,transcriber's ,note ,in the ,plain ,text version of this e,book1 molecular structures in the ,chemistry chapter will display correctly only when a fixed-width font is used4 ,other special situations in that chapter are discussed in the ,transcriber's ,notes at the end of this e,book4 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,century ,,by ,,alfred ,,russel ,,wallace2 ,,prof4 ,,william ,,ramsay2 ,,prof4 ,,william ,,matthew ,,flinders-,,petrie2 ,,sir ,,joseph ,,norman ,,lockyer2 ,,edward ,,caird2 ,,william ,,osler2 ,w4 ,w4 ,,keen2 ,,prof4 ,,elihu ,,thomson2 ,,president ,,thomas ,,corwin ,,mendenhall2 ,,sir ,,charles ,,wentworth ,,dilke2 ,,captain ,,alfred ,t4 ,,mahan2 ,,andrew ,,lang2 ,,thomas ,c4 ,,clarke2 ,,cardinal ,,james ,,gibbons2 ,,rev4 ,,alexander ,v4 ,g4 ,,allen2 ,,prof4 ,,richard ,j4 ,h4 ,,gottheil2 ,,prof4 ,,goldwin ,,smith ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london ,,harper ,,brothers ,,publishers #aija ,copyright1 #aija1 by ,,harper ,,brothers4 ,copyright1 #aija1 by ,,the ,,sun ,,printing ,,and ,,publishing ,,association4 ,all rights reserved4 ,,contents ,,page ,,evolution4 ,,by ,,alfred ,,russel ,,wallace1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s #c ,,chemistry4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,,william ,,ramsay1 ,,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,,officer ,,of ,,the ,,legion ,,of ,,honor #cc ,,arch,,ology4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,,william ,,matthew ,,flinders-,,petrie1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,,edwards ,,professor ,,of ,,egyptology1 ,,university ,,college1 ,,london #gc ,,astronomy4 ,,by ,,sir ,,joseph ,,norman ,,lockyer1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,director ,,of ,,solar ,,physics ,,observatory1 ,,south ,,kensington #aje ,,philosophy4 ,,by ,,edward ,,caird1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,professor ,,of ,,moral ,,philosophy1 ,,glasgow #ade ,,medicine4 ,,by ,,william ,,osler1 ,,ll4,d41 ,,professor ,,of ,,medicine ,,and ,,physician ,,to ,,hospital1 ,,johns ,,hopkins ,,medical ,,school #agc ,,surgery4 ,,by ,w4 ,w4 ,,keen1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 7,,hon471 ,,professor ,,of ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,surgery ,,and ,,of ,,clinical ,,surgery1 ,,jefferson ,,medical ,,college1 ,,philadelphia #bag ,,electricity4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,,elihu ,,thomson1 ,a4,m41 ,,ph4,d41 ,,chevalier ,,and ,,officer ,,of ,,the ,,legion ,,of ,,honor #bfe ,,physics4 ,,by ,,president ,,thomas ,,corwin ,,mendenhall1 ,,ph4,d41 ,d4,,sc41 ,,ll4,d41 ,,member ,,national ,,academy ,,of ,,science #cjc ,,war4 ,,by ,,the ,,right ,,hon4 ,,sir ,,charles ,,wentworth ,,dilke1 ,,ll4,m4 #ccc ,,naval ,,ships4 ,,by ,,captain ,,alfred ,t4 ,,mahan1 ,,late ,u4,s4,n41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d4 #cee ,,literature4 ,,by ,,andrew ,,lang1 ,,hon4 ,,fellow ,,merton ,,college1 ,,oxford #chi ,,engineering4 ,,by ,,thomas ,c4 ,,clarke4 ,,past ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,society ,,of ,,civil ,,engineers #dba ,,religion3 ,,catholicism4 ,,by ,,cardinal ,,james ,,gibbons #dee ,,protestantism4 ,,by ,,rev4 ,,alexander ,v4 ,g4 ,,allen1 ,,professor ,,of ,,church ,,history ,,in ,,the ,,episcopal ,,theological ,,school ,,at ,,cambridge1 ,,mass4 #dgg ,,the ,,jews ,,and ,,judaism4 ,,by ,,professor ,,richard ,j4 ,h4 ,,gottheil #dih ,,free-,,thought4 ,,by ,,professor ,,goldwin ,,smith #eci ,,evolution ,among the great and fertile scientific conceptions which have either originated or become firmly established during the nineteenth century1 the theory of evolution1 if not the greatest of them all1 will certainly take its place in the front rank4 ,as a partial explanation 7for no complete explanation is possible to finite intelligence7 of the phenomena of nature1 it illuminates every department of science1 from the study of the most remote cosmic phenomena accessible to us to that of the minutest organisms revealed by the most powerful microscopes2 while upon the great problem of the mode of origin of the various forms of life--long considered insoluble--it throws so clear a light that to many biologists it seems to afford as complete a solution1 in principle1 as we can expect to reach4 ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,limits ,,of ,,evolution ,so many of the objections which are still made to the theory of evolution1 and especially to that branch of it which deals with living organisms1 rest upon a misconception of what it professes to explain1 and even of what any theory can possibly explain1 that a few words on its nature and limits seem to be necessary4 ,evolution1 as a general principle1 implies that all things in the universe1 as we see them1 have arisen from other things which preceded them by a process of modification1 under the action of those all-pervading but mysterious agencies known to us as 8natural forces10 or1 more generally1 8the laws of nature40 ,more particularly the term evolution implies that the process is an 8unrolling10 or 8unfolding10 derived probably from the way in which leaves and flowers are usually rolled up or crumpled up in the bud and grow into their perfect form by unrolling or unfolding4 ,insects in the pupa and vertebrates in the embryo exhibit a somewhat similar condition of folding1 and the word is therefore very applicable to an extensive range of phenomena2 but it must not be taken as universally applicable1 since in the material world there are other modes of orderly change under natural laws to which the terms development or evolution are equally applicable4 ,the 8continuity0 of physical phenomena1 as illustrated by the late ,sir ,william ,grove in #ahff1 has the same general meaning1 but evolution implies more than mere continuity or succession--something like growth or definite change from form to form under the action of unchangeable laws4 ,the point to be especially noted here is1 that evolution1 even if it is essentially a true and complete theory of the universe1 can only explain the existing conditions of nature by showing that it has been derived from some pre-existing condition through the action of known forces and laws4 ,it may also show the high probability of a similar derivation from a still earlier condition2 but the further back we go the more uncertain must be our conclusions1 while we can never make any real approach to the absolute beginnings of things4 ,herbert ,spencer1 and many other thinkers before him1 have shown that if we try to realize the absolute nature of the simplest phenomena1 we are inevitably landed either in a contradiction or in some unthinkable proposition4 ,thus1 suppose we ask1 ,is matter infinitely divisible1 or is it not8 ,if we say it is1 we cannot think it out1 since all infinity1 however it may be stated in words1 is really unthinkable4 ,if we say there is a limit--the ultimate atom--then1 as all size is comparative1 we can imagine a being to whom this atom seems as large as an apple or even a house does to us2 and we then find it quite unthinkable that this mass of matter should be in its nature absolutely indivisible even by an infinite force4 ,it follows that all explanations of phenomena can only be partial explanations4 ,they can inform us of the last change or the last series of changes which brought about the actual conditions now existing1 and they can often enable us to predict future changes to a limited extent2 but both the infinite past and the remote future are alike beyond our powers4 ,yet the explanations that the theory of evolution gives us are none the less real and none the less important1 especially when we compare its teachings with the wild guesses or the total ignorance of the thinkers of earlier ages4 ,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,evolution ,if we trace1 however briefly1 the gradual development of knowledge and speculation on this subject1 we shall perhaps appreciate more fully the advance we have really made during the present century4 ,the first speculations on the nature and source of the phenomena of the universe1 of which we have any knowledge1 are those of the early ,greek philosophers1 such as ,thales1 ,anaximander1 ,anaxagoras1 and ,empedocles2 but as the more important of their teachings are embodied1 with some approach to system and with much acuteness of reasoning1 in the great poem of the ,latin author ,lucretius1 8,on the ,nature of ,things10 it will be sufficient to give a sketch of his main conclusions1 making use of the excellent prose translation by ,mr4 ,h4 ,a4 ,j4 ,munro1 of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,lucretius had a very clear idea of the indestructibility of matter4 ,he argues that things cannot have come out of nothing1 and he says3 8,a thing never returns to nothing1 but all things1 after disruption1 go back into the first bodies of matter40 ,he then argues that1 as the actual processes of growth1 decay1 and other natural changes are imperceptible to us1 therefore 8,nature works by unseen bodies40 ,he justly claims great importance for the demonstration of the fact that in all matter whatever1 however solid and hard it may be1 there are vacancies1 or1 as he expresses it1 8,mixed up in all things there is void or empty space40 ,he thus anticipated the modern doctrine that the molecules of matter do not come into actual contact4 ,he then defines atoms thus3 8,first bodies are solid and without void02 and as nothing can be produced from nothing1 he concludes that these first bodies 7atoms or molecules7 must be everlasting1 and that they supply matter for the reproduction of all things4 ,he then goes on to prove that these 8first beginnings are of solid singleness1 not formed of parts1 but strong in everlasting singleness40 ,he further proves that these 8first beginnings0 7atoms7 cannot be infinitely small1 and also that the universe cannot be limited--that it is infinite4 ,he thus anticipated the main ideas as to atoms and the universe which have been held by most materialistic thinkers down to our own times4 ,lucretius was an absolute materialist1 for though he did not deny the existence of the gods he refused them any share in the construction of the universe1 which1 he again and again urges1 arose by chance1 after infinite time1 by the random motions and collisions and entanglements of the infinity of atoms4 ,he assumes some forces analogous to gravitation and the molecular motions of gases in the following passage3 8,for the first beginnings of things move first of themselves2 next these bodies which form a small aggregate and come nearest1 so to say1 to the powers of the first beginnings are impelled and set in movement by the unseen strokes of these first bodies1 and they next in turn stir up other bodies which are a little larger40 ,he also anticipated ,galileo as to the equal speed of all falling bodies when not checked by the air in the following precise statement3 8,for whenever bodies fall through water and thin air they must quicken their descents in proportion to their weights1 because the body of water and subtle nature of air cannot retard everything to an equal degree2 on the other hand1 empty void cannot offer resistance to anything in any direction at any time1 but must continually give way2 and for this reason all things must be moved and borne along with equal velocity1 though of unequal weights1 through the unresisting void40 ,this is a wonderfully accurate general statement of the equal rate of motion of all kinds of matter under the same forces2 and when we consider that there is no indication of any experimental basis for this conclusion1 and that nothing equivalent to our sciences of physics or chemistry existed1 we are amazed at the general correctness of many of his views1 derived solely by a process of reasoning from the most obvious phenomena of nature4 ,he argues that1 given infinite matter and space and inherent motion1 8things must go on and be completed10 and his general conclusion is thus expressed3 8,if you will apprehend and keep in mind these things1 nature1 free at once and rid of her haughty lords1 is seen to do all things spontaneously of herself without the meddling of the gods40 ,it is when he attempts to deal with the origin of living organisms that the absence of all knowledge of chemistry1 physiology1 and histology renders his task impossible and leads him into what seem to us the wildest absurdities4 ,he has an elaborate but very unconvincing argument that sensation can arise out of atoms which have no sensation2 and1 taking the appearance of worms1 etc41 in the earth and in putrid matter as a proof that they are still actually produced de novo in it1 he argues that at some remote epoch the now worn-out earth was more fertile1 and produced in like manner all kinds of animals4 ,the first human infants he supposes to have been formed at some very remote time in the manner following3 8,for much heat and moisture would then abound in the fields2 and therefore wherever a suitable spot offered wombs would grow1 attached to the earth by roots2 and when the warmth of the infants1 flying the wet and craving the air1 had opened these in the fulness of time1 nature would turn to that spot the pores of the earth and constrain it to yield from its opened veins a liquid most like to milk4 ,to the children the earth would furnish food1 the heat raiment1 the grass a bed rich in abundance of soft down4444 ,wherefore1 again and again ,i say1 the earth1 with good title1 has gotten and keeps the name of mother1 since she of herself gave birth to mankind1 and at a time nearly fixed shed forth every beast that ranges wildly over the great mountains1 and at the same time the fowls of the air with all their varied shapes40 ,the fact that this mode of origin commended itself to one of the brightest intellects of the first century ,b4 ,c41 enlightened by the best thought of the ,grecian philosophers1 may enable us the better to appreciate the immense advance made by modern evolutionists4 ,,the ,,first ,,real ,,steps ,,towards ,,evolution ,we have now a great blank of fifteen centuries--the dark ages of human progress--after which the era of observation and experiment began1 and for the first time men really set themselves to study nature1 thus laying the foundation for all the great theoretical advances of our time4 ,as leading to the next great step in theories of evolution1 we must note the life-long observations by ,tycho ,brahe of the apparent motions of the planets2 the grand discovery of ,kepler that all these apparently erratic motions were due to their revolution round the sun in elliptic orbits1 with a fixed relation between their distance from the sun and their periods of revolution2 and ,newton's epoch-making theory of universal gravitation by which all these facts and many others since discovered were harmonized and explained4 ,but all this implied no law of development1 and it was long thought that the solar system was fixed and unchangeable--that some altogether unknown or miraculous agency must have set it going1 and that it had in itself no principle of change or decay1 but might continue as it now is to all eternity4 ,it was at the very end of the eighteenth century that ,laplace announced his 8,nebular ,hypothesis10 the first attempt ever made to explain the origin of the solar system under the influence of the known laws of motion1 gravitation1 and heat1 acting upon an altogether different antecedent condition of things--a true process of evolution4 ,laplace supposed that the whole matter of the solar system was once in a condition of vapor1 and that it formed an enormous nebulous mass many times larger than the then known dimensions of the planetary sphere4 ,he showed how1 under the influence of gravitation1 this nebula would condense1 and that such irregularities of motion and density as would be sure to exist would lead to rotation of the mass4 ,under the law of gravitation this would lead to outer rings being left behind by the contraction of the central mass1 which rings would at a later period become drawn together at some point of initial greater density and thus form planets4 ,the whole process is admitted to be mathematically demonstrable1 given the initial conditions2 but recent extensions of our knowledge of the interplanetary and interstellar spaces have shown that the supposed void is really full of invisible solid matter1 ranging from the bulk of the smaller planets down to the finest dust1 and it is very difficult to imagine any possible causes which would keep all the solid matter of the system in a state of vapor1 when subject1 on the confines of the mass1 to the cold of interstellar space4 ,the antecedent condition of our system is now thought to have been either wholly or partially meteoritic1 but in either case we have a genuine theory of its evolution which has now been so extended as to include the appearance of comets and meteors1 of nebul1 and star clusters1 of temporary1 periodic1 and colored stars1 and many other phenomena of the stellar universe4 ,it is no objection to these grand theories to urge that they do not explain the origin of the matter of the universe1 either what it is or how it came to be where we now find it4 ,we can only take one step at a time1 and even if in these greater problems any further advance should be as yet denied us1 it is still a great thing to have been able to take even one secure step into the vast and mysterious depths of the interstellar spaces4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,earth',s ,,crust ,although ,pythagoras 7#ejj ,b4 ,c47 believed that sea and land must often have changed places1 and a few other observers at different epochs came to the same conclusion1 yet1 till quite recent times1 the earth was generally supposed to have been always very much as it is now2 people spoke of 8the eternal hills02 and the great mountain ranges1 the mighty ravines and precipices1 as well as the deep seas and oceans1 were believed to be the direct work of the ,creator4 ,it was only in the latter half of the eighteenth century that a few observers began to see the importance of studying the nature of the earth's crust1 so far as it could be reached in ravines1 quarries1 and mines2 and one of the most earnest of these students1 ,dr4 ,hutton1 of ,edinburgh1 after more than thirty years of travel and study1 published his great work1 ,the ,theory of the ,earth1 which must be considered to be the starting-point of modern geology4 ,he maintained that it was only by observing causes now in action that we can explain the phenomena presented by the stratified and igneous rocks2 he showed that the former must have been laid down by water1 and that the larger part of them1 containing as they do marine shells and other fossils1 must have been deposited on the sea-bottom4 ,he showed how rain and rivers1 frost and snow1 wind and heat disintegrated the hardest rocks and would in time excavate the deepest valleys2 while earthquakes1 however small an elevation any one of them might produce1 would in time raise the sea-bottom sufficiently high to form1 when denuded1 mountain ranges1 plains1 and valleys like those we now see everywhere upon the earth's surface4 ,he also showed that the most ancient stratified rocks1 those that lie at the very base of the series1 presented every indication of having been formed in exactly the same way as the most recent ones4 ,hence he stated a conclusion which excited a storm of opposition1 in these words3 8,in the economy of the world ,i can find no traces of a beginning1 no prospect of an end40 ,this was thought to imply a denial of creation1 and was quite sufficient at that period to prevent the work of any man of science from being judged impartially4 ,but although ,playfair and a few others upheld ,hutton's views1 they were too novel to receive much support by his contemporaries1 and this was especially the case as regards the slow and continuous action of existing causes being sufficient to account for all the known phenomena presented by the crust of the earth4 ,hence the belief in catastrophes and cataclysms--in great convulsions tearing mountains asunder1 and vast floods sweeping over whole continents--continued to prevail1 till finally banished by the genius and perseverance of one man1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell4 ,his ,principles of ,geology was first published in #ahcj1 and successive editions1 revised and often greatly extended1 continued to appear till the author's death1 forty-five years later4 ,as this work affords a fine example of the application of the principles of evolution to the later phases of the earth's history1 and as it not only revolutionized scientific opinion in its own domain1 but prepared the way for the acceptance of the still more novel and startling application of the same principles to the entire organic world1 it will be necessary to show what opinions prevailed at the time it first appeared in order that we may understand how great was the change it effected4 ,in the earlier years of the nineteenth century the standard geological work1 both in ,great ,britain and on the ,continent1 was ,cuvier's ,essay on the ,theory of the ,earth4 ,in #ahbg a fifth edition of the ,english translation appeared1 and there was a ,german translation so late as #ahcj--sufficient proofs of its wide popularity4 ,yet this work abounds in statements which are positively ludicrous to any one conversant with modern geology4 ,it never appeals to known causes1 but again and again assumes forces to be at work for which no evidence is adduced and which are totally at variance with what we see in the world to-day4 ,a few examples justifying these statements must be here given4 ,cuvier shows that he was acquainted with the theory of modern causes1 but he altogether rejects it1 saying that 8the march of nature is changed1 and none of the agents she now employs would have been sufficient for the production of her ancient works40 ,he adduces 8the primitive mountains0 whose 8sharp and bristling ridges and peaks are indications of the violent manner in which they have been elevated40 ,he allows that atmospheric agencies may form sea-cliffs1 alluvial deposits1 and taluses of loose matter at the foot of the precipices1 but he adds3 8,these are but limited effects to which vegetation in general puts a stop1 and which1 besides1 presuppose the existence of mountains1 valleys1 and plains--in short1 all the inequalities of the globe--and which1 therefore1 cannot have given rise to those inequalities40 ,he contrasts the calm and peaceful aspect of the surface of the earth with the appearances discovered when we examine its interior4 ,here1 in the raised beds of shells1 the fractured rocks1 the inclined or even vertical stratification1 he finds abundant proofs 8that the surface of the globe has been broken up by revolutions and catastrophes40 ,he also refers to the numerous large blocks of the primitive rocks scattered over the surface of secondary formations1 and separated by deep valleys or even by arms of the sea from the peaks or ridges from which they must have been derived1 as further proofs of catastrophes2 for1 it is argued1 they must have been either ejected by volcanic eruptions or carried by waters1 which1 in either case1 8must have exceeded in violence anything we can imagine at the present day10 and he therefore concludes that 8it is in vain we search among the powers which now act upon the surface of the earth for causes sufficient to produce the revolutions and catastrophes1 the traces of which are exhibited in its crust40 ,he is quite confident that all these changes go on rapidly1 periods of catastrophe alternating with periods of repose4 ,the present surface of the earth he holds to be quite recent1 and he maintains 8that1 if anything in geology be established1 it is that the surface of our globe has undergone a great and sudden revolution1 the date of which cannot be referred to a much earlier period than five or six thousand years ago2 that this revolution overwhelmed and caused to disappear the countries which were previously inhabited by man1 and the species of animals now best known2 that1 on the other hand1 it laid dry the bottom of the last sea1 and formed of it the countries which are at the present day inhabited40 ,and he further declares that 8this event has been sudden1 instantaneous1 without any gradation2 and what is so clearly demonstrated with respect to this last catastrophe is not less so with reference to those which preceded it40 ,the method followed by ,lyell was the very reverse of that of ,cuvier4 ,instead of assuming hastily that modern causes were totally inadequate1 and appealing constantly to purely imaginary and often inconceivable catastrophes1 ,lyell investigated these causes with painstaking accuracy1 applying the tests of survey and time measurement1 so as in many cases to prove that1 given moderately long periods of time--not a few thousands only1 but hundreds of thousands of years--they were fully adequate to explain the phenomena4 ,he also showed that the imaginary causes of ,cuvier would not explain the facts1 for that everywhere in the crust of the earth we found conclusive proofs of very slow continuous changes exactly analogous to what now occur1 never of great convulsions1 except quite locally1 as we have them now4 ,he showed that modern volcanoes had poured out vast masses of melted rock during a single eruption1 covering areas as extensive as those which any ancient volcano could be proved to have ejected in an equally short period2 that strata were now in process of formation comparable in extent and thickness with any ancient strata2 that organic remains are being preserved in them just as in the older rocks2 that the land is almost everywhere rising or sinking as of old2 that valleys are being excavated and plateaus or mountains upheaved2 that earthquake shocks are producing faults beneath the surface2 that vegetation is still preparing future coal beds2 that limestones1 clays1 sandstones1 metamorphic and igneous rocks are all still being formed2 and that1 given time1 and the intermittent or continuous action of the causes we can now trace in operation1 and all the varied features of the earth's surface1 as well as all the contortions and fractures which we discover in its crust1 and every other phenomenon supposed to necessitate catastrophes and cataclysms will be again produced4 ,in the massive volumes of the later editions of the ,principles of ,geology all these points are discussed and illustrated with such a wealth of facts and such cogent yet cautious reasoning as have carried conviction to all modern students4 ,it affords us perhaps the very best proof yet given of evolution in one department of the universe--that of the surface and the crust of the earth we inhabit4 ,not only have all the chief modifications during an almost unimaginable period of time been clearly depicted1 but they have in almost every case been shown to be the inevitable results of real and comparatively well-known causes1 such as we now see at work around us4 ,the grand generalizations of ,lyell have been strengthened since his death by more complete investigations of certain phenomena and their causes than were possible in his day2 while the only objections to them seem to be founded1 to some extent1 upon a misconception4 ,he has been termed a 8,uniformitarian10 and it is alleged that it is unphilosophical to take the limited range of causes we now see in action1 as a measure of those which have acted during all past geological time4 ,but neither ,lyell nor his followers make any such assumption4 ,they merely say1 we do not find any proof of greater or more violent causes in action in past times1 and we do find many indications that the great natural forces then in action--seas and rivers1 sun and cloud1 rain and hail1 frost and snow1 as well as the very texture and constituents of the older rocks1 and the mode in which the organisms of each age are preserved in them1 must have been in their general nature and magnitude very much as they are now4 ,other objections1 such as that the internal forces were greater when the earth was hotter1 and that tidal effects must have been more powerful when the moon was nearer the earth1 are altogether beside the question until we can obtain more definite measures of past time than we now possess in reference to both geological and cosmical phenomena4 ,it may well be that the physical changes above referred to have been so slow that they would have produced no perceptibly increased effect at the epoch of the early stratified rocks4 ,lyell's doctrine is simply that of real against imaginary causes1 and he only denies catastrophes and more violent agencies in early times1 because there is no clear evidence of their actual existence1 and also because known causes are quite competent to explain all geological phenomena4 ,it must be remembered1 too1 that uniformitarians have never limited the natural forces of past geological periods to the precise limits of which we have had experience during the historical period4 ,what they maintain is1 that forces of the same nature and of the same order of magnitude are adequate to have brought about the evolution of the crust of the earth as we now find it4 ,,organic ,,evolution1 ,,its ,,laws ,,and ,,causes ,we now come to that branch of the subject which is the most important and distinctive of our age1 and which1 in popular estimation1 alone constitutes evolution--the mode of origin of the innumerable species of animal and plant life which now exist or have ever existed upon the earth4 ,the origin of the different forms of life has till quite recent times been looked upon as an almost insoluble problem1 although a few advanced thinkers1 even in the eighteenth century1 perceived that it was probably the result of some natural process of modification or evolution2 but no force or law had been set forth and established in any way adequate to produce it until the publication of ,darwin's ,origin of ,species1 in #ahei4 ,in the later editions of that work1 ,darwin has given a historical sketch of the progress of opinion on the subject4 ,i shall1 therefore1 now only notice a few great writers which he has not referred to4 ,we have seen what an impossible and even ludicrous explanation had to be given by ,lucretius2 and from his day down to the middle of the eighteenth century no advance had been made4 ,either the problem was not referred to at all1 or the theological doctrine of a special creation was held to be the only possible one4 ,but in the middle of the eighteenth century the great ,french naturalist1 ,buffon1 published his very important work1 ,histoire ,naturelle1 in fifteen volumes 7#agdi-agfg71 in which1 besides describing the characters and habits of all the animals then known1 he introduced much philosophical and speculative thought1 which would probably have been carried much further had he not felt obliged to conform to the religious prejudices of the age4 ,we are indebted to ,mr4 ,samuel ,butler for having brought together all the important passages of ,buffon's voluminous and now little-read works bearing upon the question of evolution1 and it is from his volume that ,i quote4 ,buffon lays stress on the great resemblance of all mammalia in internal structure1 showing that the most unlike creatures may be really alike structurally4 ,he says3 8,the horse1 for example--what can at first sight seem more unlike mankind8 ,yet when we compare man and horse1 point by point and detail by detail1 our wonder is excited rather by the resemblances than by the differences between them40 ,he then shows that all the parts of the skeleton agree1 and that it is only in proportions1 the increase of some bones and the suppression of others1 that they differ1 adding3 8,if we regard the matter thus1 not only the ass and the horse1 but even man himself1 the apes1 etc41 might be regarded as forming members of one and the same family40 ,then1 after a few more illustrations1 he remarks3 8,if we once admit that there are families of plants and animals1 so that the ass may be of the family of the horse1 and that the one may only differ from the other by degeneration from a common ancestor1 we might be driven to admit that the ape is of the family of man1 that he is but a degenerate man1 and that he and man have had a common ancestor4444 ,if it were once shown that we had right grounds for establishing these families1 if the point were once gained that among plants and animals there have been even a single species which had been produced in the course of direct descent from another species1 then there is no further limit to be set to the power of nature1 and we should not be wrong in supposing that with sufficient time she could have evolved all other organized forms from one primordial type40 ,this indicates clearly enough his own opinion1 but to save himself from the ecclesiastical authorities he at once adds this saving clause3 8,but no6 ,it is certain1 from revelation1 that all animals have alike been favored with the grace of an act of direct creation1 and that the first pair of every species issued full formed from the hands of the ,creator40 ,such examples of disarming religious prejudice are frequent1 but he continually recurs to statements as to mutability which neutralize them4 ,here1 for example1 is a broad claim for nature as opposed to creation4 ,he has been showing how variable are many animals1 and how changes of food1 climate1 and general surroundings influence both their forms and their habits2 and then he exclaims3 8,what cannot nature effect with such means at her disposal8 ,she can do all except either create matter or destroy it4 ,these two extremes of power the ,deity has reserved for ,himself only2 creation and destruction are the action of ,his omnipotence4 ,to alter and undo1 to develop and renew--these are powers which ,he has handed over to the charge of nature40 ,here we have a claim for the power of nature in the modification of species which fully comes up to the requirements of the most advanced evolutionist4 ,it is remarkable1 too1 how clearly he perceived the great factors so important for the evolution of organisms1 rapid multiplication1 great variability1 and the struggle for existence4 ,thus he remarks3 8,it may be said that the movement of nature turns upon two immovable pivots--one1 the illimitable fecundity which she has given to all species2 the other1 the innumerable difficulties which reduce the results of that fecundity and leave throughout time nearly the same quantity of individuals in every species40 ,here the term 8difficulties0 corresponds to the 8positive checks0 of ,malthus1 and to the 8struggle for existence0 of ,darwin2 and he again and again refers to variability--as when he says3 8,hence1 when by some chance1 common enough with nature1 a variation or special feature makes its appearance1 man has tried to perpetuate it by uniting together the individuals in which it has appeared40 ,as ,buffon thus clearly understood artificial selection1 thoroughly appreciated the rapid increase of all organisms1 and equally well saw that their inordinate increase was wholly neutralized through such destructive agencies as hunger1 disease1 and enemies1 and as1 at the same time1 he had such unbounded faith in the power of nature to modify animal and vegetable forms1 we feel assured that this great writer and original thinker only needed freedom to pursue this train of thought a little further and he would certainly have anticipated ,darwin's great discovery of natural selection by a whole century4 ,even as it is we must class him as one of the great pioneers of organic evolution4 ,the next distinct step towards a theory of organic evolution was made by the poet ,goethe at the very end of the eighteenth century1 in his views of the metamorphosis of plants4 ,he pointed out the successive modifications of the leaf which produced all the other essential parts of the higher plants--the simple cotyledons or seed leaves became modified into the variously formed leaves of the fully grown plants2 these again were successively modified into the calyx1 corolla1 stamens1 and ovary of the flower4 ,he supposed this to be due to the increased refinement of the sap under the influence of light and air1 and to indicate the steps by which the various parts of the flower had been developed4 ,it was1 therefore1 a theory of evolution2 but it was very unsatisfactory1 inasmuch as it in no way accounted for the wonderful variety of the floral organs1 or indicated any purpose served by the most prominent and conspicuous part of the flower1 the highly colored and often strangely formed corolla4 ,it was also erroneous in supposing that the corolla was a modified calyx1 whereas it is now known to be a modification of the stamens4 ,next came the great work of ,lamarck in the first decade of the nineteenth century1 in which he proposed a general system of evolution of the whole animal world4 ,hence he may be termed the first systematic evolutionist4 ,his system has been rather fully described by ,lyell1 who1 in his ,principles of ,geology1 devotes a whole chapter to a summary of his doctrines2 while ,mr4 ,butler gives copious quotations in three chapters of his ,evolution ,old and ,new2 and any one who is not acquainted with the original work of ,lamarck should read these two authors in order to understand how wide was his knowledge1 how ingenious his explanations1 and in how many important points he anticipated the views both of ,lyell and ,darwin4 ,but he was half a century in advance of his age1 and his only alleged causes of modification--changed conditions1 use and disuse1 habit and effort--were wholly insufficient to account for the vast range of the phenomena presented by the innumerable minute adaptations of living organisms to their conditions of life4 ,he even imputed all the modifications of domestic animals to the changed conditions of food and habits to which they have been subjected by man1 making no reference to the use of selection by breeders1 in this respect falling short of his great predecessor1 ,buffon4 ,the general laws which ,lamarck deduces from his elaborate study of nature are these3 8,firstly4 ,that in every animal which has not passed its limit of development1 the more frequent and sustained employment of any organ develops and aggrandizes it1 giving it a power proportionate to the duration of its employment1 while the same organ1 in default of constant use1 becomes insensibly weakened and deteriorated1 decreasing imperceptibly in power until it finally disappears4 8,secondly4 ,that these gains or losses of organic development1 due to use or disuse1 are transmitted to offspring1 provided they have been common to both sexes1 or to the animals from which the offspring have descended40 ,the whole force of this argument depends upon the second clause--the inheritance of those individual modifications due to use and disuse4 ,but no direct evidence of this has ever been found1 while there is a good deal of evidence showing that it does not occur4 ,again1 there are many structures which cannot have been produced by use1 such1 for example1 as the feathers of the peacock's train1 the poison in the serpent's fangs1 the hard shells of nuts1 the prickly covering of many fruits1 the varied armor of the turtle1 porcupine1 crocodile1 and many others4 ,for these reasons ,lamarck's views gained few converts2 and although some of his arguments have been upheld in recent years1 the fatal objections to his general principle as a means of explaining the evolution of organic forms has never been overcome4 ,between the periods of ,lamarck and ,darwin many advances were made which clearly pointed to a general law of evolution in nature4 ,such were ,sir ,william ,grove's lectures on the 8,correlation of the ,physical ,forces10 in #ahdb2 ,helmholtz on the 8,conservation of ,energy10 in #ahdg2 and ,herbert ,spencer's essay on 8,the ,development ,hypothesis10 in #aheb4 ,this latter work was a complete and almost unanswerable argument for a natural process of continuous evolution of the whole visible universe1 including organic nature1 man1 and social phenomena4 ,it is further extended in the later editions of the author's ,first ,principles1 which1 as a coherent exposition of philosophy1 co-ordinating and explaining all human knowledge of the universe into one great system of evolution everywhere conforming to the same general principles1 must be held to be one of the greatest intellectual achievements of the nineteenth century4 ,it left1 however1 the exact method of evolution of organisms untouched1 and thus failed to account for those complex adaptations and appearances of design in the various species of animals and plants which have always been the stronghold of those who advocated special creation4 ,this difficulty was met by ,darwin's theory of ,the ,origin of ,species by ,means of ,natural ,selection1 published in #ahei1 and the series of works that succeeded it2 and to a brief sketch of this theory the remainder of our space must be devoted4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of 8,,natural ,,selection0 ,although1 as we have seen1 a succession of great writers and thinkers had for more than half a century shown the necessity for some process of evolution as the only rational or intelligible mode of origin of existing species of animals and plants1 as well as of the whole physical universe1 yet these views were by no means generally accepted by the educated classes1 while few bodies of students were less influenced by them than zoologists and botanists1 generally known as naturalists4 ,now1 ,darwin wrote especially for these classes1 and no one knew better than he did their great prejudice on this matter4 ,not only had such men as ,sir ,charles ,lyell and ,sir ,john ,herschel expressed themselves strongly against all theories of the transmutation of species1 but the universal contempt and indignation of naturalists as well as theologians against ,the ,vestiges of ,creation1 published anonymously a few years earlier1 and giving a most temperate and even religious exposition of the general arguments for the universality of evolution1 showed what any one might expect who advocated and attempted to demonstrate a similar theory4 ,this accounts for ,darwin writing to ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 in #ahdd1 of his being 8almost convinced that species are not 7it is like confessing a murder7 immutable10 and again1 in #ahde1 to the ,rev4 ,l4 ,blomefield1 that he now saw the way in which new varieties become exquisitely adapted to the external conditions of life and to other surrounding beings1 and he adds3 8,i am a bold man to lay myself open to being thought a complete fool1 and a most deliberate one40 ,it is only by a consideration of the frame of mind of even advanced thinkers at the time ,darwin was preparing his work1 and remembering how small was the effect which had been produced by ,buffon1 ,goethe1 ,lamarck1 the author of ,vestiges of ,creation1 and the earlier writings of ,herbert ,spencer1 that we can adequately realize the marvellous work that he accomplished4 ,let us now briefly consider the essential nature of this new theory1 which in a few brief years became the established belief of the great majority of the students of nature1 and which also gave a new interest in nature to the whole thinking world4 ,the theory of natural selection is founded upon a few groups of thoroughly ascertained and universally admitted facts1 with the direct and necessary results of those facts4 ,the first group of facts consists of the great powers of increase of all organisms and the circumstance that1 notwithstanding this great yearly increase1 the actual population of each species remains stationary1 there being no permanent increase4 ,now1 these two facts were recognized by ,buffon1 but though1 of course1 known to all subsequent writers1 were fully appreciated or thought out to their logical results by none of them4 ,lamarck1 so far as ,i can ascertain1 took no notice of them whatever4 ,darwin has given illustrations of these facts in ,chapter ,,iv4 of the ,origin of ,species1 and ,i have added others in the second chapter of my ,darwinism4 ,that the population of each species remains stationary1 with1 of course1 considerable fluctuations1 is both a matter of observation and of reasoning4 ,the powers of increase of all creatures are so great that if there is in any country room and food for a larger number of any species they will be produced in a year or two4 ,it is impossible1 therefore1 to believe that1 in a state of nature1 where all kinds of animals and plants have lived together as they best could for thousands of years1 there can be any important difference in their numbers from year to year or from century to century4 ,now1 it is as a consequence of these two indisputable facts that the struggle for existence necessarily results4 ,for if every year each pair of animals or each plant produces only ten young animals or plants1 and this is very far below the average1 and if the adult life of these is taken at ten years1 again below the average of the higher plants and animals1 then1 unless some of the parents die1 the whole of the offspring must die off every year2 or1 in other words1 only as many young can survive as are necessary to replace the old ones that die4 ,hence the deaths must always 7on the average and in the long run7 equal the births4 ,this terrible yearly destruction is an absolutely certain fact1 as well as an inevitable result of the two preceding facts1 and it is said to be due to the struggle for existence4 ,this struggle is manifold in its nature4 ,individuals of the same species struggle together for food1 for light1 for moisture2 they struggle also against other species having the same wants2 they struggle against every kind of enemy1 from parasitic worms and insects up to carnivorous animals2 and there is a continual struggle with the forces of nature--frosts1 rains1 droughts1 floods1 and tempests4 ,these varied causes of destruction may be seen constantly at work by any one who looks for them4 ,they act from the moment of birth1 being more especially destructive to the young2 and1 as only one in ten or fifty or a thousand 7according to the rate of increase of the particular species7 can possibly come to the full breeding age1 we feel compelled to ask ourselves3 ,what determines the nine or the forty-nine or the nine hundred and ninety-nine1 as the case may be1 which die1 and the one which survives8 ,darwin calls this process of extermination one of 8natural selection0--that is1 by this process nature weeds out the weak1 the unhealthy1 the unadapted1 the imperfect in any way4 ,of course1 what may be called chance or accident produces many deaths of individuals otherwise well fitted to live1 but if we think of the process going on day by day and year by year till only one in a hundred of those born in a given area are left alive1 it is impossible to suppose that the one which has passed through all the dangers and risks which have been fatal to1 say1 his ninety-nine relations was not1 in all the faculties and qualities essential to the continuance of the race1 decidedly better organized than the bulk of those which succumbed4 ,herbert ,spencer calls the process the 8survival of the fittest10 and though the term may not be strictly accurate in the case of any one species in any one year1 yet when we consider that the struggle is going on every year1 during the whole duration of each species1 we cannot doubt that1 on the whole1 and in the long run1 those which survive are among the fittest4 ,the struggle is so severe1 so incessant1 that the smallest defect in any sense organ1 any physical weakness1 any imperfection in constitution1 will almost certainly1 at one time or another1 be fatal4 ,this continual weeding out of the less fit1 in every generation1 and with exceptional severity in recurring adverse seasons1 will produce two distinct effects1 which require to be clearly distinguished4 ,the first is the preservation of each species in the highest state of adaptation to the conditions of its existence2 and1 therefore1 so long as these conditions remained unchanged1 the effect of natural selection is to keep each well-adapted species also unchanged4 ,the second effect is produced whenever the conditions vary1 when1 taking advantage of the variations continually occurring in all well-adapted and therefore populous species1 the same process will slowly but surely bring about complete adaptation to the new conditions4 ,and here another fact--the normal variability of all populous or dominant species1 which is seldom realized except by those who have largely and minutely compared the individuals of many species in a state of nature--comes into play4 ,there are some writers who admit all the preceding facts and reasoning1 so far as the action of natural selection in weeding out the unfit and thus keeping every species in the highest state of efficiency is concerned1 but who deny that it can modify them in such a way as to adapt them to new conditions1 because they allege that 8the right variations will not always occur at the right time40 ,this seems a strong and real objection to many of their readers1 but to those who have studied the variability of species in nature1 it is a mere verbal difficulty dependent on ignorance of the actual facts4 ,a brief statement of the facts must therefore be given4 ,of late years1 and chiefly since ,darwin's works were written1 the variability of animals and plants in a state of nature has been carefully studied1 by actual comparison and measurement of scores1 hundreds1 and even thousands of individuals of many common1 that is1 abundant and widely distributed species2 and it is found that in almost every case they vary greatly1 and1 what is still more important1 that every organ and every appendage varies independently and to a large amount4 ,some of the best known of these facts of variation are adduced in my ,darwinism1 and are illustrated by numerous diagrams1 and much more extensive series have since been examined1 always with the same general result4 ,by large variability is meant a variation of from ten to twenty-five per cent4 on each side of the mean size1 this amount of variation occurring in at least five or ten per cent4 of the whole number of individuals1 and in every organ or part as yet examined1 external or internal4 ,now1 as the weeding-out process is so severe1 only from one in ten to one in a hundred of those born surviving to produce young1 the above proportion of variations affords ample scope for the selection of any variation needed in order to modify the species so as to bring it into harmony with new or changing conditions4 ,and this will be the more easy and certain if we consider how slowly land-surfaces and climates undergo permanent changes2 and these are certainly the kind of changes that initiate and compel alterations1 first1 perhaps1 in the distribution1 and afterwards in the structure and habits of species4 ,it follows1 therefore1 as an absolutely necessary conclusion from the facts1 if natural selection can and does keep each continually varying species in close adaptation to an unchanging environment1 that it preserves the fixity of its mean or average condition1 and almost every objector admits this4 ,then1 given a slowly changing environment1 the same power must inevitably bring about whatever corresponding change is needed for the well-being and permanent survival of the various species which are subjected to those changed conditions4 ,i shall not add here a further consideration of the objections and difficulties alleged by critics of the theory4 ,all of these have1 ,i believe1 been fully answered either by ,darwin or myself1 many of the most recent having been discussed in review articles4 ,suffice it to say here that this theory of natural selection--meaning the elimination of the least fit1 and therefore the ultimate 8survival of the fittest0--has furnished a rational and precise explanation of the means of adaptation of all existing organisms to their conditions1 and therefore of their transformation from the series of distinct but allied species which occupied the earth at some preceding epoch4 ,in this sense it has actually demonstrated the 8origin of species10 and1 by carrying back this process step by step into earlier and earlier geological times1 we are able mentally to follow out the evolution of all forms of life from one or a few primordial forms4 ,natural selection has thus supplied that motive power of change and adaptation that was wanting in all earlier attempts at explanation1 and this has led to its very general acceptance both by naturalists and by the great majority of thinkers and men of science4 ,the brief sketch now given of the progress of human thought on the questions of the fact and the mode of the evolution of the material universe indicates how great has been the progress during the nineteenth as compared with all preceding centuries4 ,although the philosophical writers of classical times obtained a few glimpses of the action of law in nature regulating its successive changes1 nothing satisfactory could be effected till the actual facts had been better ascertained by the whole body of workers who1 during the last five centuries1 have penetrated ever more and more deeply into nature's mysteries and laws4 ,by their labors we became possessed of such a body of carefully observed facts that1 towards the end of the eighteenth century1 such thinkers as ,laplace and ,hutton were enabled to give us the first rudiments of theories of evolution as applied to the solar system and the earth's crust1 both of which have been greatly developed and rendered more secure during the century just passed away4 ,in like manner ,buffon and ,goethe may be said to have started the idea of organic evolution1 more systematically treated a little later by ,lamarck1 but still without any discovery of laws adequate to produce the results we see everywhere in nature4 ,the subject then languished1 till1 after twenty years of observation and research1 ,charles ,darwin produced a work which at once satisfied many thinkers that the long-desired clew had been discovered4 ,its acceptance by almost the whole scientific world soon followed3 it threw new light on almost every branch of research1 and it will probably take its place1 in the opinion of future generations1 as the crowning achievement of the nineteenth century4 ,,alfred ,,russel ,,wallace4 ,,chemistry ,the progress of the science of chemistry forms one phase of the progress of human thought4 ,while at first mankind was contented to observe certain phenomena1 and to utilize them for industrial purposes1 if they were found suitable1 8philosophers10 as the thinking portion of our race loved to call themselves1 have always attempted to assign some explanation for observed facts1 and to group them into similars and dissimilars4 ,it was for long imagined1 following the doctrines of the ,greeks and of their predecessors1 that all matter consisted of four elements or principles1 names which survive to this day in popular language4 ,these were 8fire10 8air10 8water10 and 8earth40 ,it was not until the seventeenth century that ,boyle in his ,sceptical ,chymist 7#affa7 laid the foundations of the modern science1 by pointing out that it was impossible to explain the existence of the fairly numerous chemical substances known in his day1 or the changes which they can be made to undergo1 by means of the ancient ,greek hypotheses regarding the constitution of matter4 ,he laid down the definition of the modern meaning of the word 8element02 he declined to accept the current view that the properties of matter could be modified by its assimilating the qualities of fire1 air1 earth1 or water1 and he defined an element as the constituent of a compound body4 ,the first problem1 then1 to be solved1 was to determine which of the numerous forms of matter were to be regarded as elementary1 and which are compound1 or composed of two or more elements in a state of combination2 and to produce such compounds by causing the appropriate elements to unite with each other4 ,one of the first objects to excite curiosity and interest was the air which surrounds us1 and in which we live and move and have our being4 ,it was1 however1 endowed with a semi-spiritual and scarcely corporeal nature in the ideas of our ancestors1 for it does not affect the senses of sight1 smell1 or taste1 and though it can be felt1 yet it eludes our grasp4 ,the word 8gas10 moreover1 was not invented until ,van ,helmont devised it to designate various kinds of 8airs0 which he had observed4 ,the important part which gases play in the constitution of many chemical compounds was accordingly overlooked2 and1 indeed1 it appeared to be almost as striking a feat of necromancy to produce a quantity of a gas of great volume from a small pinch of solid powder as for a 8,jinn0 of enormous stature but of delicate texture to issue from a brass pot1 as related in the ,arabian ,nights ,entertainments4 ,gradually1 however1 it came to be recognized1 not merely that gases have corporeal existence1 but that they even possess weight4 ,this1 though foreshadowed by ,torricelli1 ,jean ,rey1 and others1 was first clearly proved by ,black1 professor of chemistry in ,edinburgh1 in #ageb1 through his masterly researches1 as carbonic acid4 ,the ignorance of the material nature of gases and of their weight lies at the bottom of the 8,phlogistic ,theory10 a theory devised by ,stahl about the year #afij1 to account for the phenomena of combustion and respiration and the recovery or 8reduction0 of metals from their 8earths0 by heating with charcoal or allied bodies4 ,according to this inverted theory1 a substance capable of burning was imagined to contain more or less phlogiston1 a principle which it parted with on burning1 leaving an earth deprived of phlogiston1 or 8dephlogisticated10 behind if a metal4 ,this earth1 when heated with substances rich in phlogiston1 such as coal1 wood1 flour1 and similar bodies1 recovered the phlogiston1 which it had lost on burning1 and1 with the added phlogiston1 its metallic character4 ,other substances1 such as phosphorus and sulphur1 gave solids or acid liquids1 to which phlogiston was not so easy to add2 but even they could be rephlogisticated4 ,on this hypothesis1 it was the earths1 and such acid liquids as sulphuric or phosphoric acids1 which were the elements2 the metals and sulphur and phosphorus were their compounds with phlogiston4 ,the discovery of oxygen by ,priestley and by ,scheele in #aggd1 and the explanation of its functions by ,lavoisier during the following ten years1 gave their true meaning to these phenomena4 ,it was then recognized that combustion was union with oxygen2 that an 8earth0 or 8calx0 was to be regarded as the compound of a metal with oxygen2 that when a metal becomes tarnished1 and converted into such an earthy powder1 it is being oxidized2 that this oxide1 on ignition with charcoal or carbon1 or with compounds such as coal1 flour1 or wood1 of which carbon is a constituent1 gives up its oxygen to the carbon1 forming an oxide of carbon1 carbonic oxide on the one hand1 or carbonic 8acid0 on the other1 while the metal is reproduced in its 8reguline0 or metallic condition1 and that the true elements are metals1 carbon1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 and similar bodies1 and not the products of their oxidation4 ,the discovery that air is in the main a mixture of nitrogen1 an inert gas1 and oxygen1 an active one1 together with a small proportion of carbonic 8acid0 7or1 as it is now termed1 anhydride7--a discovery perfected by ,rutherford1 ,black1 and ,cavendish--and that water is a compound with oxygen of hydrogen1 previously known as inflammable air1 by ,cavendish and by ,watt1 finally overthrew the theory of phlogiston2 but at the beginning of this century it still lingered on1 and was defended by ,priestley until his death in #ahjd4 ,such1 in brief1 was the condition of chemical thought in the year #ahjj4 ,scheele had died in #aghf1 at the early age of forty-four2 ,lavoisier was one of the victims of the ,french ,revolution1 having been guillotined in #agid2 ,cavendish had ceased to work at chemical problems1 and was devoting his extraordinary abilities to physical problems of the highest importance1 while living the life of an eccentric recluse1 and ,priestley1 driven by religious persecution from ,england to the more tolerant shores of ,america1 was enjoying a peaceful old age1 enlivened by occasional incursions into the region of sectarian controversy4 ,the first striking discovery of our century was that of the compound nature of the alkalies and of the alkaline earths4 ,this discovery was made by ,humphry ,davy4 ,born in ,cornwall in #aggh1 he began the study of chemistry1 self-taught1 in #agif2 and in #agii he became director of the 8,pneumatic ,institution10 an undertaking founded by ,dr4 ,beddoes1 at ,bristol1 for the purpose of experiments on the curative effects of gases in general4 ,here he at once made his mark by the discovery of the remarkable properties of 8laughing gas10 or nitrous oxide4 ,at the same time he constructed a galvanic battery1 and began to perform experiments with it in attempting to decompose chemical compounds by its means4 ,in #ahja ,davy was appointed professor of chemistry at the ,royal ,institution1 a society or club which had been founded a few years previously by ,benjamin ,thompson1 ,count ,rumford1 for the purpose of instructing and amusing its members with recent discoveries in chemistry and natural philosophy4 ,in #ahjg ,davy applied his galvanic battery to the decomposition of damp caustic potash and soda1 using platinum poles4 ,he was rewarded by seeing globules of metal1 resembling mercury in appearance1 at the negative pole2 and he subsequently proved that these globules1 when burned1 reproduced the alkali from which they had been derived4 ,they also combined with 8oxymuriatic acid10 as chlorine 7discovered by ,scheele7 was then termed1 forming ordinary salt1 if sodium be employed1 and the analogous salt1 8muriate of potash10 if the allied metal1 potassium1 were subjected to combustion4 ,by using mercury as the negative pole1 and passing a current through a strong solution of the chloride of calcium1 strontium1 or barium1 ,davy succeeded in procuring mixtures with mercury or 8amalgams0 of their metals1 to which he gave the names calcium1 strontium1 and barium4 ,distillation removed most of the mercury1 and the metal was left behind in a state of comparative purity4 ,the alkali metals1 potassium and sodium1 were found to attack glass1 liberating 8the basis of the silex10 to which the name silicon has since been given4 ,thus nearly the last of the 8earths0 had been decomposed4 ,it was proved that not merely were the 8calces0 of iron1 copper1 lead1 and other well-known metals compounds of the respective metals with oxygen1 but ,davy showed that lime1 and its allies1 strontia and baryta1 and even silica or flint1 were to be regarded as oxides of elements of metallic appearance4 ,to complete our review of this part of the subject1 suffice it to say that aluminum1 a metal now produced on an industrial scale1 was prepared for the first time in #ahbg by ,whler1 professor of chemistry at ,gttingen1 by the action of potassium on its chloride1 and alumina1 the earthy basis of clay1 was shown to be the oxide of the metal aluminum4 ,indeed1 the preparation of this metal in quantity is now carried out at ,schoffhausen-on-the-,rhine and at the ,falls of ,foyers1 in ,scotland1 by electrolysis of the oxide dissolved in melted cryolite1 a mineral consisting of the fluorides of sodium and aluminum1 by a method differing only in scale from that by means of which ,davy isolated sodium and potassium in #ahjf4 ,to ,davy1 too1 belongs the merit of having dethroned oxygen from its central position among the elements4 ,lavoisier gave to this important gas the name 8oxygen10 because he imagined it to be the constituent of all acids4 ,he renamed the common compounds of oxygen in such a manner that the term oxygen was not even represented in the name--only inferred4 ,thus a 8nitrate0 is a compound of an oxide of nitrogen and an oxide of a metal2 a 8sulphate10 of the oxide of a metal with one of the oxides of sulphur1 and so on4 ,davy1 by discovering the elementary nature of chlorine1 showed1 first1 that it is not an oxide of hydrochloric acid 7or muriatic acid as it was then called72 and1 second1 that the latter acid is the compound of the element chlorine with hydrogen4 ,this he did by passing chlorine over white-hot carbon--a substance eminently suited to deprive oxy-compounds of their oxygen--and proving that no oxide of carbon is thereby produced2 by acting on certain chlorides1 such as those of tin or phosphorus with ammonia1 and showing that no oxide of tin or phosphorus is formed2 and1 lastly1 by decomposing 8muriatic acid gas0 7gaseous hydrogen chloride7 with sodium1 and showing that the only product besides common salt is hydrogen4 ,instead1 therefore1 of the former theory that a chloride was a compound of the unknown basis of oxymuriatic acid with oxygen and the oxide of a metal1 he introduced the simpler and correct view that a chloride is merely a compound of the element chlorine with a metal4 ,in #ahac he established the similar nature of fluorine1 pointing out that on the analogy of the chlorides it was a fair deduction that the fluorides are compounds of an undiscovered element1 fluorine1 with metals2 and that hydrofluoric acid is the true analogue of hydrochloric acid4 ,the truth of this forecast has been established of recent years by ,henri ,moissan1 who isolated gaseous fluorine by subjecting a mixture of hydrofluoric acid and hydrogen potassium fluoride contained in a platinum ,u tube to the action of a powerful electric current4 ,he has recently found that the tube may be equally well constructed of copper2 and this may soon lead to the industrial application of the process4 ,the difficulty of isolating fluorine is due to its extraordinary chemical energy2 for there are few substances1 elementary or compound1 which resist the action of this pale yellow1 suffocating gas4 ,in #ahaa iodine1 separated by ,courtois from the ashes of sea-plants1 was shown by ,davy to be an element analogous to chlorine4 ,gay-,lussac subsequently investigated it and prepared many of its compounds2 and in #ahbf the last of these elements1 bromine1 was discovered in the mother-liquor of sea-salt by ,balard4 ,the elements of this group have been termed 8halogens10 or 8salt producers40 ,while ,davy was pouring his researches into the astonished ears of the scientific and dilettante world1 ,john ,dalton1 a ,manchester school-master1 conceived a theory that has proved of the utmost service to the science of chemistry1 and which bids fair to outlast our day4 ,it had been noticed by ,wenzel1 by ,richter1 by ,wollaston1 and by ,cavendish1 towards the end of the last century1 that the same compounds contain the same constituents in the same proportions1 or1 as the phrase runs1 8possess constant composition40 ,wollaston1 indeed1 had gone one step farther1 and had shown that when the vegetable acid1 oxalic acid1 is combined with potash1 it forms two compounds1 in one of which the acid is contained in twice as great an amount relatively to the potash as in the other4 ,the names monoxalate and binoxalate of potash were applied to these compounds1 to indicate the respective proportions of the ingredients4 ,dalton conceived the happy idea that by applying the ancient ,greek conception of atoms to such facts the relative weights of the atoms could be determined4 ,illustrating his views with the two compounds of carbon with hydrogen1 marsh gas and olefiant gas1 and with the two acids of carbon1 carbonic oxide1 carbonic 8acid10 he regarded the former as a compound of one atom of carbon and one of hydrogen1 and the second as a compound of one atom of carbon and two of hydrogen1 and similarly for the two oxides of carbon4 ,knowing the relative weights in which these elements enter into combination1 we can deduce the relative weights of the atoms4 ,placing the relative weight of an atom of hydrogen equal to unity1 we have3 ,marsh ,olefiant ,carbonic ,carbonic ,gas ,gas ,oxide ,acid ,carbon #f #f ,carbon #e #f ,hydrogen #a #b ,oxygen #h #af ,thus the first compound1 marsh gas1 was regarded by ,dalton as composed of an atom of carbon in union with an atom of hydrogen2 or1 to reproduce his symbols1 as 2 while the second1 olefiant gas1 on this hypothesis1 was a compound of two atoms of hydrogen with one of carbon1 or 4 ,similarly the symbols 1 and were given to the two compounds of carbon with oxygen4 ,so water was assigned the symbol 1 for ,dalton imagined it to be a compound of one atom of hydrogen with one of oxygen4 ,compounds containing only two atoms were termed by him 8binary02 those containing three1 8ternary02 four1 8quaternary10 and so on4 ,the weight of an atom of oxygen was eight times that of an atom of hydrogen2 while that of an atom of carbon was six times as great as the unit4 ,by assigning symbols to the elements1 consisting of the initial letters of their names1 or of the first two letters1 formulas were developed1 indicating the composition of the compound1 the atomic weights of the elements being assured4 ,thus1 ,na,o signified a compound of an atom of sodium 7natrium71 weighing twenty-three times as much as a similar atom of hydrogen1 with an atom of oxygen1 possessing eight times the weight of an atom of hydrogen4 ,therefore1 thirty-one pounds of soda should consist of twenty-three pounds of sodium in combination with eight pounds of oxygen1 for1 according to ,dalton1 each smallest particle of soda contains an atom of each element1 and the proportion is not changed1 however many particles be considered4 ,it has been pointed out by ,judge ,stallo1 of ,philadelphia1 in his ,concepts of ,physics1 that such a hypothesis as that of ,dalton is no explanation2 that a fact of nature1 as1 for example1 the fact of simple and multiple proportions1 is not explained by being minified4 ,allowing the general truth of this statement1 it is1 nevertheless1 undoubted that chemistry owes much to ,dalton's hypothesis--a lucky guess at first1 it represents one of the fundamental truths of nature1 although its form must be somewhat modified from that in which ,dalton conceived it4 ,dalton's work was first expounded by ,thomas ,thomson1 professor at ,glasgow1 in his ,system of ,chemistry1 published in #ahje2 and subsequently in ,dalton's own ,new ,system of ,chemical ,philosophy1 the three volumes of which were published in #ahjh1 in #ahaj1 and in #ahbg4 ,the determination of these 8,constants of ,nature0 was at once followed out by many chemists1 ,thomson among the first4 ,but chief among the chemists who have pursued this branch of work was ,jacob ,berzelius1 a ,swede1 who devoted his long life 7#aggi-ahdh7 to the manufacture of compounds1 and to the determination of their composition1 or1 as it is still termed1 the determination of the 8atomic weights0--more correctly1 8equivalents0--of the elements of which they are composed4 ,it is to him that we owe most of our analytical methods1 for1 prior to his time1 there were few1 if any1 accurate analyses4 ,although ,lavoisier had devised a method for the analysis of compounds of carbon1 viz41 by burning the organic compounds in an atmosphere of oxygen contained in a bell-jar over mercury1 and measuring the volume of carbon dioxide produced1 as well as that of the residual oxygen1 ,berzelius achieved the same results more accurately and more expeditiously by heating the substance1 mixed with chlorate of potassium and sodium chloride1 and then estimating the hydrogen as well as the carbon2 this process was afterwards perfected by ,liebig4 ,berzelius1 however1 was able to show that compounds of carbon1 like those of other elements1 were instances of combination in constant and in multiple proportions4 ,in #ahae two papers were published in the ,annals of ,philosophy by ,dr4 ,prout1 which have had much influence on the progress of chemistry4 ,they dealt with the figures which were being obtained by ,thomson1 ,berzelius1 and others1 at that time supposed to represent the 8atomic weights0 of the elements4 ,prout's hypothesis1 based on only a few numbers1 was that the atomic weights of all elements were multiples of that of hydrogen1 taken as unity4 ,there was much dispute regarding this assertion at the time1 but as it was contradicted by ,berzelius's numbers1 the balance of opinion was against it4 ,but about the year #ahdj ,dumas discovered an error in the number 7#ab4ab7 given by ,berzelius as the atomic weight of carbon2 and with his collaborator1 ,stas1 undertook the redetermination of the atomic weights of the commoner elements--for example1 carbon1 oxygen1 chlorine1 and calcium4 ,this line of research was subsequently pursued alone by ,stas1 whose name will always be remembered for the precision and accuracy of his experiments4 ,at first ,dumas and ,stas inclined to the view that ,prout's hypothesis was a just one1 but it was completely disproved by ,stas's subsequent work1 as well as by that of numerous other observers4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 curious that a much larger proportion of the atomic weights approximate to whole numbers than would be foretold by the doctrine of chances1 and perhaps the last has not been heard of ,prout's hypothesis1 although in its original crude form it is no longer worthy of credence4 ,one of the most noteworthy of the discoveries of the century was made by ,gay-,lussac 7#aggh-ahej7 in the year #ahjh4 ,in conjunction with ,alexander von ,humboldt1 ,gay-,lussac had rediscovered about three years before what had previously been established by ,cavendish--namely1 that1 as nearly as possible1 two volumes of hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen to form water1 the gases having been measured at the same temperature and pressure4 ,humboldt suggested to ,gay-,lussac that it would be well to investigate whether similar simple relations exist between the volumes of other gaseous substances when they combine with each other4 ,this turned out to be the case2 it appeared that almost exactly two volumes of carbonic oxide unite with one volume of oxygen to form carbon dioxide2 that equal volumes of chlorine and hydrogen unite to form hydrochloric acid gas2 that two volumes of ammonia gas consist of three volumes of hydrogen in union with one volume of nitrogen1 and so on4 ,from such facts1 ,gay-,lussac was led to make the statement that3 ,the weights of equal volumes of both simple and compound gases1 and therefore their densities1 are proportional to their empirically found combining weights1 or to rational multiples of the latter4 ,gay-,lussac recognized this discovery of his to be a support for the atomic theory2 but it did not accord with many of the then received atomic weights4 ,the assumption that equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of particles1 or1 as they were termed by him1 molcules intgrantes1 was made in #ahaa by ,avogadro1 professor of physics at ,turin 7#aggf-ahef74 ,this theory1 which has proved of the utmost importance to the sciences both of physics and of chemistry1 had no doubt occurred to ,gay-,lussac1 and had been rejected by him for the following reasons3 ,a certain volume of hydrogen1 say one cubic inch1 may be supposed to contain an equal number of particles 7atoms7 as an equal volume of chlorine4 ,now these two gases unite in equal volumes4 ,the deduction appears so far quite legitimate that one atom of hydrogen has combined with one atom of chlorine4 ,but the resulting gas occupies two cubic inches1 and must therefore contain the same number of particles of hydrogen chloride1 the compound of the two elements1 as one cubic inch originally contained of hydrogen1 or of chlorine4 ,thus we have two cubic inches containing1 of uncombined gases1 twice as many particles as is contained in that volume1 after combination4 ,avogadro's hypothesis solved the difficulty4 ,by premising two different orders of particles1 now termed atoms and molecules1 the solution was plain4 ,according to him1 each particle1 or molecule1 of hydrogen is a complex1 and contains two atoms2 the same is the case with chlorine4 ,when these gases combine1 or rather react1 to form hydrogen chloride1 the phenomenon is one of a change of partners2 the molecule1 the double atom1 of hydrogen splits2 the same is the case with the molecule of chlorine2 and each liberated atom of hydrogen unites with a liberated atom of chlorine1 forming a compound1 hydrogen chloride1 which equally consists of a molecule1 or double atom4 ,thus two cubic inches of hydrogen chloride consist of a definite number of molecules1 equal in number to those contained in a cubic inch of hydrogen1 plus those contained in a cubic inch of chlorine4 ,the case is precisely similar1 if other compounds of gases be considered4 ,berzelius was at first inclined to adopt this theory1 and indeed went so far as to change many of his atomic weights to make them fit it4 ,but later he somewhat withdrew from his position1 for it appeared to him that it was hazardous to extend to liquids and solids a theory which could be held only of gases4 ,avogadro's suggestion1 therefore1 rested in abeyance until the publication1 in #aheh1 by ,cannizzaro1 now professor of chemistry in ,rome1 of an essay in which all the arguments in favor of the hypothesis were collected and stated in a masterly manner4 ,it will be advisable to revert to this hypothesis at a later point1 and to consider other guides for the determination of atomic weights4 ,in #ahai1 ,dulong 7#aghe-ahch71 director of the ,ecole ,polytechnique at ,paris1 and ,petit 7#agia-ahbj71 professor of physics there1 made the discovery that equal amounts of heat are required to raise equally the temperature of solid and liquid elements1 provided quantities are taken proportional to their atomic weights4 ,thus1 to raise the temperature of #ef grammes of iron through one degree requires approximately the same amount of heat as is required to raise through one degree #cb grammes of sulphur1 #fc4e grammes of copper1 and so on2 these numbers representing the atomic weights of the elements named4 ,in other words1 equal numbers of atoms have equal capacity for heat4 ,the number of heat units1 or calories 7one calory is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of #a gramme of water through #a ,c471 which is necessary to raise the atomic weight expressed in grammes of any solid or liquid element through #a ,c4 is approximately #f4b2 it varies between #e4g and #f4f in actual part4 ,this affords a means of determining the true value of the atomic weight of an element1 as the following example will show3 ,the analysis of the only compound of zinc and chlorine shows that it contains #dg4di per cent4 of zinc and #eb4af per cent4 of chlorine4 ,now one grain of hydrogen combines with #ce4e grains of chlorine to form #cf4e grains of hydrogen chloride2 and1 as already remarked1 one volume of hydrogen and one volume of chlorine combine1 forming two volumes of hydrogen chloride4 ,applying ,avogadro's hypothesis1 one molecule of hydrogen and one molecule of chlorine react to yield two molecules of hydrogen chloride2 and as each molecule is supposed to consist in this case of two atoms1 hydrogen chloride consists of one atom of each of its constituent elements4 ,the amount of that element1 therefore1 which combines with #ce4e grains of chlorine may give the numerical value of the atomic weight of the element1 if the compound contains one atom of each element2 in that case the formula of the above compound would be zinc1 and the atomic weight of zinc1 #cb4g2 but if the formula is ,zu,cl#c1 the atomic weight of zinc would be #cb4g #b2 if ,zu,cl#c1 #cb4g #c1 and so on4 ,the specific heat of metallic zinc enables this question to be solved4 ,for it has been found1 experimentally1 to be about #j4jie2 and #f4b #j4jie #fe4b1 a close approximation to #cb4g #b #fe4d4 ,the conclusion is therefore drawn that zinc chloride is composed of one atom of zinc in combination with two atoms of chlorine1 that the atomic weight of zinc is #fe4d1 and that the molecular weight of zinc chloride is #fe4d 7#ce4e #b7 #acf4d4 ,inasmuch as the relative weight of a molecule of hydrogen is #b 7that of an atom being #a71 zinc chloride in the gaseous state should be #acf4d #b #fh4b times that of hydrogen1 measured at the same temperature and pressure4 ,this has been found1 experimentally1 to be the case4 ,the methods of determining the vapor densities1 or relative weights of vapors1 are three in number2 the first method1 due to ,dumas 7#ahbg71 consists in vaporizing the substance in question in a bulb of glass or of porcelain1 at a known temperature1 closing the bulb while still hot1 and weighing it after it is cold4 ,knowing the capacity of the bulb1 the weight of hydrogen necessary to fill it at the desired temperature can be calculated1 and the density of the vapor thus arrived at4 ,a second method was devised by ,gay-,lussac and perfected by ,a4 ,w4 ,hofmann 7#ahfh72 and a third1 preferable for its simplicity and ease of execution1 is due to ,victor ,meyer 7#ahha74 ,in #aheh1 as already remarked1 ,cannizzaro showed the connection between these known facts1 and for the first time attention was called to the true atomic weights1 which were1 up to that time1 confused with equivalents1 or weights of elements required to replace one unit weight of hydrogen4 ,these were generally regarded as atomic weights by ,dalton and his contemporaries4 ,some exceptions had been observed to the law of ,dulong and ,petit1 viz41 beryllium1 or glucinium1 an element occurring in emeralds2 boron1 of which borax is a compound2 silicon1 the component of quartz and flint1 and carbon4 ,it was found by ,weber that at high temperatures the specific heats of these elements are higher1 and the atomic heats approximate to the number of #f4b2 but this behavior is not peculiar to these elements1 for it appears that the specific heat of all elements increases with rise of temperature4 ,a certain number of exceptions have also been noticed to the law of ,gay-,lussac1 which may be formulated3 the molecular weight of a compound in a gaseous state is twice its density referred to hydrogen4 ,thus equal volumes of ammonia and hydrogen chloride unite to form ammonium chloride4 ,it was to be expected that the density should be half the molecular weight1 thus3 ,,nh#c ,h,cl ,,nh#d;,cl2 and #ec4e #b #bf4ge density4 7#adc7 7#ace4e7 #ec4e ,but the density actually found is only half that number1 viz41 #ac4cg2 and for long this and similar cases were supposed to be exceptions to the law of ,gay-,lussac1 viz41 that equal volumes of gases at the same pressure expand equally for equal rise of temperature4 ,in other instances the gradual decrease in density with rise of temperature can be followed1 as with chloral hydrate1 the products of which are chloral and water4 ,it was recognized by ,st4 ,claire ,deville 7#aheg7 that the decrease in density of such mixtures of gases was due1 not to their being exceptions to ,avogadro's law1 but to the gradual decomposition of the compound body with rise of temperature4 ,to this gradual decomposition he gave the name dissociation4 ,this conception has proved of the utmost importance to the science1 as will be seen in the sequel4 ,to take the above instance of ammonium chloride1 its abnormal density is due to its dissociation into ammonia and hydrogen chloride2 and the gas which is obtained on raising its temperature consists1 not of gaseous ammonium chloride1 but of a mixture of ammonia and hydrogen chloride1 which1 as is easily seen1 occupy1 when separate1 twice the volume that would be occupied by the gaseous compound4 ,of recent years it has been shown by ,brereton ,baker that1 if perfectly free from moisture1 ammonium chloride gasifies as such1 and that its density in the state of vapor is1 in fact1 #bf4ge4 ,the molecular complexity of gases has thus gradually become comprehended1 and the truth of ,avogadro's law has gained acceptance4 ,and as a means of picturing the behavior of gaseous molecules1 the 8,kinetic ,theory of ,gases0 has been devised by ,joule1 ,clausius1 ,maxwell1 ,thomson 7,lord ,kelvin71 and others4 ,on the assumption that the pressure of a gas on the walls of the vessel which contains it is due to the continued impacts of its molecules1 and that the temperature of a gas is represented by the product of the mass of the molecules1 or the square of their velocity1 it has been possible to offer a mechanical explanation of ,boyle's law1 that at constant temperature the volume of a gas diminishes in proportion as the pressure increases2 of ,gay-,lussac's law1 that all gases expand equally for equal rise of temperature1 provided pressure is kept constant2 the condition being that equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules4 ,a striking support is lent to this chain of reasoning by the facts discovered by ,thomas ,graham 7#ahje-ahfi71 professor at ,university ,college1 ,london1 and subsequently master of the ,royal ,mint4 ,graham discovered that the rate of diffusion of gases into each other is inversely as the square roots of their densities4 ,for instance1 the density of hydrogen being taken as unity1 that of oxygen is sixteen times as great2 if a vessel containing hydrogen be made to communicate with one containing oxygen1 the hydrogen will pass into the oxygen and mix with it2 and1 conversely1 the oxygen will pass into the hydrogen vessel4 ,this is due to the intrinsic motion of the molecule of each gas4 ,and ,graham found1 experimentally1 that for each volume of oxygen which enters the hydrogen vessel four volumes of hydrogen will enter the oxygen vessel4 ,now1 #d #af2 and as these masses are relatively #a and #af1 and their temperatures are equal1 the square of their velocities are respectively #a and #af4 ,the question of the molecular complexity of gases being thus disposed of1 it remains to be considered what are the relative complexity of liquid molecules4 ,the answer is indicated by a study of the capillary phenomena of liquids1 one method of measuring which is the height of their ascent in narrow or capillary tubes4 ,we shall not enter here into detail as to the method and arguments necessary2 suffice it to say that the ,hungarian physicist ,etvs was the first to indicate the direction of research1 and that ,ramsay and ,shields succeeded in proving that the complexity of the molecules of most liquids is not greater than that of the gases which they form on being vaporized2 and also that certain liquids1 e4g41 water1 the alcohols1 and other liquids1 are more or less 8associated10 i4e41 their molecules occur in couplices of two1 three1 four1 or more1 and as the temperature is raised the complexity of molecular structure diminishes4 ,as regards the molecular complexity of solids1 nothing definite is known1 and1 moreover1 there appears to be no method capable of revealing it4 ,while the researches of which a short account has now been given have led to knowledge regarding the nature of molecules1 the structure of the molecule has excited interest since the early years of the century1 and its investigation has led to important results4 ,the fact of the decomposition of acidified water by an electric current1 discovered by ,nicholson and ,carlisle1 and of salts into 8bases0 and 8acids0 by ,berzelius and ,hisinger in #ahjc1 led to the belief that a close connection exists between electric energy1 or1 as it was then termed1 8electric force10 and the affinity which holds the constituents of chemical compounds in combination4 ,in #ahjg ,davy propounded the theory that all compounds consist of two portions1 one electro-positive and the other electro-negative4 ,this idea was the result of experiments on the behavior of substances1 such1 for example1 as copper and sulphur--if portions of these elements be insulated and then brought into contact they become oppositely electrified4 ,the degree of electrification is intensified by rise of temperature until1 when combination ensues1 the electrification vanishes4 ,combination1 therefore1 according to ,davy1 is concurrent with the equalization of potentials4 ,in #ahab ,berzelius brought forward an electro-chemical theory which for the following twenty years was generally accepted4 ,his primary assumption was that the atoms of elements1 or1 in certain cases1 groups of atoms1 are themselves electrified2 that each atom1 or group of atoms1 possesses two poles1 one positive1 the other negative2 that the electrification of one of these poles predominates over that of the other1 so that the atom or group is itself1 as a whole1 electro-positive1 or electro-negative2 that combination ensued between such oppositely electrified bodies by the neutralization1 partial or complete1 of their electric charges2 and1 lastly1 that the polarity of an element or group could be determined by noting whether the element or group separated at the positive or at the negative pole of the galvanic battery1 or electrolysis4 ,for ,berzelius1 oxygen was the most electro-negative and potassium the most electro-positive of the elements1 the bridge between the 8non-metals0 and the 8metals0 being hydrogen1 which1 with nitrogen1 forms a basic1 or electro-positive1 group1 while with chlorine1 etc41 it forms electro-negative groups4 ,the fact that an electric current splits compounds in solution into two portions led ,berzelius to devise his 8dualistic0 system1 which involved the assumption that all compounds consist of two portions1 one electro-positive1 the other electro-negative4 ,thus sulphate of magnesium and potassium was to be regarded as composed of electro-positive potassium sulphate in combination with electro-negative magnesium sulphate2 the former in its turn consisted of electro-negative sulphur trioxide 7,,so#c7 in combination with electro-positive oxide of potassium 7,k#b,o72 while each of these proximate constituents of potassium sulphate were themselves composed of the electro-negative oxygen in combination with electro-positive sulphur1 or potassium4 ,on contrasting sulphur with potassium1 however1 the former was considered more electro-negative than the latter2 so that the group ,,so#c as a whole was electro-negative1 while ,k#b,o was electro-positive4 ,the symbols given above1 which are still in universal use1 were also devised by ,berzelius for the purpose of illustrating and emphasizing his views4 ,these views1 however1 met with little acceptance at the time in ,england4 ,lavoisier's idea1 that oxygen was the necessary constituent of all acids1 began about this time to lose ground4 ,for ,davy had proved the elementary nature of chlorine2 and hydrochloric acid1 one of the strongest1 was thus seen to contain no oxygen1 and ,davy expressed the view1 founded on his observation1 that iodic 8acid10 ,i#b,o#e1 was devoid of acid properties until dissolved in water1 and that the essential constituent of all acids was hydrogen1 not oxygen4 ,the bearing of this theory on the dualistic theory is1 that while1 e4g41 sulphuric acid was regarded by ,berzelius as ,,so#c1 containing no hydrogen1 and was supposed to be separated as such at the positive pole of a battery1 ,davy's suggestion led to the opposite conclusion that the formula of sulphuric acid is ,h#b,,so#d1 and that by the current it is resolved into ,h#b and ,,so#d4 ,faraday's electrolytic law1 that when a current is passed through electrolytes in solution the elements are liberated in quantities proportional to their equivalents1 led to the abandonment of the dualistic theory4 ,for when a current is passed in succession through acidified water1 fused lead chloride1 and a solution of potassium sulphate1 the quantities of hydrogen and oxygen from the water1 of lead and chlorine from the lead chloride1 and the potassium of the sulphate are in accordance with ,faraday's law4 ,but in addition to the potassium there is liberated at the same pole an equivalent of hydrogen4 ,now1 if ,berzelius's theory be true1 the products should be ,,so#c and ,k#b,o1 but if the opposite view be correct1 then ,k#b is liberated first and by its subsequent action on water it yields potash and its equivalent of hydrogen4 ,this was pointed out first by ,daniell1 professor at ,king's ,college1 ,london1 and it was regarded as a powerful argument against ,berzelius's system4 ,in #ahcc1 too1 ,graham investigated the phosphoric acids1 and prepared the salts of three1 to which he gave the names1 ortho-1 pyro-1 and meta- phosphoric acids4 ,to understand the bearing of this on the doctrine of dualism it must be remembered that ,p#b,o#e1 pentoxide of phosphorus1 was at that date named phosphoric acid4 ,when dissolved in water it reacts with bases1 forming salts--the phosphates4 ,but the quantity of water necessary was not then considered essential2 ,graham1 however1 showed that there exist three series of salts--one set derived from ,p#b,o#e1c;,h#b,o1 one from ,p#b,o#e1b;,h#b,o1 and a third from ,p#b,o#e1;,h#b,o4 ,his way of stating the fact was that water could play the part of a base2 for example1 the ordinary phosphate of commerce possessed1 according to him1 the formula ,p#b,o#e1b,na#b,o1,h#b,o1 two-thirds of the 8water of constitution0 being replaced by oxide of sodium4 ,liebig1 then professor at ,giessen 7#ahjc-ahgc71 founded on these and on similar observations of his own the doctrine of poly-basic acids--acids in which one1 two1 three1 or more atoms of hydrogen were replaceable by metals4 ,thus1 instead of writing1 as ,graham did1 ,p#b,o#e1b,na#b,o1,h#b,o1 he wrote1 ,,po#d,na#b;,h2 and for orthophosphoric acid ,,po#d;,h#c4 ,the group of atoms 7,,po#d71 therefore1 existed throughout the whole series of orthophosphates1 and could exist in combination with hydrogen1 with hydrogen and metals1 or with metals alone4 ,similarly the group 7,p#b,o#g7 was characteristic of pyrophosphates and 7,,po#c7 of metaphosphates1 for ,p#b,o#e1b;,h#b,o7,p#b,o#g7;,h#d2 and ,p#b,o#e1;,h#b,o#b7,,po#c7;,h4 ,the first clear ideas of the structure of the molecule were1 however1 gained from the study of the compounds of carbon4 ,it was difficult to apply the dualistic theory to them4 ,for few of them are electrolytes1 and therefore their products of electrolysis1 being non-existent1 could not be classified4 ,nevertheless1 ,gay-,lussac regarded alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#f,o1 as a compound of ,c#b;,h#d1 ethylene1 and ,h#b,o1 water2 and oxalic acid 7anhydrous71 ,c#b,o#c1 as one of ,,co#b with ,,co4 ,the discovery of 8isomeric compounds10 i4e41 of compounds which possess the same ultimate formula and yet differ entirely in their properties1 forced upon chemists the necessity of attending to the structure of the molecule2 for only by such a supposition could the difference between two isomeric bodies be explained4 ,in #ahbc ,liebig discovered that silver fulminate and silver cyanate both possessed the empirical formula ,ag,c,n,o2 in #ahbe this was followed by the discovery by ,faraday that oil gas contains a hydrocarbon identical in composition with ethylene1 ,c#b;,h#d1 yet differing from it in properties2 and in #ahbi ,whler1 professor in ,gttingen 7#ahjj-ahhb71 discovered that urea1 a constituent of urine1 could be produced by heating ammonium cyanate1 ,,nh#d;,,cno1 a substance of the same formula4 ,it therefore became clear that the identity of a compound must depend on some other cause than its ultimate composition4 ,in #ahcc ,liebig and ,whler took an important step in elucidating this question by their investigations on benzoic acid and acid obtainable by distilling a resin named gum benzoin4 ,they showed that this acid1 ,c#g;,h#f,o#b1 could be conceived as consisting of the group ,c#g;,h#e,o1 to which they gave the name 8benzoyl10 in combination with ,,oh2 that benzoic aldehyde1 ,c#g;,h#f,o1 might be regarded as its compound with hydrogen2 that it also formed compounds with chlorine1 and bromine1 and sulphur1 and replaced hydrogen in ammonia 7,c#g;,h#f,o1,,nh#b74 ,they termed this group1 benzoyl1 a 8compound element0 or a 8radical40 ,this research was followed by one by ,robert ,bunsen1 professor at ,heidelberg1 born in #ahaa1 and recently 7#ahii7 dead1 which bore reference to cacodyl1 a compound of arsenic1 carbon and hydrogen1 in which the idea of a radical was confirmed and amplified4 ,the idea of a radical having thus become established1 ,jean ,baptiste ,andre ,dumas1 professor in ,paris 7#ahjj-ahhd71 propounded the theory of 8substitution10 i4e41 that an element such as chlorine or oxygen 7which1 be it noticed1 is electro-negative on ,berzelius's scale7 could replace hydrogen in carbon compounds1 atom for atom1 the resulting compound belonging to the same 8type0 as the one from which it was derived4 ,and ,laurent1 warden of the mint at ,paris 7#ahjg-ahec71 and ,gerhardt1 professor at ,montpelier and at ,strasburg 7#ahaf-ahef71 emphasized the fact that one element1 be it what it may1 can replace another without fundamentally altering its chemical character1 and also that an atom of hydrogen can be replaced by a group of atoms or radical1 behaving for the occasion like the atom of an element4 ,it is to ,laurent and ,gerhardt that we owe the definition of an atom--the smallest quantity of an element which can be present in a compound2 an equivalent--that weight of an element which combines with or replaces one part by weight of hydrogen2 and a molecule--the smallest quantity which can exist in a free state1 whether of an element or a compound4 ,they recognized1 too1 that a molecule of hydrogen1 chlorine1 etc41 consists of two atoms4 ,in #ahdi ,wurtz1 professor in ,paris 7#ahag-ahhd71 and ,hofmann1 then professor in the ,college of ,chemistry in ,london1 afterwards at ,berlin 7#ahah-ahib71 discovered a series of compounds allied to ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 in which one or more atoms of hydrogen were replaced by a group or radical1 such as methyl 7,,ch#c71 ethyl 7,c#b;,h#e71 or phenyl 7,c#f;,h#e74 ,wurtz referred such compounds to the ammonia 8type40 ,they all resemble ammonia in their physical properties--smell1 taste1 etc4--as well as in their power of uniting with acids to form salts resembling ammonium chloride 7,,nh#d;,cl71 and other ammonium compounds4 ,shortly afterwards ,williamson1 professor at ,university ,college1 ,london1 added the 8water type10 in consequence of his researches on 8mixed ethers0--bodies in which the hydrogen of water might be regarded as replaced by organic radicals4 ,thus we have the series3 ,h4 ,o4 ,h42 ,,ch#c4 ,o4 ,h42 ,,ch#c4 ,o4 ,,ch#c2 and ,,nh#c2 ,,nh#b2 ,h#c2 ,,nh7,,ch#c7b2 and ,n7,,ch#c7c2 the first representing compounds following the water type1 the latter the ammonia type4 ,this suggestion had been previously made by ,laurent1 in #ahdf4 ,but ,williamson extended his views to inorganic compounds2 thus1 sulphuric acid was represented as constructed on the double water type--,,ho4 ,,so#b4 ,,oh1 being derived from ,h4 ,o4 7,h4 ,h7 ,o4 ,h1 the two hydrogen atoms enclosed in brackets being replaced by the radical ,,so#b4 ,to these types ,gerhardt added the hydrogen and hydrogen chloride types1 ,h4,h4 and ,h4,cl2 and1 later1 ,kekul1 professor in ,bonn 7#ahbi71 added the marsh gas type ,c7,h7#d4 ,the next important step was taken by ,frankland1 professor in the ,royal ,school of ,mines1 ,london2 his work1 however1 had been anticipated by ,cunn ,brown1 professor at ,edinburgh ,university1 in a pamphlet even yet little known4 ,it was to attribute to elements one or more powers of combination4 ,to these he gave the name 8valency10 and the capacity of possessing valency was called 8quantivalence40 ,thus hydrogen was taken as a 8monad10 or monovalent4 ,chlorine1 because it unites with hydrogen atom to atom1 is also a monad4 ,oxygen1 having the power to combine with two atoms of hydrogen1 was termed a dyad1 or divalent2 nitrogen a triad1 or trivalent2 carbon a tetrad1 or tetravalent1 and so on4 ,this is evident from inspection of the formulas of their compounds with hydrogen1 thus3 ,h ,h ,h _/ _/ ,h----,cl2 ,h----,o----,h2 ,h----,n 2 ,c _/ ,h ,h ,h ,instances of penta1 hexa1 and even hepta-valency are not wanting4 ,this was the key to unlock the structure of chemical compounds2 and ,frankland's views1 just stated1 are still held by chemists4 ,the determination of the constitution of compounds1 chiefly those of carbon1 occupied the attention of chemists1 almost exclusively1 until #ahhj4 ,the plan of action is much the same as that of a mechanician who wishes to imitate a complicated mechanism4 ,he must first dissect it into groups of mechanical contrivances2 these are next constructed2 and they are finally built together into the complete machine4 ,in certain cases the atoms of carbon are arranged in 8chains10 as1 for example1 in pentyl alcohol3 ,h#c;,c----,c----,c----,c----,c----,o--- -,h ,h#b ,h#b ,h#b ,h#b each atom being tetrad1 and its 8affinities10 or powers of combination1 saturated either with hydrogen or with those of neighboring atoms of carbon2 in others they are in the form of a 8ring10 as in benzene1 the formula of which was first suggested by ,kekul1 viz43 ,h ,h ,c----,c _/ ,,hc ,,ch2 _/ ,c,c ,h ,h or in both1 as in ethyl benzene1 ,h ,h ,c----,c _/ ,h ,h ,,hc ,c----,c----,,ch4 _/ ,h ,h ,c,c ,h ,h ,one or more atoms of nitrogen1 or of oxygen1 may form part of the circle1 as in pyridine3 ,h ,h ,h ,h ,c----,c ,c ,c _/ _/ ,n ,,ch and furfurane1 ,o 1 _/ ,c,c ,c ,c ,h ,h ,h ,h and so on4 ,by means of conceptions such as these many interesting compounds have been built up out of the elements which they contain2 e4g41 urea and uric acid1 constituents of urine2 theobromine and caffeine1 the essential principles of cocoa and tea2 alizarine and indigo1 valuable dyestuffs2 and several of the alkaloids1 bitter principles contained in plants1 of great medicinal value4 ,they have led1 too1 to the discovery of many brilliant colors1 now almost universally employed1 to the exclusion of those less brilliant1 because less pure1 derived from plants1 and in one or two cases from animals2 the manufacture of gun-cotton1 dynamite1 and similar high explosives2 and to the development of the candle industry2 the sugar manufacture2 to improvement in tanning1 in brewing1 and in the preparation of gas and oils for illuminating purposes4 ,in short1 it may be said that the industrial progress of the latter half of the century has been due to the theoretical views of which a short sketch has just been given4 ,such formulas1 however1 can evidently not represent the true constitution of matter1 inasmuch as the atoms are imagined to lie on a plane1 whereas it is evident that they must occupy space of three dimensions and possess the attributes of solidity4 ,the conception which led to the formulation of such views was due first to ,pasteur1 in his later years director of the institute known by his name at ,paris1 and more directly to ,le,bel and ,van't ,hoff1 now professor at ,berlin1 independently of each other4 ,in #ahdh ,pasteur discovered that it was possible to separate the two varieties of tartaric acid from each other2 and that that one which rotated the plane of polarized light to the right gave crystals with an extra face1 unsymmetrically disposed with regard to the other faces of the crystal4 ,the variety1 the solution of which in water was capable of producing left-handed rotation1 also possessed a similar face1 but so placed that its reflection in a mirror reproduced the right-handed variety4 ,pasteur also showed that a mixture of these acids gave crystals not characterized by an unsymmetrically placed face2 and also that the solution was without action on polarized light4 ,these observations remained unexplained1 until ,le,bel and ,van't ,hoff1 in #ahgd1 simultaneously and independently devised a theory which has1 up till now1 stood the test of research4 ,it is briefly this3 ,imagine two regular tetrahedra1 or three-sided pyramids1 standing each on its triangular base4 ,an idea can best be got by a model1 easily made by laying on a table three lucifer matches so as to form an equilateral triangle1 and erecting a tripod with three other matches1 so that each leg of the tripod stands on one corner of the triangle4 ,at the centre of such a tetrahedron1 an atom of carbon is supposed to be placed4 ,marsh gas1 ,,ch#d1 is supposed to have such a structure1 each corner1 or solid angle of the structure 7of which there are four71 being occupied by an atom of hydrogen4 ,this represents the solid or stereochemical formula of methane or marsh gas4 ,now1 suppose one of the atoms of hydrogen in each of these structures to be replaced by chlorine1 the group 7,,oh71 or any other monovalent element or group4 ,it is evident that if not exactly similar 7owing to the replacement not having been made at similar corners in each71 the two structures can be made similar by turning one of them round1 until the position of the substituting atom or group 7which we will term ,x7 coincides in position with ,x in the stationary one4 ,if two such replacements be made1 say1 with ,x and ,y in each1 coincidence can again be made to take place2 but the same is not the case if ,x1 ,y1 and ,z replace three atoms of hydrogen in the structure2 for there is one way of replacement which is the optical image of the other1 and represents the other's reflection in a mirror4 ,illustration3 7,tetrahedron ,,xyz7 and 7,tetrahedron ,,xzy7 ,now1 it is found that when the four corners of such a structure are occupied by four separate atoms or groups1 or when 7as the expression goes7 the body contains an 8asymmetrical carbon atom10 if the substance or one of its derivations can be obtained in a crystalline form1 the crystals are also asymmetric1 i4e41 arc develops a face which is the mirror-reflection of a similar face developed on the other variety2 and if a beam of polarized light be passed through the solution of the substance1 its plane is rotated to the left if one variety be used1 and1 if the other1 to the right4 ,this hypothesis of ,le,bel's and ,van't ,hoff's has had an enormous influence on the progress of organic chemistry4 ,by its means ,fischer1 now professor at ,berlin1 has explained the reason of the existence of the enormous number of bodies analogous to grape and cane sugar1 and has prepared many new varieties2 and it appears likely that the terpenes1 a class of bodies allied to turpentine1 and comprising most of the substances to which the odor of flowers is due1 may thereby find their explanation4 ,it may be mentioned in passing that ,pasteur1 having found that ordinary mould destroyed one variety of tartaric acid rather than the other in a mixture of the two1 and made use of this observation in order to prepare the unattached variety in a state of purity1 was led to study the action of organisms more or less resembling mould2 and that this has led to the development of the science of bacteriology1 which has had an enormous influence on our views regarding fermentation in general1 and guides the work of our physicians1 our surgeons 7witness ,lister's antiseptic treatment71 our sanitary engineers in their estimate of the purity of drinking-water and of the disposal of sewage1 of our manufacturers of beer and spirits1 of wine-growers1 and more recently of farmers4 ,all these processes depend upon the action of organisms in producing chemical changes1 whether in the tissues of the body1 causing or curing disease1 or in the production of flavored alcohol from sugar1 or in the manufacture of butter and cheese1 or in preparing the land for the reception of crops4 ,we also owe to the genius of ,van't ,hoff the most important advance of recent times in the region of physical chemistry4 ,it has been observed by ,raoult1 professor at ,grenoble1 that the freezing-point of a solvent as a general rule is lowered to the same extent if there be dissolved in it quantities of substances proportional to their molecular weights4 ,thus1 supposing #a4hj grams of grape-sugar be dissolved in #ajj grams of water and the solution cooled below #j with constant stirring1 ice separates suddenly in thin spicules1 and the temperature rises to #j4ahe4 ,if #c4db grams of cane-sugar be similarly dissolved in #ajj grams of water1 the freezing-point of the solution is again #j4ahe4 ,now1 #a4hj and #c4db are respectively the hundredth part of the molecular weights of grape-sugar 7,c#f;,h#ab,o#f7 and cane-sugar 7,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa74 ,similarly1 ,raoult found that quantities proportional to molecular weights dissolved in a solvent depress the vapor pressure of that solvent equally1 or1 what comes to the same thing1 raise its boiling-point by an equal number of degrees4 ,but ordinary salts1 such as sodium chloride1 potassium nitrate1 etc41 dissolved in water1 give too great a depression of the freezing-point and too high a boiling-point4 ,next1 it has been observed by botanists1 ,devries1 ,pfeffer1 and others1 who had examined the ascent of sap in plants1 that if a vessel of unglazed porcelain1 so treated as to cause a film of cupric ferrocyanide 7a slimy red compound7 to deposit in the pores of its walls1 be filled with a weak 7about #a per cent47 solution of sugar or similar substance1 and plunged in a vessel of pure water1 water entered through the pores4 ,by attaching a monometer to the porous vessel the pressure exerted by the entering water could be measured4 ,such pressure was termed 8osmotic pressure10 referring to the 8osmosis0 or passage through the walls of the vessel4 ,such prepared walls are permeable freely to water1 but not to sugar or similar bodies4 ,van't ,hoff pointed out that the total pressure registered is proportional to the amount of substance in solution1 and that it is proportional to the absolute temperature1 and he showed1 besides1 that the pressure exerted by the sugar molecules is the same as that which would be exerted at the same temperature were an equal number of molecules of hydrogen to occupy the same volume as the sugar solution4 ,this may be expressed by stating that when in dilute solution sugar molecules behave as if they were present in the gaseous state4 ,here again1 however1 it was noticed that salts tended to give a higher pressure2 it was difficult to construct a semi-permeable diaphragm1 however1 which would resist the passage of salt molecules1 while allowing those of water to pass freely4 ,lastly1 ,arrhenius1 of ,stockholm1 had shown that the conductivity of salt solutions for electricity may be explained on the assumption that when a salt1 such as ,,kno#c is dissolved in water1 it dissociates into portions similar in number and kind to those it would yield if electrolyzed 7and if no secondary reactions were to take place74 ,such portions 7,k and ,,no#c1 for example7 had been named ions by ,faraday4 ,the conductivity of such solutions becomes greater1 per unit of dissolved salt1 the weaker the solution1 until finally a limit is reached1 after which further dilution no longer increases conductivity4 ,now ,van't ,hoff united all these isolated observations and showed their bearing on each other4 ,stated shortly1 the hypothesis is as follows3 ,when a substance is dissolved in a large quantity of a solvent1 its molecules are separated from each other to a distance comparable with that which obtains in gases4 ,they are1 therefore1 capable of independent action2 and when placed in a vessel the walls of which are permeable to the solvent1 but not to the dissolved substance 78semi-permeable membrane071 the imprisoned molecules of the latter exert pressure on the interior surface of these walls as if they were gaseous4 ,van't ,hoff showed the intimate connection between this phenomenon and the depression of freezing-point and the use of vapor pressure already alluded to4 ,he pointed out further that the exceptions to this behavior1 noticed in the case of dissolved salts1 are due to their 8electric dissociation10 or 8ionization10 as it is now termed2 and that in a sufficiently dilute solution of potassium nitrate1 for example1 the osmotic pressure1 and the correlated depression of freezing-point and rise of boiling-point1 are practically equal to what would be produced were the salt to be split into its ions1 ,k and ,,no#c4 ,these views were vigorously advocated by ,ostwald1 professor at ,leipzig1 in his ,zeitschrift fr physikalische ,chemie1 and he and his pupils have done much to gather together facts in confirmation of this theory1 and in extending its scope4 ,it must be understood that the ions ,k and ,,no#c are not1 strictly speaking1 atoms2 they are charged atoms2 the ,k retains a 1 and the ,,no#c a charge4 ,on immersing into the solution the poles of a battery1 one charged and the other 1 the ,k atoms are attracted to the pole1 and are there discharged2 as soon as they lose their charge they are free to act on the water1 when they liberate their equivalent of hydrogen4 ,similarly1 the ,,no#c groups are discharged at the pole1 and abstract hydrogen from the water1 liberating an equivalent quantity of oxygen4 ,thus the phenomenon of electrolysis1 so long a mysterious process1 finds a simple explanation4 ,the course of ordinary chemical reactions is also readily realized when viewed in the light of this theory4 ,take1 for example1 the ordinary equation3 ,ag,n,o#c4;,aq ,na,cl4,ag ,ag,cl ,na,n,o#c4;,aq2 i4e41 solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride give a precipitate of silver chloride1 leaving sodium nitrate in solution4 ,by the new views1 such an equation must be written3 ,ag4,aq ,,no#c4;,aq ,na4,aq ,cl4,aq ,ag,cl ,na4,aq ,,no#c4;,aq4 ,the compound1 silver chloride1 being insoluble in water1 is formed by the union of the ions ,ag and ,cl1 and their consequent discharge1 forming an electrically neutral compound2 while the sodium ions1 charged positively together with the ,,no#c ions1 negatively charged1 remain in solution4 ,one more application of the principle may be given4 ,many observers--,andrews1 ,favre1 and ,silbermann1 but especially ,julius ,thomsen1 of ,copenhagen1 and ,m4 ,berthelot1 of ,paris--have devoted much labor and time to the measurement of the heat evolved during chemical reactions4 ,now1 while very different amounts of heat are evolved when chlorine1 bromine1 or iodine combine respectively with sodium or potassium1 the number of heat units evolved on neutralizing sodium or potassium hydroxide with hydrochloric1 hydrobromic1 hydriodic1 or nitric acids is always about #ac1ejj4 ,how can this fact be explained8 ,it finds its explanation as follows3 ,these acids and bases are ionized in solution as shown in the equation3 ,h4,aq ,cl4,aq4 ,na4,aq ,,oh4,aq ,h4,,oh ,na4,aq ,cl4,aq4 ,water is the only compound formed2 and it is produced by the union of the hydrogen-ion originally belonging to the acid1 and the ,,oh or hydroxyl-ion originally belonging to the base4 ,no further change has occurred2 hence the uniform evolution of heat by the interaction of equivalent quantities of these acids and bases4 ,it now remains to give a short account of the greatest generalization which has as yet been made in chemistry4 ,it has been termed the 8,periodic ,arrangement of the ,elements40 ,in #ahfd ,newlands1 of ,london1 and ,lothar ,meyer1 late of ,tbingen1 found that by arranging the elements in the order of their atomic weights certain regularities were to be observed between each element1 and in general the eighth in succession from it1 in the order of their numerical value4 ,such similar elements formed groups or quantities2 while the elements separating them belong to a period1 hence the name 8periodic arrangement40 ,commencing with lithium1 a light1 lustrous metal found in silicate in certain minerals1 we have the following series3 ,lithium ,beryllium ,boron ,carbon ,nitrogen ,oxygen ,fluorine ,neon #g #i4b #aa #ab #ad #af #ai #bj ,sodium ,magnesium ,aluminum ,silicon ,phosphorus ,sulphur ,chlorine ,argon #bc #bd4c #bg #bh #ca #cd #ce4e #dj and so on4 ,it is unnecessary to point out in detail the resemblances between the elements which stand in the vertical columns2 but it may be stated that the resemblance extends also to the formulas and properties of their compounds4 ,thus the chlorides of lithium and sodium are each white soluble salts1 of the formulas ,li,cl and ,na,cl2 oxides of magnesium and of beryllium are both insoluble white earthy powders1 ,mg,o and ,be,o 7,ge,o71 and so on4 ,newlands1 in his preliminary sketch1 termed this order the 8,law of ,octaves10 and predicted the existence of certain undiscovered elements which should occupy unfilled positions in the table4 ,mendelef1 professor at ,st4 ,petersburg1 in #ahfi amplified and extended these relations2 and he and ,meyer pointed out that the volume occupied by equal numbers of atoms of such elements underwent a periodic variation when the elements are classified as above4 ,the prediction of undiscovered elements was made by ,mendelef in a more assured manner2 and in several cases they have been realized4 ,thus what ,mendelef called 8ekaboron0 has since been discovered by ,lecoq de ,boisbandron and named1 patriotically1 8gallium02 ,mendelef's 8eka-silicon0 is now known as 8germanium10 discovered by ,winkler2 and 8eka-aluminum0 is now ,clve's 8scandium40 ,moreover1 the atomic weights of csium1 beryllium1 molybdenium1 and mercury have been altered so that they fit the periodic table2 and further research has justified the alteration4 ,the valency of these elements increases from right to left1 as will be seen by inspection of the following series3 ,li,cl ,be,cl#c ,b,cl#c ,c,cl#d ,,nh#d;,cl ,na#b,o ,mg,o ,b#b,o#c ,si,o#b ,p,cl#c ,monad4 ,dyad4 ,triad4 ,tetrad4 ,triad and ,pentad4 ,,oh#b ,,fh ,ne---- ,,so#c ,cl7,,oh7,o#c ,a---- ,dyad and ,hexad4 ,monad and ,heptad4 ,no valency4 ,the elements of no valency are of recent discovery4 ,in #ahid ,lord ,rayleigh had determined the density of the nitrogen of the atmosphere1 having separated from it the oxygen and carbon dioxide which is mixed with nitrogen in air4 ,he found it to be of somewhat higher density than that obtainable from ammonia and other compounds of nitrogen4 ,in conjunction with ,ramsay he investigated atmospheric nitrogen2 it was absorbed either by a method devised by ,cavendish1 or by making it combine with magnesium at a red heat4 ,they found that the unabsorbable residue possessed an unknown spectrum1 and that its density was nearly #bj4 ,to this new gas they gave the name 8argon10 or inactive1 seeing that all attempts to cause it to enter into combination had failed4 ,in #ahie ,ramsay1 searching for possible combinations of argon in minerals1 experimented with one which had been previously examined by ,hillebrand1 of ,baltimore1 and obtained from it helium1 a gas of density #b1 possessing a spectrum which had been previously discovered in #ahfh in the chromosphere of the sun1 by ,jannsen1 of ,paris1 and named helium by ,frankland and ,lockyer4 ,subsequent liquefaction of crude argon by means of liquid air1 prepared by a process invented simultaneously by ,linde and ,hampson1 gave a residue which was named by its discoverers1 ,ramsay and ,travers1 8neon40 ,liquid argon has yielded two other gases also1 8krypon0 and 8xenon40 ,these elements form a separate group in the ,periodic ,table1 commencing with helium1 with atomic weight1 #d2 neon1 #bj2 argon1 #dj2 krypon1 #hb2 and xenon1 #abh4 ,they all agree in being mono-atomic1 i4e41 their molecules consist of single atoms2 and they have no tendency to form compounds1 i4e41 they possess no valency4 ,in this sketch of the progress of chemistry during the century which has just passed1 attention has been paid chiefly to the progress of thought4 ,allusions must1 however1 be made to the applications of chemistry to industrial purposes4 ,the development of the soda industry1 the preparation of carbonate of soda and caustic from common salt--initiated in ,france by ,le,blanc 7#agdb-ahjf7--;has been developed by ,tennant1 in ,scotland1 and ,muspeath and ,gossage1 and by ,hargreaves1 ,weldon1 and ,maetea1 in ,england2 this process has at present a serious rival in the ammonia-soda process1 developed by ,solway1 in ,belgium1 and by ,brunner and ,mond1 in ,england4 ,the main action of sulphuric acid1 so long associated with the alkali process1 has made enormous strides during the present century1 but is still1 in the main1 the original process of causing sulphur dioxide in presence of water to absorb the oxygen of the air through nitric oxide4 ,but the saving of the oxides of nitrogen through the invention of a sulphuric acid power by ,gay-,lussac1 known by his name1 and the re-utilization of these oxides in the 8,glover0 power1 invented by ,john ,glover1 of ,newcastle1 have greatly lessened the cost of the acid4 ,concentration of the acid in iron vessels is now common1 the cost of platinum or of fragile glass vessels being thereby saved4 ,the desulphurization of iron and the removal of silicon1 carbon1 and phosphorus by ,bessemer's process1 modified by ,thomas and ,gilchrist through the introduction of a 8basic magnesia lining0 for the convertors1 has made it possible to obtain pure iron and steel from ores previously regarded as of little value4 ,the use of artificial manures1 prepared by mixing refuse animal matters with tetra-hydrogen1 calcium phosphate1 and nitrate of soda1 or sulphate of ammonia1 first introduced by ,liebig1 has created a revolution in agricultural methods and in the weight of crops obtainable from a given area of soil4 ,the influence of manures on crops has been fully studied by ,lawes and ,gilbert for more than fifty years in their experimental farm at ,rothampstead4 ,the most remarkable advances which have been made1 however1 are due to cheap electric current4 ,the electrolysis of alumina1 dissolved in fused cryolite to obtain aluminum1 an operation carried out at ,schaffhausen-on-the-,rhine1 and at the ,falls of ,foyers1 in ,scotland2 the electro-deposition of pure copper for electric wires and cables1 electro-silvering1 gilding1 and nickelling1 all these are instances where decomposition of a compound by the electric current has led to important industrial results4 ,at present soda and chlorine are being manufactured by the electrolysis of salt solution contained in rocking trays1 one of the electrodes being mercury1 by the ,castner-,kellner process4 ,this manufacture is being carried on at ,niagara1 as well as in ,england4 ,but electricity as a heating agent finds ever-extending application4 ,louis ,moisson1 professor at ,paris1 led the way by utilizing the enormous heat of the ore in his electric furnace1 thereby1 among other interesting reactions1 manufacturing diamonds1 small1 it is true1 though none the less real4 ,the use of electricity as a heating agent has received new applications4 ,phosphorus is now made by distilling a mixture of phosphates of lime and alumina with coke2 a new polishing agent has been found in 8carborundum10 a compound of carbon and silicon1 produced by heating in an electric furnace a mixture of sand and coke2 and cyanide of potassium1 almost indispensable for the extraction of gold from ores poor in gold1 is now manufactured by heating a mixture of carbon and carbonate of barium in an electric furnace in a current of carbon monoxide4 ,these are but some of the instances in which electricity has been adopted as an agent in effecting chemical changes2 and it may be confidently predicted that the earlier years of the twentieth century will witness a great development in this direction4 ,it may be pointed out that the later developments of industrial chemistry owe their success entirely to the growth of chemical theory2 and it is obvious that that nation which possesses the most competent chemists1 theoretical and practical1 is destined to succeed in the competition with other nations for commercial supremacy and all its concomitant advantages4 ,,william ,,ramsay4 ,,arch,,ology ,to write of the progress of archology in this century is scarcely possible1 as the idea of the subject was unknown a hundred years ago2 it is1 therefore1 the whole history of its opening and development that we have to deal with4 ,the conception of the history of man being preserved to us in material facts1 and not only in written words1 was quite disregarded until the growth of geology had taught men to read nature for themselves1 instead of trusting to the interpretations formed by their ancestors4 ,even down to the present the academic view is that classical archology is more important than other branches1 because it serves to illustrate classical literature4 ,looked at as archology1 it is1 on the contrary1 the least important branch1 because we already know so much more of the classical ages than we do of others4 ,it is only within the present generation that it has been realized that wherever man has lived he has left the traces of his action1 and that a systematic and observant study of those remains will interpret to us what his life was1 what his abilities and tastes were1 and the extent and nature of his mind4 ,literature is but one branch of the archology of the higher races2 another--equally important for the understanding of man--is art2 these two give the highest and most complex and characteristic view of the nature of a race4 ,at the opposite end of the scale are the rudest stone weapons which remain as the sole traces of the savages who used them4 ,these highest and lowest evidences of mind1 and all that lies between them1 are the domain of archology4 ,we now purpose to review the growth of archology in contact with geology1 where it concerns man as the last of the links of life on the globe2 and then to notice the archology of each country in turn1 as it leads on to the times of historical record1 and so passes down to modern times4 ,a century ago the world of thought was divided between the old and new ideas very differently from what is now the case4 ,then there stood on one side the idea of a special creation of an individual man1 at #djjj ,b4 ,c42 the compression of all human history into a prehistoric age of about three thousand years1 and a fairly logical solution of most of the difficulties of understanding in a comfortable teleology4 ,on the other hand stood many who felt the inherent improbability of such solutions of the problem of life1 and who were feeling their way to some more workable theory on the basis of ,laplace1 ,lamarck1 ,erasmus ,darwin1 and others2 vaguely mingling together questions of physics1 geology1 archology1 anthropology1 and theology1 each of which we now see must be treated on its own basis1 and be decided on internal evidence1 before we can venture to let it affect our judgment on other points4 ,the great new force which thrust itself in to divide and decide on these questions is the scientific study of man and his works4 ,strangely shaped flints had been noticed1 but no one had any knowledge of their age4 ,one such1 when found with the bones of a mammoth1 was attributed to the ,roman age1 because no person could have brought elephants into ,britain except some ,roman general4 ,the argument was excellent and irrefutable until geology found plenty more remains of the mammoth and showed that it was here long before the ,romans4 ,it was less than half a century ago that our eyes began to open to the abundant remains of flint-using man4 ,then a single rude stone weapon was an unexplained curiosity2 now an active collector will put together his tens of thousands of specimens1 will know exactly where they were found1 their relation of age and of purpose1 and their bearing on the history of man4 ,not only have worked flint implements been found in the river gravels of ,france and ,england1 where they were first noticed in the middle of this century1 but also in most parts of ,europe1 in ,egypt on the high desert1 in ,somaliland1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in ,india1 ,america1 and other countries2 and the most striking feature is the exact similarity in form wherever they have been found4 ,so precisely do the same types recur1 so impossible would it be to say from its form whether a flint had been found in ,europe1 ,asia1 or ,africa1 that it appears as if the art of working had spread from some single centre over the rest of the world4 ,this is especially the case with the river-gravel flints--the earlier class--usually called ,paleolithic4 ,soon after the general division had been made between polished stone-work of the later or ,neolithic times1 found on the surface1 and the rough chipped work of the earlier or ,paleolithic times1 found in geological deposits1 a further sub-division was made by separating the ,paleolithic age into that of the river gravels and that of the cave-dwellers4 ,the latter has again been divided into three classes by ,french writers1 named1 from their localities1 ,mousterien1 ,solutrien1 ,magdalenien2 and1 though these classes may be much influenced by locality1 they probably have some difference of age between them4 ,and now within the last few years a still earlier kind of workmanship has been recognized in flints found in ,england on the high hills in ,kent4 ,though at first much disputed1 the human origin of the forms is now generally acknowledged1 and they show a far ruder ability than even the most massive of the ,paleolithic forms4 ,the position also of these flints1 in river deposits lying on the highest hills some six hundred feet above the present rivers1 shows that the whole of the valleys has been excavated since they were deposited1 and implies a far greater age than any of the gravel beds of the ,paleolithic ages4 ,we1 therefore1 have passed now at the beginning of this century to a far wider view of man's history1 and classify his earlier ages in ,europe thus3 ,first--,eolithic3 ,rudest massive flints from deposits #fjj feet up4 ,second--,paleolithic3 ,massive flints from gravels #bjj feet up and less 7,achuleen74 ,third--,paleolithic--,cave-dwellers3 ,flints like the preceding and flakes 7,mousterien74 ,fourth--,paleolithic--,cave-dwellers3 ,flints well worked and finely shaped 7,solutrien74 ,fifth--,paleolithic--,cave-dwellers3 ,abundant bone working and drawing 7,magdalenien74 ,sixth--,neolithic3 ,polished flint working1 pastoral and agricultural man4 ,what time these periods cover nothing yet proves4 ,the date of #djjj ,b4 ,c4 for man's appearance1 with which belief the nineteenth century started1 has been pushed back by one discovery after another4 ,estimates of from #aj1jjj to #bjj1jjj years have been given from various possible clews4 ,in ,egypt an exposure of #gjjj years or more only gives a faint brown tint to flints lying side by side with ,paleolithic flints that are black with age4 ,i incline to think that #ajj1jjj years ,b4 ,c4 for the rise of the second class1 and #aj1jjj ,b4 ,c4 for the rise of the sixth class will be a moderate estimate4 ,passing now from ,paleolithic man of the latest geological times whose works lie under the deposit of ages1 to ,neolithic man of surface history whose polished stone tools lie on the ground1 we find also how greatly views have changed4 ,for ages past metal-using man has looked on the beautifully polished or chipped weapons of his forefathers as 8thunderbolts10 possessing magic powers1 and he often mounted the smaller ones to wear as charms4 ,at the beginning of this century well-finished stone weapons were only preserved as curiosities which might belong to some remote age1 but without any definite ideas about them4 ,the recognition of long ages of earlier unpolished stone work has now put these more elaborate specimens to a comparatively late period1 and yet they are probably older than the date to which our forefathers placed the creation of man4 ,the beginning of a more intelligent knowledge of such things was laid by the systematic excavations of the burial mounds scattered over the south of ,england1 which was done in the early part of this century by ,sir ,richard ,colt ,hoare4 ,a solid basis of facts was laid1 which began to supersede the romances woven by ,stukeley and others in the last century4 ,gradually more exact methods of search were introduced1 and in the last thirty years ,canon ,greenwell has done much1 and ,general ,pitt ,rivers has established a standard of accurate and complete work with perfect recording1 which is the highest development of archological study4 ,these and other researches have opened up the life of ,neolithic man to us1 and we see that he was much as modern man1 if compared with the earlier stage of man as a hunter4 ,the ,neolithic man made pottery1 spun and wove linen1 constructed enormous earthworks both for defence and for burial1 and systematically made his tools of the best material he could obtain by combined labor in mining4 ,the extensive flint-mines in chalk districts of ,england show long-continued labor2 and the perfect form and splendid finish of many of the stone weapons show that skilled leisure could be devoted to them1 and that sthetic taste had been developed4 ,the large camps prove that a thorough tribal organization prevailed1 though probably confined to small clans4 ,about the middle of the century a new type of dwelling began to be explored--the lake dwelling2 this system of building towns upon piles in lakes had the great advantage of protection from enemies and wild beasts1 and a constant supply of food in the fish that could be hooked from the water below4 ,though such settlements were first found in the ,swiss lakes1 and explored there by ,keller1 they have since been found in ,france1 ,hungary1 ,italy1 ,holland1 and the ,british ,isles4 ,the earlier settlements of this form belong to the ,neolithic age1 but only in central ,europe4 ,in these earliest lake dwellings weaving was known1 and the cultivation of flax1 grapes1 and other fruit and corn2 while the usual domestic animals were kept and cattle were yoked to the plough2 pottery was abundant1 and was often ornamented with geometric patterns4 ,the type of man was round-headed4 ,following the ,neolithic lake dwellings came those of the ,bronze age1 and as the bronze objects are similar to those found in other kinds of dwellings we shall notice them in the ,bronze age in general4 ,the type of man was longer-headed than in the earlier lake settlement4 ,the domestication of animals shows an advance2 the horse was common1 and the dog1 ox1 pig1 and sheep were greatly improved4 ,pottery was better made and elaborately decorated1 often with strips of tin-foil4 ,the ,bronze age marks a great step in man's history4 ,in many countries the use of copper1 hardened by arsenic or oxide1 was common for long before the alloy of copper and tin was used4 ,in other countries1 where the use of metals was imported1 copper only appears as a native imitation of the imported bronze4 ,hence there is a true age of copper in lands where the use of metals has grown4 ,it must by no means be supposed that copper excluded the use of flint2 it was not until bronze became common that flint was disused4 ,the existence of a ,bronze age was first formulated1 as distinct from a ,stone age1 about seventy years ago2 and the existence of a ,copper age has been much disputed in the last thirty years1 but has only been proved clearly ten years ago1 in ,egypt4 ,in the eighteenth century the bronze weapons found in ,england were attributed to the ,romans by some writers1 though others1 with more reason1 argued that they were ,british4 ,in the first year of the century began the comparative study of such weapons with reference to modern savage products4 ,the development of the metal forms from stone prototypes was pointed out in #ahaf2 the tracing out of the succession of the forms and the modes of use appeared in #ahdg4 ,further study cleared up the details1 and within the last twenty years the full knowledge of the ,bronze age in other countries has left no question as to the general facts of the sequence of its history4 ,in each type of tool and weapon there appears first a very simple form imitated from the stone implements which were earlier used4 ,gradually the facilities given by the casting and toughness of the metal were used1 and the forms were modified2 ornamentation was added1 and thin work in embossed patterns gave the stiffness and strength which had been attained before by massive forms4 ,the general types are the axe--first a plain slip of metal1 later developed with a socket2 then the chisel1 gouge1 sickle1 knife1 dagger1 sword1 spear1 and shield2 personal objects1 as pins1 necklets1 bracelets1 ear-rings1 buttons1 buckles1 and domestic caldrons and cups4 ,most of these forms were found together1 all worn out and broken1 in the great bronze-founder's hoard at ,bologna4 ,lastly in the prehistory of ,europe comes the ,iron age1 which so much belongs to the historical period that we can best consider it in noticing separate countries4 ,from the recent discoveries in ,egypt we can gain some idea of the date of these periods4 ,we ventured to assign about #aj1jjj ,b4 ,c4 for the rise of the ,neolithic or polished-stone period 7it may very possibly be earlier72 the beginning of the use of copper may be placed about #ejjj ,b4 ,c42 the beginning of bronze was perhaps #cjjj or #bjjj ,b4 ,c41 as its free use in ,egypt is not till #afjj ,b4 ,c42 and the use of iron beginning about #ajjj ,b4 ,c41 probably in ,armenia1 spreading thence through ,europe until it reached ,italy1 perhaps #gjj years ,b4 ,c41 and ,britain about #djj ,b4 ,c4 ,such is the briefest outline of the greater part of the history of man1 massed together in one general term of 8prehistoric10 before we reach the little fringe of history nearest to our own age4 ,the whole of this knowledge results from the work of the century4 ,we now turn to the historical ages of each of the principal countries1 to review what advance has been made even where a basis of written record has come down to us1 equally accessible in all recent times4 ,,egypt ,at the beginning of the century ,egypt was a land of untouched and inexplicable mystery2 the hieroglyphics were wondered at1 and puzzled over1 without any idea of how they were to be read1 whether as symbols or as letters4 ,the history was entirely derived from the confused accounts of ,greek authors1 the lists remaining of ,manetho's history1 written about #bfj ,b4 ,c41 and the allusions in the ,bible4 ,the attempt to make everything fit to the ideas of the ,greeks1 and to make everything refer to the ,biblical history1 greatly retarded the understanding of the monuments1 and is scarcely overcome yet4 ,the first great step forward was when an inscription was found at ,rosetta1 in #agii1 written in two methods1 the monumental hieroglyphic and the popular demotic1 along with a ,greek version4 ,by #ahjb some groups of each writing had been translated4 ,young identified more signs1 and ,gell1 by #ahbb1 could successfully apportion three-quarters of the signs to the ,greek words4 ,the next step was to apply the modern ,coptic language1 descended from the ancient ,egyptian1 to the reading of the words4 ,gell had been doing so1 but it needed a student of ,coptic--,champollion--to carry this out thoroughly1 as he did in #ahba-cb4 ,since then advance in reading has been only a matter of detail1 not requiring any new principles4 ,the knowledge of the art began with the admiration for the debased work of ,roman times1 the principal interest at the beginning of the century4 ,then the excavations among the ,rameside monuments at ,thebes1 about #ahbj-cj1 took attention back to the age of #aejj-ajjj ,b4 ,c4 ,the work of ,lepsius1 and later of ,mariette1 from #ahdj-hj1 opened men's eyes to the splendid work of the early dynasties1 about #djjj-cjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,and lastly the excavations of #ahic-ii have fascinated scholars by a view of the rise of the civilization and the prehistoric period before #ejjj ,b4 ,c4 ,throughout the greater part of the century the archology of ,egypt lay untouched2 all attention was given to the language2 and even ,gardner ,wilkinson's fine view of the civilization 7#ahcg7 depended largely on ,greek authors1 and had no perspective of history in tracing changes and development4 ,it is only in the last ten or fifteen years that any exact knowledge has been acquired about the rise and progress of the various arts of life2 this study now enables us to date the sculpture1 metal work1 pottery1 and other art products as exactly as we can those of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the view that we now have of the rise and decay of this great civilization and its connection with other lands is more complete and far-reaching than that of any other country4 ,in the early undated age1 before the monarchy which began about #dhjj ,b4 ,c41 a flourishing civilization was spread over upper ,egypt4 ,towns were built of brick1 as in later times2 clothing was made of woven linen and of leather2 pottery was most skilfully formed1 without the potter's wheel1 hand-made1 yet of exquisite regularity and beauty of outline1 while the variety of form is perhaps greater than in any other land2 stone vases were made entirely by hand1 without a lathe1 as perfect in form as the pottery1 and of the hardest rocks1 as diorite and granite2 wood was carved for furniture2 the art of colored glazing was common1 and was even applied to glazing over large carvings in rock crystal2 ornaments and beads were wrought of various stones and precious metals2 ivory combs with carved figures adorned the hair2 ivory spoons were used at the table2 finely formed weapons and tools of copper served where strength was needful1 while more useful were flint knives and lances which were wrought with a miraculous finish that has never been reached by any other people2 and games were played with dainty pieces made of hard stone and of ivory4 ,but all this tasteful skill of #fjjj-ejjj ,b4 ,c4 had its negative side2 in the artistic copying of nature the mechanical skill of these people carried them a very little way2 their figures and heads of men and animals are strangely crude4 ,and they had no system of writing1 although marks were commonly used4 ,they always buried the body doubled up1 and often preserved the head and hands separately4 ,commerce was already active1 and large rowing-galleys carried the wares of different countries around the ,mediterranean4 ,these people were the same as the modern ,kabyle1 of ,algeria1 and akin to the ,south ,european races1 but with some negro admixture4 ,our whole knowledge of this age has only been gained within the last five years4 ,at about #ejjj ,b4 ,c4 there poured into ,egypt a very different people1 probably from the ,red ,sea4 ,having far more artistic taste1 a commoner use of metals1 a system of writing already begun1 and a more organized government1 these fresh people started a new civilization in ,egypt2 adopting readily the art and skill of the earlier race1 they formed by their union the peculiar culture known as ,egyptian1 a type which lasted for four thousand years4 ,the same foundation of a type is seen in the bodily structure2 the early historical people had wider heads and more slender noses than the prehistoric1 but from #djjj ,b4 ,c4 down to ,roman times the form shows no change4 ,from this union of two able races came one of the finest peoples ever seen1 the ,egyptians of the old kingdom1 #dejj--cejj ,b4 ,c4 ,full of grand conceptions1 active1 able1 highly mechanical1 and yet splendid artists1 they have left behind them the greatest masses of building1 the most accurate workmanship and exquisite sculptures in the grand pyramids and tombs of their cemeteries4 ,they perfected the art of organizing combined labor on the immense public works4 ,in all these respects no later age or country has advanced beyond this early ability4 ,the moral character and ideas are preserved to us in the writings of these people2 and we there read of the ability1 reserve1 steadfastness1 and kindliness which we see reflected in the lifelike portraiture of that age4 ,after a partial decay about #cjjj ,b4 ,c4 this civilization blossomed out again nobly in the twelfth dynasty about #bfjj ,b4 ,c42 though the works of this age hardly reach the high level of the earlier times1 yet they are finer than anything that followed them4 ,at this period more contact with other countries is seen2 both ,syria and the ,mediterranean were known1 though imperfectly4 ,to this succeeded another decadence1 sealed by the disaster of the foreign invasion of the ,hyksos4 ,but this was thrown off by the rise of a third age of brilliance--the eighteenth dynasty1 #aejj ,b4 ,c4--which1 though inferior to early times in its highest work1 yet shines by the widespread of art and luxury throughout the upper classes4 ,magnificence became fashionable1 and the lower classes contented themselves with most barefaced imitations of costly wares4 ,foreign islands came closely in contact with ,egypt4 ,the ships of the ,syrian coast and ,cyprus continually traded to and fro1 exchanging silver1 copper1 and precious stones for the gold of ,egypt4 ,greece also traded its fine pottery of the ,mycenan age for the showy necklaces of gold and the rings and amulets with names of ,pharaohs4 ,egypt then dominated the shores of the western ,mediterranean1 the plains of the ,euphrates1 and the fertile ,soudan4 ,but this power and wealth led to disaster4 ,like ,rome1 later on1 she could not resist the temptation to live on plunder2 heavy tribute of corn was exacted1 large numbers were employed in unproductive labor1 and national disaster was the natural consequence4 ,egypt never recovered the dominion or the splendor that were hers in this age4 ,of this period some slight notions are given us from literary remains in the ,bible and ,greek authors2 but archology is1 so far1 our only practical guide1 as in the earlier ages4 ,the great temples and monuments of the eighteenth-twentieth dynasties 7#afjj-aajj ,b4 ,c47 bear hundreds of historical inscriptions1 the tombs are covered with scenes of private life1 the burials and the ruins of towns furnish us with all the objects of daily use4 ,this age is one of the fullest and richest in all history1 and hardly any other is better known even in ,greece or ,italy4 ,yet all this has been brought to light in the century1 and the knowledge of the foreign relations of ,egypt is entirely the result of the last fifteen years4 ,the final thousand years of the civilization of ,egypt is checkered with many changes2 sometimes independent1 as in the ages of ,shishak of ,necho1 and of the ,ptolemies2 at other times a prey to ,ethiopians1 ,persians1 ,greeks1 or ,romans4 ,its arts and crafts show a constant decay1 and there was but little left to resist the influence of ,greek taste and design1 which ran a debased course in the country4 ,there was1 however1 a spread of manufactures and of cheap luxuries into lower and lower classes2 and the wealth of the country accumulated under the beneficent rule of the earlier ,ptolemies 7#cjj-bjj ,b4 ,c474 ,the principal discoveries about these later ages have been in the papyri1 which have been largely found during the last twenty years4 ,the details of the government and life of the country in the ,ptolemaic 7#cje-cj ,b4 ,c47 and ,roman 7#cj ,b4 ,c4-#fdj ,a4 ,d47 periods have been cleared up2 and many prizes of classical literature have also been recovered4 ,the archology of the ,middle ,ages in ,egypt has also been studied4 ,many of the ,arabic buildings have been recently cleaned and put in good condition1 and the splendid collection of manuscripts in ,cairo has opened a view of the beautiful art of the thirteenth-fifteenth centuries so closely akin to what was done in ,europe at the same time4 ,egypt is1 then1 before all other lands1 the country of archology4 ,a continuous history of seven thousand years1 with abundant remains of every period to illustrate it1 and a rich prehistoric age before that1 give completeness to the study and the fullest value to archological research4 ,,mesopotamia ,the valley of the ,euphrates might well rival that of the ,nile if it were scientifically explored1 but unhappily all the excavation has been done solely with a view to inscription and sculpture1 and no proper record has been made1 nor have any towns been examined1 the only work being in palaces and temples4 ,the earliest study on the ground was by ,rich 7#ahah-bj71 who gathered some few sculptures and formed an idea of ,assyrian art4 ,the ,french ,consul1 ,botta1 excavated ,khorsabad 7founded #gjj ,b4 ,c47 in #ahcd-ce1 and ,layard excavated ,nimrud in #ahde-dg2 these were both ,assyrian sites4 ,the older ,babylonian civilization was touched at ,erech by ,loftus1 in #ahdi-eb2 and this age has attracted the most important excavations made since1 at ,tello by ,sarzec 7#ahgf-ha71 and at ,nippur by ,peters and ,haynes1 of ,philadelphia1 during the last few years4 ,the cuneiform characters were absolutely unexplained until ,grotefend1 in #ahjj1 resolved several of them by taking inscriptions which he presumed might contain names of ,persian kings and comparing them alongside of the known names2 thus--without a single fixed point to start from--he tried a series of hypotheses until he found one which fitted the facts4 ,bournouf 7in #ahcf7 and ,lassen 7#ahcf-dd7 rectified and completed the alphabet4 ,but the cuneiform signs were used to write many diverse languages1 as the ,roman alphabet is used at present2 and the short ,persian alphabet was only a fraction of the great syllabary of six hundred signs used for ,assyrian4 ,rawlinson had independently made out the ,persian alphabet1 using the ,zend and ,sanskrit for the language4 ,he next1 from the trilingual ,behistun inscription in ,persian1 ,assyrian1 and ,vannic1 resolved the long ,assyrian syllabary1 using ,hebrew for the language4 ,since then other more obscure languages written in cuneiform have been worked with more or less success2 the most important is the ,turanian language1 used by the earlier inhabitants of ,babylonia before the ,semitic invasion2 this is recorded by many syllabaries and dictionaries1 and translations compiled by the literary ,semitic kings4 ,the general view of the civilization which has been obtained by these labors of the century shows it to have been more important to the world than any other4 ,cuneiform was the literary script of the world for at least six thousand years1 the only medium of writing from the ,mediterranean to the ,indian ,ocean4 ,the ,babylonian culture was almost certainly the source of the oldest present civilization--that of ,china4 ,and the arts were developed probably even earlier than in ,egypt4 ,the first inhabitants were called ,sumirian 7or river folk7 in distinction from the ,accadian 7or highland7 people1 who came from ,elam down into the ,euphrates valley1 bringing with them the use of writing4 ,their earliest writing was of figure symbols 7like the ,egyptian and ,hittite72 but as in the valley clay tablets were the only material for writing1 the figures became gradually transformed into groups of straight lines and spots impressed on the clay2 hence the signs were formalized into what we call cuneiform4 ,the ,semitic invaders were using cuneiform characters by about #cjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,the early civilization was intensely religious1 the main buildings being the temples1 which were placed on enormous piles of brick-work4 ,the sculpture was at a high level in the time of ,naram-,sinn1 about #cgej ,b4 ,c42 and yet below his ruins at ,nippur there are no less than thirty-five feet depth of earlier ruins1 which must extend back to #fjjj or #gjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,in early times stone implements were used alongside of copper and bronze1 as we find in ,egypt #djjj ,b4 ,c4 ,pottery was well made1 and also reliefs in terra-cotta4 ,personal ornaments of engraved gems and gold-work were common4 ,the main landmarks in the later time of this civilization are the ,elamite invasion of ,kudur-nan-khundi 7#bbhj ,b4 ,c47 which upset the ,semitic rulers1 and the ,assyrian invasion of ,tiglath-,adar 7#abgj ,b4 ,c471 after which interest centres in the ,assyrian kingdom and its development of the ,mesopotamian culture which it borrowed4 ,the main buildings of the ,assyrian kings were their enormous palaces1 the mass of which was of unbaked bricks1 faced with alabaster slabs2 such were the works of ,assurnazir-pal 7,nimrud1 #hhj ,b4 ,c471 ,sargon 7,khorsabad1 #gaj ,b4 ,c471 ,sennacherib and ,assurbani-pal 7,kouyunjik1 #gjj ,b4 ,c474 ,the later1 ,assyrian1 form of the civilization was to the earlier ,chaldean much what ,rome was to ,greece1 a rather clumsy borrower1 who laboriously preserved the literature and art4 ,some of the ,assyrian sculpture of animals is1 however1 perhaps unsurpassed for vivid action4 ,the systematic libraries1 containing copies of all the older literature for general study1 were most creditable1 though the ,assyrian himself composed nothing better than chronicles4 ,nearly all that we possess of ,babylonian religion1 and much of the history1 is in the copies scrupulously made from the ancient tablets by the ,assyrian scribes1 who noted every defect in the original with critical fidelity4 ,the ,mesopotamian civilization has left its mark on the modern world4 ,its religion greatly influenced ,hebrew1 and thence ,christian1 thought1 the psalms1 for instance1 being a ,babylonian form of piety4 ,its science fixed the signs of the zodiac1 the months of the year1 the days of the week1 and the division of the circle in degrees1 all of which are now universal4 ,and its art1 carried by the ,phnicians1 was copied by the ,greeks and ,etruscans1 and thus passed on into modern design4 ,,syria ,the knowledge of ,palestine was but slight1 and of northern ,syria nothing to speak of1 a century ago4 ,travellers with some scientific ability1 such as ,robinson 7#ahch and #aheb71 ,de ,saulcy 7#ahec71 and ,van de ,velde 7#ahed71 greatly extended our view and led up to the splendid survey by the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund 7#ahff and on71 which exhausted the surface study of the land4 ,the more archological work of excavation was begun at ,jerusalem 7#ahfg-gj71 and resumed 7#ahib-ii7 at ,lachish1 ,jerusalem1 etc4 ,the topographical results are all important1 and leave nothing to be done until excavation can be freely applied2 and the small amount of digging yet done has fixed the varieties of pottery back to #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 and given some early architecture4 ,but the ruins of ,syria1 and indeed of ,turkey in general1 are practically yet untouched4 ,the discovery 7#ahfh7 of the inscription of ,mesha1 ,king of ,moab 7#hif ,b4 ,c471 opened a new prospect of research which cannot yet be entered upon4 ,in the north of ,syria nothing has been done except the ,german work at ,singerli1 from which came an ,aramean inscription of about #gdj ,b4 ,c4 ,and in the south a large number of early inscriptions of the ,arabian dynasties1 reaching back some centuries ,b4 ,c41 have been copied2 but there1 also1 excavation is impossible4 ,the main new light from ,syria has been on the ,hittite power4 ,burckhardt1 in #ahab1 had noticed a new kind of hieroglyph at ,hamath4 ,after several ineffective copies1 ,wright made casts of the stones in #ahgb4 ,several other such inscriptions have been found1 and from these and the ,egyptian and ,assyrian references to the ,hittites we now realize that they were a northern people1 with a great capital on the ,euphrates1 at ,karkhemish1 and ruling over nearly all ,syria and ,asia ,minor4 ,little has yet been fixed about the writing2 a few signs are read and some have passed into the ,cypriote alphabet4 ,a striking proof of the spread of ,babylonian culture is seen in the tablets found in ,egypt at ,tel-el-,amarna in #ahhg1 which show that all the correspondence between ,egypt and ,syria in the fifteenth century ,b4 ,c4 was carried on in cuneiform4 ,these hundreds of letters give a vivid picture of life in ,syria at that early date4 ,,greece ,the revival of interest in ,greek civilization was at first purely literary1 and remained so during two or three centuries4 ,but during the last century various travellers and residents abroad made collections which awoke an interest in the art2 and though most of these collectors were content with merely showy sculpture1 greatly restored and falsified for the market1 yet some--such as ,hamilton--took a real archological interest in the unearthing and collecting of ancient art4 ,the condition of study at the end of the eighteenth century was that many private men of wealth had bought large quantities of sculpture which was but little understood1 and looked on more from a decorative than a scientific point of view1 while there were the beginnings of a serious appreciation of it which had been just laid down by ,winckelmann4 ,the nineteenth century opened with a grand work of publishing the principal treasures of classical art in ,england1 which was finally issued in #ahji by ,payne1 ,knight1 and ,townley2 this marks the highest point of the dilettante collecting spirit1 which was soon eclipsed by truer knowledge4 ,hitherto the best sculpture had hardly been known but at second hand through ,roman copies2 a closer acquaintance began with the travels of ,dodwell1 ,gell1 and ,leake1 all in the first decade of the century4 ,the free opening of the ,british ,museum1 in #ahje1 and the accumulation there of all the best collections within the first quarter of the century1 also served to educate a public taste4 ,the first struggle of scientific and artistic knowledge against the dilettante spirit was over the ,elgin marbles2 by #ahaf they were accepted as the masterpieces which all later criticism has proved them to be4 ,the ginetan and ,phigaleian sculptures1 brought to ,munich and ,london1 helped also to show the nobility of early ,greek art2 so that the last two generations have had a canon of taste to rely upon1 the value of which cannot be overestimated4 ,following on this noble foundation1 other collectors worked in ,greece and ,asia ,minor1 and the ,british ,museum profited by the labors of ,burgon1 ,fellows1 and ,woodhouse between #ahdj and #ahfj4 ,the diplomatically supported work of ,newton on the ,mausoleum 7#aheg-eh71 and ,wood at ,ephesus 7#ahfc-ge71 filled out our knowledge of the middle period of ,greek art 7#cej ,b4 ,c474 ,comparatively little has been done since then by ,england1 but the activity of the ,germans at ,olympia has given us the only original masterpiece that is known--the ,hermes of ,praxiteles 7#cej ,b4 ,c471 and their work at ,pergamon revealed the great altar belonging to the later age 7#ahj ,b4 ,c474 ,the excavations at ,athens 7in #ahhf7 have produced the impressive statues dedicated to ,athene about #ebj ,b4 ,c41 which reveal the noble rise of ,attic sculpture4 ,but attention during the last quarter-century has been largely fixed upon the earlier ages4 ,the discoveries of ,schliemann at ,hissarlik 7,troy1 #ahgj-hb71 ,mycen 7#ahgf71 ,orchomenos 7#ahhj-ha71 and ,tiryns 7#ahhd71 opened a new world of thought and research4 ,though at first bitterly attacked1 it is now agreed that these discoveries show us the civilization of ,greece between #bjjj and #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 ,lastly1 during ten years past ,egypt has provided the solid chronology for prehistoric ,greece by discoveries of trade between the two countries4 ,we can now very briefly estimate the present position of our knowledge as gained during the century4 ,setting aside the early foreign pottery found in ,egypt1 which belongs probably to ,greece or ,italy at #ejjj and #cjjj ,b4 ,c41 we first touch a civilized city in the lowest town of ,troy1 where metal was scarcely yet in use1 which is certainly before #bjjj and probably about #cjjj ,b4 ,c4 in date4 ,succeeding that is the finely built second ,troy1 rich in gold vases and ornaments1 which--though mistaken by ,schliemann for the ,homeric ,troy--must yet be long before that1 probably before #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,after the burning of that come three other rebuildings before we reach the town of the age of ,mycen1 about #aejj ,b4 ,c4 ,of this1 which was in ,greece the climax of the prehistoric civilization1 there are the splendid treasures found at ,mycen1 the magnificent domed tombs1 the abundance of fine jewelry and metal-work1 of beautiful pottery and glazed ornament4 ,to this age belong the great palaces of ,mycen1 ,tiryns1 ,athens1 and other hill fortresses1 of which hardly more than the plans can now be traced4 ,and it is this civilization which traded eagerly with ,egypt1 exchanging the valued manufactures of each country4 ,this period was at its full bloom from #aejj-abjj ,b4 ,c41 and began to decay by #aajj ,b4 ,c41 this dating being given by the contact with ,egypt4 ,this natural decadence of art in ,greece was hastened by the invasion of the barbarous ,dorians about #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 ,art1 however1 was by no means extinguished1 but only repressed by the troubles of the age2 and ,athens1 which was not conquered by the ,dorians1 was the main centre of the revival of the arts4 ,other examples of such a history are familiar in ,egypt 7after the ,hyksos invasion7 and in ,italy 7after the ,lombards71 where earlier abilities revive and bloom afresh when vigorous invaders become united to an artistic stock4 ,after the centuries of warfare a quieter age allowed the growth of fine arts again in the seventh century ,b4 ,c41 largely influenced by ,egyptian and ,assyrian work at second hand1 through the ,greek settlements in ,cyprus and ,egypt4 ,by #fjj ,b4 ,c4 definite types of sculpture were started1 and a course was begun which only ended in the fall of classical civilization4 ,the century before the ,persian invasion1 in #dhj ,b4 ,c41 was one of rapid development2 and in sculpture and vase-painting we see that this century carried forward the arts to technical perfection and the highest power of expression4 ,immediately after the ,persian wars came the supreme works of ,pheidias and ,myron1 most familiar in the ,parthenon and the ,discobolus2 and in vase-painting comes the reversal from vases drawn in black on a red ground to the blocking out of the ground in black1 leaving the figure in red1 thus giving far greater scope to the filling in of finely drawn detail4 ,the civilization of ,athens was also at its height in this age1 under ,pericles1 and the minor arts received their most refined and perfect treatment4 ,after this comes nothing but ripening to decay4 ,it must always be remembered that we have but very few examples of original work of the great artists4 ,nearly all the actual marbles preserved are copies made in later times1 which show little of the delicacy of the original2 and the few original marbles that remain are mostly of unknown subjects by unknown men4 ,the great work in ,greek archology during the last fifty years has been comparing the records of ancient art 7in ,pliny1 ,pausanias1 etc47 with the remaining sculptures1 critically assigning the various types of statues to their celebrated originals1 and thus forming some idea of the real history of ,greek art4 ,from these studies1 full of detail and controversy1 we may briefly sum up the characteristics of the principal artists and their imitators4 ,at about #ddj ,b4 ,c4 ,pheidias showed in the ,parthenon the highest expression of divine and mythic forms1 in a simple and heroic style which was never equalled4 ,half a century later ,polykleitos followed a more human expression1 using motives 7as in the ,doryphoros71 but yet portraying an abstract humanity4 ,by #ccj ,b4 ,c4 ,praxiteles brought the expression of moods to his works1 graceful1 animated1 and with a full ripeness1 as in the ,hermes of ,olympia1 or the ,faun4 ,skopas1 slightly later1 marked his work by his great vigor and strong personality4 ,this was the second turning-point1 when ripeness passed into decay2 and in ,lysippos there is mere vivid naturalism and an impressionist manner without much soul or thought1 as in his ,apoxyomenos1 about #ccj ,b4 ,c4 ,after this mere triviality and genre subjects are usual1 portraiture is a common aim1 and dignity was vainly striven for in colossal size4 ,the glorification of showing dead and vanquished enemies is seen in the ,dying ,gaul and figures of slain foes at ,pergamon4 ,later on1 about #ahj ,b4 ,c41 we see the violent1 complicated1 and straining action of the figures around the great altar of ,pergamon1 which also appears in the groups of the ,laocoon and ,farnese ,bull4 ,in the ,grco-,roman age a conscious artificiality took the place of life and expression1 as we see in the ,apollo ,belvidere1 the ,venus di ,medici1 and the ,farnese ,hercules4 ,art was saved in the first century ,a4 ,d4 by the devotion of portraiture1 which gave a sense of reality and conviction which is entirely absent in the imaginative works4 ,lastly1 a painstaking study and admiration of earlier works led1 under the wealthy patronage of ,hadrian 7#acj ,a4 ,d471 to an eclectic revival which was wholly artificial1 and passed away within a generation4 ,we have fixed on sculpture as the most complete expression of ,greek art2 in other directions there is neither enough material nor enough research to give us a connected view4 ,not a single town1 hardly a single house1 in ,greece has been excavated2 there is no consecutive knowledge of the ordinary products and objects of life2 and there is very little recorded of the discoveries of the tombs4 ,the artistic interest of the sculpture and architecture has starved other branches of archology1 and for ,greece more remains to be done than for some less celebrated lands4 ,,italy ,the interest in ,italy at the beginning of the nineteenth century was mainly for the sake of its second-hand version of ,greek art1 and for the architecture and painting of the ,renaissance4 ,on the contrary1 now the objects from ,greece itself have far eclipsed the ,italian copies1 and the interest lies in the early ,italian civilization and its purely ,roman derivatives2 while modern taste values the medival art of ,italy far from the bastard products of the florid age which followed4 ,the first detailed studies in ,italy were those on ,pompeii1 especially by ,gell 7#ahag71 which made that debased style very popular1 and paved the way for appreciation of better work4 ,the various isolated discoveries of ,etruscan tombs were summed up in the admirable work of ,dennis 7#ahdh71 which presented a general view of that civilization which has not been superseded4 ,the earlier ,italic culture has been examined in many places where accidental discoveries have revealed it during the latter half of the nineteenth century1 and especially in the systematic work of ,zannoni1 at ,bologna 7#ahgj-ge71 and of ,orsi1 lately1 in ,sicily4 ,the history of the city of ,rome has been almost rewritten in the last thirty years owing to the great changes of the new government2 these have been largely worked by ,lanciani1 and recorded by him and ,middleton4 ,the view of ,italian history at present begins in the ,stone age1 which has been well studied1 and has links with the later periods1 as in the general use of black pottery4 ,the earliest metal objects are very simple blades of daggers1 found in graves1 mingled with flint arrow-heads and knives4 ,the admirable ,italian plan of preserving whole burials undisturbed in museums enables us to see these graves complete in the ,kircherian ,museum4 ,a special branch of the early ,bronze age life was the system of lake dwellings 7natural or artificially water girt71 which abound in the northern ,italian lakes and over the plain of ,lombardy4 ,these towns 78terra mare07 are arranged on a rectangular plan1 and form the earliest stage of many of the present cities4 ,the full development of the ,bronze age civilization seems to have been later than in ,greece1 at about #hjj ,b4 ,c41 to which belong the great discoveries of tombs1 weapons1 and tools at ,bologna1 and the cemetery of ,falerii4 ,upon all the native ,italic civilization came an entirely different influence from the immigrant ,etruscan4 ,traditionally coming from ,asia ,minor1 he brought art and religion which had no relation to the ,italic4 ,the earliest ,etruscan paintings are strongly northern in style1 influenced by north ,european feeling 7,veii74 ,but soon the ,etruscan borrowed largely from other races1 from the ,greek mainly1 but also from ,assyria and ,egypt4 ,thus the fascinating problem in ,italy is to distinguish the various sources of ,italic1 ,etruscan1 ,grco-,etruscan1 ,oriental-,etruscan1 and pure ,greek1 which are found in all degrees of combination before ,roman times1 and which can still be traced through the ,roman age4 ,the characteristics of ,etruscan taste are3 7#a7 ,the extraneous objects and figures1 such as rows of pendants to a metal vase1 monstrous heads standing out from a bowl1 and statuettes placed for handles2 7#b7 in forms of vases and furniture1 the combination of many different parts and curves which never form a whole design2 7#c7 and in sculpture the large round head and staring eyes4 ,in general1 an air of clumsy adaptation by a race deficient in originality4 ,the glory of the ,etruscan was his engineering1 which he handed as a legacy to ,rome4 ,strange to say1 although thousands of ,etruscan inscriptions are known1 and many words are translated1 yet the language is sealed to us1 and none of the many attempts to read it has succeeded4 ,the scientific study of ,etruscan tombs has been well followed lately1 as shown in the ,florence ,museum1 where a separate room is devoted to each city4 ,in the south of ,italy ,greek art prevailed1 and many of the finest works belong to this civilization4 ,the ,greek in ,italy had rather different ideals to those of ,greece2 he started more from the level of ,polykleitos and ,praxiteles than from the severe age2 his favorite type is that of youth and adolescence1 never of maturity4 ,the grace and feeling of such bronze statues as the ,hermes and so-called ,sappho of ,herculaneum are peculiar to southern ,italy4 ,and when the ,greek artist penetrated north and allied himself with the mechanical skill of the ,etruscan1 such splendid work was done as the ,orator of ,sanguineto4 ,rome in the earlier centuries was an ,italic town which came under ,etruscan influence as ,tuscany was conquered4 ,but from the age of foreign conquest in the first century ,b4 ,c41 ,greek art in a debased form ruled over all else1 and ran into utter degradation in the third century ,a4 ,d4 ,it was this art that the power of ,rome spread around the whole ,mediterranean1 from ,palmyra to ,britain1 and is the parent of most modern decoration4 ,but in the great reconstruction of the empire under ,diocletian the debased ,greek taste was mostly shaken off1 and ,rome went back to the old ,italic-,etruscan style and motives4 ,the statues have the round heads and staring eyes of old ,etruria2 the taste for quaint accessories1 such as lions supporting objects1 came back and passed into medival art1 and the exaggerated1 lengthy forms of men and animals reappeared4 ,of the ,christian period ,de ,rossi's work in the catacombs has given a firm base of facts for the third to the sixth century ,a4 ,d41 the actual tomb and body of ,saint ,cecilia being the most striking result4 ,the later ,roman and medival age in ,italy is full of interest1 but in that--as in the rest of medival ,europe--research has been mainly on architecture and objects which are not the result of excavation4 ,,india ,the ,hindus have never been chronologists or historians1 and their great ,sanskrit literature tells practically nothing about the rise of ,buddhism1 the invasion of ,alexander1 or the spread of civilization in ,indo-,china4 ,all before the ,islamic conquest in the tenth century ,a4 ,d4 is in a mist of ,puranic mythology4 ,here1 then1 more than in other countries1 archology has restored the history1 and done so entirely within the nineteenth century4 ,the existence of ,sanskrit literature was revealed to the ,west by ,sir ,william ,jones at the end of the last century1 and this gave scope to ,oriental scholars1 while antiquities only interested the collector4 ,but serious exploration was led by ,prinsep1 whose decipherment of the ,asoka inscriptions in #ahcg1 which ranks with the achievements of ,champollion and ,rawlinson1 gave the key to a mass of inscriptions4 ,his assistant1 ,cunningham1 excavated many sites and collected coins1 being head of the ,archological ,survey from #ahfa to #ahhe4 ,fergusson was the historian of ,indian architecture2 ,burgess has published the cave-temples in west and south ,india2 ,sewell in ,madras and ,fhrer in the northwest have excavated and explored1 and a few native pundits have been educated to such research4 ,the government1 in financial difficulty1 has withdrawn from the work1 but the congress of ,orientalists in #ahig resolved to establish an ,indian exploration fund4 ,inscriptions abound in ,india1 on copper plate1 stone pillars1 and native rock4 ,those in ,sanskrit1 or modern vernaculars1 are records of land grants or local dynasties4 ,the oldest--in two different alphabets 7of ,semitic origin7--are the famous edicts of ,asoka 7third century ,b4 ,c471 who has been called ,the ,buddhist ,constantine4 ,he placed these monuments of his power and religion around his frontiers of northern ,india2 but their meaning was forgotten until ,prinsep's decipherment4 ,the ,hindus seem to have a coinage of stamped silver plate before ,alexander2 but regular coinage begins in the ,bactrian kingdoms 7#bjj ,b4 ,c4-#bjj ,a4 ,d471 with ,greek and native inscriptions4 ,since then the coinage is continuous1 and invaluable for history4 ,no stone building or sculpture is older than ,alexander 7#cbg ,b4 ,c471 or certainly earlier than ,asoka 7#bfd-bcc ,b4 ,c474 ,greek influence is plain in the ,punjab1 but native style is seen in the cave-temples4 ,the richest results have been from the mounds1 some of which are ruins of forts or palaces1 but the more important are the stupas1 lofty domes erected two to one thousand years ago to enshrine ,buddhist relics4 ,these domes are surrounded with sculptured reliefs of scenes in the life of ,buddha1 and are often dated by inscriptions4 ,from one lately opened the ,buddha relic has been sent to the ,king of ,siam1 the only ,buddhist king4 ,much has been done by the government in publishing and providing casts and photographs2 but ,india yet needs a scientific archologist to record details with the accuracy demanded by modern research4 ,,america ,archological work in the ,united ,states and in ,central ,america was begun by ,squier about the middle of the century1 and the attention thus drawn to the subject has borne fruit in the more accurate and scientific explorations connected with the surveying and geological departments1 and1 above all1 those of the ,smithsonian ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,the names of ,whitney1 ,wright1 ,cyrus ,thomas1 ,holmes1 ,fowke1 ,mindeleff1 and others1 will be familiar to all ,american readers by their work of the last twenty years1 and need no introducing here4 ,the earliest remains of man in ,america--or perhaps in the world--are those beneath the great lava beds of ,california2 since those were deposited the rivers have cut their beds through two thousand to four thousand feet of lava rock1 implying an erosion during tens1 or perhaps hundreds1 of thousands of years4 ,but little can be assigned1 however1 with any certainty to a date before the ,christian era1 though mounds of refuse on both ocean shores may probably belong to an age before any human history4 ,the most important studies have been those on the highest civilization of the continent1 that of ,central ,america4 ,the destroying ,spaniards preserved but little of native record1 except incidentally1 and the first collector of ,aztec manuscripts was ,benaduci 7#agcf71 of whose treasures but an eighth survived his imprisonments and persecutions1 one of the greatest disasters to history4 ,the first great publication of manuscripts was the magnificent work of ,lord ,kingsborough 7#ahcj72 and almost at the same time appeared ,prescott's history4 ,though the later researches have shown that the land was divided into many small kingdoms1 rather than under one power1 as ,prescott supposed1 yet his account of the calendar and chronology of the ,aztecs has been verified and added to1 and far more has been done in reading the manuscripts than he supposed possible4 ,aubin1 after years of work in ,mexico1 brought to ,europe manuscripts of an entirely new kind1 showing a fully developed system of phonetic writing1 which he has largely deciphered with success1 having analyzed over one hundred syllabic values correctly4 ,one of the most complete studies has been that of the ,mayan ,quich peoples1 and especially of the ,mayans of ,yucatan4 ,in #ahfd ,landa's work on ,yucatan 7written #aeff7 was rediscovered1 and the account of the calendar has sufficed to enable ,goodman to discover the meaning of a very large number of signs 7#ahig72 these enable the numerical documents to be translated1 and show that a period of as much as eight thousand years was dealt with by the ,mayans1 perhaps belonging to mythical ages4 ,the alphabetic signs of ,landa have proved useless so far1 and ,goodman even disbelieves in any record except that of numbers4 ,seler has shown the identical origin of the signs used by ,aztecs and ,mayans for the days and months4 ,little had been done to make known these remains until the recent explorations1 casts1 and publications of ,maudsley1 who has worked magnificently for seventeen years at ,copan1 ,palenque1 and ,chichen-,itza2 these1 however1 are but three of innumerable cities of ,guatemala and ,yucatan that need exploration4 ,in ,new ,mexico the many ruins from the ,colorado to the ,rio ,grande have been proved to resemble those of the modern ,pueblo ,indians1 and to have none of the characteristics of ,central ,american architecture2 there are no sculptures1 and the rock inscriptions are too primitive to be interpreted4 ,nothing points to an ,aztec occupation1 and probably the ancestors of the present people were the builders4 ,the innumerable earthworks of the ,mississippi valley were formerly supposed to belong to some vanished race4 ,and the view that they were connected with the ,central ,american civilization is favored by the pyramid mound1 which was hardly known otherwise1 and by the excellence of the minor sculpture4 ,but there are great differences between the two civilizations4 ,the mound-builders were far inferior in metal-working1 and their burial customs are peculiar4 ,the use of materials from both east and west coasts shows an extensive commerce4 ,the best summing up of the researches is that by ,prof4 ,cyrus ,thomas1 after his extensive excavations4 ,he concludes that the remains of the mound-builders show no great antiquity2 that they were formed by tribes like the existing ,indians2 that the builders were of the same culture as were the ,indians when discovered2 that such mounds continued to be made and used for burial during the ,european period1 and that the principal builders were the ,cherokees4 ,it will be seen now how totally our view of man's history has been changed by the study of archology1 and how fundamentally this science affects our ideas of the past and our expectations for the future of our race4 ,the main outlines have been dimly seen2 but in every country the greater part yet remains to be done1 and in ,turkey1 ,persia1 and ,china most important civilizations are as yet quite untouched by exploration4 ,the new century will no doubt see a harvest from these lands2 and it is to be hoped that what yet remains in the safe keeping of the earth may be found by able men1 who will preserve it for instruction and enable posterity to trace the fortunes of our species4 ,india and ,america are here treated with the assistance of ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,cotton and ,mr4 ,d4 ,mac,iver4 ,w4 ,m4 ,,flinders ,,petrie4 ,,astronomy ,in looking back over a century's work in the oldest of the sciences1 one is struck not only by the enormous advance that has been made in those branches of the science dealing with the motions of the heavenly bodies which were cultivated at least eight thousand years ago by early dwellers in the valleys of the ,nile1 ,tigris1 and ,euphrates1 but with the fact that during the century that has just passed away a perfectly new science of astronomy arose4 ,by annexing physics and chemistry astronomers now study the motions of the particles of which all celestial bodies are composed2 a new molecular astronomy has now been firmly established side by side with the old molar astronomy which formerly alone occupied the thoughts of star-gazers4 ,along this new line our knowledge has advanced by leaps and bounds1 and the results already obtained in expanding and perfecting man's views of nature in all her beauty and immensity are second to none which have been garnered during the last hundred years4 ,,the ,,position ,,at ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,century ,it may be well before attempting to obtain a glimpse of recent progress that we should try to grasp the state of the science at the time when the nineteenth century was about to dawn1 and this1 perhaps1 can be best accomplished by seeing what men were working at this period1 at which the greatest activity was to be found in ,germany2 there was no permanent observatory in the southern hemisphere or in the ,united ,states4 ,first and foremost among the workers--he has1 in fact1 been described as 8the greatest of modern astronomers0--was ,william ,herschel1 a ,german domiciled in ,england4 ,in the year #aggc he hired a telescope1 and with this small instrument he obtained his first glimpses of the rich fields of exploration open in the skies4 ,from that time onward he had one fixed purpose in his mind1 which was to obtain as intimate knowledge as possible of the construction of the heavens4 ,to do this1 of course1 great optical power was necessary1 and such was his energy that1 as large instruments were not to be obtained at any price1 he set to work and made them himself4 ,herschel presented the beginning of the nineteenth century not only with a definite idea of the constitution of the stellar system1 based on a connected body of facts and deductions from facts1 as gleaned through his telescopes1 but observations without number in many fields4 ,he discovered a new planet1 ,uranus1 and several satellites of the planets2 published catalogues of nebul2 established the gravitational bond between many 8double stars10 and carried on observations of the sun1 then supposed to be a habitable globe4 ,what ,herschel did for observational astronomy and deductions therefrom1 ,laplace did for the furtherance of our knowledge concerning the exact motions of the bodies comprising the solar system4 ,newton had long before announced that gravitation was universal1 and ,laplace brought together investigations undertaken to determine the validity of this law4 ,these were given to the world in his wonderful book on ,celestial ,mechanics1 the first volumes of which appeared in #agii4 ,a survey of the work of these two great astronomers gives one an idea of what was going on in observational and mathematical astronomy at the beginning of the century4 ,the study was now destined to make rapid strides1 as not only were new optical instruments--some designed for special purposes--introduced1 new mathematical processes applied1 fresh fields for research opened up1 but the number of workers was considerably augmented by the increased means available2 so much so1 indeed1 that the first astronomical periodical was founded by ,von ,zach in #ahjj to facilitate intercommunications between the observers4 ,the first evening of the nineteenth century 7,january #a1 #ahja7 augured well for progress4 ,it had long been thought that all the members of the solar system had not as yet been discovered1 and there was a very notable gap between the planets ,mars and ,jupiter1 indicated by ,bode's law4 ,observers were organized to make a thorough search for the missing planet1 portions of the sky being divided between them for minute examination4 ,it fell to the ,italian observer1 ,piazzi1 to discover a small body which was moving in an orbit between these two planets on the date named4 ,the century thus began with a sensation1 and because the new body1 which was named 8,ceres10 was not of sufficient size to be accepted as the 8missing planet10 the idea was suggested that perhaps it was a fragment of a larger planet that had been blown to pieces in the past4 ,an opportunity here arose for mathematical astronomy to come to the help of the observer1 for ,ceres soon was lost in the solar rays1 and in order to rediscover it1 after it had passed conjunction1 an approximate knowledge of its path and future position was necessary4 ,with the then existing methods of computation of orbits it was imperative to have numerous measured positions to use as data for the calculation4 ,the scanty data available in the case of ,ceres were not sufficient for the application of the method4 ,the occasion discovered a man1 one of the greatest mathematicians of the nineteenth century1 ,karl ,frederick ,gauss1 who1 although only twenty-five years of age1 undertook the solution of the problem by employing a system which he had devised1 known as 8the method of least squares10 which enabled him to obtain a most probable result from a given set of observations4 ,this1 with a more general method of orbit computation1 also elaborated by himself1 was sufficient to enable him to calculate future positions of ,ceres1 and on the anniversary of the original discovery1 ,olbers1 another great pioneer in orbit calculations1 found the planet in very nearly the position assigned by ,gauss4 ,so great was the curiosity regarding the other portions of the planet1 which was supposed to have been shattered1 that numerous observers at once commenced to search after other fragments4 ,these were the actualities of #ahja and thereabouts2 but the seed of much future work was sown4 ,kant and ,laplace had already occupied themselves with theories as to the world formation1 and spectrum analysis as applied to the heavenly bodies may be said to have been started by ,wollaston's observations of dark lines in the solar spectrum in #ahjb4 ,fraunhofer was then a boy at school4 ,in the same year the first photographic prints were produced by ,wedgewood and ,davy4 ,,observatories ,it has been stated that at the beginning of the century there were no permanent observatories either in the southern hemisphere or in the ,united ,states4 ,the end of the century finds us with two hundred observatories all told1 of which fourteen are south of the equator and forty-seven in the ,united ,states1 among which latter are the best-equipped and most active in the world4 ,the observatory of ,parramatta was the first established 7#ahba7 in the southern hemisphere4 ,this was followed by that at the ,cape of ,good ,hope in #ahbi4 ,of the more modern southern observatories from which the best work has come we may mention ,cordova1 the seat of ,gould's important investigations1 established in #ahfh1 and ,arequipa1 a dependency of ,harvard1 whence the spectra of the southern stars have been secured1 erected still more recently 7#ahha74 ,i believe1 but ,i do not know1 that the large number of ,american observatories have radiated from ,cincinnati1 where1 in consequence of eloquent appeals1 both by voice and pen1 from ,mitchell1 then professor of astronomy1 an observatory was commenced in #ahde4 ,there can be no doubt that at the present moment1 with the numerous well-equipped and active observatories1 and the careful and thorough teaching established side by side with them1 which enables numberless students to use the various instruments1 the ,united ,states1 in matters astronomical1 fills the position occupied by ,germany at the beginning of the century4 ,in ,europe special observatories have been established at ,meudon1 ,kensington1 and ,potsdam1 so that new astrophysical inquiries may be undertaken without interfering with the prosecution or extension of the important meridional work carried on at ,paris1 ,greenwich1 and ,berlin4 ,a large proportion of the observations made by the ,lick and ,yerkes observatories in the ,united ,states has been astrophysical4 ,one of the special inquiries committed to the charge of the ,solar ,physics ,observatory at ,kensington at its establishment by the ,british government had relation to the possibility of running home meteorological changes on the earth1 especially those followed by drought and famines in various parts of the empire1 to the varying changes in the sun indicated by the ebb and flow of spots on its surface4 ,with this end in view observations of the sun were commenced in ,india and the ,mauritius to supplement those taken at ,greenwich4 ,at the same time other daily observations of sun spots by a different method were commenced at ,kensington4 ,this kind of work was at first considered ideally useless2 we shall see later on what has become of it4 ,,improvements ,,in ,,telescopes ,the progress in astronomical science throughout the nineteenth century has naturally to a great extent depended upon the advances made both in the optics of the telescope and the way in which they are mounted1 either with circles to record exact times and positions1 or made to move so as to keep a star or other celestial objects in the field of view while under observation4 ,the perfection of definition and the magnitude of the lenses employed in the modern instrument have been responsible for many important discoveries4 ,ever since the telescope was invented--,galileo's lens was smaller than those used in spectacles--men's minds have been concentrated on producing instruments of larger and larger size to fathom the cosmos to its innermost depths4 ,at the beginning of the century we were1 as we have seen already1 in possession of reflectors of large dimensions2 ,herschel's four-foot mirror1 the instrument he was using in #ahja1 which had a focal length of forty feet1 was capable of being employed with high magnifying powers2 and it was the judicious use of these1 on occasions when the finest of weather prevailed1 that enabled him to enrich so extensively our knowledge of the stellar and planetary systems4 ,for the ordinary work of astronomy1 however1 especially when circles are used1 refractors are the more suitable instruments4 ,this form suffers less from the vicissitudes of weather and temperature1 and is1 therefore1 more suited where exact measurements are required4 ,towards the end of the eighteenth century a ,swiss artisan1 ,pierre ,guinard1 after many years of patient labor1 succeeded in producing pure disks of flint glass as large as six inches in diameter4 ,the modern refracting telescope thus became possible4 ,in #ahjd there was started at ,munich the famous optical and mechanical institute1 which soon made its presence felt in the astronomical world4 ,reforms in instrument making were soon taken in hand1 and under the leadership of the great ,german astronomer1 ,bessel1 great strides were made in instruments of precision4 ,fraunhofer1 who had been silently working away at the theory of lenses1 and making various experiments in the manufacture of glass1 was joined1 in #ahje1 by ,guinard4 ,in #ahji ,troughton invented a new method of graduating circles1 according to ,airy the greatest improvement ever achieved in the art of instrument making4 ,in #ahbd ,fraunhofer successfully completed and perfected an object-glass of #i4i inches in diameter for the ,dorpat ,observatory4 ,this objective might literally have been called a 8giant10 for nothing approaching it in size had been previously made4 ,england1 which was at one time the exclusive seat of the manufacture of refracting telescopes1 was now completely outstripped by both ,germany and ,france1 and for this we had to thank 8the short-sighted policy of the government1 which had placed an exorbitant duty on the manufacture of flint glass40 ,in #ahcc the ,dorpat refractor was eclipsed by one of fifteen inches aperture made for the ,pulkowa ,observatory by ,merz ,mhler1 ,fraunhofer's successors1 who about ten years later supplied a similar instrument to ,harvard ,college4 ,at that time ,lord ,rosse emulated with success the efforts of ,herschel and rehabilitated the reflector by producing a metallic mirror of six-foot aperture and fifty-four-foot focal length which he mounted at ,parsonstown4 ,the speculum weighed no less than four tons4 ,to mount this immense mass efficiently and safely was a work of no light nature1 but he successfully accomplished it1 and eventually both mirror and the telescope1 which weighed now altogether fourteen tons1 were so well counterpoised that they could be easily moved in a limited direction by means of a windlass worked by two men4 ,the perfection of the 8seeing0 qualities of this instrument and its enormous light-grasping powers were particularly striking1 and observational astronomy was considerably enriched by the discoveries made with it4 ,speculum metal was not destined to stay2 ten years later 7#aheg7 the genius of ,lon ,foucault introduced glass mirrors with a thin coating of silver deposited chemically1 and these have now universally superseded the metallic ones4 ,the long supremacy of ,germany in the matter of refractors was broken down ultimately by the famous ,english optician and engineer1 ,thomas ,cooke1 of ,york4 ,his first considerable instrument1 one of seven inches aperture1 was finished in #ahea2 and in #ahfe1 a year before his lamented death1 he completed the first of our present giant refractors1 one of twenty-five inches aperture1 for ,mr4 ,newall1 of ,gateshead4 ,in consequence of the success of ,cooke's achievement other large refractors were soon undertaken4 ,alvan ,clarke1 the famous optician of ,cambridgeport1 ,massachusetts1 at once commenced a twenty-six-inch for the ,washington ,observatory4 ,the next was one of twenty-seven inches1 made by ,grubb for the ,vienna ,observatory4 ,object-glasses now grew inch by inch in size1 depending on the increased dimensions of disks that could be satisfactorily cast4 ,gautier1 of ,paris1 completed a twenty-nine-and-a-half-inch for the ,nice ,observatory1 while ,alvan ,clarke made an objective of thirty inches for ,pulkowa4 ,in #ahgg the latter successfully completed the mounting of an objective of thirty-six inches for the ,lick ,observatory1 but this immense lens was only achieved after a great number of failures4 ,even this large object-glass was surpassed in size by the completion in #ahib of the forty-inch which he made for the ,yerkes ,observatory1 and by that made by ,gautier for the ,paris ,exhibition of #aijj4 ,so much1 then1 for the largest refractors4 ,in recent years1 since the introduction of the silver on glass mirrors1 with their stability of figure and brilliant surface1 which can be easily renewed1 reflectors of large apertures are again being produced4 ,the first of these was one of thirty-six inches aperture made by ,calver for ,dr4 ,common1 who demonstrated its fine qualities and his own skill by the beautiful photographs of the nebula of ,orion he was enabled to secure with it4 ,dr4 ,common himself has since turned his attention to the making and silvering of large mirrors of this kind1 and the largest he has actually completed and mounted equatorially is one with a diameter of five feet4 ,another of thirty-six inches aperture is in use at the ,solar ,physics ,observatory at ,kensington4 ,the progress of depositing silver on glass has led of late years to important developments in which plane mirrors are used4 ,foucault was the first to utilize such mirrors in his 8siderostat10 in which such a mirror is made to move in front of a horizontal fixed telescope1 which may be of any focal length1 and no expensive dome or rising floor is required4 ,the plane mirror of the siderostat in the ,paris ,exhibition telescope is six feet in diameter4 ,a variation of this instrument is the clostat more recently advocated by ,lippmann4 ,the ,coud equatorial mounting also depends upon the use of plane mirrors2 with such a telescope the observer is at rest at a fixed eye-piece or camera in a room which may be kept at any temperature4 ,now that in astronomical work eye observations are indispensably supplemented by the employment of photography1 an important modification of the refracting telescope has become necessary2 this was first suggested by ,rutherfurd4 ,the ordinary achromatic object-glass consists1 as a rule1 of two lenses1 one made of flint and the other of crown glass2 but in this form the photographic rays are not brought to the same focus as the visual rays4 ,this1 however1 can be achieved by employing three lenses instead of two1 each of different kinds of glass4 ,the most modern improvement in the telescope is due to ,mr4 ,dennis ,taylor1 of ,cooke ,sons1 and to ,dr4 ,schott and ,professor ,abbe1 whose researches in the manufacture of old and new varieties of optical glass have rendered ,mr4 ,taylor's results feasible4 ,by the ,taylor lens outstanding color is abolished1 all the rays being brought absolutely to the same focus2 such lenses can therefore be used either for visual observations or for photography for spectroscopy4 ,,spectroscopic ,,astronomy ,the branch of physics which at the present day has assumed such mighty and far-reaching proportions in astronomical work is that dealing with spectrum analysis1 which1 although suggested as early as the time of ,kepler1 did not receive any impetus as regards its application to celestial bodies until the beginning of the present century at the hands of ,wollaston and ,fraunhofer4 ,then1 however1 it still lacked the chemical touch supplied afterwards by ,kirchhoff and ,bunsen4 ,they showed us that the spectrum observed when the light from any heated body is passed through a prism is an index to the chemical composition of the light source2 the constitution of a vapor when in a condition to absorb light can be determined by an extension of the same principle1 first demonstrated by ,stokes1 ,angstrm1 and ,balfour ,stewart1 when the century was about half completed4 ,the first celestial body towards which the spectroscope was turned was our central luminary1 the sun4 ,wollaston first discovered that its spectrum was crossed by a few dark lines2 we learned next from ,fraunhofer1 who in #ahad worked with instruments of greater power1 that the solar spectrum was crossed not only by a few dark lines1 but by some hundreds4 ,not content with examining the light of the sun1 ,fraunhofer turned his instrument towards the stars1 the light of which he also examined1 so that he may be justly called the inventor of stellar spectrum analysis4 ,it is not to the credit of modern science that from this time forward spectrum analysis did not become a recognized branch of scientific inquiry1 but1 as a matter of fact1 ,fraunhofer's observations were buried in oblivion for nearly half a century4 ,the importance of them was not recognized till the origin of the dark lines1 both in sun and stars1 had been explained by ,stokes and others1 as before stated4 ,the lines in the solar spectrum were mapped with great diligence by ,kirchhoff in #ahfa and #ahfb1 and later by ,angstrm and ,thalen1 and this was done side by side with chemical work in the laboratory4 ,the chemistry of the sun was thus to a great extent revealed2 it was no longer a habitable globe1 but one with its visible boundary at a fierce heat1 surrounded by an atmosphere of metallic vapors1 chief among them iron1 also in a state of incandescence4 ,to these metallic vapors ,angstrm added hydrogen shortly afterwards4 ,here1 then1 was established a firm link between the heavens and the earth2 the first step to the problem of the chemistry of space had been taken4 ,it was only natural that as advances were made the instrumental equipment should keep pace with them4 ,spectroscopes were built on a larger scale2 more prisms1 which meant greater dispersion1 were employed to render the measurements of the lines in spectra more accurate4 ,the growth of our knowledge especially necessitated the making of maps of the lines in the solar spectrum1 and in the spectra of the chemical elements which had been compared with it on a natural scale4 ,this was done by ,angstrm1 who utilized for this purpose the diffraction grating invented by ,fraunhofer1 and defined the position of all lines in spectra by their 8wave lengths10 in ten-millionths of a millimetre or 8tenth-metres40 ,in #ahfb ,rutherfurd extended ,fraunhofer's work on the stars by a first attempt at classification4 ,two years later ,huggins and ,miller produced maps of the spectra of some stars4 ,donati demonstrated that comets gave radiation spectra1 and ,huggins did the same for nebul4 ,by these observations comets and nebul were shown to be spectroscopically different from stars1 which at that time were studied by their dark lines only4 ,chiefly by the labors of ,pickering1 the energetic head of the ,harvard ,observatory1 science has been enriched during the later years by observations of thousands of stellar spectra1 the study of which has brought about the most marvellous advance in our knowledge4 ,these priceless data have enabled us now to classify the stars not only by their brightness1 or their color1 but by their chemistry4 ,next to be chronicled is the application of the so-called ,doppler-,fizeau principle1 which teaches us that when a light source is approaching or receding from us the light waves are crushed together or drawn out1 so that the wave length is changed4 ,the amount of change gives us the velocity of approach or recess1 so that the rate of movement of stars towards or from the earth1 or the up-rush or down-rush of the solar vapors on the sun's disk can be accurately determined4 ,a further utilization of this principle is found when the stars are so close together that they appear as one if the plane of motion passes near the earth4 ,a line common to the spectra of both stars will appear double twice in each revolution1 when the motion to or from the earth1 or1 as it is termed1 8in the line of sight10 is greatest4 8,spectroscopic doubles10 as these stars are called1 yield up many of their secrets which otherwise would elude us4 ,their time of revolution1 the size of the orbit1 and the combined mass can be determined4 ,to return from the stars to the sun4 ,by the device of throwing an image of the sun on the slit of the spectroscope the spectra of solar spots have been studied from #ahff onward1 and a little later the brighter portions of the sun's outer envelopes1 revealed till then only during eclipses1 were brought within our ken spectroscopically1 so that they are now studied every day4 ,,celestial ,,photography ,wedgewood and ,davy1 in #ahjb1 made prints on paper by means of silver salts1 but it was not until #ahcj that ,niepce and ,daguerre founded photography1 which ,arago1 in an address to the ,french ,chamber1 at once suggested might subsequently be used to record the positions of stars4 ,in #ahci we find ,sir ,john ,herschel carrying out a series of experiments so important for our correct knowledge of the sequence of steps in the early stages of photography that ,i have no hesitation in quoting from one of ,herschel's manuscripts relating to a deposit on a glass plate of 8muriate0 chloride of silver from a mixed solution of the nitrate with common salt4 ,the manuscript states3 8,after forty-eight hours the chloride had formed a film firm enough to bear draining the water off very slowly by a siphon4 ,having dried it1 ,i found that it was very little affected by light1 and by washing it with nitrate of silver1 weak1 and drying it1 it became highly sensitive4 ,in this state ,i took a camera picture of the telescope on it40 ,the original of the above-mentioned photograph1 the first photograph ever taken on glass1 is now in the science collection at the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington4 ,in the early days of photography colored glasses were first used to investigate the action of different colors on the photographic plate4 ,sir ,john ,herschel was among the first to propose that such investigations should be made direct with a spectrum1 and he1 like ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,draper1 stated that he had found a new kind of light beyond the blue end of the spectrum1 as the photographic plate showed a portion of the spectrum there which was not visible to the eye4 ,advance followed advance1 and in #ahdb ,becquerel photographed the whole solar spectrum1 in colors1 with nearly all the lines registered by the hand and eye of ,fraunhofer1 not only the blue end1 but the complete spectrum1 from ,draper's 8latent light10 as he called the ultra-violet rays1 to the extreme red end4 ,the first photograph of a celestial object was one of the moon1 secured by ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,draper in #ahdj2 we had to wait till #ahde1 so far as ,i know1 before a daguerreotype was taken of the sun2 this was done by ,foucault and ,fizeau1 while the first photograph of a star--,vega--was taken at ,harvard in #ahej4 ,after the introduction of the wet-collodion process regular photography of the sun's surface was commenced1 at ,sir ,john ,herschel's recommendation1 at ,kew in #aheh1 and the total solar eclipse of #ahfj was made memorable by the photographs of ,de ,la ,rue1 who before that time had secured most admirable photographs of the moon1 as also had ,rutherfurd4 ,photography now began to pay the debt she owed to spectrum analysis4 ,the first laboratory photograph of the spectra of the chemical elements was taken by ,dr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,miller in #ahfb4 ,rutherfurd was the first to secure a photograph of the solar spectrum with considerable dispersion by means of prisms4 ,in #ahfc ,mascart undertook a complete photographic investigation of the ultra-violet portion of the solar spectrum1 a work of no mean magnitude4 ,he1 however1 did not employ a train of prisms for producing the spectrum1 but a diffraction grating1 using the light reflected from the first surface4 ,the first photograph of the spectrum of a star was secured by ,henry ,draper1 the son of ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,draper1 one of the pioneers in photography in #ahgb4 ,it was not till the introduction of dry plates in #ahgf that the photography of the fainter celestial objects or of their spectra was possible1 as a long exposure was naturally required4 ,stellar spectra were photographed by ,huggins in #ahgi1 and in the next year ,draper photographed the nebula of ,orion4 ,as the dry plates became more rapid1 and as longer exposures were employed1 revelation followed revelation2 the nebul as seen by the naked eye1 and even some stars1 were found by the ,henrys1 ,roberts1 ,max ,wolf1 ,barnard1 and others1 to be but the brighter kernels of large nebulous patches4 ,this new application of photography1 depending upon long exposures 7the longest one ,i know of has extended to forty hours71 had an important reflex action on the mechanical parts of the telescope2 it was not only necessary to keep the faintest star exactly on the same part of the plate during the whole of the exposure1 but night after night the stellar image must be brought on to the same part of the plate so that the exposure might be continued4 ,a system of electric control of the going of the driving-clock of the telescope by means of a sidereal clock was introduced1 the simplest one being designed by ,russell1 of ,sydney2 a most elaborate one by ,grubb1 of ,dublin4 ,another application of the method of long exposures has been the discovery of minor planets by the trails impressed by their motion among the stars on the photographic plates on which the images of both are impressed4 ,a complete spectroscopic survey of the stars by means of photography was commenced in #ahhf at ,harvard ,college1 as a memorial to ,draper1 who died while he was laboring diligently and successfully in securing advances in astrophysical inquiries4 ,to carry on this work at ,harvard1 ,professor ,pickering wisely reverted to the method first employed by ,fraunhofer1 and utilized by ,respighi and another in #ahga1 of placing prisms in front of the object-glass4 ,in the photographing of stellar spectra by means of objective prisms1 the driving-clock of the telescope must not go exactly at sidereal rate1 but at certain speeds depending on the brightness and position of the star under examination4 ,this is necessary because the image of the spectrum of a star on the photograph is only a thin line in which it is impossible to see the spectral lines2 the spectrum must be broadened1 and this is accomplished by making the star image 8trail0 to a certain degree on the plate4 ,this trailing is accomplished by means of the clock1 the rate of which is made to vary4 ,in this way the trail of a spectrum of a star on the photographic plate is always obtained of the same width1 while the density of the image is made fairly constant by increasing the rate for bright stars and decreasing it for fainter ones4 ,in this way spectra of the brighter stars rivalling in perfection and detail those obtained of the spectrum of the sun itself thirty years ago have been obtained4 ,such photographs have rendered a minute chemical classification of the stars possible4 ,one of the most interesting applications of photography to spectrum analysis during the latter part of the century has been the utilization by ,messrs4 ,deslandres and ,hale of a suggestion made by ,janssen1 that by employing photography images of the sun and its surroundings can be obtained in light on one wave length4 ,in this way we can study the distribution of any one of the chemical constituents of the sun separately1 and note its behavior1 not only on the sun itself1 but in the atmosphere which enfolds the disk4 ,it is strange that1 in spite of the suggestions of ,faye1 and others after him1 one of the great advantages of the employment of photography in astronomical work1 namely1 the abolition of 8personal equation10 has so far been almost entirely neglected4 ,what 8personal equation0 is can be perhaps illustrated by considering an observer who is observing the transit of a star over the wires in a transit instrument4 ,his object is to note the exact time1 to a fraction of a second1 when a star passes each wire2 and this is done by listening to the beats of a clock near at hand and estimating the fractions4 ,some observers constantly note the time either a little in advance or a little later than the actual time1 and this small distance between the observer and the true times is more or less constant for each observer4 ,this difference has to be taken into account for every observation4 ,even the use of the chronograph in transit work1 by which the observation is electrically recorded1 does not entirely eliminate the error4 ,the photographic method of transit work has been experimented on1 but1 so far as ,i know1 it has not yet been used at more than one or two observatories4 ,it will doubtless eventually rid us of 8personal equation0 entirely1 for the star image may be photographed and the time recorded by the same current of electricity4 ,at the end of the century we could almost say that except in relation to the work of the meridional observatories1 photographic methods of recording observations had become exclusively used4 ,one of the cases in which its utility is most in evidence is in the matter of eclipse observations4 ,spectra of the sun's surroundings containing a thousand lines are taken in a second of time1 thus replacing five or six doubtful eye observations by wealth of results which have enabled the recent vast progress to be secured4 ,,catalogues ,catalogues of the stars were among the first scientific records started by man1 and so long as only the naked eye was used the work was not difficult1 as only approximate positions were attempted1 even by ,hipparchus2 but long before the eighteenth century dawned the problem was entirely changed by the invention of the telescope and by the provision of accurately divided circles2 not only could better positions be recorded1 but the number of stars to be catalogued was enormously increased1 and1 furthermore1 other objects1 nebul1 presented themselves in considerable numbers4 ,in #ahja the star catalogues chiefly relied on were those of ,lacaille1 containing about three thousand stars scattered over the whole heavens4 ,maskelyne1 who was then ,astronomer ,royal1 had published in #agij a catalogue of thirty-six fundamental stars1 chiefly for the purposes of navigation4 ,the first great catalogue of the century was the ,fundamenta ,astronomiae of ,bessel1 produced in #ahah4 ,this contained three thousand two hundred and twenty-two stars4 ,the ,bonn ,durchmsterung1 with its catalogue of three hundred and twenty-four thousand one hundred and ninety-eight stars in the northern hemisphere1 and the corresponding atlas published in #aheg-fc1 was the next memorable achievement in this direction4 ,for it we have to thank ,bessel and ,argelander and a perfect system of work4 ,another monumental catalogue dealing with the stars in the southern heavens has been that of the southern stars observed by ,gould 7#ahff74 ,while the century was closing1 another catalogue1 far more stupendous than anything which could be conceived possible a few years ago1 was steadily being compiled4 ,this we owe to the far-sightedness and energy of ,admiral ,mouchez1 a late director of the ,paris ,observatory4 ,the work was commenced in #ahib4 ,the whole heavens1 north and south alike1 have been divided into zones1 and the chief observatories on the earth's surface are busy night after night in taking photographs of that part intrusted to them4 ,the whole heavens are thus being made to write their autobiography1 and the total gain to the astronomy of the future of this most priceless record can perhaps be scarcely grasped as yet1 although the advantage of being able at any point of future time to see on a photographic plate what the heavens are telling now is sufficiently obvious4 ,catalogues of the stars have1 of course1 led to other minor catalogues of various classes of stars1 binary1 variable1 and the like4 ,in the later years catalogues of stars according to their spectra have enriched science4 ,the first extensive catalogue of stellar spectra was published by ,vogel4 ,it dealt with four thousand and fifty-one stars1 and appeared in #ahhc2 it has since been followed by the ,draper catalogue1 based upon photographs of the spectra1 which contains a much larger number4 ,with regard to nebul1 ,herschel published his third catalogue in #ahjb4 ,the last catalogue of this nature is by ,dreyer 7#ahhh71 and contains seven thousand eight hundred and forty of these objects4 ,in the time of ,tycho they could be counted on the fingers of one hand4 ,,investigations ,,of ,,some ,,important ,,astronomical ,,constants ,the nineteenth century was fruitful in the determination of many numerical values which are all important in enabling us to determine the distance and masses of the heavenly bodies1 thereby giving us a firm grasp not only of the dimensions of our own system1 but of those scattered in the celestial spaces4 ,to take the distances first4 ,we must begin with the exact measure of the earth2 for this we must measure the exact length of an arc of meridian or of parallel--that is1 a stretch of the earth's surface lying north and south or east and west1 between places of which the latitudes are accurately known in the former case1 and the longitude in the latter4 ,in either case we can determine the number of miles which go to a degree4 ,beginning at the opening of the nineteenth century with an arc of meridian of two degrees measured by ,gauss1 from ,gttingen to ,altona1 the arcs of meridian grew longer as the century grew older1 till1 at the close1 the measurement of an arc of meridian from the ,cape to ,cairo1 embracing something like sixty-eight degrees of latitude1 was mooted4 ,the measurements of arcs of parallel have been developed by the rapid extension of telegraphic communications1 which now permit the longitude of the terminal stations to be determined with the greatest accuracy4 ,thanks to this work1 we now have the size of our planet to a few miles4 ,the polar diameter is #da1gji1gij feet1 but the equator is not a circle3 the equatorial diameter from longitude #h degrees #ae minutes west to longitude #ahh degrees #ae minutes west is #da1hec1beh feet2 that at right angles to it is #da1hej1baj feet--that is1 some thousand yards shorter4 ,the earth1 then1 is shaped like an orange slightly squeezed4 ,knowing the earth's diameter1 we can obtain the sun's distance by several methods1 the old one by observing transits of ,venus1 one of which ,cook went out to observe in #agfh1 and two of which recurred in #ahgd and #ahhb2 new ones by observations of ,mars or one of the minor planets at a favorable opposition1 and by determining the velocity of light4 ,the recent discovery of a minor planet1 ,eros1 which in one part of its orbit is nearer the earth than ,mars1 has recently revived interest in this method1 and a combined attack is in contemplation4 ,it has been long known that light has a finite velocity1 but we had to wait till the #fj's before ,fizeau and ,foucault showed us how to determine its exact value4 ,the methods introduced by them have been recently applied by ,cornu1 ,newcomb1 and ,michelson1 and the resulting value is slightly less than three hundred thousand metres per second4 ,combining this with the constant of aberration1 the distance of the sun can be determined4 ,it is wonderful how these vastly different methods agree in the resulting mean distance4 ,at the beginning of the century it stood roughly at ninety-five million miles2 this has been reduced to ninety-three million nine hundred and sixty-five thousand miles4 ,the extreme difference between the old and new values of the solar parallax1 two-fifths of a second of arc1 is represented by the apparent breadth of a human hair viewed at a distance of about one hundred and twenty-five feet4 ,knowing the distance of the sun1 the way is open to us to determine1 by a method suggested by ,galileo1 the distances of those stars which occupy a different position among their fellows1 as seen from opposite points in the earth's orbit round the sun1 points one hundred and eighty-six million miles apart4 ,we now know the distances of many such stars1 ,bessel having determined the first in #ahch4 ,the nearest star to us1 so far as we know1 is ,centauri1 the light of which takes four and a half years to reach us4 ,not many years ago ,pritchard applied photography to this branch of inquiry2 we may1 therefore1 expect a still more rapid progress in the future4 ,with regard to masses4 ,we naturally must first know that of the earth2 having its size1 if we can determine its density1 the rest follows4 ,the problem of determining the mean density of the earth occupied the minds of many workers during the nineteenth century4 ,newton 7about #agbh7 pointed out how it could be deduced by observing the deviation from the vertical of a plumb-line suspended near a large mass of matter--a mountain1 the volume and density of which could be previously determined4 ,this method1 which is very laborious and requires the greatest skill and most delicate instruments1 has been employed several times1 by ,bouguer and ,condamine1 in #agch1 at ,chimborazo2 ,maskelyne1 in #aggd1 at ,schehallien in ,scotland2 and ,james1 at ,arthur's ,seat1 near ,edinburgh4 ,at the beginning of the century another method was introduced by ,cavendish4 ,this consists in measuring the attraction of two large spheres of known size and mass1 such as two balls of lead on two very small and light spheres1 by means of a torsion balance constructed by ,mitchell for this purpose4 ,the most recent determination by this method1 and one which is considered to give us perhaps the most accurate value1 is that which is due to the skill and ingenuity of ,professor ,boys4 ,his improvement consisted in constructing a most delicate torsion balance2 the attracted spheres consisted of small gold balls suspended by a quartz fibre carrying a mirror to indicate the amount of twist4 ,the whole instrument was quite small1 and could easily be protected from air currents and changes of temperature1 while the use of the quartz fibres reduced to a minimum one of the greatest difficulties of the ,cavendish experiment4 ,the value of the mean density of the earth is now considered to be #e4f1 which means that if we have a globe of water exactly the same size as our own earth1 the real earth would weigh just #e4f times this globe of water4 ,the earth's weight1 in tons1 does not convey much idea1 but that it is six thousand trillions may interest the curious4 ,this determination has enabled the masses of the sun1 moon1 planets and satellites1 and many sidereal systems to be accurately known in relation to the mass of the earth4 ,,some ,,achievements ,,of ,,mathematical ,,analysis ,uranus1 a planet unknown to the ancients1 was discovered by its movement among the stars by ,william ,herschel in #agha4 ,it was not until #ahdf that another major planet was added to the solar system1 and this discovery was one of the sensations of the century4 ,the story of the independent discovery of ,neptune by ,adams and ,le ,verrier1 who were both driven to the conclusion that certain apparent regularities in the motion of ,uranus were due to the attraction of another body travelling on an orbit outside it1 has been often told4 ,the subsequent discovery of the external body not far from the place at which their mathematical analysis had led them to believe it would be seen1 will forever be regarded as a fine triumph of the human intellect4 ,but the results of the inquiries which now concern us are generally of not so sensational a character1 although they lie at the root of our knowledge of celestial motions4 ,they more often take the shape of tables and discussions relating to the movements of the bodies which make up our solar system4 ,gauss may be said to have led the way during the nineteenth century by his ,theoria molus corporum coelestium solem ambientium4 ,this was a worthy sequel to the ,mchanique ,cleste1 in which work1 towards the end of the eighteenth century1 ,laplace had enshrined all that was known on the planetary results of gravitation4 ,in later years ,le ,verrier and ,newcomb have been among the chief workers on whom the mantle of such distinguished predecessors has fallen4 ,from them the planet and satellite tables now in use have been derived4 ,but the motion of our own satellite1 the moon1 has had fascinations for other analysts besides those we have named4 ,the problem1 indeed1 of the moon's motion is one of the most difficult1 and has taxed the ingenuity of astronomers from an early date4 ,even at the present day it is impossible to predict the exact position of the moon at any one moment owing to inequalities and perturbations1 the exact varying values of which are not known4 ,the two most important theories of the motion of the moon completed towards the middle of the century were due to ,hansen and ,delaunay4 ,the former's appeared in #ahch1 the lunar tables being published later 7#aheg71 while the latter's was published in #ahfj4 ,hansen's theory had for its chief object the formation of tables2 to avoid the inconvenience of using in his calculations series which slowly converge1 he inserted numerical values throughout4 ,in ,hansen's solution the problem is one actually presented by nature1 allowance being made for every known cause of disturbance4 ,there is one disadvantage1 namely1 that should observations demand a change in any of the constants used1 there is no means of making any correction in the results4 ,delaunay's theory surmounted this difficulty1 but at the expense of still greater inconvenience for making an ephemeris4 ,the slow convergence of certain series involved an immense amount of labor to give sufficiently approximate results4 ,more recently1 as the century was closing1 ,dr4 ,brown took up the subject and made a fresh attempt to calculate the motion of our satellite4 ,it may be stated that he adopts all ,delaunay's modifications of the problem and works them out algebraically2 but there are many technical differences which it would be out of place to mention here4 ,enough has been stated to show that there is not likely to be any breach of continuity in the treatment of this most important problem4 ,another attack on the moon1 and1 incidentally1 its motion1 has recently been made by another analyst1 ,professor ,george ,darwin2 grappling with all the consequences of tidal friction1 he has been able to present to us the past and future history of our satellite4 ,beginning as a part of the material congeries from which subsequently some fifty million years ago both earth and moon1 as separate bodies1 were formed1 it has ever since been extending its orbit1 and so retreating farther away from its centre of motion1 while the period of the earth's rotation has been increasing at the same time1 from a possible period of some three hours when the moon was born1 to one of one thousand four hundred hours when the day and month will be equal1 something like one hundred and fifty million years being required for the process4 ,,stellar ,,evolution ,it was only in the #hj's1 after thousands of observations of the spectra of stars1 nebul1 and comets had been secured1 that the full meaning of the revelations of the spectroscope began to dawn upon the world4 ,before the introduction of spectrum analysis all stars were supposed to be suns1 and the only difference recognized among them was one of brilliancy and the variation of brilliancy in the case of some of them4 ,it ultimately came out that great classes might be recognized by the differences of their spectra1 which were ultimately traced to differences in their chemistry and in their temperature1 as determined by the extension of the spectra in the ultra-violet1 the whiter stars being hotter than the red ones1 as a white-hot poker is hotter than a red-hot poker4 ,next there was evidence to show that a large proportion of the stars were not stars at all like the sun1 but swarms of meteorites2 and in this way the mysterious new stars which appear from time to time in the heavens1 and a large number of variable stars1 were explained as arising from collisions among such swarms4 ,the inquiry which dealt with the spectroscopic results1 having thus introduced the ideas of meteor swarms and collisions to explain many stellar phenomena1 went further and showed that the various chemical changes observed in passing from star to star might also be explained by supposing the whole stellar constitution to arise from cool meteoritic swarms represented by nebul1 the changes up to a certain point being explained by a rise of temperature due to condensation towards a centre4 ,here the new view was opposed to that of ,laplace1 advanced during the last century1 that the stars were produced by condensation and cooling2 but ,kelvin had shown1 before the new view was enunciated1 that ,laplace's view was contrary to thermodynamics1 a branch of science which had developed since ,laplace published his famous ,exposition du ,systme du ,monde4 ,after all the meteorites in the parent swarm had been condensed into the central gaseous mass1 that mass had to cool4 ,so that we had in the heavens not only stars more or less meteoritic in structure1 of rising temperature1 but stars chiefly gaseous1 of falling temperature4 ,it was obvious that representatives of both these classes of stars might have nearly the same mean effective temperature1 and therefore more or less the same spectrum4 ,a minute inquiry entirely justified these conclusions4 ,so far had the detailed chemistry of the stars been carried in the latter years of the century that the question of stellar evolution gave rise to that of inorganic evolution generally1 the sequence in the phenomena of which can only be studied in the stars1 for laboratory work without stint has shown that in them we have celestial furnaces1 the heat of which transcends that of our most powerful electric sparks4 ,in this way astronomy is paying the debt she owes to chemistry4 ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,his ,,system ,although the outer confines of space have1 as we have seen1 been compelled to bring their tribute of new knowledge by means of the penetrating power possessed by modern telescopes1 and the cameras and spectroscopes attached to them1 the study of the near has by no means been neglected1 and for the reason that in astronomy especially we must content ourselves in the case of the more distant bodies by surmising what happens in them from the facts gathered in the region where alone detailed observations are possible4 ,thus what we can learn about the sun helps to explain what we discern much more dimly in the case of stars2 a study of the moon's face we are compelled to take as showing us the possibilities relating to the surface condition of other satellites so far removed from us that they only appear as points of light4 ,to begin1 then1 with the sun4 ,where a volume might be written1 a few words must suffice4 ,i have already stated that at the beginning of the nineteenth century the prevailing opinion was that it was a habitable globe4 ,it was limited to the fiery ball we see4 ,at the end of the century it is a body of the fiercest heat1 and the ball we see is only a central portion of a huge and terribly interesting mechanism1 the outer portions of which heave and throb every eleven years4 ,spots1 prominences1 corona1 everything feels this throbbing4 ,although the discovery of spots on the sun was among ,galileo's first achievements1 it was reserved for the last half of the nineteenth century to demonstrate their almost perfect periodicity4 ,thanks to the labors of ,schwabe1 ,wolf1 ,carrington1 and ,de la ,rue1 ,stewart1 and ,loewy1 we now know that every eleven years the spots wax and wane2 ,tacchini and ,ricco1 during the last thirty years1 have proved that the prominences follow suit1 and the fact that the corona also obeys the same law was established during the ,american eclipse of #ahgh4 ,the study of solar physics consists in watching and recording the thermal1 chemical1 and other changes which accompany this period4 ,some of these effects can be best studied during those times when the ball itself is covered by the moon in an eclipse4 ,then the outer portions of the sun are revealed in all their beauty and majesty1 and all the world goes to see4 ,but it is the quiet daily work in the laboratory which has enabled us to study the sun's place in relation to the other stars1 and so to found a chemical classification of all the stars that shine4 ,from the sun we may pass to his system1 and first consider the nearest body to us--the moon4 ,while some astronomers have been discussing the movements and evolution of our satellite1 others have been engaged upon maps of its surface1 upon questions dealing with a lunar atmosphere1 or a study of the origin of the present conformations and of possible changes4 ,the science of selenology may be said to have been founded by ,schrter at the beginning of the century1 but it required the application of photography in later years to put it on a firm basis4 ,maps of the moon have been prepared by ,lohrmann1 ,beer and ,mdler1 and ,schmidt1 the latter showing the positions of more than thirty thousand craters4 ,very erroneous notions are held by some as to what we may hope to do in the examination of the moon's surface by a powerful telescope4 ,a power of a thousand enables us to see it as if we were looking at ,york from ,london4 ,it is recorded that ,lassell once said that with his largest reflector in a 8fit0 of the finest definition he thought he might be able to detect whether a carpet as large as ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields was round or square4 ,under these circumstances1 then1 we may well understand that the question of changes on the surface has been raised from time to time never to be absolutely settled one way or the other4 ,by many the existence of an atmosphere is denied1 and this is a condition which would negative changes1 anything like the geological changes brought about on the surface of the earth1 but the idea is now held by many that there is still an atmosphere1 though of great tenuity4 ,the last few years of the century were rendered memorable from the lunar point of view by the publication and minute study of a most admirable series of photographs of the moon obtained by the great equatorial ,coud of the ,paris ,observatory by ,loewy and ,puiseaux4 ,one of the chief points aimed at has been to determine the sequence of the various events represented by the rills1 craters1 and walled plains1 the mountain ranges and seas4 ,this work is still in progress1 the fourth part of the atlas being published in #aijj2 but enough has already appeared to indicate that the results of the inquiry when completed will be of the most important kind4 ,the authors have already come to the conclusion that the lunar and terrestrial sea-bottoms much resemble each other1 inasmuch as both have convex surfaces4 ,the lunar seas began by sinking of vast regions2 the formidable volcanic eruptions of which the moon has been the scene have taken place in times equivalent to those labelled 8recent0 in geological parlance4 ,there is evidence that the axis of the moon has undergone great displacements1 and four great periods of change have been made out4 ,finally they state that there is serious ground to believe that there is an atmosphere of some sort remaining4 ,it may readily be understood that with each increase of optical power new satellites of the various planets have been discovered4 ,soon after the discovery of ,neptune a satellite was noted by ,lassell4 ,in #ahdf both he and the eagle-eyed observer ,dawes independently discovered another satellite 7,hyperion7 of ,saturn4 ,lassell was rewarded in the next year by the discovery of two more satellites of ,uranus2 but1 strangest observation of all1 in #ahgg ,hall discovered at ,washington two satellites of ,mars some six or seven miles only in diameter1 one of them revolving round the planet in seven and one-half hours at a distance of less than four thousand miles4 ,as the day on ,mars is not far different in duration from our own1 this tiny satellite must rise in the west and south three times a day6 ,wonderful as this discovery was1 it is certainly not less wonderful when we consider it in connection with a passage in ,gulliver's ,travels1 so true is it that truth is stranger than fiction4 ,swift1 in his satirical reference to the inhabitants of ,laputa1 writes3 8,they have likewise discovered two lesser stars1 or satellites1 which revolve round ,mars1 whereof the innermost is distant from the centre of the primary planet exactly three of his diameters and the outermost five2 the former revolves in the space of ten hours2 and the latter in twenty-one and a half40 ,the last discovery of this kind has been that of an inner satellite of ,jupiter by ,barnard in #ahib4 ,the planets from ,mercury to ,saturn were known to the ancients4 ,i have already referred to the discovery of ,uranus by ,herschel's giant telescope1 not long before the nineteenth century was born1 and of ,neptune1 by analysis1 towards the end of the first half of the century4 ,with regard to what modern observations have done in regard to their physical appearance1 the first place in general interest must be given to ,saturn and ,mars4 ,saturn has always been regarded as the most interesting of the planetary family on account of its unique rings4 ,many subdivisions of the rings1 and a dusky ring1 first seen by ,dawes and ,bond1 have been discovered during the last sixty years4 ,the meteoritic nature of the rings was suggested by ,clerk ,maxwell in #aheg1 and ,keeler's demonstration of the truth of this view by means of the spectroscope1 a few years ago1 was brilliant in conception and execution4 ,but during the last half of the century the interest centred in ,mars has been gradually increasing4 ,the drawings made during the opposition of #ahfb1 when compared with those made by ,beer and ,mdler 7#ahcj-dj71 made it perfectly clear that in this planet we had to deal with one strangely like our own in many respects4 ,there were obviously land and water surfaces2 the snow at the poles melted in the summer-time2 clouds were seen forming from time to time1 and the changing tones of the water surfaces suggested fine and rough weather4 ,afterwards came the revelation of the hawk-eyed ,schiaparelli1 beginning in the year #ahgg1 and his wonderful map of the planet's surface4 ,the land surfaces1 instead of being unbroken1 were cut up1 as an ,english farm is cut up by hedges2 straight lines of different breadths and tints crossed the land surfaces in all directions1 and at times some of them appeared double4 ,schiaparelli naturally concluded that they were rivers--water channels--and being an ,italian he used the appropriate word canali4 ,this1 unfortunately1 as it turned out1 was translated canals4 ,now canals are dug1 ergo there were diggers4 ,from this the demonstration1 not of the habitability1 but of the actual habitation1 of ,mars was a small step1 and the best way of signalling to newly found kinsmen across some thirty millions of miles of space was discussed4 ,the world of science owes a debt of gratitude to ,mr4 ,percival ,lowell for having taken out to the pure air and low latitude of ,arizona an eighteen-inch telescope for the sole purpose of accumulating facts tending to throw light upon this newly raised question4 ,this he did in #ahid4 ,schiaparelli has continued his magnificent observations through each opposition when the planet is most favorably situated for observation1 and since #ahif ,signor ,cerulli1 armed with a fifteen-inch ,cooke1 in the fine climate of ,italy1 has joined in the inquiry1 so that facts are now being rapidly accumulated4 ,it has been stated that markings similar to the strange so-called 8canals0 on ,mars are to be seen on ,mercury1 ,venus1 and even on the satellites of ,jupiter4 ,mr4 ,percival ,lowell does not hesitate to proclaim himself in favor of their being due1 in ,mars1 to an intelligent system of irrigation4 ,signor ,cerulli claims that wherever seen they are mere optical effects4 ,we may be well content to leave to the twentieth century a general agreement on this interesting subject4 ,finally1 in our survey of our own system1 come comets and meteor swarms4 ,one of the most fruitful discoveries of the century1 that comets are meteor swarms1 we owe to the genius of ,schiaparelli1 ,a4 ,h4 ,newton1 and other workers on those tiny celestial messengers which give rise to the phenomena of 8falling0 or 8shooting0 stars4 ,the magnificent displays of #agii1 #ahcc1 #ahff1 and1 alas6 that which failed to come in #ahii1 we now know must be associated with ,tempel's ,comet4 ,this is by no means the only case so far established2 the connection will in the future be closer still when the orbits of the various swarms observed throughout the year shall be better known4 ,comets which attract public attention by their brightness and grandeur of form are rather rare1 and1 in fact1 only twenty-five of such have been seen since #ahjj4 ,we have1 however1 with the great advance in instrumental equipment1 been able to discover many which are scarcely visible to the naked eye1 and this has swollen the number of comets very considerably4 ,in the seventeenth century we find that only thirty-two were observed1 while in the eighteenth this number was more than doubled 7seventy-two74 ,in the nineteenth century more than three hundred were placed on record1 which is practically more than four times the number seen in the eighteenth4 ,the last great comet visible any considerable time was that discovered by ,donati in #aheh1 and so carefully observed by ,bond4 ,it is unfortunate that since the importance1 in so many directions1 of spectroscopic observations of comets has been recognized they have been conspicuous by their absence4 ,,the ,,connection ,,between ,,solar ,,and ,,terrestrial ,,weather ,everybody agrees that all the energy utilized on this planet of ours1 with the single exception of that supplied by the tides1 comes from the sun4 ,we are all familiar with the changes due to the earth's daily rotation bringing us now on the side of our planet illuminated by the sun1 then plunging us into darkness2 that changes of season must necessarily follow from the earth's yearly journey round the sun is universally recognized4 ,on the other hand1 it is a modern idea that those solar phenomena which prove to us considerable changes of temperature in the sun itself1 may1 and indeed should1 be echoed by changes on our planet1 giving us thereby an eleven-year period to be considered1 as well as a year and a day4 ,this response of the earth to solar changes was first observed in the continuous records of those instruments which register for us the earth's magnetism at any one place4 ,the magnetic effects were strongest when there were more spots1 taking them as indicators of solar changes4 ,lamont first 7without knowing it7 made this out1 at the beginning of the latter half of the century 7#ahea71 from the ,gttingen observations of the daily range of the declination needle4 ,sabine the next year not only announced the same cycle in the violence of the 8magnetic storms0 observed at ,toronto1 but at once attributed them to solar influence1 the two cycles running concurrently4 ,it is now universally recognized that terrestrial magnetic effects1 including auror1 minutely echo the solar changes4 ,the eleven-year period is not one to be neglected4 ,next comes the inquiry in relation to meteorology4 ,sir ,william ,herschel1 in the first year of the century1 when there were practically neither sun-spot nor rainfall observations available1 did not hesitate to attack the question whether the price of wheat was affected by the many-or-few-spot solar condition4 ,he found the price to be high when the sun was spotless1 and vice versa4 ,by #ahgb1 however1 we had both rainfall and sun-spot observations1 and the cycle of the latter had been made out4 ,meldrum1 the most distinguished meteorologist living at the time1 and others1 pronounced that the rainfall was greatest at sun-spot maximum1 and1 further1 that the greatest number of cyclones occurred in the ,east and ,west ,indies at such times4 ,this result with regard to rainfall was not generally accepted1 but ,chambers showed shortly afterwards an undoubted connection between the cycles of solar spots and barometric pressure in the ,indian area4 ,by means of a study of the widened lines observed in sun spots an attempt has been recently made to study the temperature1 history of the sun since about #ahgg1 and the years of mean temperature and when the heat was in excess 77 and defect 7-7 made out1 have been as follows3 ,heat condition mean mean mean mean mean ,years #ahfi #ahgf #ahha #ahhf-hg #ahia-ib #ahgj-ge #ahgg-hj #ahhb-hf #ahha-ia #ahib ,having these solar data1 the next thing to do was to study the ,indian rainfall during the southwest monsoon for the years #ahgg-ahhf1 the object being to endeavor to ascertain if the and temperature pulses in the sun were echoed by and pulses of rainfall4 ,the ,indian rainfall was taken first because in the tropics the phenomena are known to be the simplest4 ,it was found that in many parts of ,india the and conditions of solar temperature were accompanied by and pulses1 producing pressure changes and heavy rains in the ,indian ,ocean and the surrounding land4 ,these occurred generally in the first year following the mean condition1 that is1 in #ahgg-gh and #ahhb-hc4 ,the rainfalls at ,mauritius1 ,cape ,town1 and ,batavia were next collated to see if the pulses felt in ,india were traceable in other regions surrounding the ,indian ,ocean to the south and east4 ,this was found to be the case4 ,a wider inquiry was followed1 we are told1 with equal success1 so that we are justified in hoping that the question of the dependence of terrestrial upon solar weather has made a step in advance4 ,but just as the general public and practical men took little heed of the connection between sun spots and magnetism until experience taught them that telegraphic messages often could not 8get through0 when there were many sun spots1 so the same public will not consider the connection in regard to meteorology unless the forecasting of droughts and famines be possible4 ,the recent work suggests that1 if the recent advances in solar physics be considered1 the inquiries regarding rainfall may be placed on a firmer basis than they could possibly have had in #ahgb1 and that such forecastings may become possible4 ,what was looked for in #ahgb was a change in the quantity of rain at maximum sun spots only1 the idea being that there might be an effective change of solar temperature1 either in excess or defect1 at such times and that there would be a gradual and continuous variation from maximum to maximum4 ,we see that the rainfalls referred to above justify the conclusions derived from the recent work that two effects ought to be expected in a sun-spot cycle instead of one4 ,there was excess of rainfall1 not only near the sun-spot maximum1 but near the minimum4 ,if the authors of this communication to which ,i refer are right1 then droughts and famines occur in ,india because the rain pulses1 which are associated with the solar-heat pulses1 are of short duration4 ,when they cease the quantity of rain which falls in the ,indian area is not sufficient1 without water storage1 for the purposes of agriculture2 they are followed1 therefore1 by droughts1 and at times subsequently by famines4 ,they divide the period #ahgg--hi as under3 #ahgg4 ,rain from pulse #ahgh4 #ahgi 7part74 #ahgi 7part74 ,no rain pulse #ahhj 7central year74 #ahha 7part74 #ahha 7part74 #ahhb4 ,rain from pulse #ahhc4 #ahhd 7part74 #ahhd 7part74 #ahhe ,no rain pulse #ahhf 7central year74 #ahhg 7part74 #ahhg 7part74 ,rain from pulse #ahhh4 #ahhi4 ,their statement is based on the fact that all the famines which have devastated ,india for the last seventy years have occurred at intervals of eleven years1 or thereabouts1 working backward and forward from the central years #ahhj and #ahhe-hf in the above table1 the middle years1 that is1 between the pulses4 ,mr4 ,willcocks1 in a paper read at the ,meteorological ,congress at ,chicago1 remarked that 8famines in ,india are generally years of low flood in ,egypt40 ,it is now pointed out that the highest ,niles follow the years of the and pulses1 as does the highest rainfall in the ,indian area4 ,even if these results1 which were communicated to the ,royal ,society of ,london five weeks before the end of the century1 be confirmed1 it may be pointed out that ,sir ,william ,herschel's suggestion of #ahja will have required a whole century for its fulfilment1 so slowly do those branches of science move which have not already led to some practical development4 ,,norman ,,lockyer4 ,,philosophy ,it is a natural illusion that makes us think of each century as exhibiting the continuous development of one tendency of mind through a series of stages whose differences are only of secondary importance1 and1 on the other hand1 to regard the steps from one century to another as corresponding to some marked transition of thought1 as if the world had been suddenly precipitated into a new sphere of existence4 ,for some purposes a rough generalization of this kind1 that breaks at stated intervals the continuity of time1 may1 perhaps1 be convenient4 ,when1 however1 we begin to look at things more closely1 we discover that it is impossible thus to cut through the historical connection of events1 as it were1 8with a hatchet40 ,we discover1 for example1 that the characteristics of the eighteenth century were strongly marked only in one period of it2 and that what we call the spirit of the nineteenth century was born some time before the year #ahjj1 and has never quite prevailed over other tendencies4 ,at the same time1 there is an important difference indicated by these two loosely used names1 and as it is always easier to define things by contrast1 it may help us to make our subject more definite to consider what they mean4 ,i ,it is too late now to 8abuse the eighteenth century10 which had its good and evil1 like other periods4 ,it is commonly conceived as the era of individualism and analysis1 the era of logical enlightenment and sceptical criticism2 and1 again1 as the era of liberation from groundless superstitions and fictitious claims of authority2 the era in which mankind seemed for the first time to throw off the weight of the past and to enter without fear upon the enjoyment of their earthly heritage4 ,the science of ,newton had given the last blow to the astronomy that made the earth the centre of the universe4 ,it had undermined and discredited the simple theology that explained the whole material world as a cosmos arranged for the supply of human needs4 ,at the same time1 the progress of biology was bringing man to a consciousness that as a physical being he is only primus inter pares in the animal kingdom1 and the decay of religious belief was making him realize his finitude1 the limits of his natural existence1 as1 perhaps1 he had never done before1 at least never since the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,earth seemed to be disconnected from heaven1 and the human race thrown upon its own resources4 ,by the new enlightenment all powers1 ecclesiastical or political1 were stripped of the mysterious sanctity that had once invested them4 8,the nimbus was taken away from the heads of the gods and rulers of the world40 ,every authority that claimed man's homage was weighed in the scales of the understanding1 and1 so weighed1 every such authority was found wanting4 ,the ,state had come to be regarded as only a collection of individuals who had agreed to live together under a ruler deriving all his claims from their consent1 and invested with no divine right to their allegiance4 ,the ,church was no longer a sacred institution governed by priests who held their commission directly from ,god1 but only a sort of spiritual police agency1 an ally of the ,state in the restraint of vice and crime1 or1 at best1 in ,protestant countries1 a society for mutual improvement4 ,men were 8free and equal10 each standing face to face with his fellows1 admitting no superiority or superstition of hero-worship in regard to any one of them4 ,and the ,deity1 if his existence were not denied1 tended to become a mere 8,supreme ,being10 who was removed to such a distance from mankind that he could hardly be reached by their reverence1 still less by their love4 ,at the same time1 the influences which1 in one point of view1 seemed to limit and narrow human existence1 in another point of view tended to liberate and enlarge it4 ,if they excluded the idea of the infinite from man's life1 they emancipated him from many degrading superstitions1 which in an earlier age had held him 8all his lifetime subject to bondage40 ,and as the pressure from above was lightened the individual seemed to become master of himself and of his destiny4 ,if the king could no longer say1 8,l',etat c'est moi10 the rights of the subject were vindicated2 if the authority of the ,church was weakened1 the bonds of free inquiry were broken2 if imagination ceased to fill men with the awe and wonder of higher powers1 the way was opened up for scientific and industrial development2 if ,god was regarded as unknowable1 8the proper study of mankind was man10 and that study could now be pursued without fear or hinderance4 ,poetry and religion might be impoverished1 the sense of the binding force of social relations might be weakened1 but interest in the bettering of man's earthly condition was awakened1 and with it came a new desire for justice to all1 a new intolerance of human suffering1 and a new demand that the lot of the class 8which is most numerous and poor0 should be made less wretched and insecure1 and1 towards the end of the century1 a new turn was given to its leading thought1 for an effort was made to discover in the nature of the individual himself the equivalent of those universal powers which the enlightenment had banished from the external world and from the life of society4 ,rousseau carried individualism to an extreme point1 at which it became its own correction1 and taught men to find within their own souls the infinite which they could no longer discover without4 ,rejecting in the first instance all social conventions as unjust limitations of the natural man1 and adopting the prevailing theory of the time1 that the ,state is only the product of a contract between independent persons1 he yet discovered in the individual thus liberated from all external pressure a 8common reason10 and 8a general will10 which could reorganize his life and bind him to his fellow-men and to ,god4 ,this great idea1 which appears in ,rousseau rather as a stroke of insight1 an intuition of genius--lifting him above his first thoughts and insensibly changing their meaning--was grasped by ,kant as the principle of a new philosophy and worked out in a comprehensive system that dealt with all the great problems of thought and life4 ,kant1 indeed1 seemed1 like ,rousseau1 to begin on the plane of eighteenth-century individualism1 but1 influenced as he was by the philosophy of ,leibnitz1 he from the first conceived the individual as in himself universal2 or1 to speak more exactly1 as having a universal principle realized in him4 ,thus1 though in one aspect of his being man is a finite object among other objects1 confined within limits of space and time1 and forming only a link in the chain of natural causation1 in another aspect of it1 as a conscious self1 he is emancipated from all these limitations4 ,for--such is ,kant's argument--a knowing subject1 for whom the whole finite world1 including his own finite existence1 is an object of knowledge1 cannot himself be comprehended in that world or limited by any of its conditions4 ,as there can be no world of objects except for a self1 it is impossible that such a self should be merely one of these objects4 ,thus1 as knowing1 or capable of knowing1 all things1 man cannot be identified with any of them2 or if1 from one point of view1 as an individual1 he is so identified1 yet he has within him a universal principle that carries him beyond the limits of his individuality4 ,and this contrast shows itself also in his practical life4 ,for if as an object he appears to be but an animal organism1 moved by the impressions of pleasure and pain which he receives from other objects1 yet in his inner moral life man is revealed to himself as a self-determining subject1 emancipated from all sensuous motives and from the necessity of nature which they bring with them1 and conscious of subordination only to the law of duty1 which is the law of his own reason4 ,and that law1 in spite of every pressure of circumstance from without1 and of every impulse of passion from within1 he knows that he ought to obey1 and therefore he knows that he can obey it4 ,thus1 in ,kant's theory1 the two extreme views of humanity1 as natural and as spiritual1 as limited to a finite individuality1 hemmed in by necessities on every side1 and yet as possessing a universal capacity of knowing1 and an absolute power of self-determination1 these two views are presented in sharp antithesis1 and at the same time held together as different aspects of one life4 ,in fact1 we have here1 as it were1 compressed into a nutshell1 the result of the whole history of eighteenth-century individualism1 which began by depressing man and ended by exalting him2 which1 with one of its voices1 seemed to reduce him to the level of an animal1 a mere part of the partial world1 a transitory phenomenal existence among other phenomena2 and then1 with its other voice1 proceeded to recognize him as a member of the intelligible world1 a 8spectator of all time and existence10 and gifted with the absolute freedom of a will which could be determined by nothing but itself4 8,the solitary10 says ,aristotle1 8must be either a god or a beast10 and the eighteenth century1 in its conception of the individual1 seemed to oscillate between the one and the other till ,kant1 awaking to the impossibility of omitting either aspect of his being1 demanded that he should be conceived as both at once4 ,kant thus set the problem of the future2 and if he did not solve it1 he at least showed the futility of any narrow or one-sided solution and the direction in which an adequate solution could alone be sought4 ,in short1 ,kant asked the question to which the nineteenth century1 in all its philosophical reflection1 has been striving to find an answer4 ,for in philosophy1 as in other departments of knowledge1 the work of the nineteenth century has been one of mediation and reconciliation4 ,it has been an endeavor to break down the sharp antithesis of philosophical and scientific theories that was characteristic of an earlier time4 ,in the writings of the greatest thinkers1 the oppositions of materialism and spiritualism1 of sensationalism and idealism1 of empiricism and a priori speculation1 of individualism and socialism1 all the great oppositions of theoretical and practical philosophy1 which formerly were held to be absolute and irreconcilable1 have been modified1 restated1 reduced to the relative antagonism of the different aspects of one truth4 ,the great controversies of the past have thus passed into a new phase1 in which absolute statements pro and con have become1 as it were1 antiquated2 and the question is no longer whether a particular doctrine or its opposite is true1 but what are the elements of truth and error in each of them1 and how we can attain to a comprehensive view of things1 in which justice is done to both4 ,and if it be asked1 what are the principles or ideas that have suggested this reconciling work1 and have been the guides of the greatest scientific or philosophic writers in attempting to achieve it1 ,i think the answer must be that they are the idea of organic unity1 and1 as implied in that1 the idea of development4 ,goethe and ,hegel1 in ,germany2 ,comte1 in ,france2 ,darwin and ,spencer1 in ,england1 are writers who almost span the whole range of difference in modern thought2 but they1 and a multitude of others in every department of study1 have been inspired by the ideas of organism and development4 ,and they have all used them somewhat in the same way to turn the edge of the old controversial weapons1 or to lift thought above the 8yes0 and 8no0 of opposing dogmatisms4 ,it is true that the definitions or interpretations of the ideas of organism and development given by these writers are very different1 and often1 indeed1 so sharply opposed that they seem to bring back the old controversies in a new form4 ,but this does not alter the significance of the general fact2 for1 in the first place1 the use of an idea by any writer is by no means always limited by his own interpretation of it2 and1 in the second place1 the true interpretation of the idea is that which contains the secret of its power and prevalence1 and it must in the long run gain the victory over all other interpretations of it4 ,we may1 therefore1 fairly say that these ideas have been the marked ideas of the century1 the conscious or unconscious stimulus of its best thought2 and that they have been working1 and are working still1 in the direction of a deeper and more comprehensive irenicon between the different tendencies of the human mind than has been attained in any previous stage of the history of philosophy4 ,against such a general characterization of an age1 there is the same objection which ,burke indicated when he said that 8he could not draw up an indictment against a nation40 ,we are taking a distant and general view of a period1 in which all its inequalities of movement1 all the ebb and flow of opinion1 are lost sight of1 and only one main current of thought is visible4 ,we may get a step nearer to the subject by distinguishing three periods in the century1 in which there is a partial difference of tendency4 ,the first period1 which we may roughly define as lasting well on into the #cj's1 is1 in the main1 a period of construction1 of creative thought1 in which the great germinating ideas that distinguished the century are more or less adequately expressed in different countries1 and in which they receive a first1 somewhat hasty1 application to all departments of human knowledge4 ,idealistic philosophy1 which gave the fullest expression to those ideas1 seems for a time to carry all before it in ,germany2 and a similar movement of thought1 less definitely reflective or speculative1 enriches the literature of other countries4 ,in the next period1 lasting until the #gj's1 the new ideas do not lose their hold upon men's minds1 but there is a certain critical recoil against them1 a tendency to explain them away4 ,the first premature synthesis of idealistic philosophy is attacked by a scepticism1 which seems at times as if it would measure back the whole way to the individualistic materialism of an earlier age1 or which only avoids that extreme to fall into a scientific agnosticism1 at first sight even more hostile to the claims of philosophy4 ,but the lesson of ,kant could never be altogether forgotten1 nor could the negative or sceptical tendencies of the ,critique of ,pure ,reason be permanently separated from the positive results of his later writings4 ,and the great scientific movement of the time1 which at first seemed to draw away all interest from speculative inquiry1 tended in the long run1 especially by the advance of biological study1 to raise metaphysical questions which the methods of science were incapable of answering4 ,hence1 in the latest decades of the century1 there has come a revival of interest in philosophy1 and especially in the idealistic philosophy of its first years4 ,but if philosophy has revived1 it is in a more critical and cautious form1 and accompanied by a clear consciousness that the only true idealism is that which is able to absorb and assimilate all the data supplied by empirical investigation1 and do justice to all the results of the special sciences4 ,the general movement of thought in the nineteenth century has thus1 on the whole1 taken an idealistic direction2 but there has come with it also a deeper consciousness of the immense difficulty of a comprehensive synthesis2 of the inefficacy of any easy monism or optimism1 that would pluck the fruit of knowledge before it is ripe2 of the infinite labor and patience1 the sympathetic appreciation of the opposing views of others1 and constant and unsparing criticism of our own1 which are needed for the construction of a true philosophy4 ,,ii ,in a short article like this1 it is impossible to give more than a few indications of the way in which this three-fold schema of the history of nineteenth-century philosophy should be filled up4 ,to give any definite impression1 the writer must1 so to speak1 put on the seven-leagued boots of ,jack the ,giant ,killer2 in other words1 however conscious he may be of the truth that dolus latet in generalibus1 he must generalize and be content to mention only a few leading names in illustration of the tendencies of thought of which he speaks4 ,it is the instinct of each new generation to vindicate its freedom by rebelling against the authority of its predecessors2 and when a new idea begins to influence human thought1 it usually1 on its first appearance1 shows that side which is most antagonistic to the spirit of the past4 ,thus the peculiar nineteenth-century movement begins with a reassertion of the universal as against the individual1 which is so emphatic that it looks like a return to ,spinozism4 ,schelling is the most prominent philosophical representative of this tendency4 ,in the works which he wrote about the beginning of the century1 he broke away even from the universalized individualism of ,fichte1 and gave emphatic prominence to the great philosophical commonplace--which had been almost forgotten by the previous age--that there is an identity which is below or above all distinction1 and that the universe is one through all its multiplicity1 and permanent through all its changes4 ,his maxim--that there are none but quantitative differences in things1 and that all these1 even the difference of mind and matter1 disappear in the 8indifference0 of the ,absolute--was like a declaration of war against the 8enlightenment40 ,it meant that philosophy was no longer content to regard the whole as the sum of the parts1 but could look upon the distinction of the parts only as a differentiation of the whole4 ,with ,schelling1 indeed1 this differentiation was in danger of being reduced to a mere appearance and the unity of the ,absolute was on the point of vanishing in a bare or abstract identity4 ,but his strong assertion of the unity beneath all difference1 of the priority of the universal to all particulars1 was perhaps necessary1 ere the true conception of the organic unity of the world could be arrived at4 ,and the correction soon came with ,hegel1 who maintained that the absolute is 8not substance1 but subject40 ,for this meant that the absolute is a self-differentiating principle1 realizing itself in a world of difference which is no mere appearance1 but its own essential manifestation2 and again--what is the counterpart or complementary truth to this--that in the world there are 8degrees of reality10 and that 8mind is higher in degree than nature40 ,but these ideas could hardly have been understood until the uncompromising assertion of the absolute unity had been made1 and until the subjectivity of the ,kantian and ,fichtean points of view had once for all been set aside4 ,the philosophy of ,hegel derives its power from the way in which it strikes what1 as ,i have already said1 was the key-note of the nineteenth-century philosophy4 ,in the first place1 it is a philosophy of reconciliation1 which attempts1 through a criticism of the oppositions of philosophical theory1 to reach a point of view in which they are all seen to be subordinated to the unity of one principle4 ,his attack upon the 8law of contradiction10 as formulated by scholastic logicians1 meant simply that absolute distinctions are unmeaning1 and that the only real differences are differences within a unity4 ,on this principle he tried to show that all the oppositions of thought and things which have found expression in philosophy are relative oppositions1 which find a solution or reconciliation in the life and movement of the whole4 ,hence he maintained that in all the great controversies that have divided the world1 in metaphysics and psychology1 in ethics and theology1 the combatants have really been co-operators4 ,both sides1 to use the expression of ,leibnitz1 have been 8right in what they affirmed and wrong only in what they denied40 ,and their conflict has been the means of the evolution of a fuller truth than that which was contained in the doctrine of either party4 ,in the second place1 ,hegel is guided throughout by the conception of the universe--and1 in a sense1 of every even relatively independent existence in it--as an organism1 every element in which implies the whole1 every change in which is a phase of its self-evolution4 ,for his logical doctrine of the 8notion0 7as ,begriff is commonly translated7 means simply that we do not see anything truly until we comprehend it as a whole1 in which one principle manifests itself through all the difference of the parts and--just through their distinctions and their relations--binds itself into one individual--reality4 ,in this sense1 everything just so far as it has an independent individual existence at all is an organism4 ,lastly1 while thus conceiving the universe as organic1 ,hegel maintained that it is not a natural but a spiritual organism4 ,for the limited scope of a natural organism and its process cannot be regarded as commensurate with a universe1 which comprehends all existence1 whether classed as organic or inorganic4 ,only the conscious and self-conscious unity of mind can overreach and overcome such extreme antagonisms1 and reduce them all to elements in the realization of its own life4 ,we must1 therefore1 think of the universe as an organism which includes nature1 but manifests its ultimate principle only in the life of man4 ,we may add that in all this ,hegel attempted to show that he was only working out in the sphere of speculative thought what ,christianity had already expressed for the ordinary consciousness1 according to its half-pictorial methods of representation4 ,while this is the general meaning of ,hegelianism1 it must be added that ,hegel was more successful in formulating these ideas in their logical or metaphysical form than in applying them to the results of the special sciences of nature1 which he only knew at second hand2 or even to the different provinces of the spiritual life and history of man1 which he had studied more thoroughly4 ,in both cases his data were very incomplete1 and the scientific interpretation of them had not then been carried far enough to prepare--as1 according to ,hegel himself1 it should prepare--for the final interpretation of philosophy4 ,there is another circumstance to be taken into account1 a circumstance which deeply affected ,hegel and all the writers of his time4 ,in the slow process of human history the new wine is always at first poured into old bottles1 and only when the old bottles burst is an effort made to find new ones that will contain it safely4 ,hence the development of the new spirit in philosophy seemed often to go hand-in-hand with a movement of restoration in politics and religion which was not easily distinguishable from reaction4 ,just as the politicians of the time could find for the newly awakened spirit of nationality no other embodiment than the institutions of the ancient rgime1 and tried to revive the old system destroyed by the ,revolution1 with only a few repairs and additions1 so the great philosophical writers sought generally to reanimate the old scheme of life and thought by means of the new ideas1 rather than completely to recast it in accordance with them4 ,hence1 although ,hegel's principle of evolution was as hostile to reaction as to revolution1 as hostile to an authoritative system that denied the rights of the individual as to mere individualism1 his particular doctrines1 both in politics and theology1 took a strongly conservative tinge4 ,when we look more closely we see that it is only as restoration is at the same time reformation1 as it makes the old forms the expression of a new life1 that ,hegel could logically defend them4 ,but the form which he gave to his ideas was perplexing2 it tended in many minds to identify the principle of development1 which means that the future can only spring out of the past and the present1 with the defence of the status quo in ,church and ,state2 and1 on the other hand1 to confuse the forces of progress with those of revolution4 ,thus the mediating1 reconciling power of the new doctrine was for a time obscured1 and its effect in raising men's minds above the old levels of controversy was delayed4 ,,iii ,in other countries during the earlier decades of the century a similar movement of thought is discernible1 though it was not carried out anywhere with the same philosophical thoroughness as in ,germany4 ,in ,france the organic idea did not find any very powerful representative till the time of ,comte1 and even in his expression of it there is a certain ambiguity4 ,in his well-known law of development1 indeed1 he seems to reproduce the individualistic doctrine of the eighteenth century1 and to deny the reality of the universal1 both in its theological and its philosophical form4 ,but already in the last volume of his ,positive ,philosophy1 when he begins to deal with human society1 he maintains that 8the individual man is an abstraction1 and that there is nothing real but humanity02 and in his ,positive ,politics he treats this unity of mankind as not only real1 but divine4 ,in that work1 moreover1 he makes another step4 ,rejecting at once the obstructions of the individualists and those of the socialists1 he rises to the conception of a social organism1 which gives play to the competitive energy of individuals1 and yet binds them together in its own more comprehensive life4 ,in ,england1 before the close of the eighteenth century1 the same spirit had found a representative in ,burke1 who rejected entirely the idea of a social contract1 and maintained that the ,state is based on an unconscious reason of society1 which is far wiser than the conscious reason of even the wisest individuals4 ,in general1 however1 the spiritualistic movement of the earlier part of the century took1 among the ,english-speaking people1 rather a poetic and literary than a philosophical form4 ,and the imperfect attempts of ,coleridge to transplant ,german ideas into ,england--attempts followed up with signal energy by ,frederic ,denison ,maurice--hardly constitute an exception to this rule4 ,in this connection1 also1 as one who partly grasped the organic idea of social life and its development1 but who gave it a somewhat imperfect and even contradictory expression1 ,i may mention a later writer1 ,thomas ,carlyle1 whose imaginative genius and moral enthusiasm did much to breathe a new life into history4 ,though not a philosopher in any technical sense1 he was1 like his friend ,emerson1 a vehicle of philosophical ideas1 and he contributed greatly to scatter the seed of idealism upon ,british soil4 ,his ,calvinistic pessimism1 indeed1 makes a curious contrast with the fearless optimism of the new country which is characteristic of ,emerson2 but whether great men are to be regarded as 8heroes to be worshipped10 according to the teaching of the one1 or as 8representative men10 who are to be followed because they express what all are thinking1 according to the ideas of the other1 we are led1 in both cases1 to a deeper view of the solidarity of human society and of its spiritual basis4 ,,iv ,it is difficult to determine more than approximately the beginning of special movements of thought2 for the different nations of the civilized world are not exactly contemporaneous in their development1 and in each nation there are always individuals who lag behind the time or hasten on before it4 ,but1 speaking generally1 we may say that as early as the fourth decade of the century a certain reaction had set in against the conclusions of idealistic philosophy1 and especially against the organic idea of human life2 and a tendency was even shown to revert1 so far as possible1 to the methods and ideas of the eighteenth century4 ,the reasons for this change are various4 ,in ,germany the succession of great philosophers had come to an end1 and their followers were smaller men1 who were inclined too much to repeat the formulas1 but had little of the creative power1 of their predecessors4 ,more attention1 therefore1 began to be paid to the protests of writers like ,herbart and ,schopenhauer1 who1 even in the hour of its triumph1 had criticised and attacked the prevailing philosophy4 ,again1 the physical sciences were advancing by 8leaps and bounds10 and there was a growing inclination to believe in the universal validity of the mechanical methods of explanation to which they owed their success1 and even in those sociological and historical studies to which the idealistic philosophy had given so great an impetus4 ,the progress of empirical research and the increase of the materials of knowledge caused much of the work of ,hegel and his followers to seem inadequate1 if not entirely to set it aside4 ,even in ,germany1 where the new ideas had taken a distinctly philosophical shape1 they seemed to lose their hold in the controversies that attended the breaking up of the ,hegelian school2 and in other countries1 where they never found such a systematic expression1 they were even less able to resist the attack now made upon them4 ,furthermore1 as ,i have already indicated1 writers of an idealistic tendency1 in their recoil from the enlightenment1 had devoted themselves so much to an appreciation of institutions derived from the past that they seemed to have no eyes for the defects of these institutions1 and to confuse evolution with restoration4 ,the general result of all these influences was1 then1 to discredit philosophy and exalt science1 so far as might be1 into its place4 ,either the abstract methods of the physical sciences were proclaimed as adequate for the discovery of all truth1 or1 if this was seen to be impossible1 agnosticism was professed in regard to all subjects to which these methods could not be applied4 ,even the phenomena of life were supposed to be capable of explanation by the action and reaction of the parts or elements of the physical organism1 and ,huxley looked forward to the time when man with all his spiritual endowments should be shown to be only the 8cunningest of nature's clocks40 ,the new science of psychophysics1 which arose in ,germany and has been cultivated with so much zeal by ,wundt and others in all civilized countries1 seemed to carry the method of physics into the investigation of mind1 and some of its students were ready to maintain that it was the only psychology that deserved the name of science4 ,darwin's great work on the ,origin of ,species1 in so far as it set aside the idea of special creation and referred the 8purposiveness0 of organic structures to a process in which the external environment1 and not any inward power of self-adaptation1 was the controlling factor1 seemed to bring a new reinforcement to the same way of thinking4 ,and he and his followers were not slow to apply the theory of natural selection to the life of man1 as well as to that of plants and animals4 ,finally1 the historical studies1 which were now cultivated with an energy to an extent hitherto unexampled1 and immensely extended the knowledge of the process whereby the present has grown out of the past1 were invaded by a similar spirit2 and the historical method was maintained to be a solvent which could disintegrate all metaphysical conceptions of ethics or politics or even of theology4 ,the account of the genesis of any idea was regarded as reducing its claims to the level of the elements or rudiments out of which it had sprung1 and thus as enabling the scientific historian to explain1 or explain away1 the spiritual by the natural in all human life and experience4 ,all things appeared again to be pointing towards a system of thought which would resolve ethics and psychology into physiology1 and physiology into chemistry and physics4 ,at the same time the victory of this tendency was always more apparent than real4 ,in the first place1 8out of the eater came forth meat0--that very advance of the special sciences1 which in its earlier stages had tended to throw all speculative thought into the shade1 in the long run caused the need of philosophy to be again felt4 ,in particular1 the study of development in the organic world1 which had received so great a stimulus from the work of ,darwin1 could not be carried on without the aid of higher conceptions than were required for the guidance of the physicist4 ,the hypothesis of natural selection might expel the idea of design in the cruder form of a special creation of every distinct species2 and the emphasis which it had laid upon the outward conditions of growth might seem unfavorable to the higher conception of an immanent teleology of the organism1 but it was confessed by its author to be an incomplete theory of development1 and ,darwin himself1 when he turned his attention to the evolution of man1 found it necessary to supplement it by what might be called the converse theory of sexual selection2 thus adding a principle of co-operation to his first principle of competition4 ,and ,mr4 ,spencer1 who defined growth as a process of integration and differentiation1 little as he might himself intend it1 was really putting into popular language the ,hegelian idea of evolution--an idea which necessarily involved the conception of a self-determined end4 ,evolutionists might cling1 as they still cling1 to the belief that1 though constantly and necessarily speaking of purpose1 they could eliminate it from the result of their investigations by the hypothesis of ,darwin1 or1 subsequently1 of ,weissmann2 but their discussions1 especially when they were extended to the historical development of man1 could not but reawaken the great controversy whether in the ultimate explanation of things it is more reasonable to 8level up10 or to 8level down10 to explain the higher by the lower1 or the lower by the higher4 ,that both explanations are necessary1 nay1 that no teleology can be of much worth which does not presuppose a thorough inquiry into the causal connections of particular phenomena1 was admitted by all modern idealists4 ,but they began to press the question whether the unity of the whole is not prior to its distribution into parts1 and does not govern their relations with each other2 and1 in particular1 whether it is possible in the case of organic beings1 and especially of organic beings possessed of consciousness and self-consciousness1 to be satisfied with a mode of explanation that treats them as mere collections of material elements which act and react externally upon each other4 ,whatever its value as a provisional hypothesis1 can such a mode of explanation be finally regarded as adequate for the explanation of the nature of the world as a whole1 or1 indeed1 of any one existence in it1 that has even a relative independence or separate being of its own8 ,but1 in the second place1 a revival of the idealistic philosophy was made necessary by an obvious weakness which clung to the scientific materialism of the nineteenth century from the very beginning4 ,the ,kantian criticism of knowledge1 which could not be entirely neglected1 had convincingly proved that in our experience objects can be known only in relation to a subject1 and matter only in relation to mind4 ,but1 if so1 how could the latter be explained by the former8 ,even to those who had not fully understood this doctrine1 it became evident that mind is at least co-ordinate with matter1 and cannot be treated as a mere 8epiphenomenon0 of it4 ,mr4 ,spencer1 therefore1 had to take refuge in the strange notion that we are possessed of 8two consciousnesses03 the consciousness of ideas within us1 and the consciousness of motions without us2 and that neither of these can be resolved into the other1 though both are the phenomena of an unknowable ,absolute4 ,it is in this citadel of ignorance that ,huxley tries to intrench himself2 but the place was taken before it could be occupied4 ,the self-contradiction of an unknowable ,absolute1 and the equal though less obvious self-contradiction of a dualistic separation between two aspects of our life--which1 as a matter of fact1 are never1 and logically can never be1 divided--could not long be maintained against a criticism armed with the weapons of ,kant and his idealistic successors4 ,already1 in the #ej's1 the cry 8,back to ,kant0 was raised in ,germany1 and1 not long after1 it led in ,england and ,america to a renewed study of the ,german idealistic writers1 in which ,dr4 ,hutchison ,sterling and the late ,professor ,green took a leading part4 ,it was soon obvious to every one who had learned the lesson of critical philosophy that the agnostic dualism of ,mr4 ,spencer was due to a fundamental misconception of what is meant by the subjectivity of knowledge4 ,it was pointed out that if we have the consciousness of object and subject only in relation to each other1 it is not necessary to seek for the principle of their unity in any ,tertium ,quid which is neither the one nor the other4 ,that which ,mr4 ,spencer sought in an unknowable ,absolute was 8in our mouths and in our hearts02 it was to be found in the inseparable unity of experience1 in which the inward and the outward are correlative elements4 ,agnosticism was a sort of spiritual refuge for the destitute constructed by those who had renounced their heritage3 who1 in other words1 had by their abstractions separated the elements of experience from each other1 and were thus forced to seek beyond experience for the unity which they had lost4 ,the true remedy for the evil was to give up such abstract ways of thinking and to learn to 8think things together02 in other words1 to recognize the organic relation of the inner and the outer life1 and to explain the parts by the whole1 and not the whole by the artificially severed parts4 ,v ,the great distinguishing feature of the last two decades of the century has been a movement of approximation1 partly conscious and partly unconscious1 between the representatives of science1 and particularly of those sciences that deal with special aspects or elements of human life1 on the one hand1 and the representatives of idealistic philosophy on the other4 ,the reconciling ideas of an earlier time have become better understood and have shown more effectively their power to reconcile4 ,not that this mediating power had previously been entirely unfelt4 ,even in the time when philosophy was most discredited in ,germany1 ,lotze1 in whom a cautious critical temper was combined with deep moral and religious sympathies1 and a practical knowledge of the biological and medical sciences with careful studies of ,kant and ,hegel1 sought to show how an idealistic view of the universe and of human life could be maintained consistently with the fullest recognition of scientific methods and results4 ,and though his system was1 on the whole1 rather a compromise than a true reconciliation of philosophy and science1 yet it has undoubtedly had very great influence in modifying the ideas of the opposing schools of thought and narrowing the ground of controversy between them4 ,thus the old ,english empirical psychology1 which was represented by the ,mills and by ,mr4 ,bain1 has gradually widened its scope in the hands of writers like ,professor ,ward and ,mr4 ,stout1 at first probably through the study of ,herbart and then by contact with the revived idealistic movement4 ,on the other hand1 we may notice how idealistic writers1 like ,mr4 ,bradley and ,mr4 ,bosanquet1 have tried to absorb every lesson that can be learned from empiricism1 and to shun with the utmost care the very suspicion of anything like dogmatism4 ,mr4 ,bradley's denunciations of a 8too easy monism0 and a philosophy that turns the living world into a 8ballet of bloodless categories0 are too well known to be more than referred to4 ,nor is this the place to discuss whether his fear of such a result has not sometimes led him into compromises which are inconsistent with his own fundamental principle that the world must be conceived as an intelligible system4 ,in any case1 we may fairly point to his work and to the work of other writers animated by a similar spirit1 as showing the growing prevalence of that reconciling spirit which seeks at once to do justice to all the results of empirical inquiry and of the investigations of the special sciences1 and yet at the same time to give them a new interpretation in the light of an idealistic philosophy4 ,it is impossible within our limits to illustrate this view of the tendencies of the time by further reference to the recent philosophical literature of ,england and ,america1 or of ,germany and ,france4 ,still less can ,i refer to the numerous books on special departments of inquiry in ethics and theology1 in sociology and in history1 in which the 8ideally organic view of life and the world10 as we may call it1 has shown its mediating and reconciling influence4 ,nor can ,i do more than refer to the counter current of pessimism1 which has found its most distinguished representatives in ,hartmann and ,nietzsche2 the former a man of great wealth of thought and dialectical power1 whose philosophy is idealistic in all but its ultimate principle1 and is indeed pessimistic only by an exaggeration of the opposition between the conscious and the unconscious working of reason2 the latter1 hardly a philosopher at all but rather a writer of pungent and suggestive aphorisms1 winged with indignant passion against prevalent opinions--aphorisms which always contradict some one1 and often contradict each other4 ,from ,nietzsche at his best we may receive a useful warning against too easily satisfying ourselves with the commonplaces of idealistic optimism2 from ,hartmann we may derive very considerable help in estimating the difficulties that have to be met by those who would seek to work out idealistic principles into a systematic view of the world4 ,but1 without attempting to enter upon any more detailed criticism of these or other important writers of recent years1 ,i shall devote the space that remains to one general thought as to the present state of controversy1 in relation to the fundamental principles of philosophy4 ,,vi ,ever since the revival of the study of ,kant1 the main conflict in philosophy has ceased to lie between materialism and idealism4 ,it has rather become a conflict between those who take up some position analogous to that of ,kant and those who seek to carry out the idealistic principle to all its consequences4 ,for the essential characteristic of ,kant's position lay in his sharp division between the spheres of knowledge and of faith--between a knowledge which was confined to phenomena and their connection in experience1 and a faith of practical reason1 which reached beyond experience to apprehend that which is noumenally real4 ,even the agnosticism of ,mr4 ,spencer might be regarded as a modification of the ,kantian point of view1 in so far as his denial of the possibility of knowing the absolute is based on ,mansel's version of the ,kantian antinomies2 while his description of the 8vague consciousness0 of the absolute which he bids us worship may be regarded as representing that faith which1 in ,kant's view1 enables us to pierce the veil of the phenomena and grasp the ultimate reality of things4 ,and in the latter part of the century there has been a continual germination of similar theories1 theories agreeing with the ,kantian philosophy at least in making some kind of dualistic division between the sphere of clearly defined knowledge and the sphere of ideal or spiritual faith1 and also in confining the former to phenomena while the latter is held to be capable of rising in some way from the phenomenal to the real4 ,one of the earliest fruits of the ,neo-,kantian movement in ,germany was ,lange's ,history of ,materialism1 which insisted on the strictest interpretation of the lesson of the ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 that scientific knowledge is confined to the empirical and phenomenal1 but which maintained also the chartered freedom of imagination to feed our hopes with the idea of a world not realized1 or realizable1 under the conditions of finite experience4 ,and1 with a different aim1 but in a similar spirit1 ,ritschl1 borrowing some of his weapons from ,lotze1 sought to take away from philosophy the right to investigate the spiritual truths of religion1 and maintained that such truths were given in a kind of intuition of faith which is above criticism and which some of his followers identify1 like ,kant1 with the demands or postulates of the moral consciousness4 ,other writers1 following ,schopenhauer1 have sought to emancipate the will from the intelligence and to give it an independent power of estimating values4 ,the great effort to bring science and philosophy together--which1 as we have seen1 has characterized the later years of the century--has itself naturally given rise to many such dualistic compromises1 of which ,lotze's philosophy was among the earliest4 ,and it is partly to ,lotze's influence that we owe the tendency1 visible in some of the most important recent contributions to philosophy1 to regard our actual experience as having an intuitive completeness which is beyond all analysis1 while reflective thought on the other hand is conceived as having a purely analytic and discursive operation1 which can grasp only the severed fragments of the given reality and connect them externally to each other1 but which can never restore the organic whole again4 ,here1 too1 we seem by another way to be landed in the same conclusion1 viz41 that we are perpetually poised between an ideal which we cannot verify1 but which yet is held to be our only vision of reality1 and a definite result of knowledge1 which only gives us what is abstract and phenomenal4 ,yet it is difficult to understand how such an organic idea of the universe can exist except for the thinking intelligence1 and how the thought that grasps it can be separated from the discursive thought by which the different elements of reality are brought into relation4 ,how1 indeed1 can there be any thought which is not both discursive and intuitive at once1 any thought which connects the parts without resting upon the unity of the whole to which they belong8 ,all these different compromises are really different forms of the ,kantian dualism1 but they supply convenient cities of refuge for those who are unwilling to admit that faith is but implicit reason1 and that it is always possible to translate its intuitions of truth into explicit logic4 ,there is much excuse1 indeed1 in many cases for such unwillingness when we consider how often reason has presented itself as purely a critical or dissolving power1 and how often abstract theories which grasp only one aspect of things have been set forth as complete explanations of religion or morality or some other of the higher interests of life4 ,it has always to be kept in view that it is in something like immediate perception that truth is given in the first instance1 and that philosophy1 therefore1 must always be in a sense toiling after the intuitions of faith4 ,yet1 on the other hand1 to hold that there is anywhere an abstract division between the two is to hold that faith is essentially irrational2 it is to exalt it above reason in a way that inevitably leads in the end to its being depressed below reason4 ,if1 however1 this view can be maintained it must lead in the long run to the rejection of all dualistic compromises4 ,and there are already many who hold that after the unstable equilibrium of the ,kantian theory has been shaken there is no secure standing-ground for philosophy short of a thorough-going idealism4 ,yet even they have learned by experience how dangerous it is to snatch prematurely at the readiest idealistic interpretation of facts2 and they are aware how easy it is to fall into a simple optimistic theory1 which slurs over difficulties instead of solving them4 ,they know that if ,hegel or any one ever pretended1 or could reasonably be interpreted as pretending1 to construe the universe a priori1 the pretence was futile1 and that a true and valuable idealism can be reached only through the interpretation of the data of experience by the special sciences1 and the reinterpretation of the results of these sciences by philosophy4 ,they hold1 in short1 that if the well-known saying of ,hegel is to be taken for truth1 both of its clauses must be equally emphasized1 and that no philosophy can safely maintain that 8what is rational is actual0 which has not gone through all the effort that is necessary to prove that 8what is actual is rational40 ,,edward ,,caird4 ,,medicine ,,introduction ,for countless generations the prophets and kings of humanity have desired to see the things which men have seen1 and to hear the things which men have heard in the course of the wonderful nineteenth century4 ,to the call of the watchers on the towers of progress there had been the one sad answer--the people sit in darkness and in the shadow of death4 ,politically1 socially1 and morally the race had improved1 but for the unit1 for the individual1 there was little hope4 ,cold philosophy shed a glimmer of light on his path1 religion in its various guises illumined his sad heart1 but neither availed to lift the curse of suffering from the sin-begotten son of ,adam4 ,in the fulness of time1 long expected1 long delayed1 at last ,science emptied upon him from the horn of ,amalthea blessings which cannot be enumerated1 blessings which have made the century forever memorable2 and which have followed each other with a rapidity so bewildering that we know not what next to expect4 ,to us in the medical profession1 who deal with this unit1 and measure progress by the law of the greatest happiness to the greatest number1 to us whose work is with the sick and suffering1 the great boon of this wonderful century1 with which no other can be compared1 is the fact that the leaves of the tree of ,science have been for the healing of the nations4 ,measure as we may the progress of the world--materially1 in the advantages of steam1 electricity1 and other mechanical appliances2 sociologically1 in the great improvement in the conditions of life2 intellectually1 in the diffusion of education2 morally1 in a possibly higher standard of ethics--there is no one measure which can compare with the decrease of physical suffering in man1 woman1 and child when stricken by disease or accident4 ,this is the one fact of supreme personal import to every one of us4 ,this is the ,promethean gift of the century to man4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,scientific ,,medicine ,the century opened auspiciously1 and those who were awake saw signs of the dawn4 ,the spirit of ,science was brooding on the waters4 ,in ,england the influence of ,john ,hunter stimulated the younger men to the study of the problems of anatomy and pathology4 ,on the ,continent the great ,boorhaave--the ,batavian ,hippocrates--had taught correct ways in the study of the clinical aspects of disease1 and the work of ,haller had given a great impetus to physiology4 ,the researches of ,morgagni had1 as ,virchow had remarked1 introduced anatomical thinking into medicine4 ,but theories still controlled practice4 ,under the teaching of ,cullen1 the old idea that humors were the seat of disease had given place to a neuro-pathology which recognized the paramount influence of the nervous system in disease4 ,his colleague at ,edinburgh1 ,brown1 brought forward the attractive theory that all diseases could be divided into two groups1 the one caused by excess of excitement--the sthenic--the other by a deficiency--the asthenic--each having its appropriate treatment1 the one by depletion1 the other by stimulation4 ,in a certain measure ,hahnemann's theory of homopathy was a reaction against the prevalent theories of the day1 and has survived through the century1 though in a much modified form4 ,some of his views were as follows3 8,the only vocation of the physician is to heal2 theoretical knowledge is of no use4 ,in a case of sickness he should only know what is curable and the remedies4 ,of the diseases he cannot know anything except the symptoms4 ,there are internal changes1 but it is impossible to learn what they are2 symptoms alone are accessible2 with their removal by remedies the disease is removed4 ,their effects can be studied in the healthy only4 ,they act on the sick by causing a disease similar to that which is to be combated1 and which dissolves itself into this similar affection4 ,the full doses required to cause symptoms in the well are too large to be employed as remedies for the sick4 ,the healing power of a drug grows in an inverse proportion to its substance4 ,he says1 literally3 #8,only potencies are homopathic medicines4' #8,i recognize nobody as my follower but him who gives medicine in so small doses as to preclude the perception of anything medicinal in them by means either of the senses or of chemistry4' #8,the pellets may be held near the young infant when asleep4' #8,gliding the hand over the patient will cure him1 provided the manipulation is done with firm intention to render as much good with it as possible1 for its power is in the benevolent will of the manipulator4' ,such is the homopathy of ,hahnemann1 which is no longer recognized in what they call homopathy to-day40--7,a4 ,,jacobi47 ,the awakening came in ,france4 ,in #ahja ,bichat1 a young man1 published a work on general anatomy1 in which he placed the seat of disease1 not in the organs1 but in the tissues or fabrics of which they were composed1 which gave an extraordinary impetus to the investigation of pathological changes4 ,meanwhile1 the study of the appearances of organs and bodies when diseased 7morbid anatomy71 which had been prosecuted with vigor by ,morgagni in the eighteenth century1 had been carried on actively in ,great ,britain and on the ,continent1 and the work of ,broussais stimulated a more accurate investigation of local disorders4 ,the discovery by ,laennec of the art of auscultation1 by which1 through changes in the normal sounds within the chest1 various diseases of the heart and lungs could be recognized1 gave an immense impetus to clinical research4 ,the art of percussion1 discovered by ,avenbrugger in the eighteenth century1 and reintroduced by ,corvisart1 contributed not a little to the same4 ,laennec's contributions to the study of diseases of the lungs1 of the heart1 and of the abdominal organs really laid the foundation of modern clinical medicine4 ,a little later ,bright published his researches on diseases of the kidneys1 from which we date our knowledge of this important subject4 ,one of the most complicated problems of the first half of the century related to the differentiation of the fevers4 ,the eruptive fevers1 measles1 scarlet fever1 and small-pox1 were easily recognized1 and the great group of malarial fevers was well known2 but there remained the large class of continued fevers1 which had been a source of worry and dispute for many generations4 ,louis clearly differentiated typhoid fever1 and by the work of his ,american pupils1 ,w4 ,w4 ,gerhard and ,alfred ,still1 of ,philadelphia1 and ,george ,b4 ,shattuck1 of ,boston1 typhus and typhoid fevers were defined as separate and independent affections4 ,relapsing fever1 yellow fever1 dengue1 etc41 were also distinguished4 ,the work of ,graves and ,stokes1 of ,dublin1 of ,jenner and ,budd1 in ,england1 of ,drake1 ,dickson1 and ,flint1 in ,america1 supplemented the labors of the ,french physicians1 and by the year #ahfj the profession had reached a sure and safe position on the question of the clinical aspects of fevers4 ,the most distinguishing feature of the scientific medicine of the century has been the phenomenal results which have followed experimental investigations4 ,while this method of research is not new1 since it was introduced by ,galen1 perfected by ,harvey1 and carried on by ,hunter1 it was not until well into the middle of the century that1 by the growth of research laboratories1 the method exercised a deep influence on progress4 ,the lines of experimental research have sought to determine the functions of the organs in health1 the conditions under which perversion of these functions occur in diseases1 and the possibility of exercising protective and curative influences on the processes of disease4 ,the researches of the physiological laboratories have enlarged in every direction our knowledge of the great functions of life--digestion1 assimilation1 circulation1 respiration1 and excretion4 ,perhaps in no department have the results been more surprising than in the growth of our knowledge of the functions of the brain and nerves4 ,not only has experimental science given us clear and accurate data upon the localization of certain functions of the brain and of the paths of sensatory and of motor impulses1 but it has opened an entirely new field in the diagnosis and treatment of the diseases of these organs1 in certain directions of a most practical nature1 enabling us to resort to measures of relief undreamed of even thirty years ago4 ,the study of physiology and pathology within the past half-century has done more to emancipate medicine from routine and the thraldom of authority than all the work of all the physicians from the days of ,hippocrates to ,jenner1 and we are as yet but on the threshold4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,specialism ,the restriction of the energies of trained students to narrow fields in science1 while not without its faults1 has been the most important single factor in the remarkable expansion of our knowledge4 ,against the disadvantages in a loss of breadth and harmony there is the compensatory benefit of a greater accuracy in the application of knowledge in specialism1 as is well illustrated in the cultivation of special branches of practice4 ,diseases of the skin1 of the eye1 of the ear1 of the throat1 of the teeth1 diseases of women and of children1 are now studied and practised by men who devote all their time to one limited field of work4 ,while not without minor evils1 this custom has yielded some of the great triumphs of the profession4 ,dentistry1 ophthalmology1 and gyncology are branches which have been brought to a state of comparative perfection1 and very largely by the labors of ,american physicians4 ,in the last-named branch the blessings which have been brought to suffering women are incalculable1 not only as regards the minor ailments of life1 but in the graver and more critical accidents to which the sex is liable4 ,one of the most remarkable and beneficial reforms of the century has been in the attitude of the profession and the public to the subject of insanity1 and the gradual formation of a body of men in the profession who labor to find out the cause and means of relief of this most distressing of all human maladies4 ,the reform movement inaugurated by ,tuke in ,england1 by ,rush in the ,united ,states1 by ,pinel and ,esquirol in ,france1 and by ,jacobi and ,hasse in ,germany1 has spread to all civilized countries1 and has led not only to an amelioration and improvement in the care of the insane1 but to a scientific study of the subject which has already been productive of much good4 ,in this country1 while the treatment of the insane is careful and humanitarian1 the unfortunate affiliation of insanity with politics is still in many ,states a serious hinderance to progress4 ,it may be interesting to take a glance at the state of medicine in this country at the opening of the nineteenth century4 ,there were only three schools of medicine1 the most important of which were the ,university of ,pennsylvania and the ,harvard4 ,there were only two general hospitals4 ,the medical education was chiefly in the hands of the practitioners1 who took students as apprentices for a certain number of years4 ,the well-to-do students and those wishing a better class of education went to ,edinburgh or ,london4 ,there were only two or three medical journals1 and very few books had been published in the country1 and the profession was dependent entirely upon translations from the ,french and upon ,english works4 ,the only medical libraries were in connection with the ,pennsylvania ,hospital and the ,new ,york ,hospital4 ,the leading practitioners in the early years were ,rush and ,physick1 in ,philadelphia2 ,hossack and ,mitchill1 in ,new ,york2 and ,james ,jackson and ,john ,collins ,warren1 in ,boston4 ,there were throughout the country1 in smaller places1 men of great capabilities and energy1 such as ,nathan ,smith1 the founder of the ,medical ,schools of ,dartmouth and of ,yale1 and ,daniel ,drake in ,cincinnati4 ,after #ahcj a remarkable change took place in the profession1 owing to the leaven of ,french science brought back from ,paris by ,american students4 ,between #ahdj and #ahgj there was a great increase in the number of medical schools1 but the general standard of education was low--lower1 indeed1 than had ever before been reached in the medical profession4 ,the private schools multiplied rapidly1 diplomas were given on short two-year sessions1 and nothing contributed more to the degeneration of the profession than this competition and rivalry between ill-equipped medical schools4 ,the reformation1 which started at ,harvard shortly after #ahgj1 spread over the entire country1 and the rapid evolution of the medical school has been one of the most striking phenomena in the history of medicine in the century4 ,university authorities began to appreciate the fact that medicine was a great department of knowledge1 to be cultivated as a science and promoted as an art4 ,wealthy men felt that in no better way could they contribute to the progress of the race than by the establishment of laboratories for the study of disease and hospitals for the care of the sick poor4 ,the benefactions of ,johns ,hopkins1 of ,sims1 of ,vanderbilt1 of ,pierpont ,morgan1 of ,strathcona1 of ,mount-,stephen1 of ,payne1 and of ,levi ,c4 ,lane and others have placed scientific medicine on a firm basis4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,preventive ,,medicine ,sanitary science1 hygiene1 or preventive medicine may claim to be one of the brightest spots in the history of the nineteenth century4 ,public hygiene was cultivated among the ,egyptians1 and in the ,mosaic law it reached a remarkable organization4 ,the personal hygiene of the ,greeks was embraced in the saying1 8,the fair mind in the fair body10 and the value of exercise and training was fully recognized4 ,the ,romans1 too1 in public and private hygiene1 were our superiors in the matter of water supply and baths4 ,but modern sanitary science has a much wider scope and is concerned with the causes of disease quite as much as with the conditions under which these diseases prevail4 ,the foundations of the science were laid in the last century with ,jenner's discovery of vaccination4 ,howard1 too1 had grasped the association of fever with overcrowding in the jails1 while the possibility of the prevention of scurvy had been shown by ,captain ,cook and by ,sir ,gilbert ,blaine4 ,preventive medicine was a blundering1 incomplete science until bacteriology opened unheard-of possibilities for the prevention of disease4 ,before discussing some of the victories of preventive medicine it will be well to take a brief survey of the growth of the following subject3 ,,science ,,of ,,bacteriology ,from the brilliant overthrow by ,pasteur1 in #ahfa1 and by ,koch and ,cohn1 in #ahgf1 of the theory of spontaneous generation1 we may date its modern growth4 ,wrapped up in this theory of spontaneous generation1 upon which speculation raged centuries before the invention of the microscope1 lies the history of bacteriology4 ,the ancient ,greek and ,roman philosophers wrestled with the question1 and very interesting views of the relation of germ life to disease are preserved to us in their manuscripts4 ,with the invention of the microscope we can mark the first positive step towards the goal of to-day4 ,a ,jesuit priest1 ,kircher1 in #afga1 was the first to investigate putrefying meat1 milk1 and cheese with the crude microscope of his day1 and left us indefinite remarks concerning 8very minute living worms0 found therein4 ,four years after ,kircher a ,dutch linen merchant1 ,antonius von ,leeuwenhoek1 by improving the lenses of the microscope1 saw in rain-water1 putrefying fluids1 intestinal contents1 and saliva1 minute1 moving1 living particles1 which he called 8animalcul40 ,in medical circles of his day these observations aroused the keenest interest1 and the theory that these 8animalcul0 might be the cause of all disease was eagerly discussed4 ,pleincz1 of ,vienna1 after much observation of various fluids1 putrefying and otherwise1 wrote in #agfb that it was his firm belief that the phenomena of diseases and the decomposition of animal fluids were wholly caused by these minute living things4 ,notwithstanding such assertions1 from his day on until ,pasteur1 ,koch1 and ,cohn finally proved its misconceptions in #ahgf1 the theory of spontaneous generation held the upper hand in all discussions upon the question4 ,the stimulus to research as to the causes of disease along the line of bacterial origin did not entirely cease to be felt1 and the names of ,pollender and ,davaine are linked together in the first undoubted discovery of micro-organisms in disease1 when the cause of anthrax1 a disease of cattle1 was solved in #ahfc4 ,following closely upon ,davaine's researches1 the primary causes of wound infection were worked out1 and to the efforts of the ,british surgeon ,lister are due the great advances of modern surgery4 ,in rapid succession the presence of bacteria was clearly demonstrated in relapsing fever1 leprosy1 and typhoid fever2 but far eclipsing all former discoveries1 on account of the magnitude of the difficulties encountered and overcome1 were the brilliant demonstrations of the cause of consumption and allied diseases1 and that of ,asiatic cholera1 by ,dr4 ,robert ,koch in #ahhb and in #ahhd respectively4 ,from that time onward innumerable workers have satisfied the critical scientific world as to the causes of pneumonia1 diphtheria1 tetanus1 influenza1 and bubonic plague1 besides many diseases of cattle1 horses1 sheep1 and other animals and insects4 ,having glanced hastily at the history of bacteriology1 we may next consider some facts concerning the germs themselves4 ,what are they8 ,to the lay mind the words germ1 microbe1 bacterium1 and bacillus often convey confused ideas of invisible1 wriggling1 worm-like creatures1 enemies of mankind1 ever on the watch to gain a stealthy entrance into our bodies1 where they wreak harm and death4 ,scientifically considered1 however1 they are the smallest of living things yet known4 ,they are not animals1 but are members of the vegetable kingdom1 and are possessed of definite yet varying shapes4 ,they consist of a jelly-like substance called protoplasm1 which is covered in and held in place by a well-formed membrane of a relatively hard and dense character1 exactly similar in composition to the woody fibre of trees4 ,according to their shape the bacteria are divided into three chief groups1 called respectively cocci1 bacilli1 and spirilla4 ,the cocci are spherical bodies and may exist singly or in pairs1 in fours1 in clusters1 or in chains4 ,in this group we find the smallest bacteria known1 many of them not over #a-aej1jjj of an inch in diameter4 ,the bacilli are rod-like bodies1 varying much in size in different species and in members of the same species4 ,they are larger than the cocci1 measuring in length from #a-be1jjj of an inch to #a-djjj1 and in breadth from #a-abe1jjj to #a-af1jjj of an inch4 ,many varieties are possessed of organs of locomotion called flagella4 ,the spirilla resemble the bacilli1 except that they are twisted into corkscrew shapes1 or have gently undulating outlines4 ,upon an average they are much longer than the bacilli1 one species being very long1 measuring about #a-fjj of an inch4 ,as seen in the natural state bacteria are found to be colorless1 but it is by the application of various aniline dyes that they are usually studied4 ,these minute plants increase by a simple method of division into two equal parts1 or by a more complex process of forming a seed--the so-called spore--which later on develops into the adult form4 ,under favorable conditions they are able to multiply at an enormous rate2 for instance1 it has been calculated that a bacillus dividing once every hour would at the end of twenty-four hours have increased to seventeen millions2 and if the division continued at the same rate we should find at the end of the third day an incalculable number of billions1 whose weight would be nearly seven thousand five hundred tons6 ,but1 fortunately for our welfare1 nature by various means renders the possibility of such a happening entirely beyond the slightest chance of realization1 her greatest barrier being the lack of an adequate food supply4 ,the distribution in nature of bacteria is wellnigh universal1 occurring as they do in the air we breathe1 the water and milk we drink1 upon the exposed surfaces of man and animals1 and in their intestinal tracts1 and in the soil to a depth of about nine feet4 ,but it has been noted that at very high altitudes and in glacier ice none exist1 while in the ,arctic regions and at sea far from land their numbers are very few4 ,the conditions governing their growth involve many complex problems1 but a few of the chief factors concerned are moisture1 air1 food1 temperature1 and light4 ,all bacteria must have moisture1 else they die sooner or later1 depending upon the hardness of the species1 and none can multiply without it4 ,a supply of air is by no means essential to all germs4 ,to some it is absolutely necessary1 and such germs are called aerobes4 ,to others air is wholly detrimental1 and they constitute the anaerobes1 while to the majority of bacteria air supply is a matter of indifference1 and in consequence they are grouped under the term facultative anaerobes4 ,the food supply of many consists of dead animal and vegetable materials1 a few require living tissues1 while a small number can exist wholly upon mineral salts1 or even the nitrogen of the air4 ,the lowest temperature at which some bacteria can multiply is the freezing-point of water1 and the highest #agj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,however1 the average range of temperature suitable to the majority lies between #fj and #ajd degrees ,fahrenheit1 #ih #b-e degrees ,fahrenheit being the most suitable for the growth of disease-producing germs4 ,light1 ordinarily diffused daylight1 or its absence1 is a matter of no moment to most germs1 whereas direct sunlight is a destroyer of all bacteria4 ,the study of the life histories of these diminutive plants excites the wonder of those who make observations upon them4 ,it is truly marvellous to know that these bacteria can accomplish in their short lives of possibly a few hours or days feats which would baffle the cleverest of chemists if given years of a lifetime to work upon4 ,they give to the farmer the good quality of his crops1 to the dairyman superior butter and cheese2 they assist in large measure in freeing our rivers and lakes from harmful pollutions4 ,here it should be strongly emphasized that those bacteria which cause disease are only of a few species1 all others contributing to our welfare in countless ways4 ,quite as astonishing is the discovery that within the root-knobs of pease and beans live bacteria which by splitting up mineral salts containing nitrogen1 and by absorbing nitrogen from the air1 give it over to the plant so that it is enabled to grow luxuriantly1 whereas1 without their presence1 the tiller of the soil might fertilize the ground in vain4 ,it is quite possible that not alone pease and beans1 but all grasses and plants and trees depend upon the presence of such germs for their very existence1 which in turn supply man and animals with their means of existence4 ,hence we see that these nitrifying bacteria1 as they are called1 if swept out of existence1 would be the cause of cessation of all life upon the globe4 ,and arguing backward1 one prominent authority states it as his belief that the first of all life on this earth were those lowly forms of plants which only required the nitrogen of air or salts to enable them to multiply4 ,limiting observation now to the sphere of medicine1 it will be readily perceived that the presence of bacterial life in a causative relation to disease is an object of paramount regard4 ,the following paragraphs will briefly treat of the diseases associated with micro-organisms and the common modes of infection in each1 the chain of events subsequent to an infection1 and the possibilities of protection or cure by means of substances elaborated in the body of an individual or animal recently recovered from an infectious disease3 ,anthrax4--,a disease chiefly of cattle and sheep1 occasionally of man1 is caused by the ,bacillus anthracis1 discovered in #ahdi-ej by ,pollender and ,davaine4 ,it enters the body through abrasions of the skin1 by inhalation of the spores1 or seeds1 into the lungs1 or by swallowing infected material4 ,leprosy4--,this disease is caused by a bacillus known as ,bacillus leprae1 which was discovered by ,hansen in #ahgi4 ,it is doubtful if it has been grown outside the body4 ,it is supposed to enter by abrasions of the skin1 but it is very feebly contagious1 notwithstanding popular ideas as to its supposedly highly contagious nature4 ,tuberculosis4--,all forms of this disease1 among which is ordinary consumption1 are caused by a bacillus closely resembling that of leprosy4 ,it was discovered by ,koch in #ahhj-hb1 and named ,bacillus tuberculosis4 ,the ways of infection are by inhaling the dried sputum of consumptives1 drinking infected cow's milk1 or eating infected meat4 ,typhoid ,fever4--,a disease of human beings only4 ,eberth in #ahhj discovered the germ causing it and called it ,bacillus typhosus4 ,it gains entrance to our bodies chiefly in the milk and water we drink1 which comes from infected sources2 a rarer method is by inhalation of infected air4 ,diphtheria4--,a disease of human beings chiefly4 ,it is caused by a bacillus which was described in #ahhc-hd by ,klebs and ,loeffler1 and is known as ,bacillus diphtheriae1 or ,klebs-,loeffler bacillus4 ,its mode of entry is by inhaling infected air1 or by drinking or eating infected milk or food4 ,cholera4--,this disease is peculiar to human beings4 ,its native home is on the banks of the river ,ganges in ,india1 where ,koch in #ahhd was able to isolate its causative spirillum4 ,man is infected by drinking contaminated water or by contact4 ,lockjaw1 or ,tetanus4--,afflicts man1 horses1 and dogs4 ,the ,bacillus tetani is the most deadly of all known bacteria4 ,it enters the body by wounds4 ,it was discovered in #ahhd by ,nicolaier4 ,influenza1 or the ,grip4--,caused by one of the smallest-known bacilli2 discovered in #ahib by ,canon and ,pfeiffer4 ,infection spreads by the scattering about by air-currents of the dried nasal and bronchial secretion of those suffering from the disease1 and its portal of entry is by the nose and bronchial tubes4 ,pneumonia4--,caused by a coccus which grows in pairs and small chains4 ,it enters the body by means of the respiratory tract4 ,it is present in the saliva of twenty per cent4 of healthy persons4 ,proved by ,frankel in #ahhf to be the cause of this disease4 ,bubonic ,plague4--,in #ahid ,kitasato and ,yersin isolated a small bacillus in a large number of cases and proved it to be the cause4 ,it enters the body by means of wounds of the skin1 and through bites of fleas from infected rats1 which are said to be one of the chief factors in spreading this dread malady4 ,yellow ,fever4--,the cause of this disease is still under discussion4 ,such are a few of the infectious diseases which we can readily attribute to the presence of definite micro-organisms in respective cases4 ,but strange as it may seem1 the most typical of all infectious diseases1 small-pox1 scarlet fever1 measles1 and hydrophobia1 have as yet not yielded up their secrets4 ,this is possibly due to the minute size of the micro-organisms concerned1 which make it beyond the power of the best microscope to demonstrate them4 ,in this connection it has recently been shown by ,roux and ,nocard that in the case of the disease known as pleuro-pneumonia of cattle the causative agent is so very small as just to be barely visible4 ,again1 it is quite possible that these diseases may be caused by living things we know nothing about1 which may be quite dissimilar from the bacteria4 ,,infection--,,its ,,processes ,,and ,,results ,in the foregoing list of diseases associated with specific bacteria1 attention has been drawn to the common modes of infection1 or1 as they are technically called1 8portals of entry10 and it now remains to touch upon the main factors1 processes1 and results following upon the entry into the body of such disease-producing microbes4 ,it is a well-known fact that the normal blood has of itself to a considerable extent the power of killing germs which may wander into it through various channels4 ,likewise the tissue cells of the body in general show similar action depending upon the different cell groups1 state of health1 general robustness1 and period of life4 ,the germ-killing power varies in different individuals1 though each may be quite healthy4 ,considered as a whole1 this power possessed by the body against germs is known as 8general resistance40 ,and when by any means this power of resistance is lost or diminished1 we run grave risks of incurring disease4 ,granted a case of infection1 let us now trace up briefly what occurs4 ,between the period when the bacteria gain a lodgment and that in which the disease assumes a noticeable form1 the patient simply feels out of sorts4 ,it is during this stage that the blood and tissues are deeply engaged in the attempt to repel the attacks of the invading microbes4 ,with varying speed the germs multiply throughout the body generally1 or may be at first localized1 or even1 as in lockjaw1 remain localized throughout the entire disease4 ,multiplying in the tissues1 they generate in increasing amounts their noxious poisons1 which soon cause profound changes throughout the body2 the patient becomes decidedly ill1 and shows now the signs of an unmistakable infection4 ,does the body now give up the fight entirely8 ,no2 on the contrary1 the white blood-cells1 the wandering cells1 and the cells of the tissues most affected still carry on an unequal fight4 ,from the lymphatic glands and spleen1 armies of white cells rush to the fray and attempt to eat up and destroy the foe1 but possibly in vain2 the disease runs its course1 to end either in death or recovery4 ,how1 then1 in cases of recovery1 are the microbes finally overcome8 ,this question involves many complex processes which at present are by no means thoroughly understood1 but we will concern ourselves with the simple principles4 ,it has been previously mentioned that once the bacteria get a good foothold the body is subjected to the action of generated poisons1 which are known as toxins4 ,they give rise to such symptoms as loss of appetite1 headache1 fever1 pains and aches1 and even a state of stupor or unconsciousness4 ,in addition to the active warfare of the white blood-cells1 groups of cells throughout the body1 after recovering from the first rude shock of the toxins1 begin to tolerate their presence1 then effect a change in the chemical constitution of the toxins1 and finally elaborate substances which antagonize the toxins and destroy their action altogether1 thus lending aid to the warrior cells1 which at last overcome the invading microbes4 ,recovery is brought about1 and a more or less permanent degree of immunity against the special form of disease ensues4 ,now if we could use these antagonizing substances1 or1 as they are called1 antitoxins1 upon other men or animals sick with a similar disease1 would their bodies be at once strengthened to resist and finally overcome the disease8 ,yes1 in a certain majority of cases they would1 and this is exactly what scientific observers have noted1 worked out1 and have successfully applied4 ,a new art in the healing of disease1 which is spoken of broadly as serum-therapy1 or medication by curative or protective serums1 has thus been discovered4 ,the first observers in this new field were ,pasteur and ,raynaud in ,france in #ahgg-gh1 and ,salmon and ,smith in this country in #ahhf4 ,raynaud1 by injecting serum from a calf which had had an attack of cow-pox1 prevented the appearance of the disease in a calf freshly inoculated with the virulent material of the disease4 ,pasteur1 by using feebly infective germs of fowl cholera1 conferred immunity upon healthy fowls against the disease1 and was able to cure those which were ill4 ,salmon and ,smith injected small and repeated amounts of the elaborated toxins or poisons of the bacillus of hog cholera into healthy swine1 and were able to confer immunity upon them4 ,however1 it was not until ,behring in #ahib announced his discovery of an antitoxin serum for diphtheria1 along with an undisputed proof of its value in treatment1 that the attention of the scientific world was finally aroused and stimulated to the appreciation of the great possibilities of serum-therapy4 ,strange as it may seem1 much opposition arose to this new method of treatment1 not alone from the lay portions of the community1 but even from the ranks of the medical profession itself4 ,this opposition was due in part to misconceptions of the principles involved in the new doctrine1 and in part to the falsely philanthropic prejudices of the pseudo-scientific sections of both parties4 ,but by the persevering work of the enthusiastic believers in serum-therapy1 positive conviction has now replaced misconception and prejudice in the minds of the majority of its former opponents4 ,the accumulation of statistical evidence1 even where all allowance is made for doubtful methods of compilation1 shows that the aggregate mortality of diphtheria has been reduced fully fifty per cent4 since the introduction of antitoxic treatment by ,behring in #ahib4 ,since the method of preparation of the commercial diphtheria antitoxin illustrates the general principles involved in the search for the production of curative or protective serums for infectious diseases in general1 a summary of the steps in its manufacture will now be given4 ,a race of diphtheria bacilli1 which has been found to yield a poison of great virulence in alkaline beef broth1 is grown for a week or ten days in this medium4 ,the toxin is then separated and its virulence exactly determined4 ,it is preserved in sterile receptacles for immediate or future use4 ,the next step is the inoculation of a suitable animal with the toxin4 ,of all animals the horse has been found to meet nearly every requirement4 ,such an animal1 in a state of perfect health1 receives an injection of twenty cubic centimetres of toxin1 along with ten or fifteen of standard antitoxin1 beneath the skin of the neck or fore-quarters1 upon three separate occasions at intervals of five days4 ,after this it receives increasing doses of toxin1 alone1 at intervals of six to eight days1 until1 at the end of two months1 it is able to stand with little discomfort doses of such strength that if given in the first stage these doses would have quickly caused death4 ,at this period the horse is bled to a small extent1 and its serum tested to ascertain if prospects are good for the production by the animal of a high grade of antitoxin4 ,if satisfactory progress has been made1 the injections are continued for another month1 when1 as a rule1 the maximal degree of antitoxic power in the serum will have been attained4 ,the horse is now bled to the proper extent1 the blood being received in a sterile jar and placed in an ice-box4 ,here it coagulates1 and the serum separates from it4 ,when the separation of clot and serum is complete1 the latter is drawn off1 taken to the laboratory1 and standardized4 ,this being finished1 an antiseptic fluid is added to preserve the serum from decomposition4 ,it is then bottled1 labelled1 and sent out for use4 ,in similar fashion tetanus antitoxin is prepared2 and quite recently ,calmette has produced an antitoxic serum for use in snake bite1 by injecting horses with minute increasing doses of snake venom4 ,his experiments have given some remarkable results1 not only in laboratory work1 but also in cases of actual snake bite occurring in man4 ,thus bacteriological scientists1 after years of laborious work1 in the face of much criticism and severe denunciation1 may confidently announce that they have in their possession a magic key to one of nature's secret doors4 ,the lock has been turned4 ,the door stands partly open1 and we are permitted a glimpse of the future possibilities to be attained in the great fight against disease4 ,,preventive ,,medicine ,the following are some of the diseases which have been remarkably controlled through preventive medicine3 ,small-pox4--,while not a scourge of the first rank1 like the plague or cholera1 at the outset of the century variola was one of the most prevalent and dreaded of all diseases4 ,few reached adult life without an attack4 ,to-day1 though outbreaks still occur1 it is a disease thoroughly controlled by vaccination4 ,the protective power of the inoculated cow-pox is not a fixed and constant quantity4 ,the protection may be for life1 or it may last only for a year or two4 ,the all-important fact is this3 ,that efficiently vaccinated persons may be exposed with impunity1 and among large bodies of men 7e4g41 the ,german army71 in which revaccination is practised1 small-pox is unknown4 ,of one hundred vaccinated persons exposed to small-pox1 possibly one might take the disease in a mild form2 of one hundred unvaccinated persons so exposed1 one alone might escape--from twenty-five to thirty would die4 ,to be efficient1 vaccination must be carried out systematically1 and if all the inhabitants of this country were revaccinated at intervals small-pox would disappear 7as it has from the ,german army71 and the necessity for vaccination would cease4 ,the difficulty arises from the constant presence of an unvaccinated remnant1 by which the disease is kept alive4 ,the ,montreal experience in #ahhe is an object-lesson never to be forgotten4 ,for eight or ten years vaccination had been neglected1 particularly among the ,french-,canadians4 ,on ,february #bh1 #ahhe1 a ,pullman car conductor1 who came from ,chicago1 where the disease had been slightly prevalent1 was admitted into the ,htel ,dieu4 ,isolation was not carried out1 and on the #ast of ,april a servant in the hospital died of small-pox4 ,following her death the authorities of the hospital sent to their homes all patients who presented no symptoms of the disease4 ,like fire in dry grass the contagion spread1 and within nine months there died of small-pox three thousand one hundred and sixty-four persons4 ,it ruined the trade of the city for the winter1 and cost millions of dollars4 ,there are no reasonable objections to vaccination1 which is a simple process1 by which a mild and harmless disease is introduced4 ,the use of the animal vaccine does away with the possibility of introduction of other disorders1 such as syphilis4 ,typhus ,fever4--,until the middle of the present century this disease prevailed widely in most of the large cities1 particularly in ,europe1 and also in jails1 ships1 hospitals1 and camps4 ,it was more widely spread than typhoid fever and much more fatal4 ,murchison remarks of it that a complete history of its ravages would be the history of ,europe during the past three centuries and a half4 ,not one of the acute infections seems to have been more dependent upon filth and unsanitary conditions4 ,with the gradual introduction of drainage and a good water supply1 and the relief of overcrowding1 the disease has almost entirely disappeared1 and is rarely mentioned now in the bills of mortality1 except in a few of the larger and more unsanitary cities4 ,the following figures illustrate what has been done in ,england within sixty years3 ,in #ahch in ,england twelve hundred and twenty-eight persons died of fever 7typhus and typhoid7 per million of living4 ,twenty years later the figures were reduced to nine hundred and eighteen2 in #ahgh to three hundred and six of typhoid and to thirty-six of typhus fever4 ,in #ahib only one hundred and thirty-seven died of typhoid fever and only three of typhus per million living6 ,typhoid ,fever4--,while preventive medicine can claim a great victory in this disease also1 it is less brilliant1 since the conditions which favor its prevalence are not those specially relating to overcrowding as much as to imperfect water supply and the contamination of certain essential foods1 as milk4 ,it has been repeatedly demonstrated that1 with a pure water supply and perfect drainage1 typhoid fever almost disappears from a city4 ,in ,vienna1 after the introduction of good water1 the rate of mortality from typhoid fever fell from twelve per ten thousand of the inhabitants to about one4 ,in ,munich the fall was still more remarkable2 from above twenty-nine per ten thousand inhabitants in #aheg it fell to about one per ten thousand in #ahhg4 ,that typhoid fever in this country is still a very prevalent disease depends mainly upon two facts3 ,first1 not only is the typhoid bacillus very resistant1 but it may remain for a long time in the body of a person after recovery from typhoid fever1 and such persons1 in apparent good health1 may be a source of contamination4 ,with many of the conditions favoring the persistence and growth of the bacillus outside the body we are not yet familiar4 ,the experience in the ,spanish-,american ,war illustrates how dangerous is the concentration together of large numbers of individuals4 ,but1 second1 the essential factor in the widespread prevalence of typhoid fever in the ,united ,states1 particularly in country districts1 is the absence of anything like efficient rural sanitation4 ,many counties have yet to learn the alphabet of sanitation4 ,the chief danger results from the impure water supplies of the smaller towns1 the local house epidemics due to infected wells1 and the milk outbreaks due to the infection of dairy farms4 ,the importance of scrupulously guarding the sources of supply was never better illustrated than in the well-known and oft-quoted epidemic in ,plymouth1 ,pennsylvania4 ,the town1 with a population of eight thousand1 was in part supplied with drinking-water from a reservoir fed by a mountain-stream4 ,during ,january1 ,february1 and ,march1 in a cottage by the side of and at a distance of from sixty to eighty feet from this stream1 a man was ill with typhoid fever4 ,the attendants were in the habit at night of throwing out the evacuations on the ground towards the stream4 ,during these months the ground was frozen and covered with snow4 ,in the latter part of ,march and early in ,april there was considerable rainfall and a thaw1 in which a large part of the three months' accumulation of discharges was washed into the brook not sixty feet distant4 ,at the very time of this thaw the patient had numerous and copious discharges4 ,about the #ajth of ,april cases of typhoid fever broke out in the town1 appearing for a time at the rate of fifty a day4 ,in all about twelve hundred were attacked4 ,an immense majority of the cases were in the part of the town which received water from the infected reservoir4 ,the use of boiled water and of ice made from distilled water1 the systematic inspection of dairies1 the scrupulous supervision of the sources from which the water is obtained1 an efficient system of sewage removal1 and1 above all1 the most scrupulous care on the part of physicians and of nurses in the disinfection of the discharges of typhoid fever patients--these are the factors necessary to reduce to a minimum the incidence of typhoid fever4 ,cholera4--,one of the great scourges of the present century made inroads into ,europe and ,america from ,india1 its native home4 ,we have1 however1 found out the germ1 found out the conditions under which it lives1 and it is not likely that it will ever again gain a foothold in this country or ,great ,britain4 ,since the last epidemic1 #ahgc1 the disease1 though brought to this country on several occasions1 has always been held in check at the port of entry4 ,it is communicated almost entirely through infected water1 and the virulence of an epidemic in any city is in direct proportion to the imperfection of the water supply4 ,this was shown in a remarkable way in the ,hamburg epidemic of #ahib4 ,in ,altona1 which had a filtration plant1 there were only five hundred and sixteen cases1 many of them refugees from ,hamburg4 ,hamburg1 where the unfiltered water of the ,elbe was used1 had some eighteen thousand cases1 with nearly eight thousand deaths4 ,yellow ,fever4--,the cause of this disease is still under discussion4 ,it has an interest to us in this country from its continued prevalence in ,cuba1 and from the fact that at intervals it makes inroads into the ,southern ,states1 causing serious commercial loss4 ,the history of the disease in the other ,west ,india islands1 particularly ,jamaica1 indicates the steps which must be taken for its prevention4 ,formerly yellow fever was as fatal a scourge in them as it is to-day in ,cuba4 ,by an efficient system of sanitation it has been abolished4 ,the same can be done 7and will be done7 in ,cuba within a few years4 ,general ,wood has already pointed out the way in the cleansing of ,santiago4 ,the ,plague4--,one of the most remarkable facts in connection with modern epidemics has been the revival of the bubonic plague1 the most dreaded of all the great infections4 ,during the present century the disease in ,europe has been confined almost exclusively to ,turkey and ,southern ,europe4 ,since #ahid1 when it appeared at ,hong-,kong1 it has gradually spread1 and there have been outbreaks of terrible severity in ,india4 ,it has extended to certain of the ,mediterranean ports1 and during the past summer it reached ,glasgow1 where there has been a small outbreak4 ,on this hemisphere there have been small outbreaks in certain of the ,south ,american ports1 cases have been brought to ,new ,york1 and there have been to ,november #ast twenty-one cases among the ,chinese in ,san ,francisco4 ,judging from the readiness with which it has been checked and limited in ,australia1 and in particular the facility with which the recent outbreak in ,glasgow has been stamped out1 there is very little risk that plague will ever assume the proportions which gave to it its terrible reputation as the 8black death0 of the ,middle ,ages4 ,as ,i have already mentioned1 the germ is known1 and prophylactic inoculations have been made on a large scale in ,india1 with a certain measure of success4 ,tuberculosis4--,in all communities the white plague1 as ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes calls it1 takes the first rank as a killing disease4 ,it has been estimated that of it one hundred and twenty thousand people die yearly in this country4 ,in all mortality bills tuberculosis of the lungs1 or consumption1 heads the list1 and when to this is added tuberculosis of the other organs1 the number swells to such an extent that this disease equals in fatality all the other acute infective diseases combined1 if we leave out pneumonia4 ,less than twenty years ago we knew little or nothing of the cause of the disease4 ,it was believed to be largely hereditary4 ,koch discovered the germ1 and with this have come the possibilities of limiting its ravages4 ,the following points with reference to it may be stated3 ,in a few very rare instances the disease is transmitted from parent to child4 ,in a large proportion of all cases the disease is 8caught40 ,the germs are widely distributed through the sputum1 which1 when dry1 becomes dust1 and is blown about in all directions4 ,tubercle bacilli have been found in the dust of streets1 houses1 hospital wards1 and much-frequented places4 ,a single individual may discharge from the lungs countless myriads of germs in the twenty-four hours4 ,dr4 ,nuttall estimated from a patient in the ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital1 who had only moderately advanced consumption1 that from one and a half to four and a third billions of germs were thrown off in the twenty-four hours4 ,the consumptive1 as has been well stated1 is almost harmless1 and only becomes harmful through bad habits4 ,the germs are contained in the sputum1 which1 when dry1 is widely scattered in the form of dust1 and constitutes the great medium for the transmission of the disease4 ,if expectorated into a handkerchief1 the sputum dries quickly1 particularly if it is put into the pocket or under the pillow4 ,the beard or mustache of a consumptive is smeared with the germs4 ,even in the most careful the hands are apt to be soiled with the germs1 and in those who are dirty and careless the furniture and materials which they handle readily become infected4 ,where the dirty habit prevails of spitting on the floor1 a room1 or the entire house1 may contain numbers of germs4 ,in the majority of all cases the infection in tuberculosis is by inhalation4 ,this is shown by the frequency with which the disease is met in the lungs1 and the great prevalence of tuberculosis in institutions in which the residents are restricted in the matter of fresh air and a free1 open life4 ,the disease prevails specially in cloisters1 in jails1 and in asylums4 ,infection through milk is also possible2 it is doubtful whether the disease is transmitted through meat4 ,so widespread are the germs that post-mortem examination has shown that a very large number of persons show slight signs of the disease who have never during life presented any symptoms2 in fact1 some recent investigations would indicate that a very large proportion of all persons at the age of forty have somewhere in their bodies slight tuberculous lesions4 ,this shows the importance of the individual predisposition1 upon which the older writers laid so much stress1 and the importance of maintaining the nutrition at its maximum4 ,one of the most remarkable features of modern protective medicine is the widespread interest that has been aroused in the crusade against tuberculosis4 ,what has already been accomplished warrants the belief that the hopes of even the most enthusiastic may be realized4 ,a positive decline in the prevalence of the disease has been shown in many of the larger cities during the past ten years4 ,in ,massachusetts1 which has been a hot-bed of tuberculosis for many years1 the death-rate has fallen from forty-two per ten thousand inhabitants in #ahec to twenty-one and eight-tenths per ten thousand inhabitants in #ahie4 ,in the city of ,glasgow1 in which the records have been very carefully kept1 there has been an extraordinary fall in the death-rate from tuberculosis1 and the recent statistics of ,new ,york ,city show1 too1 a similar remarkable diminution4 ,in fighting the disease our chief weapons are3 ,first1 education of the public1 particularly of the poorer classes1 who do not fully appreciate the chief danger in the disease4 ,secondly1 the compulsory notification and registration of all cases of tuberculosis4 ,the importance of this relates chiefly to the very poor and improvident1 from whom1 after all1 comes the greatest danger1 and who should be under constant surveillance in order that these dangers may be reduced to a minimum4 ,thirdly1 the foundation in suitable localities by the city and by the ,state of sanatoria for the treatment of early cases of the disease4 ,fourthly1 provision for the chronic1 incurable cases in special hospitals4 ,diphtheria4--,since the discovery of the germ of this disease and our knowledge of the conditions of its transmission1 and the discovery of the antitoxin1 there has been a great reduction in its prevalence and an equally remarkable reduction in the mortality4 ,the more careful isolation of the sick1 the thorough disinfection of the clothing1 the rigid scrutiny of the milder cases of throat disorder1 a more stringent surveillance in the period of convalescence1 and the routine examination of the throats of school-children--these are the essential measures by which the prevalence of the disease has been very markedly diminished4 ,the great danger is in the mild cases1 in which the disease has perhaps not been suspected1 and in which the child may be walking about and even going to school4 ,such patients are often a source of widespread infection4 ,the careful attention given by mothers to the teeth and mouth of children is also an important factor4 ,in children with recurring attacks of tonsillitis1 in whom the tonsils are enlarged1 the organs should be removed4 ,through these measures the incidence of the disease has been very greatly reduced4 ,pneumonia4--,while there has been a remarkable diminution in the prevalence of a large number of all the acute infections1 one disease not only holds its own1 but seems even to have increased in its virulence4 ,in the mortality bills1 pneumonia is an easy second to tuberculosis4 ,it attacks particularly the intemperate1 the feeble1 and the old1 though every year a large number of robust1 healthy individuals succumb4 ,so frequent is pneumonia at advanced periods of life that to die of it has been said to be the natural end of old men in this country4 ,in many ways1 too1 it is a satisfactory disease1 if one may use such an expression4 ,it is not associated with much pain1 except at the onset1 the battle is brief and short1 and a great many old persons succumb to it easily and peacefully4 ,we know the cause of the disease2 we know only too well its symptoms1 but the enormous fatality 7from twenty to twenty-five per cent47 speaks only too plainly of the futility of our means of cure1 and yet in no disease has there been so great a revolution in treatment4 ,the patient is no longer drenched to death with drugs1 or bled to a point where the resisting powers of nature are exhausted4 ,we are not without hope1 too1 that in the future an antidote may be found to the toxins of the disease1 and of late there have been introduced several measures of great value in supporting the weakness of the heart1 a special danger in the old and debilitated4 ,hydrophobia4--,rabies1 a remarkable1 and in certain countries a widespread1 disease of animals1 when transmitted to a man by the bite of rabid dogs1 wolves1 etc41 is known as hydrophobia4 ,the specific germ is unknown1 but by a series of brilliant observations ,pasteur showed 7#a7 that the poison has certain fixed and peculiar properties in connection with the nervous system2 7#b7 that susceptible animals could be rendered refractory to the disease1 or incapable of taking it1 by a certain method of inoculation2 and 7#c7 that an animal unprotected and inoculated with a dose of the virus sufficient to cause the disease may1 by the injection of proper anti-rabic treatment1 escape4 ,supported by these facts1 ,pasteur began a system of treatment of hydrophobia in man1 and a special institute was founded in ,paris for the purpose4 ,when carried out promptly the treatment is successful in an immense majority of all cases1 and the mortality in persons bitten by animals proved to be rabid1 who have subsequently had the anti-rabic treatment1 has been reduced to less than one-half per cent4 ,the disease may be stamped out in dogs by careful quarantine of suspected animals1 and by a thoroughly carried out muzzling order4 ,malaria4--,among the most remarkable of modern discoveries is the cause of malarial fever1 one of the great maladies of the world1 and a prime obstacle to the settlement of ,europeans in tropical regions4 ,until #ahhj the cause was quite obscure4 ,it was known that the disease prevailed chiefly in marshy districts1 in the autumn1 and that the danger of infection was greatest in the evening and at night1 and that it was not directly contagious4 ,in #ahhj a ,french army surgeon1 ,laveran1 discovered in the red blood-corpuscles small bodies which have proved to be the specific germ of the disease4 ,they are not bacteria1 but little animal bodies resembling the amba--tiny little portions of protoplasm4 ,the parasite in its earliest form is a small1 clear1 ring-shaped body inside the red blood-corpuscle1 upon which it feeds1 gradually increasing in size and forming within itself blackish grains out of the coloring matter of the corpuscle4 ,when the little parasite reaches a certain size it begins to divide or multiply1 and an enormous number of these breaking up at the same time give off poison in the blood1 which causes the paroxysms of fever4 ,during what is known as the chill1 in the intermittent fever1 for example1 one can always find these dividing parasites4 ,several different forms of the parasites have been found1 corresponding to different varieties of malaria4 ,parasites of a very similar nature exist abundantly in birds4 ,ross1 an army surgeon in ,india1 found that the spread of this parasite from bird to bird was effected through the intervention of the mosquito4 ,the parasites reach maturity in certain cells of the coats of the stomach of these insects1 and develop into peculiar thread-like bodies1 many of which ultimately reach the salivary glands1 from which1 as the insect bites1 they pass with the secretion of the glands into the wound4 ,from this as a basis1 numerous observers have worked out the relation of the mosquito to malaria in the human subject4 ,briefly stated1 the disease is transmitted chiefly by certain varieties of the mosquito1 particularly the ,anopheles4 ,the ordinary ,culex1 which is present chiefly in the ,northern ,states1 does not convey the disease4 ,the ,anopheles sucks the blood from a person infected with malaria1 takes in a certain number of parasites1 which undergo development in the body of the insect1 the final outcome of which is numerous small1 thread-like structures1 which are found in numbers in the salivary glands4 ,from this point1 when the mosquito bites another individual1 they pass into his blood1 infect the system1 and in this way the disease is transmitted4 ,two very striking experiments may be mentioned4 ,the ,italian observers have repeatedly shown that ,anopheles which have sucked blood from patients suffering from malaria1 when sent to a non-malarial region1 and there allowed to bite perfectly healthy persons1 have transmitted the disease4 ,but a very crucial experiment was made a short time ago4 ,mosquitoes which had bitten malarial patients in ,italy were sent to ,london and there allowed to bite ,mr4 ,manson1 son of ,dr4 ,manson1 who really suggested the mosquito theory of malaria4 ,this gentleman had not lived out of ,england1 and there is no acute malaria in ,london4 ,he had been a perfectly healthy1 strong man4 ,in a few days following the bites of the infected mosquitoes he had a typical attack of malarial fever4 ,the other experiment1 though of a different character1 is quite as convincing4 ,in certain regions about ,rome1 in the ,campania1 malaria is so prevalent that in the autumn almost every one in the district is attacked1 particularly if he is a new-comer4 ,dr4 ,sambron and a friend lived in this district from the #ast of ,june to the #ast of ,september1 #aijj4 ,the test was whether they could live in this exceedingly dangerous climate for the three months without catching malaria1 if they used stringent precautions against the bites of mosquitoes4 ,for this purpose the hut in which they lived was thoroughly wired1 and they slept with the greatest care under netting4 ,both of these gentlemen at the end of the period had escaped the disease4 ,the importance of these studies cannot be overestimated4 ,they explain the relation of malaria to marshy districts1 the seasonal incidence of the disease1 the nocturnal infection1 and many other hitherto obscure problems4 ,more important still1 they point out clearly the way by which malaria may be prevented3 ,first1 the recognition that any individual with malaria is a source of danger in a community1 so that he must be thoroughly treated with quinine2 secondly1 the importance of the draining of marshy districts and ponds in which mosquitoes breed2 and1 thirdly1 that even in the most infected regions persons may escape the disease by living in thoroughly protected houses1 in this way escaping the bites of mosquitoes4 ,venereal ,diseases4--,these continue to embarrass the social economist and to perplex and distress the profession4 ,the misery and ill-health which they cause are incalculable1 and the pity of it is that the cross is not always borne by the offender1 but innocent women and children share the penalties4 ,the gonorrhal infection1 so common1 and often so little heeded1 is a cause of much disease in parts other than those first affected4 ,syphilis claims its victims in every rank of life1 at every age1 and in all countries4 ,we now treat it more thoroughly1 but all attempts to check its ravages have been fruitless4 ,physicians have two important duties3 the incessant preaching of continence to young men1 and scrupulous care1 in every case1 that the disease may not be a source of infection to others1 and that by thorough treatment the patient may be saved from the serious late nervous manifestations4 ,we can also urge that in the interests of public health venereal diseases1 like other infections1 shall be subject to supervision by the ,state4 ,the opposition to measures tending to the restriction of these diseases is most natural3 on the one hand1 from women1 who feel that it is an aggravation of a shocking injustice and wrong to their sex2 on the other1 from those who feel the moral guilt in a legal recognition of the evil4 ,it is appalling to contemplate the frightful train of miseries which a single diseased woman may entail1 not alone on her associates1 but on scores of the innocent--whose bitter cry should make the opponents of legislation feel that any measures of restriction1 any measures of registration1 would be preferable to the present disgraceful condition1 which makes of some ,christian cities open brothels and allows the purest homes to be invaded by the most loathsome of all diseases4 ,leprosy4--,since the discovery of the germ of this terrible disease systematic efforts have been made to improve the state of its victims and to promote the study of the conditions under which the disease prevails4 ,the ,english ,leprosy ,commission has done good work in calling attention to the widespread prevalence of the disease in ,india and in the ,east4 ,in this country leprosy has been introduced into ,san ,francisco by the ,chinese1 and into the ,northwestern ,states by the ,norwegians1 and there are foci of the disease in the ,southern ,states1 particularly ,louisiana1 and in the province of ,new ,brunswick4 ,the problem has an additional interest since the annexation of ,hawaii and the ,philippine ,islands1 in both of which places leprosy prevails extensively4 ,by systematic measures of inspection and the segregation of affected individuals the disease can readily be held in check4 ,it is not likely ever to increase among native ,americans1 or again gain such a foothold as it had in the ,middle ,ages4 ,puerperal ,fever4--,perhaps one of the most striking of all victories of preventive medicine has been the almost total abolition of so-called child-bed fever from the maternity hospitals and from private practice4 ,in many institutions the mortality after child-birth was five or six per cent41 indeed sometimes as high as ten per cent41 whereas to-day1 owing entirely to proper antiseptic precautions1 the mortality has fallen to three-tenths to four-tenths per cent4 ,the recognition of the contagiousness of puerperal fever was the most valuable contribution to medical science made by ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes4 ,there had been previous suggestions by several writers1 but his essay on the 8,contagiousness of ,puerperal ,fever10 published in #ahdc1 was the first strong1 clear1 logical statement of the case4 ,semmelweis1 a few years later1 added the weight of a large practical experience to the side of the contagiousness1 but the full recognition of the causes of the disease was not reached until the recent antiseptic views had been put into practical effect4 ,,the ,,new ,,dispensation ,,in ,,treatment ,the century has witnessed a revolution in the treatment of disease1 and the growth of a new school of medicine4 ,the old schools--regular and homopathic--put their trust in drugs1 to give which was the alpha and the omega of their practice4 ,for every symptom there were a score or more of medicines--vile1 nauseous compounds in one case2 bland1 harmless dilutions in the other4 ,the new school has a firm faith in a few good1 well-tried drugs1 little or none in the great mass of medicines still in general use4 ,imperative drugging--the ordering of medicine in any and every malady--is no longer regarded as the chief function of the doctor4 ,naturally1 when the entire conception of the disease was changed1 there came a corresponding change in our therapeutics4 ,in no respect is this more strikingly shown than in our present treatment of fever--say1 of the common typhoid fever4 ,during the first quarter of the century the patients were bled1 blistered1 purged and vomited1 and dosed with mercury1 antimony1 and other compounds to meet special symptoms4 ,during the second quarter1 the same1 with variations in different countries4 ,after #ahej bleeding became less frequent1 and the experiments of the ,paris and ,vienna schools began to shake the belief in the control of fever by drugs4 ,during the last quarter sensible doctors have reached the conclusion that typhoid fever is not a disease to be treated with medicines1 but that in a large proportion of all cases diet1 nursing1 and bathing meet the indications4 ,there is active1 systematic1 careful1 watchful treatment1 but not with drugs4 ,the public has not yet been fully educated to this point1 and medicines have sometimes to be ordered for the sake of the friends1 and it must be confessed that there are still in the ranks antiques who would insist on a dose of some kind every few hours4 ,the battle against poly-pharmacy1 or the use of a large number of drugs 7of the action of which we know little1 yet we put them into bodies of the action of which we know less71 has not been fought to a finish4 ,there have been two contributing factors on the side of progress--the remarkable growth of the skeptical spirit fostered by ,paris1 ,vienna1 and ,boston physicians1 and1 above all1 the valuable lesson of homopathy1 the infinitesimals of which certainly could not do harm1 and quite as certainly could not do good2 yet nobody has ever claimed that the mortality among homopathic practitioners was greater than among those of the regular school4 ,a new school of practitioners has arisen which cares nothing for homopathy and less for so-called allopathy4 ,it seeks to study1 rationally and scientifically1 the action of drugs1 old and new4 ,it is more concerned that a physician shall know how to apply the few great medicines which all have to use1 such as quinine1 iron1 mercury1 iodide of potassium1 opium1 and digitalis1 rather than a multiplicity of remedies the action of which is extremely doubtful4 ,the growth of scientific pharmacology1 by which we now have many active principles instead of crude drugs1 and the discovery of the art of making medicines palatable1 have been of enormous aid in rational practice4 ,there is no limit to the possibility of help from the scientific investigation of the properties and action of drugs4 ,at any day the new chemistry may give to us remedies of extraordinary potency and of as much usefulness as cocaine4 ,there is no reason why we should not even in the vegetable world find for certain diseases specifics of virtue fully equal to that of quinine in the malarial fevers4 ,one of the most striking characteristics of the modern treatment of disease is the return to what used to be called the natural methods--diet1 exercise1 bathing1 and massage4 ,there probably never has been a period in the history of the profession when the value of diet in the prevention and the cure of disease was more fully recognized4 ,dyspepsia1 the besetting malady of this country1 is largely due to improper diet1 imperfectly prepared and too hastily eaten4 ,one of the great lessons to be learned is that the preservation of health depends in great part upon food well cooked and carefully eaten4 ,a common cause of ruined digestion1 particularly in young girls1 is the eating of sweets between meals and the drinking of the abominations dispensed in the chemists' shops in the form of ice-cream sodas1 etc4 ,another frequent cause of ruined digestion in business men is the hurried meal at the lunch-counter4 ,and a third factor1 most important of all1 illustrates the old maxim1 that more people are killed by over eating and drinking than by the sword4 ,sensible people have begun to realize that alcoholic excesses lead inevitably to impaired health4 ,a man may take four or five drinks of whiskey a day1 or even more1 and thinks perhaps that he transacts his business better with that amount of stimulant2 but it only too frequently happens that early in the fifth decade1 just as business or political success is assured1 ,bacchus hands in heavy bills for payment1 in the form of serious disease of the arteries or of the liver1 or there is a general breakdown4 ,with the introduction of light beer there has been not only less intemperance1 but a reduction in the number of the cases of organic disease of the heart1 liver1 and stomach caused by alcohol4 ,while temperance in the matter of alcoholic drinks is becoming a characteristic feature of ,americans1 intemperance in the quantity of food taken is almost the rule4 ,adults eat far too much1 and physicians are beginning to recognize that the early degenerations1 particularly of the arteries and of the kidneys1 leading to ,bright's disease1 which were formerly attributed to alcohol1 are due in large part to too much food4 ,nursing4--,perhaps in no particular does nineteenth-century practice differ from that of the preceding centuries more than in the greater attention which is given to the personal comfort of the patient and to all the accessories comprised in the art of nursing4 ,the physician has in the trained nurse an assistant who carries out his directions with a watchful care1 and who is on the lookout for danger-signals1 and with accurate notes enables him to estimate the progress of a critical case from hour to hour4 ,the intelligent1 devoted women who have adopted the profession of nursing1 are not only in their ministrations a public benefaction1 but they have lightened the anxieties which form so large a part of the load of the busy doctor4 ,massage and ,hydrotherapy have taken their places as most important measures of relief in many chronic conditions1 and the latter has been almost universally adopted as the only safe means of combating the high temperatures of the acute fevers4 ,within the past quarter of a century the value of exercise in the education of the young has become recognized4 ,the increase in the means of taking wholesome out-of-door exercise is remarkable1 and should show in a few years an influence in the reduction of the nervous troubles in young persons4 ,the prophylactic benefit of systematic exercise1 taken in moderation by persons of middle age1 is very great4 ,golf and the bicycle have in the past few years materially lowered the average incomes of the doctors in this country as derived from persons under forty4 ,from the senile contingent--those above this age--the average income has for a time been raised by these exercises1 as a large number of persons have been injured by taking up sports which may be vigorously pursued with safety only by those with young arteries4 ,of three departures in the art of healing1 brief mention may be made4 ,the use of the extracts of certain organs 7or of the organs themselves7 in disease is as old as the days of the ,romans1 but an extraordinary impetus has been given to the subject by the discovery of the curative powers of the extract of the thyroid gland in the diseases known as cretinism and myxdema4 ,the brilliancy of the results in these diseases has had no parallel in the history of modern medicine1 but it cannot be said that in the use of the extracts of other organs for disease the results have fulfilled the sanguine expectations of many4 ,there was not1 in the first place1 the same physiological basis1 and practitioners have used these extracts too indiscriminately and without sufficient knowledge of the subject4 ,secondly1 as ,i have already mentioned1 we possess a sure and certain hope that for many of the acute infections antitoxins will be found4 ,a third noteworthy feature in modern treatment has been a return to psychical methods of cure1 in which faith in something is suggested to the patient4 ,after all1 faith is the great lever of life4 ,without it1 man can do nothing2 with it1 even with a fragment1 as a grain of mustard-seed1 all things are possible to him4 ,faith in us1 faith in our drugs and methods1 is the great stock in trade of the profession4 ,in one pan of the balance1 put the pharmacopias of the world1 all the editions from ,dioscorides to the last issue of the ,united ,states ,dispensatory2 heap them on the scales as did ,euripides his books in the celebrated contest in the 8,frogs02 in the other put the simple faith with which from the days of the ,pharaohs until now the children of men have swallowed the mixtures these works describe1 and the bulky tomes will kick the beam4 ,it is the aurum potabile1 the touchstone of success in medicine4 ,as ,galen says1 confidence and hope do more good than physic--8he cures most in whom most are confident40 ,that strange compound of charlatan and philosopher1 ,paracelsus1 encouraged his patients 8to have a good faith1 a strong imagination1 and they shall find the effects0 7,burton74 ,while we often overlook or are ignorant of our own faith-cures1 doctors are just a wee bit too sensitive about those performed outside our ranks4 ,they have never had1 and cannot expect to have1 a monopoly in this panacea1 which is open to all1 free as the sun1 and which may make of every one in certain cases1 as was the ,lacedemon of ,homer's day1 8a good physician out of ,nature's grace40 ,faith in the gods or in the saints cures one1 faith in little pills another1 hypnotic suggestion a third1 faith in a plain1 common doctor a fourth4 ,in all ages the prayer of faith has healed the sick1 and the mental attitude of the suppliant seems to be of more consequence than the powers to which the prayer is addressed4 ,the cures in the temples of sculapius1 the miracles of the saints1 the remarkable cures of those noble men1 the ,jesuit missionaries1 in this country1 the modern miracles at ,lourdes and at ,st4 ,anne de ,beaupr in ,quebec1 and the wonder-workings of the so-called ,christian ,scientists1 are often genuine1 and must be considered in discussing the foundations of therapeutics4 ,we physicians use the same power every day4 ,if a poor lass1 paralyzed1 apparently1 helpless1 bed-ridden for years1 comes to me1 having worn out in mind1 body1 and estate a devoted family2 if she in a few weeks or less by faith in me1 and faith alone1 takes up her bed and walks1 the saints of old could not have done more4 ,st4 ,anne and many others can scarcely to-day do less4 ,we enjoy1 ,i say1 no monopoly in the faith business4 ,the faith with which we work1 the faith1 indeed1 which is available to-day in every-day life1 has its limitations4 ,it will not raise the dead2 it will not put in a new eye in place of a bad one 7as it did to an ,iroquois ,indian boy for one of the ,jesuit fathers71 nor will it cure cancer or pneumonia1 or knit a bone2 but1 in spite of these nineteenth-century restrictions1 such as we find it1 faith is a most precious commodity1 without which we should be very badly off4 ,hypnotism1 introduced by ,mesmer in the eighteenth century1 has had several revivals as a method of treatment during the nineteenth century4 ,the first careful study of it was made by ,braid1 a ,manchester surgeon1 who introduced the terms hypnotism1 hypnotic1 and nervous sleep2 but at this time no very great measure of success followed its use in practice1 except perhaps in the case of an ,anglo-,indian surgeon1 ,james ,esdaile1 who1 prior to the introduction of ansthesia1 had performed two hundred and sixty-one surgical operations upon patients in a state of hypnotic unconsciousness4 ,about #ahhj the ,french physicians1 particularly ,charcot and ,bernheim1 took up the study1 and since that time hypnotism has been extensively practised4 ,it may be defined as a subjective psychical condition1 what ,braid called nervous sleep1 resembling somnambulism1 in which1 as ,shakespeare says1 in the description of ,lady ,macbeth1 the person receives at once the benefit of sleep and does the effects or acts of watching or waking4 ,therapeutically1 the important fact is that the individual's natural susceptibility to suggestion is increased1 and this may hold after the condition of hypnosis has passed away4 ,the condition of hypnosis is usually itself induced by suggestion1 requesting the subject to close the eyes1 to think of sleep1 and the operator then repeats two or three times sentences suggesting sleep1 and suggesting that the limbs are getting heavy and that he is feeling drowsy4 ,during this state it has been found that the subjects are very susceptible to suggestion4 ,too much must not be expected of hypnotism1 and the claims which have been made for it have been too often grossly exaggerated4 ,it seems1 as it has been recently well put1 that hypnotism 8at best permits of making suggestions more effective for good or bad than can be done upon one in his waking state40 ,it is found to be of very little use in organic disease4 ,it has been helpful in some cases of hysteria1 in certain functional spasmodic affections of the nervous system1 in the vicious habits of childhood1 and in suggesting to the victims of alcohol and drugs that they should get rid of their inordinate desires4 ,it has been used successfully in certain cases for the relief of labor pains1 and in surgical operations2 but on the whole1 while a valuable agent in a few cases1 it has scarcely fulfilled the expectations of its advocates4 ,it is a practice not without serious dangers1 and should never be performed except in the presence of a third person1 and its indiscriminate practice by ignorant persons should be prevented by law4 ,one mode of faith-healing in modern days1 which passes under the remarkable name of ,christian ,science1 is probably nothing more than mental suggestion under another name4 8,the patient is told to be calm1 and is assured that all will go well2 that he must try to aid the healer by believing that what is told him is true4 ,the healer then1 quietly but firmly1 asserts and reiterates that there is no pain1 no suffering1 that it is disappearing1 that relief will come1 that the patient is getting well40 ,this is precisely the method which ,bernheim used to use with such success in his hypnotic patients at ,nancy1 iterating and reiterating1 in a most wearisome way1 that the disease would disappear and the patient would feel better4 ,as has been pointed out by a recent writer 7,dr4 ,harry ,marshall71 the chief basis for the growth of ,christian ,science is that which underlies every popular fallacy3 8,oliver ,wendell ,holmes outlined very clearly the factors concerned1 showing 7a7 how easily abundant facts can be collected to prove anything whatsoever2 7b7 how insufficient #8exalted wisdom1 immaculate honesty1 and vast general acquirements' are to prevent an individual from having the most primitive ideas upon subjects out of his line of thought2 and1 finally1 demonstrating #8the boundless credulity and excitability of mankind upon subjects connected with medicine4'0 ,,william ,,osler4 ,,surgery ,the end of the eighteenth century was made notable by one of the most remarkable and beneficent discoveries which has ever blessed the human race1 the discovery of the means of preventing small-pox4 ,on ,may #ad1 #agif1 ,dr4 ,edward ,jenner inoculated ,james ,phipps4 ,when we remember that two million persons died in a single year in the ,russian ,empire from small-pox2 that in #agjg in ,iceland1 out of a population of thirty thousand1 sixty per cent41 or eighteen thousand1 died2 that in ,jenner's time 8an adult person who had not had small-pox was scarcely met with or heard of in the ,united ,kingdom1 and that owing to his discovery small-pox is now one of the rarest diseases10 the strong words ,i have used seem fully justified4 ,but the eighteenth century was not to witness the end of progress in medicine4 ,the advances in the nineteenth century have been even more startling and more beneficent4 ,what these advances have been in the department of medicine has been related by ,professor ,osler4 ,it is my province to speak only of surgery4 ,,method ,,of ,,teaching ,the first advance which should be mentioned is a fundamental one--namely1 methods of medical teaching4 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century there were only three medical schools in the ,united ,states3 the ,medical ,department of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 established in #agfe2 the ,medical ,department of ,harvard1 established in #aghc2 and the ,medical ,department of ,dartmouth1 established in #agig4 ,the last report of the ,commissioner of ,education gives a list of one hundred and fifty-five medical schools now in existence in this country1 many of them still poorly equipped and struggling for existence1 but a large number of them standing in the first rank1 with excellent modern equipment1 both in teachers1 laboratories1 hospitals1 and other facilities4 ,the medical curriculum then extended over only two years or less1 and consisted of courses of lectures at the most by seven professors who1 year after year1 read the same course of lectures1 without illustrations and with no practical teaching4 ,the medical schools1 even when connected with universities1 were practically private corporations1 the members of which took all the fees1 spent what money they were compelled to spend in the maintenance of what we now should call the semblance of an education1 and divided the profits4 ,until within about twenty years this method prevailed in all our medical schools4 ,but the last two decades of the century have seen a remarkable awakening of the medical profession to the need of a broader and more liberal education1 and that1 as a prerequisite1 the medical schools should be on the same basis as the department of arts in every well-regulated college4 ,to accomplish this the boards of trustees have taken possession of the fees of students1 have placed the faculties upon salaries1 and have used such portion of the incomes of the institutions as was needed for a constant and yet rapid development along the most liberal lines4 ,,college ,,hospitals ,the first step has been the establishment in connection with most schools of general hospitals in which the various teachers in the college should be the clinical instructors1 and where the students would have the means not only of hearing theoretically what should be done to the sick1 but of actually examining the patients under the supervision of their instructors1 studying the cases so as to become skilled in reaching a diagnosis and indicating what in their opinion was necessary in the way either of hygiene1 medicine1 or surgical operation4 ,more than that1 in most of the advanced schools to-day the students assist the clinical faculties of the hospitals in the actual performance of operations1 so that when they graduate they are skilled to a degree utterly unknown twenty years ago4 ,,establishment ,,of ,,laboratories ,another step which was equally important1 and in some respects even more so1 has been the establishment of laboratories connected with each branch of instruction4 ,a laboratory of anatomy 7the dissecting room7 every medical school has always had1 but all the other laboratories are recent additions4 ,among these may be named a laboratory of clinical medicine1 a laboratory of therapeutics1 in which the action of drugs is studied2 a laboratory of chemistry1 a laboratory of microscopy1 a laboratory of pathology for the study of diseased tissues1 a laboratory of embryology for the study of the development of the human body and of the embryos of animals1 a laboratory of hygiene1 a laboratory of bacteriology1 a laboratory of pharmacy1 a surgical laboratory1 in which all the operations of surgery are done on the cadaver by each student1 a laboratory of physiology1 and in many colleges private rooms in which advanced work may be done for the discovery of new truths4 ,in all these laboratories1 instead of simply hearing about the experiments and observations1 each student is required to handle the drugs1 the chemicals1 the apparatus1 to do all the operations1 to look through the microscope1 etc42 in other words1 to do all that which is necessary for the proper understanding of the case in hand4 ,in fact1 it may be said that in view of the opportunities and the requirements of modern hospitals1 it is undoubtedly true that a hospital patient1 the poorest of the poor1 often has his case more thoroughly studied and more accurately observed than the wealthy patient who is attended at his home4 ,on the other hand1 however1 so many laboratories with their expensive apparatus and a large staff of assistants mean an enormous increase in the expense of a medical education1 for which the student does not pay anything like an equivalent4 ,hence the need in all of our best modern medical schools for endowments1 in order that such work may be carried on properly1 and yet the student not be charged such fees as to be practically prohibitory1 excepting for the rich1 or at the least the well-to-do4 ,i do not hesitate to say that at the end of the second year many a diligent student of to-day is better fitted to practise medicine than was the graduate of half a century ago4 ,,anatomical ,,material ,one of the most important means of the study of medicine1 and especially of surgery1 is a thorough acquaintance with the anatomy of the human body4 ,no one would think of placing an engineer in charge of a complicated piece of machinery1 who had never become intimately acquainted with all the parts of such a machine1 so that he could take it to pieces and put it together again with ease and intelligence4 ,yet1 until comparatively recently1 this knowledge of anatomy was both required of1 and yet at the same time the means of obtaining it was forbidden to1 the medical student4 ,if he performed an operation and was guilty of negligence or error1 due to his want of anatomical knowledge1 he was liable to a suit for malpractice4 ,yet his only means of becoming acquainted with the anatomy of the human body was by stealing the bodies of the dead4 ,in ,england1 up to #ahcb1 this was equally true4 ,a regular traffic in human bodies existed there as well as here1 and1 by reason of its perils1 the cost of bodies for dissection was very great2 but it was only a question of money4 ,in his testimony before the ,parliamentary ,committee1 ,sir ,astley ,cooper made a shiver run down the backs of the noble lords who listened to him when he said that in order to dissect the body of any of them it was only necessary for him to pay enough4 ,the large pecuniary profits of such business1 when the supply was very small1 led to the horrible atrocities of ,burke and ,hare in ,edinburgh in #ahcb4 ,they deliberately murdered a considerable number of persons1 and sold the bodies to the dissecting rooms in that city4 ,the discovery of their crimes finally led to the passage of the ,anatomy ,act1 which has been in force in ,great ,britain ever since4 ,similar violations of graveyards in this country have led to the passage in various ,states of somewhat similar laws1 usually giving for dissection the bodies of those who were so poor in friendship that no one would spend the money necessary for their burial4 ,even to-day1 in a large number of our ,states1 the former anomalous condition of affairs exists4 ,the increase of anatomical material which has resulted from the enactment of wise and salutary laws for this purpose has given a great impetus to the study of anatomy1 and has produced a far better educated class of physicians in most parts of the ,united ,states within the last few years4 ,the enlightened sense of the community has perceived that to deny the medical schools the means of properly teaching anatomy was a fatal mistake1 and resulted in an ignorance of which the community were the victims4 ,as a result1 it is possible now1 by law1 in most ,states to obtain a reasonable number of cadavers1 not only for the study of anatomy1 but for the performance of all the usual operations4 ,,medical ,,libraries ,along with this there has been throughout this country a marked movement in favor of medical libraries4 ,it is to the credit of the government of the ,united ,states that the whole world is debtor to us1 not only for the foremost medical library in the world1 that of the surgeon-general of the army in ,washington1 but also for the magnificent index-catalogue1 not only of the books1 but all the journal articles in every language in the world4 ,no better investment of money was ever made than the establishment of this library1 and its allied museum1 and the publication of the index-catalogue4 ,,embryology ,as a result of all these means and methods of study1 and as a part of the great educational and scientific movement of the century1 medical men now take a wholly different view of the normal and abnormal structures of the human body4 ,the study of embryology has shown us that many of the deviations from the normal development of the human body are easily explained by embryology4 ,one of the most important changes in our idea1 for example1 of tumors is due to the fact that the study of embryology and of the tissues of the embryo have shown us that diseased structures1 which lack explanation entirely1 when compared with the adult human tissues1 readily find their explanation and fall into an unexpected order when compared with the tissues of the embryo4 ,not only1 however1 has the study of embryological tissues thrown a flood of light on diseased structures1 but we have obtained new views of the relation of man to all creatures1 lower in the scale of life4 ,largely owing to the doctrine of evolution1 we now recognize the fact that1 so far as his body is concerned1 man is kindred to the brutes2 that his diseases1 within certain limitations1 are identical with similar diseases of the lower animals2 that his anatomy and physiology are1 in essence1 the same as the anatomy and physiology of the lower animals1 even the very lowest1 and that many of his diseases can be best studied in the lower animals1 because upon them we can make exact experiments which would be impossible in man4 ,while it is true that each animal has disorders which are peculiar to itself1 and that it is not subject to some of the disorders to which man is a victim1 and1 per contra1 that man is a victim to some disorders from which animals do not suffer1 yet1 taking them as a whole1 the diseases of man and of animals1 and the action of remedies on both1 are practically identical4 ,to this ,i shall have occasion to refer again4 ,,pathology ,among the laboratories which ,i mentioned1 one of the most important is that of pathology and morbid anatomy1 or the study of diseased tissues and organs4 ,the first work on pathology written in this country was by one of our best-known surgeons1 the late ,samuel ,d4 ,gross1 and one of his most important contributions to surgical progress consisted in his persistent advocacy of the need for the study of pathology as a basis for all our means of cure4 ,this is evident1 if we consider the illustration ,i used a moment ago of a steam-engine4 ,unless he knows precisely the defects of such a machine1 the influence of fresh or salt water on a boiler1 the influence of rust1 the effect of oils1 entirely apart from the mere mechanism of the engine1 an engineer might make the most serious mistake1 resulting in fatal damage1 both to the machine and probably to life4 ,so1 surgical pathology is the study of the processes of disease1 the alterations in the minute structure of tissues and organs1 without which no surgeon can be fitted for his task1 much less can he be called an accomplished surgeon4 ,all of these laboratories mark the difference between the scientific and the empirical method4 ,the old student of medicine went from case to case1 heard many a good maxim1 and learned many a useful trick2 but1 after all1 it was only an empirical knowledge which he obtained4 ,it did not go to the foundation of things1 it was not scientific1 as is the collegiate instruction of to-day4 ,having now glanced rapidly at the improvement in medical instruction1 let me turn next to a few of the principal discoveries which have made the surgery of to-day so much superior to the surgery of a hundred years ago4 ,,an,,sthesia ,after vaccination1 the most important medical event of the century is the discovery of ansthesia4 ,while there were some prior attempts at ansthesia1 practically it dates from ,october #af1 #ahdf1 when ,dr4 ,john ,c4 ,warren1 in the ,massachusetts ,general ,hospital1 first performed a major surgical operation1 without inflicting the slightest pain4 ,i cannot enter into the merits of the various claimants for the credit of first using an ansthetic1 but ether was then for the first time publicly administered by ,morton1 and the very sponge which was then used is now a precious trophy of the ,massachusetts ,general ,hospital4 ,i may1 perhaps1 quote from an address which ,i delivered before the ,medical and ,chirurgical ,faculty of the ,state of ,maryland1 at their centennial anniversary1 in ,april1 #ahii1 the following in relation to ansthesia3 8,the news went like wildfire1 and ansthesia was soon introduced into every clinic and at almost every operation throughout the civilized world4 ,prior to that time a surgical operation was attended with horrors which those who live in these days cannot appreciate4 ,he was the best surgeon who could perform any operation in the least possible time4 ,the whole object of new methods of operating was to shorten the period of frightful agony which every patient had to endure4 ,every second of suffering saved was an incalculable boon4 ,to submit to any operation required then a heroism and an endurance which is almost incomprehensible to us now4 ,all of the more modern1 deliberate1 careful1 painstaking operations1 involving minute dissection1 amid nerves and blood-vessels1 when life or death depends on the accuracy of almost every touch of the knife1 were absolutely impossible4 ,it was beyond human endurance quietly to submit one's self for an hour1 for an hour and a half1 for two hours1 or even longer1 to such physical agony4 8,it is a striking commentary on the immediate results of ansthesia to learn that1 in five years before the introduction of ether1 only one hundred and eighty-four persons were willing to submit themselves to such a dreadful ordeal in the ,massachusetts ,general ,hospital--an average of thirty-seven operations per annum1 or three per month4444 ,during the last year1 in the same hospital--a ,mecca for every surgeon the world over--over thirty-seven hundred operations were performed4 ,it is not an uncommon thing at the present day for any one of the more active surgeons of this country to do as many as four or five hundred operations in a year4 ,i have known as many as nineteen operations to be done in the ,jefferson ,medical ,college ,hospital in a single day--equalling six months' work in ,boston before the introduction of ether40 ,the next year1 #ahdg1 witnessed the introduction of chloroform by ,sir ,james ,y4 ,simpson1 of ,edinburgh4 ,until ,i became acquainted with the striking figures just quoted1 ,i had often wondered at the hospital scene in that most touching story1 ,rab and ,his ,friends1 by the late gifted and well-beloved physician1 ,dr4 ,john ,brown1 of ,edinburgh4 ,nowadays students do not rush into the surgical amphitheatre when they learn that an operation is to be done1 but it is taken as a matter of course1 for practically every day many operations are done in most of our large hospitals4 ,but1 at the time when ,rab's mistress was operated upon1 an operation1 as has been stated1 was a very rare event4 ,few had the fortitude to endure its dreadful pangs4 ,now1 thanks to the blessed sleep of ansthesia1 sufferers from even the most dreadful disorders can have long and difficult operations done1 accurate and tedious dissections made1 and yet feel not a twinge of pain4 ,besides general ansthesia by ether1 chloroform1 and a few other agents1 there have been introduced several means for producing 8local ansthesia10 i4e41 agents which destroy the sensibility of the part of the body to be operated upon while not producing unconsciousness4 ,freezing the part by ice and salt1 or by a quickly evaporating spray of rhigolene or chloride of ethyl1 are sometimes used4 ,but cocaine and a somewhat similar substance1 eucaine1 have of late been more extensively used on man1 after their harmlessness had been first shown by experiments on animals4 ,in #ahhe ,corning1 of ,new ,york1 injected a solution of cocaine as near to the spinal cord as was possible1 and produced insensibility of all the body below the point of injection by the effect of the cocaine upon the spinal cord4 ,a few years ago ,quincke1 of ,kiel1 in ,germany1 devised a means of puncturing the spinal canal itself in the lumbar region 7the lowest part of the small of the back7 for the purpose of drawing off some of the fluid for examination4 ,this suggested to ,bier1 then of ,kiel1 who was apparently ignorant of ,corning's work1 that cocaine could be injected through a hollow needle inserted into the spinal canal by 8lumbar puncture0 and so produce ansthesia of all the body below this point4 ,this method was published by him in #ahii1 and was soon repeated in ,america4 ,in ,france1 however1 it has been practised more than elsewhere1 ,tupper1 of ,paris1 having successfully done over two hundred operations by 8spinal ansthesia40 ,all of the body below the diaphragm can thus be deprived of sensibility4 ,the method will probably never replace ether and chloroform1 but in many cases is a valuable aid to the surgeon4 ,but it has its dangers and its inconveniences4 ,the ideal ansthetic is not that which destroys sensibility and yet leaves the patient perfectly conscious1 as spinal ansthesia does4 ,a patient to whom ,i recently proposed it for certain special reasons rejected it1 saying1 with probable truth1 that she could never bear the strain of lying on the table perfectly conscious of all that was being done and frightened by any surgical emergency which might easily arise in such a long1 difficult1 and dangerous operation4 ,the ideal ansthetic is that which will abolish pain and consciousness without danger to life4 ,the twentieth century will undoubtedly see the discovery of this safe and efficient ansthetic4 ,,antisepsis ,but the limits of surgical progress were not yet reached4 ,let me quote again from the address before alluded to3 8,even the introduction of ansthesia1 however1 did not rid surgery of all its terrors4 ,the acute pain of the operation was abolished1 but the after-suffering1 as ,i know only too well1 in my early surgical days1 was something dreadful to see4 ,the parched lips of the poor sufferer1 tossing uneasily during sleepless nights2 wounds reeking with pus1 and patients dying by scores from blood-poisoning1 from erysipelas1 from tetanus1 from gangrene1 were only too familiar sights in the pre-antiseptic days4 ,then1 again1 there arose one of these deliverers of the human race whose name can never be forgotten and whose fame will last so long as time shall endure4 ,jenner1 ,warren1 and ,lister are a triumvirate of names of which any profession may well be proud4 ,thank ,god1 they all sprang from virile ,anglo-,saxon loins6 ,no praise1 no reward1 no fame is too great for them4 ,that ,lord ,lister still lives to see the triumph of his marvellous services to humanity is a joy to all of us4 ,and when the profession arose en masse1 within the last few years1 at the ,international ,congress of ,berlin1 and at the meeting of the ,british ,medical ,association in ,montreal1 and welcomed him with cheer after cheer1 it was but a feeble expression of gratitude for benefits which no words can express4 8,before ,lister's day erysipelas1 tetanus1 gangrene1 and blood-poisoning in its various phases were the constant attendant of every surgeon4 ,they were dreaded guests at almost any operation2 and when in rare cases we obtained primary union without a drop of pus1 without fever1 and with but little suffering1 it was a marvellous achievement4 ,now it is precisely reversed4 ,the surgeon who does not get primary union without a drop of pus1 with no fever1 and with little suffering1 asks himself--what was the fault in my technic8 ,to open the head1 the abdomen1 or the chest thirty years ago was almost equivalent to signing the death-warrant of a patient4 ,the early mortality of ovariotomy was about sixty per cent42 two out of three died4 ,now many a surgeon can point to a series of one hundred abdominal operations with a fatality of only two or three per cent4 ,when ,sir ,spencer ,wells recorded his first one thousand cases of ovariotomy it was calculated that after deducting the years which the patients who died from the operation would have lived had no operation been done the net result of the thousand cases was an addition of twenty thousand years to human life4 ,one thousand ovariotomies under antiseptic precautions at the present would certainly add at least thirty thousand years to human life4 ,would not such a guerdon be enough for any man8 8,this1 too1 is a direct result of laborious laboratory researches1 beginning with the investigations of ,liebig and ,pasteur on fermentation4 ,lister went still further4 ,even before the discovery of the bacteria of suppuration1 of tetanus1 and of erysipelas he showed us experimentally how1 by surgical cleanliness1 we could avoid all infection and so banish these pests from our hospitals and bring life and health to many who otherwise would have perished from operations which are now perfectly safe4 8,the mortality of compound fractures in the pre-antiseptic days was about sixty per cent4 ,it was one of the most dreaded of all accidents4 ,its mortality now is perhaps not over three per cent41 and the mortality from sepsis after such a fracture1 in the hands of well-instructed surgeons1 is almost nil4 ,prior to ,lister's day the mortality of major amputations varied from fifty to sixty-three per cent4 ,now it is from ten to twenty per cent4 ,and so ,i might go on with operation after operation and show how they have become so safe that one need not dread any1 saving exceptional cases4 8,these two modern discoveries1 ansthesia and antisepsis1 have utterly revolutionized modern surgery4 ,they have made possible operations which1 by reason of their length and pain and danger1 were utterly unjustifiable in former days1 but are now the daily occupation of a busy surgeon4 ,and1 far better than this1 they have enabled us to bring to homes and hearts1 which otherwise would have been broken up and wrung with sorrow1 the comfort of life restored to dear ones upon whom depended the happiness and support of the families4 ,translate figures into happy hearts and prosperous homes if you can1 and then you can tell me what ,warren and ,lister have done for humanity60 ,the result of these two wonderful discoveries has been to separate us from the surgical past1 as by a great gulf4 8,great theologians1 such as a ,calvin or a ,jonathan ,edwards1 were they recalled to life1 could discourse as learnedly as ever of predestination and free will2 great preachers1 as a ,beecher or a ,spurgeon1 could stir our souls and warm our hearts as of old2 great jurists1 as a ,justinian or a ,marshall1 could expound the same principles of law which hold good for all time2 great forensic orators1 as a ,burke or a ,webster1 could convince us by the same arguments and arouse us by the same invectives or the same eloquence that made our fathers willing captives to their silver tongues4 ,but to-day1 so rapid has been our surgical progress1 a ,velpeau1 a ,sir ,william ,ferguson1 or a ,pancoast1 all of whom have died within the last thirty years1 could not teach modern surgical principles nor perform a modern surgical operation4 ,even our every-day surgical vocabulary--staphylococcus1 streptococcus1 infection1 immunity1 antisepsis and asepsis1 toxin and antitoxin--would be unintelligible jargon to him2 and our modern operations on the brain1 the chest1 the abdomen1 and the pelvis would make him wonder whether we had not lost our senses1 until1 seeing the almost uniform and almost painless recoveries1 he would thank ,god for the magnificent progress of the last half-century1 which had vouchsafed such magical1 nay1 such almost divine1 power to the modern surgeon40 ,,the ,,surgery ,,of ,,war ,one of the immediate consequences of the introduction of the antiseptic method has been a remarkable mitigation of the horrors of war4 ,our recent war with ,spain has proved1 and the present military operations in the ,philippines and of the ,british in ,south ,africa will still further prove1 its advantages4 ,witness a little book written by ,professor von ,esmarch1 of ,kiel1 ,germany1 with the apt title1 ,the ,fight of ,humanity ,against the ,horrors of ,war2 with an appendix1 entitled1 8,the ,samaritan on the ,battle-field40 ,one of the most valuable means for the preservation of human life is carried by every soldier in a modern civilized army as a part of his regulation outfit1 a 8,first ,aid ,package0 for the treatment of any wound or injury2 and one of the most valuable and interesting papers read before the ,american ,surgical ,association1 at its meeting in ,chicago in #ahii1 was by ,professor ,senn on the 8,first ,aid ,package40 ,this first aid package contains an antiseptic dressing1 which can be applied to all but the gravest wounds for the purpose of preventing infection1 which is the principal danger to life after accident or injury4 ,the universal testimony of our surgeons in ,cuba was that by its use most wounds were prevented from becoming infected1 and1 therefore1 inflamed1 and that the number of operations was greatly diminished by reason of its use4 ,,bacteriology ,in experimental science1 two methods of progress are observed2 first1 in actual practice certain methods are adopted because they are found to be the most advantageous and useful1 though we cannot explain why it is so--i4e41 practice outstrips theory4 ,again1 as a result of experimental investigation1 certain facts are discovered which explain why the practical methods just alluded to are the best1 and this in turn suggests further improvements in our practice--i4e41 theory outstrips practice and enlarges its domain4 ,thus outstripping theory1 the practical advance made by ,lister was an example of the first4 ,his striking results in turn stimulated scientific observers to make new discoveries of the greatest importance1 and thus science immensely improved and widened our practical methods4 ,no definite year or day can be assigned as the birth-date of ,lord ,lister's antiseptic methods1 as we can1 for instance1 for vaccination or for ansthesia4 ,we may assume1 at least for this country1 the summer of #ahgf as the starting-point4 ,during that year ,lord ,lister attended the ,international ,medical ,congress held in ,philadelphia1 and demonstrated his then methods and convinced a few surgeons of their immense advantages4 ,even before that date there had been very many experiments and observations1 especially on the blood4 ,in #ahfc ,davaine1 in ,france1 had discovered little rod-like bodies in the blood in wool-sorters' disease1 or anthrax1 which he named from their shape 8bacteria10 or 8little rods40 ,this name has been adopted for all forms of germs1 though many of them are not rod-like in their shape4 ,not until #ahha was the cause of inflammation and suppuration 7the formation of pus or 8matter07 discovered4 ,in that year ,ogston1 of ,aberdeen1 published experiments which he believed demonstrated the fact that certain bacteria were the cause of suppuration4 ,since then this has been amply confirmed not only by experiments upon animals1 but by observation in man4 ,in #ahhb ,robert ,koch1 of ,berlin1 discovered the cause of tuberculosis1 a little rod-like body1 which is named the 8bacillus0 of tuberculosis4 ,in #ahhc ,fehleisen discovered the germ of erysipelas1 and in #ahhg ,nicolaier and ,rosenbaum discovered the bacillus of tetanus or lockjaw4 ,so recent have been the discoveries in bacteriology which have led to vast improvements in our methods of treatment of wounds and the performance of operations4 ,while the principles established by ,lord ,lister have remained unchanged1 the details in the treatment have been greatly simplified and made more efficient4 ,for the information of the general reader1 let me state a few facts4 ,bacteria are divided into two principal classes1 in accordance with their form4 ,one1 known as 8cocci10 from the ,greek word coccus--8berry0--may be likened to billiard-balls4 ,some of these occur in bunches1 which have been likened to bunches of grapes1 and hence are called1 again from a ,greek term1 8staphylococci40 ,others are arranged in chains1 like beads1 and are called 8streptococci40 ,these last are very much more virulent and dangerous than the staphylococci4 ,both of these produce pus or matter1 and they are the most widely diffused and most common forms found in infected or suppurating wounds4 ,one form is the cause of erysipelas4 ,a second form1 known as 8bacilli10 may be likened to a lead-pencil4 ,among the various bacilli that have been discovered are those of tuberculosis1 glanders1 tetanus or lockjaw1 etc4 ,i omit many others found in medical disorders1 as they do not concern this paper4 ,how important these discoveries are may be seen by the following facts3 ,tuberculosis1 next to that of suppuration1 is1 perhaps1 the most widely extended infection to which man1 as well as animals1 is liable4 ,we are all familiar with it in the form of 8consumption10 but the non-medical reader is1 perhaps1 not aware of the fact that it affects not only the lungs1 but also the bowels in consumption of the bowels2 the bones1 as is seen by every surgeon almost daily1 and especially as the cause of the crooked backs seen in spine diseases2 in the joints1 as is seen in hip-joint disease1 white swelling of the knee1 ankle-joint disease1 and similar disease of all the other large joints of the body2 in the brain1 in tubercular meningitis2 in the abdominal cavity1 in tubercular peritonitis2 in the skin1 in certain forms of ulceration1 commonly called lupus2 in the glands1 as in the swollen glands1 or 8bunches10 in the neck1 and endless other varieties which ,i need not name4 ,the bacillus of lockjaw is found in great abundance around stables1 and this explains the fact that hostlers1 drivers1 cavalrymen1 all of whom had to do with horses1 are especially liable to attacks of lockjaw4 ,moreover1 certain bacteria thrive best when exposed to the open air4 ,other bacteria1 and among them the bacilli of lockjaw1 thrive best when the air is excluded1 and this explains the danger of treading on a rusty nail1 which is popularly and rightly known as peculiarly liable to produce lockjaw4 ,the reason is not because it is a nail1 nor because it is old1 nor because it is rusty1 but because from the earth in which it lies it is most apt to be the means of introducing into a punctured wound the bacilli of lockjaw4 ,such a wound bleeds but very little1 the blood soon crusts and excludes the air1 and if any of the bacilli of lockjaw have been carried into the body1 they find in such a closed wound1 from which the air is excluded1 the most favorable conditions for growth and infection of the whole body4 ,knowing these facts from experiment1 the treatment is clear4 ,lay open such a wound and disinfect it4 ,these two forms1 the 8cocci10 or berry-like bacteria1 and the 8bacilli10 or rod-like bacteria1 comprise the great majority of dangerous bacteria4 ,it must be remembered that there is an enormous number of bacteria which are not dangerous2 some of them are entirely harmless even if introduced into the human body4 ,others are the bacteria of decomposition1 or putrefaction1 which are known as 8saprophytic0 bacteria4 ,all of the harmless ones are known as 8non-pathogenic10 that is1 non-producers of disease4 ,those which produce disease are known as 8pathogenic10 and those which produce suppuration as 8pyogenic0 or pus-producing bacteria4 ,all of these bacteria are plants1 and not1 as is very frequently supposed1 animals of a low form4 ,the danger from their introduction into the body can be best appreciated1 perhaps1 by the statement of ,belfield1 who estimated that a single bacterium which weighs1 approximately1 only the #a-dj1jjj1jjj part of a grain1 if given plenty of food and plenty of 8elbow room10 would so rapidly develop that in three days it would form a mass weighing #hjj tons6 ,it is the old story of the blacksmith who was to get a penny for the first nail1 two for the second1 four for the third1 and so on till a set of shoes would cost more than ,crsus could pay for4 ,the effect of the bacteria has been determined by experiment to be proportionate to the dose4 ,a cubic centimetre is a cube two-fifths of an inch on each side4 ,one-tenth of such a cube of pure culture of one bacterium 7,proteus vulgaris7 contains #bbe1jjj1jjj bacteria1 and if injected under the skin of a rabbit will produce death4 ,less than #ah1jjj1jjj will produce no effect whatever4 ,of one kind of staphylococcus1 if #bej1jjj1jjj are introduced under the skin of a rabbit there will be produced a small abscess1 but it requires #a1jjj1jjj1jjj to produce speedy death4 ,on the other hand1 of the bacillus of lockjaw it requires only #ajjj to produce death1 so virulent is this germ4 ,moreover1 their effect on tissues and persons in different states varies very much4 ,thus1 it is found that when a certain number of bacteria are injected into the cavity of the abdomen of an animal1 if the animal is healthy and the peritoneum 7the thin lining membrane of the abdomen7 is healthy1 the animal will recover perfectly well2 but if the peritoneum be scraped and torn 7and it must be remembered that the healthy peritoneum is devoid of sensation71 that the same dose which before was harmless will now produce a violent peritonitis and very likely death4 ,the practical lesson from this experiment upon animals is very evident4 ,every surgeon who opens the abdomen is most careful1 if possible1 not to injure the peritoneum1 but manipulates with the greatest care lest fatal results follow any serious injury to that membrane4 ,so1 too1 if the general health be impaired1 it is found that an injection from which a healthy animal would recover will be followed by fatal consequences if the general health is below par4 ,again1 if an animal has a simple fracture of his thigh-bone1 and that is the only injury that he receives1 no infection from the exterior having occurred1 he will make a good recovery2 but if at the same time he receives a lacerated wound1 it may be even in another part of the body1 and this wound1 not being cared for most scrupulously1 becomes infected1 the infection will fasten on the distant spot of least resistance1 the broken thigh-bone1 and will produce a most dangerous and very frequently fatal form of inflammation4 ,i need scarcely point out in this connection1 as in fact throughout this entire consideration of bacteriology1 how important a part in its development has been played by experiment upon animals4 ,the experimental facts just stated are of vital importance in the treatment of surgical diseases1 and evidently could not have been determined upon mankind4 ,it is not too much to say that had vivisection been restricted or prohibited the surgery of to-day would be the barbarous surgery of thirty years ago4 ,even granting that an enormous number of the bacteria are harmless1 the wonder is that with so many foes on every hand we live an ordinary lifetime4 ,fortunately1 however1 in the human body there is not only a lack of food sufficient and 8elbow room0 enough for them to work their dire effects1 but there is that which 8makes for righteousness0 in our physical organization as well as in our souls4 ,the moment that bacteria are introduced into the human body a certain number of cells hasten to destroy them4 ,these are called 8phagocytes0 or devouring cells1 because they eat up the bacteria4 ,whether the patient survives or dies depends on whether the bacteria get the upper hand of the phagocytes or the phagocytes the upper hand of the bacteria4 ,these statements are very easy to make1 but the results have only been obtained by prolonged and laborious investigations in the laboratory and by experiments upon animals which have demonstrated these facts4 ,the bacteria are recognized by various methods3 ,first1 by form4 ,many which are identical in appearance1 however1 differ greatly in effects4 ,a handful of turnip-seed and a handful of rape-seed look very much alike1 but if they are planted the plants differ so greatly that we can recognize the difference in the seed by the difference in the crop2 hence the second method of recognizing differences in bacteria is by planting them4 ,different methods have been practised4 ,some are sown on the raw surface of a potato2 others on bread paste2 others in certain jelly-like materials1 such as gelatine or agar-agar4 ,it was soon found as a result of these experiments that the bacteria flourished best1 some in one soil1 some in another4 ,again1 the crops of mould which come from them differ greatly in color1 some being black1 some red1 some white1 some yellow1 etc4 ,a third method also is by staining them with various dyes1 when it is found that some bacteria will take one stain best1 others will take another1 and so on through the whole list4 ,at first it was thought that these bacteria existed chiefly in the air1 and hence in ,lister's early methods powerful spray-producing apparatus were used2 but while it is true that they do exist in the air1 it is found that this is not the principal source of infection4 ,there is no substance 7which has not been disinfected7 that is not covered with the germs of these little plants4 ,they exist in our food and drink2 but the intestine is1 one may say1 a natural home in which many exist without harm to the body4 ,for surgical purposes their existence is most important1 first1 in the earth1 where1 as ,i have already shown1 the bacillus of lockjaw is most frequently found4 ,so1 too1 the bacillus of wool-sorters' disease 7,anthrax7 exists in the earth4 ,if an animal dying of anthrax is buried1 worms coming from the carcass up through the ground carry the infection1 so that other animals grazing over this surface will become readily infected4 ,the means by which we can avoid infection from the earth is very evident1 viz41 every person who has been run over by the cars or who has fallen on the ground and broken his leg1 etc41 must have the wound most carefully cleansed from all dirt4 ,if this is scrupulously done the danger of tetanus or other similar earth-born bacterial disease is almost nothing4 ,a still greater danger to every patient1 however1 is found in the clothing1 in the skin1 and all dressings which are applied to wounds4 ,the skin is full of bacteria of the most dangerous kind2 even the spotless hands of the bride1 in the eyes of the surgeon1 are dirty4 ,no one can touch a wound with ordinarily clean hands without infecting it4 ,all clothing1 dressings--e4g41 lint and soft linen rags1 and such like--are full of bacteria of the most dangerous kind4 ,perhaps the most dangerous place is the space under the nails of the surgeon's hand1 for the mere mechanical removal of any dirt under the nails by cleansing them does not make them clean surgically4 ,the nails must be cut short and prepared in a way ,i shall mention directly1 or they are full of peril to any patient into whose wound a non-disinfected finger is introduced4 ,again1 another source of infection which thirty years ago we never thought of is our instruments4 ,then instruments were washed with soap and water and were made clean to the eye1 but they were still covered with invisible death-dealing bacteria which hid especially in the joints and irregularities of the surface of all instruments4 ,all of these somewhat detailed statements lead up to a consideration of the difference between the old surgery and the new4 ,thirty years ago when an operation was to be performed or an accident cared for we laid out our instruments which were visibly clean1 used them with hands which were as clean as those of any gentleman1 and applied soft linen rags1 lint1 and other dressings4 ,to-day we know that these apparently clean instruments1 hands1 and dressings are covered with bacteria1 which produce infection1 and1 therefore1 suppuration1 and frequently run riot in blood-poisoning1 erysipelas1 lockjaw1 and death4 ,how does a modern surgeon perform an operation8 ,all bacteria can be killed by heat4 ,cold has no effect upon them1 but the temperature of boiling water 7#bab ,fahr47 is sufficient to destroy them all usually within fifteen or twenty minutes2 hence1 first1 instruments are all boiled2 and1 secondly1 dressings are either steeped in such solutions as have been found to destroy the bacteria1 such as carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate1 or other preparations1 or1 still better1 are placed in sterilizers1 that is to say1 metal cylinders1 which are then filled with steam1 usually under pressure1 so as to obtain a temperature of #bdj ,fahr41 and thus make sure of the death of the bacteria4 ,unfortunately1 our hands cannot be boiled or steamed1 but the modern surgeon first uses soap and water most vigorously over his hands and arms up to the elbow4 ,the nails are cut short and the scrubbing-brush is especially applied to the nails so as to clean the fingers at the ends4 ,then by various means1 such as pure alcohol1 which is one of our best disinfectants1 or solutions of corrosive sublimate1 and other means too technical to mention1 the hands are sterilized4 ,rubber gloves are frequently used1 so as to preclude infection1 as they can be steamed to #bdj ,fahr4 ,removing at least his outer clothing1 the surgeon puts on a cotton gown which has been steamed and so made free from bacteria4 ,not a few surgeons also wear sterilized caps1 so that any bacteria in the hair will not be sifted into a wound1 and some wear respirators of sterile gauze over the mouth and beard for the same reason4 ,all the dressings have been sterilized by superheated steam4 ,all the threads by which blood-vessels are tied have been either boiled or otherwise sterilized4 ,all the material for sewing up the wounds1 and the needles with which they are sewn1 have been similarly disinfected4 ,the skin of the patient is also sterilized1 usually the day beforehand1 in the same manner in which the surgeon's hands have been disinfected1 and are disinfected a second time just at the moment of the operation4 ,if the case is one of accident1 such as a crushed leg from a trolley-car1 all of the dirt is most carefully washed away with soap and water1 and the parts are disinfected1 not only on the exterior1 but also by prolonged washing with some cleansing agent in the interior of the wound1 the patient being under the influence of ether1 of course4 ,it is easily seen from such a description of a modern operation that no case can receive due care in one of our modern homes1 even the best4 ,the facilities do not exist1 and hence surgeons are more and more declining to do operations1 whether for accident or disease1 in private houses1 except in a case of absolute necessity1 and a happy custom is growing more and more in favor with the community of having all operations and all accidents cared for in a well-equipped hospital4 ,,results ,,of ,,modern ,,surgery ,as the result of our ability to perform operations without pain1 thanks to ansthesia1 and our ability to perform operations without infection1 and1 therefore1 almost without danger1 thanks to antisepsis1 the range of modern surgery has been enormously increased4 ,unless one has lived through the old surgery and into the new he scarcely can appreciate this widening of the field of operative surgery4 ,thirty years ago1 in consequence of the great danger of opening the head1 the chest1 or the abdomen1 or1 in fact1 of making an incision anywhere about the body1 the surgeon never dared to interfere until he was obliged to do so4 ,hence1 not only were many modern operations not even thought of1 but in obscure cases we had to wait until time and disease developed symptoms and physical signs such that we were sure of our diagnosis1 and then1 knowing that death would follow if we did not interfere1 we ventured to operate4 ,now we anticipate such a fatal termination1 and in most cases can avert it4 ,in perhaps no class of cases has the benefit of this immunity from infection and danger been shown than in the obscure diseases of the brain and the abdomen4 ,to-day1 if we are uncertain as to whether there is serious danger going on which1 if unchecked1 will result in death1 we deliberately open the one cavity or the other1 in order to find out the exact state of affairs4 ,supposing that the mischief is trifling1 or even that there is no mischief1 we then know how to deal with the symptoms which have been puzzling us4 ,so far as the exploratory operation is concerned1 the patient recovers from it in a short time1 and1 meantime1 perhaps has also been cured of the symptoms which were before so ill understood4 ,if any serious disease is found1 in the majority of cases we can cope with it successfully4 ,before the days of antisepsis and ansthesia the field of operation was greatly restricted1 and practically the removal of tumors1 amputations1 and a few other operations were all that were done4 ,now all the then inaccessible organs are attacked with an intrepidity born of an assurance of safety4 ,recovery usually sets the seal of approval on the judgment of the surgeon4 ,thirty years ago1 taking all operations together1 fully one-third of our patients died1 many of them often from slight operations which were followed by infection4 ,to-day1 including even the far more grave operations which are now done1 the general mortality will scarcely exceed five per cent41 and many surgeons are able1 in a series of several hundred operations1 to save ninety-seven out of every hundred patients6 ,,serum ,,treatment ,another remarkable recent discovery1 the result of numerous and careful investigations in the laboratory1 is a wholly new means of treatment1 viz41 that method which is known as orrhotherapy1 or serumtherapy1 or the treatment by injecting certain antitoxins under the skin by a hypodermatic syringe4 ,it would lead me too far to enter into the theory upon which these were first used4 ,suffice it to say that in the blood of an animal that has passed through a certain disorder the liquid part of the blood contains an antidote or antitoxin4 ,if a certain amount of this is injected under the skin of an animal or man suffering from the same disorder in its incipient stages1 the antitoxin prevents the development of the disease4 ,the use of this method has thus far been much more medical than surgical1 and its results in diphtheria and other medical disorders have been perfectly marvellous4 ,in surgery1 however1 less favorable results have been obtained1 but in all probability in the future we shall be able to do for some of our surgical disorders what the physician can do to-day for diphtheria4 ,for the results in diphtheria1 see ,professor ,osler's paper4 ,there has also been discovered another means which in surgery has rendered some valuable service4 ,from certain organs1 as1 for instance1 the thyroid gland 7the gland whose enlargement produces goitre71 we can obtain a very potent extract of great value4 ,in cases of goitre very noteworthy results have already been obtained by the administration of the thyroid extract4 ,a number of other organs in the body of animals have been used to combat certain disorders in the human body with advantage4 ,the chief development of both of these new forms of medication1 however1 will take place in the twentieth century4 ,,instruments ,,of ,,precision ,another direction in which the century has seen enormous progress is in the introduction of instruments of precision4 ,when ,i was a student in the early #fj's1 instruction in microscopy was conspicuous only by its absence from our medical curriculum4 ,now every student who graduates is more or less of an accomplished microscopist1 and carries into his practice the methods and observations which the microscope furnishes4 ,at the same period ,i remember being greatly interested in a discussion which two of my teachers had as to whether it was possible to make an application accurately to the vocal chords in the larynx4 ,now every tyro in medicine makes such applications to the larynx as a routine procedure in cases requiring it1 and similar methods have been applied by the ophthalmoscope to examine the interior of the eye2 the rhinoscope1 to examine the interior of the nose2 the otoscope1 for examination of the ear2 and other similar instruments for examining all the other hollow organs in the body4 ,if ,i add to these the hypodermatic syringe2 the aspirator1 which may be described as a large hypodermatic syringe for suction instead of injection2 the clinical thermometer1 which was introduced in the late #fj's2 the hemostatic forceps1 for controlling hemorrhage by seizing the blood-vessels and clamping them till we have time to tie them2 and other instruments intended to facilitate our operative methods1 it will be seen at once that the armamentarium of the modern surgeon is very different from that of his predecessor at the beginning1 or even at the middle1 of the century4 ,,the ,r,,ntgen ,,ray ,one of those extraordinary discoveries which startle the whole world came nearly at the end of the nineteenth century1 in the winter of #ahie-if4 ,at that time a modest professor in the ,university of ,wrzburg announced that he could readily see the skeleton inside the body through the flesh6 ,naturally1 the first announcement was received with almost absolute incredulity2 but very soon his discovery was confirmed from all sides1 and it has now taken its place among the recognized phenomena of science4 ,by means of certain rays1 which1 being of unknown nature1 were called 8,x0-rays1 after the well-known mathematical ,x1 or unknown quantity1 ,professor ,rntgen has shown us that not only can the bones be seen1 but that almost every substance in the body can be seen and reproduced in pictures4 ,the reason for this is because they are all obstacles to the passage of these ,x-rays and so produce shadows on a sensitized photographic plate4 ,if the exposure is sufficiently prolonged the rays penetrate even through the bones and act upon the photographic plate1 so that no shadow remains4 ,if the rays are allowed to penetrate for a shorter time the bones show dense shadows1 and one can get a light shadow of the soft parts4 ,if the exposure is still shorter1 then we can recognize the dense shadow of the bone1 the much less dense shadows of the muscles1 and the still lighter shadows of the layer of fat immediately under the skin4 ,the heart can be seen beating1 and its shadow is now a well-recognized feature in skiagraphs of the chest4 ,at first it was thought impossible to discover anything inside the bony skull1 but there are now on record nearly a score of instances in which bullets have been detected within the skull1 and after trephining have been found and removed exactly at the location indicated4 ,it is a very common thing now to locate a piece of steel or other similar foreign bodies within the eyeball by the method of ,dr4 ,sweet1 or some similar method1 within one or two millimetres 7a millimetre is one-twenty-fifth of an inch74 ,it is now well recognized that even stones in the kidney will throw shadows sufficiently strong for them to be recognized1 and by noting their level in relation to the vertebr we can tell precisely in what part of the kidney to make the incision in order to find and remove them4 ,it has happened to myself and many other surgeons in the past to cut down upon a kidney1 believing that there was a stone in the kidney1 only to find that we had been misled by the apparently clear symptoms of such a foreign body4 ,in future no such mistake should be made by any surgeon within reach of a skilful skiagrapher4 ,unfortunately1 gall stones and numerous other foreign bodies1 vegetable substances such as beans1 corn1 wood1 etc41 being as transparent to the ,x-rays as are the soft parts1 are not revealed by means of this new method of investigation2 but cavities in the lung1 abscesses in bone1 and similar diseases which produce thinning of the lung1 bone1 and other such organs1 and so lighten instead of deepen the shadows1 can now be recognized by means of light spots in the pictures as well as others by means of a shadow4 ,i spoke a moment ago of the need of a 8skilful0 skiagrapher1 for it must be remembered that there may be the same difference in the personal skill1 and1 therefore1 in the reliability of the results in skiagraphy as there is in photography4 ,a poor photographer will get very different results from a skilful one1 even if he uses precisely the same quality of plates and precisely the same camera4 ,personal skill and experience in the skiagrapher is1 therefore1 one of the most important elements in success4 ,it must be remembered also that the ,x-rays in not a few cases may mislead us4 ,i have1 personally1 fractured a bone on account of deformity1 taken an ,x-ray picture immediately after the operation1 the picture showing not the slightest evidence of a fracture1 which ,i absolutely knew existed4 ,moreover1 foreign bodies found on the outside of the person may mislead us1 as1 for example1 the metal part of suspenders1 a coin in one's pocket1 and such like4 ,they look in the picture as if they were inside rather than outside the body1 and any article the shape or size of which would not reveal its nature might easily be mistaken for a foreign body within the patient4 ,therefore1 in many cases only an expert can determine precisely what the skiagraph means4 ,i especially mention this1 because there is a tendency at present to utilize skiagraphs in court in order to convince the jury that such a picture is an evidence of malpractice4 ,such pictures always need an interpreter in order to judge correctly of their meaning4 ,it is precisely as if the jury were asked to look through a microscope4 ,i have been myself accustomed to use the microscope for thirty years1 but there are many instances even yet in which ,i am obliged to ask a pathologist or bacteriologist what ,i really am looking at in the microscope4 ,while one may make a mistake of small moment in some cases1 yet if a man's life or liberty or purse is at the mercy of a jury which does not know how to interpret a skiagraph1 and1 may1 therefore1 give a verdict which is 8precisely wrong10 as ,professor ,lincoln1 my old teacher of ,latin1 used to call many of our translations1 it will be a very serious matter and lead to gross injustice4 ,,city ,,and ,,village ,,hospitals ,another great improvement in our means of caring for our surgical patients is the establishment of hospitals all over the land4 ,these1 happily1 are not limited to our great cities1 but in every country town and not a few large villages small but well-equipped and well-managed hospitals have been established which have done incalculable good4 ,it is not too much to say that every city or town establishing such a hospital is repaid a hundredfold4 ,,trained ,,nurses ,the trained nurse has fortunately come to stay4 ,in fact1 our antiseptic methods as above described have made the trained nurse indispensable4 ,the old nurse1 who1 by many clumsy experiments on her patients1 had obtained a certain rule-of-thumb knowledge of the care of the sick1 can no longer assist in a surgical operation or properly care for any surgical patient4 ,the modern nurse must of necessity be a well-educated1 well-trained woman1 knowing thoroughly modern antiseptic methods1 and on the alert to observe every symptom of improvement and every signal of danger4 ,without a well-trained nurse it is impossible at the present day properly to care for any serious surgical case1 and ,i gladly bear witness to the intelligence1 fidelity1 and skill of scores of nurses who have assisted me1 and without whom ,i should have felt as one blade of a scissors without its fellow4 ,,special ,,operations ,amputations and ,compound ,fractures4--,having now traced the different modes of thought which have aided surgical progress in the nineteenth century and the improved means of investigation1 let us turn finally to the progress in individual operations4 ,as to amputations and compound fractures1 ,i have already indicated the immense improvements which have followed the introduction of ansthesia1 and especially of antisepsis1 which have brought the mortality of amputations down from fifty or sixty per cent4 to ten or fifteen per cent41 and in compound fractures1 once so dreaded1 since the mortality was not infrequently as high as two out of three1 to a relatively insignificant danger4 ,tumors4--,in no department1 perhaps1 has the introduction of antisepsis1 and the use of catgut and silk ligatures after the antiseptic method1 brought about a greater improvement than in operations for tumors4 ,the startling reluctance of ,sir ,astley ,cooper to operate on ,king ,george ,,iv4 for so simple and small a tumor as a wen1 lest erysipelas might follow and even destroy his life1 is in marked contrast with the success and therefore the boldness of modern surgeons4 ,tumors in all parts of the body1 whether they be external or internal1 whether they involve the wall of the chest or are inside the abdomen1 are now removed with almost perfect safety4 ,ansthesia has made it possible to dissect out tumors in so dangerous a region as the neck1 where the surgeon is confronted with adhesions to the jugular vein1 the carotid artery1 and the nerves of the neck and of the arm1 with the greatest impunity4 ,such an operation not uncommonly lasts from three-quarters of an hour to an hour and a half1 and involves often the removal of two or three inches of the jugular vein and many of the large nerves1 the removal of which a few years ago would have been deemed an impossibility4 ,goitre4--,one of the most striking instances of progress is operations on goitre4 ,writing in #ahgf1 the late ,professor ,samuel ,d4 ,gross noted it as something remarkable that ,dr4 ,green1 of ,portland1 ,maine1 had removed seven goitres with two deaths1 and the late ,dr4 ,maury1 of ,philadelphia1 had extirpated two goitres with one death4 ,in marked contrast to this ,professor ,kocher1 of ,berne1 in #ahie1 reported one thousand cases1 of which eight hundred and seventy were non-cancerous1 and he lost of these last but eleven cases1 or a little over one per cent4 ,in #ahih he reported six hundred additional cases1 with only one death in the five hundred and fifty-six non-cancerous cases1 or a mortality of only #j4a per cent4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that an operation which a few years ago was excessively fatal has become almost1 one might say1 a perfectly safe operation4 ,surgery of the ,bones4--,operations on bones1 apart from amputations1 show also a similar improvement4 ,in cases of deformity following fracture we now do not hesitate to cut down upon the bone and refracture it or remove the deformed portion1 join the ends together1 dress the part in plaster of ,paris to secure fixation1 and have the patient recover with little or no fever and no suppuration4 ,above the elbow a large nerve runs in a furrow in the arm bone1 and in case of fracture this is liable to be torn and a portion of it destroyed4 ,the result of it is paralysis of all the muscles on the back of the forearm from the elbow down and consequent inability to extend either wrist or fingers1 making the hand almost useless4 ,in a number of cases the nerve has been sought for and found1 but the ends have been too far apart for successful union and sewing them together4 ,in such cases we do not hesitate now1 in order to bring the two ends of the nerve together1 to remove one or two inches of the arm bone1 wire the shortened bone1 sew the now approximated ends of the nerve together1 put the arm in plaster1 and as soon as the wound is healed1 with appropriate later treatment to the muscles we can obtain in a reasonable number of cases a perfect1 or almost perfect1 union of the nerves with a re-establishment of the usefulness of the hand4 ,in very many cases the bones are deformed as a result of rickets1 and in some cases in consequence of hip-joint disease4 ,in such cases the leg is crooked or flexed1 and cannot be used for walking4 ,such cases of stiff joints and crooked legs are now operated on1 one might say1 wholesale4 ,at the ,international ,medical ,congress1 held in ,copenhagen in #ahhd1 ,professor ,macewen1 of ,glasgow1 reported #ahjj operations on #abfg limbs in #gjd patients1 in which he had sawn or chiselled through the bones so as to fracture them1 placed them in a straight position1 and after a few weeks the bone has become consolidated and the leg or arm made straight4 ,every one of these operations was successful1 excepting five cases1 and even these deaths were not due to the operation1 but to some other disorder1 such as an unexpected attack of pneumonia1 diphtheria1 or scarlet fever4 ,surgery of the ,head and ,brain4--,in the surgery of the head we find one of the most remarkable illustrations of the modern progress of surgery4 ,fractures of the skull have been the most dangerous and fatal of accidents until within a short time4 ,of course1 many of them must necessarily1 even now1 be fatal1 from the widespread injury to the bones and the brain4 ,but our modern methods1 by which we can disinfect the cavities of the ear1 the nose1 and the mouth1 with which these fractures often communicate1 and through these avenues become infected1 are so successful that such cases1 instead of being looked upon as hopeless1 are in a majority of instances followed by recovery4 ,even gun-shot wounds1 in which the ball may remain inside the cavity of the head1 are successfully dealt with1 unless the injury produced by the ball has been necessarily fatal from the start4 ,fluhrer1 of ,new ,york1 has reported a very remarkable case of gun-shot wound1 in which the ball entered at the forehead1 traversed the entire brain1 was deflected at the back of the skull1 and then pursued its course farther downward in the brain4 ,by trephining the skull at the back he found the ball1 passed a rubber drainage tube through the entire brain from front to back1 and had the satisfaction of seeing the patient recover4 ,until #ahhd it was excessively difficult to locate with any degree of accuracy a tumor within the brain1 but in that year ,dr4 ,bennett1 of ,london1 for the first time accurately located a tumor within the skull without there being the slightest evidence on the exterior of its existence1 much less of its location4 ,mr4 ,godlee 7surgeons in ,england are not called 8,dr410 but 8,mr407 trephined the skull at the point indicated1 found the tumor1 and removed it4 ,true1 this patient died1 but the possibility of accurately locating a tumor of the brain1 reaching it and removing it1 was now demonstrated1 which is far more important to humanity at large than whether this individual patient survived or not4 ,since then there have been a very large number of tumors successfully removed4 ,the latest statistics are those of ,von ,bergmann1 of ,berlin1 in #ahih4 ,he collected #bgc operations for brain tumors1 of which #afi 7#fa4i per cent47 recovered1 and #ajd 7#ch4a per cent47 died4 ,this is by far the best percentage of results so far reported1 but there is reason to believe that with the constant improvement in our ability to locate such tumors and in our methods of removing them1 the mortality rate will be still further lessened4 ,even more successful than the surgery of brain tumors has been the surgery of abscess of the brain4 ,i have no available statistics of the exact numbers1 but it is certain that several hundred have been operated on1 and with even better success than in the case of brain tumors4 ,the most frequent cause for such abscesses is old and neglected disease of the ear4 ,no child suffering from a 8running from the ear10 which is especially apt to follow scarlet fever and other similar disorders1 should be allowed to pass from under the most skilled treatment until a cure is effected4 ,this is the commonest cause of abscess of the brain4 ,the inflammation in the ear1 which begins in the soft lining of the cavities of the ear1 finally extends to the bone1 and after years of intermittent discharge1 will suddenly develop an abscess of the brain1 which1 if not relieved1 will certainly be fatal4 ,prompt surgical interference alone can save life1 and1 happily1 though we cannot promise recovery in all1 a very large percentage of success is assured4 ,in epilepsy1 as a result of injuries of the head1 in a moderate number of cases1 we can obtain a cure of the disease by operation1 but in the great majority of cases1 and1 one may say1 practically in all of the cases in which the epilepsy originates 8of itself10 that is to say1 without any known cause1 it is useless to operate1 certainly at least after the epileptic habit has been formed4 ,possibly were operation done at the very beginning we might obtain better results than experience thus far has shown us is possible4 ,very many cases of idiocy are constantly brought to surgeons in the hope that something can be done for these lamentable children4 ,unfortunately1 at present surgery holds out but little hope in such cases4 ,in a few exceptional instances it may be best to operate1 but a prudent surgeon will decline to do any operation in the vast majority of cases4 ,surgery of the ,chest and ,heart4--,the chest is the region of the body which has shown the least progress of all1 and yet even here the progress is very marked4 ,when1 as a result of pleurisy1 fluid accumulates on one side of the chest1 even displacing the heart1 we now do not hesitate to remove an inch or two of one or more ribs and thoroughly drain the cavity1 with not only a reasonable1 but in a majority of cases1 one may almost say1 a certain1 prospect of cure4 ,we have also entered upon the road which will lead us in time to a secure surgery of the lung itself4 ,a few cases of abscess1 of serious gun-shot wound1 attended by otherwise fatal hemorrhage1 and even of tubercular cavities in the lungs have been successfully dealt with1 but the twentieth century will see1 ,i have no doubt1 brilliant results in thoracic surgery4 ,one of the most striking injuries of the chest has recently assumed a new importance1 viz41 wounds of the heart itself4 ,in several instances an opening has been made in the bony and muscular walls of the chest1 and a wound of the heart itself has been sewed up4 ,the number is as yet small1 but there have been several recoveries1 which lead us to believe that here1 too1 the limits of surgery have by no means been reached4 ,surgery of the ,abdomen4--,of the abdomen and the pelvis a very different story can be told4 ,these cavities might almost be called the playground of the surgeon1 and the remarkable results which have been obtained warrant us in believing that even greater results are in store for us in the future4 ,in the earlier part of this article ,i spoke of the advantages of the study of the pathological anatomy or the diseased condition of individual organs4 ,perhaps no better illustration of the value of this can be given than in the studies of appendicitis4 ,this operation has been one of the contributions to the surgery of the world in which ,america has been foremost4 ,while there were one or two earlier papers1 ,willard ,parker1 of ,new ,york1 in #ahfg1 first made the profession listen to him when he urged that abscesses appearing above the right groin should be operated on and the patient's life saved4 ,but it was not until ,fitz1 of ,boston1 in #ahhh1 published his paper1 in which he pointed out1 as a result of a study of a series of post-mortem examinations of persons dying from such an abscess above the right groin1 that the appendix was the seat of the trouble1 that this so frequent disease was rightly understood and rightly treated4 ,as a result of the facts gathered in his paper1 the treatment was perfectly clear1 not only that we ought to operate in cases of abscess1 but that in the case of patients suffering from two or more attacks1 and often from even one attack of appendicitis1 the appendix should be removed to prevent such abscess4 ,the mortality in cases in which such an abscess has formed is1 perhaps1 quite twenty or twenty-five per cent41 whereas1 if patients are operated on 8in the interval10 that is to say1 between attacks1 when the abdominal cavity is free from pus1 the mortality is scarcely more than two or three per cent41 and may be even less than that4 ,surgeons are often asked whether appendicitis is not a fad1 and whether our grandfathers ever had appendicitis1 etc4 ,as a matter of fact1 in my early professional days1 appendicitis was well known4 ,it was called 8localized peritonitis0 or localized 8abscess10 but while the disease was very frequent1 its relation to the appendix was not recognized until from his study of its pathology an ,american pointed it out4 ,even now ,european surgeons1 with a few exceptions1 are not alive to the need for operation in such cases4 ,there is little doubt that the great prevalence of grippe during the last few years has increased the number of cases of appendicitis1 both of them being catarrhal conditions of the lining membrane of the same continuous tract of the lungs1 the mouth1 the stomach1 and the intestines4 ,one of the most fatal accidents that can befall a patient is to have an ulcer of the stomach perforate so that the contents of the stomach escape into the general abdominal cavity4 ,until #ahhe no one ventured to operate in such a case4 ,in an inaugural dissertation by ,tinker1 of ,philadelphia1 two hundred and thirty-two cases of such perforating ulcers of the stomach were reported1 of which one hundred and twenty-three recovered1 a mortality of #dh4ha per cent4 ,in not a few of them1 if prompt instead of late surgical help had been invoked1 a very different result would have been reported4 ,if no operation had been done1 the mortality would have been one hundred per cent4 ,in cancer of the stomach itself we are able1 as a rule1 to make a positive diagnosis only when a perceptible tumor is found4 ,by that time so many adhesions have formed1 and the infection has involved the neighboring glands to such an extent1 that it is impossible to remove the tumor1 but the statistics even here are not without encouragement1 at least for comfort if not for life4 ,in many cases the tumor has been removed and the stomach and intestine joined together by various devices1 and the mortality1 which is necessarily great1 has been reduced by ,czerny to twelve per cent4 and by ,carle to seven per cent4 ,even the entire stomach has been removed in several cases1 and recovery has followed in about one-half4 ,most of these patients1 however1 have died from a return of the disease4 ,when1 as a result of swallowing caustic lye or other similar substances1 the gullet 7the sophagus7 becomes contracted to such an extent that no food can be swallowed1 we now establish an opening into the stomach through which a tube is inserted at meal-time1 and the patient has his breakfast1 dinner1 and supper poured into his stomach through the tube4 ,if the stricture of the sophagus is from malignant disease1 of course this only prolongs life by preventing a horrible death by starvation1 but in cases in which it is non-malignant life is indefinitely prolonged4 ,the mortality of such an operation is very small4 ,by a freak of nature or by disease the stomach sometimes is narrowed in the middle1 forming what is called an 8hour-glass stomach40 ,in such a case we open the abdomen1 make an opening into the two parts of the stomach and unite the two so that we re-establish the single cavity of the stomach4 ,the mortality of the operation is very slight1 eight per cent4 ,again1 sometimes the stomach becomes unduly dilated1 thus interfering seriously with its function4 ,a number of surgeons in such cases have simply folded over the wall of the stomach upon itself and have sewed the two layers together1 taking a plait or 8tuck0 in the stomach wall1 and have restored it to its normal capacity and function4 ,one of the most important advances has been made in the treatment of gall stones4 ,the bile in the gall bladder is in a state of quiescence1 which is favorable to a deposit of crystals from the bile4 ,these crystals become agglutinated together into larger or smaller solid masses called gall stones4 ,sometimes the number of these is very small1 from one to four or five2 sometimes they accumulate in enormous numbers1 several hundreds having been reported in a number of instances4 ,when they are small they can escape through the duct of the gall bladder into the bowel and create no disturbance1 but when they are large1 so that they cannot make their escape1 they not uncommonly are causes not only of serious discomfort and prolonged ill-health1 but often prove fatal4 ,nowadays one of the safest operations of surgery is to open the abdomen and the gall bladder and remove this menace to life1 and the great majority of such patients recover without any untoward symptoms4 ,even large abscesses of the liver1 and1 what is still more extraordinary1 large tumors of the liver1 are now removed successfully4 ,a year ago all of the reported cases of tumor of the liver were collected which had been operated from #ahhh to #ahih1 seventy-six in all4 ,the termination in two cases was unknown1 but of the other seventy-four1 sixty-three recovered and eleven died1 a mortality of only #ad4i per cent4 ,the surgery of the intestines by itself is a subject which could well occupy the entire space allowed to this article4 ,i can only1 in a very superficial way1 outline what has been done4 ,hernia or rupture is a condition in which through an opening in the abdominal wall a loop of the bowel escapes4 ,if it can be replaced and kept within the abdomen by a suitable truss this was the best we could do till within the last ten or fifteen years4 ,the safety and the painlessness of modern surgery which have resulted from the introduction of ansthesia and antisepsis are such that now no person suffering from such a hernia1 unless for some special personal reason1 should be allowed to rely upon a truss1 which is always a more or less treacherous means of retaining the hernia4 ,we operate on all such cases now with impunity4 ,coley has recently reported a series of six hundred and thirty-nine cases1 all of which recovered with the exception of one patient4 ,even in children1 if a truss worn for a reasonable time1 a year or so1 does not cure the rupture1 operation affords an admirable prospect of cure4 ,every now and then a band forms inside the abdomen1 stretching like a string across the cavity4 ,if a loop of bowel slips under such a band1 it can be easily understood that total arrest of the intestinal contents ensues1 a condition incompatible with life4 ,there are other causes for such 8intestinal obstruction10 which are too technical to be described in detail1 but this may be taken as a type of all4 ,it is impossible1 of course1 to tell before opening the abdomen precisely the cause of the obstruction1 but the fact is quickly determined in most cases4 ,if we open the abdomen promptly1 we can cut such a band or remove the other causes of obstruction in the majority of cases1 and if the operation has not been too long delayed1 the prospect of entire recovery is good4 ,the mortality which has followed such operations has been considerable1 and by that ,i mean1 say1 over twenty per cent41 but a very large number of the fatal cases have been lost because the operation has been delayed4 ,in fact1 it may be stated very positively that the mere opening of the abdomen to find out precisely the nature of any disease or injury is attended with but little danger4 ,if further surgical interference is required1 the danger will be increased proportionately to the extent and gravity of such interference4 ,but 8exploratory operations10 as we call them1 are now undertaken constantly with almost uniform success4 ,even in cancer of the bowel1 we can prolong life1 if we cannot save it4 ,cancer of the bowel sooner or later produces 8obstruction0 and so destroys life1 but in such cases we can either make a permanent opening in the bowel above the cancer1 and so relieve the constant pain and distress which is caused by the obstruction1 or1 in a great many cases1 we make an opening in the bowel above the cancer1 and another below it1 and1 by uniting the two openings1 if ,i may so express it1 8side-track0 the contents of the bowel4 ,if the cancer has no adhesions and the patient's condition allows of it1 we can cut out the entire portion of the bowel containing the cancer1 unite the two ends1 and thus re-establish the continuity of the intestinal canal4 ,as much as eight feet1 nearly one-third of the entire length of the bowel1 have been removed by ,shepherd1 of ,montreal1 and yet the patient recovered and lived a healthy life4 ,similarly in gun-shot wounds1 stab wounds1 etc41 involving the intestine1 the modern surgeon does not simply stand by with folded hands and give opium and morphine to make the patient's last few hours or days relatively comfortable1 but he opens the abdomen1 finds the various perforations1 closes them1 and recovery has followed even in cases in which as many as seventeen wounds of the intestine have been produced by a gun-shot wound4 ,the kidney1 until thirty years ago1 was deemed almost beyond our reach1 but now entire volumes have been written on the surgery of the kidney1 and it is1 one might say1 a frequent occurrence to see the kidney exposed1 sewed fast if it is loose1 opened to remove a stone in its interior1 drained if there be an abscess1 or1 if it be hopelessly diseased1 it is removed in its entirety4 ,the other kidney1 if not diseased1 becomes equal to the work of both4 ,of the pelvic organs1 it would not be becoming to speak in detail1 but one operation ,i can scarcely omit3 namely1 ovariotomy4 ,one of my old teachers was ,washington ,l4 ,atlee1 who1 with his brother1 was among the first ovariotomists in this country who placed the operation on a firm foundation4 ,i heard a very distinguished physician in #ahfb1 in a lecture to his medical class1 denounce such men as 8murderers02 but to-day how differently does the entire profession look upon the operation6 ,instead of condemning the surgeon because he did remove such a tumor1 the profession would condemn him because he did not remove it4 ,the operation had its rise in ,america4 ,ephraim ,mc,dowell1 of ,kentucky1 in #ahji1 first did the operation which now reflects so much credit upon modern surgery4 ,the mortality of the ,atlees was about one in three4 ,now1 owing to the immense improvement introduced by the antiseptic methods1 the deaths1 in competent hands1 are not over five per cent41 or even three per cent4 ,the limits of this article compel me to stop with the story very imperfectly told1 but yet1 perhaps1 it has been sufficient in detail to show somewhat of the astonishing progress of surgery within the century1 but especially within the last quarter of the century4 ,about two decades ago one of the foremost surgeons of ,london1 ,mr4 ,erichsen1 said1 in a public address1 that 8surgery had reached its limits40 ,how short was his vision is shown by the fact that surgery at that time was just at the beginning of its most brilliant modern chapter4 ,we have reached1 in many respects1 apparently1 the limits of our success1 but just as ansthesia and antisepsis and the ,rntgen rays have opened new fields wholly unsuspected until they were proclaimed1 so ,i have no doubt that the twentieth century will see means and methods devised which will put to shame the surgery of to-day as much as the surgery of to-day puts to shame that of thirty years ago1 and still more of a century ago4 ,the methods by which this will be attained will be by the more thorough and systematic study of disease and injury1 so as to better our means of diagnosis1 and so prepare us for immediate surgical interference1 instead of delaying it1 as we now do in many cases1 for want of certain knowledge2 by the use of new chemical and pharmaceutical means to perfect our antisepsis and possibly to introduce other methods of treatment2 but1 above all1 we shall obtain progress by the exact experimental methods of the laboratory4 ,we can never make progress except by trying new methods4 ,new methods must be tried either on man or on animals1 and as the former is not allowable1 the only way remaining to us is to test all new methods1 drugs1 and applications first upon animals4 ,he who restricts1 and1 still more1 he who would abolish our present experiments upon animals1 is1 in my opinion1 the worst foe to the human race1 and to animals1 as well1 for they1 as well as human beings1 obtain the benefit derived from the method4 ,he may prate of his humanity1 but he is the most cruel man alive4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,keen4 ,,electricity ,the great importance which electricity has attained in many departments of human activity is so constantly evident that we have difficulty in realizing how short is the time which has been occupied in its development4 ,the latter half of the nineteenth century must ever remain memorable1 not only for the great advances in nearly all the useful arts1 but for the peculiarly rapid electric progress1 and the profound effect which it has had upon the lives and business of the people4 ,in the preceding century we find no evidences of the application of electricity to any useful purpose4 ,few of the more important principles of the science were then known4 ,franklin's invention of the lightning-rod was not intended to utilize electric force1 but to guard life and property from the perils of the thunder-storm4 ,the numerous instructive experiments in frictional electricity1 the first-known form of electric manifestation except lightning1 made clear certain principles1 such as conduction and insulation1 and served to distinguish the two opposite electric conditions known as positive and negative4 ,franklin's kite experiment confirmed the long-suspected identity of lightning and electric sparks4 ,it was not1 however1 until the discovery by ,alexander ,volta1 in #agii1 of his pile1 or battery1 that electricity could take its place as an agent of practical value4 ,volta1 when he made this great discovery1 was following the work of ,galvani1 begun in #aghf4 ,but ,galvani in his experiments mistook the effect for the cause1 and so missed making the unique demonstration that two different metals immersed in a solution could set up an electric current4 ,volta1 a professor in the ,university of ,pavia and a foreign member of the ,royal ,society of ,england1 communicated his discovery to the president of the society in ,march1 #ahjj1 and brought to the notice of the world the first means for obtaining a steady flow of electricity4 ,before this event electric energy had been known to the experimenter in pretty effects of attraction and repulsion of light objects1 in fitful flashes of insignificant power1 or1 as it appeared in nature1 in the fearful bursts of energy during a thunder-storm1 uncontrolled and erratic4 ,the analogous and closely related phenomena of magnetism had already found an important application in the navigator's compass4 ,the simplest facts of electro-magnetism1 upon which much of the later electrical developments depend1 remained entirely unknown until near the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century4 ,magnetism itself1 as exemplified in loadstone or in magnetized iron or steel1 had long before been consistently studied by ,dr4 ,gilbert1 of ,colchester1 ,england1 and in #afjj his great work1 ,de ,magnete1 was published4 ,it is a first example1 and an excellent one1 too1 of the application of the inductive method1 so fruitful in after-years4 ,the restraints which a superstitious age had imposed upon nature study were gradually removed1 and at the beginning of the century just past occasional decided encouragement began to be given to physical research4 ,it was this condition which put into the hands of ,humphry ,davy1 of the ,royal ,institution1 in ,london1 at the opening of the century1 a voltaic battery of some #bej pairs of plates4 ,with this a remarkably fruitful era of electric discovery began4 ,in #ahjb ,davy first showed the electric arc or 8arch0 on a small scale between pieces of carbon4 ,he also laid the foundation for future electro-chemical work by decomposing by the battery current potash and soda1 and thus isolating the alkali metals1 potassium and sodium1 for the first time4 ,this was in #ahjg1 and the result was not only to greatly advance the youthful science of chemistry1 but to attract the attention of the world to a new power in the hands of the scientific worker1 electric current4 ,a fund was soon subscribed by 8a few zealous cultivators and patrons of science10 interested in the discovery of ,davy1 and he had at his service in #ahja no less than #bjjj cells of voltaic battery4 ,with the intense currents obtained from it he again demonstrated the wonderful and brilliant phenomenon of the electric arc1 by first closing the circuit of the battery through terminals of hardwood charcoal and then separating them for a short distance4 ,a magnificent arch of flame was maintained between the separated ends1 and the light from the charcoal pieces was of dazzling splendor4 ,thus was born into the world the electric arc light1 of which there are now many hundreds of thousands burning nightly in our own country alone4 ,davy probably never imagined that his brilliant experiment would soon play so important a part in the future lighting of the world4 ,he may never have regarded it as of any practical value4 ,in fact1 many years elapsed before any further attempt was made to utilize the light of the electric arc4 ,the reason for this is not difficult to discover4 ,the batteries in existence were crude and gave only their full power for a very short time after the circuit was closed4 ,they were subject to the very serious defect of rapid polarization1 whereby the activity was at once reduced4 ,a long period elapsed before this defect was removed4 ,davy in his experiments had also noted the very intense heat of the electric arc1 and found that but few substances escaped fusion or volatilization when placed in the heated stream between the carbon electrodes4 ,here again he was pioneer in very important and quite recent electric work1 employing the electric furnace1 which has already given rise to several new and valuable industries4 ,the conduction of electricity along wires naturally led to efforts to employ it in signalling4 ,as early as #aggd attempts were made by ,le ,sage1 of ,geneva1 to apply frictional electricity to telegraphy4 ,his work was followed before the close of the century by other similar proposals4 ,volta's discovery soon gave a renewed impetus to these efforts4 ,it was easy enough to stop and start a current in a line of wire connecting two points1 but something more than that was requisite4 ,a good receiver1 or means for recognizing the presence or absence of current in the wire or circuit1 did not exist4 ,the art had to wait for the discovery of the effects of electric current upon magnets and the production of magnetism by such currents4 ,curiously1 even in #ahjb the fact that a wire conveying a current would deflect a compass needle was observed by ,romagnosi1 of ,trente1 but it was afterwards forgotten1 and not until #ahai was any real advance made4 ,it was then that ,oersted1 of ,copenhagen1 showed that a magnet tends to set itself at right angles to the wire conveying current and that the direction of turning depends on the direction of the current4 ,the study of the magnetic effects of electric currents by ,arago1 ,ampre1 and the production of the electro-magnet by ,sturgeon1 together with the very valuable work of ,henry and others1 made possible the completion of the electric telegraph4 ,this was done by ,morse and ,vail in ,america1 and almost simultaneously by workers abroad1 but1 before ,morse had entered the field1 ,professor ,joseph ,henry had exemplified by experiments the working of electric signalling by electro-magnets over a short line4 ,it was ,henry1 in fact1 who first made a practically useful electro-magnet of soft iron4 ,the history of the electric telegraph teaches us that to no single individual is the invention due4 ,the ,morse system had been demonstrated in #ahcg1 but not until #ahdd was the first telegraph line built4 ,it connected ,baltimore and ,washington1 and the funds for defraying its cost were only obtained from ,congress after a severe struggle4 ,this can easily be understood1 for electricity had not up to that time ever been shown to have any practical usefulness4 ,the success of the ,morse telegraph was soon followed by the establishment of telegraph lines as a means of communication between all the large cities and populous districts4 ,scarcely ten years elapsed before the possibility of a transatlantic telegraph was mooted4 ,the cable laid in #aheh was a failure4 ,a few words passed1 and then the cable broke down completely4 ,this was found to be due to defects in construction4 ,a renewed effort to lay a cable was made in #ahff1 but disappointment again followed3 the cable broke in mid-ocean and the work again ceased4 ,the great task was successfully accomplished in the following year1 and the pluck and pertinacity of those who were staking their capital1 if not their reputations for business sagacity1 were amply rewarded4 ,even the lost cable of #ahff was found1 spliced to a new cable1 and completed soon after as a second working line4 ,the delicate instruments for the working of these long cables were due to the genius of ,sir ,william ,thomson1 now ,lord ,kelvin1 whose other instruments for electrical measurement have for years been a great factor in securing precision both in scientific and practical testing4 ,the number of cables joining the ,eastern and ,western hemispheres has been increased from time to time1 and the opening of a new cable is now an ordinary occurrence1 calling for little or no especial note4 ,the introduction of the electric telegraph was followed by the invention of various signalling systems1 the most important being the fire-alarm telegraph1 as suggested by ,channing and worked out by ,farmer4 ,we now1 also1 have automatic clock systems1 in which a master clock controls or gives movement to the hands of distant clock dials by electric currents sent out over the connecting or circuit wires4 ,automatic electric signals are made when fire breaks out in a building1 and alarms are similarly rung when a burglar breaks in4 ,not only do we have telegraphs which print words and characters1 as in the stock 8ticker10 but in the form known as the telautograph1 invented by ,dr4 ,elisha ,gray1 the sender writes his message1 which writing is at the same time being reproduced at the receiving end of the line4 ,even pictures for drawings are 8wired0 by special instruments4 ,the desirability of making one wire connecting two points do a large amount of work1 and thus avoiding the addition of new lines1 has led to two remarkable developments of telegraphy4 ,in the duplex1 quadruplex1 and multiplex systems several messages may at the same time be traversing a single wire line without interference one with the other4 ,in the rapid automatic systems the working capacity of the line is increased by special automatic transmitting machines and rapid recorders1 and the electric impulses in the line itself follow each other with great speed4 ,improvement in this field has by no means ceased1 and new systems for rapid transmission are yet being worked out4 ,the object is to enlarge the carrying capacity of existing lines connecting large centres of population4 ,the names of ,wheatstone1 ,stearns1 ,edison1 and ,delaney are prominent in connection with this work4 ,for use in telegraphy the originally crude forms of voltaic battery1 such as ,davy used1 were replaced by the more perfect types such as the constant battery of ,daniell1 the nitric-acid battery of ,grove1 dating from #ahcf1 and the carbon battery of ,bunsen1 first brought out in #ahdb4 ,such was the power of the ,grove and ,bunsen batteries that attention was again called to the electric arc and to the possibility of its use for electric illumination4 ,accordingly1 we find that suggestions were soon made for electric-arc lamps1 to be operated by these more powerful and constant sources of electric current4 ,the first example of a working type of an arc lamp was that brought to notice by ,w4 ,e4 ,staite1 in #ahdg1 and his description of the lamp and the conditions under which it could be worked is a remarkably exact and full statement1 considering the time of its appearance4 ,staite even anticipated the most recent phase of development in arc lighting1 namely1 the enclosure of the light in a partially air-tight globe1 to prevent too rapid waste of the carbons by combustion in the air4 ,in a public address at ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 in #ahdg1 he advocated the use of the arc1 so enclosed1 in mines1 as obviating the danger of fire4 ,but it was a long time before the electric arc acquired any importance as a practical illuminant4 ,there was1 indeed1 no hope of its success so long as the current had to be obtained from batteries consuming chemicals and zinc4 ,the expense was too great1 and the batteries soon became exhausted4 ,in spite of this fact1 occasional exhibitions of arc lighting were made1 notably in #ahef1 by ,lacassagne and ,thiers1 in the streets of ,paris4 ,for this service they had invented an arc lamp involving what is known as the differential principle1 afterwards applied so extensively to arc lamps4 ,the length of the arc or the distance between the carbons of the lamp was controlled with great nicety1 and the light thus rendered very steady4 ,even as late as #ahge batteries were occasionally used to work single electric arc lamps for public exhibitions1 or for demonstration purposes in the scientific departments of schools4 ,the discovery of the means of efficiently generating electricity from mechanical power constitutes1 however1 the key-note of all the wonderful electrical work of the closing years of the nineteenth century4 ,it made electrical energy available at low cost4 ,michael ,faraday1 a most worthy successor of ,davy at the ,royal ,institution1 in studying the relations between electric currents and magnets1 made the exceedingly important observation that a wire1 if moved in the field of a magnet1 would yield a current of electricity4 ,simple as the discovery was1 its effect has been stupendous4 ,following his science for its own sake1 he unwittingly opened up possibilities of the greatest practical moment4 ,the fundamental principle of the future dynamo electric machine was discovered by him4 ,this was in #ahca4 ,faraday's investigations were so complete and his deductions so masterly1 that little was left to be done by others4 ,electro-magnetism was supplemented by magneto-electricity4 ,both the electric motor and the dynamo generator were now potentially present with us4 ,faraday contented himself with pointing the way1 leaving the technical engineer to follow4 ,in one of ,faraday's experiments a copper disk mounted on an axis passing through its centre was revolved between the poles of a large steel magnet4 ,a wire touched the periphery of the disk at a selected position with respect to the magnet1 and another was in connection with the axis4 ,these wires were united through a galvanometer or instrument for detecting electric current4 ,a current was noted as present in the circuit so long as the disk was turned4 ,here1 then1 was the embryo dynamo4 ,the century closed with single dynamo machines of over #ejjj horse-power capacity1 and with single power stations in which the total electric generation by such machines is #ge1jjj to #ajj1jjj horse-power4 ,so perfect is the modern dynamo that out of #ajjj horse-power expended in driving it1 #iej or more may be delivered to the electric line as electric energy4 ,the electric motor1 now so common1 is a machine like the dynamo1 in which the principle of action is simply reversed2 electric energy delivered from the lines becomes again mechanical motion or power4 ,soon after ,faraday's discoveries in magneto-electricity attempts were made to construct generators of electricity from power4 ,but the machines were small1 crude1 and imperfect1 and the results necessarily meagre4 ,pixii1 in ,paris1 one year after ,faraday's discovery was announced1 made a machine which embodied in its construction a simple commutator for giving the currents a single direction of flow4 ,this is the prototype of the commutators now found on what are called continuous-current dynamos4 ,after ,pixii followed ,saxton1 ,clarke1 ,wheatstone and ,cooke1 ,estohrer1 and others1 but not until #ahed was any very notable improvement made or suggested4 ,in that year ,soren ,hjorth1 of ,copenhagen1 described in a patent specification the principle of causing the electric currents generated to traverse coils of wire so disposed as to reinforce the magnetic field of the machine itself4 ,a year subsequently the same idea was again more clearly set out by ,hjorth4 ,this is the principle of the modern self-exciting dynamo1 the field magnets of which1 very weak at the start1 are built up or strengthened by the currents from the armature or revolving part of the machine in which power is consumed to produce electricity4 ,in #ahef ,dr4 ,werner ,siemens1 of ,berlin1 well known as a great pioneer in the electric arts1 brought out the ,siemens armature1 an innovation more valuable than any other made up to that time4 ,this was subsequently used in the powerful machines of ,wilde and ,ladd4 ,it still survives in magneto call-bell apparatus for such work as telephone signalling1 in exploders for mines and blasting1 and in the simpler types of electroplating dynamos4 ,the decade between #ahfj and #ahgj opened a new era in the construction and working of dynamo machines and motors4 ,it is notable for two advances of very great value and importance4 ,dr4 ,paccinotti1 of ,florence1 in #ahfj1 described a machine by which true continuous currents resembling battery currents could be obtained4 ,up to that time machines gave either rapidly alternating or fluctuating currents1 not steady currents in one direction4 ,the ,paccinotti construction1 in modified forms1 is now almost universally employed in dynamo machines1 and even where the form is now quite different the ,paccinotti type has been at least the forerunner1 and has undergone modifications to suit special ends in view4 ,briefly1 ,paccinotti made his armature of a ring of iron with iron projections between which the coils of insulated wire were wound4 ,although full descriptions of ,paccinotti's ring armature and commutator were given out in #ahfd1 his work attracted but little attention until ,gramme1 in ,paris1 about #ahgj1 brought out the relatively perfect ,gramme machine4 ,in the mean time the other great development of the decade took place4 ,although ,hjorth had1 as stated before1 put forward the idea that a dynamo generator might itself furnish currents for magnetizing its own magnets1 this valuable suggestion was not apparently worked out until #ahff1 when a machine was constructed for ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone4 ,this appears to have been the first self-exciting machine in existence4 ,wheatstone read a paper before the ,royal ,society in ,february1 #ahfg1 8,on the ,augmentation of the ,power of a ,magnet by the ,reaction thereon of ,currents ,induced by the ,magnet ,itself40 ,this action later became known as the reaction principle in dynamo machines4 ,as often happens1 the idea occurred to other workers in science almost simultaneously1 and ,dr4 ,werner ,siemens also read a paper in ,berlin about a month earlier than that of ,wheatstone1 clearly describing the reaction principle4 ,furthermore1 a patent specification had been filed in the ,british ,patent ,office by ,s4 ,a4 ,varley1 ,december #bd1 #ahff1 clearly showing the same principle of action1 and he was1 therefore1 the first to put the matter on record4 ,the time was ripe for the appearance of machines closely resembling the types now in such extended use4 ,gramme1 in #ahgj1 adopting a modified form of the ,paccinotti ring and commutator1 and employing the reaction principle1 first succeeded in producing a highly efficient1 compact1 and durable continuous-current dynamo4 ,the ,gramme machine was immediately recognized as a great technical triumph4 ,it was in a sense the culmination of many years of development1 beginning with the early attempts immediately following ,faraday's discovery1 already referred to4 ,gramme constructed his revolving armature of a soft iron wire ring1 upon which ring a series of small coils of insulated wire were wound in successive radial planes4 ,these coils were all connected with a continuous wire and from the junctions of the coils one with another connections were taken to a range of copper bars insulated from each other1 constituting the commutator4 ,in #ahgb ,von ,hefner ,alteneck1 in ,berlin1 modified the ring winding of ,gramme and produced the 8drum winding10 which avoided the necessity for threading wire through the centre of the iron ring as in the ,gramme construction4 ,the several coils of the drum were still connected1 as in ,gramme's machine1 to the successive strips of the commutator4 ,in modern dynamos and motors the armature1 usually constructed of sheet-iron punchings1 is a ring with projections as in ,paccinotti's machine1 and the coils of wire are in most cases wound separately and then placed in the spaces between the projections1 constituting in fact a form of drum winding4 ,in the early #gj's a few ,gramme ring and ,siemens drum machines had been applied to the running of arc lights1 one machine for each light4 ,there were also some ,gramme machines in use for electroplating4 ,at the ,centennial ,exhibition1 held at ,philadelphia in #ahgf1 but two exhibits of electric-lighting apparatus were to be found4 ,of these one was the ,gramme and the other the ,wallace-,farmer exhibit4 ,the ,wallace-,farmer dynamo machine is a type now obsolete4 ,it was not a good design1 but the ,wallace exhibit contained other examples reflecting great credit on this ,american pioneer in dynamo work4 ,some of these machines were very similar in construction to later forms which went into very extensive use4 ,the large search-lights occasionally used in night illumination during the exhibitions were operated by the current from ,wallace-,farmer machines4 ,the ,gramme exhibit was a remarkable exhibit for its time4 ,though not extensive1 it was most instructive4 ,there were found in it a dynamo running an arc lamp2 a large machine for electrolytic work1 such as electroplating or electrotyping1 and1 most novel and interesting of all1 one ,gramme machine driven by power was connected to another by a pair of wires and the second run as a motor4 ,this in turn drove a centrifugal-pump1 and raised water which flowed in a small fall or cataract4 ,a year or two previously the ,gramme machine had been accidentally found to be as excellent an electric motor as it was a generating dynamo4 ,the crude motors of ,jacobi1 ,froment1 ,davenport1 ,page1 ,vergnes1 ,gaume1 and many others1 were thus rendered obsolete at a stroke4 ,the first public demonstration of the working of one ,gramme machine by another was made by ,fontaine at the ,vienna ,exhibition of #ahgc4 ,here1 then1 was a foreshadowing of the great electric-power transmission plants of to-day2 the suggestion of the electric station furnishing power as well as light1 and1 to a less degree1 the promise of future railways using electric power4 ,replace the centrifugal pump of this modest exhibit by a turbine wheel1 reverse the flow of water so as to cause it to drive the electric motor so that the machine becomes a dynamo1 and1 in like manner1 make of the dynamo a motor1 and we exemplify in a simple way recent great enterprises using water-power for the generation of current to be transmitted over lines to distant electric motors or lights4 ,the ,centennial ,exhibition also marks the beginning--the very birth1 it may be said--of an electric invention destined to become1 before the close of the century1 a most potent factor in human affairs4 ,the speaking telephone of ,alexander ,graham ,bell was there exhibited for the first time to the savants1 among whom was the distinguished electrician and scientist ,sir ,william ,thomson4 ,for the first time in the history of the world a structure of copper wire and iron spoke to a listening ear4 ,nay1 more1 it both listened to the voice of the speaker and repeated the voice at a far-distant point4 ,the instruments were1 moreover1 the acme of simplicity4 ,within a year many a boy had constructed a pair of telephones at an expenditure for material of only a few pennies4 ,in its first form the transmitting telephone was the counterpart of the receiver1 and they were reversible in function4 ,the transmitter was in reality a minute dynamo driven by the arial voice waves2 the receiver1 a vibratory motor worked by the vibratory currents from the transmitter and reproducing the arial motions4 ,this arrangement1 most beautiful in theory1 was only suited for use on short lines1 and was soon afterwards replaced by various forms of carbon microphone transmitter1 to the production of which many inventors had turned their attention1 notably ,edison1 ,hughes1 ,blake1 and ,hunnings4 ,in modern transmitters the voice wave does not furnish the power to generate the telephone current1 but only controls the flow of an already existing current from a battery4 ,in this way the effects obtainable may be made sufficiently powerful for transmission to listeners #aejj miles away4 ,there is no need to dwell here upon the enormous saving of time secured by the telephone and the profound effect its introduction has had upon business and social life4 ,the situation is too palpable4 ,nevertheless1 few users of this wonderful invention realize how much thought and skill have been employed in working out the details of exchange switchboards1 of signalling devices1 of underground cables and overhead wires1 and of the speaking instruments themselves4 ,few of those who talk between ,boston and ,chicago know that in doing so they have for the exclusive use of their voices a total of over #a1jjj1jjj pounds of copper wire in the single line4 ,there probably now exist in the ,united ,states alone between #ge1jjj and #ajj1jjj miles of hard-drawn copper wire for long-distance telephone service1 and over #aej1jjj miles of wire in underground conduits4 ,there are upward of three-quarters of a million telephones in the ,united ,states1 and1 including both overhead and underground lines1 a total of more than half a million miles of wire4 ,approximately one thousand million conversations are annually conveyed4 ,the possibility of sub-oceanic telephoning is frequently discussed1 but the problem thus far is not solved4 ,it involves grave difficulties1 and we may hope that its solution is to be one of the advances which will mark the twentieth century's progress4 ,the advent of the telephone in #ahgf seemed to stimulate invention in the electric field to a remarkable degree4 ,its immediate commercial success probably acted also to inspire confidence in other proposed electric enterprises4 ,greater attention than ever before began to be given to the problem of electric lighting4 ,an electric arc lamp1 probably the only one in regular use1 had been installed at ,dungeness ,light-house in #ahfb1 after a long set of trials and tests4 ,it was fed by a ,holmes magneto-electric machine of the old type1 very large and cumbrous for the work4 ,numerous changes and improvements had before #ahgh been made in arc lamps by ,serrin1 ,duboscq1 and many others4 ,but the display of electric light during the ,paris ,exposition of #ahgh was the first memorable use of the electric light on a large scale4 ,the splendid illumination of the ,avenue de l',opra was a grand object-lesson4 ,the source of light was the 8electric candle0 of ,paul ,jablochkoff1 a ,russian engineer4 ,it was a strikingly original and simple arc lamp4 ,instead of placing the two carbons point to point1 as had been done in nearly all previous lamps1 he placed them side by side1 with a strip of baked kaolin between them4 ,the candle so formed was supported in a suitable holder1 whereby1 at the lower end1 the two parallel carbons were connected with the circuit terminals4 ,by a suitable device the arc was started at the top and burned down4 ,the electric candle seemed to solve the problem of allowing complicated mechanism for feeding the carbons to be discarded2 but it survived only a short time4 ,owing to unforeseen difficulties it was gradually abandoned1 after having served a great purpose in directing the attention of the world to the possibilities of the electric arc in lighting4 ,inventors in ,america were not idle4 ,by the close of #ahgh1 ,brush1 of ,cleveland1 had brought out his series system of arc lights1 including special dynamos1 lamps1 etc41 and by the middle of #ahgi had in operation machines each capable of maintaining sixteen arc lamps on one wire4 ,this was1 indeed1 a great achievement for that time4 ,weston1 of ,newark1 had also in operation circuits of arc lamps1 and the ,thomson-,houston system had just started in commercial work with eight arc lamps in series from a single dynamo4 ,maxim and ,fuller1 in ,new ,york1 were working arc lamps from their machines1 and capital was being rapidly invested in new enterprises for electric lighting4 ,some of the great electric manufacturing concerns of to-day had their beginning at that time4 ,central lighting stations began to be established in cities1 and the use of arc lights in street illumination and in stores grew rapidly4 ,more perfect forms of arc lamps were invented1 better generating dynamos and regulating apparatus brought out4 ,factories for arc-light carbon making were built4 ,the first special electrical exhibition was held in ,paris in #ahha4 ,in the early #hj's1 also1 the business of arc lighting had become firmly established1 and soon the bulk of the work was done under two of the leading systems4 ,these were afterwards brought together under one control1 thus securing in the apparatus manufactured a combination of the good features of both4 ,until about #ahib nearly all the arc lamps in use were worked under the series system1 in which the lights are connected one after another on a circuit and traversed by the same current4 ,this current has a standard value1 or is a constant current4 ,sometimes as many as a hundred lamps were on one wire4 ,as the mains for the supply of incandescent lamps at constant pressure1 or potential1 were extended1 attention was more strongly turned to the possibility of working arc lights therefrom4 ,within a few years of the close of the century this placing of arc lamps in branches from the same mains which supply incandescent lamps became common1 and the enclosure of the arc in a partially air-tight globe1 a procedure advocated by ,staite1 in #ahdg1 was revived by ,howard1 ,marks1 and others for saving carbons and attention to the lamp4 ,the enclosed arc lamp was also found to be especially adapted to use in branches of the incandescent lamp circuits1 which had in cities become greatly extended4 ,the increasing employment of alternating currents in the distribution of electric energy has led also to the use of alternating current arc lamps1 and special current-regulating apparatus is now being applied on a large scale to extended circuits of these lamps4 ,it can be seen from these facts that the art is still rapidly progressing and the field ever widening4 ,a little over twenty years ago practically no arc lamps were used4 ,at the close of the century1 they were numbered by hundreds of thousands4 ,the annual consumption of carbons in this country has reached two hundred millions4 ,almost simultaneously with the beginning of the commercial work of arc lighting1 ,edison1 in a successful effort to provide a small electric lamp for general distribution in place of gas1 brought to public notice his carbon filament incandescent lamp4 ,a considerable amount of progress had previously been made by various workers in attempting to reduce the volume of light in each lamp and increase the number of lights for a given power expended4 ,forms of incandescent arc lamps1 or semi-incandescent lamps1 were tried on a considerable scale abroad1 but none have survived4 ,so1 also1 many attempts to produce a lamp giving light by pure incandescence of solid conductors proved for the most part abortive4 ,edison himself worked for nearly two years on a lamp based upon the old idea of incandescent platinum strips or wires1 but without success4 ,the announcement of this lamp caused a heavy drop in gas shares1 long before the problem was really solved by a masterly stroke in his carbon filament lamp4 ,curiously1 the nearest approach to the carbon filament lamp had been made in #ahde1 by ,starr1 an ,american1 who described in a ,british patent specification a lamp in which electric current passed through a thin strip of carbon kept it heated while surrounded by a glass bulb in which a vacuum was maintained4 ,starr had exhibited his lamps to ,faraday1 in ,england1 and was preparing to construct dynamos to furnish electric current for them in place of batteries1 but sudden death put an end to his labors4 ,the specification describing his lamp is perhaps the earliest description of an incandescent lamp of any promise1 and the subsequently recorded ideas of inventors up to the work of ,edison seem now to be almost in the nature of retrograde movements4 ,none of them were successful commercially4 ,starr1 who was only twenty-five years of age1 is reported to have died of overwork and worry in his efforts to perfect his invention4 ,his ideas were evidently far in advance of his time4 ,the ,edison lamp differed from those which preceded it in the extremely small section of the carbon strip rendered hot by the current1 and in the perfection of the vacuum in which it was mounted4 ,the filament was first made of carbonized paper1 and afterwards of bamboo carbon4 ,the modern incandescent lamp has for years past been provided with a filament made by a chemical process4 ,the carbon formed is exceedingly homogeneous and of uniform electric resistance4 ,edison first exhibited his lamp in his laboratory at ,menlo ,park1 ,new ,jersey1 in ,december1 #ahgi2 but before it could be properly utilized an enormous amount of work had to be done4 ,his task was not merely the improvement of an art already existing2 it was the creation of a new art4 ,special dynamo machines had to be invented and constructed for working the lamps2 switches were needed for connecting and disconnecting lamps and groups of lamps2 meters for measuring the consumption of electric energy were wanted2 safety fuses and cut-offs had to be provided2 electroliers or fixtures to support the lamp were required2 and1 lastly1 a complete system of underground mains with appurtenances was a requisite for city plants4 ,even the steam-engines for driving the dynamos had to be remodelled and improved for electric work1 and ten years of electric lighting development did more towards the refinement and perfection of steam-engines than fifty years preceding4 ,steadiness of lights meant the preservation of steady speed in the driving machinery4 ,the ,pearl ,street station in ,new ,york ,city was the first installation for the supply of current for incandescent lighting in a city district4 ,the constant pressure dynamos were gradually improved and enlarged4 ,the details of all parts of the system were made more perfect1 and in the hands of ,edison and others the incandescent lamps1 originally of high cost1 were much cheapened and the quality of the production was greatly improved4 ,lamps originally cost one dollar each4 ,the best lamps that are made can be had at present for about one-fifth that price4 ,millions of incandescent lamps are annually manufactured4 ,great lighting stations furnish the current for the working of these lamps1 some stations containing machinery aggregating many thousands of horse-power capacity4 ,not only do these stations furnish electric energy for the working of arc lamps and incandescent lamps1 but1 in addition1 for innumerable motors ranging in size from the small desk fan of one-tenth horse-power up to those of hundreds of horse-power4 ,the larger sizes replace steam or hydraulic power for elevators1 and many are used in shops and factories for driving machinery such as printing-presses1 machinery tools1 and the like4 ,in spite of the fact that it was well known that a good dynamo when reversed could be made a source of power1 few electric motors were in use until a considerable time after the establishment of the first lighting stations4 ,even in #ahhd1 at the ,philadelphia ,electrical ,exhibition1 only a few electric motors were shown4 ,not until #ahhf or thereafter did the 8motor load0 of an electric station begin to be a factor in its business success4 ,the motors supplied are an advantageous adjunct1 inasmuch as they provide a day load1 increasing the output of the station at a time when the lighting load is small and when the machinery in consequence would1 without them1 have remained idle4 ,the growth of the application of electric motors in the closing years of the century has been phenomenal1 even leaving out of consideration their use in electric railways4 ,twenty years ago an electric motor was a curiosity2 fifty years ago crude examples run by batteries were only to be occasionally found in cabinets of scientific apparatus4 ,machinery ,hall1 at the ,centennial ,exhibition of #ahgf1 typified the mill of the past1 never again to be reproduced1 with its huge engine and lines of heavy shafting and belts conveying power to the different tools or machines in operation4 ,the modern mill or factory has its engines and dynamos located wherever convenient1 its electric lines and numerous motors connected thereto1 and each of them either driving comparatively short lines of shafting or attached to drive single pieces of machinery4 ,the wilderness of belts and pulleys which used to characterize a factory is gradually being cleared away1 and electric distribution of power substituted4 ,moreover1 the lighting of the modern mill or factory is done from the same electric plant which distributes power4 ,the electric motor has already partly revolutionized the distribution of power for stationary machinery1 but as applied to railways in place of animal power the revolution is complete4 ,the period which has elapsed since the first introduction of electric railways is barely a dozen years4 ,it is true that a few tentative experiments in electric traction were made some time in advance of #ahhh1 notably by ,siemens1 in ,berlin1 in #ahgi and #ahhj1 by ,stephen ,d4 ,field1 by ,t4 ,a4 ,edison1 at ,menlo ,park1 by ,j4 ,c4 ,henry1 by ,charles ,a4 ,van ,depoele1 and others4 ,if we look farther back we find efforts such as that of ,farmer1 in #ahdg1 to propel railway cars by electric motors driven by currents from batteries carried on the cars4 ,these efforts were1 of course1 doomed to failure1 for economical reasons4 ,electric energy from primary batteries was too costly1 and if it had been cheaper1 the types of electric motor used yielded so small a return of power for the electric energy spent in driving them that commercial success was out of the question4 ,these early efforts were1 however1 instructive1 and may now be regarded as highly suggestive of later work4 ,traction by the use of storage batteries carried on an electric car has been tried repeatedly1 but appears not to be able to compete with systems of direct supply from electric lines4 ,the plan survives1 however1 in the electric automobile1 many of which have been put into service within a year or two4 ,the electric automobile is not well fitted for country touring2 it is best adapted to cities1 where facilities for charging and caring for the batteries can be had4 ,moreover1 the electric carriage is of all automobile carriages the most easily controlled1 most ready2 it emits no smell or hot gases and is nearly noiseless4 ,about #ahej1 ,hall1 a well-known instrument maker of ,boston1 catalogued a small toy electric locomotive dragging a car upon rails which were insulated and connected with a stationary battery of two ,grove cells4 ,this arrangement was sold as a piece of scientific apparatus1 and appears to be the first example of an electrically driven vehicle connected by rolling contacts to an immovable energy source4 ,other early experimenters1 such as ,siemens1 ,field1 and ,daft1 subsequently to ,hall1 used in actual railway work the supply by insulated tracks4 ,this was supplanted later by overhead insulated wires or by the insulated third rail4 ,siemens ,halske1 of ,berlin1 used a special form of overhead supply in #ahha1 and during the electrical exhibition in ,paris in that year1 a street tramway line was run by them4 ,later1 ,edison experimented with a third-rail-supply line at ,menlo ,park2 and at ,portrush1 in ,ireland1 an actual railway was put in operation by ,siemens ,halske1 using the third-rail system4 ,this was about #ahhc4 ,the power of the ,portrush railway was that of a water-wheel driving the generating dynamo4 ,the modern overhead trolley1 or under-running trolley1 as it is called1 seems to have been first invented by ,van ,depoele1 and used by him in practical electric railway work about #ahhf and thereafter4 ,the universality of this invention for overhead supply marks the device as a really important advance in the art of electric traction4 ,van ,depoele was also a pioneer in the use of an underground conduit1 which he employed successfully in ,toronto in #ahhd4 ,the names of ,edward ,m4 ,bentley and ,walter ,h4 ,knight stand out prominently in connection with the first use of an underground conduit1 tried under their plans in ,august1 #ahhd1 at ,cleveland1 on the tracks of the horse-railway company4 ,we have barely outlined the history of the electric-motor railway up to the beginning of a period of wonderful development1 resulting in the almost complete replacement by electric traction of horse traction or tramway lines1 all within an interval of scarcely more than ten years4 ,the year #ahhh may be said to mark the beginning of this work1 and in that year the ,sprague ,company1 with ,frank ,j4 ,sprague at its head1 put into operation the electric line at ,richmond1 ,virginia1 using the under-running trolley4 ,mr4 ,sprague had been associated with ,edison in early traction work1 and was well known in connection with electric-motor work in general4 ,the ,richmond line was the first large undertaking4 ,it had about thirteen miles of track1 numerous curves1 and grades of from three to ten per cent4 ,the enterprise was one of great hardihood1 and but for ample financial backing and determination to spare no effort or expenditure conducive to success1 must certainly have failed4 ,the motors were too small for the work1 and there had not been found any proper substitute for the metal commutator brushes on the motors--a source of endless trouble and of an enormous expense for repairs4 ,nevertheless1 the ,richmond installation1 kept in operation as it was in spite of all difficulties1 served as an object-lesson1 and had the effect of convincing ,mr4 ,henry ,m4 ,whitney and the directors of the ,west ,end ,street ,railway1 of ,boston1 of the feasibility of equipping the entire railway system of ,boston electrically4 ,meanwhile the merging of the ,van ,depoele and ,bentley-,knight interests into the ,thomson-,houston ,electric ,light ,company brought a new factor into the field1 the ,sprague interests being likewise merged with the ,edison ,general ,electric ,company4 ,the ,west ,end ,company1 with two hundred miles of track in and around ,boston1 began to equip its lines in #ahhh with the ,thomson-,houston plant4 ,the success of this great undertaking left no doubt of the future of electric traction4 ,the difficulties which had seriously threatened future success were gradually removed4 ,the electric railway progress was so great in the ,united ,states that about ,january #a1 #ahia1 there were more than two hundred and forty lines in operation4 ,about thirty thousand horses and mules were replaced by electric power in the single year of #ahia4 ,in #ahib the ,thomson-,houston interests and those of the ,edison ,general ,electric ,company were merged in the ,general ,electric ,company1 an event of unusual importance1 as it brought together the two great competitors in electric traction at that date4 ,other electric manufacturers1 chief among which was the ,westinghouse ,company1 also entered the field and became prominent factors in railway extension4 ,in a few years horse traction in the ,united ,states on tramway lines virtually disappeared4 ,many cable lines were converted to electric lines1 and projects such as the ,boston ,subway began to be planned4 ,not the least of the advantages of electric traction is the higher speed attainable with safety4 ,the comfort and cleanliness of the cars1 lighted brilliantly at night1 and heated in winter by the same source of energy which is used to propel them1 are important factors4 ,all these things1 together with the great extension of the lines into suburban and country districts1 and the interconnection of the lines of one district with those of another1 cannot fail to have a decidedly beneficial effect upon the life1 habits1 and health of the people4 ,while the ,united ,states and ,canada have been and still are the theatre of the enormous advance in electric traction1 as in other electric work1 many electric car lines have in recent years been established in ,great ,britain and on the continent of ,europe4 ,countries like ,japan1 ,australia1 ,south ,africa1 and ,south ,america have also in operation many electric trolley lines1 and the work is rapidly extending4 ,most of this work1 even in ,europe1 has been carried out either by importation of equipment from ,america1 or by apparatus manufactured there1 but following ,american practice closely4 ,the bulk of the work has been done with the overhead wire and under-running trolley1 but there are notable instances of the use of electric conductors in underground slotted conduits1 chief of which are the great systems of street railway in ,new ,york ,city4 ,in ,chicago the application of motor-cars in trains upon the elevated railway followed directly upon the practical demonstration at the ,world's ,fair of the capabilities of third-rail electric traction on the ,intramural ,elevated ,railway1 and the system is rapidly extending so as to include all elevated city roads4 ,a few years will doubtless see the great change accomplished4 ,the motor-car1 or car propelled by its own motors1 has also been introduced upon standard steam roads to a limited extent as a supplement to steam traction4 ,the earliest of these installations are the one at ,nantasket1 ,massachusetts1 and that between ,hartford and ,new ,britain1 in ,connecticut4 ,a number of special high-speed lines1 using similar plans1 have gone into operation in recent years4 ,the problem of constructing electric motors of sufficient robustness for heavy work and controlling them effectively was not an easy one1 and the difficulties were increased greatly because of the placing of the motors under the car body1 exposed to wet1 to dust and dirt of road4 ,the advantage of the motor-car1 or motor-car train1 is that the traction or hold upon the track increases with the increase of the weight or load carried4 ,it is thus able to be accelerated rapidly after a stop1 and also climb steep grades without slipping its wheels4 ,nevertheless1 there are circumstances which favor the employment of a locomotive at the head of a train1 as in steam practice4 ,this is the case in lines where a train of coal or ore cars is drawn by electric mining locomotives4 ,many such plants are in operation1 and1 at the same time the electric power is used to drive fans for ventilating1 pumps for drainage1 electric hoists1 etc41 besides being used for lighting the mines4 ,the trains in the tunnels of the ,metropolitan ,underground ,railway of ,london have for many years been operated by steam locomotives with the inevitable escape of steam1 foul1 suffocating gases1 and more or less soot4 ,a number of years ago the tunnel of the ,city and ,south ,london ,railway was put into successful operation with electric locomotives drawing the trains of cars1 and the nuisance caused by steam avoided4 ,this work recalls the early efforts of ,field1 of ,daft1 and ,bentley and ,knight in providing an electric locomotive for replacing the steam plant of the elevated roads in ,new ,york ,city4 ,well-conceived as many of these plans were1 electric traction had not reached a sufficient development1 and the efforts were abandoned after several more or less successful trials4 ,it is now seen that the motor-car train may advantageously replace the locomotive-drawn train in such instances as these elevated railways4 ,the three largest and most powerful electric locomotives ever put into service are those which are employed to take trains through the ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railroad tunnel at ,baltimore4 ,they have been in service about seven or eight years1 and are fully equal in power to the large steam locomotives used on steam roads4 ,frequently trains of cars1 including the steam locomotive itself1 are drawn through the tunnel by these huge electric engines1 the fires on the steam machines being for the time checked so as to prevent fouling the air of the tunnel4 ,there was opened1 in ,london1 in #aijj1 a new railway called the ,central ,underground1 equipped with twenty-six electric locomotives for drawing its trains4 ,the electric and power equipment1 which embodied in itself the latest results of ,american practice1 was also manufactured in ,america to suit the needs of the road4 ,other similar railways are in contemplation in ,london and in other cities of ,europe4 ,as on the elevated roads in ,new ,york ,city1 the replacement of underground steam traction1 where it exists1 by electric traction is evidently only a question of a few years4 ,an electric railway may exemplify a power-transmission system in which power is delivered to moving vehicles4 ,but the distances so covered are not generally more than a few miles from the generating station4 ,where1 however1 abundant water-power exists1 as at ,niagara1 or where fuel is very expensive and power is to be had only at great distances from the place at which it is to be used1 electricity furnishes the most effective means for transmission and distribution4 ,between the years #ahhj and #ahij the device called alternating current transformer was developed to a considerable degree of perfection4 ,it is1 in reality1 a modified induction coil1 consisting of copper wire and iron1 whereby a current sent through one of its coils will induce similar currents in the other coils of apparatus4 ,it has the great advantage of having no moving parts4 ,faraday1 in #ahca1 discovered the fundamental principle of the modern transformer4 ,not only1 however1 will the current in one coil of the apparatus generate by induction a new current in an entirely separate coil or circuit1 but by suitably proportioning the windings we may exchange1 as it were1 a large low-pressure current for a small but high-pressure current1 or vice versa4 ,this exchange may be made with a very small percentage of loss of energy4 ,these valuable properties of the transformer have rendered it of supreme importance in recent electrical extension4 ,the first use made of it1 in #ahhe-hf1 was to transform a high-pressure current into one of low pressure in electric lighting1 enabling a small wire to be used to convey electric energy at high pressure1 and without much loss1 to a long distance from the station4 ,this energy at high pressure reaches the transformer placed within or close to the building to be lighted4 ,a low-pressure safe current is conveyed from the transformer to the wires connected to the lamps4 ,in this way a current of two thousand volts1 an unsafe and unsuitable pressure for incandescent lighting1 is exchanged for one of about one hundred volts1 which is quite safe4 ,in this way1 also1 the supply station is enabled to reach a customer too far away to be supplied directly with current at one hundred volts1 without enormous expense for copper conductors4 ,the alternating current transformer not only greatly extended the radius of supply from a single station1 but also enabled the station to be conveniently located where water and coal could be had without difficulty4 ,it also permitted the distant water-powers to become sources of electric energy for lighting1 power1 or for other service4 ,for example1 a water-power located at a distance of fifty to one hundred miles or more from a city1 or from a large manufacturing centre where cost of fuel is high1 may be utilized as follows3 ,a power-station will be located upon the site of the water-power1 and the dynamos therein will generate electricity at1 say1 two thousand volts pressure4 ,by means of step-up transformers this will be exchanged for a current of thirty thousand volts for transmission over a line of copper or aluminum wire to the distant consumption area4 ,here there will be a set of step-down transformers which will exchange the thirty-thousand-volt line current for one of so low a pressure as to be safe for local distribution to lamps1 to motors1 etc41 either stationary or upon a railway4 ,the same transmission plant may simultaneously supply energy for lighting1 for power1 for heat1 and for charging storage batteries4 ,it may1 therefore1 be employed both day and night4 ,these long-distance power transmission plants are generally spoken of as 8two-phase10 8three-phase10 or 8polyphase0 systems4 ,before #ahij no such plants existed4 ,a large number of such installations are now working over distances of a few miles up to one hundred miles4 ,they differ from what are known as single-phase alternating systems in employing1 instead of a single alternating current1 two1 three1 or more1 which are sent over separate lines1 and in which the electric impulses are not simultaneous1 but follow each other in regular succession1 overlapping each other's dead points1 so to speak4 ,early suggestions of such a plan1 about #ahhj1 and thereafter1 by ,bailey1 ,deprez1 and others1 bore no fruit1 and not until ,tesla's announcement of his polyphase system1 in #ahhh1 was much attention given to the subject4 ,a widespread interest in ,tesla's work was invoked1 but several years elapsed before engineering difficulties were overcome4 ,this work was done mainly by the technical staffs of the large manufacturing companies1 and it was necessary to be done before any notable power transmissions on the polyphase system could be established4 ,after #ahib the growth became very rapid4 ,the falls of ,niagara early attracted the attention of engineers to the possibility of utilizing at least a fraction of the power4 ,it was seen that several hundred thousand horse-power might be drawn from it without materially affecting the fall1 itself equivalent to several millions of horse-power4 ,a gigantic power-station has lately been established at ,niagara1 taking water from a distance above the falls and delivering it below the falls through a long tunnel which forms the tail race4 ,ten water-wheels1 located in an immense wheel-pit about two hundred feet deep1 each wheel of a capacity of five thousand horse-power1 drive large vertical shafts1 at the upper end of which are located the large two-phase dynamos1 each of five thousand horse-power4 ,the electric energy from these machines is in part raised in pressure by huge transformers for transmission to distant points1 such as the city of ,buffalo1 and a large portion is delivered to the numerous manufacturing plants located at moderate distances from the power-station4 ,besides the supply of energy for lighting1 and for motors1 including railways1 other recent uses of electricity to which we have not yet alluded are splendidly exemplified at ,niagara4 ,davy's brilliant discovery of the alkali metals1 sodium and potassium1 at the opening of the century1 showed the great chemical energy of the electric current4 ,its actions were afterwards carefully studied1 notably by the illustrious ,faraday1 whose discoveries in connection with magnetism and magneto-electricity have been briefly described4 ,the electric current was found to act as a most potent chemical force1 decomposing and recomposing many chemical compounds1 dissolving and depositing metals4 ,hence1 early in the century arose the art of electroplating of metals1 such as electro-gilding1 silver-plating1 nickel-plating1 and copper deposition as in electrotyping4 ,these arts are now practised on a very large scale1 and naturally have affected the whole course of manufacturing methods during the century4 ,moreover1 since the introduction of dynamo current1 electrolysis has come to be employed in huge plants1 not only for separating metals from each other1 as in refining them1 but in addition for separating them from their ores1 for the manufacture of chemical compounds before unknown1 and for the cheap production of numerous substances of use in the various arts on a large scale4 ,vast quantities of copper are refined1 and silver and gold often obtained from residues in sufficient amount to pay well for the process4 ,at ,niagara also are works for the production of the metal aluminum from its ores4 ,similar works exist at other places here and abroad where power is cheap4 ,this metal1 which competes in price with brass1 bulk for bulk1 was only obtainable before its electric reduction at #be to #cj per pound4 ,the metal sodium is also extracted from soda4 ,a large plant at ,niagara also uses the electric current for the manufacture of chlorine for bleach1 and caustic soda1 both from common salt4 ,chlorate of potassium is also made at ,niagara by electrolysis4 ,the field of electro-chemistry is1 indeed1 full of great future possibilities4 ,large furnaces heated by electricity1 a single one of which will consume more than a thousand horse-power1 exist at ,niagara4 ,in these furnaces is manufactured from coke and sand1 by the ,acheson process1 an abrasive material called carborundum1 which is almost as hard as diamond1 but quite low in cost4 ,it is made into slabs and into wheels for grinding hard substances4 ,the electric furnace furnishes also the means for producing artificial plumbago1 or graphite1 almost perfectly pure1 the raw material being coke powder4 ,a large amount of power from ,niagara is also consumed for the production in special electric arc furnaces of carbide of calcium from coke and lime4 ,this is the source of acetylene gas1 the new illuminant1 which is generated when water is brought into contact with the carbide4 ,the high temperature of the electric furnace thus renders possible chemical actions which under ordinary furnace heat would not take place4 ,henri ,moissan1 a ,french scientist1 well known for his brilliant researches in electric furnace work1 has even shown that real diamonds can be made under special conditions in the electric furnace4 ,he has1 in fact1 probably practised in a small way what has occurred on a grand scale in nature1 resulting in diamond fields such as those at ,kimberley4 ,one problem less is thus left to be solved4 ,the electro-chemical and kindred arts are practised not alone at ,niagara1 but at many other places where power is cheap4 ,extensive plants have grown up1 mostly within the five years before the close of the century4 ,all of the great developments in this field have come about within the last decade4 ,the use of electricity for heating is not confined to electric furnaces1 in which the exceedingly high temperature obtainable is the factor giving rise to success4 ,while it is not likely that electricity will soon be used for general heating1 special instances1 such as the warming of electric cars in winter by electric heaters1 the operation of cooking appliances by electric current1 the heating of sad-irons and the like1 give evidence of the possibilities should there ever be found means for the generation of electric energy from fuel with such high efficiency as eighty per cent4 or more4 ,present methods give1 under most favorable conditions1 barely ten per cent41 ninety per cent4 of the energy value of the fuel being unavoidably wasted4 ,another application of the heating power of electric currents is found in the ,thomson electric welding process1 the development of which has practically taken place in the past ten years4 ,in this process an exceedingly large current1 at very low electric pressure1 traverses a joint between two pieces of metal to be united4 ,it heats the joint to fusion or softening2 the pieces are pushed together and welded4 ,here the heat is generated in the solid metal1 for at no time during the operation are the pieces separated4 ,the current is usually obtained from a welding transformer1 an example of an extreme type of step-down transformer4 ,current at several hundred volts passed into the primary winding is exchanged for an enormous current at only two or three volts in the welding circuit in which the work is done4 ,the present uses of this electric welding process are numerous and varied4 ,pieces of most of the metals and alloys1 before regarded as unweldable1 are capable of being joined not only to pieces of the same metal1 but also to different metals4 ,electric welding is applied on the large scale1 making joints in wires or rods1 for welding wagon and carriage wheel tires1 for making barrel-hoops and bands for pails1 for axles of vehicles1 and for carriage framing4 ,it has given rise to special manufactures1 such as electrically welded steel pipe or tube1 wire fencing1 etc4 ,it is used for welding together the joints of steel car-rails1 for welding teeth in saws1 for making many parts of bicycles1 and in tool making4 ,an instance of its peculiar adaptability to unusual conditions is the welding of the iron bands embedded within the body of a rubber vehicle tire for holding the tire in place4 ,for this purpose the electric weld has been found almost essential4 ,another branch of electric development concerns the storage of electricity4 ,the storage battery is based upon principles discovered by ,gaston ,plant1 and applied1 since #ahha1 by ,brush1 by ,faure1 and others4 ,some of the larger lighting stations employ as reservoirs of electric energy large batteries charged by surplus dynamo current4 ,this is afterwards drawn upon when the consumer's load is heavy1 as during the evening4 ,the storage battery is1 however1 a heavy1 cumbrous apparatus1 of limited life1 easily destroyed unless guarded with skill4 ,if a form not possessing these faults be ever found1 the field of possible application is almost limitless4 ,the above by no means complete account of the progress in electric applications during the century just closed should properly be supplemented by an account of the accompanying great advances regarded from the purely scientific aspect4 ,it is1 however1 only possible to make a brief reference thereto within the limits of this article4 ,the scientific study of electricity and the application of mathematical methods in its treatment has kept busy a host of workers and drawn upon the resources of the ablest minds the age has produced4 ,gauss1 ,weber1 ,ampre1 ,faraday1 ,maxwell1 ,helmholtz1 are no longer with us4 ,of the early founders of the science we have yet such men as ,lord ,kelvin1 formerly ,sir ,william ,thomson1 ,mascart1 and others1 still zealous in scientific work4 ,following them are a large number1 notable for valuable contributions to the progress of electrical science1 in discoveries1 in research1 and in mathematical treatment of the various problems presented4 ,modern magnetism took form in the hands of ,rowland1 ,hopkinson1 ,ewing1 and many other able workers4 ,maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light is confirmed by the brilliant researches of the late ,dr4 ,hertz1 too early lost to science4 ,hertz proved that all luminous phenomena are in essence electrical4 ,the wireless telegraphy of to-day is a direct outcome of ,hertz's experiments on electric waves4 ,it is but little more than ten years since ,hertz announced his results to the world4 ,his work1 supplemented by that of ,branly1 ,lodge1 ,marconi1 and others1 made wireless telegraphy a possibility4 ,the wonderful ,x-ray1 and the rich scientific harvest which has followed the discovery by ,rntgen of invisible radiation from a vacuum tube1 was preceded by much investigation of the effects of electric discharges in vacuum tubes1 and ,hittorf1 followed by ,crookes1 had given special study to these effects in very high or nearly perfect vacua4 ,crookes1 though especially enriching science by his work1 missed the peculiar ,x-ray1 which1 nevertheless1 must have been emitted from many of his vacuum tubes1 not only in his hands1 but in those of subsequent students4 ,it was as late as #ahif that ,rntgen announced his discovery4 ,since that time several other sources of invisible radiation have been discovered1 more or less similar in effect to the radiations from a vacuum tube1 but emitted1 singular as the fact is1 from rare substances extracted from certain minerals4 ,leaving out of consideration the great value of the ,x-ray to physicians and surgeons1 its effect in stimulating scientific inquiry has almost been incalculable4 ,the renewed study of effects of electric discharge in vacuum tubes has already1 in the work of such investigators as ,lenard1 ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson1 and others1 apparently carried the subdivision of matter far beyond the time-honored chemical atom1 and has gone far towards showing the essential unity of all the chemical elements4 ,it is as unlikely that the mystery of the material universe will ever be completely solved as it is that we can gain an adequate conception of infinite space or time4 ,but we can at least extend the range of our mental vision of the processes of nature as we do our real vision into space depths by the telescope and spectroscope4 ,there can now be no question that electric conditions and actions are more fundamental than many hitherto so regarded4 ,the nineteenth century closed with many important problems in electrical science unsolved4 ,what great or far-reaching discoveries are yet in store1 who can tell8 ,what valuable practical developments are to come1 who can predict8 ,the electrical progress has been great--very great--but after all only a part of that grander advance in so many other fields4 ,the hands of man are strengthened by the control of mighty forces4 ,his electric lines traverse the mountain passes as well as the plains4 ,his electric railway scales the ,jungfrau4 ,but he still spends his best effort1 and has always done so1 in the construction and equipment of his engines of destruction1 and now exhausts the mines of the world of valuable metals1 for ships of war1 whose ultimate goal is the bottom of the sea4 ,in this also electricity is made to play an increasingly important part4 ,it trains the guns1 loads them1 fires them4 ,it works the signals and the search-lights4 ,it ventilates the ship1 blows the fires1 and lights the dark spaces4 ,perhaps all this is necessary now1 and1 if so1 well4 ,but if a fraction of the vast expenditure entailed were turned to the encouragement of advance in the arts and employments of peace in the twentieth century1 can it be doubted that1 at the close1 the nineteenth century might come to be regarded1 in spite of its achievements1 as a rather wasteful1 semi-barbarous transition period8 ,,elihu ,,thomson4 ,,physics ,on ,january #g1 #afaj1 ,galileo1 turning his telescope towards ,jupiter1 was the first to see the beautiful system of that planet in which the universe is epitomized4 ,he had already studied the variegated surface of the moon1 and he had seen the spots upon the sun4 ,a little later1 in spite of the feeble power of his instrument1 he had discovered that the sun rotates upon an axis1 and something of the wonderful nature of the planet ,saturn had been revealed to him4 ,the overwhelming evidence thus afforded of the truth of the hypothesis of ,copernicus made him its chief exponent4 ,the time had come for man to know1 as he had never known or even dreamed before1 his true relation to the universe of which he was so insignificant a part4 ,in a single year nearly all of these capital discoveries were made4 ,it was truly an era of intellectual expansion2 never before and never since has man's intellectual horizon enlarged with such enormous rapidity4 ,one needs little imagination to share with this ardent philosopher the enthusiasm of the moment when1 because some1 fearing the evidence of their senses1 refused to look through the slender tube1 he wrote to ,kepler3 8,oh1 my dear ,kepler1 how ,i wish we could have one hearty laugh together6444 ,why are you not here8 ,what shouts of laughter we should have at this glorious folly60 ,galileo died in #afdb1 and in the same year ,newton was born4 ,when twenty-four years old he 8began to think of gravity extending to the orb of the moon10 and before the end of the century he had discovered and established the great law of universal gravitation4 ,thus1 at the end of the seventeenth century1 the foundations of modern physics were in place4 ,during the eighteenth century they were much built upon1 but it was the nineteenth that witnessed not only the greatest advance in detail1 but the most important generalizations made since the time of ,galileo and ,newton4 ,in endeavoring to present to the intelligent but perhaps unscientific reader a brief review of the accomplishments of that 8wonderful century0 in the domain of physics1 one must not attempt more than an outline of greater events1 and it will be convenient to arrange them under the several principal subdivisions of the science1 according to the usually accepted classification4 ,,heat ,although more than one philosopher of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries suggested the identity of heat and molecular motion1 the impression made was not lasting1 and up to very near the beginning of the nineteenth century the caloric theory was accepted almost without dispute4 ,this theory implied that heat was a subtle fluid1 definite quantities of which were added to or subtracted from material substances when they became hot or cold4 ,as carefully conducted experiments seemed to show that a body weighed no more or no less when hot than when cold1 it was necessary to attribute to this fluid called caloric the mysterious property of imponderability1 that is1 unlike all forms of ordinary matter1 it possessed no weight4 ,to avoid calling it matter1 it was by many classed with light1 electricity1 and magnetism1 as one of the imponderable agents4 ,various other properties were attributed to caloric1 necessary to the reasonable explanation of a steadily increasing array of experimental facts4 ,it was declared to be elastic1 its particles being mutually self-repellent4 ,it was thought to attract ordinary matter1 and an ingenious theory of caloric was constructed1 modelled upon ,newton's famous but erroneous corpuscular theory of light4 ,during the latter part of the eighteenth century ,joseph ,black1 professor in the ,universities of ,glasgow and ,edinburgh1 developed his theory of latent heat1 which1 although founded upon a false notion of the nature of heat1 was a most important contribution to science4 ,the downfall of the caloric theory must be largely credited to the work of a famous ,american who published the results of his experiments just at the close of the eighteenth century4 ,benjamin ,thompson1 generally known as ,count ,rumford1 was born in the town of ,woburn1 ,massachusetts1 in #agec4 ,his inclination towards physical experimentation was strong in his early youth1 and he received much instruction and inspiration from the lectures of ,professor ,john ,winthrop1 of ,harvard ,college1 some of which he was enabled to attend under trying conditions4 ,having received special official consideration by appointment to office under one of the colonial governors1 he was accused at the breaking out of the ,revolutionary ,war of a leaning towards ,toryism1 and was thus prevented from making his career among his own people4 ,at the age of twenty-two years he fled to ,england1 returning to ,america only for a brief period in command of a ,british regiment4 ,in ,england he soon became eminent as an experimental philosopher1 and in #aggh became a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society4 ,he afterwards entered the service of the ,elector of ,bavaria1 by whom he was made a ,count of the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,in #agii he returned to ,london and founded the 8,royal ,institution10 which was destined during the next hundred years to surpass all other foundations in the richness and importance of its contributions to physical science4 ,it was while at ,munich that ,rumford made his famous experiments on the nature of heat1 to which he had been led by observing the great amount of heat generated in the boring of cannon4 ,finding that he was able to make a considerable quantity of water actually boil by the heat generated by a blunt boring tool1 he concluded that the supply of heat from such a source was practically inexhaustible and that it could be generated continuously if only the motion of the tool under friction was kept up4 ,he declared that anything which could thus be produced without limitation by an insulated body or system of bodies could not possibly be a material substance1 and that under the circumstances of the experiment1 the only thing that was or could be thus continuously communicated was motion4 ,count ,rumford's conclusions were not for a long time accepted4 ,davy1 the brilliant professor and eloquent lecturer at the newly established ,royal ,institution1 espoused the mechanical theory of heat and made the striking experiment of melting two pieces of ice by rubbing them together remote from any source of heat4 ,his contemporary1 ,thomas ,young1 who overturned ,newton's corpuscular theory of light and showed that it was a wave phenomenon1 also advocated ,rumford's notion of the nature of heat1 but even among physicists of high rank it had made little headway as late as the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,in the eighth edition of the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 published in #ahef1 the immediate predecessor of the current issue1 heat is defined as 8a material agent of a peculiar nature1 highly attenuated40 ,and this1 in spite of the fact that previous to that date the mechanical theory had been completely proved by the labors of ,mayer1 ,joule1 ,helmholtz1 and ,william ,thomson 7,lord ,kelvin74 ,by these men a solid foundation for the theory had been found in a great physical law of such importance that it is justly considered to be the most far-reaching generalization in natural philosophy since the time of ,newton4 ,some account of this law and its discovery will be given later in this paper4 ,among the most important of the century's contributions to our knowledge of heat must be included the work of ,fourier1 as embodied in his ,theorie ,analytique de la ,chaleur1 published in #ahbb4 ,joseph ,fourier was born in #agfh1 and died in #ahcj4 ,he belonged to that splendid group of philosophers of which the ,french nation may always be proud1 whose work constitutes a large part of the lustre of intellectual ,france during her most brilliant period1 the later years of the eighteenth and the earlier years of the nineteenth century4 ,his contemporaries included such men as ,laplace1 ,arago1 ,lagrange1 ,fresnel1 and ,carnot4 ,fourier wrote especially of the movement of heat in solids1 and as his thesis depended in no way on the nature of heat it will always be regarded as a classic4 ,his assumption that conductivity was independent of temperature was shortly proved to be erroneous1 but his general argument and conclusions were not greatly affected by this discovery4 ,his work is one of the most beautiful examples yet produced of the application of mathematics to physical research1 and mathematical and physical science were equally enriched by it4 ,in its broader aspects his law of conduction includes the transfer of electricity in good conductors1 and is the real basis of ,ohm's law4 ,one of the most skillful and successful experimenters in heat was also a ,frenchman1 ,henri ,victor ,regnault 7#ahaj-gh74 ,he greatly improved the construction and use of the thermometer1 and was the first to discover that the indications of an air thermometer and one of mercury did not exactly agree1 because they did not expand in the same degree for equal increases of temperature4 ,his most important work was on the expansion of gases1 vapor pressure1 specific heat of water1 etc41 and for careful1 patient measuring he had a positive genius4 ,until he proved the contrary it had been assumed that all gases had the same coefficient of expansion1 and ,boyle's law that the volume of a gas was inversely proportional to its pressure had not been questioned4 ,his tables of the elastic force of steam have been of immense practical value1 but his studies of the expansion of gases are of greater interest because they have pointed the way to one of the most important accomplishments of the century1 the liquefaction of all known gases4 ,during the earlier years of this century it was the custom to consider vapors and gases as quite distinct forms of matter4 ,vapors always came1 by evaporation1 from liquids1 and could always be 8condensed0 or reduced to the liquid form without difficulty1 but it was not thought possible to liquefy the so-called 8permanent0 gases4 ,the first man to attack the problem systematically was ,michael ,faraday1 who1 before the end of the first third of the century1 had liquefied several gases1 mostly by producing them by chemical reactions under pressure4 ,several of the more easily reducible gases or vapors1 such as ammonia1 sulphurous acid1 and probably chlorine1 had been previously liquefied by cold1 but a quarter of a century elapsed after ,faraday's researches before the true relation of the liquid and gaseous states of matter was understood1 and it was found that both increase of pressure and lowering of temperature were1 in general1 essential to the liquefaction of a gas4 ,it was ,thomas ,andrews1 of ,belfast1 who first showed1 in a paper published in #ahfc1 that there was a continuity in the liquid and gaseous states of matter1 that for each substance there was a critical temperature at which it became a homogeneous fluid1 neither a liquid nor a gas3 that above this temperature great pressure would not liquefy1 while below it the substance might exist as partly liquid and partly gas4 ,he pointed out the fact that for the so-called permanent gases this critical temperature must be exceedingly low1 and if such temperature could be reached liquefaction would follow4 ,subsequent progress in the liquefaction of gases came about by following this suggestion4 ,very low temperatures were produced by subjecting the gas to great reduction in volume by pressure1 removing the heat of compression by conduction and radiation1 and then by sudden expansion its temperature was greatly lowered4 ,as early as #ahgg two ,frenchmen1 ,pictet and ,cailletet1 had succeeded in liquefying oxygen1 hydrogen1 nitrogen1 and air4 ,during the past twenty years great improvements have been made in the methods of accomplishing these transformations1 so that to-day it is easy to produce considerable quantities of all of the principal gases in a liquid form1 and by carrying the reduction in temperature still further portions of the liquid may be changed to the solid state4 ,the most important work along this line has been done by ,wroblewski and ,olszewski1 of the ,university of ,cracow1 and ,professor ,dewar1 of the ,royal ,institution in ,london4 ,temperatures as low as about two hundred and fifty degrees ,c4 below the freezing-point of water have been produced1 the 8absolute zero0 being only two hundred and seventy-three degrees ,c4 below that point4 ,these experiments promise to throw much light on the nature of matter1 and they are especially interesting as revealing its extraordinary properties at extremely low temperatures4 ,among the most curious and suggestive is the fact that the electrical resistance of pure metals diminishes at a rate which indicates that at the absolute zero it would vanish1 and these metals would become perfect conductors of electricity4 ,the dynamics of heat1 or 8thermo-dynamics10 was an important field of research in the early part of the century1 on account of its practical application to the improvement of the steam-engine4 ,the science was created by ,carnot1 who1 in spite of the fact that his views regarding the nature of heat were erroneous1 discovered some of the most interesting relations among the quantities involved1 and discussed their applications to the heat engines with great skill4 ,subsequent contributors to the theory and practice of thermo-dynamics were ,clausius1 ,rankine1 ,lord ,kelvin1 and ,professor ,tait4 ,the mechanical theory of heat naturally led up to what has already been referred to as the most important generalization in physical science since the time of ,newton1 the doctrine of ,,the ,,conservation ,,of ,,energy ,this principle puts physics in its relation to energy where chemistry has long been in its relation to matter4 ,if matter were not conservative1 if it could be created or destroyed at will1 chemistry would be an impossible science4 ,physics is put upon a solid foundation by the assumption of a like conservatism in energy2 it can neither be created nor destroyed1 although it may appear in many different forms which are1 in general1 mutually interconvertible4 ,many men have contributed to the establishment of this great principle1 but it was actually discovered and proved by the labors of three or four4 ,although it was practically all done before the middle of the nineteenth century1 its general popular recognition did not come until a quarter of a century later4 ,the doctrine was first distinctly formulated by ,robert ,mayer1 a ,german physician1 who published in #ahdb a suggestive paper on 8,the ,forces of ,inorganic ,nature10 which1 however1 attracted little or no attention4 ,mayer had not approached the problem from an experimental stand-point1 but at about the same time it was attacked most successfully from this side by a young ,englishman1 ,james ,prescott ,joule1 son of a wealthy brewer of ,manchester1 ,england4 ,joule made the first really accurate determination of the mechanical equivalent of a given quantity of heat1 a physical constant which ,rumford had tried to measure1 reaching only a rough approximation4 ,substantially ,joule's result was that the heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of any given mass of water one degree ,fahr4 is the equivalent of the mechanical energy required to lift that mass through a height of seven hundred and seventy-two feet against the force of the earth's attraction2 and1 conversely1 if a mass of water be allowed to fall through a distance of seven hundred and seventy-two feet under the action of gravity1 and at the end of its motion be instantly arrested1 the heat generated will suffice to raise its temperature one degree ,fahr4 ,of such vast importance is this numerical coefficient that it has been called the golden number of the nineteenth century4 ,since ,joule's time it has been redetermined by several physicists1 notably by ,professor ,rowland1 of ,baltimore1 the general conclusion being that ,joule's number was somewhat1 but not greatly1 too small4 ,the first clear and full exposition of the doctrine of the conservation of energy was given by ,joule in a popular lecture in ,manchester in #ahdg1 but it attracted little attention until a few months later1 when the author presented his theory at a meeting of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science4 ,even among scientific men it would have passed without comment or consideration had it not been for the presence of another young ,englishman1 then as little known as ,joule himself1 who began a series of remarks1 appreciative and critical1 which resulted in making ,joule's paper the sensation of the meeting4 ,this was ,william ,thomson1 who had been1 only a year before1 at the age of twenty-two years1 appointed professor of natural philosophy at the ,university of ,glasgow1 now known as ,lord ,kelvin1 the most versatile1 brilliant1 and profound student of physical science which the century has produced4 ,from that day to the death of ,joule 7#ahhi7 these two men were closely associated in the demonstration and exploitation of a great principle of which they were at first almost the sole exponents among ,english-speaking people4 ,by an interesting coincidence1 in the same year in which ,joule announced the result of his experiments1 the ,physical ,society of ,berlin listened to a paper almost identical with ,joule's in character and conclusions1 but prepared quite independently1 by a young ,german physician1 ,herman von ,helmholtz1 destined to rank at the time of his death1 in #ahic1 as one of the very first mathematicians of the age1 doubtless the first physiologist of his time1 and as a physicist with whom not more than one other of the nineteenth century may be compared4 ,helmholtz's paper was rejected by the editor of the leading scientific journal of ,germany1 but his work was so important that he must always share with ,joule and ,kelvin in the glory of this epoch-making generalization4 ,even a brief sketch of the history of the doctrine of the conservation of energy would be incomplete if mention were not made of the work of ,tyndall4 ,although by original research he contributed in no small degree to the demonstration of the theory1 it is mainly through his wonderful skill in popular presentation of the principles of physical science that he becomes related to the great movement of the middle of the century4 ,his masterful exposition of the new theory in a course of lectures at the ,royal ,institution1 given in #ahfb and published in #ahfc under the title ,heat as a ,mode of ,motion1 was the means of making the intelligent public acquainted with its beauty and profound significance1 and the history of science affords no more admirable example of the possibilities and wisdom of popular scientific writing than this book4 ,as for the principle of the conservation of energy itself it is not too much to say that during the last half of the century it has been the guiding and controlling spirit of all scientific discovery or of invention through the application of scientific principles4 ,,light ,the revival and final establishment of the undulatory or wave theory of light is one of the glories of the nineteenth century1 and the credit for it is due to ,thomas ,young1 an ,englishman1 and ,fresnel1 a ,frenchman4 ,newton had conceived1 espoused1 and1 owing to the great authority of his name1 almost fixed upon the learned world the corpuscular or emission theory1 which assumes that all luminous bodies emit streams of minute corpuscles1 which are reflected1 refracted1 and produce vision4 ,many ordinary optical phenomena were explained by this hypothesis only with great difficulty1 and some were quite unexplainable4 ,the transmission of a disturbance or vibratory motion by means of waves1 as in the case of sound1 was a well-recognized principle1 and ,young and ,fresnel applied it most successfully to the phenomena of light4 ,wave motion1 in a general way1 is only possible in a sensibly continuous medium1 such as water1 air1 etc41 and the theory that light was a vibratory disturbance transmitted by means of waves necessitated the assumption of the existence of such a medium throughout all space in which light travelled4 ,what is known as the ethereal medium1 at first a purely imaginary substance1 but whose real existence is practically established1 satisfies this demand1 and the hypothesis that light is transmitted by waves in such a medium1 originating in a vibratory disturbance at the source1 has been of inestimable value to physical science4 ,the work of ,thomas ,young was done in the very first years of the nineteenth century4 ,he was for two years professor of ,natural ,philosophy in the ,royal ,institution just founded by ,count ,rumford1 and he was the first to fill that chair4 ,in #ahja1 in a paper presented to the ,royal ,society1 he argued in favor of the undulatory theory1 showing how the interference of waves would explain the color of thin plates4 ,his papers were not1 for several years1 received favorably1 and they were severely criticised by ,lord ,brougham4 ,augustus ,fresnel followed ,young1 but quite independently1 about ten years later1 and by him the undulatory theory received elaborate experimental and mathematical treatment4 ,in the mean time another ,frenchman had made a capital discovery in optics1 which seemed at first to be quite incompatible with the wave theory4 ,this was the discovery of what is known as polarization of light by ,malus1 a ,french engineer1 who hit upon it while investigating double refraction of crystals1 for a study of which the ,french ,institute had offered a prize in #ahjh4 ,malus found that when light fell upon a surface of glass at a certain angle a portion of the reflected light appeared to have acquired entirely new properties in regard to further reflection1 and the same was true of that part of the beam which was transmitted through the glass4 ,the light thus affected was incapable of further reflection under certain conditions1 and as the beam seemed to behave differently according to how it was presented to the reflecting surface1 the term polarization was applied to the phenomenon4 ,it was found that the two rays into which a single beam of light was split by a doubly refracting crystal 7a phenomenon which had long been known7 were affected in this way1 and that light was polarized by refraction as well as by reflection4 ,malus was a believer in the corpuscular theory of light1 but it was shortly proved1 first by ,thomas ,young1 that the phenomenon of polarization was not only not opposed to the wave theory1 but that that theory furnished a rational explanation of it4 ,this explanation1 in brief1 assumes that ordinary light is a wave produced by a vibratory motion confined to no particular plane1 the direction of vibration being at right angles to the direction of the wave1 and in any1 or1 in rapid succession1 in all azimuths4 ,when light is polarized the vibratory motion in the ether is restricted to one particular form1 a line if plane polarized1 a circle or an ellipse if circularly or elliptically polarized4 ,this simple hypothesis has been found quite adequate1 and through its application to the various phenomena of polarization1 together with the application of ,young's theory of the interference of waves to the production of color1 the undulatory theory of light was firmly established before the middle of the century4 ,there were many noted philosophers1 however1 who stood out long against it1 notably ,brewster1 the most famous ,english student of optics of the early part of the century1 who declared that his 8chief objection to the undulatory theory was that he could not think the ,creator guilty of so clumsy a contrivance as the filling of space with ether in order to produce light40 ,in studying the nature of light it became very important to know how fast a light wave travelled4 ,a tolerably good measure of the velocity of light had been made long before by means of the eclipses of ,jupiter's moons and by observations upon the positions of the stars as influenced by the motion of the earth in its orbit4 ,it was found to be approximately one hundred and eighty thousand miles per second1 a speed so great that it seemed impossible that it should ever be measured by using only terrestrial distances4 ,this extremely difficult problem has been solved1 however1 in a most satisfactory manner by nineteenth-century physicists4 ,everybody knows that in a uniform motion velocity is equal to space or distance divided by time4 ,if1 then1 the time occupied in passing through a given distance can be measured1 the velocity is at once known4 ,as the velocity of light is very large1 unless the distance is enormously great1 the time will be extremely small1 and if moderate distances are to be used the problem is to measure very small intervals of time very accurately4 ,light will travel one mile in about the one hundred and eighty-sixth thousandth part of a second1 and if by using a mile as the distance the velocity of light is to be determined within one per cent41 it is necessary to be able to detect differences of time as small as about one twenty-millionth of a second4 ,this has been made possible by the use of two distinct methods4 ,foucault1 on the suggestion of ,arago1 used a rapidly revolving mirror1 a method introduced by ,wheatstone1 the ,english electrician1 who used it in finding the duration of an electric spark4 ,the essential principle is that a mirror may be made to revolve so rapidly that it will change its position by a measurable angle1 while light which has been reflected from it passes to a somewhat distant fixed mirror and returns to the moving reflector4 ,in the other method a toothed wheel is revolved so rapidly that a beam of light passing between two consecutive teeth to a distant fixed mirror is cut off on its return to the wheel by the tooth1 which has moved forward while the light has made its journey4 ,this method was first used by ,fizeau4 ,in either method1 if the speed of rotation is known1 the time is readily found4 ,in point of time1 ,fizeau was the first to attack the problem1 which he did about #ahdi4 ,foucault was perhaps a year later in getting results1 but his method is generally considered the best4 ,both methods have been used by other experimenters1 and very important improvements in ,foucault's method were made in the ,united ,states by ,michelson about #ahgh4 ,michelson's method increased enormously the precision of the measurements1 and it has been applied by him and by ,newcomb1 not only for the better determination of the velocity of light in air1 but for the solution of many other related problems of first importance4 ,michelson's final determination of the absolute velocity of light 7in the ether7 is everywhere accepted as authoritative4 ,another discovery in optics entirely accomplished during the nineteenth century and of the very first importance is generally known as 8,spectrum ,analysis40 ,this discovery has not yet ceased to excite admiration and even amazement1 and especially among those who best understand it4 ,by its use hitherto unknown substances have become known2 to the physicist it is an instrument of research of the greatest power1 and perhaps more than anything else it promises to throw light on the ultimate nature of matter2 to the astronomer it has revealed the composition1 physical condition1 and even the motions of the most distant heavenly bodies1 all of which the philosophy of a hundred years ago would have pronounced absolutely impossible4 ,the beginning of spectrum analysis was in #ahjb1 when an ,englishman1 ,dr4 ,wollaston1 observed dark lines interrupting the solar spectrum when produced by a good prism upon which the sunlight fell after passing through a narrow slit4 ,about ten years later1 ,fraunhofer1 at ,munich1 a skilful worker in glass and a keen observer1 discovered in the spectrum of light from a lamp two yellow bands1 now known as the sodium1 or 8,d0 lines4 ,combining the three essential elements of the modern spectroscope1 the slit1 the prism1 and the observing telescope1 he saw in the spectrum of sunlight 8an almost countless number of dark lines40 ,he was the first to use a grating for the production of the spectrum1 using at first fine wire gratings and afterwards ruling fine lines upon glass1 and with these he made the first accurate measures of the length of light waves4 ,he did not1 however1 comprehend the full import of the problem which he thus brought to the attention of physicists4 ,about twenty years later ,sir ,john ,herschell studied the bright line spectra of different substances and found that they might be used to detect the presence of minute quantities of a substance whose spectrum was known4 ,wheatstone studied the spectrum of the electric arc passing between metals1 and in #ahgd ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,draper published a very important paper on the spectra of solids with increasing temperature4 ,although quite in the dark as to the real nature of the phenomena with which they were dealing1 these observers paved the way for the splendid work of the two ,germans1 ,kirchoff and ,bunsen1 who1 about #ahfj1 found the key to this wonderful problem and made the science of spectrum analysis substantially what it is to-day4 ,its fundamental principles may be considered as few and comparatively simple4 ,waves of light and radiant heat originate in ether disturbances produced by molecular vibration1 and have impressed upon them all of the important qualities of that vibration4 ,molecules of different substances differ in their modes of vibration1 each producing a wave peculiar to and characteristic of itself4 ,a useful analogy may be found in the fact that when one listens to the music of an orchestra without seeing it it is easy to recognize the tones that come from each of the several instruments1 the characteristic vibrations of each being impressed upon the waves in air which carry the sound to the ear4 ,so delicate and so sure is this impression of vibration peculiarities that it is even possible to know the maker of a violin1 for instance1 by a characteristic timbre which must have its physical expression in the sound wave4 ,the ear1 more perfect than the eye1 analyzes the resultant disturbance into its component parts so that each element may be attributed to its proper source4 ,unaided1 the eye cannot do this with light1 but the spectroscope separates the various modes of vibration which make up the confused whole1 so that varieties of molecular activity are recognizable4 ,the speed at which a source of sound is approaching or receding from the ear can be ascertained by noting the rise or fall in pitch due to the crowding together or stretching out of the sound waves1 and in the same way the motion of a luminous body is known from the increase or decrease of the refrangibility of the elements of its spectrum4 ,indeed1 had nineteenth-century science accomplished nothing else than the discovery of spectrum analysis1 it would have marked the beginning of a new epoch4 ,by this device man is put in communication with every considerable body in the universe1 including even the invisible4 ,the 8goings on0 of ,sirius and ,algol1 of ,orion and the ,pleiads are reported to him across enormous stretches of millions of millions of miles of space1 empty save of the ethereal medium itself1 by this most wonderful 8wireless telegraphy40 ,and it is by the vibratory motion of the invisibly small that all of this is revealed2 the infinitely little has enabled us to conquer the inconceivably big4 ,many important contributions to the theory and practice of spectrum analysis have been made since the time of ,kirchoff and ,bunsen1 only two or three of which can be referred to here4 ,instrumental methods by which spectra are produced and examined have been greatly perfected1 and this is especially true of what is known as the 8diffraction grating0 first used by ,fraunhofer4 ,a quarter of a century ago ,rutherford1 of ,new ,york1 constructed a ruling engine by means of which gratings on glass and spectrum metal were ruled with a precision greatly exceeding what had before been possible4 ,a few years later ,rowland1 of ,baltimore1 made a notable advance in the construction of a screw far more perfect than any before made1 producing gratings of a fineness and regularity of spacing far ahead of any others1 and especially by the capital discovery of the concave grating1 by means of which the most beautiful results have been obtained4 ,very recently ,michelson1 of ,chicago1 has invented the echelon spectroscope1 which1 although greatly restricted in range1 exceeds all others in power of analysis of spectral lines4 ,in his hands this instrument has been most effective in the study of the influence of a strong magnetic field upon the character of the spectrum from light produced therein1 a most interesting phenomenon first observed by ,zeeman and one which promises to reveal much concerning the relation of molecular activity to light and to magnetic force4 ,the development of spectrum analysis was necessarily accompanied by a recognition of the identity of radiant heat and light4 ,the study of radiant heat1 which was carried on during the earlier years of the century by ,leslie1 and later by ,melloni and ,tyndall1 by what might be called thermal methods1 has been industriously pursued during the last two decades by processes similar to those adopted for visual radiation4 ,the most notable contribution to this work is the invention of the bolometer1 by ,langley1 who1 at ,allegheny1 and later at ,washington1 has made exhaustive studies of solar radiation in invisible regions of the spectrum1 especially among the waves of greater length than those of red light1 where he has found absorption lines and bands similar in character to those observed in the visible spectrum4 ,he has also studied the absorption of the earth's atmosphere1 the relation of energy to visual effect1 and many other interesting problems1 the solution of which was made possible by the use of the bolometer4 ,mention must also be made of the invention by ,michelson of an interference comparator1 by means of which linear measurements by optical methods can be accomplished with a degree of accuracy hitherto unheard of4 ,with this instrument ,michelson has determined the length of the international prototype metre in terms of the wave length of the light of a particular spectral line1 thus furnishing for the first time a satisfactory natural unit of length4 ,by far the most important contribution to the theory of light made during the last half of the century is that of ,maxwell1 who1 in #ahgc1 announced the proposition that electro-magnetic phenomena and light phenomena have their origin in the same medium1 and that they are identical in nature4 ,this far-reaching conclusion has been generally accepted and formed the basis of much of the most important work in physical research in process of elaboration as the century closed4 ,to some of this reference will presently be made4 ,,electricity ,,and ,,magnetism ,in no other department of physical science have such remarkable developments occurred during the past century as in electricity and magnetism1 for in no other department have the practical applications of scientific discovery been so numerous and so far reaching in their effect upon social conditions4 ,in a brief review of the contributions of the nineteenth century to the evolution of the telegraph1 telephone1 trolley-car1 electric lighting1 and other means of utilizing electricity1 it will be possible to consider only a very few of the fundamental discoveries upon which the enormous and rather complex superstructure of to-day rests4 ,happily these are few in number1 and their presentation is all the more important because of the fact that in the popular mind they are not accorded that significance to which they are entitled1 if1 indeed1 they are remembered at all4 ,the first great step in advance of the electricity of ,franklin and his contemporaries 7and his predecessors for two thousand years7 was taken very near the end of the eighteenth century1 but it must be regarded as the beginning of nineteenth-century electricity4 ,two ,italian philosophers1 ,galvani and ,volta1 contributed to the invention of what is known as the galvanic or voltaic battery1 the output of which was not at first distinctly recognized as the electricity of the older schools4 ,by this beautiful discovery electricity was for the first time enslaved to man1 who was now able to generate and control it at times and in such quantities as he desired4 ,although the voltaic battery is now nearly obsolete as a source of electricity1 its invention must always be regarded as one of the three epoch-making events in the history of the science during the past one hundred and twenty years4 ,for three-quarters of a century it was practically the only source of electricity1 and during this time and by its use nearly all of the most important discoveries were made4 ,even in the first decade of the century many brilliant results were reached4 ,among the most notable were the researches of ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 who1 by the use of the most powerful battery then constructed1 resolved the hitherto unyielding alkalies1 discovering sodium and potassium1 and at the same time exhibited in his lectures in the ,royal ,institution in ,london the first electric arc light1 the ancestor of the millions that now turn night into day4 ,the cost of generating electricity by means of a voltaic battery is relatively very great1 and this fact stood in the way of the early development of its applications1 although their feasibility was perfectly well understood4 ,without any other important invention or discovery than that of the voltaic battery much would have been possible1 including both electric lighting and the electric telegraph4 ,indeed1 electric telegraphy had long been a possibility1 even before the time of ,galvani and ,volta1 but its actual construction and use was almost necessarily postponed until a second capital discovery came to remove most of the difficulties4 ,this was the discovery of a relation between electricity and magnetism1 the existence of which had long been suspected and earnestly sought4 ,a ,danish professor1 ,hans ,christian ,oersted1 was fortunate in hitting upon an experiment which demonstrated this relation and opened up an entirely new field of investigation and invention4 ,what ,oersted found was that when a conductor1 as a copper wire1 carrying an electric current1 was brought near a freely suspended magnet1 like a compass needle1 the latter would take up a definite position with reference to the current4 ,thus an electric current moved a magnet1 acted like a magnet in producing a 8magnetic field40 ,the subject was quickly taken up by almost every physicist in ,europe and ,america4 ,arago found that iron filings would cling to a wire through which a current was passing1 and he was able to magnetize steel needles by means of the current4 ,ampre1 another ,french physicist1 studied ,oersted's wonderful discovery both experimentally and mathematically1 and in an incredibly short time so developed it as to deserve the title of creator of the science of electro-dynamics4 ,the first to make what is known as an electro-magnet was an ,englishman named ,sturgeon1 who used a bar of soft iron bent in a horseshoe form 7as had long been common in making permanent steel magnets71 and1 after varnishing the iron for insulation1 a single coil of copper wire was wrapped about it1 through which the current from a battery was passed4 ,there were thus two ways of producing visible motion by means of an electric current3 that of ,oersted's simple experiment1 in which a suspended magnetic needle was deflected by a current1 and that made possible by the production1 at will1 of an electro-magnet4 ,the application of both of these ideas to the construction of an electric telegraph was quickly attempted1 and two different systems of telegraphy grew out of them4 ,one1 depending on ,oersted's experiment1 was developed in ,england first and afterwards in ,europe2 the other1 that involving the use of signals produced by an electric magnet1 was developed in ,america1 and was generally known as the ,american method4 ,it has long ago superseded the first method in actual practice4 ,its possibility depended on perfecting the electro-magnet and especially on an understanding of the principles on which that perfecting depended4 ,for the complete and satisfactory solution of this problem we are indebted to the most famous student of electricity ,america has produced during the century1 ,joseph ,henry4 ,in #ahbi1 while a teacher in the academy at ,albany1 ,new ,york1 ,henry exhibited an electro-magnet of enormously greater power than any before made1 involving all of the essential features of the magnet of to-day4 ,the wire was insulated by silk wrapping1 and many coils were placed upon the iron core1 the intensity of magnetization being thus multiplied4 ,henry studied1 also1 the best form and arrangement of the battery under varying conditions of the conductor4 ,an electro-magnetic telegraph had been declared impossible in #ahbe1 by ,barlow1 an ,englishman1 who pointed out the apparently fatal fact that the resistance offered to the current was proportional to the length of the conducting wire and that the strength of the current would be thus so much reduced for even short distances as to become too feeble to be detected4 ,henry showed that what is known as an 8intensity battery0 would overcome this difficulty1 discovering experimentally and independently the beautifully simple law showing the relation of current to electro-motive force which ,ohm had announced in #ahbg4 ,he also invented the principle of the relay1 by which the action of a very feeble current controls the operation of a more powerful local system4 ,it will thus be seen that the essential features of the so-called ,american system of telegraphy are to be credited to ,henry1 who had a working line in his laboratory as early as #ahcb4 ,morse made use of the scientific discoveries and inventions of ,henry1 and by his indefatigable labors and persistent faith the commercial value of the enterprise was really established4 ,in the mean time considerable progress was made in ,europe4 ,baron ,schilling1 a ,russian ,councillor of ,state1 devised and exhibited a needle telegraph4 ,the two illustrious ,german physicists1 ,gauss and ,weber1 established a successfully working line two or three miles long in #ahcc1 and this system was commercially developed by ,steinheil in #ahcg4 ,in ,england1 ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone made many important contributions1 although using the needle system1 which was afterwards abandoned4 ,before the middle of the century the commercial success of the electro-magnetic telegraph was assured1 and in the matter of the transmission of messages distance was practically annihilated4 ,oersted1 ,arago1 ,ampre1 ,sturgeon1 and ,henry had made it possible to convert electricity into mechanical energy4 ,motors of various types had been invented1 and the possibility of using the new source of power for running machinery1 cars1 boats1 etc41 was fully recognized4 ,several attempts had been made to do these things1 but the great cost of producing the current by means of a battery stood in the way of success4 ,another epoch-making discovery was necessary1 namely1 a method of reversing the process and converting mechanical energy into electricity4 ,this was supplied by the genius of ,michael ,faraday1 who had succeeded ,davy in the ,royal ,institution at ,london4 ,in #ahca ,faraday discovered induction1 the key to the modern development of electricity4 ,he showed that while ,oersted had proved that a current of electricity would generate a magnetic field and set a magnet in motion1 this process was reversible4 ,a magnet set in motion in a magnetic field by a steam-engine or any other source of power would produce1 in a conductor properly arranged1 a current of electricity1 and thus the dynamo came into existence4 ,in this brilliant investigation he was almost anticipated by ,henry1 who was working at ,albany along the same lines1 but under much less favorable conditions4 ,indeed1 in several of the most important points1 the ,american actually did anticipate the ,englishman4 ,nearly half a century elapsed before this most important discovery was sufficiently developed to become commercially valuable1 and it is impossible in this place to trace the steps by which1 during the last quarter of a century1 the production and utilization of electricity as existing to-day was accomplished1 as a result of which the century closed1 as one might say1 in a blaze of light2 and it is unnecessary1 because most people have witnessed the spread of the fire which ,faraday and ,henry kindled4 ,faraday's discovery of induction furnished the basis of that marvellous improvement upon the telegraph by which actual speech is transmitted over hundreds and even thousands of miles4 ,in connection with the invention of the telephone the names of ,philip ,reiss1 ,graham ,bell1 ,elisha ,gray1 and ,dolbear will always be mentioned1 each of whom1 doubtless independently1 hit upon a way of accomplishing the result with more or less success4 ,to ,bell1 however1 belongs the honor of having first practically solved the problem and of devising a system which1 with numerous modifications and improvements1 has come into extensive use in all parts of the world4 ,no other application of electricity has come into such universal use1 and none has contributed more to the comfort of life4 ,while it is doubtless true that since ,faraday's time no discovery comparable with his in real importance has been made1 the past twenty-five years have not lacked in results of scientific research1 some of which may1 in the not distant future1 eclipse even that in the value of their practical applications4 ,among these must be ranked ,clerk ,maxwell's theory of electric waves and its beautiful verification in #ahhh by the young ,german physicist1 ,hertz4 ,this brilliant student of electricity succeeded in actually producing1 detecting1 and controlling these waves1 and out of this discovery has come the 8wireless telegraphy0 which has been so rapidly developed within the last few years4 ,many other discoveries in electricity of great scientific interest and practical promise have been recorded in the closing years of the century1 but the necessary limits of this article forbid their consideration4 ,no account of the progress of physical science during the nineteenth century would be even approximately complete without mention of other investigations of profound significance4 ,for instance1 the study of the phenomena of sound has yielded results of great scientific and some practical value4 ,the application of the theory of interference by ,thomas ,young2 the publication of ,helmholtz's great work1 the ,tonempfindungen1 in which his theory of harmony was first fully presented2 the publication of ,lord ,rayleigh's treatise2 the invention and construction by ,knig of acoustic apparatus1 the best example yet furnished of scientific handicraft2 all of these mark important advances1 not only in acoustics but in general physics as well4 ,the phonautograph of ,scott and ,knig1 by which a graphic record of the vibrations of the vocal chords was made possible1 was ingeniously converted by ,edison into a speech recording and reproducing machine1 the phonograph1 by which the most marvellous results are accomplished in the simplest possible manner4 ,the century is also to be credited with the discovery and development of the art of photography1 which1 although not of the first importance1 has contributed much to the pleasure of life1 and as an aid to scientific investigation has become quite indispensable4 ,the wonderfully beautiful experiments of ,sir ,william ,crookes1 on the passage of an electric discharge through a high vacuum1 and other phenomena connected with what has been called 8radiant matter10 begun about a quarter of a century ago and continued by him and others up to the present time1 laid the foundation for the brilliant work of ,rntgen in the discovery and study of the so-called 8,x0-rays1 the real nature of which is not yet understood4 ,their further investigation by ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson1 ,becquerel1 and others1 seems to have revealed new forms and phases of radiation1 a fuller knowledge of which is likely to throw much light on obscure problems relating to the nature of matter4 ,concerning the 8,nature of ,matter10 the ablest physicists of the century have thought and written much1 and doubtless our present knowledge of the subject is much more nearly the truth than that of a hundred years ago4 ,the molecular theory of gases has met with such complete experimental verification1 and is so in accord with all observed phenomena1 that it must be accepted as essentially correct4 ,as to the ultimate nature of what is called matter1 as distinguished from the ethereal medium1 what is known as the 8vortex theory of atoms0 has received the most consideration4 ,this theory was developed by ,lord ,kelvin out of ,helmholtz's mathematical demonstration of the indestructibility of a vortex ring when once formed in a medium possessing the properties which are generally attributed to the ether4 ,perhaps the most remarkable as well as the most promising fact relating to physical science at the close of the nineteenth century is the great and rapidly increasing number of well-organized and splendidly equipped laboratories in which original research is systematically planned and carried out4 ,when one reflects that for the most part during the century just ended the advance of science was more or less of the nature of a guerrilla warfare against ignorance1 it seems safe to predict for that just beginning victories more glorious than any yet won4 ,t4 ,c4 ,,mendenhall4 ,,war ,it is doubtful how far1 even if as civilians we get over our natural dislike of talking of military change as 8progress10 there has been any considerable advance in the larger aspects of military science within the century4 ,the genius of ,bonaparte1 working upon the foundations laid by ,frederick the ,great1 established a century ago principles which are essentially applicable to the military matters of the present day2 and although the scientific developments of artillery and musketry have affected the dispositions of battle-fields1 the essential principles of the art of preparation for war and of strategy stand where they stood before4 ,scharnhorst was the ,prussian officer who began to reduce the ,napoleonic military system to rules applicable to the use of ,german armies4 ,under ,bonaparte the whole management of the army was too often concentrated in the hands of the man of genius1 and the actual method of ,napoleon had the defect that1 failing the man of genius at the head of the army1 it broke down4 ,the main change made by the ,germans1 who followed ,scharnhorst1 in the course of the century has been to codify the ,napoleonic system so that it was possible to more generally decentralize in practice without impairing its essence4 ,they have also established a division of its supply department 7under a ,minister of ,war7 from the 8brain of the army10 as ,mr4 ,spenser ,wilkinson has well called it1 which manages the preparation for the strategy of war and the strategy itself4 ,these so-called ,prussian principles of decentralization and 8initiative0 are1 however1 not new and not ,prussian1 and may be discovered in the conversations of ,napoleon ,bonaparte4 ,the ,french in #ahgj had forgotten his teaching1 and the ,germans had retained it4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 the case that the number of men placed in the field by the military powers having increased1 the intelligent initiative of corps commanders and even of generals commanding divisions has become the more essential4 ,it is impossible that the great general staff can give orders in advance which will cover the responsibility of all the inferior generals1 and brains have to be added in all ranks to obedience4 ,the commander-in-chief in the field cannot with advantage drown himself in details1 and he can only provide in his orders an outline sketch which his subordinates in various parts of the field of operations have to fill in4 ,the 8initiative of subordinates0 is but the natural division of labor4 ,if ,i1 a civilian student of military politics1 rather than a military expert1 have been called upon to write upon the military progress of the century1 it must be because of a desire to bring largely into the account the changes in military organization which on the continent of ,europe have made it permanently national1 and which in the ,united ,states made it temporarily national during the ,civil ,war1 and would make it so again in the event of any fresh struggle on a great scale in which the ,north ,american continent might become involved4 ,although the 8armed nation0 has replaced in ,france1 ,germany1 ,switzerland1 ,austria-,hungary1 ,italy1 ,roumania1 and ,bulgaria the smaller professional armies of the eighteenth century1 the popular belief that the numerical strength of field armies has enormously increased is not so completely well founded as at first sight might be supposed4 ,it is true that each nation can put into the entire field of warfare larger numbers than that nation could put into the field a century ago4 ,but it is still not beyond the bounds of possibility that in certain cases small armies may produce results as remarkable as those which attended ,british operations in the ,peninsula in the early part of the nineteenth century1 and1 on the other hand1 although there will1 upon the whole1 in future continental wars1 be larger armies in the field1 no one general is likely personally to handle or to place upon a field of battle a larger army than that with which ,napoleon traversed ,europe before he invaded ,russia4 ,the principles of pure military science as set forth in books have not been greatly changed during the nineteenth century4 ,the ,prussian ,clausewitz only explained for us the doctrines of ,bonaparte2 and the latest writers--such as the ,frenchmen ,derrcagaix and ,lewal--only continue ,clausewitz4 ,the theory of the armed nation has received extension1 but1 after all1 the ,prussian system in its essentials dates from ,jena1 and the steps by which it has produced the admirable existing armies of ,france1 ,austria1 and ,roumania have been but slow4 ,the ,united ,states stand apart4 ,their resources are so fabulously great that they and they alone are able to wait for war before making war preparations4 ,no power will attack the ,united ,states4 ,all powers will submit to many things and yield many strong points rather than fight the ,united ,states4 ,the only territorial neighbors of the republic are not only not in a position to enter into military rivalry with her on the ,american continent1 but are not advancing their military establishments with the growth of their or of her population4 ,they are of themselves not only unable to attack1 but equally unable in the long run effectively to resist her4 ,the whole question1 then1 unfortunately for us ,europeans1 is a ,european question1 and ,i need make but little reference to happier lands across the greater seas4 ,in ,europe the ,united ,kingdom stands absolutely apart4 ,the existence of the ,british ,empire depends less upon our armies than on our fleets4 ,india is garrisoned by a small but costly army1 sufficient for present needs1 but insufficient to meet their probable growth4 ,the home army1 kept mainly in ,england and ,ireland 7and in ,ireland now only because life is cheap in ,ireland and the country healthy and well fitted for the drill and discipline of troops71 has been chiefly a nursery for the white army in ,india1 and will be for that in ,south ,africa and in ,india4 ,the expeditions which the country is obliged to send from time to time across the seas have but a domestic interest1 and are unimportant when viewed from a world-wide military stand-point4 ,in the event of war the attention of the country would be concentrated upon her fleets1 with a view to retain that command of the sea without which her old-fashioned army would be useless4 ,belgium has an old-fashioned army of another type4 ,a small force of conscripts is 8drawn0 and the men are allowed to find substitutes for money4 ,but ,belgium and the other smaller ,powers1 except ,switzerland1 ,roumania1 and ,bulgaria1 may be neglected in our survey4 ,switzerland has developed an excellent army of a special local type1 a cheap but highly efficient militia1 the most interesting point about which is that1 while field artillery is supposed to be difficult of creation and only to be obtained upon a costly and regular system1 ,switzerland produces an excellent field artillery upon a militia footing4 ,the garrison artillery militia of ,great ,britain have longer training than the field artillery of the ,swiss ,federation1 but the results of the training are very different4 ,similarly1 while cavalry is supposed to be in the same position as artillery in these matters1 ,hungary produces a good cavalry upon a militia system4 ,it is1 however1 to the native army in ,india that we have to turn if we want to see what long service cavalry in past centuries used to be1 for in these days of shorter service cavalry at least has suffered a decline1 and1 so far from cavalry1 on the whole1 presenting us with a picture of military progress in the century1 the cavalry of the present day is not to be compared with the cavalry of the past4 ,roumania and ,bulgaria1 although small countries1 have remarkable armies of the most modern type1 of great strength when considered proportionately to their populations2 but these need not come under our examination1 because substantially they are on the ,prussian plan4 ,russia differs from ,germany1 ,france1 and ,austria in having an immense peace army4 ,her peace army is indeed as large as that of the whole of the ,triple ,alliance1 and the enormous distances of ,russia and the difficulties of mobilization and concentration force her into the retention and development of a system which is now peculiar to herself4 ,the armies of ,russia resemble more closely 7although on a far larger scale7 the old armies of the time before the changes which followed #ahff than the ,french1 ,german1 and ,austrian armies of to-day4 ,italy is decreasing her army1 and has been driven by her financial straits to completely spoil a system which was never good except on paper4 ,it is doubtful whether now in a sudden war the ,italians could put into the field any thoroughly good troops1 except their ,alpine battalions1 which are equal to those of the ,french4 ,the ,austrian system does not differ sufficiently from those of ,germany and of ,france to be worthy special note1 although it may be said in passing that the ,austrian army is now considered by competent observers to be excellent4 ,we may take as our type of the armies of to-day those of ,germany and of ,france4 ,these armies are also normal as regards their cost4 ,great ,britain having no conscription1 and being in the habit of paying dearly for all services1 is extravagant in her military expenditure for the results obtained4 ,switzerland and ,russia1 with their different systems1 and for different reasons1 obtain their armies very cheaply2 and if we wish to know the cost of the modern military system it is to ,germany and to ,france that we should turn4 ,those who would study the ,french or ,german army for themselves will find a large literature on the subject4 ,the principles which govern the establishment of an armed nation upon the modern ,prussian scale1 improved after the experiences of #ahff and again after those of #ahgj1 are explained in the work of ,von der ,goltz1 ,the ,nation in ,arms4 ,those who would follow these principles into their detailed application1 and see how the armies are divided between1 and nourished and supplied from the military districts of one of the great countries1 will find the facts set forth in such publications as the illustrated ,annual of the ,french ,army1 published each year by ,plon1 ,nourrit1 et ,cie41 or in the official handbooks published by the ,librairie ,militaire ,baudoin4 ,in the time of ,bonaparte and even in the time of the ,second ,empire in ,france army corps were of varying strength1 and there was no certain knowledge on the part of administrators less admirable than the first ,napoleon himself of the exact numbers of men who could be placed in the field4 ,in #ahgj ,louis ,napoleon was wholly misinformed as to his own strength and as to that of his opponents1 which were1 however1 accurately known to ,von ,moltke4 ,in these days such confusions and difficulties are impossible4 ,the army corps of the great military powers are of equal strength and would be equally reinforced in the extraordinarily rapid mobilization which would immediately precede and immediately follow a declaration of war4 ,the chief changes in the century have been a greater exactitude in these respects1 a general increase of numbers 7especially a great increase in the strength of field artillery71 and in these last years a grouping of the army corps into armies1 which exist in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,russia even in time of peace1 with all their generals and staffs named ready for war4 ,in each of the great military countries the army is guided by the counsel of a general staff4 ,around the chief of the staff and the ,minister of ,war are the 8generals of armies10 and in ,france a potential generalissimo 7who on the outbreak of war would often be superseded by another general in the actual command74 ,in the case of ,germany the command would now be exercised by the young ,emperor4 ,in the case of ,france it would be exercised by the generalissimo1 with the chief of the staff as his 8,berthier0 or major-general4 ,enormously important duties in the case of armies so unwieldy as the entire forces of the first line and of the second line in ,germany or ,france and of the first line in ,russia would be exercised by the 8generals of armies40 ,these generals in time of peace are called 8inspectors of armies0 in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,austria1 and they inspect groups of army corps which would be united in war to form the armies which these generals would actually command4 ,these generals also form the council of war or principal promotion board and committee of advice for the generalissimo and chief of the staff4 ,in ,germany and in ,austria-,hungary the ,german ,emperor and the ,emperor-,king respectively are virtual general inspectors-in-chief of the whole army1 but in ,france and in ,russia there is less unity of command4 ,the ,minister of ,war in ,russia1 in ,germany1 and in ,france is intended to be at the head of the supplies of the army in time of war1 directing the administration from the capital1 and not taking his place in the field4 ,the ,prussian system1 as far as the men are concerned1 was adopted after the disasters of ,prussia early in the century1 in order to pass great numbers of men through the ranks without attracting attention by keeping up a large peace army4 ,the system is now maintained by ,germany1 ,austria1 and ,france for a different reason4 ,such powers desire to have an enormous force for war1 but1 for budgetary reasons1 to keep with the flag in time of peace the smallest force which is consistent with training the men sufficiently to enable them upon mobilization to be brought back to their regiments as real soldiers4 ,it is these considerations which have induced the younger and more thoughtful of the ,prussian generals to force on ,germany a reduction of the period of infantry service to two years4 ,the army in time of peace becomes a mere training-school for war1 and the service is made as short as possible1 given the necessity of turning out a man who for some years will continue to have the traditions of a soldier4 ,it is a question whether something has not been sacrificed1 in ,france1 at all events1 to uniformity4 ,a longer period of training is undoubtedly necessary to make an efficient cavalry soldier than is necessary to make an efficient infantry private2 and a man who has served about two and a half years only in a cavalry regiment cannot in the majority of cases be brought back into the cavalry after he has returned to civil life4 ,cavalry1 in the modern armies1 is likely to be a diminishing force as war goes on4 ,the armies will enter upon war with a number of infantry which can be kept up1 the losses of war being supplied by reserve men as good as the men of the first line2 but each army will enter upon war with a force of cavalry which will be rapidly destroyed if it is much used1 and which will not be replaced in the same manner4 ,the reserve cavalry of which the ,french press boasts is a paper force1 and the pretended mobilization of two of its regiments a farce4 ,the ,french would take the field with the cavalry of the first line only1 seventy-nine regiments of five hundred horses 7all over six years old71 or less than half the eighty-four thousand cavalry with which ,napoleon marched in #ahab4 ,the same thing might possibly be said of artillery as is said of cavalry but for the fact that ,switzerland tells a different story as to the possibility of rapidly training artillerymen with a considerable measure of success4 ,the ,french improvised artillery of the latter part of the war of #ahgj were also a creditable force1 while it was discovered to be impossible to create a cavalry4 ,the efficiency of the reserves in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,austria is tested by the calling out of large portions of them every year for training1 and they are found1 as far as the infantry go1 thoroughly competent for the work of war4 ,the difficulties as regards cavalry are so obvious that it is becoming more and more recognized by ,germany and by ,france that the cavalry will have to take the field as they stand in peace1 and that their reserve men will have to be kept back with a view to the selection among them of those who are fit to serve as cavalry1 and the relegation of the greater number to the train and other services where ability to ride and manage horses is more necessary than the smartness of a good cavalryman4 ,france and ,germany nominally look forward to the creation of two kinds of armies in time of war1 one of the first line to take the field at once1 and the other to guard the communications and garrison and support the fortresses1 but in fact it is the intention of these powers to divide their armies into three--a field army of the first line1 a field army of the second line1 out of which fresh army corps will at once be created on the outbreak of war1 and1 thirdly1 a territorial army for communications and for fortress purposes and as a last reserve4 ,it is a portion of the ,french and ,german system that each army corps of the first line--and the same would be the case in war with the second line corps--has its separate organization of ammunition train and baggage train1 and draws as largely as possible its supplies from its own territorial district4 ,the peace strength of the great modern armies is for ,france and ,germany about five hundred thousand men each1 and the war strength between four million and five million men each4 ,the peace strength of ,russia is now over nine hundred thousand men4 ,of the war armies the training is not uniformly complete1 but there are in ,germany1 ,france1 ,austria1 and ,roumania sufficient reserves of clothing and rifles to equip the war armies of those powers for the field4 ,the cost of the system of a modern army is very much less than that of the old-fashioned armies4 ,the ,united ,kingdom spent till lately 7including loan money7 about eighteen million pounds sterling upon her army1 ,india rarely less than fourteen million pounds sterling and an average of fifteen million pounds1 and the ,british ,empire1 outside the ,united ,kingdom and ,india1 two million pounds1 or an average of thirty-five million pounds sterling in all upon land forces4 ,the expenditure of the ,united ,kingdom upon land forces has been permanently increased to an enormous extent by the ,south ,african war and cannot now be estimated4 ,the expenditure of ,france and ,germany upon land forces is greatly less2 and of ,russia1 large as is her peace army1 less again4 ,but ,france and ,germany in the event of war can immediately each of them place millions of armed men in the field in proper army formation and with adequate command1 whereas the ,united ,kingdom can place a doubtful three corps in the field in ,india with great difficulty1 and1 in the true sense of the word1 no organized force at all at home without an incredible amount of reorganization and waste of time after the declaration of war4 ,it is contended by the authorities responsible for the ,british army that two army corps could be placed in the field at home1 and elaborate paper arrangements exist for this purpose2 but the facts are as ,i state them1 and not as they are professed to be4 ,it is pretended that three corps of regulars were despatched to ,south ,africa4 ,but the cavalry and artillery were1 in fact1 created by lavish expenditure a long time after the war had begun and after disasters caused by their non-existence4 ,centralized as is the administrative system of ,france and ,germany in everything except war1 the necessities of modern warfare have forced upon the governments of those countries a large amount of decentralization as concerns military matters1 and the less efficient military machines of the ,united ,kingdom and of ,russia are far more centralized than are the more efficient machines of ,germany and of ,france4 ,the army corps districts have in the latter countries so much autonomy as to recall to the political student the federal organization of the ,united ,states rather than the government of a highly centralized modern power4 ,as soon1 however1 as war breaks out1 the military states of time of peace would be grouped1 and the four or five groups known as 8armies10 also1 of course1 theoretically1 brought together under the directing eye of the generalissimo4 ,in the case1 at all events1 of ,germany1 unity of direction is perfectly combined with decentralization and individual initiative4 ,the mode in which a modern army on the anticipation of war prepares itself for the field is extraordinarily rapid in point of time as compared with the mode found necessary in the time of ,napoleon ,bonaparte2 and it is this rapidity of mobilization and concentration which strikes the observer as the greatest change or progress of the century in connection with armies4 ,but it is a mere consequence of railroads and telegraphs1 and is only the application to military purposes of those increased facilities of locomotion which have played so great a part in the progress of the century4 ,mobilization is1 of course1 the union at points fixed beforehand of the men of the reserves who bring the army up to its war footing1 and the clothing and equipment of these men1 and the distribution to the mobilized regiments of their full materials of war4 ,the cavalry and horse artillery kept upon the frontier are now in a condition of permanent readiness in the principal military countries1 as they would be used to cover the mobilization of the remainder of the army4 ,the moment mobilization is accomplished concentration takes place--on the frontier in the case of the principal powers4 ,near the line of concentration are forts1 which play a greater part in the ,french scheme of defence than they do in the ,german4 ,the ,french in the days of their weakness after #ahgj both constructed a line of intrenched camps and built a kind of wall of ,china along the most exposed portion of their eastern frontier2 whereas the ,germans are prepared to rely upon their field armies1 supported by a few immense fortresses1 such as those 7on their western frontier7 of ,metz and ,strasburg4 ,the ,french keep in front of their fortresses at ,nancy a strong division1 which is virtually always on a war footing1 and both in ,france and ,germany the frontier corps are at a higher peace strength than those of the interior1 and are meant to take the field at once so as to help the cavalry and horse artillery to protect the mobilization and concentration of the remainder1 and1 if possible1 to disturb the mobilization and concentration of the foe4 ,those who would study modern armies for themselves should visit ,nancy and ,metz1 but should not neglect the ,swiss annual manuvres4 ,the work of the recruit of ,germany and of ,france1 during his two years' or nearly three years' training as the case may be1 is as hard as any human work2 and the populations of the continental countries submit1 not on the whole unwillingly1 from patriotic motives1 to a slavery of which the more fortunate inhabitants of the ,united ,kingdom and of the ,united ,states have no conception4 ,the ,british or the ,belgian paid recruit would mutiny if forced to work as works the virtually unpaid and ill-fed recruit of ,russia1 ,germany1 ,austria1 and ,france4 ,the enormous loss to many industries which is caused by the withdrawal of the men at the age of twenty1 just when they are most apt to become skilled workmen1 is in the opinion of some ,germans compensated for by the habit of discipline and the moral tone of stiffness and endurance which is communicated to the soldier for the rest of his life4 ,this is perhaps more true of the ,german character than it is of the inhabitants of the other countries2 and in ,france1 at least1 the soldier training of the entire population is a heavy drawback to industrial and to intellectual life4 ,there are1 however1 as will be seen in the concluding passage of this article1 other considerations to be taken into account1 some of which tell the other way4 ,the one successful exception to the prevailing military system of the day is to be found in ,switzerland1 which has a very cheap army of the militia type1 but one which is1 nevertheless1 pronounced efficient by the best judges4 ,the mobilization of ,switzerland in #ahgj was more rapid than that of either ,germany or ,france1 and1 great as are the strides that both ,france and ,germany have made in rapidity of organization and as regards numbers since #ahgj1 the ,swiss also have reorganized their mobilization system since that time1 and are still able1 at a much less proportional cost1 to place in the field at least as large a proportional force as ,germany1 and this force believed to be efficient1 although not largely provided with cavalry4 ,the greatest change in the battle-fields of the future1 as compared with those of a few years ago1 will be found in the development and increased strength of the artillery4 ,a modern army1 when it takes up a position1 has miles of front almost entirely occupied with guns1 and the guns have to fire over the infantry1 because there is no room for such numbers of guns to be used in any other way4 ,the attacking side 7if both1 indeed1 in one form or another1 do not attempt attack7 will be chiefly occupied in obtaining positions on which to place its guns1 and the repeating-rifle itself1 deadly as is its fire1 cannot contend at ranges over a thousand yards1 unless the riflemen are heavily intrenched1 with the improved shrapnel fire of modern guns4 ,the early engagements of a war will1 indeed1 be engagements of cavalry massed upon the frontier on the second day of mobilization1 so rapid will the opening of war in the future be4 ,this cavalry will be accompanied by horse artillery and followed by light infantry1 constantly practised in rapid marching in time of peace1 or by mounted infantry4 ,but the great battle-fields of the later weeks will be battle-fields1 above all1 of artillery4 ,the numbers engaged will be so great that the heaviest of all the responsibilities of the generals will be the feeding of their troops during the battles prolonged during several days1 which will probably occur1 and it is doubtful how far the old generals 7often grown unwieldy in time of peace7 will be able to stand the daily and nightly strain of war4 ,jomini has said that when both sides are equally strong in numbers1 in courage1 and in many other elements of force1 the great tragedy of ,borodino is the typical battle4 ,lewal has pointed out that in the battles of the future such equality must be expected3 8,the battle will begin on the outbreak of war in the operations of the frontier regiments4 ,the great masses as they come to the field will pour into a fight already raging4 ,the battle will be immense and prolonged40 ,promotion will probably be rapid among the generals1 owing to incompetence and retirement1 and certainly among other officers owing to their exposure in these days of smokeless powder1 when good shots can pick off officers in a manner unknown in wars which have hitherto occurred4 ,whether it will be possible to get armies to advance under heavy fire after the officers have been killed is doubtful1 when we remember that modern armies consist of the whole population1 cowards and brave men alike1 and that regimental cohesion is weakened by the sudden infusion of an overwhelming proportion of reserve men at the last moment4 ,on the other hand1 in the ,german army the reserve men will be fewer in the first line than in the ,french1 and the regimental system more available in the field1 while on the ,french side the greater military aptitude of the ,french race may perhaps be counted upon to remedy the comparative defect4 ,the ,prussians make up for the inferior military aptitude of the ,german people by patriotism1 discipline1 and the conferring of honor and of civil employment1 in after life1 on all who do their duty in war4 ,they also provide more effectively than do the ,french against incapacity in high place4 ,above all1 however1 we should attach importance to the wisdom of successive ,kings of ,prussia in treating the ,prussian army as an almost sacred institution1 and in constantly working in time of peace to make it and keep it a perfect instrument of war4 ,the weakest point1 relatively speaking1 in the ,french organization1 and the strongest point1 relatively speaking1 in the ,german1 is the officering of the second and third line4 ,the one-year-volunteer system gives the ,germans excellent 8territorial0 officers1 while the ,french have been forced virtually to abolish it as impossible of successful application in a country so jealous of privilege as is modern ,france4 ,the territorial infantry regiments of ,france would be excellent for the defence of fortresses1 but would for field purposes be inferior to that part of the ,prussian landwehr which would remain over after the completion of the reserve corps4 ,the reserve cavalry regiments of ,france have been created in order to provide promotion and sinecure appointments1 and would not produce a cavalry fit for true cavalry service in the field4 ,it would carry us beyond the proper limits of this article to explain how it is that the ,french could create a field artillery of the second line in time of war which would probably be superior to that of ,germany4 ,this forms a set-off against some other inferiority of the ,french4 ,the newest point in the development of modern armies is the recent separation in the ,german army of the cavalry intended for patrol duties from the cavalry intended for fighting in the field4 ,we have had to face the same problem in ,south ,africa1 but this condition of our war was peculiar4 ,it has been said that the history of warfare is the history of the struggle among weapons1 and that each change in tactics and even in strategy has come from scientific change affecting weapons4 ,in the century we have seen the change from the smooth-bore to the rifle and from the ordinary to the repeating rifle4 ,we have seen the modifications of artillery1 which are beginning to give an application of the quick-firing principle to field artillery1 and the use of high explosive shells1 likely to affect by their explosion even those who are near the bursting shell and who are not struck by its fragments4 ,smokeless powder has altered the look of battles and has reduced their noise4 ,it provides excuse for the incompetent4 ,it would be easy1 however1 to exaggerate the importance of these changes as regards tactics1 and still more with regard to strategy1 while with tactics we are not here concerned4 ,the great continental military nations have hitherto not allowed themselves to be much affected by the changes in the weapons1 and many of the modern fads which are adopted in small armies are condemned by the leaders of these great forces4 ,the ,british machine guns1 for example1 like ,british mounted infantry1 are generally regarded on the continent as a fancy of our own4 ,all nations have their military fads1 except1 perhaps1 the severely practical ,germans4 ,russia has its dragoon organization1 from which it is receding2 ,america has her dynamite gun2 the ,french have their submarine torpedo-boats4 ,our machine guns are not thought much more of by most ,prussians than the steam-gun of #ahdd1 ridiculed by ,dickens in ,martin ,chuzzlewit4 ,if great change was to have been made in the art of war by modern weapons1 one would have thought that the first things to disappear would be all vestige of protective armor and the use of cavalry in the field4 ,yet protective armor has been recently restored to as large a proportion of many armies as used it in the wars of the beginning of the century1 and the use of cavalry in the field is defended as still possible by all the highest authorities on the continent4 ,my own opinion on such matters is that of a layman and should be worthless1 but it agrees with that of several distinguished military writers4 ,i confess that ,i doubt whether in future wars between good armies1 such as those of ,france and ,germany1 it will be possible to employ cavalry on the field of battle1 and ,i go so far as to think that the direct offensive1 still believed in by the ,prussians1 will be found to have become too costly to be possible4 ,our ,south ,african experience is not1 however1 regarded by continental authorities as conclusive4 ,the author of ,ironclads in ,action1 ,mr4 ,wilson1 who has made a very thorough study of the future of naval war1 has pointed out with great force the most striking difficulties of war in the future as caused by the enormous concentration of forces in a particular tract of country4 ,the result of that concentration must be great difficulties about supply1 prolonged battles of an indecisive kind leading to exposure1 absence of sleep1 and to conditions which would form the severest strain for professional men of war1 while those who will now be subject to them will be the ordinary population1 not very specially warriors1 except so far as patriotism may in some cases make up as regards courage and endurance for absence of military tradition4 ,the vast number of wounded will be exposed for longer periods than was the case in many of the earlier wars2 but when we remember ,leipsic1 and ,dresden1 and the retreat from ,moscow1 it is again easy to see that the change is rather in the direction of generalization of conditions1 which were formerly exceptional1 than a change to conditions wholly without precedent4 ,i have all through this article written of ,germany and ,france as the modern military countries to be taken as a standard in all comparisons4 ,the ,french have imitated the ,germans very closely since the war of #ahgj4 ,but1 although imitation is generally feeble1 it must always be borne in mind that the ,french people have greater military aptitude than the ,german1 and that unless beaten at the beginning of a war they are always in the highest degree formidable4 ,the perfection of system is to be found in ,germany1 and the peculiarities of the ,german system are the combination of enlightened patriotism in all its individuality with iron discipline4 ,the system is so strong that unless well managed it would crush out individual responsibility2 but the system itself encourages this individual responsibility all down the gradations of the army to the humblest non-commissioned officer and even to the detached private4 ,the universality of promotion by a certain high standard of merit and the absence of jobbery are more thoroughly obtained in ,germany than in any other army1 and ,lord ,wolseley's criticisms on the #ahih manuvres of our own army1 criticisms renewed in #aijj1 in which he told us that no one had done well in the field1 and that this proved that no one could have done his duty during the past year1 would be impossible in ,germany1 and must have shocked military opinion throughout that country4 ,it is not unusual to assume that the enormous military establishments of the continent of ,europe are an almost unmixed evil4 ,but this may perhaps be disputed on two grounds4 ,in some cases1 such as that of ,italy1 the army acts as a kind of rough national university in which the varied life of districts often discordant is fused into a patriotic whole1 dialects are forgotten1 and a common language learned4 ,in the case of ,france the new military system is a powerful engine of democracy4 ,there is a ,french prince 7not of the blood7 serving at this moment in a squad of which the corporal is a young peasant from the same department4 ,a few years ago ,i found the ,duc de ,luynes1 who is also ,duc de ,chaulnes and ,duc de ,chevreuse1 the owner of ,dampierre1 the personal friend of kings1 serving1 by his own wish1 for1 as the eldest son of a widow1 he was exempt1 as a private of dragoons1 and respectfully saluting young officers1 some of whom were his own tenants4 ,the modern military system of the continent1 in the case of ,france and ,germany at least1 may also1 ,i think1 be shown to have told in favor of peace4 ,it is possible for us to occasionally demand a war with the greater freedom1 because we do not as a rule know what war means4 ,those of us who have seen something of it with our own eyes are a very small minority4 ,but every inhabitant of ,france and ,germany has the reality of war brought home to him with the knowledge that those of his own kin would have to furnish their tribute of 8cannon flesh0 7as the ,french and ,germans call it7 at the outbreak of any war2 and the influence of the whole of the women of both countries is powerfully exerted in consequence upon the side of peace4 ,,charles ,w4 ,,dilke4 ,,naval ,,ships ,in the conditions of naval warfare the century now closed has seen a revolution unparalleled in the rapidity of the transition and equalled in degree only by the changes which followed the general introduction of cannon and the abandonment of oars in favor of sails for the propulsion of ships of war4 ,the latter step was consequent1 ultimately1 upon the discovery of the ,new ,world and of the sea-passage to ,india by the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the voyage to those distant regions was too long and the remoteness from ports of refuge too great for rowing galleys1 a class of vessels whose construction unfitted them for developing great size and for contending with heavy weather4 ,the change of motive power made possible and entailed a different disposition of the fighting power1 the main battery weight of ships being transferred from the bows and sterns--end-on fire--to the broadsides4 ,the combination of these two new factors caused ships and fleets necessarily to be fought in a different manner from formerly--entailed1 to use the technical word1 new tactics4 ,the innovations thus briefly mentioned1 though equally radical1 were much more gradual in their progress than those witnessed by our generation4 ,the latter have occurred not merely within the lifetime but within the memory of many who are still among us4 ,they are embraced1 easily and entirely1 within the reign of ,queen ,victoria4 ,it has been said1 plausibly1 that if a naval officer who died half a century ago could revisit the earth he would find himself more at home in the ships of ,elizabeth than in those of her present successor4 ,no such sudden and sharp contrast troubled the seamen of the earlier era4 ,it is true and interesting to note that the battle of ,lepanto in #aegc1 although a few vessels of broadside type therein exercised a decisive influence1 was fought chiefly by galleys1 while in the contest with the ,spanish ,armada in the ,english ,channel fifteen years later sailing ships played the leading part2 but while the fact gives a valuable assistance to precision of memory by fixing an approximate date when the one type was definitely supplanted by the other1 it remains that the turning-point thus indicated was reached long after cannon and sails first were used afloat1 and that another century elapsed before the galley was definitively abandoned4 ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,transition ,a few dates will illustrate the swiftness of our recent transformations4 ,in #ahch1 when the ,french navy reduced ,san ,juan de ,ulloa1 the principal defence of ,vera ,cruz1 and in #ahdj1 in the ,british attack upon ,acre1 the fighting power was wholly in sailing ships such as had fought at ,trafalgar thirty-five years before4 ,two small paddle steamers towed the ,french frigate into position1 while the four ,british vessels of the same type contributed only a desultory addition to the broadsides of seven sailing ships of the line1 which compelled the surrender of the fortress4 ,the first screw ship of the line in the ,british navy was launched in #aheb2 the last sailing ship of that class went out of commission in #ahfj4 ,all alike1 the ships of ,vera ,cruz and of ,acre1 and their short-reigning successors1 the steam frigates and ships of the line1 are now as much things of the past1 in sails1 in engines1 and in guns1 as are the galleys of ,lepanto and the ships of the ,armada4 ,by #ahgj it had been recognized everywhere that a type of vessel corresponding in essential features with the present armored battle-ships had displaced all competitors4 ,the span of a single generation had seen the transition of the ships of ,drake and ,nelson to those of our own day4 ,the career of ,farragut was run in the intermediate period4 ,his success for the most part was achieved and his renown won with vessels substantially of the older type1 but with auxiliary steam-power4 ,it is almost needless to remark that this seemingly abrupt transition is but one incident in the startling progress made during the century in all the arts of peace as of war4 ,like the others1 it is due to an intellectual activity1 greater probably than that of our predecessors1 and directed since the peace of #ahae less upon external political interests than upon scientific investigation1 and upon the application of the results to the improvement of processes of every kind4 ,the changes in conception and in development of the instruments of naval warfare result from the increased power of dealing with refractory material which has been acquired by scientific and practical men in the laboratory and the workshop4 ,thus viewed1 though so rapid in realization as to amount to a revolution1 not only is the change seen to be the outcome of a long1 though silent preparation1 but it is brought also into its due relation to the general movement of the age1 and found to share its special characteristics4 ,our ancestors of the eighteenth century had their own problems1 noble and absorbing1 but chiefly political in character4 ,while new worlds were being gathered into the embrace of ,european civilization1 the leading powers struggling among themselves for pre-eminence in the work1 and while the harvest was ripening for the ,french ,revolution1 science crept forward1 but slowly and silently1 the pre-occupation of the few1 not the interest of the many4 ,the object of the present article is to describe the type of war vessel prevalent universally among civilized nations when the nineteenth century opened1 and to trace historically the sequence of ideas and of facts which have resulted in the type whose general acceptance is seen now in the practice of the chief naval states4 ,,sailing ,,ships ,,and ,,broadside ,,batteries ,when the nineteenth century began1 the ships that contended for the control of the sea were1 and for two centuries had been1 sailing ships with broadside batteries3 the guns1 that is1 were distributed along both sides from the bow to the stern on one1 two1 three1 or four decks4 ,from the largest down1 all were of this type until the very smallest class was reached4 ,in the latter1 which could scarcely be considered fighting ships1 the gun power was at times concentrated into a single piece1 which swept from side to side round the horizon1 thus anticipating partially the modern turreted ironclad with its concentrated revolving battery4 ,the arrangement of guns in broadside involved anomalies and inconveniences which seem most singular when first noted4 ,a ship in chase of another1 for instance1 had no guns which threw straight ahead4 ,if it were wished to fire1 in order to cripple the fleeing enemy1 it was necessary to deflect from the course2 and in order to bring most of the guns on one side into play the vessel had to swing round nearly at right angles to the direction of pursuit4 ,this1 of course1 lost both time and ground4 ,broadside fire--the distribution of guns in broadside--rests1 however1 upon an unchangeable condition1 which controls now as it did a century ago4 ,ships then were from three to four times as long as they were broad2 the proportion now is1 length from four to six times the breadth--or beam1 as it is technically called4 ,therefore1 except in small vessels1 where the concentration of the whole weight that can be carried in battery gave but one piece effective against a probable target1 a full development of fire required the utilization of the long side of the ship rather than of its short cross-section4 ,this is precisely analogous to the necessity that an army has of deploying into line1 from any order of march1 in order to develop its full musketry fire4 ,the mechanical attainment of the last century did not permit the construction of single guns that would contain the weight of the whole battery of a big ship3 but even had it1 guns are not wanted bigger than will penetrate their target most effectively4 ,when an ounce of lead will kill a man it is useless to fire a pound4 ,the limit of penetration once reached1 it is numbers1 not size1 that tell3 and numbers could be had only by utilizing the broadside4 ,this condition remains operative now2 but as modern battle-ships present two or more kinds of target--the heavy armored and that which is light armored1 or unprotected--the application of the principle in practice becomes more complicated4 ,batteries now are necessarily less homogeneous than they once were1 because targets vary more4 ,,disappearance ,,of ,,bow ,,fire ,the adoption of broadside batteries followed1 therefore1 necessarily upon increase of size and consequent length1 but not upon that only4 ,it is instructive to observe that the sailing fighting ship was derived1 in part1 at least1 from the galley1 and its resemblance in form to the latter is traceable for at least a century after the general disuse of the oar4 ,as the galley1 however1 was small1 it could concentrate its fire advantageously in one or two pieces1 for which small number the cross-section offered a sufficient line of emplacement3 and as1 when it could move at all1 it could move in any direction1 there was a further advantage in being able to fire in the direction of its motion4 ,hence1 bow fire prevailed in galleys to the end1 although the great galleasses of ,lepanto and the ,armada had accepted broadside batteries in great part1 and whenever the galley type has recurred1 as on ,lake ,champlain during our ,revolutionary ,war1 bow fire has predominated4 ,the sailing ship1 on the contrary1 was limited as to the direction in which she could move4 ,taking her as the centre of a circle1 she could not steer directly for much more than half the points on the circumference4 ,bow fire consequently was much less beneficial to her1 and1 further1 it was found that1 for reasons not necessary to particularize1 her sailing1 steering1 and manuvring were greatly benefited by the leverage of sails carried on the bowsprit and its booms1 projecting forward of the bow1 where they interfered decisively with right-ahead fire4 ,for all these reasons1 bow fire disappeared and broadside fire prevailed2 but the fundamental one to be remembered is the greater development of fire conferred by greater length4 ,all ships--except the very small ones known as schooners1 cutters1 and gunboats--were broadside vessels1 moved by canvas which was carried commonly on two or three masts2 but into the particulars of the sails it is presumed readers will not care to enter4 ,being thus homogeneous in general characteristics1 the ships of this era were divided commonly into three principal classes1 each of which had subdivisions2 but it was recognized then1 as it is now in theory though too little in practice1 that such multiplication of species is harmful1 and our forerunners1 by a process of gradual elimination1 had settled down upon certain clearly defined medium types4 ,the smallest of the three principal classes of fighting ships were called sloops-of-war1 or corvettes4 ,these had sometimes two masts1 sometimes three2 but the particular feature that differentiated them was that they had but one row of guns in broadside1 on an uncovered deck4 ,the offices discharged by this class of vessel were various1 but in the apprehension of the writer they may be considered rightly as being above all the protectors or destroyers of commerce in transit4 ,all ships of war1 of course1 contributed to this end2 but the direct preying upon commerce1 upon merchant ships1 whose resisting power was small1 was done most economically by small vessels of relatively small power4 ,having a given amount of tonnage to devote to commerce destroying1 many small vessels are more effective than a few big ones of unnecessary force4 ,such being the nature of the attack1 the resistance must be similar in kind4 ,that is1 a flock of merchant ships being liable to attack by many small adversaries1 several small protectors would be more efficient than one or two large ones4 ,sloops-of-war served also as despatch vessels and lookouts of a fleet1 but were less well adapted to this service than the frigate was4 ,,the ,,frigate ,,and ,,her ,,guns ,this latter celebrated and favorite class of ship stood next in order of power above the corvette1 with which it might also be said to have blended2 for although in the frigate class there were two1 or at the most three1 rates that predominated vastly in numbers over all the rest1 yet the name covered many differing degrees of force4 ,the distinguishing feature of the frigate was that it carried one complete row of guns upon a covered deck--upon a deck1 that is1 which had another deck over it4 ,on this upper or spar deck there were also guns--more or fewer--but lighter in weight than those on the covered deck1 usually styled the main deck4 ,the two principal classes of frigates at the beginning of this century were the thirty-two-gun and the thirty-eight-gun4 ,that is1 they carried nominally sixteen or nineteen guns on each side2 but the enumeration is misleading1 except as a matter of comparison1 for guns of some classes were not counted4 ,ships generally had a few more cannon than their rate implied4 ,the ,united ,states thirty-two-gun frigate ,essex1 for example1 carried at first twenty-six long twelves on the main deck1 with sixteen carronades and two chase guns on the spar deck4 ,above these two classes came the forty-four-gun frigate1 a very powerful rate1 which was favored by the ,united ,states navy and received a development of strength then unprecedented4 ,being such as here described1 the frigate was essentially1 though not exclusively1 the appendage of a fleet of line-of-battle ships4 ,wars are decided not by commerce destroying nor by raids1 however vexatious1 but by fleets and armies1 by great organized masses--that is1 by crushing1 not by harassment4 ,but ships of the line1 to perform their function1 must keep together1 both when cruising and when on the field of battle1 in order to put forth their strength in combination4 ,the innumerable detached services that must be discharged for every great organized force need for a fleet to be done by vessels of inferior strength1 yet so strong that they cannot be intercepted or driven off lightly by every whipper-snapper of an armed ship that comes along4 ,moreover1 a fact not always realized1 speed--speed to hasten on a mission1 to overtake a foe1 or to escape pursuit--depends upon size1 masts that can carry sail and hold way amid heavy seas4 ,hence the frigate1 not the lighter sloop1 was indicated for the momentous duties upon which depended the intelligence and the communications of the fleet4 ,such leading considerations are needed to be stated and to be kept in mind1 for they affected the warfare of the last decade of the century quite as really as they did that of the first1 and a paper would indeed be incomplete which confined itself to indicating points of difference of progress1 so-called1 and failed to recognize those essential and permanent conditions which time will never remove4 ,frigates and sloops have disappeared in name and form1 in motive power and in armament4 ,their essential functions remain1 and will remain while war lasts4 ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,frigate ,the truth of this statement will be evident from a brief mention of the duties frigates actually used to perform4 ,while attending the fleet1 not merely a part of it1 the frigates were thrown out far in advance and on each side1 as cavalry on land scours the country towards or through which the army advances4 ,the distance to which they would be thus detached would sometimes amount to one hundred or two hundred miles1 and the absence to days1 rejoining being assured by the assignment of a rendezvous1 or by an adequate knowledge of the admiral's intended movements4 ,it will be recognized that when thus alone frigates might meet equal or superior forces1 to resist or to escape from which both strength and speed were needed4 ,an extreme and particular case of such service was the watching of an enemy's port by one or more frigates1 when they had to keep close to the entrance1 although a fleet might be within4 ,again1 frigates were placed in certain central positions1 rendezvous known only to the superior officers1 where they cruised steadily1 having information as to the whereabouts of the fleet1 or instructions for expected vessels4 ,they were there centres of intelligence1 round which the movements of the whole body revolved4 ,when the fleet was actually in touch with a hostile fleet1 in pursuit1 or when expecting battle1 the frigates were placed between their own force and the enemy2 nearer1 however1 to the latter1 as the essential point was to keep knowledge of his whereabouts and probable intentions4 ,such a position was at times extremely exposed4 ,the frigates had to avoid equally capture and being driven and shaken off2 they must keep close1 yet not be caught4 ,when engagement ensued they passed through to the off side of their own fleet1 where they were dispersed at intervals abreast the main line1 like the file closers of a military line ashore4 ,here they fulfilled one special purpose1 besides others4 ,as the fleet fought with broadsides only1 its ships were ranged one ahead of the other4 ,consequently signals made on the masts of the admiral could not be seen always by those ahead or astern of him2 but the frigates in the other line made the same signals1 8repeated10 as it was said1 where they could be read more certainly4 ,but frigates did also more hazardous work4 ,they went to crippled ships of the line and towed them into other positions1 into or out of fire1 and at times the admiral summoned a frigate alongside to carry a message to some part of the battle4 8,i noticed10 says ,marryatt1 in one of his novels1 8the look of pride on the faces of our officers when it appeared that the loss on board our frigate was greater than that of some of the ships in the line40 ,for such offices it is evident there were wanted a strength and a weight which the corvette did not have4 ,a corvette would make poor work of towing a heavy ship1 and could not carry as surely the sail needed to maintain a position4 ,at the same time it should be observed that excess of size above the requirements stated should be exceptional4 ,in the opinion of the writer the forty-four-gun frigate in her day possessed a fighting force and a weight of body in excess of that required by the ordinary functions of her nominal class4 ,for exceptional reasons1 a few of the type were permissible in a large navy4 ,on the other hand1 it may be inferred from the long experience of the ,british navy1 and the resultant practice1 that ships of twenty-eight1 twenty-four1 and twenty guns1 though often styled frigates1 were not found satisfactory as such4 ,in the distribution of tonnage between size and numbers1 a mean must be found2 and it must be added that a just mean is a very different thing from a compromise4 ,these considerations also apply to present-day problems4 ,,early ,,ships ,,of ,,the ,,line ,in the fleet-ship1 likewise the ship of the line1 as the opening century styled the class of vessel known in the closing days as the battle-ship1 our predecessors had reached a mean conclusion4 ,the line-of-battle ship1 or the ship of the line1 as more usually called1 differed from the frigate generically1 in that it had two or more covered decks4 ,there were one or two cases of ships with four decks1 but1 as a rule1 three were the extreme2 and ships of the line were roughly classed as two or three deckers4 ,under these heads two-deckers carried in their two centuries of history from fifty to eighty-four guns2 three-deckers from ninety to one hundred and twenty4 ,the increase in number of guns1 resulting1 as it did1 from increase of size1 was not the sole gain of ships of the line4 ,the bigger ships got1 the heavier were their timbers1 the thicker their planking1 the more impenetrable1 therefore1 their sides4 ,there was a gain1 in short1 of defensive as well as offensive strength1 analogous to the protection given by armor4 8,as the enemy's ships were big10 wrote a renowned ,british admiral1 8they took a great deal of drubbing40 ,between the great extremes of strength indicated by fifty and one hundred and twenty guns--whose existence at one and the same time was the evidence of blind historical development1 rather than of intelligent relative processes--the navy of a century ago had settled upon a mean1 to appreciate which the main idea and purport of the ship of the line must be grasped4 ,the essential function of the ship 8of the line0 was1 as the name implies1 to act in combination with other ships in a line of battle4 ,to do this was needed not only fighting power1 but manuvring ability--speed and handiness--and in order that these qualities might approach homogeneousness throughout the fleet1 and so promote action in concert1 the acceptance of a mean type was essential4 ,to carry three decks of guns1 a ship had to expose above water a side disproportionately high relatively to her length1 her depth1 and her hold upon the water4 ,she consequently drifted rapidly when her side was turned to the wind2 while1 if her length was increased1 and so her hold on the water1 she needed more time and room to tack and to wear--that is1 to turn around4 ,ships of this class also were generally--though not necessarily--slow4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,the ,,seventy-,,fours ,the two-decked ship was superior in speed and in handiness1 and for that reason1 even when acting singly1 she could put forth such power as she possessed more quickly and more certainly4 ,but these qualities were most conspicuously valuable when ship had to act with ship4 ,the great secret of military success1 concerted action in masses1 was in the hands of the two-decked ship1 because in her were united to the highest point individual power and facility for combined action4 ,and this was true not only of two-deckers in general1 but of the particular species known as the seventy-four-gun ship4 ,ships below that rate lacked individual fighting power4 ,ships above it1 the eighty and eighty-four1 lost manuvring power because of their greater length and weight4 ,under the conditions of sail a fleet of seventy-fours could get out the whole power of the force more surely and more rapidly than the equivalent number of guns in ships of any other kind4 ,thus offensive power dictated its survival4 ,to our own day it reads the lesson that offensive power1 the sine qu non of a military organization1 lies not merely in the greatest strength of the single ships1 but in the uniformity of their action and rapidity of their movements1 as conducive to the quick putting forth of the strength of the whole body at once and in mutual support4 ,it may be asked naturally1 why1 then1 were there any ships bigger or smaller than this favored type8 ,for smaller1 the answer is that short ships of lighter draught are best suited for shoal or intricate navigation4 ,the shoals of ,holland forbade heavy ships to the ,dutch navy1 materially reducing its fighting strength4 ,before ,france entered our ,revolutionary struggle the ,british sent only sixty-fours to operate upon our comparatively shallow coasts and bars4 ,as regards bigger ships1 they were useful exceptionally1 as were forty-four-gun frigates1 and for the following reason3 ,every line of battle has three particularly dangerous points--the centre1 because there the line1 if pierced1 divides into the two smaller fragments2 and the flanks1 or ends1 because the extremities are supported less easily by the rest of the force than the centre is1 one extremity being farther from the other than the centre is from either4 ,such local weakness could not be remedied by the use of two ships1 for1 if the line were properly closed1 one of them could fire at the enemy only through or over the other4 ,the sole way of giving the strength there required was by concentrating it into individual ships1 either by putting on the additional battery1 which gives a three-decker1 or by making the seventy-four heavier1 resulting in an eighty-gun ship on two decks4 ,these stronger vessels were1 therefore1 stationed in the centre or on the flanks of a line of battle4 ,the particular functions1 the raison d'tre1 of the three leading classes of ships of war--the sloop1 the frigate1 and the ship of the line--have now been stated4 ,it remains to give an account of the chief features of the armament carried on their broadsides1 as described4 ,,batteries ,,seventy-,,five ,,years ,,ago ,when the nineteenth century began1 batteries of ships were composed of two principal classes of guns3 the long gun and the short gun1 or carronade4 ,the difference between these lay in the way the weight of metal allowed for each was utilized4 ,the long gun1 as its name implies1 was comparatively long and thick1 and threw a small ball with a heavy charge of powder4 ,the ball1 therefore1 flew swiftly1 and had a long range4 ,a carronade of the same weight was short and comparatively thin1 could use only a small charge of powder1 lest it burst1 and threw a large ball4 ,its shot1 therefore1 moved slowly and had short range4 ,fired at a target--a ship's side--within range of both guns1 the shot from the long gun penetrated quickly1 the wood had not time to splinter badly1 and a clean hole was the result4 ,the carronade's shot1 on the contrary1 being both larger and slower1 penetrated with difficulty1 all the surrounding wood felt the strain and broke up into splinters1 leaving a large jagged hole1 if the shot got through4 ,these effects were called respectively piercing and smashing1 and are reproduced1 in measure1 upon targets representing the side of a modern ironclad4 ,they have been likened familiarly to the effect of a pistol-ball and of a stone upon a window pane3 the one goes through clean1 the other crashes4 ,the smashing of the carronades1 when fully realized1 was worse than penetration1 and was greatly dreaded2 but1 on the other hand1 a ship which feared them in an opponent might keep out of their range4 ,this expedient was so effective that carronades1 which did great damage until their tactics were understood1 gradually fell into disfavor4 ,nevertheless1 they remained in use till after the peace of #ahae4 ,in #ahad the battery of the ,u4 ,s4 ,s4 ,essex was chiefly carronades1 and their inadequate range was a large factor in her defeat4 ,at the period in question guns of all sorts fired only non-explosive projectiles1 solid or hollow shot4 ,the destructive shell of the present day was used only by pieces called mortars1 in vertical firing1 which will be spoken of farther on4 ,such were not mounted on the ships of the fleet generally1 nor used against shipping1 except when packed in a small harbor4 ,they did not enter into naval warfare proper4 ,the ram and the torpedo of present warfare were unknown4 ,on the other hand1 there was practised a form of fighting which is thought now to have disappeared forever1 namely1 boarding and fighting hand-to-hand on the deck4 ,even then1 however1 boarding did not decide the main issue of a sea-fight1 except occasionally in very small vessels4 ,the deck of a large and fresh ship was not to be reached easily4 ,boarding was like the cavalry charge that routs a wavering line2 the ship had been beaten at the guns before it occurred4 ,the real fighting was done by the long guns and carronades disposed in the broadsides4 ,besides rapidity and precision of fire1 always invaluable1 the two opponents sought advantage of position by manuvring4 ,they closed1 or they kept apart1 according to their understanding of the other's weight and kind of battery4 ,each tried1 when possible1 to lie across the bow or the stern of the enemy1 for then his guns ranged from end to end of the hostile ship1 while the latter's broadside could not reply4 ,failing this extreme advantage of position1 the effort was made so to place one's self that the opponent's guns could not bear--for they swept only a few degrees before and abaft the broadside--while your own could4 ,if this also was impossible1 the contestants lay side to side at a greater or less distance1 and the affair became an artillery duel4 ,,british ,,and ,,french ,,styles ,,of ,,fighting ,besides these recognized advantages of position1 there was also a question upon what part of the enemy the fire should be directed4 ,in this there were two principal schools of tactics1 one of which aimed at the hull1 to break down the fire of the hostile ship and destroy her fighting men1 while the other sought1 by pointing higher1 to cut away the sails1 rigging1 and masts1 rendering the foe helpless4 ,the latter1 in general1 was the policy of the ,french2 the former1 and1 it may be affirmed1 the more surely successful1 was the practice of the ,british4 ,the two schools find their counterpart in the tactical considerations which now affect the question of rapid-fire and of heavy guns1 each of which has its appropriate target1 covering in the latter case the motive power1 in the former the personnel4 ,these three leading classes of vessels1 with their functions1 armaments1 and tactics of the single ship1 as described1 performed in their day and during the great maritime contests of two centuries all the duties that at any time can be required of a maritime fighting organization4 ,by them the control of the sea in the largest sense was disputed and was determined2 by them commerce was attacked1 and by them it was protected4 ,they themselves have passed away1 but the military factors remain the same4 ,the mastery of the sea and the control of its commerce--of which blockade is but a special case--are now and must remain always the chief ends of maritime war4 ,the ends continuing the same1 the grand disposition of navies--their strategy--reposes upon the same principles that it ever did4 ,similarly1 while the changes in the characteristics of ships will cause the individual vessel to be fought in manners different from its predecessors1 the handling of masses of ships in battle--fleet tactics--must proceed on the same general principles as of old4 ,the centre and the two extremities of all orders are always the points of danger2 concentration upon one or two of the three1 however effected1 must be always the principle of action4 ,these things1 which cannot vary1 form1 therefore1 no part of a paper which deals with changes4 ,,they ,,had ,,their ,,break-,,downs ,,then1 ,,too ,there should be added for the general public the caution that the difficulties1 the imperfections1 and the frequent halting state of ships-of-war in commission for sea service at the present day are no new things4 ,to the naval historian familiar with the correspondence of the past they are the inevitable attendants of all government action1 wherein the most economical methods are always dominated1 historically1 by considerations of expediency which are political in character4 ,the necessity of keeping the public in good-humor1 and of not laying open points upon which opposition can enlarge1 induces apparent economies1 which sacrifice not only economy1 but the best results4 ,this is a great evil1 as yet apparently inseparable from public enterprises as distinguished from private ones4 ,if any one supposes that the ships with which ,great ,britain overthrew ,napoleon1 and with which ,nelson and his contemporaries won their as yet unparalleled victories1 were always or generally in good material condition1 he is greatly mistaken4 ,what is different in our day1 apparently1 is a tendency in ships to rely for their repairs and material efficiency more upon dock-yards and workshops than upon their own resources1 a disposition also to be unduly discouraged by imperfections in the motive enginery4 ,war will correct this or war will fail4 ,in maintaining efficiency while keeping the sea1 quite as much as in fighting skill1 lay the supreme excellence of officers like ,nelson and ,jervis4 ,men now ought to appreciate better than they do what difficulties of this sort seamen underwent a hundred years ago and how they refused to yield to them4 8,the difference between myself and the ,french marshals10 the ,duke of ,wellington is reported to have said1 8was as when a man starts on a journey with a new harness4 ,what if something gives way1 as in war something is sure to go wrong8 ,shall you stop or go back for a workman8 ,not so2 hitch up the break with a bit of rope1 or whatever comes handy1 and go on4 ,that is what ,i did40 ,the succession of cause and effect which has produced the present ship-of-war will be traced in rapid outline1 in order to leave as much room as may be for the description of the essential feature of the ship herself as she now exists4 ,two chief factors concur to a ship-of-war--motive power and fighting power4 ,the displacement of sails by engines1 and the progressive development of the latter1 are features of the general progress of the century4 ,the engines of a ship-of-war are differentiated from those of merchant ships chiefly by the necessity of protection4 ,this affects their design1 which must be subordinated to the requirement of being as far as possible below the water-line4 ,the further great protection now afforded is incident rather to the use and development of armor as a part of the fighting power4 ,fighting power divides into offensive and defensive4 ,armor now represents the latter4 ,the fighting ship in every age is the product of the race between the two1 and in the nineteenth century this was unprecedented in the ground covered and in the rapidity of the pace1 due to the increased power of dealing with materials1 already alluded to4 ,,contest ,,of ,,armor ,,and ,,projectile ,the modern contest began with the introduction of horizontal shell fire in the third decade of the century4 ,this term must be explained4 ,it has been said that all ships' guns up to #ahae threw non-explosive projectiles4 ,in practice this is true2 although ,nelson alludes to certain shell supplied to him for trial1 which he was unwilling to use because he wished not to burn his prizes1 but to take them alive4 ,a shell is a hollow projectile filled with powder1 the idea of which is that upon reaching the enemy it will burst into several pieces1 each capable of killing a man1 and the flame not impossibly setting woodwork on fire4 ,it was necessary that the powder within should not explode from the combustion of the cartridge of the gun1 for if it did its force1 combined with the latter1 might burst the gun2 yet the process that should result in bursting must begin at that moment or else it would not take place at all4 ,this difficulty was met by a short column of hard1 compressed powder called the fuse1 which extended from the outside to the inside of the shell4 ,the outer end was inflamed by the charge of the gun1 but from its density it burned slowly1 so that the charge of the shell was not enkindled for five1 ten1 or more seconds4 ,this expedient was in use over a century ago2 but owing to imperfections of manufacture1 no certainty was attained that the fuse might not be driven in or broken by the force of the discharge1 or the shell itself be cracked and so explode prematurely4 ,shell1 therefore1 were fired with very light charges2 and1 to obtain sufficient range--go far enough--they were used in very short1 very thick guns1 called bombs or mortars1 to which great elevation was given4 ,such firing1 because the shell flew high in the air1 was called vertical firing1 in contradistinction to the fire of the long gun or carronade1 called horizontal fire because their projectiles rose little above the level4 ,the destructiveness of shell from ordinary guns was so obvious1 especially for forts to use against wooden ships1 that the difficulties were gradually overcome1 and horizontal shell fire was introduced soon after the cessation of wars allowed men time for thought and change4 ,but although the idea was accepted and the fact realized1 practice changed slowly1 as it tends to do in the absence of emergency4 ,in the attack on ,vera ,cruz1 in #ahdh1 ,farragut was present1 and was greatly impressed1 as with a novelty1 by the effect of what he called the 8shell shot10 a hybrid term which aptly expresses the transition state of men's minds at the time4 ,i remember an officer who entered the navy in #ahdj telling me the respectful awe and distrust with which his superiors then regarded the new weapon1 a very few of which for each gun were supplied tentatively4 ,ten years more1 however1 saw a great change1 and in #ahec the attack of the ,russian squadron of wooden sailing-ships upon the ,turkish vessels in the ,bay of ,sinope gave an object-lesson that aroused the naval world to what wooden ships must expect from horizontal shell fire4 ,in a few minutes three out of seven ,turkish frigates were in flames2 while of nine sailing-ships and two steamers only one of the latter escaped4 ,,horizontal ,,shell ,,fire ,the ,crimean ,war followed quickly1 and in #ahed the wooden steamships of the line of the allies1 vessels identical in fighting characteristics with those of ,trafalgar1 attempted to silence masonry works at ,sebastopol4 ,though the disaster was not so great1 the lesson of ,sinope was reaffirmed4 ,louis ,napoleon1 a thoughtful man though scarcely a man of action1 had foreseen the difficulty1 and had already directed the construction of five floating batteries which were to carry armor4 ,before the war ended these vessels attacked the forts at ,kinburn1 which they compelled to surrender1 losing1 themselves1 no men except by shells that entered the gun ports4 ,their armor was not pierced4 ,horizontal shell fire had called for iron armor1 and the two1 as opposing factors1 were now established in the recognition of men4 ,the contest between the two sums up the progression and the fluctuations of military ideas which have resulted in the battle-ship of to-day1 which1 as the fleet-ship1 remains the dominant factor in naval warfare1 not only in actual fact but in present probability4 ,from the first feeble beginnings at ,kinburn to the present time1 although the strife has waxed greatly in degree1 it remains unchanged in principle and in kind4 ,to exclude the shell1 because1 starting as one projectile1 it became many after penetration1 in what does it differ from excluding the rapid-fire gun1 whose projectiles are many from the first1 and penetrate singly8 ,there occurred1 however1 one singular development1 an aberration from the normal line of advance1 the chief manifestation of which1 from local and temporary conditions1 was in our own country4 ,this was the transient predominance of the monitor type and idea2 the iron-clad vessel1 with very few very heavy guns1 mounted in one or two circular revolving turrets1 protected by very heavy armor4 ,the monitor type embodied two ideas4 ,the first was the extreme of defensive power1 owing to the smallness of the target and the thickness of its armor--the hull of the vessel rising but little above the water--the turret was substantially the only target4 ,the second was an extreme compression of offensive power1 the turret containing two of the heaviest guns of the day1 consequently guns of the heaviest penetration1 which could fire1 not in one direction1 nor in several1 but in all directions as the turret revolved1 and which were practically the sole armament of the ship4 ,the defensive power of the monitor was absolute up to the extreme resisting endurance of its armor4 ,its offensive power must be considered relatively to the target to which its guns were to be opposed4 ,if much in excess of that target's resistance1 there was waste of power4 ,actually in our ,civil ,war monitors were opposed to fortifications1 except in one or two instances when they had to contend with the imperfect structures which the ,confederates could put afloat4 ,the target1 therefore1 was not in excess of their gun power4 ,moreover1 being for coast warfare1 the monitor then was necessarily of small draught and small tonnage4 ,her battery weight1 therefore1 must be small1 and consequently lent itself to concentration into two guns1 just as the battery weight of a schooner a century since found its best disposition in one long traversing gun4 ,this was the infancy period of the iron-clad ship4 ,the race between guns and armor was barely begun1 and manufacturing processes still were crude4 ,as these improved1 with astounding rapidity1 the successful production of rifled cannon of ever-increasing dimensions and penetrative force imposed an increased armor protection1 which at the first was obtained chiefly by an increase of thickness1 i4e41 of weight4 ,as guns and armor got heavier1 ships had to be bigger to carry them1 and1 if bigger1 of course longer4 ,but the monitor idea1 admirably suited to small ships1 had now fast hold of men's minds--in ,england especially1 for the ,united ,states lapsed into naval somnolence after the war--and it was carried irreflectively into vessels of huge dimensions whose hulls rose much above the water4 ,weight for weight1 the power of the gun outstripped the resistance of armor1 and it soon became evident that even in a large ship perfect protection could be given only to a part of the structure4 ,passing over intermediate steps1 the extreme and final development of the monitor idea was reached in the ,inflexible1 planned in #ahgf by the ,british ,admiralty1 built in the following years1 and still in service4 ,this vessel was of eleven thousand eight hundred and eighty tons displacement4 ,she was three hundred and twenty feet long1 and of that length only the central one hundred and ten feet had protection1 but that was by armor two feet thick1 while armored partitions extended from each end of this side belt across the vessel1 forming a box one hundred and ten feet long by seventy-four broad4 ,within this box were two turrets1 each with sixteen inches of armor1 and carrying two guns which threw a shell of a ton weight4 ,,the ,,coming ,,of ,,the ,,monitor ,the first monitor has been called an epoch-making ship1 for she began an era4 ,the ,inflexible was also epoch-making1 for she closed the era of the monitor pure and simple4 ,upon a development of three hundred and twenty feet of length she carried only four guns1 of which it is not too much to say that their power was very far in excess of almost all targets that could be opposed to them4 ,if1 indeed1 her possible opponents could have carried such an armor as her own all over their exposed surface1 her guns would have been no heavier than needed1 and the fewness must be accepted2 but this was not the case4 ,like herself1 ships of twelve thousand tons must have a penetrable target far exceeding in surface the almost impregnable box she presented4 ,the unreasonableness of the result struck men at once1 though of course she had advocates4 ,as an exception1 such a ship might pass2 as a type1 never4 ,it was pointed out that guns of very small power could pierce the exposed ends about the water-line1 and that1 as water entered by numerous holes1 she would not only sink lower1 but for constructional reasons1 not necessary here to give1 she would lose stability rapidly--become liable to overset4 ,if under such conditions she attempted to turn round1 the inclination vessels take in so doing would be enough alone to cause her to capsize4 ,her defenders did not deny this2 but they said that the likelihood of her exposed ends being so riddled was too slight to justify alarm4 ,under artillery conditions1 then1 this reply was plausible1 though it soon ceased to be so4 ,even then1 however1 it was true that a ship with only four guns that fired very slowly1 and with such an exposed surface1 was liable to serious injury from a nimble antagonist firing many guns rapidly4 ,the defensive weakness of the ,inflexible is apparent2 her offensive power1 great as in the aggregate it was1 was much impaired by lack of proper development1 by undue compression into very few guns1 the larger part of whose effect was wasted1 except in the rare instances when they struck a target not often to be encountered4 ,but this was not the only deduction from her strength through the excess of concentration4 ,very large guns fire very slowly1 yet they are as subject to inaccuracy from the motion of the ship as is the smallest piece4 ,where the target is missed1 it is immaterial whether the shot weighs a ton or a pound2 and a gun that fires ten times to another's once has ten times the chance of hitting4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 taking the ,inflexible as she was1 that a ship of the same weight and length with ten guns in broadside--twenty altogether--and with similar armor over her engines only1 would have at the least a fair chance against the ,inflexible1 and would be much more efficient against vessels with average armor4 ,each of her ten guns firing once a minute1 while the ,inflexible's cannon required five minutes for discharge1 would give over ten shots to one4 ,,criticism ,,of ,,the ,,inflexible ,while the ,inflexible was building there was born the idea whose present maturity enforces the abandonment of the pure monitor1 except for vessels comparatively small and for special purposes4 ,machine guns1 the ,gatling1 and the mitrailleuse were already known1 and the principle was being applied to throw projectiles of a pound weight and over1 which were automatically loaded and fired1 requiring only to be aimed4 ,upon these followed the rapid-fire gun1 of weight greatly exceeding theirs1 the principle of which may be said to be that it is loaded by hand1 but with ammunition so prepared and mechanism for loading so simple and expeditious as to permit a rate of firing heretofore unparalleled4 ,the highest extension of this principle is reached in the five-inch gun1 up to which size the cartridge and the projectile make a single package called fixed ammunition1 which is placed by one motion4 ,together they weigh ninety-five pounds1 about as much as an average man can handle in a seaway1 the projectile itself weighing fifty pounds4 ,there are1 it is true1 six-inch rapid-fire guns1 but in them the cartridge and shell are placed separately1 and it is questionable whether such increase of effect1 through greater weight1 as they give is not gained at a loss of due rapidity4 ,the ,inflexible exemplified in an extreme form the elements of offensive and defensive strength and weakness4 ,four guns of enormous calibre and no other battery1 except pieces so light as to be useless against the thinnest armor1 an impenetrable wall1 covering a very limited area1 and the remainder of the hull exposed1 to be cut to pieces by a battery of numerous light cannon4 ,when to the latter the rapid-fire idea was successfully applied1 multiplying their efficiency three or fourfold1 her position1 as an example to be followed1 became untenable4 ,the monitor idea1 which refused to utilize the broadside for developing fire1 and aimed chiefly at minimizing the target1 evidently needed qualification after a certain moderate limit of size was passed2 and that limit of size was when the entire weight of battery the ship could carry sufficed only for two1 or1 at the most1 four guns of power great enough to pierce heavy armor4 ,strictly1 in the opinion of the writer1 the monitor type should not prevail beyond the size that can bear only one turret4 ,in the strife of guns with armor1 therefore1 increase of power in guns1 outstripping continually the increase of resistance in armor1 called for bigger ships to bear the increased armor weight1 till the latter could not possibly be placed all over the ship's body4 ,hence the exposed target1 upon which plays the smaller battery of rapid-fire guns4 ,to comprehend fundamentally the subsequent development1 we must recur to the rudimentary idea that a ship of war possesses two chief factors1 motive force and fighting force1 the latter being composed of guns mainly and of men4 ,corresponding to these two chief powers there were of old1 and there are still1 two vulnerable elements1 two targets1 upon one or the other of which hostile effort logically and practically must be directed4 ,a century ago the ,french1 aiming at sails and spars1 sought the destruction of the motive force2 the ,british directed their fire upon the guns and men4 ,in strict analogy now1 the heavy guns seek the motive power1 over which the heaviest armor is concentrated2 the rapid-fire guns1 searching the other portions of the ship1 aim at the guns and men there stationed4 ,,battle-,,ships ,,of ,,this ,,day ,the logical outcome of these leading ideas is realized in the present battle-ships as follows3 ,there are two turrets1 protected by armor1 the thickest that can be given them1 considering the other weights the ship has to carry1 and of the highest resisting quality that processes of manufacture can develop4 ,armor of similar character and weight protects the sides about the engines4 ,in each turret are guns whose power corresponds to the armor which protects them4 ,their proper aim--not1 of course1 always reached--is the heavy armored part of the enemy1 chiefly the engines1 the motive power4 ,when they strike outside of this target1 as often must happen1 there is excess of blow1 and consequent waste4 ,the turrets are separated1 fore and aft1 by a distance as great as possible1 to minimize the danger of a single shot or any other local incident disabling both4 ,the fact that the ends of ships1 being comparatively sharp1 are less waterborne and cannot support extreme weights1 chiefly limits this severance of the turrets4 ,between the two1 and occasionally before or abaft them1 is distributed the broadside rapid fire of the ship1 which in its development is in contradistinction to the compressed fire of the monitor4 ,this fire is rapid because the guns are many and because individually they can fire fast4 ,thus1 the turret gun1 twelve or thirteen inch in bore1 fires once in five minutes2 the five-inch rapid-fire gun thrice in one minute4 ,the rapid-fire battery aims outside of the heaviest armor4 ,when it strikes that1 unless it chance to enter a gun port1 its effect is lost2 but as much the greater part of the ship is penetrable by it1 the chance of wasting power is less than in the case of the heavier guns4 ,as most of a ship's company are outside the protection of the heaviest armor1 the rapid-fire gun aims1 as did the ,british in the old line-of-battle ship1 at the personnel of the enemy4 ,the reader will comprehend that in the application of these leading ideas there is considerable variety in detail4 ,the two turrets may be looked upon at present as the least variable factor2 and in disposing armor all practice agrees that the turrets and engines receive the greatest protection4 ,but how to distribute the total available weight of armor gives rise to varieties of practice which find their reflection in similar variety in the sizes and numbers of the rapid-fire guns1 to whose penetrative force there is a corresponding thickness of armor4 ,for example1 two battle-ships now building for the ,united ,states navy have four thirteen-inch guns in turrets1 and in broadside fourteen five-inch1 twenty six-pounder1 and six one-pounder rapid-fire guns2 between the two classes they have four eight-inch guns1 also mounted in smaller turrets1 superimposed on the main turrets4 ,a ship since designed will have the same thirteen-inch gun fire1 but in place of the eight-inch and five-inch will have fourteen six-inch rapid-fire guns4 ,an expert officer1 discussing these1 says3 8,in the former the weight of fire per minute is two thousand and fifty pounds on the broadside and five hundred ahead or astern1 while with the latter plan it is only one thousand seven hundred and fifty on the broadside and five hundred ahead and astern4 ,but the main objection to the second plan is that the volume of effective fire is enormously diminished by the omission of eight-inch guns4 ,the larger area covered with their armor is fairly safe from the six-inch gun at fighting ranges1 whereas the eight-inch projectile at any range1 and at even a considerable angle of incidence1 will penetrate it40 ,in the judgment of the present writer the weight of this argument depends upon what is behind the armor the eight-inch only will penetrate4 ,if battery and men1 it is strong1 if not decisive2 if motive power only1 not4 ,,history',s ,,teaching ,,and ,,the ,,future ,the object of this paper has been not to present an accumulation of details1 but to elucidate the principles upon which the details rest4 ,the latter1 when correct1 are but the application of principles to practice4 ,subject to the imperfections attendant on all human work1 the writer is persuaded that the greatest errors in practice--and especially the lack of homogeneousness which characterizes the present battle-ships--arise chiefly from the failure to refer back to principles4 ,until war has given us the abundant experience which led our predecessors to the broadside seventy-four as the rule1 with occasional exceptions1 we must depend upon reasoning alone for the solution of our problems2 and the reasoner keeps within the limits of safety only by constant reference to fundamental facts4 ,the one experience of war which ships really contemporary have had was in the battle of the ,yalu4 ,its teachings lose some value from the fact that the well-drilled ,japanese used their weapons to advantage1 while the ,chinese were ill trained2 still1 some fair inferences can be made4 ,the ,japanese had a great many rapid-fire guns1 with few very heavy ones1 and their vessels were not battle-ships properly so-called4 ,the ,chinese1 besides other vessels1 had two battle-ships with heavy armor and heavy guns4 ,victory remained with the ,japanese4 ,in the opinion of the writer two probable conclusions can be reached3 ,that rapid-fire guns in due proportion to the entire battery will beat down a ship dependent mainly upon turret guns2 that is1 between two ships whose batteries are alike the issue of the contest will depend upon the one or the other gaining first a predominance of rapid fire4 ,that done1 the turret guns of the predominant ship will give the final blows to the engines and turrets of the other1 whose own turret guns cannot be used with the necessary deliberation under the preponderant storm of projectiles now turned upon them4 ,the other conclusion1 even more certain than the first1 is that rapid-fire guns alone1 while they may determine an action1 cannot make it decisive4 ,despite the well-established superiority of the ,japanese rapid fire in that action1 the ,chinese battle-ships1 though overborne1 were not taken4 ,their heaviest armor being unpierced1 the engines and turret guns remained effective1 and they withdrew unmolested4 ,,battle-,,ships ,,that ,,are ,,too ,,large ,the battle-ship constituted as described remains for the present the fighting ship upon which the issues of war will depend4 ,the type is accepted by all the leading naval states1 though with considerable variations in size4 ,as regards the latter feature1 the writer believes that the enormous tonnage recently given is excessive1 and that the reasons which support it1 too numerous and various to be enumerated at length1 have the following fundamental fault3 they look too much to the development of the individual ship and too little to the fact that the prime requisite of the battle-ship is facility for co-operating with other ships of its own type--facility in manuvring together1 facility in massing1 facility also in subdividing when occasion demands4 ,it may be remarked1 too1 that the increase of size has gone much more to increase of defensive power than of offensive--a result so contrary to the universal teachings of war as of itself to suggest pausing4 ,does the present hold out any probabilities of important changes in the near future1 of revolutionary changes8 ,no4 ,for twenty-five or thirty years now we have been expecting from the ram and from the torpedo results which would displace the gun from its supremacy of centuries4 ,those results1 however1 are not yet visible4 ,no one disputes the tremendous effects of the ram and of the torpedo when successfully used2 but ,i believe ,i am correct in saying that the great preponderance of professional opinion does not attribute to them a certainty1 or an approach to certainty1 impairing the predominance of the gun4 ,this is not the conclusion of mere conservation in a profession naturally conservative4 ,the fluctuations of professional opinion have been sufficiently marked and the matter sufficiently argued to dispose of that contention4 ,nor is this supremacy of the gun probably a transient matter1 liable to pass away with improvements greater than those of the last quarter of a century4 ,the advantage of the gun depends upon conditions probably permanent--upon its greater range1 its greater accuracy1 its greater rapidity4 ,the individual effect of each shot may be less than that of a torpedo or of a ram thrust2 but1 as was said in comparing very heavy guns with rapid fire1 the probability of many hits prevails over the possibilities of one great blow4 ,,the ,,gun ,,and ,,the ,,torpedo ,in none of these features is either of the other weapons likely to overtake the gun4 ,the torpedo relies mainly upon stealth1 the ram mainly upon a happy chance for effective use4 ,both stealth and chance have their place in war2 stratagem and readiness1 each in place1 may contribute much4 ,but the decisive issues of war depend upon the handling of masses with celerity and precision1 according to certain general principles of recognized universality4 ,afloat1 such massed force1 to be wielded accurately and rapidly1 must consist of units not too numerous because of their smallness--as torpedo craft would be--nor too unwieldy because of their size4 ,we may not be able to determine yet1 in advance of prolonged experience of war1 just what the happy mean may be corresponding in principle to the old seventy-four1 but we may be reasonably sure that it will be somewhere in the ranks of the present battle-ships2 and that in the range1 accuracy and rapidity of their gun-fire--especially when acting in fleets--will be found a protection which the small vessels that rely upon the torpedo or ram alone will not be able to overcome1 though they may in rare instances elude4 ,concerning the frigates and sloops of our predecessors1 their place is now taken1 and their duties will be done1 by the classes of vessel known generically as cruisers1 protected or unprotected4 ,the protection1 the defensive element of strength1 has reference mainly to the engines1 to the motive power4 ,the battery1 the offensive factor1 tends upon the whole to revert more and more to the development of fire1 to utilizing the length of the vessel by multiplying the number of guns and diminishing their individual size2 and the tendency is increased by the fact that1 as such ships are expected to fight only vessels of their own kind1 their probable target is penetrable by light guns4 ,speed is the great element in the efficiency of cruisers1 and whatever the speed in smooth water1 a great advantage inures to larger ships in heavy winds and seas4 ,as for 8armored0 cruisers1 of which there are many1 they belong rather to the class of battle-ships than of cruisers4 ,whatever the advantages of the particular ships1 the name suggests a regrettable confusion of purpose1 and1 in practice1 a still more regrettable departure from homogeneity4 ,a4 ,t4 ,,mahan4 ,,literature 8,time and space10 a noble philosopher has observed1 8are but hallucinations40 ,it may be so1 and from the point of view of the metaphysician ours may have been merely a 8so-called nineteenth century40 ,certain it is that to judge literature in blocks of centuries is to make a convenient but illogical cross-division4 ,the early1 and perhaps the most important1 literary influences of the century were in existence long before #ahja4 ,thus1 if we look at whatever is now called fin de sicle1 at violent antagonism to tradition and convention1 at discontent of every sort with everything--with rank1 wealth1 morality1 law1 marriage1 the family--we find that this passion was as noisy and self-complacent a hundred years ago as it is to-day4 ,the ,french ,revolution was the lurid playground of 8,new ,women10 full of what they supposed to be new ideas4 ,the ,german drama of #aghj-ahjj1 now best remembered by the parody called 8,the ,rovers10 in the ,anti-,jacobin1 was replete with the humorless paradoxes and strained situations of ,ibsen4 ,the shortest way to an understanding of the antiquity of our 8new ideas0 is1 in fact1 a study of the ,poetry of the ,anti-,jacobin4 ,romance1 again1 as far as romance depends for her effects on desperate deeds1 on the rhetoric of noble brigands1 on the phantasms of the sheeted dead shivering down dark passages among skeletons1 on clanking chains1 and on distressed damsels1 was as much alive in the end of the eighteenth century as at any age of literary history4 ,goethe1 ,schiller1 ,brger1 ,mrs4 ,radcliffe1 all following in the ,gothic wake of honest ,horace ,walpole and his ,castle of ,otranto1 were preparing the ground for ,scott and ,dumas4 ,once more the old 8popular0 elements so necessary to literature 7which1 like ,antus1 regains vigor on touching mother-earth7 had been wholly absent from the poetry and prose of the last reigning ,stuart and of the first two ,hanoverian kings of ,england4 ,but1 about #aggj-aghj1 literature had returned to its archaic popular sources4 ,percy had made volks-lieder fashionable1 ,fergusson and ,burns had revived the rustic muse of ,scotland1 and ,macpherson had given mankind a draught1 though an adulterated draught1 from the cup of the sorceries of the ,celtic enchantress4 ,in opposition to the urban self-restraint and contented complacency of the ,augustan age1 ,rousseau had preached the pleasures of virtue1 sentiment1 and of a 8blessed state of ,nature02 young ,werther had gotten him a stool to be sad upon1 like ,master ,stephen3 weeping was the mode4 ,rousseau1 as ,mr4 ,pater once observed in conversation1 was 8the grandmother of us all10 and as tearful as ,mrs4 ,gummidge in ,david ,copperfield4 ,meanwhile the 8emancipation0 born of science had set in2 people thought they knew all about everything2 the elder ,darwin could explain the universe without a ,god1 quite as easily as any modern ,darwinian1 if not so elaborately4 ,he may not have been always correct in his theories and facts1 still1 there they were1 and they were 8emancipating40 ,yet1 far from being laughed out of court by the gratifying progress of science1 a more mystical religion and a life more austere had come in from the preaching of ,wesley1 who was practically the parent of our neo-,catholicism in its varying forms4 ,the 8,oxford ,movement10 with all the strange after-symptoms which it has left behind it1 is directly descended from ,wesley4 ,thus romance1 sentiment1 freedom and variety in poetic form1 philanthropy1 revolt against the past1 return to and reverence for the past1 scientific doubt1 weariness of life1 love of nature1 wistful belief1 relapse on the forms of the ,church1 and everything else which stamps the literature of the nineteenth century were alive and active in the last half of the eighteenth century4 ,the year #ahja made no sudden break4 ,the nineteenth century merely went on evolving the principles1 revolutionary or reactionary1 of the last half of the eighteenth century4 ,thus ,crabbe1 the precursor of whoever1 ,englishman1 ,american1 ,frenchman1 or ,slav1 has written of the sombre tragedies of the poor1 was born in #aged4 ,blake1 whose perfectly un-,augustan rhapsodies and mystic lyrics were made fashionable about #ahgj1 was born in #ageg1 out of due time1 for his best side is ,elizabethan in quality4 ,burns1 born in #agei1 is as much at home in the nineteenth century as ,tolsto1 while ,godwin could not be more 8advanced10 or ,mary ,wollstonecraft more of 8a ,new ,woman10 if the former belonged to our 8,forward ,liberals0 and the latter perorated at congresses of her sex4 ,the first twenty-five years of ,miss ,austen belong to the eighteenth century2 yet1 except for a certain 8old-fashioned0 primness of style1 she is the first1 and1 beyond all doubt1 the greatest of all nineteenth-century 8realistic0 novelists of domestic life4 ,for1 though a 8realist10 she is a humorist1 and the combination is almost unexampled4 ,your common realist is a gloomy thing1 with no more sense of the comic than ,m4 ,zola4 ,of the new poets1 revolutionary in metre and matter1 ,wordsworth1 ,scott1 ,coleridge1 and ,southey were born in #aggj-aggd2 they were mature before the nineteenth century dawned4 ,his northern home1 among the hills and lakes1 fitted ,wordsworth to be the austere and mystical poet of nature and of man in relation to nature4 ,born a poet1 his genius was determined by his environment1 while his ardent sympathy with the ,revolution at once turned his attention to the unregarded poor1 and inspired his not wholly successful attempt to shake off the trammels of ,augustan 8poetic diction10 the survival of the ,latinism of ,boileau and ,pope4 ,later1 of course1 ,wordsworth became the ,tory1 the patriot1 the ,churchman1 and the ,stamp ,collector4 ,but his poetical creed he never consciously changed1 though he often lapsed from it unconsciously4 ,if ,scott was to be a poet at all he was fated to be influenced by the ,new ,world1 not in its emancipated ideas1 but in its wistful return to the ,old ,world of reivers1 spearmen1 claymores1 goblin1 ghost1 and fairy4 ,the ,border ballads lulled his cradle and were the joy of his childhood and manhood4 ,all tradition murmured to him her charms of ,border and ,highland legend2 every ruined abbey and castle had its tale for him2 to ,ettrick and ,yarrow he needed not to say1 like ,lady ,john ,scott1 8,have you no message for me80 ,he never had a touch of the ,augustan horror of mountain and torrent1 never a touch of the ,augustan contempt of 8,barbarism40 ,walpole's ,castle of ,otranto and ,mrs4 ,radcliffe's novels of terror went to the molding of his genius1 as the novels of ,miss ,edgeworth 7born #agfg7 suggested fiction about the lives and manners of his own people4 ,in his return to the past he came1 like ,lamb1 on the ,elizabethan drama1 and1 unlike ,lamb1 on the unpublished documents of the ,tudor age1 the age of desperate resistance to ,england4 ,but ,scott would never have been exactly the poet that he was if he had not heard 8,christabel0 recited4 8,christabel10 the entirely original utterance of a genius which1 at first1 was a child of the enlightenment of the eighteenth century4 ,the early ideas of ,coleridge were the ideas of ,rousseau and of ,bernardin de ,saint ,pierre1 who was1 like ,coleridge1 but more energetically1 a seeker for an ideal land where pantisocracy might flourish and a clown might be the poet's 8brother40 ,in poetry1 in poetic form1 ,coleridge was the real and daring innovator1 inspired by the eighteenth century reaction against convention1 and played on like an olian harp by every wind of his mystic spirit4 ,his reaction was too violent even for ,lamb2 his originality too extreme even for ,wordsworth4 ,in him1 of all our later poets1 the 8unconscious self0 was the strongest and the most free1 and of all our poets he had the hardest battle with the dull ,augustan survival in such critics as ,jeffrey4 ,to them all the ripened fruit of the blossoming time of the late eighteenth century1 the poetry of ,scott and of ,wordsworth1 was but dimly intelligible1 but ,coleridge was the most unintelligible of all4 ,from the ,germany of the late eighteenth century came one of ,scott's springs of poetic action2 from the ,lenore of ,brger 7a popular ballad rewritten7 and from the ,gtz von ,berlichingen of ,goethe4 ,these were the days when ,scott longed to possess a skull and cross-bones1 and in a love-letter dilated on his choice of a sepulchre4 ,but what came to ,coleridge from ,germany was the late eighteenth century's reaction against the truly 8common-sense0 ideas of ,hume1 the philosophy of ,kant1 ,schelling1 and ,fichte4 ,in this field1 too1 he was unintelligible 7and no wonder71 but he was but adapting the ideas of #aggj-ahjj1 and the neo-,hegelians of ,oxford are doing the same thing4 ,a reaction against the materialism of common-sense was inevitable2 ,mesmer1 ,swedenborg1 and ,kant began what survives in the hands of the ,master of ,balliol and of ,professor ,william ,james4 ,in a more recent generation ,byron prolonged the ,wertherism of ,werther1 ,byron being thus a grandson of ,rousseau1 while he borrowed his form1 and borrowed it very ill1 from what ,scott borrowed of ,coleridge4 ,the genius of ,byron is not contested by the sane1 but except in satire it seldom found clear and adequate1 because it sought hurried1 heedless1 and tumultuous1 expression4 ,scott had a better ear and was not so reckless an improvisatore4 ,poems that can endure are not written like ,byron's1 in the brief leisure of fashionable industry4 ,we admire the native impetus of ,byron1 his gift of satire1 his sensitiveness to elemental force in nature and in man1 but we cannot understand the furore which was so much the child of his title1 his beauty1 his recklessness1 and his studiously cultivated air of mystery4 ,mr4 ,lenville1 as reported by ,mr4 ,folair1 said that ,nicholas ,nickleby was 8a regular stick of an actor1 and it's only the mystery about him that has caused him to go down with the people here1 though ,lenville says he don't believe there's anything at all in it40 ,a later age must partly adopt the same theory of ,byron's original and unparalleled success in ,europe as well as in ,england4 ,he was mysterious ,manfred1 he was ,childe ,harold1 he was the ,corsair2 a hero of ,mrs4 ,radcliffe's1 with an ,oriental air and a gloomy secret and a heart burning with indignation against the unworthy species of men4 ,what had ,byron done8 ,even ,goethe was curious1 believing wild anecdotes2 now we really do not care what ,byron did1 recognizing in him1 his genius1 and his pose1 not so much the 8,satanic10 as the result of hysteria and madness in his race4 ,satanism1 from of old1 has been mainly hysteria4 ,the element of personal reclame in ,byron has faded1 and with it fades his reputation as an earth-shaking poet4 ,attempts to revive that fame in our day1 attempts to bring us back to 8the noble poet10 are respectable1 being based on loyalty to the taste of our great-grandfathers and grandmothers in all civilized countries4 ,but the efforts are futile4 8,byron10 says ,mr4 ,saintsbury1 8seems to me a poet distinctly of the second class1 and not even of the best kind of second1 inasmuch as his greatness is chiefly derived from a sort of parody1 a sort of imitation of the qualities of the first4 ,his verse is to the greatest poetry what melodrama is to tragedy1 what plaster is to marble1 what pinchbeck is to gold40 ,such1 however unpopular they may be1 are my own candid sentiments1 for though from childhood ,i could and did read all our great poets with pleasure1 it was not with the kind of pleasure which ,byron in his satire and his declamation could occasionally give me4 ,he is monotonous1 he is rhetorical1 his versification is often incredibly bad1 and he is more obscure1 mainly by dint of hurry1 bad printing1 and bad grammar1 than ,mr4 ,browning4 ,thus ,byron leaves us impressed as with a vast1 even volcanic1 yet dandified force1 untrained and often misdirected4 ,either by nature1 or in reaction1 he professed sympathy with the ,augustan school of ,queen ,anne's reign1 and sided with ,pope in the long quarrel as to whether ,pope is a poet4 ,even the modern opponents of ,byron must recognize in him qualities which won the admiration and affection of ,scott and ,shelley4 ,in ,shelley we had a true child of the revolution1 the ,aufklarung1 and the later eighteenth century4 ,his boyhood trifled with chemical science 7probably not then popular with the human boy72 his adolescence was given to converting school-girls into 8dear little atheists40 ,his social ideas1 like those of some advanced moderns1 aimed at the absolute destruction of the family2 and the moral of ,laon and ,cythna went far behind the morals of the most backward savages1 who make incest a capital offence4 ,shelley1 a boy all his life1 was more boyishly devoted to destruction than even the newest writers on the relations of the sexes4 ,in 8making all things new0 both he and they are1 in fact1 relapsing on a condition of society which1 if it ever existed1 is so old that it may be called 8pre-human10 and is contrary to nature1 as far as we can study human nature in the least developed of tribes4 ,his ideas conducted ,shelley to the tragedy and farce of his career3 his desertion of one young wife1 followed by her suicide1 and his marriage with another1 in entire opposition to his own opinions4 ,in literature he began at school with a devout following of ,mrs4 ,radcliffe2 while1 in ,queen ,mab and ,alastor1 vigorous but vague and misty ,childe ,harold1 wandering in ,no ,man's ,land1 he first displayed his originality in poetical form4 ,his personal character being noble and generous in the highest degree1 his sympathy with the poor and the oppressed being a true passion1 ,shelley's errors arose from the fixed idea that almost every human ordinance must1 being old1 be necessarily bad4 ,he would recognize that there is1 after all1 something right in the sixth commandment1 but did not draw the inference that a gleam of reason might also be found in most of the rest of the ,decalogue4 ,the state of society then1 as always1 provoked revolt1 but the state of society was grievous1 not because its moral laws were bad1 but because its laws were not obeyed4 ,shelley had no turn for narrative1 and1 in such poems as ,the ,revolt of ,islam1 it is the splendid meteoric genius1 the unexcelled music that captivate4 ,in lyrics he was probably the most original force since the ,elizabethan age3 his verse is a singing and soaring flame4 ,in ,adonis his righteous indignation carries him forward like an angel with a sword of fire2 and ,the ,witch of ,atlas is a triumph in a new 8fairy way of writing40 ,his is the ,muse of clouds and stars1 of sea and tempest1 of all the aspects1 and1 in appearance1 most capricious forces of the world1 yet his is also the ,muse of flowers and peaceful woods1 of dejection and of delight4 ,what the born rebel1 ,milton1 might have been without the foundation and trammels of ,puritanism1 that ,shelley was1 though his wild and tender lyric note was even more exquisite than ,milton's4 ,neither was1 in the full sense1 human1 for both were without humor1 as may be seen in their humorous pieces4 ,keats1 but three years younger than ,shelley 7#agie71 was more a true child of the nineteenth century4 ,his social ideas1 though of course liberal1 were more in abeyance2 he was more exclusively an artist2 and his art was more controlled by the revived ,elizabethanism of ,leigh ,hunt 7#aghd74 ,that singular man1 who had so much taste1 and so much of it bad2 so intense a theory of social benevolence1 and so keen a belief that it was more blessed to receive than to give1 8owed little0 7in the way of literature7 8to any but the old masters1 and many contemporaries owed not a little to him40 ,few owed more1 for good and bad1 than ,keats4 ,virgil he had found out for himself1 and had translated when a schoolboy4 ,spenser1 too1 he found for himself1 and ,greece he discovered afresh in ,lemprire's ,dictionary and in ,chapman's ,homer4 ,but this superficial euphuism and elaborate verbal quaintness he partly derived at second hand from ,leigh ,hunt4 ,that something in ,leigh ,hunt which suggested ,harold ,skimpole to ,dickens1 and his violent conception of ,the ,cockney ,school to ,lockhart1 was not hidden from ,keats1 and inspired him with some bitter words4 ,it was what he derived from ,hunt that gave occasion to ,keats's assailants1 who were more of political than of literary partisans4 ,lockhart1 or ,wilson1 or both1 with the ,quarterly reviewer1 in attacking ,endymion were attacking1 they thought1 a member of an affected1 effeminate1 and radical coterie4 ,keats himself1 maturing with the suddenness of genius1 looked on ,endymion as thoroughly immature4 ,but killed1 or even discouraged1 by his critics he was not1 and on a page of a copy of ,lamia where his publishers spoke of his discouragment he wrote 8,this is a lie40 7,the copy is in the possession of ,canon ,ainger47 ,keats1 like ,burns1 whom he so intensely admired and so unerringly judged as a man and a poet1 was his own best critic4 ,despite his boyish lusciousness of taste1 and the fever of letters written when dying1 there was no manlier or more chivalrous soul in ,england than that of the poet of the odes to the nightingale and to autumn4 ,keats at his best attained sheer perfection of language1 of emotion1 and of thought4 ,as he advised ,shelley to be1 he was not content with less than filling all the rifts with pure gold4 8,untaught10 like the minstrel of ,odysseus1 he combined a ,greek clarity and largeness of manner with that romance which ,greece does not lack1 but which he possessed in a degree more conspicuous1 at least to readers who are not ,greeks4 ,though he has not been and cannot be imitated1 he has supplied to ,tennyson and the best moderns a standard and an ideal4 ,that the ,shakespearian copiousness of humanity and humor and dramatic genius would ever have been his nothing indicates1 but what writer of the nineteenth century1 except ,scott1 has possessed a large share of these qualities8 ,in poetry1 not one1 and it was in prose that ,scott wore his fragment of the cloak of ,shakespeare4 ,for the century has not produced1 in ,england or ,america1 a great dramatic poet4 ,it is to fiction1 to ,scott1 ,dickens1 ,thackeray1 ,stevenson1 ,meredith1 ,hawthorne1 ,george ,eliot1 that we must look for the humor and humanity and passion which1 earlier1 found their vehicle in the drama4 ,ours is a reading rather than a seeing century1 though this does not explain the reason which made the great novelists incapable of writing for the stage4 ,of the other poets of the early century1 ,campbell1 ,rogers1 ,moore1 ,landor1 ,hogg1 and the ladies1 ,mrs4 ,hemans1 and ,l4 ,e4 ,l41 and ,beddoes1 space does not permit us to treat4 ,landor's audience has not increased2 ,rogers has none2 ,campbell is best remembered for war songs which ,i fear are overrated2 ,hogg1 despite some exquisite passages in ,kilmeny1 and some admirable songs1 suffers from his countrymen's exclusive devotion to ,robbie ,burns4 ,when ,scott turned to fiction 7#ahad7 the current of popular taste at once changed into that channel4 ,byron had still his vogue2 ,keats1 ,shelley1 and ,coleridge then sang only to the few initiated2 ,wordsworth was past his prime2 and with the general public nothing was really popular but fiction1 and that fiction was ,scott's4 ,miss ,austen is probably much more widely appreciated to-day than when she died1 little noted by the world1 in #ahag4 ,a criticism of ,scott's novels1 which first made fiction supreme and far above poetry in the estimation of 8the reading public10 cannot be attempted in this place4 ,the best estimate of ,scott1 if far from most favorable1 is his own1 in the introduction to ,the ,fortunes of ,nigel4 ,his faults of prolixity1 haste1 indifference to delicacy of style1 and even to grammar2 his 8big bow-wow0 vein 7as he calls it72 the stilted theatrical language of his ,catherine ,glovers and ,helen ,macgregors--all these defects1 with his hasty denouments 7as of ,shakespeare and ,molire71 are patent1 are confessed1 and probably deter many readers from making profit of his humor1 his rich knowledge of and sympathy with all human nature1 his infrequent but exquisite touches of passion1 his tragedy and comedy4 ,none the less1 ,scott is the main stock of the fiction of the century4 ,men may now have more minute knowledge1 though so wide a knowledge has none2 may have more wit1 if less humor2 may eagerly hunt for all that ,scott loathed and avoided in our animal nature2 may1 indeed must1 practise a more careful style1 but all the novelists are1 willy-nilly1 children of ,scott and ,miss ,austen4 ,dickens1 indeed1 owed more to ,smollett 7one of ,scott's chief favorites71 ,thackeray owed more to ,fielding1 the 8,kailyard ,school0 owed more to ,galt 7#aggi--ahci74 ,but ,scott is 8the father of the rest10 above all1 of ,dumas2 and ,miss ,austen is the mother4 ,lord ,lytton and ,mr4 ,disraeli had1 especially at first1 a tinge of ,byronism1 later developing on their own lines3 ,mr4 ,disraeli's political2 ,lord ,lytton's multifarious1 including the line of modern mysticism1 now often worked4 ,scott lived to be interested in ,lytton1 and might have seen 7though probably he did not see them7 the little-noted beginnings of ,browning and ,tennyson1 about #ahcj4 ,what he did see1 and admire1 was the performance of ,cooper1 with whom actual and living ,american fiction may perhaps be said to take its rise4 ,in ,england1 ,cooper was regarded as the ,scott of ,america2 and it is to be regretted that ,lockhart did not excise a splenetic personal reference to ,cooper in ,sir ,walter's ,journal4 ,he was old1 tired1 and fatigued with the pressure of society in ,paris when he wrote4 ,cooper had the genius to appropriate the unworked fields of ,american patriotic seafaring life1 and of the manners of the ,red ,man2 he is 8,cooper of the wood and wave40 ,eagerly were his works read by boys1 when ,thackeray was a boy1 and when ,i was a boy4 ,never shall his readers forget the 8,long ,carabine10 to whom ,thackeray was devoted1 and ,uncas1 and ,chingachgook4 8,still we love the ,delaware1 ,and still we hate the ,mingos40 ,doubtless ,cooper's ,indians are not 8realistically0 treated1 though there is infinitely more of truth in his dignified hunters and warriors than people conversant only with the ,red ,man of to-day are ready to believe4 ,but ,cooper1 probably1 does not live with the immortality of his first renowned successor1 ,hawthorne1 who1 for secure perfection of form1 is to modern fiction what ,keats is to modern poetry4 ,like ,scott1 ,hawthorne is the unforced fruit of his ancestry and the society into which he was born--a ,puritan1 not a ,cavalier artist1 with a background of austere faith and of old superstition1 differentiated from that of the ,covenanters by the shadow of deep forests and of struggles with the ,indians and the wild things of the woods4 ,these had passed into mellow memories1 as1 for ,scott1 had passed the age of witches1 fairies1 reivers1 and claymores4 ,entirely1 in the ,scarlet ,letter1 as by way of hereditary influence in the ,house of ,seven ,gables1 ,hawthorne reproduced what was old1 making it poetically enduring4 ,his ,mosses from an ,old ,manse1 and other brief tales set the fashion1 except by ,poe1 long unfollowed1 of the conte4 ,neither author has been excelled in his own portion of this field4 ,hawthorne's haunted consciences1 ,poe's treasure tale1 his detective stories1 and his tales of terror remain unequalled1 though so profusely imitated4 ,this epoch1 say from #ahcj to #ahee1 was a kind of classical interspace in the literature of the century4 ,france1 preoccupied by war in the first thirty years of the age1 now awoke to her own famous romantic era1 with ,hugo1 ,dumas1 ,musset1 ,gautier1 ,george ,sand1 ,sainte-,beuve1 ,mrime--names of the highest4 ,germany1 to the non-,teutonic world1 is1 in poetry1 represented by ,heine1 and1 in science1 philosophy1 philology1 and history by a galaxy of innovators ingenious and industrious4 ,america saw ,hawthorne1 ,poe1 ,lowell1 ,holmes1 ,whittier1 ,ticknor1 ,prescott1 ,motley1 ,longfellow1 ,bryant1 ,emerson1 in their prime2 while ,england had ,carlyle1 ,tennyson1 ,newman1 ,browning1 the ,bronts1 ,kingsley1 ,thackeray1 ,dickens1 and ,ruskin1 all recognized and flourishing4 ,we look around and see1 as ,mr4 ,stevenson says in a letter1 that 8the suns have set10 while we are scarcely conscious of new dawns4 ,who can explain1 by circumstances of social evolution and historical event1 the rising and the setting of such constellations of genius8 ,it is not enough to speak of the democratic demand1 naturally indifferent to style1 for never was style the object of such anxious research1 except in other ages of euphuism4 ,encouragement is even overabundant2 8masterpieces0 are announced every week1 and forgotten every year4 ,it may be the prejudice of hoary eld1 but ,i must confess that our new literature does not seem to me to show such promise of permanence as the literature of #ahcj-ahfj gave1 and1 so far1 has fulfilled4 ,has fulfilled in spite of our sneers at the 8early ,victorian10 which was not socialistic1 or evolutionist and ,darwin-ridden1 and was 8respectable10 and did avert its eyes from all that most people in real life don't care to stare at4 ,this 8prudery0 was no new thing4 ,the ,greeks1 in except some late decadents and in the old comedy1 have a 8prudish0 literature4 ,the ,latin classics are not in the taste of ,m4 ,zola4 ,the age of ,chaucer1 the age of ,elizabeth1 were grossly frank1 that of the ,restoration was frankly lewd1 but we have sought out many inventions over which ,sedley and ,rochester would not have cared to linger4 ,their grossness was gay2 ours is morbidly squalid4 ,such things are absent from the work of ,hawthorne and ,holmes1 ,longfellow1 ,dickens1 ,thackeray1 and the rest4 ,such things we now treat of1 greatly daring1 and somehow our elders appear apt to outlaugh and outlive us as humorists1 novelists1 and poets4 ,it is strange4 ,into the merits of that remarkable middle age of the century we cannot enter in much detail4 ,tennyson holds unimperilled the throne of the poet of the time4 ,that his thought is not especially penetrating1 whether he deals with the intricacies of human character1 or with the problems of the universe1 may be readily admitted4 ,but ,i am unaware that any poet has yet 8got the absolute into a corner10 or solved the problems of the universe4 ,tennyson1 more than people suppose1 was1 personally1 a mystic1 with his own mystic experiences2 and his philosophy was influenced by them4 ,he 8followed the ,gleam40 ,neither in the ,idylls of the ,king nor in plays1 was dramatic rendering of character his forte4 ,his forte was charm1 and music1 and the interpretation of nature4 ,in these he is the equal of the ,mantuan1 is the ,virgil of the modern world1 8golden branch among the shadows40 ,moreover1 he has infinite variety3 from ,mariana to ,fatima and ,rizpah2 from the ,lotos-,eaters1 which 8adds a new charm0 after the ,farie ,queene1 to the ,northern ,farmer1 from ,ulysses to ,crossing the ,bar4 ,the early ,morte d',arthur is of unsurpassed nobility and magic2 the last poem1 ,crossing the ,bar1 is no less pre-eminent in these qualities4 ,tennyson1 in short1 had genius2 new1 as all genius is new1 and no occasional defects of taste or temper can impair the splendor and richness of his gift to the world1 nor the immortality of his fame4 ,his contemporary1 ,browning1 had the misfortune to attract1 by his faults1 the people who wish to believe themselves clever1 because they labor at appreciating passages which the poet had made obscure4 ,darkness is not depth1 nor is obscurity a merit4 ,from his letters it is plain that ,mr4 ,browning had not the gift of lucid expression2 from his poems it is manifest that he had not1 in a high degree1 the gift of verbal music and of charms4 ,his gift of the grotesque1 very real and original1 was also his snare4 ,in ,christmas ,eve and ,easter ,day1 with ,men and ,women1 we have the true essence of ,browning at his best2 we have his dramatic lyrics1 with their amazing abundance of character and variety of measure4 ,after the first fascinating volume ,the ,ring and the ,book became monotonous4 ,one song in ,paracelsus1 to myself1 seems worth all the dissection of character in the blank verse4 ,there are many who find a kind of spiritual help in such pieces as ,prospice4 ,there are thousands who find in ,men and ,women a sort of intellectual enjoyment 7or entertainment7 which they can derive from no other poet who ever lived4 ,an energy1 life1 and sympathy1 breaking forth in fresh1 unheard-of ways2 vocal in strange1 piercing1 untried measures3 these are the imperishable qualities of ,browning4 ,look at his rendering of the ,agamemnon3 such is his version of life4 ,the poetry of schylus is not there3 8carmina desunt02 but there is a new1 odd1 unexpected rendering of the tragedy4 ,so poignant and broken1 sad1 glad1 grotesque1 and pitiful1 was ,browning's rendering of life4 ,he was 8ever a fighter03 no poet is more exempt from whining and despair4 ,destiny linked him with ,mrs4 ,browning1 whose genius1 sincere and original1 is apt to be obscured by palpable faults of manner1 emotion1 and even rhyme1 on which it is superfluous to dwell4 ,her merits1 and some of her defects1 made ,mrs4 ,browning the most popular of women poets in ,england1 except1 perhaps1 ,miss ,ingelow4 ,both1 in the crowd of accomplished versifiers1 appear as true poets1 though both1 no doubt1 fail to reach the place of ,miss ,christina ,rossetti1 who never can be popular4 ,the matter of popularity is full of puzzles and paradoxes4 ,tennyson was popular1 yet great because he is popular4 ,there was a moment when popularity without permanence might have been expected for ,longfellow4 ,the excellence of his moral intentions was then more obvious than the poetry4 ,such early pieces as ,excelsior and ,the ,psalm of ,life yield odd results on analysis4 ,but not much better can be said for the ,queen of the ,may1 and for parts of ,the ,miller's ,daughter4 ,in these is a marvellous dexterity in sinking4 ,but sink1 and remain sunk1 was as little characteristic of ,longfellow as of ,tennyson4 ,he was a true poet1 in his lyrics1 even in his translations1 as well as in ,evangeline1 and that excellent experiment ,hiawatha1 where the measure of the ,finnish popular poems is applied to the not dissimilar legends of another woodland race4 ,but ,longfellow lacked that undefinable quality of the rare1 the strange1 the hitherto unheard yet delightful note which now and again is heard in the verse of ,edgar ,poe4 ,he was an ,ishmaelite in literature1 his hand against every man's hand1 and hence seems to be less admired where he was personally known than in ,france and ,england4 ,it is not the famous ,raven1 but such pieces as ,to ,helen1 the ,sleeper1 and at most a dozen others which give ,poe his high place in the judgment of his admirers4 ,not his ideas1 but the beauty of his haunting lines1 confers on him the laurel4 ,of ,bryant1 as a rule1 and of ,whittier almost always1 the reverse is the truth4 ,the acceptability of their ideas1 the refined simplicity1 not the natural magic1 of their form1 are their claims to renown4 ,except in a few places1 as in such as his ,commemoration ,ode1 ,mr4 ,lowell is better remembered for the wit and vigor of his ,biglow poems than for his serious verse1 at least in ,england2 while ,emerson's prose has precedence here over his poetry4 ,the wisdom of the ,east and ,west1 blended with his happy1 courageous temper1 made ,emerson a corrective ,carlyle1 while ,thoreau is the complement of ,emerson4 ,concerning the great ,victorian novelists1 ,thackeray and ,dickens1 so much is daily written that remark is superfluous4 ,a master of observation of all that had rarely been observed1 a generous heart1 an original and abundant humorist1 the greatest source of mirth in our century1 ,dickens appears to wear less well than his rival4 ,the unapproached merits of ,thackeray's style must preserve him in literature2 his pathos is rare and unforced2 his form of humor is as permanent as that of ,fielding1 and as successfully matched by his phrasing4 ,even his verse1 mirthful or melancholy1 does not fade1 and has its own place on the borderland of poetry4 ,george ,eliot's fame1 too1 must revive the success of her earlier and more humorous novels1 before she became too fond of the ,spencerian philosophy1 and took herself too seriously1 a natural result of adulation4 ,charlotte ,bront1 in the same way1 has been1 as it were1 rediscovered amid a chorus of fresh applauses1 and with perhaps rather too curious investigations4 ,in ,america1 after ,hawthorne1 ,dr4 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes and ,mrs4 ,beecher ,stowe were the novelists most generally admired in ,england1 when ,thackeray and ,dickens were verging to their decline4 ,it is1 indeed1 to be regretted that ,dr4 ,holmes did not write more fiction when in his prime4 ,his excellent and original ,elsie ,venner1 and ,guardian ,angel1 with their humorous pictures of real life and their thread of phantasy1 half mystical1 half scientific1 border 7as often in the ,poet and ,professor at the ,breakfast ,table7 on the ground of 8psychical research40 ,dr4 ,holmes was not merely1 in verse and prose1 an exquisite wit1 but a man of rare knowledge1 a man of science1 and a sturdy defender of the purity of the language4 ,mrs4 ,beecher ,stowe1 on the other hand1 took the world by storm with a vivid tract in the form of fiction2 a book now not easy to criticise1 but which can still move to laughter and tears4 ,it is my 8insular ignorance0 which prevents me from appreciating other ,american fictions of that age1 before the days of writers still happily living and working3 ,mark ,twain1 ,bret ,harte1 ,w4 ,d4 ,howells1 ,henry ,james1 and scores of others1 who1 being here to speak for themselves1 shall not be commented upon in this place4 ,with ,mr4 ,howells1 as a critic1 ,i have tried to break lances1 while ready to admit one of his main contentions1 that the art of ,scott1 ,thackeray1 ,dickens1 and others of our fathers would have profited much by being a finer art1 by condensation1 by omission1 by avoidance of the superfluous4 ,but that our modern fiction is a greater art1 that romance and story-telling and adventure are obsolete1 or ought to be obsolete1 that ,i can never admit while human nature is human nature4 ,mankind will never be content1 in fiction1 with tales of the psychology of the ordinary person2 ordinary as we are1 we desire to be1 like ,homer's ,heracles1 conversant with great adventures4 ,mr4 ,howells perhaps may think ,aristotle a ,greek snob when he maintains that tragedy must find its theme in the sorrows of the god-descended kings4 ,are not the griefs of the poor or of the middle classes as poignant8 ,they are2 but they do not involve such heights and depths of fortune1 raising or wrecking whole states1 as do the woes 8of ,thebes1 or ,atreus's line40 ,the fall of ,prince ,charles from an hour even of shadowy royalty1 from the leadership of an army1 from the wondering admiration of ,europe and the applause of ,voltaire into the subject and dependent sot is an example of modern historical tragedy2 in its elevation and its decline more apt to move 8pity and terror0 than the circumstance that a journalist has taken to drink4 ,as in the case of ,america1 so in that of ,england1 ,i cannot enter into the merits of living novelists in so wide a task as the brief review of a century4 ,mr4 ,meredith1 as a veteran of the #fj's1 has shown1 perhaps1 fully what is the nature of his achievement2 he shines as a creator of character 7the highest praise7 and as a writer with a thoroughly original view of the world1 as a poet and as a wit4 ,that his manner is entirely fortunate1 and not rather tinged with wilful eccentricities like those of ,browning and ,carlyle1 can scarcely be disputed4 ,an accomplished young novelist has admitted to me that his manner is 8catching10 and that he has to struggle against half-conscious efforts at imitation4 ,others do not struggle2 and most grow older before they are able to write like themselves1 with their own voices4 ,even ,mr4 ,stevenson was caught now and then1 his own voice being original indeed1 but yet full of memories of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 and even of the ,cameronian writers4 ,to my mind ,mr4 ,stevenson was the greatest1 or1 at least1 the most enjoyable1 of our novelists since ,george ,eliot1 excelling in matter and form1 though probably always prevented by thwarting circumstances from doing himself complete justice4 ,he practically revived in ,england the novel historical1 now so abundantly practised1 and practised with spirit1 by ,mr4 ,stanley ,weyman1 ,mr4 ,anthony ,hope1 ,dr4 ,conan ,doyle1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,w4 ,mason1 and a regiment of followers4 ,the novel scientific1 as in the hands of ,mr4 ,wells1 and the novel of adventure1 8beyond the bounds of known romanticism10 as in ,mr4 ,rider ,haggard's works1 with the detective novel and the ,oriental and imperialistic romances of ,mr4 ,kipling1 prove that man will not be satisfied with domestic realism alone4 ,i never thought he would6 ,mr4 ,kipling's astonishing powers of vision1 his habit of ruthlessly cutting the superfluous1 and his amazing command of technicalities1 help to account for his world-wide fame4 ,but the greatest of these is vision1 not an acquired result of thought1 but a gift of ,heaven4 ,the age has also produced a wealth of novels with a purpose4 ,would that the authors could be induced to state their purposes squarely1 in undecorative treatises6 ,but ,i confess that the treatises would not be read4 ,the specialism of modern science has also invaded fiction1 and some authors find a county or a parish wide enough for the work of a lifetime4 ,the district has its dialect1 and who can reprove it when spoken by the creatures of ,mr4 ,barrie and ,mr4 ,crockett8 ,this kind of fiction is the result of our desire to learn 7through novels7 about the lives of all sorts and conditions of men4 ,enfin1 the whole scope of mortal existence is now the farrage libelli of the novelists who range from prehistoric man to ,bethnal ,green2 from ,thrums to ,central ,africa4 ,there is not the same eagerness to read history1 which ,james ,,ii4 regarded as 8more instructive1 and quite as amusing40 ,my heart is here with ,king ,james1 and ,i confess to gaining more entertainment from ,carlyle's ,frederick the ,great than from most novels4 ,the earlier historians1 from ,scott to ,carlyle1 ,macaulay and ,froude1 placed the human interest in the front rank4 ,they conceived that history had to do with human beings of passions1 caprices1 moods1 loves1 and hates1 dwelling in a world of interesting costumes1 arms1 architecture1 ideas1 and beliefs4 ,thus ,carlyle1 with much research1 created his ,cromwell or his ,frederick1 as ,scott created his ,queen ,mary1 his ,louis ,,xi41 his ,james ,,vi41 or his ,cromwell in ,woodstock1 who is not too remote from ,carlyle's4 ,for these reasons ,scott1 ,froude1 ,carlyle1 and ,macaulay really are 8amusing0 as well as instructive historians4 ,when institutions and constitutions had to be described they were placed in separate compartments1 as in the works of ,hallam and ,bishop ,stubbs4 ,historians studied manuscripts1 of course1 but it was not held that only the unprinted was the valuable1 that a new survey of known matter was absolutely valueless4 ,in the end of the century we have history which is not 8as interesting as a novel0 7like that of ,prescott1 ,motley1 ,froude1 and ,macaulay71 but very far from gay4 ,novelty of research is1 quite justly1 insisted upon 7though research is as old as ,hemingburgh1 and was much advanced by ,gibbon1 ,carter1 ,rymer1 ,walpole1 ,tytler1 and so on7 till1 by a natural error1 every scrap won from a wilderness of charters is valued beyond its deserts4 ,the human interest is frowned upon2 movements of forces1 political and social1 are treated in preference to personal character and adventure4 ,meticulous accuracy is insisted upon1 till nervous students are actually afraid to publish4 ,even ,mommsen1 greatest of original students1 is regarded as frivolous1 even ,curtius as 8popular0 by the modern school4 ,it is natural to man to run into these excesses of reaction4 ,froude is not often accurate1 ,macaulay has prejudices1 even ,mr4 ,freeman was not sound about ,knights' ,fees and about a certain palisade4 ,now the public does not care about ,knights' ,fees or about the ,manor1 much2 nor even about the obscure early history of civic institutions4 ,in fact1 even references to authorities frighten away part of the public1 whose timidity ,i do not applaud4 ,the results of our frivolity and of the portentous gravity of some modern historians is that1 since ,mr4 ,green1 scarcely any writer of history is read except for examinations4 ,as long as historians declare 7often with perfect truth7 that their own works are not literature1 but something far more awful and solemn1 namely science1 history must be unpopular4 ,but we are only waiting for a man of genius as accurate as the most meticulous1 and as interesting as the agreeably irresponsible ,froude4 ,of science ,i am not to treat1 so ,i am dispensed from remarks on our scientific modern historians4 ,it is certain that in collecting and printing and calendaring documents the age in all countries has shown praiseworthy industry1 while ,mr4 ,parkman in ,america1 like our mid-century historians1 was not too scientific to be readable4 ,of theology1 except when recommended by the art of a ,newman or a ,jowett1 nothing is here to be said2 though ,i could cheerfully say a good deal1 especially about ,biblical criticism4 ,but that is science1 though scarcely the sort of science which has been defined as 8organized common-sense40 ,the poetry of the late century in ,england boasts the names of ,rossetti1 ,william ,morris1 ,matthew ,arnold1 and ,mr4 ,swinburne4 ,it is tinged1 in the former with medivalism derived from the ,italians and ,chaucer2 while in ,mr4 ,swinburne every conceivable literary influence1 from the ,greeks to ,baudelaire1 from the ,elizabethans to ,victor ,hugo1 makes itself abundantly conspicuous4 ,these poets1 younger than ,matthew ,arnold1 are not much influenced by ,wordsworth1 though by ,shelley ,mr4 ,swinburne was influenced4 ,on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,arnold was a modern1 academic1 heterodox ,wordsworth1 and often a truly delightful poet4 ,he stood much aloof from the contemporary literature of his day1 and his letters prove that he was no fervent admirer even of ,tennyson or ,browning4 ,his own poetry has been to many1 as to myself1 full of delightful passages1 whether he wrote of the ,oxford country-side1 or of ,wordsworth's hills1 of 8the shorn and parcelled ,oxus10 or of the moaning sea that ,sophocles long ago heard as he heard it on ,dover beach4 ,he was our greatest modern elegiac poet2 a master of the ,dirge4 ,of the living1 again1 no criticism can be offered2 we only note the names1 and real if very various merits1 of ,mr4 ,robert ,bridges1 ,mr4 ,watson1 ,mr4 ,davidson1 ,mr4 ,dobson1 ,mr4 ,benson1 ,mr4 ,thompson1 ,mr4 ,henley1 ,mr4 ,gosse1 ,mr4 ,stephen ,philips1 ,mrs4 ,marriott ,watson1 ,mrs4 ,maynell1 ,mr4 ,kipling1 8a nest of singing birds40 ,it would be impertinent1 and indeed perilous1 to 8draw invidious distinctions10 as the undergraduate said about the major and minor prophets3 nor is it for this century to sift the poetic sheep from the goats1 who1 in an age that reads little poetry1 are greatly guilty of much verse4 ,the unassuming and decried art of criticism remains4 ,essays are of no one age2 there are similar excellences in every good essayist since ,montaigne4 ,we have no ,hazlitt1 ,lamb1 or ,leigh ,hunt1 but we had ,mr4 ,stephenson and ,mr4 ,pater1 so unlike in all but conscious interest in style1 and reminiscence of the best models4 ,indeed1 essay writing is almost an unpractised art1 as the public 8has no use for it10 any more than for the letter ,h on the ,sandwich boards4 ,a fairly bad novelist can live2 to an appallingly bad novelist the workhouse unfolds its awful valves4 ,in literary criticism ,mr4 ,arnold stood alone in his age1 and ,mr4 ,arnold's literary income1 it is known1 surprised1 when stated1 the ,commissioners of ,income ,tax3 not by its affluence4 ,of living critics it would be in the highest degree dangerous to say a word1 though many words1 both of praise and dispraise1 might be said of a person of reckless character4 ,that 7with obvious exceptions7 most critics are men intimately familiar with what is best1 from ,homer to ,mr4 ,stephen ,philips1 few students would venture to aver4 ,that we 7for am ,i not the least of all critics1 and not worthy to be called a critic87 are entirely devoid of ignorance1 personal bias1 likes1 dislikes1 prejudices1 pet aversions1 indolence1 we are not so blindly conceited as to maintain4 ,we have been taught by many centuries of creative geniuses1 from ,theocritus to the latest protesting popular novelists1 to know our proper place1 and we take refuge in 8confession and avoidance40 ,the new century will not know our names when we pass where ,dennis and where ,cibber are1 unless ,mr4 ,robert ,buchanan writes a new ,dunciad4 ,the century1 even if we are in full decadence 7of which we are not the best judges71 has been glorious in literature1 and holds its own well with any in modern history4 ,english itself has passed from the occasionally stilted ,augustan survival1 through the novelties of ,macaulay1 ,de ,quincey1 and ,carlyle1 and the early decorated of ,mr4 ,ruskin1 into slipshod slang in one extreme1 and euphuism in the other4 ,but the main stream keeps its course1 and ,english may be written with perfect purity1 and with new fluency and variety1 by the men for whom the task is reserved by fate4 ,but what does the century bequeath by way of intellectual motive8 ,little but the more or less transformed forces of the eighteenth century4 ,there is science1 but science1 happily1 is beginning to be aware that she is not really omniscient4 ,conceivably her foot is on the border of a new region1 often surmised1 never explored1 full of light on the problems of spirit and matter4 ,hence1 indeed1 might come a new force in letters4 ,again1 the social ideas of #agej-ahjj may take practical shapes of incalculable momentousness1 but these would not for long be favorable to literature4 ,or1 less probably1 the return on the past may assume practical shape1 though this element of the later eighteenth century may seem1 as far as letters go1 to be exhausted4 ,in brief1 as ,i began by saying1 the division of literary periods by measures of time is a cross-division4 ,this peculiarity the last hundred years possess3 that literature now blossoms on a far wider field4 ,english-speaking ,america had1 indeed1 a literature long before the ,war of ,independence2 but it was not a literature for every reader of to-day4 ,now1 and for long1 the ,states have taken their own part in history1 fiction1 poetry1 and all other branches of letters4 ,germany came back into world literature again just at the ending of the eighteenth century1 after unregarded ages of neglect4 ,russia and the ,scandinavian ,north awoke about the same time1 and daily widen their influence1 as does ,belgium in the sunshine of ,maeterlinck4 ,france1 of course1 has in all time been in the foremost rank2 while to balance ,america1 ,russia1 and the ,north1 ,italy and ,spain have scarcely held the place which through so many centuries was their own4 ,such changes in national literatures resemble the political waxings and wanings of national fortunes4 ,the ,english-speaking peoples may have their eclipse2 perhaps it is heralded by a modern comparative deficiency in humor which1 if ,england and ,america cease to laugh1 will die out of a profoundly solemn world4 ,in the foregoing remarks little has been said about the literature of the century except among ,english-speaking peoples4 ,not being a ,mezzofanti1 ,i am not personally acquainted with the literature of all languages1 and it is a vain thing to speak of books at second hand4 ,it was not the nineteenth but the eighteenth century that saw ,germany re-enter the field of pure literature1 as distinguished from that of scholarship and science4 ,since the end of the ,middle ,ages1 with their poets1 ,german writers had mainly been devoted to theology and classical criticism4 ,latin was the language of the learned4 ,many ascertainable causes1 in the middle and end of the eighteenth century1 and doubtless many causes which cannot be ascertained1 awoke again the ,teutonic genius4 ,the victories of ,frederick the ,great gave ,germans patriotism and confidence in their own tongue4 ,the philosophic and social works which preluded to the ,french ,revolution stirred the ,german mind and required popular expression4 ,thus ,kant wrote in his own native speech in reaction against the sceptical philosophy of ,david ,hume1 and ,kant became the father of the long array of ,german metaphysicians from ,hegel and ,fichte to ,schopenhauer and ,hartmann4 ,their philosophy 8cannot be briefly stated1 especially in ,french10 as one of them said1 but its general effect has been rather to counteract materialism by making it pretty plain that human nature is not so simple and easily to be explained as the ,scottish philosophers were apt to suppose4 ,in ,england1 ,coleridge gave an ,anglican heart to the new ,german philosophy1 which also influenced ,hamilton1 and still affects the philosophical teaching of ,oxford4 8,it is nonsense1 but is it the right sort of nonsense80 asked the late ,professor ,sidgwick 7a ,cambridge man7 when struggling with the examination papers of a ,hegelian undergraduate4 ,more important as literature were the double influences of return on the medival past and of inspiration by the new political and social ideas which gave the impulse to the genius of ,goethe1 ,schiller1 ,brger1 and others4 ,goethe began as the child of ,rousseau1 but as a child who had read ,kant1 and drunk deep of the romance of the ,middle ,ages4 ,doubtless his is the greatest name of modern ,germany1 both as a student of life1 of nature1 of history1 and of thought4 ,he was the spiritual parent of ,scott1 with his ,gtz von ,berlichingen1 and1 with ,richter1 of ,carlyle4 ,through himself and his ,english or ,scottish disciples1 ,goethe has been the most fertile source of change in the literature of the nineteenth century4 ,in extreme old age1 curious to say1 he gave the first impulse to the study of early religion as displayed in the obscure rites and beliefs of the ,australian natives3 a theme remote enough from his effect on the poetry of ,matthew ,arnold4 ,probably the two parts of his ,faust and his ,roman ,lyrics are the most popular1 and1 as literature1 the most permanent parts of his work1 with ,werther1 ,wilhelm ,meister1 and ,elective ,affinities1 in prose4 ,schiller1 beginning with the boyish romanticism of ,the ,robbers1 became a kind of classic in his later dramas4 ,lessing and ,winckelmann were the most sound and fertile influences in criticism4 ,the ,laocoon remains indispensable4 ,the patriotic lyrists resurrected the national spirit of the ,teutonic race1 and ,heine1 ,hebrew by race and half ,french in character1 combined the characteristics of ,lucian1 ,burns1 and ,voltaire4 ,wolf1 writing in ,latin 7and ,i believe that his work on ,homer has never attained a third edition1 and has never been translated into ,english71 became the parent1 for good or evil1 of what is called the ,higher ,criticism1 ,lachmann introducing the painfully conjectural tendencies of that intellectual exercise4 ,its application to scriptural texts is notorious1 but not precisely as part of literature4 ,like other ,european countries1 the ,germany of the close of the century is not remarkable for resplendent genius in poetry or fiction1 though novels abound4 ,the scientific1 historical1 and scholarly literature is of vast profusion4 ,in thoroughness and tireless patience1 ,germany is the teacher of the world1 while in curious contrast to her practical genius is the love of some of her scholars for baseless conjecture4 ,the 8insularity0 with which the ,english are charged is a matter of reproach by ,french scholars against ,germany4 ,some sets of ideas1 long familiar in ,america1 ,england1 and the ,latin nations1 are only now beginning to reach ,german classical scholars4 ,to write an account of the changes in ,french literature during the century is impossible within moderate space4 ,the revolutionary and ,napoleonic wars were unfavorable to the literary art1 and the head of so great a poet as ,andr ,chnier fell under the guillotine4 ,till about #ahbe-ahcj the ,restoration was accompanied by literature in the old classic style of ,boileau and of the ,augustan age1 only enlivened by the romantic if somewhat affected style of that great rhetorician1 ,chteaubriand4 ,the year #ahcj is the sacred year of ,french romanticism1 drawing its ideals partly from the ,german romantic movement1 partly from ,scott and ,shakespeare1 read1 of course1 only in translations4 ,everything was now to be medival1 ,spanish1 and passionate3 the drama was to be emancipated from ,aristotle1 also read in translations4 ,as far as classicism went the young adventurers had no more ,greek than ,shakespeare or ,scott4 ,but they had the colossal and ,titanic genius of ,hugo1 exquisitely sweet1 rapid1 strange1 and versatile in lyric3 potent1 if inflated1 in the drama and the novel4 ,they had the charming humor and exquisite taste of ,thophile ,gautier2 the feverish passion and mastery in verse of ,alfred de ,musset2 the delicate1 dreamy1 and wandering spirit of ,grard de ,nerval2 and the manly1 courageous1 humorous1 and unwearied vigor1 in drama and in fiction1 of ,alexandre ,dumas4 ,this was1 indeed1 an extraordinary generation1 by far the greatest since that of ,corneille1 ,racine1 and ,molire4 ,many others might be named3 the reserved force and incisive irony of ,mrime2 the learned and genial criticism of ,sainte-,beuve2 the inexhaustible talent of ,george ,sand1 and the mighty ,balzac1 the maker and founder of the modern work of introspection4 ,probably1 of all these writers1 ,dumas and ,balzac have exercised most influence on later fiction in ,england and ,america4 ,flaubert continued1 with painful elaboration1 the traditions of ,balzac2 from ,flaubert1 and round him1 grew up ,daudet and ,m4 ,zola1 and the ,goncourts4 ,poetry1 after ,lamartine1 dwindled into the prettinesses of the ,parnasse and the eccentricities1 too obviously intentional1 of ,baudelaire1 ,verlaine1 and the ,symbolistes4 ,literary art1 at the end of the century1 became too self-conscious1 too fond of argument about ideals and methods1 the tattle of the studio4 ,great men have not thus dissipated their energy2 they have done what they could do2 they have not talked about how they did it4 ,what ,english literature was borrowed from ,france1 at this time1 is more in the nature of words than work4 ,criticism has been a chimaera bombinans in vacuo1 chattering about realism1 naturalism1 symbolism1 the use of documents1 and so forth4 ,the defects1 rather than the merits1 of ,france have been imitated2 a squalid pessimism is easily affected4 ,the closing century has seen ,russia awake1 as the close of the eighteenth century beheld the literary revival of ,germany4 ,russian poetry has only reached the learned among us3 the novels of ,turguenieff1 ,dustoiefsky1 and ,tolsto are read in translation1 with curiosity1 antipathy1 enthusiasm1 and an absence of that emotion4 ,it is very long since ,terentianus ,maurus remarked that the fortunes of a book depended on the taste of the reader4 ,often he is favorably impressed1 not by the actual merit of the story as a story or as a work of literary art1 but by its appeal to his private sentiments1 as of socialism1 pessimism1 toryism1 or whatever they may be4 ,possibly the vehement admirers of some ,russian writers have been thus misguided4 ,in any case1 no qualified critic thinks that his opinion of works which he cannot read in the original language is of any value4 ,for this reason ,i need not offend or please the reader by offering any uninstructed sentiments about the great ,scandinavian dramatist1 ,dr4 ,ibsen2 or concerning the work of ,signor d',annunzio1 or the plays of ,m4 ,maeterlinck4 ,to pronounce each of these gentlemen a ,shakespeare or schylus is not unusual in cultivated circles2 it remains for the new century to ratify or quash the verdict4 ,in the mean time1 have the approving critics taken the precaution of reading schylus and ,shakespeare8 ,,andrew ,,lang4 ,,engineering ,the material prosperity of the last century is due to the co-operation of three classes of men3 the man of science1 who lives only for truth and the discovery of nature's laws2 the inventor1 eager to apply these discoveries to money-making machines and processes1 and the engineer1 trained in mathematical investigation and in knowledge of the physical conditions which govern his profession1 which is the mechanical application of the laws of nature4 ,engineering is sometimes divided into civil1 military1 and naval engineering4 ,the term civil engineering1 which will be here described1 is often used by writers as covering structural engineering only1 but it has a much wider meaning4 ,the logical classification is3 statical engineering1 including that of all fixed bodies1 and dynamical1 covering the movement of all bodies by the development and application of power4 ,statical engineering can be again subdivided into structural engineering1 or that of railways1 highways1 bridges1 foundations1 tunnels1 buildings1 etc42 also1 into hydraulic engineering1 which governs the application of water to canals1 river improvements1 harbors1 the supply of water to towns and for irrigation1 disposal of sewage1 etc4 ,dynamical engineering can be divided into mechanical engineering1 which covers the construction of all prime motors1 the transmission of power1 and the use of machines and machine tools4 ,closely allied is electrical engineering1 the art of the transformation and transmission of energy for traction1 lighting1 telegraphy1 telephoning1 operating machinery1 and many other uses1 such as its electrolytic application to ores and metals4 ,then we have the combined application of statical1 mechanical1 and electrical engineering to what is now called industrial engineering1 or the production of articles useful to man4 ,this may be divided into agricultural1 mining1 metallurgical1 and chemical engineering4 ,surely this is a vast field1 and can only be hastily described in the sketch which we are about to give4 ,,structural ,,engineering ,this is the oldest of all4 ,we have not been able to surpass the works of the past in grandeur or durability4 ,the pyramids of ,egypt still stand1 and will stand for thousands of years4 ,roman bridges1 aqueducts1 and sewers still perform their duties4 ,joseph's canal still irrigates ,lower ,egypt4 ,the great wall of ,china1 running for fifteen hundred miles over mountains and plains1 contains one hundred and fifty millions of cubic yards of materials and is the greatest of artificial works4 ,no modern building compares in grandeur with ,st4 ,peter's1 and the medival cathedrals shame our puny imitations4 ,these mighty works were built to show the piety of the ,church or to gratify the pride of kings4 ,time and money were of no account4 ,all this has now been changed4 ,capital controls1 and the question of time1 money1 and usefulness rules everything4 ,hence come scientific design and labor-saving machinery4 ,the engineer of our modern works first calculates the stresses on all their parts1 and proportions them accordingly1 so that there is no waste of material4 ,hand labor has given place to steam machinery4 ,all parts are interchangeable1 so that they can be made and fitted together in the least possible time1 as is seen every day in the construction of a steel-framed office building4 ,our workmen receive much higher wages than in the past1 while time and cost have been diminished4 ,,railways ,the greatest engineering work of the nineteenth century was the development of the railway system which has changed the face of the world4 ,beginning in #ahbi with the locomotive of ,george ,stephenson1 it has extended with such strides that1 after seventy years1 there are #dff1jjj miles of railways in the world1 of which #aij1jjj miles are in the ,united ,states4 ,their cost is estimated at forty thousand millions of dollars1 of which ten thousand millions belong to the ,united ,states4 ,the rapidity with which railways are built in the ,united ,states and ,canada contrasts strongly with what has been done in other countries4 ,much has been written of the energy of ,russia in building #cjjj miles of ,siberian railway in five or six years4 ,in the ,united ,states an average of #fadg miles was completed every year during ten successive years1 and in #ahhg there were built #ab1ihb miles4 ,the physical difficulties overcome in ,siberia are no greater than have been overcome here4 ,this rapid construction is due to several causes1 the most potent of which has been the need of extending railways over great distances with little money4 ,hence they were built economically1 and at first in not as solid a manner as those of ,europe4 ,steeper gradients1 sharper curves1 and lighter rails were used4 ,this rendered necessary a different kind of rolling-stock suitable to such construction4 ,the swivelling-truck and equalizing-beam enabled our engines to run safely on tracks where the rigid ,european engines would soon have been in the ditch4 ,our cars were made longer1 and by the use of longitudinal framing much stronger4 ,a great economy came from the use of annealed cast-iron wheels1 with hardened tires1 all in one piece1 instead of being built up of spokes1 hubs1 and tires in separate parts4 ,these wheels now seldom break1 and cost much less than ,european wheels4 ,as there are some eleven million car-wheels in use in the ,united ,states the resulting economy is great4 ,it was soon seen that longer cars would carry a greater proportion of paying load1 and the more cars that one engine could draw in a train1 the less would be the cost4 ,it was not until the invention by ,bessemer in #ahfd of a steel of quality and cost that made it available for rails that much heavier cars and locomotives could be used4 ,then came a rapid increase4 ,as soon as ,bessemer rails were made in this country1 the cost fell from #age per ton to #ej1 and now to #bf4 ,before that time a wooden car weighed sixteen tons1 and could carry a paying load of fifteen tons4 ,the thirty-ton engines of those days could not draw on a level over thirty cars weighing #ijj tons4 ,the pressed steel car of to-day weighs no more than the wooden car1 but carries a paying load of fifty tons4 ,the heaviest engines have now drawn on a level fifty steel cars1 weighing #cgej tons4 ,in the one case the paying load of an engine was #dej tons2 now it is #bejj tons4 ,steep grades soon developed a better brake system1 and these heavier trains have led to the invention of the automatic brake worked from the engine1 and also automatic couplers1 saving time and many lives4 ,the capacity of our railways has been greatly increased by the use of electric block-signals4 ,the perfecting of both the railway and its rolling-stock has led to remarkable results4 ,we have no accurate statistics of the early operation of ,american railways4 ,in #ahfg ,poor's ,manual estimated their total freight tonnage at #ge1jjj1jjj and the total freight receipts at #djj1jjj1jjj4 ,this was an average rate per ton of #e4cc4 ,in #ahii ,poor gives the total freight tonnage at #ige1ghi1ida tons1 and the freight receipts at #ibb1dcf1cad1 or an average rate per ton of ninety-five cents4 ,had the rates of #ahfg prevailed1 the additional yearly cost to the public would have been #d1bge1jjj1jjj1 or sufficient to replace the whole railway system in two and a half years4 ,this is an illustration only1 but a very striking one4 ,everybody knows that such high rates of freight as those of #ahfg would have checked traffic4 ,this much can surely be said3 the reduction in cost of operating our railways1 and the consequent fall in freight rates1 have been potent factors in enabling the ,united ,states to send abroad last year #a1def1jjj1jjj worth of exports and flood the world with our food and manufactured products4 ,,bridge ,,building ,in early days the building of a bridge was a matter of great ceremony1 and it was consecrated to protect it from evil spirits4 ,its construction was controlled by priests1 as the title of the ,pope of ,rome1 8,pontifex ,maximus10 indicates4 ,railways changed all this4 ,instead of the picturesque stone bridge1 whose long line of low arches harmonized with the landscape1 there came the straight girder or high truss1 ugly indeed1 but quickly built1 and costing much less4 ,bridge construction has made greater progress in the ,united ,states than abroad4 ,the heavy trains that we have described called for stronger bridges4 ,the large ,american rolling-stock is not used in ,england1 and but little on the continent of ,europe1 as the width of tunnels and other obstacles will not allow of it4 ,it is said that there is an average of one bridge for every three miles of railway in the ,united ,states1 making #fc1jjj bridges1 most of which have been replaced by new and stronger ones during the last twenty years4 ,this demand has brought into existence many bridge-building companies1 some of whom make the whole bridge1 from the ore to the finished product4 ,before the advent of railways1 highway bridges in ,america were made of wood1 and called trusses4 ,few of them existed before railways4 ,the large rivers and estuaries were crossed in horse-boats1 a trip more dangerous than an ,atlantic voyage now is4 ,a few smaller rivers had wooden truss bridges4 ,although originally invented by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 in the sixteenth century1 they were reinvented by ,american carpenters4 ,some of ,burr's bridges are still standing after more than one hundred years' use4 ,this shows what wood can do when not overstrained and protected from weather and fire4 ,the coming of railways required a stronger type of bridge to carry concentrated loads1 and the ,howe truss1 with vertical iron rods1 was invented1 capable of #aej-;foot spans4 ,about #ahfh iron bridges began to take the place of wooden bridges4 ,die-forged eyebars and pin connections allowed of longer panels and longer spans4 ,one of the first long-span bridges was a single-track railway bridge of #djj-;foot span over the ,ohio at ,cincinnati1 which was considered to be a great achievement in #ahgj4 ,the ,kinzua viaduct1 #caj feet high and over half a mile long1 belongs to this era4 ,it is the type of the numerous high viaducts now so common4 ,about #ahhe a new material was given to engineers1 having greater strength and tenacity than iron1 and commercially available from its low cost4 ,this is basic steel4 ,after many experiments1 the proper proportions of carbon1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 and manganese were ascertained1 and uniformity resulted4 ,the open-hearth process is now generally used4 ,this new chemical metal1 for such it is1 is fifty per cent4 stronger than iron1 and can be tied in a knot when cold4 ,the effect of improved devices and the use of steel is shown by the weights of the #djj-;foot ,ohio ,river iron bridge1 built in #ahgj1 and a bridge at the same place1 built in #ahhf4 ,the bridge of #ahgj was of iron1 had panels twelve feet long1 and its height was forty-five feet1 and span #djj feet4 ,the bridge of #ahhf was of steel1 had panels thirty feet long1 and its height was eighty feet4 ,its span was #eej feet4 ,the weights of the two were nearly alike4 ,the cantilever design1 which is a revival of a very ancient type1 came into use4 ,the great ,forth ,bridge1 in ,scotland1 #afjj-;foot span1 is of this style1 as are the #ejj-;foot spans at ,poughkeepsie1 and now a new one is being designed to cross the ,st4 ,lawrence near ,quebec1 of #ahjj-;foot span4 ,this is probably near the economic limit of cantilever construction1 but the suspension bridge can be extended much farther1 as it carries no dead weight of compression members4 ,the ,niagara ,suspension ,bridge1 of #haj-;foot span1 built by ,roebling1 in #aheb1 and the ,brooklyn ,bridge1 of #afjj feet1 built by ,roebling and his son1 twenty years after1 marked a wonderful advance in bridge design4 ,thirty years later1 when a new bridge of #afjj feet was wanted to cross another part of the ,east ,river at ,new ,york1 the same lines of construction were followed1 and they will be followed in the #bgjj-;foot span1 designed to cross the ,north ,river some time in the present century4 ,the only radical advance is the use of a better steel than could be had in earlier days4 ,steel-arched bridges are now scientifically designed4 ,such are the new ,niagara ,bridge1 of #hdj-;foot span1 and the ,alexandra ,bridge at ,paris4 ,it is curious to see how little is said about these beautiful bridges1 which the public takes as a matter of course4 ,if they had been built fifty years ago1 their engineers would have received the same praise as ,robert ,stephenson or ,roebling1 and justly so1 as they would have been men of exceptional genius4 ,when these bridges were built1 in #ahih1 the path had been made so clear by mathematical investigation and the command of a better steel1 that the task seemed easy4 ,that which marks more clearly than anything else the great advance in ,american bridge building1 during the last forty years1 is the reconstruction of the famous ,victoria ,bridge1 over the ,st4 ,lawrence1 above ,montreal4 ,this bridge was designed by ,robert ,stephenson1 and the stone piers are a monument to his engineering skill4 ,for forty winters they have resisted the great fields of ice borne by a rapid current4 ,their dimensions were so liberal that the new bridge was put upon them1 although four times as wide as the old one4 ,the superstructure was originally made of plate-iron tubes1 reinforced by tees and angles1 similar to ,stephenson's ,menai ,straits ,bridge4 ,there are twenty-two spans of #bdj feet each1 and a central one of #ccj feet4 ,perhaps these tubes were the best that could be had at the time1 but they had outlived their usefulness4 ,their interiors had become greatly corroded by the confined gases from the engines and the drippings from the chemicals used in cold-storage cars4 ,their height was insufficient for modern large cars1 and the confined smoke made them so dark that the number of trains was greatly limited4 ,it was decided to build a new bridge of open-work construction and of open-hearth steel4 ,this was done1 and the comparison is as follows3 ,old bridge1 sixteen feet wide1 single track1 live load of one ton per foot2 new bridge1 sixty-seven feet wide1 two railway tracks and two carriage-ways1 live load five tons per foot4 ,the old iron tubes weighed #aj1jjj tons1 cost #b1gac1jjj1 and took two seasons to erect4 ,the new truss bridge weighs #bb1jjj tons1 has cost between #a1cjj1jjj and #a1djj1jjj1 and the time of construction was one year4 ,during his experience the writer has seen the rolling-load of bridges increase from #bjjj to #djjj pounds per lineal foot of track1 with an extra allowance for concentrated loads4 ,the modern high office building is an interesting example of the evolution of a high-viaduct pier4 ,such a pier of the required dimensions1 strengthened by more columns strong enough to carry many floors1 is the skeleton frame4 ,enclose the sides with brick1 stone1 or terra-cotta1 add windows1 and doors1 and elevators1 and it is complete4 ,fortunately for the stability of these high buildings1 the effect of wind pressures had been studied in this country in the designs of the ,kinzua1 ,pecos1 and other high viaducts4 ,all this had been thoroughly worked out and known to our engineers before the fall of the ,tay ,bridge in ,scotland4 ,that disastrous event led to very careful experiments on wind pressures by ,sir ,benjamin ,baker1 the very eminent engineer of the ,forth ,bridge4 ,his experiments showed that a wind gauge of #cjj square feet area showed a maximum pressure of thirty-five pounds per square foot1 while a small one of one foot and a half square area registered gusts of forty-one pounds per square foot4 ,the modern elevated railway of cities is simply a very long railway viaduct4 ,some idea may be gained of the life of a modern riveted-iron structure from the experience of the ,manhattan ,elevated ,railway of ,new ,york4 ,these roads were built in #ahgh-gi to carry uniform loads of #afjj pounds per lineal foot1 except ,second ,avenue1 which was made to carry #bjjj4 ,the stresses were below #aj1jjj pounds per square inch4 ,these viaducts have carried in twenty-two years over #be1jjj1jjj trains1 weighing over #c1jjj1jjj1jjj tons1 at a maximum speed of twenty-five miles an hour1 and are still in good order4 ,bridge engineers of the present day are free from the difficulties which confronted the early designers of iron bridges4 ,the mathematics of bridge design was understood in #ahgj1 but the proportioning of details had to be worked out individually4 ,every new span was a new problem4 ,now the engineer tells his draughtsman to design a span of a given length1 height1 and width1 and to carry such a load4 ,by the light of experience he does this at once4 ,connections have become standardized so that the duplication of parts can be carried to its fullest extent4 ,machine tools are used to make every part of a bridge1 and power riveters to fasten them together4 ,great accuracy can now be had1 and the sizes of parts have increased in a remarkable degree4 ,we have now great bridge companies1 which are so completely equipped with appliances for both shop drawings and construction that the old joke becomes almost true that they can make bridges and sell them by the mile4 ,all improvements of design are now public property4 ,all that the bridge companies do is done in the fierce light of competition4 ,mistakes mean ruin1 and the fittest only survives4 ,having such powerful aids1 the ,american bridge engineer of to-day has advantages over his predecessors and over his ,european brethren1 where the ,american system has not yet been adopted4 ,the ,american system gives the greatest possible rapidity of erection of the bridge on its piers4 ,a span of #eah feet1 weighing #ajjj tons1 was erected at ,cairo on the ,mississippi in six days4 ,the parts were not assembled until they were put upon the false works4 ,european engineers have sometimes ordered a bridge to be riveted together complete in the maker's yard1 and then taken apart4 ,the adoption of ,american work in such bridges as the ,atbara in ,south ,africa1 the ,gokteik viaduct in ,burmah1 #cbj feet high1 and others1 was due to low cost1 quick delivery and erection1 as well as excellence of material and construction4 ,,foundations1 ,,etc4 ,bridges must have foundations for their piers4 ,up to the middle of the nineteenth century engineers knew no better way of making them than by laying bare the bed of the river by a pumped-out cofferdam1 or by driving piles into the sand1 as ,julius ,csar did4 ,about the middle of the century1 ,m4 ,triger1 a ,french engineer1 conceived the first plan of a pneumatic foundation1 which led to the present system of compressing air by pumping it into an inverted box1 called a caisson1 with air locks on top to enable men and materials to go in and out4 ,after the soft materials were removed1 and the caisson sunk by its own weight to the proper depth1 it was filled with concrete4 ,the limit of depth is that in which men can work in compressed air without injury1 and this is not much over one hundred feet4 ,the foundations of the ,brooklyn and ,st4 ,louis bridges were put down in this manner4 ,in the construction of the ,poughkeepsie bridge over the ,hudson in #ahhg-hh1 it became necessary to go down #ace feet below tide-level before hard bottom was reached4 ,another process was invented to take the place of compressed air4 ,timber caissons were built1 having double sides1 and the spaces between them filled with stone to give weight4 ,their tops were left open and the ,american single-bucket dredge was used4 ,this bucket was lowered and lifted by a very long wire rope worked by the engine1 and with it the soft material was removed4 ,by moving this bucket to different parts of the caisson its sinking was perfectly controlled1 and the caisson finally placed in its exact position1 and perfectly vertical4 ,the internal space was then filled with concrete laid under water by the same bucket1 and levelled by divers when necessary4 ,while this work was going on1 the government of ,new ,south ,wales1 in ,australia1 called for both designs and tenders for a bridge over an estuary of the sea called ,hawkesbury4 ,the conditions were the same as at ,poughkeepsie1 except that the soft mud reached to a depth of #afj feet below tide-level4 ,the designs of the engineers of the ,poughkeepsie bridge were accepted1 and the same method of sinking open caissons 7in this case made of iron7 was carried out with perfect success4 ,the erection of this bridge involved another difficult problem4 ,the mud was too soft and deep for piles and staging1 and the cantilever system in this site would have increased the cost4 ,a staging was built on a large pontoon at the shore1 and the span erected upon it4 ,the whole was then towed out to the bridge site at high tide4 ,as the tide fell1 the pontoon was lowered and the steel girder was placed gently on its piers4 ,the whole operation was completed within six hours4 ,the other five spans were placed in the same manner4 ,the same system was followed afterwards by the engineer of the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway in placing the spans of a bridge over the ,st4 ,lawrence1 in a very rapid current4 ,it is now used in replacing old spans by new ones1 as it interrupts traffic for the least possible time4 ,the solution of the problems presented at ,hawkesbury gave the second introduction of ,american engineers to bridge building outside of ,america4 ,the first was in #aghf1 when an ,american carpenter or shipwright built a bridge over ,charles ,river at ,boston1 #adgj feet long by forty-six feet wide4 ,this bridge was of wood supported on piles4 ,his work gained for him such renown that he was called to ,ireland and built a similar bridge at ,belfast4 ,tunnelling by compressed air is a horizontal application of compressed-air foundations4 ,the earth is supported by an iron tube1 which is added to in rings1 which are pushed forward by hydraulic jacks4 ,a tunnel is now being made under an arm of the sea between ,boston and ,east ,boston1 some #adjj feet long and sixty-five feet below tide4 ,the interior lining of iron tubing is not used4 ,the tunnel is built of concrete1 reinforced by steel rods4 ,this will effect a considerable economy4 ,success in modern engineering means doing a thing in the most economical way consistent with safety4 ,the ,saint ,clair tunnel1 which carries the ,grand ,trunk ,railway of ,canada under the outlet of ,lake ,huron1 is a successful example of such work4 ,had the ,north ,river tunnel1 at ,new ,york1 been designed on equally scientific principles1 it would probably have been finished1 which now seems problematical4 ,the construction of rapid-transit railways in cities is another branch of engineering1 covering structural1 mechanical1 and electrical engineering4 ,some of these railways are elevated1 and are merely railway viaducts1 but the favorite type now is that of subways4 ,there are two kinds1 those near the surface1 like the ,district railways of ,london1 the subways in ,paris1 ,berlin1 and ,boston1 and that now building in ,new ,york4 ,the ,south ,london and ,central ,london1 and other ,london projects1 are tubes sunk fifty to eighty feet below the surface and requiring elevators for access4 ,these are made on a plan devised by ,greathead1 and consist of cast-iron tubes pushed forward by hydraulic rams1 and having the space outside of the tube filled with liquid cement pumped into place4 ,the construction of the ,boston subway was difficult on account of the small width of the streets1 their great traffic1 and the necessity of underpinning the foundations of buildings4 ,all of this was successfully done without disturbing the traffic for a single day1 and reflects great credit on the engineer4 ,owing to the great width of ,new ,york streets1 the problem is simpler in that respect1 but requires skill in design and organization to complete the work in a short time4 ,although many times as long as the ,boston subway1 it will be built in nearly the same time4 ,the design1 where in earth1 may be compared to that of a steel office building twenty miles long1 laid flat on one of its sides4 ,the reduplication of parts saves time and labor1 and is the key to the anticipated rapid progress4 ,near the surface this subway is built in open excavation1 and tunnelling is confined to rock4 ,the construction of power-houses for developing energy from coal and from falling water requires much structural besides electrical and mechanical engineering ability4 ,the ,niagara power-house is intended to develop #ajj1jjj horse-power2 that at the ,sault ,ste4 ,marie as much2 that on the ,st4 ,lawrence1 at ,massena1 #gj1jjj horse-power4 ,these are huge works1 requiring tunnels1 rock-cut chambers1 and masonry and concrete in walls and dams4 ,they cover large extents of territory4 ,the contrast in size of the coal-using power-houses is interesting4 ,the new power-house now building by the ,manhattan ,elevated ,railway1 in ,new ,york1 develops in the small space of #bjj by #djj feet #ajj1jjj horse-power1 or as much power as that utilized at ,niagara ,falls4 ,one of the most useful materials which modern engineers now make use of is concrete1 which can be put into confined spaces and laid under water4 ,it costs less than masonry1 while as strong4 ,this is the revival of the use of a material used by the ,romans4 ,the writer was once allowed to climb a ladder and look at the construction of a dome of the ,pantheon1 at ,rome4 ,he found it a monolithic mass of concrete1 and hence without thrust4 ,it is a better piece of engineering construction than the dome of ,st4 ,peter's1 built fifteen hundred years later4 ,the dome of ,columbia ,college ,library1 in ,new ,york1 is built of concrete4 ,concrete is a mixture of broken stone or gravel1 sand1 and ,portland cement4 ,its virtue depends upon the uniform good quality of the cement4 ,the use of the rotary kiln1 which exposes all the contained material to a uniform and constant intense heat1 has revolutionized the manufacture of ,portland cement4 ,the engineer can now depend upon its uniformity of strength4 ,wheels1 axles1 bridges1 and rails have all been strengthened to carry their increased loads2 but1 strange to say1 the splices which hold in place the ends of the rails1 and which are really short-span bridges1 are now the weakest part of a railway4 ,the angle-bar splice has but one-third of the strength of the rail1 and its strength cannot be increased1 owing to its want of depth4 ,joints go down under every passing wheel1 and the ends of the rails wear out long before the rest4 ,this is not an insignificant detail4 ,it has been estimated by the officers of one of the trunk lines that a splice of proper design and strength would save yearly enough in track labor 7most of which is expended in tamping up low joints7 to buy all the new rails and fastenings required in some time4 ,it would save much more than that in the wear of rolling-stock4 ,a perfect joint would be an economic device next in value to the ,bessemer steel rail4 ,here is a place for scientific and practical skill4 ,,hydraulic ,,engineering ,this is one of the oldest branches of engineering1 and was developed before the last century4 ,the irrigation works of ,asia1 ,africa1 ,spain1 ,italy1 the ,roman aqueducts1 and the canals of ,europe1 are examples4 ,hydraulic works cannot be constructed in ignorance of the laws which govern the flow of water4 ,the action of water is relentless1 as ruined canals1 obstructed rivers1 and washed-out dams testify4 ,the principal additions of the nineteenth century to hydraulic engineering are the collection of larger statistics of the flow of water in pipes and channels1 of rainfall1 run-off1 and available supply4 ,it is now known that the germs of disease can be retained by ordinary sand filters1 and it is now an established fact that pure drinking water and proper drainage are a sure preventive of typhoid and similar fevers4 ,very foul water can be made potable4 ,experiments show that the water of the ,schuylkill ,river at ,philadelphia1 which contains #djj1jjj germs in the space of less than a cubic inch1 was so much purified by filtering that only sixty remained4 ,this is a discovery of sanitary science1 but the application of it is through structural engineering1 which designs and executes the filter beds with great economy4 ,the removal of sewage1 after having been done by the ,etruscans before the foundation of ,rome1 became a lost art during the dirty ,dark ,ages1 when filth and piety were deemed to be connected in some mysterious way4 ,it was reserved for good ,john ,wesley to point out that 8,cleanliness is next to godliness40 ,now sewage works are as common as those for water supply4 ,some of them have been of great size and cost4 ,such are the drainage works of ,london1 ,paris1 ,berlin1 ,boston1 ,chicago1 and ,new ,orleans4 ,a very difficult work was the drainage of the ,city of ,mexico1 which is in a valley surrounded by mountains1 and elevated only four to five feet above a lake having no outlet4 ,attempts to drain the lake had been made in vain for six hundred years4 ,it has lately been accomplished by a tunnel six miles long through the mountains1 and a canal of over thirty miles1 the whole work costing some #bj1jjj1jjj4 ,the drainage of ,chicago by locks and canal into the ,illinois ,river has cost some #ce1jjj1jjj1 and is well worth its cost4 ,scientific research has been applied to the designing of high masonry and concrete dams1 and we know now that no well-designed dam on a good foundation should fail4 ,the dams now building across the ,nile by order of the ,british government will create the largest artificial lakes in the world4 ,the water thus stored will be of inestimable value in irrigating the crops of ,lower ,egypt4 ,their cost1 although great1 will not exceed the sums spent by the lavish ,khedive ,ismail on useless palaces1 now falling to decay4 ,the ,suez ,canal is one of the largest hydraulic works of the last century1 and is a notable instance of the displacement of hand labor by the use of machinery4 ,ismail began by impressing a large part of the peasant population of ,egypt1 just as ,rameses had done over #cjjj years before4 ,these unfortunate people were set to dig the sand with rude hoes1 and carry it away in baskets on their heads4 ,they died by thousands for want of water and proper food4 ,at last the ,french engineers persuaded the ,khedive to let them introduce steam dredging machinery4 ,a light railway was laid to supply provisions1 and a small ditch dug to bring pure water4 ,the number of men employed fell to one-fourth4 ,machinery did the rest4 ,but for this the canal would never have been finished4 ,the ,panama ,canal now uses the best modern machinery1 and the ,nicaragua ,canal1 if built1 will apply still better methods1 developed on the ,chicago drainage canal1 where material was handled at a less cost than has ever been done before4 ,russia is better supplied with internal waterways than any other country4 ,her rivers rise near each other1 and have long been connected by canals4 ,it is stated that she has over #fj1jjj miles of internal navigation1 and is now preparing the construction of canals to connect the ,caspian with the ,baltic ,sea4 ,the ,erie ,canal was one of very small cost1 but its influence has been surpassed by none4 ,the 8winning of the ,west0 was hastened many years by the construction of this work in the first quarter of the century4 ,two horses were just able to draw a ton of goods at the speed of two miles an hour over the wretched roads of those days4 ,when the canal was made these two horses could draw a boat carrying #aej tons four miles an hour4 ,mud1 or1 in other words1 friction1 is the great enemy of civilization1 and canals were the first things to diminish it1 and after that railways4 ,the ,erie ,canal was made by engineers1 but it had to make its own engineers first1 as there were none available in this country at that time4 ,these self-taught men1 some of them land surveyors and others lawyers1 showed themselves the equals of the ,englishmen ,brindley and ,smeaton1 when they located a water route through the wilderness1 having a uniform descent from ,lake ,erie to the ,hudson1 and which would have been so built if there had been enough money4 ,the question now is whether to enlarge the capacity of this canal by enlarging its prism and locks1 or to increase speed and move more boats in a season by electrical appliances4 ,the last method seems more in line with those of the present day4 ,there should be a waterway from the ,hudson to ,lake ,erie large enough for vessels able to navigate the lakes and the ocean4 ,a draft of twenty-one feet can be had at a cost estimated at #bjj1jjj1jjj4 ,the deepening of the ,chicago drainage canal to the ,mississippi ,river1 and the deepening of the ,mississippi itself to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 is a logical sequence of the first project4 ,the ,nicaragua ,canal would then form one part of a great line of navigation1 by which the products of the interior of the continent could reach either the ,atlantic or ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the cost would be small compared with the resulting benefits1 and some day this navigation will be built by the government of the ,united ,states4 ,the deepening of the ,southwest ,pass of the ,mississippi ,river from six to thirty feet by ,james ,b4 ,eads was a great engineering achievement4 ,it was the first application of the jetty system on a large scale4 ,this is merely confining the flow of a river1 and thus increasing its velocity so that it secures a deeper channel for itself4 ,the improvement of harbors follows closely the increased size of ocean and lake vessels4 ,the approach to ,new ,york harbor is now being deepened to forty feet1 a thing impossible to be done without the largest application of steam machinery in a suction dredge boat4 ,the great increase of urban population1 due to steam and electric railways1 has made works of water supply and drainage necessary everywhere4 ,some of these are on a very grand scale4 ,an illustration of this is the ,croton ,aqueduct of ,new ,york as it now is1 and as it will be hereafter4 ,this work was thought by its designers to be on a scale large enough to last for all time4 ,it is now less than sixty years old1 and the population of ,new ,york will soon be too large to be supplied by it4 ,it is able to supply #bej1jjj1jjj to #cjj1jjj1jjj gallons daily1 and its cost1 when the ,cornell dam and ,jerome ,park reservoir are finished1 will be a little over #ib1jjj1jjj4 ,it is now suggested to store water in the ,adirondack ,mountains1 #bjc miles away1 by dams built at the outlet of ten or twelve lakes4 ,this will equalize the flow of the ,hudson ,river so as to give #c1jjj1jjj1jjj to #d1jjj1jjj1jjj gallons daily4 ,it is then proposed to pump #a1jjj1jjj1jjj gallons daily from the ,hudson ,river at ,poughkeepsie1 sixty miles away1 to a height sufficient to supply the city by gravity through an aqueduct4 ,this water would be filtered at ,poughkeepsie1 and we now know that all impurities can be removed4 ,if this scheme is carried out1 the total supply will be about #a1cjj1jjj1jjj gallons daily1 or enough for a population of from #ab1jjj1jjj to #ac1jjj1jjj persons4 ,by putting in more pumps1 filter-beds1 and conduits1 this supply can be increased forty per cent41 or to #a1hjj1jjj1jjj gallons daily4 ,this water would fill every day a lake one mile square by ten feet deep4 ,this is a fair example of the scale of the engineering works of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries4 ,by the application of modern labor-saving machinery1 the cost of this work can be so far controlled that the cost to the city of ,new ,york per #a1jjj1jjj gallons would be no greater than that of the present ,croton supply4 ,all works of hydraulic engineers depend on water4 ,but what will happen if the water all dries up8 ,india1 ,china1 ,spain1 ,turkey1 and ,syria have suffered from droughts1 caused clearly by the destruction of their forests4 ,the demand for paper to print books and newspapers upon1 and for other purposes1 is fast converting our forests into pulp4 ,we cannot even say1 8,after us the deluge10 for it will seldom rain in those evil days4 ,when the rains do come1 the sponge-like vegetation of the forests being gone1 the streams will be torrents at one time of the year and dried up during the rest1 as we now see in the arid regions of the ,west4 ,,mechanical ,,engineering ,this is employed in all dynamical engineering4 ,it covers the designs of prime motors of all sorts1 steam1 gas1 and gasoline reciprocating engines2 also steam and water turbines1 wind-mills1 and wave-motors4 ,it comprises all means of transmitting power1 as by shafting1 ropes1 pneumatic pressure1 and compressed air1 all of which seem likely to be superseded by electricity4 ,it covers the construction of machine tools and machinery of all kinds4 ,it enters into all the processes of structural1 hydraulic1 electrical1 and industrial engineering4 ,the special improvements are3 ,the almost universal use of rotary motion1 and of the reduplication of parts4 ,the steam-engine is a machine of reciprocating1 converted into rotary1 motion by the crank4 ,the progress of mechanical engineering during the nineteenth century is measured by the improvements of the steam-engine1 principally in the direction of saving fuel1 by the invention of internal combustion or gas-engines1 the application of electrical transmission1 and1 latest1 the practical development of steam turbines by ,parsons1 ,westinghouse1 ,delaval1 ,curtis1 and others4 ,in these a jet of steam impinges upon buckets set upon the circumference of a wheel4 ,it was clearly indicated by the ,italian engineer ,bronca1 in #afbi1 but he was too early4 ,the time was not ripe1 and there were then no machine tools giving the perfection of workmanship required4 ,their advantages are that their motion is rotary and not reciprocal4 ,they can develop speed of from #ejjj to #cj1jjj revolutions per minute1 while the highest ever attained by a reciprocating engine is not over #ajjj4 ,their thermodynamic losses are less1 hence they consume less steam and less fuel4 ,it is a very interesting fact that the basic invention upon which not only steam turbines and electric dynamos1 but1 indeed1 all other parts of mechanical engineering1 depend1 is of such remote antiquity that we know nothing of its origin4 ,this is the wheel which ,gladstone said was the greatest of man's mechanical inventions1 as there is nothing in nature to suggest it4 ,duplication of parts has lowered the cost of all products4 ,clothing is one of these4 ,the parts of ready-made garments and shoes are now cut into shape in numbers at a time1 by sharp-edged templates1 and then fastened together by sewing-machines4 ,mechanical engineering is a good example of the survival of the fittest4 ,millions of dollars are expended on machinery1 when suddenly a new discovery or invention casts them all into the scrap heap1 to be replaced by those of greater earning capacity4 ,prime motors derive their energy either from coal or other combinations of carbon1 such as petroleum1 or from gravity4 ,this may come from falling water1 and the old-fashioned water-wheels of the eighteenth century were superseded in the nineteenth by turbines1 first invented in ,france and since greatly perfected4 ,these are used in the electrical transmission of water-power at ,niagara of #ejjj horse-power1 and form a very important part of the plant4 ,the other gravity motors are wind-mills and wave-motors4 ,wind-mills are an old invention1 but have been greatly improved in the ,united ,states by the use of the self-reefing wheel4 ,the great plains of the ,west are subject to sudden1 violent gales of wind1 and unless the wheel was automatically self-reefing it would often be destroyed4 ,little has been written about these wheels1 but their use is very widely extended1 and they perform a most useful function in industrial engineering4 ,there have been vast numbers of patents taken out for wave-motors4 ,one was invented in ,chili1 ,south ,america1 which furnished a constant power for four months1 and was utilized in sawing planks4 ,the action of waves is more constant on the ,pacific coast of ,america than elsewhere1 and some auxiliary power1 such as a gasoline engine1 which can be quickly started and stopped1 must be provided for use during calm days4 ,the prime cost of such a machine need not exceed that of a steam plant1 and the cost of operating is much less than that of any fuel-burning engine4 ,the saving of coal is a very important problem4 ,in a wider sense1 we may say that the saving of all the great stores which nature has laid up for us during the past1 and which have remained almost untouched until the nineteenth century1 is the great problem of to-day4 ,petroleum and natural gas may disappear4 ,the ores of gold1 silver1 and platinum will not last forever4 ,trees will grow1 and iron ores seem to be practically inexhaustible4 ,chemistry has added a new metal in aluminum1 which replaces copper for many purposes4 ,one of the greatest problems of the twentieth century is to discover some chemical process for treating iron1 by which oxidation will not take place4 ,coal1 next to grain1 is the most important of nature's gifts2 it can be exhausted1 or the cost of mining it become so great that it cannot be obtained in the countries where it is most needed2 water1 wind1 and wave power may take its place to a limited extent1 and greater use may be made of the waste gases coming from blast or smelter furnaces1 but as nearly all energy comes from coal1 its use must be economized1 and the greatest economy will come from pulverizing coal and using it in the shape of a fine powder4 ,inventions have been made trying to deliver this powder into the fire-box as fast as made1 for it is as explosive as gunpowder1 and as dangerous to store or handle4 ,if this can be done1 there will be a saving of coal due to perfect and smokeless combustion1 as the admission of air can be entirely regulated1 the same blast which throws in the powder furnishing oxygen4 ,some investigators have estimated that the saving of coal will be as great as twenty per cent4 ,this means #ajj1jjj1jjj tons of coal annually4 ,bituminous coal will then be as smokeless as anthracite1 and can be burned in locomotives4 ,cities will be free from the nuisance of wasted coal1 which we call soot4 ,this process will be the best kind of mechanical stoking1 and will prevent the necessity of opening the doors of fire-boxes4 ,the boiler-rooms of steamships will no longer be 8floating hells10 and the firing of large locomotives will become easy4 ,another problem of mechanical engineering is to determine whether it will be found more economical to transform the energy of coal1 at the mines1 into electric current and send it by wire to cities and other places where it is wanted1 or to carry the coal by rail and water1 as we now do1 to such places1 and convert it there by the steam or gas engine4 ,in favor of the first method it can be said that hills of refuse coal now representing locked-up capital can be burned1 and the cost of transportation and handling be saved4 ,electric energy can now transport power in high voltage economically between coal-mines and most large cities4 ,the second method has the advantage of not depending on one single source of supply1 that may break down1 but in having the energy stored in coal-pockets near by the place of use1 where it can be applied to separate units of power with no fear of failure4 ,it seems probable that a combination of the two systems will produce the best results4 ,where power can be sent electrically from the mines for less cost than the coal can be transported1 that method will be used4 ,to prevent stoppage of works1 the separate motors and a store of coal1 to be used in cases of emergency1 will still be needed1 just as has been described as necessary to the commercial success of wave-motors4 ,,electrical ,,engineering ,any attempt by the writer of this article to trace the progress of electricity would be but a vain repetition1 after the admirable manner in which the subject has been treated in a former paper of this series by ,professor ,elihu ,thomson4 ,we can only once more emphasize the fact that it is by the union of four separate classes of minds--scientific discoverers1 inventors1 engineers1 and capitalists--that this vast new industry has been created1 which gives direct employment to thousands1 and1 as ,bacon said #cjj years ago1 has 8endowed the human race with new powers40 ,,metallurgy ,,and ,,mining ,all the processes of metallurgy and mining employ statical1 hydraulic1 mechanical1 and electrical engineering4 ,coal1 without railways and canals1 would be of little use1 unless electrical engineering came to its aid4 ,it was estimated by the late ,lord ,armstrong that of the #dej1jjj1jjj to #ejj1jjj1jjj tons of coal annually produced in the world1 one-third is used for steam production1 one-third in metallurgical processes1 and one-third for domestic consumption4 ,this last item seems large4 ,it is the most important manufacturing industry in the world1 as may be seen by comparing the coalless condition of the eighteenth century with the coal-using condition of the nineteenth century4 ,next in importance comes the production of iron and steel4 ,steel1 on account of its great cost and brittleness1 was only used for tools and special purposes until past the middle of the last century4 ,this has been all changed by the invention of his steel by ,bessemer in #ahfd1 and open-hearth steel in the furnace of ,siemens1 perfected some twenty years since by ,gilchrist ,thomas4 ,the ,united ,states have taken the lead in steel manufacture4 ,in #ahgc ,great ,britain made three times as much steel as the ,united ,states4 ,now the ,united ,states makes twice as much as ,great ,britain1 or forty per cent4 of all the steel made in the world4 ,mr4 ,carnegie has explained the reason why1 in epigrammatic phrase3 8,three pounds of steel billets can be sold for two cents40 ,this stimulates rail and water traffic and other industries1 as he tells us one pound of steel requires two pounds of ore1 one and one-third pounds of coal1 and one-third of a pound of limestone4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the ,states bordering on the lakes have created a traffic of #be1jjj1jjj tons yearly through the ,sault ,ste4 ,marie ,canal1 while the ,suez1 which supplies the wants of half the population of the world1 has only #g1jjj1jjj1 or less than the tonnage of the little ,harlem ,river at ,new ,york4 ,,industrial ,,engineering ,this leads us to our last topic1 for which too little room has been left4 ,industrial engineering covers statical1 hydraulic1 mechanical1 and electrical engineering1 and adds a new branch which we may call chemical engineering4 ,this is pre-eminently a child of the nineteenth century1 and is the conversion of one thing into another by a knowledge of their chemical constituents4 ,when ,dalton first applied mathematics to chemistry and made it quantitative1 he gave the key which led to the discoveries of ,cavendish1 ,gay-,lussac1 ,berzelius1 ,liebig1 and others4 ,this new knowledge was not locked up1 but at once given to the world1 and made use of4 ,its first application on a large scale was made by ,napoleon in encouraging the manufacture of sugar from beets4 ,the new products were generally made from what were called 8waste material40 ,we now have the manufacture of soda1 bleaching powders1 aniline dyes1 and other products of the distillation of coal1 also coal-oil from petroleum 7known fifty or sixty years ago only as a horse medicine71 acetylene gas1 celluloid1 rubber goods in all their numerous varieties1 high explosives1 cement1 artificial manures1 artificial ice1 beet-sugar1 and even beer may now be included4 ,through many ages1 the alchemists1 groping in the dark1 and in ignorance of nature's laws1 wasted their time in trying to find what they called the philosopher's stone1 which they hoped would transform the baser metals into gold4 ,if such a thing could be found it would be a curse1 as it would take away one of the most useful instruments we have--a fixed standard of value4 ,in a little over one hundred years1 those working by the light of science have found the true philosopher's stone in modern chemistry4 ,the value of only a part of these new products exceeds the nominal value of all the gold in the world4 ,the value of our mechanical and chemical products is great1 but it is surpassed by that of food products4 ,if these did not keep pace with the increase of population1 the theories of ,malthus would be true--but he never saw a modern reaper4 ,the steam-plough was invented in ,england some fifty years since1 but the great use of agricultural machinery dates from our ,civil ,war1 when so many men were taken from agriculture4 ,it became necessary to fill their places with machinery4 ,without tracing the steps which have led to it1 we may say that the common type is what is called 8the binder10 and is a machine drawn chiefly by animals1 and in some cases by a field locomotive4 ,it cuts1 rakes1 and binds sheaves of grain at one operation4 ,sometimes threshing and winnowing machines are combined with it1 and the grain is delivered into bags ready for the market4 ,different machines are used for cutting and binding corn1 and for mowing and raking hay1 but the most important of all is the grain-binder4 ,the extent of their use may be known from the fact that #ge1jjj tons of twine are used by these machines annually4 ,it is estimated that there are in the ,united ,states #a1ejj1jjj of these machines1 but as the harvest is earlier in the ,south1 there are probably not over #a1jjj1jjj in use at one time4 ,as each machine takes the place of sixteen men1 this means that #af1jjj1jjj men are released from farming for other pursuits4 ,the 8man with the hoe0 has disappeared from the real world1 and is only to be found in the dreams of poets4 ,it is fair to assume that a large part of these #af1jjj1jjj men have gone into manufacturing1 the operating of railways1 and other pursuits4 ,the use of agricultural machinery1 therefore1 is one explanation of why the ,united ,states produces eight-tenths of the world's cotton and corn1 one-quarter of its wheat1 one-third of its meat and iron1 two-fifths of its steel1 and one-third of its coal1 and a large part of the world's manufactured goods4 ,,conclusion ,it is a very interesting question1 why was this great development of material prosperity delayed so late8 ,why did it wait until the nineteenth century1 and then all at once increase with such rapid strides8 ,it was not until modern times that the reign of law was greatly extended1 and men were insured the product of their labors4 ,then came the union of scientists1 inventors1 and engineers4 ,so long as these three classes worked separately but little was done4 ,there was an antagonism between them4 ,ancient writers went so far as to say that the invention of the arch and of the potter's wheel were beneath the dignity of a philosopher4 ,one of the first great men to take a different view was ,francis ,bacon4 ,macaulay1 in his famous essay1 quotes him as saying3 8,philosophy is the relief of man's estate1 and the endowment of the human race with new powers2 increasing their pleasures and mitigating their sufferings40 ,these noble words seem to anticipate the famous definition of civil engineering1 embodied by ,telford in the charter of the ,british ,institution of ,civil ,engineers3 8,engineering is the art of controlling the great powers of nature for the use and convenience of man40 ,the seed sown by ,bacon was long in producing fruit4 ,until the laws of nature were better known1 there could be no practical application of them4 ,towards the end of the eighteenth century a great intellectual revival took place4 ,in literature appeared ,voltaire1 ,rousseau1 ,kant1 ,hume1 and ,goethe4 ,in pure science there came ,laplace1 ,cavendish1 ,lavoisier1 ,linnus1 ,berzelius1 ,priestley1 ,count ,rumford1 ,james ,watt1 and ,dr4 ,franklin4 ,the last three were among the earliest to bring about a union of pure and applied science4 ,franklin immediately applied his discovery that frictional electricity and lightning were the same to the protection of buildings by lightning-rods4 ,count ,rumford 7whose experiments on the conversion of power into heat led to the discovery of the conservatism of energy7 spent a long life in contriving useful inventions4 ,james ,watt1 one of the few men who have united in themselves knowledge of abstract science1 great inventive faculties1 and rare mechanical skill1 changed the steam-engine from a worthless rattletrap into the most useful machine ever invented by man4 ,to do this he first discovered the science of thermodynamics1 then invented the necessary appliances1 and finally constructed them with his own hands4 ,he was a very exceptional man4 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century there were few engineers who had received any scientific education4 ,most of them worked by their constructive instincts1 like beavers1 or from experience only4 ,it took a lifetime to educate such an engineer1 and few became eminent until they were old men4 ,now there is in the profession a great army of young men1 most of them graduates of technical schools1 good mathematicians1 and well versed in the art of experimenting4 ,the experiments of undergraduates on cements1 concrete1 the flow of water1 the impact of metals1 and the steam-engine1 have added much to the general stock of knowledge4 ,one of the present causes of progress is that all discoveries are published at once in technical journals and in the daily press4 ,the publication of descriptive indexes of all scientific and engineering articles as fast as they appear is another modern contrivance4 ,formerly scientific discoveries were concealed by cryptograms1 printed in a dead language1 and hidden in the archives of learned societies4 ,even so late as #ahba ,oersted published his discovery of the uniformity of electricity and magnetism in ,latin4 ,engineering works could have been designed and useful inventions made1 but they could not have been carried out without combination4 ,corporate organization collects the small savings of many into great sums through savings-banks1 life insurance companies1 etc41 and uses this concentrated capital to construct the vast works of our days4 ,this could not continue unless fair dividends were paid4 ,everything now has to be designed so as to pay4 ,time1 labor1 and material must be saved1 and he ranks highest who can best do this4 ,invention has been encouraged by liberal patent laws1 which secure to the inventor property in his ideas at a moderate cost4 ,combination1 organization1 and scientific discovery1 inventive ability1 and engineering skill are now united4 ,it may be said that we have gathered together all the inventions of the nineteenth century and called them works of engineering4 ,this is not so4 ,engineering covers much more than invention4 ,it includes all works of sufficient size and intricacy to require men trained in the knowledge of the physical conditions which govern the mechanical application of the laws of nature4 ,first comes scientific discovery1 then invention1 and lastly engineering4 ,faraday and ,henry discovered the electrical laws which led to the invention of the dynamo1 which was perfected by many minds4 ,engineering built such works as those at ,niagara ,falls to make it useful4 ,an ignorant man may invent a safety-pin1 but he cannot build the ,brooklyn ,bridge4 ,the engineer-in-chief commands an army of experts1 as without specialization little can be done4 ,his is the comprehensive design1 for which he alone is responsible4 ,such is the evolution of engineering1 which began as a craft and has ended as a profession4 ,in past times1 civilization depended upon military engineering4 ,warriors at first used only the weapons of the hand4 ,then came military engineering1 applied both to attack and defence1 and culminating in the invention of gunpowder4 ,the civilization of to-day depends greatly upon civil engineering1 as we have tried to show4 ,it has changed the face of the world and brought all men nearer together4 ,it has improved the condition of man by sanitary appliances and lowering the cost of food4 ,it has shown that through machinery the workman is better educated1 and his wages are increased1 while the profits of capital increase also4 ,it has made representative government possible over vast areas of territory1 and is democratizing the world4 ,thoughtful persons have asked1 will this new civilization last1 or will it go the way of its predecessors8 ,surely the answer is3 all depends on good government1 on the stability of law1 order1 and justice1 protecting the rights of all classes4 ,it will continue to grow with the growth of good government1 prosper with its prosperity1 and perish with its decay4 ,,thomas ,c4 ,,clarke4 ,,religion ,,catholicism ,it is no unnatural curiosity that tempts us to recollect ourselves at the end of a century and consider the gains and losses of three generations1 our inheritance from the past1 our own administration of the same1 and the prospects of our descendants4 ,religion can only gain from such a survey1 for she is a world teacher on so large a scale that all ordinary human methods of comparison and summary are too dwarfed and insufficient for her4 ,her message is to all humanity2 hence only the most universal criteria are rightly applicable to her4 ,it seems to me that that is especially true of the oldest historical form of ,christianity1 which is ,roman ,catholicism4 ,the ,roman ,church has had a message for all humanity in every age ever since ,saint ,clement penned his famous epistle to the ,corinthians1 or ,saint ,victor caused the ,christian world to meet in special councils for the solution of a universal difficulty4 ,it is no mere coincidence that1 at the opening of the last century of this mystical and wonderful cycle of two thousand years1 the ,bishop of ,rome should again address the world in tones whose moderation and sympathy recall the temper and the arguments of ,saint ,clement1 his far-away predecessor and disciple of ,saint ,peter4 ,the year #ahjj was a very disheartening one for ,catholicism4 ,it still stood erect and hopeful1 but in the midst of a political and social wreckage1 the result of a century of scepticism and destructive criticism that acted at last as sparks for an ungovernable popular frenzy1 during which the old order appeared to pass away forever and a new one was inaugurated with every manifestation of joy4 ,the tree of political liberty was everywhere planted1 and the peoples of ,europe promised themselves a life of unalloyed comfort for all future time4 ,catholicism was the religion of the majority of these people1 and was cunningly obliged to bear the brunt of all their complaints1 justified and unjustifiable2 although the authorities of ,catholicism had long protested against many of the gravest abuses of the period1 sustained in formal defiance of the principles and institutions of the ,catholic religion4 ,the new ,csar threatened to be more terrible to the independence of religion than any ancient one1 and the revenues and establishments by which ,catholicism had kept up its public standing and earned the esteem and gratitude of the people were swept away or quasi ruined4 ,all the acquired charges and duties of the past were left to the ,catholic religion2 yet the means to carry them on were taken away1 sometimes by open violence1 sometimes by insidious measures1 but always by gross injustice4 ,the final incidence of this injustice was on the common people1 since the ,church was1 after all1 only the administrator of very much that she was thus dispossessed of4 ,with this overturning of all the conditions of ,catholic life came new problems1 new trials1 and a period of indefinite1 uncertain circumstances that were finally set at rest only at the ,congress of ,vienna in #ahae1 by which an end was put to the political changes that began with the ,revolution of #aghi4 ,the modus vivendi then reached1 and soon consecrated by a series of concordats1 has remained substantially the basis of the dealings of ,catholicism with the governments of the ,old ,world4 ,only one formal and permanent violation of this legal situation has taken place1 the violent and unjust dispossession of the ,holy ,see by the government of the ,house of ,savoy1 in flagrant violation of every title that could be invoked by a legitimate civil power4 ,elsewhere ,catholicism has undergone much suffering1 both in the states of the ,old ,world and in the republics of ,south ,america4 ,but1 the above vital conflict apart1 the old century closed with no very acute or intolerable condition of things1 although there is much that does not reply to our ideas of fairness and justice4 ,,the ,,vatican ,,council ,the chief event of the century1 from the point of view of ,roman ,catholicism1 is undoubtedly the holding of the ,vatican ,council4 ,since the ,council of ,trent the bishops of the ,catholic world had not met in common under the guidance of the ,bishop of ,rome4 ,the gravest interests of religion seemed at stake after more than a century of public infidelity and the overthrow of all former safeguards of faith4 ,the character of doctrinal authority and its visible tangible possessor were declared by the dogma of ,papal infallibility4 ,the genuine relations of reason and revelation were set forth in unmistakable language4 ,the troubles that followed the close of the ,council in some parts of ,europe were neither serious nor long-lived1 since its teachings were in keeping with the general sense of ,catholicism4 ,it promoted1 notably1 mutual respect and concord among the bishops and gave to the multitudes of ,catholics in the ,old and ,new ,worlds a new sign of the unity and internal vigor of the ,church4 ,the scenes of the ,council are indelibly fixed in my memory1 for ,i was the youngest and humblest of the six hundred and sixty-seven bishops who composed it4 ,a ,general ,council is the very highest act of the life of the ,church1 since it presents within a small compass1 and at once1 all the movements that have been developing in the course of centuries1 and offers to all the faithful and to all outside the ,church straightforward answers to all the great ecclesiastical problems that come up for settlement4 ,had the ,vatican ,council been finished it would have taken up the grave subject of ecclesiastical discipline4 ,that is reserved for the reopening of the ,council at some future date4 ,,the ,,missions ,,of ,,catholicism ,it is incumbent on the ,catholic ,church to spread the teachings of ,jesus ,christ1 and this by ,his own divine command3 8,going1 therefore1 teach all nations40 ,in this last century she has not been unfaithful1 any more than in others4 ,no portion of the vineyard has been neglected2 the martyr's blood has watered some parts more abundantly1 but in all the missionary has toiled without ceasing1 has spent himself4 ,in the ,far ,east ,catholic missions have been carried on in ,india1 ,china1 ,thibet1 ,tonkin4 ,in every part of ,africa1 northern1 central1 and southern1 the priests and nuns of the ,catholic ,church have preceded the explorer or followed the trader and the miner with the blessings of religion4 ,in the still pagan parts of ,north and ,south ,america her missionaries are found all through the century4 ,they have kept up their vigils in the ,holy ,land1 and in general have made a notable progress4 ,the inventions of the age have been beneficial by opening up new lands and by making transit easy and rapid1 thus recalling some of the conditions which conduced to the original spread of the religion of ,jesus4 ,a multitude of noble souls have devoted all to the enlightenment of the barbarian and pagan world4 ,and while ,i disparage no land1 and do not undervalue the good intentions and efforts of those outside our pale1 ,i cannot pass over in silence the ,french nation1 which has given more abundantly than any1 perhaps more abundantly than all others1 of priests1 sisters1 and funds for the essential duty of ,catholicism4 ,the work of the ,propagation of the ,faith and the ,seminary of ,foreign ,missions at ,paris deserve a special souvenir as often as ,catholic missions are mentioned4 ,,the ,,popes ,,of ,,the ,,century ,six ,popes ruled the ,church in the nineteenth century3 ,pius ,,vii41 ,leo ,,xii41 ,pius ,,viii41 ,gregory ,,xvi41 ,pius ,,ix41 and the present venerable pontiff1 ,leo ,,xiii4 ,in the person of ,pius ,,vii4 they have known what martyrdom was like1 also the shame and humiliation of being subject to a civil power absolute in its character and prone to unwarrantable interference with the ecclesiastical power1 even to contempt of its most ancient and venerable rights4 ,in ,gregory ,,xvi4 and ,pius ,,ix4 they learned the purposes and the power of those who in ,europe have succeeded to the men of the ,french ,revolution4 ,in ,leo ,,xiii4 their line1 the oldest line of rulers on the earth1 can boast of a most enlightened mind and a very sympathetic heart4 ,long time a bishop of an important see before he was made ,pope1 he has been at the level of every task imposed upon the ,papacy4 ,in a particular manner he has been the patron of ecclesiastical studies1 by his scholarly encyclicals on philosophy1 ,scripture1 history1 and other branches of learning4 ,a noble specimen of this activity is his late letter to the bishops of ,france on the studies of the clergy4 ,his spirit is the ,christian spirit of reconciliation and concord1 yet without sacrifice of the immemorial rights and the solemn obligations of the ,apostolic ,see4 ,he may not live to see the restoration of his independence1 and the reparation of the wrong inflicted upon the ,holy ,see1 but he can maintain a protest that will forever invalidate among ,catholics the claim of the actual government and keep open the ,roman question until it is rightly settled4 ,catholics cannot forget that the ,pope for the time being is1 according to ,catholic doctrine1 the successor of ,saint ,peter in all his rights and privileges as the visible head of the ,church1 appointed by ,jesus ,himself4 ,hence1 among other duties1 he has to safeguard the approved traditions and the general legislation of the past1 to protect the status of the ,church as given over to him1 and to hand it down undiminished to his own successor4 ,precisely because he is the head of the ,church he may not licitly alter its organic and regular life1 or arbitrarily abandon the almost sacrosanct ways along which his predecessors have moved1 or give up lightly the institutions in which religion has gradually found a setting for itself4 ,i venture to say that this element of fixity in the attitude of the ,apostolic ,see will be more appreciated in another age1 more constructive and architectonic than the past1 less querulous and destructive1 even if less daring and brilliant4 ,forever to pull down and scatter1 and never to build up and perfect1 cannot be the final purpose of human society4 ,it is perhaps worth remarking that the average reign of the ,popes was much longer in the nineteenth century than in any other1 being over sixteen years1 and that two successive reigns1 those of ,pius ,,ix4 and ,leo ,,xiii41 represent fifty-four continuous years of ,church government at ,rome1 a phenomenon not witnessed since the foundation of that ,church by ,saint ,peter and ,saint ,paul4 ,,the ,,catholic ,,hierarchy ,during this century the ,holy ,father has been able to restore the ,catholic hierarchy in ,england1 ,scotland1 ,holland1 and to create it anew in ,india4 ,this means the orderly management of the works and the purposes of the ,catholic religion1 since the episcopate is the divinely instituted organ for its spread and its administration4 ,in many lands a numerous episcopate has sprung up4 ,in our own beloved country it has grown almost at the rate of one see for every year of the century4 ,the apostolic activity of the episcopate has been usually beyond reproach4 ,the care of souls1 the creation of parishes1 building of churches1 convents1 schools1 and charitable institutions has gone on in every diocese of the ,catholic world4 ,some bishops have distinguished themselves by their sanctity of life and their love for the poor2 others by their learning and their skill in their writing works of utility for the faithful2 others by their holy martyrdoms1 both in pagan and ,christian lands2 others by devotion to great works of common charity and utility--nearly all by their exemplary lives and the conscientious performance of their duties4 ,no nation has a monopoly of this outpouring of the highest sacerdotal devotion2 and no nation or people1 as far as ,i can learn1 has been without a steady succession of remarkable bishops1 men who would have done honor to any age of ,christian history4 ,i believe that it is the constant and edifying service of the episcopal body which is chiefly responsible for the improvement in learning1 morality1 and laborious enlightened zeal on the part of the clergy1 diocesan and monastic1 which it seems just to claim for the nineteenth century4 ,in some lands the episcopal office is freer than in others1 and its beneficent activity is more immediate and visible4 ,in all the bishops have kept the bond of unity1 often at no inconsiderable sacrifice of personal comfort4 ,neither schism nor heresy of any formal and noteworthy nature has been connected with the episcopal office4 ,it would ill become me to discriminate where the merits are so equal4 ,i may1 however1 be permitted to rejoice with my countrymen at the end of the century that the life and the teachings of a ,carroll1 a ,cheverus1 a ,brut a ,neumann1 a ,dubois1 have not been without salutary effect1 and have set a shining mark for the imitation of all coming generations4 ,particularly have such men inculcated habitual courtesy and charity in dealing with all those who did not share the faith of ,catholics4 ,they were fresh from the storms of foreign religious hatred and infidel intolerance1 and knew by personal experience the benefit of mutual good understanding and personal respect4 ,in the ,united ,states1 particularly1 the ,catholic episcopate has been very active in providing for the most fundamental spiritual needs of their flocks--churches for religious services1 priests for the administration of sacraments1 schools for the preservation of the revealed ,christian faith1 orphanages for the little waifs and castaways of society4 ,whether short or long1 the periods of government of these ,church rulers have never been idle nor marked by self-indulgence4 ,almost every one has left some monument of faith as a contribution to the general good of ,catholicism4 ,i would neither exaggerate nor boast1 yet it occurs to me1 after many years of service1 travel1 and observation1 that few ages of ,christianity can show a more laborious and elevated episcopate than the nineteenth century4 ,the recruiting of the diocesan clergy has been the gravest duty of this episcopate1 for religion lives by and for men4 ,it can get along without wealth or monuments1 but not without intelligent teachers of its tenets and faithful observers of its precepts4 ,in keeping with the decrees of the ,council of ,trent diocesan seminaries have been opened where it was possible1 and elsewhere provincial institutions of a similar character4 ,both flourish in the ,united ,states1 and grow more numerous with every decade4 ,the older clergy1 long drawn from the venerable schools of ,europe1 have left a sweet odor among us1 the purest odor of self-sacrificing lives1 of devotion to poor and scattered flocks1 of patient1 uncomplaining contentment with the circumstances of poverty and humility4 ,there is no diocese in the ,united ,states where there cannot be heard tales of the hardships and brave lives of the ecclesiastics who laid the foundations of religion4 ,we remember them always1 and hold their names in benediction4 ,the younger generation of our clergy enjoys advantages denied to their predecessors2 but we consider that they owe it to those predecessors if they have a degree of leisure to perfect the culture of their minds1 and a faithful ,catholic people to ask for the benefits which must accrue from greater learning1 if it be solid and well directed4 ,yet ,i cannot admit that our older clergy were deficient in the learning of the schools4 ,the names of ,england and ,corcoran are at once on our lips1 not to speak of a long array of others almost equally entitled to distinguished mention4 ,if the external conditions of the diocesan clergy have improved1 their relations to the ,church authority have been safeguarded with even greater earnestness and efficiency4 ,the dispositions of synods1 provincial councils1 and the three plenary councils of ,baltimore have1 we are happy to say1 had little to do with questions of doctrine4 ,they have all been held for the improvement of discipline and notably for the welfare of the clergy4 ,in the same direction1 also1 have tended the numerous decisions and instructions from the ,roman congregations1 whose wisdom has never been invoked by us in vain1 and whose sympathy for our conditions we gratefully acknowledge4 ,,the ,,congregation ,,of ,,the ,,propaganda ,any account of the good influence of the ,holy ,see on our ecclesiastical conditions would be unjust and incomplete if the ,congregation of the ,propaganda ,fide were omitted4 ,to it we owe an unceasing surveillance1 full of prudence and intelligence4 ,from its offices have come to the bishops regularly counsel1 warning1 encouragement1 co-operation4 ,it has been eminently just and fair1 also fearless in the application of the principles1 the spirit1 and the letter of canonical discipline4 ,its action is a calm and grave one1 marked by reticence and patience and that composure which belongs to the highest judicial decisions4 ,but the ,catholic ,church in the ,united ,states and in ,canada owes it an undisputed debt of gratitude4 ,the most learned cardinals of the century and the best ecclesiastical talent have co-operated in the creation of its legislation1 which need not fear the criticism of any learned and honest judicial body of men4 ,,religious ,,orders ,,and ,,communities ,in the religious orders and communities the ,catholic ,church possesses a very ancient auxiliary force that has rendered incalculable help during the century4 ,by their numbers1 their strong inherited traditions1 their central government1 their willing obedience1 and their other resources they have come everywhere to the aid of the bishops and the diocesan clergy4 ,often they bore alone and for a long time1 and at great sacrifices1 the whole burden of religion4 ,their praise is rightly on all sides1 and their works speak for them1 when their modesty and humility forbid them to praise themselves4 ,the missions of ,catholicism in this century1 as in others1 have largely fallen to them4 ,they stood in the breach for the cause of education when the churches were too poor and few to open colleges4 ,they have given countless missions and retreats1 and in general have not spared themselves when called upon for works of general utility4 ,they and their works are of the essence of ,catholicism1 and they ought rightly to flourish in any land where they are free to live according to the precepts and the spirit of their founders1 who are often canonized saints of the ,catholic ,church4 ,i shall not be saying too much when ,i assert that among the invaluable services rendered to the ,church by ,catholic women of all conditions of life--no unique thing in the history of ,catholicism--those rendered by the women of religious communities are of the first rank of merit4 ,primary ,catholic education1 in the ,united ,states1 at least1 would have been almost impossible without their devotion4 ,it is owing to them that the orphans have been collected and cared for1 the sick housed and sheltered1 the poor and helpless and aged1 the crippled and the blind1 looked after regularly and lovingly4 ,they surely walk in the footsteps of ,jesus1 doing good wherever they go4 ,the perennial note of sanctity in the ,catholic ,church shines especially in them4 ,content with food and clothing and shelter1 they devote their lives1 often in the very flower of youth and health and beauty1 to the weak and needful members of ,christian society4 ,he must needs be a ,divine ,master who can so steadily charm into ,his service the purest and the most affectionate of hearts1 and cause them to put aside deliberately for love of ,him even the most justifiable of human attachments4 ,this argument for ,christianity is not new2 it was urged by ,saint ,justin the ,martyr on the libertine world of the ,antonines4 ,,the ,,unity ,,of ,,christendom ,throughout this century the ,roman ,church has desired and sought by all practical means the restoration of the former unity of ,christendom4 ,each succeeding ,pope has appealed to the ancient but separated ,churches of the ,orient1 reminding them of the past oneness and the need of union with that see which all their records proclaim the rock and centre of unity4 ,similarly1 appeals have been issued to the divided ,christian communities of the ,west1 as when ,pius ,,ix4 wrote to the members of the ,protestant world before the ,vatican ,council1 and when ,leo ,,xiii4 lately addressed his famous encyclical on the ,unity of the ,church to all men of good will within the ,anglican pale4 ,such efforts may seem perfunctory2 but they have in our eyes a deep meaning4 ,they proclaim the doctrine of unity that is clearer than the noonday sun from the teachings of ,jesus2 they make a first step in the direction of its restoration2 they keep alive the spirit of charity in many hearts1 and they stir up countless prayers for the consummation of an end that few believing ,christians any longer consider unnecessary4 ,already the canker-worms of doubt and indifference are gnawing at those last foundations of the old inherited ,christian religious beliefs that still worked beneficently outside the pale of ,catholic unity1 but are now disappearing from the public consciousness because1 too often1 they are no longer elements of private conviction4 ,in the realm of faith1 as in that of nature1 there is an after-glow1 when the central sun has spent its force2 but in both that glow is the herald of coldness and darkness4 ,to those who no longer allow in their hearts any ,christian belief1 ,catholicism has strongly appealed in the nineteenth century by its teachings on the right use of reason in matters of faith1 the claims of religion on the mind and the heart of man1 the benefits of ,christianity1 and its superiority over all other forms of religion--in a word1 by the constant expos of all the motives of credibility which could affect a sane and right mind that had divested itself of prejudice and passion4 ,,conversions ,,to ,,catholicism ,not the least remarkable share of the history of ,catholicism is seen in the stream of conversions that began in the very stress of the ,french ,revolution and has not ceased to flow since then4 ,from every land of the ,old and ,new ,worlds hundreds of thousands have returned of their own volition to the ancient fold wherein we firmly believe is kept the sacred deposit of saving truth4 ,they have come to us from the pulpits of opposing religions and from the workshops of an unbelieving science4 ,every condition of life1 and both sexes1 have sent us numerous souls4 ,very many of these conversions have been unsolicited and unexpected4 ,some of them meant an accession of wealth or social prestige or high rank4 ,others brought with them the beloved tribute of uncommon intelligence1 experience of life and men1 acquired erudition1 the highest gifts of style and oratory4 ,very many have come from the middle walks of life1 and signified no more than a great weariness of pursuing shadows for the reality of divine truth1 and the excessive goodness of the ,holy ,spirit of ,god which bloweth where it listeth4 ,of this army of converts some have been drawn by the conviction that the ,bible alone1 without an interpreter and a witness divinely guaranteed1 could not suffice as a rule of faith4 ,others have been moved by the incarnation in the ,church of the spirit and functions of authority without which no society can exist4 ,still others have come back to the ,mother of all churches1 through a deep heart-weariness at the endless dilapidation of divine truth outside the ,roman ,church4 ,some have sought and found through the study of history the open door to the truth4 ,others again through the study of art and its functions in the ,christian ,church4 ,in whatever way they returned to the unity of the original sheepfold1 they are an eloquent witness to the innate vigor and the immortal charm of the ,christian truth as preserved in ,catholicism4 ,for they have come in unconditionally4 ,their return has worked beneficially1 not only for themselves1 but for those of the ,catholic faith1 whom it has consoled and encouraged for their steadfastness1 while the non-,catholic world cannot but feel that that religion is worthy of respect1 even of study1 which can forever draw so many men and women out of the ranks of its adversaries1 even at the sacrifice of many things which are usually held dear by society4 ,,the ,,relations ,,with ,,civil ,,authority ,being a genuine and world-wide religion1 ,catholicism could not but come into contact with the powers in which rests the social authority4 ,in many cases the fundamental relations of both have been settled by documents of a quasi constitutional character known as concordats4 ,they are binding on both parties1 yet in more than one case the supreme authority of ,catholicism has had reason to complain of their violation either in letter or in spirit4 ,important points like the freedom of episcopal elections1 the management of ecclesiastical revenues1 the freedom of access to and communication with the ,holy ,see1 have been tampered with or openly abolished4 ,in a general way ,catholics are far from being content with the actual administration of these quasi treaties between the civil and the ecclesiastical powers in the ,old ,world and in ,south ,america--yet they respect them and desire to live up to their requirements4 ,it is to be hoped that in the new century there will be less suspicion of the truly beneficent intentions of the ,church1 and less hampering of the common organs of her existence and work4 ,in a century filled with revolutions as no other the ,catholic ,church has comported herself with dignity and equity1 and managed to find the correct via media in this great tangle of opposing and mutually destructive forms and theories of government4 ,,the ,,catholic ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,united ,,states ,in our own beloved country we have every reason to be thankful that the liberty to worship ,god according to the dictates of conscience is guaranteed by the ,constitution1 and has entered deeply into the convictions of our fellow-citizens4 ,the ,catholic ,church1 by her own constitution1 is deeply sympathetic with our national life and all that it stands for4 ,she has thrived in the atmosphere of liberty1 and seeks only the protection of the common law1 that equal justice which is dealt out to all4 ,she is the oldest historical and continuous government on the earth1 and it is no small index of the value of our institutions and their durability that they make provision for the life and the work of so vast and so aged a society4 ,it would also seem to show that1 through a long course of centuries1 ,catholicism held as its own genuine political teachings only such as were finally compatible with the most perfect and universal citizenship known to history4 ,when this nation was forming1 the first ,catholic bishop in the ,united ,states1 and my first predecessor in the see of ,baltimore1 ,john ,carroll1 accepted and performed satisfactorily the gravest public duty of a citizen1 an embassy to another people for the benefit of his own country4 ,thereby he left to us all an example and a teaching that we shall ever cherish1 the example of self-sacrifice as the prime duty of every citizen1 and the teaching that patriotism is a holy conviction to which no ,catholic1 priest or layman1 can hold himself foreign or apathetic4 ,a ,catholic layman of the same distinguished family1 ,charles ,carroll of ,carrollton1 threw in his lot with the patriots from the beginning1 and by word and deed served the cause of ,american liberty1 while he lived to see it flourish and inform more and more the minds and hearts of the first generation of ,american citizens4 ,in future centuries1 as in this1 his name will be held in honor and benediction as a signer of the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,his ,catholic belief and conduct will forever be a potent encouragement to the children of his own faith4 ,he was the first layman to contribute notably to the cause of ,catholic education1 and the native formation of the priesthood1 by the establishment of a college for that purpose4 ,,the ,,catholic ,,church ,,and ,,education ,we have done our best in these ten decades to provide the best education for our people and our priests4 ,intimately convinced that general education without religion is destined to be an evil rather than a blessing1 we have created all over the ,united ,states a system of primary education in parochial schools that has cost us and yet costs us the gravest sacrifices and entails the heaviest solicitudes4 ,yet we feel that we are serving the cause of ,god and country by indoctrinating our ,catholic youth with persuasions of the existence of ,god and ,his holy attributes1 of the true nature of vice and virtue1 of conscience and sin1 of the spiritual and the temporal1 of the proper purposes of life1 of punishment and reward in an immortal life4 ,we believe that ,christianity is better than paganism2 also that ,christianity is something simple1 positive1 historical1 that can and ought to be taught from the cradle to the grave1 good for all conditions1 for both sexes1 and for every situation in life this side of the common grave4 ,believing this1 we have shaped our conduct accordingly1 and trust to ,god for the issue4 ,in such matters it imports more to be right in principle than to be successful4 ,our secondary system of education has gone on from the founding of the ,republic4 ,colleges for boys and academies for girls have risen up in every ,state and ,territory1 have been supported by the faithful people1 and are doing an incalculable good4 ,as our means increase and other advantages offer1 we hope to improve them2 ,catholicism is no stagnant pool1 but a field for every good private initiative that respects right and truth4 ,in the ,catholic ,university of ,america1 founded in the last decade of the century by ,pope ,leo ,,xiii4 and the ,catholic hierarchy1 after due and lengthy deliberation1 and made possible by the magnificent generosity of a ,catholic woman1 we have centred our hopes of a system of higher education that shall embody the best traditions of our ancient ,church and the approved gains of our own times4 ,american ,catholics have not disposed in the past of great wealth1 inherited or earned2 hence all these works mean an incredible devotion and intensity of good will and sustained sacrifices4 ,wherever the ,catholic ,church has been strong and successful1 schools of every kind flourish4 ,i need only recall the fact that the idea1 the constitution1 the functions1 the influences of a university were unknown in the world until she created the type in the ,middle ,ages1 and gave over to mankind a new factor in civil and religious life--the power of organized learning4 ,,the ,,social ,,movement ,through the whole century one line of thought and action has been gradually disengaging itself from all others and dominating them4 ,that is the social movement1 or the tendency towards a more evenly just and natural conception of all the relations that arise from the common dwelling of mankind in organized society4 ,it has long taken the form of institutions and plans for the betterment of the conditions of the people1 of woman1 of all who suffer or think they suffer from the actual organization of society4 ,if there is something ,utopian in certain plans or hopes1 there is too much that is justifiable at the root of other attempts to reorganize our social conditions4 ,not to speak of the undesirable inheritances of the past1 the new conditions created for the common man by the spread of industrialism and commercialism have often been painful in the extreme1 and have aroused both violent protests and deep sympathy4 ,by the help of ,god we have abolished the reproach of slavery in every civilized land1 but we hear from the laboring multitudes a vague cry that they are already in the throes of a return to that accursed institution4 ,here the doctrines of ,catholicism are eminently in accord with the right conception of human nature1 the functions of authority and mutual help or charity1 the duty to live1 and the right to all the necessary means for that end4 ,she is sympathetic1 historically and naturally1 to the toiling masses1 who1 after all1 form everywhere the bulk of her adherents1 and have been always the most docile and affectionate of her members4 ,it is she who created in the world the practical working idea of a common humanity1 the basis of all genuine social improvement4 ,the trials of ,catholicism have come more often from the luxury and the sin of those in high places than from the disaffection of its great masses4 ,as this movement has gathered force1 and passed from theories into the domain of action1 the ,catholic ,church1 through her head1 has followed it with attention and respect4 ,the whole pontificate of ,leo ,,xiii4 is remarkable for acts and documents which have passed into the history of social endeavor in the nineteenth century4 ,his personal charities1 large and enlightened1 are as nothing in comparison with the far-reaching acts like the refusal to condemn the association of the ,knights of ,labor4 ,his encyclical on the ,condition of ,workingmen recalls the only possible lines of a final concord between labor and capital--the spirit and teachings of ,jesus ,christ1 the best ,friend our common humanity ever had4 ,in the same way1 his latest encyclical on ,jesus ,christ1 with which the religious history of the century closes1 emphasizes the true basis for the restoration of peace and harmony and justice between the poor and the rich1 between the producers of capital and the capital that stimulates and regulates production4 ,we may be confident that the papacy of the future will not show less enlightenment and sympathy in its attempts to solve these delicate and grave problems with the least injustice and the greatest charity4 ,,lights ,,and ,,shadows ,it would be idle to deny or to palliate the many shadows that fall across the history of ,catholicism in the century that has elapsed4 ,i scarcely need refer to the weaknesses and errors of her individual children3 such acts she repudiates1 and when she can chastises remedially4 ,but the ,church has not recovered that vast inherited moral power over the public life which it enjoyed before the ,french ,revolution4 ,in many ways the consequences of atheism1 materialism1 and even of deism1 have been deduced into manners and institutions1 to the detriment of the ancient ,christian morality4 ,the sterner ,christian virtue of previous centuries1 founded on the ,christian revelation1 has been forced out of the public life of whole peoples4 ,expediency1 opportunism1 moral cowardice have often triumphed over the plain right and the fair truth4 ,the principle has been established that ,god is on the side of the great battalions1 is ever with the strong men of blood and iron4 ,ancient and venerable sovereignties have been hypocritically dispossessed4 ,small nationalities have been erased from the world's political map1 and the history of the near past almost justifies the rumors of impending steps in the same direction4 ,with the increase of greatness in states comes an increase of warlike perils1 not only from commercial rivalry1 but from that root of ambition and domination which grows in every heart1 unless checked and subdued in time1 and which in the past has been too often the source of violent injustice on the greatest scale4 ,these deeds and principles we believe to be a necessary result of naturalism1 of the exclusion of the supernatural and revealed elements of ,christianity from our public life1 and not only these1 but others of a graver character1 that must one day follow from their logical and unchecked evolution4 ,divorce1 a cause of ruin in every land1 grows with rapidity in many civilized nations1 so much so that not only ,catholicism1 its inveterate enemy1 is shocked1 but ,christian men of every persuasion believe that some public and authoritative steps ought to be taken to prevent the pollution of the family life1 that fixed and natural source of public morality4 ,religion has been officially thrust out of the systems of education1 in every grade1 and the young mind taught that it is quite a private and unimportant thing4 ,thus1 under the plea of indifference1 many ,states have practically made themselves the champions of that agnosticism which is the arch-enemy not only of religion1 but also of patriotism from time immemorial connected with religion4 ,the average man soon ceases to make great sacrifices1 above all to die for the public good1 when he is satisfied that there is no other life1 or that it is not worth while living for the uncertainties of approval and reward by an eternal ,god1 who is just and true and holy4 ,,reasons ,,for ,,encouragement ,on the other hand1 the ,catholic man or woman knows that there are great spiritual forces at work in the world1 however unhappily its public life may be developing from the view-point of ,christian morality4 ,there are innumerable lives guided by the principles of ,christian virtue1 some of them even culminating in the highest sanctity4 ,though not all such are known to men1 yet not a few become public examples and incitements to virtue4 ,even outside of the ,catholic faith there are not a few who regulate their lives by the natural virtues and also by inherited ,christian virtues that work sometimes unconsciously1 but whose practice can only be pleasing to our common ,father4 ,sweet ,charity is yet a queen in ,christian lands2 her services and utility are too great to permit her dethronement4 ,great misfortunes of any kind still touch the hearts of men that are ,christian yet when their minds have become clouded by indifference to1 or dislike of1 the supernatural verities4 ,luxury and wealth1 greater perhaps than the world has yet seen1 are still conscious of duties to the common weal4 ,educational institutions of every character and philanthropical enterprises of every variety have flourished on the means thus provided4 ,but from our point of view it is better that all such phenomena1 to be lasting1 should have their root and origin in ,christian purposes and belief4 ,it is yet true1 as it was of old on the hill-sides of ,juda3 8,except the ,lord build the house1 they labor in vain that build it4 ,except the ,lord keepeth the city1 he watcheth in vain that keepeth it40 7,psalm #abf47 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,catholicism ,we entertain no doubt that the organization which has weathered the storms and stress of so many centuries will continue to do so in the future4 ,the ,catholic ,church has the promises of her ,divine ,founder that the gates of hell shall not prevail against her4 ,how could she doubt of her future8 ,it does not seem likely that any vicissitudes can arise which have not their counterpart or analogy in the past1 so old is she on this earth1 and so many are the forms of government and the kinds of human culture with which she has lived4 ,we are confident that she will be equal to all the emergencies of the future1 for while the ,church is always identical with and present to herself in a conscious way1 her children and her agents may grow in experience and wisdom1 as they undoubtedly do1 and may bring both of these factors to bear upon the future problems of our common humanity4 ,of one thing we may feel certain3 she will never cease to desire and to work for that efficacious unity of all ,christendom1 which is the permanent wish of its ,holy ,founder1 and for which her bishops and priests have never ceased to pray in those opening words of the ,roman ,canon of the ,mass that we repeat daily3 8,therefore1 ,o ,most ,clement ,father1 we suppliantly pray to ,thee through ,jesus ,christ ,our ,lord444 especially for ,thy ,holy ,catholic ,church1 which mayst ,thou vouchsafe to pacify1 keep1 unite1 and govern throughout the world40 ,,james1 ,,card4 ,,gibbons4 ,,protestantism ,the motives which have acted upon religion in the nineteenth century1 either by way of directly enhancing its power or by restricting its influence1 are these3 7#a7 ,humanitarianism2 7#b7 ,the ,historical ,spirit2 7#c7 ,science2 7#d7 ,nationalism4 ,although the course of religious history has varied somewhat in different countries as well as in the different ,churches1 yet it is possible to form an approximate picture of the resultant of these forces which will reveal the progress of the ,kingdom of ,god in the world4 ,i ,the first of these motives--humanitarianism--has powerfully influenced the ,christian world by asserting the rights of man1 liberty1 equality and the spirit of fraternity1 the sense of human brotherhood4 ,the germs of the humanitarian movement may be traced in the eighteenth century1 as in the teaching of ,lessing and ,herder and ,rousseau2 in religious movements like the ,great ,awakening in the ,united ,states1 the revival in ,england under ,wesley and ,whitefield1 in tentative efforts for the abolition of slavery 7,hopkins and ,clarkson71 and prison reform 7,john ,howard74 ,but the nineteenth century has been distinguished above all the other ,christian centuries in the results achieved by the sentiment of humanity4 ,it has led to the abolition of slavery under ,english rule1 in the ,united ,states1 and in ,russia2 to many reform movements of every kind and degree1 wherever there existed actual or latent tyranny1 which robbed humanity of its inherent privileges4 ,the humanitarian sentiment is ,christian in its origin1 derived primarily from the conviction of the incarnation of ,god in ,christ4 ,christ appears in history as the leader of humanity in the struggle for freedom4 ,slowly but surely ever since ,his advent1 the world of man has been moving forward to the attainment of the ideal of humanity revealed in ,him4 8,ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free4 ,and if the ,son of ,god shall make you free1 ye shall be free indeed40 ,the progress towards freedom inspired by ,him who taught the fatherhood of ,god and the brotherhood of men has been accomplished in the face of great hinderances and long reverses1 overcoming obstacles which would have been insuperable without ,christian faith4 ,in the nineteenth century the movement towards human freedom seems almost to have reached its culmination4 ,within the sphere of religion the progress is most manifest in the spread of ,christian missions1 which stand out in any review of the century as one of its most extraordinary achievements4 ,it might be justly designated as a missionary age4 ,so intense and persistent has been its devotion to the gospel of ,christ as essential for man that when the century closed it might be truly said that the round world had been girdled with ,christian missions1 whose results are more significant for civilization1 as well as for religion1 than any statistics can reveal4 ,the missionary has been the pioneer1 it is becoming increasingly evident1 of momentous changes yet to appear4 ,the sentiment of humanity has operated as a motive in the study of human history1 giving to historical inquiry a new interest and impetus4 ,no age has been so fruitful in the results of historical research1 with conclusions of vital importance for every department of life1 but chiefly this1 that an independent place has been vindicated for humanity1 as having a life of its own distinct from and above the natural order of the physical world4 ,the study of man as he appears in history has tended to strengthen faith in the essential truths of religion1 opening up as it has done the deeper knowledge of the nature of man to which the religion of ,christ appeals2 for the modern method of studying history1 as compared with earlier methods1 consists in seeking for those inward subjective moods of the human soul which lie beneath creeds or institutions1 and not solely in the accurate description of the objective fact4 ,the facts of human life call for interpretation1 and for this the historian must search4 ,thus has been born what is almost a new department of inquiry--the philosophy of history 7,hegel and many others74 ,differ as do these attempts at a philosophy of history1 they yet possess one ruling idea--the conviction of a development in the life of humanity when viewed as a whole4 ,the idea of development controlled the higher intellectual life of the first half of the century4 ,it was applied with important results to the study of ecclesiastical history1 by ,schleiermacher1 ,neander1 ,gieseler1 ,baur1 ,rothe1 ,bunsen1 and many others1 by the ,roman ,catholic ,mhler1 in his ,symbolik1 and by ,john ,henry ,newman1 in however one-sided and imperfect manner4 ,the doctrine of development found its classic formula in the lines of ,tennyson3 8,yet1 ,i doubt not through the ages ,one increasing purpose runs1 ,and the thoughts of men are widened ,with the process of the suns40 ,the influence of the doctrine of development has been felt in the study of ,scripture1 leading to a recognition of progressiveness in the divine revelation1 whose record has been preserved in the ,old and ,new ,testaments 7,mozley1 ,ruling ,ideas in the ,early ,ages74 ,by means of this truth have been overcome1 till they now seem unworthy1 the objections to the ,old ,testament on the ground that it gave sanction to cruelty1 deceit1 or an imperfect morality4 ,but the inference has also followed that the revelation of ,god to humanity must be searched for in the sacred records1 and even by the light of close critical scrutiny1 if the divine utterance is to be distinguished from crude misapprehensions or misapplications4 ,forms of literary expression1 current usages1 the historical environment of the time--for these allowance must be made as their influence is recognized4 ,the science of biblical criticism has gained from the study of general history a larger knowledge of the nature of man1 which1 in turn1 has made the study of the ,bible more profound and thorough1 because more real and human than were the biblical studies of the eighteenth century4 ,the primary question which it has been found necessary to ask in regard to any doctrine or institution is not whether it is true--for the canons of truth may vary with the relative position of the inquirer2 but1 rather1 what does it mean8 ,when the meaning of the record is seen1 the question of its truth has answered itself4 ,the effect of these studies1 even of what is called the 8higher criticism10 has not lessened the authority of the ,bible or changed the character of ,christianity as 8a religion of the book02 but their tendency has been to vindicate the unique and essential place of the ,bible in literature as containing the veritable record of a divine revelation4 ,some things1 indeed1 have been changed3 the order in which the books of the ,bible were written is not the order in which they stand2 some of them are of composite authorship1 whose various parts were written at different times2 the traditional chronology1 known as ,ussher's 7#afef71 has been abandoned1 nor is there anything in the ,bible which places it in opposition to the teachings of geology relative to the length of time during which man has occupied the earth2 the historical order of priest and prophet has been reversed1 so that the voice of prophecy comes before the decline into ritual 7,wellhausen and others74 ,popular misapprehensions tend to vanish in the light of a true insight and interpretation1 such as that the first chapter of ,genesis was intended to be an infallible record of the divine order in the creation of the world4 ,that a similar account of the creation is found in ,babylonian literature only shows that the ,bible writer was illustrating by the best scientific knowledge of the time the vastly higher spiritual truth with which the ,bible opens1 that the creation is the work of ,god1 thus leading man to the worship of ,god and away from the lower worships of sun and moon and all the hosts of ,heaven4 ,the mechanical conceptions as to the mode of inspiration and revelation tend to give way before a larger and truer conception of the process by which the revelation is made--that ,god speaks to man actually and authoritatively through the experience of the events of life4 ,thus revelation becomes a living process1 and all later history may become a commentary on sacred history1 renewing and confirming the primal utterance of ,god to the soul of man4 ,much1 it is true1 yet remains to be done in bridging the gulf between the learned and scientific interpretation of the sacred record and the popular apprehension1 which1 formed in the uncritical moments of youth1 often persists to mature years and constitutes a source of confusion and weakness4 ,a similar situation was seen in the ,middle ,ages in the wide breach which existed between the scholastic theologians and the popular mind4 ,a new department has been added to religious inquiry in ,comparative ,religion1 which aims at an impartial investigation and free from prejudice1 and is also moved by the sentiment of a common humanity to respect all utterances of religious feeling in the soul of man4 ,how widely the nineteenth century has advanced in this respect is seen by recalling a statement of ,dr4 ,johnson3 8,there are two objects of curiosity--the ,christian world and the ,mohammedan world4 ,all the rest may be considered as barbarous40 ,one of the most representative monuments of religious scholarship in the last century is ,professor ,max ,mller's ,sacred ,books of the ,east4 ,some inquirers in this unfamiliar department have worked under the impression that these ancient religions were equal in value to the ,christian revelation2 others even have thought them to be in some respects superior4 ,and1 in general1 the first effect of the discovery that there was truth in other religions had a tendency to weaken the claim of ,christianity to be the absolute religion4 ,but as the results of the study have been placed in their normal perspective1 it becomes evident that they only confirm the words of ,st4 ,paul1 that ,god has at no time left ,himself without witnesses in the world4 ,revelation also is seen to have been a universal process2 and profound spiritual motives are to be discerned beneath the diverse manifestations of the religious instincts4 ,yet1 on the whole1 the preponderating judgment leads to the conclusion that ,christianity contains the larger1 even the absolute1 truth2 that while it confirms some features in these religions as true1 it condemns others as false2 that ,christianity also has for one of its essential characteristics an assimilative power1 which not only enables1 but forces1 it to appropriate as its own any aspects of truth contained in other religions1 which have not hitherto been illustrated in the history of the ,christian ,church4 ,nor is the familiar test applied to religions wholly indefensible which judges them by their historical fruits or associations4 ,in accordance with this test1 ,confucianism is represented by ,china1 ,hinduism by ,india1 ,buddhism by ,ceylon and ,siam1 ,mohammedanism by ,turkey1 ,christianity by ,europe and ,america4 ,the influence of the humanitarian sentiment may be further traced in softening the asperities of some forms of traditional theology1 as1 for example1 the ,calvinistic doctrine of election with its alternatives of reprobation or preterition4 ,these certainly have not been the favorite doctrines which have commended themselves to the spirit of the age4 ,the effort has been made to bring the doctrine of the atonement within the limits of human experience4 ,it has been found impossible to present the doctrine of endless punishment after the manner of an earlier age4 ,many causes have combined to deepen the sense of mystery in which is enveloped the destiny of man1 and there has been begotten in consequence an unwillingness to dogmatize where in earlier times such a reluctance was not felt4 ,in this connection may be mentioned two religious bodies1 which took their rise about the beginning of the century--,universalism1 proclaiming ultimate salvation for all men2 and ,unitarianism1 asserting the dignity of man and his divine endowment4 ,but in all the ,churches alike has the same humanizing force been felt1 leading to efforts in theological reconstruction in order to make it apparent that the primary truths of ,christianity are not merely arbitrary principles or arrangements unrelated to life and to the needs of the soul1 but that in their essential quality there is conformity with the larger reason of humanity1 with that feeling for the inherent worth of things out of which reason proceeds1 and with which its conclusions must conform4 ,,ii ,thus far the humanitarian sentiment has been regarded in its combination with ,christian faith1 and as giving new force and distinction to ,christian life and thought4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it must now be noted that the same force working apart from the ,church1 and often in opposition to it1 has been a limitation to ,christian progress4 ,in the ,french ,revolution humanitarianism was associated with a negative1 destructive tendency1 which overthrew the ,church1 disowned ,god and immortality1 and set up in the place of deity a so-called ,goddess of ,reason4 ,this negative tendency has continued to exist and has found influential manifestation4 ,it has attempted the deification of humanity1 as though the human race were worthy in itself of being an object of worship4 ,it has exalted man at the expense of ,god1 conceiving of humanity as alone immortal1 as competent to steer its own course without supernatural direction4 ,it has weakened the sense of nationality1 has injured and endangered family life1 has taken away the highest sanctions from morality1 and has reduced religion from being a revelation from ,god to a purely subjective process in the soul of man1 worthy of respect1 but without authority4 ,it has created an abnormal sensitiveness in many directions4 ,it has swayed socialistic movements aiming at the rights of man and seeking to achieve universal happiness1 but with an antagonism sometimes latent1 sometimes expressed1 to ,god and ,christ and the ,christian ,church4 ,the prejudice remains which had its birth in the ,french ,revolution1 that religion is a creation of priests for their own selfish ends1 and the ,church an agency for robbing humanity of its rights1 liberty1 equality1 and fraternity4 ,principles and convictions like these found utterance in the philosophy of ,comte 7#aghi-aheg71 who called himself the 8founder of the religion of humanity10 and who proposed the scheme of a humanitarian ,church1 limited by no national boundaries1 whose only deity was man1 whose ritual found a place only for great men who had been the benefactors of the race4 ,theology and metaphysics were discarded as outgrown methods of explaining the phenomena of the universe1 and in the place they vacated stood the so-called 8,positive philosophy0 which rejected all supernatural influence4 ,the ,church of humanity had1 indeed1 no history and was a failure from its birth4 ,but the combination1 first seen in ,comte1 of humanitarianism with the methods and principles of natural science1 has been the most formidable opponent against which ,christianity was ever called to struggle4 ,it has been represented in ,england by ,john ,stuart ,mill and by ,herbert ,spencer and many others4 ,to the influential writings of this school of thinkers is due in great measure the widespread1 deep-seated scepticism since the middle of the century4 ,to the same cause1 by way of reaction1 are owing the spiritualistic movement1 the so-called 8,christian ,science0 and other kindred tendencies towards a crude supernaturalism4 ,those who entered the controversy in behalf of ,christianity and against the adherents of the ,positive philosophy suffered at first for the lack of any adequate philosophical method on which to rest in the effort to overcome this stupendous alliance between a humanitarianism working for the improvement of social conditions in combination with natural science1 whose postulates involved the denial of the miracle1 and indeed of all supernatural agency 7agnosticism74 ,it seemed for a time as though the philosophy of ,hegel would serve the purpose of a stronghold to which ,christian warriors might resort while in the stress of a conflict which involved not only the readjustment of ,christian doctrines to their new environment1 but also the maintenance of the idea of ,god1 of the kingdom of ,god in this world and of a future life for the immortal soul4 ,in ,germany systems of theology were worked out on the basis of ,hegelian principles1 which1 as interpreted by orthodox theologians1 stood for a principle of surpassing value if it could be maintained--that the life of humanity1 while dependent in the present order on physical conditions1 was yet above the life in external nature with which the natural sciences deal2 that the very definition of humanity implies the power of rising to the knowledge of ,god4 ,nature has no knowledge or consciousness of ,god1 or intimation of immortality4 ,it is in bondage to natural law and without freedom4 ,the life of humanity must not be studied from the point of view of natural science1 but is seen in the records of human history4 ,the influence of ,hegel deepened the interest in historical inquiry at a moment when the absorption in the natural sciences threatened to gain the ascendency4 ,but the ,hegelian philosophy1 for reasons which it is not possible here to render1 failed to accomplish the service expected from it4 ,it may be that the failure was temporary only1 and because it was not fully understood4 ,there arose a school of thinkers--the ,hegelian left wing--who1 while retaining their interest in history1 yet fell under the influence of the presuppositions of the natural sciences4 ,thus ,strauss1 in his ,leben ,jesu1 conceived of the person of ,christ as a casual product of the human imagination1 while ,feuerbach1 in his ,essence of ,christianity1 reached the conclusion that religion begins and ends in a subjective process in the soul4 ,thus1 instead of overcoming the ,positive philosophy1 ,german thought gravitated to the same result1 with this difference perhaps1 that it assumed the form of pantheism rather than of atheism4 ,in the ,tbingen school1 led by ,f4 ,c4 ,baur1 whose contributions to the study of ,church history are yet of high value1 there was reserve about the miracle1 if not its tacit denial1 and a conception of the ,christian ,church as a product of human origin rather than the purpose of ,christ4 ,but the effect of ,strauss was beneficial in that it sent inquirers back to the study of the person of ,christ and of ,his age4 ,never before was attention so concentrated upon the life of ,jesus1 as illustrated in a large number of biographical works1 too large to be enumerated here4 ,as a result of these studies1 the conviction grows that while there is a local aspect of the person of ,christ1 so that ,he reflected the peculiar opinions and living interests of ,his age1 and availed ,himself of current beliefs1 yet ,he was also infinitely above ,his time4 ,what ,he was and did and said in ,palestine nineteen hundred years ago must be supplemented by what ,he has been to the world in subsequent ages1 or what ,he is and is doing in the present age4 ,while ,christian thinkers were struggling with the problems raised by the ,positive philosophy1 the natural sciences were commanding in an increasing degree the world's attention1 until ,darwin made his great discovery of a law of evolution1 when it seemed as though natural science had become the arbiter and final tribunal before whose judgments the world must bow4 ,then there followed the sharp1 even bitter conflict between science and theology1 when scientific men whose lives had been spent in devotion to the study of natural phenomena were tempted to write expositions of religious history in order to show the fallaciousness of the religious attitude1 and theologians1 accustomed only to the postulates of the spiritual sphere1 ventured into the domain of science to put a spiritual interpretation on its conclusions and discoveries4 ,it was a confusing and painful moment when a subtle scepticism pervaded the ,churches and haunted even the minds of ,christian believers4 ,now that the smoke of the battle has cleared away1 while many tragedies are disclosed1 it does not appear that the ,churches have been weakened by the strife or have yielded any essential truth or conviction4 ,the belief in ,god1 and in his creation and government of the world1 the incarnation of ,god in ,christ1 the miracle for which ,christ stands1 and pre-eminently the miracle of ,his resurrection--in a word1 the supernatural interpretation of life1 remains unshaken4 ,it is unjust to charge1 as has sometimes been done1 dishonesty and a spirit of evasion against those who1 while the fierce battle was in progress1 kept silence1 unable to defend by cogent argument what yet they cherished still as true4 ,in the latter part of the century there came efforts at the reconstruction of theology in order to a better adjustment of the increase of knowledge regarding the nature of ,god and ,his relation to the world4 ,the doctrine of ,god as immanent in the world1 and not only transcendent or above and apart from it1 has proved valuable in reconciling many of the discoveries of history and of natural science with the ,christian faith4 ,efforts have also been made to simplify theology by the reduction of the large and complex1 even conflicting1 mass of ,christian tenets and beliefs1 given in history or represented in various ,christian sects1 to a few simple principles in which all must agree1 resting for their confirmation not on metaphysics1 but on the genuine ,christian instincts as revealed in the ,new ,testament4 ,there has been attained also a better philosophical method for meeting the difficulties and perplexities of the age4 ,but these attempts at the better interpretation of revealed religion1 and the formation of more consistent theological systems1 have found a temporary rival in efforts to create1 first of all1 a better system of 8natural theology10 as it may be called1 which shall take account of the doctrine of evolution and other discoveries of natural science since ,paley's time and the day of the ,bridgewater ,treatises4 ,those who aim at a reconciliation of religion with science treat the idea of evolution as a mediating principle by which the conflict between science and religion may be overcome4 ,this effort is the more significant1 in view of the popular interest in evolution--a word which has become almost the watchword of the age4 ,from this point of view the invasion of religious territory by scientific men 7,huxley1 ,tyndale1 ,haeckel1 and others71 and the counter-invasion of scientific territory by philosophers and theologians1 give promise of some mutual understanding in the future4 ,,iii ,it remains now to turn to another most potent motive which has affected the fortunes of religion in the nineteenth century4 ,it may be called ,nationalism1 meaning by the term that higher conception of the life of the state or nation1 slowly but most effectively asserting itself throughout the nineteenth century1 never apart from religious convictions1 always indeed in their support and furtherance4 ,in illustration of this point1 we turn again to the ,french ,revolution1 as giving the momentum1 both directly and by way of reaction1 to the conception of the sacredness of the state1 as an ultimate fact in ,god's government of the world4 ,in that fearful outburst of the ,french people1 their long pent-up indignation was vented no less against the state than against the ,church--the one a device of kings and lawgivers for holding mankind in subjection1 as the other was a scheme for the same end by a designing priesthood4 ,the humanitarian sentiment received in consequence at this impressive moment a direction of antipathy to nationality as an evil to be overcome1 or at least to be kept in subjection to some higher principle1 if the rights of man were to be secured4 ,something even of this negative mood entered into the formation of the ,american ,constitution1 where there is to be noted a singular omission of any reference to ,deity as the author and preserver of the national life4 ,on the continent of ,europe there was the phenomenon of ,napoleon building on the ruins of the ,french ,revolution1 while yet preserving the destructive motives which inspired it4 ,napoleon revived the dream of empire1 in whose expansive embrace the nations of ,europe were to be subordinated1 if not suppressed altogether4 ,he proposed to reconstruct the map of ,europe1 as though nationalities and crowns were purely human artificial arrangements to be disposed of at his sovereign pleasure4 ,the failure of the ,french nation1 its demonstrated inability to do the proper work of a state1 as well as the fact that the career of a ,napoleon was possible1 indicates inherent weakness in all the nations of ,europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,they existed either in repose1 and even stagnation1 after the long turmoil of the age of the ,protestant ,reformation1 averse to change1 distrustful of enthusiasm1 or were content to strive for purely selfish aims4 ,in accordance with the principle that the people existed for the state1 rulers followed their personal whims1 indifferent to moral sanctions1 heedless of the growing evils calling aloud for redress4 ,such in particular was the condition in ,france4 ,it was better in ,england1 but even there the same tendency existed1 manifested in the unnecessary alienation of the ,american colonies4 ,however this may be1 there has been a reaction against nationality during the nineteenth century4 ,the nations have been forced to struggle against this opposition1 and through the struggle they have attained their rebirth1 their purification4 ,the subject is connected with the fortunes of religion in many ways4 ,the indifference to nationality1 the distrust of the nation as incompetent for the exigencies of life1 the placing of an abstract humanity as an ideal above nationality1 so that to labor directly for the interests of humanity apart from the well-being of the nation1 and even in its defiance1 became the motive of reformers--these characteristics1 when seen in the religious sphere1 have led to a reaction against the various forms of ,protestantism1 and especially as represented in the state ,churches4 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 which in all its history has subordinated national distinctions to the higher interests of a common ,christendom1 had fallen into inefficiency in the eighteenth century1 and was no longer reckoned a force worthy of consideration1 either by religious thinkers or by statesmen4 ,but in the first third of the nineteenth century there came a change1 when the ,roman ,church arose from its lethargy to meet the demand imposed upon it by the timid fears of statesmen and ecclesiastics1 as the safeguard of religion and morality1 where national ,churches or particular ,churches were thought to have failed4 ,the ,napoleonic aspiration after universal empire and the frantic effort to realize it by rearranging or suppressing nationalities has its counterpart in the religious world in the effort to restore a ,christian empire with the ,papacy at its head1 as in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the effect of this ambition may be seen in ,germany and other countries1 but is most clearly manifest in ,england1 where the ,oxford ,movement 7#ahcc7 appears as an unnational1 if not anti-national1 uprising in behalf of some imperfectly conceived cosmopolitan ,church designated as 8,catholicity40 ,the date of the 8,movement10 as ,newman fixed it1 was ,keble's sermon on the 8,apostacy of the ,national ,church40 ,this same feeling1 that national existence is inferior in importance to humanitarian reforms or to the expression of religion in some other shape than in any particular or national ,church1 has been shown in the break with the ,established ,church in ,scotland1 or in the difficulties experienced in ,germany in consolidating the forms of ,protestantism in a strong state ,church1 or in the aspirations after some universal form of religion to be accomplished by a parliament of religions4 ,beneath these various schemes there is the common principle that humanity is a worthier object of devotion than the state1 and constitutes a higher ideal in whose cause to labor4 ,this conviction1 it may be added1 has been strengthened vastly by the extraordinary way in which1 during the nineteenth century1 the whole world has been brought together by the material forces of steam and electricity4 ,that there is here a great truth no one can deny1 but the point to be noticed now is that nationality has been at a disadvantage in the competition with humanity4 ,out of the necessities of the situation there has been born the spirit of a deeper inquiry into the place and significance of the nation as the indispensable medium by which the highest result can be secured for the world at large4 ,thus we have the studies in this direction of ,german students1 ,hegel and ,stahl1 ,trendelenburg and ,bluntschli1 ,maurice in ,england1 and in ,america ,mulford in his book ,the ,nation1 all of them combating the motive of ,comte and setting forth the essential1 even the eternal1 significance of nationality4 ,the ancient doctrine is still preserved that the people exist for the state1 but it is justified on the ground that the state also exists for the people1 for the freedom of the individual man1 so that through the state the rights of man are better subserved and more securely guaranteed than by an exclusive one-sided devotion to the cause of an abstract humanity4 ,as the nineteenth century drew to its close1 it became increasingly apparent that the nations had emerged from the depression in which they were found when the century opened4 ,america may be said to have attained the consciousness of nationality in its highest form in consequence of the ,civil ,war1 and to have entered from that time upon a new career4 ,in that awful conflict1 whose origin dates back to the rise of the anti-slavery movement1 may be discerned the issue of the century--humanitarianism1 on the one hand1 contending for the rights of man1 careless1 if need be1 for the national unity if only a great reform could be secured2 and on the other hand1 the nation1 slowly realizing that slavery was a force hostile to national unity and integrity1 and on this ground demanding its suppression4 ,the two attitudes in this instance appear organically related1 while yet they spring from distinct and separate motives4 ,in #ahgj ,germany and ,italy took their places in the family of nations4 ,nor should there be omission to mention ,greece1 which1 after its subsidence for hundreds of years1 again attained its national independence4 ,it has become further apparent that it is to the ,protestant nations1 ,america1 ,england1 and ,germany1 that the leading place must be conceded1 together with the determination of the world's fortunes4 ,and to these must be added ,russia1 which is also outside the pale of ,latin ,christianity4 ,those nations remaining in alliance with the ,papacy are1 for the present at least1 in an inferior position4 ,the triumphant assertion of the spiritual significance of nationality in the latter part of the nineteenth century has made it further apparent that the forces working for religion1 and especially for its ,protestant forms1 were stronger than the forces in opposition4 ,the nation enters the arena of the controversy as a spiritual force1 assuming as a first principle the existence of ,god and ,his supernatural government of the world4 ,never was this truth more impressively illustrated than in the experience of ,lincoln1 who1 when he became ,president of the ,united ,states in the supreme crisis of its history1 ceased to be indifferent to religion and passed into a devout belief in the mysterious control of the destiny of the nation by a sovereign1 omnipotent hand4 ,as the indifference to nationality was among the causes of religious doubt and of the weakness in the ,churches in the middle of the century1 so the triumphant assertion of nationality has contributed to turn the tide towards theistic belief and the ,christian faith4 ,to give a full exposition of the inner relationship of the nation to religion and the ,churches is not possible here1 but some remarks may be offered which will tend to illustrate their organic connection4 7#a7 ,in any large historical survey the nation appears as guided by religious leaders4 ,religion is seen to have flourished in proportion as the nation is conscious of its strength and destiny4 ,when the ,roman ,empire broke down the nationalities and merged them in a large composite unity1 it broke down also religious faiths1 and its own religion as well1 till scepticism was the result and a consequent immorality4 ,all attempts to build up religion on the basis of empire1 as distinct from nationality1 ended in failure4 7#b7 ,the ,christian religion tended from the first to break up the empire and to restore nationality4 ,ultimately it became manifest that the cause which undermined the ,roman ,empire and accomplished its downfall was the ,christian ,church4 ,in its ,eastern half the empire was resolved into nationalities4 ,in the ,west a ,church1 ,latin ,christendom1 rose upon its ruins1 but within this ,latin ,christendom the spirit of nationality began at once to work1 forcing its way against the opposition of the ,papacy1 till1 in the age of the ,protestant ,reformation1 when nationality was felt as a conscious motive1 it sundered ,latin ,christendom into fragments4 7#c7 ,the ,old ,testament in its form as a whole is simply the history of a nation from its birth through all its fortunes4 ,never did religion rise to a diviner and fuller expression than under the realization of the conviction that ,god was protecting the nation and determining its career4 ,the ,hebrew prophets were primarily statesmen1 devoted to the nationality1 as the incarnation of the divine will1 in whose fortunes were revealed the divine purpose4 ,any nation which has not the similar conviction that it is the chosen people of ,god1 and called to some important task1 cannot maintain its independence and integrity1 and has no future4 ,this conviction to-day inspires the leading nations of the world4 7#d7 ,the nation mediates between humanitarianism and individualism4 ,in serving its own ends and seeking to accomplish its mission1 it works for the good of all1 and also for the freedom of the individual man4 ,the tendency of humanitarianism as a motive apart from the higher life of the state1 or apart from its impersonation in ,christ as its head and leader1 is to weaken individualism and to defeat the very end it wishes to subserve1 the achievement of the rights of man4 ,humanity as a whole lacks the visible1 tangible embodiment of the nation4 ,it has not yet the consciousness of itself nor of its unity4 ,it cannot respond to the needs it awakens4 ,it does not1 as a whole1 realize its relationship to ,god1 nor is it placed in such a position as to make it feel the need of ,god4 ,it is in danger of becoming an abstraction in so far as it exists without relationships4 ,but the nation is close at hand1 near1 and felt as a moral personality or being1 seeking ideal ends which are also within the bounds of possibility4 ,humanity as a whole undertakes no enterprises which make it tremble as it comes to unknown1 trackless seas4 ,but when the nation comes to great crises1 where human wisdom is powerless to direct its course1 it falls back instinctively and by necessity upon the belief in the guidance of ,god4 ,thus the nation as a whole appears in a higher form of personality than individual men can achieve1 even the greatest men1 and so prepares the way for the belief in the still higher1 the invisible1 infinite personality of ,god4 7#e7 ,the nation as a moral personality and depending upon ,god becomes the safeguard of morals4 ,if there has been a decline in morality in the nineteenth century1 as some maintain1 shown in the general weakening of moral sanctions1 or by the increase of divorce and indifference to the sacredness of family life1 it must be attributed in some measure to the indifference to nationality from the time that political liberalism resting on an abstract humanitarianism1 or in combination with a scientific naturalism1 gained the ascendency4 ,so far as this tendency has in any degree invaded the ,christian ,church it has been powerless to effect a change for the better4 ,the great men whom humanity is directed to worship do not constitute a moral standard1 nor can scientific postulates be made a basis for moral culture2 for nature is at least unmoral1 if not1 as some assert1 immoral1 and it is only as acted upon by man that nature gives response to the increasing purpose of the world4 ,religious truths--the personality of ,god1 ,his creation and government of the world1 immortality1 and the freedom of the will--these are shattered1 we are told1 8by the great eternal iron laws of the universe10 or 8are in hopeless contradiction with the most solid truths of empirical science40 ,and so1 it must be added1 are the sanctions of ethics and moral law4 ,it is when we turn to the state1 to the moral personality of the nation1 that we encounter other laws and living forces which restore what an empirical science or a transcendental humanitarianism has broken down4 ,here the supreme test is spiritual--the well-being of the nationality4 ,the state must build upon the family as its corner-stone2 it must enforce those moral laws which the history of nations1 as well as human experience in its best estate1 reveal to be the inmost expression of the normal life of man4 ,the beginning of a new century may seem like an artificial division of time1 but the self-consciousness with which the nineteenth century closed1 the efforts at introversive estimates of its place in history and of the work it had accomplished1 indicate something more than a conventional barrier to be passed4 ,prophecies in regard to the new age may be futile1 for ,god reserves to ,himself the knowledge of the future4 ,but it is much if we can to any extent read the meaning of the past and detect the sources of its strength and weakness4 ,and for the rest1 ,christian faith and hope are inextinguishable1 looking forward to the fulfilment of the ,christian ideal--that higher unity where ,christ appears as the embodiment of humanity and the voice of its yearning for a perfect brotherhood2 where the nation also acknowledges ,him as its overlord1 so that1 in the words of ,christian prophecy1 the kingdoms of this world shall become the kingdom of our ,god and of ,his ,christ4 ,in that ideal conception1 the dominium belongs to the state1 and the ministerium to the ,christian ,church4 ,,alexander ,v4 ,g4 ,,allen4 ,,the ,,jews ,,and ,,judaism ,the opening years of the nineteenth century found the ,jew blinded by the light of a new sun1 the rays of which were beating upon the ,ghetto and were forcing him to take off1 one by one1 the many garments with which he had clothed himself during the hostile ,middle ,ages4 ,for the ,jew these ,middle ,ages did not end with the ,reformation and the ,renaissance2 but only disappeared in the transformation brought about gradually by the ,french ,revolution4 ,the beginning of the twentieth century sees him putting on some of these garments again1 and trying to save his own warmth from being lost in the coldness of the outside world4 ,during this period the ,jew has passed through more upheavals than many nations have during three or four times the number of years4 ,what outward struggles has he not been called upon to experience2 through what alternating seasons of joy and sorrow has he not passed6 ,what changes even within his own body has he not sustained6 ,the modern ,european and ,american world has had a hard fight to find its way into its present changed condition2 but much harder by far was the task laid upon the ,jew2 and1 whether he has succeeded or not1 he has made an honest fight4 ,evidences of the struggle abound on every hand1 and the road is strewn with many a dead hope and many a lost opportunity4 ,the ,jew was bound more firmly to ancient traditions2 and so interwoven were these ancient traditions with his whole being that the new life into which he came had of necessity to be blended with the old4 ,the tale of the ,jew of the nineteenth century is a record of his endeavor to do justice to the two demands which were made upon him3 the one from the outside world--to fit himself to take his place worthily and do his work side by side with the other citizens of the state in which he lived2 the other from within his own ranks--to harmonize his religious belief with his new point of view and to adapt his religious exercises to modern social conditions4 ,,emancipation ,,of ,,the ,,jews ,the struggle of the ,jews in the various ,european countries for civil rights and for equality before the law was long drawn out1 and was marked by varying fortunes dependent upon the political conditions of these countries4 ,more than seventy years of the century had passed before this struggle had been fought out4 ,though it is true that a beginning was made in ,germany and ,austria 7#agej and #agha71 to ,france belongs the honor of having been the first to really do away with the mass of anti-,jewish legislation which the centuries preceding had piled up4 ,on the #bgth of ,september1 #agia1 the ,national ,assembly at one stroke removed all the disabilities under which the ,jews had been living--distinctive dress1 special ,jew's oath1 ,jew's tax1 forced residence in certain localities1 etc4 ,from ,france1 and under the influence which that country then exercised1 the emancipation of the ,jews spread to ,belgium and ,holland1 and to some of the states of ,germany2 but the rest of ,europe was not yet ready for this emancipation4 ,the reaction which marks the period between #ahad and #ahdh made itself felt upon the ,jews1 restoring1 in many places1 the disabilities under which they had formerly lived4 ,the 8,judengassen0 became once more inhabited1 and the principles of freedom and liberty for all members of the state seemed to have been wellnigh forgotten4 ,the ,revolution of #ahcj stayed the downward course in some of the ,german states2 but it was not until #ahdh that the second great period in ,jewish emancipation came about4 ,in the breaking down of old institutions it was natural that the exceptional laws against the ,jews should go also4 ,the ,german ,parliament of #ahdh1 at ,frankfort1 forcefully proclaimed the doctrine of religious liberty2 and of this parliament a ,jew1 ,gabriel ,riesser1 was vice-president4 ,but it was not until the formation of the ,german ,empire1 in #ahga1 that the emancipation of the ,jews1 which had gradually made its way in the various states1 was carried through for the whole of that empire4 ,in #ahfg1 a decree was issued in ,austria by virtue of which all citizens were declared equal before the law1 and in #ahgj the walls of the ,ghetto fell in ,rome4 ,in #ahgd1 ,jews were admitted to the rank of citizens in ,switzerland4 ,in #ahgh1 the ,congress of ,berlin1 the leading spirit of which 7,disraeli7 was of the ,jewish race1 demanded equal rights for the ,jews living in the ,balkan ,peninsula4 ,these rights were accorded by the various states there1 with the exception of ,roumania2 which1 in spite of the treaty and in spite of the promises made at the time1 still continues to refuse to allow the ,jews living within its borders to become citizens or to treat them as an integral part of the population4 ,in ,turkey the laws which put certain restrictions upon non-,mohammedan citizens were sensibly changed in #ahci2 so that the ,jews living in the dominions of the ,sultan suffer from no exceptional legislation4 ,the cause of ,jewish emancipation in ,england suffered no such sudden changes as it did on the continent4 ,it proceeded by regular stages through the abrogation of the ,act of ,test in #ahbh1 the admission of ,jews as citizens of ,london in #ahcj1 as sheriffs in #ahce1 as magistrates in #ahde1 and in #aheh as members of ,parliament by the removal of the words 8upon the faith of a ,christian0 in the oath taken by the members4 ,there can be no doubt that the emancipation in ,england1 though long drawn out and fiercely contested1 was more effective than anywhere else1 owing to the fact that it was progressive in character and based upon the idea of rights demanded and not upon that of favors granted4 ,nothing was asked of the ,jews in ,england other than that they be good citizens of the state2 while the whole continental legislation regarding them1 from the time of ,napoleon on1 had on the part of the legislators only one object in view--to break up the cohesion of the ,jews as a body and to pave the way for their disappearance as a distinctive group4 ,the idea that emancipation was a favor and not a right brought it about that the ,jews themselves aided in their own disintegration4 ,they believed that it was their duty to show themselves more patriotic than were the other citizens of the state in which they lived1 as they were receiving greater favors4 ,and so1 even though ,jews have sat in the parliaments of various continental states1 they have with few exceptions steadfastly refused to acknowledge themselves to be in any way representatives of their brethren1 and in some cases 7notably in ,france7 during the last few years have either remained supinely indifferent when ,jewish questions were before their several parliaments1 or have even aided those whose agitation was directed against their fellow-,jews4 ,in ,england1 on the contrary1 the ,jewish members of ,parliament have never forgotten that1 in addition to their interests as citizens of ,england1 they have a duty to perform to the ,jews1 whom they also represent1 and they have therefore been able1 while giving their best services to the state1 to be also useful to their co-religionists4 ,it may be due to this cause that the emancipation of ,jews on the continent has in no way been able to stem the recrudescence of anti-,semitism2 while it has undoubtedly done this in ,england4 ,the opposite effect is most clearly seen in ,algiers1 where the wholesale emancipation of the ,jews in #ahgj1 through the efforts of ,crmieux1 that bold champion of his people1 has in a large measure contributed to make the riots possible which have in late years been witnessed in that ,french colony4 ,neither the population of ,algeria nor the ,jews there were at that time ready for such a measure2 it did not therefore come as the result of a development among the people1 but as something imposed upon them by the government4 ,in addition to ,roumania1 ,russia is practically the only country which has refused to enter the ,european concert1 and which by means of laws and ordinances represents still the dark period of the ,middle ,ages4 ,it has turned the provinces on its western borders into a tremendous ,ghetto1 and driven the ,jews to exile by making life within that pale practically impossible4 ,even ,portugal in #ahba1 and ,spain in #ahfh 7the two countries from which the ,jews had been banished for a great number of years71 opened their doors to them once more2 though few ,jews have ventured to return to the ,peninsula1 despite the fact that in #ahhf a committee was formed in ,madrid for the promotion of ,jewish immigration into ,spain4 ,,the ,,wandering ,,jew ,the ,wandering ,jew is not the ,jew of legend1 but the ,jewish people of history4 ,the dislocation of large ,jewish bodies1 which was characteristic of the ,middle ,ages1 has been kept up during the nineteenth century2 and this dislocation has1 as in former times1 profoundly modified ,judaism in the various countries4 ,from the fifteenth century on to the nineteenth1 hostile legislation on the part of ,western ,europe had been continually driving the ,jews to the ,east4 ,the expulsion from ,spain and ,portugal1 at the end of the fifteenth century1 forced several hundred thousand into ,turkey2 while the hardships which they had to suffer in the smaller ,german states and in ,austria caused large numbers to seek a refuge in ,poland and ,russia4 ,the tide commenced to turn westward about the middle of the eighteenth century1 though bands of ,jews from ,poland had been driven into ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,holland in the terrible years of the ,chmelnicki persecutions 7#afdh-afea74 ,the readmission of ,jews into ,england1 the relative kindness of ,frederick ,william of ,prussia and of ,frederick the ,great1 aided a certain slow but continuous infiltration from ,poland1 so that at the end of the eighteenth or the first half of the nineteenth century these ,polish ,jews were to be found in all parts of ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,england4 ,this slow migration back again to ,western ,europe took on1 however1 much larger proportions in the latter part of the nineteenth century2 but before this could happen a strong movement still farther westward had already taken place4 ,jews were among the earliest settlers on the ,american continent4 ,they were in nearly every case of ,spanish or ,portuguese descent1 having come from ,holland and ,england to the possessions which these powers held on the new continent4 ,in the middle of the nineteenth century1 when the tide of immigration from ,germany was at its height1 a large number of ,jews from the southern states and the ,rhine region found their way to these shores4 ,the ,russian atrocities of #ahhb and the following years caused a greater shifting of the ,jewish population westward than can be paralleled at any previous time4 ,it has been estimated that between the years #ahhb and #aijj fully one million ,russian ,jews left their homes in the pale of settlement1 finding new dwelling-places in ,england1 ,germany1 and ,france4 ,the largest number 7probably half a million7 came to the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,untoward economic conditions existing in ,galicia1 and the frequent outbreaks of anti-,semitism there1 forced out during the #ij's a large number of ,galician ,jews2 and in #ahii and #aijj the hostility of the ,roumanian government has made it impossible for thousands of ,jews to remain in a country in which most of them had been born2 and1 under circumstances the like of which has hardly ever before been seen1 bands of the ,roumanian ,jews have been wandering over ,europe1 seeking the means by which to come to the ,american continent in order there to establish themselves anew4 ,there are between ten and eleven million ,jews to-day in the world3 of these1 about nine million live in ,europe2 one million in the ,united ,states and ,canada2 three hundred and fifty thousand in ,africa2 three hundred and fifty thousand in ,asia2 and sixteen thousand in ,australasia4 ,,communal ,,organization ,all these changed circumstances variously modified the organization of the ,jewish communities4 ,napoleon's attempt in #ahjg1 as the result of the ,sanhedrin which he had convened in ,paris1 to found this organization upon a modern basis1 dividing the ,jews of ,france into certain consistories and arrondissements1 had an effect not only upon ,france1 but also upon those countries which for a time were under his influence 7,holland1 ,belgium1 etc471 and even upon many of the ,german states4 ,in #ahjh such consistories were established in ,westphalia and ,cassel2 in #ahji1 an ,oberrath was created in ,baden2 and in #ahbh and #ahca an ,oberkirchenbehoerde in ,wrtemberg4 ,it was due also to ,napoleon that in ,france and ,germany the ,jews were obliged to adopt family names1 they having1 in most cases1 still retained the ,oriental custom of simply adding to their own prnomen that of their father4 ,prussia was the only one of the ,german states which was not so affected4 ,there the state exercises a supervisory influence1 compelling all the ,jews to be members of the ,jewish community1 but in no way further regulating the communal life4 ,when the ,reform tendencies commenced to make themselves felt in the larger ,jewish communities1 the ,orthodox members safeguarded their own interests by making use of the law passed in #ahgc1 mainly through the efforts of the ,jew ,lasker1 which enabled the people to declare themselves 8confessionslos0 and form their own synagogues1 thus nearing in a measure the system followed in ,english-speaking countries4 ,in ,england and ,america no such organization was effected1 as the state does not there take cognizance of the religious belief of the people4 ,in both these countries attempts have been made by the ,jews themselves to organize under one head upon a purely religious basis1 but without much success4 ,in ,france there is a ,chief ,rabbi of the ,jews who is recognized by the state as their rabbi and head4 ,but the ,chief ,rabbi of the ,jews in the ,british ,empire1 though he is nominally the head of the ,jews in the kingdom1 has no actual position as such1 and is even not recognized by certain schools of ,jews themselves4 ,the ,sefardim1 or descendants of ,spanish and ,portuguese ,jews1 have always kept themselves distinct1 and have their own ,chief ,rabbi1 or ,haham4 ,in the year #ahdj1 the more liberal-minded element among the ,london ,jews cut themselves loose from the ,united ,synagogue and formed a ,reform party1 their example being followed in ,manchester and ,bradford4 ,neither they nor the recent immigrants from ,russia1 who have formed their own 8,federation of ,synagogues0 recognize the authority of the ,chief ,rabbi4 ,this more congregational system has been carried to its utmost limits in the ,united ,states1 where each congregation is a law unto itself and absolutely rejects any interference on the part of any larger body4 ,from time to time a desire has been manifested to supersede this purely congregational system by some form of union4 ,the late ,dr4 ,isaac ,m4 ,wise1 of ,cincinnati1 had at various times attempted to bring the ,jews of the ,united ,states together with an authoritative synod at their head4 ,out of this and other attempts have come the ,central ,conference of ,american ,rabbis and ,the ,union of ,american ,congregations 7founded in #ahgc71 which now comprises about ninety-one congregations4 ,these organizations1 however1 do not by any means represent either all of the ,jewish ministers or all of the ,jewish congregations1 and the ,union itself is merely a deliberative body having no power to do anything in the internal affairs of one of its constituent synagogues4 ,since the union of ,american ,jewish congregations comprises only such as stand upon a ,reform platform1 a union of ,orthodox congregations was formed in ,new ,york two or three years ago1 and it is hoped that this organization will do much towards binding together the very many congregations of those who adhere strictly to traditional ,judaism4 ,but the organization of ,jews as a church has not been found sufficient4 ,spread over so large a portion of the earth and coming under such varying influences1 it was inevitable that the theological differences which already existed should grow apace1 and a great cleavage be made between the ,orthodox and the ,reform wing of the synagogue4 ,it was early felt that some more secular bond must be found which should unite the ,jews of various persuasions for common and concerted action4 ,the first attempt in this direction was nobly made by ,narcisse ,leven1 ,eugene ,emanuel1 ,charles ,netter1 and a few others1 in founding 7#ahhj7 the 8,alliance ,isralite ,universelle0 in ,paris1 whose object it was to aid in removing ,jewish disabilities wherever they might exist1 and to raise the spiritual condition of their coreligionists in ,northern ,africa1 ,eastern ,europe1 and ,western ,asia by the founding of schools4 ,from these small beginnings the ,alliance has grown to be an important factor in the conservation of ,jewish interests4 ,faithful to its programme1 it has established a large number of elementary and technical schools1 and has intervened actively in ,algeria1 ,morocco1 the ,turkish ,empire1 and ,persia whenever ,jews or ,jewish interests were in any way threatened4 ,its attempt1 however1 to represent the whole ,jewish people has not been successful2 for the reason that it has been allied too closely with ,french national interests2 and side by side with the 8,alliance ,franaise0 it has been an active propagandist of the ,french language and of ,french culture in the ,east4 ,this one-sidedness of its work is best seen in the fact that by its side similar organizations have been created in other countries1 8,the ,board of ,delegates of ,american ,israelites0 in the ,united ,states1 8,the ,anglo-,jewish ,association0 in ,england1 8,the ,israeli-tisch ,alliance0 in ,austria1 and the 8,deutsche ,gemeindebund0 in ,germany4 ,at one time it was hoped that the ,b'nai ,b'rith1 established in this country in #ahdc1 by ,isidor ,busch1 ,julius ,bien1 and others1 would form such a union of ,jews1 where the theological differences would be eliminated4 ,but though this order1 which has #cae lodges in1 the ,united ,states and ,canada1 has established itself in such countries as ,germany1 ,roumania1 ,austria1 ,algeria1 ,bulgaria1 and ,egypt1 and despite the good work it has so far done1 the mere fact that it is a secret organization prevents it from standing forth as the representative of international ,jewry4 ,where1 then1 and in what manner is such a body to be found8 ,,economic ,,conditions ,the economic condition of the ,jews in the large ,eastern ,european ,ghettos is1 naturally1 extremely bad4 ,huddled together1 either in certain districts of large towns or in villages where they form the greater part of the population1 they are compelled to live off and on each other4 ,crowded into certain walks of life by anti-,jewish legislation or anti-,jewish sentiment1 few of them can gain more than sufficient to keep body and soul together4 ,in ,galicia it has been estimated that five thousand ,jews perish every year from typhus-fever4 ,the ,jewish wax-miners in ,boryslav1 to take but one instance1 were forced out of the mines and reduced to utter starvation1 for no other reason but because they were ,jews4 ,the failure of the harvests in ,southern ,russia during the last few years has reduced the wage-earners in that part of the country to the position of dependants upon the charity of others2 but the ,jews who live there in such large numbers do not even benefit from the assistance sent by the government4 ,similar conditions prevail almost continually in the rest of the ,russian pale and in ,roumania4 ,the standard of life has naturally been lowered among these people and their general morale has not come out of the trial unscathed4 ,nor must it be forgotten that the violent dislocation of hundreds of thousands of people1 such as has taken place among the ,jews during the last quarter of the nineteenth century1 has naturally disturbed existing economic conditions1 not only among the ,jews themselves1 but also among those into whose midst they came4 ,these outcasts from ,eastern ,europe did not come to virgin soil as did the ,pilgrim ,fathers1 but to cities and towns which were already filled with a proletariat engaged in the eager fight for life4 ,the ,jews of ,berlin1 ,paris1 ,london1 and ,new ,york1 had their hands full with the proper care of the needy ones already in their midst4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that the ,jews as a people are rich4 ,the proletariat among them is proportionately much larger than it is among other people2 and thus it came about that the ,jewish quarters in all the large cities were already well filled when they were 7almost at a moment's notice7 called upon to receive double or triple the number they already held4 ,the actual number of the ,jewish poor was thereby greatly increased2 for many a family that had been wealthy or in easy circumstances in ,russia1 ,galicia1 or ,roumania1 had been reduced to want and been compelled to take its place among those who needed the help of their brethren4 ,this help was freely and cheerfully given all the world over4 ,great sacrifices were made by the richer ,jews to meet the pressing needs of the hour1 and1 with no help from the outside world1 excepting the ,london ,mansion ,house ,fund in #ahhb1 the thousands and tens of thousands of immigrants were cared for4 ,the ,jewish charitable organizations1 the development of which has been during the latter half of the nineteenth century the brightest spot in ,jewish communal life1 rose to the demands of the occasion1 and the more than princely munificence of ,baron and ,baroness ,maurice de ,hirsch1 in regard to the ,russian ,jews1 may justly be looked upon with pride4 ,new ,ghettos1 however1 were formed in nearly all the cities to which these immigrants came2 and this name for the habitat of the poorer ,jews became again familiar1 aided by the popularity which some modern novelists had given to it4 ,in the ,middle ,ages and down to our own time the ,jews had been forced by the state to live apart in such ,ghettos2 sometimes for their own protection1 sometimes to preserve the outside world from contact with them4 ,the modern ,ghetto is a voluntary gathering of the ,jews for the purpose of mutual help and from a feeling of reciprocal obligations4 ,to the outside observer it presents an unsightly appearance2 it is the abode of poor people1 and its population is usually strange in dress1 manners1 and speech4 ,the sweating system 7which in one form or another is to be found in all these ,ghettos7 has been a dreadful incentive towards grinding the face of the poor2 and the results of too great a hoarding are often quite apparent2 so that the general morality of the ,jews in these ,ghettos has suffered in consequence4 ,a people ignorant of the language of their new home are a prey to the evil-intended1 who make use of their ignorance for their own commercial and political advancement4 ,this has been notably seen in the city of ,new ,york1 where a lax city government has permitted the vampires of society to fasten their fangs upon the ,ghetto and to produce conditions which call for the active interference of all those forces which seek to stamp out crime and vice4 ,but1 on the other hand1 to one who is acquainted with the inner life of the ,ghetto the virtues which have hitherto characterized the ,jews--industry and sobriety--are still to be found there2 much more frequently than in those parts where the richer classes congregate1 and whose wealth enables them to withdraw their doings from the public gaze4 ,its members are as industrious as bees in a hive2 and though extremely litigatious1 drunkenness is unknown and actual crime is comparatively rare4 ,in order to correct the abuses of the ,ghetto1 two things are absolutely necessary--the increase of the actual number of ,jews there must be stopped1 and the crowding into certain distinct fields of work must be brought to an end4 ,a determined effort has already been made to force the new immigrants into less crowded parts of the land to which they come4 ,in this country this is being done by the ,united ,hebrew ,charities1 and notably by the ,b'nai ,b'rith4 ,a distinct clannish feeling has1 however1 to be overcome1 and a fear of venturing into an unknown country where the immigrant will be surrounded by people who do not understand his peculiar social and religious customs4 ,that the ,jew has taken by preference to certain branches of trade and work is due to the fact that anti-,jewish legislation has for centuries closed many walks of life to him1 and the guild organization excluded him rigorously from many spheres of activity4 ,then1 too1 his richly developed home life has induced a certain distaste for occupations which take the wage-earner out of his home and away from his family4 ,that1 however1 these inherited instincts can easily be overcome is clearly seen whenever the occasion offers4 ,even in ,amsterdam1 where three-fourths of the diamond industry is in the hands of ,jews1 there are to be found ,jewish cobblers1 cigar-makers1 plumbers1 carpet-weavers1 mattress-makers1 watch-makers1 etc4 ,in the ,east ,end of ,london there are1 it is true1 ten thousand ,jews who are engaged in the clothes-making trades1 but the rest of the forty thousand ,jewish wage-earners of this quarter are scattered over all possible branches of work--masonry1 metal-working1 textile industries1 furniture-making1 cap-making1 and the like4 ,the same is true of ,new ,york1 where1 although the number of ,jews employed in the tailoring industries is disproportionately large1 the following list of ,hebrew unions shows how far afield the ,jewish workman has gone3 ,cap-,makers1 ,cap-,blockers1 ,shirt-,makers1 ,mattress-,makers1 ,purse-,makers1 ,liberty ,musical ,union1 ,jewish ,chorus ,union1 ,jewellers' ,union1 ,tin-,smithers' ,union1 ,bill-,posters1 ,waiters' ,alliance1 ,architectural ,ironworkers1 ,hebrew ,typographical ,union1 ,tobacco ,cutters1 ,paper-,makers1 ,bookbinders4 ,the same is relatively true of all other countries where ,jews live in large numbers4 ,it is a popular misconception that the ,jew has an innate distaste for agriculture4 ,his continued commercial life1 forced upon him for many centuries1 has1 it is true1 disaccustomed the ,jew to the life of a tiller of the soil4 ,but the ,jewish state was largely an agricultural one2 the legislation of the ,bible and the later ,law ,books was clearly intended for an agricultural people2 and ,jews have never shown an unwillingness to return again to the soil4 ,in ,southern ,russia there are to-day #bbe ,jewish colonies with a population of #ajj1jjj4 ,in ,palestine there are now more than twenty colonies with a population of more than #ejjj1 and similar agricultural colonies have been established at various times in the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 and the ,argentine ,republic4 ,in many cases1 it is true1 these colonies have not yet become self-supporting1 but this has been due in a large measure to maladministration and to the peculiar conditions under which the colonies were founded4 ,it cannot be denied that a goodly part of the ,jewish proletariat belongs to the ,socialist party4 ,the whole ,biblical system is in itself not without a ,socialist tinge2 and the two great founders of the modern system1 ,lasalle and ,marx1 were ,jews4 ,it is no wonder that in ,russia many of the leading anarchists were of the ,jewish race1 for the ,jew suffered there from the evils which ,nihilism was intended to correct ten times more than did his fellow-,russian4 ,but the ,jew is by nature peace-loving2 and under more favorable circumstances1 and with the opportunity of a greater development of his faculties1 ,socialism in his midst has no very active life2 the ,jew very soon becoming an ardent partisan of the existing state of affairs4 ,,internal ,,religious ,,development ,the facility with which the ,jews attach themselves to changed circumstances stands out characteristically through their whole history4 ,it might1 indeed1 be said with some show of truth that this pliability is the weak side in the ,jewish character4 ,the readiness of the ,jew to be almost anything and not simply his own self has been one of the factors producing a certain ill will against him4 ,disraeli was the most jingo of all imperialists in ,england2 ,lasker1 the most ardent advocate of the newly constituted ,german ,empire4 ,this pliability is the result of the wandering life he has led and the various civilizations of which he has been a part4 ,he had to find his way into ,hellenism in ,alexandria1 into ,moorish culture in ,spain1 into ,slavism in ,russia and ,poland4 ,when the first wave of the modern spirit commenced to break from ,france eastward over the whole of ,europe1 it reached the ,jew also4 ,while in ,france the new spirit was largely political1 in ,germany it was more spiritual4 ,in its political form as well as in its spiritual form it reacted not only upon the political condition of the ,jew1 but especially upon his mental attitude4 ,the new spirit was intensely modern1 intensely cosmopolitan1 intensely ,occidental1 and intensely inductive4 ,the ,jew had preserved to a great degree his deductive1 ,oriental1 particularistic1 and ancient mode of thought and aspect of life4 ,the two forces were bound to meet4 ,as a great oak is met by the storm1 so was ,israel set upon by the fury of this terrible onslaught4 ,it is of interest to see in what manner he emerged from this storm--whether he has been able to bend to its fury1 to lose perhaps some of his leaves and even some of his branches1 but to change only in such a way as to be able to stand upright again when the storm is past4 ,this great clash of ideas has produced what is known as the ,reform movement4 ,it had its origin in ,germany under the spiritual influences of the regeneration of ,german letters produced by such men as ,goethe1 ,schiller1 ,herder1 ,lessing1 and ,mendelssohn4 ,it was aided in a large measure by the fact that the government in ,germany1 although distinctly opposed to anything which militates against the established order of things1 mixes itself very seldom in the internal affairs of the ,jewish communities4 ,this ,reform movement has colored the religious development of ,judaism during the three-quarters of the century which is past4 ,the heat of the controversy is now wellnigh spent4 ,many of those who stood in the front ranks have passed away1 so that a more just estimate of its value can be reached4 ,it was a period of tremendous upheavals1 of great physical as well as mental pain4 ,many a congregation was split in twain1 many a family disrupted4 ,at one time it looked as if two distinct bodies of ,jews would emerge from the struggle1 and the union of ,israel be destroyed forever4 ,a common enemy--anti-,semitism--joined the two forces together for a common defence2 and the danger of such a split is now fairly a thing of the past4 ,the latter half of the eighteenth century found the ,jews of ,middle ,europe at the lowest intellectual and social point they had up till then reached4 ,the effect of the long ,jewish ,middle ,ages was plainly visible4 ,few great minds lit up the darkness1 and an intellectual torpor seems to have spread its pall over everything4 ,a passive uniformity of practice prevailed in all the communities1 whether ,sefardic 7,spanish and ,portuguese7 or ,ashkenazic 7,german and ,polish72 a uniformity1 because actual intellectual life had been made to run in one single groove4 ,the ,talmud had been the great saving of ,judaism in the past4 ,in the intellectual exercise which its study necessitated1 the mind of the ,jew had been given a field in which it could rove at will4 ,living apart from the rest of the world1 with a wide jurisdiction over his own affairs1 ,talmudic law in its latest development was still the law supreme for the ,jew4 ,the ,jewish ,ghetto had everywhere the same aspect2 the language in common use was1 in all the ,ashkenazic communities1 the ,judo-,german in one of its various forms4 ,a certain severity in evaluating those things which were part of the outside world made itself felt4 ,there was ample time and ample occasion for the practice of all those forms and ceremonies with which the ,judaism of the ,middle ,ages had willingly and gladly fenced in the law4 ,there had been little occasion for the practice of the beautiful arts or for the cultivation of letters4 ,life in the ,ghetto was not necessarily gloomy1 but it was solemn4 ,the law was not felt as a burden1 but it required the whole individual attention of those who bound themselves by it1 from early morn till late at night1 from the cradle to the grave4 ,there was no place for things that come from outside1 because there was no time to devote to them4 ,but the new ,european spirit in its ,french political form was knocking hard at the gates of the ,ghetto4 ,little by little it made its way here and there1 into all sorts of nooks and corners4 ,it was bound in time to be heard by some of those living behind these gates4 ,the name of ,moses ,mendelssohn is indissolubly connected with the history of ,german ,judaism during the latter part of the eighteenth century4 ,it was due to him that a vehicle was found which the new spirit could use4 ,himself a strictly observant ,jew1 he felt the pulse of the new era4 ,the friend of ,lessing and of ,nicolai1 he entered fully into the revival which was then making itself felt4 ,through his translation of the ,pentateuch 7#aggh1 etc47 into ,high-,german1 he prepared the way for the further introduction of ,german writings to the ,jewish masses4 ,this was bound to bring with it a larger culture and a greater freedom of thought4 ,many of his friends1 such as ,wessely1 ,hertz-,homberg1 and ,david ,friedlander1 stood by his side in this work4 ,with the introduction of the ,german language and ,german literature1 better and more modern schools were needed in which secular education should go hand in hand with the former one-sided religious training4 ,david ,friedlander was the first to found a school in the modern sense of the term2 and he was followed by ,jacobson in #ahja1 at ,seesen1 ,westphalia1 and at ,cassel1 and by ,johlson1 at ,frankfort1 in #ahad4 ,between the years #aghc and #ahjg such modern ,jewish schools arose in ,germany1 ,austria1 ,denmark1 ,france1 and even in ,poland4 ,literature was cultivated1 and the first ,jewish journal 7though still in ,hebrew7 was published in ,knigsberg1 #aghc 7,hameassef--the ,collector74 ,the ,gesellschaft der ,freunde1 founded in ,berlin in #agib1 was distinctly intended for the spread of this modern culture2 yet ,mendelssohn's own position was quite an untenable one4 ,he was a thoroughly ,orthodox ,jew in practice1 but his mental attitude was that of a modern ,german4 ,he was and he was not a reformer4 ,he held that it mattered little what philosophical position a ,jew held1 the ,jew must observe all the ceremonies connected with the faith2 these were binding upon him by the mere fact of his having been born into the ,covenant4 ,it is therefore no wonder that his translation was put under the bann in ,hamburg1 ,altona1 ,fuerth1 ,posen1 etc4 ,his friend ,friedlander wished to make of the synagogue a sort of ,ethical ,culture ,society2 and ,jacobson's preaching in ,berlin contained very little of what was distinctly ,jewish4 ,the salons of ,berlin1 ,knigsberg1 and ,vienna1 which were presided over by brilliant women1 who were more or less immediate disciples of ,mendelssohn1 nurtured the cosmopolitan spirit which was bound to be destructive of practical ,judaism4 ,that this fruit on the ,tree of ,knowledge ripened too quickly is seen from the fact that all the descendants of ,mendelssohn1 ,friedlander1 and others1 led astray by this cosmopolitan spirit and the philosophic presentation of ,christianity by ,schleiermacher1 have all become devoted members of the ,lutheran ,church and have been completely lost to ,judaism4 ,it was natural that these new influences should influence also the training of the modern rabbis4 ,secular education had been introduced into primary schools1 and in some places--as1 for instance1 ,lombardy1 in #ahbj--the government demanded a certain amount of secular knowledge from the candidates for rabbinical positions4 ,the ,jew also desired that his leaders should have the same training as he gave his children1 that they should be educated in the same atmosphere in which he himself had grown up4 ,the old rabbinical seminaries1 or ,yeshibot1 in which the instruction was entirely on ,talmudic lines1 had already run their course2 the study had been found insufficient by the pupils themselves1 and the schools of ,frankfort1 ,fuerth1 ,metz1 ,hamburg1 and ,halberstadt had all been closed for want of students4 ,the need of a modern seminary was felt quite early during the century2 and in #ahji1 a ,lehrer-,seminar was founded in ,cassel4 ,the earliest regular seminary for the training of rabbis1 however1 was founded in ,padua in #ahbi4 ,in ,germany attempts had been made in the year #ahdj1 but these attempts were unsuccessful4 ,the first modern seminary was not founded in ,germany until the year #ahed 7,breslau74 ,then followed ,berlin1 in #ahgb2 ,cincinnati1 in #ahgc2 ,budapest1 in #ahgf4 ,similar institutions exist now in ,london1 ,paris1 and ,vienna4 ,in the first convulsions of the ,mendelssohn period the way was paved for the second period of the ,reform movement which covers the first quarter of the nineteenth century4 ,the real issues touched the central point of ,jewish life1 the synagogue4 ,it is interesting to note that during this period the chief questions were not so much theological as sthetic4 ,the sthetic side of life could not be largely cultivated in the ,ghetto2 and the form of the service had greatly degenerated4 ,in the course of centuries1 so many additional prayers and songs and hymns had been added that the ritual was largely overburdened1 and often tended rather to stifle than bring out the religious sense they were intended to conserve4 ,contact with the outside world created and fostered this sthetic sense1 and the influences of the writings of such men as ,lessing and ,mendelssohn was largely in this direction4 ,as this sthetic sense made its way into the homes1 so also did it carve out its way into the synagogue4 ,demands were heard for a shorter service2 for the organ to accompany the chanting of the reader2 for the ,german language in some of the prayers and for the ,german sermon4 ,each point was bitterly contested2 for the ,orthodox wing had before it the wholesale apostasy of the ,salon ,jews4 ,in order to introduce the vernacular into the service and into the sermon1 private synagogues were opened by small coteries in ,cassel 7#ahji71 ,seesen 7#ahaj71 ,dessau 7#ahab71 and ,berlin 7#ahae74 ,in ,southern ,germany the use of the vernacular was introduced between the years #ahag and #ahah1 also in ,hungary through the influence of ,abraham ,chorin4 ,in some countries the government gave its active aid4 ,in ,vienna1 in #ahbj1 ,german was made obligatory1 and as early as #ahad ,danish in ,copenhagen4 ,the greatest changes1 however1 were made in the ,hamburg temple 7under ,kley and ,salomon1 #ahah71 where not only the service was made more sthetic and the ,german language introduced1 but certain prayers referring to the ,messianic time were either omitted or altered4 ,no wonder1 then1 that the ,orthodox rabbis in ,germany1 with the support of the rabbis in various other countries1 protested against such a course4 ,the government even looked askance at these ,reform proceedings1 and in #ahag and #ahbc ordered a number of these private synagogues to be closed4 ,a further cause for displeasure was the introduction in #ahad of the confirmation of children in ,german1 to replace or supplement the old ,barmitzvah1 a clear imitation of the ceremony in the ,protestant ,church of ,germany4 ,despite opposition1 however1 the confirmation found its way into ,berlin1 ,hamburg1 ,frankfort1 ,cassel1 ,copenhagen1 etc4 ,this sthetic revolution in the synagogue could not1 however1 long remain the only outward sign of the new life4 ,the great weakness of the ,reform movement has been that it has lacked a philosophic basis2 and1 as in its first beginnings1 with the exception of ,hamburg1 it took little note of the changed point of view from which those who fought for reform looked at the old theological ideas4 sthetic reform was the work largely of individual persons and individual congregations4 ,no attempt had been made either to formulate the philosophic basis upon which the reform stood1 or to provide a body which should regulate the form which the new order of things was to take on4 ,two attempts were made to remedy these evils1 both closely related one to the other4 ,the first was crystallized in what is now known as the 8,science of ,judaism02 by which is meant the untrammelled1 scientific investigation of the past history of the ,jews4 ,the want of this was severely felt just in those centres where reform had taken up its abode2 and those who assisted at its birth did so with the avowed purpose of getting at the real kernel of ,judaism by such investigation1 and of freeing that kernel from the accretions of ages4 ,they saw also that some means had to be found by which the result of these researches could be brought before the people4 ,the ,mendelssohn period had also felt this2 but its organ had been written in ,hebrew1 and could not1 therefore1 appeal to those who wished for the intellectual advancement of the ,jews upon modern lines4 ,the ,society for ,culture and the ,science of ,judaism in ,berlin 7founded #ahai7 started a journal1 with ,l4 ,zunz as editor4 ,though it only lived during the years #ahbb and #ahbc1 it was the forerunner and the model for many of its kind that followed after4 ,in #ahce appeared ,geiger's ,scientific ,journal for ,jewish ,theology1 and in #ahcg a regular weekly was established by ,l4 ,philippson1 the ,allgemeine ,zeitung des ,judenthums4 ,around these and other journals which quickly sprang up there gathered a coterie of historians1 philologists1 and students of literature which in the fifty years between #ahcj and #ahhj has built up a science which has extended its investigations into every corner of ,jewish life in the past1 and has followed to their sources the various lines of development which have appeared from time to time4 ,a full estimate of what has been done will be apparent only when the great ,jewish ,encyclopdia will be ready which is now in course of publication in ,new ,york4 ,zunz1 ,geiger1 ,krochmal1 ,rapoport1 ,frankel1 ,lw1 ,steinschneider1 ,graetz1 ,luzzatto1 and ,reggio are only a few of the names of those who gave up their lives to this work4 ,most of the early labor of these men was not dry-as-dust investigation pure and simple1 but was intended to have a bearing upon the actual life1 upon the burning questions which were then agitating ,jewish thought4 ,this is clearly seen in the journal of which ,zunz was editor1 and in his ,gottesdienstliche ,vortraege1 the basis of nearly all the work done after him1 but which was evidently written to give the history of preaching in the synagogue in order to justify the shortening of the ritual and the introduction of the ,german sermon4 ,the second attempt was to found or create some central body which would remove the purely personal element out of the ,reform movement4 ,in #ahcg ,geiger had called his friends to a conference at ,wiesbaden for the purpose of formulating what they considered to be the essence of ,judaism4 ,in #ahdd a second such rabbinical conference was held in ,brunswick1 largely at the suggestion of ,l4 ,philippson4 ,similar conferences were held at ,frankfort in #ahde1 and at ,breslau in #ahdf2 for in the mean time the ,reform ,genossenschaft had been created at ,berlin1 which went beyond all previous attempts and demanded some positive statement of the theological position which it and its friends occupied4 ,the ,frankfort assembly not proving satisfactory1 the ,berlin society went ahead to establish its own synagogue2 added a ,sunday service 7which in a short while became the only service71 and under the guidance of ,s4 ,holdheim definitely broke with traditional ,judaism1 removing nearly all the ,hebrew from its service1 abbreviating the prayer-book still further1 and diminishing the number of observances4 ,in ,europe this ,reform synagogue in ,berlin has gone to the furthest extreme2 and though it has in a measure kept its members within the pale of ,judaism1 it has neither been a great power nor has it found imitators4 ,the hope was generally expressed that a more general synod would be held1 to which the previous conferences were looked upon as simply preparatory4 ,the year #ahdh1 however1 put a stop to all normal development2 and it was only after a number of years that the question was again taken up4 ,in #ahfi a synod was1 indeed1 held at ,leipsic1 attended by eighty-one members2 and in #ahga at ,augsburg1 attended by fifty-two1 both under the presidency of ,prof4 ,m4 ,lazarus4 ,these synods dealt1 in a spirit of moderate reform1 with questions relating to the ritual1 synagogue observance1 the admission of proselytes1 etc4 ,the general stand there taken would to-day be looked upon as conservative2 dogmatic questions were hardly touched upon excepting so far as they recognized the principle of development in ,judaism both as a religious belief and as a form of religious exercise4 ,it was fondly hoped that these synods would become a court1 which would define and regulate whatever questions might arise4 ,but it was not to be4 ,the synod represented only a part of the ,jewish world even in ,germany4 ,not only did the large body of the ,orthodox stand aside1 but even the so-called ,conservatives left the conferences1 as they could not agree with some of the resolutions accepted there4 ,in addition to this1 the ,franco-,prussian war diverted the attention of all ,german citizens2 and ten years later the anti-,semitic movement succeeded in driving the ,jew back into himself4 ,jewish religious life in ,germany has therefore remained stationary since that time1 the ,orthodox and ,conservative parties being largely in the ascendant1 leaving to another land--,america--the task of carrying further the work which it had commenced4 ,yet1 in spite of this arrested development1 the ,reform movement has had a great influence also upon ,orthodox ,jews in ,germany4 ,it produced the so-called historical school1 which has the ,breslau ,theological ,seminary for its centre2 and it called forth by way of opposition the neo-orthodoxy of ,s4 ,r4 ,hirsch1 of ,frankfort1 which seeks rather to understand the depths of the law than simply to follow it in compliant obedience4 ,the sthetic movement of the earlier period has also left its traces1 and especially in the ,conservative congregation has succeeded in introducing a service more in consonance with our modern ideas of worship4 ,in #ahdj1 under the influence of the movement in ,germany1 the attempt was made to introduce a certain reform in the service of some of the ,london synagogues4 ,the measure demanded was exceedingly small--the shortening of a few prayers and the omission of others1 which were not supposed to be in consonance with present ideas4 ,the ,orthodox party did not1 however1 see its way to grant these requests2 and1 when the ,reformers protested1 established their own synagogue1 and issued their own prayer-book1 they were immediately placed under the bann both by the ,sefardim and the ,ashkenazim4 ,this congregation has not been of much importance1 and since its inception has made no further changes4 ,compared with the ,reform in ,america1 the ,english movement would still be classed as thoroughly conservative4 ,it was in the ,united ,states that the ,reform movement developed its full capacity and bore its most perfect fruit4 ,in a new land1 which was untrammelled by traditions of the past1 and where the congregational system became the basis of ,jewish communal life1 the ideas which the ,german ,reformers had sown had a most fruitful ground in which to grow4 ,it cannot be said that the ,reform movement here was actually started by the ,germans1 for already1 in #ahbe1 one of the congregations in ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina1 made up almost entirely of ,sefardic ,jews1 had developed 8,the ,reformed ,society of ,israelites02 and the formation of the society seems to have been due1 not only to the demand for an sthetic service1 but to an attempt to formulate a creed which should omit all reference to the coming of the ,messiah1 the return to ,palestine1 and the bodily resurrection4 ,this attempt at formulating a ,theistic ,church1 however1 was unsuccessful2 and it was not until the advent from ,germany in the #ej's and #fj's of rabbis who had been influenced by the movement in ,germany that reform commenced to make itself felt here4 ,merzbacher in ,new ,york1 ,isaac ,m4 ,wise in ,albany and ,cincinnati1 ,s4 ,hirsch in ,philadelphia1 ,david ,einhorn in ,baltimore1 are only a few of the names of those who fought in the thick of the fight4 ,about the year #ahdc the first real ,reform congregations were established1 the ,temple ,emanu-el in ,new ,york and ,har ,sinai in ,baltimore4 ,it cannot be my purpose here to trace the history of the movement in this country2 suffice it to say that the untrammelled freedom which existed here very soon played havoc with most of the institutions of the ,jewish religion4 ,each congregation and each minister being a law to itself1 shortened the service1 excised prayers1 and did away with observances as it thought best4 ,not that the leaders did not try1 from time to time1 to regulate the measure of reform to be introduced1 and to evolve a platform upon which the movement should stand4 ,rabbinical conferences were held for that purpose in ,cleveland 7#ahef71 ,philadelphia 7#ahfi71 ,cincinnati 7#ahga71 and ,pittsburg 7#ahhe74 ,while in the earlier conferences the attempt was made to find some authoritative statement upon which all parties could agree1 in the subsequent ones the attempt was given up4 ,they became more and more meeting-places simply for the advanced ,reform wing of the ,jewish ,church4 ,the position of this wing of the ,reformed synagogue may best be seen in the declaration of principles which was published by the ,pittsburg conference4 ,it declared that ,judaism presents the highest conception of the ,god idea2 that the ,bible contains the record of the consecration of the ,jewish people2 that it is a potent instrument of religious and moral instruction2 that it reveals1 however1 the primitive ideas of its own age2 that its moral laws only are binding2 and that all ceremonies therein ordained which are not adapted to the views and habits of modern civilization are to be rejected2 that all ,mosaic and rabbinical laws regulating diet1 priestly functions and dress1 are foreign to our present mental state2 that the ,jews are no longer a nation1 and therefore do not expect a return to ,palestine2 that ,judaism is a progressive religion1 always striving to be in accord with the postulates of reason2 that the belief in bodily resurrection1 in the existence of a hell and a paradise1 are to be rejected2 and that it is the duty of ,jews to participate in the great task of modern times to solve on the basis of justice and righteousness the problems presented by the transitions and evils of the present organization of society4 ,such a platform as this could not fail to arouse intense opposition on the part of the ,orthodox ,jews1 and to lose for the conference even some of its more conservative adherents4 ,as in ,charleston1 in #ahbe1 a platform of ,theism was here postulated1 which was bereft of all distinctively ,jewish characteristics1 and which practically meant a breaking away from historic ,judaism4 ,this position of the advanced ,reformers is also manifested in the stand which they have taken in regard to the necessity of the ,abrahamic covenant4 ,at a meeting of the ,central ,conference of ,american 7,reformed7 ,rabbis1 held at ,baltimore in #ahha1 a resolution was passed to the effect that no initiatory rite or ceremony was necessary in the case of one desiring to enter the ,covenant of ,israel1 and that such a one had merely to declare his or her intention to worship the one sole and eternal ,god1 to be conscientiously governed in life by ,god's laws1 and to adhere to the sacred cause and mission of ,israel as marked out in ,holy ,writ4 ,the service in ,reform synagogues in the ,united ,states has kept pace with this development of doctrine1 or rather with this sloughing-off of so much that is distinctively ,jewish4 ,the observance of the second-day festivals has been entirely abolished1 as well as the separation of the sexes and the covering of the head in prayer4 ,the ritual has been gradually shortened1 the ancient language of prayer 7,hebrew7 has been pushed further and further into the background1 so that in some congregations the service is altogether ,english2 and in a few congregations an additional service on ,sunday1 intended for those who cannot attend upon the regular ,sabbath-day1 has been introduced4 ,only one congregation1 ,sinai in ,chicago1 has followed the old ,berlin ,reform synagogue and has entirely abolished the service on ,friday night and ,saturday morning4 ,but whatever criticism one might like to offer on the ,reform movement in the ,united ,states1 it deserves great praise for the serious attempt it has made to understand its own position and to square its observance with that position4 ,it has also been most active in its modern institutional development4 ,it has certainly beautified and spiritualized the synagogue service2 it has founded a ,union of ,american ,hebrew ,congregations1 and a seminary 7,hebrew ,union ,college in ,cincinnati74 ,it has published a ,union ,prayer-book and a ,union ,hymn-book1 and has given great care to the development of the ,confirmation and the bettering of the ,sunday-school4 ,it has tried to make the synagogue a centre for the religious and spiritual development of its members2 and it cannot be denied that the very large mass of educated ,jews in this country1 in so far as they have any affiliation with the synagogue1 belong to the ,reform wing4 ,but at the same time1 it must not be forgotten that there is a very large body of ,orthodox and ,conservative ,jews1 whose number has been greatly increased during the last twenty years through the influx of ,russian1 ,galician1 and ,roumanian ,jews4 ,it would be outside of my province were ,i to attempt to criticise either the work or the results of ,reform ,judaism in this country4 ,but it is a question in the minds even of some of the leading ,reformers themselves how far success has been attained in developing the religious sentiment of their people in the direction of a pure ,theism uncolored by any ,jewish1 or1 as they call it1 ,oriental observances4 ,they themselves confess that the ,sunday-service movement has not developed as they had hoped it would1 and a number of them feel that in weakening the hold which specific ,jewish observances have always had on the ,jewish people1 they are doing away with one of the most powerful incentives to the rekindling of the religious flame among the ,reformed ,jews4 ,reform ,judaism without some centrifugal force is bound to continue on the road it has once taken4 ,the logical outcome of the principles formulated at the ,pittsburg conference is a gradual development into an ethical ,theism without any distinctive ,jewish coloring4 ,the leader of advanced ,reform ,judaism in this country has recently said that ,judaism must be recast along the lines of a universal ethical religion2 that then all distinctive ,jewish elements of the synagogue symbolism will pass away1 and that such a denationalized ,jewish temple will seek a closer alliance with ,unitarianism and ,theism1 and with them1 perhaps in a few decades1 will form a new ,church and a new religion for united humanity4 ,that such a tendency is inherent in ,reform ,judaism is seen also in the formation of the ,society of ,ethical ,culture in ,new ,york4 ,the leader of this movement is the son of a former prominent rabbi of the leading ,reform congregation in this country4 ,in seeking to bring out the underlying ethical principles of ,judaism1 he has gone entirely outside the pale of the ancient faith2 and the movement would not concern us here were it not that nearly all the members 7at least of the parent society in ,new ,york7 are ,jews1 whose evident desire it is not to be recognized as such1 at least so far as religious ceremonies and social affiliations are concerned4 ,the society does not even bear the name ,jewish1 but with a certain leaning towards liberal ,christianity tries to find a basis for the morality and ethics of the old synagogue outside the sphere of supernatural religion4 ,while the ,ethical ,culture ,society has been quite a power in certain lines of charitable and educational work1 it may reasonably be questioned whether it has any future as a form of ,church organization4 ,the inborn longing of man for some hold upon things which are supernatural will lead many of its members to seek satisfaction elsewhere4 ,that they will seek it in the ,jewish synagogue is hardly probable1 seeing how the racial and other ties have been broken or at least greatly loosened4 ,they or their children will glide rather into some form of the dominant ,church1 possibly1 in the swinging of the pendulum1 into some orthodox form of that ,church4 ,i cannot help quoting the words of an intelligent outside observer of the ,jewish question1 the ,right ,hon4 ,james ,bryce1 ,m4 ,p43 8,if ,judaism becomes merely ,theism1 there will be little to distinguish its professors from the persons1 now pretty numerous1 who1 while ,christian in name1 sit loose to ,christian doctrine4 ,the children of ,jewish theists will be almost as apt as the children of other theists to be caught up by the movement which carries the sons and daughters of evangelical ,anglicans and of ,nonconformists towards1 or all the way to1 the ,church of ,rome40 ,where1 then1 is this centrifugal force to be found1 which will hold together the various elements in ,israel1 no matter what their theological opinions may be8 ,,anti-,,semitism ,before attempting to answer this question1 a word must be said in regard to the anti-,semitic movement1 the recrudescence of which has so profoundly affected the ,jewish people during the last twenty years of the nineteenth century4 ,a word only1 because the facts are of too recent date to need a detailed statement here4 ,the great master-mind1 ,zunz1 writing in ,germany in #ahcb1 believed that persecution for religious belief could not withstand the onslaughts of the new era4 ,theodore ,reinach1 some fifty years later1 asserted that anti-,semitism was impossible in ,france4 ,how sadly has a dmenti been given to the hopes thus expressed1 especially in these two countries6 ,i pass over the outbreaks against the ,jews during the early years of the nineteenth century1 even the ,damascus blood-accusation in #ahdj1 and the forcible baptism of little ,edgar ,mortara in #aheh2 they were believed to belong to the old order of things1 with which the new1 at least in that direction1 had nothing in common4 ,i confine myself simply to the modern form of anti-,judaism1 which has been dignified with the name of anti-,semitism4 ,it is hard for a ,jew to speak of these things with composure or with the judicial mind of a mere chronicler of events4 ,neither emancipation from without nor ,reform from within has been able to stay the hand of the destroyer of ,israel's peace4 ,it has been contended that in most countries the ,jews were not ready to be emancipated2 that in some the non-,jewish population was not sufficiently advanced to make emancipation effective4 ,the first may be true in regard to the ,algerian ,jews2 the second1 in regard to those in ,roumania2 but it is not true of the other nations on the ,european continent4 ,starting in ,germany1 perhaps as a political move on the part of ,bismarck1 it spread into ,russia1 ,galicia1 ,austria1 ,roumania1 and ,france4 ,in most of these countries it not only found expression in the exclusion of the ,jews from all social intercourse with their fellows1 but in ,russia produced the riots of #ahha and #ahhb2 in ,austria and ,bohemia the turbulent scene in the ,reichstag1 and even the pillaging of ,jewish houses and ,jewish synagogues2 in ,roumania it received the active support of the government and reduced the ,jews there to practical penury2 while in ,france it showed itself in accusations against the ,jews which for barbarity could match any that were brought against them in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the charges against the ,jews are varied in their character4 ,in ,germany they have been blamed for exploiting the agricultural class and for serving the interests of the ,liberal party1 forgetting that ,leo and ,stahl1 the founders of the ,orthodox party in ,prussia1 were themselves ,jews1 and that ,disraeli in ,england was born of the same race4 ,the most foolish accusations on almost every conceivable subject have been lodged against them by such men as ,ahlwart1 ,stcker1 ,lueger1 and ,drumont2 and in late years the old and foolish charge that the ,jews use the blood of ,christian children in the making of ,passover bread has been revived1 in order to infuriate the populace2 despite the fact that popes1 ecclesiastics1 and hosts of ,christian professors have declared the accusation to be purely imaginary and malignant4 ,the false charge that a ,jewish officer in ,france had betrayed secrets of his government was sufficient to unloosen the most savage attacks upon the ,jews which the modern world has seen4 ,the fact which stands out in the whole agitation is not that the charges have been made1 in most cases by men who sought in some way or other to fish in troubled waters1 but that these charges find a ready echo and a ready response among the people at large4 ,it emphasizes so clearly that the ,jews are a defenceless people1 with no means of effectually warding off attacks2 and though in ,germany and ,austria societies of ,christians have been formed for the purpose of combating anti-,semitism1 there is no power which can effectually enter the lists in their behalf4 ,this was notably seen in the great ,london demonstration of #ahhb1 when the petition signed by the foremost members of ,church and state never even reached the ,czar1 to whom it was addressed4 ,among the few bright spots on the world's chart are those countries inhabited by the ,anglo-,saxon race4 ,anti-,semitism is unknown in ,england 7though the attempt has been made to fix the blame for the ,boer war on the ,jews72 and the institutions of the ,united ,states have up till now prevented the entrance here of the disease1 though in the mild form of social anti-,semitism which debars ,jewish children from private schools and ,jewish people from clubs and summer hotels1 it has insinuated itself into some of the ,eastern cities1 notably into ,new ,york4 ,,zionism ,there can be no doubt that next to the ,reform movement the profoundest modification of the forces within ,judaism has come about during the last years of the century through the rise and progress of the ,zionist movement4 ,it has been said by some that ,zionism is the expression of ,jewish pessimism1 by others that it is the highest form of ,jewish optimism4 ,i venture to say that it is both4 ,the emancipation of the ,jews has not been able to do away with anti-,semitism2 history has repeated itself time and time again4 ,when the ,jews of a country were few in number and of little influence1 they led a tolerably secure existence2 but as soon as their number increased and their influence commenced to be felt1 anti-,semitism was the effective weapon in the hands of their opponents4 ,in so far1 then1 as ,zionism takes account of this fact1 it is pessimistic2 for conditions in the future will hardly differ from those in the past4 ,it sees the ,wandering ,jew of history continuing still his dreary march through the ages1 never at rest and never able to effect a quiet and even development of his own forces4 ,it explains this phenomenon from the fact that ,israel has in all the changed circumstances striven to maintain its racial identity1 and as this racial identity has a religious side as well1 that the two combined may well be called a separate national existence2 that a people holding tenaciously to this separate existence1 but having no home of its own1 must become1 when occasion demands1 the scape-goat and the play-ball of other forces4 ,it recognizes anti-,semitism as continually existent1 and in so far the opponents of ,zionism may be right in saying that its rise is the result of the anti-,jewish movement4 ,it is the ,jewish answer from the ,jewish point of view4 ,on the other hand1 ,zionism is optimistic in believing that real help for the ,jews can only come from within their own body2 and that the ,jewish question will only be solved when the ,jews return to that point in their history whence they set out on their wanderings1 and again found a permanent home to which all the persecuted can flee and from which a light will go forth to every nook and corner of ,jewry4 ,it does not hope that all ,jews will return to ,palestine1 but it believes that only in a national centre can the centrifugal force be found which will hold the ,jews together in the various countries of their sojourn4 ,when ,theodore ,herzl1 a littrateur in ,vienna1 published in #ahig his pamphlet on the ,jewish state1 he little imagined that it would call forth an echo in every country in which the ,jews were scattered4 ,he was not the first to attempt this solution of the problem4 ,far-seeing ,russian ,jews before him had1 many years previous to that1 propounded this method of dealing with the question1 and it had been practically the assumption upon which the ,judaism of the past had been built up4 ,reform ,judaism1 in relinquishing the hope of a return1 and in cutting out from the prayer-book all mention of ,palestine and the restoration1 broke one of the strongest links which bound the ,judaism of to-day with that of the past1 and cast aside a great ideal1 the realization of which had been a light to the feet of the ,jews since the destruction of the ,temple4 ,the idea of a 8,mission0 has taken its place1 the preaching of a pure ,monotheism4 ,the ,zionist congresses 7which have now been held during four successive years7 have found the platform1 so often sought for in vain during the nineteenth century1 upon which all ,jews1 regardless of theological opinions and of economic theories1 can stand4 ,they represent the old unity of ,israel2 for ,orthodox1 ,conservative1 ,reform1 and even the purely racial ,jew are to be found there as well as in the ,zionist societies which have grown up in every ,jewish community1 whether in ,europe or in ,africa1 in ,north or in ,south ,america1 even in the distant ,philippines4 ,the ,orthodox ,jew must be1 by his very profession1 a ,zionist2 but he often doubts whether the plan as formulated by ,dr4 ,herzl is feasible1 and holds himself aloof1 waiting for the realization of his hopes at the hands of others1 or for some supernatural sign of divine assistance4 ,the very fact that the ,jewish opponents of ,zionism 7and they are the only opponents it has7 come from various parts of the ,jewish camp is in itself a proof of the above statement4 ,the ,orthodox complain that some of the leaders of the movement are not sufficiently ,jewish2 the ,reform1 that some are too ,jewish4 ,that this opposition is exceedingly strong cannot be denied4 ,the demand made that the ,jew should assert himself first and foremost as a ,jew has been distasteful to many who were soaring in the mystic hazes of ,universalism1 or who had hoped to get out of ,judaism as it were by the back door1 without being seen by the world at large4 ,but even in those circles which do not formally affiliate with ,zionism1 or who at times even oppose it1 there has of late years been a very strong revival of ,jewish feeling and a movement towards a stronger expression of that feeling4 ,germany is honeycombed with societies for the study of ,jewish literature2 the ,hebrew language has been revived1 notably in ,russia1 not only as a form of literary expression1 but also as a vehicle of social intercourse2 ,france has its ,society of ,jewish ,studies2 ,america and ,england have their ,jewish ,historical ,societies1 and their ,jewish ,chautauqua movements2 ,jewish national societies have sprung up among the students of ,german and ,austrian universities--all influences--tending in this one direction4 ,,the ,,twentieth ,,century ,as we look ahead into the century which is now opening and cast our eye over the forces which the ,jews will bring into its life1 we can easily see that these forces tend in various directions4 ,we have first the ,orthodox wing of the ,jewish ,church1 which stands upon the broad basis of what the past has evolved4 ,it holds firmly to the inspiration of the biblical word and the divine character of its interpretation as handed down in the oral law2 it tries to regulate its life by ,talmudic ordinances as evolved in the latest law books1 and is unwilling to make any but sthetic concessions to changed circumstances1 believing that we must adhere strictly to all the time-honored ceremonies of the synagogue4 ,at its side stand the ,conservatives1 who are willing to make some concession to present demands1 but believe that these concessions should be most sparingly and grudgingly made1 and who theologically1 at least in theory1 occupy the same position as do the ,orthodox4 ,it is safe to say that the greater number of ,jews in the ,western ,european states belong to this wing of the synagogue4 ,between the ,conservatives and the ,ethical ,culturists stands the ,reform party1 more numerous in the ,united ,states than anywhere else1 whose position it is hard to define and in whose midst there are various shades of opinion and of practice4 ,all the ,reformers have openly or tacitly broken with ,talmudic ,judaism--the more conservative among them seem to believe that a new ,judaism can be built up upon the ,bible1 only without its traditional interpretation2 while the advanced body do not even look upon the ,bible as binding1 but merely as a starting-point for a further development4 ,they do not consider the ,bible as inspired in the old accepted sense of the term2 they welcome biblical criticism as an aid to the understanding of the early history of their people2 they do not believe in the special election of ,israel1 and have a well-defined abhorrence of anything like a creed4 ,they are practically ,theists with a ,jewish racial coloring4 ,nor do they believe in the coming of a personal ,messiah2 rather1 in the advent of a ,messianic time in which righteousness and good-will shall prevail and all the earth acknowledge the one ,god4 ,to bring about this time is1 according to them1 the ,mission of the ,jew--a phrase very current in these latter days1 the fulfilling of which has been made the pretext for dejudaizing ,judaism1 so as to make it acceptable to non-,jews4 ,mr4 ,oswald ,john ,simon1 of ,london1 has even gone further4 ,he believes that if the ,reform party is earnest in its pretensions1 it ought--as it did once before in its history--to become an active missionary power4 ,a few years ago he attempted to found a ,jewish ,theistic ,church1 which should in no way be colored by ,jewish ceremonial4 ,the movement was1 of course1 a failure4 ,the original attempt1 some nineteen hundred years ago1 led to the founding of the ,christian ,church1 and ,jews themselves have suffered too much from missionaries of other faiths to take to this work with pleasure4 ,but1 in addition to these1 there is also a large body of ,jews whose connection with the synagogue is purely nominal1 and who know of it only when they need the services of its sanction or the respectability of its connections4 ,the hold which the ,jewish ,church has upon them is small indeed1 and many of them hope1 in the twentieth century1 to doff their ,jewish gaberdine4 ,the open or concealed pressure of anti-,semitism 7particularly on the continent of ,europe7 which makes it impossible for the ,jew as such to attain to social distinction or political position will drive most of these into the arms of the dominant ,church of the country in which they live4 ,in a remarkable article published in the ,deutsche ,jahrbcher of ,october1 #aijj1 a writer who uses the nom de plume of ,benedictus ,levita openly urges those of his fellow-,jews who have become estranged from the synagogue to have their children baptized1 in order that they may not suffer as their parents have1 but may become really believing ,christians1 since their affiliation with the ,christian ,church has become necessary in the modern ,christian state4 ,another ,german ,jew at about the same time advises his brethren to declare themselves 8,confessionslos10 so as to become lost1 not in ,christianity1 but in 8,deutschtum40 ,a similar request was made to the ,jews of ,roumania1 in #aijj1 by the historian ,xenopol of ,bucharest4 ,there is little fear that this advice of wholesale apostasy will find many adherents1 notwithstanding the fact that an unusually large number of conversions have taken place in ,germany and ,austria1 due wholly to pressure from without rather than to conviction from within4 ,the defection even of comparatively large numbers can1 however1 hardly affect the ,jewish cause as a whole2 for these numbers living on the periphery1 or even beyond it1 have been of little service to the ,jewish cause2 and all through the ages ,jews have made just such contributions as these to the general society in which they lived4 ,there can be no doubt that ,zionism is a strong protest against these weaklings1 and that the coming century will witness the ,jews divided into two camps not necessarily hostile to each other1 the ,zionists and the ,non-,zionists--those who plead for a conservation of the old energy and the old ideals1 and those who look forward to the disintegration of ,judaism and its gradual passing away into other forces4 ,that ,judaism can only conserve its force if that force is attached to a racial and national basis is seen clearly in the fact that just those ,jews in ,germany who have been most loudly clamorous against the ,zionists propose to have now what they call a ,german 8,judentag10 which can certainly mean nothing unless it become ,zionist in its tendency4 ,confident in this hope1 we of the ,house of ,israel look calmly into the future4 ,the message of the prophet of old is full of meaning for us3 8,thus saith the ,lord ,god3 behold ,i1 even ,i1 will both search my sheep and seek them out1 as a shepherd seeketh out his flock in the day that he is among his flock which is scattered1 and ,i will deliver them out of all places where they have been scattered in the cloudy and dark day40 ,we can echo the sentiments expressed by a ,christian ,zionist1 ,george ,eliot1 many years ago3 8,revive the organic centre2 let the unity of ,israel which has made the growth and form of its religion be an outward reality4 ,looking towards a land and a polity1 our dispersed people in all the ends of the earth may share the dignity of a national life which has a voice among the peoples of the ,east and the ,west--which will plant the wisdom and skill of our race so that it may be1 as of old1 a medium of transmission and understanding4 ,let that come to pass1 and the living warmth will spread to the weak extremities of ,israel1 and superstition will vanish1 not in the lawlessness of the renegade1 but in the illumination of great facts which widen feeling and make all knowledge alive as the young offspring of beloved memories40 ,,richard ,j4 ,h4 ,,gottheil4 ,,free-,,thought ,the history of religion during the past century may be described as the sequel of that dissolution of the medival faith which commenced at the ,reformation4 ,the vast process of disintegration proceeds by degrees1 is varied by reactionary effort1 and gives birth to new theories in its course4 ,in our day the completion of the process and a new departure seem to be at hand4 ,a sharp line cannot be drawn at the beginning of the last century1 the leaders of religious thought in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries having been to a great extent the leaders1 and their works the text-books1 of the nineteenth4 ,at the ,reformation ,protestantism threw off the yoke of ,pope and priest1 priestly control over conscience through the confessional1 priestly absolution for sin1 and belief in the magical power of the priest as consecrator of the ,host1 besides the worship of the ,virgin and the saints1 purgatory1 relics1 pilgrimages1 and other incidents of the medival system4 ,ostensibly1 ,protestantism was founded on freedom of conscience and the right of private judgment4 ,in reality1 it retained ,church authority over conscience in the shape of dogmatic creeds and ordination tests4 ,it besides enforced belief in the plenary inspiration of the ,bible1 by which the exercise of private judgment was narrowly confined4 ,not for some time did it even renounce persecution4 ,in grimly ,calvinistic ,scotland a boy was hanged for impugning the doctrine of the ,trinity at the end of the seventeenth century4 ,the ,anglican ,church1 suspended by the will of the ,tudor sovereigns between ,catholicism and ,protestantism1 oscillated from side to side1 producing by one of its oscillations the great civil war4 ,it burned heretics in the reign of ,james ,i4 ,all the ,protestant ,churches except the ,baptists1 who at first were objects of persecution1 fell under the dominion of the state1 which repaid them for their submission and support by endowments1 temporal privileges1 and persecution of dissent4 ,though ,protestantism produced a multitude of sects1 especially in ,england at the time of the ,commonwealth1 hardly any of them were free-thinking or sceptical2 those of any importance1 at all events1 were in some sense dogmatic and were anchored to the inspiration of the ,bible4 ,nor is it easy to convict ,hobbes1 bugbear of the orthodox as he was1 of scepticism or even of heterodoxy4 ,the expression of heterodox opinions1 indeed1 would have been a violation of his own principle1 which makes religion absolutely an affair of the state1 to be regulated by a despotic government1 and confines liberty to the recesses of thought4 ,it is true that in making religion a political institution1 variable at a despot's will1 he covertly denied that it was divine4 ,under the ,restoration religious thought and controversy slept4 ,the nation was weary of those subjects4 ,the liberty for which men then struggled was political1 though with political liberty was bound up religious toleration1 which achieved a partial triumph under ,william ,,iii4 ,the ,church of ,rome1 to meet the storm1 reorganized herself at the ,council of ,trent on lines practically traced for her by the ,jesuit4 ,a comparison of ,suarez with ,thomas ,aquinas shows the change which took place in spirit as plainly as a comparison of the ,jesuit's meretricious fane with the ,gothic churches shows the change in religious taste4 ,papal autocracy was strengthened at the expense of the episcopate1 and furnished at once with a guard and a propagandist machinery of extraordinary power in the ,order of ,loyola4 ,that the plenary inspiration of the ,bible in the ,vulgate version1 and including the ,apocrypha1 should be reaffirmed was a secondary matter1 inasmuch as the ,church of ,rome holds that it is not she who derives her credentials from ,scripture1 but ,scripture which depends for the attestation of its authority upon her4 ,she now allied herself more closely than before with the ,catholic kings1 with ,philip ,,ii41 and afterwards with ,louis ,,xiv41 who paid her for her support of political absolutism by sanguinary persecution of heretics4 ,she hereby parted with her ,hildebrandic supremacy over the powers of the world1 though she did not1 like the ,anglican ,church1 recognize the divine right of kings4 ,the liberal and peace-making movements which had been set on foot1 or were afterwards set on foot1 within her pale1 such as the ,oratory of ,divine ,love1 which held justification by faith and wished to compromise with the ,protestants1 were effectually put down4 ,jansenism1 when it appeared1 with its half-,calvinistic theory of ,grace1 shared the same fate4 ,gallicanism afterwards1 having nationality to back it1 was more successful4 ,but it brought no freedom of conscience2 it was merely a repartition of the despotic power over conscience between the ,king and the ,pope4 ,in ,spain1 and for the most part in ,italy1 ,rome1 by the aid of the ,jesuit and the ,inquisition1 completely succeeded in killing free-thought4 ,in ,france1 where there was no ,inquisition1 her triumph was not so complete4 ,she succeeded only in driving scepticism into disguise and subterfuge4 ,the ,commonwealth of ,holland did ,france and the world in general the immense service of affording a printing house for free-thought which was on the confines of ,france1 but beyond the reach of the ,french government4 ,descartes1 without directly assailing the faith of the ,church1 planted in her face the standard of thorough-going reason and entitled himself to a place in the ,index4 ,growing sensuality and love of pleasure brought with them laxity of belief and impatience of priestly control4 ,the authority of the clergy was impaired by their scandalous wealth and vice1 which at the same time enhanced the odium of their persecuting tyranny4 ,at last came ,voltaire1 ,diderot1 the ,encyclopdia1 and ,rousseau4 ,with literary cleverness unmatched and an incomparable genius for subtle attack1 combined with a winning philanthropy1 ,voltaire converted and drew into the work of demolition1 to them suicidal1 the thrones of ,louis ,,xv41 or rather of the ,pompadour1 of ,catherine1 and ,frederick4 ,the influence extended even to ,spain1 where ,aranda1 and to ,portugal1 where ,pombal reigned4 ,the ,pope was constrained to dissolve the ,order of ,jesus4 ,as ,voltaire demolished in the name of ,reason1 ,rousseau demolished in the name of ,nature1 taking an artificial society by storm4 ,helvtius went to the length of extreme materialism2 but ,voltaire1 the master-spirit of the movement1 remained a theist1 and ,rousseau was even for compulsory theism as the foundation of the state4 ,the ,revolution also1 when it came1 though violently and profanely anti-,christian1 was in the main theist1 and in the midst of the ,terror held its ,feast of the ,supreme ,being1 with ,robespierre for high priest4 ,atheism1 in the persons of ,chaumette and ,anacharsis ,clootz1 went to the guillotine4 ,one hardly knows what to say about the ,last ,will and ,testament of ,jean ,meslier1 the priest who after thirty years' service as a country cur bequeathed to his parishioners a profession of atheism4 ,the work appears to have passed through the hands of ,voltaire4 ,it urges the arguments against natural theology in a very forcible as well as thorough-going way4 ,but it seems1 when it appeared1 to have made little impression and can be mentioned historically only as an indication of the masked ferment of the time4 ,england had a series of deists1 ,toland1 ,tindal1 ,collins1 ,chubb1 and the rest1 not men of much mark1 though seekers of truth after their measure and in their day4 ,the ecclesiastical polity of ,england was comparatively mild1 and there was nothing to provoke indignant resistance to clerical tyranny like that which was provoked by the cases of ,calas and ,la,barre4 ,shaftesbury1 a deist of a higher stamp1 was1 with his 8moral taste10 a philosopher for men of taste1 and could little stir the common world4 ,in defence of orthodoxy came forth ,bishop ,butler1 with a work which will be memorable forever as a model of earnest and solemn inquiry into the deepest questions1 though its fundamental assumption is unwarrantable1 since we should expect the difficulties of natural theology not to be reproduced but to be dispelled by revelation4 ,butler's tone in discussion was an effective rebuke to those who had treated ,christianity with levity as an obsolete interference with the pleasures of the world4 ,his profound analysis of the moral nature of man in like manner rebuked the shallow and cynical theories which resolved everything into self-love2 though here again his assumption of the authority of conscience as a divinely implanted monitor has by modern investigation been disallowed4 ,butler1 however1 with all his piety and his orthodox conclusions1 must essentially be reckoned among rationalists4 ,he frankly admits that the use of our reason is the only means we have of arriving at truth1 never appealing from it to ,church authority4 ,he who recognizes reason as supreme must be deemed rationalist1 let his own reason lead him or mislead him as it may4 ,this is the vital line of cleavage which runs through the whole religious history and divides the religious world at the present day4 ,butler had a popular shield-bearer in ,paley1 an extremely acute and effective though not profound writer4 ,paley's supposed proof of the existence of an intelligent ,creator from the design visible in creation told greatly at the time and long continued to tell2 though we now see that the universe1 unlike the watch1 presents terrible proofs of undesign as well as apparent proofs of design2 not to mention that in the case of the universe1 though adaptation is visible1 the aim is not revealed4 ,paley's ,horae ,paulinae1 however1 is about the only piece of historical apologetics which has in any degree survived the destructive influence of modern criticism4 ,warburton hardly calls for mention4 ,in his ,divine ,legation he is right enough in saying that ,moses did not teach the immortality of the soul2 but the notion that the ,mosaic dispensation must have had divine support because it could afford to dispense with that doctrine would now only provoke a smile4 ,among literary apologists we can scarcely reckon ,johnson4 ,yet he was a living defence1 intellectual as well as moral1 of his religion4 ,that he speculated1 we cannot doubt1 and we know that he was not satisfied with the proofs of the immortality of the soul2 but he suppressed doubt in himself and frowned it down in others4 ,he was well justified in treating with contempt the posthumous works of ,bolingbroke1 which have not the slightest force or value beyond their literary form4 ,bolingbroke's scepticism1 however1 had a certain effect if it inspired ,pope's ,universal ,prayer4 ,in ,hume1 on the other hand1 we have the mightiest of all sceptics in the literal sense of the term1 inasmuch as he was purely a doubter and seems hardly to have felt the desire of arriving at any positive result4 ,he who has given rise to so much controversy was himself uncontroversial4 ,his writings1 considered as the vehicle of his opinions1 are the perfection of literary art4 ,over common minds the teacher who merely suspends judgment1 seeming not to be in quest of positive truth1 can never have much influence2 but ,hume had great influence over cultivated men of the world4 ,his argument against the credibility of miracles1 though it became as standard on one side as ,paley's apologue of the watch upon the other1 will hardly bear examination4 ,assuming the existence of ,god and ,his care for man as ,his work1 which ,hume does not openly deny1 there is no presumption against ,his revelation of ,himself in the only conceivable way1 which is by an interruption of the general course of things2 there is rather a presumption that ,he would so reveal ,himself4 ,nor can it be maintained that no degree of evidence1 say that of a multitude of scientific men1 after providing all possible safeguards against deception1 would satisfy us of the fact4 ,gibbon's great work is instinct with the tendency of men of the world in the generation of ,voltaire1 ,horace ,walpole1 and ,hume4 ,its spirit is identical with that of ,hume's philosophy and history4 ,it is of first-rate importance in the religious controversy as having opened the trenches historically against revealed religion in undertaking to account for the success of ,christianity by natural causes4 ,but its cynical treatment of that which1 on any hypothesis1 was the prevailing and formative force is unphilosophical and detracts largely from the value of the work4 ,he who could imagine that man had been happiest in the ,roman ,empire under the ,antonines was an apt partisan of ,lord ,north4 ,gibbon no doubt imagined himself a rich patrician of his golden era4 ,would he have liked to be a ,roman slave8 ,conyers ,middleton in his ,free ,inquiry into the ecclesiastical miracles glanced at the credibility of the ,gospel miracles and had thus partly paved the way for ,gibbon4 ,among the disintegrating forces may be counted ,unitarianism1 which was growing among thinkers1 and probably before very long became the mask for profounder scepticism in ,protestant ,europe as it did afterwards in ,new ,england4 ,we find it in ,england on the eve of the ,french ,revolution1 combined with science in ,priestley and with mathematics and philosophy in ,price4 ,among the apologetic and defensive forces may be numbered the practical vindication of ,christianity by a certain revival of piety in the ,anglican ,church which produced ,wilberforce1 ,cowper1 and the ,evangelicals1 and still more by the religious crusade of ,john ,wesley4 ,wesley's achievements1 however1 were among the poor and illiterate1 and were consequently demonstrations of the power of ,christianity rather than of its truth4 ,his ,church had the advantage of being born1 not like other ,protestant ,churches in doctrinal controversy1 but in evangelical reaction against the impiety and vice of the age4 ,it was1 however1 not undogmatic2 besides what might be called the dogma of sudden conversion1 it implicitly accepted not only the literal inspiration of ,scripture1 but the bulk of the ,anglican ,articles1 to which was afterwards added1 as an ordination test1 general agreement with the more important of ,wesley's sermons4 ,the ,french ,revolution brought on a strong reaction against the free-thought which had been hideously travestied in the blasphemous follies1 and sullied by the crimes1 of the ,jacobins4 ,in ,england the ,tory mob1 with true instinct1 sacked the library and laboratory of ,priestley4 ,coleridge1 who1 like other young men of intellect1 had hailed the revolutionary dawn1 shared the reaction1 and combining in a curious way ,german metaphysic with ,english orthodoxy and ,establishmentarianism1 produced a religious system which perhaps entitles him to high place among ,english theologians in the proper sense of that term1 as denoting a philosophic inquirer into the nature of the ,deity and the relations between the ,deity and man2 though1 as his guiding light was philosophy1 not authority or tradition1 he may in that respect be numbered among the promoters of free-thought and of the results to which it was ultimately to lead4 ,such free-thinking as there was naturally took a turn answering in violence to the repression4 ,tom ,paine assailed orthodoxy1 not with freedom only1 but with enmity the most virulent4 ,though far from an attractive1 he is by no means an unimportant figure4 ,his criticisms of the credibility and morality of ,scripture1 unlearned and coarse as they were1 went1 not over the heads of the people like the high-flying and metaphysical speculations1 but straight to their understandings and their hearts4 ,it was difficult for apologetic fencers to parry such home thrusts4 ,the same sort of effect has been produced by the irreverent frankness of ,ingersoll in our own day4 ,shelley rushed from the religion of ,eldon into what he took for ,satanism2 though his ,satan is really the power of good1 while the ,god of ,eldon1 as viewed by him1 is the ,devil4 ,wrecked1 body and soul1 by the ,thirty ,years' war1 and afterwards stifled under a group of petty despotisms1 ,germany was for a time lost to intellectual progress4 ,her churches and their clergy1 the ,lutheran clergy at least1 were in a very low condition4 ,when her intellect began to work again1 it was in a recluse and highly speculative way1 the natural consequence of its exclusion from politics and other fields of action1 together with the complete severance of the academical element from the people4 ,hence1 from ,leibnitz and ,lessing onward1 there was a train of metaphysical philosophies1 each of them professing to find in our consciousness a key to the mystery of ,being and an account of ,god1 of ,his counsels1 and of the relation between ,him and man4 ,in derision of such speculations it was said that to the ,french belonged the land1 to the ,english the sea1 to the ,germans the air4 ,essentially incapable of verification1 these theories went on shifting in nebulous succession and1 with the exception of that of ,kant1 may now be said to have vanished1 leaving scarce a rack behind4 ,even of the great ,hegel little remains4 ,leibnitz1 with his 8best of all possible worlds10 hardly survived ,candide4 ,still1 we must speak with respect and gratitude of these efforts of minds1 powerful in their way and devoted to truth1 to solve for us the great mystery4 ,speculation so free could not fail to promote general freedom of thought1 and the treatment by these thinkers of the popular and established religion was as philosophic as possible1 though1 with the exception of ,feuerbach1 they were theists4 ,by ,lessing much was done for the recognition of all religions and the promotion of universal toleration4 ,presently1 however1 came direct criticism of the ,bible1 the way to which1 long before1 had been lighted by ,spinoza4 ,it assumed a strange form in the work of ,paulus1 who applied to the ,gospel miracles a solvent something like that which ,euhemerus had applied to the ,pagan ,pantheon1 reducing them to natural occurrences turned into miracles by a devout imagination4 ,the miraculous fish with the coin in its mouth was a fish which would sell for the coin4 ,the miraculous feeding of the five thousand was brought within the compass of belief by supposing that they were not fasting1 but had only gone without a regular meal4 ,christ's walking on the water was his holding out a hand from the shore to ,peter who had leaped into the water to ascertain whether it was really ,christ that was walking on the shore4 ,far more serious1 and a startling blow to orthodoxy1 was the ,life of ,jesus1 by ,strauss1 who undertook to explain the ,gospels on the mythical theory1 showing that the reputed incidents of the life of ,jesus and his miracles were mythical fulfilments of ,old ,testament prophecies and aspirations4 ,from this1 his first theory1 ,strauss afterwards partly receded1 and in his second ,life of ,jesus1 after a critical examination of the authorities1 he comes to the conclusion that 8few great men have existed of whose history we have so unsatisfactory a knowledge as that we have of ,jesus40 ,the figure of ,socrates1 he thinks1 though four hundred years older1 is beyond all comparison more distinct4 ,the momentous step1 however1 had been taken4 ,jesus had become the subject of a biography founded on critical examination of the materials1 and ,strauss is right in saying1 as he does in his second ,life1 that when the biography was seriously taken up the doom of the theological conception was sealed4 ,lives of ,christ1 including even the most popular of them1 however they may pretend and struggle to be orthodox1 are really1 as ,strauss says1 destructive of the theological conception1 while they do not help to confirm our loyalty to historical truth4 ,ferdinand ,christian ,baur and his ,tbingen school applied historical criticism to the early ,christian ,church1 showing the conflict in it of the ,pauline with the ,petrine tendency1 and bringing it altogether1 as well as its source1 within the pale of human history4 ,historical criticism of the ,gospels was furthered by the progress of historical criticism in general1 shown by such a work as ,niebuhr's ,history of ,rome4 ,wolf's treatment of the ,homeric poems had already marked the birth of a critical spirit1 which was aided by historical and archological discoveries of all kinds1 as well as by the growing influence of science on the methods of religious and anthropological speculation4 ,there was an evangelical reaction against rationalism in ,germany with a train of controversialists and commentators reputed as orthodox4 ,yet even in these1 more or less of a rationalist undertone is perceived4 ,there is a tendency more or less apparent to minimize the supernatural1 to throw the miracles into the background1 and dwell rather on the spiritual significance of ,christ's character and words4 ,this is very conspicuous in ,neander1 the head of the line4 ,an orthodox ,english divine such as ,mr4 ,rose might well1 after a survey of ,german theology1 make a rather mournful report4 ,in ,holland1 ever the land of free speculation1 criticism advanced without fear1 and at last by the pen of ,kuenen arraigns the authenticity1 antiquity1 and authority of the historical books of the ,old ,testament to an extent totally subversive of their character as records of a primeval history1 much more as organs of a divine revelation4 ,german philosophy had mingled with ,english theology through ,coleridge4 ,german criticism of the ,bible did not lag much behind4 ,milman's ,history of the ,jews1 dealing with the subject in the spirit of an ordinary history1 treating patriarchs as ,arab sheiks and minimizing miracles1 gave a serious shock to orthodox sentiment in ,england4 ,even what was deemed orthodox in ,germany appeared rationalistic to the ,anglican divines4 ,to the evangelicals especially1 whose leader was ,simeon1 and who occupied many of the fashionable pulpits1 anything like critical treatment of the sacred history seemed impiety4 ,yet they1 with their inward persuasion of conversion and spiritual union with the ,saviour1 as well as the ,quaker with his inner light1 or the ,roman ,catholic with his implicit faith in the ,church1 were really beyond the critic's reach4 ,a long line of ,british leaders of thought and controversialists succeeds4 ,rationalist and heterodox in different degrees were ,thomas ,arnold1 ,frederick ,maurice1 ,stanley1 ,jowett1 the writers of ,essays and ,reviews1 and ,robertson1 of ,brighton4 ,decidedly sceptical were ,matthew ,arnold1 ,carlyle1 and ,james ,anthony ,froude4 ,reaction on the ,high ,church side found leaders in ,pusey1 ,newman1 and ,hurrell ,froude4 ,the evangelical pulpit combated at once rationalism and ,high ,church4 ,the state ,church was awakened from its long torpor1 and under the inspiration of its ,high ,church party strove to reanimate its ,convocation4 ,frederick ,maurice impressed more by his character than by his writings1 which were fatally obscure4 ,he was rationalist enough to be deprived of his professorship in an ,anglican college4 ,at the same time he could persuade himself that subscription to the ,thirty-nine ,articles was no bondage but a security for free thought4 ,to his yoke-fellow1 ,kingsley1 is to be traced 8muscular ,christianity10 a rather suspicious adaptation of the ,sermon on the ,mount to our times4 ,but the pair exercised more influence as social missionaries1 striving1 in conjunction with ,thomas ,hughes1 to give the labor movement a religious turn1 than as religious philosophers or critics4 ,thomas ,arnold1 the head-master of ,rugby1 was a man of noble character1 powerful mind1 and intense earnestness of purpose4 ,he was a firm believer in ,christianity as a revealed religion4 ,but he held a most liberal view of the ,church4 ,he would have admitted to it all the sects of dissenters and have identified it as far as possible with the nation4 ,his theory of the identity of the ,church with the nation probably came to him from his passionate study of the ancient commonwealths4 ,he forgot that the philosophers of ,greece1 though they might sacrifice a cock to sculapius1 were really outside the state religion1 and that the state religion made the chief of them drink hemlock4 ,prince of educators as he was1 he sometimes laid too heavy a strain on his pupils1 and prematurely developed their speculative tendencies4 ,in the case of ,clough especially1 mental health and vigor seem to have been impaired by premature development4 ,with ,thomas ,arnold may be coupled his friend ,whately1 who1 though1 as ,primate of the state ,church of ,ireland1 he held the most equivocal of prelacies1 was1 by reason of his strong understanding1 his fearless character1 and his shrewd wit1 essentially an iconoclast and a rebuker of ecclesiastical pretensions1 as well as a vigorous promoter of education4 ,his keen sayings flew abroad1 but his personal influence was greater than his influence as a divine4 ,his ,historic ,doubts was an apologetic jeu d'esprit which told greatly in its day4 ,bishop ,connop ,thirlwall was a man of first-rate power4 ,at ,cambridge he had set out as a rationalist1 translating ,german theology of a heterodox cast and ,niebuhr's ,history of ,rome4 ,but his intellect was curbed by a bishopric1 and though he delivered liberal charges and personally exerted a liberal influence1 he was lost to the direct service of reason4 ,arthur ,stanley was ,arnold's best boy1 his most devoted adherent1 and his model biographer4 ,he embraced ,arnold's theory of the ,church as coextensive with the nation and carried his theory of the supremacy of the state so far as to feel a certain sympathy with 8,bluidie ,mackenzie0 as the defender of a state ,church against the independence of the ,covenanters of ,scotland4 ,his name was for a time a terror to all the orthodox1 ,high ,church or ,low4 ,yet there was little that was terrible about him4 ,the sweetness of his character was remarkable4 ,his liberality of religious sentiment was boundless4 ,but he had little of the logical or critical faculty1 and showed scarcely the desire1 still less the ability1 to make his way to definite truth4 ,his passion was history1 and the historical picturesque was his forte4 ,in a haze of this to the last he floated1 coming to no determinate conclusion4 ,his best works1 apart from biography1 are not his commentaries or sermons1 but his lectures on the history of the ,russian ,church and his ,sinai and ,palestine2 although we cannot help smiling when1 in his ,sinai and ,palestine1 we see him hunting with passionate interest and implicit faith for the imaginary scenes of mythical events4 ,stanley's yoke-fellow1 ,jowett1 was a man of a different cast of mind and of higher calibre1 as all the world now knows4 ,but in him also1 though from different causes1 there was the same want of inclination to grasp or capacity for grasping definite truth4 ,these two men were eminently typical of an age of religious dissolution1 when people felt the ground of faith giving way under their feet and were striving1 by some sort of compromise1 to save themselves from falling into the abyss4 ,that ,jowett had drifted very far away1 not only from orthodoxy1 but from his belief in ,christianity as a miraculous revelation1 and even from belief in our knowledge of the historical character of ,christ1 the posthumous publication of his letters has plainly shown4 ,how he could have reconciled it to his conscience to remain a clergyman1 to hold the clerical headship of an ,anglican college1 to perform the service and administer the sacrament1 it is not easy to see4 ,we can only say that the position was found tenable by one of the most upright and disinterested of mankind4 ,jowett's defence probably was and is the defence of others1 and the indication of spreading doubt4 ,clergymen are educated men and can hardly be proof against that which is carrying conviction to other minds4 ,robertson1 of ,brighton1 as an eloquent preacher and spiritual leader1 rather on the rationalist side1 is not to be forgotten4 ,in his sermons there is an evident tendency to liberalize ,christianity and to present it ethically as a religion of purity and love rather than as a miraculous revelation which did not escape the keen scent of alarmed orthodoxy and exposed the preacher to some social persecution4 ,by this time a strong current in an opposite direction had begun to flow4 ,the religious movement was closely connected with the political movement1 especially where there was a state ,church4 ,alarmed by the progress of liberalism1 which had carried the ,parliamentary ,reform bill and threatened to withdraw from the ,church of ,england the support of the state1 some of the clergy began to look about for a new foundation of their authority1 and thought that they found it in apostolical succession and the sacerdotal theory of the sacraments4 ,the leaders of the movement were ,pusey1 professor of ,hebrew at ,oxford2 ,henry ,newman1 a ,fellow of ,oriel ,college2 and1 in its opening1 ,hurrell ,froude1 in whose ,life of ,becket its spirit and aims are plainly revealed4 ,it took practically the shape of an attempt to return to the priestly ,middle ,ages4 ,oxford1 with its medival colleges1 the ,fellows of which were then clerical and celibate1 formed the natural scene of such an attempt4 ,pusey1 who1 by his academical rank1 gave his name to the movement1 was a man of monastic character and mind1 with a piety intense but austere and gloomy enough almost to cling to such a doctrine as the irremissibility of post-baptismal sin4 ,henry ,newman was a man of genius1 a writer with a most charming and persuasive style1 great personal fascination1 and extraordinary subtlety of mind4 ,what he lacked was the love of truth2 system1 not truth1 was his aspiration2 and as a reasoner he was extremely sophistical1 however honest he might be as a man4 ,in this respect he presented a singular contrast to his brother1 ,francis ,newman1 in whom the love of truth was the ruling passion1 intense and uncompromising1 while he was totally devoid of the gifts of imagination with which ,henry was endowed4 ,henry ,newman's attempt to revive medival doctrines presently landed him1 with his immediate following1 in the medival ,church4 ,pusey was illogical enough to refuse the leap4 ,he was also believed to be rather strongly attached to the leadership and spiritual directorship which1 as a magnate of the ,church of ,england1 he enjoyed4 ,he went so near to the brink as1 in his ,irenicon1 to avow that nothing separated him from ,rome but the unmeasured autocracy of the ,pope and the excessive worship of the ,virgin1 both of them mere questions of degree4 ,manning in time followed3 an aspiring hierarch who would probably have stayed in the ,church of ,england if they had made him a bishop4 ,passing into the ,church of ,rome1 he became a ,cardinal1 an active intriguer of the ,vatican1 and an extreme ,ultramontane1 outvying ,newman1 who1 when the convert's first ecstasy was over1 might be said to be converted rather than changed4 ,the medivalizing movement owed much to the fascinations of medival art4 ,the ,gothic churches and cathedrals and the ,gothic ruins of abbeys have been very powerful conservators and propagators of the faith of their builders4 ,it is curious that this talisman should have been renounced by the ,church of ,rome in favor of the heathen style1 of which ,st4 ,peter's is the paragon1 magnificent but1 in a religious sense1 unimpressive4 ,by the progress of ,tractarianism ,british ,protestantism was alarmed and incensed4 ,the ,oxford ,convocation was the scene of a pitched battle brought on by a bold deliverance of ,ward1 a disciple of ,newman1 more logical and daring than his master1 who exultingly proclaimed that ,english clergymen were embracing 8the whole cycle of ,roman doctrine40 ,ward1 after a struggle which was a sort of ,armageddon of ,high and ,low ,church1 was condemned and deprived of his degree4 ,newman's conversion speedily followed4 ,the rationalists1 such as ,stanley and ,jowett1 voted on liberal grounds against the condemnation of ,ward4 ,a storm from the other quarter was raised by ,essays and ,reviews1 a collection of seven essays written by clergymen of the rationalistic school1 having for its object the liberalizing of inquiry in the ,church4 ,the manifesto at the time created an immense sensation1 though in the present advanced state of doctrinal disintegration it would almost pass unnoticed4 ,one of the essays1 the most innocent1 it is true1 which nevertheless committed the author to the general object of the combination1 was written by the present ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 and caused the ,high ,church clergy to protest against his appointment as a bishop4 ,the glove thus thrown down was taken up by the ,high ,churchmen4 ,the writers were arraigned for heresy before the ,privy ,council1 and1 as ,carlyle said1 you had a bench of old ,british judges1 8like ,roman augurs1 debating with iron gravity questions of prevenient grace1 supervenient moonshine1 and the color of the bishop's nightmare if that happened to turn up40 ,before the same tribunal was arraigned ,colenso1 a missionary bishop of ,south ,africa and an eminent mathematician1 whose arithmetical instincts had led him to examine the numerical statements of the ,pentateuch1 with highly heretical results4 ,both the essayists and ,bishop ,colenso escaped conviction4 ,the ,committee of ,privy ,council1 if it was judicial1 was also political1 and it was resolved1 if possible1 to avert a rupture in the state ,church4 ,veteran lawyers had little difficulty in finding grounds for acquittal when they did not choose to convict4 ,the language of the impugned writings was seldom so precise as to defy the power of interpretation4 8,either the passage means what ,i say1 or it has no meaning10 thundered the counsel for the prosecution4 8,is it not possible1 ,mr4 ,blank1 that the passage may have no meaning80 was the reply of the judge4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,voysey1 however1 succeeded in obtaining the honor of a conviction4 ,tendered a week to retract1 he thanked the court for the opportunity they had given him of rejecting the offer of repurchasing his once cherished position in the ,established ,church by proclaiming himself a hypocrite4 ,hampden1 ,regius ,professor of ,theology at ,oxford1 formed another object of ,high ,church attack4 ,he had been condemned by the university on account of doctrines alleged to be anti-,trinitarian1 and his appointment by a ,whig ministry to a bishopric caused a renewal of the onslaught1 which1 however1 only served by its failure to emphasize the fact that the ,church of ,england was in complete subjection to the state4 ,in this1 as in the general commotion1 prominently figured ,wilberforce1 ,bishop of ,oxford1 son of the great evangelical and philanthropist1 a man gifted1 dexterous1 and versatile1 who would have made a first-rate advocate or politician1 balancing himself with one foot on his hereditary ,evangelicism1 the other on ,high ,churchmanship1 to which1 in his heart1 as a hierarch1 he inclined4 ,a character so ambiguous could make little impression1 however great his abilities might be4 ,james ,anthony ,froude had been a follower and fellow-worker of ,newman4 ,but on ,newman's secession he not only hung back1 but violently recoiled and produced a highly sceptical work1 ,the ,nemesis of ,faith1 which entailed his resignation of a clerical fellowship in an ,oxford college4 ,then he exemplified the strange variations of the age by coming out as an historian in the colors of ,carlyle4 ,carlyle himself is not to be left out of sight in an account of the progress of religious thought2 for his ,scotch ,calvinism1 transmuted into hero worship1 has taken a strong hold1 if not on the distinct convictions1 on the sentiment and temper of the nation4 ,if he has administered wholesome rebuke to the self-complacency of democracy with its ballot-box1 he has also set up a worship of force and kindled a spirit of violence totally subversive of the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,matthew ,arnold1 with his silver shafts1 was rather a connoisseur in all lines than a serious philosopher or theologian2 but he also1 with his conversion of ,god into the 8not ourselves which makes for righteousness10 did something in his light but insinuating and charming way to forward disintegration4 ,but in #ahgd-gg appeared ,supernatural ,religion1 a searching and uncompromising inquiry into the historical evidences of supernatural ,christianity4 ,the book1 though attacked on secondary points with perhaps superior learning by ,bishop ,lightfoot1 ,bishop ,westcott1 and others1 cannot be said to have met with any general answer4 ,supplemented in some respects by ,dr4 ,martineau's ,seat of ,authority in ,religion and other works on the same side1 it sets forth the sceptic's case against the supernatural4 ,miracles1 says criticism1 belong to an age of ignorance4 ,with the dawn of knowledge they diminish4 ,in its meridian light they disappear4 ,the ,jews were eminently addicted to belief in miracles4 ,there was ,satanic miracle as well as divine2 nor can any distinction be drawn as a matter of evidence between the two4 ,as little can any distinction be drawn in point of evidence between the ,gospel miracles and the ecclesiastical miracles1 which nevertheless ,protestants reject4 ,the miracles of one sort1 the demoniac1 are bound up with the ,jewish belief in possession by personal devils1 from which all efforts to disentangle them so as to resolve them into cures of lunacy by moral influence are vain4 ,the four ,gospels and the ,acts1 which comprise the historic evidences1 are all anonymous1 all of uncertain authorship4 ,the first three ,gospels are evident incrustations upon an older document which is lost and about which nothing is known4 ,in not one of the five cases can the existence of the book be traced to the time of the events or a time so near the events as to preclude the growth of fable in a highly superstitious and totally uncritical age4 ,the presentation of ,christ's character and teaching in the fourth ,gospel1 which is ,alexandrian1 is far from identical with the presentation in the first three ,gospels1 which are ,jewish4 ,there are irreconcilable discrepancies between the ,gospels as to matters of fact1 notably in regard to the genealogy of ,christ1 the length of his mission1 the ,last ,supper1 the day of the ,crucifixion1 the details of the ,resurrection and the ,ascension4 ,such miracles as the miraculous darkness1 the earthquake1 the rending of the veil of the ,temple1 the opening of the tombs and the apparition of the dead in the streets of ,jerusalem1 being totally unconfirmed by history or by any recorded effect1 stagger belief4 ,such testimony as ,st4 ,paul bears to the ,resurrection is second hand1 is that of a convert in the ecstasy of conversion1 and is manifestly uncritical4 ,his own enthusiasm is intelligible on merely human grounds4 ,we may be sure that had ,god become incarnate to save man1 absolutely conclusive proof of that fact would have been vouchsafed4 ,but the proof is not sufficient to establish anything not otherwise perfectly credible1 far less to establish the miraculous ,birth1 the ,resurrection1 and the ,incarnation4 ,such in broad outline is the case of ,rationalism against ,supernatural ,religion presented by the work just mentioned and its allies4 ,the effects are visible even in ,high ,church writings4 ,in the writings of liberals1 of course1 they are still more visible4 ,jowett had come to the conclusion that our sources of knowledge about ,christ had been reduced to a single document1 no longer in existence1 which formed the basis of the first three ,gospels4 ,the desire to minimize the supernatural and throw it into the background1 bringing the personal character of ,christ and his ethical teaching into the foreground1 is now manifest in ,english1 as it has long been in ,german1 divines4 ,it is conspicuous in the very popular and colorably orthodox works of ,dr4 ,farrar4 ,in his ,life of ,lives the supernatural has little place4 ,there is an evident tendency throughout to disentangle from it the character and moral teaching4 ,responsibility for belief in the ,godhead of ,christ seems to rest on the ,nicene ,council4 ,in the ,life of ,christ we see reduced to a natural occurrence the miracle of ,gadara1 where the devils cast out of the men enter into the herd of swine4 ,it is needless to say that with the miraculous element of these occurrences their value as evidence for the supernatural disappears4 ,scotland generally remained fast bound by her ,westminster ,confession4 ,there had been a period of liberalism marked by the appearance of 8,jupiter0 ,carlyle2 ,robertson1 the historian2 ,dugald ,stewart1 and other philosophers and men of mind4 ,but the ,church of ,scotland being democratic1 its faith was in the keeping of the people1 who were impervious to criticism and naturally opposed to innovation4 ,at last1 however1 the thaw came1 hastened perhaps by the collision between the state ,church of ,scotland and the ,free ,church4 ,the ,westminster ,confession1 it seems1 has now been tacitly laid aside1 and ,scotch theology has had its ,robertson ,smith1 whose critical views on the ,old ,testament earned him removal from his professorial chair4 ,another book which in its day startled the world and awakened all the echoes of orthodox alarm was ,buckle's ,history of ,civilization1 in which the characters of nations and the progress of humanity were traced to physical influences1 excluding the moral and by implication the theistic element4 ,its thesis was supported by an overwhelming display of learning4 ,though not expressly1 it was in its tenor hostile to religious belief4 ,of ,buckle's work less is now heard1 but it had an influence in its day1 perhaps more in ,america than in its native land4 ,americans1 it seems1 were captured both by the boldness of the theory and by the imposing display of erudition4 ,in the line of learned and dispassionate research ,france has produced ,renan1 whose ,life of ,jesus especially made a vast impression on ,europe1 and still probably exercises an influence by virtue not only of the boldness of the speculation and the intense interest of the subject1 but of the extreme beauty of the style4 ,the work1 however1 is one in which imagination acts strongly on history4 ,it lacks critical basis2 not that the author fails fully to set out his authorities1 but that in his narrative he fails to discriminate among them4 ,one incident is treated as real1 another as mythical1 to suit the requirements of poetical conception1 without reason assigned for the distinction4 ,there seems no reason1 for example1 why the miracle of the raising of ,lazarus should be treated as historical1 though in the sense of imposture or illusion1 while other miracles are treated as totally unhistoric4 ,nor is the portrait free from a ,french and slightly sensuous cast4 ,from the whole body of ,renan's histories of ,israel1 of ,christ1 and of the early ,church the supernatural is entirely excluded4 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,church has not suffered from criticism--historical1 literary1 or scientific--in the same way as the ,protestant ,churches1 that is1 internally1 because it depends not so much on intellectual conviction as on ecclesiastical organization1 and rests comparatively little on the authority of the ,bible4 ,its priesthood has not been affected like the clergy of the ,church of ,england or the ministries of the ,protestant ,churches4 ,but it has everywhere been losing the educated classes1 or retained a part of them1 not so much from conviction--still less from speculative conviction--as because its alliance is congenial to political and social reaction4 ,its inability to come to terms with science has been shown by the recent case of ,st4 ,george ,mivart1 and scientific eminence among ,roman ,catholics is rare4 ,in ,italy1 the centre of the system1 while the poorer classes still flock to the liquefaction of the blood of ,st4 ,januarius at ,naples or the exudation of the bones of ,st4 ,andrew at ,amalfi1 still climb the ,holy ,staircase on their knees or make pilgrimages to the ,house of ,loretto1 the general tone of intelligence is described as sceptical1 though aristocratic families1 more especially those of ,papal creation1 adhere to the ,papacy on political and social rather than on religious grounds4 ,near to the shrine of ,ignatius ,loyola stands the statue of ,giordano ,bruno1 on the spot of his martyrdom by fire1 8dedicated to him by the age which he foresaw40 ,attempts have been made to liberalize the ,church of ,rome and enable it to float with the current of the day1 but they have failed4 ,pio ,nono for a time put himself at the head of the popular and liberal movement in ,italy4 ,but he soon found1 as ,carlyle said1 that it was an alarming undertaking4 ,lamennais's attempt at liberalization ended1 after a long intellectual agony1 in his own secession4 ,the combined attempt of ,lacordaire to liberalize ecclesiastically1 and of ,montalembert to liberalize politically1 had a scarcely less melancholy result2 both of them died under the shadow of ,papal displeasure or of that of the ,jesuit party1 by which the ,papacy was controlled4 ,the defiantly reactionary spirit of ,ultramontanism de ,maistre has prevailed4 ,the ,jesuit has ruled at the ,vatican4 ,under his guidance the ,papacy has proclaimed the infallibility of the ,pope and the ,immaculate ,conception of the ,virgin1 thus breaking completely and finally with reason and with all who1 like the 8,old ,catholics0 in ,germany1 remained in some degree within that pale4 ,it has gained in its own despite in respectability and influence by deprivation of its temporal power1 against which the ,prisoner of the ,vatican still hopelessly protests4 ,in ,france the national religion1 abolished and persecuted by the ,jacobins1 was restored for a political purpose by ,napoleon4 ,the new ,charlemagne was requited with the degradation of the ,pope1 who came to ,paris to crown him on the morrow of the murder of the ,duc d',enghien and broke the best traditions of the ,holy ,see by failing to veto the divorce from ,josephine4 ,identified with political reaction under the restored ,bourbons1 the ,church nearly suffered wreck in the revolution by which they were overthrown4 ,she remained the object of intense and persecuting hatred to the revolutionary and republican party4 ,plaintively1 when the ,orleans monarchy fell1 she chanted ,domine salvum fac populum4 ,joyously1 when the ,empire succeeded1 she chanted ,domine salvum fac ,imperatorem4 ,but the ,empire in its turn fell4 ,the ,church has continued to ally herself with political reaction and aristocratic hostility to the ,republic1 though she has latterly been receiving hints from the ,vatican that the ,republic is strong1 that the monarchical and imperial pretenders both are weak4 ,the consequence is a violence of hostility on the part of the ,radicals and ,socialists which assails not only monastic fraternities1 but educational institutions and even charitable institutions in clerical hands1 and has produced an infidel literature carrying blasphemy to the height almost of frenzy and culminating in a comic ,life of ,christ4 ,the official world of ,france is almost formally infidel1 and a religious expression would be very injurious to a politician4 ,on the other hand1 the ,church braves and exasperates public reason with apparitions of the ,virgin and the miracles of ,lourdes4 ,over most of the women1 the priest still holds sway4 ,of the men1 not many are seen in churches4 ,the general attitude of the educated towards religion seems to be not so much that of hostility as that of total indifference1 a state of estrangement more hopeless than hostility itself4 ,there is in ,france a ,protestant ,church1 of which ,guizot was an eminent member1 and which in his time was renewing its life4 ,but there was a schism in it between an evangelical party and a party which was entirely rationalist1 ,guizot belonging to the first1 his son-in-law to the second2 and rationalism seems to have prevailed4 ,with the ,protestant party of ,france was allied an evangelical party in ,switzerland1 of which ,vinet was the most eloquent divine4 ,but in ,vinet1 as in liberal divines generally1 we find an inclination to rest on the spiritual rather than on the supernatural4 ,in the city of ,calvin generally opinions appear to reign more opposed to the religion of ,calvin than those for which he burned ,servetus4 ,but of the disintegrating forces criticism--the ,higher ,criticism as it is the fashion to call it--has by no means been the only one4 ,another1 and perhaps in recent times the more powerful1 has been science1 from which ,voltaire and the earlier sceptics received little or no assistance in their attacks2 for they were unable to meet even the supposed testimony of fossils to the ,flood4 ,it is curious that the bearing of the ,newtonian astronomy on the ,biblical cosmography should not have been before perceived2 most curious that it should have escaped ,newton himself4 ,his system plainly contravened the idea which made the earth the centre of the universe1 with heaven above and hell below it1 and by which the cosmography alike of the ,old and the ,new ,testament is pervaded4 ,yet the ,star of ,bethlehem remained little disturbed as an article of faith4 ,the first destructive blow from the region of science was perhaps dealt by geology1 which showed that the earth had been gradually formed1 not suddenly created1 that its antiquity immeasurably transcended the orthodox chronology1 and that death had come into the world long before man4 ,geologists1 scared by the echoes of their own teaching1 were fain to shelter themselves under allegorical interpretations of ,genesis totally foreign to the intentions of the writer2 making out the 8days0 of ,creation to be ons1 a version which1 even if accepted1 would not have accounted for the entrance of death into the world before the creation of man4 ,those who attended the lectures of ,buckland and other geologists of that generation well recollect the shifts to which science had recourse in its efforts to avoid collision with the cosmogony supposed to have been dictated by the ,creator to the reputed author of the ,pentateuch4 ,that the narrative of ,genesis could hold its ground so long against science was due at once to its dignity1 which earned for it the praise of ,longinus1 and to its approximation to scientific truth in describing the universe as the work of a single mind4 ,these characteristics have even in the day of geology and ,darwin raised up for it such an apologist as ,mr4 ,gladstone1 whose defence1 however1 amounts to this1 that the ,creator1 in giving an account of his own work to ,moses1 came remarkably near the truth4 ,the grand catastrophe1 however1 was the discovery of ,darwin4 ,this assailed the belief that man was a distinct creation1 apart from all other animals1 with an immortal soul specially breathed into him by the author of his being4 ,it showed that he had been developed by a natural process out of lower forms of life4 ,it showed that instead of a fall of man there had been a gradual rise1 thus cutting away the ground of the ,redemption and the ,incarnation1 the fundamental doctrines of the orthodox creed4 ,for the hypothesis of creation generally was substituted that of evolution by some unknown but natural force4 ,not only to revealed or supernatural but to natural religion a heavy blow was dealt by the disclosure of wasted ons and abortive species which seem to preclude the idea of an intelligent and omnipotent designer4 ,the chief interpreters of science in its bearing on religion were1 in ,england1 ,tyndall and ,huxley4 ,tyndall always declared himself a materialist1 though no one could less deserve the name if it implied anything like grossness or disregard of the higher sentiments4 ,he startled the world by his declaration that matter contained the potentiality of all life1 an assertion which1 though it has been found difficult to prove experimentally1 there can be less difficulty in accepting1 since we see life in rudimentary forms and in different stages of development4 ,huxley wielded a trenchant pen and was an uncompromising servant of truth4 ,a bitter controversy between him and ,owen arose out of ,owen's tendency to compromise4 ,he came at one time to the extreme conclusion that man was an automaton1 which would have settled all religious and moral questions out of hand2 but in this he seemed afterwards to feel that he had gone too far4 ,an automaton automatically reflecting on its automatic character is a being which seems to defy conception4 ,the connection of action with motive1 of motive with character and circumstance1 is what nobody doubts2 but the precise nature of the connection1 as it is not subject1 like a physical connection1 to our inspection1 defies scrutiny1 and our consciousness1 which is our only informant1 tells us that our agency in some qualified sense is free4 ,materialists or physicists such as ,tyndall and ,huxley1 or their counterparts on the ,continent1 would console us for the loss of religion by substituting the majesty of law4 ,but the idea of law implies a law-giver or an intelligent and authoritative imponent of some kind4 ,there is no majesty in a mere sequence1 even the most invariable and on the largest scale1 the existence of which alone physical science can prove4 ,the all-embracing philosophy of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer excludes not only the supernatural but theism in its ordinary form4 ,yet theism in a subtle form may be thought to lurk in it4 8,by continually seeking10 he says1 8to know1 and being continually thrown back with a deepened conviction of the impossibility of knowing1 we may keep alive the consciousness that it is alike our highest wisdom and our highest duty to regard that through which all things exist as the ,unknowable40 ,in this and subsequent passages he evidently looks upon the ,unknowable as an object of reverence1 otherwise it would hardly be our highest duty to regard it as that through which all things exist1 or to maintain any particular attitude towards it4 ,but ,unknowableness in itself excites no reverence1 even though it be supposed infinite and eternal4 ,nothing excites our reverence but a person1 or at least a ,moral ,being4 ,there lingers in ,mr4 ,spencer's mind the belief that the present limit of our knowledge is the veil of the ,deity4 ,had the ,darwinian discoveries been known to ,schopenhauer they would have conspired with the earlier discoveries of science and with his pitiless survey of the human lot to confirm him in the belief that this was the worst of all possible worlds4 ,amid the general distraction even pessimism has found adherents1 and a ,european version of ,buddhism promising final relief from the miseries of conscious existence has been accepted as an anodyne by troubled minds4 ,positivism1 the work of ,comte1 totally discards belief in ,god and treats theism in all its forms as merely a mode of contemplating phenomena and a step in the course of human progress4 ,yet the ,positivist feels the need of a religion1 and for the worship of ,god he substitutes the worship of ,humanity4 ,humanity is an abstraction and an imperfect abstraction1 the course of the human race having not yet been run4 ,it cannot hear prayer or respond in any way to adoration4 ,the adherents of ,comte's religion1 therefore1 are few1 though those of his philosophy are more numerous1 and the religious ,comtists appear to be rather enthusiasts of ,humanity than worshippers of the abstraction4 ,a conspicuous though equivocal place among the defenders of revealed religion in ,england was held by ,mansel1 professor of moral and metaphysical philosophy at ,oxford and afterwards dean of ,st4 ,paul's4 ,attempting in his ,bampton lectures to make philosophy fall on its own sword1 he fell on his own sword in the attempt4 ,he maintained that ,god1 being absolute1 could not be apprehended by the finite intelligence of man1 and that the finite morality of man was not the same as the absolute morality of ,god4 ,hence the passages of the ,bible which seemed to conflict with human morality really transcended it and were moral miracles4 ,in this ,mansel was reviving the theory of ,archbishop ,king and ,bishop ,browne1 who had maintained that our knowledge of ,god was not actual1 but merely analogous4 ,the inference was promptly drawn by ,mansel's opponents that what could not be apprehended could not be matter of belief1 and that he had therefore cut away the possibility of belief in ,god4 ,they even contended that he was too anti-theistic1 since he did away with all possibility of reverence for the ,unknown4 ,to deny the identity of human with divine morality and assert that what was immoral with man was moral with ,god was to sever the moral relation between ,god and man1 and1 in effect1 to destroy morality altogether4 ,we could conceive of only one morality1 and acts ascribed to ,god which violated that morality must be to us immoral4 8,if10 said ,john ,stuart ,mill in the fervor of ethical protest1 8an ,almighty ,being tells me that ,i shall call that righteous which is wicked or go to hell1 to hell ,i will go40 ,to meet the inroads of science on ,biblical cosmogony and cosmography recourse was had to allegorical interpretation4 ,but allegorical interpretation cannot be forced upon a writer when it manifestly is not in his mind4 ,the writer or writers of ,genesis undeniably intended his or their statements to be taken literally4 ,they meant that the earth was really created in six days1 as the ,fourth ,commandment assumes2 that the formation of ,eve out of a rib of ,adam1 the temptation of ,eve by the serpent1 and all the actions of the anthropomorphic ,god1 who walks in the garden at evening and makes garments for ,adam and ,eve1 were actual events4 ,to foist upon them allegorical interpretation is to falsify their testimony4 ,besides1 instead of having the facts of the creation revealed to us we are left to interpret allegory at a venture4 ,recourse has been had to the theory of partial inspiration1 admitting historical and even moral errors in ,scripture1 but setting them down to the human element in the composition1 which has to be recognized without prejudice to that element which remains divine4 ,such a collaboration of infallibility with fallibility1 both historical and moral1 is a desperate hypothesis1 especially when the object was to reveal vital truths to man4 ,nor could man distinguish the human element from the divine without being himself inspired and thus above the need of revelation4 ,a condescension of the divine to the primitive shortcomings and aberrations of humanity is a solution surely opposed to any conceivable purpose of revelation4 ,another line of defence has been the hypothesis1 which may be called quasi-inspiration1 reducing the inspiration of the ,scriptures to a supreme degree of the same sort of inspiration which we recognize in a great poet or a great author of any kind4 ,this is mere playing with the term 8inspiration10 and little better than an equivoque4 ,it may be1 and we hope it is1 true that the ,author of our being manifests ,himself in whatever is morally grand and elevating4 ,but this belief is very different from a belief in the special inspiration of the ,bible4 ,evolution1 again1 which at first was repelled as atheistic1 is now adopted by some as the key to revelation and the solution of all difficulties connected with it4 ,this would make ,god in ,his revelation of ,himself to man1 without apparent motive1 subject ,himself to a physical or quasi-physical law1 the knowledge of which has been withheld from man till the present time4 ,an imperfect revelation of the divine character1 one for example which should exhibit the justice of ,god without ,his mercy1 would be a deception of man instead of a revelation4 ,besides1 evolution repels finality1 and we could have no assurance that the manifestation of the divine nature in ,christ and the ,gospel would be final4 ,it is needless to say how manifestly all these theories have their origin in controversial necessity1 how totally alien they are to the view taken hitherto by the ,christian ,churches of the ,scriptures1 and how unlikely it is that ,god1 in revealing ,himself to man for the purpose of human salvation1 should have chosen a method such as would entail inevitable misconstruction for many centuries and postpone the true interpretation of ,his character and dealings to an age of human criticism and science4 ,the ethics of ,christianity have hitherto comparatively escaped systematic criticism and are still generally and officially professed4 ,an appeal to the principles of the ,sermon on the ,mount continues to command formal respect4 ,but ,christ's view of this world as evil and his renunciation of it for the ,kingdom of ,god have been practically laid aside by all but specially religious men4 ,christ's moral code was1 in its direct bearing1 only personal or social1 politics and commerce not having come within the view of the teacher of ,galilee4 ,in regard to public and international concerns1 the abjuration of his principles is most striking4 ,in that sphere ,christian meekness1 mercy1 and self-sacrifice are being openly superseded by maxims drawn from the ,darwinian ,struggle for ,existence and by avowals of the right of the strong4 ,even professed ministers of ,christ have been pandering to ,imperialism and the lust of war4 ,in truth1 by a strange turn of events1 ,christian ethics1 in questions between nation and nation and in questions concerning humanity at large1 have been passing out of the hands of the orthodox teachers of supernatural ,christianity into those of men who recognize only the human character and ethical teachings of life4 ,professor ,seeley in his earlier days had made a great impression with his ,ecce ,homo1 an attempt to bring the character of ,christ nearer to the heart of humanity4 ,the work was decidedly pietist2 yet a rationalizing tendency was scented in it by the ,evangelicals1 whose leader1 ,lord ,shaftesbury1 denounced it4 ,its author promised a theology4 ,but when1 after years of reflection and subjection to the influences of a moving time1 the theology came1 under the title of ,natural ,religion1 it was a total disappointment4 ,religion was reduced by it to enthusiasm1 not exclusively ,christian or even theistic1 but of any kind1 such as enthusiastic love of country or of art4 ,minds of the finer cast have preserved the religious spirit1 while they have thrown off the shackles of creed and even regarded the whole religious question as matter of doubt and suspense4 8,there lives more faith in honest doubt1 ,believe me1 than in half the creeds40 ,this is the pervading spirit of ,tennyson's poems1 and of such a work as ,amiel's diary1 but it must manifestly be confined to a circle of minds such as those of ,tennyson and ,amiel4 ,agnosticism is the condition into which a large number of educated minds have been more or less consciously passing or drifting4 ,but while in some of them a religious spirit still prevails and the hope is cherished of a new religious dawn1 others seem to have finally settled in the conviction that theological inquiry is hopeless and that our knowledge must forever be bounded by that which our senses and science tell us about the laws or forces of our own world4 ,reluctance to give up belief in the unseen world and perhaps still more unwillingness to think that the loved ones who are lost by death are lost forever have given birth to ,spiritualism4 ,it will hardly be thought necessary to comment on an illusion which has been so often and so decisively exposed4 ,its very name is belied when the spirits have to materialize before they can make their existence known or hold converse with those who evoke them4 ,the alleged communications from the spirit world through such a medium as ,planchette have been trivial1 almost fatuous4 ,it is now forgotten that the movement began with table-turning1 as though spirits had a special affinity for tables4 ,among the anti-theistic1 or at least the anti-ecclesiastical1 influences and the solvents of our religious system may be reckoned the foundation of systems of morality independent of the divine sanction4 ,paley's definition of virtue is 8the doing good to mankind in obedience to the will of ,god and for the sake of everlasting happiness40 ,this is the theistic view4 ,opposed to it is the ,utilitarian system1 generally connected with ,bentham's name1 which finds the sole and sufficient motive and reward of virtue in the promotion of our well-being here4 ,so long as a system aims at perfection and beauty of character which transcend temporal happiness there is in the philosophy a theistic element1 patent or latent4 ,but of perfection and beauty of character the ,utilitarian philosophy in its thorough-going form takes no account4 ,the weakening of religious belief as a social influence on the conservative side is very marked and excites the fears of statesmen1 some of whom1 even if they are ,protestants1 are inclined to look with complacency on the ,papacy as a bulwark against social revolution4 ,the drudge rested in dull contentment with his lot while he could believe that hereafter the parts of ,dives and ,lazarus would be reversed and full amends would be made to him for his privations in this life4 ,this hope having vanished1 he is resolved1 if he can1 to have a share of the good things of the present world4 ,that this sentiment helps to set seething the caldron of socialistic and communistic agitation1 all who are familiar with labor literature must be aware4 ,it would probably be found that anarchism and atheism generally went together4 ,as the natural consequence of the loosened hold of religion over the nations1 there has been a general tendency in ,europe towards disestablishment4 ,in ,italy1 the seat of the ,papacy1 disestablishment is complete4 ,in ,spain1 while ,catholicism is still recognized as the exclusive religion of the nation1 the immense revenues of the clergy have been secularized1 monasteries have been dissolved1 and religion has been almost reduced to a department of the state4 ,in ,france the process has gone still further than in ,spain1 and religion may almost be said to be not only a department1 but a despised department1 of the state4 ,in ,ireland the state ,church has been disestablished4 ,a bill has been brought in for the disestablishment of the ,church in ,wales1 and in ,england disestablishment seems to be approaching1 its advent being hastened by the collision of ritualism with the anti-,roman and anti-sacerdotal spirit of the nation4 ,popular education has everywhere been largely secularized1 and that process is still going on4 ,sunday-schools or other secondary influences can scarcely countervail the general banishment of religion from the training of the child4 ,religion passed from old to ,new ,england in the form of a refugee ,protestantism of the most intensely ,biblical and the most austere kind4 ,it had1 notably in ,connecticut1 a code of moral and social law which1 if fully carried into effect1 must have fearfully darkened life4 ,it produced in ,jonathan ,edwards the philosopher of ,calvinism1 from the meshes of whose predestinarian logic it has been found difficult to escape1 though all such reasonings are practically rebutted by our indefeasible consciousness of freedom of choice and of responsibility as attendant thereon4 ,new ,england ,puritanism was intolerant1 even persecuting2 but the religious founder and prophet of ,rhode ,island proclaimed the principles of perfect toleration and of the entire separation of the ,church from the state4 ,the ice of ,new ,england ,puritanism was gradually thawed by commerce1 non-,puritan immigration from the old country1 and social influences1 as much as by the force of intellectual emancipation2 though in founding universities and schools it had in fact prepared for its own ultimate subversion4 ,unitarianism was a half-way house through which ,massachusetts passed into thorough-going liberalism such as we find in ,emerson1 ,thoreau1 and the circle of ,brook ,farm2 and afterwards into the iconoclasm of ,ingersoll4 ,the only ,protestant ,church of much importance to which the ,new ,world has given birth is the ,universalist1 a natural offspring of democratic humanity revolting against the belief in eternal fire4 ,enthusiasm unilluminated may still hold its camp-meetings and sing 8,rock of ,ages0 in the grove under the stars4 ,the main support of orthodox ,protestantism in the ,united ,states now is an off-shoot from the old country4 ,it is ,methodism1 which1 by the perfection of its organization1 combining strong ministerial authority with a democratic participation of all members in the active service of the ,church1 has so far not only held its own but enlarged its borders and increased its power2 its power1 perhaps1 rather than its spiritual influence1 for the time comes when the fire of enthusiasm grows cold and class meetings lose their fervor4 ,the membership is mostly drawn from a class little exposed to the disturbing influences of criticism or science2 nor has the education of the ministers hitherto been generally such as to bring them into contact with the arguments of the sceptic4 ,the character and intensity of the movement in ,europe have been greatly influenced by the existence of state ,churches and the degrees of obnoxious privilege which the state ,churches severally have possessed4 ,where the yoke of the establishment was heavy1 as in ,france under the ,bourbons1 free-thought has been lashed into fury2 where1 as in ,england1 the ecclesiastical polity has been comparatively mild1 it has taken the gentler form of evangelical dissent4 ,in the ,united ,states at the beginning of the last century there were faint relics of state ,churches1 ,churches1 that is1 recognized and protected1 though not endowed1 by the state4 ,but there has been little to irritate scepticism or provoke it to violence of any kind1 and the transition has accordingly been tranquil4 ,speculation1 however1 has now arrived at a point at which its results in the minds of the more inquiring clergy come into collision with the dogmatic creeds of their ,churches and their ordination tests4 ,especially does awakened conscience rebel against the ironclad ,calvinism of the ,westminster ,confession4 ,hence attempts1 hitherto baffled1 to revise the creeds2 hence heresy trials1 scandalous and ineffective4 ,who can undertake to say how far religion now influences the inner life of the ,american people8 ,outwardly life in the ,united ,states1 in the ,eastern ,states at least1 is still religious4 ,churches are well maintained1 congregations are full1 offertories are liberal4 ,it is still respectable to be a church-goer4 ,anglicanism1 partly from its connection with the ,english hierarchy1 is fashionable among the wealthy in cities4 ,we note1 however1 that in all pulpits there is a tendency to glide from the spiritual into the social1 if not into the material2 to edge away from the pessimistic view of the present world with which the ,gospels are instinct2 to attend less exclusively to our future1 and more to our present state4 ,social reunions1 picnics1 and side-shows are growing in importance as parts of the ,church system4 ,jonathan ,edwards1 if he could now come among his people1 would hardly find himself at home4 ,the ,catholic ,church had come out to ,america in evil companionship with ,spanish conquest4 ,together with the ,spanish colonies she decayed1 and her history during the past century in ,south ,america appears to have been that of a miserable decline which could add nothing to religious thought or history4 ,mexican liberalism1 under the presidency of ,juarez1 cast off allegiance to her1 and a priest dared not show himself in the dress of his order on the street4 ,in ,french ,canada the ,catholic ,church has reigned over a simple peasantry1 her own from the beginning1 thoroughly submissive to the priesthood1 willing to give freely of its little store for the building of churches which tower over the hamlet1 and sufficiently firm in its faith to throng to the fane of ,st4 ,anne ,beaupr for miracles of healing4 ,she has kept the habitant ignorant and unprogressive1 but made him1 after her rule1 moral1 insisting on early marriage1 on remarriage1 controlling his habits and amusements with an almost ,puritan strictness4 ,probably ,french ,canada has been as good and as happy as anything the ,catholic ,church had to show4 ,the priesthood was of the ,gallican school4 ,it lived on good terms with the state1 though in ,french ,canada the state was a conqueror4 ,from fear of ,new ,england ,puritanism it had kept its people loyal to ,great ,britain during the ,revolutionary war4 ,from fear of ,french atheism it kept its people loyal to ,great ,britain during the war with ,france4 ,it sang ,te ,deum for ,trafalgar4 ,so things were till the other day4 ,but then came the ,jesuit4 ,he got back1 from the subserviency of the ,canadian politicians1 the lands which he had lost after the conquest and the suppression of his ,order4 ,he supplanted the ,gallicans1 captured the hierarchy and prevailed over the great ,sulpician ,monastery in a struggle for the pastorate of ,montreal4 ,other influences have of late been working for change in a direction neither ,gallican nor ,jesuit4 ,railroads have broken into the rural seclusion which favored the ascendency of the priest4 ,popular education has made some way4 ,newspapers have increased in number and are more read4 ,the peasant has been growing restive under the burden of tithe and fabrique4 ,many of the habitants go into the ,northern ,states of the ,union for work1 and return to their own country bringing with them republican ideas4 ,americans who have been shunning continental union from dread of ,french-,canadian popery may lay aside their fears4 ,it was a critical moment for the ,catholic ,church when she undertook to extend her domain to the ,american ,republic4 ,she had there to encounter a genius radically opposed to her own4 ,the remnant of ,catholic ,maryland could do little to help her on her landing4 ,but she came in force with the flood of ,irish1 and afterwards of ,south ,german1 emigration4 ,how far she has been successful in holding these her lieges would be a question difficult to decide1 as it would involve a rather impalpable distinction between formal membership and zealous attachment4 ,that she loses the zealous attachment of a great part of them in two or three generations1 and that of the ,south ,germans more quickly than that of the ,irish1 is what you are commonly told4 ,conversions of native ,americans flying from the distractions of controversy to the repose of unity under authority there have been1 but the number probably has not been large4 ,in ,america1 as in ,england1 ,ritualism has served ,roman ,catholicism as a tender4 ,the critical question was how the religion of the ,middle ,ages could succeed in making itself at home under the roof of a democratic republic1 the animating spirit of which was freedom1 intellectual and spiritual as well as political1 while the wit of its people was proverbially keen and their nationality was jealous as well as strong4 ,the ,papacy may call itself universal2 in reality1 it is ,italian4 ,during its sojourn in the ,french dominions the ,popes were ,french2 otherwise they have been ,italians1 native or domiciled1 with the single exception of the ,flemish ,adrian ,,vi41 thrust into the chair of ,st4 ,peter by his pupil1 ,charles ,v41 and by the ,italians treated with contumely as an alien intruder4 ,the great majority of the ,cardinals always has been and still is ,italian4 ,national susceptibilities1 therefore1 were pretty sure to be aroused4 ,in meeting the difficulties of her new situation ,rome has shown a certain measure of pliability4 ,she has not thrust the intolerance and obscurantism of the encyclical in the face of the disciples of ,jefferson4 ,she has paid all due homage to republican institutions1 alien though they are to her own spirit1 as her uniform action in ,european politics hitherto has proved4 ,she has made little show of relics4 ,she has abstained from miracles4 ,the adoration of ,mary and the saints1 though of course fully maintained1 appears to be less prominent4 ,compared with the medival cathedral and its multiplicity of side chapels1 altars1 and images1 the cathedral at ,new ,york strikes one as the temple of a somewhat rationalized version4 ,against ,puritan intolerance of ,popery1 if any remnant of it remained1 the ,catholic vote has been a sufficient safeguard4 ,to part of the ,american people1 especially to wealthy ,new ,york1 the purple of the cardinalate and the pomp of ,catholic worship have of late been by no means uncongenial4 ,yet between the spirit of ,american nationality1 even in the most devout ,catholic1 and that of the ,jesuit or the native liegeman of ,rome1 there cannot fail to be an opposition more or less acute1 though it may be hidden as far as possible under a decent veil4 ,this was seen in the case of ,father ,hecker1 who had begun his career as a ,socialist at ,brook ,farm1 and1 as a convert to ,catholicism1 founded a missionary order1 the keynote of which was that 8man's life in the natural and secular order of things is marching towards freedom and personal independence40 ,this he described as a radical change1 and a radical change it undoubtedly was from the sentiments and the system of ,loyola4 ,condemnation by ,rome could not fail to follow4 ,education has evidently been the scene of a subterranean conflict between the ,jesuit and the more liberal1 or1 what is much the same thing1 the more ,american section4 ,the ,american and liberal head of a college has been deposed1 under decorous pretences1 it is true1 but still deposed4 ,envoys have come out from ,rome to arbitrate and compose4 ,some of the ,catholic prelates1 it appears1 are very willing to show their liberality by co-operating in charitable work with the clergy of ,protestant churches2 others decline that association4 ,one prelate1 at all events1 is an active politician and a conspicuous worshipper of the flag4 ,others strictly confine themselves to the ecclesiastical sphere4 ,the laity in general seem to take little account of these variations1 regarding them rather as personal peculiarities than as divisions of the ,church4 ,in the ,american or any other branch of the ,roman ,catholic ,church freedom of inquiry and advance in thought are of course impossible4 ,nothing is possible but immobility1 or reaction such as that of the ,syllabus4 ,dr4 ,brownson1 like ,hecker1 a convert1 showed after his conversion something of the spirit of free inquiry belonging to his former state1 though rather in the line of philosophy than in that of theology1 properly speaking4 ,but if he ever departed from orthodoxy he returned to it and made a perfectly edifying end4 ,in our survey of the religious world we are apt to leave out of sight a fourth part or more of ,christendom4 ,when the ,anglican ,bishops some years ago were challenged to say whether they were or were not in communion with the ,eastern ,church1 that is with the ,church of ,russia1 their answer was in effect that the ,eastern ,church was so remote that they could not tell4 ,the ,russian ,church has been and is1 in truth1 remote from the life1 the progress1 the thought1 and the controversies of the other members of ,christendom4 ,it has passed through no crisis1 undergone no change analogous either to the ,reformation or to the ,roman ,catholic reaction4 ,such conflicts or controversies as it has had have been ceremonial1 not doctrinal or spiritual4 ,its great reformer1 if he can be so called1 ,nicon1 was a thorough-going ceremonialist and initiated no doctrinal innovation4 ,the movement of its non-conformists1 the ,starovers1 is not a counterpart of that of ,protestant non-conformists1 but a ritualistic reaction4 ,it differs theologically from the ,roman ,catholic and the ,anglican churches on the article in the ,creed respecting the procession of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,but its more practical grounds of difference probably are its abhorrence of images and of instrumental music and its practice of baptism by immersion4 ,it is more sacramental than the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 administering the ,eucharist as well as baptism to infants4 ,while it abhors images1 it adores pictures1 provided they are archaic and not works of art1 having an instinctive perception of the tendency of art to open the door for humanity4 ,but it is less sacerdotal1 compulsory marriage of the clergy1 instead of celibacy1 being its rule4 ,monastic it is1 but its monachism is of the ,eastern and eremitic type1 not like the active monachism of the ,franciscan1 the ,dominican1 or the ,jesuit4 ,the ,russian ,church is intensely national1 a character stamped upon it by the long struggle for independence against the ,mohammedan ,tartars4 ,the head of the nation is the head of the ,church4 ,the ,czar is ,pope1 as the ,emperor practically was of that ,byzantine ,church of which the ,russian ,church is the daughter4 ,he presides over the ecclesiastical councils4 ,the abolition of the ,patriarchate removed the last rival of his power4 ,peter the ,great1 when asked to restore the office1 exclaimed1 8,i am your ,patriarch10 flung down his hunting knife on the table1 and said1 8,there is your ,patriarch40 ,attempts have been made both by ,gallicans and ,anglicans to negotiate a union with the ,eastern ,church as a counterpoise to the ,papacy4 ,but they have been baffled by the intense nationality and antiquated ritualism rather than by the difference about an article in the ,athanasian ,creed4 ,the upshot has been the intellectual immobility of the ,russian ,church1 whose compartment in the theological history of the last century is a blank4 ,such is the position in which at the close of the last century ,christendom seems to have stood4 ,outside the pale of reason--of reason2 we do not say of truth--were the ,roman ,catholic and ,eastern ,churches2 the ,roman ,catholic ,church resting on tradition1 sacerdotal authority1 and belief in present miracles2 the ,eastern ,church supported by tradition1 sacerdotal authority1 nationality1 and the power of the ,czar4 ,scepticism had not eaten into a ,church1 preserved1 like that of ,russia1 by its isolation and intellectual torpor2 though some wild sects had been generated1 and ,nihilism1 threatening with destruction the ,church as well as the state1 had appeared on the scene4 ,into the ,roman ,catholic ,church scepticism had eaten deeply1 and had detached from her1 or was rapidly detaching1 the intellect of educated nations1 while she seemed resolutely to bid defiance to reason by her ,syllabus1 her declaration of ,papal infallibility1 her proclamation of the ,immaculate ,conception of ,mary4 ,outside the pale of traditional authority and amenable to reason stood the ,protestant ,churches1 urgently pressed by a question as to the sufficiency of the evidences of supernatural ,christianity1 above all1 of its vital and fundamental doctrines3 the ,fall of ,man1 the ,incarnation1 and the ,resurrection4 ,the ,anglican ,church1 a fabric of policy compounded of ,catholicism without a ,pope and ,biblical ,protestantism1 was in the throes of a struggle between those two elements1 largely antiquarian and of little importance compared with the vital question as to the evidences of revelation and the divinity of ,christ4 ,in the ,protestant churches generally stheticism had prevailed4 ,even the most austere of them had introduced ,church art1 flowers1 and tasteful music2 a tendency which1 with the increased craving for rhetorical novelty in the pulpit1 seemed to show that the simple ,word of ,god and the glad tidings of salvation were losing their power and that human attractions were needed to bring congregations together4 ,the last proposal had been that dogma1 including the belief in the divinity of ,christ1 having become untenable should be abandoned1 and that there should be formed a ,christian ,church with a ritual and sacraments1 but without the ,christian creed1 though still looking up to ,christ as its founder and teacher2 an organization which1 having no definite object and being held together only by individual fancy1 would not be likely to last long4 ,the task now imposed on the liegemen of reason seems to be that of reviewing reverently1 but freely and impartially1 the evidences both of supernatural ,christianity and of theism1 frankly rejecting what is untenable1 and if possible laying new and sounder foundations in its place4 ,to estimate the gravity of the crisis we have only to consider to how great an extent our civilization has hitherto rested on religion4 ,it may be found that after all our being is an insoluble mystery4 ,if it is1 we can only acquiesce and make the best of our present habitation2 but who can say what the advance of knowledge may bring forth8 ,effort seems to be the law of our nature1 and if continued it may lead to heights beyond our present ken4 ,in any event1 unless our inmost nature lies to us1 to cling to the untenable is worse than useless2 there can be no salvation for us but in truth4 ,,goldwin ,,smith4 ,,the ,,end ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained2 occurrences of inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed4 ,redundant chapter titles have been removed4 ,the name 8,van 't ,hoff0 always was misprinted as 8,van't ,hoff0 in the original book4 ,that misprint has been retained here4 ,page #dj of the ,chemistry chapter uses ,dalton's symbols for the four atoms in five molecules3 a circle with horizontal lines 7hl71 a circle with vertical lines 7vl71 a circle with a dot in its center 7cd71 and a hollow circle 7hc74 ,if your text viewer cannot display those symbols1 the five molecules1 in sequence1 are3 hl-cd1 cd-vl-cd1 vl-hc1 hc-vl-hc1 and cd-hc4 ,other pages in the ,chemistry chapter contain diagrams of molecular structures4 ,those diagrams only display properly when a fixed-width font is used4 ,subscripts in the ,chemistry chapter are shown full-height1 e4g41 ,h#b,o4 ,text sometimes expresses fractions with a dash instead of a slash4 ,that notation has been retained here4 ,page #df3 ,the original book used 8,zu0 as the symbol for zinc4 ,page #abb3 8entirely changed by0 was printed as 8charged02 changed here4 ,page #aci3 8barometric0 was printed as 8barometic02 changed here4