,,architecture ,art1 by enabling its content to attain a realized existence under a definite form1 becomes a particular art4 ,we may therefore now for the first time refer to it as an actual art and find therein the real beginning of art4 ,with this particularity1 however1 in so far as it purports to bring before us the objectivity of the ,idea of the beautiful and art1 we have presented to us at the same time in its notional significance a totality of what is particular4 ,for this reason when we now1 in the sphere of the specific arts1 begin our examination of the same with the art of building this must not merely be accepted in the sense that architecture asserts itself as the art which1 by virtue of its notional definition1 is first presented to us as such an object of inquiry1 but we may equally accept as a result1 that it is also in relation to its existence the art first to be considered4 ,in supplying1 however1 an answer to the question1 what the mode of origin was1 which fine art1 relatively to its notion and realized form1 has received1 we must exclude the experience of history no less than reflections1 conjectures1 and ordinary conceptions1 which merely have reference to objective history1 and are so readily and in such variety propounded4 ,in other words1 men are ordinarily actuated by an impulse1 to bring before their mental vision anything in its original mode of appearance for the reason that the beginning is the simplest mode1 under which the fact asserts itself4 ,and connected with this impulse we have present behind it the covert conviction that the simple mode of appearance informs us of the fact in its notional significance and real origin1 and the further amplification of such a beginning to the actual point in the process which only really concerns us is further with a like readiness conceived under the trivial mode of thought1 that a process so understood has gradually brought art forward to the crucial stage above indicated4 ,a beginning1 however1 of this simplicity is1 if we look at its content1 something which1 taken by itself1 is so unimportant1 that for philosophical thought it can only appear as wholly accidental1 albeit it is for the ordinary consciousness only just in such a way that the origin can be readily grasped4 ,for example1 we have the story1 as an explanation of the origin of the art of painting1 told us of a maiden who followed the dim outline of the shadow of her sleeping lover4 ,in the same way we have sometimes a cave and sometimes a hollow tree adduced as the point of departure in the art of building4 ,beginnings of this kind are so intelligible in themselves that further comment on the fact appears unnecessary#cj4 ,in particular the ,greeks invented many charming tales to explain the origins not merely of fine art1 but also ethical institutions and other conditions of life1 all of which satisfied the primary need to make such beginnings visible to the imagination4 ,such beginnings are not substantiated by history1 and yet they do not aim at making the manner of origin intelligible directly as a process involved in the notion1 but purport to confine their explanation to the field of objective history4 ,,division ,,of ,,subject ,we have1 then1 in such a way to establish the beginning of art from its notional significance1 that the first problem of art is made to consist in giving form to that which is essentially objective1 the ground1 that is1 of ,nature1 the external environment1 and by doing so to make that which is without ideal import to conform both to significance and form1 both of which still remain external to it1 for the reason that they are not either the form or significance inherent in the objective material4 ,the art1 which has set before it this task is1 as we have seen1 an architecture which has already discovered its first elaboration under the modes of sculpture1 or painting and music#ca4 ,if we now direct our attention to the most primitive origins of the art of building1 we find at the earliest stage that we can accept for such a beginning the hut1 regarded as the human dwelling1 and the temple1 as the exterior enclosure of the god and his community4 ,with a view to define this commencement more closely a dispute has been raised with reference to the nature of the material employed for building1 whether1 that is to say1 it originated in buildings of wood1 which is the opinion of ,vitruvius1 and is supported by ,hirt in a similar reference1 or rather from those of stone4 ,this contrast of original material is no doubt of importance1 for it does not merely concern its external quality as one might at first sight suppose1 but rather the architectonic character of fundamental forms2 for instance1 the kind of decoration united with it is essentially bound up with this external material4 ,we may1 however1 entirely set aside the distinction as a purely subordinate aspect of the matter rather referable to what is accidental and empirical1 and devote our attention to a point of more importance4 ,in other words1 in dealing with houses1 temples1 and other buildings we are confronted with the essential condition1 to which we attribute the fact that buildings of this kind are merely means which presuppose an external end4 ,hut and house of ,god alike presuppose those who dwell in them1 and for whom they have been erected1 men and the images of gods4 ,man is also prompted by a desire to leap and sing2 he requires the mediacy of human speech2 but speech1 leaping1 shouting1 and singing are not as yet poetry1 the dance and music4 ,and when within the architectonic adaptation of means to ends in order to satisfy specific needs1 in part referable to daily life and in part to the religious cultus or the state1 the impulse in the direction of artistic form and beauty asserts itself1 we find at the same time a division apparent in the kind of building above mentioned4 ,on the one hand we have man1 thinking man1 or the image of the god as the essential object1 for which1 from the other point of view1 architecture merely supplies the means of environment and covering4 ,with such a divided point of view we are unable to constitute our beginning1 which is in its nature the immediate1 and simple1 not a relativity or essential relation of this sort2 rather we must look for a point of departure1 where a distinction of this kind does not yet arise4 ,in this respect we have already at an earlier stage stated that the art of building corresponds to the symbolic type of art1 and in a unique degree gives realization to the principle of the same as particular art because architecture generally is adapted to suggest the significances implanted in it purely in the external framework of the environment4 ,if the distinction1 then1 above referred to between the object of the external cover independently presented in the living man1 or the temple's image1 and the building regarded as the fulfilment of such an object1 is to be absent from our earliest stage1 we shall have to look about us for buildings which precisely1 as works of sculpture1 do stand up in independent self-subsistence1 which in short carry their significance in themselves rather than in some other object or necessity4 ,this is a point of the highest importance1 which ,i have never found raised hitherto1 although it goes to the root of the matter1 and alone is capable of disclosing the manifold nature of external forms1 and of supplying a thread to conduct us through the maze of architectonic configuration4 ,a self-subsistent art of building of this kind will also to a similar degree differ from sculpture on this ground1 namely1 that it1 as architecture1 does not create images1 whose significance is that which is essentially spiritual and personal1 and which itself intrinsically possesses the principle of an appropriated embodiment throughout adequate to its ideal import1 but builds up works which1 in their exterior form1 can merely give an impress of the significance in a symbolic way4 ,and for this reason this type of architecture1 both in respect to its content and1 its presentation1 is really of a symbolic type4 ,all that we have said with reference to the principle of this stage of art applies equally to its mode of presentation4 ,here1 too1 we find that the mere distinction between buildings of wood and stone is not sufficient1 in so far as the same points to a means of limiting and enclosing a defined space for a specific religious or other human purposes1 as is the case with dwellings1 palaces1 and temples4 ,such a space1 may be obtained either by hollowing out essentially solid and stable masses1 or conversely1 by preparing walls and roofs to enclose it4 ,we can make our beginning of the art of building with neither of these alternatives1 which we should consequently define as an inorganic form of sculpture2 such a type no doubt piles up independently stable images1 but while doing so does not in any way make the end of free beauty and the manifestation of ,spirit in the bodily form commensurate with the end it pursues1 but in general terms sets up a purely symbolic form1 which purports in itself to indicate and express a particular idea4 ,architecture is1 however1 unable to remain standing at such a point of departure4 ,its function indeed consists just in this1 namely1 to build up external ,nature as an environment which emanates from ,spirit itself through the gates of art under the forms of beauty1 and to build it for the independently present life of mind1 that is mankind1 or for the images of the gods that are set up and clothed by man in objective form1 and to build up the same as that which no longer carries its significance in itself1 but discovers the same in another1 that is man1 and his necessities and objects of family and ,state-life1 culture and so forth1 and by so doing surrenders the self-subsistency of such buildings4 ,regarded under this aspect we may assume the advance of architecture to consist in this1 that it suffers the above indicated distinction between end and means to appear in separation1 and constructs for man1 or the individual human form of gods1 which is the work of sculpture1 an architectural dwelling1 palace1 or temple analogous to the significance of the same4 ,and1 thirdly1 the termination#cb unites both phases in the process1 and appears within this aspect of division as at the same time self-subsistent4 ,these points of view present to us1 as the classification of the entire art of building1 the following heads of division1 which essentially comprehend the notional distinctions of the matter in question no less than the historical development of the same4 ,first1 we have the genuine symbolic or self-subsistent type of architecture4 ,secondly1 there is the classical type1 which gives independent form to spiritual individuality1 divesting on the other hand the art of building of its self-subsistency1 and degrading it in the intent to set up an inorganic environment under the forms of art1 for the spiritual significances which are now on their part independently realized4 ,thirdly1 romantic architecture1 in other words the so-called ,moorish1 ,gothic1 and ,german1 in which1 it is true1 houses1 churches1 and palaces are also merely the dwellings and places in which civic and religious needs and activities are concentrated2 which1 however1 conversely are also shaped and raised without let or hindrance for the express object of emphasizing their self-subsistency4 ,although on the grounds already advanced architecture in respect to its fundamental character remains of a symbolic type1 yet the artistic types known as the truly symbolic1 classical1 and romantic constitute the closest means of defining it1 and are here of greater importance than in the other arts4 ,for in sculpture the classical1 and in music and painting the romantic1 penetrates so profoundly to the entire root-basis of these arts respectively1 that for the elaboration of the type of the other arts#cc1 to a more or less degree1 but little room is left for other aspects4 ,and1 finally1 in poetry1 though it is the fact that it gives the most complete impress in its art-products of the entire series of art-types1 we shall find it necessary to make our classification not by means of the distinction between symbolic1 classic1 and romantic poetry1 but according to the specific differentiation applicable to poetry as a particular art in epic1 lyrical1 and dramatic poetry4 ,architecture is1 on the other hand1 art in its immediate relation to the external medium1 so that in this case the essential differences consist in this1 whether this external matter receives its significance intrinsically1 or is treated as a means for an object other than it1 or finally asserts itself in this subservience as at the same time independent4 ,the first case is identical with the symbolic type simply1 the second with the classical1 the real significance attaining here an independent presentation1 and in doing this the symbolic is attached as an environment wholly external to it1 a type which is exemplified in the principle of classical art4 ,the union of these two types is coincident with the romantic1 in so far1 that is1 as romantic art makes use of the exterior medium as a means of expression1 yet withdraws itself into itself out of this reality1 and is consequently able once more by doing so to let objective existence stand forth in self-subsistent embodiment4 ,footnote #a3 ,gediegene here seems to mean that the unity is a real one throughout all its manifestations--it is one of sterling efficacy4 ,footnote #b3 ,by the words die innere ,produktion der ,kunst is meant apparently the creative activity of art-production as ideally conceived in a series of general world-impressions 7,weltanschauungen74 ,the main contrast between the theoretic apprehension of such an evolution of art as a series1 held in its broad generic outlines by mind1 and its practical realization as differentiated in the actual products of different arts is sufficiently clear4 ,the difficulty remains1 however1 as to how far ,hegel regarded these ,weltanschauungen in their universality to have themselves an objective significance no less than a subjective one--how far1 in other words1 are they merely abstract concepts of the observer1 the schemata of scientific generalization1 or do actually unfold an objective1 if ideal process--how far is the thought one with the revelation of the ,absolute itself4 ,it is1 of course1 a difficulty not unknown to the student of ,hegel in other directions4 ,at least1 as translator1 ,i must content myself1 as an excuse for obscurity in this and other passages1 with drawing attention 7a7 ,to the main contrast which is quite clear1 and 7b7 ,to the fundamental difficulty which remains4 ,as a rule the word ,weltanschauung is generally used rather in the sense of a world-outlook as from the point of view of an observer4 ,in this passage1 and still more obviously a little lower down1 the sense appears to be rather world-presentment or manifestation--and the emphasis certainly on the objective aspect4 ,thus the ,ideal of ,beauty is defined as the collective totality of its ,weltanschauungen4 ,how far within such1 which have previously been called exclusively ideal 7innere7 can be incorporated the positive concrete embodiments of definite works of art is for myself the difficulty1 which ,i do not profess myself to be able to solve4 ,i am in fact not entirely clear as to the entire meaning of ,hegel myself4 ,the mere statement that the one is made objective by the other does not appear to me to remove the difficulty2 for1 to mention no other objection1 a particular work of art is not exclusively either concrete or objective in the sense that an ideal process is so1 or an ,ideal which combines the ideal stages or moments in such a process4 ,footnote #c3 ,welche sich objectivirt4 ,see note above4 ,footnote #d3 ,the present1 that is1 which is objective to sense4 ,footnote #e3 ,so lst sich das ,ideal in seine ,momente auf4 ,according to this it would appear that the process is wholly identified with the system of the particular arts4 ,but the universal world-presentments are surely equally a process or at least an abstract of such a process4 ,and this is in fact affirmed lower down4 ,footnote #f3 ,a favourite metaphor of ,hegel4 ,the idea is that the metal is all one infusion producing a result that is like the appearance of ,athene from the brow of ,zeus4 ,footnote #g3 ,der ,subjektivitt4 ,the mind of the artist4 ,footnote #h3 ,a misprint4 ,der should be die4 ,footnote #i3 ,zuversicht4 ,confidence in itself4 ,footnote #aj3 ,die ,sache4 ,the fact1 the artistic object primarily treated4 ,footnote #aa3 ,die ,subjektivitt4 ,what is personal in the perception of judgment4 ,footnote #ab3 ,a fine illustration of this passage is to be found in ,miss ,harrison's description of the ,praxiteles ,hermes in her admirable ,introductory ,studies in ,greek ,art 7see chap1 ,,vi71 a work every student of ,greek ,art should peruse4 ,footnote #ac3 ,gediegenheit4 ,sterling solidity4 ,to understand all that is implied the above cited work of ,miss ,harrison is the clearest and most useful ,i know4 ,footnote #ad3 ,in ,unterhaltung4 ,finds himself1 so to speak1 directly conversing with him4 ,footnote #ae3 ,der ,gattungen1 i4e41 specific types4 ,footnote #af3 ,das ,aussereinander4 ,a differentiated exteriority4 ,footnote #ag3 ,subjektivitt1 the ideal unity that is--not so much as soul or personality4 ,footnote #ah3 ,kein subjektives ,inneres4 ,no ideal content that implies a unifying subject4 ,footnote #ai3 ,same expression as last note4 ,an ideal realm in its aspect of relation to an individual soul4 ,footnote #bj3 ,als ,element4 ,footnote #ba3 ,or reason 7,geist47 ,footnote #bb3 ,as such content4 ,footnote #bc3 ,this must be taken subject to qualifications which appear further on4 ,footnote #bd3 ,an sich selbst subjektiv4 ,as essentially appertinent to the individual soul4 ,footnote #be3 ,sich entgegenheit dem ,geist1 i4e41 raises itself as a medium opposed to--or1 as we should say1 subservient to4 ,footnote #bf3 ,this is obviously a reference to the false theory of light advanced by ,goethe and accepted by ,hegel4 ,footnote #bg3 ,das ganze ,mensch4 ,the entire man with all his faculties4 ,footnote #bh3 ,this is a reference1 of course1 to the ,art ,philosophy of ,schelling4 ,footnote #bi3 ,zum vornehmen ,wesen4 ,ironical1 of course4 ,it is part of the aristocratic pretensions of the connoisseur4 ,footnote #cj3 ,he means that as an explanation they are obvious provided the facts are true1 which he then points out in such cases is not so4 ,footnote #ca3 ,i am not sure ,i follow the sense here4 ,i presume the meaning is that1 as notionally considered1 we have to commence with an architecture to which other arts are already subservient4 ,the process of elaboration has already been carried beyond mere architecture4 ,and in this sense he calls sculpture an elaboration 7,ausbildung7 of architecture4 ,but the addition of painting and music as such elaboration is1 to say the least1 an unnecessary obscurity4 ,such an elaboration of a primitive form of music is suggested lower down4 ,but the conception appears to me rather confusing4 ,footnote #cb3 ,that is the final phase1 romantic architecture4 ,footnote #cc3 ,other than architecture4 ,,chapter ,i ,,independent ,,symbolical ,,architecture ,the primary and original necessity of art is this1 that a conception1 a thought emanate from mind1 be produced and emphasized by man as the result of his activity1 just as in speech there are simple ideas which man communicates thereby and makes intelligible to others4 ,in human speech1 however1 the means of communication is accepted merely as a sign1 and for this reason is an entirely arbitrary mode of externalization4 ,the function of art1 on the contrary1 is not only to make use of the mere symbolic sign1 but1 in contrast to this1 to supply a sensuous presence correspondent to significances4 ,on the one hand1 therefore1 the sensuous product1 which art presents to us1 must afford lodging for an ideal content2 on the other it has to represent this content in a manner which enables us to see that it is itself as its content not merely a realization of immediate reality1 but an actual product of human conception and its spiritual activity4 ,if ,i see1 for example1 an actually living lion ,i deduce from the unique presentment of the same the concept of lion precisely as ,i should in the case of a picture of it4 ,in the picture1 however1 we find something more than this4 ,it demonstrates to us that the form has been conceived in the mind1 and has found the origination of its existence in the human spirit and its productive activity1 so that now we not only receive the idea of an object1 but the idea of a human conception of that object4 ,there is1 however1 no original artistic necessity that either a lion1 merely as such#cd1 a tree1 or any other single object be added for the success of such reproduction4 ,we have seen1 on the contrary1 that art1 and pre-eminently plastic art1 proceeds with the presentation of such objects in order to affirm in them the dexterity of the counterfeit from the artist's own point of view4 ,the interest in its first origination is directed to bringing before the vision of the artist himself and others the primary impressions of the objective facts1 and the universal or essential thoughts thus stimulated4 ,such popular impressions are1 however1 in the first instance abstract and in themselves of indefinite character1 so that man1 in order that he may present them to the imagination1 lays hold of that which is essentially just as abstract1 the material medium as it is--which is at once massive and ponderous--a material which is no doubt capable of a definite1 but not of an intrinsically concrete and veritably spiritual1 content4 ,the relation between content and sensuous reality1 by virtue of which the content is to pass from the concipient world into that of imagination1 can consequently only be of a symbolical type4 ,at the same time1 however1 a building1 which purports to declare a general significance for others1 stands there for no other purpose save that of essentially expressing this loftier aspect1 and is consequently an independent symbol of a thought that goes straight to its essential import1 and is of universal validity1 a kind of speech which is present to spiritual life on its own account1 however much it may not be expressed through sound4 ,the products1 therefore1 of this type of architecture are necessarily stimulating to thought of themselves1 and arouse universal concepts1 albeit they fail to be the mere envelope and environment of significances which otherwise possess independent form4 ,for this reason1 however1 the form which permits a content of this kind to appear through it cannot perforce merely pass as symbolic sign1 as1 for example1 in the case when we raise a cross to a deceased person1 or erect stones in memory of battles4 ,for signs of this character are doubtless qualified to stimulate ideas1 but a cross1 or a pile of stones1 do not suggest1 in virtue of their own nature1 the idea which it is our object to awake1 but are just as able to remind us of much else entirely different4 ,this distinction constitutes the general notion of the stage now discussed#ce4 ,with regard to this it may be affirmed that entire nations have known how to express their profoundest requirements in no other way than by the arts of building1 or at least pre-eminently in an architectonic way4 ,this has been1 however1 to an essential degree only in the ,east1 as will appear from what we have already seen when we were called on to discuss the symbolic type of art4 ,to an exceptional degree we may say that the constructions of the more ancient art of ,babylonia1 ,india1 and ,egypt--which we have now before us to some extent only in ruins1 ruins which have been able to defy all ages and their revolutions1 and which excite our wonder and astonishment as much on account of what is wholly fantastic in their forms as in virtue of their extraordinary proportions and mass--either completely bear this character1 or in great measure are derived from it4 ,they are works whose construction enlists at certain periods of history the entire activity and life of nations4 ,if1 however1 we inquire more closely into the classification proposed by this chapter and the heads of subject-matter comprised in it1 we shall find that the point of departure in this kind of architecture is not1 as in the case of the classic or romantic type1 from definite forms similar to that of the house4 ,in other words we have here no independently secure content1 and with it no secure mode of embodiment1 advanced as the principle thereof1 which is forthwith related in its further development to the entire range of the different constructions4 ,rather the significances which are accepted as content remain1 as in the case of the symbolic type generally1 likewise inchoate and general conceptions1 elementary1 in many respects separated and interfused abstractions of natural life mingled with thoughts of spiritual activity1 without being1 ideally concentrated to a focus as the evolved states of one mind#cf4 ,this aspect of dissolution gives them the appearance of the greatest variety and change1 and the object of such architecture merely consists in emphasizing in its presentation first one aspect and then another1 in making such symbolical1 and1 by means of human labour1 making such symbolism apparent to us4 ,before a multiplicity of content such as this we cannot pretend in this discussion to be either exhaustive or systematic4 ,i shall limit myself to an attempt1 so far as this is possible1 to bring simply that which is of most importance into connection with a rational classification4 ,the prominent features of such a survey may be thus briefly enumerated4 ,as content our demand was for modes of view of a wholly general character1 in which peoples and individuals possess an ideal resting-place1 a point1 a unity for consciousness4 ,the proximate object1 therefore1 of such independent and self-substantive construction is simply to raise some work1 which forms the unity of a nation or nations1 a place in which its life may be concentrated4 ,we may also find along with this the further object more nearly associated1 to present by means of this very embodiment1 that which generally unites mankind1 in other words the religious ideas of nations1 by virtue of which works of this kind receive likewise a more definite content for their symbolical expression4 ,furthermore1 in the second place1 such an architecture is unable to remain fixed within the limits of this incipient determination of its entire content2 the symbolical images tend to become isolated2 the symbolical content of their signification is more closely defined1 and by this means we find that the distinctions of their forms tend to come into more assured prominence1 as for instance we see in the case of the ,lingam columns1 obelisks1 and other examples of this kind4 ,from another point of view the art of building1 in the spirit of such isolated self-subsistency1 presses forward in its passage to sculpture1 its acceptance of organic animal forms or human figures1 its enlargement of either and association of both of them1 however1 on a prodigious scale1 in its further addition of walls1 doors and passages1 and throughout in its treatment of what is adapted to sculpture in such objects in an entirely architectonic manner4 ,the ,sphinxes1 ,memnons1 and enormous temples of ,egypt come under this category4 ,thirdly1 this symbolical art of building begins to present the transitional stage to the classic type4 ,in other words it excludes sculpture from its immediate province1 and sets about constructing itself as a receptacle for other significances1 which are themselves not merely expressed under an architectonic mode4 ,that the reader may better understand the process thus indicated ,i will recall to memory a few famous examples of such buildings4 #a4 ,,architectural ,,works ,,erected ,,with ,,the ,,object ,,of ,,uniting ,,peoples ,what is holy8 is a question raised by ,goethe in a certain distich1 and the answer he gives is3 that which binds together many souls4 ,in this sense we may affirm that what is sacred1 together with the end expressed in the above association1 and as such association1 has actually formed the primary content of self-subsistent building and the art of such4 ,the earliest example of this we may take from the story of the building of the tower of ,babylon4 ,in the broad expanse of the ,euphrates valley we are told that mankind erected an enormous architectural work4 ,it is built by the labour of a community1 and this public character of its construction is at the same time the end and content of the work itself4 ,and what is equally true is this1 that this foundation of an association of communal labour is no mere unity of a patriarchal stamp2 on the contrary we find here that the mere unity of the family is precisely that which is set on one side1 and this building1 which is raised to the heavens1 is the objective presentment of the dissolution of the more primitive type of unity and the realization of another of more expansive range4 ,the collective activity of peoples belonging to that age worked in it2 and1 in proportion as they came together in order to accomplish a building of prodigious size1 the product of their activity came to be the band1 which1 on the ground and soil they had thus selected1 and by means of the accumulated mass of stone and the architectural construction on the land--just as in our case morality1 custom1 and the lawful constitution of ,state-life--bound them in unity together4 ,a building of this kind is in consequence also symbolical for the reason that it merely suggests the band of unity which it is1 because it is only able1 by means of its form and content1 to express the sacred unity which unites men in an external way4 ,it is also equally a part of this tradition that the communities have once more split apart from the centre of attraction which united them on a work of this external character4 ,a further and yet more important building1 which has1 too1 already a more reliable historical basis1 is the temple of ,belus1 of which ,herodotus informs us#cg4 ,we will not here inquire in what relation this stands to that of ,biblical tradition4 ,it is impossible to call this structure1 taking it as a whole1 a temple in any ordinary meaning of that term2 rather we should call it a temple enclosure in the form of a square1 each side of which was two stadia long1 with brazen gates for means of entry4 ,in the centre of this sacred place1 according to ,herodotus1 who had actually seen this colossal work1 a tower of thick walls 7with no interior1 solid throughout1 in other words a 7 was built1 both in length and breadth a stadium3 on this was placed yet another1 and again another on that1 and so on1 eight towers in all4 ,on the outside of this a roadway was made to the top2 and it appears that halfway up to the summit was a place of rest with benches on which all who ascended could rest themselves4 ,on the summit1 however1 of the last tower there was a huge temple1 and in the temple was a great bench1 well cushioned1 and before it stood a gold table4 ,no statue1 however1 was placed in the temple4 ,no one was permitted to be there at night with the exception of the attendant women1 who1 according to the statements of the ,chaldaeans1 the priests of this god1 were selected by him pre-eminently for service4 ,the priests further maintained 7c4 #ahb7 that the temple was visited by the god1 who rested on the bench made for him4 ,herodotus1 it is true1 also states 7c4 #ahc7 that below within this sanctuary there was yet another temple1 in which was placed a great image of the god of gold1 together with a huge golden table before it1 and at the same time refers to two great altars outside the temple on which the sacrifices were made4 ,notwithstanding these facts it is impossible to picture this gigantic building as a temple either in the ,greek or modern sense of the term4 ,for the first seven cubic towers are solid throughout1 and it is only the eighth one at the summit which serves as a resting-chamber for the invisible god1 who received therein no obeisance either from priesthood or the community4 ,his image was below outside the building1 so that the entire construction was raised in really independent and self-contained form1 and did not subserve the objects of religious ritual1 although it is no longer a purely abstract point of unity that we find here but a sanctuary4 ,the form remains no doubt subject to accidental causes1 or it receives its determinate character purely on account of the material security of the cube form2 at the same time we have evidence of a demand which seeks for a significance which may supply a determinate relation to it more directly symbolical and applicable to the work taken as a whole4 ,we must look for this1 though this is not a point expressly adverted to by ,herodotus1 in the number of the massive floors4 ,there are seven of them with an eighth superposed for the nightly abode of the god4 ,this number of seven in all probability symbolizes the seven planets and spheres of heaven4 ,we find also in ,media cities built in accordance with such a symbolism4 ,there is1 for example1 ,ecbatana with its seven encircling walls1 of which ,herodotus#ch states that in part by virtue of the height of the elevation on the slope of which the city was built1 and in part intentionally and by artificial means1 they were higher one than the other1 and their battlements were coloured differently4 ,white was on the first1 black on the second1 purple on the third1 blue on the fourth1 red on the fifth2 the sixth1 however1 was coated with silver1 and the seventh with gold1 and within this last stood the royal stronghold and its treasure4 ,ecbatana1 remarks ,creuzer1 in his work on ,symbolism1 when referring to this type of building#ci1 that ,median city1 and its royal stronghold in the centre1 with its seven circles of walls and its battlements of seven different colours1 represents the spheres of heaven which enclose the stronghold of the sun4 #b4 ,,architectural ,,works ,,intermediate ,,between ,,the ,,arts ,,of ,,building ,,and ,,sculpture ,the first point we have to consider in the further development of our subject consists in this1 that architecture accepts for its content significances that are more concrete1 and aims at their more symbolical presentation in accordance with forms that are similarly more concrete1 which1 however1 whether we take the case of their insulation#dj1 or collective accretion in gigantic buildings1 they do not make use of in the way sculpture makes use of them1 but architectonically in their own independent province4 ,in the case of this present type we have to direct our attention to more specific facts1 although all that we advance can put in no pretension to completeness1 or an a priori development for the reason that art in so far as it proceeds in its products to embrace the full range of the actual1 that is the historical ways of comprehending the world and its religious conceptions1 is lost in aspects of a contingent character4 ,the fundamental definition of the type is simply this1 that we have a confused blend of sculpture and architecture1 albeit the art of building is that which permeates all and predominates4 7a7 ,we had occasion before1 when discussing the symbolic type of art1 to mention the fact that in the ,east it is frequently the universal living force of ,nature1 that is1 not the spirituality and might of consciousness1 but the productive energy of generation1 which is emphasized and revered4 ,more particularly in ,india this religious attitude was universal2 also from its sources in ,phrygia and ,syria under the image of the great goddess1 the fructifyer1 a conception was derived which the ,greeks themselves accepted4 ,still more closely considered this conception of the universally productive energy of ,nature was represented and held sacred in the form of the organs of sex1 ,phallus and ,lingam4 ,this cultus was in the main promulgated in ,india1 albeit also1 as we learn from ,herodotus1 it was not wholly foreign to ,egypt4 ,at any rate we meet with something of the kind in the festivals of ,dionysus4 ,according to the statement of ,herodotus1 they have invented other puppets as substitutes for the phalli of an ell's length1 which the women draw about with a string1 on which we find the sexual member no smaller in size than the rest of the body4 ,the ,greeks accepted a similar ministration1 and ,herodotus expressly informs us 7c4 #di7 that ,melampus had knowledge of the ,egyptian sacrificial festival of ,dionysus1 and had introduced the phallus which was carried about in honour of the god4 ,it was in ,india especially that the worship of the energy of generation assumed the exterior shape and significance of the organs of sex4 ,enormous columnar images were in this respect raised of stone as massive as towers and broadening out at the base4 ,originally they were themselves independently the aim and objects of such worship2 only at a later time it became customary to make openings and hollow chambers within them and deposit in these divine images1 a custom which was maintained in the ,hermes figures of the ,greeks1 little temple shrines that could be carried4 ,the point of departure1 however1 in ,india was the phallus pillars1 which had no such hollows1 and which only at a later date were divided into a shell and kernel1 growing thus into pagodas4 ,for the genuine ,indian pagodas1 which should be distinguished essentially from later ,mohammedan or other imitations1 do not originate in the form of the dwelling1 but are narrow and lofty1 and receive their fundamental type from these columnar constructions4 ,we find a similar significance and form also once more in the conception of the mountain ,meru as expanded by ,hindoo imagination1 which is conceived as twirling stick in the sea of milk1 and is the creative source of the world4 ,herodotus mentions similar columns1 some constructed in the shape of the male1 others in that of the female organ4 ,he ascribes their construction#da to ,sesostris1 who erected them everywhere on his military expeditions against all the peoples he conquered4 ,the majority of such pillars no longer existed in the days of ,herodotus4 ,it was only in ,syria that the historian#db had himself seen them4 ,however1 the fact that he ascribes them all to ,sesostris is merely based on the tradition he adopts4 ,moreover1 his explanation is wholly ,greek in its colour2 he converts the natural significance into one of ethical import and in this sense informs us3 ,in cases where ,sesostris during his expedition crossed nations which were brave in battle1 he set up pillars in their land together with inscriptions1 which gave his own name and nation1 and indicated that he had subdued these peoples4 ,where1 on the contrary1 he overcame without opposition1 he indicated on such pillars the female organ of sex without attaching an inscription in order to declare the fact that these nations had been cowards in battle4 7b7 ,we find further constructions of a similar nature1 intermediate1 that is1 between sculpture and architecture1 principally in ,egypt4 ,with these we may include1 for example1 the obelisks1 which do not1 it is true1 borrow their form from the living organisms of ,nature1 such as plants1 animals1 or the human form1 but are of a form wholly subject to geometrical rule1 yet at the same time no longer constructed expressly as subservient to the human dwelling or temple1 but are erected in free and independent self-subsistency1 and possess the symbolical significance of the solar rays4 ,mithras1 maintains ,creuzer1 the ,mede or ,persian1 rules in the solar city of ,egypt#dc1 and is there prompted by a dream to build obelisks1 that is to say solar rays in stone1 and to inscribe on them letters which are known as ,egyptian4 ,pliny had already attached this import to obelisks#dd4 ,they were dedicated to the sun's divinity1 whose rays they were intended to catch and at the same time to reflect4 ,also we find that in the images set up in ,persia we have rays of fire which ascend from columns#de4 ,after obelisks we should mention as most important the sculptured ,memnons4 ,the huge statues of ,memnon of ,thebes1 of which ,strabo was still able to see one fully preserved and made from a single stone1 while the other1 which uttered a sound at setting of the sun1 was already in his day mutilated1 possessed the human form4 ,they were two seated colossal human figures in their grandiose and massive proportions rather inorganically and architectonically designed than in the strict sense sculptured1 as also appears in the case of the linear arrangement of the ,memnon columns1 and1 inasmuch as they are only valid in such equable order and size1 they wholly digress from the aim of sculpture and are subject to the art of building4 ,hirt#df refers the colossal melodious statue1 which ,pausanias states the ,egyptians regarded as the image of ,phamenoph1 not so much to deity as to a king1 who possessed in it his monument1 as ,osymandyas and others in a similar way4 ,it is1 however1 quite possible that these imposing images supplied a more definite or indefinite conception of something universal4 ,both ,egyptians and ,aethiopians worshipped ,memnon1 the son of the ,dawn1 and sacrificed to him on the first appearance of the solar rays by means of which the image greeted with its vocal sound the worshippers4 ,producing as it did vocal sound it is not merely in virtue of its form of importance and interest1 but by reason of its nature as a living1 significant and revealing thing1 albeit the mode of revelation is purely one of symbolic suggestion4 ,this relation we have pointed out in the case of these statues of ,memnon is equally true in that of the ,sphinxes1 which we have already discussed in our reference to their symbolic significance4 ,we find these ,sphinxes in ,egypt not merely in extraordinary numbers but also of stupendous size4 ,one of the most famous of them is the one which is situated in close proximity to the ,cairo group of pyramids4 ,its length is #adh metres1 its height from the claws to the head is #fe metres2 the feet that repose in front1 measured from the breast to the points of the claws1 are #eg metres1 and the height of the claws #h metres4 ,this enormous mass of rock1 however1 has not in the first instance been excavated and then carried to the place now occupied by it4 ,on the contrary1 the excavations which have been made to its foundations prove that the foundation consists of limestone1 and in a manner which showed that the entire huge work was hewn from one rock of which it only forms a portion4 ,this enormous image more nearly approaches1 it is true1 genuine sculpture in its colossal proportions2 it is1 however1 equally true that the ,sphinxes were also set side by side linearly in passages1 in which position they1 too1 receive a wholly architectonic character4 7c7 ,such independent figures are1 as a rule1 not only to be found in isolation1 but are supplemented by the construction of large buildings resembling the temple type1 labyrinths1 subterranean excavations of every kind1 or amongst other things are utilized in masses and surrounded by walls4 ,the first thing we may remark with regard to the temple enclosures of ,egypt is this that the fundamental character of this huge type of architecture1 detailed information as to which we have latterly received in the main from ,french writers1 consists in this that they are constructions open to the day1 without roofing1 doors1 passages between partitions#dg1 and above all1 between columned halls1 entire forests of columns4 ,they are works1 in short1 of the greatest range and variety of interior construction which1 without serving as the habitation of a god1 or a communion of worshippers1 independently by this self-consistent operation appeal to the wonder of our imaginations quite as much in the colossal size of their proportions and masses1 as through the fact that their isolated forms and images make an independent and exclusive claim to our interest4 ,such forms and images are in truth placed there as symbols for significances which are strictly universal in their import1 or in the position they occupy as representing literature1 in so far1 that is1 as they declare such significances not through the manner of their form1 but by means of writings1 works of imaginative form which are engraved on their surfaces4 ,we may in part describe these gigantic buildings as a collection of sculptured images2 for the most part1 however1 these appear in such a number and with such repetition of one and the same form1 that the arrangement becomes one of a series1 and it is only in this kind of line and order that they receive what is precisely their architectonic definition1 which becomes1 however1 once more an object in itself1 and does not merely mean beams and roofing and nothing beyond them4 ,the larger constructions of this type start with a paved passage1 one hundred feet broad1 according to ,strabo's statement1 and three or four times as long4 ,on either side of this approach 77 stand ,sphinxes1 in rows of fifty to a hundred1 in height from twenty to thirty feet4 ,after this comes an imposing and splendid portal 771 narrower at the top than at the base1 with piers and columns of enormous bulk1 ten or twenty times higher than the height of a man2 partially isolate and independent1 and in part fixed in walls and gorgeously decorated structures#dh1 which also stand up perpendicularly in independence to the height of from fifty to sixty feet1 broader at the bottom than at the top1 without being connected with transverse walls1 or carrying entablatures#di1 and so constituting a dwelling4 ,on the contrary1 what we find is that1 in contrast to vertical walls1 which rather suggest they are built to support a weight1 they belong to the independent mode of architecture4 ,here and there ,memnon images lean against these walls1 which also constitute passages1 and are entirely covered with hieroglyphics and enormous pictures on stone1 so that they appeared to the ,frenchmen who recently saw them like printed calico4 ,we may regard them as so many leaves of books1 which by means of their spatial and limited superficies arouse unlimited astonishment1 feeling1 and reflection in the human soul4 ,doors follow at frequent intervals1 and alternate with each series of ,sphinxes2 or we find an open spot engirt throughout by a wall with columned passages to these walls4 ,after that we get a covered place1 which does not serve as a dwelling1 but is a forest of pillars1 the columns of which have no roofing but carry slabs of stone4 ,after these ,sphinx passages1 series of columns1 and structural walls over-flowered with hieroglyphics1 after them a frontage building with wings1 before which obelisks are erected and lions couched2 or also1 after forecourts1 or a cincture of yet more narrow approaches1 we reach the culmination of the entire construction1 the real temple1 the sanctuary 771 according to ,strabo of moderate proportions1 which either contained no image of the god1 or merely an animal image4 ,this dwelling of godhead was now and again a monolith1 as ,herodotus1 for example1 narrates#ej in respect of the temple of ,buto4 ,this temple was worked out of one piece of stone to a length and breadth1 which in each of its walls of equal size measured forty cubits1 and as final roof to the same was placed a single stone with a cornice of four cubits' breadth4 ,in general1 however1 these sanctuaries are so small1 that no communion of worshippers could find room inside4 ,such a communion1 however1 is an essential concomitant of a temple2 otherwise the same is merely a box1 a treasury1 a place where sacred images are conserved4 ,to such an extent buildings of this type run on for miles with their rows of animal figures1 their ,memnons1 their immense doors1 their walls and colonnades of the most stupendous dimensions1 some of greater breadth1 some of less1 their isolated obelisks and much else1 that while we wander within works so huge and so calculated to excite our surprise1 which in part possess merely a more restricted purpose in the diverse activities of the system of culture to which they belong the question is irresistible1 what these masses of stone have to tell us of the ,divine they secrete4 ,for on closer inspection symbolical meanings are everywhere in-woven in these constructions in that the number of ,sphinxes and ,memnons1 the position of columns and passages have relation to the days of the year1 the twelve signs of the ,zodiac1 the seven planets1 the great periods of the lunar cycle and other phenomena4 ,to some extent we find here that sculpture has not yet freed itself from architecture2 and in some degree again the really architectonic aspect of measure1 interval1 number of columns1 walls1 steps1 and so forth is so treated1 that the real object of these relations is not to be found in their own intrinsic character1 that is1 in their symmetry1 harmony1 and beauty1 but is referable to their symbolical definition4 ,and in this way all this work of construction asserts itself independently as an object in itself1 as itself a cultus1 in which both nation and king are united4 ,many works1 such as canals1 the lake ,maeotis1 and generally waterworks have a particular relation to agriculture and the floods of the ,nile4 ,an example of this we have in the statement of ,herodotus#ea to the effect that ,sesostris had the entire country1 which up to this time had been ridden and driven over1 cut up into canals to provide drinking-water1 and in this way made horses and wagons useless4 ,the main constructions1 however1 remained those buildings with a religious purpose1 which the ,egyptians instinctively piled up much as the bees do their cells4 ,their property was regulated#eb1 their other social conditions equally so1 the soil of the country was extraordinarily fruitful1 and required no laborious cultivation1 so that we may almost say their agriculture merely consisted in sowing and harvest4 ,we hear little of other interests and exploits1 such as are common to nations1 and1 with the exception of the tales of the priesthood with reference to the maritime undertakings of ,sesostris1 we have no account of sea voyages4 ,speaking generally1 the ,egyptians restricted their efforts to this work of construction within their own country4 ,it is1 however1 what we have called self-substantive and symbolical architecture which forms the fundamental type of their imposing works and for this reason that the human ideal1 the spiritual in its aims and external forms1 has not as yet come to self-knowledge1 or constituted itself the object and product of its free activity4 ,self-consciousness has not as yet ripened in the fruit1 is not yet independently secured1 but is restless1 seeking1 surmising1 ever for producing without absolute satisfaction1 and consequently without repose4 ,it is only in the form that is commensurate with ,spirit that mind essentially at home with itself finds satisfaction and finds its true definition in what it produces4 ,the symbolical work of art on the contrary remains more or less indefinite4 ,among such creations of the ,egyptian art of building we may include the so-called labyrinths1 courts with columned approaches1 circumambient paths between partitions1 which entwine about in a mysterious fashion1 but whose confusing intricacy is not constructed with the puerile object to make the means of exit a problem1 but to create for the senses an intricate mode of motion that is dominated by mysteries of symbolical import4 ,for these paths1 as we have already indicated1 imitate in their course that of the heavenly bodies and embody the same for imagination4 ,they are in part constructed above the ground and in part underneath it1 and in addition to their passages are furnished with chambers and halls of enormous size1 whose walls are covered with hieroglyphics4 ,the largest labyrinth which ,herodotus himself saw was not far from the lake ,maeris4 ,he affirms#ec that its size exceeded his powers of description1 and it surpassed the pyramids themselves4 ,the building he ascribes to the twelve kings1 and he describes it in the following terms4 ,the entire building surrounded by one and the same wall consisted of two stories1 the one above and the other beneath the level of the ground4 ,taken together they enclosed three thousand chambers1 each story containing fifteen hundred4 ,the upper story which alone ,herodotus was able to see was divided into twelve adjacent courts#ed1 with doors placed opposite to each other1 six facing the ,north and six the ,south1 and every court was engirt with a colonnade1 constructed of white and carefully worked stone4 ,from these courts1 ,herodotus continues1 you have ingress to the chambers1 and from these into the halls1 and from the halls into other chambers1 and from these chambers into the courts4 ,according to ,hirt#ee ,herodotus only so far defines this latter relation to the extent that he places in the first instance the chambers in juxtaposition to the courts4 ,with regard to the labyrinthine passages1 ,herodotus states that the numerous passages through the roofed-in chambers and the multitudinous incurvations between the courts had filled him with infinite astonishment4 ,pliny#ef describes them as obscure and tedious for a stranger on account of their windings1 and when their doors were opened there was a noise in them like thunder2 we also learn from ,strabo1 an evidence of importance1 for he was an eye-witness no less than ,herodotus1 that the labyrinthine passages encircled the court spaces4 ,it was the ,egyptians who mainly built such labyrinths3 but we find in imitation of ,egypt a similar one in ,crete1 though of smaller extent1 and also1 too1 in the ,morea and ,malta4 ,taking into consideration the fact1 however1 that1 on the one hand1 an art of building of this kind in its chambers and halls already approximated to the dwelling type1 while1 on the other1 according to the delineation of ,herodotus1 the subterranean portion of the labyrinth1 an entrance into which was forbidden him1 had for its definite object the sepulchre of the founders of the building and sacred crocodiles--so that here the essential characteristic of the labyrinth was entirely the symbolic import in an independent sense--we may find in such works a point of transition to the form of symbolical architecture1 which in its own constituent parts begins already to approach the classic type of building4 #c4 ,,the ,,transition ,,from ,,self-,,substantive ,,architecture ,,to ,,the ,,classical ,,type ,however stupendous in size the construction we have just considered are the subterranean architecture of ,oriental peoples such as the ,hindoos and ,egyptians1 which offer many features of resemblance1 are still more imposing and calculated to excite our wonder4 ,whatever aspect of grandeur and nobility is in this respect discoverable above ground presents no parallel to that which among the ,hindoos is presented us beneath the earth in ,salsette1 which faces ,bombay1 and in ,ellora1 that is1 in ,upper ,egypt and ,nubia4 ,in these extraordinary excavations what we have in the earliest examples exposed is the immediate necessity of an enclosure4 ,the fact that mankind have sought protection in caves1 and made their dwelling there and that entire peoples have possessed no other mode of dwelling is due to the compelling force of their needs4 ,caves of this kind existed in the land of ,judaea1 where in works of many stories there was room for thousands4 ,there were also in the ,harz mountains in the ,rammelsberg near ,goslar chambers1 into which men crept for cover1 and used to bring their provisions for safety4 7a7 ,of an entirely different type1 however1 are the ,hindoo and ,egyptian subterranean constructions to which we have alluded4 ,in some degree they served as places of assemblage1 subterranean cathedrals1 and are constructions whose object was to excite religious wonder and concentrate the communion of spiritual life2 they are united to designs and suggestions of a symbolical character1 colonnades1 sphinxes1 ,memnons1 elephants1 colossal images of idols1 which1 hewn from the bare rock1 were as fully left a component growth of the formless stone as the columns in such excavations were made to stand out in isolation from it4 ,in front of the walls of rock these buildings were here and there wholly exposed to the light1 in other parts they were entirely devoid of it1 and illuminated merely with torches1 while in other portions light was introduced from above4 ,relatively to the super-terranean constructions these excavations appear as prior in time1 so that we may regard the enormous spaces laid out above the soil as an imitation and efflorescence of similar tracts of land beneath it4 ,in excavations there is no positive building1 but we have rather a given material taken away4 ,and to nest thus in the ground1 to excavate is more natural to man than to seek for a material1 and with it to construct and inform a mass of buildings4 ,in this respect we may assume the cave to be utilized prior to the hut or dwelling4 ,caves are the extension of spatial covering instead of a limitation of such1 or an extension which grows up as a limit and enclosure1 in which the enclosure is already present4 ,the subterranean construction consequently inclines to start with what is already present1 and1 in so far as it leaves the fundamental material as it finds it1 is not erected with the freedom applicable to a configuration raised above the surface of the soil4 ,in our view1 however1 these constructions already belong to a further stage of the art of building1 however much they may also have features of a symbolical type1 because they no longer are placed there as independently symbolical1 but already possess the aim or purpose of an enclosure1 a partition1 a roof1 within which more symbolical figures as such are set up4 ,that which is connoted under the conception of temple and dwelling1 both in the ,greek and more modern use of the terms1 we have here in their most natural form4 ,we may include in the above class the caves of ,mithras1 although we find them in a very different locality4 ,the worship and ritual of ,mithras originates in ,persia4 ,a cultus1 however1 of a similar kind was also promulgated in the ,roman ,empire4 ,in the ,paris ,museum we find a very famous bas-relief1 which represents a youth in the act of striking an ox with a steel weapon4 ,it was discovered in the ,roman ,capitol in a deep grotto beneath the temple of ,jupiter4 ,in these ,mithras caves vaults are also met with1 and passages which on the one hand appear definitely to symbolize by suggestion the course of the stars1 and from another point of view also 7precisely as still in our own time takes place in our free-mason lodges1 where people are conducted through many passages and have to see dramatic scenes and much else7 the ways1 which the soul must pass through in its purification1 albeit it may be true enough that this fundamental meaning is more fully and directly expressed in sculpture and other work than in architecture simply4 ,in a connection somewhat similar we may also mention the ,roman catacombs1 the fundamental idea of whose construction was certainly something quite other than that of being subservient to aqueducts1 sepulchres or any system of drainage4 7b7 ,in the second place we may seek for our present use a more definite point of transition from the architecture of independent type in those constructions which have been raised as housings of the dead1 partly in the form of excavations beneath the ground1 and partly as buildings above it4 ,more particularly among the ,egyptians this kind of construction1 whether subterranean or super-terranean1 was associated with a realm of the dead1 just as in general among the ,egyptians it is a realm of the invisible which in the first instance receives a habitation and is placed before us4 ,the ,hindoo burns his dead1 or suffers their bones to lie and moulder on the earth4 ,according to the ,hindoo's point of view mankind are1 or become1 god or gods1 whichever way one cares to put it1 and we are unable to find in their case this assured distinction between the living and the dead regarded as dead4 ,hindoo constructions1 consequently1 so far as they do not originate in ,mohammedanism1 are not dwellings for the dead1 and appear generally to belong to an earlier period as we assumed was true of the astonishing excavations described4 ,in the case of the ,egyptians1 however1 the contrast between living and dead asserts itself predominantly4 ,that which is spiritual begins to separate itself essentially from what is material4 ,we have here the resurrection of spirit in concrete individuality1 the movement of that process4 ,the dead are therefore retained fast as personality#eg1 and are secured and preserved securely above the conception of dissolution into ,nature1 that is into universal evanescence1 flood and extinction4 ,singularity is the principle of the spiritual in its notion of independence1 because spirit is only able to exist as individuality1 that is personality4 ,consequently this honour paid to and preservation of the dead can only appear to ourselves as a first and important element in the definition of the existence of spiritual individuality1 since it is here that singularity is asserted as maintained rather than abandoned1 inasmuch as the body at any rate is treasured and respected as this ,nature's own mode of individuality4 ,herodotus assures us1 a fact we have already noticed1 that the ,egyptians were the first to declare that the souls of men were immortal1 and despite the fact that the grasp on spiritual individuality is in their case very incomplete1 in so far as in their view the deceased must for three thousand years pass through a whole series of animals belonging to land1 water1 and air1 yet for all that in this conception1 and in the embalming of the body1 we find fixedly the notion of bodily individuality1 and of the independent self-existence as separate from that body4 ,it is therefore also of importance in the arts of building that in these the separation of the spiritual1 no less than the ideal significance1 which#eh is independently represented1 be carried into effect while the corporeal shell is set round it as a purely architectonic environment4 ,the dwellings of the dead of the ,egyptians constitute for this reason the earliest examples of the temple type4 ,the essential feature1 the central core of worship is a subject1 an individual object which appears of significance by itself1 and expresses itself as distinct from its dwelling1 which is thereby interpreted as purely a subservient covering4 ,and no doubt it is not an actual man1 for whose requirements a house or palace had to be built1 but deceased objects that are without such needs1 kings1 sacred animals1 around whom immeasurable constructions are enclosed4 ,just as agriculture fixes the wandering of nomads in the stable possession of a definite locality1 we may say that generally sepulchres1 monuments1 and the service of the dead unite mankind1 and even offer to those who possess no ,states1 no limitations of property1 a place of rendez-vous1 sacred places which they defend and refuse to have taken away from them4 ,as an illustration we may cite the case of the ,scythians1 a nomad people1 who retired everywhere1 according to the narration of ,herodotus#ei1 before ,darius4 ,and when ,darius sent an embassage to them with the message that if their king deemed himself strong enough to offer resistance he should come forth to battle1 but if he did not he ought to recognize ,darius as his lord1 ,idanthyrsus met the same with the reply that they possessed neither cities nor tilled land1 and had nothing to defend for the reason that ,darius had nothing to ravage2 if1 however1 ,darius made a point of having a fight they possessed the sepulchres of their fathers1 let him therefore dare to advance against these1 he will then discover whether they will fight for their sepulchres or not4 ,the most ancient and imposing monuments erected to the dead we find in ,egypt4 ,they are the ,pyramids4 ,what most excites our wonder at first sight of these astonishing constructions is their extraordinary magnitude1 which at once makes us reflect upon the duration of time1 the variety1 superabundance and persistence of human energies which is inseparable from the completion of such colossal buildings4 ,from the point of view of form there is nothing in them to protract attention3 in a few minutes we have surveyed and taken in the entire effect4 ,with this simplicity and uniformity of their form in view their object has ever been a subject of controversy4 ,it is true that even the ancients1 as for example ,herodotus and ,strabo1 adduced the aim1 which they subserved2 but for all that both in former and more recent times1 travellers and writers have contributed much that is fabulous and unwarranted in their reflections4 ,the ,arabs endeavoured to effect entrance by force1 hoping to discover treasure in the interior of the ,pyramids2 such assaults1 however1 beyond disturbing much1 have failed in their object to reach the actual passages and chambers4 ,europeans of a later date1 among whom we may mention in particular for distinction1 ,belzoni1 a native of ,rome1 and ,caviglia of ,genoa1 have at last succeeded in ascertaining more accurate information with respect to the interior of these fabrics4 ,belzoni discovered the royal sepulchre in the ,pyramid of ,chephren4 ,the entrances to the ,pyramids were closed in the securest way by square blocks of stone1 and it appears that ,egyptians endeavoured in their construction so to effect matters that the entrance1 even when discovered1 could only be followed up and opened with the greatest difficulty4 ,this proves to us that the ,pyramids remained closed and could not be again used4 ,within their interior explorers have found chambers1 passages1 which point by suggestion to the ways1 which the soul undertakes after death in its course and transmigration1 great halls1 channels beneath the earth at one time descending1 at another mounting up4 ,the royal sepulchre of ,belzoni runs on in this way hewn out of the rock for a mile4 ,in the principal hall stood a sarcophagus of granite1 sunk in the ground2 but all that was discovered in it was the remains of animal bones of a mummy1 probably that of an ,apis4 ,the whole1 however1 proved beyond a doubt that the object in view was that of being a dwelling for the dead4 ,the ,pyramids differ in age1 form1 and size4 ,the most ancient appear to be stones piled on one another in a more or less pyramidal shape4 ,the more recent ones are constructed with uniformity2 some are somewhat flattened out at the summit1 others run up entirely to a point4 ,on others have been found deposits1 an explanation of which may be gathered from the description ,herodotus#fj gives us when referring to the ,pyramid of ,cheops of the manner in which the ,egyptians carried out such works1 so that ,hirt includes such among the ,pyramids which remained unfinished#fa4 ,in the older ,pyramids according to the latest evidence of ,frenchmen the chambers and passages are more winding2 in the more recent ones they are simpler1 but entirely covered with hieroglyphics1 to interpret which throughout will take several years4 ,in this way the ,pyramids1 despite all the wonder they arouse of their own accord1 are really nothing but crystals1 mere shells1 which enclose a kernel1 that is a departed spirit1 and serve as custodians of his still consistent bodily presence and form4 ,in this departed and deceased person1 who secures an independent reproduction1 we fail to find consequently any significance#fb2 the architecture1 however1 which up to this point independently possessed its significance in itself as architecture1 is now divided in its aim1 and in this division is subservient to something else1 whereas sculpture receives the function to give body to the genuine ideal aspect1 although in the first instance the individual figure in its unique and immediate natural shape is retained4 ,we find consequently1 on a general survey of the ,egyptian art of building1 on the one hand1 the self-subsistent symbolical buildings2 on the other1 however1 and more particularly in everything which is attached to the monuments of the dead1 the specific determination of architecture to be an enclosure and nothing more1 already clearly asserts itself4 ,it is an essential concomitant of this1 that architecture not only be limited to the construction of excavations and caves1 but attest itself as an inorganic ,nature built by human hands on the spot where men have actual need of it1 and for a definite purpose will it to be4 ,other nations have raised monuments of the same kind1 sacred buildings as dwellings of the dead bodies1 over whom they happen to be erected4 ,as examples we may instance the mausoleum in ,curia1 and of more recent date that of ,hadrian1 the still existing ,englesburg in ,rome1 a palace of careful construction raised in honour of a dead person1 all of which were even in antiquity famous works4 ,according to the description of ,uhden#fc we may also mention in this connection a type of mortuary1 which in its arrangement and environment imitated in its smaller aspects temples dedicate to gods4 ,a temple of this kind possessed a garden1 arbours1 a spring1 a vineyard1 and moreover chapels1 in which portrait statues of gods were placed4 ,more particularly in the time of the ,roman ,empire were such monuments to the dead built with statues of the deceased under the image of gods such as ,apollo1 ,venus1 and ,minerva4 ,figures like the above1 no less than the entire construction1 consequently received during that age the significance of an apotheosis and a temple in honour of the dead man1 just as also among the ,egyptians the process of embalming1 the emblems placed thereby1 and the sarcophagus attest that the deceased was treated as a god-like ,osiris#fd4 ,the most imposing and least complex constructions of this kind1 however1 are the ,egyptian ,pyramids4 ,in this type we have the peculiar and essential line of the art of building1 that is the straight one1 and in general terms the uniformity and abstract simplicity#fe of forms4 ,for architecture1 as merely enclosure and inorganic ,nature1 or ,nature that is not itself vitally and essentially suffused by the indwelling spirit in an independent mode1 is unable to possess form except as one which is external to itself2 external form1 however1 is not organic1 but abstract and purely referable to the organs of sense#ff4 ,however much the ,pyramid already begins to receive the determining characteristics of the dwellings1 yet the rectangular principle is still not throughout predominant1 as it is in a real dwelling-house2 it has still an independent determinacy1 which is not merely of service to the purpose for which it is erected1 and consequently closes up of itself by a process of gradation directly from the foundation to the apex4 7c7 ,it is from this point that we may make the transition from the independent type of building to that of an art of construction1 which is serviceable of a purpose4 ,there are two points of departure to this later type4 ,there is on the one hand symbolic architecture1 and on the other practical necessity and the impulse of purpose to subserve that necessity4 ,in the case of symbolical forms1 as we have already had occasion to observe1 architectonic purpose is merely an incidental feature1 merely an external mode of co-ordination4 ,the dwelling-house1 on the contrary1 erected as necessity itself1 requires posts of wood1 or just walls standing up straight with beams1 which are laid across them at right angles1 and a roofing1 and constitutes1 the other extreme4 ,there can be no question that the necessity of this real and effective expediency makes its appearance as the result of its own demand4 ,the distinction that may be raised1 however1 in answer to the question1 whether genuine architecture--as we shall shortly have to consider it as the classic art of building--takes its rise solely in this necessity1 or is to be deduced from independent and symbolical works1 which conducted us of their own accord to buildings devoted to service1 is the point in essential dispute4 77 ,it is the force of circumstances which brings to the fore forms in architecture which are wholly stamped with a useful purpose1 and the abstract deductions of science1 such as the rectilinear line1 the right angle1 and the smooth surface4 ,for in serviceable architecture that which constitutes the real object1 is1 in its independence1 as a statue1 or more closely as human individuals1 that is community1 a people1 brought together for objects of general significance1 which no longer have as their aim the satisfaction of physical wants1 but are such in a religious and political sense4 ,in a special degree the need asserts itself to shape an enclosure for the image1 the statue of the gods1 or generally for that which is independently placed before us and actually present as sacred4 ,memnons1 ,sphinxes1 and the like stand up in the open1 or in a grove1 that is in the external environment of nature4 ,images of this kind1 however1 and still more human images of gods1 are borrowed from another realm than that of immediate ,nature4 ,they belong to the world of imagination1 and come into existence through the artistic powers of mankind4 ,the purely natural environment is therefore not sufficient2 they require for their external frame a ground and an enclosure1 which shall be derived from the same source as their own1 in other words1 such as are the product of the imagination1 and have received their form by means of artistic effort4 ,it is only in an environment created by art that the gods find themselves at home#fg4 ,in such a case1 however1 this external frame does not possess its object in itself1 but it subserves something other than itself1 and is subject to the principle of purpose or expediency4 ,if1 however1 these1 in the first instance1 purely serviceable forms are exalted to an expression of beauty they are unable to persist in their original abstract mode1 and are forced to accept1 in addition to what is merely symmetrical and harmonious1 that which is organic1 concrete1 essentially itself conclusive and varied4 ,and because this is so men are forced to reflect over distinctions of determinating form1 no less than the express emphasis to be made on certain aspects of form1 which is wholly superfluous where the question is only one of a definite purpose to be attained4 ,a beam1 for example1 is from one point of view that which is carried forward in a straight line2 at the same time1 however1 it terminates at both extremes4 ,in the same way a post which has to support either rafter or roof stands on the ground and reaches its terminating point where the rafter rests upon it4 ,the architecture of service asserts distinctions of this kind and gives form to them by means of art2 an organic design1 on the contrary1 such as a plant1 or a human being1 ay1 whether we look at such above or below1 but in any case throughout1 has to be organically embodied1 to be differentiated in the latter case consequently by feet and head1 or in the former by roots and corona4 77 ,conversely symbolic architecture takes its point of departure more or less from organic forms of this kind1 as we see is the case with sphinxes1 memnons1 and so forth2 yet it is also unable wholly to exclude in its walls1 doors1 beams1 obelisks1 and the rest1 the principle of the straight line and uniformity1 and is generally obliged to accept the assistance of such principles appertinent to the genuine art of building as equality of size1 interval of relative position1 rectilinear progression of rows1 in short1 order and regularity when it proposes to place in a series and to set up in accordance with architectural design the colossal sculptured figures to which we have referred4 ,by doing so it unites in itself both principles#fh1 whose union brings for result an architecture1 the beauty of which is promoted along with the object to which it is subservient1 albeit in the symbolic type these two aspects#fi still lie in separation side by side instead of being fused in unity4 77 ,we may therefore so conceive the transition that on the one side the art of building1 hitherto self-subsistent in type1 is forced to modify under scientific principles#gj the forms of organisms in the direction of regularity1 and to pass into the province of proposed expediency2 while conversely what is entirely such intended purpose in the form moves in opposition to the principle of the organic world4 ,where these two extremes come together1 and mutually pass into one another1 we get what is really beautiful classic architecture4 ,we may recognize this union1 as it actually arises1 clearly in the transformation now introduced of that which we already have met with in the architecture which was anterior under the form of columns4 ,in other words1 it is true that from one point of view walls are necessary to make an enclosure2 but walls1 too1 can stand up independent1 as we have already proved with examples1 without making the enclosure complete1 to which a roofing1 no less than an enclosure of the sides1 essentially contributes4 ,but a roofing of this kind has to be supported4 ,the simplest way of doing this is by columns1 whose essential and1 at the same time exclusive1 rationale consists here in being simply supports4 ,for this reason walls are really a superfluity is so far as it is only a question of support4 ,for supporting is a mechanical relation1 and belongs to a province of gravity and its laws4 ,and in this#ga gravity the weight of a particular body is concentrated in its point of gravity1 and must be assisted at this centre in remaining horizontal without a fall4 ,this is precisely what the column does1 so that with it the power of support appears to be reduced to the minimum limit of exterior means to effect this4 ,what a wall at great cost#gb effects1 is equally effected by a few columns4 ,it is a very beautiful characteristic of classic architecture not to set up more columns than are actually necessary to carry the weight of the rafter and that which reposes thereon4 ,in genuine architecture columns1 for purposes of mere decoration1 are not truly beautiful4 ,for the same reason also columns which stand up entirely alone do not perform their true function4 ,no doubt triumphal columns have been erected1 such as the famous ones in honour of ,trajan and ,napoleon3 but these1 too1 are really but a pedestal for statues1 and moreover covered with sculptured reliefs to commemorate and glorify the hero1 whose image they carry4 ,in the case of the column1 then1 it is of exceptional importance to see how in the course of architectural development it is compelled to divest itself of the concrete form of ,nature before it can secure its more abstract form1 the form1 that is1 which is as compatible with a definite object as it is with beauty4 77 ,independent architecture1 on account of the fact that it starts with organic images1 makes use of human shapes1 as1 for example1 we find in ,egypt figures in some measure at least human1 such as ,memnons and the like1 are utilized4 ,this is1 however1 a mere superfluity1 in so far1 that is1 as a definition of this character is not the true medium of support4 ,we find among the ,greeks that ,caryatides are used in another mode and under a more severe obedience to rule to support superimposed weight1 but such cannot be extensively employed4 ,moreover1 we can only regard it as a misuse of the human form to crush it together under such burdens1 and it is for this reason that ,caryatides receive the character of the oppressed2 their drapery suggests a state of slavery under which it is a degradation to carry such burdens4 77 ,the more natural organic form for pillars and supports which have to bear a weight is consequently the tree1 plant-life generally1 a stem1 a thin stalk which strives upwards in a vertical direction4 ,the hole of a tree already carries of its own nature its crown of branches1 the blade of corn the ear1 the stem the flower4 ,these forms1 too1 the ,egyptian art of building1 which has not as yet attained the liberty of viewing them in their abstract intension1 borrows directly from ,nature4 ,in this respect the grandiose quality which we discover in the style of ,egyptian palaces or temples--the colossal proportions of its rows of columns1 the huge number of them1 and withal the imposing mutual relations of the entire structure1 has ever filled the spectator with wonder and astonishment4 ,in these colonnades we do not find that all columns have the same form2 they alternate between one1 two1 or three types4 ,denon1 in his work on the ,egyptian expedition1 has collected a great number of such types4 ,the combined effect is not as yet any uniform shape based on abstract principles of selection2 rather the foundation is the shape of an onion1 a reed-like efflorescence of leaf from the bulb1 or1 in other examples1 a compression together of the root-leaves according to the manner of several kinds of plant4 ,from this base1 then1 the thin stem breaks upwards straight1 or mounts as column with twisted coils1 and the capital is also a separation of leaves from branches which suggests the process of a flower4 ,the imitation1 however1 is not true to ,nature1 but the plant-like forms are drained off under the architectural impulse1 and made to approximate to circular1 geometrical1 and regular forms1 or straight lines1 so that such columns1 in their entirety1 resemble what are usually described as arabesques4 77 ,this is not the place to enter into a general discussion of the arabesque for the reason that notionally it marks precisely the transition from the architecture which adopts as its basic form the natural organism to that which by its adoption of a more severe regularity is more strictly architectonic4 ,when1 however1 the art of building has become free in its definitive character it relegates arabesques to the function of decoration and ornament4 ,they are then preeminently forms of plants strained off1 so to speak1 or forms which originate from plants together with entwined forms of animals and human beings1 or forms of animals in their passage over to plant-life4 ,in so far as they purport to authenticate a symbolical significance the transitional passage between the different spheres of the animal kingdom hold good for it4 ,apart from such an interpretation they are simply the play of the imagination in the selection1 combination and articulation of the most diverse forms of ,nature4 ,for architectural ornamentation of this kind1 in the invention of which the imagination finds scope for its activity in the most varied creations of every kind1 not even excluding utensils and drapery1 the fundamental determinant and type is this1 that whether it be plants1 leaves1 flowers1 or animals1 all are made to approximate to the abstract figures of science1 in other words the inorganic4 ,for this reason we frequently find arabesques to be stiff1 untrue to organic life2 and it is on this account that they are not unfrequently condemned and art is blamed for the use of them4 ,this is exceptionally true of painting1 though ,raphael himself did not scruple to paint arabesques in great profusion1 characterized with the highest charm1 nobility of feeling1 variety1 and grace4 ,no doubt arabesques are an antithesis to nature1 whether we compare them with organic forms or the rigid laws of mechanics2 but an opposition of this kind is not merely a right of art generally1 but even an obligation under which architecture is bound4 ,it is only by this means that living forms in other respects unfitted for the art of building are made adaptable to the truly architectural style and brought into harmony with it4 ,such an adaptability is offered in an exceptionally close degree by vegetable ,nature1 which is also in the ,east utilized to an extravagant extent in arabesques2 in other words plants are not as yet individual objects which possess feeling1 but naturally present themselves as adapted to architectural design1 by virtue of the fact that they form coverings and protection against rain1 sunlight1 and wind1 and1 generally speaking1 do not possess the free oscillation#gc of lines which breaks forth from the regularity of scientific conceptions#gd4 ,architecturally used the regularity of leaves already present is yet further subjected to rule in the definition of rondure and straight line1 so that by this means everything which it is possible to regard as distortion1 unnaturalness1 or stiffness in the plant-forms is fundamentally to be considered as a transformation adapted to the requirements of what is genuinely architectural4 ,in some such way in the column the real art of building passes from that which is purely organic imitation to the definite purpose of scientific rule1 and from this to a position which again approximates to the organic result4 ,we find it necessary to draw attention to this twofold point of departure from the actual necessities and the purposeless self-subsistency of architecture1 because the true type unites both principles4 ,the beautiful column originates in the natural form1 which is then transformed into the post1 that is1 it submits to the uniformity and scientific precision of form4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,classical ,,architecture ,the art of building1 when it has attained the position peculiarly its own and adequate to its notional content is subservient in its products to an end1 and a significance which it does not itself essentially possess4 ,it becomes an inorganic environment1 a whole that is co-ordinated and built conformably to the laws of gravity1 whose configurations are subject to that which is severely regular1 straight1 rectangular1 circular1 the relations of definite number and quantity1 that which is essentially limited measure and strict conformity to rule4 ,its beauty consists in this very relation to purpose1 which1 in its freedom from direct#ge admixture with what is organic1 spiritual1 and symbolical1 and despite the fact that it subserves an end1 nevertheless combines in an essentially exclusive totality1 which suffers its own aim to appear through all its modifications1 and in the harmonious co-ordination of its relations clothes that which is purely adapted to purpose in the forms of beauty4 ,architecture1 however1 at this stage#gf corresponds to its real notion1 for the reason that it is not in a position to endow that which is in the most explicit sense spiritual with a fully adequate existence1 and is consequently only able to inform what is external and devoid of spirit in its contrasted appearance with that which is spiritual4 ,we propose1 in our consideration of this art of building1 in which the relation of service is as truly a characteristic as that of beauty1 to adopt the following course of argument4 ,in the first instance we have to establish the general notion and character of the same4 ,secondly1 we shall have to adduce the particular fundamental determinants of the architectonic types which are deducible from the ulterior purpose which the classical work of art is erected to subserve4 ,thirdly1 we propose to survey the concrete reality which results from the development of classical architecture4 ,i do not1 however1 propose in discussing any of the above relations to enter into detail1 but will limit myself to points of most general significance1 a restriction more easy to observe in the present case than it was in that of the symbolical type of building4 #a4 ,,the ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,classical ,,architecture 7a7 ,in conformity with the principle ,i have already more than once adverted to the fundamental idea of the genuine art of building consists in this1 that the spiritual import is not exclusively reposed in the work of construction itself1 which by this means becomes an independent symbol of ideal signification#gg1 but1 with the converse result1 that this significance secures its free existence outside the limits of architecture4 ,this existence may be of a twofold character1 to the extent in other words that another art of extensive range--,i refer1 above all1 to the art of sculpture of the true classical type--sets before us and gives independent form to the significance1 or the individual man in himself receives and gives effect to the same in the active verity of his life4 ,apart from this#gh1 these two aspects may still appear together4 ,when1 therefore1 the ,oriental architecture of the ,babylonians1 ,hindoos1 and ,egyptians1 on the one hand1 gave symbolical form1 in images of independent consistency1 to that which was reckoned among these people as the absolute and true1 or1 from another aspect1 enclosed1 despite its external natural form1 that which was conserved after death--in contrast to this what we find now is--whether we regard it relatively to art's activity1 or to the life of actual existence--that the spiritual is separated from the work of construction in independent guise for itself1 and architecture becomes the vassal of what is spiritual1 which constitutes the real significance and the determinating end4 ,this end is consequently predominant4 ,it controls the entire work2 it determines the fundamental form of the same no less than its external skeleton1 and neither suffers the material nor the individual's imagination and caprice to assert their independence in a self-substantive way1 as was the case in symbolical architecture1 or to develop1 over and beyond the true purpose of the work1 a superfluity of manifold parts and configurations1 as is the case in the romantic type4 7b7 ,in considering a construction of this character we have1 then1 first to ask ourselves not merely what are the circumstances under which it was erected1 but what is its aim and purpose4 ,to make its construction compatible with such considerations1 to have a due regard for climate1 position1 and the environing landscape1 to create a whole1 one in spontaneous co-ordination1 by a regard for all these aspects as subservient to one purpose1 this is the task stated broadly1 in the entire fulfilment of which the instincts and genius of the artist will appear conspicuous4 ,among the ,greeks we find that it is public buildings1 temples1 colonnades1 and halls utilized for the ordinary rest and commerce of the day1 approaches1 such as the famous ascent of the ,acropolis in ,athens1 which are pre-eminently the objects of the builder's art4 ,private residences1 on the other hand1 were of a very simple character4 ,with the ,romans1 on the contrary1 it is the luxurious character of private houses1 especially villas1 which becomes prominent2 and we may say the same thing of imperial palaces1 public baths1 theatres1 circuses1 amphitheatres1 aqueducts1 and springs4 ,buildings of this type1 however1 the utility of which throughout remains the commanding and directing principle1 are merely able to accept beauty in a more or less decorative sense4 ,the object most compatible with freedom of treatment in this sphere is that of religion--the temple-house as the enclosure of an individual which itself is appropriated by fine art1 and placed before us by sculpture as the statue of the god4 7c7 ,in the pursuit of aims such as those above mentioned1 then1 genuine architecture appears to be more free than the symbolic type of the previous stage1 which seizes on the organic forms from ,nature1 nay1 more free than sculpture1 which is compelled to accept the human form it finds1 and unites itself with them and their general relations as presented it4 ,classical architecture rather invents its forms and their configuration1 so far as the content is concerned1 from ends of spiritual import and in respect to form from human reason without any prototype4 ,this greater freedom must1 in a relative sense1 be admitted2 but the province in which it is exercised remains restricted1 and the treatment which belongs to the classical art of building1 on account of the rationality#gi of its forms is1 taken as a whole1 somewhat of an abstract and dry character4 ,frederich von ,schlegel has described architecture as a frozen music2 and in truth both these arts repose on a harmony of relations1 which admit of being referred to number1 and are consequently readily grasped in their fundamental characteristics4 ,in our own case the fundamental determinant for these essential traits and their simple1 more serious and imposing1 or more charming and elegant relations is supplied by the dwelling-house1 that is1 walls1 columns1 beams brought together in the wholly crystalline forms of scientific deduction4 ,what the relations are we are not permitted to reduce to the bare determinants of number and measure4 ,but an oblong1 quadrilateral figure with right angles is more pleasing than a square1 because in the case of the oblong we are more thus affected both by equality and inequality#hj4 ,if the one dimension1 namely breadth1 is half as large as the other1 we have a relation which pleases2 with an oblong which is long and narrow the reverse is the case4 ,along with this the mechanical relations of support and being supported must likewise be maintained in their genuine measure and law2 a heavy entablature1 for instance1 cannot rest on slender and delicate columns1 or conversely great structures be prepared in order after all to lay on them something very light4 ,in all these mutual relations1 such as that of the breadth to the length and height of the building1 the height of the columns to their thickness1 the intervals and number of the columns1 the character and variety or simplicity of decorations1 the size of many plinths1 borders1 and so forth1 a secret principle of rhythm#ha prevails among the ancients1 which the instinct of the ,greeks before all others has discovered2 from which he may no doubt now and again deviate in points of detail1 but the fundamental relations of which he is in general bound to preserve in order that he may not fall away from beauty4 #b4 ,,the ,,fundamental ,,determinants ,,of ,,architectural ,,forms ,,taken ,,severally 7a7 ,we have already alluded to the old controversy whether the material of wood or stone is to be accepted as the point of departure in building1 and whether also it is from this difference of material that the architectural types proceed4 ,for the real art of building at least1 in so far as it lays emphasis on the aspect of ultimate purpose and elaborates the fundamental type of the dwelling on the lines of beauty we may accept wood as the more original of the two4 ,this is the conclusion of ,hirt1 following in this respect ,vitruvius1 and his conclusion has been much disputed4 ,i will in a few words offer my own view on the matter in dispute1 ,in the ordinary course of such reflections we seek to discover the abstract and simple law for a concrete result assumed as already present4 ,it is in this way that ,hirt looks for the basic model of ,greek buildings1 in like manner the design#hb1 the anatomical framework1 and finds it1 so far as form and the material connected with it is concerned1 in the dwelling and building of wood4 ,no doubt a house as such is built mainly as a dwelling1 a protection against storm1 rain1 weather1 animals1 and human beings1 and requires an enclosure that is complete1 in order that a family or a larger community of men may collect in independent seclusion and may look after their necessities and pursue their avocations in such seclusion4 ,the house is a structure throughout with a definite purpose1 a creation of mankind for human objects4 ,for this reason we find him occupied upon it in many ways and with many objects1 and the structure is articulated in an aggregate pile of all kinds of mechanical ways of mutual interlacement and imposition#hc in order to hold in position and secure1 according to the laws of gravity1 what men are compelled to look after1 that is1 the making stable what is erected#hd1 the closing it in1 the support of what is superimposed1 and not merely in the way of support1 but1 where the structure rests horizontally1 the preservation of it in such a position1 and1 further1 the uniting of all that clashes together at nooks and corners and so on4 ,now it is quite true that the house makes it necessary that the enclosure should be complete2 and for this walls are most serviceable and safest2 and from this point of view the building of stone appears most to answer the purpose4 ,we may1 however1 with equal ease construct our fence with posts standing in juxtaposition1 upon which then beams will rest1 which at the same time both bind together and secure the perpendicular posts4 ,finally we come to the cover of all and roofing4 ,in the temple house1 moreover1 the fact of enclosure is not the main fact of importance1 but the feature of support and being supported4 ,for this mechanical result the wooden structure is obviously the nearest to hand and the most natural4 ,for the post1 as that which supports1 which at the same time requires a means of conjunction1 and suffers the same to weigh on it in the shape of the cross-beam1 constitutes here all that goes to the root of the matter4 ,this essential division of parts and connection as well as the association of these aspects for a definite purpose belongs to the very nature of a wooden structure1 which has its necessary material directly supplied it by the tree4 ,in the tree we find already1 without working upon it to any considerable or laborious extent1 both post and beam1 in so far as1 that is1 the wood already by itself possesses a definite form and consists of separate lengths1 more or less in the straight line1 lengths which can be brought together into rectangular corners no less than those which are acute or obtuse1 and in this way provide corner pillars1 supports1 cross-beams and roof4 ,stone1 on the contrary1 never at any time possesses a form so definite4 ,in contrast to the tree it is a formless mass1 which first must be intentionally isolated and worked upon1 in order that it may fit in juxtaposition to or superposition on other pieces and so once more be brought together with such4 ,it requires1 in short1 several processes before it receives the form and serviceableness which wood already possesses independently4 ,moreover1 stone material1 when it is used in great masses1 invites rather excavations and generally speaking1 being ab initio relatively formless1 is capable of every kind of form1 for which reason it is rather the congenial material for the symbolical as also the romantic types of building1 while wood1 by reason of its natural form of straight stems1 is demonstrably without mediation more serviceable to that more severe type of purpose and observance of rule1 which is the fountain-head of classical architecture4 ,in this respect the structure of stone is mainly predominant with the self-substantive type of building1 although even among the ,egyptians1 in their colonnades bordered with plinths1 other considerations supervene1 which the structure of wood is able more readily and in the first instance to satisfy4 ,conversely we do not find that classical architecture restricts itself entirely to buildings of wood1 but1 on the contrary1 where it is elaborated in conformity with beauty1 executes its buildings in stone2 but in such a way1 however1 that we are from a certain point of view still able to recognize in the architectural forms the original principle of the wood structure1 if also from a further one definite relations attach which do not belong to that kind of building as such4 7b7 ,the points of fundamental importance1 which emphasize the dwelling-house as the basic type of the temple1 may be in all essential particulars enumerated as follows4 ,if we consider with closer attention the house in its mechanical relation to itself we shall find1 in accordance with what we have already stated1 on the one hand1 masses of architectural form which serve as support and1 on the other1 those that are supported both being united for stability and security4 ,thirdly1 we have before us the definite aspect of enclosure and limitation according to the three dimensions of length1 breadth1 and height4 ,a construction1 moreover1 which1 by the fact of its being a mutual correlation of definite aspects distinct from each other1 is a concrete whole1 is bound to declare this unity in its constitution4 ,so we find here that essential differences arise which perforce assert themselves no less in their division and specific elaboration than they do in their rational connexus4 77 ,of first importance in this respect to consider is the aspect of service in the way of support4 ,when we speak of masses that support we commonly1 under the influence of every-day needs1 think of the wall as the most secure and reliable means of support4 ,support as such1 however1 as we have already seen1 is not the exclusive principle of the wall2 for the wall serves essentially as a means of enclosure and connection1 and for this reason is a predominant feature in the romantic type of building4 ,what is the peculiarity of ,greek architecture is this1 that it gives direct form to the principle of support by itself1 and for this object employs columns as a fundamental contribution to the purpose and beauty of its architecture4 77 ,the aim of the column is to support and only this2 and although a series of columns set up in a straight line make a boundary1 such an enclosure falls short of a secure wall or partition1 and is1 in fact1 expressly cancelled by the genuine partition and placed in a position of free independence4 ,owing to this exclusive object of support which pertains to the column1 it is of first importance that it should display the aspect of such a purpose relatively to the weight which rests upon it4 ,consequently it should neither be too strong nor too slender1 nor again too compressed1 not mount upwards to such a height and with such ease as though the weight upon it was not treated seriously4 77 ,and just as this column is thus differentiated from the enclosing wall1 or fence1 it is further from another point of view distinct from the mere post4 ,in other words1 the post is fixed directly in the ground and ceases with like directness at the precise point where a weight is reposed upon it4 ,for which reason its determinate length1 its commencement and termination equally appear as a negative limitation by means of something else1 as a determinacy which is the result of chance1 which it does not possess in its own right4 ,commencement and termination1 however1 are defining characteristics1 which are part of the very notion of the supporting column1 and consequently must declare themselves in it as the conditions#he of its own substance4 ,this is the ground of the fact that architecture1 in the elaboration of its beauty1 assigns to the column a base and a capital4 ,in the ,tuscan order1 no doubt1 we find no base2 the column springs immediately from the ground4 ,this being so1 however1 the length appears to the vision as something accidental4 ,we are ignorant whether the column has not been to some undefined extent driven into the soil by the superimposed weight4 ,in order that its commencement must not expose this undefined and accidental appearance it must with intention have the foot assigned to it1 on which it stands1 and which expressly enables us to recognize the commencement as in reality such4 ,art will therefore affirm as part of its function that the column begins at a certain place and for the rest it will make the security1 and stable subsistence obvious to the eyes1 and set the vision at rest in this respect also4 ,for similar reasons our column should terminate in a capital1 which is quite as much evidence of the real function of being a support as it is an affirmation of the fact that the column terminates here4 ,this conception of a commencement and conclusion which are both deliberate is what affords us1 in fact1 the profounder explanation of base and capital4 ,an analogous case is that of a cadence in music1 which requires a secure resolution1 or that of a book which should terminate without a full stop1 or should start off without a capital letter1 in the making of which1 however1 especially in the ,middle ,ages1 large illuminated letters have been employed1 with similar decorations at the work's conclusion1 in order to bring prominently before the mind the facts of commencement and termination4 ,however much1 therefore1 both base and capital appear to exceed what is obviously required we must not regard them as a decorative superfluity1 or think of simply deducing them from the example of ,egyptian columns1 which still imitate the type of the vegetable kingdom4 ,figures of organic design1 such as are represented by sculpture in animal and human form1 begin and terminate in the free outlines they themselves present1 for it is the rational organism itself1 which gives outline to the form working thereon from its own intrinsic nature4 ,architecture1 on the contrary1 possesses for the column and its shapes nothing beyond the mechanical relation of support1 and the spatial distance from the ground to the point where the weight that is supported terminates the column4 ,art1 however1 is bound to emphasize and disclose the particular aspects which lie together in this determinate relation for the reason that they are essential features of the column4 ,its precise length and its twofold boundary both above and below1 that is1 no less than its relation as support1 must consequently not appear as coming to it incidentally and by virtue of something else1 but must also be represented as immanent in its very being4 ,with respect to the form of column other than its base and capital1 it is in the first place round1 circular-shaped1 for it has to stand up in free and independent self-seclusion4 ,the most essentially simple1 securely exclusive1 rationally defined#hf1 and most regular line is in fact the circle4 ,for this reason the column already proves from its shape that it is not adapted to form an even surface when placed in adjacent rows1 as is the case with adjacent posts which are squared to the rectangular corner1 and so present walls and partitions1 but it has merely the object to offer a support under its own self-limitation4 ,moreover the columnar structure is ordinarily reduced in size gradually1 as it ascends from one-third of its height1 it becomes less in circumference and thickness1 because the portions beneath have to carry that above1 and it is felt necessary to emphasize and make obvious also this mechanical relation of the several parts of the column itself4 ,finally1 we frequently find that columns are grooved2 the reason of this is twofold1 first1 essentially to diversify the simple form1 and secondly to make the columns appear more thick by means of such a division where this is necessary4 77 ,although1 then1 the column is set up in independent isolation it has none the less to make it appear evident that it is not placed there for its own sake1 but as subservient to the mass which it is erected to support4 ,in so far as the house requires a boundary on every side the singular column is therefore not sufficient1 but others have to be placed adjacent to it1 in other words we come upon the definite conception of a diversity of columns placed in a series4 ,and when several columns support the same weight this common service is at the same time that which determines the equal height which they all possess and which unites them together1 in other words the beam4 ,this marks the transition from the aspect of support to the opposed object supported4 77 ,that which columns support is the entablature superimposed4 ,the relation of most importance to be considered here is that of rectangularity4 ,not merely in its relation to the ground1 but also in that to the entablature the supporting structure must be rectangular4 ,for the horizontal position is by the laws of gravity that which is alone intrinsically the most stable and fitting1 and the right angle the only definitely secure one4 ,the acute and obtuse angles are1 on the contrary1 indefinite1 and both vary in their degree and are subject to contingency4 ,we may differentiate between the component parts of the entablature as follows3 77 ,the architrave1 that is1 the main beam1 rests immediately upon the columns which stand adjacent in a direct line of equal height2 this unites the columns together and places on them a weight shared equally4 ,as beam1 and nothing more1 it merely requires the form of four level surfaces mutually related as rectangular in all three dimensions and their abstract regularity4 ,owing to the fact1 however1 that the architrave as to one part of it is supported by the columns1 and in another constitutes the stay of the rest of the entablature1 and it is from this latter again that itself receives the necessary relation of being a support1 progressive architecture also places in external relief this twofold aspect of the main beam by emphasizing in the upper portions of the aspect of support by means of jutting plinths and so forth4 ,in this respect therefore the main beam is not merely related to the columns which support it1 but in like degree to other burdens which repose upon it4 77 ,these in the first instance constitute the frieze4 ,the border or frieze consists in one part of it of the tops of the joists#hg1 which rest on the entablature1 in another part of the spaces between the same4 ,for this reason the frieze contains more essential differences than those distinguishing the architrave1 and is bound to emphasize them more sharply1 especially in the case where architecture1 although executed in stone materials1 follows more stringently the fundamental type of the wood construction4 ,this is supplied us by the distinction between triglyphs and metopes4 ,in other words triglyphs are the tops of the beams which are divided into three spaces1 the metopes are the rectangular spaces between the separate triglyphs4 ,in former times they were in all probability left bare1 in later1 however1 they are filled up#hh1 nay1 even covered over and decorated with reliefs4 77 ,the frieze1 moreover1 which rests on the entablature1 carries the wreath or cornice4 ,the function of this is to support the roof1 which completes the whole upwards4 ,here we at once meet with questions of what form this final limitation is to be4 ,for we may have in this respect two kinds of termination1 either the horizontal and rectangular1 or the one inclined to an acute or obtuse angle4 ,if we look at the mere question of natural necessity we shall see that ,southerners1 who suffer little from rain and storm1 merely require protection from sunlight2 in their case a horizontal and rectangular roofing of house is likely to suffice4 ,northerners1 on the contrary1 have to protect themselves against inevitable showers of rain1 against contingency of snow1 that the weight may not prove too great2 they require inclining roofs4 ,at the same time1 in the case of a fine art of building1 mere necessity is not only of account2 as art it has also to satisfy the profounder requirements of what is pleasing and beautiful4 ,what mounts upwards from the ground must be conceived with a base1 a foot1 on which it stands and which serves it for support2 and in addition to this columns and the partitions of genuine architecture supply us visibly with the means of support4 ,that which closes all above1 the roofing1 has no longer to support a weight1 but merely to be supported1 and is bound to declare in itself this definite aspect that it no longer supports anything4 ,in other words1 it must be so constructed that it is actually unable to support1 and consequently fine down to an angle1 whether it be acute or obtuse4 ,ancient temples have in consequence no horizontal roofing1 but two roof surfaces which meet at obtuse angles1 and it is out of consideration for beauty that the building is thus terminated4 ,in short1 roof surfaces that are horizontal do not give us the appearance of a building entirely complete2 a horizontal flat may always add further weight to its height2 this the line in which inclining roof surfaces terminate is no longer able to do4 ,to take an analogous case in the art of painting1 it is the pyramidal form in the grouping of figures which best satisfies artistic taste4 77 ,the final determining factor which we have to consider is that of the enclosing1 the walls1 and partitions4 ,columns no doubt support and form a boundary1 but they do not enclose2 they are1 on the contrary1 as such boundary1 incompatible with the interior which is hemmed in by walls4 ,if we require such an absolute enclosure we must have also thick and solid dividing walls erected4 ,this is actually the case in temple construction4 77 ,we have nothing further to add with respect to walls except the fact that they must be built in a straight and even line and perpendicularly for the reason that walls that rise obliquely to acute and obtuse angles present the threatening aspect of collapse1 and possess no direction once and for all securely defined2 it can merely appear as a matter of chance that they are reared in whatever more acute or obtuse angle it may happen to be4 ,the demand of scientific rule and purpose alike is here also once more for the right angle4 77 ,owing to the fact that walls act as enclosures no less than as means of support1 while we restricted the true function of the column to that of mere support1 we approximate to the conception that where we have to satisfy these two distinct needs of support and enclosure columns may be set up and may be united to one another by means of thick walls in such partitions2 it is thus that we get half columns4 ,in this way1 for example1 ,hirt1 following ,vitruvius1 makes a start in his original type of construction with four corner-posts4 ,if the necessity of an enclosure is to be satisfied no doubt our columns1 if we are obliged to include such1 must be walled up and it is not difficult to prove that half columns date from remote antiquity4 ,hirt1 for instance#hi1 affirms that the employment of half columns is as old as the art of building itself1 and deduces their origin from the circumstance that columns and piers supported and carried the roofing and other superimposed structures1 but at the same time rendered partition walls necessary as a protection against sun and inclement weather4 ,since1 however1 the columns already supported the main building in a sufficient manner1 it was not necessary to erect partition walls of either so thick or firm a material as the columns1 and consequently this latter1 as a rule1 abutted on the exterior of the building4 ,this theory of their origin may be correct1 but for all that half columns are repugnant to a rational view of them2 we have1 in short1 here two ends standing side by side in opposition1 and essentially confounding each other1 without any law of necessity being disclosed4 ,it is of course possible to defend half columns1 if the point of departure in considering even the column is so strictly that of the structure of wood1 that we regard their essential function to be that of an enclosure4 ,placed in thick walls1 however1 the column has lost all its significance2 it is degraded to the mere post4 ,the true column is in its nature round1 essentially complete1 and expresses by this very trait of exclusiveness in a visible way that it is antagonistic to an even surface1 and1 consequently1 every inclusion in a wall4 ,if1 therefore1 we desire to have the support of walls such must be even1 not circular columns1 but surfaces which can be extended evenly in a wall4 ,as far back as #aggc ,goethe exclaimed with spirit to the like effect in his youthful essay1 ,on the ,german ,art of ,building3 ,what does it matter to us1 you philosophical art-critic of the latest ,french school1 that original man1 spurred on by his needs to invent1 drove into the ground four trunks1 then fastened four poles on top and covered the whole with branches and moss4 ,and after all it is wholly false to say that this hut of yours was the first begotten on earth4 ,two poles that cross each other at their ends1 two behind and one stuck diagonally above in forest fashion is and remains1 as you may any day see for yourself in the huts of the fields and the vineyard slopes1 a far earlier discovery from which it is quite impossible for you to deduce a principle for your pig-stye4 ,in other words ,goethe seeks to prove that columns enclosed in walls placed in buildings whose essential object is that of mere enclosure have no meaning4 ,this is not because he would not recognize the beauty of the column4 ,on the contrary1 he is loud in its praise4 ,but take good care1 he adds1 not to employ them improperly3 it is their nature to stand up free4 ,woe to the wretch who has soldered their slender growth in blockish walls4 ,it is from such a point of view that he proceeds to consider the building art of the ,middle ,ages and our own time and affirms3 ,the column is of no value as a constituent feature of our dwellings3 it rather contradicts the essence of all our buildings4 ,our houses do not consist of four columns in four corners2 they consist of four walls on four sides1 which stand in the place of all columns1 totally exclude such1 and where they are thrust in they are a burdensome superfluity4 ,this applies to our palaces and churches1 subject to one or two exceptions1 which it is not necessary to particularize4 ,we have in the above statement1 which is the result of independent observation of the facts1 the principle of the column correctly expressed4 ,the column must place its foot down in front of the wall and appear in complete independence of it4 ,in our more modern architecture no doubt we find pilasters freely used2 architects1 have1 however1 regarded them as the repeated adumbration of previous columns1 and made them flat rather than round4 77 ,from this it is clear that though no doubt walls may serve as support1 yet1 for the reason that the function of support is already independently performed by columns1 they must1 on their part in finished classical architecture be accepted as essentially having for their object the enclosure4 ,if they are taken as columns are taken1 to provide means of support1 the essentially distinct defining functions of these latter are not1 as is most desirable1 performed also as by distinct constituent parts of the building#ij1 and the conception of what walls ought to provide is impaired and confused4 ,we consequently find even in temples that the central hall1 where the statue of the god was placed1 to enclose which was the main object1 is often left open in the upper part4 ,if1 however1 a roofing is required1 the claims of the lofty style of beauty made it necessary that the same should be supported independently4 ,in other words the direct imposition of entablature and roof on the enclosing walls is purely a matter of necessity and need2 it is not appertinent to free architectural beauty1 because in the art of classical buildings we require as means of support neither partitions nor walls1 which would be rather derogatory to the design in so far as--we have already noticed the fact--they put together contrivances and a wall-space of greater extent than is actually necessary4 ,these would be the main distinguishing features which in classical architecture we have to keep apart4 7c7 ,although we may then1 on the one hand1 declare it as a principle of first importance that the distinctions which have been summarily indicated must appear with their differences emphasized1 it is equally necessary on the other that they should be united in a whole4 ,we will shortly1 in conclusion1 draw attention to this union which in architecture will be rather and simply a juxtaposition1 association1 and a thorough eurhythmy of the entire construction4 ,generally speaking the ,greek temple buildings present an aspect which both satisfies1 and if we may use the expression1 sates us to the full4 77 ,there is no soaring up1 but the whole just expands on the broad level and is extended without particular elevation4 ,in order to view the building's face it is barely necessary to raise the sight with intention2 it is1 on the contrary1 allured to the bare expanse1 while the building art of ,germany in the ,middle ,ages strives up almost without mass and soars4 ,among the ancients breadth1 regarded as secure and convenient foundation on the earth1 is the main thing4 ,height is rather borrowed from the height of man1 and merely is increased in proportion as the building increases in breadth and width4 77 ,furthermore1 embellishments are so effected that they do not impair the impression of simplicity4 ,for much also depends on the mode of decoration4 ,the ancients1 more particularly the ,greeks1 preserve here the finest sense of proportion4 ,extensive surfaces and lines of entire simplicity1 for instance1 do not appear so large in this undivided simplicity as in the case where some variety1 somewhat that destroys this uniformity is introduced1 by which at once an extension of more definite outline is presented to the vision4 ,if this subdivision1 however1 and its adornment is wholly elaborated in detail1 so that we have nothing before us but a variety and its details1 even the most imposing relations and dimensions appear to be crumbled away and destroyed4 ,the ancients1 therefore1 as a rule are actuated in their works neither to let the same and their proportions by such means appear in any way greater than they actually are1 nor do they break up the whole by means of interruptions and embellishments to the extent that--because all parts are small and a unity is absent which shall once more bring everything together and fuse it throughout--therefore the whole also shall appear as insignificant4 ,to quite as little an extent are their works of beauty in their perfection merely piled up as mere weight on the ground1 or tower up out of all relation to their breadth to the skies4 ,they preserve in this respect1 too1 the mean of beauty1 and offer at the same time in their simplicity necessary scope to a duly proportioned variety4 ,above all1 however1 the dominant feature of the whole and its simple particularities appear to permeate in the most transparent way through all and everything1 and overmasters the individuality of the configuration precisely in the way that in the classical ,ideal the universal substance retains its power to control what is accidental and particular1 in which the same receives its living form1 and to bring it into harmony with itself4 77 ,with regard to the disposition and articulation of the several parts of a temple we find1 on the one hand1 a very marked graduation of elaboration1 and on the other much that is purely traditional4 ,the main distinctions that have an interest for us in this inquiry are limited to the temple precinct 771 enclosed by walls containing the image of the god1 also the dwelling in front 771 that in the rear 771 and the colonnades that encircle the entire structure4 ,a dwelling in front and behind with a series of columns before it had originally the typical form1 which ,vitruvius calls 2 to this was afterwards added a row on either side of the building1 that is the 2 finally we have the completest form of elaboration in the 1 where this row of columns is doubled throughout the circuit1 and in the colonnades detached from the walls1 and which it is possible to pass round1 as in the case of the colonnades above1 are added in double rows with the interior of the itself4 ,for such a type of temple ,vitruvius instances as an example the eight-columned temple of ,minerva at ,athens1 and the ten-columned one of ,olympian ,jupiter#ia4 ,we will pass over in this place the more detailed consideration of the number of columns no less than the nature of the intervening spaces between themselves and the walls1 and merely draw attention to the unique significance which such colonnades and forecourts1 or halls possessed in general for the ,greek temple4 ,in these prostyles and amphiprostyles1 that is1 these single and double colonnades1 which brought you direct into the open sunshine1 we observe that men can move about openly and free and can group themselves as they choose1 or according to the chance of the moment4 ,columns are1 in short1 not an enclosure1 but a limitation through which you can always pass1 so that you can be partially within and without them at once1 and at any rate can everywhere step from them into the open day4 ,in the same way the long walls at the back of the columns do not permit of any pressure to one central point1 whither our sight may instinctively turn when the passages are crowded4 ,on the contrary the eye is rather diverted from such a point of unity in every direction2 and instead of the conception of a congregation brought together for ,one purpose we observe a tendency outwards1 and merely receive the impression of a means of spending the time devoid of seriousness1 light-hearted1 idle1 and provocative of chatter4 ,within the enclosure no doubt we have suggested a profounder aim1 but even here we find surrounding features#ib1 which more or less indicate that we are not to take such a purpose too seriously4 ,consequently the impression of such a temple1 though no doubt simple and imposing1 is at the same time gay1 open1 and pleasing to the sense2 the entire building1 in short1 is rather arranged as a place for standing about in1 strolling round1 for ingress and egress than in order to enable an assembly of persons to concentrate their numbers in one spot shut off from the rest of the world4 #c4 ,,the ,,different ,,constructive ,,types ,,of ,,classical ,,architecture ,casting our glance now on the different forms of construction which offer us the predominant examples of distinctive type in classical architecture we may emphasize the following as most important4 7a7 ,what first arrests our attention in this field are those kinds of building whose lines of distinction are most noticeable in their columns2 for this reason ,i shall myself1 too1 limit myself to a statement of the pre-eminently characteristic traits of the various types of column4 ,the most famous among the orders of columns are the ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,corinthian1 over whose architectural beauty and adaptation to definite purpose1 neither the research of earlier times nor our own has been able to add anything4 ,for we may assume that the ,tuscan1 or1 according to ,hirt#ic1 the ancient ,greek type of building belongs in its undecorative crudeness to the original and simple type of wood structure1 not to the architecture of beauty1 and the so-called ,roman order of columns is of no real moment1 being merely an increase in the decorative character of the ,corinthian4 ,the important points in this inquiry are the relation of the height of columns to their thickness1 the type of base and capital to be distinguished in each case1 and1 finally1 the greater or less intervening spaces between the columns4 ,with regard to the first1 if the column is not of a height four times as large as its diameter it appears too bulky and depressed2 if its height1 however1 exceeds such a proportion by being ten times as large1 the column will appear too slender to the eye1 and too slim as a means of support4 ,the respective intervals between the columns must1 however1 be considered in close relation to the above facts2 if the columns appear more stout they should be placed nearer to one another1 if on the contrary the impression they produce is one of slightness and lankness the intervals have to be larger4 ,it is a matter of equal importance1 and this is so whether the columns have a pedestal or not1 whether the capital is of higher or less ample size1 is without or with decoration1 for it is by this means that the entire character of the column is altered4 ,with regard to the column's shaft1 however1 the rule obtains that it should be smooth and devoid of decoration1 although it does not rise throughout of the same thickness1 but is appreciably more slender at the top than it is midway and at the base1 and the change is such that there is a swelling which1 though barely perceptible1 is none the less present4 ,in more recent times no doubt1 notably in the ,middle ,ages1 when the antique types of columns were converted to the use of ,christian architecture1 the smoothness of shaft was found to be too cold1 and for this reason wreaths of flowers were entwined round them1 or columns of spiral form were permitted no doubt on similar grounds2 this1 however1 is inadmissible and opposed to the best taste1 because the true function of the column is simply that of support1 and to carry this out they ought to rise in a secure and straight line and be self-subsistent#id4 ,the only divergency from the rule in columnar structure which the ancients admitted was that of the groove1 a variation which1 as ,vitruvius points out1 made such appear broader than when their surface is wholly smooth4 ,such grooving we find carried out very extensively4 ,i will now indicate more closely the main distinguishing features of the ,doric1 ,ionian1 and ,corinthian order of columns respectively4 77 ,in primitive buildings security of structure is the fundamental characteristic beyond which architecture fails to go2 consequently it does not as yet dare to risk relations of a slender kind with the bolder lightness which belongs to them1 but rests satisfied with forms of greater bulk4 ,this is the case in the ,doric type of building4 ,we find here that the material aspect with its onerous weight still is that which is most influential1 and is particularly apparent in the relations of breadth and height4 ,when a building is erected in lightness and freedom the burden of heavy masses is overcome2 if on the contrary its disposition is one which suggests mainly breadth and a low elevation the prevailing impression1 as in the ,doric style1 is that of stability and solidity1 subservient to the dominant force of gravity4 ,consistently with this character ,doric columns1 if contrasted with the other two orders1 are the broadest and lowest4 ,the more ancient examples do not rise above a height which is six times their diameter1 and not unfrequently they are merely four times that breadth2 for this reason they give1 by virtue of their unwieldiness1 the impression of an earnest1 simple1 and unadorned manliness1 such as we have exemplified in the temples at ,paestum and ,corinth4 ,the later examples of the ,doric order1 however1 extend their columns to a height of seven times this unit of measure1 and1 for buildings other than temples1 ,vitruvius adds yet another half diameter4 ,more generally1 however1 the distinctive character of the ,doric type consists in this that it approximates most nearly to the primitive simplicity of the wood building1 although it is more receptive than the ,tuscan to decorative work and embellishments4 ,the columns1 however1 have almost without exception no distinctive base2 they stand up directly on their foundation#ie1 and their capitals are arranged in the simplest way out of ovolo ornament and plinth4 ,the shaft is sometimes left smooth1 sometimes grooved with twenty drills1 which frequently were flat for one third of the way from the base1 and hollowed out in circular form the rest of the way#if4 ,as regards the interval between the columns1 according to the older monuments1 the breadth is twice the diameter of a column1 and only a few exceed this by a width between two and two and a half diameters4 ,another peculiarity of the ,doric type of building in which it approaches the type of wood construction consists in triglyphs and metopes4 ,in other words triglyphs indicate in the frieze the tops of the beams of the entablature with which the architrave culminates inserted there by means of prismatical incisions#ig1 while the metopes fill up the spaces between one beam and another1 and in the ,doric construction still retain the form of the square#ih4 ,as a decoration they are frequently covered with reliefs1 while beneath the triglyphs1 which rest on the architrave1 and as a culmination to the surfaces of the cornice on their lower side1 we have for embellishment six small conical bodies1 technically known as drops4 77 ,in the ,doric style we are already made aware of an advance in the characteristics of a solidity which affects us with pleasure4 ,in ,ionic architecture this upward progress is further emphasized in a type notable for its slenderness1 charm1 and grace1 if still expressed in a simple way4 ,the height of the columns varies between that of seven and ten times the width of the diameter at the base1 and is determined1 according to the conclusions of ,vitruvius1 pre-eminently by the breadth of the intervening spaces of the columns1 that is to say1 where they are wider the columns appear thinner1 and consequently more slender1 where they are more narrow1 however1 they appear stouter and of less height4 ,for this reason the architect is forced1 in order to avoid an excess of thinness or bulk1 in the first case to reduce the height1 and in the second to increase it4 ,in the case1 then1 where the intervals exceed three diameters the height of the columns will merely carry eight of such1 where there is an interval of two and a quarter rising to three1 the height will rise to eight and a half diameters4 ,if the columns1 however1 are separated only by the width of two diameters1 the height must be extended to nine and a half times the unit1 and in the extreme case of an interval of but one and a half times1 such height will even rise to ten times the breadth of diameter4 ,however1 cases such as these latter ones appear very seldom1 and1 in so far as we may judge from such monuments of the ,ionic type of building that have come down to us1 the ancients made very scanty use of those relations which necessitated the more lofty columns4 ,the ,ionic type is further distinguished from the ,doric in this that the ,ionic columns do not rise directly with their shaft from the substructure1 but are set up on a variously articulated pedestal1 and then in unobtrusive rejuvenescence rise lightly in their slender height to their capitals with a deeper hollowing out than in the ,doric type1 a broad grooving of four and twenty grooves4 ,it is especially in this characteristic that the ,ionic temple at ,ephesus is distinguishable from and in contrast to the ,doric at ,paestum4 ,in the same way we find an increase of variety and grace in the ,ionic capital4 ,it has not only a carved coussinet#ii1 little ledge and plinth1 but receives both to the right and left a spiral winding1 and at the sides a decorative kind of cushion1 from which is derived its title of the pulvinated capital4 ,the volutes at the end of the pad or cushion indicate the end of the column1 which1 however1 may rise to a still greater elevation1 but in this possible increase makes itself essentially a curve4 ,compatibly with this slender character of the pleasing decoration of its columns the ,ionic type of building requires a less bulky weight in its beams1 and is concerned in this way too to secure an increase of grace4 ,by doing so it no longer suggests as a predecessor as the ,doric does the wood construction1 and consequently suffers triglyphs and metopes to fall away in the flat frieze1 introducing in their place as its principal means of decoration1 heads of sacrificial animals united with flowery coils1 and1 instead of the suspended mutule#ajj tops1 we find tooth-like ornamentation#aja4 77 ,finally1 to come to the ,corinthian order1 we find it is in fundamentals composed upon the ,ionic1 only that with a similar slenderness it is elaborated in more tasteful luxuriance1 and unfolds the consummate finish of adornment and embellishment4 ,like it content to possess the definite and various divisions of its structure as a legacy from the wood building1 it emphasizes the same without permitting their origin to be conspicuous by means of its decorative work1 and expresses1 in its manifold ledges and borders on cornice and beam1 on its weather moulds1 its moulding flutes1 its variously articulated pediments and its more luxuriant capitals1 a multiplicity of pleasing features4 ,the ,corinthian column1 it is true1 does not exceed in height the ,ionic1 rising as a rule with a grooving of similar character1 merely eight times or eight and a half times as high as the diameter of the lower portion of the column1 but it appears more slender and above all more exuberant by virtue of a loftier capital4 ,for the capital's height is one and an eighth times the diameter beneath1 and has at each of its four corners more slender volutes which suffer the pulvination of the previous type to fall off1 while the part below is decorated with acanthus leaves4 ,the ,greeks have a charming tale relative to this4 ,a maiden of exceptional beauty1 they tell us1 died4 ,her nurse collected her playthings in a little basket and placed it on her grave1 where an acanthus plant sprang up4 ,the leaves very soon embraced the basket1 and it was this which suggested the thought of the capital of a column4 ,of other points of difference between the ,corinthian and the ,ionic and ,doric orders1 ,i will only further mention the delicately curved mutules under the cornices1 and the projection of the water moulding1 and the indentations and corbel-heads on the cornice#ajb4 7b7 ,we may1 secondly1 regard the ,roman type of building as an intermediate form standing between that of ,greek and ,christian architecture1 in so far as here we find mainly the application of arch and vaultings4 ,it is not possible to determine with accuracy the time when the construction of arches was first discovered2 it appears1 however1 certain that neither the ,egyptians1 despite the great progress they made in the arts of building1 nor the ,babylonians1 ,israelites1 and ,phoenicians were cognisant of the ogive or the vault4 ,the monuments of ,egyptian architecture at any rate only show us that when it was a question of superimposing a roof over the interior of a building the one means the ,egyptians had at their disposal was that of placing huge slabs of stone across like beams in horizontal position4 ,if it was required to arch up broad entrances1 or cross arches they knew of no other way of doing this than letting one stone on either side project forward1 with another still more projecting one above it1 so that the side walls gradually approached upwards until they reached a point where only one stone was necessary to close the remaining space between4 ,where such an expedient was not necessary they covered the spaces with huge slabs of stone arranged across in the manner of rafters4 ,among the ,greeks we do1 ,i believe1 find monuments in which the arch construction has already been adopted1 but they are rare2 and ,hirt1 who has written with most authority over the building and the history of the building of antiquity1 affirms that among such monuments we can rely on none with security as dating from a time previous to that of ,pericles4 ,in other words1 in ,greek architecture the features which are characteristic and elaborated are the column and beam in horizontal position1 so that we find here the column very little used in a relation which lies apart from its true function1 namely that of supporting beams4 ,moreover the arch that is vaulted from two piers or columns1 and the knob-like formation1 connotes a yet further feature1 for we find here that the column already begins to forsake its determinate attribute of support4 ,for the circular arch in its rise1 its flexure and its declivity is related to a centre which has nothing to do with the column as a means of support4 ,the separate parts of the circular arch are carried in mutual opposition2 they support and prolong each other in a way that shows them far more remote from the direct assistance of the column than is the horizontally superimposed beam4 ,in ,roman architecture1 then1 as stated1 the arch-construction and vaulting is of very common occurrence1 or rather we have certain remains which we can only attribute to the age of the ,roman kings1 if we may fully believe the evidence of later times4 ,of this type are the catacombs and cloaca1 which were vaulted1 but must be regarded as works of a more recent restoration4 ,the most probable discoverer yet suggested of the vault is ,democritus#ajc1 who occupied himself in a variety of ways with mathematical problems and is held to be the discoverer of lithotomy4 ,one of the most famous buildings of ,roman architecture1 in which the circular arch appears as fundamental type is the ,pantheon of ,agrippa dedicated to ,jupiter ,ultor1 which1 in addition to the statue of ,jupiter1 contained colossal images of gods in no less than six other niches1 namely1 ,mars1 ,venus1 the deified ,julius ,caesar as well as three others whose identity we cannot fix with accuracy4 ,in either side of these niches stood two ,corinthian columns1 and the whole was vaulted with one majestic vault in form of the half globe and corresponding to the vault of heaven4 ,with reference to the material of this vault we may note that it is not a stone one4 ,in other words the ,romans1 in the majority of their vaultings1 in the first instance carried out a construction of wood1 and covered the same with a composition of chalk and puzzolana cement1 which was made of the dust of a light kind of tufa and broken tile shards4 ,when this composition was dry the whole was formed into a mass so that the wooden scaffolding could be removed and the vaulting1 by virtue of the lightness of its material and the stability of its consolidation1 exercised only an insignificant pressure on the walls4 7c7 ,the architecture of the ,romans possessed moreover generally1 and apart from this novel employment of arch construction1 an entirely different scope and character than that of ,greece4 ,the ,greeks distinguished themselves1 while carrying throughout their work its main purpose1 and by virtue of their perfection as artists1 in the nobility1 the simplicity no less than the airy delicacy of their decorations4 ,the ,romans on the contrary are1 as artists1 at least on the mechanical side of construction more rich and more ostentatious1 but at the same time of less nobility and grace4 ,add to this in their architecture we meet with a variety of intention which was unknown to the ,greek4 ,as ,i have already observed the ,greeks entirely devoted the splendour and beauty of art to public objects4 ,their private dwellings remained insignificant4 ,among the ,romans1 however1 not only do we find an increase of public buildings1 whose main purpose of construction was splendidly embellished in theatres1 spaces for animal combats and other means of public sport1 but architecture received a deliberate impulse in the direction of private use4 ,more especially after the civil wars villas1 baths1 colonnades1 flights of steps were constructed with the imposing character of the most luxurious extravagance1 and by this means a new opening was made for the arts of building1 which also included that of gardening1 which was perfected in a way that evinced very considerable talent and taste4 ,the villa of ,lucullus is a striking example4 ,this type of ,roman architecture has in many respects rendered service as a model to ,italians and ,frenchmen of t more recent times4 ,among ourselves we have for a long time to some measure followed in the steps of the ,italians1 and also to some extent in those of the ,french2 finally men have once more devoted their attention to the ,greeks1 and have accepted as an object of imitation the antique in its purer form4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,romantic ,,architecture ,the ,gothic architecture of the ,middle ,ages1 which constitutes here the characteristic centre of the truly romantic type1 has for a long time1 more especially since the popularization and predominance of the ,french taste1 been regarded as something rude and barbarous4 ,in recent times it was ,goethe who mainly1 in the first instance1 and in the youthful freshness of his own nature and artistic outlook1 brought once more the ,gothic type to its place of honour4 ,critical taste has been more and more concerned to appreciate and respect these imposing works as giving effective expression both to the distinctive purpose of ,christian culture1 and the harmonious unity thereby created between architectonic form and the ideal spirit of ,christendom4 ,i4 ,,general ,,character ,in so far as the general character of these buildings is concerned1 in which religious architecture is that which is most prominent1 we discovered already in our introduction to this part of our inquiry that in this type both those of independent and serviceable architecture are united4 ,this unity1 however1 does not in any way consist in a fusion of the architectural forms of the ,oriental and the ,greek1 but we must look for it in the fact that1 on the one hand1 the house or dwelling-enclosure furnishes yet more the fundamental type than in the ,greek temple construction1 and1 on the other1 mere serviceableness and purpose is to that extent eliminated1 and the house is emphasized apart from it in its free independence4 ,no doubt these houses of ,god and other buildings of this type appear to the fullest extent as constructed for definite objects1 as already stated1 but their true character is precisely this1 that it reaches over and beyond the determinate aim and presents itself in a form of self-seclusion and positive local independence4 ,the creation stands up in its place independent1 secure1 and eternal4 ,for this reason the character of the entirety is no longer to be deduced from any purely scientific or theoretical relation4 ,within the interior the box-like envelope of our ,protestant churches falls away which are built simply that they may be filled with men and women1 and do not possess church pews as stalls2 in their exterior1 the building soars in its roofing and pinnacles freely upwards1 so that the relation of purpose1 however much it be also present1 tends again to disappear1 leaving the impression of the whole that of a self-subsistent existence4 ,such a building is entirely filled up by nothing expressly2 everything is absorbed in the grandeur of the whole3 it possesses and declares a definite object1 but in its grandiose proportions and sublime repose it is essentially and with an infinite significance exalted#ajd above all mere intentional serviceableness4 ,this exaltation over finitude and simple security is that which constitutes the unique characteristic aspect of it4 ,from another point of view it is precisely in this type that architecture finds the greatest opportunity for particularisation1 diversion of effect and variety1 without permitting1 however1 the whole to fall into mere details and accidental particulars4 ,the imposing character of the art we are considering restores1 on the contrary1 this aspect of division and dismemberment in the original impression of simplicity4 ,it is the substantive being of the whole which is set in division and dismemberment in an infinite multiplicity throughout the entire complexus of individual and varied distinctions2 but this unbounded complexity is subdivided in a simple way1 is articulated according to rule1 broken into parts symmetrically by the same substance1 which is the motive and constitutive principle throughout in a harmonious co-ordination which entirely satisfies1 and which combines without let or hindrance the mass of detail in all their length and breadth in securest unity and most perspicuous independence4 #b4 ,,particular ,,architectural ,,modes ,,of ,,conformation ,if we pass now to a consideration of the particular forms in which romantic architecture receives its specific character we shall find1 as we have already above noticed1 that our entire discussion will be confined to what is genuine ,gothic architecture1 and mainly that of the church buildings of ,christendom1 in their contrast to the ,greek temple4 7a7 ,as fundamental form underlying all the rest1 we have here the wholly shut off dwelling-house4 77 ,in other words1 just as the ,christian spirit withdraws itself within an ideal realm1 the building is the place essentially delimited on all sides for the congregation of the ,christian community and the gathering together of spiritual life4 ,it is the concentration of essential soul-life which thus encloses itself in spatial relations4 ,the devotion of the ,christian heart1 however1 is at the same time and in the same degree an exaltation over finitude1 so that this exaltation1 moreover1 determines the character of ,god's house4 ,architecture secures thereby as its significance1 independently of the object which renders it necessary as a building1 this exaltation to the ,infinite1 a significance which it is forced to express through the spatial relations of architectural forms4 ,the impression1 therefore1 which art is now called upon to emphasize is1 in one aspect of it1 and in contrast to the open gaiety of the ,greek temple1 that of the tranquillity of the soul which1 released from external nature and worldly conditions1 retires wholly into self-seclusion2 in the other aspect of it it is that impress of a solemn sublimity1 which strains and soars over and beyond all rational limits4 ,if1 therefore1 the buildings of classical architecture as a rule offer the expansion of breadth1 we find in contrast to this that the romantic character of ,christian churches asserts itself in the growth upwards from the soil and a soaring to the skies4 77 ,in this oblivion of external ,nature and all the diverting occupations and interests of finite existence1 which is to be effected by means of such seclusion1 the open forecourts and colonnades and the like1 which are in direct communication with that world1 furthermore and of necessity fall away1 or only receive an entirely modified representation within the interior of the building4 ,and in like manner the light of the sun is either excluded1 or glimmers in broken rays through windows of painted glass1 which1 to prevent total immersion in darkness1 are perforce admitted4 ,what humanity needs here is not the gift of external ,nature1 but a world created through it and for it alone1 for its devotion and the activity of its soul-life4 77 ,we may fix as the pervading type by which the house of ,god is generally and with particular reference to its sections characterized that of the free rise and running up into pinnacles1 whether they be built up by means of the arch or straight lines4 ,in classical architecture1 where we find columns and piers with superimposed beams is the fundamental form1 rectangularity and the office of support is the feature of importance4 ,for the construction superimposed at right angles marks in a definite way that it is supported4 ,and even though the beams do in their turn carry the roofing1 the surfaces of this latter portion incline to one another in an obtuse angle4 ,in such a construction we find no trace of a genuine tendency to points and a soaring up3 we find simply repose and support4 ,in the same way1 too1 a circular arch1 which extends in a continuous and equally gradated incline from one column to another1 and is referable to one and the same centre1 rests on its substructure of support4 ,in romantic architecture1 however1 we no longer find the relation of support simply and rectangularity the fundamental form1 but rather we have before us the fact that all that is enclosed either on its interior or exterior side independently springs upward1 and1 without the secure and express distinction between the relationship of weight and support1 concentrates in a point4 ,this pre-eminently free striving upwards and tendency to inclines that run to culminating points is what constitutes here the essential determinant1 by virtue of which either acute-angled triangles with a more slender or broader base or pointed arches appear1 both of which aspects stand out most obviously in the characterization of ,gothic architecture4 7b7 ,moreover1 the obligations of spiritual devotion and exaltation1 regarded as a cultus1 bring before us a variety of definite conditions and features which cannot be fully met on the exterior of the building in the open halls or forecourts of a temple1 but can only be satisfied within the house of ,god itself4 ,if1 therefore1 in the case of the temple of classical architecture it is the external form which is of most importance1 and we find it remaining by means of the colonnades more independent of the interior construction1 romantic architecture presents a contrast to this not merely in the fact that the interior of the building is more essentially important1 for the reason that the whole purports to be simply an enclosure1 but also in this1 that the interior permeates the very form of the exterior throughout1 and determines its specific shape and mode of articulation4 ,in this connection we will1 in order to examine the matter more closely1 first make an entrance into the interior1 and working outwards therefrom endeavour to elucidate the exterior4 77 ,the definition ,i have already adduced as best describing the interior of the church is that of a certain place set apart and enclosed in all its aspects1 whether it be in opposition to the inclemency of the weather or the distractions of the outer world1 for the community and its spiritual worship4 ,the space of the interior is consequently an enclosure in the completest sense1 whereas ,greek temples1 apart from the presence of open passages and halls in the environment1 not unfrequently possessed open cells4 ,inasmuch as1 moreover1 ,christian worship is an exaltation of the soul above the limitations of natural existence and a reconciliation of the individual with ,god1 we find in this fact a mediation of points of view which are separably distinct in one and the same essentially concrete unity4 ,at the same time romantic architecture receives the function in the form and co-ordination of its building to make the above content of spiritual life1 to enclose which is the prime object of its construction1 so far as this is architecturally feasible1 shine through and determine the actual shape both of the exterior and the interior4 ,the following points will assist our understanding of the nature of this problem4 77 ,the space of the interior will have to be no abstractly undifferentiated and empty one1 which possesses no essentially defined features or links that relate them respectively4 ,it must have a concrete form1 one1 that is1 which presents differences in respect to all the mutual relations of length1 breadth1 height1 and the mode of such dimensions4 ,the form of the circle1 the square1 the oblong1 with the equality of enclosing walls and roofing which is necessary to these figures1 will not be suitable here4 ,the movement1 severation1 and mediation of soul-life in its exaltation from that which is of earth to that which is eternal1 to the far-off and the more lofty1 would fail to find apt expression in this bare equality of a square figure4 77 ,it is only a corollary to this that in the ,gothic style the substantial purport of the house1 both in respect of its enclosing form of sidewalls and roof1 and in that of its columns and beams relatively to the configuration of the whole and its parts1 becomes a matter of subordinate importance4 ,and with this disappears1 on the one hand1 as we have already noticed1 the strict distinction between burden and support1 as on the other we find no longer rectangularity is emphasized as essential to the building's purpose4 ,recourse is made once more to an analogous form of ,nature1 namely1 one that prefigures a solemn place of assemblage and enclosure which freely soars upwards4 ,if we step into the interior of a cathedral of the ,middle ,ages we have brought before us not so much the stability and mechanical purpose of supporting piers and a vault that rests upon it4 ,we are rather reminded of the arches of a forest1 whose rows of trees incline with their branches to one another and form an enclosure by this means4 ,a crossbeam requires a secure centre of gravity and the horizontal position4 ,in ,gothic architecture1 however1 the walls mount up freely and independently1 and in the same way the piers1 which then expand above in several directions apart from one another1 and coalesce as though by accident4 ,in other words their function1 to support the vaulting1 is1 although the same in truth reposes on the piers1 not expressly emphasized and independently set forth#aje4 ,the effect is as though they did not carry such1 just as in the tree the branches do not appear as though supported by the stem1 but rather in their airy incurvation as a continuation of the stem1 and with the branches of other trees1 form a roof of leaves4 ,a roofing of this kind1 which is thus fixed upon as the cover of the life of ,spirit1 this awful environment1 which invites us to contemplation1 it is which the cathedral presents us1 in so far as the walls and among them the forest of piers freely coalesce in their summits4 ,but for all that we do not actually assert that ,gothic architecture has accepted trees and woods for the actual exemplar of its forms4 ,while the sharpening to a point offers us generally the basic type in ,gothic we find in the interior of churches this tendency take the more specialized shape of the pointed arch4 ,by this means the columns in particular receive an entirely fresh significance and appearance4 ,the broad ,gothic churches require a roofing to close them in1 a roofing which on account of the breadth is a severe burden and renders support unavoidable4 ,here1 therefore1 the columns appear to be in their right place4 ,for the reason1 however1 that the straining upwards is precisely that which converts support into the appearance of free soaring-up columns are unable to be employed here with the significance they possess in classical architecture4 ,they become1 on the contrary1 piers which1 in lieu of the cross-beam1 carry arches in a manner whereby they appear as simply a continuation of the pier and coalesce together without definite object in a point4 ,we may1 no doubt1 conceive the unavoidable termination of two piers that stand apart from one another as analogous to a gut-roof that rests on corner posts2 but taking into consideration the surfaces at the sides1 although they1 too1 are planted on piers in entirely obtuse angles1 and incline to one another in an acute angle1 we find in the latter case none the less the conception on the one hand of burden1 and on the other of support4 ,the pointed arch1 on the contrary1 which apparently in the first instance mounts up in a straight line1 and only by imperceptible and slower degrees leans forward in order to incline to the opposite side1 presents for the first time the complete idea as though it was just nothing but the continuation of the pier itself1 which forms an arch with another4 ,piers and vaulting appear1 in their contrast to columns and the beam1 as one and the same image1 although the arches rest upon the capitals from which they spring4 ,the capitals1 too1 in specific cases1 such as occur in ,netherland churches1 keep away altogether1 and by this means the inseparable unity above-mentioned is made expressly visible to the eye4 ,moreover1 on account of the fact that this striving upwards is declared as the fundamental character1 the height of the piers exceeds that of the breadth of their base in a proportion that we cannot calculate at sight4 ,the piers are thin1 slender1 and soar up so high the sight is unable to take in the entire form at a glance1 and is compelled to rove about in its upward flight until it attains repose at last in the gently inclined vaulting of the uniting arch1 much as the soul moving with restlessness in its devotion from the ground of finitude uplifts itself and finds rest in ,god alone4 ,the final point of distinction between piers and columns consists in this1 that the piers which are distinctively ,gothic1 and1 where they are elaborated in their specific character1 do not1 as columns do1 remain in the circular form1 essentially secure in that1 and one and the same cylinder1 but to begin with at their base in a reed-like way constitute a convolute1 a bundle of fibres1 which break into varied distinction as the pier mounts and radiate forth on all sides under various modes of continuation4 ,and1 while we find already in classical architecture that the column represents an advance from that which is merely subject to laws of gravity1 from the solid and simple to that which is more slender and more adorned1 so1 too1 we find much the same change visible in the pier1 which1 in this more slender upgrowth1 ever withdraws itself more from the mere service of support1 and freely soars upward albeit shut in at its summit4 ,the same form of piers and pointed arches is repeated in windows and doors4 ,more particularly the windows1 not merely the lower ones of the side aisles1 but also in a still higher degree1 the upper ones of the transepts and choir1 are of colossal size in order that the glance1 which rests upon their lower portion1 may not at once take in the upper part as well and may be uplifted as in the case of the vaultings4 ,this adds to the restless motion of the upward flight which it is intended to communicate to the spectator4 ,add to this the window panes1 as we have already remarked1 are with their coloured glass only partially transparent4 ,sometimes they present sacred histories and sometimes they are merely panes of varied colour with the object of increasing the twilight effect and permitting the light of the wax candles to shine forth4 ,for in these buildings it is another daylight than that of ,nature which illumines4 77 ,finally1 as regards the entire articulation of the interior of ,gothic churches we have already seen that it is imperative that the particular parts of such should be differentiated in their breadth1 height1 and length4 ,the primary distinction to consider in this respect is that of choir1 transept1 and nave from the encircling aisles4 ,these latter are constructed on the sides external to the fabric by means of walls which enclose it1 and from which piers and arches are carried1 and in their separation from the interior by means of piers and pointed arches1 which present openings toward the nave1 having no partition walls between4 ,they receive therefore the converse aspect to that of the colonnades in ,greek temples1 which are open on the outside and are enclosed towards the interior1 whereas the aisles in ,gothic churches permit free passage between the piers to the nave4 ,in certain examples we find two such aisles in juxtaposition2 in fact1 ,antwerp cathedral is an example which possesses three of them at either side of the nave4 ,the nave itself soars up by means of enclosing walls on either side1 at different degrees of elevation1 according to various modes of disposition1 above the aisles1 broken by colossal windows in such a way that the walls themselves at the same time have the appearance of being slender piers1 which everywhere separate in pointed arches and build up vaultings4 ,there are1 however1 churches in which the side aisles have the same height as the nave1 as1 for example1 in the later choirs of the ,sebaldus ,church in ,nuremberg1 which offers the impression of an imposing1 free1 and capacious type of slenderness and delicacy4 ,in this way the whole is divided by means of rows of piers1 which are brought together at their summits like a forest in flights of branching arches4 ,attempts have been made to discover in the number of these piers1 and generally in the relations of number much mystical significance4 ,there can be no question but that at the period of the finest efflorescence of ,gothic architecture1 that1 for example1 of ,cologne ,cathedral1 a great significance was attached to the symbols of number1 the as yet more gloomy presentiment of what is rational falling in readily with an insistence on external traits of this kind4 ,but despite this fact the artistic productions of architecture1 which are carried through by means of that which is always to a greater or less degree merely the capricious play of a symbolism of subordinate rank1 is neither of the profoundest significance1 nor of the most exalted form of beauty1 for the reason that the genuine spirit of these is expressed in entirely different forms and modes than those applicable to the significance of numeral distinctions4 ,we must therefore be especially cautious not to carry such investigations too far4 ,to attempt to go to the root of everything and in every direction to desire to discover a deeper meaning will tend quite as much to contract our horizon and destroy our thoroughness of search as is common with all short-sighted learning which passes over the depth which is clearly expressed and presented without grasping it4 ,in respect to the more detailed distinction between choir and nave1 ,i will in conclusion emphasize the following points4 ,the high-altar1 this real centre of the ritual1 is placed in the choir1 which is thus dedicated as the place for the priesthood as distinct from the community1 whose proper place is that of the nave1 where we find the pulpit for the preacher4 ,a flight of steps1 which varies in its height1 conducts us to the choir1 so that this latter section and all that takes place in it is visible everywhere4 ,in the same way this choir section is relatively to decoration more ornate1 and1 moreover1 in its distinction from the more prolonged nave1 even where the vaultings in both cases are of equal height1 is more serious1 solemn1 and sublime4 ,above all we find here that the entire building is finally enclosed with piers of greater thickness and more closely1 by means of which the breadth tends to disappear1 and the entire effect is one of greater stillness and height1 whereas the transepts and the nave through their towers still provide with their means of entrance and exit a connection with the outside world4 ,according to the points of the compass the choir is placed to the east1 the nave lies in a westerly direction1 and the transepts stand towards the north and south4 ,we find1 however1 churches with a double choir1 in which the two choirs lie respectively in the direction of morning and evening and the main entrances are placed in the transepts4 ,the stone font for baptism1 that is1 for the sanctification of human entry into the ,christian community1 is placed in a porch by the main entrance into the church4 ,and1 finally1 we may note that1 while the more express worship is provided for by the entire building1 and notably the choir and nave1 there are also small chapels which form in each case a fresh and independent church4 ,this must suffice as a description of the articulate structure of the whole4 ,in a cathedral of this type there is space enough for an entire people4 ,for here it is the intention that the community of a city and district do not congregate round the building1 but within the same4 ,and for this reason all the varied interests of life which in any way come into contact with religion have1 too1 a place assigned them4 ,no fixed divisions of seats placed in rows divide and diminish the broad space1 but everyone comes and departs in peace1 engages for himself or takes a seat for immediate use1 kneels down1 offers his prayer and removes himself once more4 ,if it is not the hour of high mass the most various things take place at the same time1 and there is no confusion4 ,in one portion a sermon is delivered1 in another a sick man is brought in2 between these points we may find a slow procession2 at one spot1 we have a baptism1 at another a deceased person is carried through the church4 ,or we may find in one place a priest delivering mass or celebrating the marriage services and in every direction the people in broken groups kneel before altars and sacred images4 ,all such things are embraced by one and the same building4 ,but this very variety and individualization disappears1 nevertheless1 with its alternations when contrasted with the expanse and size of the building4 ,nothing completely fills up the whole1 every incident passes by2 individuals with all that they do are lost and dispersed as points in this grandiose whole4 ,what happens at a given time is merely visible in its passing flight1 and over and above all the huge and almost measureless spaces soar up in their secure and immutable form and construction4 ,such1 then1 are the fundamental characteristics of the interior of ,gothic churches4 ,we must not look here for any definite purpose as such1 but rather an object for the private devotion of the soul in its self-absorption in every detail of the spiritual life#ajf1 and its elevation over all that is isolated and finite4 ,for this reason these buildings are cut off from ,nature by spaces enclosed on all sides1 built up in the atmosphere of gloom and at the same time to the smallest detail in a spirit that strives upwards sublime and immeasurable4 77 ,if we direct our attention now to the external aspect we shall find1 as we have already above observed1 that in contrast to the ,greek temple the exterior configuration in ,gothic architecture1 the decoration and co-ordination of the walls and all else is determined from within outwards1 the exterior having to appear simply as an enclosure of the interior4 ,in this connection we have good reason to emphasize the following points3 77 ,in the first place in the form of the cross which we find dominates the whole exterior we cannot fail to recognize in outline a similar construction as that which obtains within1 a form which cuts1 the nave and choir in two1 and supplies1 moreover1 the distinctions of height which obtain between the aisles1 the nave and choir4 ,on closer inspection we find that the principal faade1 as the external form of the aisles and nave1 corresponds in the portals to the particular construction within4 ,a more lofty principal door1 by which we pass direct into the nave1 stands between the smaller entrances into the aisles1 and suggests by means of the contraction in perspective that the exterior must draw together1 grow more narrow1 and disappear in order than an entrance may be thereby provided4 ,the interior is the background already visible1 into the depths of which the exterior is carried1 just as the soul is constrained to grow more profound as ideality when it enters its own intrinsic wealth4 ,over the doors at the sides extend in the most direct connection with the interior colossal windows1 just as the portals rise up to similar pointed arches1 in a way similar to that in which they are employed as the particular form for the vaultings of the interior4 ,between these doors over the principal portal a large circular window branches out1 the rose-window1 a form which is1 we may add1 the exclusive and peculiar possession of this type of building1 and only fitted to it4 ,where such rose-windows are absent we find substituted for them a still more colossal window with pointed arches4 ,the faades of the transepts are divided in a similar way while the walls of the nave1 the choir1 and the aisles in their windows and their form1 no less than in the position of the solid walls between1 repeat in all respects the form of the interior and set the same forth on the outside4 77 ,in the second place1 however1 the exterior begins to make itself at the same time intelligible to itself#ajg in this close association with the form and subdivision of the interior for the very reason that it has its own peculiar tasks to fulfil4 ,in this connection we may mention the flying buttresses4 ,they represent the position of the many piers within the building and are necessary as points of support for the elevation and security of the whole4 ,at the same time they further make apparent on the outside1 so far as interval1 number1 and other features are concerned1 the rows of piers on the inside1 albeit they do not exactly reproduce the shape of the interior piers1 but the higher they mount up become reduced in the strength of their springing buttresses4 77 ,inasmuch as1 however1 in the third place1 it is only the interior which has to be one essentially complete enclosure1 this feature is lost in the form of the exterior and makes way in every respect for the all-prevailing characteristics of continuous elevation4 ,and for this reason the exterior receives at the same time a form independent of the interior1 which asserts itself mainly in a tendency to strive upwards on all sides into points and pinnacles1 breaking out in them one on the top of another4 ,to this fundamental feature belong the lofty uplifted triangles which1 independently of the pointed arches1 soar upwards over the portals1 pre-eminently the principal faade1 though also over the colossal windows of the nave and choir1 and in a similar way the slenderly pointed shape of the roof1 whose gable-end is especially prominent in the faades of the transepts4 ,add to these the flying buttresses1 which everywhere terminate in little pointed pinnacles1 and in this way1 just as the rows of piers within the building create a forest of stems1 branches1 and vaultings1 on their part on the exterior stretch up heavenwards a forest of points4 ,with most independence and most emphatically1 however1 it is the towers which rise upwards in their sublime summits4 ,in other words we find that the entire mass of the building concentrates among other things itself in them1 in order that thus in its main towers it may be without hindrance uplifted to an incalculable height without thereby losing its character of repose and stability4 ,such towers are either placed in the principal faade over the two side entrances1 while a third and broader main tower springs up at the point where the vaulting of the transepts1 choir1 and nave meet1 or one single tower constitutes the principal faade and is raised above the entire breadth of the nave4 ,such are at any rate the positions which are most usual4 ,in direct connection with the worship such towers have belfries1 that is1 to the extent that the ringing of bells properly applies to ,christian services4 ,this merely indefinite tone of the bell is a solemn stimulus of the soul-life1 though in the first instance one that as yet prepares the worshipper only on the outside of the building4 ,the articulate tone1 on the other hand1 wherein a definite content of feelings and ideas is expressed1 is the song which is only to be heard within the church4 ,the inarticulate clang of the bell finds its right place on the outside and only there and is sounded forth from the towers that its peal may pass forth as from some pure height far over the land4 7c7 ,as to the mode of decoration ,i have already pointed to the main features of determinate character4 77 ,the first point we have to emphasize is the importance of ornament generally for ,gothic architecture4 ,classical architecture preserves as a rule a wise mean in the adornment of its constructions4 ,inasmuch as1 however1 it is the main interest of ,gothic architecture to make the masses which it places in position appear larger and considerably more lofty than they in fact are it is not satisfied with plain surfaces1 but subdivides the same throughout2 and1 moreover1 breaks them up with forms which themselves suggest on their part a striving upwards4 ,piers1 pointed arches1 and triangles1 which rise above them with their pinnacles1 occur1 too1 as decorative work4 ,in this way we find that the simple unity of the great masses is impaired1 and the elaboration is carried to the point of every conceivable detail1 leaving the entire effect1 however1 involved in the most flagrant contradiction4 ,on the one hand we cannot fail to observe the most obvious outlines in a clearly defined co-ordination1 on the other we have fulness and variety of delicate embellishment impossible to follow with the eye1 so that the most motley particularity is directly set up in contrast to what is most universal and simple1 just as the soul1 in the opposition implied in ,christian worship1 is deeply engaged in finite things1 and indeed carries its life into the mere detail and the trifle4 ,this very opposition acts as a stimulus to contemplation1 this striving up invites to a like action4 ,for what is of paramount importance in this style of decoration is this that it do not1 by the mass and alternation of its ornament1 destroy or cover up the fundamental outlines1 but rather suffer them completely to make their way through such variety as the essential feature of importance4 ,only when it can do this1 and ,i speak in particular of ,gothic buildings1 is the solemnity of their imposing seriousness kept intact4 ,just as religious devotion has to permeate all particular experiences of soul-life1 the life-conditions of every type of humanity1 has further to engrave indelibly on the heart its universal and incommutable ideas1 so in the same way the simple and fundamental architectural features should have strength sufficient to recall the most varied articulation1 diversity and embellishment of the structure once more within the fundamental impression of those outlines and wholly thus absorb them4 77 ,a further aspect in decorative work is bound up in the same way with the romantic type of art in general4 ,the romantic has on the one hand for its principle ,ideality1 the return of the ,ideal to itself4 ,on the other the ,ideal has to reappear in that which is external1 and then withdraw itself into itself from the same4 ,in architecture it is the sensuous1 material mass in relations of ,space1 in which the most ,ideal essence itself is1 so far as that is possible1 to be presented in visible shape4 ,with a material such as this to deal with there is no other alternative possible than that of not suffering this material to assert itself with power in its materiality1 but to break up and dismember its masses in every direction1 and to wrest from the same the appearance of its immediate coherence and self-subsistency4 ,in this connection the ornamentation1 more particularly that of the exterior1 which has not to display the fact of enclosure as such1 assumes the character of a net-work#ajh carried in every direction1 or rather interwoven over the surfaces2 and we have no example of an architecture which1 taking into account the enormous and heavily weighted masses of its stone and their secure coherence1 nevertheless has preserved to such a complete extent the character of lightness and delicacy4 77 ,we have only further and thirdly to remark with reference to such embellishments that in addition to pointed arches1 piers1 and circles1 the forms once more call to mind those of the real organic world4 ,the fretwork and working out of the mass already carries a suggestion of this4 ,regarded in more detail1 however1 we actually find leaves1 rosettes of flowers1 and1 in entwining work of an arabesque character1 human figures and those of animals partly realistically and partly fantastically linked together2 the romantic imagination1 in short1 even in architecture1 displays its wealth of imaginative creation1 and its power to unite in unexpected ways heterogeneous elements1 although from another point of view1 at any rate during the period of the purest type of ,gothic architecture1 even in the matter of ornament1 as1 for example1 in the pointed arches of the windows1 we may observe a decisive return to simple forms4 #c4 ,,different ,,types ,,of ,,building ,,in ,,romantic ,,architecture ,the last point on which ,i have a few observations to make is that of the principal types followed by romantic architecture in its course of development at different periods4 ,i must1 however1 add the premise that in this work no attempt can be made to supply a history of this branch of the art4 7a7 ,we must wholly distinguish from ,gothic architecture1 such as ,i have above described it1 the so-called pre-,gothic1 whose development originated in ,roman architecture4 ,the most ancient form of ,christian churches is that of the basilica4 ,these originated out of the public buildings of the ,empire1 huge oblong halls1 with the frame-work of their roofing of wood1 such as ,constantine placed at the disposal of ,christians4 ,in buildings such as these there was a tribune1 on which1 during congregational religious services conducted by priests1 there was singing and an address delivered1 or merely reading aloud4 ,the conception of the choir may have originated with this4 ,in the same way ,christian architecture accepted other of its forms such as the use of columns with circular arches1 the rotunda and the modes of classical embellishment throughout1 more particularly in the western ,roman ,empire1 while in the eastern section it appears to have remained constant to this type until the time of ,justinian4 ,even buildings erected by the ,ostrogoths and ,lombards in ,italy retained essentially the fundamental ,roman type4 ,in the more recent architecture1 however1 of the ,byzantine ,empire several modifications made their appearance4 ,a rotunda supported on four great piers forms the centre1 to which different constructions were attached to meet the particular objects of ,greek as distinct from the ,roman ritual4 ,we must not1 however1 confuse this genuine architecture of the ,byzantine ,empire with that which1 in its general relation to architectural types1 goes by the name of ,byzantine1 and which was employed in ,italy1 ,france1 ,england1 ,germany1 and other places up to the close of the twelfth century4 7b7 ,in the thirteenth century was evolved the ,gothic architecture in the distinctive form whose main characteristics ,i have above described in detail4 ,it is nowadays denied that it is the work of ,gothic architects1 and the name given it is that of ,deutsch or ,german architecture4 ,we may1 however1 retain the more customary and ancient nomenclature4 ,in other words we find in ,spain very ancient indications of this type of construction1 which suggest an association with historical circumstances under which ,gothic kings1 forced back into the mountains of ,asturia and ,galicia1 retained their independence in such localities4 ,under such conditions1 no doubt1 a close affiliation of ,gothic and ,arab architecture appears probable1 yet both may be essentially distinguished4 ,for the characteristic trait of ,arab architecture in the ,middle ,ages is not the pointed arch1 but the so-called horseshoe form4 ,moreover1 these buildings1 which are constructed for an entirely different ritual1 exhibit an ,oriental wealth and splendour1 embellishments resembling plant-life and other forms of decoration1 which1 in an external form1 mix together what is of ,roman ancestry and that which belongs to the ,middle ,ages4 7c7 ,on parallel lines with this evolution of religious architecture we find1 too1 the course of civil construction1 which from its particular point of view imitates and modifies the character of ecclesiastical buildings4 ,in an architecture directed to the uses of citizen life1 however1 art has less opportunity for display inasmuch as here objects of more restricted character1 combined with a great variety of requirements1 are more strict in the range of satisfaction presented1 and do not suffer beauty to pass beyond mere decoration4 ,except for the general harmonious disposition of its forms and masses1 art is in the main merely able to assert itself in the embellishment of faades1 staircases1 windows1 doors1 gables1 towers1 and the like1 and has to do this throughout subject to the condition that the practical purpose of the building is what finally determines everything4 ,in the ,middle ,ages it is pre-eminently the tower-like form of secure dwellings1 which is the fundamental type of structure not merely for particular declivities and summits but also within the towns1 where every palace1 every private dwelling1 as in ,italy for example1 received the form of a small fortification or keep4 ,walls1 doors1 towers1 bridges and the like are executed as necessity dictates1 and are decorated and embellished by art4 ,stability and security coupled with a grandiose type of splendour and a vital individuality of single forms and their connecting links constitute the determining factors1 to enter into the detail of which would carry us beyond our present purpose4 ,by way of supplement we may in conclusion briefly allude to the art of gardening1 which does not only create under a wholly novel form an environment for spirit1 we may call it a second exterior ,nature1 but draws the landscape of ,nature itself within the operation of its constructive purpose and treats the same architectonically as an environment of buildings4 ,i will only take as an example of what ,i mean the famous and exceedingly imposing terrace of ,sans-souci4 ,in our examination of the genuine art of gardening it is most important to distinguish the painter's point of view of it from that of the architect4 ,all that pertains to mere park construction1 for instance1 is not truly architectonic1 no building1 that is1 with freely disposed natural objects1 but an artist's portrayal#aji1 which leaves the objects in their natural form and aims at imitating wide ,nature in its freedom4 ,everything is here suggested in turn1 which finds its glad place in a landscape--whether rocks and the huge rough masses which are their substance1 or dales1 woods1 pastures1 meandering brooks1 broad streams with their animated banks1 still lakes1 wreathed round with trees1 rushing waterfalls1 and everything else of the kind1 and is brought together with one total effect4 ,in this way the gardening art of the ,chinese embraces entire landscapes together with their islands1 rivers1 expanding views1 and rockeries4 ,in a park of this kind1 particularly in modern examples of such1 everything is1 on the one hand1 intended to hold intact the freedom of ,nature1 while1 on the other1 it is artificially elaborated and constructed and conditioned by the locality where it is situated4 ,this involves a contradiction which is never satisfactorily disposed of4 ,in this respect1 for the most part1 it is impossible to instance an example of worse taste than such an attempt to make visible in all directions a studied purpose in that which is without purpose1 and to force that which refuses to be compelled4 ,add to this the fact that here the genuine character of what is strictly a garden disappears1 in so far1 that is1 as a garden is primarily adapted for strolling about in at pleasure and conversation within a certain place1 which is no longer simply ,nature1 but a ,nature remodelled by man to meet his desire for an environment created by himself4 ,a huge park1 on the contrary1 particularly if it be garnished with ,chinese temples1 ,turkish mosques1 ,swiss chlets1 bridges1 hermitages1 and any other conceivable foreign importation1 makes an independent claim on our interest as spectator4 ,it offers an independent pretension of being and signifying something4 ,a charm of this sort disappears as soon as it arises2 we do not care to see it twice1 for an addition like this spreads before our sight no suggestion of infinity1 nothing that possesses a really existent vitality#aaj1 and is further only wearisome and tedious for conversation as we pass through it4 ,a garden1 strictly speaking1 should be only a cheerful environment and simply an environment1 which will not pass for something independently valid and withdraw men from their own life and concerns4 ,it is here that architecture1 with its scientific lines1 order1 regularity1 and symmetry1 is in its proper place and co-ordinates natural objects themselves architectonically4 ,the art of the ,mongols on the other side of the great wall1 in ,tibet1 the paradise of the ,persians1 already adapt themselves more closely to this type4 ,they are no parks in the ,english sense1 but halls with flowers1 springs1 courts1 and palaces1 which have in the form of a retreat in ,nature been arranged on a splendid1 grandiose1 and extravagant scale for the needs of mankind and their convenience4 ,but we find the architectural principle most thoroughly carried out in the ,french art of gardening1 which1 as a rule1 borders upon great palaces1 plants trees in the strictest conformity of line in long avenues1 prunes them1 builds up straight walls from trimmed fences1 and in this way converts ,nature herself into a broad dwelling beneath the open sky4 ,footnote #cd3 ,simply as a physical object4 ,footnote #ce3 ,that of symbolic architecture4 ,footnote #cf3 ,als ,momente eines ,subjektes4 ,that is as the constituent parts of the mind of one individual4 ,footnote #cg3 ,herod4 ,i1 c4 #aha4 ,footnote #ch3 ,i1 c4 #ih4 ,footnote #ci3 ,i1 p4 #dfi4 ,footnote #dj3 ,as in obelisks1 ,memnons1 etc4 ,footnote #da3 ,,ii1 c4 #afb4 ,footnote #db3 c4 #ajf4 ,footnote #dc3 ,symb4 7#bnd ed471 p4 #dfi4 ,the solar city of ,heliopolis4 ,footnote #dd3 ,,xxxvi1 #ad1 and ,,xxxvii1 #h4 ,footnote #de3 ,creutzer ,i1 p4 #ggh4 ,footnote #df3 ,history of ,architecture1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #dg3 ,wandungen4 ,i presume this refers to every kind of subdivision no less than boundary walls4 ,footnote #dh3 ,pracktgewnden4 ,presumably this refers to the isolated structures in which the columns are built--having flat surfaces like walls4 ,footnote #di3 ,balken4 ,the word would suggest perhaps that ,hegel means here beams of any kind4 ,footnote #ej3 ,,ii1 c4 #aee4 ,footnote #ea3 ,her4 ,,ii1 c4 #ajh4 ,footnote #eb3 ,herodotus dwells on this in the above passage4 ,footnote #ec3 ,,ii1 c4 #adh4 ,footnote #ed3 ,commentators of ,herodotus point out that we have no direct evidence here of their number1 which1 comparing this with ,strabo's account1 is doubtful1 and still more so the number of the chambers 774 ,strabo says there were twenty-seven courts4 ,the connection between the halls was not an architectural one but by means of the chambers and colonnades 774 ,see ,blakesley's notes1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bgi-hj4 ,neither from ,herodotus nor ,hegel is it very easy to form a clear notion of the building4 ,footnote #ee3 ,history of ,ancient ,building1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ge4 ,footnote #ef3 ,,xxxvi1 #ai4 ,footnote #eg3 ,ein ,individuelles4 ,lit41 ,an individual entity4 ,footnote #eh3 ,the relative pronoun refers to the separation of both aspects4 ,footnote #ei3 ,,ii1 c4 #abf-g4 ,footnote #fj3 ,her4 ,,ii1 c4 #abe4 ,footnote #fa3 ,geschichte der ,baukunst der ,alten1 ,i1 ,s4 #ee4 ,footnote #fb3 ,symbolical significance4 ,footnote #fc3 ,wolff's and ,buttmann's ,mus41 ,b4 ,i1 p4 #ecf4 ,footnote #fd3 ,hegel uses the coined word osirirt ,i presume in this sense4 ,footnote #fe3 ,abstraction4 ,abstract in the sense of possessing no ideal complexity4 ,footnote #ff3 ,verstndig4 ,comes under the categories of the ,understanding4 ,footnote #fg3 ,lit41 ,find the element that is congenial4 ,footnote #fh3 ,that is1 the principle of geometrical design and that of organic structure4 ,footnote #fi3 ,that is the beauty and the ulterior aim of utility4 ,footnote #gj3 ,verstndig4 ,see note above4 ,footnote #ga3 ,the sphere of mechanical gravity4 ,footnote #gb3 ,i presume ,aufwande means expense here2 it would be more reasonable perhaps to say waste of room1 columns being only too often so much more expensive for their size4 ,footnote #gc3 ,that is1 the free treatment of line under scientific forms of abstraction rather than limited to specific modes of organic form in ,nature4 ,footnote #gd3 ,der ,verstndigen ,gesetzmssigkeit4 ,the principle of scientific architecture4 ,footnote #ge3 ,immediate imitation1 that is4 ,footnote #gf3 ,of classical art4 ,footnote #gg3 ,symbol des ,innern4 ,footnote #gh3 ,that is1 apart from the classical type4 ,footnote #gi3 ,that is1 the scientific reason of abstract principle or rule4 ,footnote #hj3 ,weil beim ,oblongum in der ,gleichheit und ,ungleichheit ist4 ,that is1 more pleasure is derived from contrast than mere similarity4 ,he then qualifies or explains the general principle4 ,footnote #ha3 ,eurhythmie1 that is1 eurhythmy or a rhythmic movement between the several parts4 ,footnote #hb3 ,i presume this is the meaning of die ,theorie here4 ,that is the purposeful motive of the architectural skeleton of the fabric--what explains it rationally4 ,footnote #hc3 ,schiebens4 ,it is possible that ,hegel uses the word in its primary sense of shifting4 ,footnote #hd3 ,the idea is slightly confused in the course of the sentence4 ,it is not the necessity 7des ,bedrfnisses7 to build a stable house which has to be held in position1 etc41 but the structure which that necessity forces men to construct in a certain way4 ,footnote #he3 ,ihre eigenen ,momente4 ,its unique traits is possibly adequate here4 ,footnote #hf3 ,hegel probably has in his mind when using the expression verstndig bestimmte the close analogy between the self-exclusive concreteness of reason and the completeness of the circular figure4 ,footnote #hg3 ,it is not quite clear what ,hegel means by the ,kpfen der ,deckenbalken4 ,the technical word that corresponds to ,deckenbalken is joists2 here1 according to the words that follow1 it would appear to mean either the last horizontal line of the architrave or the entire growth of the triglyph4 ,as he uses the word ,zwischenramen after we appear to be driven on the latter alternative4 ,the frieze1 of course1 was the entire space between cornice and architrave1 including both triglyphs and metopes4 ,footnote #hh3 ,called femora4 ,they were divided by two gutters or drills4 ,the triglyph slightly projected and united perpendicularly cornice and architrave4 ,footnote #hi3 ,die ,baukunst nach den ,grunds4 der ,alten1 ,berlin1 #ahjh1 ,s4 ,,iii4 ,footnote #ij3 ,he means that the distinct functions are not assigned to those features of the building to which they are naturally or most essentially related4 ,footnote #ia3 ,hirt1 ,geschichte der ,baukunst1 ,,iii1 ,s4 #ad-ah1 and ,,ii1 ,s4 #aea4 ,footnote #ib3 ,he refers to the columns placed round4 ,footnote #ic3 ,gesch4 d4 ,bauk4 ,i1 ,s4 #bea4 ,footnote #id3 ,by sebststndig ,hegel means apparently that there must be nothing in their external form that would divert attention from their essential character4 ,footnote #ie3 ,auf dem ,unterbau4 ,i presume this means generally that portion beneath the ground4 ,footnote #if3 ,i presume what is meant is that in one case the drills or grooves are hollowed in round shape and towards the base in square shape4 ,footnote #ig3 ,what is precisely meant by the expression durch prismatische ,einschnitte ,i frankly do not know4 ,the expression ,balken is evidently used to mark the association between the slabs of stone and beams or rafters4 ,footnote #ih3 ,that is1 the spaces between the lower part of the cornice and the uppermost slab of the entablature4 ,footnote #ii3 ,the coussinet is that part of the ,ionic capital between the abacus and quarter round1 which serves to form the volute4 ,there are four volutes or spiral scrolls in the ,ionic capital4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,the mutule is the projecting block worked under the corona of the ,doric cornice4 ,footnote #aja3 ,hirt1 ,gesch4 der ,baukunst1 ,i1 ,s4 #bed4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,this must1 ,i think1 refer to the main moulding of the architrave immediately resting on the column4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,seneca1 ,ep4 #ij4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,lit41 ,is raised to infinitude4 ,footnote #aje3 ,as it is1 for example1 by ,greek capitals4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,lit41 ,in its penetration into the most spiritual 7innerste1 ideal7 particularity4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,sich verselbststndigen4 ,hegel means that the main purpose of the exterior is expressed on the face of it4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,i presume the word ,durchbrechen is here used in its specific architectural sense4 ,footnote #aji3 ,ein ,malen4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,keine in sich seyende ,seele4 ,i presume ,hegel means that being an artificial fragment of ,nature's landscape it lacks the infinite horizon and the living relation to the whole4 ,,subsection ,,ii ,,sculpture ,,introduction ,over against the inorganic nature of ,spirit1 in the form we find given it by art in architecture1 ,spirit opposes itself directly in the sense that the work of art receives and displays spirituality as its actual content4 ,the necessity of this advance we have already adverted to4 ,it underlies the notion of ,mind1 which differentiates itself under the twofold aspect of subjective self-substantive#aaa existence and pure objectivity4 ,in this latter form of externality the ideal substance1 it is true1 makes its appearance by virtue of the architectonic treatment2 such1 however1 does not amount to a complete transfusion of the objective material1 or a conversion of it into an entirely adequate expression of ,spirit 7,mind71 such as suffers it1 and only it1 to appear4 ,consequently art withdraws itself from the inorganic realm1 which architecture1 under its yoke of the laws of gravity1 has striven to bring nearer as a means of ,spirit's expression1 to that of the ,ideal1 which forthwith then independently asserts itself in its more lofty truth without this intermingling with what is inorganic4 ,it is during this1 return passage of ,spirit to its own native realm#aab from out of the world of masses and material substance that we come across sculpture4 ,the first stage1 however1 in this new sphere is1 as yet1 no withdrawal of mind into the completely ideal world of subjective consciousness#aac1 so that the representation of what is of ,spirit would require what is itself a purely ideal mode of expression4 ,rather ,spirit grasps itself1 in the first instance1 only in so far as it is still expressed in bodily shape1 and therein possesses its homogeneous and determinate existence4 ,the art which accepts for its content this attitude to the possessions of ,spirit will consequently have1 as its due function1 to clothe spiritual individuality as a manifestation under material conditions1 and we may add1 in what is actually material to the senses4 ,for discourse and speech are also indications#aad which ,spirit assumes under the form of externality1 but they belong to a mode of objectivity1 which1 instead of possessing the attributes we attach to matter in its immediate and concrete sense1 is merely as tone1 motion1 the undulation of an entire body and the rarified element1 the atmosphere1 a communication of such ,spirit4 ,what ,i call immediate corporeality1 on the contrary1 is the spatial mode of material substance such as stone1 wood1 metal1 or clay1 wholly spatial in all three dimensions4 ,the form1 however1 which is adequate to ,spirit is1 as we have already seen1 the unique bodily form which belongs to it2 and it is through this that sculpture makes what is of ,spirit actual in a whole which is subject to the spatial condition4 ,from this point of view sculpture stands on the same plane as architecture#aae to the extent1 namely1 that it gives form to the sensuous material as such1 or what is material according its spatial condition as matter4 ,it is1 however1 to a like extent distinguishable from architecture by virtue of the fact that it does not work up the inorganic substance1 as the opposite of ,spirit1 into an environment created by ,spirit and endowed with its purpose in forms to which a purpose is attached which is exterior to it2 rather it sets before us spirituality itself in the bodily shape which1 from the standpoint of the notion1 is adequate to ,spirit and its individuality4 ,in other words its efficient function and independent self-subsistency brings indivisibly before our sight both aspects1 body and spirit1 as one whole4 ,the configuration of sculpture1 therefore1 breaks away from the specific function of architecture1 which is to serve ,spirit merely as an external ,nature and environment1 and assumes a really independent position4 ,despite1 however1 this separation the image of sculpture remains in essential relation to its environment4 ,a statue or group1 and yet more a relief1 cannot be made without considering the place in which such a work of art is to be situated4 ,one ought not first to complete a work of sculpture and then consider where it is likely to be put1 but it should in the very conception of it be associated with a definite exterior world1 and its spatial form and local position4 ,in this respect sculpture retains a specific relation to the architectural aspect of space4 ,for the primary object of statues is that of being temple images and being set up in the shrine of the sanctuary1 just as in ,christian churches painting supplies images for the altar1 and ,gothic architecture also attests a similar connection between works of sculpture and their local position4 ,temples and churches1 however1 are not the only place for statues1 groups of statuary and reliefs4 ,in a similar way halls1 staircases1 gardens1 public squares1 doors1 single columns and arches of triumph receive an animation from the forms of sculpture2 and every statue1 even though placed in dissociation from such a wider environment1 requires a pedestal of its own to mark its local position and base4 ,and here we must conclude what we have to say as to the association of sculpture with or distinction from architecture4 ,if we further compare sculpture with the other arts we shall find that it is more especially poetry and painting which will engage our attention4 ,small statues no less than groups present to us the spiritual form in complete bodily shape1 man1 in short1 as he exists4 ,sculpture therefore appears to possess the truest means of representing what is spiritual1 whereas both painting and poetry have the contrary appearance of being more remote from ,nature for the reason that painting makes use of the mere surface instead of the sensuous totality of the spatial condition1 which a human form and all other natural things actually assume2 speech1 too1 to a still less degree1 expresses the reality of body1 being merely able to transmit ideas of the same by means of tone4 ,however1 the truth of the matter is precisely the reverse of this4 ,for although the image of sculpture appears no doubt to possess from the start the natural form as it stands1 it is just this externality of body and nature reproduced in gross material which is not the nature of ,spirit as such4 ,if we regard the essential character of it its peculiar existence is that expressed by means of speech1 acts1 and affairs which develop its ideal or soul-life1 and disclose its true existence4 ,in this respect sculpture has to yield the place of honour and pre-eminently when contrasted with poetry4 ,no doubt clarity of outline#aaf is superior in the plastic arts1 in which the bodily presence is placed before our sight1 but poetry too can describe the exterior figure of a man1 such as his hair1 forehead1 cheeks1 size1 dress1 pose and so forth1 though of course not with the precision and sufficiency of sculpture4 ,what it loses1 however1 in this respect is made up by the imagination1 which1 moreover1 does not require for the mere conception of an object such a fixed and definite outline1 and before everything else brings before us man in his action1 with all his motives1 developments of fortune and circumstance1 with all his emotions1 discourses1 everything that discovers the soul-life or throws light on external incidents4 ,this sculpture is either wholly unable to do1 or only in a very incomplete way for the reason that it neither can present to us the individual soul#aag in its particular inward life and passion1 nor as poetry a sequence of expressed results1 but only offer us the general characteristics of individuality1 so far as the body expresses such1 and whatever happens together in one particular moment of time1 and this too in a state of repose without the progressive action of real life4 ,in these respects1 too1 it is inferior to painting4 ,for the expression of spiritual life receives in painting an emphatically more defined accuracy and vitality by means of the colour given to the human face and its light and shadow1 not merely in the sense in which it satisfies generally the material substance of nature1 but pre-eminently in the way it expresses physiognomy and the phenomena of emotion4 ,it is possible1 therefore1 at first to entertain the view that sculpture requires merely for its greater perfection to associate the further advantages of painting with that itself possesses in the spatial totality1 and to regard it as a mere act of caprice that it has made up its mind to dispense with the palette of the painter1 or1 as indicating a poverty and incapacity of its execution1 that it entirely restricts its effort to one aspect of reality1 namely1 that of the material form1 and withdraws its attention from that1 much as the silhouette and the engraving may be set down as mere makeshifts#aah4 ,we are1 however1 not warranted in thus applying such a term as caprice to genuine art4 ,the form such as it is in the object of sculpture1 remains in fact merely an abstract aspect of the concrete human bodily presence4 ,its presentments receive no variety from particularized colours and movements4 ,this is1 however1 no defect due to accident1 but a limitation of material and manner of presentment itself pre-supposed in the notion of art4 ,for ,art is a product of mind1 and we may add of the more exalted and thoughtful mind4 ,a work of this order claims as its object a content of this defined character1 and consequently implies a mode of artistic realization which excludes other aspects4 ,we have here a process similar to that observed in the different sciences where we find1 for example1 geometry exclusively adopts space as its object1 jurisprudence law1 philosophy the explication of the eternal ,idea and its determinate existence and self-identity in the facts of experience1 wherein each of the above mentioned sciences develops these objects by differentiation out of their differences1 without one of them actually presenting to consciousness in its completeness that which we are accustomed in ordinary modes of thought to call concrete real existence4 ,art then1 as a creative informing activity of spiritual origination1 proceeds step by step1 and separates that which in the notion1 in the nature of the thing1 albeit not in its determinate existence1 is separated4 ,it retains such stages consequently in their self-exclusive finity1 in order to elaborate them according to their distinct peculiarities4 ,and what contributes to this notional distinction and exclusive separation in the spatial material substance1 which constitutes the element of the plastic art is corporeality in its aspect of spatial totality and its abstract configuration1 in other words bodily form simply1 and the more detailed particularization of the same relatively to the variety of its colorization4 ,we find at this first stage the art of sculpture so placed relatively to the human form1 which it treats as a stereo-metric body1 merely1 that is1 according to form which it possesses in the three spatial dimensions4 ,the work of art1 whose process is in and through the sensuous material1 must no doubt have an existence for another#aai1 with which forthwith the particularization commences4 ,the primary art1 however1 which is concerned with the human bodily form as an expression of spiritual life1 only proceeds so far in this being for another to the point of its first1 or rather the still universal mode of ,nature's own existence1 that is to the point of mere visibility and existence in light generally1 without uniting with the same in its presentment the relation of the latter to darkness1 in which that which is visible is particularized in its own medium#abj and becomes colour4 ,and the art occupying such a position is that of sculpture4 ,for plastic art1 which is unable as poetry to bring together the totality of the phenomenon in one equal element or world of idea1 inevitably breaks up this totality#aba4 ,for this reason we get on the one hand objectivity1 which in so far as it is not the unique configuration of spirit1 stands over against it as inorganic ,nature4 ,it is this relation of bare objectivity which converts architecture into a mere suggestive symbol1 which does not possess its spiritual significance in itself4 ,the point of extreme contrast to objectivity as such is subjectivity1 that is the soul#abb1 emotional life in the entire range of all its particular movements1 moods1 passions1 exterior and interior agitations and actions4 ,between these two we are confronted with the spiritual individuality which no doubt has a definite structure1 but which is not as yet deepened to the extent of the essential ideality of the individual soul2 in which1 instead of the full personal singularity1 the substantive universality of ,spirit and its objects and characteristic traits is the prevailing factor4 ,in its generality it is not as yet absolutely withdrawn into its own exclusive domain to the point of purely spiritual unity2 rather it comes before us as this midway point#abc still hailing from the objective side1 that is the side of inorganic ,nature1 and consequently even carries as part of itself corporeality1 as the particular form of existence appropriate to spirit1 in the body that not merely is its own1 but also discloses it4 ,in this mode of externality1 which no longer remains something simply opposed to what is ideal1 spiritual individuality has now to be displayed1 not1 however1 as living form1 that is to say as corporeality continuously referred back to the point of unity implied in the singularity of spiritual life1 but rather as form set forth and manifested in its external guise1 into the mould of which ,spirit has no doubt been poured1 without1 however1 being from this outward bond of association1 made visible in the sense that it is so when it withdraws into its own essential and ideal domain#abd4 ,from the above observations the two points to which we have already drawn attention become more clear1 namely1 first1 that sculpture makes use of the human form directly1 which is the actual existence of spiritual life1 instead of accepting a mode of expression which is symbolical with a view to promoting the spiritual import of modes of appearance that are merely suggestive4 ,at the same time1 secondly1 it is content1 as the manifestation of that mode of subjectivity which does not express emotion and the soul essentially unparticularized#abe1 with form and nothing more1 where the focus of subjectivity is dissipated#abf4 ,this is also the reason why sculpture does not on the one hand present ,spirit in action1 in a series of movements1 which both possess and testify to one aim nor in undertakings or exploits1 wherein a certain character is made visible1 but rather as persisting throughout in one objective way1 and for this reason preeminently in the repose of form1 the movement and grouping of which is merely a first and obvious commencement of action1 not1 however1 in any sense a complete presentment of the subjective life as agitated by all the conflicts that assail it whether within or without1 or as its development is variously affected in contact with the external world4 ,consequently what we also miss in the figures of sculpture is precisely this revealed focus of the subjective life1 the concentrated expression of soul as soul1 namely1 the glance of the eye1 a fact upon which we shall have something further to say later4 ,we miss it because such a figure presents to our sight ,spirit embedded in corporeality1 and ,spirit1 too1 which has to show itself visible in the entire form4 ,from another point of view an individuality1 which is not as yet essentially separated into its component parts1 that is1 the object of sculpture1 does not as yet require the painter's charm of colour as means to display it1 a charm which is as capable of making visible1 through the fine gradations and variety of its nuances1 the entire wealth of particular traits of character1 the absolute manifestation of spiritual presence1 its ideal significance#abg1 as by means of the vital flash of the eye it will concentrate in a point all the vigour of the soul4 ,sculpture must not1 in other words1 accept a material which is not rendered necessary by its fundamental point of view4 ,it only makes use of the spatial qualities of the human figure1 not the colouring which depicts it4 ,the figure of sculpture is in general of one colour1 hewn from white not vari-coloured marble4 ,and in the same way metals are used as the material of sculpture1 this primitive substance1 self-identical1 essentially undifferentiated1 a light in fluxion1 if we may so express it1 without the contrast and harmony of different colours#abh4 ,the ,greeks are indebted to their unrivalled artistic insight#abi for having grasped and firmly retained this point of view4 ,no doubt we find1 too1 in ,greek sculpture1 to which we must for the main part confine ourselves1 examples of coloured statuary2 we must1 however1 take care in this respect to distinguish both the beginning and end of this art from that which is created at its culminating point4 ,in the same way we must discount that which is admitted by art in deference to traditional religion4 ,we have already found it to be true in the classical type of art that it does not forthwith and immediately set forth the ,ideal1 in which its function is to discover its fundamental lines of definition1 but in the first instance removes much that is inconsonant with it and foreign2 it is the same case precisely with sculpture4 ,it is forced to pass through many preliminary stages before it arrives at its perfection2 and this initial process differs very considerably from its supreme attainment4 ,the most ancient works of sculpture are of painted wood1 as1 for example1 ,egyptian idols2 we find similar productions among the ,greeks4 ,we must1 however1 exclude such examples from genuine sculpture when the main point is to establish its fundamental notion4 ,we are therefore in no way concerned to deny that there are many examples at hand of painted statues4 ,it is1 however1 also a fact that the purer art-taste became1 the more strongly sculpture withdrew itself from a brilliancy of colour that was not really congenial1 and with wise deliberation utilized1 on the contrary1 light and shadow in order to secure for the beholder's eye a greater softness1 repose1 clarity1 and agreeableness#acj4 ,as against the uniform colour of the bare marble we may no doubt not merely instance the numerous statues of bronze1 but also in still stronger opposition the greatest and most excellent works1 which1 as in the case of the ,zeus of ,pheidias1 were artificially coloured4 ,but we are not here discussing absence of colour in such an extreme abstract sense4 ,moreover1 ivory and gold are not primarily the use of colour as the painter employs it2 and generally we may add that the various works of a definite art do not ever in fact retain fixedly their fundamental notion in so abstract and unyielding a way1 inasmuch as they come into contact with the conditions of life subject to aims of all kinds2 they are placed in different environments1 and are thereby associated with circumstances of an external kind1 which inevitably modify their real and essential type4 ,in this way the images of sculpture are not unfrequently executed in rich material such as gold and ivory4 ,they are placed on magnificent chairs or stand on pedestals which display all the extravagance and luxuriousness of art1 or receive costly decorations1 in order that the nation1 when face to face with such splendid works1 may likewise enjoy the sense of its power and wealth4 ,and sculpture in particular1 for the reason that it is essentially1 taken by itself1 a more abstract art1 does not on all occasions hold fast to such exclusiveness1 but1 on the one hand1 introduces incidentally much that is of a traditional1 scholastic1 or local character as a contribution from its history1 while1 on the other1 it ministers to vital popular necessities4 ,active humanity demands for its diversion variety1 and seeks in diverse directions for a stimulus to its vision and imagination4 ,we may take as an analogous case the reading aloud of ,greek tragedies1 which also brings before us the work of art under its more abstract form4 ,in the wider field of external existence we have still to add1 to make a public performance1 living actors1 costume1 stage scenery1 dancing1 and music4 ,and in like manner1 too1 the sculptured figure is unable to dispense with much that is supplementary on its own stage of reality4 ,we are1 however1 only concerned here with the genuine work of sculpture as such2 external aspects such as those above adverted to must not be permitted to prevent us bringing before the mind the notion of our subject-matter in its most ideal and exclusive sense of definition4 ,proceeding now to the more definite heads of division in this section we may observe that sculpture constitutes the very centre of the classical type of art to such a degree that we are unable to accept the symbolical1 classical and romantic types as distinctions which affect throughout and form the basis of our division4 ,sculpture is the genuine art of the classical ,ideal simply4 ,it is quite true that sculpture has also its stages in which it is in the grasp of the symbolical type1 as in ,egypt for example4 ,but these are rather preliminary stages of its historical evolution1 no genuine distinctions which essentially affect the art of sculpture when notionally considered1 in so far1 that is1 as these exceptional examples1 in the manner of their execution and the use that is made of them1 rather belong to architecture than are strictly within the aim and purpose of sculpture4 ,in a similar way1 when we find the romantic type thereby expressed1 sculpture passes beyond its rightful sphere1 and only receives with the qualified imitation of ,greek sculpture its exclusively plastic type4 ,we must therefore look about us for a principle of division of another character4 ,in agreement with what we have just stated we shall find that it is from the particular way in which the classical ,ideal means of sculpture acquires a form of reality that most fully expresses it that the focus of our present inquiry is derived4 ,before1 however1 we are in a position to make an advance in this evolution of the ideal figure of sculpture we must by way of introduction demonstrate what kind of content and form are pertinent to the point of view of sculpture regarded as a specific art1 and the course it follows by virtue of both until the point is reached where the classical ,ideal is fully unfolded in the human form permeated by spiritual life1 and in its shape as subject to spatial condition4 ,from another point of view the classical ,ideal stands1 and falls with an individuality which is unquestionably substantive1 but also to an equal degree essentially particularized1 so that sculpture does not accept for its content the ,ideal of the human form in its generality1 but the ,ideal as specifically defined2 and1 by virtue of this fact1 it is variously displayed under forms distinct from each other4 ,such distinctions partly originate in the conception and representation simply1 in part are due to the material in which such is realized1 and which further1 according to the way it affects execution1 introduces points of severation on its own account1 to both of which finally1 as the last ground of difference1 the various stages are related in the historical development of sculpture4 ,having made these observations we will indicate the course of our inquiry as follows4 ,in the first place we have merely to deal with the general determinants of the essential content and form1 such as are deducible from the notion of sculpture4 ,secondly1 as a further step1 we have to differentiate more closely the nature of the classical ,ideal1 in so far as it attains a determinate existence in its most artistic form4 ,thirdly1 and finally1 we shall find that sculpture avails itself of various types of presentation and material1 and expands to a world of productions1 in which1 either under one aspect or another1 the symbolical or romantic types also definitely assert themselves1 albeit it is the classical which constitutes the true point of centre between them in plastic art#aca4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,genuine ,,sculpture ,sculpture1 to put the matter in general terms1 conceives the astounding project of making ,spirit imagine itself in an exclusively material medium1 and so shape this external medium that it is presented to itself in such and recognizes the presentment to be the objective form adequate to its ideal substance4 ,in this respect our inquiry will take the following directions4 ,first1 we have the question what kind of spiritual life is capable of being reproduced in this material of a form entirely sensuous and spatial4 ,secondly1 we have to ask in what manner the forms of the spatial condition have to be modified in order to permit us a recognition of the spiritual in the bodily shape of beauty4 ,what we have generally to consider here is the unity between the ordo rerum extensarum and that of the ordo rerum idearum1 the primal fair union of soul and body1 in so far as spiritual ideality is expressed by sculpture exclusively in its bodily existence4 ,this union1 thirdly1 corresponds to what we have already found to be the ,ideal of the classical type of art2 and for this reason the plastic forms of sculpture are nothing less than the very art itself of the classical ,ideal4 #a4 ,,the ,,essential ,,content ,,of ,,sculpture ,the elementary medium1 in which sculpture realizes its creations is1 as we have seen1 the elementary1 still universal material subject to spatial condition1 in which no further particularization can be utilized for an artistic purpose than the universal spatial dimensions1 and the more detailed#acb spatial forms which are compatible with these dimensions under their most beautiful configuration4 ,now what most exceptionally corresponds as content to this more abstract aspect of the sensuous material is the objectivity of ,spirit which reposes on its own resources1 in so far1 that is1 as ,spirit has neither differentiated itself in contradistinction to its universal substance1 nor to its determinate existence in its bodily presence1 and consequently is not as yet withdrawn as independent self-subsistency into its own subjective world4 ,there are two points we would draw attention to here4 7a7 ,spirit as ,spirit#acc is no doubt always subjectivity1 that is ideal knowledge of the ,self1 the ,ego4 ,this ,ego can1 however1 separate itself from everything that constitutes1 whether in knowledge1 volition1 conception1 feeling1 action1 or achievement1 the universal and eternal content of ,spirit1 and can concentrate its hold on that aspect of individual experience which is unique and contingent4 ,it is then subjectivity as such which we have before us1 which has let go the truly objective content of ,spirit1 and is self-related formally1 and without content4 ,in the case of self-satisfaction1 for example1 ,i can no doubt view myself from a certain standpoint in an entirely objective way and remain satisfied with myself on account of moral action4 ,i do1 however1 as thus self-satisfied1 already withdraw myself from the content of such action4 ,i separate myself as a distinct person1 as this particular ,ego1 from the universality of ,spirit1 in order to compare myself with it4 ,the sense of unison of myself with myself through this comparison produces this self-satisfaction1 in which this determinate ,ego1 as this core of unity1 rejoices in itself4 ,no doubt this personal ,ego is involved in all that a man knows1 wills1 or carries out2 but it makes an immense difference whether1 in-dealing with knowledge and action1 the matter of concern is the man's own unique ,ego1 or that in which the essential content of consciousness consists2 whether1 in other words1 a man sinks himself and his self-identity in this content1 or lives in the unbroken seclusion of his subjective personality4 77 ,in this exaltation over what is substantive#acd the subjective life passes into the abstract and disrupt world of personal inclination1 the caprice and contingency of emotions and impulses1 owing to which1 in the changes to which it is subject in particular acts and undertakings1 it grows dependent upon particular circumstances as they happen to arise1 and is unable generally to dispense with this association with something else4 ,in such a condition of dependence the individual life is nothing but finite subjectivity as contrasted with a real spirituality4 ,and if this personal state essentially persists through the volition and knowledge which characterizes it in this contradiction of its conscious life1 it can only further become involved--to put on one side the mere emptiness of its imaginings and self-conceits--in the deformity of character and its evil passions1 in crime and moral offence1 in malice1 cruelty1 obstinacy1 envy1 pride1 insolence1 and every other kind of the reverse side of human nature and its insubstantial finiteness4 77 ,this province of the subjective life must be excluded in its entirety and without hesitation from the content of sculpture4 ,the art is exclusively co-extensive with the objectivity of ,spirit4 ,and by the term objectivity we mean in this connection what is substantive1 genuine1 not transitory1 the essential nature of ,spirit1 apart from its involvement in that which is accidental and evanescent1 for which the individual person is responsible simply in his unmediated state of self-relation4 77 ,spirit1 however1 even in its truly objective sense1 can only realize itself as ,spirit when associated with explicit self-identity4 ,spirit is only ,spirit as self-consciousness#ace4 ,the position1 however1 of this aspect of individual consciousness in the spiritual content of sculpture is of such a character that it is not independently expressed1 but displays itself as throughout interfused with this substantive content1 and not formally reflected back upon itself apart from it4 ,we may consequently affirm that though such a mode of objectivity possesses a type of self-subsistency1 yet it is a self-knowledge and volition which is not released from the content it fulfils1 but forms an inseparable unity with it4 ,the presentment of ,spirit in this complete and independent seclusion of what is essentially substantive and true1 this unperturbed and unparticularized being of ,spirit1 is that which we name divinity in its contrast to finitude1 which is the process of disruption into contingent existence1 a world that is broken into complex forms and varied movement4 ,from this point of view the function of sculpture is to present the ,divine simply in its infinite repose and sublimity1 timeless1 destitute of motion1 entirely without subjective personality in the strict sense and the conflict of action or situation4 ,and in proceeding to the more detailed definition of our humanity in shape and character1 it must1 nevertheless1 exclusively rivet its attention on what is unalterable and permanent1 in other words what is truly substantive in its characterization1 and merely select such aspects for its content1 passing over what it finds there of an accidental or evanescent nature2 and it must do so for the reason that the objectivity which it presents does not rightly include a differentiation of this fluctuating and fleeting kind1 and one which comes into being by virtue of a subjective consciousness whose conception of itself is that of pure insulation4 ,in a biography1 for instance1 which gives an account of the motley incidents1 events1 and exploits of some individual1 we find as a rule the course of varied developments and fortuities finally closed by a character sketch which summarizes the entire breadth of detail in a few general qualities such as goodness1 honest dealing1 courage1 exceptional intelligence1 and so forth4 ,characteristics such as these we may term the permanent features of a personality2 the remaining peculiarities it possesses are merely accidental features in the impersonation4 ,it is just this stable aspect of life which it is the part of sculpture to present as the unique being and determinate substance of individuality4 ,yet we must not suppose that it creates allegories out of such general qualities4 ,it rather builds up true individuals1 which it conceives and informs as essentially complete and enclosed within their objective spiritual presence1 in their self-subsistent repose1 delivered thereby from all antagonism as against external objects4 ,in the presentment of an individuality of this character by sculpture what is truly substantive is throughout the essential foundation1 and neither purely subjective self-knowledge and emotion1 nor a superficial and mutable singularity#acf must be permitted in any way to be predominant1 but what is eternal in the godlike and our humanity should1 divested of all the caprice and contingency of the particular self#acg1 be set before our eyes in its unimpaired clarity4 7b7 ,the further point we would draw attention to consists in this1 that the content of sculpture1 for the reason that its material requires an external presentment in the complete form of the three spatial dimensions1 is also unable to be a spiritual content as such1 that is1 the ideality self-enclosed within and absorbed into itself1 but rather in the sense that it is only explicit in its opposed factor1 in other words1 the bodily form4 ,the negation of what is external is already implied in the ideal subjective consciousness1 and can therefore have no place here1 where what is divine and human is accepted as content with exclusive reference to its objective characteristics4 ,and it is only this self-absorbed objective aspect1 which does not comprise ideal subjectivity in the strict sense#ach1 that gives free play to an externality conditioned in all its three dimensions1 and is capable of being associated with such a spatial totality4 ,for these reasons it is incumbent on sculpture that it only accept out of the objective content of ,spirit that which admits of the fullest expression in external and bodily shape2 if it do otherwise it simply selects a content which its specific material is unable to assimilate or to unite with an adequate mode of exposition4 #b4 ,,the ,,beautiful ,,form ,,of ,,sculpture ,we must now inquire into the nature of the bodily forms which are adapted to give an impression of a content of this kind4 ,just as in classical architecture the dwelling-house is the anatomical skeleton framework which art has to inform with its accretions1 in like manner sculpture1 on its part1 discovers the human form as the fundamental type for its figures4 ,whereas1 however1 the house is already a piece of human workmanship1 though not as yet elaborated artistically1 the structure of the human form1 on the contrary1 appears as a product of ,nature unaffected by man4 ,the fundamental type of sculpture is consequently given to it1 that is1 does not hail from human inventiveness4 ,the expression1 however1 that the human form is a part of ,nature is a very indefinite one1 which we must submit to closer analysis4 ,in ,nature it is the ,idea1 which is given there1 as we have already found when discussing natural beauty1 its primary and immediate mode of existence1 receiving in animal life and its complete organic structure the natural existence adequate to its notion4 ,the organization of the animal frame is therefore a birth of the notion in its essential totality1 which exists in this corporeal mode of being as soul1 yet1 as the principle of merely animal life1 modifies the animal frame in the most varied classifications1 albeit too every specific type continues to be subject to the general notion#aci4 ,the fact that notion and bodily form1 or more accurately1 soul and body1 correspond to one another--to fully understand this is the problem of natural philosophy4 ,we should have to demonstrate that the different systems of the animal frame in their ideal#adj structure and conformation no less than their association1 and the more definite organs in which the bodily existence is differentiated are in general accord with the phasal steps of the notion's movement1 so that it becomes clear1 to what extent we have here presented to us as real only the particular aspects of the soul-life which are necessary4 ,to develop this exposition1 however1 does not lie within the scope of the present inquiry4 ,the human form is not1 however1 as the animal form1 merely the corporeal framework of the soul1 but of ,spirit4 ,in other words1 spirit and soul are essentially to be distinguished4 ,for the soul is merely this ideal and simple unity of self-subsistence attaching to the body in its corporeal aspect#ada1 whereas ,spirit is the independent selfness of conscious and self-conscious life together with all the emotions1 ideas1 and aims of such a conscious existence4 ,in contemplating the immense difference which separates merely animal life from spiritual consciousness1 it may appear strange that the bodily frame attaching to the latter1 the human body1 is nevertheless so clearly homogeneous with that of animal life4 ,it will tend1 however1 to decrease such an astonishment if we recall to mind the definition1 which ,spirit itself has authorized us to make in accordance with its own notion1 that it is a mode of life and essentially therefore itself also a living soul and natural existence4 ,as such living soul the life of conscious spirit1 by virtue of the same notion that is inherent in the animal soul1 is entitled to accept a body1 which fundamentally in its general lines runs parallel to the organic structure of animal life4 ,however superior to mere animal life ,spirit may be it is evolved through#adb a corporeal frame whose visible appearance receives an identical articulation and principle of life with that which the notion of animal life in general underlies4 ,inasmuch as1 however1 and furthermore ,spirit is not merely the ,idea as determinate existence1 that is1 the ,idea as ,nature and animal life1 but the ,idea which secures independence in its own free medium of ideality as ,idea1 the spiritual principle elaborates for itself its own specific mode of objectivity over and beyond that of animal life1 simply1 in other words1 science1 the reality of which is exclusively that of thought itself4 ,apart from thought1 however1 and its philosophical and systematized activity1 ,spirit is involved within an abounding life of feeling1 inclination1 idea1 imagination1 and so forth1 which is fixed in a more direct or less immediate association with its vital being#adc and bodily frame1 and consequently possesses a reality in the human body4 ,in this reality1 which is part of its own substance1 ,spirit asserts itself also as a principle of life1 shines into it1 transpierces it1 and is made manifest to others by means of it4 ,consequently1 in so far as the human body remains no purely natural existence1 but has asserted itself also in its configuration and structure as the natural and sensuous existence of ,spirit1 it is1 nevertheless1 regarded as the expression of an ideality more exalted than that compatible with the purely animal body to be distinguished from it1 despite the fact that the human body in its broad lines is in harmony with it4 ,for this reason1 however1 that ,spirit is itself soul and life1 that is1 an animal body1 it is and can only be modifications1 which the indwelling ,spirit of one living body attaches to this corporeal form4 ,as a manifestation of ,spirit consequently the human shape is distinct from the animal by virtue of these modifications1 albeit the distinctions of the human organism from the animal are as much the result of the unconscious creation of spiritual activities1 as the soul of the animal kingdom is the informing though unconscious activity of the body that belongs to it4 ,we have thus reached the precise point of our present departure4 ,in other words1 the human body is present to the artist as ,spirit's expression4 ,what is more1 he discovers it as such not merely in a general way1 but also in particular characteristics it is presupposed to be the type which1 in its form1 its specific traits1 its position and general habit1 reflects the ideality of ,spirit4 ,we shall find it a difficult matter to fix in clear terms of thought the precise nature of the association between spirit and body in their relation respectively to feeling1 passion1 and other spiritual conditions4 ,it has1 no doubt1 been attempted to develop the same scientifically both from the pathognomical#add point of view and the physiognomical4 ,such attempts have hitherto not met with much success4 ,for ourselves the science of physiognomy can only be of importance in so far as that of pathognomy is exclusively concerned with the mode under which definite feelings and passions are physically located in particular organs4 ,it has been stated1 for example1 that the seat of anger is in the gall1 of courage in the blood4 ,such statements1 we may remark incidentally1 are erroneous in their manner of expression4 ,for even assuming the activity of particular organs corresponds to specific passions1 we cannot say that anger1 for instance1 has its local position in the gall bladder1 but1 in so far as anger is corporeally related1 the gall is pre-eminently that in which its active appearance asserts itself4 ,in our present inquiry this pathognomical aspect does not1 as already stated1 concern us1 because sculpture has merely to deal with that which passes over from the ideal side of ,spirit into the external aspect of form permitting ,spirit thus to be visible in the physical environment4 ,the sympathetic interaction between the internal organism and the feeling soul is no object of sculpture2 indeed1 we may add1 it is unable to accept much which appears on the external surface itself1 such as the tremble of the hand and the entire body in an outburst of anger1 the movement of the lips1 and others of like nature4 ,with regard to physiognomical science ,i will limit myself to this observation4 ,if the work of sculpture1 which has as its fundamental basis the human form1 has to exhibit the way in which the bodily presence as such manifests not only the divine and human aspect of ,spirit in its broadest and most substantive features1 but also the particular character of a definite individuality in this divine presence1 we are no doubt compelled to discuss what parts1 traits1 and conformations of the body are fully accordant with any specific mode of ideality4 ,we are indeed forced upon such an inquiry by the sculpture of antiquity1 which we must as a matter of fact admit includes the expression of individual god-like characters with that of divinity generally4 ,such an admission does not1 however1 amount to an assertion that the association of spiritual expression with bodily form is merely a matter of accident and caprice rather than the creation of a figure of self-subsistent actuality4 ,in this connection every organ must1 in a general way1 be looked at from two points of view1 as a mode of expression that possesses its physical side no less than its spiritual4 ,we need hardly caution our readers that the method of ,gall in conducting such an inquiry is inadmissible4 ,this writer reduces ,spirit to what is little better than a ,calvary4 7a7 ,the advance of sculpture1 in respect to the content which its function is to declare1 is limited to the investigation how far the substantive and at the same time individual condition of spiritual life is made vital in bodily form1 receiving therein determinate existence and form4 ,in other words1 through the content adequate to genuine sculpture the contingent individualization of the external appearance is from one point of view excluded1 and this applies both to the spiritual and physical aspects of the presentment4 ,only that which persists1 and is universal and according to rule in the human form is the object of a work of sculpture4 ,and this is so albeit we have the additional necessity to individualize the universal in such a way that not only the abstract law but an individual form1 which is brought into the closest fusion with it1 is placed before our eyes4 7b7 ,from another point of view it is necessary that sculpture1 as we have seen1 be kept unaffected by purely contingent personal life#ade1 and all expression of such in the independent ideal mode under which it asserts itself4 ,for this reason an artist1 in dealing with physiognomical characteristics1 is not entitled to move in the direction of individual manner#adf4 ,for a facial manner is simply just this appearance on the surface of an individual idiosyncrasy and some particular aspect of emotion1 idea1 and volition4 ,a man by his chance expressions of countenance expresses the feelings he has as some particular person1 whether it be in his exclusive relation to his own life1 or in his self-relation to exterior objects1 or other persons4 ,one sees1 for example1 on the street1 more particularly in little towns1 in many1 or rather the majority of men1 that they are exclusively preoccupied1 in their demeanour and expression of face1 with themselves1 their dress and attire1 in general terms1 that is1 their purely personal particularity1 or1 at least1 matters of momentary importance1 and any unforeseen or accidental features thus presented4 ,countenances which express pride1 envy1 self-satisfaction1 depreciation1 and so forth1 are of this nature4 ,moreover1 the feeling and contrast of substantive being with my personal idiosyncrasy may be responsible for such alterations of expression4 ,humility1 defiance1 threats1 fear1 are expressed in this way4 ,in a felt contrast of this kind we find already a separation between the individual in the subjective sense and the universal asserted4 ,reflection on what is truly substantive continually leans in the direction of merely personal considerations1 so that it is the individual rather than the substantive character which is predominant in the content4 ,the form1 however1 which remains severely true to the principle of sculpture ought neither to express this severation nor the predominance of the personal aspect above adverted to4 ,in addition to definite expressions of countenance#adg physiognomy presents us with much that merely passes momentarily across the features and indicates the human mood4 ,a sudden smile1 an instantaneous outburst of anger1 a quickly repressed expression of scorn1 are a few of many examples4 ,in particular1 the mouth and eyes possess most mobility and resource in seizing and making apparent every shifting mood of soul-life4 ,changes of this character1 which are compatible with the art of painting1 the sculptor must exclude4 ,sculpture must rather concentrate its attention on the permanent traits of spiritual expression1 and retain and disclose such in the posture and configuration of the body no less than in the face4 7c7 ,the task of sculpture1 then1 essentially consists in this1 that it implants that which is of substantive spiritual import in that form of individuality which is not yet essentially particularized in the narrow subjective sense within the figure of a man1 and contributes to the same such a harmony1 that it is only that which is universal and permanent in the bodily shapes correspondent with the life of ,spirit which is made to appear therein1 while that which is accidental or mutable is brushed aside1 albeit a certain mode of individuality is not absent from its forms4 ,an accord of this complete nature between what is ideal and what is external1 the goal of sculpture1 in short1 offers us a point of transition to the third point which we have still to discuss4 #c4 ,,sculpture ,,as ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,the ,,classical ,,ideal ,the conclusion that most immediately follows upon the above observations is this1 that sculpture in a way1 and to an extent unrivalled by any other art1 remains constant to the ,ideal#adh4 ,in other words1 from one point of view it is free of the symbolical type both by virtue of the translucency of a content1 which clearly grasps itself as ,spirit1 and on account of the fact that it is able to disclose such a content with absolute mastery4 ,and so1 too1 from another it refuses as yet to enter into the subjective aspect of the personal life1 to which the external form is indifferent4 ,consequently it forms the focus of classical art4 ,no doubt both the symbolical and romantic types of architecture and painting were shown to be adapted to classical ideality2 but the ,ideal1 in its genuine sphere1 is not the supreme principle of these types of art1 inasmuch as they do not1 as is the case with sculpture1 take for their object self-subsistent individuality1 character1 that is1 throughout objective1 in other words1 the beauty that is both free and inevitable#adi4 ,the configuration of sculpture must1 however1 entirely proceed from the pure spiritual energy of an imagination and thought that denudes its content of all the haphazard features of personal life and bodily presence2 it must have no leanings for idiosyncrasies1 or any place for the mere emotion1 desire1 and variety of accidental impulse and pleasantry#aej4 ,what the artist has at his disposal for his most elevated creations is simply1 as we have seen1 the bodily presentment of ,spirit in what is exclusively the general configuration of the organic structure of the human form4 ,his invention is therefore restricted to promoting on the broadest lines the harmony between what is ideal and what is external1 and partly to making1 in however an inobtrusive way1 the individuality of the presentment accommodate itself to and interfuse with the truly substantive character of his design#aea4 ,sculpture must give form1 just as the gods create in their own sphere according to eternal ideas1 within what is in other respects the world of reality1 but exclude as rejected residue all licence and mere selfness from its creations4 ,theologians make a distinction between the acts of ,god and all that man in his folly and capriciousness accomplishes4 ,the plastic ,ideal is1 however1 exalted above such questions4 ,it stands at the very centre of this blessedness and free necessity for which neither the abstraction of the universal nor the caprice of the particular are valid or significant4 ,this insight into the consummate plastic union of the divine and human was pre-eminently native to ,greece4 ,we fail to grasp ,greece at her heart and centre in her poets and orators1 historians and philosophers1 unless1 as the key to our problem1 we are already possessed of an insight into the ,ideal of sculpture1 and can contemplate from the standpoint of plastic art both the figures of her epic and dramatic heroes and her actual statesmen and philosophers4 ,for characters in her practical life1 no less than poets and thinkers1 possessed also in the palmy days of ,greece1 this plastic1 universal1 and yet individual character1 stamped with one mint1 whether we look at its external or more personal features4 ,they stand up big and free1 a self-subsistent growth1 on the basis of their essentially substantive individuality2 a growth of their own making1 built up into that which they ultimately became and intended to be4 ,in particular the period of ,pericles was rich in such characters4 ,pericles himself was one of them4 ,we may add ,pheidias1 ,plato1 and pre-eminently ,sophocles4 ,so1 too1 ,thucydides1 ,xenophon1 and ,socrates1 everyone with his own type1 not one of them impairing the quality of the rest2 all are out-and-out artistic natures1 ideal artists in the work of self-creation1 personalities of one mould1 works of art1 which stand before us like figures of immortal gods1 in whom we can detect no taint of ,time and mortality4 ,we may find a similar plastic subsistency in the artistic perfections of the bodily frames of the victors at the ,olympic games2 nay1 even in the apparition of ,phryne#aeb herself1 who1 as the fairest woman1 came from the sea naked before all the world4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,ideal ,,of ,,sculpture ,now that we pass on to consider the really ideal style of sculpture we must once again recall the fact that the perfected type necessarily presupposes the imperfect as its predecessor2 and it does so not merely in relation to its technique1 which1 in the first instance1 does not concern us here1 but in respect to the general notion1 in other words the mode of its conception and the particular way in which it sets forth the same ideally4 ,we have in general terms called the symbolical type that of inquiry2 consequently pure sculpture1 too1 has for its presupposition a certain stage of the symbolical type1 and by this we do not merely mean a stage of the symbolic form as generally conceived1 in other words of architecture1 but a form of sculpture which is itself characterized by the symbolical principle4 ,we shall find an opportunity of supporting this assertion with the example of ,egyptian sculpture in the third chapter4 ,we may in this place and from the point of view of the ,ideal generally1 and for the present wholly in an abstract and formal manner1 assume that which we term symbolical in a specific art is its incompleteness2 as1 for example1 we may so apply this term to an attempt of children to draw the human figure1 or mould it from wax and clay4 ,what they execute is to this extent merely a symbol1 as it only suggests the living reality it purports to exhibit1 remaining1 however1 wholly unfaithful to the actual object and its significance4 ,art is consequently in the first instance hieroglyphical1 no mere accidental and capricious mark1 but a haphazard delineation of an object for the imagination4 ,for this purpose a badly drawn figure suffices if it recalls that object it is intended to suggest4 ,in a similar way piety is content with badly executed images1 and still worships ,christ1 the ,virgin1 and any other saint in the most bungling counterfeit1 although such images may merely derive such individualization purely from particular attributes conveyed by such means as a lantern or a mill-stone4 ,for piety refuses to be reminded of aught save the object2 the soul adds all else thereto1 which will be filled up with an image of the object1 however untrue the counterfeit may be4 ,it is not the living expression of the present which is required2 it is not that which is presented which is intended to enkindle us by itself4 ,rather a work of art of this kind already brings satisfaction if it excites the general concept of the objects by virtue of its images1 however insufficient they be4 ,a concept of this kind1 however1 already abstracts from the given content4 ,i can readily imagine some known thing1 such as a house1 a tree1 a man2 but even in such a case1 where the reference is to something quite determinate1 the concept merely includes wholly general traits1 and is in fact only a true concept#aec in so far as it has effaced from the concrete presentment the wholly immediate singularity of the objects and simplified the same4 ,if the imaged concept1 which the work of art has to arouse in us1 is that of the divine nature1 and if this has to receive recognition from an entire people1 this object is especially attainable when no alteration is allowed in the mode of presentation4 ,for this reason art is on the one hand conventional1 and on the other scholastic#aed2 and this is so not merely in the case of the more ancient ,egyptians1 but also in that of more ancient ,greek and ,christian art4 ,the artist in such case was bound to restrict himself to definite forms and to repeat their type4 ,the crucial point of transition1 where fine art wakes from its sleep1 must consequently be sought there1 where at last the artist is creative by virtue of his own free conception1 where the flash of genius strikes into the material presented1 and communicates freshness and vitality to the presentment4 ,then for the first time the atmosphere of mind#aee enfolds the work of art1 which is no longer restricted to merely calling up in a general way some idea before the mind1 and recalling to it some deeper significance which the spectator already is essentially possessed of1 but which proceeds to make visible this significance as throughout made vitally present in some individualized creation1 and which consequently neither makes no further advance beyond the purely superficial generality of its forms1 nor binds itself on the other hand1 in respect to the detail of its delineation1 to the characteristics of all that common reality offers it4 ,in the rise of ideal sculpture we presuppose perforce a complete passage to such a sphere of creation4 ,in establishing the facts of this appearance we may emphasize the following points of view4 ,first1 we have to address ourselves to the general character of the ideal form in its contrast to the stages previously discussed4 ,secondly1 we shall have to adduce specific aspects of it1 the importance of which is most obvious1 such as the way in which facial characteristics1 drapery1 and pose are modelled or treated4 ,thirdly1 we have to enforce the position that the ideal figure is not merely a general type of beauty in the formal sense of type1 but includes1 by virtue of its principle of individuality1 which belongs to the really living ,ideal1 essentially1 too1 the aspect of differentiation and specific definition within its own sphere1 and by this means the province of sculpture is expanded in a cycle of particularized images of gods and heroes4 #a4 ,,the ,,general ,,characterization ,,of ,,the ,,ideal ,,figure ,,of ,,sculpture ,we have already examined at length what the general principle of the classical ideal is4 ,our present inquiry is therefore limited to the particular mode under which this principle is realized through the medium of sculpture in the human form4 ,in this connection the lines of difference between the human physiognomy1 expressive as it is of spiritual life and the general build of the animal organism1 which is unable to pass beyond the mere expression of natural life in its unbroken association with natural wants and an organism that is exclusively adapted to their satisfaction1 will supply us with a standard of comparison which carries us considerably further4 ,yet even such a standard is still somewhat indefinite for the reason that the human form alone neither is as bodily form1 or as an expression of ,spirit1 wholly and as we find it first of ideal type4 ,on the contrary we may observe with more closeness from the fine masterpieces of ,greek sculpture what the ideal of sculpture in the spiritually fine expression of its creations has to bring before us4 ,it was pre-eminently ,winckelmann who1 with this intimate knowledge of and devotion for art of this kind1 and by means of his receptive enthusiasm1 no less than his intelligence and critical faculty1 made an end of indefinite statements over the ,ideal of ,greek beauty by leaving the characterization of detail in the form at once distinct and precise1 an endeavour which by itself is full of instruction4 ,no doubt the results he obtained supply abundant opportunity for further criticism1 exceptions1 and the like2 but we should be careful1 before attempting to criticize details and errors in his work1 not to obscure the main result which he established4 ,however far aesthetic science may extend its borders that at least must be presupposed as essential4 ,assuming this1 it cannot1 however1 be denied that since ,winckelmann's death our knowledge of the antique has not only been essentially enlarged in the number of examples submitted to criticism1 but also has been placed on a securer basis in its relation to the style of these works and the true appreciation of their beauty4 ,winckelmann1 no doubt1 passed under review a great number of ,egyptian and ,greek statues2 we have1 however1 added in more recent times the closer acquaintance of the ,aeginetan sculptures1 no less than those masterworks which in part are ascribed to ,pheidias and in part we must recognize as creations of his age and under his supervision4 ,in a word we have secured a more intimate knowledge of a number of sculptures1 whether single statues or reliefs1 which1 in their relation to the severity of the ideal style1 are referable to the age in which ,greek art was at its fullest bloom4 ,for these astonishing monuments of ,greek sculpture1 as is well known1 we are indebted to the efforts of ,lord ,elgin1 who1 as ,english ambassador to ,turkey1 had a number of statues and reliefs of the greatest beauty taken from the ,parthenon at ,athens and other towns to ,england4 ,people have blamed such acquisitions and called them temple robbery4 ,lord ,elgin has1 however1 as a matter of fact1 really rescued these works of art for ,europe and preserved them from complete destruction4 ,such an enterprise deserves its true recognition4 ,moreover1 it is due to this circumstance that the interest of all connoisseurs and friends of art have been directed to an epoch and a mode of presentation1 which1 in the exceptionally consistent severity of its style1 constitutes the true greatness and height of the ,ideal4 ,what the general verdict has highly estimated in the works of this epoch is not the charm and grace of form and pose1 not the elegance of expression which already1 as in the times subsequent to ,pheidias1 makes an external appeal and distinctly aims at pleasing the spectator1 nor yet the delicacy and boldness of the elaboration2 rather the general chorus of praise is concentrated upon the expression of self-subsistency and essential repose in these figures1 and more especially has this note of admiration been most emphatic by virtue of the free vitality1 the absolute transfusion of and command over the purely natural and material aspect1 a command by which the artist moulds the marble1 makes it alive and endows it with a soul4 ,and we may add that when all has been said that can be said in such praise the figure of the reclining river-god remains as most emphatically its object1 which is one of the finest examples of antique art we have recovered4 7a7 ,the vitality of these works consists in this1 that they are the free product of the genius of the artist4 ,the artist at this stage is neither satisfied with giving1 by means of general and haphazard contours1 suggestions and expressions1 a general conception of that which he desires to reproduce1 nor does he1 on the other hand1 in respect to what is individual and singular1 accept the forms as he has received them by chance from the external world4 ,for this reason also he does not present them again with loyalty to this accidental aspect1 but he is concerned to place within his own free creation what is empirically particularized in isolated aspects that thus appear in a further individual accord with the universal types of the human form1 an accord which is made to appear as throughout transpierced with the spiritual configuration of that which he is called to make apparent1 when he suffers us to see his own vitality1 conception and animation in the work regarded on the side of the artist's activity4 ,the universal aspect of the content of his work is not due to his creation4 ,it is presented him by means of mythology and saga precisely in the way that he finds the general effect and details of the human form2 but the free and living individualization1 which permeates all portions on his work1 is the result of his own personal point of view1 his efforts and services4 7b7 ,the effect and charm of this vitality and freedom is only produced by means of the sufficiency1 the honest candour of the elaboration of all the particular parts to which the most definite knowledge and review of the construction of these parts belongs1 no less in their position of repose than also in that of their motion4 ,the way in which the different members are disposed and moulded with regard to rondure and smoothness1 in every condition of rest and movement1 must be expressed in the most satisfactory way4 ,this fundamental elaboration and placing in relief of all the separate parts we find in all products of antique art1 and the animation thus produced is only the effect of infinite pains and truth4 ,when the eye contemplates works of this kind it is1 in the first instance1 unable clearly to recognize a mass of distinction2 and it is only by virtue of a particular manner of lighting that we can appreciate the same by means of a stronger contrast between light and shadow4 ,but though these fine nuances are imperceptible at first glance1 the general impression they produce is not for that reason lost4 ,in part they appear as the spectator varies his point of view1 and in part we derive from them what is essentially the impression of the organic continuity of all the members and their forms4 ,this spirit of vitality1 this soul of material configuration1 is due wholly to the fact that1 though every part is entirely complete in its separable independence1 yet it is to a like extent throughout1 by virtue of the wealth of its modes of transition1 associated not merely with the part that is immediately its neighbour1 but with the entire work4 ,for this reason the form is vital in every part of it2 the least detail of it is stamped with purpose2 every part of it is differentiated from the rest1 possesses that which distinguishes it and makes it distinct1 and yet is affected by the same fluidity of treatment1 is only what it is vitally as a part of the whole1 so that we are able to recognize the whole in the very fragments of it1 and a part that is broken off enables us not merely to see but to enjoy a totality that is not thus mutilated4 ,the material surface1 although for the most part statues are now seriously impaired by the weather and other causes in this respect1 presents a soft and malleable appearance2 and in one particular example of the head of a horse ,i have in mind it literally glows with the ardour of life on the face of the marble itself4 ,this scarce perceptible undercurrent of fluidity in all organic parts1 united to the most conscientious elaboration which avoids purely regular surfaces and anything approaching the bare convexity of circular shape1 supplies that softness and ideality of all parts1 that harmonious unity1 which extends throughout the whole as the spiritual breath of one animating presence4 7c7 ,however true1 notwithstanding1 expression of detailed or general configuration may be1 this truth is no mere imitation of ,nature simply4 ,sculpture is always occupied with the abstraction of form1 and is consequently obliged1 on the one hand1 to omit from the bodily presentment what is most essentially the natural aspect1 in other words1 what is exclusively indicative of natural function4 ,from a further point of view it is unable to carry to extremes its particularization of detail1 but rather as1 for example1 in its treatment of hair1 must restrict its attention and reproduction to the more general of its forms4 ,in this way1 apart from any other1 the human figure1 when properly treated by sculpture1 is at once declared as the form and expression of ,spirit1 rather than of a purely natural form4 ,closely connected with this consideration is the fact that1 though a spiritual content is expressed by means of sculpture in the bodily form1 yet in the genuine ,ideal it is not asserted so prominently in the exterior form to the extent of making that which is simply external in its charm and grace either the exclusive or predominant attraction to the spectator4 ,on the contrary1 though the genuine and more severe ,ideal of ,spirituality is here presented in bodily shape1 and is exclusively thus presented by means of such shape and its expression1 yet this configuration must equally appear to be without exception unified1 supported and transfused by this ideal content4 ,the swell of life1 the malleability and bodily presence1 or sensuous fulness and beauty of the bodily organism1 must as little supply independently the object of the presentation1 as what is individual in the spiritual presence can be carried to the length of expressing the more intimate and more closely related inner life of the spectator1 when we consider his own particularity4 #b4 ,,the ,,particular ,,aspects ,,of ,,the ,,ideal ,,form ,,of ,,sculpture ,,as ,,such ,if we direct our attention now to the more specific consideration of the fundamental phases1 on which the ideal form of sculpture reposes1 we shall do well to follow ,winckelmann in essentials1 who has laid stress on the several types with the finest intuitive sense1 and with the most fortunate results1 as well as on the way in which the same have been treated and shaped by ,greek artists1 with the result that they finally present to us the ,ideal of sculpture4 ,the vitality1 this floating emanation no doubt evades the definitions of the understanding1 which in the present case is unable to hold fast and transpierce the particular as in architecture1 which1 however1 asserts itself in the entire work1 as we have already seen1 as the coalescence of free spirituality and bodily forms4 ,the first general feature of distinction which arrests us concerns the determination of works of sculpture in a general way1 by virtue of which the human form has to express that which is spiritual4 ,the spiritual expression1 albeit it has to be poured forth over the entire bodily presence reaches its highest degree of concentration in the facial form1 whereas the remaining members are merely able to reflect what is spiritual by means of their position1 in so far1 that is1 as the same proceeds from ,spirit in its essential freedom4 ,in our examination of these ideal forms we will make a beginning in the first place with the head2 we will1 then1 in the second place enlarge upon the position of the body1 after which we shall conclude with the principle of the drapery4 7a7 ,in the ideal configuration of the human head we are first and foremost confronted with the so-called ,greek profile4 77 ,this profile consists in the peculiar union of the forehead and nose2 in the almost straight or merely slightly crooked line in which the forehead unites without interruption with the nose1 as also1 to speak more accurately1 in the vertical direction of this line to another which1 extending it from the root of the nose to the orifice of the ear1 forms a right angle with the line of the forehead and nose above mentioned4 ,in a line of this sort nose and forehead stand throughout to one another in the ideal and fine art of sculpture1 and the question presents itself whether this is a merely national and artistic contingency or a physiological necessity4 ,camper1 the famous ,dutch physiologist1 has1 with more exactness and in an exceptional way1 characterized this line as the line of facial beauty2 he in fact discovers therein the main distinction between the form of the human visage and the profile of animal life2 and on account of this follows up the modifications of this feature throughout the various human races4 ,in this respect his researches are no doubt in conflict with those of ,blumenbach#aef4 ,speaking generally1 however1 the line adverted to is in fact a most marked means of distinction between the outward form of man and animal4 ,among animals1 it is true1 muzzle and nasal bone also form a more or less straight line1 but the specific projection of the animal's snout1 which is forced to the front1 as being in the nearest practical relation to objects1 is essentially determined through its connection with the skull1 united to which the ear is moreover placed above or below1 so that in the present instance the line that is carried forward from the skull to the root of the nose or the upper jaw1 where the teeth are in position1 forms an acute angle instead of a right angle as is found in the case of man4 ,everybody can independently feel in a general way the strength of this distinction1 which no doubt opens the path to more definite thinking on the subject4 77 ,in the formation of the head of animals the most insistent feature is the mouth as the organ by means of which it feeds in co-operation with the upper and lower jaws1 the teeth1 and the muscles of mastication4 ,all the other organs are subordinate and in a position of subservience to this principal feature4 ,notably the snout as a means of scenting food1 the eyes being to a lesser degree instrumental in spying it out4 ,the express insistence on these animal features as exclusively devoted to the natural wants and their satisfaction gives to the head of the animal the appearance as though intended merely to satisfy natural functions without any trace of spiritual ideality4 ,for this reason the entire animal organism is rendered intelligible from the mouth as a point of departure4 ,a specific mode of nourishment1 that is to say1 requires a specific structure of the muzzle1 a particular formation of the teeth1 together with which the structure of the jaw bones1 the muscles of mastication1 cheek-bones1 and1 moreover1 the vertebrae1 the thighbones1 claws1 and so forth all stand in the closest relation4 ,the body of the animal merely subserves natural ends and on account of this dependence on the purely material aspect of nourishment gives the impression of absence of spirit4 ,if1 then1 the human countenance is1 even in its bodily conformation1 to possess a spiritual stamp1 those organs which in the animal form are so predominant must in the case of man1 retire from such a pre-eminence and give way to those which do not so much suggest a practical relation as one that is referable to the ideality of mind4 77 ,the human countenance has consequently a second central point1 in which that attitude to facts1 which indicates the relation of the soul or spirit1 is declared4 ,we find this in the upper portion of the face1 in the thoughtful brow and the eye1 through which we face the soul1 which looms out beneath it1 together with its environment4 ,thought1 reflection--that is1 the introspection of the spiritual identity--is necessarily connected with the forehead1 whose internal life in concentrated clarity looks forth from the eye4 ,through the prominence of the forehead and the correspondingly retreating appearance of the mouth and the cheek-bones the human countenance derives its spiritual character4 ,this projection of the brow is therefore necessarily that which determines the entire formation of the skull1 which no longer falls back1 forming the side of an acute angle as its extreme point the mouth is pressed to the front#aeg1 but rather permits of a line being drawn from the forehead through the nose to the point of the chin1 which1 with a second drawn over the rear of the skull to the apex of the forehead1 form a right angle1 or one at least which approximates to it4 77 ,thirdly1 we may say that the nose forms the passage and connection between the lower and upper portion of the face1 that is to say1 between the purely contemplative and spiritual forehead and the practical organ of nutrition2 and if we take into consideration its natural function as the organ of smell it is rightly placed in this intermediate position between an attitude to the external world which is either wholly practical or ideal4 ,no doubt the sense of smell in such a position is still associated with an animal want2 it is intimately connected with the taste2 and for this reason1 in the case of the mere animal1 the snout is at the service of the mouth and the organ of nourishment4 ,but the sense of smell is by itself as a fact no actual consumption of objects1 as eating and tasting are2 it merely accepts the result of the process in which the objects pass into the atmosphere and its invisible and mysterious medium of dissolution4 ,assuming1 then1 that the passage from forehead and nose is of such a formation that the forehead viewed independently arches forward1 and yet in relation to the nose retreats1 whereas this latter organ on its part1 in proximity to the forehead1 is withdrawn back and only projects beyond this point1 we see that both these portions of the face--that is1 the contemplative part1 the forehead1 and that which suggests a practical use1 with which we may associate the mouth1 form an emphatic contrast1 in virtue of which the nose1 as belonging in a sense to both extremes1 appertains equally to the practical aims#aeh of the mouth4 ,furthermore1 the forehead1 in its isolated position1 receives the appearance of severity and exclusive spiritual concentration in its contrast to the eloquent sympathy of the mouth1 which is primarily the organ of nutritive support1 and at the same time accepts the nasal organ into its service as its instrument in creating the natural want by virtue of its smell1 and thereby declares its direct relation to the material side4 ,and in close connection with this reciprocity is the contingent character of the form to the indeterminable modifications of which both nose and forehead may be carried4 ,the particular type of the forehead's arch1 the nature of its projection or retreat1 loses its secure lines of definition1 and the nose can be fiat or fine1 drooping1 arched1 more acutely flattened and a snub4 ,by virtue of amelioration#aei and accommodation1 however1 that beautiful harmony1 which the ,greek profile asserts in the gentle and uninterrupted communication between the spiritual forehead and the nose1 that is1 between the upper and lower portions of the face1 the nose appears on this very account of closer affinity to the forehead1 and consequently receives itself a spiritual expression and character as though drawn up into the spiritual system4 ,the sense of smell becomes at the same time a sense independent of purely practical ends1 a nose refined for spiritual purpose2 just as in fact also the nose by its sneer and similar movements1 however unimportant by themselves they may be1 is nevertheless shown to be in the highest degree pliable as a mode of expressing the judgments and emotions of soul-life4 ,so1 for example1 we say of a proud man that he holds his nose high1 or ascribe sauciness to a young girl who tosses up her bit of a nose4 ,and the same thing may be said of the mouth4 ,no doubt it is on the one hand referable as an instrument to the satisfaction of hunger and thirst2 it expresses1 however1 in addition to this conditions of the soul1 opinions1 and passions4 ,even among animals it is used in this relation as the organ of animal cries1 and by man as that of speech1 laughter1 sighs1 and so forth1 by which means the lineaments of the mouth are themselves associated with the facts of eloquent soul-sympathy1 or of joy1 sorrow1 and similar conditions4 ,it is no doubt asserted that1 though for the ,greeks1 such a configuration of the human countenance is presented as the true presentation of beauty1 the ,chinese1 ,jews1 and ,egyptians1 regarded on the contrary an entirely different type1 or rather forms absolutely in conflict with such1 as equally beautiful1 or yet more beautiful1 and the conclusion is made that1 cancelling one example by another1 we have not proved that the ,greek profile is the type of genuine beauty4 ,such a statement1 however1 is wholly superficial4 ,the ,greek profile must in fact not be regarded as any mere external and accidental form1 but approximates to the ideal of beauty by its independent claims1 namely1 first1 because it is the type of countenance in which the expression of soul-life forces into the background all that is purely material1 and1 secondly1 because it to the fullest extent detaches itself from all that is contingent in the form1 without1 however1 displaying thereby mere subservience to rule1 and leaving no place for every kind of individuality4 77 ,with respect to specific types and their closer consideration ,i will merely touch upon certain fundamental aspects selected from the abundant material which otherwise invites attention4 ,in this respect we may in the first instance refer to the forehead1 the eye1 and the ear1 as those parts of the face which are most nearly related to the contemplative1 or at least spiritual aspect1 and1 secondly1 to the nose1 mouth1 and chin1 as those relatively speaking more connected with the organs of practical import4 ,thirdly1 we shall have somewhat to say of the hair as the external setting1 by virtue of which the head is rounded off in an oval shape of beauty4 77 ,the forehead is in the ideal form of classical sculpture1 neither fully arched forward1 nor as a rule lofty2 for1 although the spiritual aspect has to be prominently emphasized in its configuration of the visual features1 yet it is not as yet spirituality simply as such1 which sculpture has to present before us1 but rather individuality as still exclusively expressed in bodily form4 ,in heads of ,hercules1 for example1 the forehead is preferably low1 for the reason that ,hercules possesses rather the muscular vigour of the body directed towards external objects than the introspective energy of mind4 ,and for the rest we find the forehead subject to many modifications1 lower in the case of charming and youthful feminine forms1 and more lofty in the case of figures that represent substantial character and serious reflection4 ,in speaking of the eye it is important at once to make it clear that in the figure of ideal sculpture1 in addition to the absence of any true colour such as is found in painting1 the glance of the eye is also absent4 ,it is possible no doubt to show on historical evidence that the ancients1 in the case of particular images of ,minerva and other gods placed in temples1 have painted the eye1 since we find actual traces of colour in certain statues2 in the case of images dedicated to a sacred purpose1 however1 artists have frequently held fast so far as possible to traditional usage in the face of good taste4 ,in the case of other examples it is clear that they must have possessed eyes in the shape of precious stones inserted4 ,this practice1 however1 is the result of a desire already adverted to of adorning the images of gods in as rich and lavish a manner as possible4 ,and we may affirm generally that such either mark the beginnings of the art1 or are due1 as exceptions1 to the traditions of religion4 ,moreover1 apart from this1 mere colour is still far from giving to the eye the essentially concentrated look1 which alone communicates to it an expression that is wholly complete4 ,we may therefore here assume it as a fact that in the case of statues and busts of a truly classical type1 unaffected by such exceptional conditions which have come down to us from antiquity1 the light focus of the eye1 no less than the spiritual expression of its glance1 is absent4 ,for although not unfrequently the focus is inserted in the apple of the eye1 or at least is indicated by a conical depression1 and a modification which expresses the light point of this focus and by this means a kind of visual glance1 such remains nevertheless the purely external configuration of the eye-ball1 and is no presentation of its vitality2 in other words it is not the glance of it simply1 the inward glance1 that is1 of the soul4 ,we can readily imagine that it must cost the artist a great deal to sacrifice the eye in its simple aspect of animation4 ,we have only to look a man in the eyes to discover a point of arrest1 a centre that explains and is basic to his entire presentment1 which we may grasp in its simplest terms from the unifying declaration of its bare look4 ,the eye-glance is in fact that aspect which is most steeped in soul2 it is the concentration of the inward life and its subjective emotion4 ,just as a man by means of a handshake1 so1 too1 with yet more rapidity he is brought into unity with his fellow by virtue of the eye-glance he faces4 ,and it is this pre-eminently spiritual mode of revelation which sculpture is forced to dispense with4 ,in painting1 on the contrary1 this outward expression of soul-life makes its appearance by means of the subtle gradations of colouring either in its entire spiritual effect1 or in a manifest association with external facts and the particular interests1 feelings1 and passions1 which are called up by their presence4 ,but the province of the sculptor in his art is neither the essential inwardness of soul-life1 the concentration of the entire man in the simple centre of self-identity1 which gleams out in the human glance as its ultimate point of illumination1 nor the developed subjectivity as we find it diffused amid the surrounding world4 ,the end of sculpture is the totality of the external form1 into which the soul must disintegrate itself1 and present itself by means of the manifold of the medium thus utilized1 so that the recourse to one simple soul-focus1 in other word the immediacy of the spirit-glance1 is not here permitted4 ,the work of sculpture possesses no such ideal intimacy in its simplest terms which is allowed to assert itself1 as the human look does assert itself in contrast to other parts of the human body1 thereby unfolding a contrast between the eye and the body2 rather in sculpture what the individual is in his ideal and spiritual significance remains wholly fused in the total aspect of form1 which the spirit that contemplates it1 the spectator1 can alone grasp in its unity4 ,and in the second place1 and with equal truth the eye peers into the world that surrounds it2 it necessarily looks at something positive1 and thereby is witness to man in his relation to a manifold world of objects1 just as in the sphere of feeling he is united to his environment and general experience4 ,it is1 however1 precisely this union with external objects from which the true figure of sculpture is withdrawn1 being rather absorbed in what is substantive in its own spiritual content1 essentially self-subsistent1 that is without further diffusion or development4 ,thirdly1 the glance of the eye receives its fully evolved significance by virtue of the expression of the rest of the bodily presentment1 such as in its general mien and speech1 albeit as the purely formal point of subjective life1 in which the entire manifold of the form and its environment is concentrated to a focus1 it holds itself aloof and contrasted with this development4 ,a breadth of vision of this specific kind is1 however1 foreign to the plastic art4 ,for this reason the more specialized mode of expression in the human vision1 which did not at the same time immediately discover its further reciprocal response of effect in the entire compass of its configuration1 could only be an accidental particularity1 which the sculptured figure must dispense with4 ,for reasons such as these1 sculpture does not merely deprive itself of nothing when it leaves its figures bare of the eye's full glance2 but we may affirm that it is only true to its fundamental principle when it totally disregards this mode of the soul's expression4 ,consequently it is merely one more example of the fine insight of antiquity1 that it recognized firmly this limitation and restriction of sculpture1 and remained loyal to the abstract view it implied4 ,it is an evidence of the lofty intelligence of the ancients1 based on the fulness of their reasoning faculties1 and the comprehensive grasp of their outlook4 ,no doubt we do meet with cases in antique sculpture1 in which the eyes gaze upon some definite point1 as for example in the case of the faun we have alluded to several times who glances at the young ,bacchus4 ,this smile of recognition is expressed in a moving way2 but even here the eye is itself visionless1 and the real statues of the gods in their simple situations are not presented to us in relations of this specific character so far as the direction of eye and glance is concerned4 ,with regard to the form of the eye in ideal sculpture it is large of size1 widely extended1 oval and in respect to position placed at right angles toward the line of the forehead and nose1 and in considerable depression4 ,as far back as ,winckelmann#afj the large size of the eye was accounted significant of beauty1 just as a great light is more beautiful than a small one4 ,the size1 however1 his description continues1 is relative to the bone of the eye or its cavity1 and is expressed in the mode of incision#afa and in the opening of the eyelids1 of which in beautiful eyes the upper describes a more circular arch toward the angle within than the lower one4 ,in the case of profile heads of superior workmanship the apple of the eye itself possesses a profile and receives precisely by virtue of this opening thus cut away a nobility and a free glance1 whose very light1 according to ,winckelmann's observation1 is rendered visible on coins through an exalted point or focus on the apple of the eye4 ,at the same time mere size does not make all eyes beautiful2 they are this in the first place by virtue of the cast of the eyelids1 and in the second through being themselves deepset4 ,in other words the eye ought not to press forward1 and by so doing be thrust on the external world1 for it is just this close relation to the external world which is removed from the ideal1 exchanging for this the self-retirement of personality upon its own resources1 that is1 upon what is ideally substantive in the individuality4 ,the projection of the eye1 however1 also suggests the thought that the apple of the eye is at one time pushed to the fore and at another withdrawn1 and1 particularly in the case of the staring gaze1 only testifies to the fact that the individual is beside himself1 either staring in total absence of thought1 or in an equally soulless way absorbed in the gaze upon some material object4 ,in the ,ideal of antique sculpture the eye is placed in even more pronounced retreat than we actually find it in ,nature4 ,winckelmann suggests as a reason for this that in the case of statues of larger size which are placed more remote from the vision of the spectator1 without this more receding position1 on account of the fact that apart from this the apple of the eye was for the most part flat1 the eye itself would have been without meaning and practically lifeless1 if by just this more emphatic projection of the bone of the eye-socket1 the thereby accentuated play of light and shadow had not made the eye more apparently active4 ,yet this deepening of the eye has a yet further significance4 ,in other words1 if the forehead is thereby suffered to receive a prominence superior to that of ,nature the contemplative portion of the face is the predominant factor1 and we receive a keener sense of spiritual expression1 while also the emphasized shadow in the eye-sockets on its own account enables us to feel a depth and unimpaired inwardness1 a look that is shut off from external objects1 and retires on the essential presence of individuality1 whose depths are suffused over the entire presentment4 ,in the case of coins1 too1 of the best period the eyes are deep-set1 and the enclosing bones of the eye are projected4 ,the eyebrows on the contrary are not expressed by a more extended arch of tiny hairs1 but merely suggested by means of the acute sharpness of the eye-bone ridge1 which1 without interrupting the forehead in its form of continuity as eyebrows actually do through their colour and relative elevation1 surround the eyes as with an elliptical garland4 ,the more elevated and consequently more independent arch of the eye-brows has never been regarded as beautiful4 ,winckelmann#afb further observes with regard to the ears that the ancients devoted the greatest care to their elaboration1 so that in the case of cut stones indifferent attention to the execution of the ear is an infallible sign of the spuriousness of the work in question4 ,in particular he insists that statues which are portraits often reproduced the characteristic and individual type of the ear4 ,it is consequently possible in many cases to ascertain the very personality represented from the ear1 if the same happens to be known1 and to take one example1 from a single ear with an exceptionally large opening into it1 to deduce the presence of a ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,indeed1 the ancients have not failed to indicate in this respect what is actually misshapen4 ,as examples of a peculiar type of ear to be found in ideal heads1 ,winckelmann draws attention to certain ears given to ,hercules1 which are beaten out flat1 and others which bulge out in their cartilaginous folds4 ,they indicate wrestlers and pancratiasts1 just as ,hercules himself carried off the prize at ,elis as a pancratiast in the games of ,pelops4 77 ,we have still to add some remarks with reference to that part of the countenance which is more nearly related to the practical or sensuous side of natural function1 in other words the specific form of the nose1 the mouth1 and the chin4 ,the distinction in the form of the nose gives to the face a variety of configuration and many various kinds of expression4 ,a keenly cut nose with thin folds#afc at the apertures we are accustomed to associate with an acute understanding1 whereas a broad and drooping one1 or a snub nose that is somewhat brutish1 suggests as a rule sensuality1 folly1 and bestiality4 ,it is1 however1 the function of sculpture to hold itself aloof1 not merely from such extremes1 but also the intermediate stages of design and expression1 and refuse consequently to accept1 as we have already seen is the case with the ,greek profile1 not simply the separation from the forehead1 but also the extreme curve1 whether upwards or downwards1 the acute point and the more extended rounding off1 the elevation in the middle and the depression towards the forehead and the mouth1 generally speaking the extreme acuteness and thickness of the nose1 setting in the place of these varied modifications a comparatively indifferent type1 if at the same time one which in a quiet way is throughout vitalized by individuality4 ,second only to the eye the month belongs to the most beautiful portion of the face1 provided that it is formed not so much in express relation to its natural function as an organ for eating and drinking as in accommodation to its spiritual significance4 ,in this respect it only gives place to the eye in the variety and wealth of its means of expression1 and this though it is enabled to express with vital force the finest nuances of scorn1 disdain1 envy1 the entire gamut of sorrows and joy through the slightest of movements and the fullest play of such1 and to a similar degree to express the charm of love1 earnestness1 sensuous feeling1 obstinacy1 attraction1 and other such emotions by its state of repose4 ,sculpture1 however1 makes less use of it to express the nuances of particular expression1 and1 above all1 is bound to keep what is entirely sensuous1 and suggests natural wants away from the form and delineation of the lips4 ,for the most part1 therefore1 it models the mouth neither over-full-shaped nor too spare1 for extremely thin lips also suggest a parsimony of emotional life2 makes the underlip more full than the upper1 which was also the case with ,schiller1 upon the modelling of whose mouth was inscribed every kind of significance and fulness of temperament4 ,this more ideal type of the lips in its contrast to the animal snout presents the appearance of a certain absence of desire1 whereas in the case of the beast1 if the upper portion projects1 we are at once reminded of the headlong devouring of food and the grasp for it4 ,among human beings the mouth is1 when we have regard for its spiritual relation1 primarily the seat of human speech1 the organ for the free communication of self-conscious life1 just as the eye is that of the emotional spirit4 ,moreover1 according to the ideals of sculpture1 the lips are not tightly closed2 rather in the works of art in its blooming season the mouth is set slightly open without suffering the teeth1 however1 to be visible1 which have nothing to do with the expression of a spiritual significance4 ,this attitude is so far supported by the fact that when the organs of sense are strongly active1 as1 for example1 when we gaze intently at an object1 the mouth is closed2 when1 on the contrary1 we are absorbed in visionless thought it opens slightly and the angles of the mouth are to an appreciable extent inclined downwards4 ,last in our review of the objects above named1 the chin1 in its ideal form1 completes the spiritual expression of the mouth1 that is1 assuming it is not wholly absent1 as in the case of animals1 or only retained in a retreating and meagre condition as in works of ,egyptian sculpture1 but as rather lengthened out even beyond the degree which is usual1 receiving thus in the rounded fulness of its arched curve1 more particularly where we have shorter underlips1 yet further increase of size4 ,to sum up in fact a full chin conveys the impression of a certain satiety and repose4 ,odd fussy wenches wag with their withered-up chins and meagre muscles4 ,goethe1 for example1 likens their chops to a pair of tongs that will be snatching at something4 ,all restlessness of this kind disappears with a full chin4 ,the dimple1 however1 which nowadays is held to have some claim to beauty is1 as an accidental grace itself1 no essential accompaniment of beauty4 ,in its place1 however1 a rounded chin of considerable proportions is an infallible sign of antique heads4 ,in the case of the ,medicean ,venus it is not so noticeable1 but it is proved on good evidence that the statue has suffered a loss in this respect4 77 ,we have only now in conclusion to refer to the hair4 ,generally speaking the hair has rather the character of a vegetable than an animal formation2 it testifies less to the strength of the organism than it is indicative of weakness4 ,barbarians allow the hair to hang in straight lines1 or cut it off close to the head rather than in undulating line or locks4 ,the ancients1 on the contrary1 devoted excessive attention to the elaboration of the hair in their ideal works of sculpture1 a direction in which more modern artists devote less trouble and skill4 ,no doubt the ancients also1 when the stone on which they worked was extremely hard1 did not suffer the hair of the head to flow in freely hanging locks1 but arranged as though it was cropped short#afd and1 in that form1 finely combed out4 ,in the case of marble sculpture of the better time the hair is in locks and of great vigour both in the case of male and female heads1 where we find it presented in upward rolls and bound together on the crown of the head2 one finds it at least1 as ,winckelmann points out1 drawn out in winding rolls and with express depressions the better to indicate its various folds in light and shadow1 which is impossible if the drills are shallow4 ,add to this in the case of particular gods the line of direction and the arrangement of the hair is different ,in a similar way in ,christian painting ,christ is made recognizable by a definite type of the crown of the head and the locks of hair1 following which type in our own time there are not a few who deliberately imitate such an appearance4 77 ,the parts above described in their form sum up collectively the head as a whole4 ,the beautiful form is here determined by a line which most nearly approaches the oval of an egg1 and thereby resolves every indication of sharpness1 pointedness1 and angularity in harmonious form and a gently progressive association1 without1 however1 being exclusively regular and abstractly symmetrical1 or issuing in multifold variety of lines and their direction and inclination as is the case with other portions of the body4 ,in order to form this self-collected oval shape1 the beautiful and free inclination from the chin to the ear contributes1 particularly if we look at the face from the front1 no less than the line already indicated1 which describes the termination of the forehead1 the bones of the eye-socket4 ,and the arch over the profile from forehead over the point of the nose to the chin is equally noticeable1 and the beautiful arching of the back of the head to the nape of the neck4 ,so much ,i have permitted myself1 without entering on further detail1 to observe on the ideal shape of the head4 7b7 ,in respect to the other organic members such as neck1 breast1 back1 belly1 arms1 hands1 thighs1 and feet1 we find here another type of co-ordination4 ,they can no doubt possess a beautiful form1 but the beauty is sensuous1 vital1 without expressing by virtue of their form as such a spiritual significance as the countenance expresses it4 ,the ancients have shown for the form of these parts of the body the highest sense of beauty2 but in genuine sculpture they must not merely pass as the beauty of a living organism1 but as members of the human form it is their further function to present the appearance of a spiritual effect1 so far as this is compatible with what is purely bodily presence4 ,otherwise the expression of the soul would be concentrated wholly in the face1 whereas in plastic sculpture what is spiritual must appear as permeating nothing less than the entire configuration1 and must not be permitted to isolate itself independently and in contrast to what is corporeal4 ,if we now inquire what are the means which enable the breast1 the torso1 the back1 and the extremities to contribute to the expression of spirit and thereby to receive over and beyond a beautiful vitality1 the breath of a spiritual life1 we shall find the following3 ,in the first place there is the relation in which the limbs1 in so far as that relation proceeds from the ideality of ,spirit1 and is freely determined by that ideality1 are brought into juxtaposition4 ,secondly1 there is the motion and repose in their complete freedom and beauty of form4 ,thirdly1 this type of position and motion in their definite affiliation#afe and expression supplies the situation more closely1 in which the ,ideal1 which can never consist purely in the ,ideal of abstraction1 is comprehended4 ,i will add yet further some general remarks on the above points4 77 ,with regard to position of first importance is that aspect we have had already occasion to notice in a superficial way1 namely1 the upright position of man4 ,the body of animals moves in a parallel line with the ground2 mouth and eye follow the same direction1 and the animal is unable independently to raise himself from this relation to gravity4 ,the opposite is the case with mankind2 the eye looking straight forward is placed in its natural direction1 that is1 in a right angle with the line of gravity and the body4 ,man is no doubt able to go on all fours just as animals do1 and children do so in fact2 but as soon as consciousness begins to awaken1 man wrests himself from the animal chains of the earth1 and stands up straight in free independence4 ,this stansion is an act of will1 for if we cease to try to stand our body collapses and falls to the ground4 ,in this way the upright position possesses a spiritual significance1 in so far as the self-elevation from the ground remains linked with the volition and thus with that which is spiritual and ideal2 just as we are accustomed to say of an essentially free and independent man1 who keeps his opinions1 view's1 principles1 and aims unaffected by others1 that he stands on his own feet4 ,the upright position is1 however1 not yet merely as such beautiful2 it is only so by virtue of the freedom of its form4 ,in other words if a man stands up only straight in an abstract way1 letting his hands fall glued to his side with no interval of separation1 his legs in the same way being close to each other1 we receive an untoward expression of stiffness1 even although in the first instance this is due to no compulsion4 ,from this stiff effect we deduce on the one hand the abstract and likewise architectonic principle of uniformity1 under which the limbs adhere together in the like position1 and on the other hand we do not discover in it any determination derived from what is spiritual and the ideal principle4 ,in such a case arms1 legs1 breast1 body1 all the members stand and hang just as though they had from the first grown there on man1 without being brought by means of his spirit1 his volition and emotions into a change of position4 ,the same thing may be said of the sitting posture4 ,conversely also the squatting or perching on the ground is destitute of freedom for the reason that it suggests an attitude of subordination1 dependence1 and serfdom4 ,the free position1 on the contrary1 avoids in a measure this abstract uniformity and angularity1 and places the position under lines which approximate to the organic form2 and to a further extent it suffers spiritual relations to shine through1 so that by virtue of such a position the conditions and passions of the soul are cognizable4 ,only in this manner can the position pass as a genuine exhibition of ,spirit4 ,in the application of positions as significant pose#aff1 it is necessary1 however1 that sculpture proceed with great circumspection1 and it has thereby many a difficulty to overcome4 ,on the one hand1 no doubt1 the reciprocal relation of the members is to be derived from the ideal principle of ,spirit2 on the other hand1 however1 this determination from the ideal side ought not to place the particular parts under a mode which contradicts the corporeal structure and the laws of the same1 and thereby produce the impression of a constraint imposed on the members1 or come into collision with the material of substance1 in which sculpture is set the task to execute the artist's conceptions4 ,and1 in the third place1 the pose must appear wholly spontaneous1 as though the body received it of its own initiative1 otherwise body and spirit have the appearance of being distinct and separable from each other1 and are involved in the relative position of mere direction from one side and purely abstract obedience from the other1 whereas both in sculpture ought rightly to constitute one and the same immediately congruent totality4 ,this absence of constraint is here of the first importance4 ,spirit1 as the ideal principle1 must throughout transfuse the members1 and these latter must in like degree essentially accept spirit and its determination as to the content of its own soul4 ,as to the pose itself and its character1 which we may empower to express the just attitude in ideal sculpture1 we can readily infer from our previous exposition that it ought not be one wholly referable to change or instantaneous action4 ,the representation of sculpture must produce no effect such as is seen in the case where men1 while in the art of motion and action1 were turned to stone or frozen by means of ,hon's horn4 ,on the contrary1 it is necessary that the posture1 although it may without question point to some characteristic action1 express for all that merely a beginning and preparation1 an intention1 or it must indicate the close of an action and a return from the same to the state of repose4 ,the repose and self-subsistency of a spiritual life1 which potentially encloses in itself an entire world1 is the most suitable aspect for the ideal form of sculpture4 77 ,and1 in the second place1 what we have observed of posture is equally applicable to motion4 ,there is in sculpture as such less room for motion in the full sense of the term than other arts#afg1 just in so far as the same does not as yet advance to the mode of presentation which is more nearly related to an art whose sphere of effect is more extensive4 ,the tranquil image of the god in his blessed self-seclusion is the presentment which it is its task mainly to set before us in all its essential freedom from conflict4 ,a variety of movement is necessarily excluded from such4 ,what we ought to have is rather a stansion or reclining posture of essential self-absorption#afh4 ,this attitude of self wholly referable to self it is which does not proceed to a definite action1 and by doing so does not contract its entire energy to the space of a single moment1 making such of first importance1 but rather persists in the continued equilibrium of tranquillity4 ,we ought to be able to imagine that the figure of the gods will remain for ever in the same posture4 ,the escape from self-subsistency1 the plunging of individual life within the vortex of a particular action that implies conflict1 the strain of the moment1 which is unable to continue as such--such relations are foreign to the ideality of sculpture4 ,we cross them rather where1 in the case of groups and reliefs1 the particular moments of an action are presented with a distinct inclination to the principle of painting4 ,a result brought about by powerful effects1 and their passing exhibition1 no doubt exercises upon us an immediate impression2 but after once having received it we do not readily return to it4 ,for that which is so prominent in the presentation is the affair of a moment's passage1 which we both observe and recognize in that moment1 whereas the ideal fulness and freedom1 what is infinite in its significance1 in other words that which holds our attention permanently1 is relegated to the background4 77 ,in asserting this1 however1 we do not maintain that sculpture1 where1 in the case where it adheres to its principle in all its severity and attains its highest point1 must necessarily exclude entirely the attitude of movement4 ,if it did so it would merely present to us the divine in its indeterminacy and indifference4 ,on the contrary1 in so far as it is its function to comprehend the substantive as individuality1 and to present it to our vision in bodily form1 both the ideal and external condition1 in accordance with which it brings its content and form to an impression1 is necessarily individual4 ,and it is this individuality of a definite situation which is pre-eminently expressed by means of the pose and movement of the body4 ,inasmuch as1 however1 the substantive in sculpture is of most importance1 and individuality is not as yet itself extricated from the same to the point of particular self-subsistency1 the specific determinacy of the situation must not be of a kind that it impairs or annuls the simple sterling character#afi of that substantiveness1 by either making it one-sided or drawing it into the conflict of collisions1 or in a general way by placing it without reserve under the overmastering importance and variety of what is particular4 ,it must rather remain1 independently regarded1 a determinacy less essential in its result1 or rather we may say a vivacious play of vital force1 harmless in effect over the superficial features of individuality1 whose substantive character in no respect suffers loss thereby in depth1 subsistency1 and repose4 ,this is1 however1 a point which ,i have at an earlier stage of this investigation already#agj discussed at length in relation to the ,ideal of sculpture when the situation itself was under review1 in which the ,ideal ought to appear in definite relation to the presentation3 further discussion may here be consequently dispensed with4 7c7 ,the last point of importance we have now to consider is the question of drapery in sculpture4 ,at first sight it may appear as though the nude form and its corporeal beauty permeated by spiritual significance1 in the manner of its pose and movement1 were the most appropriate form for the ,ideal of sculpture1 and drapery were simply a hindrance4 ,in accordance with such a view we hear the complaint raised1 more particularly in our own time1 that modern sculpture is so frequently forced to drape its figures1 whereas no drapery should touch the beauty of human organic forms4 ,and we have finally the wail added that our artists should have so little opportunity of studying the nude which was ever before the eyes of the ancients4 ,in general we may simply reply to this that though without question1 from the point of view of sensuous beauty1 the preference must be given to the nude form1 yet merely sensuous beauty is not the ultimate aim of sculpture1 so that the ,greeks do not give the lead to a false path when they presented the larger number of their male figures no doubt in the nude1 but by far the greater number of female figures draped4 77 ,and generally we may add that1 apart from artistic purpose1 drapery is justified in real measure in the necessity of providing a protection from climatic changes1 ,nature having failed to provide man with any covering of hide1 feathers1 hair1 such as animals possess4 ,and from another point of view it is the sense of modesty which compels man to cover himself with raiment4 ,now this shame1 regarded in a general way1 is a beginning of indignation over that which is coarse or crude4 ,man in fact1 who is conscious of his more elevated calling to be ,spirit1 must necessarily regard what is purely animal as an incompatibility with that1 and pre-eminently seek to cover1 as that which is not consonant with the ,ideal of his soul#aga1 those parts of his body1 such as the belly1 breast1 back1 and legs1 which are subservient to animal functions1 or only are directed to external uses1 and possess directly no spiritual determinacy1 and no spiritual expression4 ,we therefore find among every people1 who have entered upon the life of reflection1 this sense of shame and the necessity of clothing in some degree1 whether great or small4 ,as far back as the narrative of ,genesis we have this transition expressed in the shrewdest way4 ,before ,adam and ,eve have eaten of the tree of knowledge they walk in ,paradise in the nakedness of innocence2 but no sooner is their consciousness as spiritual beings#agb aroused than they are ashamed of their nakedness4 ,the same sense is prevalent among all other ,asiatic nations4 ,so1 for example1 ,herodotus asserts in narrating#agc how ,gyges came to the throne1 that it was regarded even in a man as a matter of shame among the ,lydians1 and almost all barbarians1 to be seen naked2 and as a proof of this we have the tale of the wife of ,candaules1 king of the ,lydians4 ,the tale runs that ,candaules exposed his wife in nudity to the gaze of ,gyges1 his satellite and favourite1 in order to convince him that her beauty as a woman was beyond compare4 ,she1 however1 discovered the outrage1 which it was intended to conceal from her1 by chance seeing ,gyges1 who had been hidden in her sleeping chamber1 slip out of the door4 ,indignant at the outrage1 she received ,gyges in audience the following day1 and declared to him that1 inasmuch as the king had taken this step and permitted ,gyges to see what he ought not to have seen1 he might select one of two courses1 either kill the king as his punishment1 and possess himself both of her and the kingdom1 or himself die4 ,gyges selected the first alternative1 and after assassinating the king mounted the throne and married the widow4 ,on the other hand the ,egyptians represented frequently1 or1 indeed1 for the most part1 their statues in the nude to the extent that the male figures merely carried an apron2 and in the case of ,isis the drapery was indicated by nothing more than a barely perceptible fringe round the legs4 ,this1 however1 was neither due to a defective sense of shame1 nor in virtue of their instinct for the beauty of organic forms4 ,for if we consider their symbolic point of view we can only maintain that what concerned them was not the configuration of a presentment consonant with a spiritual significance1 but rather the meaning1 the essence and conception of that which the form was intended to present to intelligence2 and they permitted the human form to be thus1 without reflection upon the further and more remote adequacy of the same to ,spirit1 in its natural state1 which they moreover copied with great closeness to life4 77 ,finally1 among the ,greeks1 we meet with both aspects1 both nude and draped figures4 ,and in actual life also they were equally clothed1 albeit from other considerations they held it a point of honour to have first contested in the games nude4 ,to an exceptional degree the ,lacedaemonians were the first to wrestle naked4 ,but this was with them not due so much to a sense of beauty as to their general indifference to what savoured of refinement and spiritual purport in the sense of modesty4 ,in the national character of the ,greek people1 among whom the feeling for personal individuality in all its immediacy1 and as it is the spiritual animation of their existence1 is so strongly developed1 taking this as the instinct for free and beautiful forms1 it was also inevitable that what was human in its immediacy1 the bodily presence1 that is1 as it belongs to man and is suffused with his spirit1 should be elaborated in independent form1 and that the human form should be revered above all others for the reason that it is the freest and the most beautiful4 ,in this sense1 no doubt1 they threw aside that instinct of shame1 which will not suffer us to look at what is purely corporeal in' man1 not out of indifference to what was spiritual1 but with an indifference to what is purely sensuous in desire1 for the sake of beauty2 and this intention is manifest in full play throughout a great number of their nude figures4 ,this entire absence of drapery1 however1 it was impossible wholly to justify on principle4 ,for1 as ,i have already indicated when distinguishing the head from other parts of the body1 it is undeniable that the spiritual expression of the form is restricted to the face and the pose and movement of the whole1 to the general mien1 which is preeminently eloquent by virtue of the arms1 hands1 and position of the legs4 ,for these organs1 whose activity is in an outward direction1 have still1 and precisely by the nature of their pose and movement1 for the most part the expression of a spiritual deliverance4 ,the other members of the body1 on the contrary1 are and remain solely productive of a sensuous beauty2 and the distinguishing features which are visible on them can only be bodily vigour1 development of muscle1 or degrees of delicacy and softness1 such as characterize respectively the two sexes1 age1 youth1 and childhood4 ,as a means1 therefore1 of expressing what is spiritual in the form1 the nudity of these parts is also from the standpoint of beauty indifferent2 and it is only due to our moral sense1 when1 that is to say1 the main thing looked for is the paramount presentation of the spiritual in man1 that such parts should be veiled4 ,what in general ideal art does in the case of every separate part of the body is to remove the necessary limitations of animal life in its detailed particularities1 such as little veins1 wrinkles1 hairs of the skin1 and so forth1 and simply to enforce and emphasize the spiritual impression of the form in its vital outlines1 and this is precisely what drapery effects4 ,it covers up the superfluity of the organs1 which are no doubt necessary for the body's self-support1 but are in other respects superfluous as an expression of the spirit's import4 ,we are1 therefore1 not entitled to assert without condition that the nudity of figures of sculpture in every respect betrays a higher sense of beauty1 and a greater ethical freedom and emaculacy4 ,it was in this respect1 as in others1 that a just and spiritual instinct dominated the ,greek4 ,children1 ,cupid for example1 where we find the bodily presentment one of unreserved innocence1 and the spiritual beauty consisting just in this2 or1 to take other examples1 youths1 youthful gods1 heroic gods1 and heroes1 such as ,perseus1 ,hercules1 ,theseus1 ,jason1 in which cases heroic courage1 and the use and elaboration of the bodily frame in works of bodily strength and permanence is of most importance2 or wrestlers in the national games1 where it is not so much the content of the action1 the spirit and individuality of character1 as the physical aspect of the exploit1 the vigour1 suppleness1 and free play of the muscles and limbs1 which is the source of exclusive interest2 or finally fauns and satyrs1 ,bacchantes in the frenzy of the dance1 no less than ,aphrodite1 in so far as the sensuous charm of her beauty is emphasized--such are the kind of examples which were rendered in the nude by antique sculpture4 ,where1 on the contrary1 a more lofty significance and reflection1 a more ideal earnestness is made prominent1 where in general the natural features are not superlatively emphasized1 there we get drapery4 ,so ,winckelmann adduces a case where among ten statues of the female form only one is wholly undraped4 ,among the goddesses ,pallas1 ,juno1 ,vesta1 ,diana1 ,ceres and the ,muses are pre-eminently those which are veiled in drapery1 while among the gods such a treatment particularly applies to ,jupiter1 and the bearded ,indian ,bacchus1 with some others4 77 ,and finally with regard to the principle of drapery1 it is unquestionable that we have here a subject that critics are very fond of discussing1 and which has consequently to some extent been already well thrashed out4 ,i will1 therefore1 limit myself to the few following remarks4 ,generally we have no reason to lament the fact that our modern feeling of what is respectable is somewhat averse to setting up totally nude figures4 ,for if the drapery merely permits the pose in question to be entirely transpicuous instead of covering it up1 we lose nothing at all2 rather the drapery is just that which rightly fixes the emphasis1 and is in this respect even an advantage1 in so far as it draws us aside from the direct view of that which as merely sensuous is without true significance1 and simply shows us what is there in relation to the situation expressed by means of pose and movement4 77 ,once accept this principle1 and it may at first sight appear that such covering is of most signal advantage for the artistic treatment1 which conceals the contour of the limbs1 and consequently also the pose as little as possible1 precisely in fact as this is the case with our sufficiently enclosing modern garments4 ,our closely fitting sleeves and trousers follow the outlines of the form1 and stand in the way of the motion and mien least of all by their making the entire form of the limbs visible4 ,the long white garments and bulging-out hoses of the ,orientals1 on the contrary1 are intolerable to our sense of vivacity and multifarious activities1 and are only fitting for folk who1 like the ,turks1 sit the whole day long in one place with legs crossed1 or only perambulate slowly and with great gravity4 ,and yet we are conscious at the same time--indeed the very first glance at either modern statues or pictures will establish the truth for us--that our modern clothing is entirely unartistic4 ,in other words what we behold in it really is1 as ,i have already in another passage1 insisted1 not the fine1 free1 and vital outlines of the body in their tender and flowing elaboration1 but stretched out sacks with stiff folds4 ,for albeit we do obtain the most generalized form1 yet the beauty of the organic undulations is lost2 and what we really look at is a contrivance of exterior aim1 a matter of tailor's work1 which in one place is stitched together1 in another folded back over1 and yet in another made tightly fitting--in other words1 as a whole1 forms that are not free1 folds and surfaces which are fastened together by stitch1 buttons and button holes4 ,to all intents and purposes such a clothing as this is simply a cover and veil1 which1 while devoid of any real form of its own1 yet in its other aspect1 though in a general sort of way following the organic contour of limbs1 hides from the view just that sensuous beauty and vital rondour and undulation which belongs to them1 merely to replace it with the material aspect of the mechanically elaborated stuff of which it is composed4 ,and thus we get what is so entirely inartistic in our modern form of garments4 77 ,the principle for an artistic type of clothing1 then1 consists in this that it is at the same time treated as a work of architectonic design4 ,such a work is simply an environment1 in which a man can likewise move in freedom1 and which must essentially possess and declare on its part a determinate shape of its own as its mode of covering quite apart from the form which it encloses4 ,add to this such a work1 in its aspect of a thing which is worn and carried1 must freely follow its own mechanical texture4 ,a principle of this type follows in the track of the kind of draping which we find adopted in the ideal sculpture of the ancients4 ,particularly here do we find that the mantle is as it were a house in which free motion is possible4 ,it is no doubt carried1 but is only made fast at one point1 namely1 on the shoulder4 ,for the rest it evolves its particular form according to the modifications brought about by its own weight2 it hangs1 falls along the ground1 and casts folds spontaneously1 and only receives through the pose the varied changes of this free kind of configuration4 ,in like manner there is little to impair essentially1 if in varied degree1 the freedom of disposition in other parts of antique drapery4 ,this it is which constitutes its artistic quality4 ,it is only in drapery such as this that we do not face something which is a burden1 and something artificial1 whose shape merely displays an external constraint and necessity1 which is rather something itself independent in its form1 and which1 however1 accepts from a spiritual source1 that is the pose of the figure1 its point of departure4 ,for this reason the garments of the ancients are only fastened to the body so far as is actually unavoidable1 that is1 to prevent their collapse1 and are modified by the pose of it4 ,in all other respects they hang freely about it1 and themselves in their power of movement through the motion of the body give yet further support to the same principle4 ,and this is wholly as it should be2 for the body is one thing and its drapery another1 and the latter ought thereby to receive its full due and be displayed in its freedom4 ,modern clothing on the contrary is either wholly carried by the body and purely in subjection to it1 so that even the pose itself is too emphatically repeated1 and it merely follows the forms of the limbs1 or1 in cases where it is able to secure an independent form in the formation of folds1 it is after all merely the tailor's work who makes this form according to the exigences of fashion4 ,the material is1 on the one hand1 dragged up and down by the various parts of the body and their movements1 and1 on the other1 by its stitches and seams4 ,on grounds of this description the antique form of drapery is by a long way to be preferred to our modern style as the ideal standard for works of sculpture4 ,no end has been written with every resource of antiquarian research over the form and details of the ancient ways of draping1 for although men as a rule do not permit themselves to chatter much over fashion in their clothes1 the kind of cloth1 border1 cut1 and every other such detail1 yet they find ample justification from the antiquarian standpoint for treating these trifling matters also as important1 and of talking about them with even greater prolixity than is permitted to woman herself in her unchallenged field of supremacy4 77 ,it is1 however1 a totally different problem we have to consider when the question is asked whether modern clothing1 that is1 the kind so greatly to be contrasted with the antique1 is in all cases to be rejected4 ,this question is of particular importance when we examine the case of portrait statues2 and inasmuch as its main interest closely touches a principle of importance to art as we have it now1 we will consider it at rather greater length4 ,when nowadays we have to create a portrait of some contemporary it becomes necessarily a part of it that the drapery and the environment are both accepted from the actual facts of their individual existence1 for1 inasmuch as it is just this actual person which is here made the object of art1 this external framework1 to which the clothing essentially belongs1 is in its reality and truth precisely that which is most important4 ,and this is more especially to be observed when what is aimed at is the presentment before our vision in our individuality of well-defined characters whose greatness and activity in any particular sphere have been remarkable4 ,whether it be in a picture1 or in the marble1 an individual is1 in fact1 exhibited to our immediate vision in a bodily mode1 in other words under external conditions1 and to seek to carry the portrait beyond such a restriction would virtually imply the self-contradiction that the individual was associated with that which was essentially untrue1 and this for the reason that the service1 what is peculiar and distinguished in actual men1 consists precisely in their active relations to the real1 that is in their life and action in definite professional spheres4 ,and if this individual activity is to be made clear to us the environment must exhibit nothing that is foreign to or tends to impair the effect4 ,a famous general1 for example1 has lived in respect to his professional surroundings with cannon1 rifles1 and powder before his eyes4 ,if we intend to depict him in his professional activity we recur most naturally to the way he gives orders to his adjutants1 commands the line of battle1 and advances against the enemy4 ,and with yet more detail such a general is not merely one of a class1 but is distinguished by the particular style of his uniform4 ,he is either a leader of infantry or a stalwart hussar1 and so forth4 ,in every example of this kind we have some exceptional form of habiliment which is appropriate to the circumstances4 ,moreover a famous general is simply a famous general1 not necessarily a law-giver1 poet1 or even very possibly a religious man2 he commands in all respects as a soldier2 he is just that2 he is1 in a word1 no complete totality1 and this alone gives us the ideal and divine type4 ,for the divinity of the ideal figures of sculpture is to be sought in nothing so much as this that their character and individuality are appertinent to no particular relations and professed callings1 but are rather removed from such division1 or1 in the case that the idea of such relations is mooted1 it is so placed before us that we are forced to believe about such individuals that their powers of performance are unlimited4 ,for reasons such as the above a demand to represent the heroes of our time or the more recent ,past1 when their heroism is of a restricted nature1 in ideal drapery is very superficial4 ,such a demand testifies no doubt to a zeal for artistic beauty1 but a zeal which is unintelligent1 and in its devotion to the antique overlooks the fact that the greatness of the ancients likewise reposes essentially in the lofty comprehension of all that they accomplished4 ,in other words1 they have1 no doubt1 represented what is essentially ideal1 but they have not sought to enforce a form that is opposed to reality4 ,if the entire content of the individuals in question is not of an ideal character1 then their draping ought not to be such2 and if a powerful1 determined1 and resolute general does not already possess a countenance indicative of the lineaments of ,mars1 then to drape him with ,greek drapery would be as much a folly as though we popped a bearded man in a maiden's petticoats4 ,despite this truth1 however1 modern clothing does involve us in considerable difficulty because it is subject to fashion1 and consequently subject to change4 ,for the rational principle of fashion consists in this that it exercises over ,time the claim to be always subject to modification4 ,a robe1 according to some particular cut1 soon passes out of fashion1 and it is only in fashion so long as it pleases4 ,but when the fashion is over1 we cease to be used to it1 and what pleased us a few years back now appears suddenly ridiculous4 ,for this reason only those forms of garments are appropriate for statues which carry the specific character of a period in a more permanent type2 but1 in general1 it may be advisable to find a middle way1 as our artists attempt to do4 ,yet1 despite of the rule1 it is generally a mistake to clothe portrait statues in modern clothing when they are either small1 or the object sought after is simply a familiar presentation4 ,in such cases mere busts are best1 which are the more easily lifted to an ideal elevation1 simply neck and breast being retained1 inasmuch as the head and the physiognomy thus remain of most importance1 and everything else is relegated to incidental insignificance4 ,where we have large-sized statues on the contrary1 more particularly where the pose is one of tranquillity1 we see at once1 because they are in repose1 how they are draped2 and large-sized male figures1 even in the painted portrait1 when clothed after modern wont can only with difficulty be raised over what is insignificant4 ,as instances we may mention the full-figure seated portraits by old ,tischbein of ,herder and ,wieland1 of which we have excellent engravings on copper4 ,one feels at once1 when looking at them1 that it is a somewhat stale1 flat1 and unprofitable business to gaze at their breeches1 stockings1 and shoes1 and absolutely so to see their cosy1 self-contented posture on a sofa1 where they have their hands lying happily together over their paunches4 ,it is another matter with portrait statues of individuals where1 either in respect to the period of their activity they are far removed from our own1 or are themselves essentially of an ideal greatness4 ,in such cases what is old is already divested of the temporal aspect and has passed into the more indefinite background of the general idea1 so that in this release from its particular form of actuality it is also in the mode of its drapery capable of an ideal presentation4 ,and this is still more true in the case of individuals1 who by virtue of their self-subsistency and the ideal fulness of what are otherwise the mere limitations of their particular profession1 and detached from what is merely the activity of a definite period of time1 create independently for themselves a free totality1 a world of relations and activities1 and consequently should appear1 even in the aspect of their habiliments1 as exalted above the familiar guise of everyday life in their ordinary temporal costume4 ,as far back as the ,greeks we find statues of ,achilles and ,alexander1 on which the more individual traits of portraiture are of so fine a quality that we should rather imagine them to be sons of gods than human beings4 ,in the case of the genial and greathearted youth ,alexander this is quite as it should be4 ,and in much the same way1 moreover1 ,napoleon himself has been lifted to such a fame1 and is a genius of so comprehensive a grasp1 that there is no reason why he should not be depicted in ideal drapery1 which indeed would not be unfitting for ,frederick the ,great1 when the object is to celebrate him in all his greatness of soul4 ,no doubt the size of the statues is here1 too1 of importance4 ,in the case of small figures1 which carry an air of familiarity1 the three-cornered little hat of ,napoleon is out of place no less than the famous uniform and the arms crossed over breast1 and1 if we desire to have before us the great ,frederick as old ,fritz1 we may have him pictured for us with hat and stick as we find him on tobacco boxes4 #c4 ,,the ,,individuality ,,of ,,ideal ,,figures ,,of ,,sculpture ,hitherto we have considered the ,ideal of sculpture in its general character and in the further aspect of the more detailed forms which distinguish it4 ,we have thirdly only left us to emphasize the fact that the ,ideals of sculpture1 in so far as1 in respect to their content1 they have to manifest what is substantive in individualities1 and in respect to their external form the human bodily shape1 are also under the necessity of an advance in which the particularity of their presentation is differentiated1 and an aggregate of specific individuals is thereby created1 just as we already1 in the classical type of art1 recognize the embracing circle of the ,greek gods4 ,we may1 no doubt1 very possibly imagine to ourselves there can only be one exemplum of the finest beauty and perfection1 which may be1 moreover1 concentrated in its absolute completeness in one statue4 ,such a conception of one ,ideal in its purity is deficient in insight and indeed ridiculous4 ,for the beauty of the ,ideal consists just in this1 that it is no purely general form or standard1 but essentially individuality1 and consequently possesses both particularity and character4 ,it is simply owing to this that vitality is imported into works of sculpture1 and it is this#agd which expands the one abstract beauty1 in a totality of essentially definite creations4 ,taken as a whole1 however1 this aggregate is1 if we regard its content1 one with marked limits2 and the reason is that a number of categories1 which we are1 for example1 accustomed to employ in our ,christian outlook1 fall absolutely away in the case of the genuine ,ideal of sculpture4 ,the ethical points of view and virtues1 for example1 such as were brought together by the ,middle ,ages and our modern world in a synthetical nexus of duties which yields to some modification1 moreover1 in every epoch1 has no meaning at all when applied to the ideal gods of sculpture2 it is simply absent from such a circle altogether4 ,consequently we can as little expect to find here the presentation of sacrifice1 of egotism overcome1 of the conflict1 against what is sensuous1 of the victory of chastity and so forth1 as that of incommutable fidelity1 of the honour and honesty of either man or woman1 or of the expression of religious meekness1 subjection1 and blessedness in ,god4 ,all these virtues1 qualities1 and conditions repose in part on the breach between what is spiritual and what is corporeal2 and in part they retire altogether beyond what is of the body within1 the intimate shrine of the soul1 or betray the individual personal life in its separation from its entirely concrete and explicit substance1 as also in its struggle to find again mediation in the same4 ,moreover1 the circle of these veritable gods of sculpture is no doubt a totality1 but1 as we already discovered in our consideration of the classical type of art1 it is1 when we examine the distinguishing differences of its notion1 no stringently articulated and unified system4 ,moreover1 the particular examples are every one of them to be distinguished from all the others in their essentially definite and self-exclusive individuality1 albeit they are not thus set apart by virtue of the characteristics of a purely abstract mintage1 but rather1 on the contrary1 include much which they share in common relatively to their ideal and divine substance4 ,we will now pass in review the distinctions above indicated under the following aspects3 ,first1 we have to examine purely external marks1 incidental attributes1 style of drapery1 style of armour1 and such like1 indications with the detail of which ,winckelmann deals at exceptional length4 ,secondly1 we shall see how the most important differences do not merely consist in external marks and traits of this kind1 but rather in the individual configuration and habitus of the entire figure4 ,what is most important in this respect is the distinction of age1 sex1 no less than that of the different sphere1 from which the works receive their content and form1 whether they are the impressions of gods1 heroes1 satyrs1 fawns1 or such representations as reach their final dissolution in the attempt to render animal images4 ,and1 thirdly1 we propose to direct the attention on a particular example of each class1 in the individual form of which sculpture elaborates these general differences4 ,here1 no doubt1 we are faced with a multiplicity of material1 and can only permit ourselves to deduce parts of it by way of example1 a province1 too1 as it moreover is which implies a large experience4 7a7 ,in considering these first mere attributes and all such external accessories1 the kind of ornament1 armour1 tools1 vessels1 and in general all that is associated with mere environment1 we find that such things are of a very simple character in superior works of sculpture1 and retained only in a temperate and restricted degree1 so that we see little of them beyond what is suggestive or sufficient to appeal to our minds4 ,it is the independent figure1 that is its expression and not outside accessories1 which has to give us the spiritual significance and its manifestation4 ,conversely1 however1 marks of this kind are nevertheless necessary1 in order to enable us to recognize the particular gods4 ,in other words divinity in its universal guise1 which is the source of the substantive part of the presentment in the case of each individual1 asserts1 by virtue of this very equality of ground-basis1 close affinity between the expression of each example and also between the individual figures1 so that every god is to this extent withdrawn from the aspect of his particularity1 and can indeed further pass through other conditions and modes of expression1 than would otherwise belong to them4 ,for this reason we do not as a rule have set before us the particular characterization with complete seriousness2 and it is frequently these external additions which exclusively make the particular god intelligible4 ,among these indicating marks ,i will allude briefly to the following4 77 ,i have already discussed the real attributes when the classical type of art and its gods presented an opportunity4 ,in sculpture the same lose yet more their self-subsistent1 symbolical character1 and merely retain the right to appear as the external presentation and form which is referable to simply one aspect of the specific gods1 a presentment which is true to this extent or approximately so4 ,such marks are frequently borrowed from animal life1 as for example when ,zeus is represented with the eagle1 ,juno with the peacock1 ,bacchus with the tiger and panther1 who are harnessed to his car1 because1 as ,winckelmann observes#age1 this animal is an exceptionally thirsty one1 and1 moreover1 fond of wine2 and in the like manner we have ,venus with her hare4 ,other attributes are tools or utensils of some kind1 which are related to activities and actions1 which may be ascribed to any particular god by virtue of his or her specific individuality4 ,so we have ,bacchus depicted with the thyrsus wand1 in order to entwine thereon the ivy-leaves and garlands2 or he receives a wreath of laurel leaves1 to indicate him as victorious in his expedition to ,india1 or a torch1 with which he lighted ,ceres home4 ,accessories such as these1 among which ,i have here1 of course1 only adduced the most famous examples1 are an exceptional stimulus to the acuteness and learning of our professors1 and carry them into a kind of commerce in trifles1 which too frequently leads them out of bounds1 and finds significance in things where there is really none4 ,as an example we are assured that two famous sleeping female figures in the ,vatican and the ,villa ,medici are representations of ,cleopatra1 simply because they have a bracelet in the shape of a viper1 and to the vision of such archaeologists a serpent at once suggests the death of ,cleopatra1 much as it would suggest to a pious father of the church the original serpent who seduced ,eve in ,paradise4 ,it was1 however1 a prevailing custom for ,greek women to wear bracelets in serpent coils1 and such bracelets in fact were called by that name4 ,consequently the just sense of ,winckelmann#agf has long ago rejected this interpretation1 and ,visconti has finally recognized#agg them as figures of ,ariadne1 as she at lasts sinks to sleep after her sorrow at the departure of ,theseus4 ,although in uncounted cases acuteness of this quality shows itself at fault in dealing with detail of this kind1 and makes itself appear contemptible in its departure from such insignificant facts1 yet unquestionably both research and criticism of apparently unimportant facts are necessary1 because it is only thereby that we can arrive at the closer determination of a figure4 ,yet even here the difficulty crops up1 that attributes no less than form1 do not in all cases point our conclusions to one god1 but may be shared in common by several4 ,we have the vase1 for example1 not only associated with ,jupiter1 ,apollo1 ,mercury1 ,aesculapius1 but also with ,ceres and ,hygiaea4 ,several goddesses receive the ear of corn2 we find the lily in the hand of ,juno1 ,venus1 and ,hope2 and even the lightning is not the exclusive possession of ,zeus1 for it is shared by ,pallas1 who on her part again does not alone carry2 the ,aegis1 but on equal terms with ,zeus1 ,juno1 and ,apollo#agh4 ,the source of the individual deities from a general significance of less determinate character which1 they share itself is associated with ancient symbols1 which were appertinent to this more general and consequently more widely shared nature4 77 ,accessories of this incidental nature are more in place with works which1 already departing from the simple repose of the gods1 represent actions1 groups1 or the series of figures such as we find on reliefs1 and for this reason are able to make more extensive use of a variety of external indications and suggestions4 ,on gifts dedicate to a devout purpose1 which are frequent in all kinds of works of art and nowhere more frequent than1 in the case of statuary1 on statues of ,olympic victors1 but more particularly on coins and cut stones1 the rich and prolific invention of the ,greek found ample scope for the presence of symbolical references of this type1 such as that to his city's locality and others like it4 77 ,other signs are more removed from purely external significance1 and penetrate deeper within the individuality of such deities4 ,these themselves are a part of the particular type in question1 and are an integrating factor in it4 ,among such we may mention the specific type of the drapery1 armour1 adornment of the hair1 and other attire of a similar nature1 in respect of which ,i must here content myself in elucidation with a few examples borrowed from ,winckelmann1 who exercised great acuteness in such matters4 ,among the several gods ,zeus was pre-eminently recognizable by the general treatment of his hair1 and our authority maintains#agi1 that any particular head can at once be determined as one intended for this deity or no by the hair over his forehead1 or his beard1 even though there be nothing else significant to arrest us4 ,in other words he asserts that1 the hair is elevated in an outward curve on the brow1 and its different divisions fall in a narrow curve with broken lines#ahj down again4 ,this type of hair-treatment was so rigorous1 that we even find it persisted in among the sons and grandchildren of ,zeus4 ,so1 for example1 the head of ,zeus is barely to be distinguished from that of ,aesculapius in this respect1 who consequently receives another kind of beard1 more particularly over the upper lip1 where the same is more depressed in its curve1 whereas that of ,zeus is rather folded over the angle of the mouth and intermingled with the beard on the chin4 ,winckelmann further recognizes the fine head of a statue in the ,villa ,medici1 later in ,florence1 by means of the more curled beard1 which1 moreover1 folds over the upper lip1 and is of greater thickness1 and must be distinguished from the heads of ,zeus with their greater tendency to curled locks4 ,pallas1 in direct contrast to ,diana1 wears her hair long1 bound together in its downward fall from the head1 and then beneath the fillet flowing in a series of locks4 ,diana1 on the contrary1 wears hers thrown up from all sides1 and fastened in a knot on the crown of the head4 ,the head of ,ceres is up to the back portion covered with her veil4 ,add to this1 in addition to the corn she carries1 she holds a diadem as ,juno does1 in front of which1 to quote our authority once more#aha1 the scattered hairs are thrown into a charming confusion1 as though to suggest possibly her sorrow at the robbing of her daughter ,proserpine4 ,individuality of the same kind is emphasized by other exterior means1 as for example1 when we recognize ,pallas by her helmet and its particular shape1 in her type of drapery and various other things4 7b7 ,the truly vital individuality1 however1 in so far as it should find its mintage in sculpture by means of the spontaneous and beautiful bodily form1 ought not to be asserted merely by such accessories as the external attributes or modes of things we have cited1 but should be displayed no less in the form itself than in its expression4 ,in attempting such an individualization the fine insight and creative power of the ,greek artist increased in proportion as the figures of their deities possessed a substantive basis of essentially the same kind1 from which1 without wholly departing from it1 it was their task so to elaborate the characteristic individuality that this ground-root of their conception was still maintained as a wholly vital and present fact4 ,nothing invites our admiration so much in the best works of antique sculpture than the exquisite attention the artist directed to the task of bringing the smallest traits of the presentment and expression into harmony with the entire figure1 an attention which is1 in fact1 the source of such a harmony4 77 ,if we inquire further after general distinctions of main importance which assert themselves as the substantive bases in most direct relation to the more individual severation of the bodily forms and their expression we may note1 first1 the distinction of more youthful figures in contrast to those of more mature age4 ,in the genuine ,ideal1 as ,i have already stated1 every trait1 every particular part of the figure is expressed2 and1 moreover1 the direct line1 which is taken straight forward1 avoids the abstractly level surface precisely as the circular form avoids the geometrical circle2 and instead of this the vital variety of lines and shapes is elaborated in the finest way throughout by the nuances of their transitional forms which unite them4 ,in juvenile and youthful age the boundaries of forms are less noticeably fluent1 and pass into each other so finely1 that we may compare them1 ,i borrow the simile from ,winckelmann#ahb1 with the surface of a sea unruffled by the wind1 of which we may say that1 although in continuous motion1 it is still4 ,in the case of more advanced age1 however1 such distinguishing features are more definitely emphasized1 and have to be elaborated with more pronounced characterization4 ,consummate male figures consequently are more likely to please us at the first glance1 because the expression is throughout more distinct1 and we wonder more readily at the knowledge and ability of the artist4 ,youthful examples appear more easy in their accomplishment because of their softness1 and the smaller number of their distinguishing features4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the opposite is the case4 ,that is to say1 in so far as the forming of their parts in the interval between their first growth and their completion is permitted to be indefinite#ahc1 the joints1 bones1 sinews1 muscles1 are necessarily more delicate and tender1 yet are none the less suggested4 ,antique art celebrates its triumph in just this fact1 that even in its most delicate figures all parts throughout and their appropriate organization are somehow made perceptible in barely visible nuances of elevation and depression1 by means of which the science and virtuosity of an artist is only followed by an observer whose research and attention is equally thorough4 ,if1 for example1 to take the case of a delicate human figure1 such as the youthful ,apollo1 the entire structure of the human body were not reproduced actually1 and in all its essentials with consummate1 if half veiled insight1 the members might indeed appear well and fully rounded off1 but they would be at the same time flaccid1 without expression and variety1 so that the entire effect could hardly satisfy4 ,as a striking example of the distinction between the youthful body and a man's in mature age1 we may adduce the sons and father in the ,laocoon group4 ,speaking generally the ,greeks1 in the representation of their deities1 preferred the still youthful age1 and even in heads and statues of ,zeus and ,neptune do not indicate old age4 77 ,in the case of the sex1 in which the figure is portrayed1 the difference1 that is1 between male and female figures1 we meet with a distinctive mark of still more importance4 ,in general we may affirm of the latter what ,i have already briefly stated in the contrast drawn between the more youthful and more advanced age4 ,the female figures are more tender and soft1 the sinews and muscles1 albeit they must be there1 are less pronounced1 the transitional lines are more flowing and malleable1 yet in the wide interval of expression from the point of quiet earnestness1 greater severity of power and dignity to that of the most delicate charm and grace of the love attraction1 there is room for the richest gradations and variety4 ,we find a wealth of form equally great in the male figures1 in the treatment of which we have1 moreover1 the expression of elaborate bodily strength and courage4 ,the cheerful tone of delight1 however1 is shared by all1 a blithesomeness and blessed indifference1 which soars above all particularity1 associated not unfrequently with a trait of tranquil sorrow1 a kind of smile through tears1 in which we neither have wholly smile nor tears4 ,there is not a marked line of distinction here between the masculine and feminine character1 for the more youthful figures of ,bacchus and ,apollo frequently are fined out to the point of feminine delicacy and softness1 nay1 we even find representations of ,hercules in which there is so much the appearance of a young woman's form that critics have confused him with ,iole1 his sweetheart4 ,and it is not merely this point of transition but even the combination of the male and female figure1 which the ancients have expressly represented in their hermaphrodites4 77 ,thirdly1 and in conclusion1 there is the question as to the main distinctions which the figure of sculpture receives in order that it may be classed within one of the specific divisions of subject-matter which constitute the content of the ideal outlook on the world appropriate to this art4 ,the organic forms which sculpture can utilize generally in its plastic effort are on the one hand the forms of humanity1 on the other those of animal life4 ,in respect to the animal forms we have already seen that in the case of the more severe type of the art at its culminating perfection they will only be found as attributes associated with the divine form1 as when we find a hind with the hunting ,diana1 or ,zeus with an eagle4 ,and the same thing may be said of the panther1 griffin1 and similar figures4 ,apart from the genuine attributes animal forms are1 however1 accepted partly in combination with human shapes1 and in part entirely by themselves4 ,the extent1 however1 of such representations is of a limited character4 ,apart from figures of the roebuck it is above all the horse whose beauty and fiery animation obtains a recognition in plastic art1 whether it be in union with the human form1 or in its own free and independent shape4 ,in fact1 we find that the horse stands generally in a close relation to the courage1 bravery1 and dexterity of human heroism and heroic beauty1 whereas other animals1 such as the lion1 which ,hercules overcomes1 and the wild boar1 which ,meleager kills1 are objects of heroic deeds themselves1 and consequently are entitled to a place within the circle of representation1 when such are expanded in groups and reliefs where a freer field is admissible for situations of movement and action4 ,the human figure on its part1 in so far as it is conceived in form and expression as pure ,ideal1 supplies the adequate form for the divine1 which1 being still in union with the sensuous material1 is not capable of being concentrated in the simple unity of one ,god1 and can merely embrace a collective whole of divine figures4 ,and similarly1 to put the matter conversely1 the human1 whether we regard it according to its form or its expression1 cannot pass out of the province of human individuality1 albeit the same is at one time brought into intimacy and union with the divine1 and at another with the animal nature4 ,for these reasons sculpture is faced with various sources out of which it can select and elaborate its subject-matter1 and which ,i will now review4 ,the essentially central source is1 as ,i have already several times indicated1 the sphere of the particular gods4 ,their distinction from humanity preeminently consists in this1 that as they1 in respect to that which they express1 appear essentially gathered up over and beyond the finitude of care and mortal passion within a blessed repose and everlasting youth1 so1 too1 their bodily shapes are not merely purified from the finite particularity of mankind1 but they are further detached from everything which would suggest the needs and necessary limitations of sensuous life1 without1 however1 losing their vitality4 ,we have1 for example1 an object of human interest in the way a mother pacifies her child4 ,the ,greek goddesses1 however1 are always represented as childless4 ,juno1 according to the myth1 tosses the young ,hercules from her1 and the ,milky ,way is the result4 ,to associate a son with the majestic spouse of ,zeus was beneath the dignity of the antique point of view4 ,even ,aphrodite does not appear in sculpture as mother4 ,cupid is no doubt very near to her1 but scarcely in the sense of her child4 ,in the same way ,jupiter is nursed by a goat1 and ,romulus and ,remus are suckled by a wolf4 ,among ,egyptian and ,hindoo representations1 on the contrary1 we find many1 in which deities receive mother's milk from goddesses4 ,among ,greek goddesses the maiden form is that which is pre-eminent1 this being that which to the least extent asserts the purely natural functions of the wife4 ,the above constitutes an important contrast between classical art and romantic1 in the latter of which maternal love is a leading subject4 ,after the gods we find that sculpture deals with heroes and those figures which have both the human and animal form in their composition1 such as centaurs1 fauns1 and satyrs4 ,the line of distinction between heroes and gods is a very fine one2 and much the same interval separates them from ordinary human life4 ,winckelmann observes with regard to a ,battus on a coin of ,cyrene1 ,with a single glance of tender jollity we could make a ,bacchus of it1 and one trait of godlike greatness would leave us an ,apollo4 ,and yet even in such cases human forms1 where the object is to envisage the force of the will and bodily strength1 tend in certain directions to make for greatness2 the artist gave to the muscular development a vital activity and movement1 and in violent actions set in motion all the springs of ,nature's workmanship4 ,inasmuch as1 however1 we find the same hero subject to an entire series of conditions not merely distinct1 but opposed to each other1 the masculine forms here also frequently approximate to the feminine4 ,this is1 for example1 the case where ,achilles first appears among the maidens of ,lycomedes4 ,here we do not find him in his full heroic strength such as he displays before ,troy1 but in drapery resembling that of a woman and a fascination of figure which almost conceals his sex4 ,hercules1 too1 is not always depicted in the gravity and power suggestive of the tedious labours which he performed1 but in the milder impersonation of his service to ,omphale1 as also in the repose of his deification1 and generally in a variety of situations4 ,in other relations heroes possess the closest affinity for the figures of the deities themselves1 ,achilles for that of ,mars1 for instance2 it is consequently only after the most profound study that we can recognize the specific meaning of a piece of statuary merely from the characterization without further suggestion from attributes4 ,really expert connoisseurs can1 however1 deduce the character and shape of the entire figure from isolated pieces and supply what is missing2 from which fact we again are instructed to admire the fine insight and the consequential character the individualization of ,greek art displays to us1 whose masters knew how to preserve and execute even the smallest detail in consonance with the entire effect4 ,coming now to satyrs and fauns we find in them made visible what is throughout excluded from the lofty ,ideal of the gods1 the needs of mankind1 the jollity of life1 sensuous pleasure1 satisfaction of excessive desire1 and the like4 ,yet we find in particular young satyrs and fauns so remarkable for the beauty in which they are represented by the ancients that1 to adopt a phrase of ,winckelmann#ahd1 ,every example of such figures may be exchanged1 if we except the head1 for a statue of ,apollo1 ,i refer to that one which is styled ,sauroktonos1 and possesses the same stansion of the legs4 ,the heads of fauns and satyrs may be known by their pointed ears1 their stiffly erected hair1 and their little horns4 ,a second province of sculpture is occupied by what is human simply4 ,in this we have above all else the beauty of human form as we find it set before us in its elaborate power and dexterity in the sacred games4 ,wrestlers1 discoboli1 and the like are its main subject-matter4 ,in such productions sculpture proceeds in a way that is somewhat opposed to the mere portrait1 in which department the ancients1 even in cases where they actually copied real personages1 still understood how to hold fast throughout to the principle of sculpture as we have come to know it4 ,the last field that sculpture makes its own is that of independent animal figures1 more particularly lions1 hounds1 and some others4 ,here1 too1 the ancients did not fail to grasp1 make vital in its individuality1 and enforce the principle of sculpture1 the substantive significance of form1 and indeed attained to such a perfection that1 to take one example1 the cow of ,myron has become more famous than all his other works4 ,goethe1 in ,kunst und ,alterthum#ahe1 has described it with great charm of style1 and pre-eminently drawn attention to the fact that1 as we have already seen1 such as animal function as suckling is only presented by ,greek art in the entirely animal world4 ,he entirely sets on one side poetical conceits such as we find in ancient epigrams1 and with acuteness confines his attention to the navet of the conception out of which this most familiar of artistic themes arises4 7c7 ,in concluding this chapter we have now to refer a little more closely to the particular individuals1 in the characterization and vitality of which the distinctions above mentioned are elaborated1 that is to say1 for the most part to the presentment of gods4 77 ,however much1 speaking generally--and we may no doubt seek to enforce our conviction in reference also to the spiritual deities of sculpture--this spiritual significance is at bottom the emancipation of individuality--and the remark applies to ,ideals also according to the degree of their ideality and nobility--to that extent as individuals their distinction from one another is less marked4 ,and the astonishing thing in the problem of sculpture1 as solved by the ,greeks1 consisted just in this1 that despite of the universality and ideality of their gods they have none the less preserved their individuality and lines of distinction2 they have done so despite the fact that in certain directions we are conscious of the endeavour to eliminate hard-and-fast boundaries and to depict particular forms in their transitional state4 ,if1 moreover1 we are inclined to regard individuality in a way that suggests definite traits as being appropriate to definite deities1 much as the traits of a portrait are so1 a fixed type will thereby necessarily appear to be substituted for a vital creation and art will suffer accordingly4 ,but this is quite as little in accordance with the facts4 ,on the contrary we find that their invention in such individualization and vitalization gained in subtlety just in proportion as a substantive type lay at the roots of the same4 77 ,again1 in considering the particular deities1 we are inevitably led to the conviction that one individual is of commanding influence in determining all these ideal figures4 ,this supreme value and dignity ,pheidias attached in an unrivalled degree to the form and expression of his ,zeus1 albeit the father of the gods and mankind1 is set before us at the same time with a blithe and benignant look throned in serenity of mature age1 that is not in the first flush of youth1 without1 however1 on the other hand emphasizing in the least any harshness of form or suggesting the feebleness of age4 ,the most obvious parallels in form and gesture with ,zeus are his brothers ,neptune and ,pluto1 whose interesting statues in ,dresden1 for example1 despite all that they share with him1 nevertheless retain a clear line of distinction--,zeus himself1 by virtue of the benignity of his lofty presence1 ,neptune1 by virtue of his greater ruggedness1 ,pluto1 who is a kindred type to the ,egyptian ,serapis1 by virtue of his profounder gloom and melancholy4 ,essentially more apart from ,zeus are ,bacchus and ,apollo1 ,mars and ,mercury1 the first pair in their more youthful beauty and the greater delicacy of their figures1 the second more masculine albeit beardless4 ,mercury1 too1 is more robust1 more slender in shape1 with exceptional fineness noticeable in the facial traits4 ,mars is not so much marked out from the others as ,hercules might be in the strength of his muscles and other parts of his figure1 but rather as a more youthful and beautiful hero of an ideal form4 ,among the goddesses ,i will only refer to ,juno1 ,pallas1 ,diana1 and ,aphrodite4 ,just as ,zeus among the masculine deities1 so1 too1 ,juno among the feminine displays in her figure and its expression the greatest dignity4 ,the large circular-arched eyes are proud and commanding1 in like manner1 too1 the mouth by which she is at once recognized more particularly in profile4 ,generally she presents the appearance of a queen1 who will rule1 is to be revered and must awaken devotion#ahf4 ,pallas1 on the contrary1 receives the expression of more austere maidenhood and chastity4 ,tenderness1 love1 and every kind of womanly weakness are kept away from her2 her eyes are less expanded than those of ,here1 less emphatically arched and somewhat downcast in the tranquillity of reflection1 just as her head is1 which is not proudly erect as in the case of the spouse of ,zeus1 although it is armed with a helmet4 ,a very similar type of maidenhood characterizes the figure of ,diana4 ,she is1 however1 endowed with a more fascinating quality1 more lightly poised1 more slender1 albeit there is no self-conscious delight in her charm4 ,she is not given the pose of tranquil observation1 but is generally in motion1 pressing forward as toward some object in her vision4 ,finally we have ,aphrodite1 the goddess of beauty as such1 who is1 along with the ,graces and the ,hours1 alone depicted by the ,greek artists as undraped and even here subject to exceptions4 ,in her case nudity is justified on the good ground that she expresses1 above all1 sensuous beauty and its conquest1 grace1 attractiveness1 tenderness1 elevated and tempered by spiritual qualities4 ,her eye1 even in cases where a more grave and lofty expression is emphasized1 is smaller than that of ,pallas and ,juno1 not so much in length1 but narrower by reason of the lower eyelid being slightly raised1 by which means ,love's yearning look is admirably expressed4 ,she varies1 however1 very considerably in the type expressed4 ,in some cases her pose is more serious and powerful2 in others delicacy and tenderness are most insisted upon2 her age1 too1 is sometimes that of maidenhood1 at other of riper years4 ,winckelmann compares the ,medicean ,venus to a rose which blossoms in the fair light of its own colour at daybreak4 ,uranian ,aphrodite is1 on the contrary1 indicated by a diadem which resembles that worn by ,juno1 and which ,venus victrix also wears4 77 ,the discovery of this plastic individuality1 whose entire expression is wholly elaborated through abstract form and nothing further1 was in a like degree of consummate perfection peculiar to the ,greeks and is due to religion itself4 ,a more spiritual religion can rest satisfied with the contemplation and devotion of the soul1 so that works of sculpture pass for it simply as so much luxury and superfluity4 ,a religion so dependent on the sense vision as the ,greek was must necessarily continue to create1 inasmuch as for it this artistic production and invention is itself a religious activity and satisfaction1 and for the people the sight of such works is not merely so much sight-seeing1 but is part of their religion and soul-life4 ,and in general the ,greeks did everything with a public and universal aim in view1 in which every man discovered his enjoyment1 pride1 and honour4 ,in this public aspect the art of the ,greeks is not merely an ornamental object1 but a vital thing that meets a really felt want1 in much the same sort of way as that of painting in its most glorious season responded to the life of ,venice4 ,only on grounds such as these can we find a rational explanation1 if we consider the great difficulties which the technique of sculpture implies1 for the host of sculptured figures1 this forest of statues of every kind1 which in their thousand and indeed thousands1 were to be met with in one single city1 in ,elis1 in ,athens1 in ,corinth1 and even in towns of lesser importance1 and in the same way in the greater ,greece beyond and the islands of the ,cyclades4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,different ,,types ,,of ,,presentment1 ,,material1 ,,and ,,historical ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,sculpture4 ,we have hitherto in our inquiry in the first instance looked about us for the general determinants1 out of which it is possible to develop the most adequate content for sculpture and the form which best responds to it4 ,we discovered the classical ,ideal supplied this content1 so that in the second place we were called to establish the precise mode1 in which sculpture among the particular arts is most readily adapted to give shape to this ,ideal4 ,inasmuch as we found1 moreover1 that this ,ideal is only to be comprehended in its essential import as individuality1 not only did we find that the ideal outlook of the artist expand to a collective cyclus of ideal figures1 but the external mode of representation and execution in actual works of art breaks up into particular types of sculpture4 ,in this latter direction we have still several points of view left us to discuss as follows3 ,first1 there is the manner of representation1 which1 in so far as actual execution is concerned1 either creates single statues1 or groups1 until finally in the relief we are confronted with the step of transition to painting4 ,secondly1 there is the external medium1 in which these distinctions are given actual effect to4 ,thirdly1 we have to deal with the historical stages of evolution1 or the process within which works of art are executed in the various types and material4 #a4 ,,the ,,single ,,statue1 ,,the ,,group ,,and ,,the ,,relief ,just as1 in the case of architecture1 we made an essential distinction between independent building and that which was subservient we may also here establish a similar dividing line in sculpture1 that is between such works that have an independent position and those which rather contribute to architectural decoration4 ,in the case of the first the environment is nothing more than an artificially prepared locality1 whereas in the latter cases their relation to the building which they adorn is of the first importance1 and does not merely determine the form of the work of sculpture1 but in a large measure even its content4 ,speaking in a summary way we may assert in this respect that single statues are set up on their own account1 while groups and a fortiori reliefs tend to lose this independence and are utilized by architecture for its own artistic purposes4 7a7 ,as to the single statue their original function is that of sculpture generally1 that is to supply temple images as they are set up in the shrine of the temple1 and all that surrounds them is in direct association with them4 77 ,in such a case sculpture retains its most adequate purity4 ,it displays the figure of the god apart from all situation1 in beautiful1 unimpaired1 and inactive tranquillity1 or at least free1 unmolested1 without definite action and development1 such as ,i have on several occasions depicted1 that is1 in unconstrained situations4 77 ,the earliest departure from this austere loftiness consists in this that the entire pose suggests the beginning of an action1 or the conclusion of the same1 without the godlike repose being thereby disturbed1 or the figure being presented as in struggle or conflict4 ,we place under this type the famous ,medicean ,venus and the ,belvedere ,apollo4 ,in the times of ,lessing and ,winckelmann the admiration of the critical world over these statues1 as the highest ,ideal of art1 was unconditional2 nowadays1 since we have come to know works more vital and substantial in their configuration1 and more profound in their expressive power1 we must deduct somewhat from this estimate2 critics1 in fact1 place them in an age somewhat subsequent to the great period1 an age in which the smoothness of their elaborate workmanship already suggests that to please is the main object1 and the genuine grand and severe style is not persisted in4 ,an ,english traveller goes so far as to say that the ,apollo is a theatrical coxcomb1 and while admitting that the ,venus has extraordinary softness1 sweetness1 symmetry1 and coy grace1 yet only finds in this a spiritual quality that is wanting in much1 a negative perfection1 and--a good deal of insipidity4 ,we may generally review that transition from the former more severe repose and holiness as follows4 ,sculpture is no doubt the art of lofty seriousness1 but this elevated austerity of the gods1 inasmuch as the same are no abstractions1 but individual figures1 brings with it the absolute blithesomeness1 and thereby a reflex attitude to reality and finite life1 in which the blithesomeness of the gods does not express the feeling of absorption in such finite content1 but the feeling of reconciliation1 of spiritual freedom and alertness4 77 ,in consequence of this ,greek art is throughout permeated with all the blithesomeness of the ,greek genius1 and has found its satisfaction1 delight1 and an object for its activity in a countless number of gratifying situations4 ,when it once had discovered a way from the constraint of the abstractions of its presentment to an appreciation of vital individuality1 which is the unifying factor of the whole1 its joy in all that is indicative of life and cheerfulness became a real thing1 and artists became occupied with a great variety of subjects1 which1 without glancing aside at anything suggestive of pain1 horror1 distortion or injurious1 fixed as its final limit unoffensive humanity and remained thus4 ,the ancients have in this respect executed much of the greatest excellence4 ,i will here only mention1 among the many mythological subjects of playful1 that is playful in the most innocent way1 interest1 the sports of ,cupid1 in which we already see a close approach to the ordinary life of mankind1 just as there were others in which the vitality of the presentment is the main interest1 and indeed the very attempt to secure and execute such subject-matter itself contributes this blithesomeness and innocence to the effect4 ,in this kind of way we may point out that the dice-players and satellite of ,polycleitus were thought quite as highly of as his ,argive statue of ,here4 ,the discus-throwers and racers of ,myron were equally famous4 ,how dear to this folk1 too1 and admired is that youth in a seated posture who extracts a thorn from his foot8 ,there were many others of the same type of production in great measure merely by name4 ,we are face to face with the fleeting moment of natural existence1 which is here arrested for ever by the sculptor4 7b7 ,beginning with examples such as the above of a movement towards external objects1 sculpture proceeds further in the representation of situations1 conflicts1 and actions yet more involved with motion1 and at last arrives at the group4 ,for with an increase of specific detail in the action we have placed before us the more concrete animation1 which expands in contradiction1 reactions1 and thereby1 too1 in the presence of several figures essentially related and intertwined with each other4 77 ,at first we have1 however1 merely tranquil juxtapositions1 such as1 for example1 the two colossal horse-tamers1 which are set up in ,rome on ,mount ,cavallo1 and indicate ,castor and ,pollux4 ,the one statue is commonly ascribed to ,pheidias1 the other to ,praxiteles4 ,there is1 however1 no strong evidence for this1 although the extraordinary excellence of conception1 and the no less exquisite thoroughness of the execution justifies names as famous4 ,such are entirely independent groups1 which as yet express no real action1 or the result of it1 and are wholly appropriate as representations of sculpture and public exposition before the ,parthenon1 where it appears they were originally placed4 77 ,sculpture1 however1 is equally occupied in the group with the presentment of situations1 which have as their content conflicts1 discordant actions1 pain1 and other similar conditions4 ,in this direction1 too1 we can only speak highly of the genuine artistic insight of the ,greeks1 which did not set forth such groups independently1 and by themselves1 but brought them1 for the reason that sculpture has already made a departure from its peculiar1 that is to say its self-subsistent1 province1 into closer relation to architecture4 ,the temple figure1 that is the isolated statue1 stood in unimpaired tranquillity and sacredness within the inner shrine4 ,the external pediment1 on the contrary1 was decorated with groups which represented definite actions of the god1 and consequently admitted of more animated movement in its elaboration4 ,the famous group of ,niobe and her children is of this type4 ,the general form for the co-ordination of each part is determined by the space which the group in question had to fill4 ,the principal figure stood in the middle1 and was thus able to be the largest in size and most prominent4 ,the rest according as they were placed in the direction of the acute angle of the gable-end had to submit to other postures1 the limit being reached by that of a reclining figure4 ,of other famous works ,i will here only mention the ,laocoon group4 ,it has now for over forty years been the object of much inquiry and controversy4 ,in particular it has been regarded as a matter of real importance1 whether ,virgil in his description followed this work of sculpture1 or the sculptor adopted his work to the scene depicted by ,virgil1 whether ,laocoon here is actually crying out1 and whether it is appropriate in a work of sculpture to attempt to express such a cry1 and many more criticisms of this kind4 ,critics have worried themselves up and down with such matters of psychological interest for the simple reason that they have not as yet secured the sort of enthusiasm and critical acumen which ,winckelmann possessed2 and1 moreover1 arm-chair professors are more readily disposed for such investigations for the reason that not unfrequently they have neither the opportunity granted them to see real works of art1 nor the capacity to grasp them for what they are when they do so4 ,the most essential thing which can occupy our attention in this group is this namely1 that in the supreme pain1 the supreme truth1 the convulsive tension of the body1 the distention of all the muscles1 the noble aspect of beauty is still preserved1 and the process has not been carried in the remotest degree to the extremes of grimace1 distortion1 and over-strain4 ,despite of this1 however1 the entire work belongs without doubt--we have only to consider its subject-matter1 the artificiality of its coordinate grouping1 the disposition of each posed figure and the type of its elaboration--to a much later period1 which already seeks to pass beyond simple beauty and vitality by means of a deliberate obtrusion of science in the configuration and muscular development of the human body1 and no less is anxious to please by refined excess in its executive elaboration4 ,the step from the ingenuous ease and greatness of art to a mere mannerism is already taken4 77 ,works of sculpture may be set forth in very various places1 such as in the entrances to columned halls1 forecourts1 landings of staircases1 niches1 and so forth4 ,it is just in this variety of local position and architectural setting1 which1 on its account too1 is variously related to human circumstances and conditions1 that the content and object of such works of art are for ever changing1 approaching as such art does in the group yet more closely our humanity4 ,it is1 however1 a serious defect to place groups that embody much movement and variety of figure on the top of a building without further background against the sky4 ,in other words the colour of the sky may sometimes be gray1 at others blue and dazzlingly bright1 so that it is impossible to see the outlines of the figures4 ,yet these outlines1 that is1 the silhouette we find in them1 is just what is most important2 it is the main thing which we recognize1 and which simply makes the rest intelligible4 ,for in the case of a group we find that many portions stand in front relatively to others1 an arm before the trunk of the body1 or one leg in front of another4 ,now the fact of distance alone disturbs the clearness and intelligible articulation of such parts1 or at least tends to do this more emphatically than in the case of outlined portions which are independent4 ,we have only to imagine a group depicted on a piece of paper in which certain parts of a figure are strongly and sharply indicated1 while others on the contrary are marked with lines of less defined and arresting definition4 ,this is precisely the effect of a statue's lines1 and yet more those of groups1 which have no other background but that of the sky2 in the latter case we only see a sharply indicated silhouette1 in which1 so far as what is within the compass of that outline1 only relatively weaker articulation is visible4 ,this is the reason that1 to take an example near home1 the ,victory on the ,brandenburg gate in ,berlin not only affects us strongly by virtue of its simplicity and repose1 but can be readily followed through its separate figures4 ,the horses1 in fact1 stand far from each other1 without either of them impairing the view of the other2 and similarly the figure of ,victory rises sufficiently high above them4 ,conversely the ,apollo drawn in a car by griffins1 which we have on the ,opera ,house1 is less satisfactory from this point of view1 however artistic the entire conception and technical work may be in other respects4 ,by the favour of a friend ,i saw these figures before they were taken from the workshop4 ,the effect promised was noble4 ,but as we see them now at such a height1 we have far too much of one outline partly obscuring another1 which in its turn is backed by something else1 and consequently is less freely and clearly silhouetted than would be the case were all the figures silhouetted in their simple outlines#ahg4 ,the griffins1 which necessarily1 on account of their shorter legs1 do not stand up either so highly or so freely as horses1 have wings into the bargain1 and ,apollo1 too1 has his tuft of hair and his lyre4 ,all this detail is too much for the position1 and only tends to make the outlines obscure4 7c7 ,the final mode of representation1 in which sculpture makes an important step in the direction of the principle of painting is the relief2 in the first instance the high-relief1 and after it the low-relief4 ,the condition here is the surface1 the figures standing on one and the same plane1 so that the spatial totality of the figure1 which is the point of departure of sculpture1 more and more tends to disappear4 ,the older form of relief1 however1 does not as yet approximate so closely to painting1 which involves distinctions of perspective between the foreground and background1 but rather holds fast to the surface or plane as such without permitting the different objects to project into or to retire within the distinctions of their spatial position by means of an artificial reduction of size4 ,in the present case figures in profile are preferred1 and they are placed side by side on an even surface4 ,a simple treatment of this kind does not admit the content of complicated actions1 but actions which in real life already adopt more or less of one and the same line of motion1 processions of all kinds1 whether those of sacrifice or ,olympian victors or others4 ,add to this the relief is capable of the greatest variety of form4 ,it not only fills up and decorates the friezes and walls of temples1 but is attached to utensils of all kinds1 sacrificial bowls1 votive gifts1 shells1 goblets1 urns1 lamps1 and so forth2 it is the adornment of seats and tripods1 and is closely allied to the skilled crafts4 ,here as nowhere else the ingenuity of invention receives the fullest scope in every kind of form and combination1 and is no longer in position to retain the true object of independent sculpture4 #b4 ,,the ,,material ,,of ,,sculpture ,we have1 by our acceptance of the principle of individuality1 which is fundamental to sculpture1 been compelled not merely to emphasize in separation the different provinces of the divine1 human and natural1 from which plastic art accepts its subject-matter1 but also to classify the several modes of presentation in the single statue1 group1 or relief4 ,in the same way we have to discover a like variety of division in the material which the artist can make use of in his works4 ,for different kinds of content and mode of presentation are more particularly congenial to different kinds of sensuous material1 and betray a secret attraction to and affinity with such4 ,by way of generalization ,i will merely here permit myself the remark that the ancients1 in addition to the extraordinary excellence of their invention1 equally excite our astonishment by reason of the amazing elaboration and versatility of their technical accomplishment4 ,both aspects present an equal difficulty in sculpture1 because the means at hand here for such presentation are without the ideal many-sidedness1 which is at the disposal of the other arts4 ,architecture is no doubt poorer still in this respect2 but it is not her province to embody spirit in its vitality1 or what is actually alive in ,nature in a material which is by itself wholly inorganic4 ,this elaborate dexterity in the absolutely consummate treatment of pure material is1 however1 bound up with the notion of the ,ideal itself1 for its very principle is a complete entrance into the sensuous concreteness and the blending together of the ,ideal with its external mode of existence4 ,the same principle is therefore once again asserted1 where the ,ideal attains its executed form and realization4 ,in this respect we have no reason to wonder1 when it is asserted that artists1 in periods distinguished by great executive ability1 either executed their works of marble in clay without models1 or1 if they had recourse to them1 set about their work in a much freer and unconstrained manner than is the case in our own times1 where1 to put the fact bluntly1 it only makes copies which are now executed in marble after originals carried out in the clay#ahh4 ,the old artists retained in fact the vital enthusiasm1 which is always to a more or less extent lost in the case of copies and replicas1 although it is undeniable that now and again we meet with defective work in famous masterpieces1 as1 for example1 eyes that are not of the same size1 ears one of which is placed lower than the other1 feet that are of unequal length and others of the same kind4 ,they did not lay so much stress on the absolute precision of the compass in such things as ordinary production and art criticism1 that mediocrity of talent which imagines itself so profound1 is wont to do2 and it can do little else4 7a7 ,among the different materials in which sculptors have executed images of gods1 wood is one of the most ancient4 ,a trunk1 a post at the top of which a head can be indicated1 such was the beginning4 ,among the earliest examples of the temple image many are of wood1 but the material was also used even in the days of ,pheidias4 ,the colossal ,minerva of ,pheidias at ,plataea was mainly carved from wood which was gilded1 the head1 hands1 and feet being of marble#ahi2 ,myron1 too#aij1 executed a ,hecate out of wood here with only one head and body1 and no doubt for ,aegina1 where ,hecate was most revered and a festival took place annually in her honour1 a festival which the ,aeginetans maintained the ,thracian ,orpheus had inaugurated for them4 ,generally speaking1 wood1 when it is not covered over with gilding or some other precious material1 by reason of its texture and the grain of it1 appears too fine a material for works of importance and more appropriate to smaller figures1 for which purpose it was frequently used in the ,middle ,ages1 and is still thus utilized nowadays4 7b7 ,other materials of most importance are ivory1 associated with gold1 founded bronze and marble4 77 ,as is well known1 ,pheidias employed ivory and gold for his masterpieces1 such as his ,olympian ,zeus1 and also for his famous colossal ,athene in the ,acropolis of ,athens1 who carried on her hand an image of ,victory1 itself being larger than life-size4 ,the nude portions of the body were made out of sheets of ivory1 the drapery and mantle from gold plates1 which could be removed4 ,this type of workmanship in yellowish ivory and gold dates from a period in which statues were coloured1 a kind of representation which steadily approximated to the one colour tone of bronze and marble4 ,ivory is an extremely pure material1 smooth and without the granular character of marble1 and1 moreover1 costly4 ,and among the ,athenians the costliness of the statues of their gods was itself of importance4 ,the ,pallas at ,plataea had merely a superficial gilding1 that at ,athens solid metal plates4 ,the statues had to be both of colossal size and of the richest material4 ,quatremre de ,quincy has written a masterly work upon these works1 upon the toreutic of the ancients4 ,toreutic--1 --is primarily applicable to figures whose lines are brought out by engraving in metal1 or cutting of some kind such as cut stones2 one uses the expression1 however1 to indicate entire works or parts of entire works in metal1 which are executed by means of moulds and the founder's art1 that is1 not by means of engraving1 then1 still more remotely from the original meaning1 of superb figures on earthenware utensils1 and finally in the widest sense of mouldings#aia on bronze4 ,quatremre's researches have particularly been directed to the technical aspect of the execution2 he calculates what must have been the size of the plates made of elephants' tusks1 and1 among other things1 how much space1 in proportion to the gigantic dimensions of the figure1 they would leave covered4 ,from another point of view he is equally concerned to reproduce for us from the sketches1 or other evidence#aib we possess from antiquity1 a drawing of the seated figure of ,zeus1 and1 most of all1 the great chair with its rich decorations of bas-reliefs1 and by so doing to give us in every respect some conception of the splendour and perfection of the work4 ,in the ,middle ,ages ivory is mainly used for smaller works of very varied character1 such as ,christ on the ,cross and the ,virgin ,mary1 or yet again for drinking vessels with scenes of hunting and the like1 in which cases ivory1 on account of its smoothness and hardness1 is in many respects preferable to wood4 77 ,the material which was most favoured and most widely employed by the ancients was bronze1 in the casting of which it attained a success of the highest mastery4 ,preeminently during the period of ,myron and ,polycletus it was the prevailing material utilized in statues of deities and other kinds of sculpture4 ,the darker1 less defined colour1 the sheen1 the smoothness of bronze generally1 has not reached the abstract formality of the white marble1 and it is at the same time warmed4 ,the bronze which the ancients used was partly gold and silver1 partly copper1 varying considerably in the degrees of its component parts4 ,the so-called bronze of ,corinth is1 for example1 a composition unique of its kind which originated after the burning of ,corinth from the almost incredible wealth of this city in statues and vessels of bronze4 ,mummius had many statues carried off on his ships2 and the excellent man was so full of anxiety for their safe deliverance in ,rome that he informed the captain that in case of loss he must recreate the same exactly or suffer1 such was the threat1 heavy punishment4 ,in the founding of bronze the ancients attained an incredible mastery1 by aid of which it was possible to them to cast it securely despite its extreme thinness4 ,it is possible to regard such a feat as merely a matter of technical dexterity which is unconnected with true art4 ,every artist1 however1 works upon a certain material1 and it is an essential quality of genius to be complete master of the same4 ,dexterity and adaptability in matters which concern the technique and instruments of its work constitute one distinct aspect of genius4 ,on account of this virtuosity in the founder's art a work of sculpture in this medium involved a less expensive process1 and was in the reach of a larger number than the chiselling out of marble statues4 ,a second advantage1 which the ancients were able to attain in casting their work in bronze1 was the purity thereby acquired1 which they carried so far that their bronze statues did not require further enchasening1 and consequently lost nothing of the finer marks of expression1 which is almost inevitable where such a process is necessary4 ,if we consider1 then1 the extraordinary number of works of art1 which originated in this facility and mastery over technical matters1 we cannot fail to be astonished and admit that the artistic sense for sculpture is a distinctive impulse and instinct of spirit1 which can only1 that is1 in so overwhelming a degree1 appear in one period and one people4 ,in the whole of the ,prussian ,state1 for example1 at the present time we can easily reckon up the number of bronze statues1 the single bronze door of a church we find in ,gnesen1 and1 with the exception of the standing figures of ,blcher at ,berlin and ,breslau1 and ,luther at ,wittenburg1 we have merely a few more in ,knigsberg and ,dsseldorf#aic4 ,the very various tone and the infinite adaptability to form and fusibility of this material1 which may accommodate itself to every kind of representation1 gives to sculpture the pass into every conceivable variety of production1 and makes its sensitive material suitable for a host of conceits1 prettinesses1 utensils1 ornaments1 and innocent trifles of all kinds4 ,marble1 on the other hand1 is limited in its suitability for the depicting of objects and their size2 it is1 for instance1 possible to execute bas-reliefs in it of a certain size on urns and vases4 ,it is1 however1 unsuitable for smaller objects4 ,in the case of bronze1 however1 which is not merely cast into specific forms1 but can also be beaten into shape and informed by the engraver's tools1 there is hardly any type or size of representation which it does not command4 ,we may here1 by way of more definite example1 instance the case of coinage minting4 ,in this art1 too1 we find that the ancients executed masterworks of beauty1 albeit in the technical aspect of the mere mintage#aid they stand as yet far behind our present elaboration of all that is mechanical in the design4 ,the coins in fact were not really minted1 but beaten but of pieces of metal closely resembling a globular form4 ,this department of the art attained its culmination in the time of ,alexander4 ,the coins of the ,roman ,empire have already deteriorated4 ,in our own time ,napoleon endeavoured to revive the beauty of antique work in his medals and coinage1 and they are of great excellence4 ,in other states1 however1 the mere worth of the metal and accurate weight is mainly important in the mintage of coin4 77 ,the last kind of material exceptionally favourable to sculpture is stone1 which possesses independently the external aspect of consistency and permanence4 ,the ,egyptians long before chiselled out their sculptured colossi with a labour that spared no pains from the hardest granite1 syenite and basalt4 ,marble is1 however1 most directly1 as a material1 in harmony with the aims of sculpture through its soft purity1 whiteness1 no less than by the absence of definite colour and the mildness of its sheen1 and in particular possesses1 by virtue of its granular texture and the soft interfusion of light which it carries1 a great advantage over the chalk-like dead whiteness of gypsum1 which is too bright1 and easily kills with its glare the finer shadows4 ,we find a distinct preference given to marble1 only at a later epoch of the ,greek school1 that is during the period of ,praxiteles and ,scopas1 who executed their most famous works in marble4 ,pheidias no doubt worked in marble1 but for the most part only in the execution of head1 hands1 and feet4 ,myron and ,polycletus mainly made use of bronze4 ,praxiteles and ,scopas1 on the other hand1 appear to have sought to remove from sculpture that feature which is alien to its main principle1 namely colour4 ,no doubt it is undeniable that the beauty of the ideal of sculpture is capable of being embodied in bronze as in marble1 with no diminution whatever of its purity4 ,when1 however1 as was the case with ,praxiteles and ,scopas1 art begins to approach the softer forms of grace and charm of figure1 the marble asserts itself as the more congenial medium4 ,for marble encourages1 by virtue of the transparency of its surface1 a softness of outline1 its gentle articulation#aie and mild conjunction2 add to this that the tender and artificial elaboration of consummate work always appears more clearly on the soft whiteness of stone than on bronze1 however noble it may be1 which1 in proportion as the transition of green is beautifully gradated1 makes the lustres and the reflections all the more disturbing to the effect of repose#aif4 ,for the same reason the careful attention1 which at this period was paid to effects of light and shade1 whose nuances and gradations are more clearly marked by marble than by bronze1 was a further reason why stone should be preferred to metal4 7c7 ,in conclusion we ought to associate with the above more important kinds of material precious stones and glass4 ,the ancient gems1 cameos and pastes are invaluable4 ,they repeat in fact on the smallest scale1 yet with consummate finish1 the entire survey of sculpture1 from the simple figure of a god1 through all the varied forms of grouping to every possible kind of conceit in dainty delight and prettiness4 ,winckelmann1 however1 observes with regard to the ,stosch collection#aig3 ,it was while looking at this that ,i was made aware of a truth1 which afterwards became to me of great value in elucidating monuments1 very difficult to understand2 and the truth is this1 that on cut stones1 no less than on imposing works of sculpture1 we very rarely come across events which took place after the ,trojan war1 or after the return of ,odysseus to ,ithaca1 if we only except the one case of the ,heracleidae and the descendants of ,hercules2 for in this latter case the limits of history and fable still overlap1 and fable is the main subject of these artists4 ,only one example of the tale of the ,heracleidae1 however1 is known to me personally4 ,as for gems1 the genuine and most consummately executed figures are of the greatest beauty1 fine as the work of organic ,nature1 and may be inspected through a magnifying glass without any loss to the purity of their delineation4 ,i refer to this fact in proof that the technique of art in such cases is almost an art of intuition2 the fineness is such that the artist is unable as the sculptor is to follow the work with his eyes1 but is rather compelled to feel after it4 ,he holds the stone which is made fast on wax against tiny sharp wheels which are made to spin by means of a flying-wheel1 and in this way cuts out the forms4 ,by this process what we have is a kind of instinctive sense1 which takes in and directs so consummately the conception1 the intention of line and drawing1 that we can almost fancy ourselves to have before us in these stones1 when one sees them properly illuminated1 a relief work4 ,the work on cameos is to be contrasted with the above4 ,these represent figures finely cut in out of the stone4 ,the onyx was particularly utilized as material for this kind of work4 ,in dealing with these1 the ancients were expert in setting off to advantage and with taste the various strata1 in particular the white and yellow-brown4 ,aemilius ,paulus had a number of such stones and other trinkets carried to ,rome4 ,in the representations which were depicted upon all this varied material the ,greek artists adapted as the basis of their work no situations which were poetically conceived by themselves1 but selected their subject-matter invariably1 if we only except examples of ,bacchanals and dances1 from myths about the gods and sagas4 ,even in the case of urns and representations of events relative to deceased persons they had definite facts before them1 which were associated with the individual1 whom it was thought right to honour by reason of his decease4 ,the direct allegory1 in fact1 does not belong to the genuine ,ideal1 but only becomes perspicuous in art's later development4 #c4 ,,the ,,historical ,,evolution ,,of ,,sculpture ,we have hitherto regarded sculpture as the most adequate expression of the classical ,ideal4 ,the ,ideal1 however1 has not merely an intrinsic forward development on its own account1 by virtue of which it approximates to that which it is in virtue of its notion1 and by doing so equally begins a forward movement beyond this absolute harmony with its own essential nature4 ,quite apart from this1 as we have already seen in the second main division of this work during our review of the particular types of art as a process1 it contains1 putting on one side its mode of presentation under the symbolical type1 a certain aspect presupposed1 which it is bound to pass beyond in order generally to establish itself as ,ideal1 and moreover a further type of art1 that is the romantic1 from which it will once more pass away4 ,both types of art1 the symbolical no less than the romantic1 likewise seize upon the human figure as an element of their presentment1 whose spatial outlines they adhere to1 and consequently set forth as sculpture sets them forth4 ,we have1 therefore1 when it is a question of drawing attention to the historical-development1 not only to speak of ,greek and ,roman sculpture1 but also ,oriental and ,christian4 ,it was1 however1 the ,egyptian people pre-eminently among all1 among whom the symbolical type sums up the fundamental character of their art-production1 who first began to associate with their deities the human figure as it emerges from a mode of existence that is purely natural1 and for this reason it is mainly among them that we meet too with sculpture1 inasmuch as they gave as a rule to their general outlook an artistic existence in that which was simply material4 ,the sculpture of ,christianity is of wider range and richer development4 ,we do not merely refer here to its uniquely romantic character in the ,middle ,ages1 but also to that further elaboration1 in which we find it made an effort once again to approach more closely the principle of the classical ,ideal1 and establish that type most specifically consonant with sculpture4 ,i will in concluding the present section of my work in its entirety1 and following the above general observations1 add a few words1 first1 upon ,egyptian sculpture as contrasted with the ,greek as the introductory stage of the true ,ideal4 ,the characteristic elaboration of ,greek sculpture makes our second stage1 which closes with ,roman sculpture4 ,on the present occasion what will mainly concern us will be to survey the stage which precedes the really ideal mode of presentation1 because we have already in our second chapter considered at length ideal sculpture4 ,thirdly1 we have merely left us to indicate briefly the principle of ,christian sculpture4 ,i can only undertake in this place to refer to it in the most general terms4 7a7 ,when we have the intention to investigate on the soil of ,greece the classical art of sculpture from the historical standpoint1 we find ourselves already confronted with ,egyptian art in the form of sculpture before we have arrived at our object2 and we must add not merely is this so in regard to great works which bear witness to the highest technique and elaboration in an entirely unique artistic style1 but as the point of departure and source for the forms of ,greek plastic art4 ,that this last result on the ground of historical fact amounts also to an external contact1 an acceptance and an instruction to which ,greek artists submitted1 this must be left to the history of art to establish1 whether it be in reference to the significance of figures of deities represented from the field of mythology1 or to the particular methods of artistic treatment4 ,the association between ,greek and ,egyptian ideas of the gods is a conviction set forth with proofs by ,herodotus4 ,creuzer is of the view that we find this external association of these arts most clearly demonstrated on coins1 and he lays exceptional stress on ancient ,attic examples4 ,he has showed me one in his own possession in which without question the face1 a profile possessed quite the outline of the physiognomy of ,egyptian figures in every respect#aih4 ,we must1 however1 here leave this purely historical aspect to stand on its own merits1 and confine ourselves to the inquiry whether apart from it a more ideal and necessary bond of connection cannot be established4 ,this bond of intrinsic causality we have already adverted to above4 ,it is necessary that the art which is incomplete must precede the complete form of art1 the ,ideal1 by means of the negation of which1 that is by the stripping off of that aspect which adheres to it as a defect1 the ,ideal is first realized4 ,in this respect unquestionably classical art is a becoming or a process1 which1 however1 apart from it must necessarily possess an independent existence1 inasmuch as qu classical it must leave all deficiency1 all the mere becoming behind it1 and be essentially rounded in completion4 ,this process as such consists in this1 that the form of the presentation first begins to run counter to the ,ideal1 and yet remains incapable of an ideal grasp1 belonging as it does to the symbolical synthesis1 which is unable to embody in union the universal aspect of the significance1 and the individual embodiment as it appears to sense4 ,that ,egyptian sculpture possesses such a fundamental character1 is the single point that ,i will now briefly touch upon4 77 ,the primary fact that calls for attention is the deficiency we find here in ideal and creative spontaneity1 despite the greatest technical perfection4 ,the source of works of ,greek sculpture is the vitality and freedom of the imagination1 which builds up individual figures from the religious ideas which are prevalent1 and in the individuality of this its production makes an actual fact of its own ideal outlook and classical perfection4 ,the ,egyptian figures of deities1 on the contrary1 receive an inherited#aii type4 ,as ,plato long ago observes#bjj1 the representations were long before fixed by the priestly caste1 and it was neither permitted to painter nor any master of sculpture to introduce novelty1 nor indeed to invent anything at all1 but to accept instead what was already among them and traditional2 neither is such permission conceded now4 ,we consequently find that what was made and fashioned1 it may be myriads of years before 7to allow oneself a hyperbolical expression for the great number that is actual verity71 is neither more beautiful nor more ugly than the work of to-day4 ,the circumstance must also be associated with this scholastic accuracy1 that in ,egypt1 as appears clear from ,herodotus#bja1 artists did not enjoy the same respect as other citizens1 but were forced with their children to defer to all who were not engaged in artistic work4 ,add to this art among the people was not followed according to natural inclination2 the institution of caste was paramount1 and the son walked after his father1 not merely in the matter of profession1 but also in the way in which he made himself efficient in his duties and his art4 ,one man simply placed his feet in the steps of another1 so that1 as ,winckelmann has already observed#bjb1 ,not a soul appears to have left behind him a footmark1 which he can appropriate as his own4 ,consequently art1 when fully confronted with this enforced serfdom of ,spirit--in conjunction with which the mobility of free and artistic genius1 in other words1 not the mere impulse after external honour and reward1 but the more elevated impulse to be artist1 is banished--maintained itself simply as the mere craftsman working in a purely mechanical and abstract way according to forms and rules ready to hand1 rather than with the vision of the artist of his own individuality in his work1 viewed in this way as his own unique creation4 77 ,coming now in the second place to the actual works of art1 here1 too1 we may borrow from ,winckelmann1 whose descriptions attest once more his exceptional acuteness of observation and distinction1 and whose account of the character of ,egyptian sculpture is in its main lines as follows#bjc4 ,speaking generally we may say that both grace and vitality1 which are the result of the genuine sweep and balance of organic line1 are absent from the entire figure and its detailed parts2 the outlines are straight or in lines that show less deviation from it1 the pose appears constrained and stiff1 the feet are thrust close together1 and in cases of figures in the upright position where one foot is placed before the other1 both point in the same direction instead of having the toes turned outwards4 ,in the same way1 in masculine figures1 the arms hang down straight and glued to the body4 ,further1 the hands1 such is ,winckelmann's view1 are shaped much as we find them in men who possess hands not badly shaped originally1 but deteriorated and neglected2 feet1 on the other hand1 are too flat and spread out1 the toes are of equal length and the little toe is neither crooked nor curved inwards3 in other respects hands1 nails1 and toes are not badly shaped1 although neither the joints of fingers nor toes are indicated4 ,and similarly we may say of all the rest of the nude figure the muscles and bones are but slightly indicated1 and the nerves and veins not at all4 ,in short1 so far as detail is concerned1 despite the laborious and able execution1 just that aspect of the elaboration is absent which alone communicates to the figure its true animation and vitality4 ,the knees1 however1 bones1 and elbows are traceable in relief1 as we find them in ,nature4 ,masculine figures are conspicuous for their exceptionally narrow waist above the hips4 ,the backs of figures1 on account of their position against columns and their being sculptured from one block with them1 are not visible4 ,together with this lack of mobility1 which is not entirely due to the technical inferiority of the artists1 but must be regarded as a result of their primitive conception of the figures of deities and their mysterious repose1 is nearly associated the absence of any true situation and any sort or kind of action1 which are asserted in sculpture by means of the position and motion of the hands and the demeanour and expression of delineation4 ,no doubt we do find among ,egyptian representations on obelisks and walls many figures in movement1 but these are purely reliefs and are for the most part painted4 ,to add a few more examples of even more intimate detail1 the eyes are not deeply set as in the ,greek ideal1 but are almost on a level with the forehead2 they are flattened and extended obliquely4 ,the eyebrows1 eyelids1 and rims of the lips are mainly suggested by the graver's lines1 or the brows are indicated by a stroke in relief1 which extends as far as the temples and is at that point cut off angular wise4 ,what we above all find wanting here is the projection of the forehead1 and along with this1 together with uncommonly high placed ears and arched noses1 as is the rule with vulgar natures1 we have the retreating form of cheekbones1 which in contrast to other parts are strongly indicated and emphasized1 whereas the chin is always retiring and small2 the rigidly closed mouth1 too1 draws its corners in an outward rather than an under-ward direction1 and the lips appear to be separated from each other by a mere slit4 ,speaking generally1 then1 such figures are not only wanting in freedom and vitality1 but more than anything else the head fails to show us the expression of spiritual significance2 the animal aspect is the prevailing one1 and ,spirit is not as yet suffered to appear in its self-poise and independence4 ,the execution of animal figures is1 on the contrary1 according to the same authority1 carried through with much knowledge and an exquisite variety of gently gradated outlines and of parts that flow one into the other without a break4 ,and if in the human figures spiritual life is not as yet liberated from the animal type and the interfusion of the ,ideal with what is sensuous and of ,nature on a new and free model is absent1 yet we find here that the specifically symbolical significance of the human no less than the animal figures is directly expressed by means of sculpture in these embodiments of forms1 in which human and animal shapes pass into one mysterious union4 77 ,consequently the works of art1 which carry on their face this character1 remain at the stage where the breach between significance and form is not yet bridged over4 ,for such a stage significance is still of main importance1 and what is aimed at is rather the conception of that in its general aspect1 than the vitalization of any one individual figure and the artistic enjoyment derived from such presentment4 ,sculpture proceeds here from the genius of an entire people1 about which we may on the one hand affirm1 that it has in the first instance arrived at the point where the need of imaginative conception is disclosed2 and it is satisfied to find that indicated in the work of art1 which is present in the conception1 and here of course is a conception which is religious4 ,we are not therefore entitled1 taking into consideration the great strides they have made in laborious activity upon and actual perfection in technical execution1 to call the ,egyptians uneducated in their sculpture merely on the ground that1 despite all this1 they did not as yet in great measure seek to attach truth1 vitality1 and beauty to their results1 by virtue of which qualities the free work of art receives a soul4 ,doubtless from another point of view the ,egyptians did advance beyond the mere idea and its necessary demand4 ,they sought further to envisage and embody the same in human and animal forms1 nay1 they knew how to comprehend and set forth the forms1 which they reproduced1 clearly1 without distortion and in their just relations4 ,they failed1 however1 to impart to them the breath of vitality1 which the human form in its natural state already possesses1 and to infuse with them that more exalted life1 by virtue of which an active and fluent motion of spirit could be expressed in a created image that was adequate to its significance4 ,their works rather attest a seriousness that is entirely lifeless1 an unsolved riddle1 so that the configuration does not so much embody their own individual ideality as permit us to surmise a further significance which is still alien to it4 ,i will here only adduce one example1 namely1 the frequently recurring figure of ,isis1 holding ,horus on her knees4 ,here we have1 so far as externals are concerned1 the same subject-matter that we meet with in ,christian art as the ,madonna and her ,child4 ,in the symmetrical1 straight-lined1 and immovable pose of the ,egyptian example we discover1 to quote a recent description#bjd1 neither a mother1 nor a child2 there is no trace of affection1 smile1 or endearment1 in a word there is no real expression at all4 ,tranquil1 unperturbed1 and immovable is this divine mother1 who suckles her divine babe2 or rather we have here neither goddess nor mother1 nor son1 nor god4 ,it is simply the sensuous sign of a thought1 which is capable of no result and no passion2 it is not the genuine presentation of a real action1 still less the just expression of a natural emotion4 ,and it is precisely this which constitutes the breach between signification and determinate being1 which creates the absence of figurative expression in the artistic results of the ,egyptian people4 ,their ideality or spiritual sense is still so imbruted1 that it has no imperative desire to possess the precision bound up in a true and vital representation carried through with detailed accuracy1 to which the onlooker has nothing to add1 but may simply surrender himself to the attitude of reception and translation1 because everything is already a gift of the artist4 ,we must have a more lofty feeling of the individual's self-respect aroused than the ,egyptians possessed1 before we cease to be content with the indefinite and superficial features of art1 and make valid in its products a claim to reason1 science1 motion1 expression1 soul1 and beauty4 7b7 ,we find this artistic self-consciousness1 so far as sculpture is concerned1 first wholly alive among the ,greeks4 ,by its presence all the defects of the ,egyptian phase of art vanish4 ,yet in this further development we do not have to make a wide leap from the imperfections of a type of sculpture still symbolical to the perfected result of the classical ,ideal4 ,rather the ,ideal has1 in its own distinctive province--,i have noticed this more than once--although lifted to a higher range1 to remove the defects whereby in the first instance its onward path of perfection is obstructed4 77 ,i will here very briefly refer to ,aeginetan and ancient ,etruscan works of art as examples of such beginnings within the sphere itself of classical art4 ,both these stages1 or rather styles1 already pass beyond that point of view1 which is satisfied1 as was the case with ,egypt1 in repeating forms1 we will not say absolutely opposed to ,nature1 but at least forms that are lifeless1 precisely as they have been received from others1 and is further content to place before the imagination a figure1 from which the same can abstract its own religious content and recover the same for memory1 without1 however1 attempting to work it out under a mode1 by virtue of which the work is made apparent as the individual conception and vitality of the artist himself4 ,but along with this and to the same degree this preliminary stage of ideal art fails as yet to force its way entirely to the true classical ground1 and this1 first1 because it is still clearly constrained within the bonds of the type and therewith the lifeless2 secondly1 because though it makes an advance in the direction of vitality and motion1 yet in the first instance all that it attains to is the vitality of what is wholly of ,nature1 rather than that beauty1 whose animation is ,spirit's own gift1 and which manifests the life ,spirit inseparably conjoint within the living presentment of its natural form1 accepting the individual modifications of this fully completed union with equal impartiality from present vision of actual fact and the free creation of genius4 ,it is only in recent times that we have obtained a more detailed knowledge of ,aeginetan works of art1 over which it has been a matter of controversy1 whether they belonged to ,greek art or no4 ,in considering their artistic quality1 as representations1 we must at once make an essential distinction between the head and the rest of the body4 ,the whole of the body1 if we except the head1 attests the most faithful apprehension and imitation of ,nature4 ,even accidental features of the skin are copied and excellently executed with an extraordinary manipulation of the marble's surface2 the muscles are set forth in full relief and the skeleton framework of the body well indicated2 the figures are thickset in their severity of line#bje1 but are reflected with such knowledge of the human organism1 that they appear alive to a limit of actual deception1 ay1 to an extent1 so ,wagner assures us#bjf1 that we are almost scared at the sight and hardly like to touch them4 ,on the other hand1 in the execution of heads all attempt to represent ,nature is abandoned4 ,one uniform design of face is throughout apparent in all the heads despite every divergence of action1 character1 and situation2 the noses are pointed2 the forehead is still the retreating type1 which fails to rise up straight and with freedom2 the ears are set high in the head2 the long slit eyes are flat and oblique2 the closed mouth ends in corners which are pursed outwards2 the cheeks are stretched flat-shaped2 the chin1 however1 is strong and angular#bjg4 ,of a similar uniformity is the form of the hair and the fall of the drapery1 in which symmetry1 a principle which is also uniquely conspicuous in the pose and groupings1 and second to that1 a peculiar kind of exquisiteness are the prevailing characteristics4 ,this uniformity has been in part imputed to a lack of the sense of beauty in seizing national traits1 and in part traced to the fact that reverence for the ancient traditions of an art still immature has fettered the hands of the artists4 ,an artist1 however1 whose life is that of his personality1 and who lives in his work1 does not suffer his hands to be thus shackled2 consequently we can only explain this type of work1 associated as it is with great ability in other respects1 by assuming some bondage of spirit1 as yet not wholly conscious of its freedom and independence of its creative powers4 ,the pose of these figures is of the same kind of uniformity1 not so much a quality of stiffness as uncouthness1 lack of enthusiasm1 and in a measure1 where we have the attitudes of warriors1 resembling what we sometimes find from artisans at their trade1 such as the rough work of joiners with the plane#bjh4 ,the net result1 which we gather from the above description1 we may affirm to be that1 however interesting they may be for the history of art1 what is wanting in such works of art1 in the conflict they disclose between tradition and the imitation of ,nature1 is spiritual animation4 ,for we must remember that1 in accordance with what ,i have already explained in the second chapter of this part of my work1 spiritual significance is exclusively expressed in the countenance and the pose of the figure4 ,the other parts of the body no doubt indicate natural distinctions of soul1 sex1 and age1 but what is spiritual in the full sense can only be reflected by the general pose4 ,but it is precisely the traits of countenance and the posture which in ,aeginetan sculpture is the relatively spiritless4 ,the ,etruscan works of art1 that is1 such whose genuineness is fully authenticated by inscription1 display the same imitation of ,nature in a yet higher degree2 they are1 however1 freer in their pose and facial characteristics1 and1 in fact1 some of them approximate closely to the portrait4 ,winckelmann1 for example#bji1 mentions the statue of a man which appears to be simply a portrait1 though it would also appear to date from a later period of art4 ,it is a man of life-size1 representing some kind of orator1 a magisterial1 worthy sort of person4 ,it is executed with an extraordinary spontaneity and naturalness both of pose and expression4 ,remarkable and significant it would indeed be1 if we did not recollect that on ,roman soil it is not the ,ideal but actual and prosaic natural fact which is from the first at home4 77 ,in the second place truly ideal sculpture1 in order to reach the highest point of classical art1 has above all1 to abandon the mere type and the respect for what is traditional1 and to give free scope to the principle of spontaneity in artistic production4 ,it is alone possible to a freedom of this kind entirely to incorporate the significance in its generality in the individual presentment of the form2 or1 from another point of view1 to elevate the sensuous forms to the high level of a true expression of their spiritual import4 ,only after doing this do we find the rigid and inflexible aspect which is native to the origins of the more ancient art1 no less than the emphatic prominence of the significance over the individuality1 by means of which the content ought to be expressed1 liberated as that vital creation1 in which the bodily forms also on their part equally lose the abstract uniformity of a traditional1 character1 and an illusive realism1 and by doing so move in the direction of the classical individuality1 which quite as much makes1 vital the universality of the form in the particularity of its object as1 on the other hand1 it makes the sensuousness and actuality of the same throughout interfused with the expression of a soul's inspiration#baj4 ,a vitalization of this type affects not only the form1 but also the pose1 movement1 drapery1 grouping1 in short every aspect of the sculptured figure to which ,i have already drawn attention4 ,what here communicates unity are these two principles of universality and individualization4 ,they have1 however1 not merely to be brought into harmony in respect to the spiritual content1 but also in relation to the material form1 before they can be participant in the indissoluble association which is the classical type in its full flavour4 ,this identity1 however1 has itself a series of stages4 ,in other words1 under one extreme we find that the ,ideal still somewhat inclines to the aspect of loftiness and severity1 which it is true does not deprive the individual object of its living impulse and movement1 yet does tend to concentrate it more securely under the lordship of the general type4 ,at the other extreme we find that the universal aspect more and more tends to dissolve in the individual2 and while it pays the penalty for doing so in loss of depth it can only replace this loss by further elaboration of this sensuous individuality4 ,consequently it descends from the heights to the lower levels of that which gives pleasure1 is exquisite1 blithesome1 and displays the charm which flatters4 ,between these two there is a further phase1 one1 namely1 which carries forward the severity of the first to increased individualization1 without reaching that point where mere charm of aspect is held to be the supreme object4 77 ,thirdly1 in the art of ,rome we have indications of the dissolution of classical sculpture4 ,in this art it is no longer upon the true ,ideal that the entire conception and execution depends4 ,the poetry inherent in the vital action of ,spirit1 the breath and nobility of the soul apparent in the essentially perfected presentment1 these peculiarly emphasized excellences of ,greek plastic art disappear1 and give place1 as a rule1 to a preference for portraiture studies4 ,and this insistence on realistic truth in art is carried out in all possible modifications4 ,notwithstanding1 this ,roman sculpture maintains so lofty a position in this its own province1 that it is only in so far as it withdraws from that which brings a work of art to its full perfection1 in other words1 the poetry of the ,ideal in the true sense of the word1 that it essentially falls behind ,greek art4 7c7 ,fixing now our attention on ,christian sculpture we shall find that the principle of artistic conception and its mode of embodiment is from the commencement one that does not so directly commend itself to the material and forms of sculpture as we find to be the case in the classical ,ideal of the ,greek imagination and art4 ,the romantic ,ideal in short is essentially concerned1 as we discovered in the second portion of this work1 with a personal withdrawal of the self into its own realm from the external world1 with a self-absorbed individuality1 which no doubt possesses its external reflection1 but which permits this external appearance to issue independently from it in its aspect of particularity1 without enforcing a fusion between it and its ideal and spiritual self4 ,pain1 torture of body and soul1 martyrdom and penance1 death and resurrection1 the personality of the individual soul1 inner life1 love1 and emotional life in general--this characteristic content of the romantic imagination1 in a religious sense1 is no object1 for which the external form taken simply for what it is in its spatial entirety1 and the material which belongs to it in its more sensuous existence unrelated to ideality1 can supply either a form that is wholly relevant to it1 or one similarly congruent with it4 ,it is therefore not in romantic art sculpture contributes the fundamental type and the affiliating quality of membership in a system#baa to all the other arts as in ,greece1 but yields the palm in this respect to painting and music1 as arts more adequate to express the life of the soul1 distinct from the external world of particularity which is withdrawn from it4 ,no doubt we find also in ,christian art repeated examples of sculpture in wood1 marble1 bronze1 and both silver and gold work1 examples of the greatest excellence4 ,yet for all that sculpture is not here the art which1 as in ,greek art1 is most fitted to reveal the ,divine image4 ,religious romantic sculpture1 on the contrary1 is to a larger extent than in the case of the ,greek1 an embellishment of architecture4 ,the saints are placed as a rule in the niches of towers and buttresses1 or at the entrance doors4 ,likewise the birth1 baptism1 the histories of the passion and resurrection1 and many other incidents in the life of ,christ1 the day of ,judgment and so forth1 accommodate themselves naturally by the multiplicity of their subject-matter to reliefs over church doors1 on church walls1 and stalls in the choir1 and readily approximate to the character of arabesques4 ,all such sculpture contains1 for the reason that it is the life of the soul which is herein pre-eminently expressed1 characteristics suggestive of the painter's art in a higher degree than is permitted in the plastic of ideal sculpture4 ,and from another point of view1 for the same reason1 such a sculpture seizes more readily upon aspects of ordinary life1 and therewith inclines to portraiture1 which1 as in the case of painting1 it is quite prepared to associate with religious representations4 ,the goose-seller1 for example1 in the ,nrnberg marketplace1 which is highly prized by ,goethe and ,meyer1 is an ordinary rustic of very realistic appearance in bronze 7it would be impossible in marble71 who carries a goose under either arm to market4 ,there are1 too1 the many sculptured figures1 which we find upon the ,st4 ,sebaldus ,church and on many other churches and buildings1 especially dating from the period previous to ,peter ,vischer1 and which in their representation of religious subjects such as the ,passion1 make clear to us with great vividness this particular type of individualized form1 expression1 mien and attitude1 more particularly in their reflection of every degree of sorrow4 ,as a rule1 then1 romantic sculpture1 which has deviated only too frequently into every kind of confusion1 remains most loyal to the genuine principle of plastic art in those cases where it approaches most nearly the ,greek1 and either is concerned to treat in the mode of sculpture ancient subject-matter1 much as the ancients would have done1 or to model the standing figures of heroes and kings1 and portraits1 with an intention to imitate the antique4 ,this is exceptionally the case nowadays4 ,much of the most excellent work1 however1 has been accomplished by sculpture1 even in the religious field4 ,it is only necessary here to mention the name of ,michelangelo4 ,we can hardly admire sufficiently his dead ,christ#bab1 of which we have a plaster cast in our ,royal ,museum4 ,the authenticity of the sculptured figure of the ,madonna in the ,frauenkirche at ,bruges1 a consummate work1 is disputed by certain critics4 ,speaking for myself1 nothing has ever more impressed me than the tomb of the ,count of ,nassau at ,breda#bac4 ,the ,count reposes with his lady1 life-size figures both in alabaster1 on a slab of black marble4 ,at the angles of this are placed ,regulus1 ,hannibal1 ,caesar1 and a ,roman warrior in a bowing posture1 and they support above their heads a black slab similar to the one beneath4 ,could anything be more interesting than to see a character such as that of ,caesar placed before our eyes by ,michelangelo4 ,even when dealing with religious subjects the genius1 the power of imagination1 the force1 thoroughness1 boldness1 in short all the extraordinary resources of this master tended1 in the characteristic production of his art1 to combine the plastic principle of the ancients with the type of intimate soul-life which we find in romantic art4 ,but as we have seen1 the direction as a rule of the ,christian emotion1 where the religious point of view and idea are paramount1 is not towards the classical form of ideality1 which primarily and with highest results is the determinant factor of its sculpture4 ,from this point we may now fix the transition from sculpture to another principle of artistic apprehension and presentment1 which requires for its realization another sensuous material4 ,in classical sculpture it was the objective and substantive individuality in its human shape1 which constituted the vital core1 and the human form was placed thereby at such a lofty level1 that it was in fact retained in its abstract simplicity as the beauty of form1 and as such converted to the ,divine image4 ,under such a one-sided aspect of content and representation man is not fully himself in his concrete humanity4 ,the anthropomorphism of art remains in its incomplete state in ancient sculpture4 ,for that which fails us here is humanity in its objective universality1 a universality which we identify at the same time with the principle of absolute personality1 quite as much as that aspect of it which in common parlance is called human1 in other words the phase of subjective singularity1 human weakness1 contingency1 caprice1 immediate sense life1 passion1 and so forth1 a phase or factor which must be taken up into that universality in order that the entire individuality1 the subject of conscious life1 that is1 in its entire range1 and in the infinite compass of its reality1 may appear as the vital principle both of the mode of presentment and its content4 ,in classical sculpture one of these phasal aspects1 that is the human from the side of immediate ,nature1 is in part only brought before us in animals1 quasi-animals1 fauns and the like1 without being reflected back again into the personal life of soul1 and stated as a negation of that2 and also in some measure this type of sculpture only accepts the factor of particularity1 only directs its interest to external things in the pleasing style1 in the countless sallies of delight and conceits1 in which the antique plastic lives and moves4 ,owing to this we wholly fail to meet here the profundity and infinity which lies at the root of man's personal life1 that inmost reconciliation of ,spirit with the ,absolute1 that ideal union of humanity with the humanity of ,god4 ,no doubt ,christian sculpture is the instrument which makes visible the content which here enters the domain of art more consonant with the above disregarded principle4 ,but it is precisely its modes of art's embodiment which expose to us the fact that sculpture is insufficient for such a content1 that other modes of art will infallibly arise able to reach in very truth the mark which sculpture failed in its work to achieve4 ,we may collectively unite these new arts under the title of the romantic arts4 ,they are indeed the modes most adequate to express the romantic type of art4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,sein subjektives ,frsichseyn4 ,subjective independence of material conditions4 ,self-consciousness4 ,footnote #aab3 ,rckkehr in sich4 ,into itself1 its own ideal world of conscious thought and emotion4 ,footnote #aac3 ,in seine innerliche ,subjektivitt4 ,that is1 what is essentially the world of soul4 ,spirit here stands for mind and ,gemth or emotional life4 ,footnote #aad3 ,ein ,sichzeichen des ,geistes1 i4e41 are signs of itself which mind evolves in a mode of externality4 ,footnote #aae3 ,here called generically ,baukunst4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,die plastische ,deutlichkeit4 ,footnote #aag3 ,das subjektive ,innere1 i4e41 spiritual experience of a personality4 ,footnote #aah3 ,that is in comparison with the fully independent arts4 ,footnote #aai3 ,that is to say it must be a distinct object of the senses4 ,footnote #abj3 ,in sich materiell particularisirt4 ,we see ,hegel's false notions of the theory of colour influencing his expression4 ,it is really false to say that sculpture has nothing to do with colour4 ,light and shadow at least are necessary and colour is implied4 ,footnote #aba3 ,that is1 lets fall some of its aspects4 ,footnote #abb3 ,das ,gemth4 ,strictly the more emotional part4 ,footnote #abc3 ,between the extremes of architecture and poetry or music4 ,footnote #abd3 ,lit41 ,without being manifested in its return to itself as ideal substance4 ,footnote #abe3 ,unparticularized1 that is in its essential experience4 ,footnote #abf3 ,he explains this lower down4 ,the concentrated point is in the flash of the eye4 ,perhaps here he merely refers to it generally4 ,footnote #abg3 ,als ,innerlichkeit4 ,footnote #abh3 ,this is only partially true of bronze1 and any marble that has had weathering4 ,footnote #abi3 ,by grosse geistige ,sinn ,hegel means no doubt more than taste4 ,he refers to the deep-rooted instinct in the genius of the race4 ,footnote #acj3 ,meyer1 ,history of the ,plastic ,arts among the ,greeks1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #aai4 ,footnote #aca3 ,die acht plastische ,mitte4 ,hegel means that plastic art comes to its most important focus1 as it were1 between the arts that either incline too much to the material as in architecture1 or to ideality as in poetry4 ,footnote #acb3 ,nheren4 ,footnote #acc3 ,the reader must always bear in mind that ,spirit 7,geist7 includes intelligence4 ,it might no doubt in some places be better translated as mind4 ,footnote #acd3 ,substantielle4 ,that is what is the concrete fulness of real spiritual content4 ,footnote #ace3 ,als ,subjekt4 ,footnote #acf3 ,besonderheit4 ,the isolated self of the ,aufklrung4 ,footnote #acg3 ,zuflligen ,selbstischkeit4 ,contingent selfness4 ,the ego above described4 ,footnote #ach3 ,ohne innere ,subjektivitt als solche4 ,that is1 in the wholly abstract sense4 ,footnote #aci3 ,begriff appears to refer here to the notion of animal life generally1 rather than the generic notion in its narrow sense4 ,footnote #adj3 ,innern ,strukture4 ,the structure that ideally motives the whole4 ,footnote #ada3 ,dieses ideelle einfache ,frsichseyn des leiblichen4 ,apparently this includes the vegetable world4 ,footnote #adb3 ,macht sich4 ,that is an operative principle in the working out of4 ,footnote #adc3 ,als ,seele1 i4e41 in the narrow sense of the expression above defined4 ,footnote #add3 ,pathognomik1 i4e41 the science1 that is1 of the expression of the passions1 together with that of their physiological aspect4 ,footnote #ade3 ,lit41 contingent subjectivity4 ,footnote #adf3 ,hegel's expression ,mienen is not easy to translate by a single ,english equivalent4 ,it signifies the passing look--the general variety of facial expression as contrasted with the permanent expression of substantive character4 ,footnote #adg3 ,den eigentlichen ,mienen4 ,the definite aspects of the face which express relatively permanent states of soul-life4 ,footnote #adh3 ,persists in the line of direction of the ,ideal4 ,footnote #adi3 ,die schne freie ,nothwendigkeit4 ,footnote #aej3 ,by ,witzigkeit ,i presume ,hegel means oddity and funniness of every kind--perhaps humorous eccentricity would interpret it4 ,footnote #aea3 ,i think this gives the sense1 though the language is rather confused because his image is that of invention attaching itself to what is already presented rather than creating a form that is based on external suggestion4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,the celebrated courtesan4 ,she entered the sea with dishevelled hair at a celebrated festival at ,eleusis4 ,she had a statue of gold at ,delphi4 ,footnote #aec3 ,eigentlich ,vorstellung ist4 ,footnote #aed3 ,statarisch4 ,that is1 modelled on historical associations or the results of former work2 perhaps eclectic would be a better word4 ,footnote #aee3 ,der geistige ,ton4 ,footnote #aef3 ,de varietate nationum1 #fj4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,as in savage animals4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,the word system is used1 which is not readily translated in this context1 though ,i have adopted the literal translation lower down4 ,footnote #aei3 ,mildrung4 ,the softening of its severe lines4 ,footnote #afj3 ,werke1 vol4 ,,iv1 bk4 #e1 c4 #e1 #bj1 p4 #aih4 ,footnote #afa3 ,it is difficult to see what ,hegel means exactly here by ,schnitte4 ,i suppose he means the external lines of the eye-socket4 ,footnote #afb3 ,l4c4 #bi4 ,footnote #afc3 ,flgeln must here refer to the orifices of the nose4 ,footnote #afd3 ,winck1 l4c4 #cg1 p4 #bah4 ,footnote #afe3 ,hegel's word is habitus4 ,customary attitude and mode of connection appears to be included4 ,footnote #aff3 ,gebehrde1 a word somewhat difficult to translate here4 ,it seems to combine the ideas of gesture and pose4 ,footnote #afg3 ,the reference is1 of course1 to painting and indirectly to poetry4 ,footnote #afh3 ,ein in sich versunkenes ,dastehn oder ,liegen4 ,footnote #afi3 ,gediegenheit4 ,footnote #agj3 ,see vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bfh-bgb4 ,footnote #aga3 ,das hhere ,innere4 ,footnote #agb3 ,das geistige ,bewusstseyn4 ,footnote #agc3 ,her4 ,i1 c4 #aj4 ,footnote #agd3 ,this vitality4 ,footnote #age3 ,vol4 ,v1 bk4 #b1 p4 #ejc4 ,footnote #agf3 ,vol4 ,v1 bk4 #f1 ch4 #b1 p4 #ef4 ,footnote #agg3 ,mus4 ,pio-,clement4 ,tom4 #b1 pp4 #hi-ib4 ,footnote #agh3 ,winck41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dia4 ,footnote #agi3 ,vol4 ,,iv1 bk4 #e1 ch4 ,i1 #bi4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,i am not sure what is exactly meant by gekrmmt here4 ,the description is not very lucid4 ,footnote #aha3 ,,iv1 #e1 #b1 #aj4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,winck41 vol4 ,,vii1 p1 #gh4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,winck41 vol1 ,,vii1 p4 #hj4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #gh4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,i4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,winck41 vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #aaf4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,such is1 ,i think1 the general meaning1 though the literal translation of the words als den ,figuren smmtlich die ,einfachheit abgeht is not quite clear4 ,i take the word smmtlich to mean taken collectively as separate units4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,winck41 ,werk41 vol4 ,v1 p4 #chi4 ,anmerk4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,meyer's ,gesch4 der bild4 ,knste bei den ,griechen1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #fj4 ,footnote #aij3 ,pausanias1 ,,ii1 #cj4 ,footnote #aia3 ,i presume this is the meaning of ,bildnerei4 ,footnote #aib3 ,i am not sure whether ,angaben refers to actual sketches1 or merely other evidence handed down4 ,footnote #aic3 ,in the year #ahbi4 ,footnote #aid3 ,that is in the accuracy of mechanical line as the result of machine4 ,footnote #aie3 ,sanftes ,verlaufen1 i4e41 passage from one plane surface to another4 ,zusammen-stossen appears to me the melting together of lines1 i4e41 conjunction1 fusion4 ,footnote #aif3 ,meyer's ,gesch41 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bgi4 ,footnote #aig3 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,vorr4 ,,xxvii4 ,footnote #aih3 ,that is in #ahba4 ,footnote #aii3 ,statarischen1 scholastic1 eclectic4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,de ,leg41 ,lib4 ,,ii1 ed4 ,bekk41 ,,iii1 #b1 p4 #bci4 ,footnote #bja3 ,herod1 ,,ii1 c4 #afg4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,vol4 ,,iii1 bk4 #b1 ch4 ,i1 p4 #gd4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,vol4 ,,iii1 bk4 #b1 ch4 #b1 pp4 #gg-hd4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,cours d',archologie par ,raoul-,rochette1 #a-abme leon1 ,paris1 #ahbh4 ,footnote #bje3 ,i am not sure if this rightly gives the sense of the words ,die ,gestalten bei strenger ,zeichnung gedrungen4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,ueber die ,aeg4 ,bildwerke mit kunstgesch4 ,anmerk4 von ,schelling1 #ahag4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,that is1 it does not approach ,egyptian type so nearly4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,hegel's words mean this1 ,i suppose1 though the ,german is somewhat compressed and not very clear as it stands4 ,footnote #bji3 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ch4 #b1 #aj1 p4 #ahh and ,pl4 ,,vi1 ,a4 ,footnote #baj3 ,hegel uses the unusual word ,begeistigung1 ,i presume somewhat in the sense of ,begeisterung1 signifying the personal inspiration of the artist4 ,footnote #baa3 ,this appears to be the meaning of the difficult phrase that sculpture supplies das gesammte ,daseyn1 i4e41 is the affiliating link of the collective body4 ,all the different arts are stamped with its characteristics4 ,footnote #bab3 ,i presume the ,piet in ,st4 ,peter's4 ,footnote #bac3 ,hegel's ,vermisch4 ,schriften1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #efa4 ,,subsection ,,iii ,,the ,,romantic ,,arts ,the source of the general transition from sculpture to the other arts is1 as we have seen1 the principle of subjectivity1 which now invades art's content and its manner of exposition4 ,what we understand here by subjectivity is the notion of an intelligence which ideally exists in free independence1 withdrawing itself from objective reality into its own more intimate domain1 a conscious life which no longer concentrates itself with its corporeal attachment in a unity which is without division4 ,there follows from this transition1 therefore1 that dissolution1 that dismemberment of the unity which is held together in the substantive and objective presence of sculpture1 in the focus of its tranquillity and all-inclusive rondure and as such is apprehended in fusion4 ,we may consider this breach from two points of view4 ,on the one hand sculpture1 in respect to its content1 entwined what is substantive in ,spirit directly with the individuality1 which is as yet not self-introspective1 in the exclusive unit of a personal consciousness1 and treated thereby an objective unity in the sense in which objectivity suggests what is intrinsically infinite1 immutable1 true--that substantive aspect1 in short1 which has no part in mere caprice and singularity4 ,and from another point of view sculpture failed to do more than discharge this spiritual content wholly within the corporeal frame as the vital and significant instrument of the same1 and by doing so create a new objective unity in that meaning of the expression1 under which objectivity1 as contrasted with all that is wholly ideal and subjective1 indicates real and external existence4 ,when we find1 then1 that these two aspects1 at first thus reconciled in one another by sculpture1 are separated1 that which we call self-introspective spirituality is not merely placed in opposition to that which is external1 but also1 in the domain of what is spiritual throughout1 what is substantive and objective in that medium1 in so far as it no longer continues to be retained in what is substantial individuality simply1 is dissevered from the vital particularity of the conscious life1 and all these aspects which have been hitherto held together in perfect fusion are relatively to each other and independently free1 so that they can be treated too by art as free in this very way4 #a4 ,if we examine the content1 then1 we have through the above process1 on the one hand1 the substantive being of what is spiritual1 the world of truth and eternity1 the ,divine in fact1 which however here1 in accordance with the principle of particularity1 is comprehended and realized by art as a subject of consciousness1 or as personality1 as the ,absolute1 which is self-conscious in the medium of its infinite spiritual substance1 as ,god in ,his ,spirit and ,truth4 ,and in contrast to ,him we have asserted the worldly and human condition of soul-life1 which1 regarded now as no longer in direct union with the intrinsic substance of ,spirit1 can unfold itself in all the fulness of that particularity which is simply human1 and thereby permits the heart of man wherever and whenever represented#bad1 the entire wealth of our human mortality1 to be open to art's acceptance4 ,the meeting-ground upon which these two aspects once more coalesce is the principle of subjectivity1 which is common to both4 ,the ,absolute is1 in virtue of this1 disclosed to us to the full extent a living1 actual1 and equally human subject of consciousness1 as the human and finite conscious life1 viewed as spiritual1 makes vital and real the absolute substance and truth1 or in other words simply the ,divine ,spirit4 ,the new bond of unity which is thus secured no longer1 however1 supports the character of that former immediacy1 such as sculpture disclosed it2 rather it is a union and reconciliation which asserts itself essentially as a mediation of opposed factors1 and whose very notion makes its apprehension only possible in the realms of the soul and ideal life4 ,i have already1 when the general subdivision of our science in its entire compass offered an opportunity for doing so1 laid it down1 that if the ,ideal of sculpture sets forth in a sensuously present image the essential solidity#bae of the individuality of the ,god in the bodily form alone able to express that substance1 the community thereupon essentially confronts such an object as the intelligent reflection of that unity4 ,spirit1 however1 that is wholly self-absorbed can only present the substance of ,spirit under the mode of ,spirit1 in other words as a conscious subject1 and receives thereby straightway the principle of the spiritual reconciliation of individual subjective life with ,god4 ,as particular self1 however1 man also possesses his contingent natural existence1 and a sphere of finite interests1 needs1 aims1 and passions1 whether it be more extensive or restricted1 in which he is able to realize and satisfy his nature quite as much as he can in the same be absorbed in those ideas of ,god and the reconciliation with ,god4 #b4 ,secondly1 if we consider the aspect of the representation on its external side1 we find that it is by virtue of its particularity at once self-subsistent and possesses a claim to stand forth in this independence1 and this for the reason that the principle of subjectivity excludes that correspondence in its immediacy1 and disallows to itself the absolute interfusion of the ideal and external aspects in every part and relation of it4 ,for the subjective principle is here precisely that which comes to be1 in self-subsistent seclusion1 that inward life which retires from real or objective existence into the realm of the ,ideal1 the world of emotion1 soul1 heart1 and contemplation#baf4 ,this ideal life is manifested no doubt in its external form1 under a mode1 however1 in which the external form itself appears1 that is to say it is merely the outer shell of a conscious subject that is growing independently within4 ,the hard and fast association of the bodily form and the life of ,spirit in classical sculpture is not therefore carried to the point of an all-dissolving unity#bag but in so light and slack a coalescence that both aspects1 albeit neither is present without the other1 preserve in this connection their separate independence relatively to the other1 or at least1 if a profounder union is really secured1 the spiritual aspect as that inward principle1 which asserts its presence over and beyond its suffusion with the objective or external material1 becomes the essentially illuminating focus of all4 ,and it results from this that1 to promote the enhancement of this relatively increased self-subsistency of the objective and material aspect1--we have in our mind mainly1 no doubt1 the extreme case of the representation of external ,nature and its objects1 even in their isolated and most exclusive particularity1--yet even in such a case and despite all realism in the presentment it is necessary that such counterfeits should permit a reflection of the artist's soul to be visible on their face4 ,they should in other words suffer us to see the sympathy of ,spirit in the manner of their artistic realization1 and therewith discover to us the life of soul1 the ideal life which is the vital breath of their co-ordination1 the penetration of man's emotional life itself into this extreme type of external environment4 ,speaking1 then1 generally1 we may affirm that the principle of subjectivity carries with it as its inevitable result1 on the one hand1 that the wholly unconstrained union of ,spirit with its corporeal frame should be given up1 and the bodily aspect be asserted in a more or less negative relation over against the former1 in order that the ideality of ,spirit may be emphasized on the front of that external reality1 and1 on the other hand1 in order to procure free scope for every separate feature of the variety1 division1 and movement of what is spiritual no less than what directly appeals to man's senses4 #c4 ,and1 thirdly1 this new principle has to establish itself in the sensuous material1 of which art avails itself in its new manifestations4 7a7 ,the material hitherto was matter simply1 that is1 the material of gravity in the content of its spatial extension1 and no less was it form under its simplest and most abstract definition of configuration4 ,now that the subjective and at the same time the essentially particularized content of the soul is imported into this material1 the spatial totality of such material will without question in some measure suffer loss in order that the former content may appear upon its face with its ideal mintage#bah1 and contrariwise will be converted from its immediately material guise to an appearance which is the product of mind or spirit2 and1 on the other hand1 both in respect to form and its externally sensuous visibility1 all the detail of what appears will be necessarily emphasized in the way that the new content requires4 ,art is1 however1 even now compelled in the first instance to move in the realm of the visible and sensuous1 because1 following the above course of our inquiry1 though no doubt the inward or ideal is conceived as self-introspection#bai1 yet it has further to appear as a return of its own quality to itself from this very realm of externality and material shape1 in short1 as a return of itself to itself1 which can only from the earliest point of view be portrayed in the objective existence of ,nature and the corporeal existence of ,spirit's life4 ,the first among the romantic arts will consequently have as its proper function to assert its content in the visible forms of the external human figure and the natural shape wherever disclosed1 without1 however1 remaining bound to the sensuous ideality and abstract range of sculpture4 ,this is the task and province of painting4 7b7 ,in so far1 however1 as we find in painting for its fundamental type1 not as in sculpture the entirely perfected resolution of the spiritual idea and the bodily form in one content1 but rather the predominant exposition of the self-absorbed ideality of soul1 to that extent the spatial figure in extension is not a truly adequate medium of expression for the inward life of ,spirit4 ,art therefore abandons the previous medium of configuration1 and in the place of spatial forms employs the medium of tone in the limited duration of its sounds2 tone in fact by its assertion of the material of ,space under a purely negative relation secures for itself a finite existence nearer to ideality1 and corresponds to that soul-life1 which in accordance with its own inward experience conceives and grasps that life as emotion1 and then expresses that content1 as it enforces its claim in the unseen movement of heart and soul1 in the procession of tones4 ,the second art1 therefore1 which follows this principle of exposition is that of music4 7c7 ,thereby1 however1 music merely is placed at the opposite extreme1 and1 in contrast to the plastic arts1 both in respect to its content and relatively to its sensuous material1 and the mode of its expression1 cleaves fast to the formless content of its pure ideality4 ,it is1 however1 the function of art1 in virtue of its essential notion1 to disclose to the senses not merely the soul-life1 but the manifestation and actuality of the same in its external reality4 ,when1 however1 art has abandoned the process of veritably informing the real and consequently visible form of objective existence1 and has applied its activity to the element itself of soul-life1 the objective reality1 to which it once more recurs1 can no longer be the reality as such in itself1 but one which is merely imagined and prefigured to the mind or sensitive soul4 ,the presentment1 moreover1 as being the communication to ,spirit of creative mind working in its own domain is compelled to use the sensuous material united to its disclosure simply as a mere means for such communication4 ,it must consequently lower its denomination to that of a sign which of itself is without significance4 ,it is at this point that poetry or the art of speech1 confronts us1 which now incorporates its art-productions in the medium of a speech elaborated to an instrument of artistic service1 precisely as intelligence already in ordinary speech makes intelligible to spiritual life all that it carries in itself4 ,and1 moreover1 for the reason that it is able thus to unfold the entire content of ,spirit in its own medium1 it is the universal art1 which belongs indifferently to all the types of art1 and is only excluded in that case where the spiritual life which is still unrevealed to itself in its highest form of content is merely able to make itself aware of its own dim presentiments in the form and configuration of that which is external and alien to itself4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,painting ,the most adequate object of sculpture is the tranquil self-absorption of personality in its essential substance1 the character whose spiritual individuality is in the fullest degree displayed on the face of its corporeal presentment1 making the sensuous frame1 which reveals this incorporation of spirit1 adequate to such an embodiment of mind wholly in its aspects of external form4 ,the sightless look has as yet failed to concentrate at one point the supreme focus of ideal life1 the vital breath of soul1 the heart of most intimate feeling1 and is as yet without spiritual movement1 without the deliberate distinction between a world without it and a life within4 ,it is on account of this that the sculpture of the ancients leaves us in some degree unmoved4 ,we either do not remain long before it1 or our delay is rather due to a scientific investigation of the fine modifications of form and detail which it displays4 ,we cannot blame mankind if they are unable to take the profound interest in fine works of sculpture which such works deserve4 ,to know how to value them is a study in itself4 ,at first glance we either experience no attraction1 or are immediately conscious of the general character of the whole4 ,to come to closer quarters we have first to discover what it is that continues to supply such an interest4 ,an enjoyment1 however1 which is only the possible result of study1 thought1 learning1 and a wide experience is not the immediate object of art4 ,and1 moreover1 the essential demand we make that a character should develop1 should pass into the field of action and affairs1 and that the soul should thereby meet with divisions and-grow deeper1 this1 after all our journey in search of the delight which this study of the works of antique sculpture may bring to us1 remains unsatisfied4 ,for this reason we inevitably feel more at home in painting4 ,in other words we are at once and for the first time conscious in it of the principle of our finite and yet essentially infinite spiritual substance1 the life and breath of our own existence2 we contemplate in its pictures the very spark which works and is active in ourselves4 ,the god of sculpture remains for sense-perception an object simply2 in painting1 on the contrary1 the ,divine appears as itself essentially the living subject of spiritual life1 which comes into direct relations with the community1 and makes it possible for each individual thereof to place himself in spiritual communion and reconcilement with ,him4 ,the substantive character of such a ,divinity is not1 as in sculpture1 an individual that persists in the inflexible bond of its own limitations#bbj1 but is one which expands into and is differentiated within the community itself4 ,the same principle generally differentiates the individual from his own bodily frame and external environment to quite as considerable an extent as it brings the soul into mediated relation with the same4 ,within the compass of this subjective differentiation--regarded as the independent assertion of human individuality as opposed to ,god1 ,nature1 and the inward and external life of other persons1 regarded also conversely as the most intimate relation1 the most secure communion of ,god with the community1 and of individual men with ,god1 the environment of ,nature and the infinite variety of the wants1 purposes1 passions1 and activities of human existence--falls the entire movement and vitality1 which sculpture1 both in respect to its content and its means of contributing expression1 suffers to escape2 and it adds an immeasurable wealth of new material and a novel breadth and variety of artistic treatment which hitherto was absent4 ,briefly1 then1 this principle of subjectivity is on the one hand the basis of division1 on the other a principle of mediation and synthesis1 so that painting unites in one and the same art what hitherto formed the subject-matter of two different arts1 namely1 the external environment1 which architecture treated artistically1 and the essentially spiritual form1 which was elaborated by sculpture4 ,painting places its figures on the background of a ,nature or an architectural environment1 both of which are the products of its own invention in precisely the same sense1 and is able to make this external material in both of these aspects by virtue of its emotional powers and soul a counterfeit within its ideal realm1 in the degree that it understands how best to place it in relation and harmony with the spirit of the figures that live and move therein4 ,such is the principle of the new advance that painting contributes to the representative powers of art4 ,if we inquire now the course which the more detailed examination of our subject necessitates the following division will serve us4 ,in the first place we shall have yet further to consider the general character which the art of painting must necessarily receive in accordance with its notion and relatively both to its specific content1 the material that is made consonant with this content and finally the artistic treatment which is thereby involved4 ,secondly1 we have to develop the separate modes of definition1 which are contained in the principle of such a content and manner of presentation1 and more succinctly fix the boundaries of the subject-matter which is adapted to painting no less than the modes of its conception1 composition1 and technical qualities as painting4 ,thirdly1 painting is itself broken up into distinct schools of painting by reason of the above divisions of matter1 technique1 and so forth1 which1 as in the other arts1 have their own phases of historical development4 #a4 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,painting ,after having thus emphasized as the essential principle of painting that world of the soul in its vitality of feeling1 conception1 and action cast in embrace round heaven and earth1 in the variety of its manifestations and external disclosures within the bodily frame1 and affirmed on this account that the focus1 and centre of this art is to be sought for in romantic and ,christian art1 it may immediately occur to the reader that not only do we find excellent artists among the ancients1 who are as distinguished in this art as others of their age in sculpture--and we cannot praise them more highly--but also that other peoples1 notably the ,chinese1 ,hindoos1 and ,egyptians1 have secured distinction in the direction of painting4 ,without question the art of painting is1 by virtue of the variety of the objects treated and the particular type of its manner of execution1 less#bba restricted in the range of nations that exemplify its pursuit4 ,this1 however1 is not the point at issue4 ,if our question is simply that of the historian doubtless we find single examples of one type#bbb of painting or another have been produced at the most varied epochs by the nations already mentioned and others4 ,it is1 however1 a profounder question altogether when we ask ourselves what is the principle of painting1 examine the means of its exposition and in doing so seek to establish that content1 which by virtue of its own nature is emphatically consonant with the painter's art as such and its mode of presentment1 so that we can affirm the form thus selected to be wholly adequate to the content in question4 ,we have but little left us of the painting of the ancient world1 examples1 in fact1 which we see can neither have formed part of the most consummate work of antiquity in this respect1 nor have been the product of its most famous masters4 ,at least all that has been discovered through excavation in private houses is of this character4 ,it is impossible1 however1 not to admire the delicacy of taste1 the suitability of the objects1 selected1 the clearness of the grouping1 and1 we may add1 the lightness of the handling and freshness of the colouring1 excellences which without doubt were present in the originals of such pictures in a far higher degree1 in imitation of which1 for example1 the wall paintings in the so-called house of the tragedian at ,pompeii have been executed4 ,we have1 unfortunately1 no examples of the works of famous masters4 ,whatever degree of excellence1 however1 these more original productions attained1 we may none the less affirm that the ancients could not1 alongside of the unmatchable beauty of their sculptures1 have lifted the art of painting to the level of artistic elaboration as painting which we find secured in the ,christian era of the ,middle ,ages1 and pre-eminently in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,and we may assume this to be so on the philosophical ground that the most genuine heart of the ,greek outlook is1 in a degree which is inapplicable to the other arts1 concordant with the root and fragrance of that which sculpture and sculpture alone can supply4 ,and in art we are not entitled to separate spiritual content from its mode of presentation4 ,if1 having this clear to our minds1 we inquire how it is that painting only reached its most characteristic consummation through the content of the romantic type of art1 we can but reply that it is precisely the intimacy of feeling1 the blessedness#bbc and pain that give to us the soul of this profounder content1 whose demand is for such a vital infusion1 which has paved the way to and in fact been the cause of this higher perfection of painting4 ,as an example of what ,i mean ,i will but recall to recollection one particular instance already cited1 namely1 that we borrow from ,raoul-,rochette of the treatment of ,isis carrying ,horns on her knees4 ,in general the subject is identical with the ,madonna pictures1 a ,divine mother and her child4 ,the difference of handling and conception in the two cases1 however1 is immeasurable4 ,the ,egyptian ,isis1 as we find her thus situated on bas-reliefs1 has nothing maternal about her1 no tenderness1 no trait of soul or emotion1 such as is not even wholly absent in the stiffer ,byzantine pictures of the ,madonna4 ,and if we think of ,raphael1 or any other great ,italian master1 what results have they not achieved from this subject of the ,mother and ,christ-babe6 ,what depth of emotion1 what spiritual life1 what intimacy and wealth of heart1 what exaltation and endearment1 how human and yet how entirely filled with divine spirit is the soul which speaks to us from every line and feature4 ,and under what infinite variety of forms and situations is this one subject presented to us even by particular masters taken singly and still more by different artists4 ,the mother1 the pure ,virgin1 the physical1 the spiritual beauty1 loftiness and devotion of love1 all this and countless other features are emphasized in their turn as the main significance of the expression4 ,but chief of all we find throughout that it is not the sensuous beauty of mere form1 but the animate life of ,spirit1 by virtue of which artistic genius no less than mastery of execution is asserted and secured4 ,now it is quite true that ,greek art has passed a long way beyond ,egyptian art1 and we may add that it has made the expression of man's soul an object aimed for4 ,but it was not capable of grasping that intimacy and depth of emotion which is discovered to us in the ,christian type of expression1 and indeed was careful1 in accordance with its entire character1 not to attach itself to such intensity of feeling4 ,take1 for instance1 the case ,i have more than once already cited of the faun1 who carries the youthful ,bacchus in his arms2 it is1 no doubt1 expressive of extremely tender and amiable qualities4 ,the nymphs are equally so who tend upon ,bacchus1 a situation which is depicted by a gem in a very beautiful group of figures4 ,in such cases we have an analogous sentiment of unconstrained love for a child1 equally free from passion and yearning2 but1 even putting on one side the maternal relation#bbd1 the expression possesses in no respect the intimacy1 the depth of soul1 which confront us in ,christian paintings4 ,the ancients may very well have painted excellent portraits1 but neither their way of conceiving natural fact1 nor the point of view from which they regarded human and divine conditions was of the kind that1 in the case of painting1 an infusion of soul-life could be expressed with such intimate intensity as was possible in ,christian painting4 ,the demand of painting1 however1 for this more personal type of inspiration is a result of its very material4 ,in other words1 the sensuous medium in which it moves is an extension on pure surface1 and the display of form by means of the use of diversified colours1 by virtue of which process the objective shape1 as we have it presented to the vision1 is converted to an artificial illusion adopted by a spiritual agency#bbe in the place of the actual form of fact4 ,it is part of the principle of such a treatment of material that which is external should not ultimately retain its validity in its independent native existence1 even in the modified form it takes as a vital product of human hands1 but should in this form of realization be lowered as reality to a purely phenomenal reflex of the inward soul-life itself1 which seeks to contemplate itself independently as such4 ,when we look into the heart of the matter we shall find that the advance from the rounded form of sculpture amounts to nothing less than the above statement4 ,it is the soul-life1 the ideality of ,spirit which undertakes to express itself in an intimate way through the counterfeit of the objective world4 ,add to this1 in the second place1 that the surface on which the art of painting makes its objects visible1 opens independently the path to the employment of a surrounding background and other complex relations2 and colour too1 regarded as the articulation of that which appears1 requires a correspondent differentiation of soul-life1 which can only be rendered clearly through the definition of expression1 situation1 and action1 and consequently makes necessary variety1 movement1 and the detailed exposition of both the inward and external life4 ,this principle of inwardness#bbf taken alone1 which at the same time in its actual manifestation is associated with the variety of external existence and is cognizable on the face of such particular existence as an essentially complete and independent complex of conditions1 we have already seen to be the principle of the romantic type of art1 in whose configuration and mode of presentation consequently the medium of painting discovers in a unique way its wholly adequate object4 ,conversely we may affirm at the same time that romantic art1 when the question is actually one of definite works of art1 must seek for material which is consonant with its content1 and in the first instance it finds such in painting1 which consequently remains more or less of a formal character when dealing with all objects and compositions not of this type#bbg4 ,granting1 then1 the fact that we find outside the ,christian paintings an ,oriental1 ,greek1 and ,roman school of painting1 yet the real centre and focus of all is none the less the elaboration which this art secured within the boundaries of romantic art4 ,we can only speak of ,oriental and ,greek painting in the same kind of way as we did when1 despite our main thesis that sculpture attained its highest crown of perfection in the classical ,ideal1 we referred to a subordinate ,christian type of sculpture4 ,in other words we are forced to admit that the art of painting first apprehends its content in the material of the romantic type of art1 which completely corresponds to its instruments and its modes1 and consequently that it was only after the treatment of such material that it discovered how best to use and elaborate in every direction all the means at its disposal4 ,following now the course of the above remarks in a wholly general way we have to observe as follows in connection with the content1 material1 and artistic mode of treatment of painting4 7a7 ,the fundamental definition of the content of painting is1 as we have seen1 subjectivity as an independent process#bbh4 77 ,in this process1 looking at it from the point of view of a reflex of soul-life1 individuality must not wholly pass into the universality its substance1 but must on the contrary disclose how it retains that content as a distinctive personality#bbi1 and possesses and expresses its inward life1 that is the vitality of its own conception and feeling in the same2 neither should the external form be wholly dominated by the ideal individuality as is the case in sculpture4 ,for the principle of subjectivity1 albeit that it permeates the external material as the mode of objectivity adequate to express it1 is notwithstanding likewise an identity which withdraws itself into itself out of that objective domain1 and by virtue of this self-seclusion is relatively to that objective aspect neutral1 leaving it quite untrammelled4 ,just as therefore1 on the spiritual side of the content1 the particularity of the personal life is not set forth in direct union with its substance and universality1 but is essentially reflected as the culminating feature of its independent embodiment#bcj1 so1 too1 in the objective envisagement of form1 the particularity and universality of the same are carried from their previous plastic union#bca to a predominance of the individual aspect1 and indeed of comparatively accidental and indifferent features1 and in a manner much the same as that which1 in the reality of sense experience1 is the prevailing character of all phenomena4 77 ,a further important point is that connected with the range of scope that is permitted to the art of painting in virtue of its principle with regard to the objects to be thus presented4 ,the free principle of subjectivity suffers on the one hand the entire field of natural objects1 and every department of human activity to remain in its substantive mode of existence2 on the other1 it is capable of entering into fusion with all possible detail1 and creating therefrom a content of its own ideal life1 of rather we should say that only in this interfusion with concrete actuality does it assert itself as concrete and vital in its products4 ,consequently it is possible for the painter to import a wealth of material into the realm occupied by his artistic works1 which remains outside1 the reach of the sculptor4 ,the entire world of the religious idea1 conceptions of heaven and hell1 the history of ,christ1 his disciples and saints1 external ,nature1 all that concerns humanity down to the most fugitive of situations and characters1 all this material and more can find a place here4 ,for as we have seen all that pertains to the detail1 caprice1 and accidental features of human need and interest is affected by this principle1 which at once strives to comprehend and compose it4 77 ,and along with this fact we have as its corollary that painting makes the soul of man itself the subject of its creative work4 ,all that is alive within the soul is present in ideal form1 if it is1 when we consider its content1 at once objective and absolute in the abstract sense#bcb4 ,for the emotional life of soul can without question carry the universal within its content1 a content1 however1 which1 as feeling1 does not retain the form of this universality1 but appears under the mode as ,i1 this individual person--,i know my identity therein and feel the same4 ,in order to educe and set forth this objective content as objective1 ,i must forget myself4 ,in this way the painter no doubt reveals to our sight the ideal substance of soul in the form of external objects1 but the truly real content which it expresses is the personal soul that feels4 ,for which reason painting1 from the point of view of form1 is unable to offer such distinctive envisagements of the ,divine as sculpture1 but only ideas of less defined character such as belong to the emotions4 ,it may appear as a contradiction to this position that we find again and again selected as subjects of the paintings of masters1 who stand without question in the highest rank1 the external environment of mankind1 mountains1 valleys1 meadows1 brooks1 trees1 ships1 buildings1 their interiors1 in short earth1 sea1 and sky4 ,what1 however1 constitutes the core in the content of such works of art is not the objects themselves1 but the vitality and soul imported into them by the artist's conception and execution1 his emotional life in fact1 which is reflected in his work1 and gives us not merely a counterfeit of external objects1 but therewith his own personality and temperament#bcc4 ,and it is precisely by his doing this that the objects of ,nature1 as reflected by painting1 even from this realistic point of view1 are relatively insignificant1 because the influence of soul-life begins to assert itself in them as the main significance4 ,in this tendency towards temperament1 which1 in the case of objects borrowed from external ,nature1 may frequently only amount to a general response emphasized between the two sides1 we find the most important distinction between painting on the one hand and sculpture and architecture on the other4 ,painting indeed approximates in this respect more closely to music and emphasizes here the point of transition from the plastic arts to that of tone4 7b7 ,to proceed to our second main division ,i have already several times referred1 if only in respect to features of fundamental importance1 to the difference we discover between the sensuous material of painting and that of sculpture4 ,i will therefore in this place only touch upon the closer connection which obtains between this material and the spiritual content which it most notably has to display to us4 77 ,the first fact we have to consider in this connection is this that painting compresses the three dimensions1 of ,space4 ,absolute concentration would be carried to the point1 as elimination of all juxtaposition1 and as unrest essentially predicable of such concentration1 as we find it in the point of ,time4 ,such a mode of negation carried out in its entire result1 however1 we only meet with in the art of music4 ,painting1 on the contrary1 permits the spatial relation still to subsist1 and only effaces one of the three dimensions2 superficies is made the element of its representations4 ,this reduction of the three dimensions to level surface is implied in principle of increasing reality1 which is only capable thereby of asserting itself in spatial relation as such ideal transmutation1 owing to the fact that it does not suffer the complete totality of objective fact to persist as such1 but restricts the same4 ,ordinarily we are accustomed to view this reduction as a caprice of the art which amounts to a defect4 ,what is here sought for1 it appears1 is that natural objects in all their naked reality1 or spiritual ideas and feelings1 by means of the human body and its postures should be made visible to our senses for such an aim it is obvious that the surface is insufficient and inferior to ,nature1 which appears before us with a completeness wholly different4 77 ,painting is unquestionably yet more abstract than sculpture in respect to material conditioned in ,space2 but this abstraction1 remote as it is from being a purely capricious limitation1 or an indication of human incapacity1 is just that which brings about the necessary advance from sculpture4 ,even sculpture is not simply an imitation of natural or physical existence1 but a creation of intelligence1 which removes from form all aspects of natural existence which are not in accord with the definite content it undertakes to present4 ,this elimination was carried out by sculpture in the case of all colour detail1 so that what remained to it was only the abstraction of material form4 ,in painting we have the opposite process1 its content being the ideality of soul-life1 which can only appear on the face of objective reality1 by a process of self-absorption from that very material#bcd4 ,the art of painting1 therefore1 no doubt1 works for the sense-perception1 but in a way1 through which the object which it displays remains no longer an actual natural existence wholly in ,space1 but is changed to a counterfeit creation of intelligence1 in which it only so far reveals its spiritual source as it annuls the actual existence of its object1 recreating it for itself in a purely phenomenal semblance within its own spiritual realm--for ,spirit4 77 ,and to this intent painting must necessarily effect a breach with the totality of the spatial condition1 and there is no reason for charging to human incapacity this loss of ,nature's completeness4 ,in other words1 inasmuch as the object of painting from the point of view of its spatial existence1 is merely a semblance1 reflective of the soul of man1 exhibited by art for his spirit1 the self-subsistency of the object as we find it actually in ,space is dissolved1 and the object is related in a far more restricted way to the spectator than is the case in sculpture4 ,a statue is by itself wholly an isolated object1 independent of the spectator1 who may place himself where he pleases2 his point of view1 his movements1 his walking round it1 not one of them affect the work of art as a whole#bce4 ,if this self-subsistency is to be preserved the sculptured figure must also have some definite impression to offer each and every point of view4 ,and this independence of the work must be retained in sculpture for the reason that its content is the tranquillity1 self-seclusion1 and objective presence which1 in both an external and ideal sense1 reposes on their own substance4 ,in painting1 on the contrary1 whose content is conditioned by an ideal atmosphere1 and in fact is composed of ideal relations essentially particularized1 it is precisely this aspect of discord in a work of art between object and spectator which has to be emphasized1 and yet with a like directness to be resolved in the fact1 that the work1 as depicting the ideality of intelligence in its entire mode of presentation1 can be only defined under the assumption that it stands there related to an individual mind1 that is a spectator1 and apart from the same has no self-subsistency4 ,the spectator is assumed and reckoned to be there from the first1 and the work of art is only intelligible as related to this point of personal contemplation#bcf4 ,for such a relation to mere visibility and its reflection upon an individual consciousness1 however1 the mere show of reality is sufficient2 or rather the actual totality of the spatial condition is a defect1 because in that case the objects seen retain an independent existence1 and do not appear to be created by ,spirit for its own contemplation4 ,nature consequently is not entitled to reduce its images to the plain surface2 its objects possess and claim to possess a real and independent existence4 ,the satisfaction1 however1 we derive from painting is not in actual existence1 but in the contemplative interest we receive from the external reproduction of ideal truths1 things born of the soul1 and its art therefore dispenses wholly with the need and apparatus of spatial reality in its complete organization4 77 ,and together with this reduction to the level surface we may thirdly associate the fact that painting is placed in a still more remote position to architecture than that occupied by sculpture4 ,works of sculpture even where exhibited independently for themselves in public places or gardens1 require some kind of pedestal treated architectonically1 and1 in the case of apartments1 forecourts1 and halls1 either the art of building merely assists in presenting the statue's fitting environment1 or conversely the sculptured figure is used as the decoration of the building1 and between these two thus related objects we find a close association4 ,painting1 on the contrary1 whether placed in the enclosed apartment1 or in public halls1 or under the open sky1 is limited to the wall4 ,originally its function is simply to fill up empty wall spaces4 ,among the ancients this original destination is mainly sufficient1 and they decorated in this way the walls of their temples1 and in more recent times also their private chambers4 ,gothic architecture1 whose main task is the enclosure under the most grandiose conditions1 supplies no doubt still larger surfaces1 or rather the largest possible1 yet it is only in the most ancient mosaics that we find painting is employed as a decoration of empty spaces1 whether in the case of the outside or the interior4 ,the more recent architecture of the fourteenth century1 on the contrary1 fills up its enormous wall surfaces in an architectural manner1 the most imposing example ,i know of which is the main faade of ,strasbourg cathedral4 ,here we find that the empty surfaces1 excluding the entrance doors1 the rose and other windows1 are filled in by the ornamental work analogous to that of windows traced over the walls1 and decorated by figures of considerable delicacy and variety of form1 so that we have no need here for painting4 ,in the case of religious architecture1 therefore1 painting mainly appears in buildings which begin to approximate to the ancient type of architecture4 ,as a rule1 however1 ,christian painting is to be distinguished from the arts of building1 and presents its works in independent form1 as for example in large pictures1 whether placed in chapels or on high altars4 ,it is true that here1 too1 the picture must retain some relation to the character of the place1 which it is destined to fill2 for the rest1 however1 it is not merely intended to fill up wall spaces1 but to hang them as a work of art independently just as a work of sculpture may do4 ,in conclusion painting has its use as a decoration of halls and apartments in public buildings1 town halls1 palaces1 and private houses1 in which respect its association with architecture is once more closely marked1 an association1 however1 in which its independence as a free art ought not to be lost4 77 ,a further necessary ground for the contraction of the spatial dimensions in painting to bare surface is due to the fact that the art of painting is concerned to express ideal conditions essentially in their separation#bcg1 and thereby rich in every kind of particular character4 ,a mere restriction to the shapes of spatial form1 with which sculpture is able to rest satisfied1 vanishes therefore in the more luxuriant art2 for the forms of spatial dimension are the most abstract in ,nature1 and an attempt must now be made to seize particular distinctions1 in so far as the demand is now for an essentially more multifold material4 ,the matter specifically defined in the physical sense is attached to the very principle of presentation in ,space1 the differences of which#bch1 if they are to appear as essential in the work of art1 themselves disclose this fact#bci in the total configuration of spatial form1 which no longer remains the final mode of presentation1 and they are compelled to make a breach in the complete form of spatial dimensions1 in order to cancel the exclusive appearance of the physical medium4 ,for the dimensions in painting are not presented by themselves in their actual reality1 but are merely by means of this physical aspect made to appear and be visible as such4 77 ,if we further inquire what is the nature of the physical element which the art of painting makes use of we shall find this to be ,light1 regarding it as that medium which renders all objects whatever visible4 ,previously the sensuous1 concrete material of architecture was the resisting matter of gravity1 which more particularly in the art of building asserted this character of heavy material in its features of burden1 constraint1 power to support and be supported1 and even in sculpture still retained such characteristics4 ,heavy material encumbers because it does not possess its centre of material unity in itself1 but in something else2 and it seeks for this centre and strives towards it1 though it retains its position through the resistance of other bodies1 which become by doing so bodies of support4 ,the principle of light is an opposite1 or extreme1 of that material of weight which is not as yet enclosed within its unity4 ,whatever else we may predicate of light it is obvious that it is absolutely devoid of weight and offers no resistance2 rather it is pure identity with itself1 and thereby simple self-relation1 the primordial ideality1 the original self of ,nature4 ,in light ,nature make its start on the path of ideality or inwardness#bdj1 and is the universal physical ego1 which of course is not carried here to the point of particularity#bda1 nor has as yet concentrated itself within the unit of individuality and self-seclusion1 yet is thereby enabled to cancel the bare objectivity and external show of heavy matter and abstract from the sensuous and spatial totality of the same#bdb4 ,from this aspect of the more ideal quality of light it becomes the physical principle of the art of painting4 77 ,light regarded simply as such1 however1 only exists as one aspect contained in the principle of subjectivity1 that is1 as this more ideal identity4 ,in this respect light is manifestation1 just that1 which1 however1 in ,nature is only asserted generally as the power of making objects visible1 holding the particular content of that which it reveals outside itself as an objective world1 which is not light1 but rather that which confronts it and consequently is dark4 ,these objects light renders cognizable under their distinctions of form by irradiating them1 that is1 illuminating to a greater or less degree their obscurity and invisibility1 and permitting certain parts to be more visible1 namely1 as they approach the spectator1 and others1 on the contrary1 more obscure as they withdraw from him4 ,for light and darkness1 putting for the present on one side the particular colour of an object1 is generally speaking due to the relative remoteness of the illuminated objects from us in their specific degree of illumination4 ,in this direct relation to objectivity light is no longer asserted simply as light1 but as essentially particularized brightness and obscurity1 light and shadow1 whose varied manifestations render the shape and distance of objects from one another intelligible to the spectator4 ,this is the principle which painting makes use of1 because from the first differentiation is implied in its notion4 ,if we compare this art in this respect with sculpture and architecture we shall see that in these latter arts the actual distinctions of spatial configuration are set forth in their nakedness1 and light and shadow are suffered to retain the ordinary effect which light produces in ,nature relatively to the position of the spectator1 so that the rondure of form is here already independently#bdc present and light and shade1 whereby they are rendered visible1 are merely a result of that which was already actually on the spot independently of this further aspect of their becoming visible4 ,in the art of painting1 however1 brightness and darkness together with all their gradations and finest transitions are themselves part of the fundamental artistic material1 and it is a purely intentional appearance they produce of that medium1 which sculpture gives form to in its native state4 ,light and shade1 in short1 the appearance of objects under this illumination1 is effected by art rather than the mere natural light1 which consequently only makes that kind of brightness1 darkness1 and lighting visible1 which are the products of painting4 ,and this it is which constitutes the positive rationale deduced from the material of the art itself1 why painting does not require three dimensions4 ,form is the creation of light and shadow simply1 and that form which exists in spatial reality is superfluous4 77 ,bright and dark1 shadow and light1 no less than their interplay are1 however1 merely an abstraction1 which do not exist in ,nature as such abstraction1 and consequently cannot be utilized as sensuous material4 ,in other words ,light1 as we have already seen1 is related to its opposite ,dark4 ,in this relation both principles have no self-subsistency apart from each other1 but can only be asserted in their unity1 that is1 as the interplay of light and dark4 ,the light1 which is in this way essentially impaired and obscured1 which1 however1 to a like extent transpierces and illumines darkness#bdd1 supplies us with the principle of colour as the genuine material of painting4 ,light in its purity is devoid of colour1 it is the pure indeterminacy of essential identity4 ,distinction from bare light1 a lowering of its value1 is the characteristic of colour1 which in contrast to light is already in some degree obscurity1 and together with which the principle of light is asserted in union4 ,it is consequently an incorrect and false idea to hold that light is the aggregate result of different colours1 or in other words different degrees of obscuration#bde4 ,form1 distance1 limitation1 rounded shape1 in short1 all spatial relations and distinctions visible in the phenomena of ,space are unfolded in the art of painting entirely by means of colour1 the more ideal principle of which is capable of presenting a more ideal content and by virtue of its profounder oppositions1 the infinite variety of its transitional gradations and the delicacy of its softest modulations relatively to the fulness and detail of the objects it accepts as subject-matter1 is possessed of a field for its activity of the widest range4 ,it is beyond belief what mere colour is able to accomplish in this art4 ,two human beings are1 for example1 something totally distinct4 ,either is in his self-conscious identity no less than his bodily organism an independent and exclusive spiritual and bodily totality1 yet the entire result of this difference is in a picture reduced to a distinction of colours4 ,in one place some particular shade of colour ceases1 in another a particular one starts up1 and by such means we get everything set before us1 shape1 distance1 play of posture1 expression1 what is nearest to sense and what is most akin to intelligence4 ,and we are not to regard this reduction as a make-shift and defect4 ,quite the reverse is the fact2 the art of painting dispensing with the third dimension in no such way1 but deliberately rejecting it in order to set in the place of purely spatial reality the higher and richer principle of colour4 77 ,this wealth enables painting to elaborate in its reproductions the entire extent of the phenomenal world4 ,sculpture is more or less restricted to the stable self-seclusion of individuality4 ,in painting1 however1 the individual cannot remain in such limitations of stability whether regarded in his ideal aspect or relatively to the external world1 but is placed in every kind of varied definition4 ,for on the one hand1 as already pointed out1 he is placed in a far closer relation to the spectator1 and on the other he receives a more varied connection with other individuals and the environment of ,nature4 ,a process1 therefore1 which merely illuminates semblance of objective fact makes possible the widest expansion of distances and spaces and the present of such and all the varied objects that appear in them in one and the same work of art4 ,yet it must no less1 as a work of art1 prove itself to be a self-contained and unified whole1 and exhibit itself in this synthesis1 not simply as an aggregate whose limits and boundaries are defined by no principle1 but rather as a totality whose unified consistency is due to its own subject-matter4 7c7 ,in the third place we have1 after this general consideration of the content and sensuous material of painting1 briefly to adduce in general terms the principle of the artistic mode of treatment adopted by it4 ,the art of painting more so than either sculpture or architecture admits of the two extremes4 ,in the first case prominence is given to the religious and ethical severity of the conception and presentation of the ideal beauty of form1 and in the second1 where the subject-matter is1 taken by itself1 insignificant1 to the detail of what it contains and the personal aspect of the creative art4 ,we may therefore not unfrequently hear two extreme kinds of criticism4 ,our critic in the one case apostrophizes the nobility of the object1 the depth and astonishing sufficiency of the conception1 the greatness of the expression1 and the boldness of the delineation#bdf4 ,and in the other equal praise is given to the fine and unexampled character of the painter's treatment of his colour4 ,this contrast is implied in the very notion of the art2 indeed1 we may affirm that it is impossible to unite both aspects on one plane of elaboration4 ,each must remain inevitably independent of the other4 ,for painting has shape simply as such1 that is1 the forms of spatial limitation1 no less than colour as means contributive to its artistic result1 and is placed thereby midway between the ,ideal of the plastic arts and the extreme form of the direct detail of ,nature's reality2 by reason of which we get two distinct types of painting4 ,one1 that is the ideal1 whose essential basis is universality2 and the other1 that which presents particular objects in all their closeness of detail4 77 ,in this respect painting must accept1 in the first instance1 as sculpture1 that which is substantive in the sense that the objects of religious belief are such1 no less than the great events of history1 and its pre-eminent individual characters1 albeit it renders visible this substance in a form wherein the ideal and personal aspect is emphasized4 ,it is the imposing character1 the serious significance of the action portrayed1 or the depth of the soul expressed which is here of most importance1 so that the elaboration and employment of all the rich artistic means which are within the reach of painting1 and the dexterity1 which the wholly consummate use of these means demands regarded as a tour de force of technique1 cannot here be entirely indicated4 ,in cases of this kind it is the force of the content to be presented and the absorption in what is essential and substantive in the same1 which tend to drive into the background the overwhelming facility in the art of painting as that aspect which is less essential4 ,in this sense1 for instance1 the ,cartoons of ,raphael are of invaluable merit1 and fully display the entire excellence of their composition1 although ,raphael1 even in the case of particular pictures1 despite all his mastery in drawing1 and the purity of his ideal1 and at the same time wholly vital personal figures1 and the composition he may have arrived at1 most certainly in colour1 and all that concerns landscape and other aspects1 is excelled by the ,dutch masters4 ,this is yet more the case with the earlier ,italian heroes of art1 in contrast to whom ,raphael is to a somewhat similar degree inferior in depth1 power1 and ideality of expression1 as he surpasses such in the technique of his craft1 in the beauty of vital grouping1 in draughtsmanship and the like#bdg4 77 ,conversely1 however1 the art of painting1 as we have seen1 ought to advance further than this exclusive absorption in the ideal and infinite content of man's soul-life2 its function is equally to assert the subsistency and freedom of detail1 which however incidental it may be1 contributes to the environment and background of the work4 ,in this advance from the profoundest seriousness to the objective features of independent detail it is bound to force its way to the extreme articulation of the purely phenomenal1 where any and every content is a matter of indifference1 and artistic illusion in a realistic sense is the main interest4 ,in such a type of art we find depicted for us the most fugitive aspect of the sky1 the time of day1 the lighting up of the woods1 the gleam and reflection of the clouds1 waves1 lakes1 streams1 the shimmer and glitter of wine in the glass1 the glance of the eye1 and every conceivable look and smile of the human countenance4 ,painting in such cases moves from the idealistic standpoint to that of living reality1 whose phenomenal effect it mainly seeks to reproduce by means of accuracy in the execution of every bit of detail#bdh4 ,yet this effort is no mere assiduity of elaboration1 but a real exercise of genuine talent1 which strives to present every kind of detail in its independent perfection1 and yet retain the whole composition in unity and fusion1 and this can only be done by the finest art4 ,in such work the vital force of the realistic appearance thus secured tends to be more near to the artist's aim than the ,ideal2 and it is precisely this kind of art1 as ,i have already found occasion to remark1 which raises1 as no other1 controversial points over the significance of the ,ideal and ,nature4 ,no doubt it is very possible to blame the use of the most elaborate technique in subjects of little importance by themselves as mere extravagance2 yet there is no real reason for rejecting such material1 and it is precisely of that kind which ought to be treated in this way by art1 and be permitted to keep every conceivable subtlety and refinement of surface appearance that it possesses4 77 ,the artistic treatment does not1 however1 stop at this more general kind of opposition1 but1 inasmuch as painting reposes on the principle of soul-expression and particularity1 proceeds yet further in the direction of differentiation in its results4 ,both architecture and sculpture1 it is true1 assert differences of national type1 and in particular we are made aware in sculpture of a closer individuality typical of certain schools and masters4 ,in the art of painting this distinction and personal aspect in the modes of representation expands to an incalculable degree in proportion as the objects1 which it may accept1 are taken from a field without definable limitations4 ,in this art to a pre-eminent extent the genius of particular peoples1 provinces1 epochs and individuals asserts its claims and affects not merely the choice of subjects and the spirit of their conception1 but also the character of drawing1 grouping1 colouring1 handling of the dry point no less than that of particular colours down to characteristics of personal style and wont4 ,inasmuch as the function of painting is so without restriction concerned with the ideal aspect and the details of its subject-matter1 it follows of course that it gives us quite as little opportunity to make definite statements of universal validity as to adduce specific facts which can always without exception be accepted as true of it4 ,we must1 however1 not rest satisfied with what ,i have already discussed in respect of the principle of the content1 the material and the artistic treatment1 but make a further effort1 however much we leave on one side all that confronts us in its multifold variety1 still to subject certain aspects1 that most emphatically enlist our attention1 to further examination4 #b4 ,,particular ,,modes ,,of ,,the ,,definition ,,of ,,painting ,the different points of view1 according to which we have to undertake this closer characterization1 may be already anticipated from our previous discussion4 ,they refer once more to the content1 the material and the artistic treatment4 ,first1 as to content1 we have no doubt found the content of the romantic type of art offer the most adequate subject-matter2 we must1 however1 inquire further what specific portions we should select from the entire wealth within this type as pre-eminently adapted to the art of painting4 ,secondly1 we have already made ourselves fairly cognisant with the principle of the sensuous material4 ,we have now to define more narrowly the forms1 which may be expressed on the level surface by means of colouring1 in so far as the human form and other facts of ,nature have to be made visible in order that the ideality of ,spirit may be thereby disclosed4 ,thirdly1 we have a similar question with regard to the definite character of the artistic conception and presentation1 which corresponds to the different character of the content thus itself similarly differentiated1 producing thereby different types or schools of painting4 7a7 ,i have already at an earlier stage recalled the fact that the ancients have had excellent painters1 but added thereto the statement that the function of painting is only completely satisfied by the way of looking at things and the type of art which is referable to the emotional life and which is actively asserted in the romantic type of art4 ,what appears1 however1 to contradict this from the point of view of content is the fact that at the very culminating point of ,christian painting1 during the age of ,raphael1 ,rubens1 ,correggio1 and others1 we find that mythological subjects are used and portrayed in part on their own merits1 and in part for the decoration and allegorization of great exploits1 triumphs1 royal weddings1 and so forth4 ,in this sense ,goethe1 for example1 has once more borrowed from the descriptions of ,philostratus of the pictures of ,polygnotus1 and1 assisted by his imaginative powers as a poet1 has added a novel freshness to such subjects for the painter's benefit4 ,if1 however1 such contributions further imply the demand that subjects of ,greek mythology and saga1 or scenes1 too1 from the ,roman world1 for which the ,french at a certain period of their painting have evinced a great inclination1 should be conceived and portrayed in the definitive mood and significance attached to them by the ancient world we can only object generally that it is impossible to recall to life this past history1 and what is peculiarly appropriate to the antique is not wholly compatible with the art of painting4 ,the painter must consequently create from such material an entirely different result1 must import therein a totally different spirit1 other emotions and modes of seeing things than those present to the ancients1 in order to bring such a content into accord with the real problems and aims of painting4 ,for this reason also the circle of antique material and situations is not that which painting has elaborated in a consequential process2 rather it is an aspect of it which has been passed over as alien to its material1 and which has first to be essentially remodelled4 ,i have several times insisted that painting has before all to seize that1 the presentment of which it can1 in deliberate contrast to sculpture1 music1 and poetry1 master by means of external form4 ,and this is preeminently the self-concentration of ,spirit1 which is denied to sculpture1 while music again is unable to make the passage to the external appearance of ideality1 and poetry itself can merely render visible the bodily presence in an incomplete way4 ,painting1 on the contrary1 is still in a position to unite both aspects4 ,it can express the entire content of soul-life in an external form1 and is consequently bound to accept for its essential content the emotional depth of the soul no less than the particular type of character and its specific traits in its deepest impression--in other words intensity of feeling and ideality in its differentiation1 for the expression of which definite events1 conditions1 and situations not only must appear as the explanatory source of individual character1 but the specific individuality must disclose itself as a part of the moulded form of the soul and physiognomy1 rooted therein1 and entirely taken up into the external embodiment4 ,in order to express generally this ideality of soul we do not require that ideal self-subsistency and largeness#bdi of the classical type we have previously dealt with1 in which individuality persists in immediate accord with the substantive core of its spiritual essence and the physical characteristics of its bodily presentment2 to quite as little extent will suffice to the manifestation of this soul-life ,nature's ordinary hilarity1 that ,greek geniality of enjoyment and blissful absorption in its object2 rather true depth and self-revelation of spiritual life presupposes that the soul has worked its way through its emotions1 its forces1 its whole inward life1 has overcome much1 has suffered and endured much anguish or misery of spirit1 and yet in all these divisions has retained its sense of unity and come back to the same out of them4 ,the ancients no doubt also place before us in the mythos of ,hercules a hero1 who after many troubles receives his apotheosis1 and enjoys among the gods the repose of blessedness2 but the labours which ,hercules accomplishes are purely external1 and the bliss1 which he obtains as a reward1 is merely a tranquil cessation from labour2 and the ancient rune1 that ,zeus will have brought his empire to its consummation by his efforts1 he1 that is the greatest hero of ,greece1 has not accomplished4 ,rather the end of the rule of these self-subsistent gods then commences for the first time1 where we find man overcomes the dragons and serpents of his own breast1 the obstinacy and stubbornness of the soul's native realm rather than the living dragons and serpents of ,nature4 ,only thereby will ,nature's gladsomeness attain to that loftier cheerfulness of the spirit1 which is perfected in its passage through the negative phase of division1 and finally secures an infinite satisfaction through such travail4 ,the feeling of blitheness and happiness must be glorified and expanded in real blessedness4 ,for happiness and content still retain an association with external conditions which partake of ,nature's contingency4 ,in blessedness1 however1 that happiness1 which is still related to immediate existence1 is left behind1 and the entire content is made one with the inner life of soul4 ,blessedness is a satisfaction which is an attained result1 and is thereby justified2 it is the gladness of a victory1 the emotion of a soul which has essentially set at nought what is sensuous and finite1 and thereby thrust from itself the care which lurks for ever in ambush4 ,blessed is the soul1 which has1 it is true1 experienced both conflict and pain1 but come victorious through its troubles4 77 ,if we now inquire what is the nature of the actual ,ideal in this content we shall find it to be the reconciliation of the individual soul with ,god1 who in ,his human manifestation has ,himself traversed this passage of sorrows4 ,the substantive ideality#bej can only be that of religion1 the peace of self-consciousness1 which only feels itself truly satisfied1 in so far as it is concentrated in its own substance1 has broken its earthly heart1 has raised itself above the purely natural conditions of finite existence1 and in this exaltation has secured an inward life of universal significance1 an ideal union in and with ,god ,himself4 ,the soul wills itself1 but it finds the object of its will in something other than itself1 in its particularity2 it thereby gives itself up in its opposition to ,god1 in order to find itself again and its joy in ,him4 ,this is the vital character of ,love1 the soul's function in its truth1 that is religious love purged of mere desire1 which communicates to ,spirit reconciliation1 peace1 and blessedness4 ,it is not the enjoyment and delight of the actual love of living nature1 but rather one that is devoid of passion1 nay1 one that is without inclination1 a tendency of the soul1 a love in fact which on the side of ,nature is identical with death1 and is such a state1 so that the actual relation as earthly bond and relation of man to man floats before us as a thing of the ,past1 which essentially has no consummation in its usual existing form1 but carries within itself the defect of its temporality1 and as such prepares the way for an exaltation to something beyond it1 which is found to be at the same time a conscious state and enjoyment of a love that is without yearning and sensuous desire4 ,it is this character which gives to us the soulful1 intimate1 and more elevated ,ideal1 which we find now in the place of the tranquil greatness and self-subsistency of the antique4 ,no doubt the divinities of the classical ,ideal were not without a trait of sombre grief1 a negative replete with fateful import1 which is as it were the shadow of a cold ,necessity passing over these blithesome figures1 which remain1 however1 secure in their substantive divinity and freedom1 their simple greatness and might4 ,the freedom of ,love1 however1 is not a freedom of this kind1 being more instinct with soul-life1 for the reason that it subsists in a relation between soul and soul1 and spirit to spirit4 ,this inward glow enkindles the ray of bliss made actual in the soul1 a love1 which in suffering1 and the extremest loss not merely can discover comfort or independence therefrom1 but in proportion to the depth of its suffering can feel the more profoundly therein the reality and assuredness of its love1 making clear the mastery of its own essential substance in that suffering4 ,in the ,ideal of the ancients on the contrary we find no doubt1 independently of that trait of a tranquil sorrow already indicated1 the expression of the pain of noble natures1 as for instance in the case of ,niobe and ,laocoon4 ,they do not betake themselves to lamentation and despair1 but adhere to their greatness and loftiness of spirit2 but this self-continency remains empty2 their suffering1 their pain is likewise the conclusion of the matter4 ,in the place of reconcilement and satisfaction we can only have an austere resignation1 which1 without suffering entire collapse1 surrenders that upon which it had previously laid hold4 ,it is not the base that is crushed#bea2 no rage1 no contempt or vexation is expressed2 but despite of it all the loftiness of this type of individuality is nought but an inflexible self-continency#beb1 an endurance of destiny that is without relief1 in which the nobility and pain of the soul do not appear as reconciled in fulfilment4 ,in the romantic love of religion we find for the first time the expression of blessedness and freedom4 ,this union and satisfaction is by nature concrete in a spiritual sense1 for it is the feeling of ,spirit which is made cognizant of its unity in something other than itself4 ,and for this reason we find necessary here1 if the content presented is to be complete1 two aspects1 in so far as the reduplication of spiritual personality is necessary to love's appearance4 ,it reposes upon two independent individuals who possess1 however1 the sense of their intrinsic union4 ,with this union1 however1 the negative condition is always at the same time connected4 ,in other words ,love belongs to the soul's condition2 the subject of such a conscious state is1 however1 this independently self-stable#bec heart1 which to experience love must bid goodbye to itself1 surrender itself and sacrifice the unyielding focus of its individual isolation4 ,it is this sacrifice which constitutes the motive principle of ,love1 the life and emotion of which is bound up wholly in a self-surrender4 ,in consequence of this1 if notwithstanding a man retains his consciousness of self in an act of such surrender1 and just in this very annihilation of his personal independence attains to a truly positive self-subsistency1 in that case he has left him at least in the feeling of this unity and its supreme happiness the negative aspect1 the movement of ,love's principle1 not so much in a sense of sacrifice1 as of a blessedness undeserved1 which in despite of himself permits him still to feel his assured identity at unity with itself4 ,the movement is the feeling of the dialectical contradiction1 namely1 to have surrendered personality and yet to remain in self-subsistent unity1 a contradiction which is present in ,love and eternally resolved in it4 ,in so far1 then1 as the aspect of an individual human state of soul-life is concerned in this universal condition we find that the unique ,love1 which blesses and discovers its heaven within it1 tends to rise over all that is finite and the specific individuality of character1 which lapses into a position of insignificance4 ,already we have observed that the divine ideals of sculpture pass into one another1 always provided1 however1 that they are not wrested from the content and province of that original and immediate type of individuality2 and yet it must be admitted that this individuality remains the essential form of the mode of presentment4 ,in this later pure gleam of blessedness1 however1 particularity is on the contrary cancelled4 ,before ,god all men are equal1 or rather piety makes them actually equal1 so that the sole point of importance is the expression of love in the concentrated focus above depicted1 and which has no further need of happiness1 or this or that particular object4 ,no doubt religious ,love1 too1 requires definite individuals as a condition of its existence1 which possess also1 apart from this experience1 other spheres of existence2 for the reason1 however1 that this soul-possessed state of intimate life supplies the really ideal content1 the expression and reality of such are not to be found in the isolated distinctions of character1 its talents1 conditions1 and fortunes1 but are rather lifted above the same4 ,when consequently nowadays we hear people make a regard for distinctions in the soul-life of different persons a matter of first importance in education1 and in that which is the essential requirement of each man individually1 from which we deduce the fundamental thesis that every one will and indeed inevitably must act differently in a given case1 such a position directly clashes with the fact of the love of religion1 in which all such diversities of individual life fall into the background4 ,conversely1 however1 individual characterization now1 precisely for the reason that it is the unessential1 which refuses wholly to fuse with the spiritual realm of celestial ,love1 receives a more emphatic definition4 ,in other words1 agreeably to the romantic type of art1 it is free1 and is written in character all the more distinct in proportion as it refuses to accept as its supreme principle classical beauty1 that is the entire transfusion of immediate vitality1 and the particularity of finite existence1 with a spiritual or religious content4 ,in despite of this fact1 however1 there is no absolute reason that this individual characterization should impair this inward intensity of ,love1 which1 as such on its own account1 is not shackled to such features1 but has become free1 and constitutes independently the truly self-substantive ,ideal of ,spirit4 ,what1 then1 constitutes the ideal centre and main content of the religious field is1 as we have already indicated in our examination of the romantic type of art1 the essentially reconciled and satisfied ,love1 whose object should appear in the art of painting1 whose function it is to exhibit the most spiritual content under the mode of human and corporeal actuality1 as no mere beyond of ,spirit1 but in its veritable presence4 ,in conformity with such a result we may adduce the ,holy ,family1 and above all the love of the ,madonna to her child as the ideal content pre-eminently fitted to this sphere4 ,on either side of this centre1 however1 a mass of additional material extends which is in varying degree less adapted in this sense to the art in question4 ,i will now attempt to differentiate the whole of this material on the following lines4 77 ,the first objectification is the object of ,love itself in its pure universality and unimpaired unity with itself--,god ,himself in ,his unphenomenal essence--or ,god the ,father4 ,in this case1 however1 painting has great difficulties to overcome1 when it attempts to depict ,god the ,father as the religious imagination of ,christendom seeks to grasp ,him4 ,the ,father of gods and men regarded as a particular personality is exhaustively dealt with by art in ,zeus4 ,what on the contrary falls away from the ,christian conception of ,god the ,father is the human individuality1 in which painting is alone in a position to reproduce the spiritual aspect4 ,for taken in ,his independent self-exclusion ,god the ,father is no doubt spiritual personality and supreme ,power1 ,wisdom and so forth1 but only retained as such without defined form and as an abstraction of thought4 ,the art of painting is1 however1 unable to avoid anthropomorphization1 and must perforce assign to ,him the figure of man4 ,however broad in its generalization1 however lofty1 ideal1 and masterful the presentment of such a figure may be1 we fail to get beyond the fact that it is entirely a human individual of more or less grave aspect1 which fails entirely to coalesce with the conception of ,god the ,father4 ,among the early ,flemish painters ,van ,eyck in his ,god the ,father of the altar picture at ,ghent has attained the greatest success that we can conceive as possible in this sphere4 ,it is a creation that may well match our conception of the ,olympian ,zeus4 ,but however consummate it may be also in its expression of eternal repose1 loftiness1 power1 worth1 and other qualities--and it is quite impossible to overstate the depth and imposing character of its conception no less than its execution--yet our imagination cannot fail to find something in it which does not satisfy4 ,for what is here set before us as ,god the ,father1 that is to say a creation that is likewise human personality1 is just what we first meet with in ,christ the ,son4 ,it is in ,him that we contemplate for the first time this decisive moment in which individuality and human existence combine as a moment in the ,divine ,life#bed1 and moreover combine in such a way that the same is not disclosed as an ingenious creature of the phantasy1 as was the case with the ,greek divinities1 but as essential and very revelation1 the fact of all importance and fundamental significance4 77 ,the more essential object1 therefore1 of ,love in the creation of painting will be ,christ4 ,in other words1 with this object ,art at once finds itself in the sphere of humanity1 a sphere which along with ,christ embraces further material in its presentations of the ,virgin ,mary1 ,joseph1 ,john the ,baptist1 the disciples1 and so forth1 and ultimately the common folk who in part are followers of the ,gospel1 and in part cry out for the crucifixion of its ,master and mock ,him in ,his sufferings4 ,and here once more the already mentioned difficulty confronts us how we are to conceive and depict ,christ in his universality1 when he is presented in the ordinary way of half-length figures or portraits4 ,i must admit that for myself at any rate1 the heads of ,christ ,i have seen by ,caracci and others and1 to take two famous examples1 that of ,van ,eyck1 formerly in the ,sully ,collection and now in the ,berlin ,museum1 and that of ,von ,hemling1 now in ,munich1 do not give me the entire satisfaction which they ought to do4 ,that of ,van ,eyck1 no doubt1 is very imposing in figure1 forehead1 colour1 and general conception1 but the mouth and eye wholly fail to express anything that transcends our humanity4 ,the expression is rather that of an inflexible seriousness1 which is emphasized by the general type of the form1 the parting of the hair1 and other traits4 ,and when such heads incline still further in expression and shape towards the specifically human type1 and a milder1 more yielding and tender aspect is thereby imported1 much of their depth and power of impression is very readily lost2 and least of all suited to such1 as ,i have already observed1 is the beauty of ,greek form4 ,for this reason ,christ1 as depicted in the experiences of ,his actual life1 is a more suitable subject for pictorial effort4 ,yet in this connection an essential distinction must not be overlooked4 ,it is quite true that in the biographies of ,christ we have from one point of view the human consciousness of ,god presented us as a fundamental aspect4 ,christ is one of the gods1 but under the guise of an actual man1 and takes ,his place among men as one of them1 in whose phenomenal appearance ,he can consequently be depicted in so far as such expresses the life of ,spirit4 ,from another point of view1 however1 he is not merely an individual man1 but entirely ,god4 ,in such situations1 therefore1 in which this supreme ,divinity forces its way beyond the limits of human soul-life1 the art of painting is met with a fresh source of difficulty4 ,the very depth of the content begins to be too overpowering4 ,for in the majority of cases in which we find ,christ presented for example merely as a teacher1 art will not pass much beyond the point in which ,he is depicted as the noblest1 most worthy1 and wisest of men1 much as ,pythagoras or any other wise man1 is presented to us in such a picture as ,raphael's ,school of ,athens4 ,the most important way in which painting can overcome such a difficulty is to bring the ,divinity of ,christ mainly into direct contrast with ,his surroundings1 and above all1 to contrast it with the sins1 the repentance and penance1 or the meanness and evil of our humanity1 or again conversely through ,his worshippers1 who1 by their adoration of ,him remove ,him as one of themselves and a man1 existing in a particular place1 from such immediate conditions1 so that we behold ,him exalted to the heaven of ,spirit1 and at the same time get a glimpse of the fact that ,his appearance has not merely been that of ,god1 but also that of the human form under its ordinary and natural1 in other words1 not wholly ideal conditions1 who as ,spirit essentially possesses his existence in our humanity and the human community1 and expresses ,his divinity as reflected in the same4 ,but we must not understand this reflection as though ,god is present in humanity as in a purely accidental or external mode of form and expression2 rather we ought to regard the ,spirit manifested in the consciousness of mankind as the essential spiritual existence of ,god ,himself#bee4 ,such a mode of presentation will be exceptionally appropriate where ,christ is to be represented as man1 teacher1 as the risen and glorified person who ascends up to heaven before our eyes4 ,to speak plainly1 in situations such as these the means of expression in painting such as the human form and its colour1 the countenance1 the glance of eye1 are not wholly sufficient to express all that is implied in the ,christ4 ,and least of all will the antique beauty of forms suffice4 ,in particular the resurrection and ascension1 and generally1 all scenes in the life of ,christ1 in which ,he1 the individual man1 is already divested of immediate existence as such on ,his return to ,his ,father1 require a more elevated expression of ,divinity than the art of painting is able to supply1 for the reason that it ought to cancel the very means it uses in its representation1 that is1 the expression of human soul-life in its external form1 and glorify the same in a light of purer quality4 ,consequently1 we shall find those scenes of ,christ's life treated with greater advantage and more fitting effect in which ,he ,himself has not yet arrived at the full consummation1 or where ,his ,divinity appears to be obstructed and depressed in the moment of negation4 ,and this we find is the case in ,his childhood and the ,passion4 ,that ,christ as a child expresses definitely from a certain point of view the significance which attaches to ,him in religion4 ,he is ,god ,who becomes man1 and ,who consequently passes through the stages of man's natural life4 ,in another aspect of the same fact that ,he is presented to our minds as a child we are led to feel the practical impossibility of disclosing entirely to us all that ,he essentially is4 ,and it is just here that the art of painting possesses the incalculable advantage of being able to show how the loftiness and dignity of ,spirit can shine forth from the navet and innocence of the child1 which in some measure derives actual force from such a contrast1 and in part1 for the very reason that it is predicated of an infant1 is to an infinitely less extent required by us in comparison with that we look for in ,christ as man1 teacher1 and judge of the world4 ,in this way the examples of ,christ the babe which we find in ,raphael's pictures1 and above all1 that in the ,sistine ,madonna picture at ,dresden1 offer us the most beautiful presentment of childhood4 ,we are1 however1 aware in them also of a tendency to pass beyond merely childlike innocence1 a passage which discloses quite as much the ,divine already present in the opening sheath1 as it enables us to surmise the expansion of such ,divinity to an infinite fulness of revelation1 a revelation the incompleteness of which in the child carries with it its own justification4 ,in the ,madonna pictures of ,van ,eyck1 on the contrary1 the ,divine babe is the least successful feature1 for they are in general stiff and emphasize the defective form of a newly-born child4 ,it has been attempted to regard this as allegorical and intentional4 ,they are not to be fair in aspect because it is not the beauty of the ,christ babe which is that which is adorable1 but the ,christ as ,christ4 ,such a mode of thought is not consonant with the true aim of ,art1 and the babes of ,raphael regarded as works of art are in this respect of far higher rank4 ,in the same way the history of ,christ's passion1 such as the scenes where ,he is mocked and crowned with thorns1 that of the ,ecce ,homo carrying the cross1 deposition1 and burial1 are exceptionally appropriate to pictorial presentment4 ,for in these it is precisely the ,divinity1 in its contrast to its triumph and in the depression of its unlimited power and wisdom1 which supplies the content4 ,art is not merely able to present this1 but there is ample room for the play of originality in the composition of such scenes without falling into purely fantastical imagery4 ,god is here set before us as suffering1 in so far as ,he is man and under certain determinate bounds4 ,such pain is not merely disclosed as human pain over human calamity1 but it is an awful suffering1 the feeling of an infinite negativity1 albeit in human form1 as the conscious life of one individual4 ,and withal there is added1 for the reason that it is ,god who suffers1 a certain sense of alleviation1 a reduction of such anguish which is thus unable to break forth in actual despair1 distortion1 and horror4 ,this expression of soul-suffering is1 more particularly in the works of several ,italian masters1 an original creation4 ,the pain is in the lower portions of the countenance1 a gravity of mien1 and nothing more1 not as in the ,laocoon a contraction of the muscles1 which can be interpreted as an actual cry2 but in the eyes and on the forehead the billows of soul-anguish are1 so to speak1 allowed to roll over one another4 ,the sweat drops that bespeak the heart's agony stand forth2 and with true instinct on the brow1 in which the immovable bone constitutes the determining feature1 precisely at the point where nose1 eyes1 and forehead coalesce1 and the life of mind and heart is concentrated and emphasized1 we find that just one or two indications of skin-folds and muscles1 unable to be distorted to any great extent1 are suffered pre-eminently to bear and express in tension this accumulated weight of agony4 ,in particular ,i can recall a certain head in the gallery of ,schleisheim1 in which the master--,i fancy ,guido ,reni#bef--;and doubtless others in a similar way1 have discovered a distinct colour tone for the flesh1 which is quite unlike that of human flesh4 ,they had to disclose the night of the ,spirit and created for the same a dowry of colour1 most admirably adapted to express this tempest1 these black clouds of ,spirit which are likewise encompassed by the brazen forehead of the ,divine ,nature#beg4 ,as the most perfect subject of such painting1 however1 ,i have already affirmed that ,love1 which is essentially satisfied1 whose object is no purely spiritual ,beyond1 but one actually present1 so that we can behold ,love itself in its object4 ,the highest and most unique form of such a ,love is that of the ,virgin ,mother for her ,christ child1 the love of the one mother who has brought forth the ,saviour of the world and carries ,him in her arms4 ,this is the content of most loveliness to which we may say ,christian art generally and pre-eminently the painter's art in the religious sphere has been exalted4 ,the love of ,god1 and more expressly#beh that of which ,christ is the object1 is of an entirely spiritual type4 ,its object is only visible to the eyes of the soul1 so that in these cases we do not in the strict sense get the reciprocity which is bound with the notion of ,love1 and moreover there is no natural tie which secures the lovers and from its origin binds them to each other4 ,every other type of love1 to put the matter conversely1 remains in some measure accidental in its incidence1 and in another aspect of it the lovers possess1 as1 for instance1 sisters1 or the father's love for his children1 yet further relations outside this particular one1 which assert an essential claim upon them4 ,a father or brothers are compelled to direct their attention to the world1 the ,state1 affairs or war1 in one word universal ends2 the sister becomes wife1 mother1 and so forth4 ,in the case of a mother's love of her child1 on the contrary1 the love is from its very nature neither something that is contingent1 nor is it merely a single phase#bei4 ,it is its highest earthly type1 in which its natural character and its most sacred function immediately coalesce4 ,from the point of view1 however1 in which as a rule in maternal love the mother sees and feels at the same time her husband in her child1 we may observe that this aspect1 too1 in the ,virgin ,mary's case disappears4 ,her feeling has nothing in common with a wife's love for her wedded husband2 on the contrary her relation to ,joseph is rather that of a sister1 and on the side of ,joseph a feeling of respectful reverence for the ,child that is ,god's and ,mary's4 ,we therefore find that religious love is set forth in its fullest and most ideal#bfj human form1 not in that for ,christ amid ,his sufferings1 nor in ,his resurrection1 nor as ,he delays ,his departure among ,his friends1 but in the emotional nature of a woman1 in ,mary4 ,her entire soul and life is human love for the ,child1 which she calls her own1 and along with it adoration1 and love of ,god with whom she feels herself thus united#bfa4 ,she is humble before ,god1 and yet is steeped in the infinite exaltation that she is the single one among maidens who is above all blessed4 ,not alone and apart1 but only in her ,child is she made perfect in ,god1 but in that1 whether it be by the cradle or as queen of heaven1 she is entirely content and blessed1 without passion and yearning1 with no other want1 with no other aim to have or possess anything but that which she possesses4 ,the manifestation of this love under the aspect of its religious content expands in many directions1 such as the annunciation1 the visitation1 the birth1 the flight into ,egypt1 and other such incidents4 ,we may also associate with it1 during the later course of the ,christ-life1 the disciples and women1 who follow ,him1 and in whom the love of ,god is more or less a personal relation of their love to the living1 present ,saviour1 ,who1 as actual man1 pursues ,his course among them1 and in like manner also the love of those angels who1 on the occasion of ,his birth and at other times1 hover around in grave adoration or simple joy4 ,in treating all such figures the art of painting in particular discloses the complete peace and content of such a love4 ,but this peace1 furthermore1 is dissolved in the most heartfelt anguish4 ,mary the mother beholds ,christ carrying the cross4 ,she sees ,him suffer on the cross and die2 she sees ,him taken from the cross and buried1 and no grief is more poignant than her own4 ,and yet we may observe that it is neither the irreparableness#bfb of such a grief1 or rather of such a loss1 nor the weight of the calamity1 nor the lament over the injustice of destiny1 which constitutes the real content in such anguish1 so that a contrast between it and the sorrow of ,niobe is particularly instructive4 ,niobe1 too1 has lost all her children1 and is set before us in severe loftiness and unperturbed beauty4 ,the main content here is the aspect of the natural life of this ill-starred sufferer1 the beauty in which ,nature has robed her and which embraces the entire presentment of her actual existence4 ,she1 this actual personality1 is beauty personified1 and therein she persists4 ,but her soul-life1 her heart1 has lost the entire content of its love1 its soul1 and her individuality and beauty can only turn into stone4 ,the grief of ,mary is of a wholly different type4 ,she feels intimately the dagger which cuts through her soul's very centre1 her heart breaks1 but she does not become stone4 ,she did not merely possess love1 but her soul-life throughout is nothing but love1 that is1 free and concrete ideality1 which retains the absolute content of that which it loses1 and in the loss itself of the beloved persists in the peace of love4 ,her heart indeed breaks1 but the substantive principle of her heart1 the content of its life#bfc1 which is disclosed through her anguish of soul with a vital strength that can never be lost1 is something infinitely more exalted1 namely1 the living beauty of the human soul1 as contrasted with its abstract substance1 whose ideal existence as presented in bodily shape1 when it is lost remains indeed indestructible1 but is turned to stone4 ,there is one further subject for painting in connection with ,mary the mother of ,jesus1 and that is her death and assumption4 ,schoreel has with exceptional beauty depicted a death of ,mary in which we find the charm of her youth once more restored#bfd4 ,this master has united in his picture the expression of somnambulism1 presence of death1 rigidity1 and blindness towards the exterior world with one which seems to suggest that the spirit1 which seems somehow to penetrate through their general aspect1 has found a home elsewhere and is blessed therein4 77,thirdly1 we must include within the sphere of the actual presence of ,god in the life1 sufferings1 and glorification of ,himself1 mankind at large#bfe1 that is to say the consciousness of individual human life1 which ,god1 or more accurately the events of ,his history1 constitutes as itself an object of ,his love1 communicating to it a content which is not merely finite but absolute in its significance4 ,here1 too1 we may emphasize the three aspects of tranquil devotion1 repentance1 and conversion1 which both from the point of view of the soul and that of external condition the history of the ,divine ,passion repeats to mankind1 no less than the ideal consummation in glory and the blessedness of pure attainment4 ,in respect to the first of these1 namely1 devotion1 we have here what is primarily the content of prayer4 ,this relation is in one aspect of it a humbling1 surrender of the self1 the seeking of peace in another2 from another point of view it is not a petition but rather a prayer#bff4 ,petition and prayer are no doubt closely connected in so far1 that is1 as a prayer can be a petition4 ,and yet the genuine petition seeks after something for itself4 ,it importunes the man who possesses something of importance to myself1 that he may feel inclined to do me a favour in virtue of the request1 that his heart may yield1 or his love may be roused toward me1 in one word that his feeling of identity with myself may be awakened4 ,what ,i1 however1 feel in making a petition is the desire for something1 which the other person must lose if ,i am to secure it4 ,the other person is to love me in order that my self-love may be satisfied1 and my weal and necessity be promoted4 ,i on the contrary give nothing further in the transaction unless it be contained in an admission that the person thus opportuned may ask for similar favours from myself4 ,prayer is not a petition of this type4 ,it is an exaltation of the heart to the ,absolute1 which is assumed to be essentially ,love1 and as such possesses nothing independently#bfg4 ,the devotion itself is the gift1 the petition itself is the blessedness4 ,for although prayer may contain a petition for some particular thing1 yet it is not this particular thing which is the true purport of the prayer2 rather the essential truth of it is the conviction that the petition will be heard1 and not heard in its relation to the particular request so much as to the absolute trust that ,god will apportion that which is best for me to receive4 ,and thus even in such a connection prayer is itself its own satisfaction1 the enjoyment1 the express feeling and consciousness of eternal ,love1 which not only with its ray of illumination shines through the object#bfh of prayer and its situation1 but in fact constitutes the situation and what is there actually or is thereby manifested4 ,it is this type of supplication which we find exemplified by ,pope ,sixtus in the picture of ,raphael already mentioned#bfi1 no less than by ,santa ,barbara in the same picture1 and by many other representations of the prayers of apostles and saints1 of ,saint ,francis#bgj and the like at the foot of the ,cross1 where we find in the place of the suffering of ,christ1 or the dismay1 doubt1 and despair of the disciples the love and adoration of ,god1 and the prayer that loses itself in ,him is selected as the significant content4 ,we find such rendered with particular force for the most part on the countenances of aged men marked strongly with the sufferings and experience of life in the earlier period of painting1 faces that appear to be portraits1 souls permeated with devotional feeling to such an extent that this attitude of prayer does not merely appear to be experienced at this particular moment1 but rather they are presented us as pious and saintlike persons whose entire life1 thought1 instinct1 and volition is one prayer1 and whose expression despite of all the truth of their portraiture may be summed up wholly in this assurance and peace of ,love4 ,it is otherwise1 however1 among many of the earlier ,german and ,flemish masters4 ,the subject of the altar picture in ,cologne ,cathedral is the adoring kings and patrons of ,cologne4 ,we find this subject too frequently selected by the school of ,van ,eyck4 ,in such examples the persons who adore are frequently famous individuals1 princes1 as1 for instance1 in a well-known adoration picture1 which has been taken for the work of ,van ,eyck1 critics have identified two of the kings with portraits of ,philip of ,burgundy and ,charles the ,bold4 ,in the case of personages of this type we see that they are something more than saints1 have affairs in the world1 and only go to mass on ,sunday or in the early morning1 but during the rest of the week or for the rest of the day have other business to look after4 ,and more particularly in our ,flemish or ,german pictures the patrons are pious knights1 ,god-fearing housewives with their sons and daughters4 ,they resemble ,martha who fares hither and thither and is concerned with matters of external or mundane significance1 rather than ,mary who has selected once and for all the best part4 ,their piety is not deficient1 it is true1 in intensity and soul2 but we do not find here the song of ,love which is at once the beginning and end of it1 and which is perforce not merely an exaltation1 a prayer1 or thanks for a gift received1 but is as much its unique life as that of the nightingale4 ,we may summarize the distinction which can be drawn generally in pictures of this kind between saints and worshippers on the one hand1 and pious members of the ,christian community as they actually appeared on the other1 in the statement that the worshippers1 more especially in ,italian pictures1 disclose in the expression of their piety a complete harmony of external and spiritual condition4 ,it is their very soul which we find written for the most part on their countenances1 which are not permitted to express anything opposed to the emotions of their heart4 ,in the actual conditions of life this is not always the case4 ,an infant1 for example1 when it weeps1 more particularly when beginning to do so1 quite apart from the fact that we know its grief is not worth the trouble of crying over1 often makes us smile with its ugly faces4 ,and in the same way old folk pucker up their face when they laugh1 because the lines of their features are too pronounced1 cold1 and stiff to accommodate themselves readily to an unreserved and natural laugh or a friendly smile4 ,the art of painting should endeavour to avoid this incompatibility between the emotions of piety expressed and the sensuous forms which have to express them1 and1 so far as possible1 produce a harmony between the soul and its external mode of expression4 ,and this in the highest degree was effected by the ,italians2 the ,germans and ,flemish were less successful1 because the main object in their work was living portraiture4 ,i will add one further remark1 that this devotion of the soul ought not to reach the point of the actual cry of anxiety1 that cry of tribulation and desire1 such as the ,psalms and many ,lutheran hymns express1 and we may illustrate it with the old words3 ,as the hart crieth for the water-brooks1 so crieth my soul for ,thee4 ,we may rather indicate it as a gradual melting away1 not to that attenuation of sweetness perhaps we associate with the nun1 but at any rate a surrender of the soul1 and an enjoyment and satisfaction in such surrender4 ,for that travail of faith1 that anxious troubling of soul1 that doubt and desperation which persists in disunion1 such a type of hypochondriacal piety which never is certain whether it is still sin1 whether there has been repentance and pardon is complete1 a surrender1 in which the soul can never advance a step1 and is always betraying the fact by his anxiety1 such a state is not compatible with the beauty of the romantic ,ideal4 ,we much prefer that the eye of devotion should raise its look of yearning heavenwards1 although it is both more artistic and gives us yet more satisfaction when it is centred on some present object of adoration1 whether it be the ,virgin ,mother1 ,christ1 or saint4 ,it is a facile thing1 only too facile1 to attach to a picture a spiritual interest1 by making its central figure gaze heavenwards1 anywhere beyond the world1 just as we find that nowadays people are only too ready to make use of an equally facile way of proving ,god and religion to be the foundation of society by quoting texts of the ,bible rather than establishing such a basis on the reason of actual reality4 ,such a gaze of countenance upwards becomes in the pictures of ,guido ,reni#bga1 for example1 a pure mannerism4 ,the ,assumption of the ,virgin1 too1 which we find at ,munich1 has been much eulogized by its admirers and critics1 and we may admit that the exalted character of its transfiguration1 the absorption and surrender of the soul in the heavenly vision1 and indeed the entire pose of the ascending figure1 to say nothing of the brilliance and beauty of the colouring1 is most impressive4 ,but for myself ,i find such representations which depict the ,virgin ,mother in her own daydream of love and blessedness with her glance centred on her babe still more appropriate to her truth4 ,the other type of yearning and strain1 with its upward gaze heavenwards1 is somewhat too near to our modern sentimentalism4 ,a further aspect of importance is concerned with the entrance of the principle of negation into the spiritual devotion of ,love4 ,the disciples1 saints1 and martyrs1 have to pass through1 in some measure as an experience of their souls1 and in part1 too1 as one of their external life1 that way of suffering along which the ,christ in the history of ,his ,passion passed before them4 ,this suffering lies to some extent on the confines of art4 ,painting can very easily overstep this boundary1 in so far1 that is1 as it accepts for its subject-matter the horrors and terrors of the bodily torture1 whether it be in flaying1 or burning1 or crucifixion1 and its pains4 ,this it is not permitted to do1 if it is not to forsake the spiritual ,ideal4 ,this is not solely due to the fact that to present martyrs under such conditions to our sight is not beautiful to the sense1 nor because our nerves nowadays are too keenly strung1 but on the better ground that this material aspect is not the really important one4 ,the true content we have to follow with sympathy and which should be depicted is the spiritual experience1 the soul in all that it suffers through ,love1 and not the direct bodily pain of a certain individual1 the grief for the sufferings of another1 or the anguish felt personally for personal demerit4 ,the endurance of martyrs in physical tortures is an endurance which carries with it merely physical pain3 what the spiritual ,ideal looks for is the trial of the soul in its own domain1 its own peculiar suffering1 the wounds of its love1 the repentance1 mourning1 anguish1 and penance of its heart4 ,but we must add that in depicting this pain of soul the positive aspect must not wholly be absent4 ,the soul must be assured of the actual and essentially consummated reconciliation between mankind and ,god1 and only experience anxiety that this eternal salvation be realized as a truth in itself4 ,in this connection we not unfrequently meet with repentant people1 martyrs1 and monks1 who1 despite of their assuredness of an objective atonement1 partly are overwhelmed with sorrow for a heart whose entire surrender they deem to be right1 and partly have already made such complete surrender1 and yet are always for realizing such reconciliation anew1 and consequently for ever imposing on themselves the burden of penances4 ,and we find1 therefore1 in the artistic treatment of such situations a twofold point of departure4 ,in other words1 the artist may1 to start with1 presuppose in his subject an open disposition1 freedom1 cheerfulness1 and decision of spirit1 such as carries with ease life and the yoke of the actual world and knows how to readily deal with the same1 then he may fitly associate with such painful experiences a native nobility1 grace1 freshness1 freedom1 and beauty of form4 ,when1 on the contrary1 his work is based upon a natural sense that is more refractory1 defiant1 savage1 and limited1 the conflict of the spirit in overcoming the flesh and the world1 and securing to itself the religion of salvation will necessarily imply more severe travail4 ,in cases of such obstinacy of soul1 therefore1 the harsher reflections of force and stability are more apparent1 the scars of the wounds which have been inflicted on an obstinacy of this type are more visible and enduring1 and the beauty of the physical result tends to vanish#bgb4 ,thirdly1 that positive aspect of atonement1 the transfigurement that results from grief's travail1 the blessedness that comes of repentance may be independently accepted as the subject of artistic presentment though it may readily pass into false conceptions4 ,such1 then1 are the main distinguishing characteristics of the absolute spiritual ,ideal regarded as the essential content of romantic painting4 ,it forms the material of its most successful and solemn creations1 works that are immortal by virtue of the depth of their contemplation2 and when the representation of essential truth is thereby expressed they are nothing less than the most exalted expansion of the soul to its heaven of bliss1 the most intimate and complete revelation of ideal life that an artist can bring before our vision4 ,following this pre-eminently religious sphere of artistic production we have still to investigate two further fields of its activity4 77 ,in direct contrast to the province of religion we have that which1 if we consider it in its isolated abstraction1 is equally destitute of the life of soul and ,god1 ,nature in its simplest terms1 and regarded more definitely in its connection with painting1 ,nature's landscape4 ,we have stated the character of the object of religion to be such that in it the substantive ideality of the soul expresses therein the indwelling sense of ,love as united to the ,absolute#bgc4 ,this inward ideality has1 however1 a further content4 ,it is able to discover in that which is wholly external an accord with soul-life1 and can recognize in the objective world as such traits which have an affinity with what is spiritual4 ,regarded in their immediacy1 no doubt1 hills1 mountains1 woods1 valleys1 streams1 meadows1 sunlight1 moon1 and the starry heavens1 are simply perceived to be the natural objects they are4 ,but1 in the first place1 these objects have to start with an independent interest1 in so far as it is the free life of ,nature1 which appears in them1 and produces a sense of fellow feeling in the individual as one who shares that life himself2 and1 secondly1 the particular changes of ,nature's moods bring about states in the soul which correspond to such moods4 ,it is possible for man to follow with his own life this animation of ,nature and partake in this harmony of soul with its environment1 and feel thereby at home in ,nature4 ,just as the ,arcadians spoke of a ,pan1 who made them shudder and frightened in the gloaming of the forest1 in the same way the varied conditions of ,nature's landscape in its gentle blithesomeness1 its balmy repose1 its spring-freshness1 its wintry chill1 its morning awakening and evening rest find their counterfeits in states of the soul4 ,the tranquil depth of the ocean1 the possibility that its depths may break forth with infinite power is akin to soul movements1 just as conversely the roaring1 upwelling1 foaming1 and break of storm-tossed waves stir the soul with concordant music4 ,it is an ideal significance of this kind that the art of painting accepts as its object4 ,and for this reason it is not natural objects merely as such in their external form and association which ought to constitute its true content1 so that painting is nothing more than a mere imitation1 but rather the animation of ,nature's life1 which interfuses it throughout and which is able to bring into prominence and assert with more vividness in the scenes of ,nature reproduced the characteristic affinity of specific conditions of this life with particular spiritual states--it is a vital participation in ,nature of this kind which gives us the meeting-point1 steeped as it is in the soul-life and temperament of the artist1 by means of which ,nature may become the content of painting not merely as environment1 but as possessing a distinct individuality#bgd4 77 ,there is yet further a third type of idealization which we find partly in the case where objects wholly insignificant are detached from the position they occupy in the landscape1 and1 partly1 in scenes of human life1 which may appear to us not merely as wholly accidental as thus selected1 but even of a kind that is both mean and commonplace4 ,i have already found an opportunity for an attempt to justify the artistic selection of such subjects#bge4 ,i will in connection with painting merely add the following remarks to our former discussion4 ,the art of painting is not merely concerned with the inward life of the soul1 but with that ideal element that is essentially particularized#bgf4 ,this latter type of ideality for the reason that particularity is its principle is not content to rest satisfied with the absolute object of religion1 and as little will merely accept from the external world ,nature's vitality and its defined character as landscape2 rather it insists on partaking of everything1 in which man as an isolated individual soul can take a rational interest and find pleasure4 ,even in the case of its representations of religious material art1 in proportion as it develops1 it attaches such more closely to terrestrial conditions and the objects of actual vision1 giving to its content the complete presence of natural existence1 so that we ultimately find that the aspect of sensuous existence is most important and the interest of devotional life only so in a subordinate degree4 ,for here1 too1 art receives the task to work out the ,ideal in its fullest realization1 in other words1 to present to our senses that which is originally detached from them1 to carry over objects taken from the remoteness of past life into present life and unite them with that present human life4 ,at our present stage of human evolution it is the ideality which we find in actual life as it faces us1 in the circumstances of daily experience1 the most common and the most trivial1 which is the actual content4 77 ,if we inquire1 then1 what it is that makes a content of this kind1 otherwise so poverty-stricken and indifferent1 compatible with the claims of art1 we must reply that it is the substantive core that is contained and made valid therein1 in general terms the vitality and delight of self-subsistent existence1 exemplified in the greatest variety of its aims and interests4 ,the life of mankind is always in the immediate ,present4 ,what a man may do in each moment thereof is something specific1 and its justification consists in the fact that he carries through all his engagements1 the least no less than the greatest1 with heart and soul4 ,in this way he is united with each particular incident1 and1 by infusing into each the entire force of his individuality1 appears to identify his whole existence with such4 ,this coalescence#bgg produces that harmony of the individual with the specific character of his immediate activity in the circumstances that are nearest him1 which is itself a mode of ideality1 and which communicates in such a case to the subsistency of an existence1 which is an exclusive and perfected whole1 its attractive character4 ,the interest1 therefore1 that we derive from representations of this kind is not to be attributed to the subject-matter1 but rather to this animating soul1 which by itself1 and independently of that wherein it is disclosed as vital1 finds an echo in every uncorrupted nature1 in every free spirit1 and is for the same an object of sympathy and delight4 ,we must not1 therefore1 impair our enjoyment on the ground that the demand is made of us to admire such works of art under the aspect of their likeness to ,nature so-called and such illusive imitation#bgh4 ,this demand1 which works of this kind appear at first blush to support1 is itself merely a deception which fails to hit the real point4 ,for an admiration of this type is solely deducible from the wholly external comparison of a work of art and a work of ,nature1 and is only associated with the similarity of the counterfeit with an object or fact presented us1 whereas the real content here and the artistic quality in the composition and execution is the coalescence of the matter portrayed with its own substance1 which is the reality as independently depicted in its vital characterization4 ,according to the principle of illusion1 for instance1 the portraits of ,denner are entitled to our praise1 which are1 no doubt1 imitations of ,nature1 but for the most part fail entirely to present us that vital animation on which we lay the main stress in these cases1 and are mainly concerned with depicting hair1 wrinkles1 and generally every kind of trait which1 without exactly being indicative of a corpse1 are equally remote from the human physiognomy depicted as alive4 ,moreover1 if we permit ourselves to level down our enjoyment through superficial thoughts of the above fashionable kind1 believing subjects of this type to be mean and unworthy of our contemplation1 we accept the content by doing so in a form other than that in which art offers them us4 ,in other words we merely associate with them the relation in which we stand to them according to our personal needs1 pleasure1 such education as we otherwise possess and other objects we have before us1 that is to say we merely conceive them in respect to their external purport1 throughout which it is our own requirements which are the vital thing we aim at for ourselves1 and the matter of all importance4 ,the life of the subject-matter itself1 however1 is thereby destroyed1 in so far1 that is1 as the sole object of its existence appears to be that of a means simply1 or lapses into a thing of no moment at all1 just because we personally have no need for it4 ,a gleam of sunlight1 for example1 which falls upon a room we enter through an open door1 a part of the country we travel through1 a sempstress1 a maid we happen to see busily engaged1 one and all we may regard with indifference1 because we suffer them to pass by remote from the thoughts and interests which are bound up with them1 and consequently in our soliloquy1 or conversation with another will not suffer the situations which actually lie before us to speak a word in the current of our own thoughts and speech2 or we cast what is merely a passing glance at them1 the summary of which does not amount to more than the remark1 how pleasant1 fine1 or ugly they are4 ,thus we are charmed with the joviality of dance of peasants1 while we merely glance at it superficially1 or turn away from it with contempt1 because we are hostile to every sort of barbarism4 ,we treat in a similar way the human countenances we come across in our daily life1 or which we happen to chance upon4 ,our own personal point of view1 and the various matters which engage us are for ever being interposed4 ,we are forced to address this or that person in a certain way1 we have affairs to despatch1 we have certain things to consider1 thoughts that affect our relation to such a person2 we observe him under the particular circumstances of our knowledge2 we regulate our conversation relatively to that1 or we are silent upon it1 if he may be likely to resent it--in short we have always in our minds the man's business1 station1 and status1 and our attitude to and business with him1 remaining in a wholly practical relation1 or in a position of indifference and preoccupied inattention4 ,art1 however1 when it depicts such real life1 wholly changes our attitude to it2 it cuts away once and for all all practical deviations#bgi1 such as we are wont to associate with such material2 it places us simply in the attitude of abstract contemplation to it2 and in the like degree it does away with its indifference1 and directs our otherwise preoccupied attention wholly to the situation portrayed2 upon which we must collect and concentrate all our faculties1 if we are to enjoy it4 ,sculpture1 in particular1 by virtue of its ideal mode of production from the first strikes off all practical relation to the object to the extent that its product at once betrays the fact that it does not belong to this reality4 ,painting1 on the contrary1 carries us wholly into the presence of the daily life with which we are in immediate contact1 but it furthermore destroys all the threads of practical necessity1 attraction1 inclination1 or disinclination1 which draw us to such a ,present1 or the reverse1 and forces us to approach those objects more intimately as ends to themselves in their own particular phase or mode of life4 ,what we meet with here is just the opposite to that which ,herr von ,schlegel1 for example1 in the tale of ,pygmalion1 expresses so very prosily as the return of the completed work of art to common life1 that is to a relation of a man's own inclinations and an actual enjoyment1 a return which is the very opposite of that alienation1 in which the work of art places the objects delineated in their relation to our practical necessities1 and1 precisely by doing so1 sets forth before us their own independent life and appearance4 77 ,just as1 then1 art1 in this particular sphere1 re-establishes the forfeited independence of a content1 which we otherwise failed to preserve in its unique characteristics1 in the same way1 secondly1 it is able to secure in stability such objects as may happen to appear in actual existence in a form we are not accustomed to respect simply as such4 ,the higher ,nature stretches in its organization and shifting appearance the more it resembles the actor who only serves the present need4 ,in this connection ,i have already emphasized the fact as a triumph of art over reality1 namely1 that it is able to fix that which is most evanescent4 ,this power of art in attaching permanence to momentary things applies not only to the sudden flash of life we find concentrated in certain situations1 but also to the magical effect of its external presentment in the rapid changes of its colour4 ,a troop of horsemen1 for example1 may alter every moment in the mode of its grouping1 and the mutual relation of each rider within it4 ,if we were one of such we should have something else to do than consider the lively effect of such changes4 ,we should have to mount1 dismount1 make up our haversack1 eat1 drink1 rest1 groom1 drink and feed our horses3 or1 if we looked on as ordinary folk1 we should look at such with wholly different interests4 ,we should want to know what they are there for1 what nationality they are1 for what reason they have left their barracks1 and so forth4 ,the painter1 on the contrary1 smuggles off the most volatile of the movements1 the most evanescent expressions of countenance1 the most momentary gleams of colour apparent in such motion1 and places such before us solely in virtue of its interest in the animation of such phenomena which without it would vanish4 ,for especially it is the play of the colouring1 not treated merely as flat tint1 but in its lights and shadows1 and in the prominence or subordination of the objects painted which is the reason that the representation appears lifelike1 a fact which we are accustomed to observe in works of art less than such an aspect deserves1 bringing as it does art first clearly to our minds4 ,and1 moreover1 the artist preferably accepts in depicting these natural relations the effort of following the least detail1 and making his work concrete1 definite and stamped with individuality1 endeavouring as he does to secure for his subject-matter the individuality which phenomenal life itself supplies in its most momentary flashes2 and yet withal does not so much seek for such a detail merely as imitated closely to strike our senses with its directness1 but rather to furnish a definite image to the imagination in which at the same time the ideality of the entire composition remains active4 77 ,the more insignificant the objects are1 in comparison with the material of religion1 which this particular phase of painting accepts for its content1 to that very extent it is just this quality of artistic creation1 the manner of observation1 conception1 elaboration1 the vitality communicated by the artist to his work by all his individual faculties1 in short the soul and living enthusiasm of his execution1 which constitute a prominent aspect of its interest1 and are part of its content4 ,that which the subject treated is under his workmanship must1 however1 substantially remain what it is in fact and is capable of being4 ,we believe1 indeed1 that we look upon something different1 and novel1 because in actual life we do not pay the same detailed attention to similar situations1 and their manner of colouring4 ,looked at on the reverse side no doubt we have something1 too1 that is new added to such ordinary subjects1 namely1 just this very enthusiasm1 artistic insight and spirit1 the soul1 in which the artist handles them1 adapts them to his uses1 and by doing so infuses the enthusiasm of his activity like the breath of a new life throughout all his work#bhj4 ,such1 then1 are the essential points of view1 which it was necessary to discuss in regard to the content of painting4 7b7 ,the second aspect which we have next in order to examine is connected with the more particular modes of definition1 to which the sensuous material1 in so far as it has to accept in itself a given content1 has to accommodate itself4 77 ,the first of these of importance is the linear perspective4 ,this is introduced as necessary1 because painting has only the superficies at its disposal and no longer1 as was the case with the bas-relief of antique sculpture1 can extend its figures side by side on one and the same plane1 but has to proceed to a mode of presentation1 which finds it necessary to make the remoteness of its objects in all their spatial dimensions merely appear as such to our senses4 ,for the art of painting has to unfold the content it selects1 to place the same in its various movement before our eyes1 and to associate in different ways its figures with the landscape of external ,nature1 its buildings and so forth1 in a wholly distinct grade of literalness to that which sculpture in the relief is able to secure4 ,and that which painting in this respect cannot place before us in its actual degree of remoteness in the realistic manner of sculpture it must present under the illusion of reality4 ,what we have first to notice here consists in this that the single surface which confronts painting is divided into distinct planes1 apparently remote from one another1 and by this means the contrasts of a near foreground and a remote background are secured1 which furthermore are linked together by means of a middle distance4 ,inasmuch as the objects are1 the more distant they are from the vision1 proportionately reduced in size1 and this deduction follows in ,nature itself optical laws capable of mathematical determination1 the art of painting1 too1 has on its part to follow the same rules1 which1 by virtue of the fact that objects are set forth on one surface1 are applicable here in a particular way4 ,and this is the rational ground of the so-called linear or mathematical perspective in the art of painting1 whose more detailed exposition1 however1 it is not our business here to discuss4 77 ,in the second place1 however1 objects are not only placed at a certain distance from one another1 but they also differ in shape4 ,this particular mode of their spatial limitation by virtue of which every object is made visible in its particular form is the subject-matter of draughtsmanship4 ,the art of drawing gives us for the first time not merely the comparative distance of objects from one another1 but their respective configuration4 ,its most important principle is accuracy of form and relative distance1 which of course in the first instance is not as yet associated with ideal#bha expression1 but related simply to external appearance1 and consequently forms the purely external framework#bhb1 an accuracy1 however1 which1 more particularly in the case of organic forms and their varied movements1 is on account of the fore-shortenings thereby rendered necessary one of extreme difficulty4 ,in so far as these two aspects are related purely to form and its spatial totality they constitute the plastic or sculpturesque features in painting1 which this art1 for the very reason that it expresses what is most ideal in its significance by means of external form1 can as little dispense with as it can in another respect remain solely content with4 ,for its supreme task is the employment of colour1 and in such a way that in all that is truly painting distance and shape only attain and discover their genuine presentment by virtue of the distinctions of colour4 77 ,it is1 therefore1 colour1 and the art of colouring1 which make the painter a painter4 ,we dwell with pleasure1 no doubt1 on the drawing1 and exceptionally so on the study or sketch1 as on that which pre-eminently betrays the quality of genius2 but however rich with invention and imagination1 with whatever directness the soul of an artist may assert itself in such studies by reason of the more transparent and mobile shell of their form1 yet the fact remains to be painting we must have colour1 if the work is not to continue abstract from the point of view of its sensuous material in the vital individuality and articulation of its objects4 ,we must1 however1 at the same time admit that drawings and dry point drawings from the hand of great masters such as ,raphael and ,albrecht ,drer are of real importance4 ,in fact from a certain point of view we may say that it is just these hand drawings which carry with them the finest interest4 ,we find here the wonderful result that the entire spirit of the master is expressed directly in such manual facility1 a facility which places with the greatest ease1 in instantaneous work1 without any preliminary essays1 the essential substance of the master's conception4 ,the border drawings of ,drer1 for example1 in the ,prayer-book of the ,munich library1 are of indescribable ideality and freedom4 ,idea and execution appear in such a case to be one and the same thing1 whereas in finished pictures we cannot avoid the sense that the consummate result is only secured after repeated over-paintings1 a continuous process of advance and finish4 ,in despite of this1 however1 it is only through its employment of colour that the art of painting is able to give a real and vital presentment to the wealth of soul-life4 ,all the schools of painting have1 however1 not retained the art of colouring at the same high level4 ,it is a significant fact that we may1 with an exception here and there1 assert that it is only the ,venetians and the ,dutch#bhc who have become consummate masters in their use of it4 ,both peoples were linked to the sea-coast1 both situated on a low-lying land divided by fens1 streams1 and canals4 ,in the case of the ,dutch we may find an explanation in the fact that1 on account of their having so perpetually a cloud-covered horizon1 their conception of a gray background became fixed in their minds1 and owing to this very gloomy prepossession they were the more driven to study colour in all its effects and variety of lighting1 shadow1 and chiaroscuro1 to emphasize this and to discover in this the main task of their artistic efforts4 ,in contrast to that of the ,venetians and the ,dutch the painting of the ,italians generally1 if we except that of ,correggio and one or two others1 appears to be more dry1 sapless1 cold1 and lifeless4 ,looked at more closely we may emphasize the following points in connection with the art of colouring as the most important4 77 ,in the first place we have the abstract basis of all colour in light and dark4 ,when we posit this contrast and its transitions by themselves without further distinctions of colour effect1 we get thereby simply the contrasts supplied us by white as light and black as shadow together with their transitional grades and nuances1 contrasts which offer to the art of drawing its integrating quality1 appertaining as they do to the real plastic character of form1 and producing the prominence1 retreat1 rondure1 and distance of objects4 ,we may incidentally mention in this connection the art of engraving on the plate which is wholly concerned with light and shadow as such#bhd4 ,apart from the infinite assiduity and labour it implies we find in this highly valuable art1 at the point of its supreme attainment1 soul intimately associated with the utility of great variety of form#bhe1 a variety which the art of bookbinding also possesses4 ,such an art1 however1 is not wholly occupied with effects of light and shade as that of simple draughtsmanship is2 it endeavours further in its elaboration to become distinctly a rival of painting1 and in addition to light and shade such as is purely the effect of illumination1 also strives to express those distinctions of more emphatic light and darkness which are primarily the result of local colour2 we find1 for example1 in a copperplate engraving that an attempt is made by its use of light effects to render visible the distinction between blond and black hair4 ,in painting1 however1 as already remarked1 mere light and darkness only supply the fundamental basis1 albeit such a foundation is of the greatest importance4 ,for it is this contrast and only this which defines the comparative prominence and retirement1 the rondure1 and generally the actual appearance of form as sensuous shape1 all that we understand by modelling4 ,masters of colour in this respect simply carry the process to the most extreme contrasts of the most brilliant light and the deepest shadow1 and merely produce thereby their grand effects4 ,such contrasts are1 however1 only permissible in so far as they avoid harshness1 that is1 in so far as they are made within the limits of a just interplay of intermediate tones and colour transitions1 which bind the entire composition in a fluid unity and render the finest gradations of tint possible4 ,if such contrasts are entirely absent the entire effect will be flat1 because it is precisely this distinction between that which is more brilliant and more obscure which gives emphatic prominence to particular aspects of the work and a like subordination to others4 ,and especially in the case of compositions having a large content1 and where the distance between objects is considerable1 it is necessary to introduce the deepest shadow in order to make the scale of light and shadow a broad one4 ,with regard to the closer definition of light and shade we find that this depends more than anything else upon the mode of lighting accepted by the artist4 ,the light of day1 that of morning1 noon1 and evening1 sunlight or moonlight1 a clear or clouded sky1 the light of tempest1 candle-light1 a light that is veiled1 or falls upon the object or diffuses itself gradually1 every conceivable mode of lighting1 in short1 is possible1 and the cause of every kind of effect4 ,in treating a subject of public interest1 full of incident1 a situation that at once appeals to our common sense1 the question of external lighting is of subordinate importance4 ,the artist will avail himself here with most advantage of ordinary daylight1 if1 that is1 the demands of dramatic vividness1 and a desire to emphasize particular figures and groups1 or to throw into the background others1 do not render a less usual mode of lighting necessary1 which may fall in more readily with such objects4 ,the great painters of the earlier school have consequently as a rule made little use of such contrasts or specific schemes of lighting4 ,and they did rightly1 inasmuch as their emphasis was rather on the spiritual aspect as such than on the sensuous impression of their pictures4 ,and on account of the pre-eminent ideality and spiritual significance of the content they were able to dispense with the aspect of their work which inclined more or less to the material side4 ,in the case of landscapes1 on the contrary1 and subjects of less importance taken from ordinary life1 the question of lighting makes a very different appeal4 ,in these important artistic and1 often1 artificial and mysterious effects are indispensable4 ,in the landscape the bold contrasts between large masses in illumination and other parts in the strongest shadow will receive their full effect1 but tend also to develop the artistic mannerism4 ,conversely we find1 more especially in the treatment of landscape1 reflections of light1 the flash and its counterfeit1 that wonderful echo of light1 which arises from the interplay of light and dark1 and offers an ample and progressive subject of study both to the artist and the spectator4 ,such a scheme of lighting1 which the artist has either by direct imitation or imaginatively conceived in his work1 can1 however1 by itself only be a transient one1 which is subject to rapid change4 ,however sudden or uncommon the lighting thus permanently retained may be1 the artist must see in the treatment of his composition1 even though it be as full of movement as possible1 that the whole1 despite all its variety1 is not injured by mere restlessness and wavering motive1 but is throughout clear and marked with unity4 77 ,in accordance with what has already been stated the art of painting1 however1 has not merely to express light and dark in its purely abstract intension1 but to add to it the distinctions of colour4 ,light and shadow must be coloured light and shadow4 ,we have therefore in the second place to discuss colour simply4 ,the first point we have to deal with here is the brightness and obscurity of particular colours respectively to one another1 that is in so far as they are operative as light and dark in their varied relations1 and either emphasize or suppress and impair their individual effect4 ,red1 for example1 and still more yellow1 is at an equal grade of intensity more brilliant than blue4 ,this is dependent upon the nature of the colours themselves1 which in recent times ,goethe has for the first time fully explained#bhf4 ,in other words1 we find that in blue shadow is of main significance1 which1 in its first operation through a brighter1 but not as yet fully transparent medium1 appears to our sight as blue4 ,the sky1 for example1 is dark1 and on the highest mountains it is yet darker4 ,seen through a transparent but thick medium1 such as the atmosphere of its lower planes is1 it appears as blue1 and its brightness increases in proportion as the air is less transparent4 ,in the case of yellow1 on the contrary1 essential brightness works through a density1 which1 however1 suffers this brightness to shine through it4 ,smoke1 for example1 is such an obscuring medium2 looked at in front of anything black which works its way through it1 it appears of a bluish tint1 and before anything bright it appears yellow and reddish4 ,genuine red is the actively royal and concrete colour1 in which blue and yellow1 themselves also extremes of opposition1 press together in fusion1 ,we may also regard green as such a union1 not1 however1 in a unity that is concrete1 but merely as a difference that is cancelled1 as a medium of satiated and tranquillized neutrality#bhg4 ,these colours are the purest1 simplest1 and original cardinal colours4 ,we may consequently find a symbolical significance in the way that the old masters made use of them4 ,especially is this so in their use of blue and red4 ,blue corresponds with the milder1 sensuous1 more tranquil aspect1 a contemplation which is rich in feeling1 in so far as it has obscurity for its principle1 and offers no resistance1 whereas the brightness therein rather suggests that which resists1 produces1 is alive and blithesome4 ,red corresponds with what is masculine1 dominant1 and royal1 green with that which is indifferent and neutral4 ,according to such symbolism for example1 the ,virgin ,mary is frequently clothed in red where she is enthroned1 and set before us as queen of heaven2 where she is depicted as mother1 she wears a blue mantle#bhh4 ,all the other colours in their endless variety must be regarded as mere modifications of the above1 in which we must recognize a certain degree of shadow fused with the cardinal colours4 ,in this sense no painter would call violet a colour#bhi4 ,furthermore all these colours1 in their mutual relation to each other1 are respectively of greater brightness or obscurity1 a fact that the artist must bear in mind if he is not to fail in getting the just tone which any particular section of his modelling or distance effects ought to have4 ,in other words we have here a source of exceptional difficulty4 ,in the countenance1 for example1 the lip is red1 the eyebrow dark1 black1 brown1 or1 if blonde1 at least darker as such than the lip2 in the same way the cheeks with their reddish tint are more brilliant in colour than the nose1 with its main impression of yellow1 brownish1 or greenish tint4 ,such portions of the face can readily receive a greater brightness and intensity owing to this local colour than is consonant with their modelling as parts of the whole4 ,in sculpture1 indeed in mere drawing too1 such parts of a composition receive their light and shadow wholly in reference to their particular form and its manner of lighting4 ,a painter on the contrary must accept their local colouring1 and this disturbs such a relation4 ,such a difficulty is even more obvious between objects more removed from one another4 ,for the ordinary vision of sight it is our mind which determines the distance and form of such objects1 not merely by means of their colour appearance1 but also on a variety of other grounds4 ,in painting1 however1 all that we have before us is colour1 which as such is able to interfere with that which is demanded by mere brightness and darkness as such4 ,the art of the painter1 therefore1 consists in his ability to resolve this contradiction1 and so to arrange his colours that neither in their local tints1 nor in their mutual relation in any other way1 they impair the modelling as a whole4 ,only if success is secured in both respects are we likely to see the actual shape and colour of the objects realized in perfection4 ,with what consummate art1 for example1 have the ,dutch painted the sheen of satin dresses with all their variety of reflections and gradations of shadow in their folds1 or the flash of silver1 gold1 copper1 vessels of glass and velvet2 and in the same way we may mention the lighting a ,van ,eyck gives to his jewels1 gold borders1 and metals4 ,the colours by means of which the flash of gold is presented have nothing of metallic about them3 looked at closely we merely see yellow1 which by itself is of no great brightness4 ,the entire effect is due on the one hand to the prominence of the form1 and on the other to the contiguity of the mutual gradations of distinct colour tones4 ,a further aspect in the second place is the harmony of the colouring4 ,i have already observed that the very nature of the facts necessitates that colour should have itself an articulated system4 ,and this complete result should appear4 ,no fundamental colour should be wholly omitted1 otherwise our sense of this integrated whole is lost4 ,to an exceptional degree the old ,italian masters and the ,dutch satisfy us in this respect4 ,we find in their pictures blue1 yellow1 red1 and green#bij4 ,it is this completeness which supplies the basis of our colour harmony4 ,the colours1 moreover1 must be so arranged that not merely their artistic contrast1 but also their mediation and resolution1 and a repose and reconciliation as the result of such1 is made visible to the sight4 ,such effective contrast and repose in conciliated extremes is brought about partly by the way the colours are associated1 and partly by the degree of intensity which characterizes each colour4 ,in early painting it was principally the ,dutch school#bia1 which employed the cardinal colours in their purity and their unimpaired brilliance1 by which means the harmony is rendered more difficult by reason of the emphasis laid on contrast1 but when secured should be pleasing to the eye4 ,where1 however1 the decisive character and force of colour is insisted on the nature of the subject-matter itself should be more definite and simple4 ,and by attending to this a higher degree of harmony between colouring and content is also obtained4 ,the important personages1 for instance1 must receive the colour that is most emphatic1 and in their characterization1 their entire deportment and expression should appear more imposing than the subordinate figures1 who will receive merely the composite colours4 ,in landscape painting the contrast of pure cardinal colours is less pronounced4 ,in scenes1 on the contrary1 in which human figures are of most importance1 and more particularly where drapery occupies large spaces of canvas1 the more simple colours will be in their right place4 ,in such we have a scene taken from the world of spiritual life1 in which that which is inorganic1 the natural environment1 is more abstract1 in other words must not appear in its natural completeness and isolated manner of effect1 and the varied tints of landscape in all the profusion of their gradations are less suitable4 ,as a rule the landscape is not so entirely fitted to the environment of human scenes as a room1 or generally that which is architectural1 inasmuch as situations which take place in the open air are in general not accepted from a class in which the life of soul without considerable reserve is manifested4 ,if a man is placed before us with the open landscape around him it should appear simply as environment4 ,and in cases of this type it is right to make use of colours that are exceptionally prominent4 ,but the use of such involves also boldness and power of execution4 ,sickly sweet1 overpowered#bib1 doting faces are not the kind for such treatment4 ,such soft expressions1 such over-diluted countenances1 which1 ever since ,mengs gave them as people are wont to think typical of ideality1 would be entirely pulverized by such decision of colour4 ,in recent times and among us ,germans1 weak faces which have essentially nothing to say#bic1 carefully posed in ways that imagine themselves to possess grace1 simplicity1 and imposing character1 are all the fashion4 ,this lack of distinction1 on the side of spiritual characterization1 has its counterpart in and indeed produces a similar lack of definition in colour and tone1 so that all colours are run together in one confusion1 and forceless condition of mutilation and evaporization1 and no real emphasis is laid on any4 ,you cannot say that one suppresses another exactly1 but then none adds contrast to another4 ,it is no doubt a colour harmony of a kind1 and frequently it impresses with its excessive sweetness and flattering endearment1 but the note of distinction is absent4 ,in this connection ,goethe thus expresses himself in his observations added to the translation of ,diderot's essay on painting3 ,critics do not by any means admit that it is easier to make weak colour harmonious than a strong scheme3 but it stands to reason when colour is strong1 when colours are placed before us vividly1 in that case the eye will experience their harmony or discord with greater vividness4 ,if1 however1 we weaken our colours1 employ some with brilliance1 others in fusion1 others in obscure squalour1 then it is obvious no one will be able to say whether the picture he looks at is harmonious or not4 ,one thing in any case we can say of it1 it lacks distinction4 ,with harmony of colour1 however1 we have not by any means attained the goal of the art of colouring4 ,to reach this consummate effect1 in the third place1 several other aspects must not be neglected4 ,in this respect ,i will restrict my observations to three points1 first1 the so-called atmospheric perspective1 secondly1 flesh-colour1 and in conclusion1 the magic of colour brilliancy4#bid ,linear perspective is connected in the first instance merely with the different degrees of size1 which the lines of objects possess in their greater or less remoteness from the human eye4 ,this alteration and reduction of form is1 however1 not the only thing painting has to reproduce4 ,in ,nature everything is affected by the presence of atmosphere1 not merely between different objects1 but even different parts of them1 a difference which asserts itself in colour4 ,this tone of colour which thus as it were evaporates with the distance is what constitutes atmospheric perspective1 in so far as thereby objects are modified partly in deliberate outline1 and partly in respect to their light and shadow and general colouring4 ,as a rule people think that what is nearest to the eye in the foreground is brightest1 and what lies in the background is more obscure2 in truth the matter is otherwise#bie4 ,but lights and shadows in the foreground are strongest1 in other words the contrast between light and shade has a more powerful effect1 and outlines are more defined near to the spectator4 ,in proportion1 however1 to the degree of their remoteness1 they lose in definition of colour and form1 because the contrast of their light and shadow is gradually reduced1 until finally everything disappears in transpicuous gray4 ,different schemes of lighting1 however1 necessitate in this respect various modes of treatment4 ,in landscape painting more especially1 but also in other compositions1 which present large spaces1 atmospheric perspective is of first importance1 and the great masters of colour have carried out by this means the most bewitching effects4 ,the most difficult achievement in colouring1 the ideal and consummation of its art1 is the colour effect of the human flesh#bif1 which unites in its perfection all other colour tones1 without permitting any particular one to be singly prominent4 ,the healthy red in the cheeks of youth is1 no doubt1 pure carmine without any admixture of blue1 violet1 or yellow1 but this red is itself only a flush1 or rather a sheen1 which appears to rise on the surface1 and imperceptibly passes into the prevailing flesh-tints4 ,and this is an ideal#big commixture of all the fundamental colours4 ,through the transparent yellow of the skin the red of the arteries and the blue of the veins is visible1 and along with the light and shade and all the variety of sheen and reflection we have further tones of gray1 brown1 even green1 which at first sight appear as contrary to ,nature1 but for all that may contribute to the justness and truth of the effect4 ,moreover1 this composite treatment of many apparent tints is wholly without sheen as such1 that is1 it reflects nothing alien to it on its surface2 its vital quality is entirely a result of itself and the living thing it is4 ,it is this rendering of that which is the life shining through the organic integument which constitutes the main difficulty4 ,we may compare it to a lake in the evening glow1 in which we behold the objects that it reflects#bih no less than the clear depth and native character of water4 ,the flash of metal combines on the contrary1 no doubt1 both light of its own and transparency1 jewels both flash and are translucent1 and something similar is seen in the case of velvet and silk-stuffs1 but none of these approaches the life-conferred interfusion of colours apparent on the surface of the living flesh4 ,the skin of animals1 whether hair or hide1 wool1 and so forth1 are in like manner of the most varied colouring1 but it is a colour capable of more direct and independent definition in its parts1 so that the variety is rather the result of different surfaces and planes1 it is not a single transfusion and suffusion of many colours such as human flesh is4 ,the nearest approach to it perhaps is the interplay of colour visible in the bunch of grapes1 or the exquisitely tender gradations of translucent colour in the rose4 ,and yet even this last example is unable to give us the counterfeit of ideal animation#bii which flesh-colour should possess4 ,it is this volatile emanation of the soul exhibited on a non-transparent surface which is one of the most difficult problems of painting4 ,for this ideality1 this reflex of the inward life of soul must not appear on a surface as imported there1 must not be pasted there as so many streaks1 hatchings1 and so forth of material colour1 but seem to us itself to belong to the living whole#cjj1 a transparent depth1 as the blue of heaven1 which offers our vision no repellent surface1 but one in which we are infallibly invited to unfold4 ,already ,diderot1 in the essay on painting translated by ,goethe1 expressed himself as follows on this head3 ,he who once has truly felt and secured the apparition of flesh-colour is far on his way to perfect victory4 ,thousands of painters have died without such a feeling1 and many thousands more will die without doing so4 ,in so far as the material is concerned1 by means of which this untransparent vitality of flesh is reproduced1 the first medium to declare its suitability for such an effect was the oil-pigment4 ,work in mosaics is of all the least fitting to present us such a composite effect4 ,its permanency is no doubt a recommendation1 but inasmuch as it can only express colour gradations through variously coloured glass cubes or stones placed in juxtaposition1 it is wholly unable to reproduce the intermingling flow of one unified presentment of many colours4 ,fresco and tempera painting carry us considerably further in this direction4 ,yet in the case of fresco-painting the colours are put on the wet plaster with too great rapidity1 so that1 on the one hand1 the greatest facility and sureness of brushwork is an essential1 and1 on the other1 the work has to be carried out with broad adjacent strokes1 which on account of their drying so rapidly do not admit of a fine degree of finish#cja4 ,the same kind of difficulty meets us in the case of tempera-painting1 a process#cjb which no doubt admits of great lucidity of expression#cjc and beautiful contrasts of light and shadow1 yet for all that1 by reason of the fact that its medium dries so quickly1 is less adapted to the fusion and elaboration of its effects1 and necessitates an articulate surface made up of definite strokes of the brush4 ,the oil pigment1 on the contrary1 not only permits of the most tender and subtle melting together and elaborate fusion of colour effect1 so that transitions are so imperceptible we cannot say where one colour begins and where it leaves off1 but it is1 where its component elements are properly fused and the execution of it is as it should be1 itself remarkable for a luminous quality like that of precious stones1 and it can1 by virtue of its distinctions between opaque or transparent colours#cjd1 reproduce in a far higher degree than tempera painting the translucency of different layers of colour4 ,the third and last point for our consideration in this connection is the emanation#cje and mystery of colour in its entire effect4 ,this witchery of colour appearance will mainly be found1 where the substantive ideality of objects has become an effusion of spirit which enters into the scheme and treatment of its coloured presentment4 ,in general1 we may say that the magic consists in a handling of colour by means of which we obtain an interplay of scenic effect which is devoid of defined articulation as such1 which is1 in fact1 simply the result of moulding of colour in the finest degree of fluency1 a fusion of coloured material1 an interplay of reflected points which pass into one another1 and are so fine and evanescent in their gradations1 so full of vital cohesion that the medium here seems already to have entered that of musical sound4 ,from the point of view of modelling the mastery of chiaroscuro is part of this magic result1 an aspect of the art in which among the ,italians ,leonardo da ,vinci and1 above all1 ,correggio were supreme4 ,while introducing the very deepest shadow1 the transparency of this is not only preserved1 but is carried through imperceptible gradations to the most brilliant light4 ,by this means roundness in the moulding of form is complete2 there is no harshness of line or limit1 but all is equable transition4 ,light and shadow are not here merely in their immediate effect as such1 but gleam through one another much as a spiritual force is operative through an external shell4 ,it is just an effect like this we find in the artistic treatment of colour1 and the ,dutch were no less than others consummate masters of this4 ,by virtue of this ideality1 this mutual relation between the parts1 this interfusion of reflections and colour scintillations1 this alternation and evanescence of transitional tones1 a breath of soul and vitality is throughout communicated in the brilliancy1 depth1 the mild and juicy illumination of colour4 ,it is this which gives us the magic effect of a masterpiece of colour2 it is the unique gift of the genius of the artist who is himself the magician4 77 ,and this brings us to the last point we have to discuss on this part of our subject4 ,we started with the linear perspective1 we passed on then to drawing and concluded with colour2 first considering light and shade in its relation to modelling1 and1 secondly1 viewing it as colour simply1 or more accurately1 as the mutual relation between degrees of brightness and darkness in colours1 regarding it1 moreover1 in its aspects of harmony1 atmospheric perspective1 flesh-colour and magical effect4 ,we have now to consider more directly#cjf the creative impulse of the artist in bringing about such colour effects4 ,the ordinary view is that the art of painting follows definite rules in attaining its results4 ,this is1 however1 only true of the linear perspective1 being as it is a wholly geometrical science1 and even in this case rules must not obtrude themselves in their abstract stringency1 if we are to preserve all that essentially contributes to our art4 ,and1 in the second place1 we shall find that artistic drawing accommodates itself even less readily than perspective to universal rules1 but least of all is this true of colouring4 ,sense of colour ought to be an artistic instinct or quality1 should be as much a unique way of looking at and composing existing tones of colour1 as it should be an essential aspect of creative power and invention4 ,on account of this personal equation in the production of colour1 the way1 that is1 the artist looks at and is active in the making of his world1 the immense variety which we find in different modes of treating1 it is no mere caprice and favourite mannerism of colouring1 which is absent from the facts in rerum natura1 but lies in the nature of the case4 ,goethe supplies us with an example of personal experience which1 as confided in his ,dichtung und ,wahrheit1 illustrates what ,i mean3 ,as ,i returned to my cobbler's house he had just visited the ,dresden ,gallery once more to take lunch ,i could scarce trust the evidence of my eyes4 ,i believed myself to see before me a picture of ,van ,ostade#cjg1 so complete it was1 that you might have hung it there and then in the ,gallery4 ,composition of subject-matter1 light1 shadow1 brown tone of the whole1 all that is admirable in this artist's pictures ,i saw actually before me4 ,it was the first time that ,i was aware1 to such a high degree of the power which ,i subsequently exercised with intention1 the power of seeing1 that is1 with the eyes of the particular artist1 to whose works ,i had just happened to devote exceptional attention4 ,this facility afforded me great enjoyment1 but also increased the desire from time to time to persevere in the exercise of a talent which ,nature seemed ungracious enough to disallow me#cjh4 ,this variety in the manner of colouring is exceptionally conspicuous in the painting of human flesh1 quite apart from all modifications rendered necessary by the mode of lighting1 age1 sex1 situation1 and the like considerations4 ,and for the rest1 whether the subject depicted be daily life1 outside or within the interior of private houses1 taverns1 churches1 or other buildings1 or it be that of ,nature's landscape1 with its wealth of objects and colour1 which finds more or less accurate reflection in the personal essay of any particular painter1 the result cannot fail to illustrate this varied play of form and colour effect#cji1 which will infallibly appear1 due as it is to the manner in which each comprehends1 reproduces1 and creates his own work according to his own outlook1 experience and imaginative powers4 7c7 ,we have hitherto1 in discussing the several points of view which are given effect to in the art of painting1 referred1 firstly1 to its content1 and secondly to the sensuous medium in which such content can be built up4 ,we have in conclusion to define the mode under which the artist is bound to conceive and execute his content as a painter and under the conditions of his particular medium4 ,we will divide the very considerable matter which such an investigation implies in the following manner3 ,first1 we have to deal with the more general distinctions in forms of conception1 which it will be necessary to classify and follow in their progressive advance to richer manifestations of life4 ,secondly1 we shall have to direct attention to the more definite aspects1 which1 within these general types of conception1 are more directly referable to genuine pictorial composition1 that is1 the artistic motives apparent in the particular situation and manner of grouping selected4 ,lastly1 we propose to review rapidly the mode of characterization1 which results from distinctions of subject-matter no less than modes of conception4 77 ,with respect to the most generally prevailing modes of artistic conception#caj1 we shall find these are in some measure due to the content which has to be depicted1 and in part are referable to the course of the art's evolution1 which does not from the first seek to elaborate all that is apparent in any subject1 but rather through a variety of stages and transitions makes itself fully mistress of ,life and its manifestations4 77 ,the first position which the art of painting is able to secure still betrays its origin from sculpture and architecture3 in the entire mode of its conception it is still in close association with these arts4 ,and this will pre-eminently be the case where the artist restricts himself to individual figures1 which he does not place before us in the vital connections of an essentially concrete situation1 but in the simple independence of its self-repose4 ,out of the many sources of content which ,i have indicated as adapted to painting1 we shall find religious subjects1 ,christ1 his apostles1 and the like are exceptionally suited to such abstract treatment4 ,such figures as these must necessarily be assumed to possess sufficient significance in their isolation1 to be complete in themselves1 and to unfold an object sufficiently substantive of adoration and love4 ,belonging to this type1 particularly in early art1 we meet with examples of ,christ or his saints isolated without definite situation and environment4 ,if we do find the latter it mainly consists in architectural embellishments1 particularly ,gothic2 this is frequently the case in early ,flemish or upper ,german art#caa4 ,in this relation to architecture1 among the columns and arches of which such figures as the twelve apostles and others are frequently composed1 painting does not as yet attain to the life-like actuality of its later development1 and we find that even the figures still retain in some measure a character which inclines to the statuesque1 or to some extent do not move beyond such a general type as we find indicated in its fundamentals by ,byzantine painting4 ,for isolated figures of this character1 devoid of any background or only retaining a purely architectonic outline1 a more severe simplicity of colour1 and a more emphatic brilliancy1 is as it should be4 ,the oldest school of painters have consequently employed a single-tinted ground of gold instead of a rich natural landscape1 a ground which the colours of drapery have to confront1 and to which they are compelled to adapt themselves2 these are consequently more decisive and glaring than the colours employed in the periods of ,art's finest bloom1 just as we find as a rule that simple vivid colours such as red1 blue1 and the rest are most pleasing to uncultivated people4 ,to this earliest type of conception it is that for the most part the miracle-working pictures belong4 ,to such as to something stupendous man is merely placed in a relation of stupidity1 from which the aspect of their artistic merit vanishes1 so that they are not brought nearer to his conscious life in friendly guise in accordance with their vital humanity and beauty1 and the very pictures which are most revered in a religious sense are from an artistic standpoint the most execrable4 ,if1 however1 isolated figures of this type do not supply an object for devotion or interest as being already complete and independent personality1 their execution1 carried out as it is in consonance with the principle of statuesque conception1 has no meaning at all4 ,portraits1 for example1 are of interest to relatives who know the man thus portrayed and his individuality4 ,but where the personages thus depicted are forgotten or unknown the sympathy which is excited by their portraiture in a given action or situation1 which gives definite content to a particular character1 is of a wholly different kind to that which we find in the entirely simple type of conception above referred to4 ,really great portraits1 when they face us in the fullest wealth of life all the means of art can display1 possess in this wealth itself the power to stand forth from and step out of their frames4 ,in looking at the portraits of ,van ,dyck1 for example1 more particularly when the pose of the figure is not wholly full face1 but slightly turned away1 the frame has struck me like the door of the world1 which the man before me enters4 ,when consequently individuals do not possess1 as saints1 angels and the like do1 a characterization which is in itself sufficiently complete and acknowledged1 and are only interesting by virtue of the definite character of a given situation1 some single circumstance or particular action1 it is not suitable to present them as independent figures4 ,as an example of this the last work of ,kgelchen in ,dresden was a composition of four heads1 half figures1 namely1 ,christ1 ,john the ,evangelist1 ,john the ,baptist1 and the ,prodigal ,son4 ,so far as ,christ and ,john the ,evangelist are concerned ,i found the conception quite appropriate4 ,but in the case of the ,baptist1 and in every respect in that of the ,prodigal ,son1 ,i failed to connect with them the authentic character which could justify a treatment of them as half-length portraits4 ,in such cases it is essential to place the figures in a condition of action or incident1 or at least to show them in situations1 by means of which1 in vital association with external environment1 they can assert the individuality which marks an essentially exclusive whole4 ,the head of the ,prodigal ,son in the above picture expresses no doubt1 very finely too1 pain1 profound repentance and remorse1 but the only indication we have given us that this is the repentance of the ,prodigal ,son is a very diminutive herd of swine in the foreground4 ,instead of a symbolical reference of this kind we ought to see him among his swine1 or at least in some other scene of his life4 ,the ,prodigal ,son1 in short1 does not possess for us any further general characterization complete as such in our minds and only exists1 in so far as he is not purely allegorical1 in the well-known scenes of ,biblical narrative4 ,he should be depicted to us as leaving his father's house1 or in his misery1 his repentance and return1 that is1 in the concrete facts of the tale4 ,those swine put in the foreground do not carry us much further than a label with ,the ,prodigal ,son written on it4 77 ,and generally it is obvious that painting1 for the reason that its function is to accept as its content the wealth of soul-life in all its detail1 is1 to a yet greater extent than sculpture1 unable to rest satisfied with that repose on itself which is without defined situation and the conception of a character taken by itself and alone simply4 ,it is bound to make the effort to exhibit such self-subsistency and its content in specific situation1 variety1 and distinction of character viewed in their mutual relations and in association with their environment4 ,it is1 in fact1 just this departure from purely eclectic and traditional types1 from the architectonic composition of figures and the statuesque mode of conception2 it is just this liberation from all that is devoid of movement and action1 this striving after a living human expression1 a characteristic individuality2 it is this investment of a content with all the detail of the ideal and external condition that affects it which constitutes the advance of the art1 in virtue of which it secures its own unique point of view4 ,consequently to painting as to no other plastic art is it not merely permitted1 but it is even required from it1 that it should unfold dramatic realization1 and by the composition of its figures display their activity in a distinctly emphasized situation4 77 ,and1 in the third place1 closely connected with this absorption in the complete wealth of existing life and the dramatic movement of circumstance and character1 we are aware of the importance which is increasingly attached1 both in conception and execution1 to the individuality and the vital wealth of the colour aspect of all objects1 in so far as in painting we attain to the supremest effects of vital truth which are capable of being expressed purely by colour4 ,this magical result of appearance can1 however1 be carried to such a pitch1 that in contrast to it the exhibition of content becomes a matter of indifference1 and painting tends to pass over1 in the mere charm and perfume of its colour tones1 and the contrast1 fusion1 and play of their harmonies1 into the art of music1 precisely as sculpture1 in the elaboration of its reliefs1 tends to associate itself with painting4 77 ,what we have in the first instance now to pass in review are the particular lines#cab that pictorial composition is constrained to adhere to in its productions when presenting to us a definite situation and the more immediate motives referable to it by virtue of the way it concentrates and groups together various figures and natural objects in one self-exclusive whole4 77 ,what is of fundamental and pre-eminent importance here is the happy selection of a situation adapted to the art4 ,in this respect the imaginative powers of the painter possess an immeasurable field to select from1 a field whose limits extend from the simplest situation#cac of an object insignificant in itself1 such as a wreath of flowers1 or a wineglass composed with plates1 bread1 and certain fruits1 to rich compositions of important public events1 political actions1 coronation ftes1 battles1 or even the ,last ,judgment1 in which ,god the ,father1 ,christ1 his apostles1 the heavenly legions1 nay1 our entire humanity1 and earth1 heaven1 and hell are brought together4 ,and here a closer inspection will show us that we must clearly distinguish what is truly pictorial on the one hand from that which is sculpturesque1 and on the other from what is poetical in the sense that it is only poetry that can fully express it4 ,the essential difference between a pictorial1 and sculpturesque situation consists1 as we have already seen1 in this1 that the main function of sculpture is to place before us that which is self-subsistent in its tranquillity1 without conflict under conditions that do not affect it1 in which distinctness of definition is not the main demand1 it is only in the relief that it really begins to approach a group composition1 and an epic expanse of figures begins to represent actions involving motion1 and which imply collision of opposing forces4 ,the art of painting1 on the contrary1 only thoroughly takes up its proper task1 when it moves away from figures composed independently of their more concrete relations1 moves away from a situation that is deficient in its elaboration1 in order that it may thus pass into the sphere of living movement1 human conditions1 passions1 conflicts1 actions in persistent association with external environment1 and even in its composition of natural landscape is able to retain firmly this definite structure of a given situation and its most lifelike individuality4 ,it was for this reason that from the first we maintained that painting was called upon to effect the exposition of character1 soul1 and ideal qualities1 not in the way that this spiritual world enables us to recognize it directly in its external shape1 but in the way it evolves and expresses its actual substance by means of actions4 ,and the truth we have just mentioned is that which brings painting into closer relation with poetry4 ,both arts have in this respect an advantage#cad1 and from another point of view1 also a disadvantage4 ,painting is unable to give us the development of a situation1 event1 or action1 as poetry or music1 that is to say1 in a series of changes2 it can only embody one moment of time4 ,a simple reflection is deducible from this1 namely1 that we must in this one moment have placed before us the substance of the situation or action in its entirety1 the very bloom of it2 consequently1 that moment should be selected in which all that preceded and followed it is concentrated in one point4 ,in the case of a battle1 for example1 this moment will be that of victory4 ,the conflict is still apparent1 but its decisive conclusion is equally so4 ,the artist is able1 therefore1 to retain as it were the residue of the ,past1 which1 in the very act of withdrawal and disappearance1 still asserts itself in the ,present1 and furthermore can suggest what has yet to be evolved as the immediate result of a given situation4 ,i cannot1 however1 here enlarge further on this head4 ,the painter1 however1 together with this disadvantage as against the poet1 is to this extent advantaged in that he can bring the precise scene before our vision in all the appearance of its reality1 can depict it perfectly in all its detail4 ,ut pictura poesis erit is no doubt a favourite saying which is particularly and pertinaciously advanced by theorists1 and is no doubt actually accepted and exemplified by narrative poetry in its descriptions of the seasons1 its flowers1 and its landscapes4 ,detailed transcription of such objects and situations is1 however1 not only a very dry and tedious affair1 and indeed1 so far from being exhaustive1 always leaves something more to say4 ,it is1 further1 contrasted with painting1 only a confusing result1 because it is forced to present as a successive series of ideas what painting sets before our vision once and for all1 so that we constantly tend to forget what has gone before and lose it from our minds1 despite the fact that it should be held in essential relation with that which follows1 inasmuch as under the spatial condition it is in fact a part of it1 and only is significant in this association and this immediacy4 ,it is1 however1 just in this contemporaneous exposition of detail that the painter can restore that which1 in respect to the progressive series of past and future events1 he fails to secure4 ,there is1 however1 another respect in which painting yields place to poetry and music1 and that is in its lyrical quality4 ,the art of poetry can not only develop emotions and ideas generally as such respectively1 but also in their transitions1 movement1 and increased intensity4 ,in respect to concentrated intensity this is yet more the case in music1 which is essentially concerned with soul-movement4 ,to represent this painting has nothing beyond the expression of face and pose2 and if it does exclusively direct its effort1 to what is actually lyrical1 it misconceives the means at hand4 ,however much the soul's passion may be expressed in the play of the countenance or bodily movement1 such expression should not be directly referable to emotion as such1 but to emotions in so far as they are present1 with a definite mode of expression1 in an event or action4 ,the fact that it reveals ideality in external form therefore does not connote the abstract meaning that it makes the nature of the soul visible by means of physiognomy and form1 under the mode of which it expresses soul-life2 it is rather just the individual situation of an action1 passion in some specific outburst thereof1 by means of which the emotion is unfolded and recognized4 ,when1 therefore1 it is attempted to interpret the poetical quality of painting under the assumption that it should express the soul's emotion directly1 without a motive and action more near to it in facial expression and pose1 all that we do in such a case is to throw the art back upon an abstraction1 which its effort should precisely strive to be rid of2 we ask of it1 in short1 that it should master the peculiar and just contribution of poetry2 and if it attempts to do this the result will be a barren and stale one4 ,i particularly insist on this point because in the exhibition of art we had here last year 7#ahbh7 several pictures from the so-called ,dsseldorf school have received much attention1 the painters of which1 while displaying in their work considerable knowledge and technical ability1 have laid almost exclusive stress on this ideal aspect1 on material that is only capable of adequate presentment in poetry4 ,the content1 for the most part borrowed from poems of ,goethe or from ,shakespeare1 ,ariosto1 and ,tasso1 may be generally indicated as the ideal emotion of ,love4 ,as a rule the most capable of these pictures set before us a pair of lovers1 ,romeo and ,juliet1 for example1 or ,rinaldo and ,armida1 without any further situation1 so that these couples have nothing more to do and express except the fact that they are in love with each other1 in other words1 they share a mutual attraction1 gaze on each other as lovers1 and as lovers look yet again4 ,naturally in such a case the main expression must be concentrated in the mouth and eyes2 and we may add that our ,rinaldo has been so placed relatively to his spider legs that he looks very much as though he did not know what to do with them4 ,they are extensions which are entirely without meaning4 ,sculpture1 as we have seen1 dispenses with the glance of eye1 the soul-flash2 painting1 on the other hand1 seizes on this potent means of expression1 but it must not focus everything at this one point1 it should not make the fire or the refluent languor and yearning of the eye or soft friendliness of lips the soul and centre of expression without any other motives4 ,equally defective was the fisherman of ,hbner1 the theme of which was borrowed from that famous poem of ,goethe1 which depicts with such wonderful depth and charm of feeling the indefinite yearning for the repose1 coolness and purity of water4 ,the naked fisher lad1 who in this picture is being drawn into the water1 has1 just as the male figures in the other pictures have1 a very prosaic looking face1 such as we could not imagine1 if the features were in repose1 to be capable of profound or beautiful emotions4 ,and1 as a rule1 we cannot assert of these figures1 whether male or female1 that they are beautiful in a healthy sense2 they1 on the contrary1 merely betray the nervous excitement1 weakness1 and disease of ,love and emotional life generally1 which people have no business to repeat and which we would willingly1 whether in life or ,art1 be spared4 ,to the same class of conception belongs the way that ,schadow1 the master of this school1 has depicted ,goethe's ,mignon4 ,the character of ,mignon is wholly poetical4 ,what makes her interesting is her ,past1 the severity of her destiny as it affects both her inward and outward life1 the conflict of her ,italian1 wholly excited passion in a soul which is still obscure to itself1 which can neither decide upon a course of action or object1 and which1 being this mystery to itself1 merges itself in such and yet can do itself no good4 ,it is this self-expression wholly divided in itself and yet retiring into itself1 and only letting us see its confusion in isolated and unrelated eruptions1 which creates the awful interest we cannot fail to experience in her4 ,such a network of contradictions we may no doubt imagine in our minds1 but the art of painting is wholly unable to1 present it to us1 as ,schadow has attempted to do1 simply by means of ,mignon's form and physiognomy1 without defining further any situation or action4 ,we may1 therefore1 assert generally that the above-mentioned pictures are conceived without any real insight for situations1 motives1 and expression4 ,it is1 in short1 an inseparable condition of genuine artistic representations of painting that the entire subject-matter should be grasped with imaginative power1 should be made visible to us in figurative form1 which is expressed and manifests its ideal quality through a series of feeling1 that is1 through an action1 which is of such significance to the emotion1 that each and everything in the work of art appears to be entirely appropriated by the imagination to express the content selected4 ,the old ,italian painters have to a conspicuous degree1 no less than their modern fraternity1 depicted love-scenes1 and in part borrowed the material from poetry2 but they have known how to clothe the same with imagination and delight4 ,cupid and ,psyche1 ,cupid and ,venus1 ,pluto's rape of ,proserpine1 the rape of the ,sabine women1 such and other similar subjects the old masters depicted in lifelike and definite situations1 in scenes properly motived and not merely as simple emotion conceived without imaginative grasp1 without action4 ,they have also borrowed love scenes from the ,old ,testament4 ,we may find an example in the ,dresden ,gallery1 a picture of ,giorgione1 in which ,jacob1 after his long journey1 greets ,rachel1 presses her hand and kisses her2 in the distance there stand a pair of youths by a spring1 busily engaged in watering their herds1 which are feeding1 a large number of them1 in the dale4 ,another picture presents to us ,isaac and ,rebecca4 ,rebecca gives ,abraham's carls water to drink and is recognized in doing so4 ,in the same way scenes are taken from ,ariosto2 we have ,medor1 for example1 writing the name of ,angelica on the edge of a spring4 ,when1 therefore1 people nowadays refer to poetry in painting1 this can only mean1 as already insisted1 that we must grasp a subject imaginatively and suffer emotions to unfold themselves in action2 it excludes the idea of securing feeling simply as such or endeavouring thus to express it4 ,even poetry1 which is capable of expressing emotion in its ideal or spiritual substance1 is unfolded in ideas1 images1 and descriptions4 ,if this art was content to abide by a mere ,i love thee1 repeated eternally1 as its entire expression1 such a consummation no doubt1 might prove highly agreeable to those masters who have talked so much about the poetry of poetry1 but it would be the blankest prose for all that4 ,for art generally in its relation to emotion consists in the apprehension and enjoyment of the same by means of the imagination1 which in poetry displays passion in its conceptions1 and satisfies us in their expression1 whether that expression be lyrical1 or conveyed in epical events1 or dramatic action4 ,as a presentment of the inward life of soul1 however1 in painting the mouth1 eye1 and pose1 do not alone suffice2 we must have the total objective realization in its concreteness to make valid and vouch for such ideality4 ,the main thing1 then1 in a picture is that it present to us a situation1 the scene of some action4 ,and closely associated with this we have the primary law of intelligibility4 ,in this respect religious subjects possess the supreme advantage1 that they are universally known4 ,the annunciation of the angel1 the adoration of the shepherds or of the three kings1 the repose in the flight to ,egypt1 the crucifixion1 burial1 resurrection1 no less than the legends of the saints1 were well known subjects with the public1 for whom such pictures were painted1 albeit to our own generation the stories of the martyrs are removed to some distance4 ,for a particular church1 for example1 it was mainly the biography of its patrons or its guardian saints which was represented4 ,consequently it was not always the painters themselves who selected such subjects2 particular circumstances rendered such selection inevitable for particular altars1 chapels1 and cloisters1 so that the place where they are exhibited in itself contributes to their elucidation4 ,and this is1 in part1 necessary1 for in painting we do not find speech1 words1 and names1 by which interpretation of poetry may be materially assisted to say nothing of all its other means4 ,and in the same way in a royal residence1 council-hall1 or parliament-building1 scenes of great events1 important situations taken from the history of the state1 city1 and building in which they are found are there1 and receive a just recognition in the place for which they were originally painted4 ,it is hardly likely1 for instance1 that in painting a picture for one of our palaces an artist would select a subject borrowed from ,english or ,chinese history1 or from the life of ,king ,mithridates4 ,it is otherwise in picture galleries1 where we have all kinds of subjects brought together that we could wish to buy or possess as examples of fine works of art4 ,in such a case1 of course1 the peculiar relation of any picture to a definite locale1 no less than its intelligibility1 so far as it is thereby promoted1 disappears4 ,the same thing is true of the private collection4 ,the collector brings together just what he can get2 the principle is that of a public gallery1 and his love of art or caprice may extend in other directions4 ,allegorical pictures are far inferior to those of historical content in the matter of intelligibility2 they are1 moreover1 for the reason that the ideal vitality and emphatic characterization of the figures must in great measure pass out of them1 indefinite1 and not motive to enthusiasm4 ,landscapes and situations borrowed from the reality of daily life1 are1 on the contrary1 no less clear in their substantial import than1 in respect to their characterization1 dramatic variety1 movement and wealth of existence1 they supply a highly favourable opportunity for inventive power and executive ability4 77 ,to render the defined situation of a picture intelligible1 in so far as the artist is called upon to do this1 the mere fact of its local place of exposition and a general knowledge of its subject will not suffice4 ,as a general rule1 these are purely external relations1 under which the work as a work of art is less affected4 ,the main point of real importance consists1 on the contrary1 in this that the artist be sufficiently endowed in artistic sense and general talent to bring into prominence and give form to the varied motives1 which such a situation contains1 with all the bounty of invention4 ,every action1 in which the ideal world is manifested in that which is external1 possesses immediate modes of expression1 sensuous results and relations1 which1 in so far as they are actually the activities of spirit1 betray and reflect its emotion1 and consequently can be utilized with the greatest advantage as motives which contribute to the intelligibility of the work no less than its individual character4 ,it is1 for example1 a frequent criticism of the ,transfiguration picture of ,raphael1 that the composition is cut up into two unrelated parts2 and this from an objective standpoint is the case4 ,we have the transfiguration on the hill and the incident of the possessed child in the foreground4 ,from an ideal#cae point of view1 however1 an association of supreme significance is undoubtedly present4 ,for1 on the one hand1 the sensuous transfiguration of ,christ is just this very exaltation of himself above the earth and his removal from his disciples1 a removal which as such separation ought to be made visible2 and from a further point of view the majesty of ,christ is in this1 an actual and particular case1 to the highest degree emphasized by the fact that the disciples are unable to heal the possessed child without the assistance of their ,master4 ,in this instance1 therefore1 this twofold action is throughout motived1 and the association is enforced before our eyes1 both in its external and ideal aspect1 by the incident that a disciple expressly points to ,christ who is removed from them1 and in doing so suggests the profounder truth of the ,son of ,god to be at the same time on ,earth1 in accordance with the truth of that saying1 ,if two are gathered together in my name ,i am in the midst of them4 ,i will give yet another illustration4 ,goethe on one occasion gave as a subject for a prize exhibition the representation of ,achilles in female garments at the coming of ,odysseus4 ,in one drawing ,achilles glances at the helmet of the armed hero1 his heart fires up at the sight1 and in consequence of this emotion the pearl necklace is broken which he wears round the neck4 ,a lad seeks for and picks up the pieces from the ground4 ,such is an example of admirable motive4 ,moreover1 the artist finds he has to a more or less extent large spaces to fill in2 he requires landscape as background1 lighting1 architectonic surrounding1 and he has to introduce incidental figures and objects and so forth4 ,all this material he should apply1 in so far as it can be so adapted1 as motives in the situation1 and bring this external matter into unity with his subject in such a way that it is no longer insignificant4 ,two princes or patriarchs shake hands4 ,if this is indicative of a peace treaty1 and the seal upon the same1 warriors1 armed bands1 and the like1 preparations for a sacrifice to solemnize the pact1 will be an obviously fitting environment4 ,if such people happen to meet each other with a similar welcome on a journey1 other motives will be necessary4 ,to invent the same in a way that attaches real significance and individualization to the action1 this it is which more than anything else will test the artistic insight of the painter so far as this aspect of his work is concerned4 ,and in order to promote this not a few artists have also attached symbolical relations between background and the main action4 ,in the composition1 for example1 of the ,adoration of the three ,kings1 we not unfrequently find the holy ,infant in ,his cradle beneath a ruined roof1 around ,him the walls of a building falling in decay1 and in the background the commencement of a cathedral4 ,the falling stone-work and the rising cathedral directly suggest the victory of the ,christian church over paganism#caf4 ,in the same way we find1 not unfrequently1 in pictures1 more especially of the ,van ,eyck school1 which depict the greeting of the angel ,gabriel to ,mary1 flowering lilies like stamens4 ,they indicate the maidenhood of the mother of ,god4 77 ,inasmuch as in the third place the art of painting1 by virtue of the principle of ideal and external variety1 in which it is bound to give clear definition to situations1 events1 conflicts1 and actions1 is forced to deal on its way with many kinds of distinction and contradiction in its subject-matter1 whether purely natural objects or human figures1 and1 moreover1 receives the task to subdivide this composite content1 and create of it one harmonious whole1 a way of posing and grouping its figures artistically1 becomes one of the most important and necessary claims made upon it4 ,among the crowd of particular rules and definitions1 however1 which are applicable to this subject1 what we are able to affirm in its most general terms can only be valid in quite a formal way1 and ,i will merely draw attention shortly to a few of the main points4 ,the earliest mode of composition still remains entirely architectonic1 a homogeneous juxtaposition of figures or a regular opposition and symmetrical arrangement1 not merely of the figures themselves1 but also their posture and movements4 ,we may add that at this stage the pyramidal form of grouping is much in favour4 ,when the subject is the ,crucifixion of our ,lord such shapes follow as a matter of course4 ,christ is suspended on high from the cross1 and at the sides we have a group of the disciples1 ,mary the mother1 or saints4 ,in pictures of the ,madonna also1 in which ,mary is seated with her ,child on a raised throne1 and we find adoring apostles1 martyrs1 and so forth1 beneath them on either side we have a further illustration of this form4 ,even in the ,sistine ,madonna picture this mode of grouping is still in its fundamental features retained4 ,and1 generally1 it brings repose to the eye because the pyramids1 by virtue of its apex1 makes the otherwise dispersed association coherent1 giving an external point of unity to the group#cag4 ,within the limits1 however1 of such a generally abstract symmetrical composition1 the pose of the figures may be marked in detail by great vividness and individuality1 and equally the general expression and movement4 ,the artist1 while using in combination the means of his art1 will have his several planes1 whereby he is able more definitely to emphasize the more important figures as against the others2 and he can in addition avail himself of his scheme of lighting and colour4 ,the way he will arrange his groups to arrive at this result is sufficiently obvious4 ,he will not1 of course1 place his main figures at the sides1 or place subordinate ones in positions which are likely to attract the highest attention4 ,and similarly he will throw the strongest light on objects which are part of the most significant content1 rather than leave them in shadow1 and emphasize with such strong light and the most conspicuous tints objects which are incidental4 ,in the case he adopts a method of grouping less symmetrical1 and thereby more life-like1 the artist will have to take especial pains not to make the figures press too closely on each other1 which results in a confusion not unfrequently noticeable in certain pictures2 we should not be under the necessity of having first to identify limbs and discover which belong to which1 whether they be arms1 legs1 or other properties1 such as drapery1 armour1 and so forth4 ,it will1 on the contrary1 be wisest in the case of larger compositions1 in the first instance no doubt1 to separate the whole into component parts easily ascertained1 but1 at the same time1 not to isolate them in dispersion entirely4 ,and particularly will this be advisable where we have scenes and situations1 which on their own account naturally tend to a broad and disunited effect such as the gathering of manna in the wilderness1 market-fairs1 and similar subjects4 ,on the above subject ,i must restrict myself here to these very general observations4 77 ,having thus1 firstly1 dealt with the general types of pictorial composition1 and1 secondly1 with a composition from the point of view of selection of situations1 arrangement of motives and grouping1 we will now add a few remarks upon the mode of characterization1 by means of which painting is to be distinguished from sculpture and its ideal plastic character4 77 ,i have several times previously taken occasion to remark1 that in painting the ideal and external particularity of soul-life is admitted in its freedom1 and consequently is not necessarily that typical beauty of individualization which is inseparable from the ,ideal itself1 but one which is suffered to expand in every direction of particular appearance1 by virtue of which we obtain that which in modern parlance is called characteristic4 ,critics have generally referred to the characteristic thus understood as the distinctive mark of modern art in its contrast to the antique2 and1 in the significance we are here attaching to the term1 no doubt the above contrast is just4 ,according to our modern criterion ,zeus1 ,apollo1 ,diana1 and the rest are really not characters at all in this sense1 although we cannot fail to admire their infinitely lofty1 plastic1 and ideal individualities4 ,we already find a more articulate individualization is approached by the ,homeric ,achilles1 the ,agamemnon and ,clytemnestra of ,aeschylus#cah1 or the ,odysseus1 ,antigone1 and ,ismene in the type of spiritual development which by word and deed ,sophocles unfolds to us1 a definition in which these figures subsist in what appears to be consonant with their substantive nature1 so that we can no doubt discover the presentment of character in the antique if we are prepared to call such creations characters4 ,still in ,agamemnon1 ,ajax1 ,odysseus1 and the rest1 the individualization remains throughout of a generalized type1 the character of a prince1 of frantic rage1 of cunning in its more abstract determinacy4 ,the individual aspect is in the result closely intertwined with the general conception1 and the character is merged in an individualization of ideal import4 ,the art of painting1 on the contrary1 which does not restrain particularity within the limits of such ideality1 is more than anything else occupied with developing the entire variety of that aspect of particularization which is accidental1 so that what we have now set before us1 instead of those plastic ideals of gods and men1 is particular people viewed in all the varied appearance of their accidental qualities4 ,consequently perfection of corporeal form1 and the fully realized consonancy of the spiritual or ideal aspect with its free and sane existence1 in a word1 all that in sculpture we referred to as ideal beauty1 in the art of painting neither make the same claim upon us1 nor generally are regarded as the matter of most importance1 inasmuch as now it is the ideality of soul-life itself1 and its manifestation as conscious life which forms the centre of interest4 ,in this more ideal sphere that realm of ,nature is not so profoundly insistent4 ,piety of heart1 religion of soul can1 no less than ethical sense1 and activity in fact did in the ,silenus face of ,socrates1 find a dwelling in a bodily form which1 viewed on the outside simply1 is ugly and distorted4 ,no doubt in expressing spiritual beauty1 the artist will avoid what is essentially ugly in external form1 or will find a way to subdue and illumine it in the power of the soul which breaks through it1 but he cannot for all that entirely dispense with ugliness#cai4 ,for the content of painting1 as we have above depicted it at length1 includes within itself an aspect1 for which it is precisely the abnormal and distorted traits of human figures and physiognomy1 which are most able to express4 ,this is no other than the sphere of what is bad and evil1 which in religious subjects we find mainly represented by the common soldiers1 who take a part in the passion of ,christ1 or by the sinners and devils in hell4 ,michelangelo was pre-eminent in his delineation of devils4 ,in his imaginative realization1 though we find he passes beyond the scale of ordinary human life1 yet at the same time an affinity with it is retained4 ,however much notwithstanding the impersonations which painting sets before us necessarily disclose an essentially complete whole of characteristic realization1 we will not go so far as to maintain that we cannot find in them an analogue of that which we refer to as the ,ideal in the most plastic type of art#cbj4 ,in religious subjects1 no doubt1 the feature of all importance is that of pure ,love4 ,this is exceptionally so in the case of the ,virgin mother1 whose entire life reposes in this love2 it is more or less the same thing with the women who accompany the ,master1 and with ,john1 the disciple of ,love4 ,in the expression of this we may also find the sensuous beauty of forms associated1 as is the case with ,raphael's conceptions4 ,such a close affinity must not1 however1 assert itself merely as formal beauty1 but must be spiritually made vital through the most intimate expression of soul-life1 and thereby transfigured2 and this spiritual penetration must make itself felt as the real object and content4 ,the conception1 too1 of beauty1 has its real opportunity in the stories of ,christ's childhood and those of ,john the ,baptist4 ,in the case of the other historical persons1 whether apostles1 saints1 disciples1 or wise men of antiquity1 this expression of an emphasized intensity of soul-life is rather simply an affair of particular critical situations1 apart from which they are mainly placed before us as independent characters of the actual world of experience1 endowed with force and endurance of courage1 faith and action1 so that what most determines the gist of their characters in all its variety is an earnest and worthy manliness4 ,they are not ideals of gods1 but entirely individualized human ideals2 not simply men1 as they ought to be1 but human ideals#cba1 as they actually are in a certain place1 to which neither particular definition of character is wanting1 nor yet a real association between such particularity and the universal type which completes them4 ,michelangelo1 ,raphael and ,leonardo da ,vinci1 in his famous ,last ,supper1 have supplied examples of this type1 in the composition of which we find an entirely different quality of worth1 majesty and nobility present than in those presented by other painters#cbb4 ,this is precisely the point at which painting meets on the same ground with the ancients1 without1 however1 sacrificing the character of its own province4 77 ,inasmuch1 moreover1 as the art of painting1 to the fullest extent among the plastic arts1 acknowledges the claim of the specific form1 and the individualized characterization to assert itself1 so above all we find here the transition to real portraiture4 ,we should be therefore wholly in the wrong if we condemned portrait painting as incompatible with the lofty aims of art4 ,who indeed could desire to lose the great number of excellent portraits painted by the great masters8 ,who is not1 quite apart from the artistic merits of such works1 curious to have definitely substantiated to their vision this actual counterfeit of the idea of famous personalities1 their genius1 and their exploits1 which they may have otherwise had to accept from history4 ,for even the greatest and most highly placed man was1 or is1 a veritable individual1 and we desire to see in visible shape this individuality1 and the spiritual impression of it in all its most actual and vital characteristics4 ,but apart from objects1 which lie outside the purview of art1 we may assert in a real sense1 that the advances in painting from its imperfect essays consist in nothing so much as this very elaboration of the portrait4 ,it was1 in the first instance1 the pious and devotional sense which brought into prominence the ideal life of soul4 ,a yet finer art added new life to this sense by adding to its product reality of expression and individual existence2 and with this profounder penetration into external fact the inward life of spirit1 the expression of which was its main object1 was also enhanced and deepened4 ,in order1 however1 that the portrait should be a genuine work of art the unity of the spiritual individuality must1 as ,i have already stated1 be stamped upon it1 and the spiritual impression of the characterization must be the one mainly emphasized and made prominent4 ,every feature of the countenance contributes to this result in a conspicuous degree1 and the fine instinct for detecting such in the artist will declare itself by the way in which he makes visible the unique impression of any personality by seizing and emphasizing precisely those traits1 and parts in which this distinctive personal quality is expressed in its clearest and most vitally pregnant embodiment4 ,in this respect a portrait may be very true to ,nature1 executed with the greatest perseverance1 and yet entirely devoid of life1 while a mere sketch#cbc1 a few outlines from the hand of a master1 may be infinitely more vivacious and arresting in its truth4 ,such a study should1 however1 by indicating the lines or features of real significance1 reflect that character in its structural completeness#cbd1 if on the simplest scale1 which the previous lifeless execution and insistence upon crude fact glosses over and renders invisible4 ,the most advisable course1 as a rule1 is to maintain a happy mean between such studies1 and purely natural imitation4 ,the masterly portraits of ,titian are of this type4 ,the impression such make on us is that of a complete personality4 ,we get from them an idea of spiritual vitality1 such as actual experience is unable to supply4 ,the effect is similar to that afforded by the description of great actions and events in the hands of a truly artistic historian4 ,we obtain from such a much loftier and vitally true picture of the facts than any we could have taken from the direct evidence of our senses4 ,concrete reality is so overburdened with the phenomenal1 that is incidental or accidental detail1 that we frequently cannot see the forest for the trees1 and often the most important fact slips by us as a thing of common or daily occurrence4 ,it is the indwelling insight and genius of the writer which first adds the quality of greatness to events or actions1 presenting them fully in a truly historical composition1 which rejects what is purely external1 and only brings into prominence that through which that ideal substance is vitally unfolded4 ,in this way1 too1 the painter should place before us the mind#cbe and character of the impersonation by means of his art4 ,if success is fully attained we may affirm that a portrait of this qualify is more to the mark1 more like the personality thus conceived than the real man himself is4 ,albrecht ,drer has also executed portraits of this character4 ,with a few technical means the traits are emphasized with such simplicity1 definition1 and dignity1 that we wholly believe ourselves to be facing spiritual life itself4 ,the longer we look at such a picture1 the more profoundly we penetrate into it1 the more it is revealed to us4 ,it reminds one of a clear-cut drawing1 instinct with genius1 which completely gives expression to the characteristic1 and for the rest is merely executive in its colour and outlines in so far as the same may make the characterization more intelligible1 apparent1 and finished as a whole1 without entering into all the importunate detail of the facts of natural life4 ,in the same way also ,nature in her landscape paints every leaf1 branch1 and blade to the last shadow of a line or tint4 ,landscape painting1 on the contrary1 has no business to attempt such elaboration1 but may only follow her subject to a principle of treatment1 in which the expression of the whole is involved1 which emphasizes detail1 but nevertheless does not copy slavishly such particulars in all their threads1 irregularities and so forth1 assuming it is to remain essentially characteristic and individual work4 ,in the human face the drawing of ,nature is the framework of bone in its harsh lines1 around which the softer ones are disposed and continue in various accidental details4 ,truly characteristic portraiture1 however1 despite all the importance we may rightly attach to these well defined lines1 consists in other traits indicated with equal force1 the countenance in short as elaborated by the creative artist4#cbf ,in this sense we may say of the portrait that it not only can1 but that it ought to flatter1 inasmuch as it neglects what pertains to ,nature's contingency1 and only accepts that which contributes to the characteristic content of the individual portrayed1 his most unique and most intimate self4 ,nowadays we find it the fashion to give every kind of face just a ripple of a smile1 to emphasize its amiability1 a very questionable fashion indeed1 and one hard to restrain within the limit imposed4 ,charming1 no doubt2 but the merely polite amiability of social intercourse is not a fundamental trait of any character1 and becomes in the hands of many artists only too readily the most insipid kind of sweetness4 77 ,however compatible with portraiture the course of painting may be in all its modes of production it should1 however1 make the particular features of the face1 the specific forms1 ways of posing1 grouping1 and schemes of colour consonant with the actual situation1 in which it composes its figures and natural objects in order to express a content4 ,for it is just this content in this particular situation which should be portrayed4 ,out of the infinitely diversified detail which in this connection we might examine ,i will only touch upon one point of vital importance4 ,it is this that the situation may either be on its own account a passing one1 and the emotion expressed by it of a momentary character1 so that one and the same individual could express many similar ones in addition and also feelings in contrast with it1 or the situation and emotion strikes at the very heart of a character1 which thereby discloses its entire and most intimate nature4 ,situations and emotions of this latter type are the truly momentous crises in characterization#cbg4 ,in the situations1 for example1 in which ,i have already referred to the ,madonna1 one finds nothing1 however essentially complete the individualization of the ,mother of ,god may be in its composition1 which is not a real factor in the embracing compass of her soul and character4 ,in this case1 too1 the characterization is such that it is self-evident that she does not exist apart from what she can express in this specific circumstance4 ,supreme masters consequently have painted the ,madonna in such immortal maternal situations or phases4 ,other masters have still retained in her character the expression of ordinary life otherwise experienced and actual4 ,this expression may be very beautiful and life-like1 but this form1 the like features1 and a similar expression would be equally applicable to other interests and relations of marriage lore4 ,we are consequently inclined to regard a figure of this type from yet other points of view than that of a ,madonna1 whereas in the supremest works we are unable to make room for any other thoughts but that which the situation awakens in us4 ,it is on this ground that ,i admire so strongly the ,mary ,magdalene of ,correggio in ,dresden1 and it will for ever awake such admiration4 ,we have here the repentant sinner1 but we cannot fail to see that sinfulness is not here the point of serious consideration#cbh2 it is assumed she was essentially noble and could not have been capable of bad passions and actions4 ,her profound and intimately self-imposed restraint therefore can only be a return to that which she really is1 what is no momentary situation1 but her entire nature4 ,throughout this entire composition1 whether we look at form1 facial expression1 dress1 pose1 or environment1 the artist has therefore not in the slightest degree laid a stress on those circumstances1 which might indicate sin and culpability2 she has lost the consciousness of those times1 and is entirely absorbed in her present condition1 and this faith1 this instinct1 this absorption appears to be her real and complete character4 ,such a complete reciprocity between soul-life and external surroundings1 determinacy of character and situation1 the masters of ,italy have illustrated with exceptional beauty4 ,in the example ,i have already referred to of ,kgelchen's picture of the ,prodigal ,son1 on the contrary1 we have no doubt the remorse of repentance and grief expressed to the life2 but the artist has failed to secure the unity of the entire character1 which1 apart from such an aspect of it1 he possessed1 and of the actual conditions under which such was depicted to us4 ,if we examine quietly such features1 we can only find in them the physiognomy of any one we might chance to meet on the ,dresden bridge or anywhere else4 ,in the case of a real coalescence of character with the expression of a specific situation such a result would be impossible2 just as1 in true genre-painting1 even where the concentration is upon the most fleeting moments of time1 the realization is too vivid to leave room for the notion that the figures before us could ever be otherwise placed or could have received other traits or an altered type of expression4 ,these1 then1 are the main points we have to consider in respect to the content and the artistic treatment in the sensuous material of painting1 the surface1 that is1 and colour4 #c4 ,,historical ,,development ,,of ,,painting ,in our consideration of this third section of our subject we are unable to confine ourselves1 as we have hitherto done1 to a wholly general examination of the content and purport appropriate to painting1 and the mode of configuration1 which follows from its principle1 for in so far as this art is built up on the particularity of characters and their situation1 and upon form and its pose1 colour1 and so forth1 we are compelled to fix in our minds and discuss the actual reality of this art's separate productions4 ,no study of painting is complete that does not take into its survey and is unable to enjoy and criticize the pictures themselves1 in which the aspects of it we have examined are enforced4 ,this is a general rule in the case of all art1 but it applies with exceptional force to painting among those we have up to the present considered4 ,in the case of architecture and sculpture1 where the embrace of the content is more restricted1 the means of exposition and configuration are to a less extent stamped with wealth and distinctive modification1 and the particular aspects of their definition are simpler and more radical1 we can more readily avail ourselves of copies1 descriptions1 and casts4 ,it is essential in dealing with the art of painting that we should see the actual works themselves4 ,in this case mere descriptions1 however important they may be in a subsidiary sense1 will not suffice4 ,in the infinite variety1 however1 of its explication1 the various aspects of which are united in particular works of art1 these works appear to us in the first instance as a mere motley array1 which1 by reason of the fact that our review of it is based upon no principle of classification1 is only to a small extent able to disclose to us the unique quality of individual pictures4 ,and it follows from this that galleries1 as a rule1 if we are not already able to connect with each picture our knowledge of the country1 period1 school1 and master to which it belongs1 is simply a collection without meaning1 in which we lose ourselves4 ,the most profitable arrangement for study and enjoyment with our eyes is therefore an exhibition based on historical sequence4 ,a collection of this kind1 co-ordinated in relation to such a principle1 unique and invaluable of its class1 we shall shortly be able to admire in the picture gallery of the royal museum in this city#cbi4 ,in this we shall not only possess a historical survey of the technique of art in its stages of development1 but shall have set before our minds1 as an essential process with a history1 that articulation of its ideal content in the distinctions of its schools1 their various subject-matter1 and their different modes of artistic conception and treatment4 ,it is only through having given us a survey as consonant as this is with that vital process that we can form an idea from its origins in traditional and eclectic types1 of the living growth of art1 its search after expression and individual characteristic1 its liberation from the inactive and tranquil station of its figures1 that we can appreciate its progress to dramatic movement1 grouping1 and all the wealth and witchery of its colour1 or finally learn to distinguish its schools1 which either to some extent treat similar subject-matter in a way peculiar to themselves1 or are distinct from each other by reasons of the variety of their respective content4 ,a historical development of painting such as that referred to is of as great importance to scientific observation and exposition as it is to accurate study4 ,the content of art as ,i have presented it1 namely1 the elaboration of its material1 the distinct and fundamental changes in the mode of its conception1 we find all this and more receives thus for the first time its concrete coherence in a sequence and under a classification which corresponds with the facts4 ,it is therefore incumbent on us to glance at this process1 if only by way of emphasis to what most immediately arrests attention4 ,in general the advance consists in this1 that it originates in religious subjects conceived still in a typical way1 with simple architectonic arrangement and unelaborated colour4 ,after this1 in an increasing degree of fusion with religious situations1 we get actuality1 vital beauty of form1 individuality1 depth of penetration1 charm and witchery of colouring1 until ,art finally turns its attention to the world itself1 makes itself master of ,nature1 the daily occurrence of ordinary life1 or what is of significance in national history whether present or past1 or portraiture and anything else down to the merest trifle and the least significant fact1 and with an enthusiasm equal to that it devoted to the religious ideal1 and pre-eminently in this sphere secures not merely the most consummate result of technical accomplishment1 but also a treatment and execution which is most full of life and personality4 ,this progress is followed in clearest outline if we take in succession the schools of ,byzantine1 ,italian1 ,flemish1 ,dutch1 and ,german painting1 after noting the most prominent features of which briefly we shall finally indicate the transition to the art of music#ccj4 7a7 ,in our review of ,byzantine painting we may remark to start with that the practice of painting among the ,greeks was to a definable degree always carried on2 and examples of antique work contributed to the greater excellence of its results relatively to posture1 draping1 and other respects4 ,on the other hand the touch of ,nature and life wholly vanished from this art2 in facial types it adhered strictly to tradition2 in its figures and modes of expression it was conventional and rigid2 in its general composition more or less architectonic4 ,we find no trace of natural environment and a landscape background4 ,the modelling1 by means of light and shadow1 brilliance and obscurity1 and their fusion1 no less than perspective and the art of lifelike grouping1 either were not elaborated at all1 or to a very slight extent4 ,by reason of this strict adherence to a single acknowledged type independent artistic production had little room for its exercise4 ,the art of painting and mosaic frequently degenerated into a mere craft1 and became thereby lifeless and devoid of spirit1 albeit such craftsmen1 equally with the workers on antique vases1 possessed excellent examples of previous work1 which they could imitate so far as pose and the folding of drapery was concerned4 ,a similar type of painting spread its sombre influence over the ravaged ,west and more particularly in ,italy4 ,here1 however1 although in the first instance with beginnings of little strength1 we are even at an early date conscious of an effort to break away from inflexible forms and modes of expression1 and to face1 at first1 however1 in a rough and ready way1 a development of loftier aim4 ,of ,byzantine pictures we may1 on the contrary1 affirm1 as ,herr von ,rumohr#cca has maintained of ,greek ,madonnas and images of ,christ that it is obvious even in the most favoured examples1 their origin was that of the mosaic1 and artistic elaboration was rejected from the first4 ,in other words#ccb the ,italians endeavoured even before the period of their independent art development in painting1 and in contrast to the ,byzantines to approximate to a more spiritual conception of ,christian subjects4 ,the writer above-named draws attention also as noteworthy support of his contention to the manner in which the later ,greeks and ,italians respectively represented ,christ on crucifixes4 ,according to this writer the ,greeks1 to whom the sight of terrible bodily suffering was of common occurrence1 conceived the ,saviour suspended on the ,cross with the entire weight of his body1 the lower part of the body swollen and the slackened knees bent to the left1 the bowed head contending with the pains of an awful death4 ,their subject was consequently in its essentials bodily suffering4 ,the ,italians1 on the contrary1 in their more ancient monuments1 while we must not overlook the fact that the representation of the ,virgin ,mary with her ,child no less than the ,crucified is only of rare occurrence1 were accustomed to depict the figure of the ,saviour on the cross adopting1 so it appears to us1 the idea of the victory of the spiritual1 not as in the former case the death of the body4 ,and this unquestionably nobler conception asserts itself at an early date in the more favoured parts of ,western ,europe#ccc4 ,with this sketch ,i must here rest content4 7b7 ,we have1 however1 secondly1 another characteristic of art to consider in the earlier development of ,italian painting4 ,apart from the religious content of the ,old and ,new ,testament and the biographies of martyrs and saints1 it borrows its subjects in the main from ,greek mythology1 very seldom1 that is1 from the events of national history1 or1 if we except portraits1 from the reality of contemporary life1 and equally rarely1 and only at a late stage and exceptionally1 from natural landscape4 ,now that which it before all contributes to its conception and artistic elaboration of the subject-matter of religion is the vital reality of spiritual and corporeal existence1 relatively to which at this stage all its forms are embodied and endowed with animation4 ,for this vitality the essential principle on the spiritual side is that natural delightfulness1 and on the corporeal side is that beauty which is consonant with physical form1 a beauty which independently1 as beautiful form1 already displays innocence1 buoyancy1 maidenhood1 natural grace of temperament1 nobility1 imagination1 and a loving soul4 ,if there is further added to a naturel of this type the exaltation and adornment of the soul in virtue of the ideal intimacy of religion and the spiritual characteristics of a profounder piety established as a vitalizing principle of soul-life in this essentially more admitted and inviolable province of spiritual redemption#ccd1--;in such a case we have presented to us thereby an original harmony of form and its expression1 which1 wherever it is perfected1 vividly reminds us in this sphere of romantic art and ,christian art of the pure ,ideal of art4 ,no doubt also within a new accord of this type the inward life of the heart will be predominant2 but this inward experience is a more happy1 a purer heaven of the soul1 the way of return to which form what is sensuous and finite1 and the return to ,god1 albeit the passage may be through a travail in the profounder anguish of repentance and death1 is1 however1 less saturated with trouble and its insistency4 ,and the reason of this is that the pain is concentrated in the sphere of soul1 of idea1 of faith1 without making a descent into the region of passionate desire1 intractable savagery1 obstinate self-seeking and sin1 and only arriving at the hardly won victory through smiting down such enemies of the blessed state4 ,it is rather a transition of ideal permanence#cce1 a pain of the inward life1 which feels itself as such suffering rather simply in virtue of its enthusiasm1 a suffering of more abstract type1 more spiritually abundant1 which has as little need to brush away bodily anguish as we have to seek signs in the characterization of its bodily presence and physiognomy of obstinacy1 uncouthness1 crookedness1 or the traits of superficial and mean natures1 in which an obstinate conflict is first necessary1 before such are meet to express real religious feeling#ccf and piety4 ,this more benign#ccg intimacy of soul1 this more original consonancy of exterior forms to ideal experience of this kind is what creates the charming clarity and the untroubled delight1 which the genuinely beautiful works of ,italian painting excite and supply4 ,just as we say of instrumental music that there is tone and melody in it1 so1 too1 we find that the pure song of soul floats here in melodious fusion over the entire configuration and all its forms4 ,and as in the music of the ,italians and in the tones of their song1 when the pure strains ring forth without a forced utterance1 in every separate note and inflection of sound and melody1 it is simply the delight of the voice itself which rings out2 so1 too1 such an intimate personal enjoyment of the loving soul is the fundamental tone of their painting#cch4 ,it is the same intimacy1 clarity1 and freedom which meet us again in the great ,italian poets4 ,to start with this artistic resonance of rhymes in their terzets1 canzonets1 sonnets1 and stanzas1 this accord1 which is not merely satisfied to allay its thirst for reverberation in the one repetition1 but repeats the echo three times and more1 this is itself a euphony which streams forth on its own account and for the sake of its own enjoyment4 ,and a like freedom is stamped upon the spiritual content4 ,in ,petrarch's sonnets1 sestets1 and canzonets it is not so much the actual possession of their subject1 after which the heart yearns2 it is not the consideration and emotion which are involved in the actual content of the poem as such1 and which is therein necessarily expressed2 rather it is the expression itself which constitutes the source of enjoyment4 ,it is the self-delight of ,love1 which seeks its bliss in its own mourning1 its laments1 its descriptions1 memories1 and experience2 a yearning1 which is satisfied in itself as such1 and with the image1 the spirit of those it loves1 is already in full possession of the soul1 with which it longs to unite itself4 ,dante1 too1 when conducted by his master ,virgil through hell and hell-fire1 gazes at what is the culmination of horror1 of awfulness2 he is fearful1 he often bursts into tears1 but he strides on comforted and tranquil1 without affright and anxiety1 without the sullenness and embitterment which implies these things should not be thus4 ,nay1 even his damned in hell receive the blessedness of eternity4 ,io eterno duro is inscribed over the gates of hell4 ,they are what they are1 without repentance and longing2 they do not speak of their sufferings2 they are as immaterial to us as they are to them1 for they endure for ever4 ,rather they are absorbed simply in their personal experience and actions1 secure of themselves as rooted in the same interests1 without lamentation and without yearning#cci4 ,when we have grasped this trait of happy independence and freedom of the soul in love we shall understand the character of the greatest ,italian painters4 ,it is in this freedom that they are masters of the detail of expression1 and situation4 ,on the wings of this tranquillity of soul they can maintain their sovereignty over form1 beauty1 and colour4 ,in their most defined presentation of reality and character1 while remaining wholly on the earth and often only producing portraits1 or appearing to produce such1 what we have are pictures of another sun1 another spring4 ,they are roses which are equally heavenly blossoms4 ,and1 consequently1 we find that in their beauty we do not have merely beauty of form1 we do not have only the sensuous unity of soul impressed on sensuous corporeal shapes2 we are confronted with this very trait of reconciled ,love in every mode1 feature1 and individuality of character4 ,it is the butterfly1 the ,psyche#cdj1 which in the sunlight of its heaven1 even hovers round stunted flowers#cda4 ,it is only by virtue of this rich1 free1 and rounded beauty that they are able to unfold the ideals of the antique art's more recent perfection4 ,italian art has1 however1 not immediately and from the first attained to such a point of perfection2 it had in truth a long road to traverse before it arrived there4 ,and yet1 despite this1 the purity and innocence of its piety1 the largeness of the entire conception1 the unassuming beauty of form1 this intimate revelation of soul#cdb1 are frequently and above all in the case of the old ,italian masters most conspicuous where the technical elaboration is still wholly incomplete4 ,in the previous century it was fashionable to depreciate these earlier masters1 and place them on one side as clumsy1 dull1 and barren#cdc4 ,it is only in more recent times that they have been once more rescued from oblivion by savants and artists2 but the wonder and imitation thus awakened has run off into the excess of a preference which tends to deny the advances of a further development in mode of conception and presentment1 and can only lead astray in the opposite direction4 ,in drawing the reader's more close attention to the more important phases in the development of ,italian art up to this period of its fullest perfection1 ,i will only briefly emphasize the following points which immediately concern the characterization of the essential aspects of painting and its modes of expression4 77 ,after the earliest stage of rawness and barbarism the ,italians moved forward with a fresh impetus from that in the main craftsmanship type of art which was planted by the ,byzantines4 ,the compass of subjects depicted was1 however1 not extensive1 and the distinctive features of the type were austerity1 solemnity1 and religious loftiness4 ,but even at this stage--,i am quoting the conclusions of ,herr von ,rumohr--who is generally recognized as an authority upon these earlier periods#cdd1 ,duccio1 the ,sienese1 and ,cimabue1 the ,florentine1 endeavoured to assimilate the few remains of antique drawing1 which was grounded on laws of perspective and anatomical precision1 and so far as possible1 to rejuvenate the same in their own genius4 ,they instinctively recognized the value of such drawings1 but strove to soften the extreme insistence#cde of their ossification1 comparing such insufficiently comprehended traits with the life such as we find it in fact or suggestion when face to face with their own productions#cde4 ,such are merely the first and mediating efforts of art to rise from the inflexibility of a type to lifelike and individual expression4 77 ,the further step of advance consists in the complete severation from those previous ,greek examples1 in the full acceptance1 relatively both to the entire conception and execution of what is distinctively human and individual1 and along with this in the profounder suitability of human characters and forms which was gradually evolved to express the religious content thus to be expressed4 77 ,it is here before all we must draw attention to the great influence which ,giotto and his pupils exercised4 ,giotto1 along with the changes he effected in respect to modes of conception and composition1 brought about a reform in the art of preparing colours4 ,the later ,greeks probably1 such at least is the result of chemical analysis1 made use of wax either as a medium of colour1 or as a kind of varnish#cdf1 and from this we get the yellow-green and obscure general tone1 which is not sufficiently explained by the action of lamplight#cdg4 ,giotto wholly dispensed with this glutinous medium of the ,greek painters1 and used instead1 when preparing his colours#cdh1 the clarified milk of young shoots1 unripe figs1 and other less oliginous limes#cdi1 which ,italian painters of the early ,middle ,ages had used1 very likely even before they strenuously imitated the ,byzantines#cej4 ,a medium of this kind had no darkening effect on the colours1 but left their luminosity and clarity unimpaired4 ,still more important was the reform effected by ,giotto in ,italian painting with respect to selection of subjects and their manner of presentment4 ,ghiberti himself praises ,giotto for having abandoned the rude style of the ,greeks1 and without leaning in this direction to an excess having introduced the truth and grace of ,nature4 ,boccaccio1 too1 says of him that ,nature is unable to create anything that ,giotto could not imitate to the point of deception#cea4 ,in ,byzantine pictures we can hardly detect a trace of natural appearance4 ,it was ,giotto1 then1 who concentrated his attention on what is present and actual1 and compared the forms and effects which he undertook to exhibit with ,life as it existed around him4 ,and we may associate with this tendency the fact that during the times of ,giotto not only do we find that the state of society was more free and intent on enjoyment1 but that the veneration of several later saints took its rise then1 saints whose lives more or less fell in that period#ceb4 ,it was such ,giotto utilized particularly in emphasizing the truthful presentment of the subjects of his art2 there was1 in fact1 thus the further demand suggested by the content itself that he should bring into prominence the natural features of the bodily presence and exhibit more defined characterization1 action1 passion1 situation1 pose1 and movement4 ,what we find1 however1 to a relative degree disappears from this attempt is that imposing religious seriousness which is the fundamental characteristic of the phase of art which it followed#cec4 ,the things of the world receive a stage and a wider opportunity for expression2 and this is illustrated by the way ,giotto1 under the influence of his age1 found room for burlesque along with so much that was pathetic4 ,in this connection ,herr von ,rumohr states rightly1 ,under conditions of this description ,i am at a loss to understand how certain critics1 who have exclusively insisted on this feature of ,giotto's work1 can so overestimate ,giotto's tendency and performance by claiming it as the most sublime effort of modern art#ced4 ,it is a great service of the above-named critic to have once more placed in a true light the point of view from which ,giotto can be justly appreciated2 he throughout makes us careful to see1 that in this tendency of ,giotto to humanize and towards realism he never really1 as a rule1 advances beyond a comparatively subordinate stage in the process4 77 ,the advance of painting continued under the manner of conception for which ,giotto was in the main responsible4 ,the typical representation of ,christ1 the apostles1 and the more important events which are reported us by the evangelists1 were more and more thrust into the background4 ,yet in another direction the embrace of subject-matter was for that reason extended4 ,as our author expresses it3 ,all artists engaged in depicting the various phases in the life of latter-day saints1 such as their previous worldliness1 the sudden awakening of conscience1 their entrance into the life of piety and asceticism1 the miracles of their lives1 more particularly after their decease1 in the representation of which1 as is to be expected from the external conditions of the art1 the expression of the effect upon the living exceeded any suggestion of invisible powder#cee4 ,add to this that the events of the ,life and ,passion of ,christ were not neglected4 ,the birth and education of ,christ1 the ,madonna with her ,child were exceptionally favoured subjects1 and were invested with a more life-like domesticity1 touched with a more intimate tenderness1 revealed to us in the medium of human feeling1 and1 moreover1 to quote yet further3 ,in the problems#cef suggested by the ,passion it was not so much the sublime and the triumph as simply the pathetic aspect which was emphasized1 a direct consequence of the enthusiastic wave of sympathy with the earthly sufferings of the ,saviour1 to which ,saint ,francis1 both by example and teaching1 had communicated a vital energy hitherto unheard of4 ,in respect to a yet further advance towards the middle of the fifteenth century1 we have to lay exceptional stress on two names1 ,masaccio and ,fiesole4 ,in the progressive steps through which the religious content was vividly carried into the living forms of the human figure and the animated expression of human traits ,herr von ,rumohr#ceg draws attention to two essential aspects as of most importance4 ,the one is the increase of rondure in all forms to which it applies2 the other he indicates as a profounder penetration into the articulation1 the consistency1 the most varied phases of the charm and significance of the features of the human countenance4 ,masaccio and ,angelico da ,fiesole between them were the first to contribute effectively to the solution of this artistic problem1 the difficulty of which in its entirety exceeded the powers of any one artist of that period4 ,masaccio was mainly occupied with the problem of chiaroscuro1 and the rounding and effective articulations of groups of figures4 ,angelico da ,fiesole1 on the other hand1 devoted himself to sounding the depths of ideal coherence1 that indwelling significance of human features1 the mine of whose treasure he was the first to open to painting#ceh4 ,the effort of ,masaccio was not so much one in the direction of grace as in that of imposing conception1 manliness1 and under the instinctive need for unity of the entire composition4 ,the impulse of ,fra ,angelico was that of religious intensity1 a love severed from the world1 a cloistral purity of emotion1 an exaltation and consecration of the soul4 ,vasari assures us in his account of him that he never commenced work without prayer1 and never depicted the sufferings of the ,redeemer without bursting into tears#cei4 ,we have1 then as aspects of this advance of painting a more exalted vitality and realism3 but1 on the other hand1 the depth of piety1 the ingenuous devotion of the soul in its faith overran itself and overpowered the freedom1 dexterity1 naturalism1 and beauty of the composition1 pose1 drapery1 and colour4 ,if the later development was able to attain to a far more exalted and complete expression of the spiritual consciousness1 yet the epoch we are now considering has never been surpassed in purity and innocence of religious feeling and serious depth of conception4 ,many pictures of this time may very well1 by reason of the fact that the forms of life1 which are used to depict the religious intensity of soul-life1 do not appear fully adequate to this expression1 give us something like a repulse2 from the point of view1 however1 of spiritual emotion1 which is the most vital source of these works of art1 we have still less reason to fail to acknowledge the naive purity1 the intimacy with the most profound depths of the truly religious content1 the assuredness of faithful love even under oppression and in grief1 and oft1 too1 the charm of innocence and blessedness1 inasmuch as the epochs that followed it1 however much in other aspects of artistic perfection they made a step forwards1 yet for all that never secured again the perfection of these previous excellencies1 when once it had been lost4 77 ,a third aspect attaches to the further development of the art1 in addition to those already discussed1 which may be described as the wider embrace of it relatively to the subjects accepted for presentation by the new impulse4 ,just as what was regarded as sacred had from the very commencement of ,italian painting approached more closely to reality by reason of the fact that men whose lives fell about the time of the painters themselves were declared to be saints1 so too ,art received into its own sphere other aspects of reality and present life4 ,starting from that earliest phase of pure spirituality and piety1 an art whose aim was wholly absorbed in the expression of such religious emotions1 painting proceeded more and more to associate the external life of the world with its religious subject-matter4 ,the gladsome1 forceful self-reliance of the citizen in the midst of his professional career1 the business and the craft that was bound up with such qualities1 the freedom1 the manly courage and patriotism1 in one word1 his weal in the vital activities of the ,present1 all this newly-awakened sense of human delight in the virtues of civil life and its cheer and humour#cfj1 this harmonized sympathy with what was actual in both its aspects of ideal life#cfa and the external framework of the same1 all this it was which entered now into his artistic conceptions and modes of presenting such and was made valid therein4 ,it is in this spirit that the enthusiasm for landscape backgrounds1 views of cities1 environment of church buildings and palaces becomes a real instinct of artistic life2 the living portraits of famous savants1 friends1 statesmen1 artists1 and other persons remarkable in their day for their wit and vivacity find a place in religious compositions2 traits borrowed from both civil and domestic life are utilized with a greater or less degree of freedom and dexterity2 and if1 no doubt1 the spiritual aspect of the religious content remained the foundation of all1 yet the expression of piety was no longer exclusively isolate1 but is linked together with the more ample life of reality and the open stage of the world#cfb4 ,no doubt we must add that by reason of this tendency the expression of religious concentration and its intimate piety is weakened1 but art required also this worldly element in order to arrive at its culminating point4 77 ,out of this fusion of the more embracing reality of life with the ideal material of religious emotion arose a new problem for genius to solve1 the complete solution of which was reserved for the great masters of the sixteenth century4 ,the supreme aim now was to bring the intimate life of soul1 the seriousness and the loftiness of religious emotion into harmony with the animation1 the actual presence of characters and forms both in its corporeal and spiritual aspect1 in order that the bodily configuration in its pose1 movement1 and colour1 may not simply remain an external framework1 but become itself essentially an expression of spirit and life1 and by virtue of that expression1 made throughout all its parts wholly the reflex of soul-life no less than of external form1 reveal a beauty without break or interruption4 ,among the masters of most distinction1 who set before themselves such an aim1 we should pre-eminently mention ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,it was he1 who1 by virtue of his artistic thoroughness1 his almost over-refined passion for detail1 his exquisite delicacy of mind and feeling1 not only penetrated further than any other#cfc into the mysteries of the human form and the secrets of its expression1 but1 through his equally profound knowledge of all the technique of a painter1 attained to an extraordinary infallibility in the employment of all the means that his researches and practice had placed within his reach4 ,and1 along with this1 he was able to retain a reverential seriousness in composing his religious subjects1 so that his figures1 however much they present to us the ideal of a more complete and rounded actuality1 and disclose the expression of sweet1 smiling joyfulness in facial traits and the delicate rhythm of drapery1 do not thereby dispense with the dignity1 which the worth and truth of religion demand#cfd4 ,the most unflecked quality#cfe of perfection reached in this direction was1 however1 that first attained by ,raphael4 ,herr von ,rumohr assigns more particularly to the artists of the ,umbrian ,school dating from the middle of the fifteenth century a mysterious fascination1 which no sympathetic nature can resist1 and endeavours to find the source of this attraction in the depth and tenderness of feeling no less than the marvellous unity into which these painters knew how to bring memories from the oldest essays of ,christian art of a style only very partially understood by them#cff with the milder conceptions of a later time1 and in this respect proved themselves superior to the ,tuscan1 ,lombard1 and ,venetian fellow artists of that period#cfg4 ,it was just this expression of flawless purity of soul and absolute surrender to the yearning and enthusiastic flow of tender feeling to which ,pietro ,perugino1 the master of ,raphael1 devoted his artistic efforts1 and succeeded by doing so in fusing the objectivity and vitality of external forms1 throughout all its actual realization and in every detail1 an aim which had previously received the most marked attention in the elaborate work of the ,florentines4 ,starting from the work of ,perugino1 to whose artistic taste and style he appears to have consistently adhered in his early work1 ,raphael proceeded yet further to realize to the most consummate degree the demand of the ideal above indicated4 ,in other words we find united in him the highest ecclesiastical feeling for the themes of religious art and a complete knowledge and enthusiastic respect for natural phenomena in all the animation of their colour and shape together with an insight fully as great for the beauty of the antique4 ,this great admiration for the idealistic beauty of the ancients did not bring him in any way to imitate and adapt to his work the forms which ,greek sculpture had elaborated in their perfection4 ,what he seized from it was simply the general principle of their free beauty which in his hands was throughout suffused with a more individual vitality more applicable to his art and with a type of expression more deeply informed with soul-life1 and at the same time with an open1 blithesome clarity and thoroughness1 in all the detail of the presentment that up to his time was as yet unknown among ,italian artists4 ,in the elaboration and consistent fusion and coherence of this ideal atmosphere he reached the highest point of his attainment4 ,on the other hand1 in the magical charm of chiaroscuro1 in the exquisite tenderness and grace of soul-expression1 of forms1 movements1 and grouping1 it is ,correggio who most excels1 while the incomparable greatness of ,titian consists in the wealth of natural life that he displays1 the illuminating bloom1 fervency1 warmth1 and power of his colour4 ,we know nothing more delightful than the navet of ,correggio's not so much natural as religious and spiritual grace1 nothing more sweet than his smiling1 unconscious beauty and innocence#cfh4 ,the artistic perfection of these great masters is a culminating point of art such as could only be mastered by one nation in the course of historical development4 7c7 ,thirdly1 in so far as the question is that of ,german painting we may affiliate that which is entirely ,german with that of ,flemish or ,dutch painters4 ,the general distinction between the above schools and that of the ,italians1 consists in this1 that neither the ,germans nor the painters of the ,netherlands were willing as a creation of their own to attain to the free ideal forms and modes of expression characteristic of ,italian art1 or were able to progress to that spiritually transfigured type of beauty which is essentially the result of such4 ,what they did elaborate1 however1 was1 in one aspect of it1 the expression of depth of emotion and the austere seclusion of the individual soul1 and1 from another point of view1 they attach to this intensity of faith the separate definition of individual character in the broader significance of it1 that is to say1 one which does not merely disclose the fact of its close interest with the claims of faith and salvation1 but also shows how the individuals represented are affected by the concerns of the world1 how they are buffeted by the cares of life1 and in this severe ordeal have gained worldly wisdom1 fidelity1 consistency1 straightforwardness1 the constancy of chivalry and the sterling character of good citizens4 ,agreeably to this more restricted and depressed vision of the detail of life we find here1 and it is particularly conspicuous in the ,german school1 from the beginning1 in deliberate contrast with the purer forms and characters of the ,italians1 rather the expression of a formal obstinacy of stubborn natures1 which either oppose themselves to ,god with energetic defiance and brutal wilfulness1 or are forced to impose restraint on themselves in order that they may1 with sore travail1 wrest themselves from their limitations and uncouthness1 and fight their way to the reconciliation of religion2 consequently the deep wounds which they inflict on their spiritual life inevitably contribute to the visible expression of their piety4 ,in illustrating this more closely ,i will merely draw attention to certain prominent features1 which are important indications of the contrast between the older ,flemish school and the upper ,german and more recent ,dutch masters of the seventeenth century4 77 ,among the early ,flemish masters1 the brothers ,van ,eyck1 ,hubert1 and ,john are exceptionally distinguished in the early half of the fifteenth century1 and it is only recently that their true merits have once more been established4 ,it is now an established fact that they discovered1 or at least they were the first to fully perfect1 the process of oil-painting4 ,looking at the great advance they made we must now assume that a distinct series of stages in the course of this progress to its culmination could be set forth4 ,we have1 however1 no historical array of works of art preserved for us whereby we could illustrate such a gradual process4 ,we are face to face at one moment of time with the beginning and final consummation4 ,for painting of greater excellence than that of these two brothers it is almost impossible to imagine4 ,moreover1 the works that have come down to us1 in which the mere type is already dispensed with and overcome1 not merely display a grand mastery in drawing1 arrangement1 grouping1 ideal and exterior characterization1 enthusiasm1 clarity1 harmony1 and delicacy of colouring1 dignity and repose of composition2 but we must add that the entire wealth of painting respectively to nature's environment1 architectonic accessories1 backgrounds1 splendour and variety of material1 drapery1 style of weapons1 ornamentation1 and much besides1 is already treated with such fidelity1 with such an instinctive sense of what is pictorial1 and with such a technical virtuosity1 that even later centuries1 at any rate from the point of view of thoroughness and truth1 have been unable to produce any more consummate result4 ,we are1 however1 more strongly attracted by the master works of ,italian painting1 if we contrast them with this ,flemish school1 because the ,italians1 along with the completest expression of soul-life and the religious sense1 retain throughout the ideal of spiritual freedom and imaginative beauty4 ,the figures of ,flemish art delight us1 no doubt1 by virtue of their innocence1 navet1 and piety2 nay1 in the depth of their emotional life they1 in some measure1 surpass the work of the most excellent ,italian artists2 but the ,flemish masters have never been able to attain to a beauty of form and a freedom of soul comparable with that of the ,italians4 ,their ,christ-babes are1 in particular1 badly modelled2 and for the rest their characters1 whether men or women1 however strongly1 subject to their dominant expression of religious fervour1 they may display a sterling character in their relation to secular interests sanctified by the depth of their faith1 nevertheless appear to us lacking in a significance which can exalt itself over such a piety1 or rather1 as dominated by it1 do not appear able at the same time to be essentially free1 instinct with imagination and the enterprise of superior qualities4 77 ,a further aspect we shall do well to consider is the transition from the more tranquil1 reverential piety to the representation of martyrdoms1 and1 in general1 what is not beautiful in reality4 ,it is more particularly the ,north ,german masters who excel in scenes borrowed from the ,passion in which they emphasize the savagery of the soldiery1 the evil aspects of the mocking1 the fierceness of the hate against ,christ during the course of ,his sufferings1 with particular insistence on features of ugliness and distortion1 and which are intended to denote external forms correspondent with the depravity of spirit4 ,the tranquil and beautiful activity of an unassuming personal piety is thrown into the background1 and the movements which are inseparable from the situations above mentioned unfold us hideous distortions1 expressions of ferocity1 and all the unbridled exhibition of passions4 ,where we have the contending tumult and the uncouthness of characters presented with such detail1 it is not surprising that such pictures are defective in the ideal harmony of their composition no less than their colour1 so that1 more especially where a taste for old ,german paintings first crops up1 critics when thus confronted with what is1 as a rule1 an inferior class of technical accomplishment1 fall into many mistakes when determining the date of their production4 ,thus it has been maintained that they are previous to the more consummate pictures of the ,van ,eyck period1 although1 for the most part1 they hail from a more recent time4 ,however1 the ,upper ,german masters were not exclusively occupied with works of this type1 but have likewise treated a variety of religious subjects1 and1 indeed--,albrecht ,drer1 with others1 exemplifies this--even in scenes from ,christ's ,passion1 have understood how effectively to grapple with the extremes of pure savagery1 and even when treating such themes to preserve an ideal nobility and an external independence#cfi and freedom4 77 ,finally1 the development of ,german and ,flemish art is characterized in a complete identification of itself with the ordinary life of the ,present2 and1 along with this1 in a unified system of the most varied modes of presentation1 which1 both in respect to their content and technique1 are distinct from one another and independently elaborated4 ,we have seen already the advance made by ,italian painting from the simple nobility of devotion to an ever-increasing assertion of secular motive1 which here1 however1 as we pointed out in the case of ,raphael1 was in some measure permeated by ecclesiastical prepossessions1 and in part limited by the coherent principle of antique beauty4 ,we may add that the later course of this school is not so much a dissolution of that unity in the representation of every kind of subject-matter under the predominant interest of the colourist as a more superficial disposition1 or rather1 eclectic imitation of styles of draughtsmanship and painting4 ,german and ,flemish art1 on the contrary1 has in the most definite and exceptional degree traversed the entire scheme of content and modes of treatment1 starting from its wholly traditional church pictures1 single figures and half lengths1 then on to thoughtful1 pious1 and devotional subjects1 until we come to that animation and extension of the same in larger compositions and scenes1 in which1 however1 the free characterization of figure1 the heightened vitality effected by means of processions1 retinues1 incidental personages1 embellishment of garments and utensils1 wealth of portraiture1 architectural works1 environment1 views of churches1 cities1 streams1 forests1 mountains1 is still conceived and executed as a whole subject to religious motivation4 ,this focal centre still persists2 but we find that the range of subjects1 which had hitherto been held together in unity1 is broken into division1 and the separate parts become1 in the specific singularity and contingent character of their alternations or independent modifications1 subject to every possible type of conception and pictorial execution#cgj4 ,in order to arrive at a full appreciation of this aspect of art's development in the present context1 for we have already referred to the point1 we will pass briefly in review the national conditions which were operative in the change4 ,we are under the necessity to justify1 as we shall attempt to do in the following observations1 a transition from direct relations to the ,church and the outlook and pictorial modes of piety to a delight in the world simply1 that is to say1 to the objects and particular phenomena of ,nature1 to domestic life in its dignity1 congeniality1 and peaceful seclusion1 to an enjoyment of national festivities and processions1 rustic dances1 the games and follies attendant upon church ftes4 ,now the ,reformation had thoroughly penetrated ,holland4 ,the ,dutch had become ,protestants and overcome the despotism of the ,spanish ,crown and ,church4 ,and what is more we do not1 if we consider the political condition here1 either find a distinguished nobility which drives forth its princes and tyrants1 or imposes laws on them1 nor yet an agricultural people1 oppressed peasantry1 who break free as the ,swiss have done1 but rather a population which1 in by far the largest proportion of it1 if we except the few brave souls that tilled the soil and its more than brave heroes of the sea1 consisted of citizens of the town1 men of business1 well-to-do burghers1 men who1 rejoicing in their ordinary avocations1 entertained no lofty pretensions1 but1 as became their courage and intelligence1 with audacious reliance in ,god1 stood up to defend the freedom of their hardly-won liberties and the particular privileges of their provinces1 cities1 and guilds1 dared to oppose themselves to all hazards without fear of the transcendent prestige of the ,spanish dominion over half the world1 to bravely let their blood flow for such an aim1 and by virtue of this righteous boldness and endurance victoriously secured both their religious and civic independence4 ,and if we may brand any single condition of soul-life as distinctively deutsch1 it is just this loyal1 well-to-do1 and genial citizenship1 which1 in a self-respect that is without pride1 in a piety which is not merely absorbed in enthusiasm and devotion1 but which is concretely pious in the affairs of the world#cga and is homely and contented in its abundance1 remains neat and clean1 and in persistent carefulness and contentment under all circumstances1 armed with its own enduring sense of independence and freedom1 is able1 with loyalty to its former life1 to preserve the sterling character of its forefathers unimpaired4 ,this intelligent and artistically endowed people furthermore seeks its enjoyment in the pictorial presentment of its vigorous1 justly co-ordinated1 satisfying1 and comfortable existence2 it is all for taking a renewed delight by means of its pictures in the cleanliness under all conditions of its towns1 houses1 and domestic arrangements1 of enjoying thus its household felicity1 its wealth1 the generous adornment of its wives and children1 the splendour of its civic feasts1 the boldness of its seamen1 the fame of its merchandise and the shipping1 in which it rides over all the seas of the world4 ,and it is just this instinct of orderly and cheerful existence1 which the ,dutch masters emphasize also in their landscape subjects4 ,in one word1 in all their pictorial accomplishment they succeed in combining with freedom1 and truth of conception1 with their enthusiasm for what is in appearance of inferior and momentary significance1 with the freshness of open vision and the concentration of their entire soul on all that is most stamped with the seclusion and limitations of their life1 the most ample freedom of artistic composition1 no less than the finest feeling for accessories and the most perfect effects of studious elaboration4 ,from one point of view this school of painting has developed to an incomparable degree the magic and mystery of lighting and colour#cgb generally in its scenes borrowed from war and military life1 in its tavern jollifications1 in its weddings and other rustic ftes1 in its pictures of domestic life1 in its portraits1 landscapes1 animals1 flowers1 and the rest4 ,from another aspect it has elaborated with a similar excellence the characterization which penetrates to the heart of life in all the truth of which ,art is capable4 ,and although its insistence on the insignificant and contingent includes the expression of what is boorish1 rude1 and common1 yet these scenes are so permeated throughout with ingenuous lustiness and jollity1 that it is not the common in its meanness and naughtiness so much as the gaiety and joviality which creates the artistic subject and its content4 ,we do not look at mean feelings and passions1 but simply what is boorish1 in the sense of being rustic1 near to nature1 in the poorer classes1 a quality which connotes geniality1 waggishness1 and comedy4 ,in short the ,ideal itself is not wholly absent from this unperturbed easy-way-of-life4 ,it is the ,sabbath of ,life1 which brings all to one level and removes all badness1 simply as such4 ,men who are thus so whole-heartedly of good temper can neither be wholly bad nor mean4 ,in this respect it is not one and the same thing1 whether evil is of purely momentary appearance in a character1 or lies at its root and essence4 ,in the work of these ,dutch painters what is humorous in a situation cancels what is evil1 and it is at once clear to us that the characters could be something other than that in the guise of which they are for the time being set before us#cgc4 ,a gaiety and comedy of this description contributes much to the invaluable character of these pictures4 ,if pictures of this rollicking type are attempted nowadays1 the painter1 as a rule1 only places before us what is essentially mean1 coarse and bad without the illuminating atmosphere of a comic situation#cgd4 ,a bad wife rails at her tipsy husband in the tavern with all her might4 ,in a scene of this kind we have only put before us1 as ,i have already remarked1 the bald facts that the man is a dissipated brute and the woman a rating wench4 ,if we look at the ,dutch masters in this light we shall no longer entertain the view that the art of painting should have said goodbye to such subjects altogether1 and merely confined itself to depicting the gods of old1 myths1 and fables1 or even ,madonna pictures1 crucifixions1 martyrs1 popes1 and saints of both sexes4 ,what is a vital ingredient of every work of art is inseparable also from painting1 and this is the observance of what generally concerns our humanity1 the spirit and characterization of man1 in other words what man is and what each individual is4 ,this vital grasp of the conscious life of human nature and the external forms of its appearance1 this naive delight and artistic freedom1 this freshness and cheerfulness of imaginative sympathy1 this absolute directness of execution is what constitutes the poetry that underlies the work of the majority of the ,dutch painters of this period4 ,in their paintings we may study and acquaint ourselves with human nature and mankind4 ,nowadays1 however1 our artist only too frequently will confront us with portraits and historical pictures1 at which we have only to cast a bare glance1 and we see that1 while flatly contradicting the wildest dream of what is possible in mankind or anyone in particular1 he neither knows aught at all about man or his natural colour1 nor yet the modes of composition#cge in which we may justly express that humanity#cgf4 ,footnote #bad3 ,die gesammte ,menschen-brust4 ,footnote #bae3 ,die in sich gediegene ,individualitt des ,gottes4 ,footnote #baf3 ,betrachtung1 here implying thought rather than vision4 ,footnote #bag3 ,that is a unity which dissolves all difference4 ,footnote #bah3 ,als ,inneres4 ,footnote #bai3 ,als ,reflexion in sich4 ,probably ,hegel means simply the ultimate fact of self-conscious life--which is to find itself in ,nature as the antithesis of the synthetic unity of the ego4 ,this is developed in the latter half of the sentence4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,lit41 ,is not an essentially persistent and stereotyped 7,erstarrtes1 stiffened7 individual4 ,footnote #bba3 ,less than sculpture4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,he may mean type of art generally1 but ,i think the reference here is simply to painting4 ,the passage is an important one4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,i presume ,hegel uses the word seeligkeit in the ordinary sense1 not soulfulness4 ,the close relation with ,schmertz necessitates this4 ,but the spelling suggests the other interpretation4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,which is absent in the classical treatment4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,that is1 the creative artist4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,innerlichkeit4 ,it is impossible to express ,hegel's use of this word by one expression4 ,it combines intimacy1 ideal union1 and inwardness of soul-life in its contrast to objective reality4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,that is the romantic type4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,die fr sich seyende ,subjektivitt4 ,that is a process that elaborates itself in independent form consonant to its own substance4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,als dieses ,subjekt4 ,that is1 ,i assume1 as the distinctive personality of the artist4 ,this must appear on the face of the work as the crown of its independent type and concrete unity 7,zur ,spitze des ,frsichseyns7 but must not dominate it to the extent of destroying all natural detail1 not even to the extent of sculpture4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,zur ,spitze des ,frsichseyns4 ,see note above4 ,footnote #bca3 ,that is their union in sculpture4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,als solcher4 ,hegel means that the universal present in emotion is objective therein as part of the self-conscious life1 but is only presented in the concrete objective shape in the work of the artist who therein suffers to escape the wholly personal side4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,sein ,inneres1 his ideal substance1 with more direct reference to feeling4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,aus demselben in sich hineingehend4 ,i think what is meant is that the material is idealized out of one of its spatial conditions rather than that the artist selects his medium in consonance with his temperament and technique4 ,footnote #bce3 ,that is1 does not affect the stability and total effect of the work4 ,of course the actual effect may vary4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,fr diesen festen ,punkt des ,subjekts4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,die in sich besonderte ,innerlichkeit4 ,footnote #bch3 ,the distinctions in matter conditioned in ,space4 ,footnote #bci3 ,the meaning1 if rather obscurely expressed1 appears to be this4 ,the art of sculpture shows us when it treats the spatial dimensions as essential that we must have the entire spatial form to do this1 and it shows us that if we wish to pass from the mere presentment of bodily form to a fuller ideal quality we must contract this exclusive appearance of physical matter4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,lit41 ,begins to be subjective4 ,begins to possess a self-excluding centre of unity1 i4e41 self-identity4 ,footnote #bda3 ,that is to the point of a real subject or ego4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,e4g41 secure an abstract result in superficies only4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,apart from artistic means4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,though the statements here are suggestive1 they are obviously influenced by ,hegel's belief in the false theory of light propounded by ,goethe4 ,footnote #bde3 ,this is a direct reference to the ,newtonian theory1 of course4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,zeichnung here refers to line rather than technical excellence in draughtsmanship4 ,it must be admitted ,hegel's emphasis of these two aspects is carried rather too far4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,the above passage is open to criticism4 ,hegel hardly makes allowance for the fact that the defective technique1 so far as it is defective1 of the earlier masters1 was mainly due to their state of knowledge4 ,art was1 in a certain aspect of technique1 in its infancy4 ,moreover to compare ,dutch landscape with that of ,bellini or ,raphael is to compare things that are each unique of their kind and not comparable4 ,their aim was entirely different4 ,in such pictures as the ,san ,sisto ,madonna of ,raphael1 the great ,crucifixion of ,tintoret1 or the ,entombment of ,titian it is quite impossible to maintain that the earnestness of conception is in any way inferior to the technique1 although we have no doubt a different degree of conviction expressed by ,fra ,angelico4 ,and the classical landscape of ,titian or ,tintoret is of its type supreme4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,this statement of ,hegel again requires parenthesis or at least interpretation4 ,there is a realism such as that we find in the most consummate work of a ,titian1 or the genre work of the ,dutch school1 or our own ,pre-,raphaelites1 to say nothing of mere academical realism1 which hardly comes within his remarks4 ,it is obvious that the ,ideal is subserved in different degrees by such examples1 and in fact to preserve that unity of conception despite the greatest elaboration1 is to serve the ,ideal at least in one aspect of it4 ,hegel1 at least in the concluding part of this paragraph1 appears mainly to have in his mind still life and the genre pictures of the ,dutch1 and rather seems to overlook his own statement as to the necessity of selection and the power to express detail by the shorthand of genius rather than deliberate imitation4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,grossartigkeit4 ,footnote #bej3 ,innigkeit4 ,intimate ideality1 inwardness4 ,footnote #bea3 ,i am not sure what ,hegel means by the expression ,nicht das ,niedrige ist zerdrckt4 ,if the text is correct ,i suppose it means the sensuous side does not make way for a more spiritual synthesis4 ,what we should expect is some other verb than zerdrckt such as ausgedrckt1 the sense being that though the mean emotion is not expressed1 and no rage1 etc41 is asserted1 yet despite of it all1 etc4 ,i think there must be some misprint here4 ,footnote #beb3 ,ein starres ,beisichseyn4 ,compare the expression lower down affirmatives ,frsichseyn with which it contrasts4 ,footnote #bec3 ,fr sich bestehende ,herz4 ,footnote #bed3 ,als ein gttliches ,moment4 ,it means an actual phase in the ,divine existence4 ,footnote #bee3 ,an important statement4 ,hegel's words are ,sondern wir mssen das geistige ,daseyn im ,bewusstseyn des ,menschen als die wesentliche geistige ,existenz ,gottes ansehn4 ,footnote #bef3 ,a bad master at any rate for such a subject4 ,footnote #beg3 ,this metaphor appears to me rather confused1 and in fact ,i do not pretend wholly to understand its meaning4 ,i suppose the idea is that beyond the clouds of soul-life there are the clouds that obscure ,providence4 ,in all this passage ,hegel shows his limitations as an art student4 ,footnote #beh3 ,nher4 ,that is our love of ,god is mainly through ,christ4 ,footnote #bei3 ,ein bloss eingelnes ,moment4 ,a phase that passes or becomes relatively insignificant4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,innigste1 most intimate4 ,a curious but characteristic conclusion of ,hegel4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,this analysis must be accepted of course mainly as an analysis of the ideal proposed to us by the profoundest ,christian art4 ,it is obviously not true of much ,italian art1 ,titian's work for example1 and it is equally remote from many of the most probable facts of history4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,die ,starrheit4 ,the rigid or unyielding character4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,der ,gehalt ihres ,gemths4 ,it is possible to see in this analysis something rather capricious and far-fetched1 and yet to appreciate its value as an analysis of ,christian love for the deceased beloved as contrasted with pagan sentiment4 ,the finest illustration ,i myself can recollect of this is not the mother ,mary at all1 but the figure of the ,magdalene in ,tintoret's ,deposition in the ,s4 ,giorgio ,maggiore ,church in ,venice4 ,as a matter of fact the divine mother in sacred art is almost invariably depicted in a state of swoon under the stress of her grief1 though ,tintoret's ,piet in the ,brera is a notable exception4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,i do not know this painter4 ,for pathos ,i know no finer conception of the death than that of ,rembrandt's etching4 ,blake's drawing1 exhibited recently at ,cambridge1 shows us the tranquillity and dignity of the scene more finely than any other representation4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,i presume ,hegel means this by the words die ,menschheit1 but it is a difficult passage4 ,footnote #bff3 ,it is impossible in ,english to preserve the antithesis between bitten and beten4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,und nichts fr sich hat4 ,that is to say reciprocity is of its essence4 ,give and it shall be given unto you4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,die ,gestalt may possibly refer to the suppliant4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,the ,sistine ,madonna4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,a good instance is the great ,crucifixion of ,fra ,angelico in the ,s4 ,mark convent in ,florence4 ,footnote #bga3 ,and a painter like ,carlo ,dolci or the ,caracci are even worse4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,it would perhaps have been more instructive to consider the difference of temperament in the artist when dealing with such subjects and its influence on his treatment4 ,it is very far from an obvious truth that physiognomy upon which the conflict of soul-life is most marked loses thereby the characteristics of beauty4 ,there is the beauty of gnarled oak no less than that of the rose and the lily4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,das ,beisichseyn der ,liebe im ,absoluten4 ,lit41 the self-inherency cf ,love within the ,absolute4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,sondern auch selbstndig4 ,he seems to mean that they receive from this relation the subsistent individuality of spirit4 ,this reference to landscape is obviously very perfunctory and insufficient4 ,footnote #bge3 ,see vol4 ,i1 p4 #bbj4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,mit dem in sich particularisirten ,innern4 ,with the ideal complexus of particular objects as related to one subject4 ,their particularity is due to their characterization1 and that is dependent on idealization4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,diess ,verwachsenseyn4 ,lit41 this growing up with4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,there is1 however1 the aspect of consummate execution which in itself is a very real source of artistic enjoyment1 and ,hegel rather seems to overlook this here4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,verzweigungen4 ,all off-shoots of attention or interest4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,of course1 even in the painting of still life1 artistic composition itself implies by its selection and subordination to an idea a new result4 ,and the characteristic technique of a painter inevitably has the same result4 ,footnote #bha3 ,geistigen ,ausdrck4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,grundlage4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,it is perhaps rather strange that ,hegel should have considered the ,dutch and ,flemish schools as pre-eminently colourists4 ,apart from ,rembrandt the truth is not very apparent4 ,but he was mainly thinking of their dexterity in the lighting of a picture and the scintillation of colour4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,that is1 as black and white and its gradations4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,it is not quite clear what is intended here by ,vervielfltigung1 probably power of being adapted to various subject matter and modes of expression4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,it is hardly necessary to point out that this discussion1 being based on ,goethe's false theory of colour in opposition to ,newton's prismatic analysis1 has no scientific value1 though historically of interest4 ,the blueness of the sky is due to the blue rays being detained4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,i presume by concrete unity ,hegel refers in some form to a unity that is such owing to its intrinsic nature4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,but red quite as often symbolizes enthusiasm and love1 and in ,tintoret's ,paradise the ,virgin has the red tunic and the blue mantle4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,as a matter of fact violet or purple is a cardinal colour4 ,footnote #bij3 ,green is not a cardinal colour4 ,footnote #bia3 ,hegel seems to have in view the ,flemish school rather than the ,dutch in the restricted sense4 ,it is rather strange that he should dwell on this rather than work of the ,venetians such as ,bellini4 ,footnote #bib3 ,verschwemmte4 ,carried away by a stream4 ,footnote #bic3 ,such as ,ary ,scheffer and others of the same monotony4 ,the flesh tints of ,leighton and ,poynter and many less men suffer in the same way4 ,footnote #bid3 ,farbenschein1 as ,hegel uses it later on1 ,i find it impossible to translate in one word4 ,in fact it is not easy to seize precisely what he means4 ,modulation of colour partly expresses it4 ,but he also seems to refer to what we understand as the personal quality of a picture or its general atmosphere1 not regarded simply as ,nature's atmosphere1 but as the communication of the artist's own afflatus4 ,footnote #bie3 ,i crossed a young landscape-artist of growing fame the other day1 who affirmed and endeavoured to express in his pictures the conviction that colour was as strong in distance as foreground4 ,his pictures were of great interest1 but ,i still think his robust theory unsound4 ,footnote #bif3 ,we have no ,english equivalent for the ,german das ,incarnat or colour incarnate4 ,footnote #big3 ,ein ideelles ,ineinander4 ,by ideal ,hegel means apparently that the distinctions of tint fine away beyond the grasp of sense vision4 ,this of course is true in all natural colouring4 ,possibly he may mean that the idea of ,life is contributive to the result4 ,footnote #bih3 ,hardly a just simile for the reason that1 as ,hegel himself points out1 flesh does not reflect external objects4 ,footnote #bii3 ,den ,schein innerer ,belebung4 ,this expression seems to prove that ,hegel uses the word ideel in its ordinary sense of spiritual ideality4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,als selbst lebendiges ,ganze4 ,the colour must appear as itself a part of the vitality1 not a mere covering4 ,footnote #cja3 ,vertreibung4 ,what ,hegel exactly means ,i am not sure1 probably finish by overpaintings4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,fresco painting is strictly in tempera4 ,i suppose ,hegel has here before him the two processes of tempera painting on the wet wall of plaster and tempera painting on some other dry surface4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,zu grosser innerer ,klarheit und schnen ,leuchten4 ,i give what appears to me to be the meaning4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,i presume ,hegel understands by ,deck und ,lasurfarben the distinction of our opaque and transparent colours such as flake white and the madders or umbers4 ,he clearly refers to glazes4 ,footnote #cje3 ,die ,duftigkeit1 ,magie in der ,wirkung des ,kolorits4 ,this is a difficult passage to translate1 and ,i am not quite sure what ,hegel is aiming at4 ,he seems to have in his mind both the ideal atmosphere of a composition and the presence of a personal style4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,hegel has already related the effects considered to the artist's personality4 ,he now endeavours to examine more closely what is implied in the relation4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,adriaen van ,ostade1 #afaj-afhe4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,he means painting1 of course4 ,he never passed beyond the stage of the average amateur4 ,footnote #cji3 ,spiel von ,scheinen4 ,the play of appearance1 that is1 as it strikes on different natures4 ,footnote #caj3 ,malerischen ,auffassung4 ,here the ideas on mental conception and artistic composition seem to be combined4 ,but ,hegel is rather loose in his use of them4 ,footnote #caa3 ,hegel has doubtless ,albrecht ,drer and yet earlier ,german art in his mind4 ,footnote #cab3 ,die besonderen ,bestimmungen4 ,the lines of its definite exposition4 ,footnote #cac3 ,i adopt ,hegel's generic term4 ,but he means here little more than delineation or composition4 ,footnote #cad3 ,as between the art of painting and those of poetry and music4 ,footnote #cae3 ,geistig4 ,we may say the same thing of ,tintoret's great ,golden ,calf picture4 ,but the objection to the composition as a work of art remains more strongly than is the case with ,raphael's picture4 ,footnote #caf3 ,the same thing is a characteristic of ,tintoret's ,annunciation in the ,s4 ,rocco ,scuola and several pictures of ,drer4 ,footnote #cag3 ,fine examples of this are ,rembrandt's ,descent from the ,cross in the ,munich ,gallery1 and the group of mourners in ,tintoret's ,great ,crucifixion4 ,footnote #cah3 ,they have in this respect been well contrasted with the characters of ,euripides in the play of ,aristophanes which particularly emphasizes the difference between the heroic type of ,aeschylus and the realism of ,euripides1 ,the ,frogs of ,aristophanes1 text and translation of ,b4 ,b4 ,rogers2 see ,introd41 pp4 ,,xviii1 ,,xix1 ,,xlv4 ,footnote #cai3 ,as to ugliness and its treatment by ,hegel1 see ,professor ,bosanquet's ,history of ,aesthetik1 pp4 #cch1 #cee1 and generally pp4 #dcb-dcf4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,that is sculpture4 ,hegel calls it im ,plastischen4 ,footnote #cba3 ,an ideal with ,hegel is not necessarily an image of the mind1 but far more generally the concrete realization of life4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,he should have added ,tintoretto at least4 ,what could be more pertinent than his ,sages in the ,palazzo ,reale in ,venice4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,applies to the study rather than the talent exercised4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,aber ganze ,grundbild des ,charakters darstellen4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,den geistigen ,sinn und ,charakter4 ,he means the entire spiritual impression1 heart1 soul1 and intelligence1 with its practical effect in substantive character4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,i think this is implied here in ,hegel's use of the words verarbeitet durch den ,geist4 ,but it may mean in the face as worked upon the soul within the person portrayed4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,die wahrhaften absoluten ,momente fr die ,characteristik4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,the ,german expression is1 ,it is not a serious affair with her sinning4 ,i am not sure that ,hegel's view here does not lean towards the sentimentalism he generally so strongly opposes4 ,no doubt a clear conception of the ,magdalene's character is difficult4 ,but it is obvious that the less stress we lay upon her sin1 the less weight her conversion carries from the religious point of view1 and the less great appears the effect of the interposition of her divine ,master4 ,correggio was not a master likely to penetrate profoundly into his subject4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it must be admitted that ,hegel's contention is in one aspect of it supported by the far finer conceptions of the ,magdalene in ,tintoret's work4 ,at least this great master clearly shows us that in his view of her she was strongly emotional1 heart and soul in everything whether for good1 under good influence1 or for evil under opposite direction4 ,it is possible to understand ,hegel's interpretation as one mainly aesthetic4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,in ,berlin4 ,the statement is made in ,february #ahbi4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,the omission of the ,spanish school at least omits a most important link with modern impressionism and its close relation to that transition to music4 ,and it is impossible to indicate the progress of landscape without reference to the ,english school4 ,footnote #cca3 ,ital4 ,forsch41 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bgi4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,the words in hnlicher ,weise make no sense4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,ital4 ,forsch41 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bhj4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,literally the sense is ,which 7apparently agrees with the trait of piety7 invigorates with soul that assuredness and accepted fact 7,fertigkeit7 of existence1 which is from the very first 7von ,hause aus7 more decisive 7entscheidenere7 in this province of salvation 7des ,heils74 ,heils must obviously be used in the same sense as ,heiland above4 ,my translation is necessarily rather free1 but ,i hope ,i have emphasized the meaning4 ,footnote #cce3 ,ein ideal bleibender ,uebergang4 ,the transition is rather one the soul imagines than an actual fact4 ,ideal persistence is perhaps better4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,religiositt here used in good sense4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,lit41 ,more free from struggling4 ,compare ,saint ,john and ,saint ,paul as examples on the higher levels4 ,footnote #cch3 ,that is ,italian painting4 ,footnote #cci3 ,hegel's delight in ,italian opera is well known to readers of his correspondence4 ,in the above fine passage he to some extent unbelts himself from his ordinary tone of rather austere reticence4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,the distinction seems to be between the more formal unity of personality and the peculiarly seductive charm of ,italian art4 ,it is rather a fine one and it seems to me rather confusing4 ,moreover ,i do not quite see the pertinency of the simile of a ,psyche that is wafted as a butterfly even round blooms that have been spoiled of their treasure1 for such ,i understand to be the sense of verkmmerte ,blumen4 ,a butterfly comes into no active relation with such unless the idea is pictorial decoration4 ,but possibly ,hegel was thinking of his reference to ,dante1 and in that case employed the metaphor loosely1 rather too loosely ,i should say4 ,footnote #cda3 ,stunted is perhaps the best translation4 ,the fault of the simile lies in its superficiality4 ,it does not penetrate the conception ,hegel has before him4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,giotto1 ,mantegna1 ,carpaccio1 ,masaccio1 would be leading names in point here4 ,hegel mentions two himself lower down4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,ital4 ,forsch41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #d4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,grelle4 ,that is harsh and flagrant outline4 ,footnote #cde3 ,ihrer must refer ,i think to the ,italians1 though the sentence might mean1 ,in contrast to these ,greek productions4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,als ,ueberzug4 ,the expression suggests it was used as a facial glaze or varnish4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,ital4 ,forsch41 vol4 ,i1 p4 #cab4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,that is mixed with the attrited colour in its dryness4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,leimen4 ,leim is size or lime1 in the compound word leim-farbe signifying distemper4 ,footnote #cej3 ,ital4 ,forsch41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #db4 ,footnote #cea3 ,decam4 ,giorn41 #f4 ,nov4 #e4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,such as ,s4 ,francis as presented us in ,giotto's great frescoes in ,assisi4 ,footnote #cec3 ,no doubt the serious aspect is less imposingly emphasized2 but if the opinion condemned below is too sweeping it remains the fact that we can imagine nothing more profoundly serious in the religious sense than the frescoes in the ,arena ,chapel in ,padua4 ,footnote #ced3 ,ital4 ,forsch41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #cee3 ,ital4 ,forsch41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bac4 ,footnote #cef3 ,aufgaben1 artistic problems1 themes4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,ital4 ,forsch41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdc4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,this of course is too strong a statement1 and indeed is ridiculous to anyone who has complete knowledge of the best work even of ,giotto4 ,footnote #cei3 ,ital4 ,forsch41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #beb4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,the frescoes of ,mantegna1 and those of ,ghirlandaio1 we would mention in particular the fine examples in the ,s4 ,maria ,novella church in ,florence1 or for ,mantegna our own cartoons at ,hampton ,court and the invaluable but now hopelessly ruined frescoes of ,gozzoli1 in the ,campo ,santo of ,pisa1 are fine illustrations of the text4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,des inneren ,geistes may here refer to the ideal aspects of civil and domestic life1 but ,i think ,hegel is contrasting the two extremes and it refers to the religious content4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,ital4 ,forsch41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bhb4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,to make this judgment in any degree a sound one we must assume the stress is laid on the mysterious aspect of expression and form4 ,the genuine examples of ,leonardo are so very few4 ,but quite apart from that unless we exclude the great triumvirate of the ,venetian school altogether ,tintoret1 ,titian1 and ,veronese1 the praise here given to ,leonardo as a consummate master of the technique in oil-painting can only be received with considerable reserve and qualification4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,compare ,ital4 ,forsch41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cjh4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,die reinste ,vollendung4 ,the adjective refers to the character of the perfection as an expression of artistic feeling and execution4 ,footnote #cff3 ,halbdeutliche ,erinnerungen4 ,not ,i think memories that are obscure themselves so much as memories which have failed to grasp the content of what is recollected4 ,the expression is rather confused4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,modern criticism would doubtless have a good deal to say in qualification of this4 ,the name of ,bellini alone is sufficiently suggestive4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,this emphasis on the work of ,raphael and ,correggio is characteristic of the best art criticism of the times of ,hegel1 but marks its limitations4 ,neither ,raphael nor ,correggio can be called religious painters in the sense that those profound masters ,tintoret and ,michelangelo were such4 ,the essentially academic aspect of so much of ,raphael's later production is not noticed4 ,and it is these three great names1 ,titian1 ,tintoret1 and ,michelangelo1 who most truly mark the transition to our modern outlook4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,eine assere ,abgeschlossenheit4 ,this must mean1 ,i think1 a dignified and reserved treatment of the technique mainly of such themes4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,the technical and somewhat long-worded aspect of ,hegel's style is here at its worst and ,i find it hard to make complete sense of this doubtless unrevised passage4 ,the main difficulty is this1 that the sentence appears to assert that the centre 7der ,mittelpunkt7 of religion persists 7fortbleibt7 and yet asserts in the same breath that the informing unity is broken up4 ,i have done my best4 ,footnote #cga3 ,a piety which is not merely emotional1 but is concrete in active life1 possesses practical content4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,see note at end of chapter4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,this appears rather to contradict what ,hegel has said before of the impression a fine picture such as ,correggio's ,magdalene leaves upon us that we cannot imagine the character to be other than it is4 ,see note below4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,more literally1 ,without the alleviating effect of what is comic4 ,footnote #cge3 ,i presume die ,formen refers here rather to the artistic forms of grouping and composition than the traits of vital expression4 ,but perhaps the latter interpretation would be more natural to the words4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,the above survey of ,dutch art is of great interest1 and in its careful comparison of the type of that art with the national development of the ,dutch may be contrasted favourably with the somewhat prejudiced criticism of such a critic as ,john ,ruskin4 ,at the same time ,i think it must be obvious that ,hegel is a little inclined to overrate the ideal aspect of that portion of it we may indicate in the work of painters such as ,wouvermans or ,teniers1 many examples of which are little removed from the defects of theme he points out in more modern work4 ,also personally ,i should say that1 if we exclude the supreme genius of ,rembrandt1 he rather exaggerates their rank as supreme colourists in respect to the scintillation1 mystery1 and other effects of light4 ,to consider that they rank above the ,venetians in this respect is wholly impossible1 to say nothing of ,velasquez4 ,rubens1 however1 may add some support to the view1 but he is hardly in the school described1 and ,van ,dyck stands with him4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,music ,,introduction ,if we glance back at the course the evolution of the several arts has taken1 we shall find that it began with architecture4 ,it was the art which was least complete2 for1 as we discovered1 it was1 by reason of the purely solid material1 which it attached to itself as its sensuous medium1 and made use of according to the laws of gravity1 incapable of placing before us under an adequate mode of presentation what is spiritual2 it was consequently constrained to limit itself to the task of preparing from the resources of the mind an artistic external environment for ,spirit in its living and actual existence4 ,sculpture1 on the contrary1 and in the second place1 was able1 it is true1 to accept the spiritual itself as its object4 ,it was1 however1 neither one in the sense of a particular character1 nor as the intimate personal life of soul1 but rather as a free individuality1 which is as little separate from the substantive content as it is from the corporeal appearance of ,spirit2 a presentment which only displays itself as such individuality1 in so far as the same enters into it1 in the degree that the same is actually required to import an individual vitality into a content which is itself intrinsically essential4 ,moreover1 it only1 as such ideal spiritualization1 is fused with the bodily configuration to the extent of revealing the essentially inviolable union of ,spirit with that natural embodiment which is consonant therewith4 ,this necessary identity in the art of sculpture of ,spirit's independent existence wholly with its corporeal organization1 rather than with the medium of its own ideal essence1 makes it incumbent upon the art still to retain solid matter as its material1 but to transform the configuration of the same1 not1 as was the case with architecture1 into a purely inorganic environment1 but rather into the classical beauty adequate to ,spirit and its ideal plastic realization4 ,and just as sculpture in this respect proved itself to be pre-eminently fitted to give vitality to the content and mode of expression of the classical type of art in its products1 while architecture1 despite all the service it rendered in the content which belonged to it1 was unable in its manner of presentation to pass beyond the fundamental mode of a purely symbolical significance1 so1 too1 thirdly1 with the art of painting1 we enter the province of the romantic4 ,no doubt we find still in painting that the external form is the means by virtue of which the ideal presence is revealed4 ,in this case1 however1 this ideality is actually the ideal and particular subjectivity1 is1 in short1 the soul-life returning upon itself from its corporeal existence1 is the individual passion and emotion of character and heart1 which are no longer exclusively delivered in the external form1 but mirror in the same the very ideal substance and activity of ,spirit in the domain of its own conditions1 aims1 and actions4 ,on account of this intimate ideality of its content the art of painting is unable to rest satisfied with a material that1 in one aspect of it1 is in its shape merely solid matter1 and in another as such crude form is merely tangible and unparticularized1 but is forced to select exclusively the show and colour semblance of the same as its sensuous means of expression4 ,the colour1 however1 is only present in order to make still apparent spatial forms and shapes as we find them in the actuality of ,life1 even in the case where we see the art developed into all the magic of colouring1 in which the objective fact at the same time already begins to vanish away1 and the effect is produced by what appears to be no longer anything material at all4 ,however much1 therefore1 painting is evolved in the direction of a more ideal independence of a kind of appearance which is no longer attached to shape as such1 but is permitted to pass spontaneously into its own proper element1 that is1 into the play of visibility and reflection1 into all the mysteries of chiaroscuro1 yet this magic of colour is still throughout of a spatial mode1 it is an appearance growing out of juxtaposition on a flat surface1 and consequently a consubsistent one4 #a4 ,if1 however1 this ideal essence1 as is already the case under the principle of painting1 asserts itself in fact as subjective soul-life1 in that case the truly adequate medium cannot remain of a type which possesses independent subsistency4 ,and for this reason we get a mode of expression and communication1 in the sensuous material of which we do not find objectivity disclosed as spatial configuration1 in order that it may have consistency therein4 ,we require a material which is without such stability in its relation to what is outside it1 and which vanishes again in the very moment of its origin and presence4 ,now the art that finally annihilates not merely one form of spatial dimension1 but the conditions of ,space entirely1 which is completely withdrawn into the ideality of soul-life1 both in its aspect of conscious life and in that of its external expression1 is our second romantic art--,music4 ,in this respect it constitutes the genuine centre of that kind of presentment which accepts the inner personal life as such1 both for its content and form4 ,it no doubt manifests as art this inner life1 but in this very objectification retains its subjective character4 ,in other words it does not1 as plastic art1 suffer the expression in which it is self-enclosed to be independently free or to attain an essentially tranquil self-subsistency1 but cancels the same as objectivity1 and will not suffer externality to secure for itself an inviolable presence#cgg over against it4 ,in so far1 however1 as this annihilation of spatial objectivity1 regarded as a means of manifestation1 is an abandonment of the same which is itself already in anticipation asserted of the sensuous spatiality of the plastic arts themselves#cgh1 this principle of negation must also in a similar way have its activity conditioned by the materiality1 which1 up to this point1 we have indicated as one of tranquil independent self-subsistency1 just as the art of painting reduces in its province the spatial dimensions of sculpture to the simple surface4 ,this cancelling of the spatial form therefore merely consists in this1 that a specific sensuous material surrenders its tranquil relation of juxtaposition1 is1 in other words1 placed in motion but is so essentially affected by that motion that every portion of the coherent bodily substance not merely changes its position1 but also is reacted upon and reacts upon the previous condition#cgi4 ,the result of this oscillating vibration is tone1 the medium of music4 ,in tone music forsakes the element of external form and its sensuous visibility1 and requires for the apprehension of its results another organ of sense1 namely hearing1 which1 as also the sight1 does not belong to the senses of action but those y of contemplation2 and is1 in fact1 still more ideal than sight4 ,for the unruffled1 aesthetic observation of works of art no doubt permits the objects to stand out quietly in their freedom just as they are without any desire to impair that effect in any way2 but that which it apprehends is not that which is itself essentially ideally composed#chj1 but rather on the contrary1 that which receives its consistency in its sensuous existence4 ,the ear1 on the contrary1 receives the result of that ideal vibration of material substance#cha1 without placing itself in a practical relation towards the objects1 a result by means of which it is no longer the material object in its repose1 but the first example of the more ideal activity of the soul itself which is apprehended4 ,and for the further reason that the negativity into which the oscillating medium here enters is from one point of view an annihilation of the spatial condition1 which is itself removed by means of the reaction of the body#chb1 the expression of this twofold negation1 that is tone1 is a mode of externality which1 in virtue of its very mode of existence1 is in its very origination self-destructive1 and there and then itself fundamentally disappears4 ,and it is by virtue of this twofold negation of externality1 in which the root-principle of tone consists1 that the same corresponds to the ideal personal life2 this resonance which1 in its essential explicitness#chc1 is something more ideal than the subsistent corporeality in its independent reality1 also discloses this more ideal existence#chd1 and thereby offers a mode of expression suited to the ideality of conscious life4 #b4 ,if we now1 by a reverse process1 inquire of what type this inner life must be1 if we are to prove it on its own account adapted to the expression of sound and tones1 we may recall the fact already observed that by itself1 that is1 accepted as a real mode of objectivity1 tone1 in contrast to the material of the plastic arts1 is wholly abstract4 ,stone and colour receive the forms of an extensive and varied world of objects1 and place them before us in their actual existence4 ,tones are unable to do this4 ,for musical expression therefore it is only the inner life of soul that is wholly devoid of an object which is appropriate1 in other words1 the abstract personal experience simply4 ,this is our entirely empty ego1 the self without further content4 ,the fundamental task of music will therefore consist in giving a resonant reflection1 not to objectivity in its ordinary material sense1 but to the mode and modifications under which the most intimate self of the soul1 from the point of view of its subjective life and ideality1 is essentially moved4 #c4 ,we may say the same of the effect of music4 ,the paramount claim of that1 too1 is the direct contact with the most intimate ideality of conscious life4 ,it is more than any other the art of the soul1 and is immediately addressed to that4 ,the art of painting1 no doubt1 as we have observed1 is able to express in physiognomy and facial traits with other things the inner life and its activity1 the moods and passions of the heart1 the situations1 conflicts1 and fatalities of the soul2 what1 however1 we have before us in pictures are objective appearances1 from which the self of contemplation1 in its most ideal self-identity1 is still held distinctly apart4 ,however much we become absorbed in or penetrate into the object1 the situation1 the character1 the forms of a statue or a picture1 admire a work of art1 lose ourselves in or possess ourselves with it1 the fact still remains that these works of art are and remain objects of independent subsistency1 in respect to which it is quite impossible for us to escape the relation of external observation disappears4 ,in music1 however1 this distinction disappears4 ,its content is that which is itself essentially a part of our own personal#che life1 and its expression does not result at the same time in an objective mode of spatial persistency1 but discloses1 in virtue of the continuity and freedom of its flight as it appears and vanishes#chf1 that it is a manifestation1 which1 instead of possessing itself an independent consistency1 is dependent for its support on the ideality of conscious life1 and only can exist for that inward realm4 ,tone is therefore no doubt a mode of both expression and externality2 but it is an expression which inevitably disappears precisely at the point of and in virtue of becoming externality4 ,at the very moment that our organ of sense receives the sound it is gone4 ,the impression that should be given is at once transferred to the tablets of memory4 ,the tones merely resound in the depths of the soul1 which are thereby seized upon in their ideal substance1 and suffused with emotion4 ,this ideality of content and mode of expression in the sense that it is devoid of all external object defines the purely formal aspect of music4 ,it has no doubt a content1 but it is not a content such as we mean when referring either to the plastic arts or poetry4 ,what it lacks is just this configuration of an objective other-to-itself1 whether we mean by such actual external phenomena1 or the objectivity of intellectual ideas and images4 ,we may indicate the course of our further examination as follows3 ,in the first place we have to define more accurately the general character of music and its effect in contradistinction to the other arts1 not merely from the point of view of its material1 but also from that of its form1 which the spiritual content accepts4 ,secondly1 we shall have to discuss the particular distinctions1 in which musical tones and their modes#chg are developed and mediated partly in respect to their temporal duration1 and partly in relation to the qualitative distinctions of their actual resonance4 ,thirdly1 and in conclusion1 music possesses a relation to the content1 which it expresses1 either by being associated as an accompaniment#chh with emotions1 ideas1 and considerations independently expressed by word of mouth1 or by its free expansion within its own domain in unfettered independence4 ,in proposing now1 however1 after having thus in a general way specified the principle and division of the subject-matter of ,music1 to enter into a more detailed examination of its particular aspects1 we are inevitably confronted with a peculiar difficulty4 ,in other words1 for the reason that the musical medium of tone and ideality1 in which the content moves as a process1 is of so abstract and formal a character1 it is impossible for us to attempt such a closer survey without at the same time broaching technical formulae and definitions such as belong to the relations of tone-measure or distinctions that apply to different instruments1 scales1 or chords4 ,i must admit to no expert knowledge in this sphere of musical science1 and can only offer my apologies for being unable to do more than limit myself to more general points of view and a few isolated observations4 #a4 ,,the ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,music ,the essential points of view which are of general importance in a survey of music we may examine under the following heads of division3 ,first1 we have to compare music on the one hand with the plastic arts1 and on the other with poetry4 ,secondly1 we shall by means of the above comparison be in a better position to understand the way in which music is able to master and disclose a given content4 ,thirdly1 and as a result of the latter inquiry1 we may with more accuracy explain the peculiar effect which the art of music1 in contradistinction to the other arts1 exercises on the soul4 7a7 ,with regard to the first point we should1 if we are desirous of setting it forth clearly in its specific individuality1 compare music with the other two arts from three distinct points of view4 77 ,and1 first1 it may be observed that it stands in a relation of affinity to architecture1 although it is in strong contrast with it4 77 ,our meaning is this4 ,in the art of building the content which should be made apparent in architectonic forms1 does not1 as is the case in works of sculpture and painting1 wholly enter into the configuration1 but remains distinct from it as an external environment2 so1 too1 in music1 under its aspect of the most specifically romantic art1 the classical identity of ideality and its external existence receives its resolution in a similar1 if converse1 way to that in which architecture1 as the symbolical type of presentation1 was not as yet wholly able to secure such a unity4 ,for this ideality of ,spirit proceeds from what is purely the concentration of soul-life1 to ideas and images and the forms of such1 as elaborated by the imagination1 whereas the art of music is throughout more occupied in expressing merely the element of feeling and furthermore surrounds the independently expressed ideas of the mind with the melodic chime of emotions1 just as architecture in its province places around the statues of the god1 no doubt in an unyielding way1 the reasonable forms of its columns1 walls1 and entablatures#chi4 77 ,in this way tone and its formative combinations is for the first time a medium created by art and entirely artistic expression of a wholly different type from that we find in painting and sculpture acting through the material of the human body and its pose and physiognomy4 ,in this respect1 too1 music may be more nearly compared with architecture1 which does not accept its forms from what is actually presented1 but as the creation of human invention1 in order to inform them1 partly according to the laws of gravity1 and in part according to the rules of symmetry and harmonious coordination4 ,music does the same thing in its own sphere1 in so far as it from one point of view follows the harmonious laws of tone which depend on quantitative relations independently of the expression of emotion1 and in another aspect of it1 in the recurrence of time and rhythm no less than in the further development of the tones themselves1 in many respects is subject to the forms of regularity and symmetry4 ,consequently we find operative in music not merely the profoundest ideality and soul1 but the most rigorous1 rationality4 ,it unites1 in fact1 two extremes1 which readily lend themselves to emphatic contrast in their independent self-assertion4 ,in this aspect of independence music more particularly assumes an architectonic character when we find in it a coherent temple of harmony of its own creatively composed and co-ordinated according to the laws of music1 and released from the direct expression of soul-life#cij4 77 ,despite all this similarity1 however1 the art of tones moves to quite as large a degree in a sphere wholly opposed to that of architecture4 ,we find1 no doubt1 in both arts as a basis quantitative or more accurately measure relations2 the material1 however1 which in each case is informed1 agreeably to such relations1 is totally different4 ,architecture attaches itself to the heavy sensuous material in its tranquil juxtaposition and external form in ,space4 ,music1 on the contrary1 lays hold of the tone-spirit#cia as it rings freely out of the spatial material in the qualitative distinctions of musical sound and in the flow of a movement subject to the condition of time4 ,for this reason the works of both arts belong to two entirely distinct spheres of spiritual activity4 ,the art of building places in an enduring form its colossal constructions for external contemplation in symbolical forms4 ,the swiftly evanescent world of tones1 on the other hand1 directly penetrates through the ears of man to the depths of his soul1 attuning the same in concordant emotional sympathy4 77 ,and if we1 in the second place1 consider the closer relation of music to the two other plastic arts#cib1 we shall find that the similarity and distinction1 which attaches to such a comparison1 is in some measure founded upon the truths already enunciated4 77 ,of these music is furthest removed from sculpture2 and this is not merely so in respect to material and type of configuration1 but also in that of the completed coalescence of its ideal and external aspects4 ,there is in short a closer affinity between painting and music4 ,in part this is due to the predominant ideality of expression exemplified in both2 in part it is referable to treatment of material1 in which1 as we have already seen1 it is permissible for the art of painting to approach the very boundary of music itself4 ,painting has1 however1 for its aim in common with sculpture the representation of an objective form in ,space1 and is restricted in its material to the actual form of things already present outside the sphere of art4 ,it is unquestionably true that neither in the case of the painter nor the sculptor do we accept a human countenance1 a position of the human body1 the outlines of a mountain1 the leafage of a tree precisely in the forms they present to us as here or there in ,nature2 in both cases we are bound to justify what we have before us under the conditions of the art in question1 to adapt it to a particular situation1 no less than to employ it as a means of expressing the inevitable artistic result of the entire content of the work4 ,we have1 therefore1 in both cases on the one hand an independently recognized content1 which has to receive artistic individualization1 and1 on the other1 we are confronted with the forms of ,nature as they are similarly presented in isolation2 and the artist is bound1 if he be truly an artist1 and seek to unite these two sources of inspiration in his composition1 to discover in both the material and support#cic for his conception and execution4 ,in short1 he will1 acting in the first instance on the security of such general principles#cid1 endeavour on the one hand to fill out with more concrete detail the generality of his imaginative idea1 and on the other to idealize and spiritualize the human or any other of the forms of ,nature1 which are submitted to serve him as particular models4 ,the musician1 on the contrary1 it is true1 does not abstract from all and every content1 but finds the same in a text1 which he sets to music1 or with absolute freedom gives musical utterance to some definite mood in the form of a theme1 which he proceeds to elaborate4 ,the actual region1 however1 of his compositions remains the more formal ideality1 in other words pure tones1 and his absorption of content becomes rather a retreat into the free life of his own soul1 a voyage of discovery into that1 and in many departments of music even a confirmation1 that he as artist is free of the content4 ,if we are in a general way permitted to regard human activity in the realm of the beautiful as a liberation of the soul1 as a release from constraint and restriction1 in short to consider that art does actually alleviate the most overpowering and tragic catastrophies#cie by means of the creations it offers to our contemplation and enjoyment1 it is the art of music which conducts us to the final summit of that ascent to freedom4 ,or in other language that which the plastic arts secure through the objective fact of a plastic beauty1 which displays the entirety of human life1 human nature as such1 its universal and ideal significance1 in the detail of its particularity1 without losing that essential harmony1 this effect music must produce in a wholly different manner4 ,the plastic artist need only exhibit1 in that which is enclosed in the conception1 what was already therein from the first1 so that every detail in its essential determinacy is merely a closer explication of the totality which already floats before the mind in virtue of the content which is there to exhibit it4 ,a figure1 for example1 in a plastic work of art1 requires in this or that situation a body1 hands1 feet1 bust1 a head with a given expression1 a given pose1 other figures1 or other aspects to which it is related as a whole1 etc41 and all these aspects presuppose the others1 in making collectively essentially complete work4 ,the elaboration of the theme is in such a case merely a more accurate analysis of that which already itself essentially contains it1 and the more elaborate the picture is1 which thereby confronts us1 the more concentrated is the unity1 and the stronger becomes the connection of the parts4 ,the most consummate expression of detail must be1 if the work of art is the best class1 at the same time an elucidation of the highest form of unity4 ,no doubt the ideal articulation and rounding off in a whole1 in which the one part follows inevitably from another1 ought to be present in a musical composition4 ,but in some measure the execution here is of a totally different type1 and moreover we can only accept the unity in a restricted sense4 77 ,in a musical theme the significance which has to be expressed is already exhausted#cif4 ,if it is repeated or carried on to further oppositions and mediations these repetitions1 modulations1 and elaborations by means of other scales may very readily appear superfluous1 and rather are appertinent to the purely musical development and the assimilation of the varied content of harmonic progressions which are neither demanded by the content itself#cig1 nor remain dependent upon it1 whereas in the plastic arts the execution of the detail and the passage to it is simply and always a more accurate exhibition and analysis of the content itself4 ,but of course it is impossible to deny that another theme is actually motived by the way a theme is developed1 and each of them1 then1 in their alternation or their interfusion progress1 change1 are at one time suppressed1 at another emphasized1 and by their victory or defeat are able to make a content explicit in its more definite features1 oppositions1 transitions1 developments1 and resolutions4 ,but in this case1 too1 the unity is not made more profound and concentrated by virtue of such elaboration as is the case in sculpture and painting1 but is rather an expansion1 an extension1 a correlative series#cih1 an addition of remoteness or a return1 for which the content1 which is thus expressed1 remains no doubt the universal centrum1 yet does not keep the whole so securely together as we find it is possible to do in the plastic arts1 particularly where their subject-matter is confined to the human organism4 77 ,looked at from this point of view the art of music1 as contrasted with the other arts1 lies too close to the medium of that formal freedom of soul life1 and thereby cannot fail to a greater or less degree to be diverted beyond what is actually presented1 in other words the content#cii4 ,the recollection of a theme proposed is likewise a self-revealment#djj of the artist1 in other words is an ideal realization1 to the effect that this self is the artist1 and he may progress just as he likes1 and by what by-paths he likes4 ,but on the other hand the free exercise of imaginative caprice of the above description is expressly to be distinguished from a musical composition which is essentially conclusive1 that is to say1 which constitutes a fundamentally self-integrated totality4 ,in the free improvization#dja the absence of restrictions is itself an object1 so that the artist is able to assert his caprice in the acceptance of any material he chooses1 to interweave acknowledged melodies and motives in his improvized productions1 to emphasize some new aspect of such1 to elaborate them in a variety of modifications1 or make them steps in his progression to other material1 and advance from thence in the same way to developments of still more arresting contrasts4 ,in general1 however1 a musical composition determines the freedom of the composer1 either by limiting it to a more self-contained execution1 and the observance of what we may describe as a more plastic unity1 or by permitting him with the full force of his personality and caprice to pass at every point into more or less important digressions1 to let spontaneous ideas travel hither and thither as they please1 to lay stress for the moment on this or that motive1 and then once more to drown it in an overwhelming torrent4 ,while1 then1 the study of ,nature's forms is essential to both painter and sculptor1 the art of music can look for no such fixed body of fact outside its own prescribed forms1 with which it would be forced to comply4 ,the extent of the regularity and necessity of its formal character is almost wholly determined within the sphere of tone itself1 which does not come into so close an association#djb with the definition of the content that is therein reposed1 and consequently in respect to deviations beyond the same permits for the most part a considerable opportunity for the free play of the characteristic impulse of the composer4 ,and this is the main point of view1 from which we may contract music with the strictly plastic arts4 77 ,looked at from another aspect music is1 in the third place#djc1 most nearly affiliated to poetry2 both in fact make use of the same sensuous medium1 that is1 tone4 ,despite this1 however1 these arts are very strongly distinct from one another not only in virtue of the mode of treating tones in each case1 but also in respect to their different modes of expression4 77 ,in poetry1 as we have found already in our general differentiation of the several arts1 tone is not as such elicited and artistically produced by various humanly constructed instruments1 but the articulate sound of the human organ of speech is reduced to the mere symbol of speech1 retaining thereby nothing more than the value of a sign of ideas1 which is by itself devoid of significance4 ,consequently we find here that tone remains throughout a self-subsistent sensuous entity1 which1 as the mere symbol of emotions1 ideas1 and thoughts1 possesses the externality and objectivity which is inherent in itself simply in virtue of the fact that is a sign and nothing more4 ,for the true objectivity of the soul-life as such does not consist in utterance and words1 but in this fact1 that ,i1 as subject1 am aware of a thought1 a feeling1 and so forth1 that further ,i confront it as an object1 and in this way have it present to the imagination1 or forthwith develop for myself what is implicit in a thought or a conception1 setting forth in a series the external and spiritual relations of the given content1 and relating the particular features of it to one another4 ,unquestionably we think throughout in language1 without1 however1 needing actual speech as spoken4 ,by reason of this ability to dispense with speech-utterance in its sensuous aspect as contrasted with the spiritual content of ideas1 etc41 to elucidate which they#djd are employed1 tone receives once more self-subsistency4 ,in the art of painting no doubt colour and its arrangement1 regarded simply as colour1 is likewise by itself without significance1 and in the same way1 as contrasted with the spiritual embodied1 thereby a self-substantive sensuous medium2 but we get no painting from colour simply as such3 we must first attach to it form and its expression4 ,with these spiritually animated forms colouring is brought into an association by many degrees more constrained than that which pertains to uttered speech and its coalescing result of words with ideas4 ,if we will now look at the distinction between the poetical and musical use of tones we shall find that music does not depress the tone sound to the mere speech-utterance1 but creates out of tone simply its own independent medium1 so that1 in so far as there is musical tone1 it is treated as the object of the art#dje4 ,and on account of this the realm of tone1 inasmuch as it cannot serve merely as a symbol1 is by virtue of this emancipated function of its life#djf able to attain to a mode of configuration1 which makes the form that is its peculiar possession1 that is to say1 the modes of tone as artistically developed1 its fundamental aim and object4 ,in recent times especially1 the art of music1 by its wresting itself from all content that is independently lucid1 has withdrawn into the depths of its own medium4 ,but on this very account and to this extent it has lost its compelling power#djg over the soul1 inasmuch as the enjoyment1 which is thus offered1 is only applicable to one aspect of art1 in other words1 is only an interest in the purely musical characteristics of the composition and its artistic dexterity1 an aspect which wholly concerns the musical expert1 and is less connected with the universal human interest in art4 77 ,all that poetry loses1 however1 in external objectivity by being able to place on one side its sensuous medium1 in so far as that can be wholly dispensed with by art1 it secures for itself1 in the ideal objectivity of its vision and ideas1 which poetical speech presents to soul and mind4 ,for it is the function of imagination to clothe these concepts1 emotions1 and thoughts in a world that is itself essentially complete#djh with its events1 actions1 moods1 and exhibitions of passion1 and by this means it creates works1 into which the entire fabric of reality1 both in its external aspect as phenomena and in the ideal significance of its content1 is brought home to the emotions1 vision1 and imagination of spiritual life4 ,it is this type of objectivity which the art of music1 in so far as it asserts its independent claims in its own province1 is compelled to renounce4 ,in other words1 the realm of tone possesses1 no doubt1 as ,i have already indicated1 a relation to the soul1 and an alliance which is consonant with its spiritual movement2 but it fails to pass beyond a sympathetic relation which is always of an indefinite character1 albeit in this aspect of it a musical composition1 if originating in the soul-life itself1 and permeated by genius and emotions of a rich quality1 cannot fail to react on our nature with an equivalent power and variety4 ,in the case of a content and the ideal and personal creation such as poetry implies our emotions pass more completely out of their elementary medium of undefined conscious life into the more concrete vision and more universal#dji imagination which is embodied in such content4 ,this may also be the effect of a musical composition1 so soon as the emotions which it excites in ourselves by virtue of its own nature and the artistic energy that animates it are involved more closely in ourselves with a distinct vision and ideas1 and thereby present to consciousness the tangible definition of soul-impressions in a more stable outlook and more universally accepted ideas4 ,this is1 however1 our imagination and vision1 which no doubt has been suggested by the musical work1 but which has not been itself directly disclosed by virtue of the artistic elaboration of musical tones4 ,poetry1 on the contrary1 expresses emotions1 perceptions1 and ideas as they are#daj1 and is further able to delineate a picture of external objects1 although it cannot itself either attain to the plastic clarity of sculpture and painting or the spiritual intimacy of music1 and is consequently obliged to call as auxiliary to its powers the direct vision we otherwise receive through the senses and the speechless apprehension of soul-life in music4 77 ,thirdly1 however1 the art of music does not confine itself to this independent position over against that of poetry and the spiritual content of conscious life4 ,it allies itself with a clearly expressed content already completely elaborated by poetry1 and as the accompaniment of emotions1 opinions1 events1 and actions4 ,if1 however1 the musical aspect of such a work of art remains the fundamental and predominant one1 the poetry1 whether in the form of poem1 drama1 or any other1 has no right to assert an independent claim of its own therein4 ,and as a general rule in this association1 of music and poetry the preponderance of one art is injurious to the other4 ,if therefore the text1 a poetical creation1 possesses a fully independent value of its own1 the support to be expected from music should be merely an insignificant one1 as we find1 for example1 was the case with the dramatic choruses of the ancients where the music was nothing more than an incidental accompaniment4 ,if1 conversely1 the music is composed with a more independent individuality of its own1 then the text in its turn should be of a more superficially poetical execution1 and should as an independent production confine itself to emotions of a general character and ideas depicted on universal lines4 ,the poetical elaboration of profound thoughts is as little appropriate to a good musical text as is the delineation of the objects of external ,nature or descriptive poetry generally4 ,songs1 operatic arias1 the texts of oratorios1 and so forth may be consequently1 so far as the detail of their execution as poetry is concerned1 jejune and of a certain degree of mediocrity4 ,the poet must not make his merits as poet too conspicuous if the musician is to find in his text a genuine opportunity4 ,in this respect it is especially the ,italians1 such as ,metastasio and others1 who have displayed the greatest skill1 while ,schiller's poems1 which were never written with such an object in view at all1 have been shown to be ill adapted and indeed useless for musical composition#daa4 ,in cases where the music receives a more artistic elaboration1 the audience understands next to nothing of the text1 and this is more particularly so with our ,german speech and pronunciation#dab4 ,for this reason it is not in the interest of music that the weight of interest should be reposed in the text4 ,an ,italian audience1 for example1 chatters away during the unimportant scenes of an opera1 takes refreshment1 plays cards1 and so on2 but the instant an aria of emphatic appeal or an important musical movement begins1 every section of it is all attention4 ,we ,germans1 on the contrary1 take the greatest interest in the fortunes and speeches of the princes and princesses of opera with attendants1 squires1 intimates1 and waiting-maids1 and we do not doubt there are many among us still who regret the fact1 when the singing begins1 that the interest is interrupted1 and take their refuge in conversation4 ,in religious music also the text is either for the most part a well-known credo1 or a selection of single psalms1 so that the words are regarded as merely an incitement to a musical commentary1 which possesses an independent style peculiar to itself1 that is to say one which not merely is used to expound the text1 but which for the most part simply emphasizes the universal character of the content much in the same way that painting selects its material from sacred history4 7b7 ,the second aspect of our present inquiry is that of the distinction that obtains between the way in which the art of music lays hold of its subject-matter as contrasted with the other arts1 the form1 that is1 in which1 whether it be as an accompaniment or independently of a given text1 it is able to apprehend and express a particular content4 ,as to this ,i have already observed that music is not only more capable than the other arts of liberating itself from an actual text1 but also from the expression of a definite content1 in order that it may find its satisfaction in an essentially complete series of combinations1 modifications1 contrasts1 and modulations1 which are comprised within the realm of absolute music#dac4 ,in such a case1 however1 music is empty1 without significance1 and is1 for the reason that one fundamental aspect of art1 namely spiritual content and expression1 is absent1 not really genuine music at all4 ,it is only when that which is of spiritual import is adequately expressed in the sensuous medium of tones and their varied configuration that music attains entirely to its position as a true art1 and irrespective of the fact whether this content receives an independent and more direct definition by means of words1 or is perforce emotionally realized from the tone music itself and its harmonic relations and melodic animation4 77 ,in this respect the unique function of music consists in this1 that whatever its content may be it is not so created by the art for human apprehension as though it either was held by consciousness as a general concept is so contained1 or as definite external form is ordinarily presented to our perception1 or as such receives its more complete reflection in the artistic counterfeit1 but rather in the way in which a content is made a living thing in the sphere of the personal soul4 ,to make this essentially veiled life and in weaved motion ring forth through the independent texture of tones1 or attach itself to expressed words and ideas1 and to steep such ideas in this very medium1 in order to re-emphasize anew the same for feeling and sympathy1 such is the difficult task assigned to the art of music4 77 ,the life of soul itself is consequently the form in which music is able to grasp its content1 and thereby seeks to absorb within itself everything that can generally enter into the shrine of the soul and above all disclose itself under the veils of emotional movement4 ,but from this it necessarily follows that the art of music must not attempt to minister to sense-perception1 but must restrict its effort to making soul-life intelligible to soul1 whether this is effected by its making the substantive and ideal depth of a content as such penetrate to the very core of soul itself1 or by its preferring to disclose the life and motion of a content in the soul of some particular person1 so that this inward life of itself becomes its actual object4 77 ,this abstract inwardness of soul is in the most intimate sense differentiated1 under the mode in which music is related to it1 by feelings in other words the self-expanding medium of the personal subject1 which unquestionably moves in a content1 but suffers the same to persist in this direct self-seclusion of the ,ego1 and in a relation to the ,ego1 that is1 void of externality4 ,consequently feeling is throughout simply all the envelope of that content1 and it is the sphere which is claimed by music#dad4 77 ,it is a province which unfolds in expanse the expression of every kind of emotion1 and every shade of joyfulness1 merriment1 jest1 caprice1 jubilation and laughter of the soul1 every gradation of anguish1 trouble1 melancholy1 lament1 sorrow1 pain1 longing and the like1 no less than those of reverence1 adoration1 and love fall within the appropriate limits of its expression4 77 ,tone as interjection1 as the cry of grief1 as sigh and laughter1 is already1 outside the province of art1 the most immediately vital expression of soul-conditions and feelings1 the ah and oh of the soul4 ,we find in it a self-production and objectivity of soul as such1 an expression which stands intermediately between unconscious absorption and the self-return to thoughts ideally determinate1 a disclosure1 which has no relation to external fact1 but is confined to the contemplative state1 just as the bird1 too1 in its song possesses this enjoyment and this production of its inner self4 ,the purely natural expression1 however1 of interjections is not as yet music1 for though these outcries are no doubt no intentionally articulate sign of ideas as speech is and consequently express no conceived content in its generalized form as concept1 but give vent to a mood and emotion in and through tone itself1 a state which is reposed immediately in similar tones and opens the heart in the outburst of the same1 yet this emancipation is not one which is promoted by art4 ,the art of music must on the contrary bring the emotions into tone relations of definite structure1 and wean the expression of ,nature of its wildness1 its uncouth deliverance1 and ameliorate it4 ,we may perhaps say that interjections constitute the point of departure of music2 but it is only music when an interjection in the form of a cadenza1 and in this respect it has to elaborate its senuous material artistically in a higher degree than either painting or poetry before it is qualified to express the content of spirit4 ,we shall have to examine later on more narrowly the particular way in which the content of music is worked up to such a pitch of adaptability2 at present ,i will merely repeat the observation that the tones are themselves essentially a totality of differences1 which are capable of disuniting and uniting themselves in the most varied kinds of immediate concords1 essential discords1 oppositions and transitions4 ,to these opposed and united tones1 no less than the differentiation of their movements and transitions1 their entry1 their progression1 their conflict1 their self-resolution and their disappearance1 the ideal character both of this or that content and of the emotions1 in the form whereof both heart and soul obtains the mastery of such content1 corresponds in closer or more remote affinity1 so that the like tone relations1 apprehended and informed conformably thereto1 disclose the animated expression of that which is present to ,spirit as definable content4 ,the medium of tone asserts itself as more cognate with the ideally simple essence of a content than the senuous material previously dealt with for this reason that tone instead of making itself secure in spatial form and coming to a halt as the varied presentment of juxtaposition and extension1 is comprised in the ideal realm of ,time1 and for this reason does not progress to a condition under which simple ideality and concrete bodily shape and appearance are differentiated4 ,and this is equally true of the form of the feeling of a content whose expression mainly falls upon the art of music4 ,in other words in sense-perception and conception we have already1 as in self-conscious thought1 the necessary distinction between the perceiving1 conceiving and thinking ,ego and the object of perception1 conception1 and thought4 ,in emotion1 however1 this distinction is resolved1 or rather it is never propounded1 but the content is interwoven with the inner life without such division4 ,when consequently music is united as an art of accompaniment with poetry1 or conversely poetry is united with music as an interpreter to its elucidation1 in such a case music is unable to render conspicuous in an external form or to reflect with intention ideas and thoughts as they are thus apprehended by self-consciousness2 it is obliged as stated either to offer the simple character of a content in true relations to feeling1 as they are cognate with the ideal relation of this content1 or to seek more nearly to express1 by means of tones which accompany and give intensity to poetry1 that feeling itself1 which the content of perceptions and ideas can arouse in the spirit that is both sympathetic and imaginative4 7c7 ,following the course of these remarks it is possible in the third place to form an estimate of the unrivalled power which is thereby directly exercised by music on the soul1 which is neither carried forward to the vision of reason1 nor diverts consciousness in isolated points of view1 but is accustomed to live within the ideal range and secluded depths of pure emotion4 ,for it is precisely this sphere1 the intimacy of soul-life1 the abstract appropriation of its own realm1 which is grasped by music1 which thereby sets in movement the source of these ideal changes1 namely1 the heart and soul1 which we may consider at this concentrated focus and centre of our entire manhood4 77 ,in a particular sense sculpture endows its art products with a wholly independent subsistency1 an objectivity essentially exclusive whether we regard it from the point of view of its content1 or that of its external art-manifestation4 ,its content is the substantive being of the life of ,spirit possessed no doubt with individual vitality1 but along with this reposing in self-subsistent coherence on itself2 its form is the material configuration under the condition of space4 ,for this reason a work of sculpture retains as an object of sense-perception the highest degree of self-subsistency4 ,a picture1 as we have already pointed out in our consideration of the art of painting1 comes into closer contact with the spectator4 ,in part this is due to the essentially more subjective#dae content thereby depicted2 in part it is referable to the fact that it is merely the show of reality which it displays1 thereby making us aware that it is not a thing independently substantive1 but rather essentially something intended for something else1 and exclusively so1 in other words for the human vision and soul4 ,yet even in the case of a picture we have still left us a freedom more independent it fails to absorb2 even here we have still only to do with an object externally presented1 which only reaches us through sense perception1 and only thus excites our emotion and imagination4 ,the spectator may consequently approach the work of art as he likes2 he may observe this or that aspect of it2 he may analyse the whole1 as it throughout persists confronting him1 may make it the object of various reflections1 and in short remain throughout at liberty to continue his independent review of it4 77 ,the musical work of art1 on the contrary1 no doubt1 as such a work1 posits in like manner the incipiency of a distinction between the work itself and the individual that enjoys it2 that is to say in its actually resonant tones it receives a sensuous existence that is distinct from the soul of the listener4 ,but on the one hand this opposition does not proceed1 as in the case of the plastic arts1 to an external subsistency in ,space and the visibility of a mode of objectivity that coheres independently1 but on the contrary makes its real existence vanish in the immediate passage through ,time4 ,on the other hand the art of music does not make the separation of its external material from its spiritual content in the same way that poetry does so1 in which the aspect of idea is elaborated with more definite independence from the sound of speech#daf1 and more cut off as it is than any of the arts from this aspect of externality1 issues as such in a unique progression of mental ideas constructed by the imagination4 ,no doubt the observation may readily be made here that1 agreeably with what ,i have already stated1 the art of music is able to conversely to release tones from their content and thereby give them independent form2 this liberation is1 however1 not that which really falls within ,art's province1 which on the contrary wholly consists in employing harmonious and melodic motion for the expression of the content originally selected and the emotions1 which the same is qualified to excite4 ,inasmuch as1 therefore1 musical expression has for its content the inward life itself1 the ideal significance of fact and emotion1 and a tone-world which1 at least in art1 does not proceed to spatial configuration1 and in its sensuous existence is wholly evanescent1 it follows that music directly penetrates with its movements to the ideal habitat of all the fluctuations of soul-life4 ,in other words it seizes on consciousness1 where it is no longer confronted with an object1 and in the loss of this freedom from the flood of tones as it streams on is itself whirled away with it#dag4 ,yet there is here1 too1 by reason of the divers directions which music may separately follow1 an effect of varied character4 ,in other words1 when a more profound content1 or1 to put it generally1 an expression more steeped in soul1 is absent1 we may find as a result that we experience on the one hand delight in the purely sensuous sound and harmony without any further emotional movement1 or1 on the other hand1 we follow the course of the harmony and melody with our critical judgment1 a progression by which the inmost heart of us is no further touched or affected4 ,or rather we may say that pre-eminently in the case of music there is such a purely critical analysis1 for which there is nothing else presented in the work of art to evoke it beyond the skill of an expert in its laboured production#dah4 ,if we1 however1 withdraw ourselves from this critical science1 and give ourselves up unreservedly1 we become entirely possessed with the musical composition and are carried with it quite independently of the power1 which the art of it simply as art exercises upon us4 ,and the peculiar power of music is an elementary force1 that is to say it lies in the element of tone1 in which the art here moves4 77 ,the individual is not only carried away by this medium in virtue of the character of its exposition in any particular case1 or simply drawn to it by the specific content thereof2 but1 viewed simply as self-conscious subject1 the core and centre of his spiritual existence is interwoven with the work and himself placed in active relations with it4 ,we have1 for example1 in the emphasis of the music's current rhythms1 an opportunity to beat in time with it1 or unite our voices with the melody1 and in the case of dance-music at least1 we may associate the movement of our legs4 ,and1 generally speaking1 the claim is made upon us as distinct personalities4 ,conversely1 in the case of purely methodical action1 which1 in so far as it is subject to time relations1 is compatible with a distinct beat in virtue of its regularity and possesses no further content1 we require on the one hand an expression of this regularity as such in order that this action shall be present to the individual under a mode that is itself subjective2 and1 on the other1 we require a more intimate realization of this rhythm4 ,both requirements are supplied by the musical accompaniment4 ,this is effected1 for instance1 by music as associated with the march of soldiers4 ,such arouses the soul to the rhythmical beat of the march1 makes the individual full of the fact of his marching#dai and steeps him in the harmonious action of it4 ,in something of the same sense the unregulated bustle of a table d'hte and the unsatisfactory excitement it arouses annoys many people4 ,such feel that the moving up and down1 the clatter and chatter should be subject to rule1 and as we have in our eating and drinking an empty space of time to deal with1 we should have that emptiness filled up for us4 ,such1 therefore1 is also an occasion among many others when music will help us considerably1 suggesting as it does other thoughts1 recreations1 and ideas4 77 ,in these instances we are made aware of the connection between the individual soul with ,time simply1 a condition in which the medium of music consists4 ,in other words the inward life regarded as subjective unity is the active negation of the indifferent#dbj juxtaposition in ,space1 and thereby negative unity4 ,in the first instance1 however1 this identity remains in itself entirely abstract and void of content1 and consists merely in this that it makes itself an object1 though it then annuls this objectivity1 which is itself of a wholly ideal type and of the same character which the subject of consciousness is1 in order thereby to enforce itself as subjective unity4 ,an ideal negative activity of the same kind in its sphere of externality is ,time4 ,for in the first place it effaces the indifferent co-extension of the spatial condition and concentrates the continuity of the same in the point of ,time1 the ,now4 ,the point of time1 however1 secondly1 discloses itself at the same time as negation of itself2 in other words this ,now no sooner is than it annuls itself in another ,now1 and by doing this makes apparent its negative activity4 ,thirdly1 we no doubt do not get1 on account of externality#dba1 in whose element ,time is in motion1 the truly subjective unity of the first point of ,time with the next1 to which the ,now by self-effacement proceeds1 but the ,now remains throughout in its change always the same#dbb4 ,for for every point of ,time is a ,now1 and is as undifferentiated from the other ,now1 taken as the bare point of ,time1 as is the abstract ,ego from the object1 relatively to which it annuls itself#dbc1 and in which it falls into self-coalescence1 for the reason that this object is itself merely the empty ,ego4 ,the actual ,ego itself1 too1 belongs yet more closely to ,time1 with which it coalesces1 in so far as it is1 if we abstract from the concrete content of consciousness and self-consciousness1 nothing but this empty movement which posits itself as another and then cancels the exchange1 in other words cancels itself1 in order thereby to conserve the ,ego and here only the abstract#dbd ,ego therein4 ,ego is in ,time1 and ,time is the being of the conscious subject itself4 ,inasmuch1 then1 as ,time and not the spatial condition as such supplies the essential element1 in which tone secures existence in respect to its validity as music1 and the time of tone is likewise that of the conscious subject1 for this reason tone1 by virtue of this fundamental condition of it1 penetrates into the self of conscious life1 seizes hold of the same in virtue of the most simple aspect of its existence1 and places the ,ego in movement by means of the motion in ,time and its rhythm2 while in addition to this the other configuration of tones1 as the expression of emotions1 brings yet further a more definite material to enrich the unity of consciousness1 a wealth by which it is at once affected and carried forward4 ,we find1 then1 that the fundamental ground for the elementary might of the art of music is of this nature4 77 ,in order1 however1 that music may exercise its full effect we must have something more than the purely abstract tone in its movement in ,time4 ,the further aspect we have to attach to it is a content1 an emotional wealth steeped in spirit presented to the soul1 and the expression1 the soul of this content in tones4 ,we have no right1 then1 to entertain any exaggerated#dbe opinion of the sovereign might of music simply as music1 about which ancient writers1 both sacred and profane1 have told us so many fabulous tales4 ,if we go back to the miracles which ,orpheus performed as a pioneer of civilization we find indeed that tones and their movements spread their influence to the wild creatures1 which encircled him shorn of their wildness1 but they did not extend to humankind1 who required the content of a nobler strain4 ,it is something of this latter kind that we must attach to the hymns ascribed to ,orpheus1 which1 in the form we have received from tradition1 even though it be not their original one1 support mythological and other ideas4 ,in a similar way1 too1 the warlike songs of ,tyrtaeus are famous1 by means of which1 so we are told1 the ,lacedaemonians1 after long and fruitless conflicts1 were stirred up to an irresistible enthusiasm and finally were wholly victorious over the ,messenians4 ,in this case1 too1 the content of the ideas which these elegies excited was the main thing1 although pre-eminently in the case of barbaric peoples and in times of deeply moved passions we cannot deny that the musical aspect of them exercised a real force and effect4 ,the pipes of the ,highlanders contribute essentially to the animation of their courage1 and the power of the ,marseillaise as sung in the ,french ,revolution is undeniable4 ,the real source of enthusiasm is1 however1 to be looked for in the definite idea1 in the true interest of the ,spirit with which a nation is steeped1 and which can be exalted to a more direct and living feeling when the notes of music1 the rhythm and the melody carry along whoever may give himself up to them4 ,in our own days1 however1 we can hardly hold that music is capable by itself of evoking such a courageous temper and contempt of death4 ,almost all armies nowadays have excellent regimental music1 which calls the soldiers to their duties1 releases them from such1 gives life to the march and incites them to the attack4 ,no one1 however1 dreams of beating the enemy with such means4 ,the courage of the field of battle does not come with the blast of trumpets and the beat of drums1 and it will indeed take a host of trombones before a fort will tumble in ruin at their blast like the walls of a ,jericho4 ,it is the enthusiasm born of ideas1 cannon1 and the genius of generals which are the main thing now rather than music1 and this can only act as a support of the forces which have already filled and taken hold of the soul4 77 ,in conclusion1 we may point out in respect to the personal effect of musical sound there is an aspect which is referable to the particular manner in which the musical work of art approaches us in its distinction from other works of art4 ,in other words1 inasmuch as musical tones do not as buildings of construction1 statues1 and pictures possess independently a permanent objective consistency1 but vanish in the act of passing by the musical work of art requires in virtue of the fact of this purely momentary existence a continuously repeated reproduction4 ,and what is more1 the necessity of such a renewal of life points to a further more profound significance4 ,for1 in so far as it is the personal soul itself1 which music accepts for its content with the object1 to make manifest itself not as external form and objectively subsistent product1 to this extent the expression of it must also assert itself immediately in the form of a communication disclosed by a living person1 in which that person reposes his entire and unique personality4 ,this is to the fullest extent the case in the song of the human voice1 but it is relatively so in all instrumental music1 which can only be executed by means of a practised artist and his living and spiritual no less than technical powers as such4 ,it is only by virtue of this personal relation in respect to the active effect of the musical work of art that the significance of the subjective aspect of music is substantiated1 which1 however1 too1 it is possible in this direction to carry to the extreme length of isolation in the case1 that is1 where the personal virtuosity of the reproduction as such is made the exclusive focus and content of the enjoyment to be derived4 ,with the above observations ,i will now close what ,i have to say with regard to the general character of music4 #b4 ,,the ,,particular ,,definition ,,of ,,the ,,means ,,of ,,expression ,,in ,,music ,we have hitherto contemplated music purely under the aspect1 that its function is to embody and give life to tone as the musical expression of the personal life of soul2 we have now to ask ourselves the further question1 by reason of what it is both possible and necessary that tones are no purely natural outcry of emotion but the articulate artistic expression of the same4 ,for feeling as such possesses a content2 tone regarded as mere tone is without such4 ,it must consequently first be rendered capable by means of an artistic treatment of essentially assimilating the expression of an ideal life4 ,speaking generally1 we may establish the following conclusions on this head4 ,every tone is a substantive1 essentially accepted real thing1 which1 however1 is neither articulated nor consciously apprehended in a living unity1 as is the case with the animal or human form1 nor from the further point of view demonstrates in itself1 as a particular member of the bodily organism1 or any isolated trait of the animated body1 whether in its spiritual or physical aspect1 that this individualization can only exist in vital association with the other limbs and traits1 and secure thus its meaning1 significance1 and expression4 ,viewed according to external material1 a picture no doubt consists in single strokes and colours1 which can also independently exist1 but the real material on the other hand1 which first creates a work of art from such strokes and colours1 the lines and surfaces that is to say of the form1 have only a meaning when viewed as a concrete totality4 ,the separate tone1 on the contrary1 is independently substantive and can also be animated up to a certain degree by means of emotion and receive a definite expression4 ,conversely1 however1 inasmuch as tone is no purely indefinite rustle and sound1 but only possesses in general musical validity by virtue of its clear definition and pure tonality1 it stands immediately1 by reason of this definite articulation1 not merely according to its actual sound1 but also its temporal duration1 in a relation to other tones2 nay1 this relation is that which first contributes to it its real and actual definition and along with this its difference and contrast as opposed to other tones or its unity with such4 ,in presence of the more relative self-subsistency this relation1 however1 remains as something external to the tones1 so that the relations into which they are brought do not appertain to the single tones under the mode of their notion1 as we find such in the members of the animal and human organism1 or also in the forms of natural landscape4 ,the coalescence of different tones in different relations is consequently something which albeit not contradictory to the essence of tone1 is1 however1 in the first instance artificial1 and not otherwise presented in ,nature4 ,such a relation proceeds to that extent from a third party and only exists for such1 namely1 for the person who apprehends#dbf it4 ,on account of this externality of the relation the definition of tones and their co-ordination subsist in the relation of quantity1 in relations of number1 which of course have their foundation in the nature of tone itself1 yet are employed by music in a system which is1 in the first instance1 discovered by ,art and modified#dbg in the most varied manner4 ,from this point of view it is not essential vitality1 regarded as organic unity1 which constitutes the foundation of music1 but equality1 inequality1 etc41 and generally the form of the understanding#dbh1 as it is asserted in quantitative relations4 ,if we consequently speak definitely of musical tones we indicate the same purely by numerical relations as also by letters selected at will by virtue of which we are accustomed to indicate the tones according to such relations4 ,in such a reference back to mere quantities and their intelligible1 external definition music possesses its most pronounced affinity with architecture1 inasmuch as it1 just as this latter art does1 builds up its inventions upon the secure basis and scheme of proportions1 a basis which does not essentially expand and coalesce through vital unity in an organically free articulation1 in which the remaining differentiated parts are given with the one aspect of definition1 but only begins to grow into free art in the further elaborations1 which are enabled by it to arise out of the aforesaid conditions4 ,although architecture carries the process of liberation no further than a harmony of forms and the characteristic animation of a mysterious eurhythmy1 music1 on the contrary1 for the reason that it has for its content the most intimate1 personal1 and free life and essence of the soul1 strides into and emphasizes the profoundest opposition that exists between this free life of soul and those quantitative relations on which it is based4 ,it is1 however1 unable to persist in this opposition2 rather it is its difficult function to overcome it as essentially as it accepts it1 by assigning to the free movements of the soul1 which it expresses1 a more secure foundation and basis by means of these necessary proportions1 a basis on which it then1 however1 gives movement to and develops the inner life in the freedom which for the first time receives its fulness of content by virtue of such fundamental necessity#dbi4 ,in this respect there are in the first instance two aspects of tone we should distinguish1 according to which it is artistically to be employed4 ,first1 we have the abstract foundation1 the universal but not as yet physically specified element1 that is1 ,time1 in the domain of which tone falls4 ,after that we get sound itself1 the real distinction of tones1 not merely according to aspects referable to the difference of the sensuous material1 which sounds1 but also in that aspect of the tones themselves as they are related to one another1 whether in their singularity or as a whole4 ,to such we must then adjoin thirdly1 the soul1 which gives animation to the tones1 rounds them off in a free totality1 and gives to them a spiritual expression in their temporal movement and their real sound4 ,by virtue of these aspects we receive for their more definite classification a series of stages as follows4 ,first1 we have to occupy our attention with the purely temporal duration and movement1 which it is the function of art not merely to leave to chance in their arrangement1 but to determine according to definite measures1 and to render various by virtue of their differences1 and once more again to establish their unity in these distinctions4 ,from this we deduce the necessity for time-measure1 beat1 and rhythm4 ,secondly1 however1 music has not merely to deal with abstract time and the relations of longer or shorter duration1 musical phrase and so forth1 but with the concrete time of their sound according to definite tones1 which consequently are not merely distinct from one another according to their duration4 ,this difference reposes1 in the first place1 on the specific quality of their sensuous material1 by reason of whose oscillations the tone is produced2 on the other hand it depends on the different number of such oscillations1 in which the resonant bodies oscillate in an equal measure of time4 ,and furthermore these differences assert themselves as essential aspects for the relation of tones in their concord1 opposition1 and mediation4 ,we may give this portion of our subject the general designation of the theory of harmony4 ,thirdly1 and finally1 it is the melody1 by virtue of which on these foundations of a beat characterized by rhythmical vitality and of distinctions and movements of harmony itself that the realm of tones is unitedly discharged in a spiritually free mode of expression1 and conducts us thereby to the final main section of our subject1 which will undertake to consider music in its concrete unity with the spiritual content it is intended to express in beat1 harmony1 and rhythm4 7a7 ,time-measure1 ,beat1 ,rhythm ,so far as in the first place the purely temporal aspect of musical tone is concerned1 we have first to discuss the necessity1 which generally in musical time is the dominant factor4 ,secondly1 we shall consider beat under the aspect of time-measure wholly regulated under scientific rule4 ,thirdly1 we shall treat of the rhythm1 under which a start is made in animating this abstract rule by the prominence or subordination it attains to definite divisions of time4 77 ,the figures of sculpture and painting are placed side by side in space and present the extension of reality in actual or apparent totality4 ,music1 however1 can only place before us tones in so far as it makes a body under the spatial condition tremble1 setting the same in an oscillating motion4 ,these oscillations only affect art under the aspect1 that they follow one another2 and for this reason the sensuous material generally only enters into music with the temporal duration of its movement instead of taking with it its spatial form4 ,no doubt that motion of a body is always present in space1 so that painting and sculpture have the right to exhibit the appearance of movement1 albeit their figures are in their reality at rest4 ,in respect to this aspect of ,space1 however1 music does not accept movement1 and there remains consequently as part of its configuration only the time1 into which the oscillation of the body falls4 77 ,time1 however1 in consequence of what we have already above considered1 is not as ,space is1 the positive condition of juxtaposition1 but on the contrary negative externality4 ,as juxtaposition1 which is cancelled1 it is the point of passage1 and as negative activity it is the abrogation of this point of time in another1 which is itself immediately cancelled1 and becomes another and so on continuously4 ,in the continuous series of these points of time every single tone not merely is asserted independently as single1 but is brought from a further point of view into quantitative association with other tones1 by which process ,time is referable to number4 ,conversely1 however1 for the reason that time is the unbroken rise and passage of such points of time1 which1 regarded as mere points of time1 possess in this unparticularized abstraction no distinction one to another1 for this reason to a like extent time appears as the equable stream1 and the duration essentially undifferentiated4 77 ,in this indeterminacy1 however1 music is unable to leave time4 ,rather it is compelled to define it more narrowly1 to give it a measure1 and regulate its stream according to the rules of such a measure4 ,by virtue of this regular treatment we get the time-measure of tones4 ,and here at once arises the question1 wherefore then once and for all music requires such measure4 ,the necessity of definite periods of time may be evolved from this fact1 that time stands in the closest affinity with1 the self in its simplicity1 which apprehends1 and has a right to apprehend1 its inward life through the medium of tones2 time1 in fact1 regarded as externality1 essentially possesses the same principle1 which is active in the ,ego as the abstract foundation of all that pertains to the soul and spirit4 ,if1 then1 it is the simple self1 which as soul-life has to be made objective in music1 so1 too1 the universal medium of this objectivity must be treated conformably to the principle of that subjective life4 ,the ,ego1 however1 is not the indefinite continuance and the unbroken#dcj duration1 but is only self-identity when we regard it as an aggregate and a return upon itself#dca4 ,the assertion of itself1 wherein it becomes object1 is doubled back in the being thus self-for-itself2 and it is only through this relation to itself that it becomes self-feeling1 self-consciousness and so forth4 ,in this aggregate1 however1 we find essentially a breaking off of the purely indefinite change1 such as we held time to be in the first instance1 in which the rise and suppression1 the disappearance and renewal of the points of time were nothing but a wholly formal passage from every now to another present of similar character1 and consequently nothing but an uninterrupted progression4 ,in contrast to this empty process the self is that which itself persists by itself1 the totality whereof essentially breaks up the undefined series of time points1 creates an infraction into the abstract continuity1 freeing the ,ego1 which recollects itself in this process of discrete division and finds itself again therein1 from what is a purely external process of change4 77 ,the duration of a tone does not1 agreeably to this principle1 pass away in a process of relative indeterminacy1 but emphasizes with its beginning and end1 which accordingly is a definite beginning and cessation1 the series of the time moments1 which1 apart from it1 are not thus distinguishable4 ,if1 however#dcb1 many tones follow one after another1 and every one of them receives a duration which can be separately distinguished from each other1 then we must assume that instead of having that original indefinite series devoid of content1 we only once more get by a converse process the fortuitous1 and1 along with this to a like extent1 the indefinite variety of particular quantities4 ,this unregulated rambling about contradicts quite as much the unity of the ,ego as the abstract progress forward2 and it can only find itself reflected and satisfied in such a varied mode of definition in so far as single quantities are brought under one unifying principle1 which for the reason that it subsumes the particular parts under its synthetic embrace1 must itself be a definite unity1 yet in the first instance as merely an identity of external application can only persist as one of an external type4 77 ,and this carries us to the further principle of coordination which we find in the time-beat4 77 ,the first thing to be considered here consists in this1 that1 as stated1 distinct divisions of time are united in a unity1 in which the ,ego independently creates its identity with itself4 ,inasmuch as the ,ego in the first instance only supplies the foundation as abstract self this equability1 in respect to the advance of time and its tones1 can only assert itself as operative under the mode of a uniformity that is itself abstract1 that is to say as the uniform repetition of the same unity of time4 ,agreeably to the same principle the beat according to its simple definition can only consist in this1 that it establishes a definite unity of time as measure and rule not merely for the deliberate#dcc breaking up of the time-series held previously without such distinction1 but also for the equally capricious duration of single tones1 which are now apprehended together under a definite bond of union1 and that it permits this measure of time to be continuously renewed in abstract uniformity4 ,in this respect time-beat possesses the same function as the principle of symmetry in architecture1 as1 for instance1 when this places side by side columns of similar height and thickness at intervals of equal distance1 or co-ordinates a row of windows1 which possess a definite size1 under the principle of equality4 ,we find present in this case1 too1 an assured distinction of parts and a repetition in every way complete4 ,in this uniformity self-consciousness discovers itself once more as unity1 in so far as it in part recognizes its own equality in the co-ordination of a fortuitous variety2 partly1 too1 in the return of the same unity1 it is recalled to the fact that it has already been there1 and precisely by means of its return asserts itself as the prevailing principle#dcd4 ,the satisfaction1 however1 which the ,ego receives through the time-beat in this rediscovery of itself is all the more complete because the unity and regularity do neither apply to time or tones as such1 but are something which is wholly appertinent to the ,ego1 and is carried into the time relation by the same as a means of self-satisfaction4 ,we do not find this abstract identity in what is wholly of ,nature4 ,even the heavenly bodies retain no regular time-measure#dce in their motions1 but accelerate or retard their course1 so that they do not pass over equal spaces in identical periods of time4 ,the same thing may be said of falling bodies1 with the motion of projectiles1 etc41 and we may add that animal life to a still less degree regulates its running1 springing1 and seizing of objects on the principle of an exact recurrence of one definite time-measure4 ,in this respect the time-measure of living things proceeds far more completely from spiritual initiative than the regular definitions of size applicable to architecture for which we may more readily discover analogies in ,nature4 77 ,if1 however1 the ,ego is to return upon itself by means of the time-beat by thus appropriating throughout an identity which it itself is and which proceeds from itself1 we imply in this1 in order that the distinct unity may be felt as a principle1 that in a similar degree what is presented to it should be that which is unregulated and not uniform4 ,it is in short only through the fact that the definite beat of the measure prevails over and co-ordinates what is capriciously unequal1 that it asserts itself as unity and regulating principle of a fortuitous variety4 ,it must consequently appropriate the same within itself1 and suffer uniformity to appear in that which is not so4 ,this it is which first gives to the time-beat its specific and essential definition to be asserted too in contrast to other measurements of time1 which can be repeated relatively to the same principle4 77 ,by reason of this the multiplicity which is enclosed in a given time-measure possesses its definite standard according to which it is divided and co-ordinated4 ,from this we arrive1 in the third place1 at distinct kinds of time-measure4 ,the first thing of importance to notice in this connection is the division of time according to either an even or an uneven number of equally divided parts4 ,of the first kind we have1 for example1 the two-four and the four-four time4 ,in these even number is predominant4 ,of the opposite kind is the three-four time1 in which the co-ordinate divisions constitute a unity of equal parts1 of course1 but in a number that is uneven4 ,both types are to be found united in six-eight time1 to take an example1 which no doubt numerically appears to be similar to the four-four time1 but as a fact1 however1 does not fall into three but into two divisions1 of which1 however1 the one no less than the other1 relatively to its closer aspect of division1 accepts three1 that is an uneven number1 as its principle4 ,a particularization of this kind constitutes the constantly repeated principle of every particular measure of time4 ,however much notwithstanding the definite time-measure is bound to control the variety of the time-duration and its longer or shorter sections1 we must not therefore extend its effective power to the length that it places this variety in subjection in a wholly abstract way1 that in short1 for example1 in the four-four measure only four notes of equal length as fourths can appear1 in the three-four time only three1 and so forth4 ,the regularity restricts itself to this1 that as1 for instance1 in the four-four time the sum of the separate notes are only equal to four equal parts1 which may not only be divided into eighths and sixteenths1 but conversely may again contract into less divisions1 and indeed are capable moreover of more diffuse division4 77 ,the further1 however1 this elastic mode of differentiation is carried the more necessary it is that the essential divisions of the time should be asserted as predominant and also should be indicated in an effective way as an illustration of the fundamental principle of their co-ordination4 ,this is carried out by the rhythm1 which first gives vital significance to time-measure and the beat4 ,with respect to this vitalization#dcf we may distinguish the following points4 77 ,in the first place we have accent1 which to a greater or less degree attaches in an audible way to definite divisions of time1 while others pass by on the other hand without an accent4 ,by virtue of such emphasis1 or lack of emphasis1 which is itself of various kinds1 every particular measure of time possesses its particular rhythm1 which is placed in exact association with the specific mode of division to which its rhythm applies4 ,the four-four time1 for instance1 in which an even number is the principle of division1 has a twofold arsis2 on the other hand there is that on the first note or fourth division1 and then1 though in weaker power1 on the third4 ,the first is called on account of its stronger accentuation1 the strong accent1 the second in contrast to it the weak one4 ,in the three-four time the accent rests entirely on the first fourth1 in six-eight time on the contrary it is on the first of the eight divisions and the fourth1 so that in this case the twofold accent asserts a division of equal length in two halves4 77 ,in so far as music is an accompaniment rhythm is brought into essential relation with poetry4 ,in the most general way ,i will on this merely venture the observation that the accents of the musical beat ought not to directly contradict those of the metre4 ,if1 for example1 one of the unaccentuated syllables1 relatively to the rhythm of the verse1 is placed in a strong accent of the beat1 while the arsis1 or it may be the caesura1 falls in one of the weak accents of the music1 then we get a false opposition between the rhythm of the poetry and that of the music which it is better to avoid4 ,we may affirm the same thing with regard to the long and short syllables4 ,these also ought in general to fall into harmony with the duration of the tones1 so that the longer syllables are coincident with the longer notes1 the shorter with the shorter1 albeit this accordance is not to be pressed with absolute precision1 inasmuch as music is frequently permitted greater play for the duration of its long notes1 no less than for the exuberant subdivision of the same4 77 ,in the third place we may at once in anticipation observe that we have to distinguish the animated rhythm of melody from the abstractly considered and severely regular return of the beat rhythm4 ,in this respect music possesses a similar and1 in fact1 yet greater freedom than poetry4 ,in poetry the beginning and termination of words#dcg need not necessarily coincide with the beginning and end of the verse feet2 rather a thoroughgoing coincidence of this nature gives us a verse that halts and is without caesura4 ,and1 furthermore1 the beginning and ending of the sentences and periods ought not throughout to mark the beginning and conclusion of a verse4 ,on the contrary1 a period will terminate more satisfactorily in the beginning or even in the middle and near the last feet of the verse4 ,from which point we begin with a new one which carries the first verse into the one that follows4 ,the same thing holds good in the case of music relatively to its time-beat and rhythm4 ,the melody and its different phrases#dch need not absolutely commence with the fall of a beat and close with the conclusion of another3 such may in a general way move freely to this extent that the main-arsis of the melody may be incident to that portion of a musical beat1 on which1 relatively to its ordinary rhythm1 no such emphasis applies2 whereas1 conversely1 a tone1 which in the natural process of the melody would necessarily receive no accentuated prominence1 may quite conceivably be placed in the strong accent of the time-measure1 which requires an arsis1 so that consequently such a tone1 relatively to the time-rhythm1 has a different effect from that which the same tone claims to assert as distinct from that rhythm and purely in the melody4 ,this opposition1 however1 asserts itself most strongly in so-called syncopations4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the melody absolutely adheres in its rhythms and divisions to the time rhythm it tends to drag1 and lacks warmth and invention4 ,in short1 what is required is a freedom from the pedantry of metre and the barbarism of a uniform rhythm4 ,a deficiency in more free movement readily increases the limpness and sluggishness to the point of actual gloom and depression2 and in this way1 too1 many of our popular melodies possess aspects of mournfulness1 drag and burden1 in so far as the soul merely possesses a means of advance as its expression more monotonous than itself1 and in virtue of such is constrained to consign to it also the doleful emotions of a broken heart4 ,the speech of ,southern peoples1 on the other hand1 more especially the ,italian1 offers a rich field for a rhythm and flow of melody which is more notable for its variety and movement4 ,and it is precisely here that we mark an essential distinction between ,german and ,italian music4 ,the uniform coldness of the ,iambic mode of scansion1 which recurs in so many ,german songs1 kills the free and jubilant impulse of the melody1 and restrains any further rise and devolution#dci4 ,in more recent times ,reichard and others1 owing to this very fact that they have said goodbye to this iambic drone1 have imported into their lyrical compositions a new and rhythmical life1 although we still find traces of the former type in some of their songs4 ,however1 we do not only mark the influence of the iambic rhythm in songs1 but also in many of our most important musical compositions4 ,even in the ,messiah of ,handel the composition does not only in many arias and choruses follow the meaning of the words with declamatory truth1 but also adheres to the fall of the iambic rhythm1 partly in the distinction simply that it makes between its long and short duration1 partly in the fact that the protraction of the iambic rhythm requires a more elevated tone than the corresponding short syllable in the metre4 ,i have no doubt this is one of the characteristic features of ,handelian music1 owing to which we ,germans feel so much at home with the same1 quite apart from its excellences in other respects1 its majestic swing1 its victorious onward movement1 the wealth it discloses of profoundly religious no less than more simple idyllic emotions4 ,this rhythmical substance of the melody comes more directly to our sense of hearing than that of the ,italians1 who are inclined to find in it a want of freedom1 as something1 too1 that strikes the ear as strange and alien4 77 ,harmony ,the further aspect1 in virtue of which alone the abstract basis of time-beat and rhythm receives its fulfilment1 and thereby is enabled to become actually concrete music is the kingdom of tones regarded as such4 ,this more essential domain of music is dominated by the laws of harmony4 ,we have here a further elementary fact to deal with4 ,in other words1 a material substance#ddj does not only through its oscillation for art emerge from the mere visible reproduction of its spatial form1 and is carried further into the elaboration of its configuration in ,time#dda1 but it produces distinct sounds according to its particular physical constitution no less than its different length and brevity and number of vibrations through which it passes in a given period of time1 and consequently in this respect1 too1 ,art is compelled to take account of it and give it form agreeably to its own nature4 ,with regard1 then1 to this second element we have to emphasize with more accuracy three main points4 ,the first one presented to our consideration is the difference between the various instruments1 whose invention and elaboration has been found essential to create that totality of musical sound1 which in respect to musical sound constitutes a sphere of different tones independently of all distinction of the relation of pitch whether it be a high or a low one4 ,secondly1 however1 musical tone is1 quite apart from the different peculiarities of either instruments or the human voice1 itself an articulated totality of different tones1 tone-series1 and scales1 which in the first instance repose on quantitative relations1 and in the determination of these relations are tones which it is the function of every instrument and the human voice1 according to its specific quality1 to produce in less or greater completeness4 ,thirdly1 music neither consists in single intervals nor in purely abstract series of tones1 that is1 keys unrelated to each other1 but is a concrete interfusion of opposed or mediating sound1 which necessitates a forward progression and a passage from one point to another4 ,this juxtaposition and change does not depend on mere contingency and caprice1 but is subject to definite rules1 which constitute the necessary foundation of all true music4 ,in passing now to the more detailed consideration of these several points of view ,i am forced1 as already stated1 to limit myself for the most part to the most general observations4 77 ,sculpture and painting discover their sensuous material1 such as wood1 stone1 metals1 and the like1 or colours and other media of that type more or less straight to hand1 or1 at least1 they are only compelled to elaborate the same in a subordinate degree1 in order to adapt them to the uses of art4 77 ,music1 on the contrary1 which throughout is set in motion through a medium artificially prepared for the purposes of art from the first1 must necessarily pass through a distinctly more difficult preparation before the production of musical tones is secured4 ,with the exception of the human voice1 which returns us ,nature in her immediacy1 ,music is compelled itself to create all its other instruments of genuine musical tone throughout before it can exist as an art4 77 ,with regard to these means as such we have already above formed our conception of the timbre proper to them in the sense that it is the result of a vibration of the spatial medium1 is the first excitation thereof of ideal import1 which enforces itself as such in contradistinction to the purely sensuous juxtaposition1 and1 by virtue of this negation of spatial reality1 asserts itself as the ideal unity of all the physical qualities of specific gravity and the purely sensuous type of corporeal coalescence4 ,if we inquire further as to the qualitative peculiarities of the medium thus made to emit musical sound we shall find that in its character as material substance no less than as artificially constructed1 it varies greatly4 ,we may have a longitudinal or oscillating#ddb column of air1 which is limited by a fixed channel of wood or metal1 or we may have a longitudinally stretched string of gut or metal1 or in other cases a stretched surface of parchment or a bell of glass or metal4 ,in this connection we may draw attention to the following distinguishing features4 ,in the first place it is the lineal direction#ddc which is mainly predominant1 and produces the instruments most effective in musical employment2 and this is so whether1 as in the case of wind-instruments1 the main principle is represented by a column of air which is relatively more deficient in cohesion or by a material line adapted to tension1 but of sufficient elasticity to be made to vibrate1 as is the case with stringed instruments4 ,secondly1 we have the principle of surface rather than line represented in instruments of inferior significance1 such as the kettle-drum1 bell1 and harmonica4 ,there is1 in fact1 a subtle sympathy between the self-audible principle of ideality and that type of rectilinear tone#ddd1 which1 by virtue of its essentially simple subjectivity1 demands the resonant vibration of simple line extension rather than that of the broad and round surface4 ,in other words1 ideality is as subject this spiritual point1 which is made audible in tone as its mode of expression4 ,but the closest approach to the exposition and expression of the mere punctum is not the surface1 but the simple linear direction4 ,from this point of view broad or round surfaces are not adapted to the requirements and enforcement of such audibility4 ,in the case of the kettle-drum we have a skin stretched over a kettle or basin1 which by being struck at a single point sets the entire surface vibrating with a muffled sound4 ,though a musical sound1 it is one which from its very nature1 as belonging to such an instrument1 it is impossible to bring either to clear definition or any considerable degree of variety4 ,we find a difficulty of an opposite type in the case of the harmonica and the bells of glass which are set in vibration in it4 ,in this case it is the concentrated intensity of tone which fails to project itself1 and which is of such an affecting character that not a few1 when hearing it1 receive actual nervous pain4 ,but1 despite this specific effect1 this instrument is unable to give permanent pleasure and is with difficulty combined with other instruments on the rare occasions such an attempt is made4 ,we find the same defect on the side of differentiation of tone in the bell and a similar punctually repeated stroke as in the case of the kettle-drum4 ,the ring of a bell1 however1 is not so muffled as in the latter2 it rings out clearly1 although its persistent reverberation is more the mere echo of the single beat as struck at regular intervals4 ,thirdly1 the human voice may be regarded in respect to the tones emitted as the most complete instrument of all4 ,it unites in itself the characteristics of both the wind instrument and the string4 ,that is to say we have here in one aspect of it a column of air which vibrates1 and1 further1 by virtue of the muscles1 the principle of a string under tension4 ,just as we saw in the case of the colour inherent in the human skin1 we had what was in its aspect of ideal unity1 the most essentially perfect presentment of colour1 so1 too1 we may affirm of the human voice that it contains the ideal compass of sound1 all that in other instruments is differentiated in its several composite parts4 ,we have here the perfect tone1 which is capable of blending in the most facile and beautiful way with all other instruments4 ,add to this that the human voice is to be apprehended as the essential tone of the soul itself1 as the concordant sound which by virtue of its nature expresses the ideal character of the inner life1 and most immediately directs such expression4 ,in the case of all other instruments on the contrary we find that a material thing is set in vibration1 which1 in the use that is made of it1 is placed in a relation of indifference to and outside of the soul and its emotion4 ,in the human song1 however1 it is the human body itself from which the soul breaks into utterance4 ,for this reason1 too1 the human voice is unfolded1 in accord with the subjective temperament and emotion1 in a vast manifold of particularity4 ,and this variety1 if we consider its distinguishing features sufficiently generalized1 is based on national or other natural relations4 ,thus1 for example1 we find that the ,italians are pre-eminently the people among whom we meet with the most beautiful voices4 ,an important feature of this beauty is to start with the content of the sound simply as sound1 its pure metallic quality1 which neither fines away in mere keenness or vitreous attenuation1 nor maintains a persistent muffled and hollow character1 but1 at the same time1 though never carried to the point of tremolo in its tone1 preserves in the compact body of its tone something of the vital vibration of the soul itself4 ,above all else the purity of voice-production is most essential1 or in other words we must have no foreign element of sound asserted alongside of the freest expression of essential tone4 77 ,such a totality of instruments the art of music can employ1 either in separation or complete combination4 ,in the latter case of late years we may note an exceptional artistic development4 ,the difficulty of such artistic collaboration is enormous4 ,every instrument possesses a character of its own1 which is not directly congenial to the peculiarity of some other instrument4 ,it follows from this that whether we are considering the harmonious co-operation of various instruments of different type1 or the effective production of some particular quality of sound such as that of wind or strings1 or the sudden blast of trombones1 or the successive alternations of change that are inseparable from the music of a large choir1 in all such cases knowledge1 circumspection1 experience1 and imaginative endowment are indispensable1 in order that1 in every example of the kind1 whether of tonal quality1 transition1 opposition1 progression1 or mediation1 we do not lose sight of an ideal significance1 the soul and emotional value of the music4 ,for example1 ,i find in the symphonies of ,mozart1 who was a great master of instrumentation and its sense-appealing1 that is its vital no less than luminous variety1 a sort of alternation between the different instruments which frequently resembles in its dramatic interplay a kind of dialogue4 ,in one aspect of this the character of some particular type of instrument is carried to a point1 which anticipates and prepares the way for that of another2 looked at in another way1 one kind of instrument replies to another2 or asserts some typical mode of expression which is denied to the instrument it follows1 so that in the most graceful fashion we thus get a kind of conversation of appeal and response1 which has its beginning1 advance and consummation4 77 ,the second material which enlists our attention is no longer the physical quality asserted in the sound1 but the essential definition of the tone itself1 and its relation to other tones4 ,this objective relation1 whereby musical tone in the first instance1 not merely in its essential and emphatically defined singularity1 but also in its fundamental relation to simultaneously persistent tones1 expatiates1 constitutes the actual harmonious element of music1 and is based1 regarded under its own original physical conditions1 upon quantitative differences and numerical proportions4 ,a closer examination of the contents of this system of harmony presents1 as understood to-day1 the following points of importance4 ,first1 we have separate tones in their definite metrical relation1 and associated with other tones4 ,this is the theory of particular intervals4 ,secondly1 there is the connected series of tones or notes in their simplest form of succession1 in which one tone immediately leads up to another2 such are the scales4 ,thirdly1 we have the distinctive characteristics of these scales1 which1 in so far as each starts from a different tone1 as its fundamental tone1 is thereby differentiated into the particular keys distinct from each other1 and into the system of keys which they constitute4 77 ,the particular notes do not only receive their tone1 but also the more inclusively positive#dde determination of such sound by virtue of a corporeal substance in vibration4 ,in order to get at this determinacy we have to define the type of vibration itself not in any chance or capricious manner1 but once for all as it essentially is4 ,the column of air1 for example1 or the string or surface under tension1 which produces sound possesses invariably a certain length or extension4 ,if we take a string1 for instance1 and fasten it between two points1 and set the part of it thus stretched in vibration1 the points of initial importance to discover are the thickness of the string1 and the degree of tension4 ,if we have these two aspects identical in the case of two strings then the all-important question follows1 as was first noticed by ,pythagoras1 what is the string's length1 the reason being that strings1 in other respects identical1 if of different lengths give a different number of vibrations in the same interval of time4 ,the difference of one of these numbers from another and the relation of any one to another constitutes the fundamental ground for the distinction and relation between different tones in their degrees of pitch as high or low4 ,doubtless when we listen to notes thus related our perception carries little resemblance to one of numerical relations4 ,it is not necessary for us to know anything of numbers and arithmetical proportions2 and indeed when we do actually perceive a string vibrating1 such vibration passes away without our being able to apprehend the numerical relation1 while of course it is equally unnecessary for us to glance at the body in vibration at all1 in order to receive the impression of its tone4 ,an association1 therefore1 between the tone and its numerical relations may very possibly at first sight strike us1 not merely as incredible1 but we may receive the impression that its acceptance implies that our sense of hearing and ideal apprehension of harmonies suffer even depreciation when we look for their cause in that which is purely quantitative4 ,however this may be1 it is an undoubted fact that the numerical relation of vibrations in identical periods of time is the foundation of the specific definition of tones4 ,the fact that our sense of hearing is essentially simple is no valid objection4 ,the apparently simple impression1 no less than the complex may1 in respect to its essential character and existence1 carry within its compass other aspects essentially multifold and related fundamentally to something different4 ,when we perceive1 for example1 blue or yellow1 green or red1 in the specific purity of these colours1 we receive in like manner the appearance of a perfectly simple determinacy1 whereas violet readily is decomposed into its constituent colours of blue and red4 ,despite this fact the pure blue is not a simple fact1 but a distinct correlation and fusion of light and shadow#ddf4 ,religious emotions1 a sense of right in any particular case1 appear to us in the same way as simple2 nevertheless all religious feeling1 every impression that partakes of this sense of right1 is related to ourselves in entirely different ways1 though producing this simple feeling as its point of unity4 ,in just such a manner1 then1 tone is based upon a manifold1 however much we hear and perceive it as something entirely ultimate2 a varied nature1 which1 for the reason that musical tone comes into being by means of the vibration of a body1 and thereby together with its vibrations is subject to temporal condition1 is deducible from the numerical relation of this oscillation in time1 in other words from the determinate number of vibrations in a given period4 ,i propose to draw attention merely to the following points in respect to this deduction4 ,tones that accord in the fullest sense1 and on hearing which a distinction is not perceptible as opposition1 are those in the case of which the numerical relation of their vibrations is of the simplest character2 those on the contrary which are not so out and out accordant possess proportionate numbers more complex4 ,as an example of the first kind we have octaves4 ,in other words1 if we tune a string1 where we shall have the keynote given us by a definite number of vibrations1 and then halve the same2 in that case this second half will give us in the same time precisely the same number of vibrations as the previous entire string#ddg4 ,similarly in the case of fifths we have three vibrations to two of the keynote2 in the case of thirds we have five to four of the keynote4 ,in the case of seconds and sevenths we have a different kind of proportion2 here to eight vibrations of the keynote we have in the former case nine and in the latter fifteen4 77 ,inasmuch then--we have already referred to this--as these relations cannot be posited as we like1 but disclose an ideal necessity for their particular aspects#ddh1 no less than the totality they together constitute1 for the like reason the particular intervals1 which are fixed by such numerical relations1 do not persist in their relation of indifference to each other1 but are inevitably comprised together in and as a whole4 ,the first form of this totality of notes thus created is1 however1 as yet no concrete concord of different notes1 but an entirely abstract series of a system1 a series of notes related under the most elementary mode to each other1 and their position within the totality thus comprised4 ,this is no other than the simple series of notes known as scales4 ,the fundamental basis of this is the tonic1 which repeats itself in its octave1 and is extended through the remaining six notes placed between these limits1 which by virtue of the fact that the keynote directly falls into unison with its octave makes a return upon itself4 ,the remaining notes of the scale either harmonize completely#ddi with the keynote1 as is the case with the fifth and the third1 or possess a more fundamental distinction of sound in conflict with it1 as is the case with seconds and sevenths1 and take their place consequently in a definite series1 which1 however1 ,i do not now propose to discuss or explain further4 77 ,thirdly1 in these scales we find the source of different keys4 ,in other words1 every note of the scale can1 in its turn1 be posited as the keynote of a fresh series of notes1 which is co-ordinated precisely as the first is4 ,with the development of the scale through an increase of notes the number of keys has correspondingly increased4 ,modern music avails itself of a larger variety of keys than that of the ancients4 ,further1 inasmuch as generally the different notes of the scales1 as already observed1 are related to one another in unobstructed harmony1 or a relation that deviates from such immediacy in a more fundamental way1 it follows that the different series which arise from these notes1 taken severally as keynotes1 either display a closer relation of affinity1 and consequently permit of a passage readily from one to another1 or1 on account of their alien character1 do not so admit of this4 ,add to this that the keys are divided from each other by the distinction of hardness and softness1 that is1 as major or minor tonality2 in conclusion they possess1 in virtue of their key-note1 from which they are generated1 a definite character1 which of itself responds to a particular kind of emotion1 such as lamentation1 joy1 mourning1 and so forth4 ,in this particular even writers in ancient times have anticipated much on the subject of distinction between the keys1 and applied their theory in many ways to actual composition4 77 ,the third important matter1 with the discussion of which we may conclude our brief remarks upon the theory of harmony1 is concerned with the simultaneous concord of the notes themselves1 in other words1 the system of chords4 77 ,we have no doubt already seen that the intervals constitute a whole2 this totality1 however1 is in the first instance comprised in the scales and the keys merely in the form of an associated series1 in the succession whereof each note is asserted separately in isolation4 ,in consequence the tonal sound remained abstract1 because we find here that it is only one particular and determinate tone that is asserted4 ,in so far1 however1 as the notes in fact are what they are#dej merely in virtue of their relation to one another1 it follows necessarily that their tonal modality should attain also an existence as this concrete body of tone itself1 in other words different notes will have to coalesce in one and the same body of tone4 ,in this conjoint fusion1 in the composition of which1 however1 the mere number of notes capable of such coalescence is not the essential point1 for we may have a unity of this kind with merely two#dea1 we possess our definition of chords4 ,for inasmuch as the different notes are not definable for what they are as a result of caprice or chance1 but are necessarily regulated by virtue of an ideal principle and co-ordinated in their actual succession1 it follows that a regularity of similar character will have to declare itself in the chords1 in order that we may determine what kind of associations will be adapted to musical composition1 and what on the contrary must be excluded4 ,it is these rules which first give us the theory of harmony in the full sense2 and it is according to this we find again that the chords are embraced in an essentially regulated system4 77 ,in this system chords are particularized and distinguished in their passage from one to another1 inasmuch as it is clearly defined notes which thus sound together4 ,we have consequently to consider as an immediate fact a totality of separately distinguishable chords4 ,in attempting the most general classification of these we shall find that the original distinctions we cursorily alluded to in our discussion of intervals1 scales1 and keys will once again serve us4 ,in other words the first kind of chords are those in which notes come together1 which are completely consonant4 ,in the musical effect of these consequently there is no opposition1 no contradiction perceptible2 the consonance remains completely undisturbed4 ,such is the case in the so-called consonant chords1 the foundation of which is supplied by the triad4 ,this confessedly is generated from the key-note1 the third1 the mediant#deb and the fifth or dominant4 ,in these we find the notion of harmony expressed in its simplest form1 or rather the intrinsic idea of harmony generally4 ,for we have a totality of distinct notes under consideration1 which assert this distinction while they also declare an undisturbed unity4 ,we have here an immediate identity1 which moreover is not without the element of separation and mediation1 albeit this mediation is not at the same time limited by the self-subsistency of different tones#dec1 satisfied with the mere transitional passage from one note to another in the relation of a series1 but the unity is here an actual one and a return in immediacy upon itself4 ,but in the second place we may observe as a further incident of distinct types of the triad1 which ,i cannot now examine in more detail1 the deliberate appearance of a deeper mode of opposition4 ,we have1 however1 already at an earlier stage seen that the scales contain over and above those notes1 which coalesce without opposition1 others which annul such consonance4 ,examples of these are the diminished and augmented seventh4 ,inasmuch as these notes equally belong to the totality of tones1 they too will necessarily find an entrance into the triad form4 ,and when this happens it follows that the immediate unity and consonance above mentioned is disturbed1 to the extent that we have added a tone essentially of another character1 by means of which for the first time we meet with a genuine difference which actually asserts itself as contradiction4 ,in this way we have the true depth of musical tone really asserted4 ,it proceeds to contradictions that are fundamental and does not flinch from the acerbity#ded or fracture they involve4 ,and1 in fact1 the notion in its truth is no doubt essential unity2 but it is not only immediate unity1 but one which ideally is disrupt1 which falls into contradictions4 ,in this sense ,i have for example in my ,logic developed the notion as subjectivity1 but at the same time disclosed how this subjectivity1 as ideal transparent unity1 is resolved in that which confronts it in opposition1 namely1 objectivity4 ,and further such subjectivity regarded as itself wholly ideal is nothing more than a one-sided and abstract presentment of it1 which as such retains a something else1 an opposed other over against it1 namely1 objectivity1 and only becomes subjectivity in the profounder significance of its truth1 in so far as it enters into this opposing other-than-itself1 overcomes it and resolves it4 ,and for this reason in the world of reality it is to the higher natures that power is given to endure the pain of that fundamental contradiction of conscious life and to overcome it4 ,in order that music therefore may as an art express the ideal significance no less than purely subjective emotion of the profoundest content1 that of religion for example1 and above all that of the ,christian religion1 in which the profoundest depth of suffering is an essential constituent1 it must possess the means within its empire of tone to depict such a conflict of opposing forces4 ,and a means of this kind it does possess in the so-called dissonant chords of the seventh and ninth#dee4 ,the function of these1 however1 ,i cannot venture further to discuss here4 ,looking1 however1 from a general point of view at the nature of these chords ,i would draw attention to the further important point1 that they hold what is contradictory1 under the mode of contradiction already explained1 in one and the same unity4 ,that1 however1 what is contradictory as such should remain in unity is a contradiction in terms and unintelligible4 ,the very nature and notion of a contradiction assumes that assured repose in it and what it implies is impossible4 ,on the contrary it is as such self-destructive4 ,harmony is therefore unable to remain in chords of this character2 our ear and feeling1 in order to obtain satisfaction1 imperatively demands their resolution4 ,to the extent of this contradiction we are inevitably impelled to seek a resolution of dissonance and a return to the consonant triad4 ,and this motion1 as the return of the principle of identity upon itself1 is the movement of truth in the widest sense4 ,in the art of music1 however1 this completed identity is only possible as a succession of its moments in time1 which appears consequently as a series1 but declares its collective dependence in this that a necessary movement of an advance1 which is essentially self-caused and a movement of change belonging to its very nature1 is thereby asserted4 77 ,and this suggests a third point it may be as well to draw attention to4 ,in other words just as the scale was an essentially co-ordinate1 albeit in the first instance still abstract series of tones1 so too the chords do not persist in their isolation and self-consistency1 but possess an ideal relation to one another1 and a necessary impulse to change and progress4 ,in this advance1 although the same can be changed and extended to a far more considerable extent than in the scales1 yet again mere caprice is not more possible in the one case than the other4 ,the transition of chord to chord is effected in part by the nature of the chords themselves1 and in part by the keys1 to which these chords lead us4 ,it is in virtue of this that the theory of music has established many rules1 to enumerate and adequately explain which would1 however1 extend our survey into much too difficult and discursive matters4 ,i must therefore rest content with having confined myself to a few observations of most general interest4 7c7 ,melody ,taking now a glance in retrospect on that which1 as connected with the means of musical expression1 has already engaged our attention1 it will be seen that first in order came the mode of configuration appropriate to the temporal duration of tones considered as time-measure1 beat1 and rhythm4 ,we then proceeded to discuss the actual tones of musical sound themselves2 first1 that is to say1 in the sound produced by musical instruments and the human voice2 secondly1 in the fixed and determinate measure of the intervals1 and the abstract succession of notes that are subject to them in the scale and the various keys2 thirdly1 in the rules which appertain to the different chords and their conjoint progression4 ,the concluding subject1 which still remains for us to consider1 and in which those previous to it discover their synthetic unity1 and disclose in the same the fundamental form by virtue of which tones are for the first time in veritable freedom and union unfolded and coordinated1 is melody4 ,in other words1 harmony possesses merely the essential relations1 which establish the law of necessity in the world of tone2 but these are not in themselves1 any more than beat and rhythm are1 actually music3 they are rather the substantive basis1 the foundation of rule and principle1 upon which the soul in its freedom expatiates4 ,the poetry of music1 that speech of human souls1 which pours forth the ideal atmosphere and the pain of emotional life1 and in this overflow is raised with a sense of alleviation above the natural constraint of feeling1 by making present to the soul that which actually affects it strongly2 by enabling it freely to dally round its essential being1 and by liberating it by this very means from the oppression of joys and sufferings--well1 this power of soul-expression in the domain of music is in the first instance melody#def4 ,it is this concluding section of our inquiry1 in so far as it constitutes the more supremely poetic aspect of music1 the realm of its really artistic creations1 while availing itself of the elements previously discussed1 which obviously possesses an exceptional claim to our attention4 ,unfortunately it is just in this direction that we find ourselves confronted with the difficulties already adverted to4 ,in other words1 to mention one of them1 a detailed and scientific treatment of the subject implies a more accurate knowledge of the laws of composition1 and a totally different sort of acquaintance with the masterpieces of musical composition to any ,i possess or indeed am able to secure1 for we seldom hear anything of a definite or conclusive character on this head either from musical experts or practical musicians1 from the latter1 only too frequently men of very average intelligence1 least of all4 ,and we may further observe that it is a characteristic of the art of music itself1 that we should find the task of presenting and expounding particular detail in general terms a less easy matter than in the case of the other arts4 ,it is true enough that music1 as other arts1 deals essentially with a spiritual content1 and propounds the ideality of this subject-matter1 or the ideal movements of emotional life1 as the object of its expression3 yet for all that this content remains more indefinite in outline and more vague1 for just this very reason that it is apprehended with exclusive regard to its ideality1 or is reflected in sound as subjective feeling2 and the transitional states of music are not in each case at the same time the change of a particular emotion or idea1 a thought or an individual form1 but are merely a musical progression1 which consists in self-exposition or play1 and avails itself of artistic method for this purpose4 ,i will consequently limit myself merely to the following general observations1 which have fallen in my way and strike me as of interest4 77 ,from a certain point of view1 no doubt1 melody1 in its free disclosure of musical tone1 floats independent of beat1 rhythm1 and harmony2 but none the less the only means employed in its realization are just these rhythmical and metrically constructed movements of tone in their essentially necessary relations4 ,the movement of melody1 therefore1 is inseparable from the means employed to create it1 and1 if merely opposed to the practical necessity of the subjection of these means to rule1 is unable to exist at all4 ,in this intimate association between melody and harmony1 however1 no real surrender of freedom is involved3 what melody is thus emancipated from is a purely capricious fancy of the composer exercised in odd or eccentric progressions and transitions4 ,it is united by this very association to a stable and self-consistent art4 ,genuine liberty is not opposed to the principle of necessity as a foreign and therefore oppressive and suppressive power2 rather it possesses in the substantive character of the same what is a constituent of and identical with the core of its being2 in following the demands of it it therefore is only conforming to its own laws1 acting in accordance with its own nature4 ,and in fact it is by the rejection of such proscriptions and only then that it proves an alien to its nature1 untrue to itself4 ,conversely1 it is sufficiently obvious that beat1 rhythm1 and harmony are1 taken independently1 merely abstractions1 which as thus isolated have no musical#deg significance1 and are able only to acquire real existence as music in virtue of melody1 and as within the domain of this1 supplying moments to or aspects in its realization4 ,it is precisely in the manner that the distinction between melody and harmony is thus effectively mediated and resolved that the secret power of great compositions is disclosed4 77,secondly1 in this question of the individual character of melody the following points appear to me of importance4 77 ,in the first place1 melody may be restricted1 if we consider its harmonious progression1 to a very simple compass of chords and keys1 extended within the embrace of tone-relations destitute of all opposition in their harmonious fusion1 which it employs merely as the fundamental ground on which to develop its more appropriate form and movement4 ,song melodies1 for instance1 which be it understood are not on that account in the least superficial1 but may express the depths of soul-life1 as a rule are motived by constructive harmony of this most simple character4 ,they do not propound the more difficult problems of chords and keys in so far as they deal with such things and their modulation at all4 ,they are mainly satisfied with obtaining a simple harmonious accompaniment1 which is not carried to the point of serious opposition1 and consequently requires few resolutions in order to recover the final impression of unity4 ,such a mode of composition no doubt may lead to superficial results1 such as we find in a great many modern ,italian and ,french melodies4 ,in such cases the development of the harmony is entirely superficial4 ,the composer endeavours to substitute for the genuine demand of his work in this aspect of it a merely piquant charm of rhythm or flavour of some kind4 ,generally speaking1 none the less the emptiness of a melody is not the inevitable result of a simple harmonic basis4 77 ,a further distinction consists in this that melody in the case supposed is no longer developed1 as in our previous example1 merely in the exposition of separate notes composed upon a relatively independent harmonic progression1 regarded simply as the base of it3 in the melody now under consideration every separate note of the melody is substantially complete as a concrete whole ,in a chord4 ,in this manner it1 on the one hand1 includes a world of tones1 and from another it is so closely interwoven with the movement of the harmony1 that it is now impossible to retain the distinction previously accepted between a melody unfolded in relative independence1 and a harmony which supplies the emphatic pauses of the accompaniment and its more fixed and determinate musical basis4 ,harmony and melody are here one and the same compact whole1 and a modification of the one implies a correspondent and necessary alteration of the other#deh4 ,this may be pre-eminently illustrated by chorales written in four parts4 ,in like manner the same melody can be so interwoven in the varied vocal expression of its parts1 that this interlacery itself creates a harmonic progression2 or we may have different melodies in a similar way elaborated harmonically in association1 so that the union of particular notes of these melodies produces musical harmony4 ,we often1 for example1 meet with this in the compositions of ,sebastian ,bach4 ,in such cases the music progresses by means of parts that vary greatly from one another in their character and movement1 which appear to associate or inter-thread with each other on independent lines1 yet retain at the same time an essential harmonic relation to each other4 ,a necessary and coherent union is thereby asserted4 77 ,in composition of this kind it is not merely necessary for music which has any claim to profundity to be developed to the bare limits of undisturbed consonance1 nay1 even first to pass beyond it in order that it may return thereto3 rather the first simple mode of concord will have to be rent asunder in dissonances4 ,it is only through such conflict that the profounder combinations and mysteries of music in which an independent necessity reposes1 discovers their source and ground2 and for the same reason it is only in such profounder harmonic progressions that the arresting moments of melody originate4 ,a bold style of musical composition will consequently part company with a purely consonant progression4 ,it will pass into the sphere of opposing forces1 will summon to its aid the most discordant contrasts1 and disclose its unique power amid the tumult of all the resources of harmony1 the conflicts of which it is equally able to calm1 wholly confident in its ability to celebrate finally the grateful triumph of melodic tranquillity4 ,we have in short here a battle waged between freedom and necessity2 a conflict between the freedom of inventive genius1 seeking to yield itself to its upward flight1 and the necessary constraint of those harmonic conditions1 which it is forced to acknowledge as the means of its expression1 and in which its own ideal significance is reflected4 ,on the other hand if the harmony1 the employment1 that is1 of all its resources1 the unrelenting nature of its conflict in the disposal of them and in its attitude to them is the main interest1 the composition may very easily become heavy and overweighted with science1 in so far at least as the freedom of movement is really impaired1 or at least we are not allowed to feel the complete effect of its triumph4 77 ,to put the matter in other words1 in every genuine melody a truly melodic1 songful impulse1 which is its essential type as music1 must declare itself as predominant and independent1 as something which it neither forgets nor loses in the plenitude of its expression4 ,thus regarded melody presents1 no doubt1 an infinite power of adaptation and coordination in the progressive motion of tones1 but the mode or form of this must be such that throughout we are made aware of an essentially complete and self-subsistent whole4 ,this totality contains1 it is true1 a varied complexity1 and implies in itself a forward advance2 but it must for all that1 regarded as a whole1 be beyond all doubt rounded off and secure4 ,it must therefore have a distinct beginning and termination to the extent at least that the intermediate part of it may be simply presented as the mediating link between that beginning and end4 ,only as such a movement1 asserted with unmistakable emphasis1 itself self-differentiated and returning on its own unity1 does the melody of music reflect the free self-consciousness#dei of soul-life1 whose expression it ought to be2 only as thus perfected can music1 in its own peculiar medium of ideality1 enforce expression in its pure immediacy1 or avail itself of the ideal freedom of that mode of expression which is the untarnished reflection of the inner life1 an expression which1 despite its subordination to the necessary laws of harmony1 enables the soul to perceive a more exalted vision4 #c4 ,,the ,,relation ,,between ,,means ,,of ,,expression ,,in ,,music ,,and ,,its ,,content ,after passing in review the general nature of musical art we considered the particular aspects according to which notes and their duration in time secured their necessary form4 ,having now arrived in our discussion of melody at the confines of a world of free artistic invention and actual musical composition1 what we have now to deal with is a content1 which1 under its rhythm1 harmony1 and melody1 is capable of receiving an expression conformable to art's requirements4 ,after fixing clearly in our minds general modes of this expression we shall as our conclusion be in an advantageous position to review the different provinces of musical composition4 ,with these objects before us we may in the first instance advert to the following important distinction4 ,on the one side music may be1 as already observed1 in the nature of an accompaniment4 ,this is the case where its spiritual content is not merely seized in the abstract ideality of its significance1 or as individual emotion1 but enters into the movement of the music subordinate to the significance it has already received from idea and words4 ,as a type of music opposed to this we have the composition which is disconnected with any such content already prepared for it2 music in this case establishes itself in its own proper sphere1 so that it either1 if it still is forced to deal with a definitely received content1 resolves the same wholly in melodies and their harmonic development1 or asserts its absolute independence in the medium of musical tone simply and its harmonic or melodic configuration4 ,we have already seen that a similar distinction is apparent in a wholly different section of our inquiry4 ,i refer to the case of architecture considered either as an independent art1 or in the service it renders to that of building generally4 ,but in music the mode of its accompaniment is of an essentially freer type than that of our illustration2 it is far more intimately united with its content than is ever possible in the case of architecture4 ,in the actual domain of art this distinction marks the difference between vocal and instrumental music4 ,we are not1 however1 entitled to accept it in the purely external interpretation of it1 as though in vocal music it was merely the sound of the human voice1 while in instrumental music it was the more varied tones of the many distinct instruments which were made serviceable4 ,we must not in other words overlook the fact that the voice expresses at the same time in its song deliberate speech1 presenting us the ideas of a specific content1 so that music1 regarded as the word that is sung1 if the twofold aspect of the same in tone and human speech is not to fall into a condition of indifference or absence of relation1 is obviously bound1 so far as the art enables it to do so1 to supply its musical expression to this content1 which as such content is brought before the receptive faculties in its nearest approach to definition1 and no longer is left unrelated in more indefinite feeling4 ,in so far1 however1 as the presented content1 as libretto1 is1 despite of the above union1 independently ascertainable in legible form1 and is also consequently distinguishable in the mind itself from its musical expression1 to this extent the music attached to a libretto is an accompaniment1 whereas in sculpture and painting the unfolded content does not already attain to any presentment independently of its artistic form4 ,at the same time we must be careful not to go to the other extreme and entertain an idea of such accompaniment1 as though its entire purpose were one solely of subordination2 the truth is precisely the reverse4 ,the libretto is written in the interest of the music1 and has no further importance save in so far as it brings home to the mind a more intimate knowledge of the actual subject the artist has selected for his work4 ,music maintains this freedom pre-eminently by virtue of the fact that it does not apprehend the content in the manner the libretto may be assumed to make it intelligible4 ,rather it exhibits its mastery of a medium1 to which sense-perception and imaginative idea do not belong#dfj4 ,in this respect ,i have already1 when discussing the general characteristics of music1 pointed out that music expresses the principle of ideality in its intrinsic quality4 ,the ideality of soul-life1 however1 may be of a twofold type4 ,that is to say1 to accept an object in its ideal presentation#dfa may1 in the first place1 mean that we do not conceive it in its actual appearance in the phenomenal world1 but relatively to its ideal significance4 ,we may1 however1 mean by this1 secondly1 that a content is expressed as we find it realized in the experience of personal emotion4 ,both forms of idealization are represented in the art of music4 ,i will therefore endeavour to explain in more detail how this comes about4 ,in old church music1 take the movement of a crucifixus est for example1 we find that the profound meanings unfolded in the central idea of the ,passion regarded as ,christ's suffering1 death1 and burial1 are severally so conceived1 that it is not simply one merely personal feeling of sympathy or individual pain over these facts that is expressed1 but along with this the very facts themselves1 or in other words the depth of their significance is motived by the harmony of the music and its melodic progression4 ,it is1 of course1 true that even here the impression is one which acts upon the emotion of those who hear it4 ,we do not actually perceive the pain of the crucified1 we do not merely receive a general idea of it2 the aim is throughout that we experience in the depths of our being the ideal substance of this death and this divine suffering1 that we absorb with heart and soul its reality1 so that it becomes as it were a part of ourselves1 permeating our entire conscious life to the exclusion of everything else4 ,and in like manner must the soul of the composer1 if his work is to disclose such a power of impress upon others1 entirely lose itself in these facts and only in them4 ,it must not merely have experienced a personal emotion of them4 ,it must accept as its aim the task of making in its music the facts themselves live again for the ideal sense4 ,conversely1 ,i may read a text1 a libretto1 which narrates an event1 places before me an action1 gives to feelings the impress of speech1 and thereby become moved even to tears in my profoundest being4 ,this effect of personal emotion1 which may attend all human action and conduct1 every expression of inner life1 and further may be excited by the perception of every such event and by participation in the presentment of such1 the art of music is able to regulate2 by so doing it ameliorates1 tranquilizes and idealizes by its influence the fellow-feeling in the listener who finds himself attuned to it4 ,in both cases1 therefore1 the content rings through the inner life1 in which music1 for the very reason that it subdues consciousness in the simple attitude of rapt attention#dfb1 is able to restrain the unfettered range of thought1 imagination1 sensation1 and passage beyond the true boundary-line of the subject on hand4 ,music1 in short1 keeps the soul absorbed in a particular content1 fructifies its energy therein1 and moves and fills the life of feeling up to the brim within these limits4 ,such is our conception and description1 so far as the present occasion permits1 of the manner of which music1 as an accompaniment1 when dealing with a definite content which is1 as previously explained1 set before it by means of a libretto1 elaborates that aspect of it we have termed ideality4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as music is pre-eminently called up to do this in vocal music1 and the human voice is added to this associated with instruments1 it is customary to speak of instrumental music in a special sense as the music of accompaniment4 ,it is no doubt true that it accompanies the voice1 and should not either assert unqualified independence or claim an unqualified precedency4 ,but for all that vocal music is placed1 as thus associated1 in a more direct relation still under the definition previously given of an accompanying tone4 ,the voice expresses words articulate to the mind2 and song is merely a fresh or additional modification of the content of these words1 or in other words it is the explication of them in the language of the emotions4 ,in the case of instrumental music1 if taken by itself1 the expression of imaged idea vanishes1 and such music must necessarily confine itself to the means and modes of purely musical expression#dfc4 ,the discussion of these points suggests a third one1 which1 in conclusion1 it is well not to overlook4 ,i have previously drawn attention to the fact that the reality of a musical composition1 in its full and vital embodiment1 depends on a continually repeated reproduction4 ,in this respect it is at a disadvantage as compared with sculpture and painting4 ,the sculptor1 no less than the painter1 conceives a given work and executes it throughout4 ,the entire artistic activity implied therein is centred in one single individual1 and by this means absolute reciprocity between the creative idea and its execution is secured4 ,the architect1 on the contrary1 is in a less favourable position1 who1 in carrying through all the variety of structure in a building1 has to entrust such work to other hands than his own4 ,the composer in a similar way1 must leave the execution of his work to other hands and voices4 ,but in his case there is this difference1 that the execution1 from the point of view of mere technique1 no less than that of the vital spirit of his work1 itself demands an artistic activity1 not one of mere craftsmanship4 ,in this respect we may in our own time1 no less than previously in that of the older ,italian opera1 whereas in other arts there has been little or nothing fresh of the kind1 point to a marvellous advance in two respects in music4 ,the first is to be noted in the conception1 the second in the increased virtuosity of execution4 ,it is due to these results the very notion of what music implies and is able to perform has1 even in the case of acknowledged experts1 been increasingly enlarged#dfd4 ,we may now briefly summarize the heads of the concluding sections of this portion of our work4 ,first1 we shall investigate more carefully music regarded as accompaniment1 and raise the question with what modes of expression in a given content it is as a rule most compatible4 ,secondly1 it will be necessary to consider this question more closely as viewed in relation to musical composition that is exclusively independent4 ,thirdly1 our conclusion will be reached with a few observations upon artistic execution4 7a7 ,music as ,accompaniment ,it follows1 as a necessary result of what ,i have already described as being the relative position of libretto and music1 that1 in this sphere of its activity1 musical expression is compelled to concern itself far more exclusively with a defined content than in the alternative case where it is able to surrender itself without restraint to its own movement and inspiration4 ,a libretto offers us to start with definite ideas1 and compels the attention to forsake that field of more visionary emotion destitute of distinct idea1 in which we are permitted to range without interruption1 and are not forced to abandon our licence to receive from pure music whatever chance impression or wave of emotion it may arouse4 ,in this act of artistic interlacery with words1 however1 it is not right that music should carry its loyalty so far as to impair the free course of its progressions1 even though it do so with the object of emphasizing the full character of what is contained in the libretto4 ,to do this is to employ the mere pedantry of learning1 to adapt means of musical expression for the most faithful presentment possible of a content which is not in the first instance its own1 but supplied it externally4 ,it is to accept this artificial result rather than the creation of a real self-subsistent work of art4 ,and to that extent we have here evidenced a definite check and hindrance to free artistic activity4 ,it is equally wrong in the opposite extreme that music should1 as is almost invariably the fashion with modern ,italian composers1 wholly emancipate itself from the contents of the libretto1 as though its specific character were only a bond1 and with no other aim than that of approaching independent music as closely as possible4 ,the true function of such music is this4 ,it ought to steep itself in the meaning of the expressed words1 situation1 or action1 and by virtue of such impregnation1 ideally conceived1 discover therefrom a vitally arresting expression1 and elaborate the same in terms congenial to art4 ,that is the course followed by all great masters4 ,they appropriate everything of vital interest in the words2 but the stream of their music1 the tranquil flow of the composition1 remains for all that as free as ever4 ,we acknowledge the natural growth of the music no less than its affinity to the text it illustrates4 ,we would draw attention to three distinct types of expression all illustrative of this free spirit4 77 ,to start with1 there is that aspect of musical expression which we may describe as the truly melodic4 ,we have here simply emotion1 the utterance of soul itself1 which1 apart from anything else1 finds self-enjoyment in such expression4 77 ,the domain here1 in which the composer moves1 is coincident with the human heart and the moods of the soul2 and melody1 which is the pure musical utterance of this inward world1 is in the most profound sense the soul of music4 ,musical tone only attains to expression that is really vital when emotion is embodied in it or reflected in sound from it4 ,connected with this the purely natural cry of feeling1 whatever it may be1 of horror1 for example1 or the sobbing of grief1 or the exclamation or outburst of uncontrolled jubilation1 are themselves highly expressive2 and indeed ,i have already referred to them as the starting-point of music1 subject of course to the statement that art is unable to accept them under the mode of purely natural utterance4 ,here1 too1 we find a distinction between music and painting4 ,the art of painting is frequently able to produce the most beautiful and artistic effect by its realization in every respect of the actual form1 the colour and animation of a particular human being in some definite situation and environment1 and its complete reflection of all that it has thus assimilated and received in its bare vitality4 ,the truth of ,nature1 if presented conformably to artistic truth1 is here entirely justified4 ,but the art of music ought not thus to repeat emotional expression in the form it assumes as a purely natural utterance of passion2 what it should do is to vitalize with the emotional forces musical sound elaborated under the definite conditions of its tonal progression1 and to this extent resolve the expression in a medium of sound wholly created by art and inseparable from the artistic purpose1 a medium in which the mere cry becomes a series of musical tones with a definite progression1 the transitions and course of which are subject to the laws of harmony and unfolded in the completeness of a melodic phrase4 77 ,the essential significance of this melodic quality and its bearing on the human spirit is best apprehended if we view the latter as a whole4 ,the fine arts of sculpture and painting give an objective existence to the ideality of soul-life2 moreover1 they liberate the mind from this externality of their presentation in so far as1 from a certain point of view1 it discovers itself therein as an ideal1 spiritual work1 and from another everything which partakes of adventitious singularity#dfe1 of capricious idea1 opinion1 and reflection1 is rejected1 the content thereof being placed before us in its entirely appropriate individuality4 ,the art of music1 on the contrary1 as we have repeatedly pointed out1 possesses as a means to such objectivity merely the element of the soul-life itself1 by means of which that which purely belongs to this enters into conversation with itself1 and as expressed in the utterance of emotion itself returns1 as it were1 upon itself4 ,music is spirit or soul1 which ring forth in their untrammelled immediacy1 and derive satisfaction in this record of their self-knowledge4 ,as a fine art1 however1 it is its necessary function to regulate the expression of such life no less than its effects4 ,it ought not to permit that expression to be whirled away in bacchantic thunder and tumult1 or be left in the distraction of despair1 but retain the blessed freedom of its deliverance in the extremity of sorrow no less than the jubilant outburst of delight4 ,and this is the character of truly ideal music1 the utterance of melody such as we find it in ,palestrina1 ,durante1 ,lotti1 ,pergolese1 ,glck1 ,haydn1 and ,mozart4 ,tranquillity of soul is never lost in the compositions of these masters4 ,grief is no doubt often expressed1 but the resolution is always there2 the luminous sense of proportion never breaks down in extremes3 everything finds its due place knit together in the whole2 joy is never suffered to degenerate into unseemly uproar and even lamentation carries with it the most benign repose4 ,i have already1 when discussing ,italian painting1 emphasized the fact1 that a spirit of reconciliation is not wanting even in extreme examples of sorrow and distraction of soul2 by virtue of this1 even where we have tears and suffering1 some trait of tranquillity and assurance is preserved2 the tenderness and grace which assert themselves in the harlequin's rle illustrates the same truth4 ,in like manner a feeling for nature and the endowment of musical expression is preeminently a characteristic of the ,italians4 ,in their earlier church music we find that1 along with the deepest devotional feeling1 the sense of reconciliation is expressed in its purity2 and though grief may stir the soul most profoundly1 yet beauty and rapturous joy1 the simple greatness and impress of an imagination which discovers delight in its own varied expatiation1 is equally present4 ,it is a beauty of an apparently sensuous type1 so that it is not unusual to refer to such melodious contentment as a purely sensuous enjoyment4 ,but it is sometimes overlooked that it is precisely in this realm of the senses that art discovers its life and movement1 and thereby transfers ,spirit to a sphere in which1 as in the world of ,nature1 this essential wave of self-satisfaction is throughout the fundamental tone4 77 ,albeit1 therefore1 particularity of emotional content must be duly represented1 yet it is right that music1 while permitting passion and imagination to stream forth in its harmonies1 should at the same time lift the soul that is absorbed in such emotion over the same1 enable it to hover around such content1 and in short create an atmosphere wherein the recovery from such an absorption1 and the pure reflection of itself is possible4 ,this it is which gives us in fact the really melodious character to song-music4 ,the important feature of it is not merely the progression of determinate emotion such as we indicate by the words love1 yearning1 jollity1 and so forth2 it is rather that inward sense1 which presides over it1 which expatiates in its suffering no less than its delight1 and finds satisfaction in doing so4 ,precisely as the bird in the brake1 the lark on high sings its glad and touching song for the mere sake of singing1 an outburst of ,nature herself1 having no further thought or intention whatever1 it is just the same with human song and the expression of its melody4 ,consistently with this not infrequently ,italian music1 in which this truth is pre-eminently emphasized1 will1 just as poetry will1 pass into mere melodious sound simply1 and can readily appear to part company with the emotional stimulus and its particular mode of expression1 or even in fact do so1 for the very good reason that its object is the enjoyment of art by itself1 and the contentment of all who thus are able to enjoy themselves4 ,and apart from the ,italians this is more or less the characteristic of all right melody4 ,the specific nature of the expression1 albeit present also1 passes away1 in so far as our hearts are absorbed in what we appropriate rather as our own1 than in that which belongs to another1 a something beyond us4 ,by reason of this and this alone--it is much as we receive the impression of pure light--we are admitted to the most intimate conception of ideal blessedness and attuned spirits4 77 ,in the art of sculpture the predominant impression is ideal beauty or self-repose4 ,painting1 on the other hand1 already presents a movement in the direction of specific characterization1 and the emphasis it attaches to articulate expression is an essential feature of its executive purpose4 ,in a similar fashion the art of music is unable to rest satisfied with melodious expression as above indicated4 ,the purely emotional grasp by the soul of its intrinsic nature1 and the play in musical sound of this apprehension is1 regarded as the mere atonement of mood1 when we take it strictly1 too general and abstract4 ,it is inseparable from the danger not merely of an alienation from the more careful interpretation of the content expressed in the libretto1 but of that of becoming generally empty and trivial4 ,if sorrow1 joy1 yearning1 and so forth are to find adequate reflection in melody1 the soul that is actual and concrete only comes by such emotions in the downright reality of the same as involved in a veritable content1 that is1 in particular situations1 events1 actions1 and so on4 ,if1 for example1 a song arouses the emotion of mourning1 the lament at a loss1 we inevitably ask ourselves1 what is the nature of that loss4 ,is it1 shall we say1 the loss of life with all its many interests8 ,is it a loss of youth1 happiness1 wife1 beloved1 children1 friends1 or anything else8 ,for this reason it is further incumbent upon music that it should of itself differentiate in like manner its mode of expression when dealing with a specific content and the various relations and situations1 which the soul has experienced1 and the more ideal or intimate life of which it seeks to reflect in its harmonies4 ,music in short is not primarily concerned with the bare form of the inward soul1 but with that innermost life as replenished1 the specific content of which is most closely related to the particular character of the emotion roused1 so that the mode of the expression will1 or should1 inevitably assert itself with essential differences1 according to the varied nature of the content4 ,in a similar way the soul1 precisely in the degree that it takes a headlong plunge into any distracting experience1 proceeds through an accumulating series of effects1 and1 in opposition to our previously described state of benign self-contentment1 passes through conflicts and distraction1 wrestlings with passions1 and in short reaches an extreme of division1 for which the mode of expression hitherto observed is no longer adequate4 ,now what we mean by the detail of the content is just that which is supplied by the libretto or words4 ,in the case of a simple melody1 which is less concerned with this specific character1 the more defined characteristics of the libretto are appreciably of less importance4 ,a song1 for instance1 although it essentially implies as a poem and text a whole of variedly motived moods1 perceptions1 and ideas1 none the less as a rule asserts throughout one fundamental progression of emotion2 it is primarily one chord of the soul that it emphasizes4 ,to grasp this1 and to reflect the same in the language of music1 this is what such song-melody is mainly called upon to do4 ,consequently we may have identically the same music through all the verses of our poem1 although the meaning they carry admits of much variety2 and what is more1 this very repetition1 so far from proving injurious to the effect1 may serve to enforce and enhance it4 ,we may see the same thing in a landscape1 where1 too1 the most varied objects confront the vision1 and yet for all that the prevailing mood and aspect of ,nature1 which animates the whole1 is one and the same4 ,it is just such a prevailing tone that ought to assert itself in the song1 and this1 though it only applies strictly to some of the verses1 but does not so apply to others2 and the reason of this is that here the specific sense of the words is not to be taken as of most importance4 ,what comes first is the simple melody that floats freely over all variety of content4 ,in the case of many compositions which infringe this principle1 and which start every fresh verse with a novel melody1 which not unfrequently varies from the preceding one in beat1 rhythm1 and even scale1 it is quite impossible to understand why1 if such essential modifications were really inevitable1 the poem itself ought not to have been altered in metre1 rhythm1 and rhyme1 through all its verses4 77 ,what is1 however1 appropriate for the song1 which is a genuine melodious utterance of the soul1 is not applicable to every kind of musical expression4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 to draw attention to a further aspect in contrast to pure melody as such1 one of equal importance1 and by virtue of which alone song is really brought into line with accompanying music4 ,we find this in that mode of expression which is dominant in the recitative4 ,here we have no independently exclusive melody1 which at the same time reflects the fundamental mood of the content1 in the elaboration of which soul-life1 as at home with itself1 receives back in musical sound some portion of its ideal activity2 rather in the case before us the content of the words1 to the full compass of its specific character1 is imprinted upon the musical expression1 the import of which no less than the course it determines2 and this is so whether we regard it from the point of view of the elevation or profundity which distinguishes it1 or the prominence or subordination of its particular features4 ,by such means music1 as contrasted with melodic expression1 approximates to an emphatic declamation1 one accurately corresponding with the movement of the words1 whether the view we take of them be that of their meaning1 or that of their syntactical arrangement4 ,and in so far as it adds also1 as a novel element1 the aspect of a more exalted emotion1 it stands midway between the pure melody and poetical speech4 ,conformably to such a station1 therefore1 we have a free accentuation1 which adheres strenuously to the specific sense of particular words4 ,moreover it is not necessary for the libretto in this case to be written in any particular metre1 nor need the musical exposition1 as the pure melody does in a like case1 follow beat and rhythm with absolute precision2 rather the music under this condition of it1 that is in its acceleration1 suspension1 or pause in particular progressions1 or rapid passage over such1 is entitled to adapt itself freely to the emotion aroused by the meaning of the words4 ,for the same reason the modulation is not so restricted as in the case of melody4 ,precisely as the text which it attempts to express may suggest1 it may begin1 proceed1 pause1 break off1 begin again1 or stop with absolute licence4 ,unexpected accents1 progressions only partially mediated1 sudden transitions and resolutions are equally permissible2 and1 in direct contrast to the continuous stream of melodious music1 provided always that the libretto's content requires it1 this latter mode of expression is equally in its place1 though delivered in fragments1 and torn asunder by passionate emotion4 77 ,being of this character this form of declamatory expression1 known as recitative1 is suitable for tranquil statement of situation1 or facts1 no less than the presentment of the entire compass of the emotions1 under which the distraction of the soul in exceptional circumstances is depicted1 and which in its soul-full harmonies stirs the heart sympathetically with its every movement4 ,the recitative is first mainly applicable to the oratorio1 either as the declamed narration1 or the more vivacious presentment of instantaneous occurrence2 or1 secondly1 we find it in dramatic song1 in which case it can appropriately express every shade of parenthetical statement1 no less than every sort of passion1 it matters not whether the result be expressed in abrupt1 curtailed1 or fragmentary variation1 or with aphoristic violence1 or in a dialogue of rapid lightning flashes and counter flashes1 or in a more continuous stream4 ,in both these provinces of epic or dramatic poetry1 we may add that instrumental music is a possible accompaniment4 ,its function in either case is either quite simply to emphasize the pauses in the harmonic progression1 or to interrupt the course of melody with incidental music1 which1 agreeably to the general import of the former1 depicts in musical language other aspects and movements of the situation4 77 ,what1 however1 we find defective in this declamatory recitative is just the qualities which are essentially characteristic of the pure melody2 these are the definite articulation and unification of its parts1 the expression of that spiritual homogeneity or unity of which we have spoken1 that which1 it is true1 is confined in a particular content1 but at the same time asserts its own sense of unity in that content1 being enabled to do this through its refusal to be distracted or broken up by its absorption in particular aspects of it1 or rather1 instead of this1 still retaining in them as predominant its ideal coalescence4 ,for this reason the art of music cannot rest satisfied1 even where we are dealing with the more sharply defined features of the libretto proposed1 with such recitative of declamation2 nor in general can it remain content with the unmediated difference between the pure melody1 which1 in comparison with it and as above explained1 floats over the particularity of the words1 and the recitative1 whose task it is so far as possible to identify itself with it4 ,on the contrary we must look for some mode of mediation between these extremes4 ,we may compare with this new type of unity a constituent which entered into our consideration of the distinction between harmony and melody4 ,this harmony was acknowledged as being not merely the general1 but to a like extent the essentially specific and particularized foundation of melody2 and far from the latter being thereby deprived of its freedom of movement1 we found that it only thus secured for the same a power and definition comparable to that the human organism secures by virtue of its consistent bone-structure1 which only impedes inappropriate postures and movements1 while it adds stability and security to the right ones4 ,this brings us to the final point of view of our discussion of music as an accompaniment4 77 ,this third mode of expression consists in this that the melodic song1 which accompanies words1 is also involved in their particularized substance1 and thereby is not permitted to remain wholly indifferent to the principle of most force in recitative2 rather it appropriates this with the result that while it repairs its own defects in clear definition1 it confers on the characteristic recitative an organic articulation and a unified self-consistency4 ,for1 as already observed1 even that which is throughout melody is impossible without a certain defined content4 ,when1 therefore1 ,i mainly emphasized the fact that in all and every mode of it the tranquil self-reflection of the soul's own essential substance and ideal unity is the mode of expression peculiarly that of simple melody1 inasmuch as1 musically considered1 it presents a similar unity and a similarly complete return upon itself1 ,i did so because ,i then had in view this aspect as the distinctive point of contrast between the pure melody and the recitative4 ,it is1 however1 further incumbent on the melodic phrase to bring it about that its mode come into actual possession of that which in the first instance appears necessarily to have its movement outside it1 and by means of this replenishment1 in so far as it then is equally of a declamatory or a melodic character1 for the first time attain to a truly concrete expression4 ,it follows also from the converse point of view that the declamatory part of it is no longer independently aloof from it1 but finds its own one-sidedness supplemented in like manner by the accretion of melodic expression4 ,this is what constitutes the necessary condition of such concrete unity4 ,in order to examine this more closely we had better keep distinct the following points of view4 ,first1 it will be as well to glance at the kind of libretto1 or text1 which is adapted to musical composition1 and for this reason that it has been now proved that clear definition in the content of words adapted to music and its expression is of essential importance4 ,secondly1 we have now introduced as a fresh constituent of composition declamatory characterization2 it will therefore be necessary to consider this in its relation to the principle1 which we1 in the first instance1 identified as that of melody4 ,thirdly1 we must endeavour to specify the more prominent modes under which we may review this type of musical expression4 77 ,music#dff is not merely in a general way an accompaniment of the content of a work in a sphere which already engages our attention1 but it is part of its function1 as already observed1 to define still further the characterization of such a work4 ,it is consequently an injurious assumption that the construction of the libretto is a matter of indifference to the musical composition4 ,we find1 on the contrary1 that really distinguished musical compositions presuppose an excellent libretto1 carefully selected by the composers or actually written by them4 ,it is impossible that an artist should treat with indifference the material with which he is dealing and a musician least of all1 precisely in the degree that poetry has already worked out and settled for him the epic1 lyrical1 or dramatic configuration of the content in question4 ,what is of first importance in the construction of a good text is this that its content should be stamped by essential self-consistency4#dfg ,it is impossible that music should conjure forth an artistic product of real strength and penetration from what is commonplace1 trivial1 barren1 or absurd4 ,with all the spices and seasonings in the world your musical chef will never make a hare pie out of a roasted cat4 ,in the case of song compositions no doubt the nature of the words is less decisive1 yet even here we require words with a really genuine content4 ,from a further point of view1 however1 it is equally necessary that such a content should not tax our reflection too much1 or aspire to philosophical profundity1 as is rather the case with the lyrics of ,schiller4 ,in such an example the extraordinary range of pathos exceeds the musical expression of lyrical emotion4 ,the same thing may be said of the choruses of ,aeschylus and ,sophocles4 ,the penetrative power here displayed in imaginative conception is so exceptional1 they are so elaborate in their detail whether regarded in their scenic or ideal presentment1 they are already so absolutely complete as poetry that we have nothing left for music to add to them#dfh4 ,we have literally no room left us for any further play or exposition of ideal significance or movement beyond that already presented4 ,the more modern material and mode of treatment we find in the so-called romantic poetry are in their type the strongest contrast to these4 ,their pretension1 as a rule1 is that of being naive and popular2 but we only too frequently find a navet which is finical1 artificial1 and stilted4 ,instead of pure and genuine emotions we get a simplicitas that is nothing but feeling worked upon and acting under the constraint of reflection2 a false kind of yearning and affectation1 which is far too complaisant with dulness1 stupidity1 and vulgarity1 and is equally blind to the defects of passions1 envy1 licence1 and even devilish wickedness wholly without ideal content2 which is1 moreover1 as self-satisfied with its assumed excellence in the one case as it is with the dissolution and baseness of the other4 ,emotion that is spontaneous1 simple1 thorough1 penetrative1 is here entirely absent1 and music1 in any attempt to reproduce it1 can suffer no greater injury4 ,we may therefore accept the fact that neither mere depth of thought1 nor the vanity or worthlessness of mere emotion can give us a satisfactory content4 ,on the contrary what is most adapted for music is a certain intermediate type of poetry1 which we ,germans are loth even to admit as poetry1 and the true feeling and talent for which is more largely possessed by ,italians and ,frenchmen4 ,it is a poetry of a genuine lyrical quality1 extremely simple1 which indicates situations and emotions in a few words4 ,where it is more dramatic it remains luminous and vital without too involved a development2 detail is not so much elaborated1 but it is rather1 as a rule1 concerned to supply general effects1 than the completely articulate results of a poet's activity4 ,we find here that the composer receives1 in accordance with his demand1 merely the general foundation1 upon which he can1 in subordination to his own invention1 and his own threshing out of motives of every kind1 erect his building1 treating many aspects of the subject as part of his own life and movement4 ,for inasmuch as music has to adapt itself to words1 these words should not particularize the picture too closely2 if they do the musical declamation becomes absorbed in trifles1 lacking in a common impulse1 too contracted in the direction of particular features1 and the unity and general effect is impaired4 ,in this direction people are only too frequently at fault when expressing an opinion upon the excellence or insufficiency of a libretto4 ,it is one of the most common verdicts1 for example1 that the libretto of the ,magic ,flute is hopelessly bad1 though this piece of manufacture is nevertheless among the best of opera librettos4 ,among the many wildly fantastic and commonplace productions of his pen ,schickaneder has in this for once hit the right track4 ,the empire of ,night1 with its queen1 the empire of the ,sun1 these mysteries1 these initiations1 this ,wisdom1 ,love1 these ordeals1 and with it all this typically world-wise ethic1 excellent in the breadth of its applicability--all this when combined with the depth1 the bewitching loveliness and soul of the music expands and floods our imagination1 and warms the heart4 ,to mention further examples1 the old ,latin texts of great masses and other services are unrivalled for religious music4 ,this is in part due to the fact that they set before us in the greatest simplicity and brevity the most general content of religious faith1 in part also to this that they present in the same spirit the varied stages of emotion that accompany the substance of this in the consciousness of the community of the faithful1 and by doing both offer the musician a wide field for his own particular development4 ,the great ,requiem and many selections from the ,psalms are equally serviceable4 ,in a similar way ,handel welded his texts1 partly from religious dogmas themselves1 but1 above all1 from scriptural passages and situations of symbolical import1 into a completely consistent whole4 ,in the field of lyrical poetry the more suitable for this purpose are the emotional and shorter poems1 in particular the simple ones1 in content no less than speech1 steeped in emotion1 which penetrate into one prevailing mood or affection1 or those too of lighter and more gay character4 ,there is hardly a nation that does not possess such4 ,in the sphere of drama ,i will only mention ,metastasio1 and with him ,marmontel the ,frenchman1 who1 himself richly emotional1 cultured1 and lovable1 instructed ,piccini in ,french1 and knew so wisely how to combine in the drama grace and vivacity with the skill and interest of the action and development4 ,but before all else we shall do well to emphasize the libretti of the famous operas of ,glck4 ,without exception we shall find their motives simple4 ,the content they offer to the emotions is in a sphere the most sterling of all1 depicting as they do the love of mother1 wife1 sister1 friendship1 honour1 and so forth1 and permitting these simple motives and the form of their essential collisions to unfold in an atmosphere of tranquillity4 ,and for this reason the passion they disclose is throughout pure1 great1 noble1 and of plastic simplicity4 77 ,it is1 then1 the function of music1 by the characterization of its expression no less than its wealth of pure melody1 fittingly to reproduce a content of the above nature4 ,and that we may obtain such a result it is not merely necessary that the text contain in itself earnestness of heart1 the comic and tragic greatness of human passion1 the depth of religious idea and emotion1 the powers and fatalities that the human breast discloses1 the composer also on his part must be absorbed wholly in the composition1 and must have lived in and through it heart and soul4 ,what is equally important is the relation under which what is characteristic and melodious in such music is on either hand associated4 ,the main point appears to be1 that as between them it is the melodic expression which without exception1 as the factor of synthetic unity1 which gains the day1 rather than that which tends to distract and break up the whole into particular characterization4 ,to take an example of the latter case from modern dramatic music1 the effect often sought for here is one of powerful contrasts1 and this is brought about by forcing into one continuous stream of music1 under the conditions of conflict permitted to the art1 contrasted passions4 ,we have1 it may be1 expressed for us jollity1 marriage1 and festive associations1 intermingled with which we may have hate1 revenge1 hostility1 so that for result we are presented a fine uproar in which joviality1 delight1 dance-music1 passionate scolding1 and the very extremes of distraction are all involved4 ,but contrasts of interrupted life such as these are1 and which tumble us from one side to another1 without any principle of union1 are opposed to harmonious beauty precisely in the degree that the point of opposition in such characterization is acutely emphasized1 and any return of the melody to a real self-repose and self-enjoyment is out of the question4 ,and in general the union of the melodic and characteristic features of such music readily incurs the risk of overstepping the finely drawn boundaries of musical beauty1 more especially when the intention is to express force1 selfishness1 evil1 impetuosity1 and other extremes of exclusive passion of a similar nature4 ,the moment that music is involved in its abstract task of such characteristic limitation it can hardly avoid making for chaos1 becoming1 that is to say1 more acute1 unpliable1 and1 in fact1 thoroughly unmelodious and unmusical1 to the extent even of sheer misuse of discord4 ,a similar result will be found if we look at the different features of characterization generally4 ,i mean that if these are strongly emphasized in their independent form the connection between themselves and other traits is readily weakened and their self-subsistency in repose is at once evident3 but in musical exposition our difficulty is1 we have an essential movement throughout1 and it is in this progression that we are forced to look for the relation of stability2 this being so the isolation of effect cannot fail to act injuriously on the flow and unity of the music4 ,genuine beauty in music consists1 under the aspect now being discussed1 in this1 that while there is no doubt a movement towards characterization out of that which is simply melodic1 yet within the sphere of this more defined articulation#dfi1 the melodic aspect is still maintained as the sustaining soul and unity1 much as we find in what is most characteristic in the paintings of ,raphael the fundamental tone of beauty is throughout conserved4 ,melody is then not without definite significance1 but in all such definition betrays a coalescing and suffusing principle of life1 and more characteristic detail presents itself merely as the emphasized prominence of certain aspects1 which are none the less always and essentially fused again in this medium of unity and animation4 ,to hit off the just mean in this respect is1 however1 a more difficult task for music than the other arts1 for the reason that music surrenders itself more readily to such antagonistic modes of expression4 ,for this reason criticism over musical composition is almost always divided into two camps4 ,the one attaches most importance to the melodic structure1 the other prefers further advance in characterization4 ,handel1 for example1 who frequently in his operas insisted on having certain lyrical episodes emphasized acutely1 had to face many a tussle on this head with ,italian singers1 and was finally compelled1 when the public ranged itself on the side of the ,italians1 to confine himself wholly to the composition of oratorios1 in which field his genius pre-eminently asserted itself4 ,in the time of ,glck also the long and vehement controversy between the supporters of ,glck and ,piccini is famous4 ,rousseau also in his turn insisted on the superiority of the more melodious ,italian music as compared with the deficiency in this respect of the earlier ,french composers4 ,we have in our own days the same old controversy waged for or against ,rossini and the more modern ,italian school4 ,the opponents of the former condemn his music as if it were so much empty ear-tickling2 if we1 however1 assimilate his melodies more generously we shall find that there is much in this music of real feeling and genius2 it is not without a real message to our faculties1 although it does not make any claim to the characteristic effects1 which are more especially dear to our severe ,german musical sense4 ,and indeed it must be admitted that only too often ,rossini says good-bye to his libretto1 and gives free vent to his melodies1 precisely as his mood dictates1 so that we have nothing left us but the alternative either to stick to the subject-matter and grumble over the music that is indifferent to it1 or abandon the former and take our hearty delight in the inspired irrelevances of the composer and the soul which they reveal#dgj4 77 ,i will now in conclusion briefly summarize the most notable forms of music regarded as accompaniment4 ,first1 in the order of our classification we may mention ecclesiastical music4 ,music of this type1 in so far as it is not concerned with the personal emotion of individuals1 but with the substantive content of emotion in its widest compass1 or shall we say the universal emotion of the community viewed collectively1 is in a large measure throughout of epical consistency1 even though it instructs us in no events in so many words4 ,how an artistic conception is able to be epical in significance1 though we have in it no narrative of event1 we shall endeavour to explain at a later stage when we come to deal more closely with epic poetry4 ,this fundamentally religious music is among the profoundest and most impressive creations that ,art can bring into being in any sphere whatever4 ,its true position1 in so far1 that is1 as it is associated with the sacerdotal petition for the community1 we find in the cult of ,roman ,catholicism1 conjoint with the ,mass1 and more generally as a means of musical devotion attendant to the most varied ecclesiastical functions and festivals4 ,protestants can also boast of musicians of the profoundest gifts not merely as religious men1 but also in the sterling character and opulence of their imaginative resource or executive ability4 ,sebastian ,bach here stands before us as the master of masters4 ,for the first time in our own day we have been taught to appreciate at something like its value the great genius of this man1 his truly protestant1 robust temper1 and withal his profound erudition4 ,of first importance we may observe in this connection1 and in contrast to the direction followed by the music of ,catholicism1 the emergence in complete form of the oratorio1 in the first instance out of the ,passion music4 ,nowadays1 of course1 music for ,protestantism is no longer so closely associated with the cult of religion1 nor so essentially a part of its services2 and indeed it is often more a matter of exercise in musical scholarship than a really vital creation4 ,second in order we have lyrical music1 which expresses in melody isolated moods1 and for the most part should be disjoined from the wholly characteristic or declamatory mode1 although it may rightly undertake to combine with its expression the specific content of the words illustrated1 whether their import be religious or otherwise4 ,tempestuous passions1 however1 which neither issue in repose or finality1 the unresolved division of the heart1 emotional distraction destitute of all relief1 such experiences are more suitably reproduced as an integral part of dramatic music2 they are out of place in the harmonious consistency of the lyrical mode4 ,this dramatic form is then our third and final division4 ,the tragedy of the ancients was associated with music2 but this aspect was not emphasized1 and for this reason that in truly poetical works precedence must necessarily be given to human speech and the poet's own exposition of ideas and emotion2 the only way music could in these times assist--which in its harmonic and melodic expression had not as yet reached that of a subsequent ,christian era--was mainly from the rhythmical point of view by heightening with increased animation the musical sound of the poetical language1 and thereby bringing the same more home to the heart4 ,dramatic music1 however1 receives a really independent position when once the form of church music is essentially complete1 and in lyrical expression some degree of perfection has been attained4 ,we find this in our modern operas and operettas4 ,it must be admitted that from the point of view of song the operetta is a half-way house of less importance1 one which mixes together with no vital connection speech and song1 what is musical and unmusical1 the language of prose and that of melody4 ,it is a common objection no doubt that song in the drama is without exception unnatural4 ,such an objection cannot be pressed1 and would be far less open to argument as against the opera1 in which from the first line to the last every idea1 emotion1 passion1 and resolve is accompanied by and expressed in song4 ,on the contrary1 it is rather the operetta which still requires justification in so far as it introduces music in which we have a more animated presentment of the emotions and passions1 or the latter are adapted for such presentment1 while in the juxtaposition of a confused melody of prosaic dialogue with these artistically treated interludes of song we have what is a perpetual embarrassment4 ,in other words1 the emancipation of art is incomplete4 ,in genuine opera1 however1 in which the action throughout receives its musical analogue1 we are once and for all transported into an ideal world of art1 the atmosphere of which is throughout the work maintained in so far as the music accepts for its fundamental content the ideal aspects of emotional stress1 the particular phases of such in specific situations1 and the conflicts of passion1 that it may1 by virtue of the more complete effects of its expression1 add the final emphasis they would otherwise have lost4 ,conversely in the vaudeville1 where airs already popular and well known are set to the more pointed and arresting rhymes1 singing is merely a self-imposed kind of irony4 ,the fact that there is singing at all is intended to be taken rather as parody or amusement3 here the main point is the meaning of the text and its fun1 and the singing has no sooner ceased than we laugh that it should ever have commenced4 7b7 ,independent ,music ,we may compare melody1 as an essentially self-contained and self-supported whole1 to plastic sculpture2 in the more detailed characterization of painting we shall find an analogous type to that of musical declamation4 ,and inasmuch as in the latter case we have an aggregate of specific differentia unfolded such as the more simple movement of the human voice is unable in all its variety to express1 the more all these many aspects of life enter into the movement of the music1 to that extent instrumental music is a necessary accompaniment4 ,in addition to this1 as a farther point of view1 whether in its relation to the music that accompanies a libretto1 or the characteristic expression of the words1 we have to recognize in its freedom a content of definite ideas1 which is1 as transmitted1 wholly independent of musical sound4 ,now what constitutes the essential principle of music is the ideality of the soul-life4 ,but this innermost1 or ideality of the concrete self is the subjective state in its bare simplicity1 that is1 as defined by no assured content1 and for this reason not forced into motion either one way or another1 but reposing on its unity in unfettered freedom4 ,and if this subjective principle is to come entirely to its own in music also it must rid itself of a traditional text1 and in all purity1 out of its own resources1 master its content1 the movement and the kind of expression1 the unity and development of its creation1 the carrying out of a main conception1 no less than all episodical or incidental matter2 and in doing this1 for the reason that the significance of the whole is not expressed in language1 it must restrict its means to those exclusively of musical value4 ,and this is what does take place in the sphere ,i have already described as independent music4 ,music1 as an accompaniment1 possesses that which it undertakes to express outside its own domain2 to this extent it is associated in its expression with that which does not belong to it as music1 but to an alien art1 poetry4 ,if music is to be nothing but music simply1 it must disengage itself from this factor1 which it has only borrowed elsewhere1 detach itself absolutely from the definite substance of language4 ,thus alone it becomes entirely free4 ,and this is the point we have now to examine more closely4 ,we have already noticed the beginnings of such an emancipation within the limits of music as an accompaniment4 ,for though it is true that in part here music was compelled by the force of poetical language to be subservient1 yet also in part it either moved in benign repose over the more limited characterization of the words or removed itself entirely from the significance of ideas therein expressed1 to expatiate of its free will in the musical language of joy or sorrow4 ,the same result is apparent in its effect on an audience1 the public as we say1 and more especially in its attitude to the music of drama4 ,in other words1 an opera has many constituents4 ,we have the local condition1 landscape and the rest1 or the movement of the action1 or incidental episodes and pageants4 ,from another point of view we are confronted with human passions and their expression4 ,in short1 there is a twofold content--namely1 the external action and the soul-emotion that corresponds4 ,if we take the action simply we shall find that1 though it is that in which all the parts cohere1 yet regarded merely in its movement forward it is less adapted to musical expression and mainly elaborated in recitative4 ,with a content of this nature an audience is not so arrested2 its attention is particularly liable to wander off from the dialogue of recitation1 and to fix itself upon the portion of the work that is really musical and melodious4 ,we have an exceptional illustration of this--,i have already adverted to the fact--in our modern ,italian opera1 which is from the first made to fall in with the custom of the audience to engage in conversation1 or other ways of enjoying itself1 during the chatter or trivialities of the musical dialogue1 and which only returns to that part of the music which is truly music1 with the full measure of sympathetic attention1 enjoyment1 and delight4 ,in this case we find1 then1 that composer1 no less than audience1 barely fall short of bidding good-bye to the libretto's substance altogether1 and of treating music for the purposes of enjoyment as an absolutely independent art4 77 ,the true province of such independence is1 however1 not the accompaniment of vocal music undeniably conditioned by a text1 but instrumental music simply4 ,as already observed1 the human voice is the appropriate musical expression of man's inner life in its entirety1 a life also expressed in ideas and words1 which therefore discovers in its own voice and song its distinctive organ1 so often as it seeks to express and recover this inner world of its ideas permeated throughout with the concentrated intensity of emotion4 ,in the case of instruments taken by themselves1 however1 this basis of an associated text of words disappears2 here we find an opening for the empire of a music that is confined strictly to its own unassisted powers4 77 ,such a music of particular instruments presented us in quartets1 quintets1 sextets1 symphonies and the like1 without text or vocal music1 remains unrelated to any movement of ideas independently asserted1 and is for this very reason compelled to have recourse to emotions of a more indefinite character1 emotions which in such music can only be expressed in general terms4 ,the aspect of importance here1 in short1 is the varied motion of the music simply1 the ups and downs of the harmony or melody1 the stream of sound through its degrees of opposition1 preponderance1 emphasis1 acuteness or vivacity1 the elaboration of a melodic phrase in every respect that is suitable to the means of musical art1 the musician-like fusion of all the instruments as one ensemble of tone1 or in their succession1 alternation1 and emphatic display of themselves and each other4 ,it is in this sphere pre-eminently that the distinction between the ordinary person and the expert of music asserts itself4 ,the ordinary man likes best in music an expression of emotion and ideas that is at once intelligible1 that whereof the content is obvious2 his predilection is consequently for music under the mode of an accompaniment4 ,the connoisseur1 on the contrary1 who is able to follow the relation of musical sounds and instruments as composition1 enjoys the artistic result of harmonious modulation1 and its interwoven melodies and transitions on its own merits4 ,he is entirely absorbed by this alone1 and is interested in comparing the detail to which he listens with the rules and principles he is fully able to apply to it1 in order thus to follow the performance with judgment and delight1 although even in his case it frequently happens that our modern type of virtuosity1 with variations in tempo or other nuances for which our connoisseur is unprepared1 will perplex him not a little4 ,a complete satisfaction of this kind comes rarely to the mere amateur4 ,he is seized with the vain desire to master this apparently phantomnal process of music1 to discover arresting points for his attention in the musical development1 and generally more definite ideas and a more detailed content in the volume of sound that invades him4 ,in this respect he seeks to attach to music a symbolical significance1 yet can find in the same little beyond mysterious problems that vanish in the moment they are propounded1 which baffle his powers of solution and in general are capable of a variety of interpretations4 ,the composer is able1 it is true1 on his part to associate with his work a definite significance1 a content of specific ideas and emotions1 which are expressed articulately in movement that excludes all else2 conversely he can1 in complete indifference to such a scheme1 devote himself to musical structure simply and the assertion of his genius in such architectonic4 ,composition1 however1 of this character readily tends to become defective both in the range of its conception and emotional quality1 and as a rule does not imply any profound cultivation of mind or taste in other respects4 ,and by reason of the fact that such a content is not necessary1 it frequently happens that the gift of musical composition not merely will show considerable development in very early age1 but composers of eminence remain their life long men of the poorest and most impoverished intellectual faculty in other directions4 ,more penetration of character may be assumed where the composer even in instrumental music is equally attentive to both aspects of composition2 in other words1 the expression of a content1 if necessarily less defined than in our previous mode1 no less than its musical structure1 by which means it will be in his power at one time to emphasize the melody1 at another the depth and colour of the harmony1 or finally to fuse each with the other4 77 ,we have throughout posited subjectivity in its unconstrained presentment within the limits of music as the general principle of this type of composition4 ,this independence of a content already proposed to it from an alien source will1 however1 more or less assert itself in opposition to mere caprice1 though the restrictions under which it admits it are not defined rigorously4 ,for1 albeit this type of composition has its own rules and modes1 the authority of which no mere whim or fancy can reject1 yet they are regulations which only affect the broader aspects of music2 in actual detail there is no end to the opportunity which the inner content of soul-life#dga1 provided it once accepts the boundaries fixed by the essential conditions of musical composition1 may discover for its otherwise free expatiation and exposition4 ,and1 in fact1 as a result of the elaboration of modes congenial to this type1 the caprice of individual composers asserts1 in contrast to the steady advance of purely melodic expression and music in association with a definite text1 a practically unrestrained mastery in every sort of conceit1 caprice1 interlude1 inspiriting drollery1 startling suspension1 rapid transition1 lightning flashes1 extraordinary surprises and effects4 7c7 ,the ,artist as ,executant ,in sculpture and painting we have a work of art presented us as an external and independent result of artistic activity2 we do not regard this activity itself as the actual creation of life#dgb4 ,it is1 however1 necessary to the presentation of a musical work of art that we should have an executant musician in co-operation1 just as in dramatic poetry we have the representative presence of living manhood as an essential factor in this type of art's realization4 ,we have1 then1 reviewed musical composition under the two aspects1 that is to say1 in so far as it sought to conform with a specific content1 or struck out on its own free path of independence4 ,we may now in the same way distinguish between two main types of purely executive art4 ,the one is wholly absorbed in the work of art on hand1 and makes no attempt to reproduce anything over and beyond this4 ,the other1 on the contrary1 is not simply reproductive2 it actually creates expression1 delivery1 in short the essential animation of the work1 not merely from the composition as composed1 but predominantly from its own resources4 77 ,in the case of the epic poem1 wherein the poet seeks to unfold an objective world of event and modes of action1 the rhapsodist1 who recites it1 has no occasion to do anything further than wholly withdraw the expression of his own personality in the presence of the exploits and events he brings home to us4 ,the more reserved he is in this respect the better2 indeed such recitation is not incompatible with a monotoned and unemphasized delivery4 ,what is effective here is the fact of the poem1 the poetical execution1 the narrative itself1 not its realization in voice and speech4 ,this illustration will suggest to us the rationale for our first type of musical reproduction4 ,in other words1 if the composition is in a similar way of a genuine objective quality1 in the sense that the composer has simply translated his subject-matter1 or the emotion that is absorbed with it1 into musical language1 the artistic reproduction should retain the same objective character4 ,it is not merely true that here there is no reason for the executant to import into it his idiosyncrasies2 by doing so he necessarily impairs the true artistic effect4 ,he must subordinate himself entirely to the character of the work1 and prescribe to himself simply this attitude of attention4 ,on the other hand1 he must not1 as is too frequently the case1 confuse such an attitude with that of the purely servile artisan1 and lower himself to the level of an organ-grinder4 ,if such execution is to retain any artistic claim the artist is bound to avoid leaving the impression of a musical automaton1 which merely repeats its prescribed lesson mechanically1 and instead to animate the entire work with the heart and soul of the composer himself4 ,the virtuosity of such a vital reproduction is restricted1 however1 to the just elucidation of the technical difficulties presented by the work1 and in doing so the object will be not merely to cover any appearance of triumph over an exacting task1 but to portray the freest movement under such conditions1 and1 in so far as superior artistic endowment and experience can in the particular case manage to do so1 attain in the reproduction to the spiritual altitude of the composer and reflect the same in actual performance4 77 ,it is another matter when we come to deal with works of art1 in which personal idiosyncrasy and caprice are even by the composer himself features brought into prominence1 and where generally we find the traces of such a clearly objective quality in expression1 the treatment of the harmonic or characteristic development less pronounced4 ,in such a case the bravura of virtuosity is1 it is our first distinction1 quite admissible2 and over and above this executive ability is not only limited to the reproduction of the actual score1 but may considerably amplify2 an artist will himself add to the composition in his delivery1 supplement defects1 add substance to what is comparatively superficial1 import into parts a new life1 and in doing so assert independent judgment and invention4 ,in the ,italian opera1 for example1 much is always left to the singer's discretion2 in particular where we have embellishments a more liberal opportunity of display is granted1 and in so far as the exposition of sound is further removed from the mere interpretation of the libretto1 the execution in its independence becomes a more spontaneous flow of melody1 in which the soul of the singer is permitted to enjoy itself and exult in its own free rapture4 ,when therefore it is objected that ,rossini for one has made the singer's task too easy1 the stricture is only in part justified4 ,the difficulty is none the less there1 only he frequently leaves it to the trained intelligence of the executant to work it out for himself4 ,if in the result we are conscious of the cooperation of genius1 the work as thus reproduced makes an exceptionally favourable impression4 ,we have not merely a work of art reproduced1 but we are conscious at the same time of actual musical creation4 ,in this very present realization of life the external conditions of artistic reproduction disappear1 such as place1 opportunity1 the local associations of a divine service1 the content and intent of a dramatical situation2 we have no further need for1 nor do we desire any text1 we have left us simply the unspecialized impulse of emotion1 in the element of which the soul of the artist can surrender itself without let or hindrance to its own rapture1 displaying thereby inventive genius1 the finest qualities of emotion1 and a mastery of technique2 and in fact1 provided we find the right spirit1 ability1 and personal charm to justify it1 it may venture to interrupt the flow of melody itself with humour1 caprice and virtuosity1 and accept for once the moods and suggestions of the moment4 77 ,this kind of virtuosity is yet more remarkable in cases where the instrument is not the human voice1 but one of human invention4 ,by this ,i mean to say that such naturally in the kind of sound they produce are further removed from the soul's direct expression2 they are in relation to that of an external object1 apiece of dead mechanism1 and music is essentially a spiritual movement and activity4 ,when we find1 therefore1 this externality of the instrument vanishes altogether1 in the case1 that is1 where the music of the soul breaks right through this alien crust of mechanism1 by means of such virtuosity1 even an instrument of this character is transformed into one as fully adapted to express the soul of the artist as it is possible to conceive4 ,among the memories of my youth ,i can still recall the case of an astonishing executant on the guitar1 who in his own eccentric fashion had composed huge battle-pieces for this comparatively insignificant instrument4 ,by profession1 if ,i remember rightly1 he was a weaver1 and in conversation he had little enough to say for himself4 ,but no sooner did he begin to play than one wholly forgot the absurd pretensions of his composition1 forgot these precisely as he forgot all else but the music1 and the marvellous result he made of it by being totally absorbed body and soul in his instrument1 entirely witless of any form of nobler execution than that expressed in the tones of a guitar#dgc4 ,a virtuosity of this type1 in so far as it asserts such a unique superiority1 is not only a proof of extraordinary mastery over material forces1 but we receive from it as it strides victoriously over difficulties apparently unplayable1 even turns aside to add to them1 or in wayward mood breaks in upon us jestingly with ,i know not what interruptions and surprises1 and by original invention even makes us enjoy what would otherwise be vulgar1 is a direct reflection of absolutely free soul-life#dgd4 ,it is quite true that a mere charlatan#dge of this type is unable to produce original works of art2 but where real genius is part of the endowment we can have extraordinary mastery in composition no less than over a particular instrument1 the limitations of which this virtuosity lays itself out to overcome1 and in audacious vindication of its triumph will reproduce the artistic effects of other instruments entirely remote in other hands from its own4 ,it is an accomplishment of this kind which delights us with our acutest sense of the life of music4 ,and this riddle of riddles we discover in the fact that a mere piece of mechanical craft can become an instrument one with our life1 which enables us to follow1 as through a flash of lightning1 a power of ideal conception no less than execution1 by virtue of which the imagination of genius penetrates to the core of life as instantaneously as it vanishes therefrom4 ,such1 then1 are the most essential features1 which ,i have selected from my own experience of music1 the more general points of view which ,i have detached from the subject and concentrated attention upon in the present discussion4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,ein festes ,daseyn1 lit41 an assured existence4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,we should not expect the plural4 ,hegel apparently includes the transitional relief of sculpture4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,lit41 ,but also strives to set itself back into the previous condition4 ,he refers to the mutual relation of tones4 ,footnote #chj3 ,in sich selbst ,ideellgezetzte4 ,that is1 posited as ideal in the way music does with its object1 as to which further explanation is given below4 ,footnote #cha3 ,it is difficult to follow closely this very technical interpretation of musical sound1 and a doubt may be perhaps permitted as to whether it corresponds to the scientific facts4 ,i mean it does not appear fully to do justice to the reaction of the organ of human hearing itself and the intelligence with which it is related upon the sound waves that through such mediation are cognized as musical sound4 ,the ideality appears to me to be more complete than even ,hegel's theory would suggest1 or1 at any rate1 some of his expressions4 ,and surely1 too1 in sight1 though it may be true we see independent objects1 we only do so1 in so far as their secondary qualities are concerned1 by virtue of a considerable action of what he here calls ,seelenhaftigkeit4 ,but this is not the place for more than a suggestion4 ,the main points of contrast are in ,hegel's interpretation sufficiently obvious4 ,footnote #chb3 ,des ,krpers4 ,i am not sure that ,i quite follow the meaning of this second moment of negation4 ,if it means the reaction or synthetic process of human hearing it removes in great measure the objection above4 ,we then have as the twofold negation the negation by the ideality of sound and that through the human sense4 ,but owing to ,hegel's use of ,material to indicate the medium which is subject to oscillation1 it would rather appear to mean that one vibration is cancelled by another4 ,footnote #chc3 ,das an und fr sich schon etwas ,ideelleres ist4 ,this would correspond to the ideality of the first negation of spatial condition4 ,footnote #chd3 ,he means its own ideal existence4 ,aufgeben must here be used in the primary sense of delivers4 ,he does not mean that it gives expression to the ideality of spirit2 this is added by the next clause4 ,footnote #che3 ,this is1 ,i think1 ,hegel's meaning for das an sich selbst ,subjektive4 ,its content is also formally ideal or abstract as above explained1 but to express this he would rather have used the word ideell or innerlich4 ,it is also1 as ,i have pointed out1 in great measure ideal in the sense that as musical tone it is not natural even in the qualified sense that colour is4 ,it is even more dependent on the human organism for its quality and synthesis4 ,but ,i do not think ,hegel means subjective in this sense1 but that it directly expresses human emotion4 ,footnote #chf3 ,both ideas are contained in the word ,verschweben1 which means to hover and slowly vanish away4 ,footnote #chg3 ,figurationen4 ,their modal combinations4 ,footnote #chh3 ,it is obvious that in this respect music to some extent infringes on the distinction ,hegel has already pointed out between its content and that of poetry4 ,footnote #chi3 ,by verstndige ,formen ,hegel means1 of course1 forms that express an artistic1 that is1 an intelligible purpose4 ,the whole passage is not very clearly expressed4 ,the general meaning is1 however1 that as architecture surrounds its statues with a medium of material environment co-ordinated by artistic design and invention1 so1 too1 music in its medium of emotional content is equally indefinite and may be used as an accompaniment 7as architecture is a kind of accompaniment to statuary7 in the melodic play of its harmonies to definite ideas in uttered speech4 ,the reader of ,browning will doubtless recollect the fine use made of architecture as metaphorical illustration in the poem ,abt ,vogler4 ,i think it was ,schopenhauer who first spoke of architecture as frozen music4 ,but ,schelling speaks of it in the same way4 ,footnote #cij3 ,i presume ,hegel here refers primarily to scholastic music1 musical exercises intended to exhibit the structure of music4 ,the exercises1 for example1 of ,cramer or ,fuchs4 ,bach's forty-eight fugues would occupy a transitional place4 ,footnote #cia3 ,tonseele4 ,there is1 of course1 something almost mystic in ,hegel's conception of musical sound as the ideality issuing from the material world4 ,footnote #cib3 ,that is1 sculpture and painting4 ,footnote #cic3 ,by ,haltpunkte ,hegel appears to mean material that will act as stays and supports in contrast to those which are indifferent4 ,footnote #cid3 ,i presume by solchen festen ,bestimmungen ,hegel refers to the general definition of artistic function just enunciated4 ,but the sense may possibly be1 while the point of departure is the stable determinations of natural form4 ,footnote #cie3 ,we are inevitably reminded of the release which ,art was to such men as ,beethoven1 ,dante1 ,milton1 and ,blake4 ,footnote #cif3 ,in the theme4 ,footnote #cig3 ,it seems doubtful how how far a musician would accept this at least in so far as it applies to classical music of the formal type4 ,the development1 for instance1 on the repetition of a theme in a sonata is at least part of the formal content of the sonata movement as a whole4 ,footnote #cih3 ,ein ,auseinandergehen4 ,variations on a theme would be a good example4 ,but surely the development of a theme may do precisely this in great measure1 ,i mean disclose both the depth of it and its concentration4 ,footnote #cii3 ,no doubt this is so if we assume the content to be mainly a theme1 a motive4 ,but the content of a movement includes the development4 ,the main difference after all is the fundamental one that in music the content is unfolded in a time series and in the plastic arts instantaneously in spatial form4 ,and in poetry the apprehension is also in a temporal series4 ,footnote #djj3 ,it is impossible in ,english to reflect the play of words between ,erinnerung 7memory7 and ,er-innerung 7self-penetration or ideal realization74 ,footnote #dja3 ,i am not sure whether ,hegel exactly means by ,phantasiren what we understand as ,improvization4 ,but it is the only form of music that strictly applies to his definition4 ,even the rhapsodies of ,liszt are controlled by the form1 as in a sense all music is4 ,footnote #djb3 ,as the plastic arts4 ,it certainly is not so closely associated with a definition given outside it by ,nature1 that is1 but it is obviously very closely associated to the formal modes of music1 such as the laws of counterpoint1 fugue1 sonata1 etc4 ,footnote #djc3 ,the first is its relation to architecture1 the second that to the plastic arts4 ,footnote #djd3 ,that is1 the ideas4 ,by receiving self-subsistency ,hegel means it maybe regarded independent of the art1 something essentially outside it4 ,footnote #dje3 ,by ,ton ,hegel means1 of course1 musical sound4 ,the object of music is music and ideas only in so far as they are expressed in music4 ,footnote #djf3 ,in diesem ,freiwerden4 ,in this free medium of its existence4 ,footnote #djg3 ,how far would ,hegel have applied this criticism to the great symphonies of his compatriots8 ,i think it is obvious1 at any rate1 that his criticism of pure music is somewhat lacking in sympathy4 ,nowadays it is not even a wholly obvious fact that the song or the opera are the most popular4 ,the truth is that musical education1 and that is what the appreciation of programme or symphonic music implies1 has made enormous strides since his day4 ,but his criticism will still hold for many in regard to more modern developments in ,strauss and his school4 ,footnote #djh3 ,by fertig ,hegel must mean here that the world of poetry is one whose claims to independent coherence is generally acknowledged4 ,footnote #dji3 ,by universal ,hegel appears to mean more universally intelligible1 ,he uses the same word in a like sense just below4 ,footnote #daj3 ,if ,hegel means to imply that pure music1 in so far as it presents ideas by suggestion1 has any advantage over music the effect of which is entirely a musical effect he is on dangerous ground4 ,the ,pastoral ,symphony of ,beethoven may or may not be more popular than ,beethoven's other symphonies1 but it is unquestionable that its artistic merit depends exclusively on its claims as musical composition4 ,and indeed its worth as music suggestive of ideas is mainly so great because1 as ,beethoven himself claimed1 it is rather a suggestion of emotional mood than the imitation of natural sounds or the suggestion of distinct ideas4 ,so far as popularity or universality of appeal is concerned1 he may be right4 ,but this is obviously no final test of the significance of music as compared with other arts1 though it may mark a distinguishing feature4 ,and surely music expresses emotions at least as they are 7selber7 more directly than poetry4 ,poetry no doubt gives them as we express them in ordinary life4 ,but music makes us feel them as they are unexpressed in our souls1 a still higher grade of reality4 ,footnote #daa3 ,hegel probably never heard ,beethoven's ninth symphony with its ,song of ,joy4 ,as to its success as set to music there may be two opinions1 but the fact that it is the culmination of so celebrated a composition is in itself a qualification of ,hegel's statement4 ,footnote #dab3 ,both ,mendelssohn and ,schumann deplored the fact that they could get no really good libretto and would unquestionably not have received all the statements here without considerable qualification4 ,hegel appears to be too dominated by the character of ,italian opera4 ,german opera as further developed by ,wagner and even in the hands of ,beethoven and ,glck and ,weber makes a very different demand4 ,it is unquestionably true that there must be a certain reciprocity of quality between the two4 ,but some of the finest music has been written for some of the finest poetical language1 namely that of our ,bible4 ,composers like ,bach1 ,handel1 and ,s4 ,s4 ,wesley insisted on having the very best form of their religious ideas they could obtain4 ,footnote #dac3 ,lit41 ,within the purely musical realm of tones4 ,hegel's strictures would only apply to the most formal kind of exercises or studies4 ,it would really be a misnomer to say that ,chopin's studies for the piano or ,spohr's or even ,kreutzer's exercises for the violin wholly come under it4 ,footnote #dad3 ,it is on this ground that ,aristotle calls music the most imitative art4 ,they represent emotions directly without the mediatory office of ,nature's objectivity 7vide ,three ,lectures on ,aesthetic1 by ,bernard ,bosanquet1 p4 #ec74 ,footnote #dae3 ,it is more subjective because the content is more ideal1 and more closely related to the artist's personal qualities4 ,footnote #daf3 ,more definite than feeling and soul-life is from tone4 ,footnote #dag3 ,that is1 vanishes with the evanescence of the music4 ,footnote #dah3 ,die ,geschicklichkeit eines virtuosen ,machwerks4 ,machwerk is used1 of course1 in a depreciating sense4 ,the contrast is between it and a truly inspired composition4 ,footnote #dai3 ,lit41 ,of the business on hand4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,gleichgltig4 ,i am not sure whether ,hegel means fortuitous in the sense that ,nature in its abstraction is such1 or purely objective1 i4e41 no self-reflection1 probably the latter4 ,they are dead elements4 ,footnote #dba3 ,that is1 spatial externality4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,the meaning appears to me that apart from conscious life which can contrast the fleeting moments of ,time with its permanent self-identity the process is without meaning--there is no process1 it is a with no differentiation4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,it cancels itself in so far as it makes itself an object4 ,the dialectical movement of self-consciousness is here viewed in the bare form of its original abstraction4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,das ,ich als solches4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,abgeschmackte4 ,not so much bad taste here as false judgment4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,auffasst4 ,hegel would appear to mean the intelligent hearer rather than the composer1 though the word would refer to either4 ,even then it is not clear why music should not be said to exist by its mere performance4 ,but1 of course1 such presupposes the human executant1 and this is possibly what ,hegel intends to imply4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,nancirt4 ,made subject to the nuances or modifications introduced into such relations4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,verstand as contrasted with ,vernunft4 ,the analytical faculty of science4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,that is1 the quantitative basis4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,die haltungslose ,dauer4 ,that is1 a duration that is unbroken by arresting points in its progress4 ,footnote #dca3 ,that is1 self-conscious1 synthetic unity holding the temporal process in relation to itself4 ,it thus becomes not merely a werden but a fr sich seyn4 ,in contrast to the purely abstract process the self is das ,bei sich selbstseyende i4e41 that which persists along with itself4 ,this totality or aggregate of particulars ,hegel calls ,sammlung4 ,the analysis is really an analysis of the form of conscious experience4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,this is the converse case of a series of definite points of contrast1 but unrelated by any integrating principle4 ,i admit frankly that ,i am not sure ,i have wholly seized the meaning in these difficult paragraphs4 ,i have adhered in my translation1 therefore1 as closely as possible to the original4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,markirte4 ,footnote #dcd3 ,herrschende ,regel4 ,footnote #dce3 ,because their orbits are elliptical and motion is accelerated as they approach the focus4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,verlebendigung4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,he means of a specific collection of words1 sentences4 ,footnote #dch3 ,perioden4 ,footnote #dci3 ,umschwung4 ,perhaps all that is meant is the return to the previous level1 as we should speak of the rise and fall of voices4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,ein ,krper4 ,footnote #dda3 ,seiner zeitlichen ,gestalt4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,gezwungene4 ,i presume the meaning is that the oscillations are effected by a curved form of musical instrument4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,i am not sure there is not a certain confusion here4 ,our text1 at any rate1 when speaking of wind instruments1 refers to the column of air as the medium of sound1 but in the case of stringed instruments draws attention rather to the thing which creates the waves of vibration1 the string itself4 ,the nature of the timbre of an instrument is no doubt an important one1 but it may be questioned whether this distinction between line or column and surface is very satisfactory or sufficient4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,jenem linearen ,tnen4 ,the expression appears to me not very easy to interpret even from ,hegel's own point of view4 ,in what sense can you call a musical tone linear8 ,the theory here stated1 though ingenious enough1 appears to me to miss the fundamental question1 what actually constitutes the timbre of an instrument1 in its assertion1 for instance1 of distantly related harmonies or non-assertion of such4 ,even assuming that the form of the instrument1 or the part of it set into vibration1 may partially explain this1 it is obvious1 ,i think1 that ,hegel's manner of stating it is open to considerable criticism4 ,footnote #dde3 ,die nher abgeschlossene ,bestimmtheit4 ,the meaning seems to be that definition of them in which they stand out with most distinctness from others4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,the comparison is unfortunate--in two respects4 ,violet is a cardinal colour1 and the theory of ,goethe to which it refers is1 of course1 untenable4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,the true scientific reason why octaves resemble each other so much more closely than two notes at any other interval is that the upper of two notes at an octave's distance is the first upper-partial tone of the lower1 and all its harmonies are also harmonies of the lower note2 the compound tone1 for there is no entirely simple tone1 of the higher note contains no new sound1 which is not in the compound tone of the lower4 ,this is not the case with two notes at any other interval4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,ihre besonderen ,seiten4 ,i presume this means what is immediately called below the several intervals between note and note4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,there is really a distinction between the consonance of the dominant and a major or minor third4 ,footnote #dej3 ,that is1 the third is only third in relation to the key-note1 or the leading-note only as the note previous to the octave4 ,footnote #dea3 ,three notes are really essential to any true chord4 ,footnote #deb3 ,the mediant lies about midway between the tonic and dominant as the third of the scale4 ,the researches of ,helmholtz prove that the distinction between consonant or semi-consonant and dissonant intervals is not arbitrary1 but the result of the nature of the intervals themselves4 ,a musical tone is mostly a compound one1 containing1 besides its principal tone1 other tones with fixed relations to the lowest note1 called harmonics1 or upper partials4 ,helmholtz has shown that when two of the earlier-produced and stronger of these upper partial tones coincide in two notes sounded together1 the resulting tone is pure1 free1 that is1 from the inequalities known as beats 7,prout1 ,harmony1 #ajth ed41 pp4 #ba1 #bb74 ,footnote #dec3 ,as1 of course1 in the scale1 notes independent of each other4 ,footnote #ded3 ,schrfe4 ,footnote #dee3 ,the reader of ,browning will recall how the poet in his ,abt ,vogler exclaims ,why rushed the discords in1 but that harmony should be prized8 or speaks of blunting the minor into the ninth where the musician stands on alien ground1 surveying awhile the heights4 ,footnote #def3 ,this extreme emphasis on melody must be read as further explained lower down of melody in the wider sense4 ,even as thus qualified it is rather an overstatement4 ,it may be questioned whether in the mind of a musician of genius the freedom of harmonic progression is of a different quality to that of melodic4 ,it may appear no doubt less spontaneous4 ,but it is the task of the great artist to overcome that appearance in one case as much as in the other4 ,footnote #deg3 ,it may be doubted how far such a statement is true of many chord progressions in modern music4 ,it seems to me that this notion of harmony as fr sich having no musical significance is1 to say the least1 very misleading4 ,footnote #deh3 ,this really is the point4 ,inspired harmony in its progression unfolds what is really a tissue of melodic threads4 ,the complex musical structure of a ,brahms symphony is a good example4 ,footnote #dei3 ,lit41 the free self-subsistency 7,beisichseyn7 of subjective life4 ,footnote #dfj3 ,hegel puts it the other way4 ,what he means is that in the medium of music we neither apprehend objects of sense nor ideas as we receive them in imagination or thought4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,hegel throughout uses the term ,innerlichkeit4 ,that which is the ,inmost is1 in fact1 the ideal4 ,it is the raison d'tre and the notion itself4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,he means at the point proposed by the dramatic theme4 ,hegel's words are literally it subdues the subject 7i4e41 of consciousness7 referably to its simple concentration 7i4e41 on the subject at hand74 ,footnote #dfc3 ,the above distinction is hardly consonant with that of customary parlance4 ,we should rather say that the melody of the song gave an utterance to the words1 and the instrumentation was1 for the very reason that it was more independent1 more directly an accompaniment4 ,but the point emphasized here seems to be the closeness of the association4 ,in this aspect1 no doubt1 the music actually sung is more an accompaniment to the intelligible content4 ,as a rule accompaniment is generally used as the accompaniment of a song or choral writing1 and ,hegel himself uses it in this sense previously4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,a general truth1 no doubt4 ,but not without qualification if we consider the works and indeed the execution of such giants as ,bach and ,handel4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,that is1 particularity due to the idiosyncrasies of the artist1 and merely personal to him4 ,but the statement applies to classic art more strictly than modern4 ,footnote #dff3 ,that is1 music as an accompaniment4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,gediegenheit4 ,something that rings true as a whole1 not a thing of patches4 ,footnote #dfh3 ,the music of ,mendelssohn and others in this direction will raise a doubt in some whether ,hegel does not rather overstate his case here4 ,footnote #dfi3 ,besonderung4 ,the relative isolation that is effected by marked assertion4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,throughout this discussion the personal bias of ,hegel for the ,italian opera is obvious4 ,in the light of the actual knowledge of his day the wonder is that his own tastes permitted his being even as fair as he is4 ,it may be doubted whether he had any strong sense for orchestral or chamber music at all4 ,his reflections must be read throughout with this reservation4 ,footnote #dga3 ,or1 as ,hegel more technically calls it1 and ,i have above translated it1 subjectivity4 ,footnote #dgb3 ,that is1 dependent on living beings for its presentation in every case4 ,footnote #dgc3 ,the execution of ,paganini is1 of course1 the classic example4 ,but all cadenzas executed by a great artist1 even though carefully studied1 express something of the spirit4 ,footnote #dgd3 ,hegel means that such music expresses not so much rational freedom as the fundamental independence of the self-conscious principle4 ,footnote #dge3 ,by drftiger ,kopf ,i understand ,hegel to mean the headstrong charlatan as contrasted with the virtuoso who is also a trained musician4 ,paganini had a vein of both in his composition4 ,the epithet drftig1 lit41 thirsty1 is1 however1 not very clear1 and in so far as it is1 the emphasis would not be so much on quackery as absence of all training4 ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,,iii