,,life ,,of ,,robert ,,stevenson4 ,edinburgh ,university ,press3 ,,thomas ,,and ,,archibald ,,constable1 ,,printers ,,to ,,her ,,majesty4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,,syme ,,delineavit4 ,j4 ,,horsburgh ,,sculpsit4 ,,robert ,,stevenson ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,,civil ,,engineer4 ,from a bust by ,joseph1 placed in the ,library of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse by the ,commissioners of the ,northern ,lighthouses ,,life ,,of ,,robert ,,stevenson ,,civil ,,engineer ,,fellow ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society ,,of ,,edinburgh2 ,,fellow ,,of ,,the ,,geological ,,society ,,of ,,london2 ,,fellow ,,of ,,the ,,astronomical ,,society ,,of ,,london2 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,scottish ,,antiquaries1 ,,of ,,the ,,wernerian ,,natural ,,history ,,society1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,institution ,,of ,,civil ,,engineers4 ,,engineer ,,to ,,the ,,commissioners ,,of ,,northern ,,lighthouses ,,and ,,to ,,the ,,convention ,,of ,,royal ,,burghs ,,of ,,scotland1 ,,etc4 ,,by ,,david ,,stevenson ,,civil ,,engineer ,,vice-,,president ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society ,,of ,,edinburgh2 ,,member ,,of ,,council ,,of ,,the ,,institution ,,of ,,civil ,,engineers1 ,,etc4 ,,adam ,,and ,,charles ,,black1 ,,edinburgh ,e4 ,,and ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 ,,london ,,and ,,new ,,york #ahgh4 ,,preface ,the addresses made to the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 and the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 at the opening meetings of the session--#ahea1 contained obituary notices of ,robert ,stevenson4 ,the late ,alan ,stevenson1 his eldest son1 also wrote a short ,memoir of his father1 which was printed for private circulation4 ,but ,robert ,stevenson's long practice as a ,civil ,engineer--the important works he executed--and the valuable contributions he made to ,engineering and ,scientific literature1 seem to me to require a fuller notice of his life than has hitherto been given4 ,this has been attempted in the following ,memoir1 which will be found to consist of extracts from ,mr4 ,stevenson's ,professional ,reports--of notes from his ,diary--and of communications to ,scientific ,journals and ,societies1 between the years #agih and #ahdc1 when he retired from active practice4 ,these papers embrace a wide field of ,engineering1 including ,lighthouses1 ,harbours1 ,rivers1 ,roads1 ,railways1 ,ferries1 ,bridges1 and other cognate subjects4 ,some of them describe ,engineering practice which is now obsolete1 but not on that account1 ,i think1 uninteresting to such modern ,engineers as have regard for the antiquities of their ,profession4 ,some of them1 ,i am aware1 can only be appreciated by those who are specially interested in the city of ,edinburgh4 ,all of them will1 ,i venture to think1 be found worthy of preservation as interesting ,engineering records of an era that has passed away4 ,it formed no part of my duty to criticise them1 in the light of modern ,engineering1 and1 unaltered in form of expression or statement of opinion1 they are now reproduced as they came from my father's pen4 ,i offer no apology for presenting these ,extracts as the outlines of the life of one who occupied a prominent place among the ,civil ,engineers who practised during the beginning of the present1 and end of the last century1 shortly after ,british ,engineering1 with ,smeaton as its founder1 may be said to have had its origin4 ,d4 ,s4 ,,edinburgh1 ,,july #ahgh4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,early ,,life4 ,,page ,birth--,mr4 ,smith's improvements in ,lighthouse illumination-- ,origin of the ,scottish ,lighthouse ,board--,acts as ,assistant to their ,engineer--,student at ,andersonian ,institution1 ,glasgow1 and ,university of ,edinburgh--,succeeds ,mr4 ,smith as ,engineer to the ,northern ,lighthouse ,board--,tour of inspection of ,english lights in #ahja--;,is taken for a ,french spy #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,bell ,,rock ,,lighthouse4 ,resolves to practise as a ,civil ,engineer--,journals--,reports-- ,design for the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse--,improvements on ,smeaton's design--,application to ,parliament for ,act in #ahjb--;,act of ,parliament passed in #ahjf--,works begun in #ahjg--,tender breaks adrift--,life in the floating light--,boating between the lightship and the rock--,anxiety for workmen--,sunday work--,life in the ,barrack or ,beacon--,visits the ,eddystone in #ahac and #ahah--,sir ,walter ,scott's visit to the ,bell ,rock #ab ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,lighthouse ,,illumination4 ,early modes of illumination--,facet reflectors and lamps--,silvered copper reflectors and ,argand lamps--,isle of ,may coal light-- ,improvements in catoptric lights--,distinctions for lighthouses invented by ,mr4 ,stevenson1 viz41 flashing1 intermittent1 and double lights--,floating light lantern--,lighting of stage of ,covent ,garden ,theatre--,dioptric system of lighthouse illumination #dh ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,roads4 ,early roads and road-making--,edgeworth and ,m',adam's systems of roads--,stevenson's system of roads--,cast iron and stone tracks #fd ,,chapter ,v4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,edinburgh4 ,design for approaches to ,edinburgh from the ,east by ,regent and ,london ,roads1 and opening up access to the ,calton ,hill--,sites for the new ,jail and ,court of ,justiciary1 and buildings in ,waterloo ,place--,regent ,bridge--,feuing ,plan for ,eastern ,district of ,edinburgh--,improvement of accesses to ,edinburgh from the ,west and ,north1 and from ,granton--,removal of old 8,tolbooth0 ,prison--,removal of ,university ,buildings #gd ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,ferries4 ,ferry ,engineering--,extracts from ,report on the ,tay ,ferries-- ,reports on various ,ferries--,orkney and ,shetland ,ferry1 etc4 #aja ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,railways4 ,canals and ,railways on one level--,haulage on ,railways--,railways in ,scotland--,edinburgh and ,midlothian1 ,stockton and ,darlington1 and ,edinburgh and ,london ,railways--,uniform gauge proposed--,notes on ,railways for the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society--,letter from ,george ,stephenson #aaa ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,harbours ,,and ,,rivers #acj ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,timber #aee ,,chapter ,x4 ,,bridges4 ,marykirk1 ,annan1 ,stirling1 and ,hutcheson stone bridges-- ,high-level bridge for ,newcastle--,timber bridge of built planks--,winch ,chain ,bridge--,american bridges of suspension-- ,runcorn ,bridge--,menai ,chain ,bridge--,new form of suspension bridge #afj ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,wolf ,,rock ,,lighthouse #afh ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,carr ,,rock ,,beacon #agg ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,cranes #aha ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,fisheries #ahd ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,marine ,,surveying #aif ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,contributions ,,on ,,engineering ,,and ,,scientific ,,subjects4 ,contributions to ,encyclopdia ,britannica and ,edinburgh ,encyclopdia--,the alveus or bed of the ,german ocean--,sectio planography--,wasting effects of the sea at the ,mersey and ,dee--,density of fresh and salt water--,the ,hydrophore #bjc ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,extracts ,,from ,,early ,,reports4 ,wide range of subjects on which ,mr4 ,stevenson gave advice-- ,reports on ruins of ,aberbrothock ,abbey--,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral1 and ,earl's ,palace1 ,kirkwall--,st4 ,andrews ,cathedral--,montrose ,church ,spire--,melville ,monument1 ,edinburgh--,lipping of joints of masonry with cement--,provision for flood waters in bridges --,hydraulic mortar--,protection of foreshores--,cycloidal sea wall--,checking drift sand--,night signal lamps--,cause of heavy seas in ,irish ,channel--,sea routes across ,irish ,channel--,build of ,ships--,prospective increase of population--,tidal scour-- ,unscrewing of bolts by the waves--,cement ,rubble cofferdams-- ,buoyage system--,observations on fog signals--,regulations for steam vessels--,notes on shipwrecks #bcf ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,retrospect ,,of ,,mr4 ,,stevenson',s ,,life #bfd ,,appendix #bgd ,,index #bgg ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 ,,frontispiece1 ,to face ,title-page4 ,to face page ,i4 ,,elevation ,,of ,,bell ,,rock ,,lighthouse1 #be ,,ii4 ,,section ,,of ,,bell ,,rock ,,lighthouse1 #be ,,iii4 ,,vignette ,,of ,,bell ,,rock ,,lighthouse1 ,,with ,,facsimile ,,of ,,lines ,,written ,,in ,,bell ,,rock ,,album ,,by ,,sir ,,walter ,,scott1 #dg ,,iv4 ,,plan ,,of ,,approaches ,,to ,,edinburgh ,,by ,,regent ,,and ,,london ,,roads1 #ahad1 #gg ,v4 ,,design ,,for ,,building ,,on ,,the ,,calton ,,hill1 ,,edinburgh1 #ij ,,vi4 ,,elevations ,,of ,,annan ,,and ,,marykirk ,,bridges1 #afj ,,vii4 ,,elevations ,,of ,,hutcheson ,,and ,,stirling ,,bridges1 #afj ,,viii4 ,,design ,,for ,,high ,,level ,,road ,,bridge ,,at ,,newcastle ,,on ,,tyne1 #afa ,,ix4 ,,design ,,for ,,wolf ,,rock ,,lighthouse1 #agd ,x4 ,,carr ,,rock ,,beacon1 #agi ,,xi4 ,,moveable ,,jib ,,and ,,balance ,,cranes1 #ahb ,,xii4 ,,chart ,,of ,,the ,,north ,,sea ,,or ,,german ,,ocean1 ,,with ,,sections ,,of ,,the ,,depths ,,of ,,water1 #ahbj1 #bjg ,,chapter ,i4 ,,early ,,life4 #aggb-agih4 ,birth--,mr4 ,smith's improvements in ,lighthouse illumination--,origin of the ,scottish ,lighthouse ,board--,acts as ,assistant to their ,engineer--,student at ,andersonian ,institution1 ,glasgow1 and ,university of ,edinburgh--,succeeds ,mr4 ,smith as ,engineer to the ,northern ,lighthouse ,board--,tour of inspection of ,english lights in #ahja--;,is taken for a ,french spy4 ,robert ,stevenson1 maltster in ,glasgow1 was born in #agbj1 and1 as stated on his tombstone1 in the burial-ground of the ,cathedral1 died in #agfd4 ,his fourth son1 ,alan1 was partner in a ,west ,india house in ,glasgow1 and died of fever in the island of ,st4 ,christopher1 in #aggd1 while on a visit to his brother1 who managed the foreign business of the house at that place4 ,the only son of ,alan ,stevenson was ,robert1 the subject of this ,memoir1 who was born at ,glasgow on the #hth of ,june #aggb4 ,when his father died1 ,robert ,stevenson1 then an infant1 was left in circumstances of difficulty1 for the same epidemic fever which deprived him of his father carried off his uncle also1 at a time when their loss operated most disadvantageously on the business which they conducted2 and1 strange to say1 on account of legal difficulties1 nearly half a century elapsed before any patrimonial funds in which my father had an interest were realised4 ,under these circumstances his mother 7,jean ,lillie1 daughter of ,david ,lillie1 builder in ,glasgow1 who died1 as stated on his tombstone1 in the ,cathedral burying-ground1 in #aggd7 resolved to go to ,edinburgh to reside with a married sister1 and when her son reached the age of being able for school she wisely took advantage of one of the hospitals in that city for his education2 and the spirit of the man is well brought out by the fact that he devoted his first earnings in life1 at the ,cumbrae ,lighthouse1 to making a contribution to the funds of the ,orphan ,hospital in payment of what he regarded as a debt4 ,it appears from 8,memoranda0 left by my father for the information of his family1 that his mother was a woman of great prudence and remarkable fortitude1 based on deep convictions of religion2 and1 even in their time of trial1 which lasted over his school days1 he says1--8,my mother's ingenuous and gentle spirit amidst all her difficulties never failed her4 ,she still relied on the providence of ,god1 though sometimes1 in the recollection of her father's house and her younger days1 she remarked that the ways of ,providence were often dark to us4 ,the ,bible1 and attendance on the ministrations1 chiefly of ,mr4 ,randall of ,lady ,yester's ,church1 afterwards ,dr4 ,davidson of the ,tolbooth1#a and at other churches1 where ,i was almost always her constant attendant1 were the great sources of her comfort4 8,her intention was that ,i should be trained for the ministry1 with a view to which ,i had been sent1 after leaving my first school1 to ,mr4 ,macintyre1 a famous linguist of his day1 where ,i made the acquaintance of ,patrick ,neill1 afterwards the well-known printer1 and still better known naturalist1 who remained my most intimate friend through life1 and of ,william ,blackwood1 the no less celebrated publisher40 99 99 99 99 99 ,circumstances1 however1 occurred which entirely changed my father's prospects and pursuits4 ,soon after he had attained his fifteenth year his mother was married to ,mr4 ,thomas ,smith--son of a shipowner1 and member of the ,trinity ,house of ,dundee1--who himself was1 my father says1 a 8furnishing iron-merchant1 shipowner1 and underwriter0 in ,edinburgh1 and who being also a lamp-maker and an ingenious mechanician1 appears at a very early date to have directed his attention to the subject of lighthouses1 and endeavoured to improve the mode of illumination then in use1 by substituting lamps with mirrors1 for the open coal-fires which were at that early time the only beacons to guide the mariner4 ,mr4 ,smith's improvements attracted the notice of ,professor ,robison1 ,sir ,david ,hunter ,blair1 and ,mr4 ,creech1 the publisher and honorary secretary to the ,chamber of ,commerce4 ,i find from the minutes of that body1 that in #aghf1 a complaint was made to them by shipmasters as to the defective state of the coal light on the ,isle of ,may1 which was a 8private light0 belonging to the family of the ,duke of ,portland4 ,the ,chamber sent a deputation of their number to inquire into the truth of the objections that had been made1 who fully confirmed the justice of the complaints4 ,when the result of the examination was reported to the ,chamber of ,commerce1 ,mr4 ,smith submitted to them 8a plan for improving the light by dispensing with the coal-fire10 and after fully considering his suggestions1 the ,chamber1 at their meeting of #bdth ,may #aghf1 resolved 8that while they allowed much ingenuity to ,mr4 ,smith's plan of reflectors1 they were of opinion that a coal light should be continued40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,board of ,northern ,lighthouses was constituted by ,act of ,parliament in #aghf2 its members were the ,lord ,advocate and ,solicitor-,general1 the chief magistrates of ,edinburgh1 ,glasgow1 ,aberdeen1 ,inverness1 and ,campbeltown1 and the ,sheriffs of the maritime counties of ,scotland4 ,these ,commissioners1 happily for the interests of navigation1 took a more enlightened view of their duties than the ,chamber of ,commerce of ,edinburgh1 and after hearing and considering ,mr4 ,smith's proposals1 formally appointed him their ,engineer4 ,the preamble of the ,act constituting the ,northern ,lighthouse ,board1 states that it would greatly conduce to the security of navigation and the fisheries if four lighthouses were erected in the north part of ,great ,britain4 ,such1 it would seem1 was the limited state of trade in ,scotland1 that the erection of these four lighthouses was all that was contemplated1 on a coast1 extending to about #bjjj miles1 of perhaps the most dangerous navigation in ,europe4 ,it is now marked by sixty lighthouse stations for the guidance of the sailor1 but new claims continue to be made1 and new lighthouses are still admitted to be required4 ,the newly established ,lighthouse ,board at once entered on its important duties1 and the first light they exhibited was ,kinnaird ,head1 which was designed by ,mr4 ,smith and lighted in #aghg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these pursuits being very congenial to my father's mechanical turn of mind1 he had rendered himself useful to ,mr4 ,smith in carrying them out1 and was intrusted1 at the early age of nineteen1 to superintend the erection of a lighthouse on the island of ,little ,cumbrae1 in the river ,clyde1 according to a design which ,mr4 ,smith had furnished to the ,cumbrae ,light ,trustees4 ,this connection soon led to his adoption as ,mr4 ,smith's partner in business1 and1 in #agii1 to his union with his eldest daughter by a former marriage4 ,during the cessation of the works at ,cumbrae in winter1 my father1 who had determined to follow the profession of a ,civil ,engineer1 applied himself1 as appears from class note-books in my possession1 with great zeal to the practice of surveying and architectural drawing1 and to the study of mathematics at the ,andersonian ,institution at ,glasgow4 ,of the kindness of ,dr4 ,anderson1 who presided over that ,institution1 he ever entertained a most grateful remembrance1 and often spoke of him as one of his best advisers and kindest friends1 and in the ,memoranda already noticed he records his obligations to him in the following words3--8,it was the practice of ,professor ,anderson kindly to befriend and forward the views of his pupils2 and his attention to me during the few years ,i had the pleasure of being known to him was of a very marked kind1 for he directed my attention to various pursuits1 with the view to my coming forward as an engineer40 ,after completing the ,cumbrae ,lighthouse he was further engaged1 under ,mr4 ,smith1 in erecting two lighthouses on the ,pentland ,skerries in ,orkney1 where1 in view of what lay before him at the ,bell ,rock1 he had the useful experience of living four months in a tent on an uninhabited island1 and arranging the landing of the whole of the materials of the lighthouses in the difficult navigation of the ,pentland ,firth4 ,but here also he had a personal experience of ,god's overruling ,providence1 which clung to him through life1 and1 as we shall find1 proved his stay in times of danger1 when personal resources had ceased to prove availing4 ,in returning from the ,pentland ,skerries1 in #agid1 he embarked in the sloop #8,elizabeth' of ,stromness1 and proceeded as far as ,kinnaird ,head1 when the vessel was becalmed about three miles from the shore4 ,the captain kindly landed my father1 who continued his journey to ,edinburgh by land4 ,a very different fate1 however1 awaited his unfortunate shipmates4 ,a violent gale came on1 which drove the #8,elizabeth' back to ,orkney1 where she was totally wrecked1 and all on board unhappily perished4 ,notwithstanding my father's active duties in summer1 he was so zealous in the pursuit of knowledge that he contrived1 during several successive winters1 on his return from his practical work1 to avail himself of the ,philosophical classes at the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,in this manner he attended ,professor ,playfair's second and third ,mathematical courses1 two sessions of ,robison's ,natural ,philosophy1 two courses of ,chemistry under ,dr4 ,hope1 and two of ,natural ,history under ,professor ,jameson4 ,to these he added a course of ,moral ,philosophy under ,dugald ,stewart1 a course of ,logic under ,dr4 ,ritchie1 and one of ,agriculture under ,professor ,low4 8,i was prevented1 however10 he remarks1 in the ,memoranda1 8from following my friend ,dr4 ,neill for my degree of ,m4,a4 by my slender knowledge of ,latin1 in which my highest book was the ,orations of ,cicero1 and by my total want of ,greek40 ,such zeal in the pursuit of knowledge1 and views so enlarged of the benefits and value of a liberal education1 were characteristics of a mind of no ordinary vigour2 so that1 early trained to practical work1 and inspired with a true love of his profession1 it was not unnatural that on the resignation of ,mr4 ,smith the ,board should have appointed ,mr4 ,stevenson to succeed him as their ,engineer4 ,the first annual report made by him to the ,board is dated ,june #agih1 and he continued annually to prepare one up to the time of his resignation in #ahdc4 ,the first occasion on which he was sent by the ,board on a special mission was in #ahja1 when he was deputed by the ,commissioners to visit and report on the ,lighthouses on the coasts of ,england1 ,wales1 and the ,isle of ,man4 ,the report he submitted to the ,board is a most elaborate and valuable document4 ,after describing upwards of twenty ,public1 ,private1 and ,harbour lights which he had examined1 he proceeds fully to discuss the different systems of management in use1 and particularly to compare the system adopted by the ,scotch ,board with that practised in ,england by the ,trinity ,house1 most readily advising the adoption of what seemed improvements in the administration of the ,southern ,board4 ,in reporting as to the ,isle of ,man he takes occasion to suggest that the lighting of that island should be taken up by the ,northern ,commissioners--a proposal which was acted on in #ahae4 ,he says3-- 8,i had several communications with ,william ,scott1 ,esq41 ,receiver-,general of the ,customs1 upon the subject of ,lighthouses4 ,at his request ,i went to the ,point of ,langness1 and to the ,calf of ,man2 the former a very dangerous point of land1 the latter a situation that seems every way answerable to the general purposes of a site for a lighthouse4 8,as this island occupies a middle situation between ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 and is not included in any of these ,acts of ,parliament which relate to the erecting or maintaining of ,lights1 on either side of the ,channel1 perhaps it might answer to include the ,isle of ,man under the same ,act which refers to the ,northern ,lighthouses2 and by extending your powers this island might no longer stand a monument of darkness1 and a great obstruction to the navigation of ,st4 ,george's ,channel1 particularly from the want of a light upon the ,calf of ,man4 8,such a light1 together with the late improvement of the ,copeland light1 and the erection of the ,kilwarlin light upon the ,irish coast1 would in an eminent degree improve the navigation of the ,irish ,channel4 ,from the central situation of the ,isle of ,man1 a light would soon pay itself1 by serving the trade of ,maryport1 ,workington1 ,whitehaven1 ,lancaster and ,liverpool1 on the one side of the ,channel1 with ,dublin and ,newry on the other40 ,with reference to this suggestion the ,commissioners1 in ,january #ahjb1 adopted the following resolution3-- 8,in the above report ,mr4 ,stevenson has stated very strongly the great utility of a lighthouse upon the ,calf of ,man2 but not being within the jurisdiction either of the ,trinity ,house of ,london1 or of the ,commissioners for the ,northern ,lighthouses1 both of them are thereby prevented from accomplishing an object so much wished for by mariners1 as it would prove a great additional security to the navigation between a great number of the ports on the west of ,england1 and ,dublin1 and other ports in ,ireland4 ,in order therefore that this circumstance may not be overlooked1 the ,commissioners directed this notice to be taken of it in their ,minutes1 in order that if any application to ,parliament shall at a future period be deemed necessary1 the ,commissioners may judge how far it may not be proper to apply for power and liberty to erect a lighthouse upon a situation so very eligible as the ,calf of ,man1 being the southmost point of that island40 ,the report was illustrated with plans of ,douglas1 ,milford1 ,longships1 and ,portland ,lighthouses4 ,the somewhat formidable journey he had undertaken1 involving #bejj miles of travelling1 occupied eight weeks in its performance1 and the following amusing incident shows what peaceful travellers1 in those troubled times1 had sometimes to encounter3-- 8,i left the ,scilly ,islands considerably instructed by the examination of the machinery and apparatus of this lighthouse1 and very much gratified4 ,i took my passage in a vessel bound for ,penzance1 where1 however1 ,i had not been long landed1 when ,i met with a circumstance which1 while it lasted1 was highly disagreeable1 and as it is somewhat connected with the object of the journey1 ,i beg your indulgence while ,i lay it before you4 8,finding that ,i could not get any convenient mode of conveyance from ,penzance to the ,lizard ,lights1 ,i set off on foot for ,marazion1 a town at the head of ,mounts ,bay1 where ,i was in hopes of getting a boat to freight4 ,i had just got that length1 and was making the necessary inquiry1 when a young man1 accompanied by several idle-looking fellows1 came up to me1 and in a hasty tone said1 #8,sir1 in the ,king's name ,i seize your person and papers4' ,to which ,i replied that ,i should be glad to see his authority1 and know the reason of an address so abrupt4 ,he told me the want of time prevented his taking regular steps1 but that it would be necessary for me to return to ,penzance1 and there undergo an examination1 as ,i was suspected of being a ,french spy4 ,had ,i not been extremely anxious to get on my journey1 ,i would not have objected to this4 ,i therefore proposed to submit my papers to the examination of the nearest ,justice of ,peace1 who was immediately applied to and came to the inn where ,i was4 ,he seemed to be greatly agitated1 and quite at a loss how to proceed4 ,the complaint preferred against me was1 #8,that ,i had examined the ,longships ,lighthouse with the most minute attention1 and was no less particular in my inquiries at the keepers of the lighthouse regarding the sunk rocks lying off the ,land's ,end1 with the sets of the currents and tides along the coast3 that ,i seemed particularly to regret the situation of the rocks called the ,seven ,stones1 and the loss of a beacon which the ,trinity ,board had caused to be fixed upon the ,wolf ,rock3 that ,i had taken notes of the bearings of several sunk rocks1 and a drawing of the lighthouse and of ,cape ,cornwall3 further1 that ,i had refused the honour of ,lord ,edgecombe's invitation to dinner1 who happened to be at the ,land's ,end with a party of pleasure1 offering as an apology that ,i had some particular business on hand1 upon which ,i immediately set off for the ,scilly ,islands4 ,these circumstances concurring with a report that a schooner had been seen off the ,land taking soundings1 it was presumed that ,i was connected with her1 and had some evil intention in making these remarks4' 8,in order to clear myself of this suspicion1 ,i laid before the ,justice your letter directing me to make the journey1 which was signed by ,mr4 ,gray 7,secretary to the ,board71 as also several letters he had procured for me to some of the members of the ,trinity ,house1 ,london1 together with a letter from the ,trinity ,house1 ,leith1 to the ,marquis of ,titchfield4 ,i produced also my letter of credit from ,sir ,william ,forbes and ,company1 and1 after perusing these letters1 the ,justice of ,peace very gravely observed that they were #8merely bits of paper1' and was of opinion that ,i should be kept in custody till the matter should be laid before ,lord ,edgecombe1 the ,lord-,lieutenant of the county1 and added1 that he would most likely order me to be sent to ,plymouth4 8,i no sooner heard the opinion of this gentleman than ,i ordered a chaise and immediately returned to ,penzance1 where ,i laid my papers before the ,justices of ,peace1 and waited their decision with much anxiety4 ,they no sooner looked them over than in the most polite manner they cleared me of the suspicions ,i laboured under1 and left me at liberty to pursue my journey1 which ,i did with so much eagerness that ,i gave the two coal lights upon the ,lizard ,point only a very transient look1 and passed on to ,plymouth40 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,bell ,,rock ,,lighthouse4 #agih-ahaa4 ,resolves to practise as a ,civil ,engineer--,journals--,reports--,design for the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse--,improvements on ,smeaton's design--,application to ,parliament for ,act in #ahjb--;,act of ,parliament passed in #ahjf--,works begun in #ahjg--,tender breaks adrift--,life in the floating light--,boating between the lightship and the rock--,anxiety for workmen--,sunday work--,life in the ,barrack or ,beacon--,visits the ,eddystone in #ahac and #ahah--,sir ,walter ,scott's visit to the ,bell ,rock4 ,from what has been said in the preceding chapter1 it will be seen that ,mr4 ,stevenson1 from an early period1 evinced a decided liking for general ,engineering1 and ,i find that almost simultaneously with his appointment under the ,lighthouse ,board1 for whose peculiar duties he had qualified himself by a pretty large and hard-earned experience1 he resolved to prosecute the practice of ,civil ,engineering1 in all its branches4 ,i find also that coincident with this start in life1 he commenced a systematic 8,journal10 beginning in #ahja1 of the various travels made in the prosecution of his profession1 which occupies nineteen octavo and quarto manuscript books4 ,his ,reports1 many of them on subjects of great interest1 occupy fourteen folio manuscript volumes1 and his printed reports occupy four thick quarto volumes4 ,these books1 together with relative plans1 the number of which ,i fear to mention1 are the documents ,i had to consult in obtaining the records of my father's professional life4 ,the ,journals1 ,reports1 and ,plans extend over a period of nearly fifty years1 and the selection of topics from such a mass of matter has been no easy task4 ,but as the duty ,i have undertaken is to convey to the reader a sketch of my father as a ,civil ,engineer1 ,i have been content1 passing over many interesting subjects1 to select from the documents before me only so much as should be useful in carrying out that object2 and even in this ,i encountered the difficulty of determining the best order in which the selections ,i have made should be given4 ,to do so according to any chronological arrangement ,i find to be impossible1 and having resolved to give them not as a consecutive narrative1 but in the form of detached notices1 ,i think it will be most appropriate that ,i should commence the story of ,mr4 ,stevenson's professional life with his great work--the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1--which extended over a period of twelve years1 commencing with his early conception of its structure in #agii1 and terminating with its completion in #ahaa4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,inchcape or ,bell ,rock lies off the east coast of ,scotland1 nearly abreast of the entrance to the ,firth of ,tay1 at a distance of eleven miles from ,arbroath1 the nearest point of the mainland4 ,the name of 8,bell0 has its origin in the legend respecting the good intention of a pious ,abbot of ,aberbrothock being frustrated by the notorious pirate1 ,sir ,ralph the ,rover1 as related in ,southey's well-known lines1 which ,i have given in an ,appendix4 ,of the origin1 progress1 and completion of the lighthouse ,mr4 ,stevenson has left a lasting memorial and most interesting narrative in his quarto volume of upwards of #ejj pages1 a great part of which was written to his dictation by his only daughter1 and was published in #ahbd4b ,but there are some circumstances connected with the early history of the ,bell ,rock1 which1 while they could not properly have found a place in his narrative1 have been noticed in his ,memoranda1 from which ,i shall transcribe a few paragraphs detailing his early efforts and disappointments while engaged in designing and arranging for the prosecution of that great work3-- 8,all knew the difficulties of the erection of the ,eddystone ,lighthouse1 and the casualties to which that edifice had been liable2 and in comparing the two situations1 it was generally remarked that the ,eddystone was barely covered by the tide at high water1 while the ,bell ,rock was barely uncovered at low water4 8,i had much to contend with in the then limited state of my experience2 and ,i had in various ways to bear up against public opinion as well as against interested parties4 ,i was in this state of things1 however1 greatly supported1 and ,i would even say often comforted1 by ,mr4 ,clerk of ,eldin1 author of the ,system of ,breaking the ,line in ,naval ,tactics4 ,mr4 ,clerk took great interest in my models1 and spoke much of them in scientific circles4 ,he carried men of science and eminent strangers to the model-room which ,i had provided in ,merchants ,hall1 of which he sometimes carried the key1 both when ,i was at home and while ,i was abroad4 ,he introduced me to ,lord ,webb ,seymour1 to ,admiral ,lord ,duncan1 and to ,professors ,robison and ,playfair1 and others4 ,mr4 ,clerk had been personally known to ,smeaton1 and used occasionally to speak of him to me40 ,it is impossible to read this little narrative without feeling a respect for ,mr4 ,clerk's hearty enthusiasm1 and perceiving the beneficial influence which a kindly disposition may produce on the pursuits of a young man1 by stimulating an honourable emulation and discouraging a desponding spirit4 8,but at length10 the memorandum continues1 8all difficulties with the public1 as well as with the better informed few1 were dispelled by the fatal effects of a dreadful storm from the ,n4,e41 which occurred in ,december #agii1 when it was ascertained that no fewer than seventy sail of vessels were stranded or lost1 with many of their crews1 upon the coast of ,scotland alone6 ,many of them1 it was not doubted1 might have found a safe asylum in the ,firth of ,forth1 had there been a lighthouse upon the ,bell ,rock1 on which1 indeed1 it was generally believed the #8,york1' of #gd guns1 with all hands1 perished1 none being left to tell the tale6 ,the coast for many miles exhibited portions of that fine ship4 ,there was now1 therefore1 but one voice1--#8,there must be a lighthouse erected on the ,bell ,rock4' 8,previous to this dreadful storm ,i had prepared my pillar-formed model1 a section of which is shown in ,plate ,,vii4 of the #8,account of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse4' ,early in the year #ahjj1 ,i1 for the first time1 landed on the rock to see the application of my pillar-formed model to the situation for which it was designed and made4 8,on this occasion ,i was accompanied by my friend ,mr4 ,james ,haldane1 architect1 whose pupil ,i had been for architectural drawing4 ,our landing was at low water of a spring-tide1 when a good space of rock was above water1 and then the realities of its danger were amply exemplified by the numerous relics which were found in its crevices1 such as a ship's marking-iron1 a piece of a kedge-anchor1 and a cabin stove1 a bayonet1 cannon-ball1 silver shoe-buckle1 crowbars1 pieces of money1 and other evidences of recent shipwreck4 8,i had no sooner set foot upon the rock than ,i laid aside all idea of a pillar-formed structure1 fully convinced that a building on similar principles with the ,eddystone would be found practicable4 8,on my return from this visit to the rock1 ,i immediately set to work in good earnest1 with a design of a stone lighthouse1 and modelled it4 ,i accompanied this design with a report or memorial to the ,lighthouse ,board4 ,the abandoned pillar-formed plan ,i estimated at #ae1jjj1 and the stone building at #db1fhe1 #hs4 ,but still ,i found that ,i had not made much impression on the ,board on the score of expense1 for they feared it would cost much more than forty or fifty thousand pounds40 ,it was as to some of the details of this stone design that my father asked ,professor ,playfair to give his opinion1 and received the following reply1 which was not a little encouraging to the young engineer attempting to improve on the design of the great ,smeaton3-- 8,mr4 ,playfair is very sorry that he has scarce had any time to look more particularly over the plans which ,mr4 ,stevenson has been so good as to send him4 ,mr4 ,playfair is too little acquainted with practical mechanics to make his opinion of much weight on such a subject as the construction of a lighthouse4 ,but so far as he can presume to judge1 the method of connecting the stones proposed by ,mr4 ,stevenson is likely to prove perfectly secure1 and has the advantage of being more easily constructed than ,mr4 ,smeaton's40 8#ith ,august #ahjb40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,lord ,advocate ,hope1 one of the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses1 and ,member of ,parliament for the city of ,edinburgh1 who had interested himself much in the ,bell ,rock question1 and often conferred with ,mr4 ,stevenson on his design for the work1 determined that the matter should not be allowed to rest1 and introduced a ,bill into ,parliament in #ahjb-ahjc to empower the ,board to carry it out4 ,this ,bill passed the ,house of ,commons4 ,the ,committee to which it was referred report--8,that it appears that a sufficient foundation might be prepared on the north end of the rock1 where the surface is highest and of greatest dimensions3 ,that artificers could work five hours at the times of each low-water in the day-time of the summer months1 and that if the building should be made of masonry the stones to form it might be prepared on shore1 marked and numbered1 and carried off to the rock and properly placed3 ,that as the present duties may not for a long time enable the ,commissioners to defray the expense of erecting and maintaining a lighthouse on the ,bell or ,cape ,rock1 it will be expedient to authorise the ,commissioners to levy and take further duties for that purpose1 with power to borrow a further sum on the credit of said duties40 ,at that early date there was no 8standing order0 of the ,house requiring the promoters of a ,bill to lodge plans of their proposed works1 and my father in his ,memoranda says3--8,the only plans in ,mr4 ,hope's hands were those which1 in #ahjj1 ,i submitted to the ,lighthouse ,board40 ,in the ,house of ,lords the ,bill met with opposition from the ,corporation of the ,city of ,london1 as including too great a range of coast in the collection of duties1 and such alterations and amendments were introduced in the ,upper ,house as rendered it necessary for the ,lord ,advocate to withdraw the ,bill4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in order to fortify ,mr4 ,stevenson's views as to the practicability of building a stone tower in such a situation1 which was apparently the chief difficulty in all the early negotiations1 the ,board resolved to take the advice of ,mr4 ,telford1 then employed by ,government in reporting on the ,highland ,roads and ,bridges and the ,caledonian ,canal1 who1 however1 was unable to overtake the duty1 and thereafter1 on ,mr4 ,stevenson's suggestion1 they applied to ,mr4 ,john ,rennie1 ,mr4 ,stevenson's senior by eleven years1 who had1 like himself1 at the early age of twenty-one1 commenced the practice of his profession1 and was then settled in ,london as a civil engineer4 ,rennie having concurred with ,stevenson as to the practicability and expediency of adopting a stone tower1 the ,lighthouse ,board resolved to make another application to ,parliament4 ,the second application was made in #ahjf1 in a ,bill introduced by ,lord ,advocate ,erskine1 and proceeded on the same design and estimate of #db1fhe1 #hs41 prepared by ,mr4 ,stevenson1 in #ahjj2 and the following is an extract from the ,report of the ,committee of the ,house of ,commons to whom was referred the petition of the ,commissioners of the ,northern ,lighthouses3-- 8,proceeded to examine ,mr4 ,robert ,stevenson1 ,civil ,engineer1 who1 in his capacity of ,engineer for the ,northern ,lighthouses1 has erected six lighthouses in the northern parts of the kingdom1 and has made the erection of a lighthouse on the ,cape or ,bell ,rock more particularly his study1--especially since the loss of about seventy sail of vessels in a storm which happened upon the coast in the month of ,december #agii1 by which numerous ships were driven from their course along the shore1 and from their moorings in ,yarmouth ,roads1 and other places of anchorage1 southward of the ,firth of ,forth1 and wrecked upon the eastern coast of ,scotland1 as referred to in the report made to this ,house in the month of ,july #ahjc2 the particulars of which he also confirms3 ,that the ,bell ,rock is most dangerously situated1 lying in a track which is annually navigated by no less than about #gjj1jjj tons of shipping1 besides his ,majesty's ships of war and revenue cutters3 ,that its place is not easily ascertained1 even by persons well acquainted with the coast1 being covered by the sea about half-flood1 and the landmarks1 by which its position is ascertained1 being from twelve to twenty miles distant from the site of danger4 8,that from the inquiries he made at the time the #8,york' man-of-war was lost1 and pieces of her wreck having drifted ashore upon the opposite and neighbouring coast1 and from an attentive consideration of the circumstances which attend the wreck of ships of such dimensions1 he thinks it probable that the #8,york' must have struck upon the ,bell ,rock1 drifted off1 and afterwards sunk in deep water3 ,that he is well acquainted with the situation of the ,bell ,rock1 the yacht belonging to the ,lighthouse service having1 on one occasion1 been anchored near it for five days1 when he had an opportunity of landing upon it every tide3 ,that he has visited most of the lighthouses on the coast of ,england1 ,wales1 and ,ireland1 particularly those of the ,eddystone1 the ,smalls1 and the ,kilwarlin1 or ,south ,rock1 which are built in situations somewhat similar to the ,bell ,rock3 ,that at high water there is a greater depth on the ,bell ,rock than on any of these1 by several feet2 and he is therefore fully of opinion1 that a building of stone1 upon the principles of the ,eddystone ,lighthouse1 is alone suitable to the peculiar circumstances which attend this rock1 and has reported his opinion accordingly to the ,commissioners of the ,northern ,lighthouses as far back as the year #ahjj2 and having given the subject all the attention in his power1 he has estimated the expense of erecting a building of stone upon it at the sum of #db1fhe1 #hs4 8,your ,committee likewise examined ,mr4 ,john ,rennie1 ,civil ,engineer1 who1 since the report made to this ,house in #ahjc1 has visited the ,bell ,rock1 who confirms the particulars in said report1 and entertains no doubt of the practicability of erecting a lighthouse on that rock1 is decidedly of opinion that a stone lighthouse will be the most durable and effectual1 and indeed the only kind of building that is suited to this situation3 ,that he has computed the expense of such a building1 and after making every allowance for contingencies1 from his own experience of works in the sea1 it appears to him that the estimate or expense will amount to #da1hdc1 #aes40 ,this application was fortunately successful1 the ,act having obtained the royal assent in ,july #ahjf1 when the ,commissioners at once determined to commence the work4 ,mr4 ,stevenson now began to feel the full stress of his responsibility4 ,he accordingly says in his notes3-- 8,the erection of a lighthouse on a rock about twelve miles from land1 and so low in the water that the foundation-course must be at least on a level with the lowest tide1 was an enterprise so full of uncertainty and hazard that it could not fail to press on my mind4 ,i felt regret that ,i had not had the opportunity of a greater range of practice to fit me for such an undertaking4 ,but ,i was fortified by an expression of my friend ,mr4 ,clerk1 in one of our conversations upon its difficulties4 #8,this work1' said he1 #8is unique1 and can be little forwarded by experience of ordinary masonic operations4 ,in this case ,smeaton's ,narrative must be the text-book1 and energy and perseverance the pratique4'0 ,mr4 ,rennie also1 who had supported the ,bill of #ahjf in ,parliament1 and afterwards was appointed by the ,commissioners as an advising ,engineer to whom ,mr4 ,stevenson could refer in case of emergency1 and who had suggested some alterations on ,mr4 ,stevenson's design of the lighthouse in which he did not see his way to acquiesce1 nevertheless continued to take a kind interest in the work1 and they continued to correspond frequently during its progress4 8,poor old fellow10 ,rennie says in one letter1 alluding to the name of ,smeaton1 8,i hope he will now and then take a peep of us1 and inspire you with fortitude and courage to brave all difficulties and all dangers1 to accomplish a work which will1 if successful1 immortalise you in the annals of fame40#c ,how well ,mr4 ,stevenson met the demands which1 in the course of his great enterprise1 were made on his perseverance1 fortitude1 and self-denial1 the history of the operations1 and their successful completion1 abundantly show4 ,the work was indeed1 in all respects1 peculiarly suited to his tastes and habits2 and ,mr4 ,clerk truly--although perhaps unconsciously--characterised the man1 in his terse statement of what would be required of him3 8,the work is unique--ordinary experience can do little for it--all must depend on energy and perseverance40 ,no one can read ,mr4 ,stevenson's 8,account of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse0 without perceiving the justness of this estimate of the difficulties that lay before him1 and his ability to overcome them4 ,though ever maintaining the highest respect for ,smeaton and his noble work1 ,mr4 ,stevenson was led1 in his original design of #ahjj1 as we have already seen1 and further in his actual execution of the ,bell ,rock tower1 to deviate to a considerable extent from the design of the ,eddystone4 ,mr4 ,stevenson adopted a height of one hundred feet instead of sixty-eight for the height of the masonry1 and he carried the level of the solid part of the tower to the height of twenty-one feet above high water1 instead of eleven feet as at the ,eddystone4 ,in addition to these deviations in the general dimensions of the tower1 he increased the thickness of the walls1 and he also introduced some changes of importance in its interior structure1 whereby he secured a greater continuity1 and therefore greater strength of the masonry of the walls and floors1 which he describes in his book as follows3-- 8,each floor stone forms part of the outward walls1 extending inwards to a centre stone1 independently of which they are connected by means of copper bats1 with a view to preserve their square form at the extremity1 instead of dovetailing4 ,these stones are also modelled with joggles1 sidewise1 upon the principles of the common floor1 termed feathering in carpentry1 and also with dovetailed joggles across the joints1 where they form part of the outward wall4444 ,the floors of the ,eddystone ,lighthouse1 on the contrary1 were constructed of an arch form1 and the haunches of the arches bound with chains to prevent their pressing outward1 to the injury of the walls4 ,in this1 ,mr4 ,smeaton followed the construction of the ,dome of ,st ,paul's2 and this mode might also be found necessary at the ,eddystone1 from the want of stones in one length1 to form the outward wall and floor1 in the then state of the granite quarries of ,cornwall4 ,at ,mylnefield ,quarry1 however1 there was no difficulty in procuring stones of the requisite dimensions2 and the writer foresaw many advantages that would arise from having the stones of the floors to form part of the outward walls1 without introducing the system of arching40 ,smeaton in fact adopted an arched form for the floors of his building1 which rendered it necessary1 in order to counteract the outward thrust1 to insert chains1 embedded in grooves1 cut in the masonry2 but ,mr4 ,stevenson1 in designing the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 improved on ,smeaton's plan1 not only by a better general arrangement of the masonry1 but by converting the floors into effective bonds1 so that1 instead of exerting an outward thrust1 they actually tie or bind the walls together4 ,this is at once apparent from ,figs4 #a and #b1 which show the floor-courses of the ,eddystone and ,bell ,rock in section4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,eddystone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,bell ,rock4 ,the engineer of the ,bell ,rock had all the advantage of ,smeaton's earlier experience1 which he ever thankfully acknowledged2 but there can be no doubt whatever that the ,bell ,rock presented peculiar engineering difficulties4 ,the ,eddystone ,rock is barely covered by the tide at high water1 while the ,bell ,rock is barely uncovered at ,,low ,,water1 rendering the time of working on it1 as we shall afterwards find1 extremely limited2 and the proposal to erect a stone tower on this low-lying isolated reef1 at a distance of twelve miles from land1 was no less remarkable for its novelty than for its boldness4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4 ,,bell ,,rock ,,light ,,house4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,johnston1 ,edinburgh4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,bell ,,rock ,,light ,,house4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,johnston1 ,edinburgh4 ,plate ,i4 is an elevation of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 and ,plate ,,ii4 is a section showing the manner in which the interior is laid out1 and1 so far as the size of scale admits1 the peculiar arrangements of the masonry1 to which reference has been made4 ,the following is a brief statement of the progress of the work3-- ,the spring of #ahjg was occupied in preparing a floating lightship to be moored off the rock1 erecting the timber framework which was to support the barrack to be occupied as a temporary dwelling by the workmen1 and in carrying out other preliminary arrangements4 ,during this first season the aggregate time of low-water work1 caught by snatches of an hour or two at a tide1 amounted to no more than thirteen and a half days' work of ten hours each4 ,in #ahjh the foundation-pit was excavated in the solid rock1 and the building was brought up to the level of the surrounding surface1 the aggregate time of low-water work amounting to twenty-two days of ten hours1 so that little more than a month's work was obtained during the first two years4 ,in #ahji the barrack for the workmen was completed1 and the building of the tower brought to the height of seventeen feet above high water of spring-tides4 ,in #ahaj the masonry of the tower was finished and the lantern erected in its place1 and the light was exhibited on #ast ,february #ahaa4 ,the light is of the description known as revolving red and white1 and hence ,sir ,walter ,scott's 8gem of changeful light0 7see page #dg74 ,these weary years of toil and peril were also years of great professional responsibility for the ,engineer1 and of constant anxiety for the safety of his devoted band of associates1 including shipmasters1 landing-masters1 foremen1 and workmen1 in all of whom ,mr4 ,stevenson took a cordial and ever friendly interest1 and in whom he invariably placed implicit confidence when he found that their several duties were faithfully discharged4 ,to form strong attachments to trustworthy fellow-workmen was ever a marked feature in my father's character1 and after a lapse of nearly half a century many who joined in his labours at the ,bell ,rock were still associated with him in the business of his office1 or as ,inspectors of works4 ,his daily cheerful participation in all the toils and hazards which were1 for two seasons1 endured in the floating lightship1 and afterwards in the timber house or barrack1 over which the waves broke with very great force1 and caused a most alarming twisting movement of its main supports1 were proofs not merely of calm and enduring courage1 but of great self-denial and enthusiastic devotion to his calling4 ,on some occasions his fortitude and presence of mind were most severely tried1 and well they stood the test4 ,the record of this great work is1 as ,i have already said1 fully given in the 8,account of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse10 to which ,i must refer professional readers2 but as this volume is out of print1 and is not easily accessible1 ,i shall give a few extracts from it1 which ,i feel sure will be read with deep interest1 and convey to the reader at least some idea of the difficulties with which this undertaking was beset3-- 8,soon after the artificers landed on the rock they commenced work2 but the wind coming to blow hard1 the ,smeaton's#d boat and crew1 who had brought their complement of eight men to the rock1 went off to examine her riding-ropes1 and see that they were in proper order4 ,the boat had no sooner reached the vessel than she went adrift1 carrying the boat along with her2 and both had even got to a considerable distance before this situation of things was observed1 every one being so intent upon his own particular duty that the boat had not been seen leaving the rock4 ,as it blew hard1 the crew1 with much difficulty1 set the mainsail upon the ,smeaton1 with a view to work her up to the buoy1 and again lay hold of the moorings4 ,by the time that she was got round to make a tack towards the rock1 she had drifted at least three miles to leeward1 with the praam boat astern2 and having both the wind and tide against her1 the writer perceived1 with no little anxiety1 that she could not possibly return to the rock till long after its being overflowed2 for1 owing to the anomaly of the tides1 formerly noticed1 the ,bell ,rock is completely under water before the ebb abates to the offing4 8,in this perilous predicament1 indeed1 he found himself placed between hope and despair2 but certainly the latter was by much the most predominant feeling of his mind1--situate upon a sunken rock1 in the middle of the ocean1 which1 in the progress of the flood-tide1 was to be laid under water to the depth of at least twelve feet in a stormy sea4 ,there were this morning in all thirty-two persons on the rock1 with only two boats1 whose complement1 even in good weather1 did not exceed twenty-four sitters2 but to row to the floating light with so much wind1 and in so heavy a sea1 a complement of eight men for each boat was as much as could with propriety be attempted1 so that in this way about one-half of our number was unprovided for4 ,under these circumstances1 had the writer ventured to despatch one of the boats1 in expectation of either working the ,smeaton sooner up towards the rock1 or in hopes of getting her boat brought to our assistance1 this must have given an immediate alarm to the artificers1 each of whom would have insisted upon taking to his own boat1 and leaving the eight artificers belonging to the ,smeaton to their chance4 ,of course1 a scuffle might have ensued1 and it is hard to say1 in the ardour of men contending for life1 where it might have ended4 ,it has even been hinted to the writer that a party of the pickmen were determined to keep exclusively to their own boat against all hazards4 8,the unfortunate circumstance of the ,smeaton and her boat having drifted was1 for a considerable time1 only known to the writer1 and to the landing-master1 who removed to the further point of the rock1 where he kept his eye steadily upon the progress of the vessel4 ,while the artificers were at work1 chiefly in sitting or kneeling postures1 excavating the rock1 or boring with the jumpers1 and while their numerous hammers1 and the sound of the smith's anvil1 continued1 the situation of things did not appear so awful4 ,in this state of suspense1 with almost certain destruction at hand1 the water began to rise upon those who were at work on the lower parts of the sites of the beacon and lighthouse4 ,from the run of sea upon the rock1 the forge-fire was also sooner extinguished this morning than usual1 and the volumes of smoke having ceased1 objects in every direction became visible from all parts of the rock4 ,after having had about three hours' work1 the men began1 pretty generally1 to make towards their respective boats for their jackets and stockings1 when to their astonishment1 instead of three they found only two boats1 the third being adrift with the ,smeaton4 ,not a word was uttered by any one1 but all appeared to be silently calculating their numbers1 and looking to each other with evident marks of perplexity depicted in their countenances4 ,the landing-master1 conceiving that blame might be attached to him for allowing the boat to leave the rock1 still kept at a distance4 ,at this critical moment the author was standing upon an elevated part of ,smith's ,ledge1 where he endeavoured to mark the progress of the ,smeaton1 not a little surprised that the crew did not cut the praam adrift1 which greatly retarded her way1 and amazed that some effort was not making to bring at least the boat1 and attempt our relief4 ,the workmen looked steadfastly upon the writer1 and turned occasionally towards the vessel1 still far to leeward4 ,all this passed in the most perfect silence1 and the melancholy solemnity of the group made an impression never to be effaced from his mind4 8,the writer had all along been considering various schemes--providing the men could be kept under command--which might be put in practice for the general safety1 in hopes that the ,smeaton might be able to pick up the boats to leeward1 when they were obliged to leave the rock4 ,he was1 accordingly1 about to address the artificers on the perilous nature of their circumstances1 and to propose that all hands should unstrip their upper clothing when the higher parts of the rock were laid under water2 that the seamen should remove every unnecessary weight and encumbrance from the boats2 that a specified number of men should go into each boat1 and that the remainder should hang by the gunwales1 while the boats were to be rowed gently towards the ,smeaton1 as the course to the ,pharos or floating light lay rather to windward of the rock4 ,but when he attempted to speak1 his mouth was so parched that his tongue refused utterance1 and he now learned by experience that the saliva is as necessary as the tongue itself for speech4 ,he then turned to one of the pools on the rock and lapped a little water1 which produced an immediate relief4 ,but what was his happiness when1 on rising from this unpleasant beverage1 some one called out #8,a boat6 a boat6' and on looking around1 at no great distance1 a large boat was seen through the haze making towards the rock4 ,this at once enlivened and rejoiced every heart4 ,the timeous visitor proved to be ,james ,spink1 the ,bell ,rock pilot1 who had come express from ,arbroath with letters4 ,spink had for some time seen the ,smeaton1 and had even supposed1 from the state of the weather1 that all hands were on board of her1 till he approached more nearly and observed people upon the rock4 ,upon this fortunate change of circumstances sixteen of the artificers were sent at two trips in one of the boats1 with instructions for ,spink to proceed with them to the floating light4#e ,this being accomplished1 the remaining sixteen followed in the two boats belonging to the service of the rock4 ,every one felt the most perfect happiness at leaving the ,bell ,rock this morning1 though a very hard and even dangerous passage to the floating light still awaited us1 as the wind by this time had increased to a pretty hard gale1 accompanied with a considerable swell of sea4 ,the boats left the rock about nine1 but did not reach the vessel till twelve o'clock noon1 after a most disagreeable and fatiguing passage of three hours4 ,every one was as completely drenched in water as if he had been dragged astern of the boats40 ,after this accident difficulty was experienced in getting the men to turn out next morning1 as related in the following extract3-- 8,the bell rung this morning at five o'clock1 but the writer must acknowledge1 from the circumstances of yesterday1 that its sound was extremely unwelcome4 ,this appears also to have been the feeling of the artificers1 for when they came to be mustered1 out of twenty-six1 only eight1 besides the foreman and seamen1 appeared upon deck1 to accompany the writer to the rock4 ,such are the baneful effects of anything like misfortune or accident connected with a work of this description4 ,the use of argument to persuade the men to embark1 in cases of this kind1 would have been out of place1 as it is not only discomfort1 or even the risk of the loss of a limb1 but life itself1 that becomes the question4 ,the boats1 notwithstanding the thinness of our ranks1 left the vessel at half-past five4 ,the rough weather of yesterday having proved but a summer's gale1 the wind came to-day in gentle breezes1 yet the atmosphere being cloudy1 it had not a very favourable appearance4 ,the boats reached the rock at six ,a4,m41 and the eight artificers who landed were employed in clearing out the bat-holes for the beacon-house1 and had a prosperous tide of four hours' work1 being the longest yet experienced by half an hour4 8,the boats left the rock again at ten o'clock1 and the weather having cleared up1 as we drew near the vessel1 the eighteen artificers who remained on board were observed upon deck1 but as the boats approached they sought their way below1 being quite ashamed of their conduct4 ,this was the only instance of refusal to go to the rock which occurred during the whole progress of the work40 ,the state of suffering and discomfort1 as well as danger1 on board the floating light1 which lay moored off the rock during the first two seasons of the work1 before the timber beacon was used as a habitation1 is described1 in the following passage1 which presents a striking illustration of the continual anxiety that must have existed in the minds of those engaged in the work1 and of the frequent calls for energetic and courageous exertion3-- 8,although the weather would have admitted of a landing this evening1 yet the swell of the sea1 observable in the morning1 still continued to increase4 ,it was so far fortunate that a landing was not attempted1 for at eight o'clock the wind shifted to ,e4,s4,e41 and at ten it had become a hard gale1 when fifty fathoms of the floating-light's hempen cable were veered out4 ,the gale still increasing1 the ship rolled and laboured excessively1 and at midnight eighty fathoms of cable were veered out2 while the sea continued to strike the vessel with a degree of force which had not before been experienced4 8,during the last night there was little rest on board of the ,pharos1 and daylight1 though anxiously wished for1 brought no relief1 as the gale continued with unabated violence4 ,the sea struck so hard upon the vessel's bows that it rose in great quantities1 or in #8green seas' as the sailors termed it1 which were carried by the wind as far aft as the quarter-deck1 and not unfrequently over the stern of the ship altogether4 ,it fell occasionally so heavily on the skylight of the writer's cabin1 though so far aft as to be within five feet of the helm1 that the glass was broken to pieces before the dead-light could be got into its place1 so that the water poured down in great quantities4 ,in shutting out the water1 the admission of light was prevented1 and in the morning all continued in the most comfortless state of darkness4 ,about ten o'clock ,a4,m4 the wind shifted to ,n4,e41 and blew1 if possible1 harder than before1 and it was accompanied by a much heavier swell of sea2 when it was judged advisable to give the ship more cable4 ,in the course of the gale the part of the cable in the hause-hole had been so often shifted that nearly the whole length of one of her hempen cables1 of #abj fathoms1 had been veered out besides the chain-moorings4 ,the cable1 for its preservation1 was also carefully 8served0 or wattled with pieces of canvas round the windlass1 and with leather well greased in the hause-hole4 ,in this state things remained during the whole day1--every sea which struck the vessel--and the seas followed each other in close succession--causing her to shake1 and all on board occasionally to tremble4 ,at each of these strokes of the sea the rolling and pitching of the vessel ceased for a time1 and her motion was felt as if she had either broke adrift before the wind1 or were in the act of sinking2 but when another sea came1 she ranged up against it with great force1 and this became the regular intimation of our being still riding at anchor4 8,about eleven o'clock1 the writer1 with some difficulty1 got out of bed1 but1 in attempting to dress1 he was thrown twice upon the floor1 at the opposite side of the cabin4 ,in an undressed state he made shift to get about half-way up the companion-stairs1 with an intention to observe the state of the sea and of the ship upon deck1 but he no sooner looked over the companion than a heavy sea struck the vessel1 which fell on the quarter-deck1 and rushed down-stairs into the officer's cabin1 in so considerable a quantity that it was found necessary to lift one of the scuttles in the floor to let the water into the limbers of the ship1 as it dashed from side to side in such a manner as to run into the lower tier of beds4 ,having been foiled in this attempt1 and being completely wetted1 he again got below and went to bed4 ,in this state of the weather the seamen had to move about the necessary or indispensable duties of the ship1 with the most cautious use both of hands and feet1 while it required all the art of the landsman to keep within the precincts of his bed4 ,the writer even found himself so much tossed about that it became necessary1 in some measure1 to shut himself in bed1 in order to avoid being thrown to the floor4 ,indeed1 such was the motion of the ship1 that it seemed wholly impracticable to remain in any other than a lying posture4 ,on deck the most stormy aspect presented itself1 while below all was wet and comfortless4 8,about two o'clock ,p4,m4 a great alarm was given throughout the ship1 from the effects of a very heavy sea which struck her1 and almost filled the waist1 pouring down into the berths below1 through every chink and crevice of the hatches and skylights4 ,from the motion of the vessel being thus suddenly deadened or checked1 and from the flowing in of the water above1 it is believed there was not an individual on board who did not think1 at the moment1 that the vessel had foundered and was in the act of sinking4 ,the writer could withstand this no longer1 and as soon as she again began to range to the sea1 he determined to make another effort to get upon deck4 8,it being impossible to open any of the hatches in the fore part of the ship in communicating with the deck1 the watch was changed by passing through the several berths to the companion-stair leading to the quarter-deck4 ,the writer1 therefore1 made the best of his way aft1 and on a second attempt to look out1 he succeeded1 and saw indeed an astonishing sight4 ,the seas or waves appeared to be ten or fifteen feet in height of unbroken water1 and every approaching billow seemed as if it would overwhelm our vessel1 but she continued to rise upon the waves1 and to fall between the seas in a very wonderful manner4 ,it seemed to be only those seas which caught her in the act of rising which struck her with so much violence1 and threw such quantities of water aft4 ,on deck there was only one solitary individual looking out1 to give the alarm in the event of the ship breaking from her moorings4 ,the seaman on watch continued only two hours2 he had no greatcoat nor overall of any kind1 but was simply dressed in his ordinary jacket and trousers2 his hat was tied under his chin with a napkin1 and he stood aft the foremast1 to which he had lashed himself with a gasket or small rope round his waist1 to prevent his falling upon deck or being washed overboard4 ,upon deck everything that was moveable was out of sight1 having either been stowed below previous to the gale1 or been washed overboard4 ,some trifling parts of the quarter-boards were damaged by the breach of the sea1 and one of the boats upon deck was about one-third full of water1 the oyle-hole or drain having been accidentally stopped up1 and part of the gunwale had received considerable injury4 ,although the previous night had been a very restless one1 it had not the effect of inducing sleep in the writer's berth on the succeeding one2 for having been so much tossed about in bed during the last thirty hours1 he found no easy spot to turn to1 and his body was all sore to the touch1 which ill accorded with the unyielding materials with which his bed-place was surrounded4 8,this morning about eight o'clock the writer was agreeably surprised to see the scuttle of his cabin skylight removed1 and the bright rays of the sun admitted4 ,although the ship continued to roll excessively1 and the sea was still running very high1 yet the ordinary business on board seemed to be going forward on deck4 ,it was impossible to steady a telescope so as to look minutely at the progress of the waves1 and trace their breach upon the ,bell ,rock1 but the height to which the cross-running waves rose in sprays1 when they met each other1 was truly grand1 and the continued roar and noise of the sea was very perceptible to the ear4 ,to estimate the height of the sprays at forty or fifty feet would surely be within the mark4 ,those of the workmen who were not much afflicted with sea-sickness came upon deck1 and the wetness below being dried up1 the cabins were again brought into a habitable state4 ,every one seemed to meet as if after a long absence1 congratulating his neighbour upon the return of good weather4 ,little could be said as to the comfort of the vessel2 but after riding out such a gale1 no one felt the least doubt or hesitation as to the safety and good condition of her moorings4 ,the master and mate were extremely anxious1 however1 to heave in the hempen cable1 and see the state of the clinch or iron ring of the chain cable4 ,but the vessel rolled at such a rate that the seamen could not possibly keep their feet at the windlass1 nor work the handspokes1 though it had been several times attempted since the gale took off4 8,about twelve noon1 however1 the vessel's motion was observed to be considerably less1 and the sailors were enabled to walk upon deck with some degree of freedom4 ,but to the astonishment of every one it was soon discovered that the floating light was adrift6 ,the windlass was instantly manned1 and the men soon gave out that there was no strain upon the cable4 ,the mizzen-sail1 which was bent for the occasional purpose of making the vessel ride more easily to the tide1 was immediately set1 and the other sails were also hoisted in a short time1 when1 in no small consternation1 we bore away about one mile to the south-westward of the former station1 and there let go the best bower-anchor and cable1 in twenty fathoms water1 to ride until the swell of the sea should fall1 when it might be practicable to grapple for the moorings1 and find a better anchorage for the ship4 8,as soon as the deck could be cleared the cable end was hove up1 which had parted at the distance of about fifty fathoms from the chain moorings4 ,on examining the cable1 it was found to be considerably chafed1 but where the separation took place1 it appeared to be worn through1 or cut shortly off4 ,how to account for this would be difficult1 as the ground1 though rough and gravelly1 did not1 after much sounding1 appear to contain any irregular parts4 ,it was therefore conjectured that the cable must have hooked some piece of wreck1 as it did not appear from the state of the wind and tide that the vessel could have fouled her anchor when she veered round with the wind1 which had shifted in the course of the night from ,n4,e4 to ,n4,n4,w4 8,be this as it may1 it was a circumstance quite out of the power of man to prevent1 as1 until the ship drifted1 it was found impossible to heave up the cable4 ,but what ought to have been the feeling of thankfulness to that ,providence which regulates and appoints the lot of man1 when it is considered that if this accident had happened during the storm1 or in the night after the wind had shifted1 the floating light must inevitably have gone ashore upon the ,bell ,rock4 ,in short1 it is hardly possible to conceive any case more awfully distressing than our situation would have been1 or one more disastrous to the important undertaking in which we were engaged40 ,the distance at which the floating light was moored from the rock was about three miles1 and the passage of the men to and from their work1 and boarding the vessel in rough weather1 was a source of great anxiety and danger1 and is described in the following paragraphs3-- 8,when the tide-bell rung on board the floating light1 the boats were hoisted out1 and two active seamen were employed to keep them from receiving damage alongside4 ,the floating light being very buoyant1 was so quick in her motions1 that when those who were about to step from her gunwale into a boat1 placed themselves upon a 8cleat0 or step on the ship's side with the man or rail-ropes in their hands1 they had often to wait for some time till a favourable opportunity occurred for stepping into the boat4 ,while in this situation1 with the vessel rolling from side to side1 watching the proper time for letting go the man-ropes1 it required the greatest dexterity and presence of mind to leap into the boat4 ,one who was rather awkward would often wait a considerable period in this position3 at one time his side of the ship would be so depressed that he would touch the boat to which he belonged1 while the next sea would elevate him so much that he would see his comrades in the boat on the opposite side of the ship1 his friends in the one boat calling to him to #8jump1' while those in the boat on the other side1 as he came again and again into their view1 would jocosely say--#8,are you there yet8 ,you seem to enjoy a swing4' ,in this situation it was common to see a person upon each side of the ship for a length of time1 waiting to quit his hold4 ,a stranger to this sort of motion was both alarmed for the safety1 and delighted with the agility1 of persons leaping into the boat under those perilous circumstances4 ,no sooner had one quitted his station on the gunwale than another occupied his place1 until the whole were safely shipped40 ,on their return trips from the rock to the floating light1 the men had a no less hazardous and trying ordeal to undergo1 for ,mr4 ,stevenson records the following as an example of the risks to which they were exposed3-- 8,just as we were about to leave the rock1 the wind shifted to the ,s4,w41 and from a fresh gale it became what seamen term a hard gale1 or such as would have required the fisherman to take in two or three reefs in his sail4 ,the boats being rather in a crowded state for this sort of weather1 they were pulled with difficulty towards the floating light4 ,though the boats were handsomely built1 and presented little obstruction to the wind1 as those who were not pulling sat low1 yet having the ebb-tide to contend with the passage was so very tedious that it required two hours of hard work before we reached the vessel4 8,it is a curious fact1 that the respective tides of ebb and flood are apparent upon the shore about an hour and a half sooner than at the distance of three or four miles in the offing4 ,but what seems chiefly interesting here is1 that the tides around this small sunken rock should follow exactly the same laws as on the extensive shores of the mainland4 ,when the boats left the ,bell ,rock to-day1 it was overflowed by the flood-tide1 but the floating light did not swing round to the flood-tide for more than an hour afterwards4 ,under this disadvantage the boats had to struggle with the ebb-tide and a hard gale of wind1 so that it was with the greatest difficulty they reached the floating light4 ,had this gale happened in spring-tides1 when the current was strong1 we must have been driven to sea in a very helpless condition4 8,the boat which the writer steered was considerably behind the other1 one of the masons having unluckily broken his oar4 ,our prospect of getting on board1 of course1 became doubtful1 and our situation was rather perilous1 as the boat shipped so much sea that it occupied two of the artificers to bale and clear her of water4 ,when the oar gave way we were about half-a-mile from the ship1 but1 being fortunately to windward1 we got into the wake of the floating light at about #bej fathoms astern1 just as the landing-master's boat reached the vessel4 ,he immediately streamed or floated a life-buoy astern1 with a line which was in readiness1 and by means of this useful implement1 the boat was towed alongside of the floating light1 where1 from the rolling motion1 it required no small management to get safely on board1 as the men were much worn out with their exertions in pulling from the rock4 ,on the present occasion1 the crews of both boats were completely drenched with spray1 and those who sat upon the bottom of the boats to bale them were sometimes pretty deep in the water1 before it could be cleared out4 ,after getting on board1 all hands were allowed an extra dram1 and having shifted1 and got a warm and comfortable dinner1 the affair1 it is believed1 was little more thought of40 ,an interesting incident1 showing the constant anxiety of the chief for his men1 is given in the following passage3-- 8,the boats left the ship at a quarter before six this morning1 and landed upon the rock at seven4 ,the water had gone off the rock sooner than was expected1 for as yet the seamen were but imperfectly acquainted with its periodic appearance1 and the landing-master being rather late with his signal this morning1 the artificers were enabled to proceed to work without a moment's delay4 ,the boat which the writer steered happened to be the last which approached the rock at this tide2 and1 in standing up in the stern1 while at some distance1 to see how the leading boat entered the creek1 he was astonished to observe something in the form of a human figure in a reclining posture upon one of the ledges of the rock4 ,he immediately steered the boat through a narrow entrance to the eastern harbour1 with a thousand unpleasant sensations in his mind4 ,he thought a vessel or boat must have been wrecked upon the rock during the night2 and it seemed probable that the rock might be strewed with dead bodies--a spectacle which could not fail to deter the artificers from returning so freely to their work4 ,even one individual found in this situation would naturally cast a damp upon their minds1 and1 at all events1 make them much more timid in their future operations4 ,in the midst of those reveries1 the boat took the ground at an improper landing-place2 but1 without waiting to push her off1 he leapt upon the rock1 and making his way hastily to the spot which had privately given him alarm1 he had the satisfaction to ascertain that he had only been deceived by the peculiar situation and aspect of the smith's anvil and block1 which very completely represented the appearance of a lifeless body upon the rock4 ,the writer carefully suppressed his feelings1 the simple mention of which might have had a bad effect upon the artificers1 and his haste passed for an anxiety to examine the apparatus of the smith's forge1 left in an unfinished state at the evening tide40 ,in the following words ,mr4 ,stevenson explains his resolution to regard the operations at the ,bell ,rock as a work of mercy1 and to continue them1 when weather permitted1 throughout all the seven days of the week3-- 8,to some it may require an apology1 or at least call for an explanation1 why the writer took upon himself to step aside from the established rules of society by carrying on the works of this undertaking during ,sundays4 ,such practices are not uncommon in the dockyards and arsenals1 when it is conceived that the public service requires extraordinary exertions4 ,surely if1 under any circumstances1 it is allowable to go about the ordinary labours of mankind on ,sundays1 that of the erection of a lighthouse upon the ,bell ,rock seems to be one of the most pressing calls which could in any case occur1 and carries along with it the imperious language of necessity4 ,when we take into consideration that1 in its effects1 this work was to operate in a direct manner for the safety of many valuable lives and much property1 the beautiful and simple parables of the ,holy ,scriptures1 inculcating works of necessity and mercy1 must present themselves to every mind unbiassed by the trammels of form or the influence of a distorted imagination4 ,in this perilous work1 to give up every seventh day would just have been to protract the time a seventh part4 ,now1 as it was generally supposed1 after taking all advantages into view1 that the work would probably require seven years for its execution1 such an arrangement must have extended the operation to at least eight years1 and have exposed it to additional risk and danger in all its stages4 ,the writer1 therefore1 felt little scruple in continuing the ,bell ,rock works in all favourable states of the weather40 ,he however conducted a regular ,sunday service1 as noticed in the following paragraph3-- 8,having1 on the previous evening1 arranged matters with the landing-master as to the business of the day1 the signal was rung for all hands at half-past seven this morning4 ,in the early state of the spring-tides1 the artificers went to the rock before breakfast1 but as the tides fell later in the day1 it became necessary to take this meal before leaving the ship4 ,at eight o'clock all hands were assembled on the quarter-deck for prayers1 a solemnity which was gone through in as orderly a manner as circumstances would admit4 ,round the quarter-deck1 when the weather permitted1 the flags of the ship were hung up as an awning or screen1 forming the quarter-deck into a distinct compartment with colours2 the pendant was also hoisted at the main-mast1 and a large ensign flag was displayed over the stern2 and1 lastly1 the ship's companion1 or top of the staircase1 was covered with the flag proper of the ,lighthouse ,service1 on which the ,bible was laid4 ,a particular toll of the bell called all hands to the quarter-deck1 when the writer read a chapter of the ,bible1 and1 the whole ship's company being uncovered1 he also read the impressive prayer composed by the ,reverend ,dr4 ,brunton1 one of the ministers of ,edinburgh40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,the ,beacon or ,barrack4 ,so soon as a barrack of timber-work could be erected on the rock as a substitute for the floating light1 it was inhabited by ,mr4 ,stevenson and twenty-eight men4 ,this barrack was a singular habitation1 perched on a strong framework of timber1 carefully designed with a view to strength1 and no less carefully put together in its place1 and fixed to the rock with every appliance necessary to secure stability4 ,the tide rose sixteen feet on it in calm weather1 and in heavy seas it was exposed to the assault of every wave4 ,of the perils and discomforts of such a habitation the following passages give a lively picture3-- 8,this scene0 7the sublime appearance of the waves7 8he greatly enjoyed while sitting at his window4 ,each wave approached the ,beacon like a vast scroll unfolding1 and in passing discharged a quantity of air which he not only distinctly felt1 but was even sufficient to lift the leaves of a book which lay before him4444 8,the gale continues with unabated violence to-day1 and the sprays rise to a still greater height1 having been carried over the masonry of the building1 or about #ij feet above the level of the sea4 ,at four o'clock this morning it was breaking into the cook's berth 7on the ,beacon71 when he rang the alarm-bell1 and all hands turned out to attend to their personal safety4 ,the floor of the smith's or mortar gallery was now completely burst up by the force of the sea1 when the whole of the deals and the remaining articles upon the floor were swept away1 such as the cast-iron mortar-tubs1 the iron hearth of the forge1 the smith's bellows1 and even his anvil1 were thrown down upon the rock4 ,the boarding of the cook-house1 or story above the smith's gallery1 was also partly carried away1 and the brick and plaster work of the fireplace shaken and loosened4 ,it was observed during this gale that the ,beacon-house had a good deal of tremor1 but none of that #8twisting motion' occasionally felt and complained of before the additional wooden struts were set up for the security of the principal beams2 but this effect had more especially disappeared ever since the attachment of the great horizontal iron bars in connection with these supports4 ,before the tide rose to its full height to-day1 some of the artificers passed along the bridge into the lighthouse1 to observe the effects of the sea upon it1 and they reported that they had felt a slight tremulous motion in the building when great seas struck it in a certain direction about high-water mark4 ,on this occasion the sprays were again observed to wet the balcony1 and even to come over the parapet wall into the interior of the light-room4 ,in this state of the weather1 ,captain ,wilson and the crew of the #8,floating ,light' were much alarmed for the safety of the artificers upon the rock1 especially when they observed with a telescope that the floor of the smith's gallery had been carried away1 and that the triangular cast-iron sheer-crane was broken down4 ,it was quite impossible1 however1 to do anything for their relief until the gale should take off4444 8,the writer's cabin measured not more than #d feet #c inches in breadth on the floor2 and though1 from the oblique direction of the beams of the ,beacon1 it widened towards the top1 yet it did not admit of the full extension of his arms when he stood on the floor2 while its length was little more than sufficient for suspending a cot-bed during the night1 calculated for being triced up to the roof during the day1 which left free room for the admission of occasional visitants4 ,his folding-table was attached with hinges immediately under the small window of the apartment2 and his books1 barometer1 thermometer1 portmanteau1 and two or three camp-stools1 formed the bulk of his moveables4 ,his diet being plain1 the paraphernalia of the table were proportionally simple2 though everything had the appearance of comfort1 and even of neatness1 the walls being covered with green cloth1 formed into panels with red tape1 and his bed festooned with curtains of yellow cotton stuff4 ,if1 on speculating on the abstract wants of man1 in such a state of exclusion1 one were reduced to a single book1 the sacred volume1 whether considered for the striking diversity of its story1 the morality of its doctrine1 or the important truths of its ,gospel1 would have proved by far the greatest treasure40 ,the ,barrack was not removed immediately on the completion of the tower1 and on ,mr4 ,stevenson's first visit to the rock after the light had been established1 it was with feelings of emotion that he viewed his old quarters4 ,his ,journal says--8,i went up the trap and entered my own cabin with mingled thoughts of reflection upon the many anxious hours ,i had spent within the narrow precincts of its little walls1 and here offered up thanks to ,god for the happy termination of this work40 ,mr4 ,stevenson's merit as ,engineer of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse does not rest in his bold conception of1 and confident unshaken belief in1 the possibility of executing a tower of masonry on that submerged reef1 or even in his personal courage and discretion in carrying out so difficult a work1 in the face of so many dangers1 when he had neither 8steamboat0 nor 8steam-crane0 to call to his aid4 ,but his mechanical skill in all the arrangements of the work was pre-eminent in bringing his labours to a successful issue4 ,not only did he conceive the plan of the moveable jib and balance cranes1 described in a subsequent chapter--which he applied with much advantage in the erection of the tower1 and the former of which is now in universal use1--but his inventive skill1 ever alive to the possibility of improving on the conceptions of his great master1 ,smeaton1 led him to introduce all those advantageous changes in the arrangements of the masonry of the tower1 which have been already described1 as distinguishing it from the ,eddystone4 ,the ,commissioners entertained a high sense of ,stevenson's services at the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse2 and1 as many of them took a deep interest in the execution of that remarkable work1 and paid occasional visits to it during its progress1 they were well able to appreciate the ability and zeal with which he devoted himself to this arduous task1 and they resolved1 at a meeting held in the lighthouse itself--8,that a bust of ,mr4 ,robert ,stevenson be obtained1 and placed in the library of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 in testimony of the sense entertained by the ,commissioners of his distinguished talent and indefatigable zeal in the erection of that lighthouse40 ,a beautiful bust in marble1 by ,samuel ,joseph1 from which the frontispiece has been engraved1 was accordingly placed in what is called the library1 being the upper apartment of the tower4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,stevenson's interest in the ,eddystone did not cease on the completion of his own work4 ,we know that he paid at least two visits to the ,eddystone after the completion of the ,bell ,rock4 ,one of those visits was made in ,september #ahac1 when1 by the courtesy of the ,trinity ,house1 he was accommodated with the use of the #8,eddystone' tender1 and1 though the weather was not very favourable1 succeeded in landing on the rock and making a hasty inspection of the far-famed lighthouse4 ,mr4 ,stevenson's last visit was made in #ahah1 on a voyage in the ,northern ,lighthouse tender1 on which occasion he was favoured with a smooth sea and a low tide1 and enabled to make a thorough inspection of the rock4 ,it is important and interesting to record that this examination strongly impressed him with the ultimate insecurity of the structure1 as appears from the following almost prophetic extract from his ,journal3-- 8,the house seems to be in a very good state of repair1 and does not appear to have sustained any injury by the lapse of time4 ,the joints are full of cement1 and the stone exhibits little appearance of decay1 being granite or syenite4 ,the rock itself upon a narrow inspection seems to be gneiss4 ,the rock is shaken all through1 and dips at a very considerable angle1 perhaps one in three1 towards the south-west2 and being undermined on the north-east side for several feet1 it must be confessed that it has rather an alarming appearance4 ,i am not1 however1 of opinion that it has altered its state perhaps since the date of the erection of the tower4 ,since my last visit in #ahac ,i am not sensible of any change upon it4 ,on the north-east side1 however1 at what is called the #8,gut' landing-place1 where the men sheltered themselves from the fire of ,rudyerd's ,lighthouse1 but especially at low-water mark of spring-tides1 there is a hollowing of the rock which penetrates at least to the circumference of the base of the lighthouse4 ,i therefore conclude that when the sea runs high there is danger of this house being upset1 after a lapse of time1 when the sea and shingle have wrought away the rock to a greater extent4 ,nothing preserves this highly important building but the hardness of the rock and the dip of the strata1 but for how long a period this may remain no one can pretend to say40 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,bell ,,rock ,,lighthouse4 ,that period has at length arrived1 and the ,trinity ,house1 under the advice of ,mr4 ,douglass1 their ,engineer1 have resolved that ,smeaton's ,eddystone--the engineer's long cherished object of veneration--must be renewed1 and henceforth ,stevenson's ,bell ,rock must be held as the earliest existing type of a class of bold and skilful works--still few in number--which1 by converting a dark sunken danger into a source of light and safety1 have saved many a ship1 and cheered the heart of many a tempest-tossed sailor1 as happily expressed in ,sir ,walter ,scott's impromptu 8,pharos loquitur10 written in the ,album of the ,lighthouse1 when he landed with a deputation of the ,commissioners in #ahad4 8,far in the bosom of the deep ,o'er these wild shelves my watch ,i keep1 ,a ruddy gem of changeful light1 ,bound on the dusky brow of night2 ,the seaman bids my lustre hail1 ,and scorns to strike his timorous sail40 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,lighthouse ,,illumination4 #ahja-ahdc4 ,early modes of illumination--,facet reflectors and lamps--,silvered copper reflectors and ,argand lamps--,isle of ,may coal light--,improvements in catoptric lights--,distinctions for lighthouses invented by ,mr4 ,stevenson1 viz41 flashing1 intermittent1 and double lights--,floating light lantern--,lighting of stage of ,covent ,garden ,theatre--,dioptric system of lighthouse illumination4 ,seeing that1 for reasons stated in the last chapter1 ,i was led to give up the idea of attempting to follow any chronological sequence in this ,memoir1 it may perhaps be convenient1 before speaking of my father's general practice as a ,civil ,engineer1 that ,i should supplement the sketch ,i have given of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse by some account of the other important duties he performed as ,engineer to the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses--an office which1 as we have seen1 he held for so long a period4 ,the lighthouse towers of the last century1 though useful as beacons by day1 were after all most imperfect guides by night4 ,indeed1 the rude expedients adopted at that early period to give light to the sailor in a dark and moonless sky1 present a very curious contrast to the modern system of lighthouse illumination--the result of careful study by modern philosophers and engineers4 ,if proof of this be wanted1 we have only to refer to the twenty-four miserable candles1 unaided by reflectors or any other optical contrivance1 which shed their dim and uncertain light from ,smeaton's famous ,eddystone for nearly half a century after it was built4 ,but indeed at that early time all lights had not even the advantage of the glazed lantern which protected the candles of the ,eddystone from the winter's blast and summer's breeze2 the grand ,tour de ,cordouan on the coast of ,france was then lighted by blazing fagots of wood burned in an open chauffer1 and many of the early lighthouses were open coal fires4 ,when ,mr4 ,smith1 however1 was appointed ,engineer to the ,scotch ,lighthouse ,board1 he1 as has been already said1 came forward as the advocate of lamps aided by reflectors1 a system which he introduced at ,kinnaird ,head in #aghg2 so that the ,lighthouse ,board of ,scotland never employed any less perfect mode of illumination4 ,these early reflectors1 which had been in use in ,england1 consisted of small pieces or facets of common mirror glass arranged in a hollow mould and fixed in their places by plaster of ,paris2 but soon afterwards the facets of mirror glass1 though forming good instruments for their day1 and of their kind1 were discarded1 and the reflectors were thereafter made of copper1 plated with silver1 and brightly polished4 ,i am not in a position to say when or by whom these metallic reflectors were first introduced1 or what was their exact form1 the question being invested in some degree of doubt2 but it was to the perfecting of these optical instruments and adapting them to practical use in a lighthouse that ,mr4 ,stevenson's attention was early directed4 ,thus we find him in #ahje reporting as follows3-- 8,the operations at the ,start ,point were this season begun upon ,monday the #bgth of ,may1 and the lighthouse was finished upon ,saturday the #agth ,october and the light advertised to be lighted upon the night of ,wednesday the #ast of ,january #ahjf4 ,some nights before ,i left ,sanday ,i had the light set in motion1 when the effect appeared to be most excellent2 indeed1 it must be equal to the ,scilly or ,cromer lights1 and superior to the revolving light at ,tinmouth3 at the former there are twenty-one reflectors1 and at the latter there are fifteen1 whereas at the ,start ,point ,lighthouse ,i only use seven reflectors1 but by altering the motion of the machinery and construction of the revolving part1 ,i produce the desired effect40 ,and again in #ahjf3-- 8,i was late in the season for making all the observations ,i could have wished upon the ,start ,point and ,north ,ronaldsay lights1 and was not very well appointed in a vessel for keeping the sea in bad weather4 ,i however made a cruise for this purpose1 and stood towards the ,fair ,isle in a heavy gale of wind1 with an intention to run for ,shetland1 but the wind shifted1 and ,i stretched towards ,copinshaw1 at the distance of about ten or twelve miles to the westward of ,orkney1 with both lights in view4 ,the second night ,i went through ,north ,ronaldsay ,firth to have a west view of the lights4 ,i put about off ,westra1 and stood northward with both lights in view1 when it came to blow with great violence from the s4w41 and it was with much difficulty we could regain the coast4 ,although on this trip ,i had rather bad weather1 with a heavy swell of sea1 yet it was very answerable for my purpose1 and ,i was upon the whole much pleased with the appearance of the new light2 but ,i find1 when at the distance of ten or twelve miles1 with the sea running high1 the light is seen for rather too short a period1 so that it would be proper to place other seven reflectors upon the frame at an angle of about #dj to the present reflectors1 in the event of removing ,north ,ronaldsay light40 ,i find from his correspondence that my father consulted ,sir ,john ,leslie1 the distinguished ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy1 and ,alexander ,adie1 the well-known optician1 as to the best mode of procuring a true parabolic form for the construction of his reflectors1 and having introduced a simple means of withdrawing the lamp from the reflector1 his new catoptric apparatus may be said to have been completed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,the ,bell ,rock was the first lighthouse that was illuminated by ,mr4 ,stevenson's improved apparatus 7shown in section in ,fig4 #d71 where a is the fountain for the oil1 b the burner1 and the directions of the incident and reflected rays are represented by dotted lines4 ,in ,fig4 #e the reflector is shown in elevation2 the lamp is represented as lowered down from the reflector1 which is effected by a sliding arrangement controlled by a guide1--the object being to allow the lamp to be removed while the reflector is being polished1 and to insure its being returned to its exact position in the true focus of the reflector4 ,perhaps the most valuable opinion that can be quoted as to the utility of this arrangement is that of ,mr4 ,airy1 the ,astronomer-,royal1 who1 after the apparatus had been in use fifty years1 and after having inspected the lighthouses both of ,britain and ,france1 says--8,this lighthouse0 7,girdleness1 in ,aberdeenshire7 8contains two systems of lights4 ,the lower1 at about two-fifths of the height of the building1 consists of thirteen parabolic reflectors of the usual form4 ,i remarked in these1 that by a simple construction1 which ,i have not seen elsewhere1 great facility is given for the withdrawal and safe return of the lamps1 for adjusting the lamps1 and for cleaning the mirrors20 and in closing his report he adds1 8,it is the best lighthouse that ,i have seen40#f ,notwithstanding the introduction of this improved apparatus at the ,bell ,rock in #ahaa1 a coal-fire1 which had existed for the long period of #aha years on the ,isle of ,may1 at the entrance to the ,firth of ,forth1 still continued1 in #ahaf1 to send forth its feeble and misleading light1 and as it was one of the best specimens of the lighthouses of days now passed away1 it may not be uninteresting to give a short account of it4 ,the ,may light was at that period what is called a 8private light0--the right of levying dues on shipping being vested in the ,duke of ,portland1 who was owner of the island4 ,there were many private lights in ,england1 but the ,isle of ,may was the only one that still remained in ,scotland1 and the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses1 believing it to be advantageous that so important a light should be placed under public management1 so as to secure for the shipping a better light1 and exemption from the high passing tolls charged by the proprietor1 entered into treaty with the ,duke of ,portland for the purchase of his rights4 ,this negotiation resulted in the introduction of a ,bill into ,parliament in #ahad1 authorising the purchase of the ,isle of ,may1 with the right of levying toll1 for the sum of #fj1jjj4 ,so soon as the property came into the hands of the ,commissioners they erected a new lighthouse1 and on the #ast of ,february #ahaf the old coal chauffer was discontinued1 and a light from oil with reflectors was exhibited in its stead4 ,i am enabled from an old plan in my possession to present the reader with two sketches of the original chauffer light of the ,isle of ,may4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #f is an elevation of the building1 with the tackle for raising the fuel to the top1 and its inscription stone over the door bearing the date #afce4 ,fig4 #g shows the building in section1 with its stone winding staircase and vaulted chambers1 the whole structure apparently being so designed as to be perfectly proof against fire--a precaution very necessary for a building dedicated to such a purpose1 for it is recorded that no fewer than #djj tons of coal were annually consumed in the open chauffer on its top4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,it was1 as ,i have said1 one of the best coal-fires in the kingdom1 and three men were employed to keep the bonfire burning1 so that its inefficiency as a light was not due to any want of outlay in its support4 ,but its appearance was ever varying1 now shooting up in high flames1 again enveloped in dense smoke1 and never well seen when most required4 ,when ,mr4 ,stevenson visited the island1 with a view to its purchase by the ,commissioners1 he was told by the keeper1 that in violent gales the fire only kindled on the leeward side1 and that he was in the habit of putting his hand through the windward bars of the chauffer to steady himself while he supplied the fire with coals1 so that in the direction in which it was most wanted hardly any light was visible4 ,nothing can be worse than any variableness or uncertainty in the appearance of a light4 ,better far not to exhibit it at all than to show it irregularly2 and the coal lights were so changeable and destitute of characteristic appearance as to be positively dangerous4 ,this indeed was too sadly proved by the loss of ,h4 ,m4 ships #8,nymphen' and #8,pallas1' which on the #aith ,december #ahaj were wrecked near ,dunbar1 the light of a limekiln1 on the coast of ,haddington1 having been mistaken for the coal light of the ,isle of ,may4 ,fortunately only nine of their combined crews of #fjj men perished2 but the vessels1 valued at not less than #ajj1jjj1 became total wrecks4 ,during the long period he held the office as ,engineer to the ,board1 ,mr4 ,stevenson designed and executed eighteen lighthouses in the district of the ,northern ,lighthouse ,commissioners1 many of them in situations which called for much forethought and great energy4 ,all his lighthouse works were characterised by sagacity and inventiveness1 and exhibit successive stages of improvement1 equally indicative of the growing prosperity of the ,board and of the alacrity and zeal with which their ,engineer laboured in his vocation4 ,whether we consider the accuracy and beauty of the catoptric apparatus1 the arrangements of the buildings1 or the discipline observed by the lightkeepers of the ,northern ,lighthouses1 we cannot fail to recognise the impress of that energetic and comprehensive cast of mind which directed the whole4 ,acting under the direction of an enlightened ,board of ,commissioners1 my father may1 with the strictest propriety1 be said to have created the lighthouse system of ,scotland4 ,his merits indeed in this respect were generally acknowledged in other quarters2 and many of the ,irish lighthouses1 and several lighthouses in our colonies1 were fitted up with apparatus prepared after his designs4 ,in the course of his labours my father's attention was much given to the question of distinction among lights--a matter of the utmost importance1 especially in narrow seas1 where many lights are required2 and at his suggestion1 the ,northern ,lighthouse ,commissioners fitted up a temporary light-tower on ,inchkeith1 in which numerous experiments having this object in view were made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,fig4 #i4 ,he was the inventor of two useful distinctions--the ,intermittent and ,flashing lights4 ,in the intermittent distinction the light is suddenly obscured by the closing of metallic shades which surround the reflector frame1 and on their opening1 it is as suddenly revealed to sight1 in a manner which completely distinguishes it from the ordinary revolving light1 which from darkness1 gradually increases in power till it reaches its brightest phase1 and then gradually declines until it is again obscured2 the action of these shades in producing the intermittent effect is illustrated in ,figs4 #h and #i4 ,the ,flashing light1 by a peculiar arrangement of reflectors1 and a rapid revolution of the frame which carries them1 is made to give a sudden flash of great power1 once in five seconds of time1 and thus has a distinctive appearance very different from either the revolving or intermittent light4 ,for these distinctions ,mr4 ,stevenson received from the ,king of the ,netherlands a gold medal as a mark of his ,majesty's approbation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,mr4 ,stevenson also1 in #ahaj1 gave a design for a double light at the ,isle of ,may1 as shown in ,fig4 #aj1 in which all lighthouse engineers will see the embryo of the double light of the present day4 ,i must not omit to notice his improvement on the lanterns of floating lightships1 now universally adopted1 which he introduced in #ahjg4 ,previously to this date the lightships exhibited their lights from small lanterns suspended from the yardarms or frames4 ,mr4 ,stevenson realised the inutility of such a mode of exhibition1 and conceived the idea of forming a lantern to surround the mast of the vessel1 and to be capable of being lowered down to the deck to be trimmed1 and raised when required to be exhibited4 ,his plan had the advantage of giving a lantern of much greater size1 because it encased the mast of the ship1 and with this increase of size it enabled larger and more perfect apparatus to be introduced1 as well as gearing for working a revolving light4 ,fig4 #aa shows this lantern1 and the following is his description of it3-- 8,the lanterns were so constructed as to clasp round the masts and traverse upon them4 ,this was effected by constructing them with a tube of copper in the centre1 capable of receiving the mast1 through which it passed4 ,the lanterns were first completely formed1 and fitted with brass flanges2 they were then cut longitudinally asunder1 which conveniently admitted of their being screwed together on the masts after the vessel was fully equipped and moored at her station4 ,letters a a show part of one of the masts1 b one of the tackle-hooks for raising and lowering the lanterns1 c c the brass flanges with their screw-bolts1 by which the body or case of the lantern was ultimately put together4 ,there were holes in the bottom and also at the top connected with the ventilation3 the collar-pieces e and g form guards against the effects of the weather4 ,the letter h shows the front of the lantern1 which was glazed with plate-glass2 i is one of the glass shutters by which the lamps were trimmed1 the lower half being raised slides into a groove made for its reception2 k shows the range of ten agitable burners or lamps out of which the oil cannot be spilt by the rolling motion of the ship4 ,each lamp had a silvered copper reflector l placed behind the flame40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,the reputation of my father's catoptric apparatus was not1 it appears1 confined to those interested in the welfare of the seaman4 ,in #ahai1 ,mr4 ,stevenson was waited on by a gentleman passing hurriedly through ,edinburgh1 who came on behalf of ,mr4 ,harris1 the manager of ,covent ,garden ,theatre1 who was desirous to try catoptric apparatus for certain stage effects which he intended to introduce in ,london4 ,the proposal seems rather to have taken the ,lighthouse ,engineer by surprise1 but on learning that the gentleman who had favoured him with a call was ,mr4 ,benson1 the famous singer of the day1 he wrote the following letter to ,mr4 ,harris3-- 8,i had some conversation with ,mr4 ,benson of your theatre on the day he proposed to leave this for ,london4 ,the purpose of his visit to me was to inquire about the reflectors we used in the lighthouses upon this coast1 which are under my direction1 as he had some plan in view for dispensing with the footlights on the stage by the introduction of reflected light4 8,being desirous to give every facility to ,mr4 ,benson's views1 ,i offered him the loan of a reflector1 which ,i showed him2 but from his being on the eve of setting off1 and wishing to keep the discovery1 if practicable1 for your theatre1 ,i agreed to send it to you at ,covent ,garden1 and this letter is to acquaint you that a case containing the reflector and its burner was shipped to your address4 8,you are to understand that there is no charge whatever to be made2 ,i only request that the reflector may be returned when you have made your trials4 ,i no sooner learned that ,i conversed with the gentleman who sings so delightfully in #8,rob ,roy' than ,i felt an irresistible inclination to oblige him4 8,wishing you every success in the projected improvement in lighting the stage1 ,i remain10 etc4 ,the reflector was duly returned by ,mr4 ,harris4 ,the note intimating its shipment says--8,it is an excellent reflector1 but it collects the light too much in one spot for our use2 ,i mean1 it does not spread the light sufficiently about40 ,i mention this small matter1 not so much because the manager of ,covent ,garden ,theatre came to ,edinburgh to get his information1 but to show that ,mr4 ,harris's experiment1 made in #ahai1 foretold the result of all trials that have since been made to light railway stations1 public gardens1 and parks1 by using lighthouse apparatus1 which is designed to condense the rays of light1 and not to diffuse them1 and is therefore inapplicable for such purposes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the remarks ,i have made on lighthouse illumination refer to what is known as the catoptric system1 whereby the light is acted on by reflection alone4 ,the invention of the dioptric1 system by ,fresnel was first communicated to ,mr4 ,stevenson in a letter received from ,colonel ,colby of the ,royal ,engineers1 who had an opportunity of knowing the benefit of ,fresnel's dioptric light in making certain trigonometrical observations for connecting the ,government surveys of the shores of ,england and ,france across the ,english ,channel4 ,the letter is in the following terms3-- 8,,tower1 #ast ,nov4 #ahba4 8,,my ,,dear ,,sir1--,i am quite ashamed of having delayed answering your letter1 and thanking you for the communications you sent me for so long a time4 ,in regard to the lamps1 an account will be given of them in the ,annales de ,chimie for the next month4 ,the lens is composed of pieces of glass forming a circle three feet in diameter1 ground to three feet focal length4 ,the lamp is similar to an ,argand lamp1 having hardly any other difference1 except four concentric circular wicks instead of one4 ,the external wick is about three inches in diameter4 ,the light given by the lens is remarkably brilliant4 ,when we were at ,folkestone ,hill1 the lamp at ,blancnez appeared to give about four times the light of the ,dungeness ,lighthouse1 though the distance of the lamp was nearly double that of the lighthouse4 ,the only difficulty which occurs to me in their employment in lighthouses is the small angle to which a single lens gives light4 ,i think one lens is brilliant for seven degrees1 and could not answer for more than eight or nine degrees4 8,the ,cordouan ,lighthouse is to be fitted up with ten lenses round one lamp4 8,with best wishes to ,mrs4 ,s4 and your family1 ever yours1 8,,thos4 ,,colby40 ,the merits of the dioptric system of illumination were brought before the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses in ,mr4 ,stevenson's ,report of ,december #ahba1 and1 as is well known1 it has1 with various extensions and important improvements1 been very generally adopted in all cases where it is applicable to lighthouse illumination4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,roads4 #agih-ahce4 ,early roads and road-making--,edgeworth and ,m',adam's systems of roads--,stevenson's system of roads--,cast-iron and stone tracks4 ,writing at an early date1 ,mr4 ,stevenson has given the following sketch of ,roads and ,road-making3-- 8,in early periods1 when every family formed a kind of community within itself for providing the necessaries of life1 it is obvious that there could be little communication with distant parts of the country1 and there was1 therefore1 no use for roads1 which1 long after the establishment of towns1 must have continued in the state of footpaths and horse-tracks4 ,the bulky articles of fuel and building materials are likely to have given rise to the first idea of a sledge1 the precursor of the wheel-carriage1 which ultimately led to the construction of anything like a regular path4 ,the first roads of ,britain appear to have been the ,military ,ways of the ,romans4 ,some remains of these are still to be seen in various parts of the kingdom1 and even in the immediate vicinity of the city of ,edinburgh4 ,it is1 however1 quite astonishing how slow the progress of improvement in road-making seems to have been1 and especially its adaptation to economical purposes2 although all classes must have felt an equal interest in the formation of roads1 as both the landed proprietor and the citizen were to be mutually benefited by thus laying open the country4 ,but it requires the accumulated wealth of ages to produce improvements so expensive4 ,it is long before the mind can be brought to approve of any radical change of habit1 however advantageous2 and the scale adopted in the first instance is often so circumscribed1 that the whole measure requires to be extended and even to be changed a second1 and perhaps a third time1 in keeping pace with the public demands for improvement4 8,it is well known1 that even so late as about the middle of the last century1 almost the whole land carriage of ,scotland1 and a great part of ,england1 was conducted upon horseback1 the animals employed being termed pack-horses4 ,to the horse-tracks thus produced1 and which in the first instance were formed without regard to steep acclivities1 are to be ascribed the evils which we now labour under1 as attendant on the laying out of our roads for the modern improvement of wheel-carriages4 ,nor was it till after much practice and the application of scientific principles1 long after the introduction of carriages1 that we were induced to improve the line of draught and adopt level tracks of road1 although perhaps more circuitous4 8,in ,great ,britain the road department1 after much experience1 is now brought into a system by which the highways are made and upheld by dues directly levied on those who travel or use them1--excepting1 indeed1 such roads as are situated in very remote parts of the country1 where the ,government1 with the most enlightened policy1 has either executed the works directly by the troops upon the peace establishment1 as in the case of ,general ,wade's army1 or given aid towards the original formation of extensive lines of road1 for opening the more remote districts of the country4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no better criterion for judging of the prosperity of a country than by its public improvements2 and were this subject considered in all its bearings1 we should hardly be able to quote any stronger evidence of internal riches and true greatness1 than we find connected with the subject of its public roads4 ,it appears from a very general or cursory calculation1 which the reporter has made1 that the highways of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 independently of the almost innumerable parish and private roads1 extend to about #be1jjj miles4 ,the expense of these1 including bridges1 etc41 on a very moderate calculation1 may be stated throughout the kingdom at the rate of #hjj per mile1 which is equal to no less than the aggregate sum of twenty millions sterling4 ,now1 to what branch of political economy can we look with more certainty and propriety than to such splendid examples of the substantial wealth and resources of a country8 for until a kingdom is traversed and laid open by roads1 its government must be weak1 and its people remain in a state of comparative poverty4 8,but in so extensive a concern as the system of roads1 involving so great an expense1 we may naturally look for small beginnings and very gradual advancement4 ,accordingly1 we find in the first formation of highways1 before their utility could be fully understood or experience had shown the benefits of science in the practice of the engineer1 the early road-maker only increased the breadth of the horse-track1 and strewed it over with gravel from the neighbouring brook4 ,indeed1 we know that so late as the year #aedb1 even the streets of ,london were formed in this way2 and it is said to be established by the records of ,parliament1 that when the new system of road-making was first proposed to be extended beyond the region of a few miles from that metropolis1 such was the mistaken policy and narrow-minded views of the immediate proprietors1 that the measure was strenuously opposed by those who wished to make a monopoly of the supplies for the metropolis1 as detrimental to the established order of things40 ,the names of ,richard ,edgeworth1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,john ,m',adam1 are well known in connection with roads--,mr4 ,edgeworth writing in #ahac1 ,mr4 ,m',adam in #ahaf4 ,both men had1 it appears1 given attention to the subject before the end of the last century4 ,mr4 ,edgeworth says3--8,i have visited ,england1 and have found1 on a journey of many hundred miles1 scarcely twenty miles of well-made road4 ,in many parts of the country1 and especially near ,london1 the roads are in a shameful condition1 and the pavement of ,london is utterly unworthy of a great metropolis40 ,mr4 ,m',adam had been much struck by the entire want of system that existed in the management of roads at that early period1 and strongly urged the necessity of a reform in road management as a pre-requisite to road improvement4 ,he urged the laying out of the roads of the country into separate districts1 with the appointment of road trustees to manage them--the appointment of chief and assistant road-surveyors to superintend them--and a new system of accounting and finance1--all under statutory regulations2 and it cannot be doubted that in all this ,mr4 ,m',adam did good service1 which was recognised in #ahbc by ,parliament voting a sum of money to him for having introduced a system of 8repairing1 making1 and managing turnpike roads and highways1 from which the public have derived most important and valuable advantages40 ,it appears to me1 however1 that all that is said in ,mr4 ,m',adam's first edition of his book on road-making1 in #ahaf1 is of so general and vague a nature that he cannot have known of ,mr4 ,stevenson's work at an early part of the century4 ,from ,mr4 ,stevenson's reports it appears that he was much employed in road-engineering in the counties of ,edinburgh1 ,stirling1 ,linlithgow1 ,perth1 and1 indeed1 generally throughout ,scotland1 extending as far north as ,orkney and ,shetland2 and without raising any claim to priority of design1 ,i give the following extracts from reports made by him in #ahab and #ahac1 after he must have had at least several years' previous study and practice of road-making1 which ,i think clearly show that ,mr4 ,stevenson1 if not the original1 was at least an independent inventor of the system of road-making which is termed 8macadamising40 ,in a report to 8,the ,honourable the ,committee of the ,trustees for the ,highways and ,roads within the county of ,edinburgh10 dated #ahab1 he says3-- 8,it may not1 however1 be considered altogether out of place to notice that the pieces of stone composing the road-metal in common use are perhaps one-half1 and in some instances two-thirds1 larger than is suitable for the best condition of a road4 ,road-metal of a small size consolidates by the pressure of weighty carriages1 when stones of the size commonly used are either pounded under the wheel or forced into the road4 ,it would therefore be desirable1 as an experiment upon the large scale1 to lay one of the most public roads in the county to the extent of one fourth of a mile with stones broken much smaller than is customary4 8,in some instances1 especially within a few miles of ,edinburgh1 it might be worthy of consideration by the ,honourable ,trustees of this county how far cast-iron cart-tracks might not be advantageously laid upon the roads4 ,some years since the reporter got two or three yards' length of these iron tracks brought from the ,shotts ironworks1 where they have been used for years with much advantage1 and1 it is believed1 with economy4 ,these cart-tracks would cost about #bjjj per statute mile1 including upholding by the iron-founder for one year4 ,it would be interesting to have also a trial made of these in some very public road1 although it were only to the extent of two or three hundred yards40 ,again1 in a report to 8,the ,honourable the ,trustees for the ,bridge of ,marykirk10 also in #ahab1 he says3-- 8,in the annexed specification of road-makers' work1 the reporter makes some alterations upon the common and ordinary method of breaking and laying road materials1 by reducing the road-metal to a more uniform size1 and using a course of gravel1 if it can be procured1 or even of clean sharp sand1 as a bottoming for the broken stones4 ,a road composed of stones of various sizes can never be brought into that smooth and uniform surface1 which is so much to be desired1 for the moment the pressure is brought upon one of these out-sized stones1 it must either be crushed under the wheel or be forced by repeated attacks into the road1 and thereby it displaces the surrounding stones1 and in either case admission is given to the surface-water2 a pit is immediately formed1 and every succeeding wheel widens the breach1 until the road is rendered impassable4 ,to counteract this very common effect1 arising chiefly from the very vague manner of defining the dimensions of road-metal by bulk or even by weight1 the reporter provides that the ,trustees shall furnish a riddle or screen1 the meshes or openings of which are to be of such dimensions that a stone measuring more than one inch and a half upon any of its sides cannot pass through it40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,section of one half of ,roadway4 ,mr4 ,stevenson's specification of the ,regent ,road in ,edinburgh is fuller1 and is in the following terms3-- 8,the cross section 7shown in ,fig4 #ab7 of the metalled road to be the same in all respects as that already described for the causewayed roadway4 ,but the cross section is to rise from the interior brows or slopes of the paved channels to the centre of the roadway1 at the rate of #a in #be4 ,the bottoming of the road is to be of broken stones from the excavated matters of the ,calton ,hill works2 the pieces of stone not to exceed five or six lbs4 in weight2 to be laid by hand in a compact manner to the depth necessary for preparing the road for the upper strata1 viz41 a layer or stratum of clean sharp sand four inches in thickness1 laid all over the surface1 and forming a bed for the upper or road-metal stratum1 which is to be seven inches in thickness1 and to consist of broken stones taken from the quarries of ,salisbury ,crags1 or the lands of ,heriot's ,hospital1 as may be finally agreed upon4 ,the road-metal is to be broken into pieces of such dimensions as to pass freely through a screen1 to be provided by the ,commissioners1 the meshes of which shall not exceed one inch and a half square4 ,the whole to be finished with a #8top-dressing' of sea-gravel1 in such a manner that none of the road-metal shall appear on the surface of the roadway when it is completed40 ,these extracts1 so far as ,i have been able to discover1 contain the earliest proposals and precise specification of the construction of road now known by the familiar name of 8macadamising10 and ,i dismiss the subject with the following candid quotation from ,mr4 ,stevenson's ,memoranda1 in which he says3-- 8,it may be well to notice that in #ahaa ,i specified road materials of the size as nearly as may be of road-metal1 which afterwards became what is called #8macadamised roads4' ,i am not sure if ,i was before ,mr4 ,m',adam in this respect2 at all events he had the great merit of introducing the system of smooth roads4 ,when ,i first proposed this method1 ,i think1 to the ,trustees of ,marykirk1 they objected to it upon the score of expense40 ,as regards the iron cart-tracks suggested for trial by ,mr4 ,stevenson in his report to the ,edinburgh ,road ,trustees1 already quoted1 he subsequently matured his views and described them in the article 8,roads0 in the ,edinburgh ,encyclopdia1 where he proposed to use stone tracks as a 8smooth and durable city road10 which he describes as follows3-- 8,the individual component stones of the wheel-tracks1 hitherto1 very partially in use1 extend from three to four feet in length1 are about ten or twelve inches in breadth1 and eight or ten inches in depth4 ,the stones of the tracks recommended by me1 on the other hand1 are of a cubical form1 measuring only from six to eight inches in the lengthway of the track1 and twelve to fourteen inches in depth1 eighteen inches in breadth at the base1 and twelve inches at the top or wheel-track4 ,the stones are therefore proportionate in all their dimensions1 for unless they contain a mass of matter corresponding to their length1 they will be found to want strength and stability4 ,it would hardly be possible to keep slender stone-rails in their places1 and hence the chief benefit of a connected railway would be lost4 ,on the other hand1 very large materials are difficult to be got1 and are also more expensive in carriage and in workmanship than stones of a smaller size4 ,the ,italian wheel-tracks are composed of stones two feet in breadth1 and of various lengths4 ,to lessen the risk of horses falling1 these broad stones are kept in a rough state1 by occasionally cutting grooves with a pick-axe upon their upper surface4 ,a mode of paving with large blocks of granite1 chequered or cut in this manner1 has been tried in some of the streets in ,london4 ,in order1 however1 to give pavement of this kind the necessary stability1 the blocks would require to have their dimensions equally large on all sides1 the expense of which would be too great4 ,but cubical stones of the size now recommended may be procured at a moderate price1 and throughout a great range of country2 while the tracks1 if properly laid1 will actually be more stable than if blocks of larger dimensions were employed4 ,for we may notice that a carriage-wheel rests or impinges even upon a less surface than one inch of its track at a time1 in the course of each revolution round its axis2 hence1 it may be conceived to produce a kind of compensating effect1 connected with the use of small stones1 which prevents the tremor from being communicated beyond the limited sphere of each particular block1 and1 consequently1 extending only a few inches4 ,this system of paving ,i originally proposed for the main street of ,linlithgow1 forming part of the great western road from ,edinburgh to ,stirlingshire1 and a correct idea of the proposal will at once be acquired by examining ,fig4 #ac4 ,by using tracks of this description--giving the stones a proportionally broad bed1 and laying them upon a firm foundation 7which is indispensable7--we should have our streets and the acclivities of our highways rendered smooth and durable1 avoiding the expense and inconvenience of the common road1 and also the irksome noise and jolting motion of the causeway4 8,the tracks may be formed of granite1 whinstone1 or any of the hard varieties of rock capable of being hammer-dressed40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,section for ,road ,metal4 ,section for ,causeway4 ,specimens of these stone tracks were laid in ,edinburgh1 in terms of ,mr4 ,stevenson's specification1 on ,south ,bridge ,street opposite to the ,college1 and in the ,pleasance1 and a third specimen was laid by the ,road ,trustees on ,liberton ,hill1 which still remains after a lapse of half a century4 ,subsequently to this ,mr4 ,walker laid similar tramways in the ,commercial ,road1 ,london1 and as is well known1 they have been pretty largely used in the principal towns in ,italy4 ,for a 8city road10 as ,mr4 ,stevenson termed it1 the system he proposed has certain advantages1 inasmuch as carriages with any form of wheel may use it1 and this freedom of use admits of any amount of traffic being accommodated1 carriages having the freedom of passing from the stone track to any part of the road4 ,the introduction of iron 8street tramways0 may1 however1 be said1 for the present1 to have taken the place of all other plans for improving city passenger traffic4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,edinburgh4 #ahab-ahcd4 ,design for approaches to ,edinburgh from the ,east by ,regent and ,london ,roads1 and opening up access to the ,calton ,hill--,sites for the new ,jail and ,court of ,justiciary1 and buildings in ,waterloo ,place--,regent ,bridge--,feuing ,plan for ,eastern ,district of ,edinburgh--,improvement of accesses to ,edinburgh from the ,west and ,north1 and from ,granton--,removal of old 8,tolbooth0 ,prison--,removal of ,university buildings4 ,ancient ,edinburgh was famed for its narrow streets and crooked wynds1 and even at the period when this ,memoir begins1 much remained to be done for the improvement of the various accesses to the city4 ,these roads1 leading from north1 south1 east1 and west1 were under the management of different ,trusts or public bodies1 by all of whom ,mr4 ,stevenson was on various occasions consulted2 and the subject seems to have had for him more than a merely professional interest1 for his advice was generally far 8ahead0 of the cautious views of his employers1 on whom he seems often to have had no small difficulty in urging the adoption of sufficiently comprehensive designs4 ,his love for the beautiful rose above all other feelings1 and he succeeded1 not without difficulty and perseverance1 in securing for ,edinburgh those spacious road improvements which have undoubtedly helped her to claim the title of 8,modern ,athens40 ,the 8,modern ,athenians0 who now enjoy the magnificent approach to ,edinburgh by the ,regent ,road and ,calton ,hill1 or that no less commodious access from ,parson's ,green to ,leith ,walk1 known as the 8,london ,road10 can hardly realise the time when the only communication from ,princes ,street to ,portobello was by ,leith ,street1 ,calton ,street1 and the ,north ,back of the ,canongate4 ,at that time ,princes ,street was abruptly terminated by a row of houses at the ,register ,office1 and the ,calton ,hill was in a state of nature4 ,mr4 ,stevenson's scheme of forming a direct access to ,london and the south1 by making a roadway over the ,calton ,hill1 was based on a comprehensive scale1 providing sites for public buildings1 and an extensive feuing-plan for the eastern portion of ,edinburgh1 all of which were ultimately carried out under his directions4 ,but this scheme1 boldly conceived and so beneficial to ,edinburgh1 was not well received by the inhabitants4 ,it had the economical objection of interfering to some extent with house property1 a liberty to which people were only reconciled in modern times when sites had to be acquired for railway stations4 ,it had the engineering objection of involving what were represented in those days as dangerous rock cuttings and extensive high retaining walls along the sides of the ,calton ,hill2 but above all1 it had the serious social objection that its route ran through the 8,old ,calton ,burying-ground10 and involved the removal of the remains of those interred in it to a new resting-place1 to be provided by the ,improvement ,commissioners4 ,this last objection subjected ,mr4 ,stevenson to some ill feeling2 and the fact that the place of interment of his own family was one of those to be removed to the new cemetery1 did not succeed in allaying the discontent4 ,it was undoubtedly in consequence of ,mr4 ,stevenson's perseverance and unfaltering conviction that his advice was sound1 and calculated to benefit his fellow-citizens1 that his plan was ultimately adopted and carried out4 ,it is proper to notice that the new jail and the buildings in ,waterloo ,place were designed by ,mr4 ,archibald ,elliot1 and at a more recent period the houses in the ,regent and ,royal ,terraces by ,mr4 ,playfair1 and the ,high ,school and ,burns's ,monument by ,mr4 ,thomas ,hamilton1 all architects of eminence1 whose works added to the attractiveness of ,mr4 ,stevenson's splendid access4 ,in carrying the road round the part of the hill now occupied by the ,high ,school1 ,mr4 ,stevenson had some difficulty1 owing to the height of the retaining wall1 in avoiding what would have appeared as a dead wall1 and would have proved unsightly as viewed from ,arthur's ,seat4 ,he accordingly built a strong retaining wall of masonry1 which supports the road1 and is covered by an exterior wall of rough masses of stone arranged as rustic work1 which1 when viewed at a distance1 has all the appearance of a face of natural rock4 ,in ,lord ,cockburn's ,memorials of his ,time he says3--8,scarcely any sacrifice could be too great that removed the houses from the end of ,princes ,street1 and made a level road to the hill1 or1 in other words1 produced ,waterloo ,bridge4 ,the effect was like drawing up the curtain of a theatre40 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,approaches ,,to ,,edinburgh ,,by ,,regent ,,and ,,london ,,roads1 #ahad4 ,j4 ,bartholomew ,bain4 ,in ,plate ,,iv4 are traced1 in red colour1 the various lines of connecting road which go to make up this grand improvement1 of the value of which those who know the locality can judge for themselves4 ,in the following report1 addressed to the 8,sheriff-,depute of the county of ,edinburgh1 as convener of a committee for erecting a new jail for the county of ,edinburgh10 ,mr4 ,stevenson details the various benefits to be derived by adopting his proposal2 and as his views on this matter encountered1 as has been stated1 much opposition1 ,i give extracts from his report1 begging of those readers who have no local interest in it kindly to pass it over3-- 8,in the report which you addressed to the ,commissioners for erecting a new jail for the county of ,edinburgh1 the ,calton ,hill is amongst other places alluded to as a site4 ,but the difficulty of access to that commanding and healthful situation presents itself as a strong objection to its being adopted4 ,as1 however1 an approach to the city from the eastward1 with access to the extensive lands connected with the ,calton ,hill1 valuable both as building grounds and as a delightful city walk1 has long been a desideratum1 and as the present seemed a fit time for again attempting this measure1 the reporter had the honour to receive your instructions to inquire into the practicability of making a proper communication to the ,calton ,hill1 with the view of there building the intended new jail2 and he is now to submit the accompanying survey of the grounds1 together with the requisite plans and sections connected with the design of a road from ,shakespeare ,square1 at the eastern extremity of ,princes ,street1 to join the great road to ,london at the ,abbeyhill4 8,the ,hon4 ,sheriff is aware that the attainment of this object has long been wishfully kept in view by the public4 ,it is believed that at different times such proposals were by them brought under the notice of ,mr4 ,adam and of ,mr4 ,baxter1 the most celebrated architects of their day4 ,but still the work remains to be accomplished1 not certainly from any physical difficulty necessarily attending its execution1 but from the want of sufficient energy to meet the expense that must unavoidably attend an operation of this nature1 involving the removal of some valuable buildings1 and otherwise interfering with private property4 ,were the reporter to have in view merely the forming of an improved approach to the city of ,edinburgh from the eastward1 instead of the present inconvenient access by the ,water ,gate1 he might here allude to the intended ,london ,road through the lands of ,hillside to ,leith ,walk1 or to the once proposed line of road terminating by a bridge from the northern side of the ,calton ,hill to ,greenside1 opposite ,york ,place1 and the completion of this fine street by the removal of the old and ruinous houses which still continue to encumber its entrance2 or he might take notice of the less commodious road at one time in view over the higher parts of the ,calton ,hill1 and joining the lower part of ,leith ,street by means of an arch over ,calton ,street4 ,but all of these lines of road are objectionable1 in a greater or less degree1 inasmuch as they include the acclivity of ,leith ,street before the passenger can arrive at the level of the ,north ,bridge4 ,to obtain this in the most eligible manner1 we must look to the extension of the line of ,princes ,street to the ,calton ,hill1 for although the other lines of road have been looked forward to as improvements to a certain extent1 yet still they were defective1 and must have left something undone1 while the extension of ,princes ,street by a bridge over ,calton ,street1 and a road to the ,abbeyhill1 seems to answer every purpose4 ,it unfortunately happens1 however1 that if carried in a direct line it must pass through the ,calton ,burying-ground2 and if this part of the road were made with a curve1 the most desirable effect in point of beauty would not be produced4 ,there was a time indeed when1 without encroachment upon the burying-ground1 the road could have been made with a curve to the southward of ,hume the historian's tomb2 but of late years the walls of the burying-ground have been extended to the verge of precipitous rocks1 so that the removal of numerous private cemeteries would now be indispensable in carrying the road at an elevation sufficient to command the proper view4 ,if a lower level were adopted in this direction1 the fine prospects of the higher road would be lost1 and this line would then become quite uninteresting1 while a heavy expense must be incurred in carrying the road through much private property1 considerations which are sufficient to render this line highly objectionable4 8,but the road which would afford the easiest line of draught is that which the reporter has delineated upon the plan by a curved line towards the left from the eastern extremity of the new bridge1 crossing the present road to the ,calton ,hill1 winding round the northern side of the hill and joining the intended #8,london ,road' through the lands of ,hillside near the eastern road to ,leith4 ,by this line of road the level of ,princes ,street may be conceived to become the summit level of the road1 which would admit of being made with a uniform declivity from ,shakespeare ,square to the ,abbeyhill1 while the acclivity to ,bridewell by the present road might be greatly reduced1 and the road improved in connection with the new line of road4 ,in the present instance1 however1 it is not to the easiest line of draught as an approach to the city of ,edinburgh that the ,sheriff directs the attention of the reporter1 but to a better access to the higher lands of ,calton ,hill1 with a view to obtain a proper site for the new jail1 and therefore only an eye view of the northern line of road is given4 ,yet when a communication is opened with the ,calton ,hill by a bridge from ,princes ,street1 we may expect at some future day to see one continuous street or drive round the hill4 ,before proceeding further1 a preliminary remark may here be stated1 and in making it the reporter thinks it proper to say that no one can hold the great professional abilities of ,mr4 ,adam in higher estimation than he does2 at any rate he is certain that it could not fall to the lot of any individual who would feel more compunction in proposing an alteration even upon an outward wall of a work executed under his directions4 ,but such is the inconvenience and even danger to passengers attending the projection of the south-eastern angle of the parapet wall in front of the ,register ,office1 that in the progress of these improvements the reporter would humbly propose1 for the greater accommodation and comfort of the public1 that this fine piece of masonry should undergo a small alteration1 as represented in dotted lines upon the plan1 in order to widen the street and improve the great thoroughfare to the port of ,leith4 8,description of ,line of ,road recommended4 8,in reference to the accompanying survey and plan1 it will be proper to describe it more particularly4 ,the first step towards forming the proposed new approach to the ,calton ,hill will be the removal of the houses which presently shut up the eastern extremity of ,princes ,street1 and the other property in its direction eastward4 ,the approach will then be made up to the proper level by a bridge extending in length about #cfb feet from ,shakespeare ,square over ,calton ,street1 towards the western extremity of the ,calton ,burying-ground1 through which it will pass4 ,thence1 passing in front of ,bridewell1 or between it and ,nelson's ,monument1 it is continued along the southern side of the ,calton ,hill to the line of wall of division between the property of the city of ,edinburgh and the lands of ,heriot's ,hospital4 ,at this position the road begins to skirt along the southern side of the rising grounds in the parks of ,heriot's ,hospital1 and crossing the eastern road to ,leith it passes behind the houses of ,abbeyhill1 and ultimately joins the great road to ,london4 8,the line of road just described has been laid out with gradients varying from #a in #ci to #a in #bb4 ,the more to the eastward the new line of road is carried before it joins the present ,london road1 the more gradual and gentle the acclivity becomes4 ,to improve this line of road still further by cutting deeper into the rock at the summit would not only create a great additional expense1 but would place the road in a hollow1 and shut out these characteristic views of the city which are the chief inducements to the new line of road4 8,in determining the line of direction for the street from ,shakespeare ,square to ,bridewell1 it seems desirable that it should run in a straight line4 ,the only objection to this is its interference with the ,calton ,burying-ground4 ,in making any encroachments upon a place of burial1 there is no doubt something very repugnant to the feelings1 but in many cases this has been found necessary for public improvements1 of which we have an example in the improved access from the bottom of ,leith ,walk to ,bernard ,street1 where the road was carried through part of the churchyard of ,south ,leith1 and so in other parts of the country4 ,the reporter has been at much pains in endeavouring to avoid the burying-ground1 by attempting to turn the road more or less towards the left in going eastward1 and by this means taking only a part from the northern side of that ground4 ,but were the burying-ground to be encroached upon at all1 and this cannot well be prevented1 it seems less objectionable to carry the road in a straight line through it1 especially as it may be found practicable to give an equal quantity of ground immediately contiguous to the present burying-ground without materially trenching upon any plan that may be in view for the erection of the prison2 and as there will be a considerable depth of cutting in carrying the road through the burying-ground1 the surface terring of the different places of interment may be removed to the new grounds with due care and becoming solemnity4 8,the reporter gives a preference to this line1 because it seems best suited to the peculiar situation of the ground1 being calculated to show to much advantage the rugged rocks on which ,nelson's ,monument is erected1 which beautifully terminates the view in looking eastward2 and in entering the town from the opposite directions1 it exhibits at one view1 from a somewhat elevated situation1 the striking and extensive line of ,princes ,street4 ,now the reporter is humbly of opinion that to attain these objects1 this line of road should be carried straight from ,shakespeare ,square to the eastern side of the burying-ground1 after which it may be made to suit the position and nature of the ground in all its windings1 as delineated upon the survey4 8,as this road is not only to be the great approach from the eastward1 but likewise to become the chief thoroughfare to the extensive lands of ,heriot's and ,trinity ,hospitals1 and to the lands of the other conterminous proprietors1 henceforth likely to become the principal building grounds for this great city1 which is always increasing towards its port of ,leith1 it becomes desirable for these purposes1 and particularly to preserve the interesting view of the ,calton ,hill1 that this road should not be less than seventy-five feet in breadth1 or similar to ,princes ,street1 exclusively of the sunk areas1 which is certainly adequate to all the ordinary purposes of utility1 intercourse1 and elegance4 ,there is1 however1 one way of viewing the width of this part of the road or street1 by which it may appear to be too narrow even at seventy-five feet1 and that is by comparing it with the width of ,princes ,street1 which1 including the sunken areas1 measures ninety-five feet in breadth4 ,princes ,street1 however1 comes more properly under the description of a row or terrace1 and the principal footpath being on the north side of the street1 it may consequently be apprehended that unless the new street were of an equal width1 a spectator looking from the north side of the new street towards the line of ,princes ,street would command but an imperfect view of it4 ,this to a considerable extent would be the state of the case even at seventy-five feet of breadth1 and were the street reduced to sixty feet in breadth1 as has been proposed1 the view of the higher parts of the ,calton ,hill would be hid from the pavement on ,princes ,street4 ,but the narrowing of the street even to sixty feet in width1 with two elegant buildings in the form of pavilions or wings to the bridge1 would have an effect similar to what is strikingly observable in looking from the western end of ,george ,street towards the ,excise ,office4 ,examples of narrowing streets are not uncommon1 as ,great ,pulteney ,street in ,bath1 and ,blackfriars and ,westminster ,bridge ,streets in ,london4 ,the reporter1 however1 confesses that he is not induced to consider sixty feet1 or even seventy-five feet1 as the most desirable breadth for the new bridge from any views of elegance2 with him the reduction of the width of the street is proposed rather from motives of economy to insure the success of a great measure1 than from choice in making the design4 ,in this situation a bridge of ninety-five feet1 or equal to the extreme breadth of ,princes ,street1 would most unfortunately place the new buildings upon the north-western side so near to the houses of ,leith ,street1 that the windows of the houses of ,leith ,street and those of the new street would be shaded by each other1 so as to require the buildings at the western end of the bridge to be kept less in height1 if not to be discontinued altogether1 for a considerable way1 which would render the building grounds of much less value4 ,two or three of the new buildings1 indeed1 might be joined or connected with the old houses1 but still the property upon the whole would be greatly injured4 ,considering this1 and also the additional expense of the bridge without greatly increasing the value of the cellarage1 together with the greater trespass that would be made on the burying-ground by a street of ninety-five feet in breadth1 the reporter has been induced to delineate upon the plan a bridge of seventy-five feet1 and a road from it to the ,abbeyhill of sixty feet in breadth4 ,yet if it shall appear that funds cannot be conveniently obtained to meet even this expense1 it may then be found necessary to make the whole of the uniform breadth of sixty feet4 ,from the annexed estimate for the purchase of property1 building a bridge of seventy-five feet in width1 and making a road from it to the ,abbeyhill of sixty feet in breadth1 it appears that the expense will amount to #ga1igf1 #ads4 8,in estimating the expense of these works1 the reporter has had in view that the road should be executed in aisler causeway1 and that the whole should be executed in a substantial manner4 ,from the borings in the strata which have been made by the directions of the reporter1 there is reason to hope that the foundations of the bridge will not be difficult1 and he therefore trusts that the several sums in the estimate of the expense already alluded to1 will be found adequate to this purpose4 8,the expenditure will no doubt be large1 but the advantages are great in proportion4 8,in considering this proposed new approach1 it may be proper to notice it particularly as the means of procuring a proper site for the new jail and court house2 second1 as calculated to raise the value of certain building grounds2 thirdly1 as a public road2 and lastly1 as contributing individually to the comfort of the inhabitants of ,edinburgh4 8,site for the ,jail4 8,in any display of the advantages of this measure1 the motive which led to it should not be overlooked4 ,it was not the convenience of the wealthy citizen1 nor the increased value of ground for building1 nor even the improvement of the public roads that was sought after4 ,it was to obtain a healthful situation for a common jail1 and thereby to extend the comforts particularly of one unfortunate class of individuals1 who1 perhaps from the unavoidable circumstances of their lot1 or from innocent misfortunes1 are unable to pay their debts1 and are cast into prison2 and even of another class1 certainly less to be pitied1 who from a perversity of disposition or the depravity of their nature1 forfeit their liberty for a time4 8,in looking for a proper site for building a jail upon the ,calton ,hill1 the eye is naturally directed to the position of ,bridewell as a fit place for concentrating the whole establishment of prisons for the city of ,edinburgh to one spot1 and if thought advisable1 to put the whole under the care of the same governor1 as is the general practice in ,england4 ,a suitable site for the felons-jail has been pointed out upon the western side of ,bridewell2 and with a proper discrimination1 the ,sheriff proposes to erect the debtors-jail upon the other side2 and if these buildings be constructed in the same style of architecture as ,bridewell1 the whole will present one uniform front or suite of buildings4 ,the reporter understands1 however1 that the ,sheriff does not wish this to be understood as fixed1 but that the opinion of the most eminent architects should be obtained regarding the jail to be erected4 8,site for the ,justiciary ,court ,house4 8,supposing1 for the present1 that the jails were arranged in this manner1 and that it were necessary in connection with them to erect a ,justiciary ,court ,house and public offices1 a place must be found for them that shall at once be suitable in point of elegance1 and be at the same time convenient for communicating with the prisons4 ,in the event of adopting a street with a turn at the eastern end of the bridge1 a site for these buildings could be very appropriately got1 either facing the line of ,princes ,street or upon the southern side of the arch over ,calton ,street4 ,on this last spot it may be objected that the buildings would not be fully seen till the spectator had reached the open arch of the bridge4 ,both of these situations would1 however1 be contiguous to the ,register ,office and ,north ,bridge1 and could be made accessible to the prisons by a private way round the southern side of the burying-ground4 8,but certainly the most commanding site1 in regard to elegance and grandeur of effect1 for a public building would be to place it opposite to the prisons in the opening of the street1 as marked on the plan4 ,in such a position1 when viewed from ,princes ,street in connection with the monument1 the effect of these ,court houses in perspective would indeed be very fine1 and in coming round the hill by the line of road from the eastwards1 it would be no less striking4 8,the site for the prisons naturally points out itself contiguously to ,bridewell1 as well for the reasons already stated as on account of its southern exposure1 and it has been observed to be just at the point of elevation for receiving a supply of water from the city's reservoir4 ,but in setting down the public buildings for the county and for the ,sheriff ,court at so great a distance from the ,court of ,session and the other ,courts of ,law1 the convenience of the practitioners is a consideration of importance which presents itself as requiring very mature deliberation1 which does not strictly come under my notice4 8,the value of ,feuing ,ground4 8,the prolongation of the line of ,princes ,street by a bridge over ,calton ,street is calculated in a particular manner to benefit the extensive lands of ,heriot's and ,trinity ,hospitals1 and the conterminous proprietors to the eastward of the ,calton ,hill1 by affording a better access than can be obtained in any other direction1 especially in so far as it regards the higher grounds of ,heriot's ,hospital4 ,but on this subject the reporter has already submitted his opinion in so far as regards ,heriot's ,hospital1 in a report to the ,governors of that institution2 and as the same argument held in a greater or less degree with the other proprietors1 it seems unnecessary1 in this place1 to resume the subject4 8,as a ,public ,road4 8,as a new approach to the city of ,edinburgh from the ,abbeyhill to the central parts of the city1 avoiding the inconvenient acclivity and awkward termination of ,leith ,street1 or the still more intricate and incommodious access by the ,north ,back of ,canongate1 this road will be regarded by the ,trustees for the highways within the county as an improvement of the first importance4 ,as a road1 it is at once direct and obvious4 ,by an extension of this line of road to ,leith by the eastern road1 or still more to the eastward through the lands of ,restalrig1 this access will be found of very general utility1 while the traveller thus entering ,edinburgh will be presented with the most characteristic views of the city1 both old town and new town1 calculated to inspire the highest opinions of its picturesque beauties4 8,to the ,inhabitants of ,edinburgh4 8,as a great addition to the individual comfort and convenience of the inhabitants of ,edinburgh1 the bridge over ,calton ,street will open an elegant access to the lands of the ,calton ,hill1 from which the surrounding country forms one of the most delightful prospects of distant mountain ranges1--detached hills and extensive sea-coast1 with numerous ships ever plying in all directions1 together with the finest city scenery that is anywhere to be met with4 8,those who have admired the city of ,london from an eminence have indeed seen more extended lines of street bounded perhaps by a richer country1 yet it is very deficient in that variety and boldness of feature which is so striking in this place4 ,when it is wished to extend this walk to the eastward1 the new road will lead the pedestrian commodiously to the bottom of ,arthur's ,seat1 round the eastern side of which a path to ,duddingston1 branching out in various directions in its course round to ,salisbury ,crags1 might1 in a very delightful manner1 be imagined to complete an afternoon's excursion4 ,let those who have not a lively picture in their mind of the prospect from the ,calton ,hill walk along the line of the projected road1 and upon attending to it they will meet with such a richness and variety of scenery as will satisfy them how greatly the ornament of the city1 and the pleasures of the inhabitants and of its occasional visitants1 would be promoted by the continuation of the line of ,princes ,street towards the lands of ,calton ,hill4 ,whether therefore we consider a bridge over ,calton ,street as calculated to improve the approach to the city from the eastward1 or as rendering accessible many acres for building1 and villa grounds which must otherwise remain as grass fields for an indefinite period1 or as opening an easy way to the rising grounds of the ,calton ,hill1 in all these and in other important purposes the reporter is humbly of opinion that this measure ought to be regarded as the greatest object which has engaged the attention of public men since the erection of the ,north ,bridge1 which was a very bold and enterprising undertaking for any period of provincial or even of metropolitan history4 8,under these circumstances1 it must be doubly gratifying to learn1 that notwithstanding the facility which an improved access must afford in laying out the city grounds of the ,calton ,hill for buildings1 it is understood to be the intention of the ,lord ,provost and ,magistrates1 in framing the ,bill for an ,act of ,parliament for regulating these works1 to provide1 with a proper liberality and a due regard for the immediate and ultimate interests of the community1 that these lands shall in all time coming be preserved open and free as at present from all common buildings4 ,it is also hoped that the ,hon4 and ,rev4 ,governors of ,heriot's ,hospital1 with enlightened sentiments1 will preserve the view of ,holyrood ,house and its connecting scenery1 by restricting the buildings on the southern side of the new road through the ,hospital's land to such limits as may seem for that purpose to be necessary40 ,the ,bill for this new approach to ,edinburgh was passed in #ahad1 and1 on the #ith of ,september #ahae1 the foundation stone of the ,waterloo ,bridge was laid with great masonic ceremony1 bearing the following inscription-- ,,regnante ,,georgio ,,iii4 ,,patre ,,patriae ,,urbis ,,praefecto ,,iterum ,,joanne ,,marjoribanks ,,de ,,lees ,,equite ,,baronetto ,,architecto ,,roberto ,,stevenson ,,cives ,,edinburgenses ,,novum ,,hunc ,,et ,,magnificum ,,per ,,montem ,,vicinum ,,ad ,,summam ,,urbem ,,aditum ,,moliti ,,in ,,hoc ,,ponte ,,nomen ,,jusserunt ,,inscribi ,,proregis ,,georgii ,,augusti ,,frederici4#g which ,i quote1 because ,mr4 ,stevenson1 in his notes1 mentions a curious circumstance in connection with it3--8,the late ,james ,gregory1 then ,professor of the ,practice of ,medicine in the ,university1 the well-known author of the ,conspectus ,medicinae ,theoreticae1 was applied to by the ,commission for the improvement to put the inscription in classical ,latin4 ,the ,doctor came to me to say that he must style me ,architect1 there being no such word as ,engineer to be found in the history of the ,arts1 and so it stands in the inscription4 ,i wanted the ,doctor to introduce the term ,engineer1 as it was very desirable to have the profession recognised in works now exclusively entrusted to the engineer40 ,mr4 ,stevenson's original feuing plan1 already referred to1 for the ,calton ,hill had three ranges of terraces at different levels1 as shown by a picture in my possession1 from which ,plate ,v4 has been engraved4 ,the middle line of terrace shown in the drawing corresponds to the ,regent ,terrace as ultimately constructed4 ,the approach on the northern side of the hill1 known as the 8,london ,road10 was executed according to ,mr4 ,stevenson's design immediately after the completion of the ,regent ,road and ,waterloo ,bridge2 and the whole of the new lines of road1 as shown in red in ,plate ,,iv41 were1 as ,i have stated1 part of the same design4 ,mr4 ,stevenson's further contributions to the improvement of the approaches to ,edinburgh were made between #ahaa and #ahag to the 8,trustees for the ,post-road ,district of ,roads10 the 8,trustees of the ,middle ,district of ,roads10 the 8,commissioners for forming and feuing ,leith ,walk10 and the 8,trustees of the ,cramond ,district of ,roads40 ,these were the several authorities at that time in power1 under whose directions he laid out the access to ,edinburgh from ,stockbridge by ,royal ,circus1 and from ,inverleith by ,canonmills to ,dundas ,street1 and from ,canonmills to ,bellevue ,crescent4 ,more recently the access from ,granton ,harbour to ,inverleith ,row on the east1 and to ,caroline ,park on the west1 were designed and executed under his direction in connection with his design for ,granton ,harbour1 made to the ,duke of ,buccleuch in #ahcd4 ,to ,mr4 ,stevenson's engineering skill1 therefore1 it may truly be said that modern ,edinburgh owes much of its fame as a city of palaces1 commanding views of the ,firth of ,forth and surrounding country which cannot be surpassed4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,,design ,,for ,,building ,,on ,,the ,,calton ,,hill4 by ,robert ,stevenson1 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,civil ,engineer4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,johnston ,lithog4 ,edinburgh4 ,g4 ,c4 ,scott1 ,delt4 ,,the ,,old ,,tolbooth ,,prison4 ,while ,mr4 ,stevenson was elaborating his designs for the new approaches to the city1 his attention was naturally directed to the crowded state of the buildings in the old town2 and as we shall see1 he did not fail fully to appreciate this evil1 or forget to suggest a remedy for it in his plans of improvement4 ,the old 8,tolbooth0 prison1 in the ,high ,street of ,edinburgh--the scene of so many incidents in the ,heart of ,midlothian--was still the only stronghold in which debtors and criminals were indiscriminately confined4 ,its position in the centre of the ,high ,street1 at ,st4 ,giles' ,church1 was very objectionable1 and the erection of a new jail1 in a more favourable situation1 had been often proposed1 but never carried out4 ,in pursuance of this desirable object1 ,sir ,william ,rae--the ,sheriff-,depute of ,edinburgh--in #ahac1 accompanied by ,mr4 ,stevenson as a professional adviser1 visited many of the principal jails in ,england1 including ,newgate1 ,kingsbench1 ,cold ,bath1 ,oxford1 ,gloucester1 ,chester1 and ,lancaster1 to inquire into their general arrangements and accommodation4 ,sir ,william ,rae also remitted to ,mr4 ,stevenson1 in conjunction with ,mr4 ,crichton1 architect1 to report on the condition of the ancient 8,tolbooth20 and from the conclusion arrived at by the engineer and architect1 most people of the present day will readily sympathise with the ,sheriff in his ardent desire for the erection of a new building4 ,their report is curious1 as conveying an idea of the state of prison discipline in the early part of this century1 and is interesting in connection with the antiquities of ,edinburgh4 ,messrs4 ,stevenson and ,crichton say3-- 8,agreeably to the directions of the ,honourable the ,commissioners for erecting a new jail1 the reporters have examined both the exterior walls and the interior parts of the present jail1 and they now report that this building1 which was erected in #aefb1 originally formed the western extremity of a continuous range of buildings in the middle of the ,high ,street1 called the ,luckenbooths4 ,a few years ago these buildings were partly removed1 leaving the old jail in an insulated and unsupported state4 ,the street at the north-eastern angle of the buildings was at the same time lowered several feet2 and these changes1 together with the defective state of the masonry1 appear to have produced the following effects upon the eastern and northern walls of this now shattered fabric4 8,the eastern wall or gable is rent in three places4 ,two of these fissures extend from the ground to the top of the building1 and the wall is found to bulge or bend outwards4 8,on the northern side there has been a junction of the walls of two separate buildings1 forming what is called the debtor and criminal sides of the prison1 which seem to have been erected at different periods4 ,at this place there is a very apparent opening from the bottom to the top of the prison1 and the eastern or criminal end appears to be settling at the north-eastern angle1 as further appears from the doors of the guard-house and black hole1 situate in that quarter of the building1 having at different times required some alterations to make them move upon their hinges4 8,this wall1 like the eastern one1 is also bulged outwards to the extent of from six to ten inches in different places4 8,the roof of the prison is likewise unsafe1 particularly upon the criminal or eastern side1 where the rafters have sunk in the middle and pressed the side wall outwards at the top4 8,interior of the ,prison4 8,upon examining the interior of the prison1 it was found that the several cracks and fissures1 already described as observable on the outside of the building1 were also most distinctly visible from within1 and that the northern wall in several of the apartments appears to have separated from the floors4 ,in confirmation of these facts1 which appear particularly to claim the notice of the ,honourable the ,commissioners1 it was distinctly stated to the reporters by ,mr4 ,sibbald1 the head jailer1 that he had been conversant with this prison about twenty-two years2 that about seven years ago he became principal jailer1 and had ever since been in the habit of making requisitions for the necessary repairs1 which were always executed at his sight2 that these openings and fissures1 which now appeared obvious to the reporters1 had been frequently plastered over with lime1 sometimes previously to whitewashing the apartments1 and at other times at the earnest request of the prisoners1 to stop the current of air1 which annoyed them1 and still these fissures appeared to be getting wider2 that in every instance where the walls had been attempted to be forced by the prisoners1 the mortar was found to be loose and soft1 without having taken bond2 in particular it was stated that two of the prisoners had lately excavated about two cartloads of rubbish from the walls with a small piece of iron1 in the course of a few hours4 8,it is therefore humbly concluded1 from the information obtained by the reporters upon the spot1 but especially from their own knowledge and observation1 that there are data for assuming that the eastern and northern walls of the prison have deviated considerably from the perpendicular of their original elevation2 that there is reason to consider them still continuing to deviate from the perpendicular2 and that finally1 in the decayed state of this building1 it is impossible to warrant its stability for any given period of time4 ,the reporters should even consider the continuing the use of this building for one year longer than is indispensably necessary for the erection of a sufficient jail1 an evil if possible to be avoided1 as involving imminent danger to the wretched inmates1 and much hazard to the public at large1 from its position in the heart of the city4 8,it would accordingly be very desirable that some support could be given to this old building immediately1 but unfortunately its position renders this quite impossible without seriously obstructing the ,high or principal street of the city4 ,had it formed any part of the ,honourable the ,commissioners' instructions to the reporters to take notice of this jail as a place of security for the safe custody of prisoners1 it would only be necessary for them to refer to what is herein stated regarding the insufficiency of the walls1 and to remark that the floors1 being wholly composed of timber1 are neither proof against the simplest accident by fire nor against the slightest attempt at escape by the prisoners4 ,it is truly surprising that any criminal of a desperate character can be retained within its precincts to abide the pains of law1 which nothing but the active vigilance of its keepers could insure40 ,this ancient prison-house was removed in #ahag1 and in his ,notes to the ,heart of ,midlothian1 ,scott says3--8,that with the liberal acquiescence of the persons who had contracted for the work1 he procured the stones which composed the gateway1 together with the door and its ponderous fastenings1 to decorate the entrance to the kitchen court at ,abbotsford40 ,,the ,,removal ,,of ,,the ,,college4 ,there is yet another report which1 though its interest may only be local1 ,i think is worthy of a place in this ,memoir1 as it not only shows ,mr4 ,stevenson's firm conviction in the ultimate success of his ,calton ,hill improvements1 but is a pleasing record of his interest in the scene of his early studies4 ,it is not1 ,i believe1 generally known that ,mr4 ,stevenson made an unsuccessful attempt to have the ,university buildings1 then in progress1 removed from the old town to the site proposed to be opened up on the ,calton ,hill2 and the remarks he then made1 addressed to the ,right ,honourable ,sir ,john ,marjoribanks1 ,lord ,provost of ,edinburgh1 may have interest even at the present day1 as shadowing forth views which1 in the now altered relations of the new and old town1 have been to some extent realised4 8,in making the following observations at the desire of the ,lord ,provost regarding the completion of the ,college of ,edinburgh1 the memorialist would be understood as referring to the site of the building rather than to the merits of any particular design1 of which he does not presume to give any opinion1 as it is a matter which more properly falls under the observations of the architect than the engineer4 8,in treating of the fitness of the present site of the ,college of ,edinburgh1 it may be proper to take some cursory notice of the situation of the ,old ,college1 as connected with the houses and streets in the neighbourhood1 and then show the alterations which the ,university grounds have undergone since the design was first formed of rebuilding the ,college4 8,old ,college4 8,in so far as the memorialist can recollect the exterior of the area of the ,old ,college1 it was occupied by a range of low buildings of only two stories1 particularly upon the southern and western sides1 and was again divided by a range of buildings into a small lower court towards the north1 and the present main courtyard on the south1 and these two courts communicated with each other by a spacious flight of steps1 so that the principal or higher court was comparatively open and free to the influence both of the sun and of the air4 ,nor was there any obstruction to this state of things beyond the precincts of the ,college for a considerable period after the ,new ,college was commenced1 and until the elegance of the building stamped a new value upon all the surrounding property4 ,but1 unfortunately1 by this time the funds for the works fell short1 and the operations were stopped4 ,the ,magistracy1 also1 who originally entered upon this great work1 in rotation retired from office1 and the same zeal was perhaps not felt by those who immediately succeeded2 and we are now left to regret the shortness of the period of human life1 which has removed the man who conceived the magnificent design of this building1 which is now so completely invested with streets as to be rendered nearly unfit for the purposes of its foundation4 8,new ,college4 8,the site of the ,new ,college of ,edinburgh1 as already stated1 does not possess any of those properties which are considered essential to the convenience and eligibility of a public school4 ,instead of being in a retired situation with sequestered walks1 like the other colleges of the ,united ,kingdom1 it is closely surrounded by paved streets1 which are the most public thoroughfares for carriages in the city1 insomuch that the memorialist has witnessed the annoyance of ,playfair's mathematical class by a ballad-singer1 and he has oftener than once seen the ,professor of ,moral ,philosophy put to silence by the disloading of a cart with bars of iron in ,college ,wynd2 and at all times the driving of a single carriage briskly in the streets which surround the ,college is sufficient to disturb1 and even to interrupt1 the classes4 ,to this it may be replied that double windows will prevent such interruptions2 but these would obscure the light which already1 from the late erection 7on all sides7 of very high buildings1 is much injured4 8,so strongly is the memorialist impressed with these views1 from what he has himself as a student experienced1 and from what he has heard from others1 that he cannot resist bringing them forcibly under the notice of your ,lordship in connection with the erection of a building for one of the first seminaries of education in ,europe4 8,when your ,lordship's predecessors in the office of the magistracy adopted the plan of ,robert ,adam1 the most eminent and justly celebrated architect of his day1 the site was comparatively free from the objections stated4 ,it is not therefore the plan which is objectionable1 but it is the neighbourhood which has been so altered and changed as to be very unsuitable to the elegant design of the architect4 8,from causes to which it is unnecessary to allude1 the building of the ,new ,college has only advanced about one third towards the perfecting of the design1 and a sum of money is now expected to be procured for its completion4 ,the present moment is therefore one of the greatest importance for considering the deficiencies of the present site1 and if found materially defective1 as humbly appears to your memorialist to be the case1 it were much better to change the site of the building while it may be done without much loss1 and execute the design in a more eligible situation4 8,it must always be kept in view that when this design was made the grounds were open to the free circulation of the air and the full influence of light4 ,but now the case is materially altered1 and if the design is executed under such a change of circumstances the direct rays of the sun will hardly ever reach the area of the courtyard1 especially in the winter months1 neither will there be that free circulation of air which is essential to health and comfort1 and moss 7byssus7 will make its appearance upon the lower parts in the interior of the courtyard1 which is very unsuitable in a magnificent building such as ,mr4 ,adam's design for the ,college of ,edinburgh4 8,at the period when the rebuilding of the ,college was determined upon there was perhaps little choice as to the spot for its erection2 the number of students1 now greatly on the increase1 was at that time much smaller1 and the ,college grounds were then much more relieved and uncumbered with other buildings1 a state of things which most unquestionably would have been preserved had the building proceeded as was expected2 but in the lapse of about one third of a century many changes take place1 and the slow progress of the building necessarily produced a want of energy in the official people to prevent the use that has since been made by the respective proprietors of the surrounding grounds4 8,at the present crisis1 however1 your ,lordship will now feel yourself called upon in a review of these circumstances to consider what is proper to be done upon a great scale for the ultimate best advantage of future generations in a matter of great public interest4 ,under these impressions a field of operation is just opening for your ,lordship's consideration1 in a prolongation of ,princes ,street in a direct line to the lands of ,calton ,hill and ,heriot's ,hospital1 now in progress under the auspices of your ,lordship4 ,to take a minute view of this improvement would be tedious1 and would require the notice of more particulars than these observations are intended to refer to4 ,but in a general way it may be noticed that there is ample space and freedom for the execution of ,mr4 ,adam's design on the lands to which the new approach will lead by a very easy access4 8,it may be objected to the removal of the ,college that it would be inconvenient for the students2 but for those who are perhaps the most numerous1 living in the ,new ,town1 a site for the ,college on the north side of the town would be the most convenient1 and for a different class lodgings at a cheap rate would be procured quite at hand in the ,canongate4 8,a more powerful objection would perhaps arise from the contiguity of the present site of the ,college to the ,infirmary and other institutions connected with the education of the medical classes1 but these may also be got over by a little arrangement in the present hours of the classes1 and one would not despair of seeing a more direct road projected from the ,calton ,hill to the southern side of the town were the ,college removed to that neighbourhood4 ,with regard to any real loss to the students1 it is not believed that such could be instructed were this proposition fully considered4 ,but those who would perhaps be the most clamorous are the persons who have made the most of their property by building immense piles of lodging-houses in the immediate vicinity of the ,college1 and have thus ruined the neighbourhood4 8,with regard to the funds for this change of site1 your memorialist is of opinion that the removal of the ,college from the present valuable grounds in the central parts of the city1 for buildings applicable to commercial and economical purposes1 would be attended with an increase of funds towards the new erection2--for the lower part all round would be opened for valuable shops1 while the higher parts would answer for dwelling-houses and other purposes4 ,the part of the front would be easily convertible into a house for the ,royal ,bank1 which seems much wanted1 and in short it may be confidently stated that upon the whole there would be no loss1 but gain1 by the change of position1 while very many advantages could be pointed out as attending such a measure1 were this the proper place for entering more fully into the subject4 8,the proposal stated is not new2 it has been often under the memorialist's consideration1 and he has heard it favourably spoken of and received by several of the ,professors of the ,university1 in particular ,professors ,leslie and ,playfair1 and others eminently qualified to judge correctly upon the subject40 ,with this report ,i conclude what may be fairly held to be of purely local interest1 but which nevertheless ,i have thought worthy of a place in the memoir of one whose great anxiety ever was to secure the amenity of ,edinburgh1 and make it attractive not only as a place of residence but as a seat of learning4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,ferries4 ,ferry ,engineering--,extracts from ,report on the ,tay ,ferries-- ,reports on various ,ferries--,orkney and ,shetland ,ferry1 etc4 ,before we had steamers to navigate our firths and railways to bridge our estuaries1 the 8crossing of the ferry0 was an event of no small solicitude to the traveller4 ,in the sailing pinnace-boat of those days he not only might encounter serious danger1 but his exposure to sea-sickness and drenching spray depended wholly on the weather1 and sometimes the length of the passage1 and the duration of his suffering could not be foretold by the most experienced 8,skipper10 as the captain of the boat was invariably styled4 ,anything that could reduce the hazard and uncertainty of so miserable a state of things was naturally hailed as a priceless boon2 and the improvement of 8ferry communication0 at the beginning of this century was an important branch of civil engineering4 ,its successful practice demanded nautical knowledge as well as constructive experience1 for the engineer had first of all to study the strength and direction of the tidal currents of flood and ebb1 and then to consider from what points on the shore a ferry-boat1 under the varying states of wind and tide1 could most readily make her passage across4 ,he had further to select the most suitable sites for landing-places1 and to construct high and low water slips at different points to meet the varying states of tide and wind1 and to construct roads of more or less extent to connect the landing-places with existing turnpikes4 ,all this arrangement was required1 because at the time of which ,i write1 before steamboats were invented1 two costly deep-water piers placed ex adverso of each other1 one on each side of a ferry1 would not have met the requirements of the case2 for the management of a sailing pinnace1 at the mercy of the currents and winds1 demanded not a single pier for which to steer1 but a choice of several points1 on as wide a range of coast as possible1 for which the 8skipper0 could shape his course and make a landing4 ,mr4 ,stevenson's nautical experience peculiarly fitted him for giving valuable advice in this important branch of marine engineering4 ,it is no doubt a branch of the profession which may be said to be obsolete1 but ,i do not know that on that account it is undeserving of notice2 and the best mode ,i can think of for conveying to any one who may be interested in it an idea of the 8ferry engineering0 of former times1 is to give an extract1 with an illustrative sketch1 of one of ,mr4 ,stevenson's early ,ferry ,reports4 ,i select for this purpose a report made to the 8,freeholders1 ,justices of the ,peace1 and ,commissioners of ,supply of the counties of ,fife and ,forfar0 relative to the ferries across the ,tay at ,dundee3-- 8,having examined the shores and firth of ,tay the reporter has now the honour of submitting the following as his report regarding the proposed improvements3-- 8,the improvement of the ferries on the ,tay has long been the desire of the public2 and though this measure has hitherto been delayed1 on account of the expense which necessarily attends such operations1 yet so desirable an object has been invariably kept in view2 and now1 when the advantages attending the recently improved state of ,queensferry and ,kinghorn ferries have been in a good measure realised1 the passage across the ,tay has very opportunely been brought under the consideration of the freeholders of the adjoining counties4 8,the present landing-slips or quays upon the ,tay are situate at ,dundee upon the north1 and at ,woodhaven and ,newport on the south4 ,the bed of the firth or river at ,dundee is so much silted up and encumbered with sandbanks and mud1 that the piers1 which were no doubt originally built of sufficient extent1 and perhaps commanding the necessary depth of water for floating the passage-boats at low tides1 have at length become inadequate to so great a thoroughfare1 and the boats are now left by the water at every spring-tide1 to the great annoyance and inconvenience of the public4 8,it will be observed from the plans accompanying this report that the ,craig pier at ,dundee is proposed to be extended from the southern extremity of the present landing-slip or pier #djj feet in length1 or to the southern extremity of the ,craig rock1 so as to command a depth of about five feet at low water of spring-tides1 which will be sufficient to float decked boats of twenty to twenty-five tons register1 built upon a suitable construction for sailing4 ,it is proposed to construct this pier1 where the greatest business is to be done1 upon the plan of a double pier1 sixty feet in breadth2 and as it will now be of a much greater extent than formerly1 a screen wall is proposed to be erected in the middle of it1 in a longitudinal direction1 so as to check the waves or run of the water over the pier1 and also for the defence and shelter of passengers from the inclemency of the weather4 ,this pier will form an inclined plane sloping to seaward at the rate of one perpendicular to twenty-six horizontal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 8,in sailing from the southern side of the ,tay for ,dundee1 it will on some occasions be found convenient1 with certain directions of the wind and currents of the tide1 to have landing-slips or piers both above and below the town of ,dundee1 so as to prevent the necessity of tacking with adverse winds1 as is the case at present from the want of such accommodation4 ,upon examining the shores above or to the westward of ,dundee1 the most convenient position for a landing-slip is at the ,magdalene ,point1 about #adjj yards to the westward of the ,craig pier at ,dundee4 8,in the same manner a convenient position presents itself on the rocky shores of the ,rood ,yards1 about #bjjj yards below or to the eastward of the ,craig pier4 ,these proposed new piers are delineated and laid down in the drawings accompanying this report4#h 8,upon the southern side of the ,tay1 and opposite to ,dundee1 the harbour or landing-slip most frequented at present is that of ,newport4 ,in former times1 when the accumulation of sand1 called the ,middle ,bank1 between the opposite shores of the ferry at ,dundee1 was less extensive1 the principal landing-place upon the ,fife side of the firth was that of ,woodhaven4 ,newport is a small harbour1 built of masonry1 with a landing-slip or sloping pier attached to the outward wall of the harbour for the convenience of the ferry-boats4 ,at this station it will therefore only be necessary to extend the landing-slip about eighty-eight feet northward1 in order to obtain five feet of depth at low water of spring tides2 and as the present sloping pier or slip is inconveniently narrow1 it is proposed to add fourteen feet to its breadth2 and the reporter would recommend that this work1 in connection with the pier at ,dundee1 should be executed in the first instance1 on account of its being of primary importance in the improvement of the ,ferry4 8,at ,woodhaven it is proposed to add seventy-one feet to the length of the landing-slip1 to enable the ferry-boats to approach it at low water of spring tides1 in the same manner as at ,newport4 8,at or near ,craighead1 about #hcj yards below or to the eastward of ,newport1 there is a convenient point of land1 where it is proposed to erect a slip or pier #bej feet in length and #cj in breadth4 ,this pier will command five feet1 or a sufficient depth of water for the ferry-boats at the lowest tides1 and is in a position calculated to be highly useful4 8,a pier has likewise been suggested as necessary at ,wormit ,bay1 about a mile to the westward of ,woodhaven1 which1 in certain directions of the wind1 may no doubt be found useful2 but when the piers opposite to ,dundee come to be put in good order1 and the ferry placed under proper regulations1 it is presumed that a pier at ,wormit ,bay would very seldom be found necessary4 ,the cost of these works is estimated at #bj1ieb1 #acs4 #f;d4 8,in forming the several landing-places already described1 it is obvious that there must be a ready communication between each of these piers and the public roads in their respective neighbourhoods4 ,it will also be of essential importance to this measure1 that a connection by good roads be formed and kept up between the several landing-places1 in so far as this can be effected4 ,at present there is a pretty good line of road between ,woodhaven and ,newport1 which would require to be extended eastward to the landing-place at ,craighead4 8,in the event of ,craig pier being adopted as the landing-place at ,dundee1 it might be advisable to take a power in the proposed ,act1 as a measure of the burgh of ,dundee1 for making a new and more direct approach from that pier to the main street4 ,the extension and formation of these roads1 however1 will necessarily fall under the joint consideration of the trustees for the ferries and roads in apportioning the expense between the respective trusts4 8,boats4 8,at present there are said to be no less than about thirty boats plying upon the passage at ,dundee1 which are navigated by about fifty men and boys4 ,but were the piers and landing-places1 with the accesses to them1 completed in the manner proposed1 and the whole placed under proper regulations1 there can be little doubt that the ferry of ,dundee would be much better attended1 and the public better served1 by one half of the present number of boats1 as has been experienced on the ferries of the ,firth of ,forth4 8,steamboats4 8,some are of opinion that both the number of boats and of piers or landing-places might be still further reduced by the introduction of the ,steamboat upon this passage4 ,the reporter1 however1 does not think it would be advisable to have fewer than three landing-places at each station1 as even the steamboat itself is more or less liable to fall short or to be driven past its port by adverse winds and strong currents2 and1 in a great public measure of this kind1 it is proper to be prepared for the worst that is likely to happen4 ,regarding the adoption of the steamboat in preference to sailing-boats1 the reporter is not however prepared to give any very decided opinion upon the subject4 ,he has1 indeed1 seen the steamboat used with great facility on the passage across the river ,mersey at ,liverpool1 and has himself brought the plan of a steamboat under the notice of several of the trustees for ,kinghorn and ,queensferry passages1 proposed to be constructed upon similar principles with that originally tried1 it is believed1 by the late ,mr4 ,millar of ,dalswinton4 ,but it would seem to be premature to recommend the framing of the ,bill or the construction of piers for ,dundee ferry upon the idea of the exclusive use of the steamboat4 ,the consideration of the late unpleasant accidents which have befallen some of those boats renders this a matter of great delicacy1 and one in which much precaution should be used on so public a ferry4 ,under such circumstances it is not only necessary to consult the actual safety of passengers while afloat1 but even to meet their prejudices1 with proper attention to their comfort4 ,from considerations of this kind1 the reporter recommends that such of the piers or landing-slips on the ferry of ,dundee as may ultimately be erected1 should be completed agreeably to the plan herein proposed2 and it is fortunate that1 with some trifling alterations or additions1 the piers suitable for the common boat can be made answerable for the steamboat4 ,when this measure is in full operation it may then be highly proper to make an experiment with the steamboat upon the passage at ,dundee1 and if this mode is approven of by the public it can be extended1 and the number of sailing-boats diminished accordingly40 ,mr4 ,stevenson was employed to give similar advice by other ,trusts1 and particularly by the 8,trustees of the ,queensferry ,passage0 and the 8,trustees of the ,edinburgh and ,fife ,ferry10 both across the ,forth1--the 8,freeholders and ,justices of ,peace of the counties of ,ross and ,sutherland10 for the ,ferry of the ,dornoch1--the 8,freeholders of the county of ,glamorganshire10 for the new passage-ferry of the ,severn1 to all of whom he made reports at various times1 as to the improvement of the mode of communication under their charge4 ,he also was engaged by the ,lords of the ,treasury 8to inquire into and report on the best mode of improving the post-packet communication to ,orkney and ,shetland10 which he did after careful survey and consideration1 in an elaborate report1 from which ,i give the following extracts1 as illustrating some of the disadvantages under which the public laboured before steam was generally adopted3-- 8,the islands of ,orkney are separated from the coast of ,caithness or mainland of ,scotland by the rapid channel of the ,pentland ,firth1 which varies in breadth from six to nine miles1 while ,zetland lies fifty miles to the northward of ,orkney40 8,these two groups of islands1 forming one county1 are of late years greatly advanced in importance1 and possess an aggregate population of #fj1jjj inhabitants1 who are chiefly engaged in maritime affairs and fishing adventures4 ,from their local position also in the ,north ,sea1 they lie much in the track of vessels sailing in the higher latitudes1 and correspondence with them regarding the destination and insurance of ships is often of the greatest importance to commercial men4 ,it is likewise known to the ,right ,honourable the ,lord ,advocate of ,scotland1 and the ,honourable the ,sheriff of the county1 that the want of a proper communication by post not unfrequently interferes with the regular administration of justice in these islands2 and now that ,orkney and ,shetland jointly send a member to ,parliament1 the evils resulting from the want of a regular communication press more forcibly1 not only on the inhabitants of these islands1 but on the public generally4 8,so uncertain is the post of ,zetland on its present footing1 that the reporter himself carried to ,lerwick the first intelligence of the appointment of ,sir ,william ,rae as ,lord ,advocate of ,scotland1 after it had been currently known through the newspapers in all other parts of the kingdom for several weeks1 and it is well known that the succession of the ,king was not known in ,lerwick for several months after the event took place4 ,during the winter months the intercourse is indeed precarious as well as uncertain1 and much painful delay is often experienced by parties interested in any question connected with the insurance of vessels wrecked on this dangerous coast4 8,in order to lessen the labour and expense to themselves1 the ,orkney ferrymen on either side contrive to leave their shores so as to meet about the middle of the ,firth1 where they exchange the mail and passengers1 and then return to their respective homes4 ,in this way they seldom complete the full trip across the ,firth1 excepting when obliged by stress of weather4 ,this interchange of the post from boats1 it must be allowed1 is rather a hazardous experiment anywhere1 but more especially in the middle of the ,pentland ,firth2 and whether the inhospitable state of the shores on either side1 the rough and boisterous nature of the sea to be passed through1 or the want of management be considered1 there is evidently great room for improvement on the ferry of the ,pentland ,firth40 ,this communication is now1 as is well known1 carried on by first-class steamers1 which touch at ,kirkwall and ,lerwick1 and by a daily mail steamer which crosses the ,pentland ,firth from the low-water pier at ,scrabster in ,caithness to ,stromness in ,orkney2 and the travelling public may be congratulated that the ferry communication of the early part of the century1 of which ,i have given a sketch in this chapter1 no longer forms a part of the practice of the civil engineer4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,railways4 #ahab-ahbf4 ,canals and ,railways on one level--,haulage on ,railways--,railways in ,scotland--,edinburgh and ,midlothian1 ,stockton and ,darlington1 and ,edinburgh and ,london ,railways--,uniform gauge proposed--,notes on ,railways for the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society--,letter from ,george ,stephenson4 ,great powers of observation1 combined with fertile and practical mechanical resources1 enabled ,mr4 ,stevenson in many cases to form engineering opinions which may truly be said to have been 8before their time10 and in no subject1 perhaps1 was this more strikingly realised than in his views as to railways4 ,impressed with the great inconvenience of change of level in canals1 involving 8lockage10 with all its expensive works and serious obstruction of traffic1 he early formed a firm belief that wherever lockage could be avoided1 by making even a considerable detour in the line of canal1 it was sound engineering to adopt the level line1 although it might be at the cost of additional length4 ,founding on this general opinion1 so early as #ahab1 he traced out and proposed lines of canal to be carried upon one level1 without lockage1 through the valleys of ,strathmore and ,strathearn1 connecting ,perth1 ,forfar1 ,arbroath1 and ,montrose1 and also by a line of canal1 by ,broxburn1 ,linlithgow1 ,polmont1 ,castlecary1 ,campsie1 and ,broomielaw1 to unite ,edinburgh and ,glasgow4 ,his early researches on the subject of canals prepared him1 about #ahaf1 to extend the same reasoning to railways1 which1 with wonderful sagacity1 he foresaw must become what he termed the 8,british highway0 of the future4 ,he found that his first idea of tracks of iron and stone to improve the draught on common roads was not destined to meet the requirements of the future2 and when as yet nothing was known of railways beyond the tramways connected with coal-fields1 and no proposal had been made to adapt them to passenger traffic1 ,mr4 ,stevenson was engaged tracing in all directions through ,scotland lines of railway as a new mode of conveyance to supersede roads4 ,some of these early proposals1 extending to about five hundred miles1 are shown in hard lines on ,fig4 #ae1 and of all these railways he made surveys1 estimates1 and elaborate reports addressed to ,committees of subscribers by whom the various schemes were supported4 ,it must be remembered that at that early period no other power than that of horses was contemplated for performing the haulage either on road1 canal1 or tramway1 and ,mr4 ,stevenson1 true to his early views as to the disadvantage of lockage on canals1 spent much time in experimenting on the prejudicial effect of steep inclines on horse railways1 and in endeavouring1 in his various surveys1 to discover routes by which his lines of railway might be carried through1 as much as possible1 on one level1 regarding a few miles additional length of line as quite unimportant compared to the disadvantage of a steep gradient1--a view which was more appreciated before the locomotive engine had taken upon itself the labour of the horse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,to show the state of railway matters at the period to which ,i refer1 ,i think it may not be uninteresting to give1 even at some length1 extracts from ,mr4 ,stevenson's report on what was called the ,edinburgh ,railway4 ,the report1 which is dated #ahah1 was addressed to 8,his ,grace the ,duke of ,buccleuch and ,queensberry1 and the other noblemen and gentlemen1 subscribers for a survey of a railway from the coal field of ,midlothian to the city of ,edinburgh and port of ,leith40 8,in the course of a report relative to a line of canal upon one level1 or without lockage1 between the cities of ,edinburgh and ,glasgow1 the reporter took occasion to state the practicability of a line of railway from the coal field of the vale of the ,esk to the city of ,edinburgh and the port of ,leith1 founded upon a communication which he had the honour to make to ,sir ,william ,rae1 ,baronet1 and the ,honourable ,baron ,clerk1 so far back as the year #ahab4 ,this subject having since attracted the notice of ,sir ,john ,hope1 ,baronet1 and several of the other landed proprietors of ,midlothian1 the reporter had consequently a correspondence with ,messrs4 ,gibson and ,oliphant1 ,writers to the ,signet1 on the part of the promoters of this measure4 8,a public meeting was accordingly called by advertisement to be held in the ,royal ,exchange ,coffee-house on the #c;d day of ,september #ahag1 when ,john ,clerk1 ,esq4 of ,eldin1 having taken the chair1 the reporter received instructions to survey a line or lines of railway from the ,midlothian coal field to the city of ,edinburgh and port of ,leith2 and he now submits the following as his report1 with reference to the accompanying map or plan1 and sections of the several lines of road surveyed4 8,it is uncertain at what periods the inhabitants of ,edinburgh were generally obliged to lay aside the use of timber1 from the distance of carriage1 as their chief building material1 or of wood and turf as fuel2 neither have we any certain information at what time pit coal was discovered1 or the coal field of the ,lothians first opened4 ,but it is in the recollection of some persons still living1 that1 owing to the miserable and circumscribed state of the roads1 or rather the want of formed roads altogether1 pit coal continued to be conveyed in sacks and on horseback for supplying the city of ,edinburgh4 ,these horse tracks1 originally taken up by accident1 were persevered in by obstinate habit2 and being afterwards followed as the lines of our future roads1 have become the ultimate source of much of the difficulty attending their improvement1 from the soft and miry track of the pack-horse and the sledge1 to the broad and spacious stoned carriage-way1 in combination with the trim footpath of the present day4 ,but1 even here1 experience shows that it would be improper to rest satisfied1 and cease from further exertion4 ,the acclivities of the road may still be levelled1 and its asperities smoothed1 by the introduction of the more compact and durable materials of the ,british ,roadway or ,iron ,bail4 ,such1 however1 has been the progressive nature of discovery in all ages1 that we are only beginning to appreciate the immense advantages which would attend the introduction of a new system of roads or railways1 laid upon a level or horizontal base1 as admirably calculated to increase the power of the horse in a tenfold proportion by destroying friction--that bane to animal labour as now applied on the common road4 8,wagon-ways constructed entirely of square wooden frames or rails1 laid in two right lines on wooden sleepers1 appear to have been in use at ,newcastle so far back as the year #afga4 ,the plan of cast-iron railways seems to have been originally introduced by the great ,iron ,company of ,colebroke ,dale in ,shropshire1 only about the year #aghf1 as an improvement upon the tram or wooden railway2 and such are likely to be the benefits resulting from this discovery1 that we doubt not1 as this system develops itself1 the name of the person who first conceived the idea will eagerly be sought after1 and honour done to him1 as to one of the greatest benefactors of his country4 ,we might mention the name of the late ,mr4 ,jessop1 as the first engineer of eminence who seems to have introduced railways in the south4 ,he was also the engineer for the magnificent works of his ,grace the ,duke of ,portland in ,scotland1 connected with which there is a double railway from ,kilmarnock to ,troon1 which is ten miles in length4 ,the other railways in ,scotland of any extent are those at the works of the ,carron ,company1 ,lord ,elgin's1 ,mr4 ,erskine of ,mar's1 ,sir ,john ,hope's1 and other coal works4 ,a public railway has also been projected from ,berwick-upon-,tweed to ,glasgow1 an extent of country of about #abe miles2 and an ,act of ,parliament has already been obtained for completing part of this track1 viz41 from ,berwick to ,kelso4 8,a railway has the advantage of being formed at an average of one third perhaps of the expense of a navigable canal2 and in many situations its first cost may even be compared with the expense of making a common road4 ,the result is also favourable if we inquire into the comparative quantities of work done upon a canal and a level railway4 ,upon the canals in ,england1 a boat of thirty tons burden is generally tracked by one horse1 and navigated by two men and a boy4 ,on a level railway1 it may be concluded that a good horse managed by a man or lad will work with eight tons4 ,at this rate the work performed on the railway by one man and a horse is more than in the proportion of one third of the work done upon the canal by three persons and a horse1 if we take into account the more speedy rate of travelling and the facilities to general trade in loading and discharging1 together with the difference of the first cost of a railway1 which altogether give it in some cases a decided advantage over the navigable canal4 ,if we compare the railway with the common road1 it may be fairly stated that1 in the instance of a level railway1 the work will be increased in an eight or ten fold proportion4 ,the best horse1 indeed1 with difficulty1 works with three fourths of a ton on the common road1 from the undulating line of its draught1 but on a level railway it is calculated that he will work even with ten tons4 ,but to increase the economy of the railway system still further1 we have only to employ one man to work two horses4 8,line of ,draught4 8,with regard to the line of draught1 or longitudinal section of a railway1 it may be stated as one of its great advantages that it is more easily accommodated to the irregularities of the ground through which it has to pass than a navigable canal2 and even where the ground is so irregular as not to admit of a uniformly level track1 or an inclined plane1 there are several simple methods which may be resorted to for lifting the wagons from one level to another1 so as to produce similar effects with lockage on a canal4 ,in so far1 however1 as the present design of the ,edinburgh ,railway has been carried by actual survey1 neither of these plans will be found necessary upon the main lines4 ,even on the descending line1 the fall is so extremely gentle that the horses in returning may be loaded with four or five tons4 ,but the proposed mode of lockage may with propriety be introduced on the several offset branches1 such as those from ,leith to the main line1 and from ,monkton ,hall and the ,cowpits to ,dalkeith1 and to the southern parts of the county1 on which a trade may be expected to be carried both to and from the main line4 8,where the load or trade is all in one direction1 it is a maxim in practice1 that the fall should be so apportioned to the rise1 that the work may be equal down with the load1 and up with the empty wagons4 ,but where there is to be a trade both ways1 it is obviously much to be desired that a level in all such cases should be obtained4 ,this1 in the ,edinburgh ,railway1 has been found from the declining aspect of the country towards the sea2 but as there will be less return trade on this railway in merchandise and manure1 etc41 to the eastward1 than the coal and building materials1 etc41 carried to the city1 it becomes a question of policy how far it may be proper1 in this instance1 to adopt the level line at a great additional expense4 8,by the level line to ,edinburgh the branch to ,leith becomes also somewhat more lengthened than by the descending line1 which1 instead of preserving the level1 is always falling1 or approaching towards ,leith4 ,the reporter1 as before noticed1 has various modes in view1 by which the branch to ,leith may be made of a very easy line of draught1 or be thrown into a succession of levels1 by a species of lockage or stepping4 ,where sudden acclivities occur on the line of a railway they are generally overcome by an inclined plane1 of greater or less extent1 according to the particular rise1 and on this the loaded wagons are brought up by a steam-engine4 ,but to render railways applicable to all situations1 it seems to be necessary that the overcoming of such obstacles should be within the reach or power of the driver and his horse2 by working a kind of gin connected with an inclined plane1 or by lifting the loaded wagons perpendicularly1 which may in various ways be accomplished by the aid of pulleys1 by the common lever1 or the revolution of a wheel4 8,this subject has been justly considered to be a matter of so much public importance1 that the ,highland ,society of ,scotland has offered a premium for an ,essay1 with models1 for lockage on railways2 and the reporter has no doubt that by this means much additional light will be thrown on the subject4 8,there are few subjects on which those conversant in the working of draught animals are more divided than about the proper line of draught4 ,some do not hesitate to affirm1 that a level road is injurious to the horse1 and that an undulating road is preferable to one by which the ascent is long1 though gradual4 ,such are of opinion1 that by throwing the road into successive eminences1 or up and down hill1 various muscles are brought into action1 while others are left at rest1 and this alternation they conceive to be the best condition of things for the animal4 8,being rather1 however1 at a loss in regard to that part of the subject which relates to the operation of the muscles1 the reporter applied for a solution of the case to a distinguished medical friend in this city ,dr4 ,john ,barclay1 eminent for his knowledge and for his great exertions in the science of ,comparative ,anatomy4 ,his answer to the queries which he allowed the reporter to put contain the following comprehensive passages3 #8,my acquaintance with the muscles by no means enables me to explain how a horse should be more fatigued by travelling on a road uniformly level than by travelling over a like space upon a road that crosses heights and hollows2 and it is demonstrably a false idea that one set of muscles can alternately rest and come into action in cases of that kind4 ,the daily practice of ascending heights1 it has been said1 gives an animal wind1 and enlarges the chest2 it may also with equal truth be affirmed that many horses lose their wind under this sort of training1 and irrecoverably suffer from imprudent attempts to induce such a habit4' ,in short1 he ascribes much to prejudice1 #8originating with the man1 who is continually in quest of variety1 rather than the horse1 who1 consulting only his own ease1 seems quite unconscious of ,hogarth's line of beauty4' 8,in the course of investigating the subject of the draught of horses1 the reporter has made several experiments with the dynamometer1 both upon canals and railways1 with a view to ascertain the power of horses and the best line of draught2 and he has further the satisfaction to find1 that the result of these trials agrees nearly with experiments made1 and obligingly communicated to him1 from various parts of the kingdom4 ,the reporter therefore concludes that the force with which a horse will continue to work is about one-sixth or one-seventh of his absolute weight4 ,now1 as he found the average weight of three ordinary cart horses to be about ten cwt4 it may be assumed1 generally1 that a horse can continue to work with a force equal to #afj lb42 and allowing #dj lb41 or one fourth1 for friction1 there remains #abj lb4 to be applied to the load4 ,in these trials1 when the wagons were put in motion1 it appeared1 under favourable circumstances1 that a force of about #ab lbs4 only was necessary to move one ton upon a level edge railway1 which by calculation would give about ten tons as the load of a good horse weighing ten cwt42 but1 for practice1 this will perhaps more properly be taken at about eight tons4 ,with regard to inclined planes1 it may be noticed1 that for every one fourth of an inch of rise to the lineal yard of road1 the force must be increased1 or the load diminished1 in a ratio or proportion varying at the rate of about one half1 one third1 one fourth1 one eighth1 and one ninth1 etc4 8,such are the happy effects of a wise and extended policy1 that1 notwithstanding the expensive war in which this country has been engaged1 more has actually been done in ,great ,britain1 within the last twenty or thirty years1 for the improvement of the highways1 and in laying open the country by new and better lines of road1 than was effected for centuries before that period4 ,with such public improvements we presume to class the measure of the proposed railway from the city of ,edinburgh and its port of ,leith1 calculated as it is to ramify through the various tracts of ,east ,lothian1 ,berwickshire1 ,roxburgh and ,selkirk shires1 and to become1 in time1 a system of the greatest importance in its consequences to the advancement of the commerce and agriculture of this part of the kingdom4 ,under impressions of this kind1 the noblemen and gentlemen who now come forward as promoters of this measure are actuated2 and with this in view1 the reporter lays before them the accompanying survey1 and will now endeavour to state the consideration which he has given the subject1 by describing the several lines he has surveyed1 and estimating the probable expense and advantages of the measure40 ,mr4 ,stevenson then describes the proposed line1 which he estimated at #eb1jjj1 and terminates his report by giving some remarks on the construction of railways1 which are interesting as noticing the use of cast and malleable iron rails1 and ,george ,stephenson's experiments on locomotives4 8,construction of the ,railway4 8,in giving some general description or outline of the construction of the proposed railway1 it may be observed1 that the formation of railways1 or roads of cast iron1 is comparatively but a recent discovery1 which1 however1 is likely to be attended with immense advantage to this commercial and agricultural country4 ,from the great traffic to be expected upon the ,edinburgh ,railway1 two sets of wheel-tracks will require to be laid1--one for the wagons or carriages coming to town1 and another for those going to the country4 ,this double railway1 with the necessary allowance for driving-paths1 etc41 will occupy at least twenty feet of space in its cross-section1 viz41 four feet three inches for each set of tracks2 a space of four feet between the respective wagon-ways2 and three feet nine inches on each side for a driving-path1 fences1 and gutters4 ,the horse-paths1 or spaces between the waggon-tracks of the railway1 as proposed above1 will be four feet three inches in breadth1 or the width of the square part of the common cart axle1 it being also a great advantage for the convenience of loading1 etc41 and for the stability of the railway1 to have broad and rather low wagons4 ,but from the general use to which this public railway is applicable1 it may be found advisable to acquire even a greater breadth than twenty feet4 ,the space between the tracks will be made up with stones1 broken very small1 and blinded or covered with gravel1 as in the best description of road-making4 ,the footpath for the drivers may be made with gravel1 coal dust1 pan ashes1 or brick-dust1 as may be found most convenient in the district of the railway4 8,cast ,iron ,rails4 8,the cast iron tracks of the earlier railways were made flat1 or about four inches in breadth1 with a projecting ridge or flange1 upon the outer verge1 and are technically called plate rails4 ,but the reporter is led from his own observation1 and the opinion of the following professional gentlemen obligingly communicated to him1 viz41 ,mr4 ,wilson of ,troon1 ,mr4 ,bald of ,alloa1 ,mr4 ,landale of ,charlestown1 ,mr4 ,grieve of ,sheriff ,hall1 and ,mr4 ,buddle of ,newcastle1 who are not only scientifically but practically conversant in this matter1 to conclude that the plate rail not only induces greater friction1 but is more exposed to have the wheels clogged and interrupted with gravel or small stones than that called the edge rail1 which1 in its best construction1 of cast iron1 consists of a bar of about #a inch in thickness or breadth1 for the seat of the wheel1 and of a depth corresponding to the weight to be carried4 ,this bar is set upon edge instead of being laid flat4 ,in this manner the edge rail presents less friction1 and1 weight for weight1 is much stronger for the load than the plate rail2 upon the same principle as1 in modern carpentry1 the beam is now set on edge1 instead of being laid on its side as formerly4 ,the ,reporter is therefore to recommend an edge rail warranted to work with two tons1 including the wagon1 of the weight of #adj lb4 per lineal yard of finished double railway4 ,lighter dimensions might indeed be found to answer2 but for a public railway1 the rails should be made of a greater strength than is barely sufficient for a given weight1 as this cannot always be kept within bounds1 or regulated to a nicety4 ,the expense of a little additional weight of cast iron1 in the first instance1 will be greatly compensated in the end1 by avoiding frequent repairs1 and will thereby be amply repaid1 while the expense of laying the road1 and other contingencies1 are much the same in the light as in the heavy rail4 ,the mode of fixing is another point of great importance in the construction of a substantial railway4 ,in the early practice of laying railways1 the value of this new discovery was for a time lost to the public1 owing to the intricacy and difficulty of this part of the design4 ,much trouble and expense have in this way been occasioned1 in consequence of using1 for the underground fixtures1 soft and friable stones1 liable to be acted upon by the alternate changes of the weather1 from their being necessarily placed so near the surface4 ,a method has been adopted of making the cross fixtures under ground1 with bars wholly of cast iron1 to which the rails are attached1 with iron pins4 ,much1 however1 depends upon the nature and tenacity of the ground to be passed over4 ,at the works of ,lord ,elgin and the ,carron ,company1 the use of the sleeper or cross iron bar is laid aside1 and other alterations are daily suggested as improvements1 in the method of laying and fixing the rails1 and also in the construction of the wheels and wagons4 ,with regard to the construction of cast iron rails1 they are1 in general1 made in the lengths of from three to four feet2 but the reporter is inclined to think that the perfection of the cast-iron railway will be found to consist rather in shortening the rails very considerably than adopting even the shortest of those lengths2 but this and similar matters will fall more properly to be matured in the practical details of the business4 8,malleable ,iron ,rails4 8,one point1 however1 deserves particular notice here1 as likely to be attended with the most important advantages to the railway system1 which is the application of malleable iron instead of cast iron rails4 ,three miles and a half of this description of railway have been in use for about eight years on ,lord ,carlisle's works at ,tindal ,fell in ,cumberland1 where there are also two miles of cast iron rail2 but the malleable iron road is found to answer the purpose in every respect better4 ,experiments with malleable iron rails have also been made at ,mr4 ,taylor's works at ,ayr and ,sir ,john ,hope's at ,pinkie2 and1 upon the whole1 this method1 in the case of the ,tindal ,fell ,railway1 is not only considerably cheaper in the first cost than the cast iron railway1 but is also much less liable to accident4 ,in the use of malleable iron bars the joints of the railway are conveniently obtained1 about twelve feet apart1 and three pedestals are generally placed between each pair of joints4 8,locomotive ,engine4 8,some of the most striking improvements in the system of railways are the patent inventions of ,mr4 ,stephenson of ,newcastle1 particularly his locomotive engine1 by which fifty tons of coal and upwards are at one load conveyed several miles along a railway by the power of steam40 ,acting on the same general principles1 ,mr4 ,stevenson surveyed and reported on such lines as the 8,montrose and ,brechin ,railway10 the 8,strathmore ,railway10 and the 8,east-,lothian ,railway10 which1 as has been shown1 embraced a large portion of the principal business part of ,scotland4 ,but at that time ,scotland was not ready either to take up his enlarged views1 or to find money to carry them out1 and the prospectuses issued by the different ,committees who zealously promoted these railway schemes did not meet sufficient support to enable the promoters to form ,companies to apply to ,parliament for their construction4 ,we all know that in ,england1 at a later date1 our ,british ,railway system was first inaugurated1 but it is a fact that redounds greatly to ,mr4 ,stevenson's credit as an engineer1 that all of these ,scottish lines1 originally surveyed by him1 have1 with or without deviation1 been now carried out4 ,mr4 ,stevenson1 in his researches for adapting railways to the general communication of the country1 had made a great advance in bringing the subject before the public2 and he was requested to visit the coal districts in the north of ,england to advise as to establishing a railway between ,stockton and ,darlington1 with extensions to the coal fields of ,bishop-,auckland2 which he did in #ahai1 meeting with ,mr4 ,pease1 ,mr4 ,backhouse1 and other influential men there1 to whom1 after making a survey1 he reported on the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway4 ,in making these various researches1 ,mr4 ,stevenson was enabled to suggest many proposals which can only be regarded as valuable for the period at which they were made1 but he gave many opinions1 which undoubtedly have come wonderfully true in the history of railway communication4 ,the ,right ,honourable ,sir ,john ,sinclair1 ,bart41 proposed1 in #ahbc1 certain queries to ,mr4 ,stevenson relative to a proposal for the construction of an iron railway between the cities of ,london and ,edinburgh1 and the following is an extract from his reply1 showing1 that while he fully appreciated the value of ship-canals1 he entertained the conviction that 8iron railways0 would become1 as ,i have already said1 the highway of the future4 8,regarding the practicability of such a scheme1 it may be noticed that the late eminent ,james ,watt entertained an idea of the eligibility and great advantage which might accrue to the public from the formation of a central and considerably elevated line of inland navigation constructed so as to ramify through the interior districts of ,england1 and communicate with the principal manufacturing and populous towns in the kingdom4 8,in any comprehensive view of a measure of this kind there can be no doubt that an iron railway would not only be much more practicable1 but more commodious and useful for general intercourse than a canal4 ,and the comparative expenses of the two operations would probably be in the ratio of about one to eight in favour of the railway4 ,again1 if the advantages of carriage by the railway and the common road be compared1 it will be found that the proportion is at the rate of about one to seven1 also in favour of the railway4 8,the economy of carriage on the railway1 when fully contrasted with that of the canal1 is also much greater4 ,it may now1 indeed1 be considered as a generally received opinion1 that1 unless for enabling sea-borne ships to pass from one side of the coast to another1 so as to avoid a tedious or dangerous circumnavigation1 the railway in every other case is preferable4 ,it is at the same time to be noticed that when ,mr4 ,watt suggested the idea of a central line of canal many years since1 the railway system was then neither so well known nor so much acted upon as now40 ,mr4 ,stevenson's belief that railways would ultimately be the general highways of the world1 led him to regard with distrust their immediate introduction into ,britain in absence of some public ,act for their proper regulation1 and accordingly1 on #bith ,january #ahbe1 he writes to ,lord ,melville in the following terms3--8,it seems necessary at this time1 even before any ,act is proposed for a public railway1 that a ,committee of the ,house should take the subject of regulating the width according to the number of tracks1 and perhaps the strength of rails and weight to be carried on four wheels1 in a public ,act1 otherwise much confusion will ensue4 ,it will be a great loss if these railways1 like the common road1 should require to be altered that they may communicate with each other4 8,all the engineers ,i have spoken with1 including ,mr4 ,telford1 agree in this4 ,i have noticed it to ,mr4 ,home ,drummond and ,mr4 ,gladstone4 8,i put the specification of the bridge at ,melville ,castle in train before ,i left home40 ,had it been possible to carry out the spirit of this suggestion1 made at that early period1 in an ,act of the ,legislature1 ,i think1 in the retrospect of much that took place during our 8railway manias0 and 8railway company competitions10 it might possibly have proved advantageous to the community4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland1 which has ever been foremost to encourage everything that tends to the improvement of the country1 regarded the introduction of railways as a matter of great importance1 and considering it a subject that came legitimately within their province1 offered1 in #ahah1 a premium of fifty guineas for the best essay on the construction of railroads4 ,many competing treatises were given in1 and the ,society placed the whole of them in the hands of my father for his opinion and report on their merits1 8together with such remarks of his own as he might judge useful40 ,the result of his examination is given at great length in the ,transactions of the ,society1#i accompanied by 8notes10 in which he makes several valuable suggestions4 ,before the period alluded to1 the rails in use had been almost invariably made of cast iron or timber2 but my father in his notes says--8,i have no hesitation in giving a decided preference to malleable iron formed into bars from twelve to twenty feet in length1 with flat sides and parallel edges1 or in the simple state in which they come from the rolling-mills of the manufacturer40 ,he also recommends that they should be fixed into guides or chairs of iron supported on props placed at distances in no case exceeding three feet1 and that they should be connected with a clamp-joint so as to preserve the whole strength of the material4 ,it is not a little singular that this description1 given about forty years ago1 may1 to use engineering phraseology1 be not inaptly called a 8specification of the permanent way0 of our best railways at the present day4 ,i close this chapter by giving a letter which shows the value that ,george ,stephenson attached to my father's researches on railways1 while it is at the same time interesting as showing the very moderate estimate which the great ,railway ,engineer at that time entertained of the performance of the locomotive engine--a machine which was destined ultimately to become1 under his skilful management1 so important an agent in changing the inland communication of the whole civilised world3-- 8,,killingworth ,,colliery1 ,june #bh1 #ahba4 8,,robert ,,stevenson1 ,,esq4 8,,sir1--,with this you will receive three copies of a specification of a patent malleable iron rail invented by ,john ,birkinshaw of ,bedlington1 near ,morpeth4 ,the hints were got from your ,report on ,railways1 which you were so kind as to send me by favour of ,mr4 ,cookson some time ago4 ,your reference to ,tindal ,fell ,railway led the inventor to make some experiments on malleable iron bars1 the result of which convinced him of the superiority of the malleable over the cast iron--so much so1 that he took out a patent4 ,those rails are so much liked in this neighbourhood1 that ,i think in a short time they will do away the cast iron railways4 ,they make a fine line for our engines1 as there are so few joints compared with the other4 ,i have lately started a new locomotive engine1 with some improvements on the others which you saw4 ,it has far surpassed my expectations4 ,i am confident a railway on which my engines can work is far superior to a canal4 ,on a long and favourable railway ,i would stent my engines to travel #fj miles per day with from #dj to #fj tons of goods4 ,they would work nearly fourfold cheaper than horses where coals are not very costly4 ,i merely make these observations1 as ,i know you have been at more trouble than any man ,i know of in searching into the utility of railways1 and ,i return you my sincere thanks for your favour by ,mr4 ,cookson4 8,if you should be in this neighbourhood1 ,i hope you would not pass ,killingworth ,colliery1 as ,i should be extremely glad if you could spend a day or two with me4--,i am1 ,sir1 yours most respectfully1 8,g4 ,,stephenson40 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,harbours ,,and ,,rivers4 #ahaa-ahdc4 ,there is scarcely a harbour or river in ,scotland about which1 at some time1 ,mr4 ,stevenson was not asked to give his advice4 ,his opinion was also sought in ,england and ,ireland1 and he executed works of greater or less extent in many of the cases in which he was consulted4 ,we may select from his reports the names of ,dundee1 ,aberdeen1 ,peterhead1 ,stonehaven1 ,granton1 ,fraserburgh1 ,ardrossan1 ,port-,patrick2 the rivers ,forth1 ,tay1 ,severn1 ,mersey1 ,dee1 ,ribble1 ,wear1 ,tees1 and ,erne1 as among some of the many places in the ,united ,kingdom where he was employed4 ,in a subsequent chapter extracts will be found illustrating ,mr4 ,stevenson's views on various professional subjects1 and from these it will be seen that he brought his large experience and study of the waves to bear advantageously and practically on his harbour engineering4 ,he was1 as will be gathered from the extracts1 at an early period fully alive to the value of spending basins for tranquillising a harbour1 and of the proper disposition of the covering piers1 in reference to the line of exposure1 so as to avoid throwing sea into the harbour's mouth1 or causing it to heap up on coming in contact with the piers2 while1 as regards rivers1 he was no less alive to the value of backwater in keeping open estuaries1 and to the necessity of removing all obstructions to the free flow of the tide in river-navigation4 ,at an early date1 for example1 ,mr4 ,stevenson and ,mr4 ,price were jointly consulted as to the navigation of the ,tees1 and ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,john ,fowler of ,stockton1 the engineer to the ,tees ,navigation1 for the following statement as to the result of that joint reference3-- 8,the ,navigation ,company consulted ,mr4 ,stevenson and ,mr4 ,h4 ,price1 who differed in opinion as to the general treatment of the river4 ,mr4 ,price recommended that it should be contracted by jetties1 and ,mr4 ,stevenson that the banks should be faced with continuous walls1 stating as his reason for this recommendation1 that #8to project numerous jetties into the river1 ,i regard as inexpedient1 being a dangerous encumbrance to navigation1 and tending to disturb the currents and destroy the uniformity of the bottom4' ,the plan adopted by the ,navigation ,company was1 however1 that of ,mr4 ,price2 and jetties were constructed on the river to a large extent10 and ,mr4 ,fowler adds1 that 8after a trial of twenty-seven years it was found that they were liable to all the objections that had been urged against them by ,mr4 ,stevenson40 ,accordingly1 under ,mr4 ,fowler's direction1 the whole of the jetties have been removed4 ,one of the early harbour schemes in which my father was engaged in ,england1 was a harbour at ,wallasey ,pool1 on the ,mersey1 in which he acted in conjunction with ,telford and ,nimmo4 ,the following reports will show the nature and extent of work then contemplated as a commencement of the ,birkenhead ,docks1 now so valuable an adjunct to the port of ,liverpool4 ,but at the early period of #ahbh1 when the reports were written1 the public were not prepared to entertain a scheme of improvement based on so great a scale4 ,it included1 as will be seen1 not only the formation of a floating harbour at ,wallasey on the ,mersey1 but the construction of a harbour at ,helbre on the ,dee1 with a connecting ship canal between the two estuaries4 8,to the ,subscribers for the proposed ,wet ,docks at ,wallasey ,pool4 8,,preliminary ,,report of ,,robert ,,stevenson and ,,alexander ,,nimmo1 ,civil ,engineers1 on the proposed improvements at ,wallasey ,pool4 8,liverpool1 ,feby4 #bc1 #ahbh4--;,having been requested to examine the situation of the ,wallasey ,pool with a view to discover how far additional accommodation might be obtained there for the increasing trade of the port of ,liverpool1 we did accordingly meet at ,woodside on the #ajth ,february #ahbh1 and after examining the pool at high and low water1 and the action of the tides on the northern edge of the ,leasowe level1 which we found to be overflowed at high water of the #afth and #agth and #ahth ,february1 with off-shore winds and moderate weather1 we next examined the shore down to low water in that place called ,mockbeggar ,wharf1 which we found to consist of turf and soft marl over a bottom of fine clay4 ,we afterwards visited the western part of the level1 which extends to the immediate vicinity of the estuary of the ,dee1 part of which we examined1 also ,helbre1 ,hoylake1 and the ,rock ,channels1 and directed certain surveys and levels to be taken for our further information1 and though we have not yet obtained all the data requisite for forming estimates of the expense of improvement1 we are generally of opinion as follows3-- 8,that this situation of ,wallasey ,pool affords1 beyond doubt1 the most favourable position in the vicinity of ,liverpool for an extension of the accommodation of the shipping trade of the port1 at a very moderate expense4 8,the ground being level1 the soil water-tight and of easy excavation1 docks may be formed there of any extent4 ,the bay in front between ,seacombe and ,woodside1 though mostly shallow at present1 affords the first place of shelter within the ,mersey1 and small vessels lie there out of the stream in perfect safety4 ,it possesses a creek or channel which could easily be enlarged and deepened so as to form an outer tide harbour similar to the original harbour of ,liverpool1 but upon a greater scale1 and for the scouring of which it would be easy to open up the tide in the pool to the extent of #bej acres1 as far as ,viners ,embankment1 and above that to any extent that may be thought desirable4 ,this space having a deep creek through its whole extent forms a complete half-tide basin for facilitating the entrance into the ,docks on either side1 while on the shallow parts may be formed extensive timber-ponds4 ,works of masonry in this situation being out of the sea-way and of the stream of the tide1 may be constructed with great economy2 good building stones are to be found at ,bidston ,hill1 and the whole soil is a brick earth4 8,the situation possesses other advantages of access not so obvious1 but which may eventually be of the greatest importance4 ,the ,leasowe level at the head of this pool extends as far as the river ,dee1 and touches the sea-shore at ,mock ,beacon1 where indeed it is occasionally overflowed by the tide4 ,in this direction it would be quite practicable to open a direct passage for ships into the ,horse ,channel1 by excavating in marl and clay1 only quite clear of the shifting sands which are found in all other parts of the ,mersey and ,dee4 ,and towards the ,dee a ship canal may easily be cut with its entrance either at ,dawpool in ,hoylake1 or in a tide harbour which could be formed at ,helbre1 a position which affords many maritime advantages4 8,that position has several good anchorages in its vicinity1 three different passages to sea1 and is only five miles from the floating light1 the distance of which from ,liverpool by ,wallasey and ,helbre is exactly the same as by the ,rock ,channel2 and nine miles of it would be inland navigation1 instead of an intricate passage among sandbanks1 the whole of which inland navigation is an addition to the floating harbour4 8,having thus briefly shown the facilities possessed to seaward1 we may next turn our attention to those connected with the inland navigation4 ,it is evident that to the #8flats' which navigate the ,duke's ,canal1 ,mersey and ,irwell1 ,ellesmere1 ,sankey1 and ,weaver ,navigations1 ,wallasey ,pool is just as accessible as the ,docks of ,liverpool1 while by a canal to ,helbre you communicate with the large navigation of the ,dee1 and the valuable mineral county of ,flintshire2 and if ever1 as is extremely probable1 the canal navigation should be brought nearer to ,liverpool1 the natural termination would be ,tranmere or ,wallasey ,pool1 between which a cut can be easily formed4 ,by this means boats from the small canals in ,staffordshire and the other inland counties can be brought down to the seaport and return their cargo without the trouble of transhipment1--an object1 as being important to the proprietors of these canals1 that there can be little doubt of their endeavouring to carry it into effect whenever the shipping can be accommodated on the ,cheshire side4 8,although in the present state of our survey1 and until we meet our eminent friend and colleague ,mr4 ,telford1 we are not prepared to enter into any detail of plans or estimates of the expense of these improvements1 yet we are satisfied he will agree with us in opinion that the cost of even the most expensive will be greatly inferior to that of obtaining any important additional accommodation upon the ,liverpool shore1 which being almost entirely occupied already1 we consider it impossible to obtain there at any expense sufficient room for the increasing trade2 and we would conclude this preliminary report by recommending to the thriving and enlightened community of ,liverpool to weigh well the advantages above alluded to1 and the benefit of now extending their operations to the ,cheshire shore4 8,,robert ,,stevenson4 ,,alexander ,,nimmo40 8,,intended ,,ship ,,canal between the ,,rivers ,,dee and ,,mersey4 8,,the ,,report of ,,thomas ,,telford1 ,,robert ,,stevenson1 and ,,alexander ,,nimmo1 ,civil ,engineers1 recommending ,two extensive new ,sea ,ports1 etc41 on the ,rivers ,dee and ,mersey1 adjacent to ,liverpool1 with a ,floating ,harbour or ,ship ,canal to connect them4 8,the undersigned1 having so far completed their land and water surveys as to enable them to speak with confidence upon the practicability of extending the accommodation for shipping to suit the rising demands of this great commercial emporium1 beg leave to commence their report upon this important subject by describing the general outline of the proposed improvements1 and then to proceed to discuss them in detail2 but previous to this it is necessary to make a few preliminary remarks4 8,on the ,estuaries of the ,dee and ,mersey4 8,in one or other of these must always continue to be the great port of the north-west of ,england1 the preservation and improvement of which has become the more important since this last century has added so much to the progress of manufacturing and commercial enterprise1 and to that extension of inland navigation1 which has rendered ,liverpool not only the great mart of the north-west of ,britain and of all ,ireland1 but nearly of the whole western world4 8,the chief feature of these estuaries is the extensive range of sandbanks in their front1 through which an intricate ship-navigation has to be carried4 ,these channels have been always subject to variations1 and are now only safely navigated by a careful system of pilotage4 8,in the progress of our investigations1 and feeling the great importance of the measures we are about to recommend1 we have carefully inquired into the various changes which have taken place on these banks1 as far as can be collected from history or inferred from observation1 in order to be enabled to judge what is likely to take place as to their future permanent condition4 8,in the time of the ,romans the ,ribble seems to have been the chief port of this district1 and ,ribchester is said to have been a city as great as any out of ,rome2 the port was ,poulton below ,preston1 at the ,neb of the ,naze1 so vastly inferior at the present time to various situations on the ,mersey and the ,dee that it is impossible not to admit that some extraordinary change has taken place in their physical condition since that period4 ,tradition says that the port of the ,ribble was destroyed by an earthquake1 and also that there were tremendous inundations in ,cheshire and ,lancashire about the termination of the ,roman sway in ,britain2 and various phenomena we have seen seem to point to some such catastrophe4 8,it is well known that in the ,saxon times the river ,dee was an important navigation1 and that ,chester was then and for many ages after the great port of the west1 and for the connection with ,ireland1 whilst the ,mersey was little known1 and ,liverpool only a fishing village4 8,but in after times the port of ,chester was so much obstructed by sandbanks in the upper portions that the city became inaccessible to vessels of large draught1 and though serious efforts were made to remedy this evil1 and have even partly accomplished it1 yet the trade of the country was gradually transferred to ,liverpool on the ,mersey1 which had become a place of considerable importance at the time of the ,revolution1 and had been created an independent port3 before1 it was only a creek of ,chester4 8,in our inquiries into the early state of the navigations of the ,dee and ,mersey1 the oldest chart we have found of any authority is that of ,grenville ,collins1 in #afij4 ,it is dedicated to ,king ,william1 to whom he acted as pilot on his expedition to ,ireland2 and as that army embarked from ,hoylake1 as also that of the year before under ,general ,schomberg1 and as ,collins was officially employed in making charts of the coast1 there can be no doubt that1 though rude1 it conveys1 as far as it goes1 an authentic representation of the state of navigation at that time4 8,the roadstead of ,hoylake was then spacious and deep1 with five fathoms into it1 and seven fathoms inside1 from one half to three quarters of a mile wide1 and covered by the ,hoyle ,sand1 which was then one solid bank without any swash or opening across it1 and was dry at neap tides as far as opposite the ,point of ,air and beyond4 8,the ,dove ,point then projected a mile and three-quarters from the shore1 separating ,hoylake from the ,rock ,channel1 which was then nearly dry at low water as far as ,mockbeggar1 between which and ,burbo ,sand there was only one quarter fathom1 and between ,dove ,point and ,burbo only two fathoms4 8,the large vessels which at that time belonged to ,liverpool put out part of their lading in ,hoylake until they were light enough to sail over the flats to ,liverpool4 8,the union of ,hoylake and the ,rock ,channel formed1 as at present1 the principal passage to sea1 called the ,horse ,channel1 then a fair opening with three to seven fathoms1 but considerably to the eastward of the present channel of that name2 for ,collins's sailing mark through it was ,mockbeggar ,hall upon the ,banquetting-,house in ,bidston1 would mark the present ,spencer's ,gut as having been the channel4 ,the north spit did not then exist1 or rather was part of the ,hoyle bank2 and the ,beggar's ,patch seems to have been the extremity of ,dove ,point4 ,the ,formby ,channel was said to have three fathoms on the bar1 but was not buoyed or beaconed1 therefore not used4 8,the ,chester bar had nine feet least water2 and ,wild ,road is marked as good anchorage1 much used in the coal trade4 ,about #agfj1 published in #aggf1 we have the ,survey of ,mackenzie1 who was employed by the ,admiralty to make charts of the western coasts of ,britain1 which are still in high reputation4 8,at this time ,hoylake continued to be a good roadstead1 though greatly altered2 the depth at entrance was only two fathoms1 eight fathoms in the middle1 the width only three furlongs1 and its length had diminished at least a mile4 ,a passage was opened from the ,rock ,channel across to ,dove ,point into ,hoylake1 and across the east end of ,hoyle ,sand1 with four to eight fathoms1 forming the present ,horse ,channel4 8,on this chart we also perceive the beginning of another opening across the ,hoyle ,sand1 now called ,helbre ,swash1 then dry at low water at each end1 having three fathoms in the middle1 now a deep and fair channel with seven to nine fathoms1 and two and a half least water at its mouth4 8,since the opening of this channel or swash little or no tide sets through the ,hoylake1 which is gradually closing up1 and now used only for small craft4 8,the existence of ,hoylake was of material importance to ,liverpool and also to the ,dee1 for vessels could run there at any time2 the entrance to it was marked by leading lights in the middle of last century1 one of the first applications of reflecting lights to the purposes of navigation2 they are now of little use1 as the sand has shifted to the eastward1 and the entrance is nearly dry at low water4 8,the ,rock ,channel seems to have undergone a very important change by the time of ,mackenzie's survey4 ,we have observed that in ,collins's time1 #afij1 it was dry at low water as far nearly as ,mockbeggar4 ,although this is still nearly the case at the ,perch at low tides1 it is opened below that in a material degree4 ,in the space of seventy years the channel had deepened to have three or four fathoms in ,wallasey ,hole2 also between ,mockbeggar ,wharf and the north bank1 which was dry at low water2 and a channel had opened across ,dove ,point1 with two and three fathoms1 into ,hoylake1 and from thence across the east end of ,hoyle1 forming the present ,horse ,channel1 as before described1 with four to eight fathoms out to sea4 ,on the other hand1 the sand from this deepening had been carried down to seaward1 forming a complete shoal across the original ,horse ,channel of ,collins's time1 in whose sailing-line is marked a depth of four feet only1 and this shoal connected with that called the ,beggar's ,patch1 and thence with the spit or flat along the west side of the ,horse ,channel1 on which was six feet water4 ,this last channel was direct and fair1 with five to eight fathoms1 and previous to the publication of ,mackenzie's chart1 but after the time of his survey1 was marked by two lighthouses at ,leasowe shore1 and subsequently by that on ,bidston ,hill under the direction of ,captain ,hutchinson1 as was also the entrance into ,hoylake by the two lights near ,meols1 as before described4 8,the ,formby ,channel is marked as deep upon ,mackenzie's chart1 with four fathoms at the entrance1 and between ,taylor's ,bank and ,middle ,patch two fathoms2 there is now only five feet over the flats at low water at its entrance1 and it was buoyed in at ,mackenzie's time2 but1 though the deepest channel to ,liverpool1 it is1 from its intricacy and instability1 still very little used for navigation4 8,lieutenant ,evans published a survey of the ,liverpool and ,chester rivers1 with a book of sailing directions1 which is in good repute4 ,we have preferred the chart by ,mr4 ,thomas in #ahac1 made by order of the ,lords of the ,admiralty1 for the purpose of comparison with the several before mentioned surveys1 as more minute in detail4 8,at the time of this survey1 fifty years after that of ,mackenzie1 ,hoylake had diminished in breadth to one furlong2 the depth at the entrance was three to seven feet2 four fathoms near the ,red ,stones2 since that time it is still shallowing1 and now may be walked across at low water1 from ,dove ,point to ,east ,hoyle2 so that this roadstead may be considered as lost4 8,helbre ,swash had opened to half a mile wide1 with six or eight fathoms water1 but with a shoal at its entrance of one fathom2 there are now two fathoms and a half through that entrance4 8,the ,brazil or ,north ,bank had extended dry1 at low water1 as far as ,spencer's ,gut ,buoy1 and the ,north ,spit or four feet flats had extended into the ,horse ,channel across the line of sea lights1 thereby forcing that channel further into ,hoyle ,bank4 ,the lower part of the ,rock ,channel had enlarged by the formation of a passage on each side of the ,beggar's ,patch4 8,the entrance to ,formby ,channel had very much altered since ,mackenzie's time1 and1 though better marked1 still continued to be little frequented4 ,the floating light placed opposite ,helbre ,swash and the ,horse ,channel1 outside of all the banks1 has made a great improvement in the access from the seaward in that direction4 8,the ,rock ,channel1 from these circumstances1 continues to be the main passage to and from the harbour of ,liverpool1 but it is only provided with day marks1 and though well buoyed cannot be navigated by night2 being very narrow1 and having banks in its middle1 it is difficult for vessels to beat through with foul winds in one tide1 and as there is no secure anchorage1 frequent delays and losses take place in this part of the navigation4 8,within the harbour of ,liverpool or in the river ,mersey the principal places of anchorage are-- 8#ast1 ,abreast the town4 8#b;d1 ,off the ,magazines1 which is used by the outward-bound vessels4 8#c;d1 ,up the river in ,sloyne ,roads1 or ,broombro ,pool1 which is almost confined to vessels under quarantine4 8,in the two first-mentioned anchorages a great sea tumbles in1 with ,,ne4 gales1 and this1 with the rapid tide and bad holding ground1 causes vessels to drift1 even with two anchors down1 so that it is necessary for all the merchant vessels1 as soon as the tide serves1 to proceed into dock and remain there until a favourable opportunity occurs of putting to sea1 so as to get through the ,rock and ,horse ,channels with daylight2 hence a considerable accumulation of vessels within the docks at all times1 but especially when there has been a continuance of northerly and westerly winds1 and which has made it necessary to look now for additional accommodation on the opposite shore of ,wallasey ,pool4 8,proposed establishment at ,wallasey4 8,small craft find good shelter on the banks at the mouth of ,wallasey ,pool1 being there out of the stream1 and land-locked by the ,point of ,seacombe4 8,the steamers also1 to which dispatch is of moment1 moor along this shore1 and if there was more room in ,wallasey ,pool it would decidedly be the best anchorage about ,liverpool4 8,wallasey ,creek runs nearly for two miles from the ,mersey1 where it is stopped by an embankment1 through which the waters of #cjjj acres of marsh land pass by a tunnel4 ,the pool below the embankment covers nearly #bej acres at spring-tides1 and by its backwater maintains a channel through the creek down to low water springs1 and with seventeen feet at high water springs as far up as the embankment4 8,previous to the embankment it is certain that this creek was materially deeper4 ,on ,mackenzie's chart1 opposite to its mouth1 there are twenty fathoms marked1 being much more than anywhere within the ,mersey at present1 and a bottom of rock4 ,this channel would therefore be restored by any considerable addition to the backwater2 and at all events1 if the lower parts of the creek were opened by dredging1 and1 by a power of scouring it1 low water obtained1 a safer inlet for vessels to run to would be acquired than at present exists anywhere in the neighbourhood of ,liverpool4 8,on the south side of the creek1 between ,woodside ,ferry and ,bridge ,end1 there is a bottom of sandstone rock1 but this ceases at ,bridge ,end ,creek2 and above that place the shore is composed of firm clay1 fit for brick making1 to a depth at least of thirty feet1 in which excavation for docks and basins could be carried on with great facility4 8,upon the attention being directed to ,wallasey ,pool as a commercial station1 it will appear at first view obvious that an entrance might be made along the low ground which extends from it to the sea shore at ,leasowe1 by which a direct passage to sea might be obtained1 and the insecurities and dangers of the bar and banks of the ,rock ,channel be avoided2 but the objections to such an entrance are1 that the channel outside affords no safe anchorage1 and the cut would be exposed directly to the stroke of the sea1 and if protected by piers their construction would not only be expensive1 but might also materially alter the channel along shore4 8,but the ground continues equally favourable to the westward as far as ,hoylake and the ,dee below the hill of the ,grange4 ,the shore is skirted by a narrow belt of sandhills1 through which however there would be no great difficulty in making a passage into the tideway4 ,here it is important to remark that the ,helbre ,swash opens a deep and fair channel1 well sheltered by banks on each side1 and only five miles in extent to the floating light1 which is in a direct line with it4 8,this channel has been formed within the last century1 and readily accounts for the deterioration of ,hoylake2 it now carries down most of the ebb of the ,dee1 and is likely to improve still more1 having deepened materially since ,thomas's survey in #ahac4 8,through all the vicissitudes we have traced there has been deep water and good anchorage at the point of ,helbre ,island2 and as that situation affords solid rock for every sort of construction1 there can be no risk of the permanency of any work that may be established there4 8,sea-locks constructed at ,helbre would be protected against the prevailing westerly gales by the island itself1 against the northerly by the bank of ,east ,hoyle2 and they may be connected to the mainland by banks formed across the strand1 which is mostly dry at high water of neap tides2 and by means of these banks a pond of sixty-four acres may be enclosed1 which1 being filled at spring tides1 may be employed for the purposes of scouring and keeping open the harbour and its entrance1 and as a reservoir for a ship canal from thence to the shore1 and along the low ground to ,wallasey ,pool4 ,such a canal1 of large dimensions1 and seven miles long1 will be one continued floating harbour1 which may be carried to a great extent in various directions and on the same level4 8,independent of ,helbre ,swash two other channels for ships passing to sea unite at that position2 one1 the original ,hoylake1 still sufficiently navigable at high water2 the other1 the passage by ,wild ,road and ,chester ,bar1 greatly superior in safety and permanency to that of the ,formby ,channel2 for in all the successive charts little or no change seems to have taken place on that bar1 which continues to have nine feet at low water1 with a rise of thirty4 ,the great extent of ebb-tide from the ,dee 7being quite as extensive an estuary as that of the ,mersey7 must always keep one or other of those channels or all of them open1 so that ships may sail from ,helbre in almost every wind2 and if necessary to beat out1 a vessel starting from ,helbre with the first of the ebb down the ,swash will be at the floating light and clear of the banks before another from ,liverpool can get round the ,rock ,perch4 8,to persons at all acquainted with the navigation to ,liverpool it must be quite unnecessary to point out the benefit of this proposed arrangement1 which1 while it preserves all the advantages of communicating with the ,mersey1 and the extensive inland navigations connected therewith1 affords a new passage to and from the sea1 by means of the ,dee1 by which both the distance and dangers of an intricate navigation will be wholly avoided4 8,an important advantage obtained by this plan is1 that the proposed entrance at ,helbre is within the jurisdiction of the port of ,chester1 of which it is recorded as a creek in ,sir ,matthew ,hale's ,treatise ,de portibus maris2 and business done there or upon its waters1 even as far as ,wallasey ,pool1 being within the port of ,chester1 will have to pay the dues at that port2 and unless ships and goods lock into the ,mersey they are exempted from the dues of ,liverpool4 ,the facility of construction is so great that a moderate charge for dues will be a sufficient remuneration for the capital required4 ,the ground on either side of the canal is singularly suitable to be appropriated to any kind of establishment connected with shipping1 and there can be no doubt that it will be so employed even by private speculation2 but in so extensive a scheme as we propose it will be advisable for the promoters of the measure at once to establish a set of docks and warehouses of the most perfect description1 as has been done in all the docks which have been constructed in and adjacent to ,london1 and we have accordingly designed a set of such warehouses and yards as part of the plan4 8,details of the ,plan4 8,commencing at the river ,mersey1 we propose to dredge out and widen ,wallasey ,creek at least to the depth of three feet under low water of spring tides1 being four feet below the sill of ,prince's ,dock1 and this for #bjj feet in width up as far as the entrance into the basins2 to lay the sill of the greater entrance lock at that level1 also the sill of the basin of the barge lock4 ,the barge entrance lock to have a lift of ten feet2 the ship lock four feet2 so as to give the same water when the gates are opened as into the ,prince's ,dock4 ,the side of ,wallasey ,creek will be quayed for four hundred yards below the entrance of the dock1 to facilitate transporting vessels into and out of the basins4 8,the tide basin is #ajjj yards long1 and #ajj yards wide in the middle1 curving on the north side towards the locks at each end1 the south side receding #ajj feet1 so as to give berthage to timber vessels1 and in the front of them a sloping wharf and bonding yards for timber2 a line of barge canal between these yards and the warehouses on the main dock will facilitate the removal of the timber without interfering with the shipping4 8,the entrance lock into this basin from the tideway will be fifty feet wide1 the entrance wing walls widening gradually to #ajj feet1 to afford easy access to the shipping when both gates are thrown open4 ,at low water1 neaps1 or half tide1 two or three vessels may pass at a time4 ,the upper lock between this basin and the canal to be double2 one large lock1 forty-five feet wide and #afj feet long1 for great ships1 and another1 twenty-five feet wide1 for smaller vessels1 with gates at each end1 pointing both to land and seawards4 ,these locks to rise to four feet below the old dock sill of ,liverpool1 and thus to have twenty-two feet water in the canal on the level of an eighteen feet tide1 which we propose to make the surface level of the canal4 8,the ship dock parallel to this basin will be #djj yards long and #ajj wide1 with warehouses on each side1 supported by iron pillars1 so as to form a covered wharf1 as at the ,st4 ,katherine's ,dock in ,london2 behind these warehouses a parallel barge canal fit for river flats1 forty feet wide1 which will1 as in ,holland1 be found a singular convenience4 ,these canals communicate with a dock and basin for flats only1 whence the barges may be let down into the creek during the ebb2 and as they navigate at the lowest water they will be ready to pass up the ,mersey with the first of the flood2 and in like manner1 coming down with the last of the ebb1 will get into the pool and enter the dock without losing a tide4 ,ships from the ,mersey1 in like manner1 may enter the basin with half-flood1 and be ready to proceed down the ,swash with the first of the ebb4 8,the flat marsh by the ,boilers ,yards is well adapted for this establishment1 but as the ground beyond is high for some distance we propose the canal to be #abd feet only at water surface for #ajjj yards from the locks1 and to be lined with a stone wall on each side1 so that this space will1 in fact1 be also a dock4 ,afterwards the marsh widens1 and here is a favourable place for another entrance basin and dock1 if necessary4 ,from this point we propose to continue the canal with sloping banks1 the bottom to be four feet under the level of the old dock sill1 and #afc feet in width at the surface of the water1 which will be twenty-two feet in depth4 8,the canal proceeds at first in the direction of the ,leasowe ,lighthouse1 and approaches within half a mile of the shore1 and about the same distance north of the village of ,moreton1 and then turns to the westward1 keeping half a mile inland from the villages of ,great and ,little ,meols through ,newton ,car1 where it turns off to ,helbre ,island1 and enters the strand about half a mile above the hotel2 across the strand it is carried by embankments to the upper end of ,helbre ,island4 ,a large breadth is allowed for the embankment on the sea-side1 with facing mound of stone from the rocky point near the ,red ,stone to within #fjj feet of the ,point of ,helbre4 ,the head of this pier to be of rough stone1 rounded off1 and carefully paved4 ,a pier head is to be built in ,helbre of #cjj feet in length1 leaving an opening of #cjj feet into the tide harbour1 which is fifty acres in extent1 and to be cleared to at least low water of a spring-tide1 and preserved of that depth by scouring4 8,a quay wall is to be constructed of hewn stone along the ,helbre ,island from the pier-head #fjj yards to the tide lock1 which is to be fifty feet wide1 as at ,wallasey2 another tide lock of similar dimensions on the north side of the harbour4 ,the north pier is only intended to be of rough stone2 but a short covering pier will be made to protect that lock and facilitate the entry of ships4 ,above these locks the canal is to be formed into a tide basin of #ejj yards in length1 the level of which may be kept at that of the tide of the day2 and at the upper end are two parallel canal locks1 as at ,wallasey1 with gates pointing to the sea and land at each end1 as the tide will occasionally rise higher than the level of the water in the canal4 8,from ,helbre ,island to the ,middle ,helbre1 thence to the ,eye1 and from that to the shore at ,kirby ,church1 an embankment and road will be carried along the ridge and made water-tight4 ,by this and the canal a pond1 as has already been described1 will be enclosed1 of #fdj acres1 which will fill at spring-tides to the depth of nine feet1 containing #c1jjj1jjj of cubic yards1 and may be all emptied for the purpose of scouring the outer harbour2 but at the latter part of the spring tides it will be advisable to fill this pond as a reservoir for lockage water1 for which purpose it may be drawn down three feet to the canal level1 and will hold #abjj locks-full for ship lockage at each end1 and1 if necessary1 #ajjj more locks-full may be drawn off without any material inconvenience to the navigation4 8,we now subjoin an estimate of what we conceive will be the expense of completing these works1 including an extensive range of warehouses on each side of the dock at ,wallasey ,pool1 and of enclosed timber yards along the tide basin2 and for all the items we have made a liberal provision4 8,estimate4 ,excavations in ,wallasey ,creek and ,helbre ,harbour1 also in the ,locks1 ,basins1 and ,canal to ,helbre1 and ,barge ,canal and ,basins1 #dcf1jag ,quay ,walls on ,creek1 ,basins1 ,locks1 and ,canal at ,wallasey ,pool1 #bcj1ajj ,bridges and ,tunnels1 #ch1jjj ,piers and ,quays ,walls1 ,helbre ,harbour1 #ie1ajj ,locks1 ,dams1 and ,culverts1 ,helbre ,harbour1 #aaa1jjj ,warehouses at ,wallasey ,pool1 ,inclosure ,walls1 and ,paving1 #ahc1jjj ,purchase of ,land1 #abe1jjj ,for ,surveys1 ,act of ,parliament1 ,law ,expenses1 ,superintendents'1 ,lock-keepers'1 and other ,offices1 etc41 and ,contingencies on ,works1 ,fifteen per ,cent41 #ahb1gca ---------- #a1djj1idh 8,for the above sum a floating harbour will be obtained of seven miles in length1 capable of indefinite enlargement1 with extensive warehouse accommodation1 and with a sea-port at either end on the two separate estuaries4 ,that this is not too great for the wants of the country will be at once admitted by those who consider the vast extent of shipping usually moored in the ,thames1 notwithstanding all its docks2 the total inapplicability of the rivers ,mersey or ,dee to such a purpose2 and the confined space which even the docks of ,liverpool can afford for the accommodation of a trade now hardly inferior to that of the metropolis1 and certainly and rapidly increasing4 8,,thos4 ,,telford4 ,,robt4 ,,stevenson4 ,,alexander ,,nimmo4 8,,london1 #afth ,may #ahbh40 8,,further ,,report respecting the proposed two new ,ports1 etc41 on the ,rivers ,dee and ,mersey1 adjacent to ,liverpool4 8,in the foregoing report we have shown the form and expense of this establishment when completed upon an extensive and perfect plan4 ,at the commencement1 however1 of so great an undertaking it is not to be expected that all the conveniences we have proposed can be immediately required2 a considerable portion may therefore be deferred until the wants and increasing demands of trade shall show them to be necessary4 ,in the meantime the essential parts of the improvement may be effected1 with a smaller expenditure of capital1 so as to obtain all that safety and facility of access which we have shown to be leading features of this plan4 8,we have proposed to make the canal from ,wallasey to ,helbre wide enough for three great ships1 so as to admit of part of it being used as a floating harbour1 still leaving room for navigation2 but for navigation alone it will be quite enough to adopt the dimensions of the ,caledonian ,canal1 viz41 #abj feet at surface1 and if the trade should increase so as to require it1 instead of widening it1 a parallel canal may hereafter be made1 with a bank and two towing-paths between1 leaving the whole of the opposite banks applicable to berthage and commercial establishments4 ,the same locks will serve at either end1 and the transporting of ships be greatly facilitated2 and the construction of this canal1 or repair of the other1 may be effected without any interruption to the navigation by such an arrangement4 ,again1 the double locks at the ,wallasey end of the canal1 intended for the greater dispatch of business1 may very well be deferred for the present1 and the entrance basin made of smaller dimensions4 ,the ship dock there may at first be made as a part of the canal1 and quayed on one side only1 and afterwards widened and completed when wanted4 ,the half tide dock may be dispensed with by enlarging the barge tide dock so as to serve also for ships1 and the quay walling of the pool and of the first mile of the canal may also be deferred4 ,the warehouses at ,wallasey dock may be dispensed with at first1 or left to individual capital2 but it will be highly proper to secure a sufficient quantity of land to enable all these improvements to be undertaken at some future period4 ,we do not deem it advisable to give up the enlargement and deepening of the entrance of ,wallasey ,pool1 as on that depends much of the utility of the plan in giving access to vessels at low tides2 and for a similar reason we would preserve all the works proposed for the harbour at ,helbre ,island4 ,upon this modified plan the expense1 as below1 will be #gcd1afc4 8,,thos4 ,,telford4 ,,robt4 ,,stevenson4 ,,alex4 ,,nimmo4 8,,chester1 ,july #ad1 #ahbh4 8,estimate4 ,excavating ,tide ,basin1 ,barge ,dock1 and half of ,ship ,dock1 at ,wallasey ,end1 #be1jjj ,walling along the ,pool1 from ,brassey's ,works1 also the ,barge ,dock and one side of ,ship ,dock1 #ca1ejj ,ship ,lock1 ,barge ,lock1 and ,tide ,gates for ,basin1 and two ,swivel ,bridges1 #cf1ejj ,dredging ,wallasey ,creek1 as before1 #bj1jjj ,land and ,damages1 #ea1jjj ------- #afd1jjj ,fifteen per ,cent4 ,contingencies1 #bd1dhe ------- ,for ,wallasey ,end1 #ahh1dhe ,excavating ,canal1 #bjg1djc ,bridges and ,tunnel1 #bb1jjj ,land and ,damages1 #bg1jjj ------- #bef1djc ,fifteen per ,cent41 #ch1dfj ------- ,for the ,canal1 #bid1hfc ,pier and ,quay ,walls from ,helbre1 as before1 #ie1ajj ,locks1 ,dams1 and ,culverts1 do41 #aaa1jjj ,excavation in ,harbour1 #aj1jjj ,strand and ,damages on ,isle1 #b1jjj ,fifteen per ,cent41 #cb1gae ------- #bej1hae ------- ,,general ,,total1 #gcd1afc0 ,i have given the ,reports of the three ,engineers to whom this question was remitted1 to show the very comprehensive view they took of the important subject referred for their opinion2 and it is almost unnecessary to tell professional readers that after a lapse of nearly a quarter of a century the embryo but comprehensive proposal of ,telford1 ,stevenson1 and ,nimmo resulted in the modified but still large ,birkenhead ,dock scheme of ,j4 ,m4 ,rendel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the original design for the improvement of the ,tay was made by ,messrs4 ,robert and ,alan ,stevenson1 in #ahcc1 and in connection with my father's life a short account of the works may be desirable as illustrating his practice in ,river ,engineering in the ,tay and other rivers4 ,the river ,tay1 with its numerous tributaries1 receives the drainage water of a district of ,scotland amounting to #bbhc square miles1 as measured on ,arrowsmith's map4 ,its mean discharge has been ascertained to be #bgd1jjj cubic feet1 or #gfde tons of water per minute4 ,it is navigable as far as ,perth1 which is twenty-two miles from ,dundee and thirty-two from the ,german ,ocean4 ,before the commencement of the works1 certain ridges1 called 8fords10 stretched across the bed of the river1 at different points between ,perth and ,newburgh1 and obstructed the passage to such a degree that vessels drawing from ten to eleven feet could not1 during the highest tides1 make their way up to ,perth without great difficulty4 ,the depth of water on these fords varied from one foot nine inches to two feet six inches at low1 and eleven feet nine inches to fourteen feet at high water of spring tides2 so that the regulating navigable depth1 under the most favourable circumstances1 could not be reckoned at more than eleven feet4 ,the chief disadvantage experienced by vessels in the unimproved state of the river was the risk of their being detained by grounding1 or being otherwise obstructed at these defective places1 so as to lose the tide at ,perth1--a misfortune which1 at times when the tides were falling from springs to neaps1 often led to the necessity either of lightening the vessel1 or of detaining her till the succeeding springs afforded sufficient depth for passing the fords4 ,the great object aimed at1 therefore1 was to remove every cause of detention1 and facilitate the propagation of the tidal wave in the upper part of the river1 so that inward-bound vessels might take the first of the flood to enable them to reach ,perth in one tide4 ,nor was it1 indeed1 less important to remove every obstacle that might prevent outward-bound vessels from reaching ,newburgh1 and the more open and deep parts of the navigation before low water of the tide with which they left ,perth4 ,the works undertaken by the ,harbour ,commissioners of ,perth for the purpose of remedying the evils alluded to1 and which extended over six working seasons1 may be briefly described as follows3-- #ast1 ,the fords1 and many intermediate shallows1 were deepened by steam dredging2 and the system of harrowing was employed in some of the softer banks in the lower part of the river4 ,many large detached boulders and 8fishing cairns10 which obstructed the passage of vessels1 were also removed4 #b;d1 ,three subsidiary channels1 or offshoots from the main stream1 at ,sleepless1 ,darry1 and ,balhepburn islands1 were shut up by embankments formed of the produce of the dredging1 so as to confine the whole of the water to the navigable channel1 and the banks of the navigable channel were widened to receive the additional quantity of water which they had to discharge4 #c;d1 ,in some places the banks on either side of the river beyond low water mark1 where much contracted1 were excavated1 in order to equalise the currents1 by allowing sufficient space for the free passage of the water2 and this was more especially done on the shores opposite ,sleepless and ,darry islands1 where the shutting up of the secondary channels rendered it more necessary4 ,the benefit to the navigation in consequence of the completion of these works was of a twofold kind2 for not only was the depth of water materially increased by actual deepening of the waterway1 and the removal of numerous obstructions from the bed of the river1 but a clearer and a freer passage was made for the flow of the tide1 which begins to rise at ,perth much sooner than before2 and as the time of high water is unaltered1 the advantages of increased depth due to the presence of the tide is proportionally increased throughout the whole range of the navigation2 or1 in other words1 the duration of tidal influence has been prolonged4 ,the depths at the shallowest places were pretty nearly equalised1 being five feet at low and fifteen feet at high water1 of ordinary spring tides1 instead1 as formerly1 of one foot nine inches at low and eleven feet at high water4 ,steamers of small draught of water can now therefore ply at low water1 and vessels drawing fourteen feet can now come up to ,perth in one tide with ease and safety4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,timber4 #ahjh-ahdc4 ,in #ahjh ,mr4 ,stevenson was the discoverer of the ,limnoria terebrans1 that small but sure destroyer of timber structures exposed to the action of the sea1 and forwarded specimens of the insect and of the timber it had destroyed to ,dr4 ,leach1 the eminent naturalist1 of the ,british ,museum1 who1 in #ahaa1 announced it as a 8new and highly interesting species which had been sent to him by his friend ,robert ,stevenson1 ,civil ,engineer10 and assigned to it the name of ,limnoria terebrans 7,linnean ,trans41 vol4 xi4 p4 #cg1 and ,edinburgh ,encylopdia1 vol4 vii4 p4 #dcc74 ,the ,teredo navalis1 which is a larger and even more destructive enemy1 is happily not so prevalent in northern seas as the ,limnoria4 ,so impressed was ,mr4 ,stevenson with the importance of his discovery as affecting marine engineering1 and especially harbour works1 that he resolved to establish a train of systematic experiments by exposing the timber of different trees to the action of salt water1 and it occurred to him that no situation could be more suitable for such observations than the ,bell ,rock1 where the specimens would not only be fully exposed to the sea1 and free from any interference1 but would be strictly watched and minutely reported on by the lightkeepers4 ,he further conceived it proper1 in the interests of the navy1 to take the ,admiralty into his counsels1 and he accordingly communicated his intention to that ,board1 with the result that many of the specimens of timber experimented on were sent from ,woolwich dockyard1 and the results of the trials were from time to time communicated to the ,admiralty4 ,the different blocks of timber under trial were treenailed to the rock1 and the experiments extended over a period of nearly thirty years4 ,they clearly proved that teak1 ,african oak1 ,english and ,american oak1 mahogany1 beech1 ash1 elm1 and the different varieties of pine1 were found sooner or later to become a prey to the ,limnoria4 ,greenheart oak was alone found to withstand their attacks1 and even this timber was ultimately not entirely unaffected4 ,the result of these valuable experiments is given in the following ,table3-- ,,table showing the different kinds of ,timber which were exposed to the attacks of the ,limnoria terebrans at the ,bell ,rock in #ahad1 #ahba1 #ahcg1 #ahdc1 with their durabilities4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,decay ,unsound ,quite ,kind of ,timber4 first and sound ,remarks4 observed4 quite for decayed4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- yrs4 mo4 yrs4 mo4yrs4 mo4 ,greenheart1 #a #ai #j #a ,affected in one corner4 ,teak-wood1 #ac #j ,beef-wood1 #ac #j ,treenail of #e #j ,bullet-wood1 ,beech1 ,payne's #aj #g #b ,a little patent pro41 #b holed at one end ,teak-wood1 #c #e #f underneath4 ,nearly sound ,african ,oak1 #d #e #f #g years after being laid down4 ,do4 do4 #d #aa #aj #j #c ,nearly sound #g years after ,english ,oak1 #d #g #aj #j being laid kyanised1 down4 ,teak-wood1 #d #g #ab #j #d ,nearly sound #g years after ,american ,oak1 #d #c being laid kyanised1 #e down4 ,british ,ash1 #c #j #e #j #e ,decaying1 ,scotch ,elm1 #c #j #e #j but slowly1 #e years and #g ,ash1 #b #aa #d #c months after being laid ,english ,elm1 #b #aa #d #g down4 ,plane ,tree1 #f #b #aa #f ,decaying1 but slowly1 #e ,american ,oak1 #b #aa #d #g years and #g months after being laid down4 ,baltic ,red #b #i #d #c #g ,a good deal ,pine1 #g decayed when first observed4 ,english ,oak1 #b #d #d #g ,scotch ,oak1 #h #b #d #h ,much decayed when first ,baltic ,oak1 #b #d #d #c observed4 ,norway ,fir1 #b #d #c #a ,baltic ,red #b #d #d #g ,pine1 kyanised1 ,pitch ,pine1 #b #d #d #c ,american #b #d #c #g ,yellow ,pine1 ,american ,red #b #d #c #a ,pine1 ,do4 do41 #b #d #d #g kyanised1 ,larch1 #b #d #d #c ,honduras #b #a #i ,nearly sound ,mahogany1 #i #c years after being laid ,beech1 #a #i #c #a down4 ,washed away #f months ,american ,elm1 #a #i #c #a later4 ,treenail of #e #j #c #j ,locust1 ,british ,oak1 #a #f #e #j ,american ,oak1 #a #f #e #j ,plane ,tree1 #a #f #e #j ,honduras ,teak #a #f #e #j treenails1 ,beech1 #a #f #e #j ,scotch ,fir1 #a #f #c #j teak treenails1 ,do4 from #a #f #c #j ,lanarkshire1 ,do4 do4 #a #f #c #j ,do4 ,locust #a #f #c #j treenails1 ,memel ,fir1 #a #f #e #j ,pitch ,pine1 #aj #a #f #b #f #aj ,going fast when first ,english ,oak1 #a #a #c #a observed4 ,italian ,oak1 #a #a #c #f ,dantzic ,oak1 #a #a #b #f ,english ,elm1 #a #a #a #f ,canada ,rock #a #a #a #f ,elm1 ,cedar of #a #a #b #f ,lebanon1 ,riga ,fir1 #a #a #a #f ,dantzic ,fir1 #a #a #a #f ,virginia ,pine1 #a #a #a #f ,yellow ,pine1 #aa #a #a #a #f #aa ,a good deal gone #ah months ,red ,pine1 #a #a #a #f after being laid down4 ,swept away by the sea #g months afterwards4 ,cawdie ,pine1 #ab #a #a #a #f #ab ,a good deal decayed when first observed4 ,polish ,larch1 #ac #a #a #a #f #ac ,going fast when first ,birch1 ,payne's #j #aj #a #aj observed4 patent pro41 ,american #j #h #c #j ,locust treenails1 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,mr4 ,stevenson seems to have formed an opinion that the best preservative against decay was charring the timber1 as recommended in the following extract from a report1 made in #ahaa1 to the ,trustees of ,montrose ,bridge3-- 8,the changeableness of climate to which the northern parts of this island are subject renders edifices of timber more liable to decay here than perhaps in any other country in ,europe4 ,but the bridge at ,montrose is curiously circumstanced2 for while it unavoidably exposes a great surface of timber to the action of the weather1 some of the wooden piers are immersed twenty-two feet in the water1 where they are attacked by a destructive marine worm4 ,some of the woodwork at the ,bell ,rock was infested with the same species of animal which preys upon the wooden pier at ,montrose4 ,in some of the temporary works there1 as in the beams laid for carrying the railway over the inequalities of the rock1 the timber was so much wormed that some logs measuring one foot when laid down would not square to more than nine inches at the end of three years4 ,the beams which supported the wooden house for the accommodation of the artificers while the lighthouse was erecting escaped almost untouched1 having been slightly charred1 but the reporter1 when inspecting the ,bell ,rock works this year1 found that these worms are making some impression upon the ends of the supports resting on the rock where the charring could not take effect4 ,the reporter is therefore of opinion that there is no better defence against the effects of this animal than slightly charring the timber1 and he would recommend the practice at the bridge of ,montrose wherever it can be applied4 ,the operation of charring at the ,bell ,rock was performed by previously scraping off the adhering matter upon the logs and laying the skin of the wood open1 and tar was applied to promote the combustion4 ,charcoal1 besides being tasteless and inodorous1 possesses some very curious properties in its action upon vegetable and animal substances1 which may not only render it insipid1 but even offensive to this insect4 ,for those parts between the high-water mark and the roadway it will be enough to scrape the timber and lay it over with hot tar40 ,i need hardly say that this advice would perhaps not have been given at the present day1 when even creosote has been found to delay1 though not to act as a perfect defence against1 the ravages of the ,limnoria4#aj ,,preservation ,,of ,,iron4 ,at a more recent period ,mr4 ,stevenson experimented at the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse in the same way on twenty-five different kinds of malleable iron1 with the result that all of them were soon affected1 and that galvanised specimens resisted oxidation from three to four years1 after which the chemical action went on as quickly as in the others4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,bridges4 #ahaa-ahcc4 ,marykirk1 ,annan1 ,stirling1 and ,hutcheson stone bridges--,high-level bridge for ,newcastle--,timber bridge of built planks--,winch ,chain ,bridge--,american bridges of suspension--,runcorn ,bridge--,menai ,chain ,bridge--,new form of suspension bridge4 ,mr4 ,stevenson's stone bridges over the ,north ,esk at ,marykirk1 and the ,nith at ,annan 7,plate ,,vi471 are good specimens of road bridges of moderate extent2 and his bridge over the ,forth at ,stirling1 and ,hutcheson ,bridge over the ,clyde at ,glasgow 7,plate ,,vii471 are structures of a larger class4 ,of the latter1 ,mr4 ,fenwick1 of the ,royal ,military ,academy1 ,woolwich1 in the preface to his work on the ,mechanics of ,construction1 published in #ahfa1 says1--8,the ,london and ,waterloo ,bridges1 in the metropolis1 which rank among the finest structures of the elliptical arch1 and ,stevenson's ,hutcheson ,bridge at ,glasgow1 which is one of the best specimens of the segmental arch1 together with many others1 have supplied me with a variety of problems for illustration40 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,annan ,,bridge #ahbd4 ,,marykirk ,,bridge #ahaa4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,johnston1 ,edinburgh4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,,hutcheson ,,bridge1 ,,glasgow4 #ahbh4 ,,stirling ,,bridge4 #ahbi4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,johnston1 ,edinburgh4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,design ,,for ,,high ,,level ,,road ,,bridge ,,at ,,newcastle ,,on ,,tyne4 #ahbh4 ,,transverse ,,section4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,johnston1 ,edinburgh4 ,the ,hutcheson ,bridge was completed in #ahcb4 ,the masonry of the piers was laid at the level of seven feet below the bed of the ,clyde1 on a platform of timber1 on piles eighteen feet in length4 ,i found by a section made in #ahde1 after a lapse of thirteen years1 that the level of the river had been lowered1 in consequence of the deepening of the river ,clyde by the ,navigation ,trustees1 no less than eleven feet1 and even with that amount of scour the bridge was1 and might long have remained1 a safe structure4 ,but immediately above its site there is a weir which dams up the ,clyde and forms a lake1 or almost still pool1 in the river's bed for several miles4 ,it was determined1 in the interests of navigation1 to take powers to remove the weir1 and on its removal the bridge could1 no longer be pronounced safe2 it was also resolved to take powers to replace the ,hutcheson by the new ,albert ,bridge1 designed by ,messrs4 ,bell and ,miller4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,stevenson has also left behind him some traces of originality of design in bridge-building4 ,in #ahbf he gave a design to the ,corporation of ,newcastle for raising on the existing bridge another roadway1 on a high level1 to communicate with the higher parts of the town1 as shown in ,plate ,,viii41 being the idea since so successfully carried out on a large scale by the late ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson in his justly celebrated 8high-level railway viaduct40 ,mr4 ,stevenson's design1 as will be seen1 consists of piers of masonry raised on the piers of the old bridge supporting a roadway of cast iron4 ,the upper bridge being continued across the quays on either side of the river1 and joining the roadways leading towards the south and north by easy gradients1 avoided the circuitous and dangerous route of the old post road through ,newcastle4 ,for timber bridges ,mr4 ,stevenson also proposed1 in #ahca1 a new form of arch of a beautiful and simple construction 7,fig4 #af71 in which what may be called the 8ring-courses0 of the arch are formed of layers of thin planks bent into the circular form and stiffened by kingpost pieces1 on which the level roadway rests4 ,this form of bridge was afterwards very generally employed for railway bridges before the discovery had been made that for such works1 structures of iron were1 in the end1 more economical than timber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,in #ahbj1 he proposed to the ,cramond ,district of ,road ,trustees1 with a view mainly to lessening the cost of the work1 a form of suspension bridge applicable to spans of moderate width1 in which the roadway passes above the chains1 and the necessity for tall piers is avoided4 ,the suspension bridge over the ,rhone at ,geneva1 and other bridges1 have since been constructed on this principle4 ,in #ahba ,mr4 ,stevenson wrote an article on ,suspension ,bridges for the ,edinburgh ,philosophical ,journal2 and as it contains a description of this new form of construction1 as well as some historical information relative to bridges on the suspension principle1 a few extracts from the paper may not be without interest3-- 8,winch ,chain ,bridge4--,the earliest bridges of suspension of which we have any account are those of ,china1 said to be of great extent2 ,major ,rennell also describes a bridge of this kind over the ,sampoo in ,hindostan1 of about #fjj feet in length4 ,but the first chain bridge in our own country is believed to have been that of ,winch ,bridge over the river ,tees1 forming a communication between the counties of ,durham and ,york4 ,this bridge is noticed and an elevation of it given in the third volume of ,hutchison's ,antiquities of ,durham1 printed at ,carlisle in #agid4 ,as this volume is extremely scarce1 owing to the greater part of the impression having been accidentally destroyed by fire1 the writer of this article applied for a sight of it from the library of his friend1 ,mr4 ,isaac ,cookson of ,newcastle-upon-,tyne4 ,the following account is given by ,hutchison at p4 #bgi3--#8,the environs of the river 7,tees7 abound with the most picturesque and romantic scenes2 beautiful falls of water1 rocks and grotesque caverns4 ,about two miles above ,middleton1 where the river falls in repeated cascades1 a bridge suspended on iron chains is stretched from rock to rock over a chasm nearly sixty feet deep1 for the passage of travellers1 but particularly of miners2 the bridge is seventy feet in length1 and little more than two feet broad1 with a hand-rail on one side1 and planked in such a manner that the traveller experiences all the tremulous motion of the chain1 and sees himself suspended over a roaring gulf1 on an agitated and restless gangway1 to which few strangers dare trust themselves4' ,we regret that we have not been able to learn the precise date of the erection of this bridge1 but from good authority we have ascertained that it was erected about the year #agda4 8,american ,bridges of ,suspension4--,it appears from a treatise on ,bridges by ,mr4 ,thomas ,pope1 architect1 of ,new ,york1 published in that city in the year #ahaa1 that eight chain bridges have been erected upon the catenarian principle1 in different parts of ,america4 ,it here deserves our particular notice1 however1 in any claim for priority of invention with our transatlantic friends1 that the chain bridge over the ,tees was known in ,america1 as ,pope quotes ,hutchison's vol4 iii41 and gives a description of ,winch ,bridge4 ,it further appears from this work that a patent was granted by the ,american ,government for the erection of bridges of suspension in the year #ahjh4 ,our ,american author also describes a bridge of this construction1 which seems to have been erected about the year #ahji1 over the river ,merrimack in the ,state of ,massachusetts1 consisting of a catenarian arch of #bdd feet span4 ,the roadway of this bridge is suspended between two abutments or towers of masonry1 thirty seven feet in height1 on which piers of carpentry are erected which are thirty five feet in height4 ,over these ten chains are suspended1 each measuring #eaf feet in length1 their ends being sunk into deep pits on both sides of the river1 where they are secured by large stones4 ,the bridge over the ,merrimack has two carriage-ways1 each of fifteen feet in breadth4 ,it is also described as having three chains which range along the sides1 and four in the middle1 or between the two roadways4 ,the whole expense of this ,american work is estimated to have been #bj1jjj dollars4 8,proposed ,bridge at ,runcorn4--,perhaps the most precarious and difficult problem ever presented to the consideration of the ,british engineer was the suggestion of some highly patriotic gentlemen of ,liverpool1 for constructing a bridge over the estuary of the ,mersey at ,runcorn ,gap1 about twenty miles from ,liverpool4 ,the specifications for this work provided that the span of the bridge should measure at least #ajjj feet1 and that its height above the surface of the water should not be less than sixty feet1 so as to admit of the free navigation of this great commercial river4 ,the idea of a bridge at ,runcorn1 we believe1 was first conceived about the year #ahac1 when the demand for labour was extremely low1 and a vast number of the working classes of ,lancashire were thrown out of employment4 ,a variety of designs for this bridge were procured by a select committee of the gentlemen who took an interest in this great undertaking4 ,the plan most approved of1 however1 was the design of a bridge of suspension2 and ,mr4 ,telford the engineer1 and ,captain ,brown of the ,royal ,navy1 are understood pretty nearly to have concurred in opinion as to the practicability of such a work4 ,mr4 ,telford has reported fully on the subject1 and has estimated the expense of his design at from #fc1jjj to #he1jjj1 according to different modes of execution4 ,though as yet little advancement has been made in carrying this enterprising design into execution1 yet the novelty and magnitude of an arch of #ajjj feet span is a subject of so much interest that we have thought it proper in this place to mention these circumstances4 8,menai ,chain ,bridge4--,the ,straits of ,menai1 which separate the island of ,anglesea from ,caernarvonshire1 have long formed a troublesome obstruction upon the great road from ,london to ,dublin by ,holyhead1 by which the troublesome ferry of ,bangor might be avoided4 ,many plans for the execution of this undertaking have also been agitated1 chiefly in cast iron1 including a range of estimate from about #abh1jjj to #bfh1jjj2 but that which is now acted upon is a bridge of suspension upon the catenarian principle1 the extent of which between the piers or points of suspension is to be #efj feet1 the estimate for which is only about #gj1jjj4 ,this by many has been considered a work of great uncertainty2 but the ,union ,bridge on this plan has already been executed on the ,tweed1 to the extent of #cfa feet40 ,mr4 ,stevenson then goes on to mention several wire and chain bridges erected in ,scotland1 and gives the following description of his design for ,cramond ,bridge3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 8,fig4 #ag is a section and plan designed for crossing the river ,almond on the great north road between ,edinburgh and ,queensferry4 ,the extent of the span between the points of suspension is laid down at #aej feet4 ,the chief circumstances which particularise this design are a mode of fixing the chains to the abutments of suspension on each side of the river1 by which the main chains can be distributed equally under the roadway4 ,the main chains are likewise made to collapse or turn round the abutments of masonry1 as will be seen from the section1 in which the parts of the work are so contrived that access can be had to the chains by an arched way on each side4 ,in this design the two ends of the chains are formed into great nails or bolts1 with countersunk or conical heads made to fit into corresponding hollow tubes of cast iron built into the masonry of the abutments4 8,from this description the reader will readily form an idea of the simplicity and effect of this mode of fixing the chains1 being such1 also1 that any particular chain may be withdrawn and replaced without deranging the fabric of the bridge4 ,the roadway1 instead of being suspended from the main chains1 is made up to the proper level upon the chains by a framework of cast iron1 prepared for the reception of a stratum of broken stones for the road4 8,the making up of the roadway of this bridge1 however1 and the enlarged angle of its suspension1 may be considered as limiting the span or extent of bridges of this construction to about #bjj feet4 ,the structure represented by ,fig4 #ag appears to possess many advantages for bridges of that modified extent1 and the manner of fixing the chains is applicable to all bridges of suspension2 it is likewise new1 so far as we know40 ,in the close of his paper ,mr4 ,stevenson says3-- 8,to what extent suspension bridges may be carried is very uncertain1 and he who has the temerity to advance sceptical or circumscribed views on this subject would do well to reflect upon the history of the steam-engine4 ,when the ,marquis of ,worcester first proposed1 by the boiling of water1 to produce an effective force1 no one could have conceived the incalculable advantages which have since followed its improvement by our illustrious countryman1 ,watt40 ,a prophetic announcement1 which has had its full realisation in the ,suspension ,railway ,bridge of #hba feet span at ,niagara ,falls1 and in the still bolder design now in execution for connecting ,new ,york and ,brooklyn by a steel wire suspension bridge1 having a clear opening between the piers of no less than #afjj feet4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,wolf ,,rock ,,lighthouse4 ,about the year #ahab1 ,mr4 ,stevenson having1 as adviser of the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses1 attained the position of being the most eminent ,lighthouse ,engineer of his day1 was requested by the ,admiralty to report on the practicability of erecting a lighthouse on the ,wolf ,rock1 lying about eight miles off the ,land's ,end in ,cornwall4 ,i give1 from ,mr4 ,stevenson's 8,journal10 the following curious account of the first visit he made to the rock2 and it may perhaps be as well to say that all quotations made from what ,i have called his 8,journal0 are records of what he roughly noted down at the time in the form of a ,diary1 and are on that account perhaps all the more interesting1 at least to non-professional readers4 8#adth ,sept4 #ahac4--,waited upon ,sir ,robert ,calder1 ,admiral of the port of ,plymouth1 on the #acth1 in consequence of letters from ,lord ,melville relative to a vessel to carry me to the ,wolf ,rock4 8,the ,admiral accordingly appointed the #8,orestes1' ,captain ,smith1 to proceed with me to the ,wolf1 and after landing me there1 and having made my observations1 ,captain ,smith was directed to land me at any port most convenient for me1 according to the state of the weather4 ,captain ,smith1 in consequence of this order1 and to suit my convenience1 got the #8,orestes' in readiness two days sooner than he otherwise intended1 and ,i embarked on the #adth at #b ,p4,m4 agreeably to appointment4 8,the ,captain took me by the hand and welcomed me on board ,his ,majesty's ship1 and introduced me to his first lieutenant1 ,mr4 ,fallick4 ,he then proceeded to give orders for casting off1 which was done in an instant after the word was given4 ,the #8,orestes' is properly a gun brig1 but rigged as a ship1 has #bh guns and #ajj men4 ,kept plying to windward1 and in the evening had the ,eddystone light in view1 still upon our lee quarter1 distant eight or ten miles4 8#aeth4--,kept working along the shore all day1 and at #g ,p4,m4 a pilot from ,mousehole by ,penzance came on board4 ,upon consulting the pilot1 he recommended that the ship should be brought to an anchor in ,mounts ,bay1 or rather ,newland ,road1 all night1 as it would answer no good purpose to go round the land so soon after a fresh gale of wind1 with the view of landing on the ,wolf1 which he represented as being only practicable in the finest of summer weather4 ,this was poor heartening4 ,the ,captain submitted to me whether it were not more advisable to come to an anchor1 in which1 with all submission to him1 ,i consented4 ,the ship1 accordingly1 was brought to an anchor in twelve fathoms1 clean sand4 8,on board of the #8,orestes' two of the people were punished1--one for threatening to knock down the serjeant of marines1 while on duty1 received three dozen2 another who offered an insult to a lieutenant1 received one dozen4 8,i was sitting below1 the time this was going forward1 when all hands were piped on deck1 and the ,captain began to read the ,articles of ,war4 ,he had previously said to me that two men were in irons1 whom he meant to punish and liberate4 ,i went upon deck to learn the cause of all being so quiet1 and discovering what was intended1 ,i went below and waited in great suspense till the men began to call out for mercy4 ,i took the liberty of sending a note to the ,captain--the circumstances were so painful to me--to see if he could remit any part of the punishment1 to which ,i afterwards understood he had listened1 as he did not give them so many lashes as was intended4 ,captain ,smith had by no means the character of a severe commander1 as ,i understood from some of the officers he had been two years in the ship1 and had only punished twice4 8,about #i ,p4,m41 while the ,captain and myself were at supper1 we heard a conversation between the pilot and ,mr4 ,fallick1 the first lieutenant1 about a vessel being on fire4 ,the former was of opinion that it was a pilchard boat1 the crew of which were roasting pilchards1 while ,mr4 ,fallick insisted that it was a vessel on fire4 ,in a short time the vessel or boat appeared to be in flames1 and with all sail set she approached the #8,orestes4' ,on shore the people of ,penzance and ,mousehole were afraid of the #8,orestes' taking fire and discharging a broadside upon the town4 ,in the meantime the vessel on fire approached the #8,orestes' so directly that ,captain ,smith gave orders to veer out all the cable1 stand by to cut or bend on more rope1 according to circumstances4 8,the weather became moderate1 and we had little or no wind1 and the vessel on fire 7which turned out to be a sloop of #hj or #ij tons1 bound for ,st4 ,sebastian with bottled porter and bale goods7 passed ahead of the #8,orestes' about half a cable's length4 ,her hull was then completely on fire1 but the rigging and sails had not then caught fire1 and she kept an undeviating course till she grounded on the shore4 8,captain ,smith then despatched officers and men in three boats to endeavour to save as much as possible1 but a report having gone abroad that she had gunpowder on board no person ventured near the vessel on fire till it was too late to be of any service1 and in the morning when ,captain ,smith and ,i went on shore nothing remained but the keel and a few of the #8futtocks' half burned1 and the mast over by the deck1 the lower part having been consumed by the flames4 ,the vessel was just getting under weigh when the accident occurred1 through the carelessness of a boy1 who set a lighted candle into a crate of straw in which bottles were packed4 ,the crew soon afterwards appear to have carelessly deserted the vessel and landed at ,mounts ,bay1 three miles from ,mousehole1 and appear not to have been very active in doing what was in their power4 ,the loss of ship and cargo was estimated at #ad1jjj4 8#afth4--,got under weigh at #f ,p4,m41 and left ,mousehole ,bay with an intention to go round the land2 but the weather fell calm1 and after shutting in the ,lizard lights came to an anchor in ,mounts ,bay till next morning4 ,the ,lizard lights appeared to very great advantage4 8#agth4--,got under weigh at #f ,a4,m41 wind shifting from southwest to east with a fine breeze1 and at #aa ,a4,m4 got up with the ,wolf ,rock4 ,at #ab noon two boats were manned--one commanded by a midshipman1 and the other by ,lieutenant ,fallick1 into which ,i went1 and after pulling round and round the rock with both boats1 sounding all the while1 we made preparations for landing4 ,mr4 ,fallick arranged his boat's crew1 and let go a grapling over the stern1 then veered away upon this stern rope watching a smooth1 and when the boat was near enough the young man 7the same who had two days before got one dozen of lashes7 appointed to land with a bow rope to make fast1 leaped upon the rock1 and upon these two ropes the boat was hauled off and on with great ease and facility4 ,in this manner ,lieutenant ,fallick landed next1 then ,i landed1 but not without much difficulty1 and watching an opportunity to get on the rock with a smooth between the seas4 8,upon leaving the ship1 about a quarter of a mile from the rock1 ,i began to sound1 and at from two to three cables' length off the rock have #da1 #dj1 and #ch fathoms water1 with shell sand of a fair colour4 ,at about one cable's length have #ac fathoms1 same bottom4 ,within this distance have #aj1 #h1 #e1 #c1 and #b fathoms1 chiefly rocky bottom4 8,the rock is steep in all directions2 the south-west if anything draws to a point with rather less water near it than in other directions4 8,at low water of a neap tide the rock appeared to be about twelve or fourteen feet in perpendicular height above the surface of the water4 ,its surface is very irregular1 jutting up in masses of from six to ten feet in height4 ,these inequalities all presented marked and angular outlines1 terminating in well-defined points and edges4 ,the central part of the rock is formed pretty much into a hollow1 where there have been some quarrying operations in fixing the beacon which was erected upon it4 ,the margin of the rock is upon the whole pretty regular1 as it appears jutting out of the water4 ,on the eastern side it is not so regularly formed at the water's edge as on the western side4 ,it slopes outwards1 and seems to form a large stool in every direction4 ,at some places there are guts or slips in the rock1 but none of these are large enough to be useful for a boat landing at4 ,the best and perhaps the only landing place is at the north-east side1 where the rock is most precipitous4 8,taking the dimensions in the largest directions with the lead-line1 in fathoms1 it measured twenty-two fathoms in a north-east and south-west direction1 and sixteen fathoms in a north-west and south-east direction4 8,upon the surface in the middle1 at the hollow place1 ,i found a hole of six inches in depth1 and about nine inches square1 and connected with it1 at six feet distant1 three holes for bats1 which ,i presume to have been the step of the beacon1 and the iron bats were still to be seen which had been used as guys4 ,this fragile affair appears to have wanted base and every requisite suited to such an exposed situation and important purpose1 and accordingly the beacon1 with a wolf of metallic work1 erected by a ,lieutenant ,smith1 who erected the ,longships ,lighthouse1 is said not to have remained longer than a few days1 and was carried away in the first storm4 8,besides these holes and bats1 which last seem not to have exceeded #a inch iron in strength1 ,i found several eye bolts in different parts of the rock1 particularly at the landing place1 which had been put in to make fast boats1 etc41 while the beacon was being erected4 8,the surface of the rock is extremely rugged1 and running in every direction into sharp angular points4 ,the rock seems to run in beds from an inch to a foot in thickness4 ,it has much the appearance of limestone1 but upon a narrow inspection it turns out to be porphyry4 ,it is covered with the barnacle1 many limpets of a very large size--say two inches diameter1--and mussels4 ,these were the only animal productions that were found upon it4 ,of the marine fuci there were two or three varieties4 8,that it would be practicable to erect a building upon this rock ,i have no doubt1 but from its shape and figure1 and the great depth of water in all directions round it1 together with the smallness of its dimensions1 it would be a work of great difficulty1 and be attended with much expense and great hazard4 8,i am therefore of opinion that it might cost from #hj1jjj to #ij1jjj to erect a lighthouse at the ,wolf1 with all the requisite buildings and appointments1 like the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse4 8,in a conversation on this subject with ,lieutenant ,smith in #ahjf 7who had erected the beacon on the ,wolf71 he pronounced it as an impracticable work4 ,but his opinion1 from the work he had performed at the ,longships1 and other circumstances1 made very little impression upon my mind1 at the time1 in regard to the ,bell ,rock1 and since seeing the ,wolf ,rock ,i think his arguments were ill founded1 and ,i am perfectly decided in opinion that the work is a practicable one4 8,the wind being nearly easterly1 and consequently unfavourable for returning with dispatch to ,plymouth1 the captain gravely proposed that we should stand towards #8the ,bay' for a few days1 when it might shift4 ,not being fully aware of what was meant by the ,bay1 ,i put the question1 when to my surprise he meant the ,bay of ,biscay1 and said we should see ,st4 ,sebastian1 which had just fallen2 but to this ,i replied1 that ,i should much rather be landed at the ,land's ,end4 ,he was constantly on the outlook for prizes1 and as ,i came not to fight ,i wanted much to be on shore1 that ,i might pursue my way to ,bath1 where ,i knew ,mr4 ,rae1 the ,sheriff of ,edinburgh1 would be waiting my return to proceed upon the visit to the ,prisons on our return to ,scotland4 8,the ship was therefore directed to steer for the ,land's ,end1 and the pilot took the ship within the ,longships ,lighthouse1 and he and ,i landed at ,sennan on the same evening4 8,having procured horses for myself and luggage1 ,i set off immediately for ,penzance1 which ,i reached about #aj o'clock at night1 the #agth ,september1 much pleased with my trip upon the whole4 8#ahth4--,leave ,penzance1 and reach ,falmouth by the fly4 8#aith4--,leave ,falmouth1 and that same night1 or early next morning1 reach ,exeter4 8#bjth4--,at #f ,a4,m4 leave ,exeter1 and #h ,p4,m4 reach ,bath4 8,from ,plymouth to the ,wolf1 and returning to ,bath1 only eight days40 ,mr4 ,stevenson at a subsequent date made another visit to the ,wolf1 accompanied by an assistant1 when a careful survey was made1 followed by a well-considered design1 which is shown in ,plate ,,ix41 and is described by him as follows3-- ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,,design ,,for ,,wolf ,,rock ,,light ,,house4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,johnston1 ,edinburgh4 8,plate ,,ix4 is the section of a design formed by the revolution of the parabola round the axis of a building1 as its asymptote1 whose base measures fifty-six feet in diameter1 and parallel at the top of the solid is thirty-six feet2 and height to the entrance door1 thirty-five feet4 ,the contents of this figure between these parallels is calculated at #de1jjj cubic feet2 but the whole of the masonry of the design is estimated at #gj1fbd cubic feet4 ,its general features may be stated as similar to those of the ,eddystone and ,bell ,rock ,lighthouses1 the parts being only enlarged1 and the parabolic instead of the logarithmic curve adopted for its outline4 ,in this design1 the parabolic curve is continued from the basement to the copestone of the light room1 exclusively of the projection for the cornice and balcony4 ,the masonry is intended to be #abj feet in height1 estimating from the medium level of the sea1 of which the solid1 or from the foundation to the entrance door1 forms thirty-five feet1 the staircase twenty-five feet1 and the remaining sixty feet of its height is occupied with six apartments1 and the walls of the light room4 ,in the staircase a recess is formed for containing the machinery for raising the stores to the height of the entrance door2 here a small hole is perforated through the building for the admission of the purchase chain4 ,the thickness of the walls immediately above the solid is twelve feet2 at the top of the stone staircase they are eight feet1 and where the walls are thinnest1 immediately under the cornice1 they measure two feet4 ,a drop hole formed in the courses of the staircase and solid1 provides for the range of the weight of a revolving light4 ,the ascent to this building1 as at the ,bell ,rock1 is intended to be by an exterior stair or ladder of brass1 and the interior communication between the several apartments by means of flights of circular oaken steps40 ,the only estimate ,mr4 ,stevenson ever made of the work was that already stated in his ,journal1 at a cost of #hj1jjj to #ij1jjj for the tower and requisite dwellings for the lightkeepers and crew of attending vessel ashore4 ,mr4 ,stevenson's original visit was1 as we have seen1 made in #ahac1 and in #ahgj1 after a lapse of fifty-seven years1 the present tower on the ,wolf ,rock1 the joint work of the late ,mr4 ,james ,walker and of ,mr4 ,james ,n4 ,douglass1 was successfully accomplished under the auspices of the ,trinity ,house4 ,the cost of the tower1 exclusively of the shore establishment1 which it was unnecessary to provide1 was #fb1gbf1 being not very different from the estimate of ,mr4 ,stevenson 7from #hj1jjj to #ij1jjj71 which included a shore establishment4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,carr ,,rock ,,beacon4 #ahaj-ahba4 ,the ,carr ,rock is a tide-covered reef extending about #a mile from the shore of ,fifeness1 and forming a turning point in the navigation of the northern-bound shipping of the ,firth of ,forth1 and on ,mr4 ,stevenson's recommendation the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses resolved to erect a beacon of masonry to mark the danger4 ,it may seem to be unnecessary1 after describing the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 to notice so apparently small a work as this2 but in such matters it is unsafe to generalise2 each case must be considered on its own merits1 and great difficulties were encountered in accomplishing the work4 ,the formation of the ,carr ,rock rendered it impracticable to secure a base for a building of greater diameter than eighteen feet1 and as part of that base had to be founded under the level of the lowest tides by cofferdams which were removed and taken ashore after each tide's work1 even the ,engineer of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse found all his resources taxed to a considerable extent1 and he was in the end foiled in carrying out his design for the building4 ,but irrespectively of these physical difficulties1 the ,carr ,rock is a work of great interest to the lighthouse engineer1 inasmuch as ,mr4 ,stevenson at that early date conceived the idea of calling to his aid the power given by the rise of tide on the building to move a train of clock work to sound a warning bell2 and again1 when the destruction of the upper portion of his beacon by the sea obliged him to relinquish this plan1 unwilling to be beaten1 he suggested that the same tidal action might be made to sound a whistle2 and failing that1 he proposed to exhibit a phosphorescent light from the top of the building4 ,all of these ideas suggested by ,mr4 ,stevenson's inventive mind have been from time to time revived by modern inventors4 ,the original design of the ,carr ,rock ,beacon was made in #ahaj1 and the work was commenced in #ahac4 ,after portions of the masonry had repeatedly been carried away by the sea1 the original design for surmounting the building by a bell to be rung by the rise and fall of the tide was abandoned1 and the beacon was completed in #ahba1 by raising an iron structure1 as shown in ,plate ,x4 ,fig4 ,x-#b1 on the foundation that had escaped the fury of the sea1 and that structure is still in perfect preservation4 ,so great1 indeed1 was the difficulty that ,mr4 ,stevenson1 in #ahah1 contemplated using blocks of cast iron instead of stone to insure greater specific gravity--a proposal which is believed to have been then made for the first time4 ,the following is ,mr4 ,stevenson's own description of this interesting work3-- 8,the form and construction of the ,carr ,rock ,beacon1 as originally designed and ultimately executed1 will be better understood by referring to ,plate ,x4 ,the motion originally intended to be given to the bell-apparatus1 or tide machine1 ,fig4 ,x-#a1 was to be effected by admitting the sea through a small aperture of three inches in diameter1 perforated in the solid masonry1 communicating with a cylindrical chamber in the centre of the building1 measuring two feet in diameter1 in which a float or metallic air tank was to rise and fall with the tide4 ,during the period of flood tide1 the air vessel1 in its elevation by the pressure of the water1 was to give motion to machinery for tolling the bell and winding up a weight1 which last1 in its descent1 during ebb tide1 was to continue the motion of the machine1 until the flood tide again returned to perform the joint operation of tolling the bell and raising the weight4 ,a working model of a machine upon this principle having been constructed1 it was kept in motion for a period equal to several months2 this was effected by water run through a succession of tanks raised by a pump from the lower one to the higher1 thus producing the effect of flood and ebb tides4 ,the time during which this apparatus was in action having been ascertained by an index1 a constant attendance upon the machine during this protracted experiment became unnecessary4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x4 ,,carr ,,rock ,,beacon ,,as ,,designed ,,in ,,the ,,year #ahaj ,,carr ,,rock ,,beacon ,,as ,,executed ,,in ,,the ,,year #ahba 8,the upper termination of the beacon1 in its present form1 as shown in ,fig4 ,x-#b1 does not admit of the application of the tide machine with the bell apparatus4 ,experiments as applicable to this have1 however1 been tried with a wind instrument1 to be sounded by the pressure of the sea water1 but it has not succeeded to the extent that seems necessary for a purpose of this kind4 ,we have1 indeed1 thought that the application of pressure as a power1 communicated by the waters of the ocean1 in mechanical operations1 might be carried to almost any extent by simply providing a chamber or dock large enough for the reception of a float or vessel1 of dimensions equivalent to the force required4 ,this description of machinery is more particularly applicable in situations where the tides have a great rise1 as in the ,solway ,firth1 ,bristol ,channel1 and other parts of the ,british seas2 and at ,st4 ,malo on the coast of ,france4 8,a beacon of any form1 unprovided with a light1 must always be considered an imperfect landmark1 and therefore various modes have been contemplated for more completely pointing out the position of the ,carr ,rock4 ,it has been proposed that phosphoric lights should be exhibited from the top of the building4 ,this object1 however1 would be more certainly accomplished by the erection of leading lights upon the island of ,may and mainland of ,fife4 ,but these1 with other plans1 which have been under the writer's consideration1 would necessarily be attended with a great additional expense1 which1 in the present instance1 it is not thought advisable to incur40 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,cranes4 ,it appears that ,mr4 ,stevenson was much perplexed as to what sort of cranes he should use in building the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse4 ,his difficulties were twofold3-- ,first1 ,in consequence of the dovetailed form of the stones he required a crane that would drop them as nearly as possible on the beds on which they were permanently to rest4 ,second1 ,supposing he devised a guy crane that overcame this difficulty1 what was to be done as the building rose in height1 and the guys became too nearly perpendicular to admit of such a crane being used8 ,in his private notes ,mr4 ,stevenson regrets that he could get no advice from anybody he consulted1 all of whom recommended him to employ common sheer poles1 such as had been used by ,smeaton at the ,eddystone2 and he adds1 8,i may say1 morning1 noon1 and night1 these difficulties have haunted me40 ,but thrown back on his own resources1 and appreciating the difficulty as no one else could so well do1 he found1 as is often the case1 that he was his own best counsellor1 and he succeeded in solving the problem that had given him so much concern1 by inventing what he called the 8moveable beam crane10 and also the 8balance crane10 which are shown in ,plate ,,xi4 ,the former1 as modified to suit particular cases1 is now in universal use for building purposes1 and the latter has been employed in rearing most of our ,rock ,lighthouses1 so that ,i think professional readers will not object to my giving ,mr4 ,stevenson's description of these cranes1 as designed by him at the beginning of this century4 ,he says3-- 8,in cranes of the common construction the beam is a fixture1 and is placed at right angles to the upright shaft3 but in the machine represented in the ,plate 7,fig4 ,,xi-#a71 its attachment is at the lower extremity of the crane1 where it is moveable up and down upon a journal or bolt4 ,this crane is therefore termed a moveable beam crane4 ,the moveable property of the beam1 in so far as the writer knows1 is new1 and possesses the advantage of laying any stone within its range perpendicularly on its site4 ,this1 from the dovetailed form of the stones at the ,bell ,rock1 rendered it particularly fitted for this work1 to which a crane of the ordinary construction could hardly be said to be applicable4 ,at the ,eddystone ,lighthouse this operation was performed by means of triangular sheers2 but1 from the greater extent of the ,bell ,rock works1 and their greater depth in the water1 such means must have rendered the process of building extremely tedious4 ,these cranes were necessarily immersed at high water1 and were retained in their places by four guys fixed at the top of the upright shaft1 and the moveable jib or beam being lowered down1 was secured to an eyebolt batted into the rock40 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi4 ,,moveable ,,jib ,,and ,,balance ,,cranes4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,johnston1 ,edinburgh4 8,the #8balance crane' 7,fig4 ,,xi-#b7 was constructed on a new principle for building the upper part of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 when the guy ropes of the moveable beam crane became #8too taut1' as sailors express it1 or were too near the perpendicular1 thereby rendering the beam cranes unstable4 ,to remedy this1 the balance crane was so arranged as to be kept in equilibrium by a back weight of cast iron1 so adapted as to counteract the varying load upon the working arm or beam4 ,the elevation here represented is the same in principle with that used at the ,bell ,rock1 but differs somewhat in form1 agreeably to improvements made in order to adapt it to the erection of the ,carr ,rock ,beacon4 ,the upright central column is a tube of cast iron put together in convenient lengths with flush joints1 after the manner of spigot and faucet1 fitted by turning and boring4 ,the centre column of this machine might have been carried to any suitable or convenient height1 by adding length to length1 as the building advanced1 without once moving the foot on which it rested1 but at the ,bell ,rock not more than three lengths of from six to nine feet were generally in use4 ,a malleable iron cross head was stepped into the void of the central shaft or column when the body of the crane was to be elevated4 ,this operation was accomplished simply by hooking the main #8purchase' and #8traveller' chains into the eyes of the crosshead1 when the machinery of the crane was employed with great facility as a locomotive power for lifting itself as each new length of central column was added4 ,the weight of this crane as used at the ,carr ,rock did not exceed two tons40 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,fisheries4 ,mr4 ,stevenson was ever an intelligent and anxious observer of the habits and industry of the people of those remote and isolated parts of the country which he so often visited4 ,he was specially interested in the fisheries from which they mainly derive their support1 as testified by frequent allusions to them in his journals and notes4 ,the following notice regarding the state of the ,scottish fisheries1 made in #ahai1 to the editor of the ,edinburgh ,philosophical ,journal1#aa will be read with interest3-- 8,having been for many years conversant with the navigation of the ,scottish seas1 ,i have1 prior to the war with ,holland1 seen fleets of ,dutch #8busses' engaged in the herring fishery off the northern parts of our coast4 ,for a long time past1 however1 those industrious fishermen had not ventured to approach these shores2 and they are now only beginning to reappear4 8,in the early part of ,august last1 while sailing along the shores of ,kincardineshire1 about ten miles off ,dunnottar ,castle1 the watch upon deck1 at midnight1 called out #8,lights ahead4' ,upon a nearer approach these lights were found to belong to a small fleet of ,dutch fishermen employed in the deep sea fishing1 each vessel having a lantern at her mast head4 ,what success these plodding people had met with our crew had no opportunity of inquiring2 but upon arriving the next morning at ,fraserburgh1--the great fishing station on the coast of ,aberdeen--we found that about #abj boats1 containing five men each1 had commenced the fishing season here six weeks before1 and had that night caught no fewer than about #aejj barrels of herrings1 which in a general way1 when there is a demand for fish1 may be valued at #a sterling per barrel to the fishermen1 and may be regarded as adding to the wealth of the country perhaps not less than #cjjj4 ,in coasting along between ,fraserburgh and the ,orkney ,islands1 another fleet of ,dutch fishermen was seen at a distance4 ,the harbour and bay of ,wick were crowded with fishing boats and busses of all descriptions1 collected from the ,firth of ,forth and southward even as far as ,yarmouth and ,lowestoft4 ,the ,caithness fishing was said to have been pretty successful1 though not equal to what it has been in former years4 8,in the ,orkney and ,shetland ,islands one would naturally look for extensive fishing establishments1 both in herrings1 and what are termed white fish 7cod1 ling1 and tusk72 but it is a curious fact1 that while the ,dutch have long come from their own coast to these islands to fish herrings1 it is only within a very few years that the people of ,orkney1 chiefly by the spirited and praiseworthy exertions of ,samuel ,laing1 ,esq41 have given any attention to this important source of wealth4 ,it has long been a practice with the great fishmongers of ,london to send their welled smacks to fish for cod1 and to purchase lobsters1 around the ,orkney ,islands2 and both are carried alive to the ,london market4 ,this trade has done much good to these islands1 and has brought a great deal of money to them2 but still it is of a more circumscribed nature1 and is less calculated to swell the national wealth1 than the herring and white fishery in general4 8,hitherto the industry of the ,orcadians has been chiefly directed to farming pursuits2 while the ,shetlanders have been almost exclusively occupied in the cod1 ling1 and tusk fishing4 ,it is doubtful1 indeed1 if1 up to this period1 there be a single boat belonging to the ,shetland ,isles which is completely equipped for the herring fishery4 ,but on reaching ,shetland another fleet of ,dutch doggers was seen collecting in numbers off these islands--a coast which is considered a rich harvest in ,holland4 8,so systematically do the ,dutch pursue the fishing business upon our coasts1 that their fleet of busses is accompanied by an hospital ship4 ,this vessel we now found at anchor in ,lerwick roads1 and were informed that she paid weekly visits to the fleet1 to supply medicines1 and to receive any of the people falling sick1 or meeting with any accident4 8,though ,shetland is certainly not so much an agricultural country as ,orkney1 yet it may be hoped that the encouragement judiciously held out by the ,highland ,society1 for the production of green crops in ,shetland1 may eventually have the effect of teaching these insular farmers the practicability of providing fodder for their cattle in the spring of the year4 ,this has long been a great desideratum4 ,the command of a month or six weeks' fodder would enable the proprietors of that country to stock many of their fine verdant isles with cattle1 and to employ their hardy tenantry more exclusively in the different branches of the fishery4 8,it is well known1 that1 next to the ,newfoundland ,banks1 those of ,shetland are the most productive in ling1 cod1 tusk1 and other white fish2 and by the recent discovery of a bank1 trending many leagues to the south-westward1 the ,british merchants have made a vast accession to their fishing grounds4 ,the fishermen who reside in the small picturesque bay of ,scalloway1 and in some of the other bays and voes on the western side of the mainland of ,shetland1 have pursued with much success the fishing upon this new bank1 which ,i humbly presume to term the ,,regent ,,fishing ,,bank--a name at once calculated to mark the period of its discovery1 and pay a proper compliment to the ,prince4 ,here small sloops1 of from fifteen to twenty-five tons burden1 and manned with eight persons1 have been employed4 ,in the beginning of ,august they had this summer fished for twelve weeks1 generally returning home with their fish once a week4 ,on an average1 these vessels had caught #ajjj fine cod fish a week1 of which about #fjj in a dried state go to the ton1 and these they would have gladly sold at about #ae per ton4 ,so numerous are the fish upon the ,regent ,fishing ,bank1 that a ,french vessel1 belonging1 it is believed1 to ,st4 ,malo1 had sailed with her second cargo of fish this season2 and though the fishermen did not mention this under any apprehension1 as though there were danger of the fish becoming scarce1 yet they seemed to regret the circumstance1 on account of their market being thus preoccupied4 8,here1 and at ,orkney1 we had the pleasure to see many ships arriving from the whale fishing1 and parting with a certain proportion of their crews4 ,to such an extent1 indeed1 are the crews of the whalers made up from these islands1 that it is calculated that not less than #ae1jjj in cash are annually brought into the islands by this means4 ,with propriety1 therefore1 may the whale fishery be regarded as one of the most productive sources of national wealth connected with the ,british ,fisheries4 8,from the ,orkney and ,shetland ,islands our course was directed to the westward4 ,a considerable salmon fishing seems to be carried on in the mouths of the rivers of ,lord ,reay's ,country in ,sutherlandshire3 the fish are carried from this to ,aberdeen1 and thence in regular trading smacks to ,london4 ,we heard little more of any kind of fishing till we reached the ,harris ,isles4 ,there1 and throughout the numerous lochs and fishing stations on the mainland1 in the districts of ,gairloch1 ,applecross1 ,lochalsh1 ,glenelg1 ,moidart1 ,knoidart1 ,ardnamurchan1 ,mull1 ,lorn1 and ,kintyre1 we understood that there was a general lamentation for the disappearance of herrings1 which in former times used to crowd into lochs which they seem now to have in some measure deserted4 ,this the fishermen suppose to be owing to the ,schools being broken and divided about the ,shetland and ,orkney ,islands2 and they remark1 that1 by some unaccountable change in the habits of the fish1 the greatest number now take the east coast of ,great ,britain4 ,this is the more to be regretted1 that in ,skye1 the ,lewis1 ,harris1 and ,uist ,islands1 the inhabitants have of late years turned their attention much to the fishing4 ,indeed1 this has followed as a matter of necessity1 from the general practice of converting the numerous small arable farms1 which were perhaps neither very useful to the tenants nor profitable to the laird1 into great sheep walks2 so that the inhabitants are now more generally assembled upon the coast4 ,the large sums expended in the construction of the ,caledonian ,canal have1 either directly or indirectly1 become a source of wealth to these people3 they have been enabled to furnish themselves with boats and fishing tackle1 and for one fishing boat which was formerly seen in the ,hebrides only twenty years ago1 it may be safely affirmed that ten are to be met with now4 ,if the same spirit shall continue to be manifested1 in spite of all the objections which have been urged against the salt laws1 and the depopulating effects of emigration1 the ,british ,fisheries in these islands1 and along this coast1 with a little encouragement1 will be wonderfully extended1 and we shall ere long see the ,highlands and ,islands of ,scotland in that state to which they are peculiarly adapted1 and in which alone their continued prosperity is to be looked for1 viz41 when their valleys1 muirs1 and mountains are covered with flocks1 and the people are found in small villages on the shores40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following history of the origin of the ,shetland herring fishery1 communicated to ,blackwood's ,magazine in #ahba1 is1 ,i think1 worthy of being recorded3-- 8,few people1 on examining the map of ,scotland1 would believe that the herring fishing has only within these few years been begun in ,orkney1 while the natives are almost strangers to the fishing of cod and ling4 8,on the other hand1 it is no less extraordinary that although the cod and ling fishery has been carried to so great an extent in ,shetland as to enable them to export many cargoes to the ,catholic countries on the ,continent1 not a herring net has been spread by the natives of ,shetland till the present year 7#ahba71 when ,mr4 ,mowat of ,gardie1 and a few other spirited proprietors of these islands1 formed themselves into an association1 and subscribed the necessary funds for purchasing boats and nets1 to encourage the natives to follow the industrious example of the ,dutch4 8,the immediate management of this experimental fishery was undertaken in the most patriotic and disinterested manner by ,mr4 ,duncan1 the ,sheriff-,substitute of ,shetland4 ,having procured three boats1 he afterwards visited ,orkney1 to ascertain the mode of conducting the business there1 and having also got fishermen from the south1 this little adventure commenced4 ,its nets were first wetted in the month of ,july1 and it is believed its labours were concluded in the month of ,september1 after obtaining what is considered pretty good success1 having caught as follows1 viz43-- ,the #8,experiment1' #f-manned boat1 #bab crans4 ,the #8,hope1' #e 0 #aai 0 ,the #8,nancy1' #d 0 #hj 0 ------- #dab 0 8,the great object which the ,shetland gentlemen have in view1 in this infant establishment1 is to give employment to their fishermen in the herring trade1 after the cod and ling season is over1 and by this means to enable them to partake of those bounties and encouragements so properly bestowed by ,government on the fisheries2 and thus abstract the attention of the lower orders of these islands from an illicit traffic in foreign spirits1 tea1 and tobacco1 which has greatly increased of late years4 8,the profit of the herring fishing at its commencement has1 however1 afforded more encouragement than could have been expected2 for1 besides paying the men a liberal allowance for their labour1 a small sum has been applied towards defraying the expense of the boats and nets4 ,but what is of far more consequence to this patriotic association is the spirit of enterprise which it is likely to create by bringing forward a number of additional boats in the way of private adventure1 which must be attended with the best advantage to the ,shetland ,islands40 ,,the ,,sympiesometer4 ,again1 in #ahbj1 ,mr4 ,stevenson took occasion to express his solicitude for the welfare of the fishermen in the following note1 suggesting the means whereby they might sometimes avoid a coming storm--a suggestion which is now to some extent carried out by the ,board of ,trade's establishment of marine barometers at many of our fishing stations3-- 8,mr4 ,stevenson informs us10 says the editor of the ,edinburgh ,philosophical ,journal#ab for #ahbj1 8that having occasion1 in the beginning of ,september last1 to visit the ,isle of ,man1 he beheld the interesting spectacle of about #cjj large fishing boats1 each from fifteen to twenty tons burden1 leaving their various harbours at that island in an apparently fine afternoon1 and standing directly out to sea with the intention of prosecuting the fishery under night4 ,he at the same time remarked that both the common marine barometer1 and ,adie's sympiesometer1 which were in the cabin of his vessel1 indicated an approaching change of weather1 the mercury falling to #bie inches4 ,it became painful1 therefore1 to witness the scene1--more than a thousand industrious fishermen1 lulled to security by the fineness of the day1 scattering their little barks over the face of the ocean1 and thus rushing forward to imminent danger or probable destruction4 ,at sunset1 accordingly1 the sky became cloudy and threatening1 and in the course of the night it blew a very hard gale1 which afterwards continued for three days successively4 ,this gale completely dispersed the fleet of boats1 and it was not without the utmost difficulty that many of them reached the various creeks of the island4 ,it is believed no lives were lost on this occasion1 but the boats were damaged1 much tackle was destroyed1 and the men were unnecessarily exposed to danger and fatigue4 ,during the same storm1 it may be remarked1 thirteen vessels were either totally lost or stranded between the ,isle of ,anglesea and ,st4 ,bee's ,head in ,lancashire4 ,mr4 ,stevenson remarks1 how much it is to be regretted that the barometer is so little in use in the mercantile marine of ,great ,britain1 compared with the trading vessels of ,holland1 and observes1 that although the common marine barometer is perhaps too cumbersome for the ordinary run of fishing and coasting vessels1 yet ,adie's sympiesometer is so extremely portable that it might be carried even in a ,manx boat4 ,each lot of such vessels has a commodore1 under whose orders the fleet sails2 it would therefore be a most desirable thing that a sympiesometer should be attached to each commodore's boat1 from which a preconcerted signal of any expected gale or change of weather as indicated by the sympiesometer could easily be given40 ,,the ,,habits ,,of ,,fishes4 ,the following notes as to the habits of fish may prove of interest to the naturalist3-- 8,it has often been observed in the course of the ,bell ,rock operations1 that during the cold weather of spring and autumn1 and even at all seasons1 in stormy weather1 when the sea is much agitated by wind1 the fishes disappear entirely from the vicinity of the rock1 probably retreating into much deeper water1 from which they do not seem to return until a change of weather has taken place2 so much was this attended to by the seamen employed on this service1 that they frequently prognosticated and judged of the weather from this habit of the fishes as well as from the appearance of the sky40 8,it was a general remark at the ,bell ,rock that fish were never plenty in its neighbourhood1 excepting in good weather4 ,indeed1 the seamen used to speculate about the state of the weather from their success in fishing4 ,when the fish disappeared at the rock1 it was considered a sure indication that a gale was not far off1 as the fish seemed to seek shelter in deeper water1 from the roughness of the sea1 during these changes of the weather4 ,this evening1 the landing master's crew brought to the rock a quantity of newly caught cod fish1 measuring from fifteen to twenty-four inches in length4 ,the membrane called the sound1 which is attached to the backbone of fishes1 being understood to contain1 at different times1 greater portions of azote and of oxygen than common air1 the present favourable opportunity was embraced for collecting a quantity of this gas in a drinking glass inverted into a pail of salt water4 ,the fish being held under this glass as a receiver1 their bladders were punctured1 and a considerable quantity of gas was thus collected4 ,a lighted match was afterwards carefully introduced into the glass1 when the gas exhibited in a considerable degree the bright and luminous flame which an excess of oxygen is known to produce40 ,on showing this extract to my friend ,dr4 ,p4 ,d4 ,handyside1 who has contributed some interesting papers to the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh on the ,polyodon gladius1 he writes3--8,biot and ,de ,la ,roche found that the proportion of oxygen in the air bladder increases with the depth of the water in which the fish usually lives1 from a small quantity up to #hg per cent4 ,biot found in the deep ,mediterranean fishes #hg parts of oxygen1 nitrogen1 and carbonic acid4 ,humboldt found in the electrical eel #if parts of nitrogen and #d only of oxygen4 ,no hydrogen has ever been detected in this organ4 ,in the air bladder of marine fishes oxygen predominates1 and in that of fresh-water fishes nitrogen4 ,no air sacs exist in rays1 flounders1 sole1 turbot1 and others which lie at the bottom40 ,dr4 ,handyside adds3 8,the extract shows with what a practical and accurate mind your father was endowed1 and ,i think1 in justice to him1 you should give his observations40 ,i also communicated ,mr4 ,stevenson's papers on fishings to the ,honble4 ,b4 ,f4 ,primrose1 ,c4,b4 7,secretary to the ,fishery ,board3 ,scotland71 who has kindly sent me a letter explaining why the progress of the fishings in the ,shetland ,islands is slow1 from which ,i give a few extracts3-- 8,i have read with great interest your father's notes upon the fisheries of ,scotland4 ,they bear distinctly the impress of that practical and accurate mind with which he is described as having been endowed4 ,it is also pleasant to see that his mind went a great deal further1 and grasped the application of science to solve the mystery of fishings4 8,he seems to have overlooked1 as was universal in his day1 that the secret of fisheries is not the presence of fish but the certainty of markets4 ,samuel ,laing of ,orkney1 to whom he refers1 was1 ,i think1 the first that struck this key note of truth4 ,the ,dutch came here and fished for herrings because they could not fill their vessels fast enough for the markets behind them in ,holland4 ,the ,shetlanders did not fish for herrings because they had no remunerative market for them1 but they fished1 and fished boldly1 where they had one1 viz41 for the whales of the ,arctic ,regions4 ,they might have brought the herring home from off their own coasts and got nothing for them1 but they could not bring the whale oil home without a secured profit4 8,the same thing obtains still4 ,shetland1 from its position1 cannot compete with the mainland of ,scotland either in the home market or in the great continental markets for herrings2 but it yields large supplies of cod1 ling1 and tusk1 for which it pushes distant adventures to ,iceland and the ,faroe ,isles40 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,marine ,,surveying4 ,modern engineers who have practised only under the benign reign of ,ordnance ,surveys and ,admiralty ,charts1 can have no idea of the toil their predecessors underwent in procuring data for their designs and reports2 and ,i am safe in saying that ,mr4 ,stevenson was of all others the engineer to whom in his sea coast practice1 such useful aids would have been of the very highest value4 ,for example1 before he could tell1 with the exactness he desired1 the distance between the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse and the shore1 he had1 in absence of any reliable information1 to undertake a pretty extensive trigonometrical survey of the coast1 involving the measurement of a base line upwards of two miles in length--a most 8laborious operation10 he observes1 in which his assistants were aided by six sailors from the lighthouse tender4 ,again1 to show the difficulty in determining the best site for a lighthouse in those early days1 before an accurate ,government survey of the coast line had been made1 ,i give from ,mr4 ,stevenson's ,journal the following notes of his observations to determine the best site for a lighthouse at ,kinnairdhead in ,aberdeenshire4 ,i give them at length1 as jotted down at the time1 for they may perhaps lead young engineers of the present day to be thankful that1 in most cases at least1 they are not1 from want of accurate coast surveys and soundings1 left to resort altogether to their own resources in getting the information they require4 ,but ,i think they are specially worthy of record as showing the extreme care bestowed by ,mr4 ,stevenson in getting the data to enable him to determine the exact positions of the several lighthouses he designed4 ,his ,journal says3-- 8,first4--,i caused a mast to be erected upon the top of ,kinnairdhead ,castle or ,lighthouse1 making its extreme height from the ground #ajj feet4 8,got the yacht under weigh1 and having a careful pilot on board1 ,i sailed for ,rattray ,head1 and there observed the mast over the land of ,cairnbulg1 it being then high water1 or twenty minutes past #g ,p4,m4 ,with the parapet of the lighthouse in view1 have eight fathoms water off the head1 which bore ,w4,n4,w4 ,run in upon the head with flag upon the mast seen over the land till seven fathoms water1 when the flag disappeared4 ,then leave the vessel and sound from the boat1 and have #f fathoms1 #e1 #e1 #d1 #c1 #b1 #a fathom1 and lastly #c feet4 ,return to the ship in a more southerly direction1 and have #c feet1 #a fathom1 #b1 #b1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #d1 #e1 #e1 #f1 and #g fathoms4 ,all these soundings rocky bottom4 8,with the ,windmill near ,peterhead on with ,stirling hill1 and ,monument hill on with the rounded ,sandy ,down of ,rattray1 and the parapet of ,kinnairdhead ,lighthouse seen over ,cairnbulg land1 you are in #h fathoms water off ,rattray ,briggs1 which lie about of a mile to the southward of the ,sandy ,down4 8,wait off the ,briggs till the light was seen1 then stood in upon the ,briggs till the light was shut in by the land of ,cairnbulg1 and at that moment had #h fathoms water1 so that at present the light forms an excellent direction for ,rattray ,briggs4 8,find that the lightroom is seen fully from the yacht's deck in #h fathoms water off ,rattray ,briggs1 that the flag upon the masthead is seen in #f fathoms water--high water spring tides4 ,ship then bearing from the head ,e4,s4,e4 and ,w4,n4,w41 distant about one mile from the shore1 where a man is distinctly observed at a boat in the twilight4 8,secondly4--,remove the mast from the castle or lighthouse on the morning of the #aeth to ,cairnbulg1 and elevate a flag to the height of #hf feet from the ground1 or #ig feet from high water mark1 at the distance of about #ajj yards from the high water mark at the point connected with ,cairnbulg ,briggs4 8,the yacht lying off or to the westward of the ,briggs1 was got under weigh at #b ,a4,m4 of the #afth1 and beat up the north shore as far as ,rosehearty1 and there observed the flag over the land4 ,found off ,rosehearty that the flag was just hid by the highest inequalities of the land to the southward of the ,castle1 and that it appeared at the lower or flat places sometimes in sight #bj feet above the land1 and at other places intercepted by the land and houses of the town1 amongst which it often appeared and disappeared4 ,the range of the flag along the land was as far as ,mr4 ,dalrymple's house when it was time to put about1 having there three fathoms at nearly low water4 8,after completing the observations in this direction1 sailed along the shore southwards to ,rattray ,briggs4 ,find that ,inverallochy head1 south-eastward of the town of ,cairnbulg1 is the eastmost point on this coast1 but1 being at a distance from the foul ground of ,cairnbulg1 would make a less desirable point than ,cairnbulg4 8,off ,rattray1 in eight fathoms water1 begin to lose sight of the lantern on ,kinnairdhead ,castle as before4 ,see the mast and flag at ,cairnbulg a considerable way up the country over the lands of ,inverallochy4 ,see the flag1 standing in upon ,rattray to five fathoms water at half tide1 lose it1 and then stand for ,fraserburgh4 8,as the result of these trials1 find that ,inverallochy head or point is the most eastern or projecting point of land upon that coast1 that ,cairnbulg is the next projecting point4 ,the former lies between the points of danger1 viz41 ,rattray and ,cairnbulg4 8,find that if the light were to be moved to a more southern situation1 it would be better on either of the above places than ,rattray ,head1 which would entirely remove its usefulness from the ,moray ,firth4 8,find that in the event of two lights for this coast1 the one ought to be at ,kinnairdhead1 and the other upon the ,cock ,inch at ,peterhead4 8,under all the circumstances of the case1 find that it would be most advisable to erect a new lighthouse at ,kinnairdhead1 about #ajj yards more to the eastward than the ,castle stands1 and erect it about twenty or thirty feet higher than the ,castle4 ,this1 with a better light1 would perhaps answer the general purposes of the coast better than a single light placed on any of the other stations along this coast40 ,after perusing this extract1 the reader1 ,i think1 will not be surprised to find ,mr4 ,stevenson making an urgent appeal on behalf of all interested--,seamen--,fishermen1 and ,engineers1 for a ,government ,survey and 8,sailing ,directions0 of the intricate navigation of the shores of ,scotland1 which he did in the following terms3-- 8,the attention which ,government has long paid to the improvement of the ,highlands and ,islands of ,scotland1 in connection with the ,british ,fisheries1 has been attended with the best effects in the country at large4 ,it is much to be wished that these shores were rendered more accessible to the mariner4 8,the marine survey of the ,highlands by ,murdoch ,mackenzie1 undertaken by order of the ,lords of the ,admiralty1 may be considered as the first grand step towards the improvement of the ,highlands1 and next to that the later institution of the ,northern ,lighthouses4 ,by means of these the fisher may find his way from loch to loch1 and the mariner bound over seas1 instead as formerly of holding a course without the ,lewis ,islands1 can now find his way through the ,sounds1 and in adverse winds take shelter in safe harbours1 instead of being exposed to the boisterous seas of the ,atlantic ,ocean2 these charts and lighthouses have in many points of view contributed to the improvement of the ,highlands1 and to the present flourishing trade carried on through these ,sounds from ,liverpool1 etc41 to the northern continent of ,europe4 ,however1 from the extensive range of coast which these charts include1 together with the prodigious number of extensive lochs and small islands1 it was impossible that any first survey could be made so accurate as to supply the place of pilots1 where there are neither landmarks to characterise the coast1 nor beacons or buoys to point out the situation of sunk rocks2 and although these charts have certainly contributed much to the facility and security of the navigation of the ,highlands1 yet no one will say that they are free from imperfections1 and their incommodious size and high price are insurmountable bars to their general utility1 thereby rendering them impracticable for the use of small vessels1 so that they are only to be found in the cabins of large vessels1 where large accommodation affords room to unfold them1 but even here also the price forms an objection1 as the charts are always found by the shipmaster4 8,nothing therefore can be more necessary or essential to the improvement of the ,highlands and ,islands of ,scotland1 than an accurate survey of the fishing grounds1 lochs1 and harbours1 upon a scale considerably larger than ,mackenzie's charts1 given in the form of a book of the size of a large quarto1 containing only the lochs1 etc41 interleaved with printed directions and descriptions of each chart or harbour1 which book of charts1 accompanied with a general chart would sufficiently guide the mariner and fisher in their several pursuits4 8,with regard to an accurate survey of the lochs and harbours in the ,highlands published in the most commodious form for the use of small vessels1 such an undertaking would require to be sanctioned in a manner similar to the survey undertaken by ,murdoch ,mackenzie1 and though in process of time the sale of these charts might produce a considerable return to those concerned with it1 yet the time and attention which such 7with a laborious number of soundings7 must occupy would certainly require that those concerned in the undertaking should be put in possession of certain sums of money to enable them to go on with that deliberation which is essential to accuracy1 and this encouragement should be the more considerable that the charts might be procured to the public at a moderate price40 ,this ,memorial1 written in #ahjc1 was intended for and in some shape communicated to the ,admiralty1 and was followed by good results4 ,in 8,a ,memoir of the ,hydrographical ,department of the ,admiralty10 published in #ahfh1ac are the following remarks3--8,it was about this time10 #ahaj1 8that the ,admiralty first conferred on the ,hydrographer the privilege of selecting a surveyor for the home coasts4 ,singular as it may appear1 the ,hydrographer had at this time great difficulty in finding a naval officer competent to fill the position1 or who was acquainted with anything beyond surveying by common compass4 ,at length1 however1 about #ahaa1 ,mr4 ,george ,thomas1 a master1 was selected0 for home service4 ,the ,memoir also states that at the same time the ,hydrographer appointed to foreign service ,mr4 ,beaufort1 afterwards ,sir ,francis ,beaufort1 the eminent ,hydrographer to the ,admiralty1 who was1 all his life1 ,mr4 ,stevenson's intimate friend and constant correspondent4 ,there is therefore1 ,i believe1 no reason to doubt that ,mr4 ,stevenson's original appeal and subsequent personal friendly and free intercourse with the officials of the ,admiralty led to the establishment1 on a systematic footing1 of our ,government 8,admiralty ,survey10 which1 as all engineers know1 indicates with marvellous accuracy and detail every shoal1 sunken rock1 and sounding on the coasts of ,great ,britain and ,ireland2 and from which the 8,admiralty ,sailing ,directions0 have been prepared with such discernment and care that the whole system of our coast survey may now be said to have attained perfection4 ,with ,colonel ,colby1 also1 of the ,royal ,engineers1 who was ,director of the ,ordnance ,survey1 ,mr4 ,stevenson regularly corresponded1 being no less interested in the progress of the great national work so successfully carried on under his charge4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,contributions ,,on ,,engineering ,,and ,,scientific ,,subjects4 ,contributions to ,encyclopdia ,britannica and ,edinburgh ,encyclopdia--,the alveus or bed of the ,german ,ocean--,sectio planography--,wasting effects of the sea at the ,mersey and ,dee--,density of fresh and salt water--,the ,hydrophore4 ,we have seen that ,mr4 ,stevenson's college education was mainly1 if not altogether1 due to his own thirst for knowledge1 and his education being voluntarily undertaken1 could hardly fail to issue in good results4 ,that his early studies were of incalculable value to him no one can doubt2 and his own conviction of this may explain the solicitude with which1 in after life1 he impressed on his sons the extreme importance of being properly grounded in every branch of study1 scientific and practical1 which a well trained engineer has to call to his aid in the practice of his profession4 ,fortified by this valuable training1 ,mr4 ,stevenson had also that unselfish love of his profession which alone can move a man to give the results of his experience freely to others1 and this he did to the ,edinburgh ,encyclopdia and the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 in articles on 8,roads10 8,lighthouses10 8,railways10 8,dredging10 8,blasting10 and other engineering subjects4 ,but he did not confine his literary labours to matters purely professional4 ,his love for nature in all its aspects led him also to make communications to the ,scientific ,journals of the day on subjects of more general interest4 ,of these his papers 8,on the ,alveus or ,bed of the ,german ,ocean10 in which by an investigation of many evidences he is led to the conclusion that the sea is gradually encroaching on the land1 may be quoted as an example4 ,mr4 ,stevenson's first communication on this subject was published in #ahaf1 in vol4 ii4 of the ,wernerian ,transactions1 in which he gives examples1 from actual observation1 of the wasting effects of the sea on various parts of the coasts of the ,british ,isles4 ,his second communication was made to the ,wernerian ,society in ,march #ahbj1 and published in the ,edinburgh ,philosophical ,journal of that year4 ,in the fifth edition of ,baron ,cuvier's 8,essay on the ,theory of the ,earth10 reference is made to ,mr4 ,stevenson's theory4 ,his papers are several times quoted in ,lyell's ,principles of ,geology1 and the ,general ,committee of the ,british ,association at ,york in #ahcd passed a resolution1 8that ,mr4 ,stevenson be requested to report to the next meeting upon the waste and extension of the land on the east coast of ,britain1 and upon the general question of the permanence of the level of the sea and land1 and that individuals who may be able to supply information upon the subject be requested to correspond with him40 ,without discussing in how far ,mr4 ,stevenson's theory may be sound 7for on such questions it is notorious that the views of geologists do not always coincide71 it cannot be denied that his mode of dealing with the subject is original and interesting1 and as the papers are not now accessible to the general reader1 it may be excusable to give one of them in extenso4 ,i also notice another feature which gives interest to the subject4 ,in his illustrations he adopted a mode of representation which was peculiarly suitable for the object in view4 ,it will be seen from ,plate ,,xii4 that the sections are laid down on what is now known by engineers as sectio planography1 which it is believed was used for the first time in illustrating this paper4 8,,on ,,the ,,bed ,,of ,,the ,,german ,,ocean1 ,,or ,,north ,,sea4 7,read before the ,wernerian ,natural ,history ,society1 #beth ,march #ahbj470 8,the efforts of man in exploring the more occult processes of nature are necessarily much circumscribed1 especially when his attempts are directed to the investigation of regions which his senses cannot penetrate4 ,it has accordingly been with the utmost difficulty that his exertions have been rendered in any degree successful in prying into the bowels of the earth1 or in his endeavours to ascend to the arial regions4 ,in proof of this1 the limited excavations even of the most extensive mining works1 have required the lapse of ages1 and the powerful stimulus of commercial enterprise1 for their accomplishment4 ,from these the philosopher has not hitherto derived much light1 to enable him to compare the theories which have been assigned by geologists to account for the various and discordant appearances of the structure of the globe4 ,it has also been with much difficulty1 and at no small personal hazard1 that the philosophical inquirer has ventured to climb the highest mountains1 to examine into the phenomena of the atmosphere4 ,the balloon has indeed enabled us to attain still higher points of elevation2 but as yet we do not seem to have made proportional progress in knowledge4 ,in all such attempts to ascend the greatest heights or penetrate the deepest excavations1 we still breathe in our own element1 though under different modifications4 ,if1 however1 we would explore the depths of the ,ocean1 we immediately encounter an element to which the organisation of our lungs is not at all adapted2 the density of air1 compared with water on a level with the surface of the sea1 being in the ratio of one to about #hej2 and our difficulties must consequently increase in a very rapid proportion4 ,here therefore we are unavoidably left to conjecture on many points of our inquiries regarding this highly interesting subject4 ,even the ingenious contrivance of the diving bell contributes but little towards our investigations for ascertaining the nature of the bottom of the sea1 at least to any considerable depth1 on account of the difficulty of its application in situations exposed to stormy weather1 and also of the increasing ratio of the pressure of the fluid as we descend4 ,this curious machine1 it is believed1 was invented and employed1 about the year #agbj1 by a ,captain ,rowe for raising the wreck of ships upon the coast of ,scotland2 and in the year #aggh1 the active mind of ,smeaton first applied it to the operations of the engineer4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii4 ,,chart of the ,,north ,,sea ,,or ,,german ,,ocean with ,,sections of the ,,depths of ,,water ,illustrative of ,observations by ,,robert ,,stevenson ,civil ,engineer #ahbj4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,johnston1 ,edinburgh4 8,our knowledge of the bottom of the ocean1 therefore1 remains still very imperfect1 and1 with little exception1 the simple apparatus of the mariner1 consisting of a plummet and line1 continues to be chiefly in use for ascertaining the depth of the sea and the nature of the ground4 ,with these1 and the addition of a little grease applied to the lower extremity of the plummet1 which strikes against the bottom1 we learn the quality of the soil1 though imperfectly1 by the particles which adhere to the grease4 ,what the navigator has yet been able to discover regarding the depth and the nature of the bottom of the ,german ,ocean1 ,i shall now endeavour to notice1 being myself enabled to offer the result of a pretty extensive acquaintance with this field of inquiry4 8,it may be necessary to premise1 in treating of a subject so extensive1 and in comparing great things with small1 that we are obliged to speak of the ,north ,sea as a bay or basin1 and of the immense collection of dbris which we meet with1 extending over a great proportion of its bottom1 under the common appellation of sand banks4 ,we must also be allowed to consider the undulating line1 or the irregularities of the bottom1 to arise chiefly from the accumulation of deposited matters2 and in most of the situations connected with these banks1 we are supported and borne out in this conclusion1 by their local positions relatively to the openings of firths1 and the line of their direction in regard to the set or current of the ebb tide4 8,the accompanying map 7,plate ,,xii47 of the eastern coast of ,great ,britain1 with the opposite ,continent1 though upon a small scale1 exhibits numerous soundings of the depth of the ,german ,ocean2 and the sections delineated on it will perhaps be found to give a pretty distinct view of the subject4 ,this chart extends from the coast of ,france1 in latitude #ej #eg to #fa ,n4 ,on the east1 this great basin is bounded by ,denmark and ,norway1 on the west by the ,british ,isles1 on the south by ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,france1 and on the north by the ,shetland ,islands and the ,great ,northern or ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the term ,german ,ocean1 though in very common use1 is certainly not so comprehensive in its application to this great basin as that of ,north ,sea1 now more generally used by the navigator4 ,the extent of this sea from south to north1 between the parallels of latitude quoted above1 is #bcc leagues1 and its greatest breadth from west to east1 reckoning from ,st4 ,abb's ,head1 on the coast of ,scotland1 to ,ringhjobing ,fiord1 on the opposite shore of ,denmark1 is #ace leagues4 ,the greatest depth of the water in this basin seems to be upon the ,norwegian side1 where the soundings give #aij fathoms2 but the mean depth of the whole may be stated at only about #ca fathoms4 8,to be more particular with regard to the depth of the ,german ,ocean1 or ,north ,sea1 it will be observed by the sections and soundings marked upon the chart1 that the water gradually deepens as we sail from south to north4 ,the first of these sections which we shall notice is on the parallel of three degrees of east longitude1 running from ,ostend to the latitude of the northmost of the ,shetland ,islands1 being an extent of #bbg leagues4 ,the depth1 as will be seen from this section 7which1 to avoid confusion in the body of the chart1 is traced along the western side of it71 varies rather after an irregular progression1 from #abj fathoms towards the northern extremity of this sectional line1 to #eh1 #ch1 #bd1 and #ah fathoms1 as we proceed southwards1 to within five miles of the shore1 nearer which we do not approach in our remarks regarding the soundings4 ,notwithstanding the irregularity of the depth from the occurrence of numerous sandbanks1 it is curious to observe the increase upon the whole as we proceed from south to north1 by which this sea exhibits all the characteristic features of a great bay1 encumbered with numerous sandbanks4 8,in the same manner1 though not strictly connected with our present purpose1 we may observe that the ,english ,channel deepens progressively from ,dover to its entrance1 formed by the ,land's ,end of ,england and the ,isle of ,ushant1 on the coast of ,france2 so that the ,strait between ,dover and ,calais may be said to form a point of partition between two great inclined planes1 forming the bottom of these seas4 8,besides the longitudinal1 or north and south sectional line described above1 we have also six other sections delineated in an easterly and westerly direction1 across the accompanying chart1 which are as follow4 ,one between the ,shetland ,islands and the coast of ,norway2 a second between ,tarbetness in ,ross-shire and the ,naze of ,norway2 a third extends from the ,firth of ,forth to the coast of ,denmark2 a fourth from the mouth of the river ,tyne to ,sylt ,island1 also in ,denmark2 a fifth from ,flamborough ,head1 in ,yorkshire1 to the mouth of the ,river ,elbe2 and the sixth is from ,yarmouth to ,egmond-op-,zee1 on the coast of ,holland4 ,other sections of this sea have also been made1 which include the general elevation of the land1 as1 for example1 one of these extends from ,holland across the ,german ,ocean to the ,thames1 and through the interior of the country to the ,bristol ,channel2 then crossing ,st4 ,george's ,channel1 this sectional line passes through the southern extremity of ,ireland1 and falls into the ,atlantic ,ocean2 but this will be more particularly noticed1 when ,i come to speak of the bed of the ,english ,channel1 in a future paper4 8,on examining the accompanying cross sections of the depths of water on the same parallel they will be found to vary considerably4 ,it may1 however1 be stated as a general conclusion1 that there is a greater depth of water on the eastern and western sides of the ,german ,ocean than in its central parts1 and that1 upon the whole1 it is deeper on the ,british than on the continental shores1 the coast of ,norway excepted4 8,we have already observed1 that this sea is much encumbered with sandbanks1 or great accumulations of dbris1 especially in the middle or central parts1 and also along the shores towards what may be termed the apex of the bay1 extending from the river ,thames along the shores of ,holland1 etc41 to the ,baltic4 ,one of these great central banks1 delineated on the chart1 and known to mariners as the ,long ,forties1 trends north-east in the direction of the ebb tide from the entrance of the ,firth of ,forth no less than #aaj miles1 while the ,denmark and ,jutland banks may also be traced on the chart from the entrance of the ,baltic1 upwards of #aje miles in a north-western direction4 ,besides these1 we have also another great central range of banks1 which is crossed by no fewer than four of our sectional lines4 ,these are known under the common appellation of the ,dogger ,bank1 which is subdivided by the navigator into the ,long ,bank1 the ,white ,bank1 and the ,well ,bank1 including an extent of upwards of #ced miles from north to south4 ,there are also a vast number of shoals and sandbanks1 lying wholly to the southward of our section1 between ,flamborough ,head and ,heligoland4 ,altogether1 therefore1 the superficies of these extensive banks is found to occupy no inconsiderable portion of the whole area of the ,german ,ocean2 the surface of which1 in making these investigations1 has been estimated to contain about #aec1gji square miles1 while the aggregate superficial contents of the sandbanks alone amount to no less than #bg1ddc square miles1 or include an area of about #e of the whole surface of the ,north ,sea4 8,but to render these dimensions a little more familiar by comparison1 we may notice1 that the ,island of ,great ,britain contains about #gg1bdd square miles1 being not quite one half of the area of the ,north ,sea2 so that the area of the sandbanks bears a proportion equal to about one third of the whole terra firma of ,england and ,scotland2 and they are1 therefore1 perhaps1 far more considerable in their extent than has been generally imagined4 8,in speaking of the dimensions of sandbanks situate in the middle of the ocean1 we are aware that great allowance must be made in forming a proper estimate of their extent1 especially in speaking of their cubical contents4 ,from a vast number of observations and comparisons relative to this subject1 ,i have1 however1 been enabled to determine1 that the average height of these banks measures about seventy-eight feet1 from a mean taken of the whole4 ,in ascertaining their height above the surrounding bottom1 the measurement has been taken from the general depth around each respectively4 ,now1 upon taking the aggregate cubical contents of the whole of these immense collections of dbris1 supposing the mass to be uniformly the same throughout1 it is found to amount to no less a quantity than #b1bda1bdh1efc1aaj of cubic yards1 being equal to about fourteen feet of the depth of the whole ,german ,ocean1 or to a portion of the firm ground of ,great ,britain1 on a level with the sea1 taken twenty-eight feet in perpendicular height or depth1 supposing the surface to be a level plane4 8,these calculations at least tend to show that an immense body of water must be displaced1 in consequence of these banks occupying so very considerable a proportion of the bed of the ,north ,sea1 the unavoidable effect of which must give a direct tendency to the tidal waters1 and the flux produced by storms in the ,atlantic1 to overflow the bed of the ,german ,ocean1 in the same manner as if stones or other matter were thrown into a vessel already nearly brimful of water4 ,this may further be illustrated by considering the actual state of any of the great inland lakes1 as those of ,geneva1 ,lochness1 ,lochlomond1 etc41 which for ages past have been receiving the dbris of the surrounding mountains4 ,we must doubtless allow that they contain a smaller portion of water1 or are actually of a less depth than they were at an earlier period of the history of the globe4 ,accordingly1 from inquiries1 which1 in the prosecution of this subject1 ,i have been led to make regarding the two last mentioned lakes1 it has satisfactorily appeared that their waters are subject to overflow or rise upon their banks4 ,on ,lochlomond1 in particular1 the site of a house at the village of ,luss was pointed out to me1 which is now permanently under the summer water mark1 while the gable of another house in its neighbourhood is in danger of being washed down by the increase of the waters of the loch4 ,whether this striking appearance is to be attributed wholly to natural causes1 or partly to artificial operations upon the bed of the river ,leven1 flowing from the loch1 ,i have had no opportunity of inquiring4 ,but the great bench or flat space round the margin of the loch1 which is left partly dry during summer1 forms altogether such a receptacle for dbris as to be sufficient to affect the surface of the loch1 and indeed permanently to raise its waters4 ,we also infer1 though by a different process1 that the constant deposition going forward in the bed of the ,german ,ocean must likewise displace its waters1 and give them a tendency to enlarge their bed and to overflow their banks or boundary4 8,in this view of the subject1 it will appear that we have not only to account for the supply of an immense quantity of dbris1 but we must also dispose of the water displaced by the process of deposition which is continually going forward at the bottom of the ocean4 8,with regard1 then1 to the supply of the dbris of which these banks are composed4--,we find that a very great portion of it consists of siliceous matters in the form of sand1 varying in size from the finest grains to coarse bulky particles1 mixed with coral and pounded shells1 the quantity of these calcareous matters being altogether astonishingly great2 and being specifically lighter than the particles of sand1 the shells generally cover the surface of these sunken banks4 ,with regard to the vast collection of siliceous particles connected with the banks1 our surprise ceases when we consider the receptacle which the ,north ,sea forms1 to an almost unlimited extent of drainage from the surrounding countries1 on which the change of the seasons1 and the succession of rain and of drought upon the surface of the earth1 are unceasingly producing their destructive effects4 ,all have remarked the quantity of mud and dbris with which every rill and river is charged1 even after the gentlest shower2 especially wherever the hand of the agriculturist is to be found4 ,his labours in keeping up the fertilising quality of the ground consist in a great measure in preparing a fresh matrix for the chemical process or the germination of the seeds of the earth1 in lieu of that portion of the finely pulverised soil which the rains are perpetually carrying to the sea1 as the grand receptacle and storehouse of nature for these exuvi of the globe4 ,from the effect of rills and rivulets1 we should1 perhaps1 rather be apt to expect a greater deposition in the bed of sheltered bays and arms of the sea than we really observe4 ,so that we can readily believe that the quantity of dbris1 even for a single year1 along such an extent of coast1 may bear some consideration in respect to the bed of the ,german ,ocean2 what1 then1 must these effects produce in the lapse of ages8 8,whatever be the cause1 the fact is certain1 that on almost every part of the shores of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 and their connecting islands1 from the northernmost of the ,shetland to the southernmost of the ,scilly ,islands1 and also upon the shores of ,holland1 and part of ,france1 particularly in the neighbourhood of ,cherbourg1 this wasting effect is going forward4 ,these shores ,i have myself examined4 ,but my inquiries have not been confined to the coasts which ,i have personally visited1 having also1 through the kind attentions of some nautical friends1 been enabled to extend my investigations even to the remotest parts of the globe4 ,the general result has been1 that equally in the most sheltered seas1 such as the ,baltic and ,mediterranean1 and on the most exposed points and promontories of the coasts of ,north and ,south ,america1 and the ,west ,india ,islands1 abundant proofs occur1 all tending to show the general waste of the land by the encroachments of the sea4 ,such wasting effects are quite familiar to those locally acquainted with particular portions of the shores2 and ,i have often received their testimony to these facts1 as the sad experience of the removal of buildings1 and the inundation of extensive tracts of land by the encroachment of the sea4 8,indeed1 by a closer inquiry into this department of the subject1 we shall1 perhaps1 find ourselves rather at a loss to account for the smallness of the quantity of this deposition1 considering the waste which is constantly going forward in the process of nature1 and even be led to seek for its wider distribution over the whole expanse of the bed of the ocean1 as has been supposed in that theory of the globe1 so beautifully and so ably defended by our late illustrious countryman ,professor ,playfair4 8,one of the most striking and general examples of this kind may perhaps be found in the abrupt and precipitous headlands and shores which we everywhere observe along the coast1 and which we suppose to have once been of the same sloping form and declining aspect with the contiguous land4 ,in the production of these effects alone1 an immense quantity of dbris must have been thrown into the bed of the ocean4 ,the channels which are cut by the sea in the separation of parts of the mainland1 and the formation of islands1 no doubt make way for a considerable portion of the displaced fluid2 but still these channels1 when filled with water1 come far short1 in point of bulk1 when compared with the portions of the elevated land which are thus removed4 ,now1 it has been alleged by some1 that while the land is wasting at certain points1 it is also gaining in others2 and this is a state of things which is freely admitted to take place in various quarters2 yet these apparent acquisitions are no more to be compared with the waste alluded to1 than the drop is to the water of the bucket4 ,but accurate observations regarding the formation of extensive sandbanks1 and the accumulation of the dbris1 of which they are formed1 are not to be made in a few years1 perhaps not in a century1 nor indeed in several centuries2 for although the short period of the life of man is sufficient to afford the most incontrovertible proofs of the waste of the land where we become observers1 yet when we extend our views to the depths of the ocean1 and speak of the events and changes which are there going forward1 we must not be supposed to set limits to time4 8,we have many convincing proofs in the natural history of the globe1 that the sea has at one time occupied a much higher elevation than at present4 ,on the banks of the ,firth of ,forth1 near ,borrowstounness1 for example1 ,i have seen a bed of marine shells1 which is several feet in thickness1 and has been found to extend about three miles in length1 and which is now situate many feet above the present level of the waters of the ,forth4 ,a recent illustration of this subject occurred also in the remarkable discovery of the skeleton of a large whale1 found in the lands of ,airthrey1 near ,stirling1--the present surface of the ground where the remains of this huge animal were deposited1 having been ascertained 7by my assistants1 when lately in that neighbourhood7 to be no less than twenty-four feet nine inches above the present level of the ,firth of ,forth at high water of spring tides4 ,now1 whether we are to consider these as proofs of the higher elevation of the waters of the ocean in the most general acceptation of the word1 at a former period1 ,i will not here attempt to inquire4 ,but aside from these anomalous appearances1 there is reason for thinking that the waters of the higher parts of the ,firth of ,forth1 like those of the ,moray ,firth1 may1 at one time1 have formed a succession of lakes1 with distinct barriers1 as we find in the case of ,lochness1 and the other lakes forming the track of the ,caledonian ,canal4 ,my object on the present occasion1 however1 is simply to notice the wasting effects of the ,north ,sea upon the surrounding land1 its deposition in the bottom of the sea1 and the consequent production of surplus waters at the surface1 and to endeavour to account for these appearances consistently with the laws of nature4 ,the opinion accordingly which ,i have formed1 and the theory which ,i have humbly to suggest 7for ,i am not aware that this subject has been before particularly noticed7 is1 that the silting up of the great basin of the ,north ,sea has a direct tendency to cause its waters to overflow their banks4 8,referring to the chart1 we find that the ,north ,sea is surrounded with land1 excepting at two inlets or apertures1 the one extending about #ajj leagues1 between the ,orkney ,islands and the ,norwegian coast1 and the other between ,dover and ,calais1 which is of the width of seven leagues4 ,the aggregate waterway of these two passages forms the track for the tidal waters1 and also for the surplus waters produced during storms which affect the ,atlantic and ,arctic ,oceans4 ,it is also obvious that this waterway must remain nearly the same1 and admit a constant quantity2 or1 to speak more correctly1 by allowing these inlets to follow the general law1 they must be enlarged by the waste or wearing of their sides1 in a ratio perhaps greater than the silting up of the bottom in those particular parts1 while the interior and central portions of the ,german ,ocean are continually acquiring additional quantities of dbris1 along with the drainage water of the widely surrounding countries4 ,if therefore the same1 or a greater quantity of tidal and surplus waters continue to be admitted from the ,atlantic and ,arctic ,seas into this great basin1 where the process of deposition is constantly going forward1 it is evident that the surface of the ,german ,ocean must be elevated in a temporary and proportionate degree1 and hence the production of those wasting and destructive effects which are everywhere observable upon its shores4 8,this reasoning is also applicable1 in a greater or less degree1 to all parts of the world2 for as the same cause everywhere exists1 the same effects1 when narrowly examined1 must everywhere be produced4 ,in the ,southern or ,pacific ,ocean we have wonderful examples of great masses of land formed by madrepores and extensive coral banks1 which in time assume all the characteristic features of islands4 ,these occupy considerable portions of the watery bed of the ocean1 and displace corresponding portions of the fluid4 ,immense quantities of mud are also said to be deposited in the ,yellow ,sea of ,china1 in the great deltas formed at the mouths of the ,ganges1 the ,plate1 the ,amazon1 the ,mississippi1 the ,st4 ,lawrence1 the ,nile1 the ,rhine1 and other large rivers1 whose joint operations1 both at the surface and bottom of the ocean1 are continually carrying forward the same great process of displacing the waters of the ocean2 for it matters not to this question whether the dbris of the higher country which is carried down by the rains and rivers1 or is occasioned by the direct waste produced by the ocean itself on the margin of the land1 be deposited at the bottom or surface of the ocean1 it must still be allowed to displace an equal or greater bulk of the fluid1 and has therefore a direct tendency to produce the derangement which we are here endeavouring to describe4 8,a striking illustration of this doctrine may be drawn from ,m4 ,girard's able and ingenious observations on the delta of ,egypt1 made in #agii1 and published in the ,mem4 de l',acad4 for #ahag1 in a memoir ,observations sur la ,valle d'gypte1 et sur l'exhaussement sculaire du sol qui la recouvre4 ,it appears that the whole soil of the 8,valley of the ,nile0 is very considerably increased by the alluvium deposited annually by the inundations of the ,nile1 as ascertained by the marks on some ancient ,nilometers and statues1 the dates of which have been traced and compared by ,girard1 with the corresponding historical periods4 ,in the quarter of ,thebes1 where the statue of ,memnon is erected1 the increase of the soil since the commencement of the ,christian era is lm4 #ibd 7#f feet #cg inches71 or this process may be stated as going forward at the rate of #jm4 #ajf 7#dag inches7 in the course of each century4 ,the magnitude of the deposits at the mouths of the ,nile1 in the bed of the ,mediterranean1 appears to be no less surprising4 ,it is remarked that the ,isle of ,pharos1 which in the time of ,homer was a day's journey from the coast of ,egypt1 is now united to the continent4 8,if1 then1 we compare these effects with the same process1 going forward in a certain proportionate rate over all parts of the globe1 and where the same facilities for these depositions being made on firm ground are not afforded1 we shall find that the quantity of deposit in the bottom of the ocean must be so considerable as to affect the level of the waters of the ocean4 8,in thus disposing of the waste of the surrounding land beyond the accumulation of the sunken banks in the ,german ,ocean1 we are not left at any loss for a distributing cause1 as this is provided by the tides and currents of the sea2 and with regard to their action we have many proofs1 even at very considerable depths1 by the breaking up of the wrecks of ships1 the occasional drift of seaweed1 and also drift timber1 nuts1 etc41 into regions far distant from those in which they are spontaneously produced4 ,the dispersion of fishes1 evinced by their disappearance from the fishing grounds in stormy weather1 tends to show the disturbance of the waters of the ocean to the depth of thirty or forty fathoms4 ,this observation ,i have frequently had an opportunity of making near the entrance of the ,firth of ,forth4 ,numerous proofs of the sea being disturbed to a considerable depth have also occurred since the erection of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 situate upon a sunken rock in the sea1 twelve miles off ,arbroath1 in ,forfarshire4 ,some drift stones of large dimensions1 measuring upwards of thirty cubic feet1 or more than two tons weight1 have1 during storms1 been often thrown upon the rock from the deep water4 ,these large boulder stones are so familiar to the lightkeepers at this station as to be by them termed travellers4 ,it is therefore extremely probable1 that a large portion of the dbris is carried down with the drainage water of the higher country1 as before noticed1 and ultimately washed out of the ,north ,sea into the expanse of the ocean4 8,the question which naturally arises as to the result of all this waste or transposition of the solid matters of a large portion of the globe1 is to inquire what has become of the body of water displaced by this wasting process4 ,without attempting to go into all the minuti of this part of the subject1 ,i shall here briefly observe1 that there seems to exist 7if ,i may be allowed so to express myself7 a kind of compensating arrangement between the solid or earthy particles of the globe in the one case1 and the waters of the ocean in the other4 ,thus by the process of evaporation1 and the universal application of water1 which enters so largely1 in its simple or chemical state1 into the whole animate and inanimate creation1 the surface of the ocean may be kept nearly at a uniform level4 ,phenomena of this description are1 no doubt1 difficult in their solution upon the great scale1 being met by the process of decomposition1 which resolves bodies into their constituent parts1 and also by our theory of the atmosphere1 by which its limits and operations are determined4 ,but were we to abstract our attention from the more general view of the subject1 and confine our inquiries to the ,german ,ocean1 the ,baltic1 the ,mediterranean1 the ,red ,sea1 or to any other inland and circumscribed parts of the ocean1 this difficulty seems to be lessened4 ,indeed1 the probability is1 and it is a pretty generally received opinion1 that a greater quantity of water is actually admitted at the ,straits of ,gibraltar and of ,babelmandel than flows out of the ,mediterranean and ,red ,seas4 ,we consider water1 therefore1 as the great pabulum of nature1 which1 as before noticed1 enters either simply or chemically into the constitution of all bodies1 and appears to be held1 almost exclusively1 in solution1 in the formation and maintenance of the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms1 and is found to exist largely in the composition of all mineral substances4 ,the quantity of water1 consequently1 that is required1 and is continually supplied from the ocean by the process of evaporation1 both for the support and reanimation of nature1 must be immense1 and may of course be supposed permanently to absorb a very large proportion of the surplus waters of these circumscribed seas1 while the remaining portion of surplus water1 if not thus wholly accounted for1 may be distributed over the general expanse of the ocean4 8,but if we suppose with some1 that in nature there is neither an excess nor diminution of the waters of the globe1 and that the united and counterbalancing processes of evaporation1 condensation1 decomposition1 and regeneration1 so completely equalise each other1 that the surplus waters1 arising from the displacement of a portion of the solid surface of the globe1 must again be wholly distributed and intermixed with the waters of the ocean1 the portion of water remaining thus to be accounted for becomes more considerable1 and1 upon the great scale1 must be permanently disposed of1 independently of the process of evaporation4 8,another view has been suggested as applicable to the distribution of the surplus waters produced by the gradual filling up of the bed of the ocean4 ,these waters1 in place of being elevated in any sensible degree1 may be naturally disposed to find their level in the great polar basins1 or oblate portions of the surface of the globe which are known to exist next the poles4 ,the oblate figure of the earth at the poles makes these imaginary points the nearest to the centre of the earth1 and consequently1 with regard to level1 they are also the lowest4 ,it therefore appears to follow1 that any filling up of the bed of the sea near the equator1 or at a distance from the poles1 will have the effect of promoting the retiring of the surplus waters to the polar regions by their own gravity1 while the centrifugal force occasioned by the earth's diurnal motion will prevent their being further removed from the earth's centre1 without a corresponding elevation of the waters in the great polar basins4 8,in this manner1 such an accumulation of water may1 at a former period of time1 have taken place at the then poles of the globe1 as to have altered the position of these points1 and given rise to the ,flood1 or temporary general overflowing of the waters over the earth's surface1 producing a change in the beds of the seas or oceans of former times4 ,in this way may have been produced many of the phenomena observable in the crust of the earth1 which are otherwise with much difficulty accounted for4 8,of what has now been advanced1 regarding the waste of the land by the operations of the sea1 it will be proper to notice that much consists with my own personal observation4 ,the consequences of this process must be the deposition of dbris1 and a tendency to raise the bottom of the ocean and produce a proportional elevation of the water4 ,with regard1 however1 to the distribution of the surplus waters that is produced1 what ,i have now said is offered with much deference1 in the hope that some one better qualified than myself will turn his attention to this curious subject40 99 99 99 99 99 ,in connection with this discussion ,i give the following interesting account of observations on the estuary of the ,mersey3-- 8,,wasting ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,on ,,the ,,shore ,,of ,,cheshire ,,between ,,the ,,rivers ,,mersey ,,and ,,dee4 7,read before the ,wernerian ,society1 #hth ,march #ahbh47 8,on a former occasion ,i had the honour to make a few observations which appeared in the second volume of the ,society's ,memoirs regarding the encroachment of the sea upon the land generally4 ,the present notice refers only to that portion of the coast which lies between the rivers ,mersey and ,dee1 extending to about seven miles4 8,to this quarter my attention1 with that of ,mr4 ,nimmo1 ,civil ,engineer1 had been professionally directed in the course of last month4 ,in our preambulatory survey we were accompanied by ,sir ,john ,tobin and ,william ,laird1 ,esq41 of ,liverpool1 along the ,cheshire shore and its connecting sandbanks between ,wallasey ,pool in the ,mersey1 and ,dalpool in the river ,dee4 8,within these estuaries the shores may be described as abrupt1 consisting of red clay and marl1 containing many land or boulder stones of the cubic contents of several tons1 and very many of much smaller size1 diminishing to coarse gravel4 ,but the foreland or northern shore between these rivers1 which ,i am now to notice1 is chiefly low ground1 and to a great extent is under the level of the highest tides4 ,the beach or ebb extends from #cjj to #djj yards seaward1 and toward low water mark exposes a section of red clay2 but toward high water it consists of bluish coloured marl1 with peat or moss overlaid by sand4 ,this beach1 at about tide level1 presents a curious and highly interesting spectacle of the remains of a submarine forest4 ,the numerous roots of trees1 which have not been washed away by the sea1 or carried off by the neighbouring inhabitants for firewood1 are in a very decayed state4 ,the trees seem to have been cut off about two feet from the ground1 after the usual practice in felling timber1 and the roots are seen ramifying from their respective stumps in all directions1 and dipping towards the clay subsoil4 ,they seem to have varied in size from eighteen inches to perhaps thirty inches in diameter1 and when cut with a knife appear to be oak4 ,several of the boles or trunks have also been left upon the ground1 and being partly immersed in the sand and clay1 are now in such a decomposed state that1 when dug into with a common spade1 great numbers of the shell fish called ,pholas candida1 measuring about three fourths of an inch in length and two inches in breadth1 were found apparently in a healthy state4 ,these proofs of the former state of this ebb or shore--now upwards of twenty feet under full tide--having been once dry land to a considerable extent beyond the region of these large forest trees were rendered still more evident by the occurrence of large masses of greenstone1 which1 at a former period1 had been embedded in the firm ground here1 and especially on the shore within the river ,dee4 ,it may further deserve notice that the inhabitants of this district have a traditional rhyme expressive of the former wooded state of this coast1 where not a tree is now to be seen1 viz41 8,from ,birkenhead to ,helbre a squirrel may hop from tree to tree20 that is1 from the ,dee to the ,mersey1 now presenting a submarine forest4 8,as these evidences of great changes upon the state and former appearances of the land were highly interesting to the party1 and intimately connected with the professional inquiries of myself and colleague1 it seemed desirable1 if possible1 to get them corroborated by oral testimony4 ,sir ,john ,tobin accordingly very obligingly took measures for examining the oldest people in the neighbourhood as to their recollection of the former state of these shores4 ,in particular1 ,thomas ,barclay1 aged ninety-three1 8all but two months10 by profession a mason and measurer of country work2 ,henry ,youd1 labourer1 aged eighty-six2 and ,john ,crooksan1 labourer1 aged eighty1 were examined4 ,barclay stated that he had been employed at the erection of the ,leasowe landward lighthouse in the year #agfd2 that there were then two lighthouses near the shore1 for a leading direction to shipping through the proper channel to ,liverpool2 and that the seaward light became uninhabitable from its being surrounded by the sea4 ,a new light was then built upon ,bidstone ,hill1 and the present ,leasowe ,lighthouse1 formerly the landward light which he had assisted in building1 became the sea light4 ,he could not condescend upon the distance between the two original lights1 but was certain that it must have been several hundred yards2 that he knows that in the course of thirty years the shore of the ,leasowe lost by measurement eleven ,cheshire roods or eighty-eight yards2 and verily believes that1 since he knew this shore1 it has lost upwards of half a mile of firm ground4 ,to the correctness of these statements the other two aged men gave ample testimony1 ,henry ,youd having also worked at the lighthouse4 8,as to the present state of things1 the party alluded to were eye-witnesses of the tides on the #afth1 #agth1 and #ahth of ,february #ahbh1 having exhibited a very alarming example of the encroachment of the sea upon the ,leasowe shore4 ,at high water it came over the bank1 and ran in a stream of about half a mile in breadth surrounding the lighthouse1 and continued its course through the low grounds toward ,wallasey ,pool on the ,mersey1 thereby forming a new channel1 and threatening to lay several thousands of acres of rich arable and pasture lands into the state of a permanent salt lake4 ,the present ,leasowe ,lighthouse1 which1 in #agfd1 was considered far above the reach of the sea1 upon the #agth of ,february last was thus surrounded by salt water1 and must soon be abandoned unless some very extensive works be undertaken for the defence of the beach1 the whole of the interior lands of the ,leasowe being considerably under the level of high water of spring tides4 8,this coast1 with its sandbanks in the offing1 its submarine forest1 and the evidence of living witnesses as to the encroachment of the sea upon the firm ground1 is altogether highly interesting to the geological and scientific inquirer4 ,the remains of forests in the bed of the ocean occur in several parts of the ,british coast1 particularly off ,lincoln1 on the banks of the ,tay near ,flisk1 at ,skail in the mainland of ,orkney1 and in other places noticed in the ,transactions of this ,society1 and are strong proofs of the encroachments of the sea upon the land4 ,however difficult1 therefore1 it may be to reconcile the varied appearances in nature regarding the sea having at one time occupied a higher level than at present1 yet its encroachment as a general and almost universal principle seems to be beyond doubt in the present day4 8,since ,i had last the honour of addressing the ,society on this subject1 opportunities have been afforded me of making many additional observations on the ,british shores1 and of personally extending these to almost every port on the ,continent between the ,texel and the ,garonne4 ,i have also1 through the obliging communications of friends1 been enabled to extend my inquiries to other quarters of the globe1 and ,i am now prepared to state that1 with a few comparatively trifling exceptions1 the sea appears to be universally gaining upon the land1 tending to confirm the theory that dbris arising from the general degradation of the land1 being deposited in the bed of the minor seas1 is the cause of their present tendency to overflow their banks40 ,,density ,,of ,,salt ,,and ,,fresh ,,water4 ,mr4 ,stevenson's discovery that the salt water of the ocean flows up the beds of rivers in a stream quite distinct from the outflowing fresh water1 was made in #ahab1 when investigating a question regarding salmon fishings on the ,dee4 ,it is described in the following extract from his ,report3-- 8,the reporter observed in the course of his survey that the current of the river continued to flow towards the sea with as much apparent velocity during flood as during ebb tide1 while the surface of the river rose and fell in a regular manner with the waters of the ocean4 ,he was led from these observations to inquire more particularly into this phenomenon1 and he accordingly had an apparatus prepared under his directions at ,aberdeen1 which1 in the most satisfactory manner1 showed the existence of two distinct layers or strata of water2 the lower stratum consisting of salt or sea water1 and the upper one of the fresh water of the river1 which1 from its specific gravity being less1 floated on the top during the whole of flood as well as ebb tide4 ,this apparatus consisted of a bottle or glass jar1 the mouth of which measured about two and a half inches in diameter1 and was carefully stopped with a wooden plug1 and luted with wax2 a hole about half an inch in diameter was then bored in the plug1 and to this an iron peg was fitted4 ,to prevent accident in the event of the jar touching the bottom1 it was coated with flannel4 ,the jar so prepared was fixed to a spar of timber1 which was graduated to feet and inches1 for the convenience of readily ascertaining the depth to which the instrument was plunged1 and from which the water was brought up4 ,a small cord was attached to the iron pin for the purpose of drawing it1 at pleasure1 for the admission of the water4 ,when an experiment was made the bottle was plunged into the water2 by drawing the cord at any depth within the range of the rod to which it was attached1 the iron peg was lifted or drawn1 and the bottle was by this means filled with water4 ,the peg was again dropped into its place1 and the apparatus raised to the surface1 containing a specimen of water of the quality at the depth to which it was plunged4 ,in this manner the reporter ascertained that the salt or tidal water of the ocean flowed up the channel of the river ,dee1 and also up ,footdee and ,torryburn1 in a distinct stratum next the bottom and under the fresh water of the river1 which1 owing to the specific gravity being less1 floated upon it1 continuing perfectly fresh1 and flowing in its usual course towards the sea1 the only change discoverable being in its level1 which was raised by the salt water forcing its way under it4 ,the tidal water so forced up continued salt2 and when the specimens from the bottom1 obtained in the manner described1 were compared with those taken at the surface by means of the common hydrometer of the brewer 7the only instrument to which the reporter had access at the time71 the lower stratum was always found to possess the greater specific gravity due to salt over fresh water40 ,,the ,,hydrophore4 ,the instrument ,mr4 ,stevenson then invented and used was that to which the term hydrophore has been applied4 ,figs4 #ah and #ai show two forms of hydrophores made under his directions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,fig4 #ah is used for procuring specimens of water from moderate depths1 drawn on a scale of one-tenth of the full size4 ,it consists of a tight tin cylinder1 a1 having a conical valve in its top1 b1 which is represented in the diagram as being raised for the admission of water4 ,the valve is fixed dead1 or immoveable1 on a rod working in guides1 the one resting between two uprights of brass above the cylinder1 and the other in its interior1 as shown in faintly dotted lines4 ,the valve rod is by this means caused to move in a truly vertical line1 and the valve attached to it consequently fills or closes the hole in the top of the cylinder with greater accuracy than if its motion was undirected4 ,a graduated pole or rod of iron1 c1 which in the diagram is shown broken off1 is attached to the instrument1 its end being inserted into the small tin cylinder at the side of the large water cylinder1 and there fixed by the clamp screws shown in the diagram2 the bottom of the water cylinder may be loaded with lead to any extent required1 for the purpose of causing the apparatus to sink2 but this1 when an iron rod is used for lowering it1 is hardly necessary4 ,the spindle carrying the valve has an eye in its upper extremity1 to which a cord is attached for the purpose of opening the valve when the water is to be admitted1 and on releasing the cord1 it again closes by its own weight4 ,when the hydrophore is to be used1 it is lowered to the required depth by the pole which is fixed to its side1 or1 if the depth be greater than the range of the pole1 it is loaded with weights1 and let down by means of a rope so attached as to keep it in a vertical position4 ,when the apparatus has been lowered as far as is required1 the small cord is pulled1 and the vessel is immediately filled with the water which is to be found at that depth4 ,the cord being then thrown slack1 the valve descends and closes the opening1 and the instrument is slowly raised to the surface by means of the rod or rope1 as the case may be1 care being taken to preserve it in a vertical position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,the form of hydrophore represented in ,fig4 #ai is used in deep water1 to which the small one just described is inapplicable4 ,it consists of an egg-shaped vessel a1 made of thick lead to give the apparatus weight1 having two valves1 b and c1 one in the top and another in the bottom1 both opening upwards2 these valves 7which are represented as open in the diagram7 are1 to insure more perfect fitting1 fixed on separate spindles1 which work in guides1 in the same manner as in the instrument shown in ,fig4 #ah4 ,the valves1 however1 in this instrument are not opened by means of a cord1 but by the impact of the projecting part1 d1 of the lower spindle on the bottom1 when the hydrophore is sunk to that depth4 ,by this means the lower valve is forced upwards1 and the upper spindle 7the lower extremity of which is made nearly to touch the upper extremity of the lower one1 when the valves are shut7 is at the same time forced up1 carrying along with it the upper valve1 which allows the air to escape1 and the water rushing in fills the vessel4 ,on raising the instrument from the bottom1 both valves again shut by their own weight1 and that of the mass of lead1 d1 which forms part of the lower spindle4 ,the mode of using this hydrophore is sufficiently obvious2 it is lowered by means of a rope1 made fast to a ring at the top1 as shown in ,fig4 #ai1 until it strikes on the bottom1 when the valves are opened in the manner described1 and the vessel is filled2 on raising it the valves close1 and the vessel can be drawn to the surface without its contents being mixed with the superincumbent water through which it has to pass4 ,this instrument1 shown on a scale of one twentieth of full size1 weighs about half a hundredweight1 and has been easily used in from thirty to forty fathoms water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,stevenson subsequently extended his experiments on the density of salt and fresh water to several firths and tidal rivers1 and gave the results in a paper communicated to the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh in ,may #ahag1 of which the following digest is given in ,thomson's ,annals of ,philosophy3#ad-- 8,the waters of the ,thames opposite the ,london ,dock gates were found to be perfectly fresh throughout2 at ,blackwall1 even in spring tides1 the water was found to be only slightly saline2 at ,woolwich the proportion of salt water increases1 and so on to ,gravesend4 ,but the strata of salt and fresh water are less distinctly marked in the ,thames than in any of those rivers on which ,mr4 ,stevenson has hitherto had an opportunity of making his observations4 ,but these inquiries are meant to be extended to most of the principal rivers in the kingdom1 when an account of the whole will be given4 8,from the series of observations made at and below ,london ,bridge1 compared with the river as far up as ,kew and ,oxford1 ,mr4 ,stevenson is of opinion that the waters of the ,thames seldom change1 but are probably carried up and down with the turn of the alternate tides for an indefinite period1 which1 he is of opinion1 may be one1 if not the principal cause of what is termed the extreme softness of the waters of the ,thames4 8,mr4 ,stevenson has made similar experiments on the rivers ,forth and ,tay1 and at ,loch ,eil1 where the ,caledonian ,canal joins the ,western ,sea4 ,the aperture at ,corran ,ferry1 for the tidal waters of that ,loch1 being small compared with the surface of ,loch ,eil1 which forms the drainage of a great extent of country1 it occurred to him that the waters of the surface must have less saline particles than the waters of the bottom4 ,he accordingly lifted water from the surface at the anchorage off ,fort ,william1 and found it to be #ajjhb2 at the depth of #i fathoms #ajbee2 at the depth of #cj fathoms1 in the central parts of the ,loch1 it was #ajbgb2 being the specific gravity of sea water40 ,the hydrophore1 which was originally devised and used by ,mr4 ,stevenson1 in #ahab1 at ,aberdeen1 has now reached its height of excellence of construction and scientific importance in the famous #8,challenger' ,expedition4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,extracts ,,from ,,early ,,reports4 ,wide range of subjects on which ,mr4 ,stevenson gave advice--,reports on ruins of ,aberbrothock ,abbey--,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral1 and ,earl's ,palace1 ,kirkwall--,st4 ,andrews ,cathedral--,montrose ,church ,spire--,melville ,monument1 ,edinburgh--,lipping of joints of masonry with cement--,provision for flood waters in bridges--,hydraulic mortar--,protection of foreshores--,cycloidal sea wall--,checking drift sand--,night signal lamps--,cause of heavy seas in ,irish ,channel--,sea routes across ,irish ,channel--,build of ships--,prospective increase of population--,tidal scour--,unscrewing of bolts by the waves--,cement ,rubble cofferdams--,buoyage system--,observations on fog signals--,regulations for steam vessels--,notes on shipwrecks4 ,judging from ,smeaton's well known 8,reports10 to which all have access1 we may conclude that the 8professional advice0 given by early ,engineers was very generally accompanied by a fuller and less reserved discussion of opinion than is to be met with in the brief and technical ,engineering reports of the present day4 ,in early times1 ,engineers did not hesitate to express themselves freely on physics1 sthetics1 or commerce1 provided their views had a collateral bearing on the subject under discussion1 and this often added to the interest of their reports4 ,these early ,engineers were also consulted on a much wider range of subjects than the ,engineers of modern times4 ,we know that the larger requirements of modern ,engineering demand that its practice should be classified under distinct branches1 such as harbours1 navigations1 water works1 gas works1 lighthouses1 or railways1 not to mention electrical and sanitary engineering1 and other branches of modern growth1 all of which cannot possibly be advantageously practised by any one member of the profession2 for no one mind can grasp the theoretical knowledge1 and no one life can compass the practical experience1 to enable a man to attain eminence in all these departments of modern ,engineering4 ,a biographical sketch of ,mr4 ,stevenson's professional life would1 it seems to me1 be incomplete if it did not convey to the reader some notion1 however general1 of the wide range of subjects brought under his notice1 in these early times1 and of his comprehensive and suggestive mode of treating every case on which he was professionally consulted4 ,this object would be only imperfectly attained were ,i to restrict my reference to his reports to the examples given in the preceding chapters2 for ,i have found in his numerous writings casual notices of a miscellaneous and fragmentary character1 many of which seem to me to be interesting to the profession1 and worthy of preservation1 and ,i propose1 in this chapter1 to give a few of these extracts1 without order of subject or date2 and ,i think they will justify my remark as to the great variety and fulness of treatment to be found in the reports of early ,engineers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it appears1 for example1 that ,mr4 ,stevenson was often called to advise on matters which were more related to architecture than engineering4 ,of this nature was his tour of inspection to the jails of ,england1 in company with ,sir ,william ,rae1 the ,sheriff of ,edinburgh1 in #ahac1 referred to in a former chapter4 ,,aberbrothock ,,ruins4 ,in like manner he inspected ,aberbrothock ,abbey1 with ,sir ,walter ,scott and the ,sheriff of ,forfar1 in #ahji1 to advise as to preserving the ruins1 some of the turrets being in imminent danger of falling2 and after procuring a survey of the whole building he prepared a report1 with plans and specification1 which were submitted to the ,barons of ,exchequer1 and the work was thereafter carried out under his direction4 ,,st4 ,,magnus ,,cathedral ,,and ,,earl',s ,,palace4 ,he also reported in a similar way to the ,sheriff of ,orkney with reference to the repairs of the ,earl's ,palace at ,kirkwall1 estimated at #ejj1 and on certain alterations at the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,magnus4 ,,st4 ,,andrews ,,cathedral ,,and ,,montrose ,,spire4 ,with a similar object in view he inspected and reported on the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,andrews1 and the steeple of the ,church of ,montrose1 which was thought to be in danger1 and the result of that inquiry was the present beautiful spire1 built from the designs of ,james ,gillespie ,graham4 ,,melville ,,monument4 ,he was also associated with ,mr4 ,burn in the ,melville ,monument of ,edinburgh1--the preparation of the foundation1 the rubble work for the tower1 and the scaffolding and tackling for raising the statue were carried out under ,mr4 ,stevenson's direction2 the whole architectural design being due to ,mr4 ,burn alone4 ,,lipping ,,of ,,joints ,,of ,,masonry ,,with ,,cement4 ,the well known practice of what is termed 8lipping0 with cement the mortar joints of masonry exposed to the wash of water is described by him as new in his report to the ,trustees of ,marykirk ,bridge1 of #afth ,july #ahab1 where he says3-- 8,upon carefully examining the face joints of the masonry of the south pier under water line1 some of these were found not to be so full of mortar as could have been wished1 and although ,mr4 ,logan 7the inspector of works7 had taken the precaution to cause the joints to be covered with clay to preserve them from the effects of the water1 yet this had not altogether answered the purpose1 and hence the reporter recommended to the meeting of the #hth current to provide a few casks of ,parker's ,roman ,cement1 to be laid to the breadth of three or four inches upon the bed and end joints under the low water mark of the remaining piers40 ,,provision ,,for ,,flood ,,water ,,in ,,bridges4 ,in determining the waterway of his bridges1 ,mr4 ,stevenson invariably provided for prospective increase of flooding due to agricultural improvements1 as stated in the following extract from a report made in #ahaa3-- 8,to preserve an ample waterway the north abutment is placed about twelve feet from the edge of the river1 leaving a sufficient passage for the water in floods4 ,a less waterway might perhaps have answered the purpose1 but as the valleys through which the ,north ,esk passes may come to be meliorated by drainage1 and especially those districts of country on each side of the feeders which join the river1 the facility with which the surface water may then escape must greatly increase the floods1 and although their duration will be shorter1 yet their rise must be proportionally higher40 ,,hydraulic ,,mortar4 ,the following remarks on hydraulic mortar1 made in #ahaa to the ,commissioners of ,montrose ,bridge1 are interesting as showing the detail which he brought to bear on all his works3-- 8,the best mortar for water work is a mixture of ,pozzolano earth with lime and sand1 but the late interrupted state of commercial intercourse with the ,mediterranean has for years past rendered ,pozzolano so scarce an article as hardly to be procured on any terms4 ,your reporter has therefore been induced to make various experiments with preparations of lime and ,roman cement1 and finds that a mixture may be made which will set under water and answer every purpose4 ,for this mortar the lime ought to be well burned1 and put into casks when drawn from the kiln4 ,it should be brought to the work as recently after being burnt as possible4 ,this will be most readily attained by taking the lime from ,boddam kilns4 ,english lime is in general stronger and cleaner1 but some of it brought for the purpose of agriculture is not so suitable for buildings as ,lord ,elgin's lime4 ,these limes1 however1 cannot be had very newly burnt1 and it will be preferable to take lime from some of the kilns in the neighbourhood which are of good character4 ,when brought to the bridge the lime should be kept under cover1 opening only one barrel at a time2 the shells must be pounded to a state of powder1 and immediately before mixing it with the other ingredients it will be proper to sprinkle a little water upon it to dissolve any gritty particles that may remain amongst it4 8,the sand for this work1 though fine1 must nevertheless be sharp2 it must also be passed through a sieve1 and cleaned of all impurities by washing1 if found necessary4 ,for ramming the joints and pointing under water1 let equal parts of lime in its powdered state and of ,roman cement be used1 with one fourth part of prepared sand1 but for the upper works the quantity of ,roman cement in the mortar may be reduced to one third part4 8,the mortar must be mixed in small quantities and quickly beaten up into a consistency suitable for the work4 ,all white specks1 which are apt to swell and spoil the joints1 must be carefully rejected from the mortar40 ,,protection ,,of ,,foreshores4 ,some suggestive remarks on the protection of foreshores1 made in #ahab1 in a report to ,lord ,rosebery1 on his ,lordship's property at ,barnbougle ,castle on the ,firth of ,forth1 are given in the following terms3-- 8,if the operation of the waters of the ocean be attended to in the formation of the shores1 some useful hints may be gained4 ,these shores will be found to be so many inclined planes1 varying in declivity according to the tenacity of the matter of which they1 are composed4 ,hence it is that the minute grains of sand and the light sea shell become a lasting barrier against the rapid river current and the tumultuous ocean1 while the erect sea wall is levelled with the ground4 ,for the truth of this it were needless to refer to the works of nature in different quarters of the world1 or in distant parts of this country2 it is only necessary to examine the shores on each side of ,barnbougle ,castle1 where the beautiful beach1 consisting of sand and shells1 between the ,cockle ,burn and the sea1 forms a complete defence to the low grounds behind it1 while to the northward of the castle the massive wall is in danger of being completely thrown down4 ,without waiting to inquire into the causes which regulate these appearances1 it will be more consonant to the business of this report to point out how their simple forms may be imitated and turned to advantage40 ,,cycloidal ,,seawall4 ,in reporting on the defence of the lands of ,trinity1 on the ,firth of ,forth1 ,mr4 ,stevenson recommended the adoption of a cycloidal talus wall1 which was executed under his direction in #ahba3-- 8,in giving an opinion relative to the best mode of defending and preserving this property1 the reporter observes that it fortunately happens that the beach is pretty closely covered with large boulder stones1 which now form a kind of chevaux de frise in breaking the force of the sea1 and making it fall more gently towards high water mark4 ,were it not that these stones are proposed to be employed in the erection of a more effectual barrier against the waves1 the reporter would not fail to disapprove of their removal for any other purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 8,the reporter proposes that a ,talus wall or bulwark should be built of these boulder stones1 roughly dressed and laid so as to form a cycloidal curve in the central part1 as nearly as may be1 as represented in the section with its tangents 7,fig4 #bj74 ,the properties of the cycloid as applicable to a sea wall in an exposed situation are very important4 ,in particular1 if compared with any other curve1 in the same vertical line and down through the same points1 it will be found of swiftest descent under similar circumstances1 therefore the water in its rise must be proportionally retarded4 ,the lower tangent to the curve alluded to also forms a wall towards low water1 best adapted for admitting the sea to flow gently over it1 while that connected with the upper extremity of the cycloidal part1 tending towards the perpendicular1 brings gravity into action against the rise of the waves4 ,the practical execution of a wall upon this construction is simple1 while the aggregate quantity of materials is less than for any of the curves of the conic sections of similar extent1 and it seems upon the whole to be peculiarly applicable for the defence of the sea beach in question4 8,if we examine the numerous works of this kind erected for similar purposes along this coast1 we shall find that the general process or action of the waves is to undermine the seaward courses of the walls4 ,in some cases1 however1 where due attention has not been paid to making up the backing of the face wall in a compact and firm manner1 the central parts have been found to sink and give way4 ,but the more common mode of failure is by the undermining of the seaward courses1 arising from too sudden a slope being given to the face wall1 which has a direct tendency to produce additional agitation in the waters at the bottom of the wall1 by which the beach is excavated1 and the foundation1 being exposed to the wash of the sea1 its destruction soon follows4 ,if we attend to the distribution which nature makes of the matters composing a sea beach1 unless where special local causes occur1 we find them laid with a very gradual descent towards low water mark4 ,the sands of ,portobello1 in this neighbourhood1 form a striking example of this4 ,here small quartzose grains mixed with light sea shells prove1 in their effects1 a more effectual barrier against the overwhelming force of the waves than perpendicular and massive walls of masonry40 ,,checking ,,drift ,,sand4 ,mr4 ,stevenson recommended ,lord ,palmerston to introduce the ,pinus maritima major1 as a check for sand drift1 on his estate of ,mullaghmore1 in the following report1 dated #bast ,july #ahce3-- 8,during the reporter's visit to ,mullaghmore1 his advice was also asked regarding the operations at present going on for the improvement of the land4 ,he had then much satisfaction in viewing the interesting improvements of reclaiming bog lands1 and checking the inroads of the sand flood or drift1 by planting #8bent' grass upon the shores of this estate4 ,the system of dibbling the bent grass1 pursued by ,mr4 ,lynch1 is in the best style which the reporter has anywhere met with2 and he has been so impressed with the national importance of this scheme1 from the success already experienced at ,mullaghmore1 that he has already taken the opportunity of recommending this system as applicable to the entrance of ,ballyshannon1 and in other quarters1 particularly to the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland4 8,the question chiefly submitted to the consideration of the reporter1 in regard to these operations1 was the best mode of defending the margin of the bent grass towards the sea4 ,for such purposes1 buildings or fences of any kind are not only expensive in their formation1 but are also in constant need of repair4 ,mr4 ,lynch seems so much at home in all planting operations that the reporter begs simply to bring under your ,lordship's notice the ,french mode of planting a species of fir 7,pinus maritima major71 which was originally suggested to the ,government by the late ,m4 ,bremonteuil1 ,ingnieur des ,ponts et ,chausses4 ,this system has been extensively tried along the stormy shores of the ,bay of ,biscay1 particularly in the district of ,grave1 at the entrance of the ,garonne1 where the arid and sterile sands have been covered with extensive forests1 which thrive quite close to the water's edge4 ,from the climate and exposure of the shores at ,mullaghmore1 the reporter has no doubt of the success of similar plantations in arresting the progress of the sand flood4 ,it is believed that ,mr4 ,lawson1 seedsman to the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland1 is taking measures to import the seeds of the ,pinus maritima major1 with a view to trying it on some of the exposed sandy districts of ,scotland40 ,from the following extract of a letter from ,mr4 ,kincaid of ,dublin1 who was ,lord ,palmerston's ,commissioner1 it is interesting to know that the experiment was entirely satisfactory1 proving that the ,pinus maritima major is well adapted to the climate of the coasts of the ,british ,isles3-- 8,the ,mullaghmore plantations extend to about #bjj acres4 ,about eighty of these were planted twenty-five years ago4 ,some of the trees are thirty feet in height1 and vary from that height to about twenty or twenty-five feet4 ,the remainder were planted ten years ago1 and are making fair progress4 ,all the pine plantations from opposite ,newtown ,cliffony to ,mullaghmore are in a most healthy condition1 the trees making growths of from twelve to twenty inches each year4 ,the storms have no bad effect on the south side of the great sand hill1 but on its summit1 and towards the west side1 the spray and gales of the ,atlantic will not allow the young trees to make any progress40 ,,night ,,signal ,,lamps4 ,in a report to the ,trustees for improving the ,queensferry passage1 made in #ahaa1 ,mr4 ,stevenson proposes a set of signals as described in the following extract1 his proposal being1 in fact1 the signal now in use on all ,british railways3-- 8,upon the supposition of its being the intention of this ,honourable ,trust to have an establishment on the south side of the ,firth similar to that which is now proposed for the north side1 the reporter takes the liberty of observing that much advantage1 as the ,trustees know1 might be derived by the public from a few simple and well appointed signals1 both for night and day4 8,those intended for the day may be constructed upon a modified scale1 after the common telegraphic method2 while the night signals can be rendered extremely simple and effective by interposing at pleasure between the observer and the reflector a shade of coloured glass4 ,by connecting these partial obscurations of colouring the light with an index that shall be understood on both sides of the passage1 orders may be communicated in a very expeditious manner40 ,,cause ,,of ,,heavy ,,seas ,,in ,,irish ,,channel4 ,in a report to the ,right ,honourable ,viscount ,cathcart1 ,commander of ,his ,majesty's ,forces1 made on ,portpatrick harbour in #ahab1 he gives the following explanation of the well-known rough sea between ,portpatrick and ,donaghadee3-- 8,in describing the harbour of ,portpatrick1 it may be noticed that although the coast on which it is situated is not directly exposed to the ,atlantic ,ocean1 yet the opposing tides of the north and south channels meet there and separate to flow up the ,clyde and ,solway ,firths1 which1 independent of storms1 must occasion a very considerable commotion in the waters of the channel between ,portpatrick and ,donaghadee4 8,accordingly we find that the sea has made a great impression upon the coast of ,wigtonshire2 and though the shores between ,loch ,ryan and the ,bay of ,glenluce consist chiefly of whinstone 7the greenstone of mineralogists71 which is one of the most indestructible rocks we have1 yet the figure of the coast is indented with many small cuts or creeks1 and rocks are all along the shore found jutting into the sea4 ,at the head of one of these creeks1 which is about a hundred fathoms in length1 and thirty fathoms in breadth1 the harbour of ,portpatrick is situated between two insulated rocks1 upon one of which the piers are built1 the harbour being formed by an excavation1 chiefly in the solid rock40 ,,sea ,,routes ,,across ,,irish ,,channel4 ,in the same report he states the relative advantages of various routes of communication across the ,irish ,channel3-- 8,a further extension of the intercourse between ,scotland and ,ireland could be made with much advantage to both by a regular establishment of packets between ,ardrossan1 ,troon1 or ,dunure in ,ayrshire1 and ,larne in the county of ,antrim4 ,between the two last places1 viz41 ,dunure and ,larne1 the distance would only be about sixty miles1 being ten miles shorter1 and unquestionably much safer1 than the passage from ,holyhead to ,dublin4 8,under all the views of this subject1 from the greater contiguity of ,portpatrick and ,donaghadee than of ,lochs ,ryan and ,larne1 and the former places having more immediate access to the open sea than the latter1 and also from the intercourse being now fully organised by long establishment1 it were perhaps better1 even at a much greater expense1 to continue the present system than to change it4 ,portpatrick harbour may be rendered incomparably better by the plan now proposed1 and ,donaghadee is also capable and stands much in want of improvement1 by an extension of its piers and the erection of a permanent light to direct the packets into the harbour under night40 ,,build ,,of ,,ships4 ,in reporting to the ,royal ,burgh of ,dundee as to the improvement of the harbour in #ahad1 ,mr4 ,stevenson takes occasion to introduce one of those collateral questions to which ,i have referred3-- 8,it is curious to observe the changes and to trace the progressive improvements which have taken place in the form and build of ships4 ,when we contrast those of early navigators with ships of modern times1 among the many alterations1 none seems more striking than the difference of their depth4 ,the draught of water that was required for a ship of #cjj tons burden would hardly be found enough to float a modern built vessel of #ajj tons4 ,this alteration in the construction of ships1 which is mainly calculated to improve their sailing1 by giving them a better hold of the water1 seems gradually to have advanced1 as the mariner became more adventurous in his voyages2 and is only now restrained by certain considerations of convenience1 of which the most prominent is the want of a sufficient depth of water in the havens and harbours on the coast for their reception1--a circumstance which arises partly from the natural position of harbours1 but is chiefly owing to the difficulties and expense attending the necessary engineering operations1 which increase enormously with the depth of water4 ,hence it is that many of the ancient seaport towns of this country1 which at one time possessed an extensive trade1 have1 from neglecting their harbours1 sunk into a state of insignificancy2 while others1 by proper exertions in this respect1 have1 under the most inauspicious circumstances1 attained to great commercial importance40 ,,prospective ,,increase ,,of ,,population4 ,another case of the same kind occurs in his report on the harbour of ,north ,berwick1 made in #ahab3-- 8,before closing this report it may be noticed that ,north ,berwick has considerable advantages1 which if acted upon would infallibly lead to the rapid improvement of the town and neighbourhood4 ,situated upon an extensive flat which skirts along the high land of ,north ,berwick ,law1 on a beautiful sandy bay1 which is intersected by the street leading to the harbour1 few towns will more easily admit of elegant extension or are better calculated for becoming a sea-bathing retreat40 ,it has now the well-known reputation of being the best frequented watering place on the east coast of ,scotland4 ,,tidal ,,scour4 ,in the report1 of #ahad1 on ,dundee we find the following remarks on tidal scour3-- 8,to put this matter in a clearer point of view1 let us see what nature does upon the great scale1 as for example in the extensive basin forming the ,firth of ,tay4 ,we there find that in consequence of the rapidity of the current at the narrow passage in the neighbourhood of ,broughty ,castle1 which may be viewed as the scouring aperture of the basin of the ,tay1 the water is from forty to eighty feet in depth1 and moves with a velocity which carries a great quantity of sandy particles along with it4 ,but no sooner are the waters of this current allowed to spread and cover the basin of the ,tay1 than the velocity ceases1 and the foreign matters fall to the bottom and form the various sandbanks which appear at low water4 ,in a similar way the deposition of silt and earthy particles brought down the river in speats is accounted for4 ,now1 this view of the case is equally applicable to the harbour of ,dundee1 for so long as the water preserves the velocity it acquires in the scouring apertures or arches in the quays1 it carries all its foreign matters along with it2 but the moment it is allowed to expand over the extent of the harbour the deposition of these earthy particles begins4 ,and in every case the well-known law in hydraulics holds good1 that the scouring effect of a fluid is in the ratio of the square of the velocity40 ,,unscrewing ,,of ,,bolts4 ,the following observations made in #ahjg on the action of the waves in unscrewing bolts1 are interesting3-- 8,the unlocking of screws1 where washers had been introduced as a security was rather unexpected1 and the writer took an opportunity of conversing with his much respected friend ,professor ,playfair regarding this circumstance4 ,the ,professor observed1 that he had experienced some inconvenience of this kind from the unlocking of almost all the screws of a telescope which had been sent to him from ,london by the mail coach4 ,indeed1 from the spiral form of the screw1 which is1 in fact1 an inclined plane1 ,mr4 ,playfair readily accounted for such an occurrence1 and1 when reflected upon1 it seems to be an effect rather to be looked for1 and is a reason why riveting the point of a bolt in preference to screwing it should generally be resorted to1 where much motion is to be apprehended40 ,,cement ,,rubble ,,cofferdams4 ,i give his description of the cement rubble cofferdams1 first used in #ahjh1 at the erection of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse3-- 8,at seven o'clock this morning1 the tide proving more favourable1 the artificers began to work4 ,at nine o'clock the rock was again overflowed1 and the boats returned to the tender after two hours' work4 ,part of the operations of this morning's tide consisted in building up the crevices and inequalities of the rock round the margin of the foundation with ,pozzolano mortar and the chips produced from excavation1 with the view to dam out the water4 ,these little walls varied from six to eighteen inches in height2 a small sluice or aperture being formed in one of them1 by which the water1 during ebb tide1 was allowed to drain off4 8,it formed part of the writer's original design to erect a cast iron cofferdam of about five feet in height round the site of the building2 but the surface of the rock was so irregular that the difficulty of tightening it1 and also of emptying the contained water1 so as to get the benefit of it during ebb tide1 would have been so great1 that taking these circumstances into account1 together with the loss of time which would attend the erection of such a preparatory work1 the idea of a cofferdam was laid aside1 soon after entering upon the actual execution of the work40 ,,buoyage ,,system4 ,in his report on the ,forth ,navigation1 made to the ,magistrates of ,stirling in #ahbh1 ,mr4 ,stevenson proposed a system of buoyage1 which has since been adopted by the several ,lighthouse ,boards of the ,united ,kingdom3-- 8,the channels proposed to be cleared through the different fords are coloured red on the ,plan1 in reference to the sectional line4 ,for the use and guidance of river pilots1 buoys and perches or beacons are likewise intended to be placed in the positions shown in the ,plan2 those coloured red are to be taken on the starboard1 and those coloured black upon the larboard side1 in going up the river2 and the whole are to be so placed in connection with the clearing and deepening of the fords as to be approached with safety40 ,,observations ,,on ,,fog ,,signals4 ,at a very early period ,mr4 ,stevenson's attention was directed to the dangers of fog at sea1 and the best means of providing an effective fog signal for the mariner1 and so long ago as #ahjh he had come to the conclusion that the best signal adapted for the purpose was the sustained sound of a horn1 which1 as is well known1 has within the last few years been so much employed in the fog signals which are now being established at many of the lighthouse stations in this and foreign countries4 ,the following extracts give an idea of the difficulties he encountered1 and his views on the subject3-- 8,the boats landed this evening 7#bc;d ,june #ahjh71 when the artificers had again two hours' work4 ,the weather still continuing very thick and foggy1 more difficulty was experienced in getting on board of the vessels to-night than had occurred on any previous occasion1 owing to a light breeze of wind which carried the sound of the bell1 and the other signals made on board of the vessels1 away from the rock4 ,having fortunately made out the position of the sloop 8,smeaton10 at the north-east buoy1 to which we were much assisted by the barking of the ship's dog1 we parted with the ,smeaton's boat1 when the boats of the tender took a fresh departure for that vessel1 which lay about half a mile to the south westward4 ,yet such is the very deceiving state of the tides that although there was a small binnacle and compass in the landing master's boat1 we had nevertheless passed the #8,sir ,joseph' a good way1 when fortunately one of the sailors caught the sound of a blowing horn4 ,the only fire-arms on board were a pair of swivels of one inch calibre2 but it is quite surprising how much the sound is lost in foggy weather1 as the report was heard but at a very short distance4 ,the sound from the explosion of gunpowder is so instantaneous that the effect of the small guns was not so good as either the blowing of a horn or the tolling of a bell1 which afforded a more constant and steady direction for the pilot4 ,it may here be noticed that larger guns would have answered better1 but these must have induced the keeping of a greater stock of gunpowder1 which in a service of this kind might have been attended with risk4 ,a better signal would have been a bugle horn1 the tremulous sound of which produces a more powerful effect in fog than the less sonorous and more sudden report of ordnance40 ,and again he says3-- 8,in the course of this morning's work two or three apparently distant peals of thunder were heard1 and the atmosphere suddenly became thick and foggy4 ,but as the ,smeaton1 our present tender1 was moored at no great distance from the rock1 the crew on board continued blowing a horn1 and occasionally fired a musket1 so that the boats got to the ship without difficulty4 ,the occurrence of thick weather1 however1 became a serious consideration in looking forward to the necessary change of quarters to the ,pharos1 distant about one mile from the rock1 instead of a few hundred yards1 as in the case of the ,smeaton4 8,the weather towards the evening became thick and foggy1 and there was hardly a breath of wind to ruffle the surface of the water2 had it not therefore been the noise from the anvils of the smiths1 who had been left on the beacon throughout the day1 which afforded a guide for the boats1 a landing could not have been attempted this evening1 especially with so large a company of artificers4 ,this circumstance confirmed the writer's opinion with regard to the propriety of connecting large bells to be rung with machinery in the lighthouse1 to be tolled day and night during the continuance of foggy weather1 by which the mariner may be forewarned of too near an approach to the rock1 while every distant object is obscured in the mist40 ,following out this subject1 ,mr4 ,stevenson caused observations to be made at the ,calf of ,man--a small island at the south of the ,isle of ,man1 and separated from the main island by a narrow 8sound40 ,the place is noted for its fogs1 on which ,mr4 ,stevenson says3-- 8,i sent ,mr4 ,macurich1 a shipmaster in the lighthouse service1 to the ,calf of ,man1 with directions to reside there1 and make monthly returns of the state of the weather1 agreeably to a printed form4 ,during his stay of seven months1 it appears upon the whole that the fog rested only twice upon the highest land of the ,calf ,island1 while it cleared partially below4 ,on one of these occasions ,i was on board of the lighthouse yacht1 then at anchor off the island1 when the fog was for a time general2 and as the weather became clear1 ,i observed that it first disappeared upon the lower parts of the island1 and that in half an hour the whole of the ,calf was seen4 ,in the monthly returns made by ,mr4 ,macurich1 the ,calf island is represented as often perfectly free of fog1 while the higher parts of the opposite mainland of the ,isle of ,man were hid in mist4 ,to account for this1 it may be noticed that the mass of matter in the ,calf ,island is much less1 and the land is also much lower than in the main island4 ,part of this effect may also be ascribed to the rapidity of the tides1 which create a current of wind1 particularly in the narrow channel between the main and ,calf islands1 which have a direct tendency to clear away the fog1 as ,i have observed at the ,skerries in the ,pentland ,firth1 and in similar situations on different parts of the coast1 where rapid currents prevail40 ,these extracts are given to show the attention ,mr4 ,stevenson gave to the subject of fogs1 which1 as already noticed1 led him to recommend the horn1 the instrument now so much used in giving signals to the mariner4 ,akin to this may be mentioned his expression of regret that no means existed for determining the force of the wind1 as noticed in the following paragraph3-- 8,we cannot enough regret the want of an efficient anemometer1 or instrument for measuring the force of the wind4 ,indeed1 we hardly know any desideratum of more universal interest1 for1 notwithstanding the labours of ,lind and others on this subject1 from the want of a proper scale we are still groping in the dark with the use of such indefinite terms as #8light airs inclining to calm1' #8fresh breezes1' #8fresh gales1' #8hard gales1' and #8very hard gales2' for it rarely happens that the sailor will admit the term #8storm' into his nomenclature40 ,,regulations ,,for ,,steam ,,vessels4 ,the loss of the #8,comet' steamer by collision on the ,clyde1 in #ahbe1 led the ,lord ,advocate to entertain the idea of introducing a ,bill for the regulation of steamers1 and to issue a circular in the following terms1 of which ,mr4 ,stevenson received a copy3-- 8,,edinburgh1 #dth ,feby4 #ahbf4 ,i annex a copy of the heads of such a ,bill as1 in my opinion1 may be calculated to afford sufficient security to steamboats1 and thereby alike promote the interests of the owners of such vessels and that of the public4 ,i feel noways wedded to any of the proposed provisions1 and am anxious to submit them to the consideration of the better informed on such subjects1 so as to obtain suggestions either as to the additions or amendments which the ,bill may be fitted to receive4 8,in directing your attention to this important subject1 ,i need hardly remind you that in our endeavours to render such vessels perfectly secure in so far as respects the passengers1 we must not lose sight of the interest of the owners1 or attempt to clog the trade with unnecessarily embarrassing regulations4 ,such restrictions are seldom enforced1 and1 if they should receive effect1 might lead to such harassing consequences as would injure this useful description of property1 and thereby to a certain extent deprive the public of the great benefit which is now derived from the use of vessels navigated by steam4--,i have the honour to be your most obedient servant1 8,,wm4 ,,rae40 ,the only account ,i can find of ,mr4 ,stevenson's views on this important subject is contained in the following extract from a letter1 dated #c;d ,november #ahbe1 to ,captain ,foulerton1 one of the ,wardens of the ,trinity ,house1 with whom he appears to have had much correspondence1 in which he explains views which are very much in accordance with the regulations for steamers now issued by the ,board of ,trade4 ,his letter says3-- 8,we lately had a melancholy accident1 as you would see1 by the running down of the #8,comet' steam packet1 by which1 it is believed1 that about seventy people lost their lives4 ,the ,lord ,advocate attended himself at the taking of the precognition1 and is1 ,i believe1 to bring some of the parties to trial4 ,he has also in view some regulations by an ,act on this new and important subject4 8,from my seeming marine habits his ,lordship has desired me to state what occurs on the subject of lights4 ,if we need this on the ,forth and ,clyde1 you must be in a worse state in the ,thames4 ,i have no doubt you had this under the notice of your ,house4 ,i think there should be two lights1 one in each bow1 but under deck1 in order to keep the lights entirely out of the view of those on deck4 ,i am not for interfering with their head sails4 ,i would have them licensed like stage coaches1 and placed under the inspection of an officer of the navy1 not below the rank of a lieutenant4 ,six or eight officers might do the duty for the whole ,united ,kingdom for a time40 ,the accident seems to have led to a further investigation into the general question of the saving of life in cases of shipwreck on the coasts of ,scotland2 and on this subject ,mr4 ,stevenson made the following replies to the queries submitted to him by the authorities3-- 8,,query4--,are shipwrecks frequent on the coasts of ,scotland and its islands80 8,wrecks between the ,firths of ,forth and ,moray are more frequent than on any other part of the coast of ,scotland4 ,this may probably be accounted for by the great number of vessels passing and repassing along that coast4 ,in the month of ,december #agii1 a strong gale from the south-east occasioned serious disasters on these shores1 when upwards of seventy sail were wrecked on the eastern coast of ,scotland1 and many of their crews perished4 ,this lamentable catastrophe was the means of causing lifeboats upon ,greathead's plan to be fitted out at ,st4 ,andrews1 ,arbroath1 ,montrose1 ,aberdeen1 ,peterhead1 and other places1 which have been found highly useful in saving the lives of mariners4 ,this gale was also the immediate cause of the erection of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 which may be said almost entirely to have prevented shipwreck1 so frequent in ,st4 ,andrews ,bay and the entrance of the ,firth of ,forth in general4 8,from the ,moray ,firth along the shores of the mainland to the entrance of the ,firth of ,clyde1 wrecks cannot be said to be very frequent1 although the navigation is rather difficult2 but the safety of shipping on this coast depends upon the great number of excellent natural bays and harbours upon it4 8,in the ,orkney and ,shetland ,islands few seasons pass without wrecks occurring4 ,on the ,lewis and ,western ,hebrides shipwrecks frequently occur40 8,,query4--,are the coasts of ,scotland in general well provided with the means of giving assistance in case of shipwreck1 or are they deficient in such provision80 8,the coast of ,scotland is provided with no other means of saving the crews of vessels than the assistance they accidentally meet with from the inhabitants along shore4 ,the only lifeboats established are those at the ports already mentioned4 8,if ,captain ,manby's apparatus was generally known and applied upon the coast1 it would be found highly beneficial40 8,,query4--,are any instances remembered of total shipwrecks where lives lost might have been saved by the lifeboat or by ,captain ,manby's apparatus1 at the distance of #cej or #djj yards off the coast80 8,in the year #ahac the #8,oscar1' ,greenland ship of ,aberdeen1 ,captain ,innes1 went ashore upon ,girdleness1 at the entrance of ,aberdeen ,harbour4 ,there were on board fifty-four persons1 of whom only two were saved1 by dropping from the bowsprit end4 ,the ship was very near the shore4 ,she broke up about twenty minutes after she struck1 and ,i have no doubt that1 if an active person had been on the spot with ,captain ,manby's apparatus1 the greater part of the crew of this ship might have been saved4 8,in the winter of #ahbd the #8,deveron' of ,aberdeen1 ,captain ,scott1 went ashore upon the sands three miles north of ,aberdeen in a gale at south-east4 ,she was only about #cjj yards from the shore1 and here the whole crew must have perished had it not been for the prompt use of ,captain ,manby's apparatus4 8,every one who has seen this apparatus must have admired its simplicity and effect4 ,it is however difficult to see how its application can be very generally introduced so as to be useful along the whole extent of chequered coasts of the ,british dominions4 ,certainly at all principal ports it would naturally be expected that both this and the lifeboat would be provided4 8,a time seems to be approaching when the coast will be much more complete in all such provision from the hands of the humane for the safety of the mariner4 ,we also hail with pleasure the extending efforts of the respective ,lighthouse ,boards on the coasts of ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 as a certain means of adding to the security of that useful body of men1 as well as to the facilities of her enterprising merchants4 ,nor can we withhold the notice of the effect of the operations of the ,scots ,board in this respect4 ,at the entrance to the ,firth of ,forth1 prior to the erection of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 few winters passed without some disastrous shipwreck4 8,even after the completion of this arduous undertaking1 until the beacon was erected on the ,carr ,rock1 off ,fifeness1 the fisherman's observation was--#8,the ,carr has always her wreck3 if she misses one year1 she is sure to have two the next4' ,but since the erection of this beacon in #ahbj till this date 7#ahbe71 not a single wreck has happened on this part of the coast40 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,retrospect ,,of ,,mr4 ,,stevenson',s ,,life4 ,the unconnected sketches which form this ,memoir extend over a period of about forty years4 ,they have1 as already stated1 been selected from among a large mass of documents1 in order to convey to the reader1 not only some idea of the great variety of subjects ,mr4 ,stevenson was called on to consider1 but also to show his happy power of dealing with engineering questions in the several aspects under which they were presented to him4 ,in perusing them1 the reader can hardly have failed to remark in how many instances the views ,mr4 ,stevenson expressed were forecasts either of great fundamental social changes1 such as the substitution of the railway for the road1 or of smaller though important matters of detail1 as1 for example1 the signal lights of our railways and steamers1 without which the 8night traffic0--so popular a feature of modern travelling--could not possibly be conducted4 ,these and many other instances must have satisfied the professional reader that foresight and originality were remarkable features of ,mr4 ,stevenson's character4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the department of ,lighthouses1 he had experiences which1 it may be safely said1 none of his compeers possessed1 and ,i think it will be admitted that in his general practice he displayed powers of observation of a high order4 ,acting as he did with ,rennie1 ,telford1 ,nimmo1 and afterwards with ,walker1 ,george ,rennie1 and ,cubitt1 with all of whom he ever remained in friendly intercourse1 his experience was both large and varied1 and the whole of his practice as an ,engineer was distinguished by full preliminary investigation of his subject--great caution in forming his conclusions--elaborate preparation of his reports and designs1 and1 as specially called forth at the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 masterly skill1 indomitable energy1 and unwavering fortitude in carrying his designs into execution4 99 99 99 99 99 ,my father was elected a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh in #ahae1 and soon after joined the ,antiquarian and ,wernerian ,natural ,history ,societies1 taking an active part at their meetings and communicating papers to their proceedings4 ,he was a ,fellow of the ,geological and ,astronomical ,societies of ,london1 a ,member of the ,smeatonian ,society1 and of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers4 ,he was also one of the original promoters of the ,astronomical ,institution1 out of which has grown the present establishment of the ,royal ,observatory of ,edinburgh1 and the following account of the early origin of the ,institution was drawn up some years before ,mr4 ,stevenson's death at the request of ,professor ,piazzi ,smyth1 the ,astronomer-,royal of ,scotland3-- 8,there was a young man named ,kerr--an optician--in ,edinburgh1 who1 on commencing business1 brought about the formation of a ,club1 somewhat like a ,book ,club1 for procuring philosophical instruments for the use of its members4 ,these were more particularly optical instruments and theodolites1 etc41 for surveyors1 which were also to have been lent out for hire4 ,i think the subscription was a guinea4 ,the meetings were1 perhaps1 monthly2 they were held in the office of ,mr4 ,james ,ogilvy1 ,accountant1 ,parliament ,square4 8,i attended two1 or perhaps three1 meetings in the year4 ,the ,club was formed before ,i was invited to become a member4 ,at the first meeting ,i found present ,mr4 ,james ,bonar1 treasurer of the ,royal ,society2 ,mr4 ,christison1 mathematician2 ,mr4 ,brown1 bookseller1 opposite the college2 ,mr4 ,ogilvy1 and ,mr4 ,kerr4 8,after attending one or two meetings of this very modest ,society for the advancement of science1 ,mr4 ,bonar and ,i had some conversation upon its prospects1 and the difficulties attending such a scheme of procuring philosophical instruments1 and systematising the lending out1 and keeping in efficient order theodolites1 levels1 telescopes1 etc42 and we concurred in opinion that the scheme could not succeed4 ,we deemed it advisable rather to endeavour to get ,short's observatory on the ,calton ,hill occupied as a #8,popular ,observatory4' ,we spoke to some of the magistrates on this subject1 who1 on the part of the town1 were quite favourable to the idea4 ,we also applied to ,mr4 ,thomas ,allan1 then an active member of the ,royal ,society1 and he joined us in a communication to ,sir ,george ,mackenzie of ,coul1 who warmly entered into our views2 and ultimately we had an interview with ,professor ,playfair1 who1 in his mild and placid manner1 agreed to consider the subject1 but felt some difficulty on account of his colleague1 the ,professor of ,practical ,astronomy4 ,after a time ,professor ,playfair undertook to draw up a statement for the public1 which he did in his usual elegant and concise style4 ,thus1 step by step1 we succeeded in obtaining subscribers1 and under the countenance and support of ,playfair1 many were found who patronised the proposal of establishing an observatory on the ,calton ,hill4 8,our idea was that we might look forward to a ,popular ,observatory which would not interfere with the existing ,professorship of ,astronomy1 but have an establishment to which1 with our families1 we might resort in an evening with the advantage of oral and ocular demonstrations in the science of ,astronomy1 treated after a popular form4 8,the present characteristic and beautiful building was then erected1 and with the aid of ,government1 it was furnished with some of the chief instruments2 but much to my regret the establishment has been exclusively limited to the purposes of a scientific observatory1 without any provision of a popular description for which it was originally intended4 8,unfortunately there was nothing to keep our constitution alive in the minds of the public--nothing to allure additional subscribers to our funds1 so as to extend the building1 and fit it with a theatre and apparatus for popular purposes--no ,lecture was established1 and1 in short1 the original object fell dead in the hands of the ,directors4 ,i thus personally lost my object in this establishment1 and in all my uphill journeys and manifold meetings1 ,i had chiefly in view the pleasure of interviews with my excellent friend the late ,thomas ,henderson1 the ,professor of ,astronomy in the ,university40 99 99 99 99 99 ,passing from what may be regarded as ,mr4 ,stevenson's public character as an engineer1 it is only natural that ,i should conclude this ,memoir by adding a few paragraphs descriptive of his social bearing as a man4 ,in politics my father was a decided conservative1 but he never took a prominent part in political or municipal affairs4 ,he was1 however1 from his earliest days a loyal subject of the king2 and1 as we find from his ,journal1 a zealous supporter of the ,government4 ,he says3--8,after my return from the ,pentland ,skerries in #agid1 ,i enrolled myself as a private in the #ast ,regiment of ,edinburgh ,volunteers raised as the local ,defenders of our ,firesides against the threatened invasion by the ,french1 and served about five years in the ranks of that corps4 ,however1 when the war became hot1 and invasion was fully expected1 other corps of ,volunteers were embodied1 when ,i was promoted to be a ,lieutenant in the #8,princess 7,charlotte's7 ,royals1' and afterwards ,captain of the ,grenadier ,company40 ,his connection with the volunteers seems to have been of a very agreeable and satisfactory character1 proving that such loyal and patriotic services were not then and are not now incompatible with the most ardent pursuit of those studies and duties which are to qualify a man for the business of life4 ,on his promotion to the ,royals he received the following friendly letter from his ,colonel1 ,charles ,hope1 ,lord ,advocate1 and afterwards ,lord ,president of the ,court of ,session3-- 8#bdth ,january #ahjd4 8,,sir1--,i always part with any of my friends in the ,regiment with great regret1 especially such as belonged to the old ,blues4 ,but ,i cannot object to your leaving me in order to be more extensively useful in another corps4 ,i therefore heartily wish you every success in your new undertaking1 and have no doubt that you will prove a valuable acquisition to the discipline of the ,spearmen4 ,notify to ,captain ,spens your resignation1 that he may send for your arms4--,i am1 ,sir1 yours sincerely1 ,c4 ,,hope1 8,lt4-,col4 #ast4 ,r4,e4,v4 8,,mr4 ,,robert ,,stevenson1 8,capt41 ,spens' ,company40 ,mr4 ,stevenson remained several years in his new corps1 until he was obliged1 on commencing the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 to tender his resignation1 when he received a letter from ,colonel ,inglis conveying the request of the ,regiment that he should continue as an honorary member of the corps3-- 8,,edinburgh1 #ith ,april #ahjg4 8,,sir1--,my anxious desire to have1 if possible1 devised means for detaining you among us1 must plead my excuse for being so long of replying to your letter2 and it is with most sincere regret1 that1 after the most mature consideration1 ,i am obliged to express my fears that the rules of the ,volunteer ,corps must deprive us of your services1 in consequence of your active charge of a work of national importance1 rendering your absence from ,edinburgh unavoidable for years1 during the months of drill4 8,while ,i feel myself impelled1 therefore1 to accept of your proffered resignation1 ,i beg to assure you of my own sense1 as well as that of all the other officers1 of the loss we sustain1 and of our great personal regard4 8,and ,i am directed to entreat you will do us the favour of continuing as an honorary member of a corps which has been so much indebted for your zeal and exertions4 8,i cannot conclude without returning you my thanks for the obliging sentiment contained in your letter towards myself2 and have the honour to be1 with much esteem1 sir1 your faithful obedient servant1 8,,william ,,inglis1 ,l4,c4,c41 ,l4,e4,s4 8,,captain ,,stevenson1 ,etc40 ,many of his personal friends have recorded the pleasant satisfaction with which they continued through life to look back upon the days spent in my father's company on board the lighthouse tender1 while making his annual inspection of the lighthouses4 ,on one of these voyages he was accompanied by his friends ,patrick ,neill1 ,,ll4,d41 the ,botanist2 ,charles ,oliphant1 ,writer to the ,signet2 and ,john ,barclay1 ,m4,d41 the ,anatomist2 who presented him with a piece of plate in remembrance of 8the many happy hours they passed in his company on sea and shore40 ,on another occasion in #ahad1 the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses invited ,sir ,walter ,scott to accompany them on their annual tour4 ,mr4 ,lockhart1 in his life of ,scott1 says1 8,the company were all familiar friends of his1 ,william ,erskine1 then ,sheriff of ,orkney1 ,robert ,hamilton1 ,sheriff of ,lanarkshire1 ,adam ,duff1 ,sheriff of ,forfarshire1 but the real chief of the expedition was the ,surveyor ,viceroy1 the celebrated ,engineer ,stevenson1 and ,scott anticipated special pleasure in his society40 8,i delight10 ,scott writes to ,morritt1 8in these professional men of talent2 they always give you some new lights by the peculiarity of their habits and studies1 so different from the people who are rounded1 and smoothed1 and ground down for conversation1 and who can say all that every other person says1 and--nothing more40 ,i quote a single paragraph from ,scott's diary of this memorable voyage1 in which he gives an amusing account of the first landing of the ,commissioners on the rock on which the celebrated ,skerryvore lighthouse has since been erected by ,alan ,stevenson1 who succeeded my father as ,engineer1 on his retirement from the ,scottish ,lighthouse ,board in #ahdc4 8,having crept upon deck about four in the morning10 says ,sir ,walter1 8,i find we are beating to windward off the ,isle of ,tyree1 with the determination1 on the part of ,mr4 ,stevenson1 that his constituents should visit a reef of rocks called ,skerry ,vhor1 where he thought it would be essential to have a lighthouse4 ,loud remonstrances on the part of the ,commissioners1 who one and all declare they will subscribe to his opinion1 whatever it may be1 rather than continue this infernal buffeting4 ,quiet perseverance on the part of ,mr4 ,s41 and great kicking1 bouncing1 and squabbling upon that of the yacht1 who seems to like the idea of ,skerry ,vhor as little as the ,commissioners4 ,at length1 by dint of exertion1 come in sight of this long ridge of rocks 7chiefly under water71 on which the tide breaks in a most tremendous style4 ,there appear a few low broad rocks at one end of the reef1 which is about a mile in length4 ,these are never entirely under water1 though the surf dashes over them4 ,to go through all the forms1 ,hamilton1 ,duff1 and ,i resolve to land upon these bare rocks in company with ,mr4 ,stevenson4 ,pull through a very heavy swell with great difficulty1 and approach a tremendous surf dashing over black1 pointed rocks4 ,our rowers1 however1 get the boat into a quiet creek between two rocks1 where we contrive to land well wetted4 ,i saw nothing remarkable in my way excepting several seals1 which we might have shot1 but in the doubtful circumstances of the landing1 we did not care to bring guns4 ,we took possession of the rock in name of the ,commissioners1 and generously bestowed our own great names on its crags and creeks4 ,the rock was carefully measured by ,mr4 ,s4 ,it will be a most desolate position for a lighthouse1 the ,bell ,rock and ,eddystone a joke to it1 for the nearest land is the wild island of ,tyree1 at fourteen miles' distance4 ,so much for the ,skerry ,vhor40 ,in family life ,mr4 ,stevenson was a man of sterling worth4 ,as a husband1 a father1 and a friend1 he was remarkably distinguished by the absence of selfishness4 ,his exertions in forwarding the progress of young men through life were generous and unwearied2 and few men had more solid grounds than he for indulging in the pleasing reflection that1 both in his public and private capacity1 he had consecrated to beneficial ends every talent committed to his trust4 ,he was a man of sincere and unobtrusive piety2 and although warmly attached to the ,established ,church of ,scotland1 of which for nearly forty years he had been an elder1 and for many years a member of the ,general ,assembly1 he had no taint of bigotry or of party feeling1 and he died calmly in that blessed hope and peace which only an indwelling personal belief in the merits of a ,redeemer can impart to any son of our race4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at a statutory general meeting of the ,board of ,northern ,lighthouses1 which was held on the #acth ,july #ahej1 the day after my father's death1 the ,commissioners recorded their respect for his talents and virtues in the following ,minute3-- 8,the ,secretary having intimated1 that ,mr4 ,robert ,stevenson1 the late ,engineer to the ,board1 died yesterday morning1 8,the ,board1 before proceeding to business1 desire to record1 their regret at the death of this zealous1 faithful1 and able officer1 to whom is due the honour of conceiving and executing the great work of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 whose services were gratefully acknowledged on his retirement from active duty1 and will be long remembered by the ,board1 and to express their sympathy with his family on the loss of one who was most estimable and exemplary in all the relations of social and domestic life4 ,the ,board direct that a copy of this resolution be transmitted to ,mr4 ,stevenson's family1 and communicated to each ,commissioner1 to the different lightkeepers and the other officers of the ,board40 ,,appendix4 ,,the ,,inchcape ,,rock4 ,an old writer mentions a curious tradition1 which may be worth quoting4 8,by east the ,isle of ,may10 says he1 8twelve miles from all land in the ,german ,seas1 lyes a great hidden rock1 called ,inchcape1 very dangerous for navigators1 because it is overflowed everie tide4 ,it is reported in old times1 upon the saide rock there was a bell1 fixed upon a tree or timber1 which rang continually1 being moved by the sea1 giving notice to the saylers of the danger4 ,this bell or clocke was put there and maintained by the ,abbot of ,aberbrothok1 and being taken down by a sea pirate1 a yeare therafter he perished upon the same rocke1 with ship and goodes1 in the righteous judgement of ,god40--,,stoddart',s ,remarks on ,scotland4 ,no stir in the air1 no stir in the sea1 ,the ship was still as she could be2 ,her sails from heaven received no motion1 ,her keel was steady in the ocean4 ,without either sign or sound of their shock ,the waves flowed over the ,inchcape ,rock2 ,so little they rose1 so little they fell1 ,they did not move the ,inchcape ,bell4 ,the ,abbot of ,aberbrothok ,had placed that ,bell on the ,inchcape ,rock2 ,on a buoy in the storm it floated and swung1 ,and over the waves its warning rung4 ,when the ,rock was hid by the surge's swell1 ,the mariners heard the warning ,bell2 ,and then they knew the perilous ,rock1 ,and blest the ,abbot of ,aberbrothok4 ,the ,sun in heaven was shining gay1 ,all things were joyful on that day2 ,the sea-birds scream'd as they wheel'd round1 ,and there was joyaunce in their sound4 ,the buoy of the ,inchcape ,bell was seen ,a darker speck on the ocean green2 ,sir ,ralph the ,rover walk'd his deck1 ,and he fix'd his eye on the darker speck4 ,he felt the cheering power of spring1 ,it made him whistle1 it made him sing2 ,his heart was mirthful to excess1 ,but the ,rover's mirth was wickedness4 ,his eye was on the ,inchcape ,float2 ,quoth he1 8,my men1 put out the boat1 ,and row me to the ,inchcape ,rock1 ,and ,i'll plague the ,abbot of ,aberbrothok40 ,the boat is lower'd1 the boatmen row1 ,and to the ,inchcape ,rock they go2 ,sir ,ralph bent over from the boat1 ,and he cut the ,bell from the ,inchcape float4 ,down sunk the ,bell with a gurgling sound1 ,the bubbles rose and burst around2 ,quoth ,sir ,ralph1 8,the next who comes to the ,rock ,won't bless the ,abbot of ,aberbrothok40 ,sir ,ralph the ,rover sail'd away1 ,he scour'd the seas for many a day2 ,and now grown rich with plunder'd store1 ,he steers his course for ,scotland's shore4 ,so thick a haze o'erspreads the sky ,they cannot see the ,sun on high2 ,the wind hath blown a gale all day1 ,at evening it hath died away4 ,on the deck the ,rover takes his stand1 ,so dark it is they see no land4 ,quoth ,sir ,ralph1 8,it will be lighter soon1 ,for there is the dawn of the rising ,moon40 8,canst hear10 said one1 8the breakers roar8 ,for methinks we should be near the shore40 8,now1 where we are ,i cannot tell1 ,but ,i wish ,i could hear the ,inchcape ,bell40 ,they hear no sound1 the swell is strong2 ,though the wind hath fallen they drift along1 ,till the vessel strikes with a shivering shock1 8,o ,christ6 it is the ,inchcape ,rock60 ,sir ,ralph the ,rover tore his hair2 ,he curst himself in his despair2 ,the waves rush in on every side1 ,the ship is sinking beneath the tide4 ,but even in his dying fear ,one dreadful sound could the ,rover hear1 ,a sound as if with the ,inchcape ,bell1 ,the ,devil below was ringing his knell4 ,,index4 ,aberbrothock ,abbey1 #bch4 ,aberdeen ,harbour1 #acj4 ,adam1 ,robert1 architect1 #gh1 #hj1 #ig1 #ih4 ,adie1 ,alexander1 optician1 #ea1 #aib4 ,admiralty ,survey1 appeal for1 #aii4 ---- ,memoir of1 #bja4 ,airy1 ,sir ,g4 ,b41 #eb4 ,american ,suspension ,bridges1 #afc4 ,anderson1 ,dr41 #e1 #f4 ,anemometer1 #beg4 ,annan ,bridge1 #afj4 ,ardrossan ,harbour1 #acj4 ,argand lamps4 ,see ,lighthouse ,illumination4 ,astronomical ,institution of ,edinburgh1 origin of1 #bfe4 ,backwater1 value of1 #aca4 ,balance crane1 #aha1 #ahb4 ,barclay1 ,dr4 ,john1 #aai1 #bgj4 ,barnbougle1 foreshore1 #bda4 ,base line1 measurement of1 #aif4 ,baxter1 ,mr41 architect1 #gh4 ,beaufort1 ,sir ,f41 #bjb4 ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse3--,dangers of the rock1 #ac1 #ae2 ballad of ,sir ,ralph the ,rover1 #ac1 #bgd2 8,account0 of1 #ad2 ,mr4 ,stevenson's design of #ahjj for a stone tower1 #af2 improvements on ,smeaton's tower in design and arrangement of materials1 #af-bd2 ,bill of #ahjb-c thrown out on financial grounds1 #ah2 ,mr4 ,telford and ,mr4 ,rennie called in to support ,mr4 ,stevenson's design1 #ah2 ,act passed in #ahjf1 #ai2 progress of the work1 #be2 attending boat breaks adrift1 #bg2 life in the floating lightship1 #ca2 boating between lightship and the rock1 #cg2 ,mr4 ,stevenson's anxiety for the workmen1 #ci2 ,sunday work1 #dj2 life in the barrack or beacon1 #db2 cranes invented for the work1 #de1 #aha2 bust of ,engineer placed in the tower by the ,lighthouse ,board1 #de2 ,sir ,walter ,scott's visit to the tower1 and lines inscribed in the album1 #dg2 experiments on preservation of timber1 #aee2 experiments on iron1 #aei2 measurement of base line for ascertaining its distance from the shore1 #aif2 cement rubble cofferdams used at1 #beb2 observations on fog and fog signals1 #bed2 ,southey's 8,inchcape ,rock10 #bgd4 ,benson1 ,mr4 7,covent ,garden ,theatre71 #fa4 ,birkenhead ,docks1 #acb-aej4 ,blackwood1 ,w41 publisher1 #c4 ,blair1 ,sir ,d4 ,hunter1 #c4 ,blasting1 #bjc4 ,bolts1 unscrewing of1 by the waves1 #beb4 ,bremonteuil1 ,m41 #bdf4 ,bridges3--,mr4 ,stevenson's designs for ,marykirk1 ,annan1 ,stirling1 and ,hutcheson stone bridges1 #afj2 high level road bridge for ,newcastle1 #afa2 bridge of built planks1 #afb2 new form of suspension bridge1 #afb-afe2 paper on suspension bridges1 #afb2 provision for flood waters1 #bci4 ,buoyage system1 ,mr4 ,stevenson's1 #bec4 ,burn1 ,mr41 architect1 #bch1 #bci4 ,canals3--,mr4 ,stevenson's ,reports on1 upon one level without lockage1 #aaa2 ,strathmore1 #aaa2 ,edinburgh and ,glasgow1 #aaa2 ship canals1 #abe2 canal between the ,dee and ,mersey1 #acb-aej4 ,carr ,rock ,beacon3--,design for1 and tide machine for ringing bell or sounding a whistle1 #agg4 ,cast iron rails4 ,see ,railways4 ,cast iron tracks4 ,see ,roads4 ,cathcart1 ,viscount1 #bdg4 ,catoptric system4 ,see ,lighthouse ,illumination4 ,cement4 ,see ,mortar4 ,clerk1 ,john1 of ,eldin1 #ad1 #ae1 #ba1 #bb1 #aad4 ,coal light4 ,see ,isle of ,may4 ,cockburn1 ,lord1 #gf4 ,cofferdams1 cement rubble1 #beb4 ,colby1 ,colonel1 #fb1 #bjb4 #8,comet' steamer1 accident to1 #beh4 ,corran ,ferry1 #bce4 ,covent ,garden ,theatre1 #fj4 ,cramond ,suspension ,bridge1 #afb1 #afe4 ,cranes3--,moveable jib and balance cranes invented by ,mr4 ,stevenson1 #de1 #aha4 ,creech1 ,mr41 #c4 ,crichton1 ,mr41 architect1 #ia1 #ib4 ,cubitt1 ,sir ,w41 #bfe4 ,cumbrae ,lighthouse1 #b1 #e4 ,cycloidal talus wall1 #bdb4 ,davidson1 ,rev4 ,dr41 #b4 ,dee1 ,river 7,cheshire71 #acj1 #acb-aej4 ---- wasting effects of the sea at1 #bbe4 ,dee1 ,river 7,aberdeenshire71 density of salt and fresh water at1 #bbi4 ,dioptric system4 ,see ,lighthouse ,illumination4 ,double light1 #eh4 ,douglass1 ,j4 ,n41 ,c4,e41 #dg1 #agf4 ,dredging1 #bjc4 ,duff1 ,sheriff1 #bch1 #bga1 #bgd4 ,duncan1 ,sheriff1 #aij4 ,dundee ,harbour1 #acj1 #bdi1 #bea4 ,earl's ,palace1 ,kirkwall1 #bch4 ,east ,lothian ,railway1 #abd4 ,eddystone ,lighthouse1 ,mr4 ,stevenson's inspection of1 in #ahac and #ahah1 #df2 fears as to its security1 #df2 to be rebuilt1 #dg4 ,edgeworth1 ,r41 #ff4 ,edinburgh ,astronomical ,institution1 origin of1 #bfe4 ,edinburgh1 ,mr4 ,stevenson's design for approaches from the east by ,regent and ,london ,roads1 and opening up access to the ,calton ,hill1 #gd2 sites for the new ,jail1 ,court of ,justiciary1 and buildings in ,waterloo ,place1 #gg2 ,regent ,bridge1 #hh2 ,feuing ,plan for eastern district of ,edinburgh1 #ij2 improvement of accesses from the west and north and from ,granton1 #ij2 removal of ,old ,tolbooth ,prison1 #ia2 proposal to remove the ,university buildings1 #ie4 ,edinburgh ,railway1 #aad4 ,edinburgh and ,glasgow1 canal between1 #aaa4 ,elliot1 ,a41 architect1 #gf4 ,erne1 ,river1 #acj4 ,erskine1 ,lord ,advocate1 #ai1 #bga4 ,facet reflector1 #di4 ,fenwick1 ,mr41 #afj4 ,ferries1 #aja2 ,ferry ,engineering illustrated by ,mr4 ,stevenson's ,report on the ,tay ,ferries1 #ajb2 ,reports on various ferries1 #ajh2 ,orkney and ,shetland ,ferry1 #ajh4 ,fisheries3--,mr4 ,stevenson on the ,scottish fisheries1 #ahd2 origin of the ,shetland herring fishery1 #ahi2 sympiesometer suggested as a storm warning for fishing boats1 #aia2 habits of fishes1 #aic2 gases in air sacs of fishes1 #aid2 ,dr4 ,handyside's remarks on1 #aid2 ,hon4 ,b4 ,f4 ,primrose on the slow progress of the ,shetland fisheries1 #aie4 ,flashing light1 invention of1 by ,mr4 ,stevenson1 #eg4 ,floating light lantern1 #eh1 #ei4 ,fog and fog signals1 observations on1 #bed4 ,foreshores1 protection of1 #bda4 ,forth1 ,river1 #acj1 #bec4 ,foulerton1 ,captain1 ,trinity ,house1 #bei4 ,fowler1 ,j41 ,c4,e41 #aca4 ,fraserburgh ,harbour1 #acj4 ,fresnel1 ,a41 #fb4 ,german ,ocean1 the alveus or bed of1 #bjd1 #bje4 ,graham1 ,j4 ,gillespie1 architect1 #bch4 ,granton ,harbour1 #ij1 #acj4 ,gregory1 ,professor1 #hi4 ,haldane1 ,j41 architect1 #ae4 ,hamilton1 ,t41 architect1 #gf4 ,hamilton1 ,sheriff1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,handyside1 ,dr4 ,p4 ,d41 #aid4 ,harbours1 ,mr4 ,stevenson's ,reports on various1 #acj2 value of spending basins for1 #acj4 ,harris1 ,mr41 #fj4 ,henderson1 ,professor1 #bfh4 ,highland and ,agricultural ,society1 #abg1 #bdf4 ,hope1 ,lord ,president1 #ag1 #ah1 #bfi4 ,hope1 ,professor1 #g4 ,hutcheson ,bridge1 #afj4 ,hydraulic mortar1 #bdj4 ,hydrophore1 ,mr4 ,stevenson's invention of1 #bca-bce4 ,inglis1 ,colonel1 #bfi4 ,intermittent light1 invention of1 by ,mr4 ,stevenson1 #eg4 ,irish ,channel1 cause of heavy seas in1 #bdg2 sea routes across1 #bdh4 ,iron1 experiments on the durability of1 #aei4 ,isle of ,man ,lighthouses1 #h4 ---- observations on fog at1 #bef4 ,isle of ,may ,lighthouse1 #c1 #ec1 #eh4 ,jameson1 ,professor1 #g4 ,joseph1 ,samuel1 ,r4,a41 #de4 ,kincaid1 ,mr41 #bdf4 ,kinnairdhead ,lighthouse1 #e1 #di1 #aif4 ,laing1 ,s41 #ahe1 #aie4 ,leach1 ,dr41 #aee4 ,leslie1 ,sir ,j41 #ea1 #ajj4 ,lifeboats1 #bfj4 ,lighthouse ,illumination3--early modes of1 #dh2 facet reflectors and lamps1 #di2 silvered copper reflectors and ,argand lamps1 #di2 sliding lamp carriage1 #ea2 coal lights1 #ec2 distinctions among lights1 #eg2 dioptric system1 #fb4 ,lightship lantern1 ,mr4 ,stevenson's design for1 #eh1 #ei4 ,limnoria terebrans1 ravages of1 on timber1 #aee4 ,lipping of joints of masonry1 #bci4 ,loch ,eil1 #bce4 ,locomotive engine1 #abd4 ,lockhart1 ,j4 ,g41 #bgj4 ,london and ,edinburgh1 railway between1 #abe4 ,low1 ,professor1 #g4 ,m',adam1 ,j4 ,l41 #ff1 #fg1 #gj4 ,mackenzie1 ,murdoch1 #ach et seq4 ,manby's apparatus1 #bfa1 #bfb4 ,marine ,surveying1 #aif2 measurement of base line for ,bell ,rock1 #aif2 fixing site of ,kinnairdhead light1 #aif2 appeal for ,admiralty ,survey1 #aii2 history of ,admiralty ,survey1 #bja4 ,marjoribanks1 ,sir ,j41 #hi1 #ie4 ,marykirk ,bridge1 #fi1 #afj1 #bci4 ,melville1 ,lord1 #abf1 #afh4 ---- ,monument1 ,edinburgh1 #bch4 ,mersey1 ,river3 ,reports on harbour and dock at ,wallasey and the ,dee1 with connecting ship canal1 #acb-aej2 wasting effects of the sea at1 #bbe4 ,montrose ,bridge1 #aei1 #bdj4 ---- church spire1 #bch4 ,mortar1 hydraulic1 #bdj4 ,moveable jib crane1 #aha1 #ahb4 ,mowat1 ,mr41 of ,gardie1 #aij4 ,mullaghmore ,harbour1 #bde4 ,neill1 ,p41 ,,ll4,d41 #c1 #g1 #bgj4 ,netherlands1 ,king of1 #eh4 ,newcastle1 design for high level road bridge at1 #afa4 ,new ,york ,suspension ,bridge1 #afg4 ,niagara ,suspension ,bridge1 #afg4 ,night signal lamps1 #bdg4 ,nimmo1 ,alexander1 ,c4,e41 #acb1 #ace1 #bbe1 #bfe4 ,north ,berwick ,harbour1 #bej4 ,northern ,lighthouse ,board1 origin of1 #d2 ,mr4 ,smith appointed ,engineer1 #d2 first light exhibited by1 #e2 ,mr4 ,stevenson appointed ,engineer1 #g2 annual inspections and reports on the lighthouses1 #g2 send ,mr4 ,stevenson on a visit to the ,english lights1 #g2 ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 #ab2 improvements in lighthouse illumination adopted by1 #di2 lighthouses designed by ,mr4 ,stevenson1 #ef2 ,minute on the death of ,mr4 ,stevenson1 #bgc4 ,ordnance ,survey1 #bjb4 ,orkney and ,shetland ,ferries1 #ajh4 ---- ,fisheries1 #ahe1 #ahi1 #aie4 ,palmerston1 ,lord1 #bde4 ,pentland ,skerries ,lighthouse1 #f4 ,peterhead ,harbour1 #acj4 ,pinus maritima major1 for checking sand drift1 #bde4 ,playfair1 ,mr41 architect1 #gf4 ,playfair1 ,professor1 #g1 #ae1 #af1 #if1 #ajj1 #beb1 #bfg4 ,population1 prospective increase of1 #bej4 ,portpatrick ,harbour1 #acj1 #bdg1 #bdh4 ,price1 ,h41 ,c4,e41 #aca4 ,primrose1 ,hon4 ,b4 ,f41 #aie4 ,queensferry passage1 signal lamps for1 #bdg4 ,rae1 ,sir ,william1 #gg1 #ia1 #aad1 #agd1 #bch1 #beh1 #bei4 ,rails1 cast and malleable iron1 #abb1 #abc1 #abh4 ,railways on one level1 #aab2 haulage on1 #aab2 lines of railway in ,scotland laid out by ,mr4 ,stevenson1 #aab2 ,report on ,edinburgh ,railway1 #aad2 cast iron and malleable iron rails1 #abb1 #abc1 #abh2 locomotive1 #abd2 ,reports on various railway lines1 #abd1 #abe2 uniform gauge1 etc41 proposed for1 #abf2 notes on railways for the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society1 #abg2 description of permanent way of1 #abh2 letter from ,george ,stephenson1 #abh2 article on1 #bjc2 signal lamps1 #bdg4 ,reflectors4 ,see ,lighthouse ,illumination4 ,rendel1 ,j4 ,m41 #aea4 ,rennie1 ,george1 #bfe4 ,rennie1 ,john1 #ah1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bfe4 ,ribble1 ,river1 #acj4 ,ritchie1 ,professor1 #g4 ,rivers1 ,mr4 ,stevenson's ,reports on1 #acj2 value of backwater1 #aca2 ,tees navigation1 #aca2 ,reports by ,telford1 ,stevenson1 and ,nimmo1 on harbours and wet docks at ,birkenhead and at the ,dee with connecting ship canal1 #acb2 improvement of the ,tay navigation1 #aea2 experiments on the density of fresh and salt water1 #bbi4 ,roads3--,early roads and road making1 #fd2 ,edgeworth and ,m',adam's systems of road making1 #ff2 ,mr4 ,stevenson's system of road making1 #fg-gj2 cast iron tracks1 #fh2 stone tracks as a smooth and durable city road1 #ga2 article on1 #bjc4 ,robison1 ,professor1 #c1 #g1 #ae4 ,rosebery1 ,lord1 #bda4 ,salt water1 density of1 in estuaries and rivers1 #bbi4 ,sand drift1 checking of1 by 8bent0 grass and planting ,pinus maritima major1 #bde4 ,scotch ,lighthouse ,board4 ,see ,northern ,lighthouse ,board4 ,scott1 ,sir ,walter1 #be1 #dg1 #id1 #bch1 #bgj4 ,sectio planography1 #bje4 ,severn1 ,river1 #acj4 ,shetland ,ferries4 ,see ,ferries4 ,shetland ,fisheries1 #ahe2 origin of herring fishery1 #ahi4 ,ships1 build of1 #bdi4 ,shipwrecks1 notes on1 #bfj4 ,signal lamps1 #bdg4 ,sinclair1 ,sir ,john1 #abe4 ,skerryvore ,lighthouse1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,smeaton1 ,john1 #ba1 #bc1 #bd1 #bjf1 #bcf4 ,smith1 ,captain of the #8,orestes1' #afh et seq4 ,smith1 ,thomas3 improvements in lighthouse illumination1 #c1 #d1 #di2 ,engineer to the ,scotch ,lighthouse ,board1 #d2 ,cumbrae ,lighthouse1 #e2 ,pentland ,skerries ,lighthouse1 #f4 ,smyth1 ,professor ,piazzi1 #bfe4 ,southey's 8,inchcape ,rock10 #bgd4 ,spink1 ,j41 ,bell ,rock pilot1 #cj4 ,st4 ,andrews ,cathedral1 #bch4 ,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral1 #bch4 ,steamboats1 #ajg2 regulations for1 #beh2 lights for1 #bei4 ,stephenson1 ,george1 #aba1 #abd1 #abh4 ---- ,robert1 #afa4 ,stevenson1 ,alan1 #aea1 #bga4 ,stevenson1 ,robert3--birth1 #a2 superintends erection of ,cumbrae ,light1 #b1 #e2 resolves to be a ,civil ,engineer1 #e2 student at ,andersonian ,institution1 ,glasgow1 and ,university of ,edinburgh1 #e-g2 superintends ,pentland ,skerries ,lighthouse works1 #f2 appointed ,engineer to the ,northern ,lighthouse ,board1 #g2 annual inspections and ,reports on the ,scotch ,lighthouses1 #g2 inspection of and report on ,english lights1 #aj2 is taken for a ,french spy1 #aj2 ,journals1 #ab2 ,reports1 #ab4 ,design for the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse1 personal superintendence of the work during its execution1 and incidents connected therewith1 #ac-dg2 8,account0 of1 #ad4 ,lighthouse illumination1 improvements in1 #di2 sliding lamp carriage1 #ea2 lighthouses in ,scotland designed by1 #ef2 invents distinctions for lighthouses1 viz41 flashing1 intermittent1 and double lights1 #eg2 design for floating light lantern1 #ei2 ,report on dioptric system of illumination1 #fb4 ,system of road making1 #fg-gj2 cast iron tracks for roads1 #fh2 stone tracks1 #ga4 ,improvement of ,edinburgh3--design for approaches from the east by ,regent and ,london ,roads1 and opening up access to ,calton ,hill1 #gd2 ,report on sites for new ,jail and ,court of ,justiciary and buildings in ,waterloo ,place1 #gg2 building plan for eastern district of ,edinburgh1 #ij2 improvement of accesses from the north and west and from ,granton1 #ij2 visit to the jails of ,england1 #ia2 ,old ,tolbooth ,prison1 #ia2 ,report on removal of ,university buildings1 #ie4 ,ferries3--,reports on1 illustrated by those of the ,tay1 #ajb2 ,reports on various ferries1 #ajh4 ,report on canals on one level without lockage1 #aaa2 ,reports on railways1 #aab2 uniform gauge1 etc41 proposed for railways1 #abf2 notes on railways for the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society1 #abg2 description of permanent way1 #abh4 ,harbours and ,rivers3--,reports on1 #acj2 ,tees navigation1 #aca2 ,reports on harbour and wet docks at ,birkenhead1 and harbour at ,helbre on the ,dee with connecting ship canal1 #acb-aej2 ,tay river improvements1 #aea4 ,preservation of timber3--experiments on1 #aed2 preservation of iron1 #aei4 ,bridges3--designs for ,marykirk1 ,annan1 ,stirling1 and ,hutcheson stone bridges1 #afj2 design for high level road bridge at ,newcastle1 #afa2 bridge of built planks1 #afa2 new form of suspension bridge1 #afb1 #afe4 ,design for ,wolf ,rock ,lighthouse1 #afh4 ,design for ,carr ,rock ,beacon1 #agg2 proposal to use the tide for tolling a bell or sounding a whistle1 #agh4 ,invents the moveable jib and balance cranes1 #aha4 ,fisheries3--notes on the ,scotch1 #ahd2 origin of the ,shetland herring fishery1 #ahi2 suggestion for using the sympiesometer as a storm warning1 #ia2 experiments on air sacs of fishes1 #aid4 ,marine survey1 #aif2 measurement of base line1 #aif2 mode of ascertaining positions of lighthouses1 #aif2 appeal for ,admiralty ,survey and ,sailing ,directions1 #aii4 ,contributions to ,encyclopdia ,britannica and ,edinburgh ,encyclopdia1 #bjc2 alveus or bed of the ,german ,ocean1 #bjd1 #bje2 sectio planography1 #bje2 wasting effects of the sea on the estuaries of the ,mersey and ,dee1 #bbe2 discovery that the salt water flows up the beds of rivers in a stream distinct from the outflowing fresh water1 #bbi2 invents the hydrophore1 #bca4 ,wide range of subjects on which ,mr4 ,stevenson gave advice1 #bcf2 architectural reports1 #bcf2 extracts from early ,reports1 #bci4 ,retrospect of life1 #bfd4 ,stewart1 ,professor ,dugald1 #g1 #ig4 ,stirling ,bridge1 #afj4 ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 #abe4 ,stonehaven ,harbour1 #acj4 ,stone tracks4 ,see ,roads4 ,strathmore ,canal1 #aaa4 ---- ,railway1 #abd4 ,suspension ,bridges4 ,see ,bridges4 ,sympiesometer1 #aia4 ,tay ,ferries1 #ajb4 ---- ,river1 #acj1 #aea1 #bea4 ,tees1 ,river1 #acj1 #aca4 ,telford1 ,thomas1 #ah1 #abg1 #acb1 #adi1 #bfe4 ,thames1 ,river1 #bcd4 ,thomas1 ,captain1 ,admiralty ,survey1 #adj1 #bja4 ,tidal scour1 #bea4 ,timber3--experiments on durability of1 #aee2 ravages of the ,limnoria terebrans on1 #aeg2 charring1 #aeh2 creosoted #aei4 ,tour de ,cordouan1 #di1 #fc4 ,trinity1 cycloidal sea wall at1 #bdb4 ,walker1 ,james1 ,c4,e41 #gc1 #agf1 #bfe4 ,water3--experiments on the density of fresh and salt water at the ,dee1 #bbi2 ,thames1 ,loch ,eil1 etc41 #bce2 hydrophore for obtaining specimens of1 #bca4 ,watt1 ,james1 #abe1 #abf1 #afg4 ,waves1 action of1 in unscrewing bolts1 #beb4 ,wear1 ,river1 #acj4 ,wilson1 ,captain1 #dc4 ,winch ,chain ,bridge1 #afc4 ,wolf ,rock ,lighthouse3--design for1 #afh2 ,journal of visit to1 #afh-age2 tower built in #ahgj1 #age4 ,,printed ,,by ,t4 ,,and ,a4 ,,constable1 ,,printers ,,to ,,her ,,majesty1 ,,at ,,the ,,edinburgh ,,university ,,press4 ,,footnotes #a ,mr4 ,randall assumed the name of ,davidson after succeeding to the estate of ,muirhouse4 #b ,account of the ,bell ,rock ,lighthouse4 ,drawn up by desire of the ,commissioners of the ,northern ,lighthouses1 by ,robert ,stevenson4 ,edinburgh1 #ahbd4 #c #gth ,september #ahjg4 #d ,the tender was named after the great ,engineer4 #e ,spink's boat was too large to come close to the rock4 #f ,report of the ,royal ,commission on ,lighthouses1 #ahfa1 p4 #hf4 #g ,translation also by ,dr4 ,gregory3--8,in the reign of ,george the ,third1 the father of his country1 in the second year of the ,provostship of ,sir ,john ,marjoribanks1 ,baronet1 of ,lees1--,the citizens of ,edinburgh having made this new and magnificent access over the neighbouring hill to the capital city1 according to the plan of ,robert ,stevenson1 ,civil ,engineer1 ordered the name of the ,regent1 ,george ,augustus ,frederick1 to be inscribed on this bridge40 #h ,from which ,fig4 #ad has been made4 #i ,the essays most favourably noticed are those of ,mr4 ,alexander ,scott1 ,mr4 ,george ,robertson1 ,mr4 ,george ,douglas1 ,mr4 ,john ,ruthven1 ,mr4 ,james ,dickson1 ,mr4 ,james ,walker 7,carron71 ,mr4 ,james ,walker 7,lauriston71 ,mr4 ,john ,fraser1 ,mr4 ,john ,wotherspoon1 ,mr4 ,john ,moore1 and ,mr4 ,john ,baird4 #aj ,notice of the ,ravages of ,limnoria terebrans on ,creosoted ,timber4--,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 vol4 iv4 and vol4 viii4 #aa ,vol4 ii4 p4 #abi4 #ab ,vol4 ii4 p4 #aif4 #ac ,a ,sketch of the ,institution and the progress of the ,hydrographical ,department of the ,admiralty1 from its first establishment in the year #agie4 #ad ,vol4 x4 p4 #eg4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained2 occurrences of inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed4 ,index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,illustration facing page #gg3 credit line not entirely readable4