,transcriber's ,note4 ,apparent typographical errors have been corrected2 inconsistencies in the use of hyphens have been retained4 ,one oe ligature has been removed4 ,,common ,,sense ,,applied ,,to ,,religion2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,bible ,,and ,,the ,,people4 ,,by ,,catharine ,e4 ,,beecher4 ,,author ,,of ,,letters ,,to ,,the ,,people ,,on ,,health ,,and ,,happiness1 ,,physiology ,,and ,,calisthenics1 ,,domestic ,,economy1 ,,domestic ,,receipt-,,book1 c41 c4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,publishers1 ,,franklin ,,square4 ,,montreal3 ,,benjamin ,,dawson4 #aheg4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-seven1 by ,,harper ,,brothers1 in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york4 ,,to ,,the ,,people1 ,,as ,,the ,,safest ,,and ,,truest ,,interpreters ,,of ,,the ,,bible1 ,,and ,,to ,,woman1 ,,as ,,the ,,heaven-,,appointed ,,educator ,,of ,,mind1 ,,this ,,work ,is respectfully ,dedicated4 ,,index4 ,page ,introduction ix ,,chap4 ,i4 ,the ,grand ,questions of ,life #i ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,the ,principles of ,reason1 or ,intuitive ,truths #ad ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,sources of ,human ,knowledge #bi ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,of the ,knowledge gained by ,human ,experience in regard to the ,nature of ,mind and of the ,system of which it is a ,part #cb ,,chap4 ,v4 ,knowledge gained by ,reason and ,experience alone as to a ,future ,state #db ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,knowledge gained by ,reason and ,experience alone concerning the ,existence1 ,character1 and ,designs of the ,creator #dg ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,diversities in ,systems of ,mental ,philosophy #eb ,,chap4 ,,viii4 ,classification and ,description of the ,mental ,powers #ei ,,chap4 ,,ix4 ,sensation and ,perception #fd ,,chap4 ,x4 ,conception and ,memory #gi ,,chap4 ,,xi4 ,attention and ,abstraction #hc ,,chap4 ,,xii4 ,association #ic ,,chap4 ,,xiii4 ,imagination #ajb ,,chap4 ,,xiv4 ,judgment #ajf ,,chap4 ,,xv4 ,the ,susceptibilities #aji ,,chap4 ,,xvi4 ,the ,susceptibilities4 ,emotions of ,taste #abj ,,chap4 ,,xvii4 ,the ,moral ,susceptibilities #aci ,,chap4 ,,xviii4 ,the ,will #adi ,,chap4 ,,xix4 ,faith or ,belief #afe ,,chap4 ,,xx4 ,constitutional ,varieties of the ,human ,mind #age ,,chap4 ,,xxi4 ,habit #agh ,,chap4 ,,xxii4 ,mind as ,proof of its ,creator's ,designs #aij ,,chap4 ,,xxiii4 ,social and ,material ,proofs of the ,creator's ,designs #bjg ,,chap4 ,,xxiv4 ,right ,mode of securing the ,object for which ,mind was created #bab ,,chap4 ,,xxv4 ,wrong ,action of ,mind and its ,causes #bbj ,,chap4 ,,xxvi4 ,wrong ,action of ,mind and its ,results in this ,life #bbd ,,chap4 ,,xxvii4 ,wrong ,action of ,mind and its ,results in a ,future ,state #bcc ,,chap4 ,,xxviii4 ,character of the ,creator #bde ,,chap4 ,,xxix4 ,on ,perfect and ,imperfect ,minds #bej ,,chap4 ,,xxx4 ,on the probable ,existence and ,character of ,disembodied ,spirits #beh ,,chap4 ,,xxxi4 ,probabilities in regard to a ,revelation from the ,creator #bfa ,,chap4 ,,xxxii4 ,interpretation of ,language #bfe ,addenda to ,vol4 ,i4 #bha ,notes #ccg ,,introduction4 ,this work is the result of thirty years of devotion to the training of the human mind for the great end for which it was created4 ,early in that period it was felt that at the very foundation of such efforts were opposing theological theories1 that seemed at war with both the common sense and the moral sense of mankind4 ,in the progress of such duties1 a work was prepared on ,mental and ,moral ,science1 as a text-book for the institution under the care of the writer1 which was printed1 but never published4 ,after submitting this work to the criticism of a number of the leading minds of various schools and sects1 it was found to contain so much that might result in theological controversy1 that it was deemed modest and wise to wait until age1 experience1 and farther examination had lent their maturing influence4 ,after a delay of over a quarter of a century1 the conviction above stated not only remains1 but has been strengthened by the discussions and developments that have intervened in that period4 ,while the great practical truths both of natural and revealed religion have seemed constantly to be gaining a more controlling influence over the intellect and feelings of mankind1 the theological dogmas referred to have been more and more evaded or rejected1 even by those who receive and respect the ,bible as containing authentic and authoritative revelations from ,god4 ,at the same time1 there is apparent a manifest and strong tendency1 especially among the young and most highly-educated of both sexes1 to infidelity2 not to that species of a former age which involved a hatred and contempt for the ,bible1 nor to the entire rejection of it as a very respectable and useful collection of most interesting writings1 but to a rejection of it as a sure and authoritative guide in faith and morals4 ,though there may be other assignable causes for this1 it is certain that not the least powerful is the repellency of dogmas claimed to be contained in the ,bible1 which are revolting both to the intellect and to the moral nature of man4 ,instead of being able to meet their religious teachers with the assumption that all which they have felt to be contrary to reason1 to common sense1 and to common honesty is not contained in the ,sacred ,writings1 many have gradually drawn off to the religion of reason and nature1 and left the ,bible to theologians and the ,church4 ,at the same time1 there has been a new development of philanthropy1 in which those who either repudiate the ,bible as of any binding authority1 or disallow its commonly-accepted teachings1 are as prominent and earnest in works of benevolence as the most orthodox of any sect4 ,to these are added religious teachers1 who set forth the morality and benevolence demanded in the ,bible as obligatory1 and as satisfactorily deducible from the light of nature1 so that no revelation is needful to make them more so4 ,meantime1 in popular forms and by popular writers1 all the most plausible and startling difficulties that oppose the claims of the ,bible are widely disseminated1 while little is done to counteract these influences4 ,another class of religionists has also arisen1 that numbers probably its hundreds of thousands1 the ,spiritualists1 who rest their faith on a new species of so-called revelations1 which ordinarily clash with the accepted teachings of the ,bible1 and by vast numbers are received as of superior authority4 ,meantime the press and public lectures are extensively supplanting the pulpit as organs of moral and religious influence over large portions of the community1 while a large part of the most popular speakers and writers avowedly reject the ,bible as of any binding authority in deciding moral and religious questions4 ,at the same time1 there has arisen a freedom of investigation1 and an aversion to all traditional or conservative bonds1 such as probably never before was so universal and dominant in this nation1 especially among those religiously educated4 ,all these influences have combined to place the ,bible1 and the systems of theology that claim to be educed from it1 in entirely new relations4 ,nothing now is safe on the ground of tradition1 or of authority1 or of the reverence that belongs to age1 learning1 genius1 or experience4 ,every thing in religion1 as well as other matters1 is to stand on its own claims1 and not by any factitious supports4 ,in this state of the public mind1 the following considerations have had influence in leading to the presentation of the views contained in this volume4 ,it is the distinctive maxim of ,protestant ,christianity that every person is to be his own interpreter of the revelations of ,god contained in the ,bible1 responsible only to his ,maker4 ,this1 of course1 implies the practicability of a proper qualification for this duty in every individual1 so that no person shall necessarily be dependent on other minds for a correct knowledge of all that relates to his own duty and dangers4 ,it is manifest that the ,creator designed that woman should have the leading position as the educator of mind1 especially at that period when the habits and principles of life are formed4 ,this being so1 it is clear that it was designed that she should be qualified to gain by her own independent powers all that is revealed by ,god that will aid her in this great work4 ,the theological theories referred to1 as seemingly opposing the moral sense and common sense of mankind1 are those that relate to the foundation principle on which the training of mind is to start4 ,they involve the most practical questions of every-day life1 both as to individual responsibility and to the education of the young4 ,these theories1 then1 are to be examined and tested by the laity as much as by theologians1 and especially are they to be examined and decided on by woman1 as the heaven-appointed educator of infancy and childhood4 ,in this examination1 these theories are to be tested1 not by the decisions of ecclesiastical bodies1 nor by the writings of theologians1 but by those principles of reason and common sense1 and those laws of language1 which guide mankind in all other practical and personal duties4 ,in order to this1 these principles must be evolved and stated in simple and popular form1 for particular application on these questions2 for no man or woman can decide whether a thing agrees with1 or is contrary to the moral sense1 or to the principles of reason and common sense1 till they clearly perceive what those principles are1 and have learned to apply them appropriately4 ,the leading object of this volume is1 then1 to present these principles in a popular form1 and to make it apparent that they can be practically employed by the laity in deciding what is truth1 both as to the claims of the ,bible as containing authoritative revelations from the ,creator1 and also as to the true interpretation of it4 ,in asking the attention of the laity1 including her own sex1 to the discussion of topics which have heretofore been deemed the most difficult1 recondite1 and profound1 it is with the full conviction that most of the difficulties that heretofore have opposed such investigations have belonged1 not to the topics themselves1 but to the methods of discussion4 ,it is believed that1 though this small volume embraces most of those points in metaphysics which have been considered the most difficult1 there is not a page that can not be perfectly comprehended by any man or woman of only an ordinarily good education1 and with less intellectual effort than is demanded of little girls in acquiring an ability to parse the ,english language4 ,it is true that close thought and attention are requisite for a full appreciation of all in this volume2 but not more of these are required than the dignity and importance of the great topics involved properly demand4 ,in attempting what is here proposed1 it can be seen that there are great difficulties to be met4 ,as a general fact1 these subjects have not been presented in popular forms1 but have been confined to works of metaphysics and theology1 and there enveloped in scientific techniques and formulas not interesting or intelligible to the common mind4 ,for this reason1 it has been suggested that1 before presenting the abstract portion1 a practical illustration of the subject1 embodied in the history of the opinions of the author1 as they have been formed or modified by these principles1 would have far more effect on the class of readers for whom the work is written than the bare statement of principles and argument1 while it would certainly be more likely to be read4 ,it has been still farther urged that1 in attempting to controvert long-established theories1 embodied as a part of religious truth in the popular mind1 there will be an opposition of feeling to be overcome1 which needs a counterbalancing appeal to the feelings such as an individual history can best offer4 ,as to the propriety of such a measure1 it is now so common to offer autobiographies1 and histories of life and opinions by living authors1 that this will be no innovation on the customs of the literary world4 ,to this1 a more weighty consideration should be added1 and that is1 that all questions of propriety and of duty are regulated by circumstances of risk and danger4 ,a woman1 suddenly roused from sleep to save her children from the flames1 has a very different rule of propriety in appearing before the public from that demanded on ordinary occasions4 ,in this view1 a believer in the risks of the eternal loss of the soul must withhold nothing1 however sacred and cherished1 if there is the shadow of a probability that it will avail aught in aiding1 it may be1 but one struggling1 darkened mind in the death-agony of the soul4 ,from these considerations1 the writer has been led to prefix to the exhibition of principles and arguments of this work1 a mental history that shall particularly illustrate the subjects discussed4 ,the article was prepared for certain personal and family friends1 and is inserted very nearly in its original form4 ,,illustrative ,,mental ,,history4 ,i wish1 before publishing my forthcoming work1 to obtain the views of some of my theological friends as to certain phases of experience of my own mind1 and1 to a certain extent1 of other minds known to me4 ,my intellectual character was a singular compound of the practical and the imaginative4 ,in youth ,i had no love for study or for reading even1 excepting works of imagination4 ,don ,quixote1 the novel to which ,i first had access1 was nearly committed to memory1 as were a few other novels found at my grandmother's4 ,the poets1 both ancient and modern1 were always in reach1 and with these materials ,i early formed a habit of reverie and castle-building as my chief internal source of enjoyment4 ,with this was combined incessant activity in practical matters1 such as1 at first1 doll-dressing and baby-house building2 afterward drawing1 painting1 exploits of merriment1 practical jokes1 snow castles and forts1 summer excursions1 school and family drama-acting1 and the like4 ,till eighteen1 ,i never wrote any thing but a few letters and scraps of rhyme1 and the transforming of some stories into dramas for acting4 ,a kind teacher1 who sympathized in my strong love of the comic1 described me as the busiest of all creatures in doing nothing4 ,socially1 ,i was good-natured and sympathizing1 so that my jokes and tricks were never such as to tease or annoy others4 ,morally1 ,i had a strong sense of justice1 but was not naturally so conscientious as some of the other children4 ,add to these1 persevering energy1 great self-reliance1 and such cheerful hopefulness that the idea of danger or failure never entered my head4 ,even to this day1 perfect success and no mischances are always anticipated till reason corrects the calculation4 ,thus constituted1 my strict religious training made little impression1 for ,i rarely heard any thing of that which seemed so dull and unintelligible4 ,up to the age of sixteen my conceptions on this subject were about these3 that ,god made me and all things1 and was very great1 and wise1 and good2 that he knew all ,i thought and did2 that because ,adam and ,eve disobeyed him once only1 he drove them out of ,eden1 and then so arranged it that all their descendants would be born with wicked hearts1 and that1 though this did not seem either just or good1 it was so2 that ,i had such a wicked heart that ,i could not feel or act right in any thing till ,i had a new one2 that ,god only could give me a new heart2 that1 if ,i died without it1 ,i should go to a lake of fire and brimstone1 and be burned alive in it forever2 that ,jesus ,christ was very good1 and very sorry for us1 and came to earth1 and suffered and died to save us from this dreadful doom2 that revivals were times when ,god1 the ,holy ,spirit1 gave people new hearts2 that1 when revivals came1 it was best to read the ,bible1 and pray1 and go to meetings1 but that at other times it was of little use4 ,this last was not taught1 but was my own inference4 ,my mind turned from all this as very disagreeable4 ,when led by my parents and ,christian friends to it1 ,i tried to do as they told me1 because ,i saw they were anxious and troubled1 and ,i wished to relieve them4 ,two or three times1 when ,i saw my father so troubled1 ,i took ,doddridge's ,rise and ,progress of ,religion1 and tried to go through the process there laid down1 but with utter failure4 ,meantime1 ,i rarely heard any prayers or sermons1 and at fifteen ,i doubt if the whole of my really serious thoughts and efforts would1 except the above1 have occupied a whole hour4 ,in the earlier periods of my religious training1 my parents1 in their instructions1 and also my little hymns and catechisms1 made the impression that ,god loved little children1 and1 though he was angry when they did wrong1 he was pleased when they did right2 and1 as parental government was tender and loving1 my impression of the feelings of the heavenly ,parent were conformed to this1 my past experience4 ,but when1 in more mature years1 ,i came under the influence of revival preaching1 all this impression seemed to be reversed4 ,i was taught to look at ,god as a great moral governor1 whose chief interest was to sustain his law4 ,then there seemed to be two kinds of right and wrong1 the common and the evangelical4 ,according to this distinction1 ,i could not feel or do any thing that was right or acceptable to ,god till my birth-gift of a depraved heart was renewed by a special divine interposition4 ,meantime1 there did not seem to be any direct and practical way of securing this supernatural interference2 for it was to be the result1 not of any efforts of mine1 nor were any divine promises or encouragements offered to secure my efforts4 ,on the contrary1 the selection of the recipients of this favor was regulated by a divine decree of election1 without reference to any acts of a being who did nothing but evil1 and only evil1 till this favor was bestowed4 ,moreover1 all the exhortations to effort were based simply on the fact that1 ordinarily1 those who took a certain course were selected1 though ,i perceived that sometimes those who did the least were chosen1 while those who did the most were passed by4 ,it was this view of the case that had the chief influence in leading to an entire neglect of all religious concerns4 ,it was so nearly like a matter of mere chance1 and there seemed so little adaptation of means to ends1 that1 to one so hopeful1 and1 at the same time1 so practical1 there was very little motive of any kind to lead to a religious life4 ,the first real earnest feeling ,i ever had on this subject was when my tender mother died--such a mother as earth has seldom seen2 as strong in intellect as she was modest and gentle in manners1 and loving and sympathizing in heart4 ,she left seven children younger than myself1 one of them a babe1 and ,i only sixteen4 ,i really tried1 for some time1 to become a ,christian1 till the load of grief was alleviated by time1 and then such efforts ceased2 but these new responsibilities turned my practical habits into useful channels4 ,once after this1 when a revival seemed closing1 and my father expressed his distress for my indifference1 ,i told him ,i was so happy ,i could not do any thing but enjoy life1 and that nothing but trials and sorrow would do me any good4 ,tears came into his eyes as he said1 ,dear child1 must ,i die too8 ,the responsive tears came to my eyes1 but soon all was forgotten4 ,at this time my theory of morals was1 that to lie1 steal1 swear1 quarrel1 disobey parents1 and break the ,sabbath1 were sins for which ,i should feel guilty2 but for not becoming a ,christian1 when ,i could not understand how to do it1 never rested on my conscience as a sin1 but was felt to be simply a misfortune4 ,and ,i wondered1 if ,god desired that ,i should have a new heart1 and he only could give it1 why he did not do so4 ,this was the amount of my reasoning so far4 ,till nearly twenty1 ,i gained little knowledge except by intercourse with intelligent people1 for still ,i had no love for solid reading or study4 ,at about that age1 ,i remember turning over ,reid's work on ,mental ,science1 in which my mother had been deeply interested1 and wondering how people could read such stuff4 ,at twenty that betrothal took place1 so soon and so tragically ended6 ,it was the realization of all my favorite dreams of earthly bliss4 ,affection1 taste1 ambition1 every thing most desirable to me and to family friends1 seemed secured4 ,in a few months all was ended1 and in the most terrible and heart-rending manner4 ,after the first stunning effect was over1 the next feeling was1 ,this is that indispensable sorrow6 this is to save me from eternal death6 ,and so1 as soon as ,i could do any thing1 ,i began a course of religious reading1 prayer1 and mental conflict4 ,i tried to remedy that pernicious mental habit of reverie and castle-building2 ,i tried to do ,i knew not what in becoming a ,christian4 ,shut up in entire seclusion1 all my dearest hopes forever crushed1 without hope or object in life1 overwhelmed with grief1 horrified less at his dreadful death than at the awful apprehensions he himself had imparted that he was unprepared to die1 ,i spent week after week in reading the stern and powerful writings of ,president ,edwards1 ,dwight's ,system of ,theology1 and other similar works4 ,i hoped for nothing1 cared for nothing but to become a ,christian4 ,yet no one could tell me intelligibly how to do it1 while it was clear that all expected nothing from my efforts1 and that all was dependent on a divine efflatus that was to change the birth-gift of a depraved heart4 ,and yet ,i was told that the fault was all my own2 that it was my obstinate unwillingness to do what was required that alone made it needful for ,god to interfere4 ,this was urged as a doctrine from ,god1 and so1 though it seemed as if ,i was not only willing1 but that ,i longed for this change1 ,i submitted my humble intellect to ,his1 and owned that it must be so4 ,so passed several dark and weary months4 ,next1 ,i went to visit the parents of the friend ,i had lost4 ,here ,i read his private records of years of almost superhuman effort to govern his mind1 and to achieve the very thing ,i was laboring for1 and yet1 to his mind1 all ended in entire failure2 and this1 too1 without any murmuring1 or any accusation of any one but himself4 ,it was1 as he maintained1 because he was so ungrateful1 so hardened1 so obstinately unwilling1 so averse from ,god and his service4 ,and yet he was the model of every domestic1 social1 and official virtue2 so reverent to ,god1 so tender as a son and brother1 so conscientious and faithful as an instructor6 ,in not a single duty did he fail that the closest intimacy could discover2 and yet1 by his own showing1 he had no love to ,god1 and was entirely unwilling to love and serve him4 ,at the same time1 ,i found his intelligent1 tender1 heart-broken mother had for years been living just such a conscientious life1 without any hope that she was a ,christian1 while now her pride and darling son was lost to her forever on earth1 and oh6 where was he8 and where should she meet him at last8 ,and thus she died4 ,the only brother1 too1 so conscientious and exemplary1 was and long continued in the same same position of mind4 ,these revelations took away all hope of any good from any farther efforts of mine4 ,at this period ,i almost lost my reason4 ,for some days ,i thought ,i should go distracted4 ,the first decided change of mind ,i now recall was an outburst of indignation and abhorrence4 ,i remember once rising1 as ,i was about to offer my usual1 now hopeless prayer1 with a feeling very like this3 that such a ,god did not deserve to be loved2 that ,i would not love him if ,i could1 and ,i was glad ,i did not6 ,it was but momentary1 and the long training of years resumed its sway4 ,it was at this period that ,i framed my first attempt at serious argument in a letter to my father4 ,i took this position1 that our own experience and consciousness were the highest kind of evidence of our mental power1 and that ,i had this evidence of my mental inability to love ,god as required4 ,my father's reply was published in the ,christian ,spectator1 and was regarded as masterly and unanswerable4 ,its chief aim was to lessen confidence in my own consciousness1 and to show that1 as ,god was just and good1 and certainly did require supreme love to him1 we had the power to obey4 ,i was unable to meet the argument1 and so allowed that it must be so1 and that all that was in my way was my own obstinate unwillingness4 ,but there was another point about which ,i attempted to reason that ,i did not give up so easily4 ,according to the theory of obstinate unwillingness1 there was nothing in the ,bible by way of promise1 or even encouragement1 for any like me4 ,for how could ,god feel sympathy for obstinate rebels1 or how make promises of hope and encouragement to those whose only difficulty was an unreasonable dislike to ,god and his service8 ,such texts as ,i quoted to the contrary 7as ,prov4 #b3a-f2 ,matth4 #g3g2 ,john #d3aj7 were not for such as ,i1 but for those already converted2 and no prayers1 even1 were acceptable till offered by a renewed heart4 ,so it seemed impossible1 in any case1 to pray acceptably to ,god for the greatest of all boons1 redemption from the awful doom of eternal death2 for at regeneration the blessing was already given1 and before that act no prayer was acceptable4 ,so there was no place for such a prayer4 ,this ,i never accepted1 though ,i did not quite venture to oppose it4 ,at one time my mind turned with longing and tender emotions toward ,jesus ,christ4 ,all he said and did appeared so reasonable and so kind that it seemed to me he would hear my prayers4 ,i brought1 to sustain this idea1 the case of the young man whom ,jesus loved when he had no religion4 ,here ,i was met by a theory that1 till now1 had not attracted my notice1 which was1 that there was a human soul in ,christ joined to the ,divine mind1 and that it was this human soul that felt this human sympathy for sinners1 and bore all the suffering1 while the ,deity had nothing but calm1 unmingled bliss4 ,this made me feel that ,i could love the human soul1 but could not love ,god4 ,indeed1 the sufferings of this innocent ,savior1 unshared by ,god1 was the most revolting of all4 ,at the close of a long year of such darkness and suffering1 ,i went to my friends in ,boston1 where a revival was in progress1 and where ,i met my father4 ,here ,i received the most tender sympathy1 was taken to prayer-meetings1 and every thing was said and done that piety and love could devise for my relief1 but all in vain4 ,finally1 ,i came to this attitude of mind3 ,i will not try any more to understand any thing about these doctrines4 ,i will not try any more to 'be convinced of sin' in this inability to love ,god4 ,something is the matter3 it does not seem like obstinate 'unwillingness2' but if ,god says so1 ,i will take his word for it4 ,i will assume that ,he is just1 and wise1 and good1 in spite of all that seems to contrary4 ,i will try to do all ,he commands the best ,i can4 ,there must be a dreadful mistake somewhere1 but ,i will trust and obey1 and wait quietly for light4 ,at this time my father gave me some little hope4 ,i knew not why1 for ,i did not love ,god according to any of the ordinary tests4 ,but ,i was encouraged to hope that my heart was renewed1 and ,i shortly after made a public profession of religion in my father's church4 ,during my residence with the friends referred to1 ,i attempted the duties of a teacher to two young daughters of the family1 and1 to prepare myself1 for the first time set my mind to real hard study4 ,in five weeks ,i went through a large ,arithmetic1 of which ,i knew almost nothing2 in seven weeks ,i completed ,day's ,algebra4 ,two schoolbooks on ,chemistry and ,natural ,philosophy were also mastered that gloomy winter4 ,i had no other resource within or without for so active a mind4 ,then my father urged me1 for the sake of a sister1 as my own pecuniary wants had been provided for1 to commence a school in ,hartford4 ,as ,i taught only half a day1 and the higher branches were but just entering female schools1 ,i found no difficulty in keeping sufficiently ahead of my pupils4 ,thus commenced my career as a teacher4 ,i went on several years with no other evidence of love to ,god1 which was the main test of regeneration1 but perseverance in the determination to assume that ,he was wise1 just1 and good1 and to do all ,i could to obey him4 ,my great aim in life was to find out what ,he required from the ,bible1 and then to try to do it as well as ,i could4 ,besides this1 ,i imitated the methods of ,christian worthies4 ,i kept a religious diary--read religious books--went to religious meetings--prayed in my school1 and taught religion to my pupils as it had been taught to me4 ,often1 when ,i found suffering young minds embarrassed by my own difficulties1 willing and anxious to do all in their power1 and yet unable to feel as required1 ,i almost lived over past anguish of spirit1 and could scarcely nerve myself to instruct them that all the wrong was their own obstinate unwillingness4 ,there was a constant conflict between the theories to which ,i had bowed my intellect1 and thought ,i really believed1 and the impulses of my moral nature and common sense4 ,sometimes these questions were intolerably imperative4 ,what evidence is there that what ,god says is true1 when ,he claims to be wise1 and just1 and good1 when ,he has done such contradictory things8 ,for a single act1 done six thousand years ago1 the first act of disobedience too1 ,he has so constituted things that all the human minds that might be made right are formed so depraved as that not one of them will ever be willing to love and obey the ,creator till ,he renews their minds4 ,if ,i were to act thus1 ,i should think it right for every one to believe ,i was cruel and unjust until ,i showed good reasons for it4 ,and if ,i saw any one ruining the minds of young children1 or permitting ,adam or any one else to do it1 when ,i had power to prevent it1 ,i should say it was right to consider him an abominable and hateful being till he showed good reasons for such a course4 ,such thoughts were banished by the force of a strong will1 and ,i continued to hold on to the ,bible as a revelation from ,god1 and to ,his claims as being wise1 and just1 and good4 ,my renewed decision was1 ,there is some dreadful mistake somewhere2 but ,i will take ,god's word and trust it1 do the best ,i can1 and wait till all is made clear4 ,in the later periods of life1 a mode of religious training has come repeatedly under my observation1 to which a brief reference will here be made4 ,i have known children1 no more favorably endowed than myself1 and some of them less so1 whose parents were no more earnest and faithful than mine1 though on a different theory4 ,these children were first trained to prompt1 unquestioning1 and universal obedience to their parents' commands1 almost such as is required by their ,creator to his fixed and unalterable laws4 ,at the same time they were treated with the greatest tenderness and sympathy1 and as soon as they could understand the reasons for parental requirements1 these reasons were given1 but always with the understanding that implicit obedience must often be rendered without understanding the reasons4 ,when these habits of confiding and affectionate obedience were formed1 then they were taught that ,jesus ,christ was the ,maker1 ,friend1 and ,father of all1 who loved all his children as these parents loved their little ones1 only more and better2 that ,he created them to be happy1 rejoiced to see them so1 and was always sorry for them in every trouble4 ,they were taught that there are right ways and wrong ways of seeking to be happy2 that ,jesus ,christ came into this world to teach us what are these right and wrong ways1 and that ,his instructions are written in the ,bible2 that it is very difficult to feel and act right in all things2 that1 when children try to do so1 the ,savior is pleased with them1 and1 though they see him not1 is present with them to help them2 that1 when they fail1 and feel or act wrong1 he is grieved1 as their parents are1 and as ready to forgive and help them1 when they too are sorry1 and continue to try to do right in all things2 that they are ,christians just so far as they succeed in obeying ,christ1 and that1 the more they try1 the more help they will have1 and the better they will succeed4 ,thus these children grew up with the feeling that whenever they did any thing that was kind1 honest1 honorable1 just1 and self-denying1 they were pleasing1 not only their parents1 but their best and ever-present ,friend4 ,under such a course1 the varied duties of religion and of social and domestic life were gradually not only explained1 but enforced1 both by parental authority and example1 till a character and habits were formed that were far more consistent with the ,new ,testament exhibitions of ,christian life than is often seen among mature ,christians4 ,without at present expressing any other opinion in regard to this method1 ,i am strong in the belief that if this course had been pursued with me in childhood1 very different mental habits would have been the result1 and that the ,christian life would have begun and progressed probably before the severe discipline of sorrow came1 and certainly after it had been experienced4 ,at the same time1 there is a deep conviction that many of my young pupils1 who turned away from religion as uninviting1 severe1 and unintelligible1 would1 by another method1 have been easily led into the true paths of pleasantness and peace4 ,i wish now to exhibit the influence of one doctrine 7which ,i claim to be that of reason as truly as of revelation7 on a mind like mine4 ,i have stated something of that hopeful1 elastic1 and happy temperament that seemed to make sorrow so indispensable to the development of my noblest powers4 ,but the earthly sorrow1 time and new interests would have remedied ere youth had passed4 ,but that awful doctrine of ,,the ,,eternal1 ,,irremediable ,,loss ,,of ,,the ,,soul1 so ground into my spirit by years of effort1 of which this was the mainspring1 has been the grand motive power of my whole life ever since4 ,if ,i could in any way have satisfied myself that a time would come1 however distant1 when all sufferers would be repaid by eternal ages of bliss1 and all the guilty1 however long their period of purgation1 would at last be pure and happy forever1 ,i should have returned to life and its enjoyments with fresh zest after such a period of privation4 ,but ,i could not gain any such assurance without the ,bible1 but rather the reverse2 while all the life and teachings of ,christ and the ,apostles seemed entirely based on the assumption that our whole race were in awful danger1 that some were to be saved and some were to be lost forever1 and that the great end for which ,christ lived1 and for which his followers are to live1 is to ,,save ,,as ,,many ,,as ,,possible from this awful doom4 ,indeed1 ,i could not see how any one could feel any respect for the teachings of ,christ when such terrible things were uttered by him1 if there was no just reason thus to terrify and alarm mankind4 ,times without number1 ,i went over the ,new ,testament to see if ,i could find any honest way of escaping that doctrine1 and always ending with a deeper and more awful conviction of its reality4 ,the result was1 that while1 for the first year1 ,i was driven to such mental effort and suffering to save myself1 as soon as the least hope dawned that ,i was safe1 all that was kindly and sympathizing in my nature led me to renewed efforts to save others4 ,after such a lesson of inability1 both in my own case and that of such dear friends1 no words can express the ineffable pity1 sympathy1 and almost horror with which ,i looked on the world around me4 ,and when young and happy minds1 such as once was my own1 came under my training1 ,i never felt any need of being waked up1 as some ,christian people seemed to do4 ,it only seemed to me ,i could never sleep4 ,there never has been an hour for thirty years when a moment's consideration of this awful doctrine would not drive away every temptation to earthly ambition1 or any longings for earthly good of any sort for myself4 ,many times1 when1 by the presentation of such an awful theme1 ,i have brought the young to me with tears and willing docility1 and when1 to the question ,what can we do to be saved8 my shut-up heart was ready to exclaim ,nothing1 ,i have been so burdened and worn as to be obliged to pray to forget1 and to take every lawful mode to turn my thoughts to other less exciting themes4 ,it was at such times ,i understood for what the love of the comic was implanted1 and if all ,christians should feel as ,i do1 what might be the legitimate use of works of fiction1 the drama1 and the dance4 ,in such a case1 and properly regulated1 they would be needful and only beneficial alteratives4 ,i wish now to ask my theological friends to consider the character of my inner life4 ,in all outward manifestations ,i took the theory of religion trained into me1 and did my best to believe it1 and talked1 and wrote1 and prayed1 and acted before others on the assumption of its truth4 ,but my inner life was after this fashion3 as to prayer in private1 ,i found great comfort in the preface to the ,lord's prayer1 ,after this manner pray ye4 ,it was a short1 comprehensive prayer1 which amounted to this1 that ,god's will might be done on earth as in heaven2 that our temporal wants might be supplied2 that we might do right and escape evil4 ,this ,i could sincerely feel and pray when all details distressed me4 ,but1 still better1 this prayer began1 ,our ,father4 ,now to me1 through my whole life1 this word father had been associated with unparalleled tenderness1 sympathy1 and love2 with truth1 justice1 and all that was lovable4 ,i could not apply it to ,god without such associations1 and so it comforted me--and that was all4 ,but the prayers1 hymns1 and sermons conformed to the theory of religion were occasions when ,i had to struggle with feelings of disgust and abhorrence4 ,especially1 at times1 was this so in reference to the atoning sacrifice of ,jesus ,christ1 until ,i formed a curious mental habit of letting these things pass through my mind as something ,i did not understand1 and then there seemed to flow in a vague impression of something better1 ,i knew not what4 ,in the progress of years ,i came to instruct some of the most vigorous and active minds ,i ever saw1 both in mental science and in the interpretation of the ,bible1 and thus gradually evolved and applied the principles of reason and rules of interpretation in this work4 ,the results will mainly appear in what follows4 ,up to this time1 my feelings toward ,god 7except sometimes when praying1 as above described7 were that1 as ,he has said he was wise1 and just1 and good1 ,i would take his word for it1 in spite of all the evidence to the contrary1 and feel and act as he required as far as ,i had power4 ,my service1 however1 was much like that of a slave to a hard master4 ,if the fear of the ,lord is the beginning of wisdom1 ,i certainly began aright4 ,but the whole force of my being was turned1 not toward ,him1 but toward my lost1 and suffering1 and darkened fellow-beings4 ,and when all my darkness was removed1 and by a simple intellectual process of argumentation ,i drew from ,his ,holy ,word all my soul had longed for1 my chief joy was1 not that ,i was safe1 not that ,i could feel emotions of love to ,him1 but that ,he felt as ,i did for this all-absorbing purpose and end of my existence--to save my fellow-men4 ,some minds seem to begin religious life with such emotions of love to the ,creator as makes it easy to carry out the purpose to obey him4 ,in my case1 ,i began with the cool intellectual purpose to obey him1 while it was love1 not to ,him1 but to my fellow-men1 that made it easy to carry out this purpose of obedience4 ,but1 in both cases1 was it not the spirit of obedience that was the grand requisite8 ,the all-controlling purpose of acting right1 by obeying all the laws of the ,creator as discovered by the light of ,nature1 or by ,his revealed ,word--is not this the distinctive feature that marks the regenerated soul8 ,it is theological theories1 forced on mankind through popes1 emperors1 and church councils1 by pains and penalties1 which has mystified that grand question of life1 ,what must we do to be saved8 so that the answer to almost every other practical question is more clear than this4 ,what do the great masses of men suppose that they themselves are to do if ever they become regenerated8 ,multitudes imagine that1 by going to camp-meetings1 or conference meetings1 or in revivals1 some ,divine efflux will come over them1 of which the chief evidence is that the mind is filled with joy1 or other delightful emotions4 ,others deem it a mysterious change1 that takes place sometimes in sleep1 without any voluntary act of the individual4 ,others suppose it to consist in certain emotions or mental acts1 in reference to ,jesus ,christ1 that come by divine influence4 ,others consider it an act of the intellect and will1 of which emotions may be the preceding state1 or may follow as a result4 ,probably the vast majority regard it as a mysterious indescribable event1 that no one can understand till it is experienced1 and which can not be made intelligible to an unrenewed mind4 ,thousands of excellent1 conscientious persons are moving about with dark minds and heavy hearts1 who would instantly become happy and consistent followers of ,christ if these theories could be removed from their minds1 and they were sure that an earnest spirit of obedience to ,jesus ,christ is what is required2 to which the promises of hope and encouragement are made2 which is the highest evidence of regeneration1 and the chief feature of that love to ,god required2 while all emotions1 frames1 and feelings are nothing without it4 ,thousands of children and young persons1 religiously trained1 are held back from a religious life because it is conceived of as so mysterious1 uninviting1 and painful that they can neither understand or desire it4 ,at the same time1 it is true that1 after children have been trained wrong1 so that bad habits of mind are dominant1 the clear understanding of this subject will not1 in many cases1 make it easy for them to commence a religious life1 or make it look desirable4 ,the fearful sanctions of eternity can not very directly be brought to bear on the minds of young children without great risk of entirely false impressions4 ,we see1 in the ,old ,testament1 that when ,god was training a race1 in the infancy of its development ,he made visible appearances1 used temporal motives1 and made no appeals to the sanctions of the invisible world4 ,like the parents just referred to1 his first aim seemed to be to teach habits of obedience to ,god's temporal laws1 while1 at the same time1 ,he displayed his sympathy1 mercy1 and love4 ,and among his ancient people men became his obedient children by just such training as is now best fitted to young children4 ,but when the race was farther advanced1 so as to be able to act more by reason and on general principles1 and when ,his religion1 by new motives and forces1 was to be extended from one nation to all the world1 then the ,creator came himself2 and while disclosing those most terrific sanctions of the invisible world1 at the same time exhibited such a manifestation of ,his pity1 sympathy1 and self-sacrificing love as renders these terrors safe and effective in such a conjuncture1 as they would not be without4 ,with these two classes of motives thus intensified1 such a moral power has been generated1 leading to self-denying efforts to educate and save mankind1 as never existed before4 ,in the case of the writer1 the power of these terrible sanctions alone has been illustrated4 ,in other cases1 the power of ,christ's love and example have been the leading motives4 ,it is the union of both1 clearly appreciated1 and especially brought to bear on those who form the character of childhood and youth1 that eventually is to renew the whole race1 and bring every human being to perfect obedience to all the laws of the ,creator4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the investigation which originated at the time the writer commenced teaching mental philosophy in connection with the ,bible1 this was the first point to which attention was led1 ,what is that 'reason' or 'common sense' which is so often appealed to as the umpire in religion1 morals1 and interpretation8 ,all the works of mental science within reach were examined1 but it was long before any clear conceptions on this question were gained1 and still longer before any test was evolved that seemed a practical one1 as it is presented in this work4 ,not that these principles and the test are not indicated by metaphysicians in various forms of language1 but that there is such a confusing variety of expression1 and all is so presented as a speculative instead of a practical question1 that years elapsed before that use of these principles which this work illustrates was attained4 ,this is here referred to in explanation of future passages that otherwise might seem to imply that the author assumes to have discovered something not before known or recognized by metaphysicians4 ,the very writings of ,dr4 ,reid1 which1 in early life1 were turned over with wonder that any one could be interested in them1 probably contain the most complete and clear exhibition of these principles1 and also recognize the test by which they are to be established4 ,the writings of ,sir ,william ,hamilton exhibit other1 but less practical tests of these principles4 ,until the printing of this volume was nearly complete1 it was the plan of the author to have the whole work issued at once2 and1 with reference to this whole1 its title was ,,the ,,bible ,,and ,,the ,,people1 ,,or ,,common ,,sense ,,applied ,,to ,,religion4 ,but1 after submitting this portion of the work to criticism1 it was concluded to issue only one volume1 and to wait until it was seen what reception the principles it offered would meet4 ,in consequence of this1 it seemed proper to transpose the title1 as the latter portion of it best describes the contents of the first volume4 ,this accounts for what is unusual in paging and in the running title on the left-hand pages4 ,,the ,,bible ,,and ,,the ,,people4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,grand ,,questions ,,of ,,life4 ,we are now living through the period of demolition4 ,in morals1 in social life1 in politics1 in medicine1 and in religion1 there is a universal upturning of foundations4 ,but the day of reconstruction seems to be looming in the orient1 and now the grand question is1 ,are there any sure and universal principles that will evolve a harmonious system in which all shall agree8 ,or1 is the only unity to be anticipated that which results from the unsatisfactory conclusion that all must agree to disagree8 ,the first alternative is believed to be in our future2 and it is hoped that this volume will contribute something toward evolving such principles of reconstruction4 ,in some happily constituted minds and singularly favorable circumstances1 the passages of this life are almost uniformly happy1 and no clouds ever shut out the sunshine of a cheerful existence4 ,but1 as a general rule1 the farther we advance in life1 the more solemn become our convictions that its experiences are stormy1 sad1 disappointing1 and unsatisfactory4 ,and the nobler the mind and the more exalted its aspirations1 the more surely are these lessons read and understood4 ,if we turn aside from the lower haunts of poverty1 vice1 and crime1 and look only at the more favored classes1 we find men toiling for years and years to build up schemes which1 in some sudden shock1 crumble and pass away2 or1 are their high hopes accomplished1 some bitter ingredient mingles with the cup of success1 that turns it to gall4 ,and so1 in heart-histories1 the tenderest ties are formed1 as it would seem1 only to be wrenched and torn4 ,the young heart gives its fresh impassioned love to its appropriate object1 and1 just at the happy consummation1 death or desertion forever ends life's brightest experience4 ,the young parents receive their first-born with untold rapture1 and then some disease or accident turns it to a hopeless idiot or ceaseless sufferer4 ,the young husband lays at once his first love and his first born in the same grave4 ,the tender parents spend years and years of care and effort to rear a darling child1 and at the culmination of their hopes the flower is cut down4 ,business or misfortune severs those whose chief happiness would be to live together4 ,the long-tried friends of early life are thrown into painful antagonisms that end their friendship4 ,the conflicts of interest and party develop conduct and character that shatter confidence in men and tempt to misanthropy4 ,in short1 there are seasons when a thoughtful and tender spirit is tempted to feel as if some malignant power were commissioned to seek out all that is most beautiful1 harmonious1 and delightful in the experience of our race1 only to imbitter1 confound1 and destroy4 ,and even where the experience of life has been the most favorable1 as its closing years come on early friends pass away1 the capacities and resources of enjoyment diminish1 and the dim cloud that shrouds the closing vista awakens solemn and anxious meditations on the untried and silent future4 ,such experiences bring forth the heart-yearning questions that come1 as it were1 from the united voice of sad and suffering humanity3 ,is there a ,god that controls the destinies of man8 ,if so1 what are his character and designs8 ,is this sad life our only portion1 or shall we live beyond the grave8 ,if there is another life before us1 what influence has our conduct and character here on its solemn destinies8 ,are we left to our own unaided faculties to reason out from the nature of things around us the replies to these momentous questions1 or has the ,author of our being given some direct revelation to guide us8 ,if such a revelation exists1 is it made accessible to all1 or must one portion of our race necessarily depend on fallible and interested interpreters8 ,does this revelation agree with reason and experience1 and does it contain all that we need both for safe guidance and for peace of mind8 ,it is believed that1 in the following pages1 it will be seen that every mind1 of even only ordinary capacity1 is furnished with the means of answering all these questions1 and with as much certainty as appertains to the ordinary practical questions of this life4 ,at the same time1 it will appear that most of the difficulties and diversities of opinions in religious matters have mainly resulted from neglecting these means of obtaining truth and peace1 and that the good times coming are all depending on the proper use of these means4 ,as introductory to the first main topic1 it is important to refer to the fact that1 in all languages1 man is recognized as possessing what is called reason4 ,he is called a reasonable being and a reasoning being1 and it is claimed that it is his reason that places him at the head of creation in this world4 ,again1 in discussions on truth and duty1 all men seem to agree that there is such a thing as reason1 and that it is1 more or less1 to be made the umpire in settling all disputed points4 ,it is true that very few seem to have a clear and definite idea of what this reason is1 or how it is to be made an umpire4 ,but all allow that there is such a thing1 and that it has a very important office in deciding questions of truth and duty4 ,then1 again1 among more scientific men1 we hear constant reference made to our intuitions and our intuitive knowledge1 as if there were some fixed truths which are superior to all others4 ,it is true1 that when we come to inquire specifically as to what are these intuitions1 we often find them to be acquired notions1 and sometimes such as are unsupported by any evidence1 or even contrary to the best kind of evidence4 ,nevertheless1 those who use these terms all agree in the fact that there are intuitions and intuitive knowledge1 which are superior to any other kinds of knowledge1 and involve a certainty of conviction which no reasoning can overthrow4 ,then1 as we advance still higher in the world of letters1 we find metaphysicians and philosophers assuming that a belief in certain truths is implanted in all rational minds by the ,creator as a necessary part of their constitution1 and that these truths are the foundation of most of our acquired knowledge4 ,the truths or principles of mind thus recognized are called by various names1 such as reason1 the principles of reason1 the primary truths1 the intuitions1 the intuitive truths1 the fundamental truths1 the principles of common sense1 the categories1 etc4 ,the grand difficulty on this subject has been1 that while all agree in the existence of such implanted truths1 there has never been any test for deciding which are these truths1 in distinction from our acquired notions4 ,it is the object of the succeeding chapter to present the most important of these truths1 and also to set forth an infallible test by which they may be distinguished from every other kind of knowledge4 ,and this attempt is made with a full conviction that success in such an effort is to be the foundation of that harmony of reconstruction which has been indicated as provided for the future4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,principles ,,of ,,reason1 ,,or ,,intuitive ,,truths4 ,it is maintained that the ,author of mind has implanted1 as a part of its constitution1 the belief in certain truths1 so that it is impossible to disbelieve them without losing that which distinguishes man as a rational being4 ,it is also assumed that there is an infallible test1 by which we can distinguish these truths from all those acquired notions which men often falsely call intuitions1 or principles of reason1 etc4 ,before proceeding1 it will be premised that the attempt will not be to set forth all those truths that may properly be called intuitive1 but it will be limited to those which are immediately connected with the subjects to be discussed4 ,to proceed1 then1 the first principle of reason1 or intuitive truth1 is that by which we arrive at the idea of a great ,first ,cause1 who was without a beginning4 ,in briefest form1 this truth is usually thus expressed3 ,,every ,,change ,,has ,a ,,cause4 ,the position here maintained is that the human mind is so made that1 whenever any kind of change 7or effect7 takes place1 there inevitably follows a belief that there is some antecedent which is the cause of this change1 or1 in other words1 that there is something that produced this change4 ,now the question is not how this conviction first finds entrance to the mind1 nor whether it is consequent on experience4 ,it is simply a question of fact4 ,men always do1 whenever they see any new form of existence1 or any change take place1 believe that there is some antecedent cause that produced this change4 ,moreover1 if a man should be found who was destitute of this belief1 so that in his daily pursuits he assumed that things would spring into existence without any cause1 and that there were no causes of any kind that produced the changes around him1 he would be pronounced insane--a man who had lost his reason4 ,here1 then1 we have an example of an intuitive truth1 and also an illustration of the test by which we are to distinguish such truths from all others1 viz43 ,any truth is a principle of reason1 or an intuitive truth1 when all men talk and act as if they believed it in the practical affairs of life1 and when talking and acting as if it were not believed1 would universally be regarded as evidence that a man had lost his reason4 ,it will now be shown how a belief in this truth involves a belief in some great ,first ,cause who himself had no beginning4 ,the atheist says thus3 ,somewhere1 far back in other ages1 there were no existences at all1 either of matter or mind2 but at a given period1 without any cause at all1 the vast and wonderful contrivances of matter and mind began to exist4 ,the first reply to this is1 that it is an assertion without evidence1 either intuitive or otherwise4 ,no being ever was known to testify of such an event1 and there is no proof of it of any kind4 ,next1 it is replied that placing such an event at distant ages does not render it any more credible than the assertion that worlds and intelligent beings are coming into existence at the present time without any cause4 ,god has so constituted our minds that we can not believe that any curious and wonderful contrivance springs into being without a cause1 either now or at any past period of time4 ,if the atheist1 in the common affairs of life1 should talk and act as if he believed there were no causes for all the existences and changes around him1 he would be regarded as having lost his reason4 ,and thus ,holy ,writ sanctions the decision3 ,the fool hath said in his heart1 ,there is no ,god4 ,we find1 then1 that our minds are made so that we can not help believing that whatever begins to be has an antecedent cause that produces it1 and every change in any kind of existence has a cause4 ,we find1 also1 the universe around us to be a succession of changes1 and these we trace back and back again to antecedent causes4 ,but at last we come to the grand question1 ,who first started this vast system of endless and wonderful contrivances8 ,only two replies are possible4 ,the first is that of the atheist1 that the whole started into existence without a cause1 which we have shown that no sane mind can really believe4 ,the only remaining reply is1 there is some great self-existent ,cause1 who never began to be1 and who is the author of the universe of matter and mind4#a ,it must1 however1 be conceded that this intuitive truth does not aid us in deciding what is the nature and character of this ,first ,cause4 ,we are obliged to resort to other intuitive truths to settle this question4 ,neither does this principle aid us in deciding whether there may not be more than one self-existent cause2 for several minds can be supposed to have united in will and action to bring forth this universal frame1 each one of which might have existed without beginning4 ,the second intuitive truth is this3 ,,two ,,classes ,,of ,,causes ,,exist1 ,,viz41 ,,material ,,things1 ,,which ,,act ,,on ,,mind1 ,,and ,,immaterial ,,or ,,spiritual ,,things1 ,,which ,,act ,,on ,,matter4 ,some metaphysicians maintain that every thing is matter1 and that mind or spirit is only one particular species of matter4 ,others teach that every thing is mind1 and that all which we suppose to be material things are merely ideas in the mind of what really has no existence4 ,now we have no mode of proving that we have a soul or that we have a body1 or that there are any real things existing around us4 ,but ,god has so formed our minds that we can not help believing that our minds are distinct from matter1 and that they are causes of changes in our body and in the things around us4 ,nor can we help believing that we have bodies1 and that the things around us are realities4 ,and no man could talk or act1 in practical matters1 with a contrary belief1 without being regarded as having lost his reason4 ,the third intuitive truth is1 that ,,the ,,mind ,,of ,,man ,,is ,a ,,free ,,agent4 ,by this is signified that mind is an independent cause of its own volitions1 and capable1 in appropriate circumstances1 of choosing in either of two or more ways1 not being1 like matter1 forced to a fixed and necessary mode of action4 ,some changes in mind are necessary effects produced by causes out of the mind4 ,and some mental action is the necessary result of its constitution1 and can not be otherwise4 ,but choice or volition is an act of the mind itself1 when it has power to choose in either of two or more ways without any change of circumstances4 ,the fatalist denies this1 and maintains that choice is a necessary act1 the same as the changes in matter1 and that at each act of choice the mind had no power to choose otherwise than as it does choose4 ,in reply to this1 nothing is needed but to show that all men believe1 and show it by their words and actions1 that they always have power to choose more ways than one4 ,and after they have chosen a particular way1 they still believe that they had the power to have chosen another way4 ,and though metaphysicians may deny this in words1 if any one of them1 in practical every-day life1 should talk and act as if he believed that he had no power to choose otherwise than as he does1 he would be regarded as having lost his reason4 ,this subject has often been so treated as to embarrass some of the most acute minds4 ,yet the ordinary mind is as perfectly qualified to settle this question as the most astute philosopher4 ,do men believe that they have no power to choose any other way than as they do choose8 ,do they talk and act in common life as if they believed it8 ,would not a man who talked and acted on the assumption that he had no power to choose otherwise than as he does choose be regarded as having lost his reason8 ,all men of common sense must answer these questions alike1 and thus decide that this is one of the intuitive truths4 ,the fourth intuitive truth is1 that ,,design ,,is ,,evidence ,,of ,,an ,,intelligent ,,cause1 ,,and ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,a ,,design ,,proves ,,the ,,intention ,,and ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,author4 ,it is by the aid of this principle of reason that we gain a knowledge of the character and designs of our ,creator4 ,all minds are so constituted that when they find a contrivance fitted to accomplish some end1 they can not help believing that the author of it is an intelligent cause1 and that he intended to secure that end4 ,this position is finely illustrated by ,paley4 ,he describes a savage finding a watch in a desert1 who is made to comprehend all its curious contrivances for marking time4 ,this savage1 he claims1 would inevitably conclude that some intelligent person made the watch1 and that it was his design to have it keep time4 ,in like manner1 should the residence of a person be inspected1 and be found filled with contrivances for producing mischief and for torturing men and animals1 the result would be a belief that the author of these things was cruel and malignant4 ,on the other hand1 were these contrivances calculated to produce only comfort and happiness1 the inevitable belief would follow that the contriver was benevolent4 ,again1 if these designs were found to involve powerful and magnificent results1 the immediate belief would follow that the author was wise and powerful as well as benevolent4 ,this illustrates the method by which this implanted principle of reason enables us to learn the design and character of the ,author of the universe by the works of creation4 ,the fifth intuitive truth is1 that ,,no ,,rational ,,mind ,,will ,,choose ,,evil ,,without ,,any ,,hope ,,of ,,compensating ,,good4 ,the fact that any person was seeking pain and evil without hope of compensating good would prove to all that reason was lost4 ,no sane mind ever acts thus4 ,it is by the aid of this intuitive truth that we rely on human testimony4 ,the surest mode of establishing the reliability of a witness is to show that by false testimony he would knowingly incur evil and gain no good4 ,in such circumstances no one would believe that a witness would be false4 ,the sixth intuitive truth is1 that ,,things ,,will ,,continue ,,as ,,they ,,are ,,and ,,have ,,been ,,till ,,there ,,is ,,evidence ,,of ,a ,,change ,,or ,,of ,a ,,cause ,,for ,a ,,change4 ,all the business of this life rests on a belief in this implanted truth1 and equally so do our inferences in regard to the immortality of the soul and a future state4 ,the belief that the sun will continue to rise1 or that the seasons will return1 rests solely on the fact that these events have been uniform in past time1 and that we know of no cause for a change from this uniformity4 ,and were any person to talk and act as if destitute of this belief1 he would be deemed insane4 ,bishop ,butler's celebrated argument on the immortality of the soul is founded entirely on this principle4 ,it is briefly this3 ,things will continue as they are and have been unless there is some evidence of some change or cause for a change4 ,at death the soul exists4 ,the dissolution of the body is no evidence of the destruction of the soul1 and there is no kind of evidence that it is destroyed4 ,therefore we infer that the soul continues to exist after the dissolution of the body4 ,the main point in this argument is to show that there is no evidence that the act of death involves the destruction of the soul4 ,if this can be established1 then the belief must follow that the soul exists after death4 ,by the same method ,butler establishes several other doctrines of the ,bible4 ,it is by the aid of this principle that what are called the laws of nature are established4 ,by means of human testimony we learn what has been the uniform course of nature4 ,and then men conclude that what has been will continue to be until some new cause intervenes to change this uniformity4 ,the seventh intuitive truth is1 that the ,,needless ,,destruction ,,of ,,happiness ,,or ,,infliction ,,of ,,pain ,,is ,,wrong1 and ,,that ,,whatever ,,tends ,,to ,,produce ,,the ,,most ,,happiness ,,is ,,right4 ,the terms right and wrong1 as used by mankind1 always have reference to some plan or design4 ,any thing is called right when it fulfills the design for which it is made1 and it is called wrong when it does not4 ,thus a watch is right when it fulfills its design in keeping time4 ,a compass is right when it points to the north4 ,and so of all contrivances4 ,of course1 then1 the question as to the right and wrong action of mind involves a reference to the object or design of the ,author of mind4 ,at this time it will be assumed 7the proof being reserved for future pages7 that the design or object for which ,god made mind was to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,it is also assumed1 without here exhibiting the proof1 that the impression of this design is so inwrought into the mental constitution that whatever is perceived to be destructive to happiness is felt to be wrong--that is1 unfitted to the design of the ,author of all things1 which the mind feels often when it can not logically set forth the reason4 ,so1 also1 whatever is seen to promote the greatest amount of happiness is felt to be right4 ,the mind is so constituted that1 without any act of reasoning as to the tendencies of things1 there are certain feelings and actions that the mind turns from as unfit and to be abhorred4 ,thus1 when plighted faith is violated1 or a great benefactor treated with cruelty and indignity by those he has benefited1 a feeling of unfitness and abhorrence is awakened1 independent of all considerations of the tendency of such conduct to destroy happiness4 ,in like manner1 there are certain acts of gratitude and benevolence that always awaken approval and admiration as suitable and right1 without any reference to future tendencies or results4 ,at the same time1 it is true that when1 by a process of reasoning1 it is seen that the tendency of any course of conduct is to diminish happiness or inflict evil without compensating good1 there arises the same feeling of disapproval of it as wrong1 and unfitted to the end for which all things are made4 ,this is often the case when there is no definite1 distinct idea of what the great design of the ,creator may be4 ,this belief and feeling of unfitness and wrongfulness is common to all sane minds4 ,it is true that there are different views of what actions are destructive to happiness1 but when there is a clear perception that a given act will do great harm and no good1 every mind will feel that it is wrong2 and when it is seen that any act will do good without any evil1 it is felt to be right4 ,and this is so universal1 that if any one should be found to talk and act with a contrary belief1 he would be regarded as having lost a part of that which constitutes him a rational being4 ,the eighth intuitive truth is1 that ,,the ,,evidence ,,of ,,our ,,senses ,,is ,,reliable4 ,this statement needs some qualification4 ,it often requires time to learn accurately what our senses do testify1 and sometimes the apparent experience of the senses proves incorrect4 ,for example1 to one just restored to sight1 every object seems to touch the eye1 and distances are learned only by experience4 ,so the sun and stars seem to move1 when it is the earth that is turning4 ,so1 also1 the senses are sometimes diseased or disordered1 and make false reports4 ,the true meaning1 then1 of the above intuitive truth is1 that when men know that they have had all requisite experience1 and understand properly all the circumstances of the case1 they can not help believing the evidence of their senses1 and when this belief is lost1 a person is regarded as insane4 ,the ninth intuitive truth is1 that ,,whenever ,,there ,,is ,a ,,change ,,in ,,the ,,established ,,order ,,of ,,nature ,,surpassing ,,human ,,power1 ,,it ,,is ,,evidence ,,of ,a ,,supernatural ,,agency ,,that ,,is ,,sanctioned ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,nature4 ,the conviction of the wisdom and power of the ,author of this vast and wonderful frame around us is such that whatever changes may occur in its established order must be felt to be by his permission4 ,to illustrate this1 suppose a man appeared claiming to be a teacher sent from ,god4 ,in proof of this1 he commands a mountain to be uptorn and thrown into the sea4 ,now1 if this phenomenon should follow his command1 it would be impossible for any who witnessed it to refrain from believing that the ,author of ,nature performed this miracle to attest the authority of his messenger4 ,in order to insure this belief in the interference of ,deity1 there must be full evidence that there can be no deception1 and that the miraculous performance is entirely beyond human power and skill4 ,men always talk and act on the assumption that such miracles are from ,god1 and that all rational minds so regard them4 ,the tenth intuitive truth is1 that ,,in ,,all ,,practical ,,concerns ,,we ,,are ,,to ,,consider ,,that ,,course ,,right ,,which ,,has ,,the ,,balance ,,of ,,evidence ,,in ,,its ,,favor4 ,there are few practical questions where we can have perfect certainty as to the right course4 ,in almost all the concerns of life men are guided by probabilities4 ,it is not certain that seed will spring up1 or that a ship will return1 or that a given medicine will cure1 or that any future project will succeed2 but men go forward in their pursuits with exactly the same decision as if the probabilities that guide them were certainties4 ,they find which course has the most evidence in its favor1 and then act as if it was certain that this was the right course to attain their designs4 ,and if any person should habitually act as if he believed the reverse1 he would be regarded as having lost his reason4 ,the eleventh intuitive truth is1 that ,,nothing ,,is ,,to ,,be ,,assumed ,,as ,,true ,,unless ,,there ,,is ,,some ,,evidence ,,that ,,it ,,is ,,so4 ,this principle is always assumed in all practical affairs4 ,if a man were to send a cargo abroad without any evidence that it was wanted1 he would be called a fool2 and so in all other concerns1 every sane man takes this for his rule of conduct4 ,the preceding include the principles which it is believed are the grand foundation on which rest most of the practical knowledge of life1 as well as the doctrines and duties both of natural and revealed religion4 ,there are some other intuitive truths which are not introduced here1 and there are some principles that others have placed in this honorable position which could not stand the test here introduced1 and claimed to be the only true and reliable one4 ,the intuitive truths have been called fundamental truths1 because they are the ultimate basis of all knowledge secured or established by the process of reasoning4 ,this process consists in assuming a certain proposition to be true as the basis of an argument4 ,if this proposition is granted1 or supposed to be granted1 then the reasoner proceeds to show that the point in dispute is in reality included in the truth already granted1 so that believing the first proposition1 or basis1 necessarily involves a belief in the one to be proved4 ,for example1 if a man wishes to prove that a certain person is a benevolent man1 he proceeds thus3 ,let it be granted that all persons who are habitually contriving and laboring to promote the happiness of all around them are benevolent persons4 ,this basis proposition being conceded to be true1 the reasoner proceeds to present evidence that the person in question habitually is laboring for the good of others4 ,this being done1 he draws the conclusion that this person is included in the class which have been granted to be benevolent4 ,reasoning1 then1 is a process for exhibiting evidence that a point which is disputed is included in a proposition already believed and allowed4 ,but suppose the disputant denies the truth of the basis or foundation proposition1 then it becomes necessary to establish that proposition by another act of reasoning4 ,in order to do this1 still another proposition is assumed which is allowed to be true1 and which the reasoner then attempts to show includes his former basis proposition4 ,this process may thus be continued till1 finally1 it comes to pass that the basis proposition assumed is an intuitive truth4 ,in this case the victory is secure2 for whatever can be shown to be embraced in an intuitive truth must be conceded to be true1 and whatever is contradictory to an intuitive truth must be allowed to be false4 ,now it can be shown that all the reliable practical knowledge of this life can be thus traced back till it is seen to rest on some intuitive truth as its basis4 ,so1 also1 all the doctrines and duties1 both of natural and revealed religion1 can be shown to rest on these intuitive truths4 ,this indicates the propriety of the name given to these first principles as principles of reason and fundamental truths4 ,here1 then1 is presented the foundation of the hope so confidently expressed1 that a time is coming when1 in all the great questions which now agitate humanity with doubts1 discussions1 and conflict1 there shall result universal harmony and unity of opinion4 ,if such intuitive principles are implanted in all human minds2 if there is a certain test by which these principles can be eliminated and established2 and if1 by a sure process of reasoning1 every correct practical and religious opinion can be shown to rest on these principles1 and every false one to contradict them1 then we can plainly perceive the true path to this golden age4 ,it is to cultivate the powers of the human intellect1 to train every mind1 from early life1 to detect the true laws of reason1 and to practice accurately the process of reasoning4 ,not that this alone will suffice without the attending cultivation of the moral powers1 and the promised blessing of heavenly aid4 ,but the first would powerfully tend to secure the second1 and then the third would inevitably be bestowed4 ,before proceeding farther1 it is desirable to recognize the fact that the word reason is used in several ways4 ,sometimes it signifies simply the intuitive truths4 ,sometimes it includes all those principles and powers of mind which are employed in the act of reasoning4 ,sometimes it refers to the intellect in distinction from the feelings4 ,in all cases1 however1 the connection will determine in which of these uses it is employed4 #a ,note ,a4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,sources ,,of ,,human ,,knowledge4 ,we have seen that there are certain intuitive truths1 the belief of which is implanted as a part of our mental constitution1 and that there is a test by which we can distinguish them from all other kinds of knowledge4 ,we have seen1 also1 that we are dependent on these truths for a large portion of our acquired knowledge1 inasmuch as they are the basis of reasoning1 which is that process by which we gain new truths by the aid of those already believed4 ,it has been intimated1 also1 that it is chiefly by the aid of these principles that a harmonious system of truth is to be anticipated1 in which all minds will eventually agree1 at least in all great questions involving the eternal interests of our race4 ,we will now proceed in an inquiry as to what are the sources of human knowledge in addition to these first implanted truths4 ,in the first place1 then1 we have our own personal experience of the nature and action of our own minds1 and of the qualities and powers of the persons and things around us4 ,next we have the experience of other minds as to their own mental history and the properties and powers of all that has surrounded them4 ,this knowledge is communicated by them to us either directly by word of mouth1 or indirectly by writings and books4 ,the experience of a single mind is very limited both as to space and time1 and it is only by the united experience of many persons1 in different periods and places1 that we arrive at what are called the laws of nature and experience4 ,the laws of day and night1 summer and winter1 the tides1 and all the other phenomena of nature1 are simply a uniform succession and regularity of events1 from which men infer a future regularity of the same experience4 ,much of this knowledge of past uniformity is transmitted from others to us1 and rests on our confidence in human testimony1 and it has been shown that this confidence is based on one of the intuitive truths4 ,next1 we have the knowledge gained by the process of reasoning1 and for this we are dependent on the intuitive truths which are the foundation of all reliable deductions4 ,lastly1 we have the resource of revelations from the ,creator of all1 who can communicate to us knowledge that we can not gain either by intuition1 or experience1 or reasoning4 ,in regard to the kinds of knowledge to be gained from each of these sources1 it is clear that the experience of ourselves and others furnishes us with nothing but facts1 as it regards matter and mind1 as they are developed in this world only4 ,as it respects the ,creator1 his character and designs1 the immortality of the soul1 and the future destiny of our race1 we gain nothing by our own personal observation or experience4 ,no man hath seen ,god at any time4 ,no one has gone to the silent land to learn by inspection the secrets of that dim shore1 or the destiny of the soul when it passes from earth4 ,neither have we any resource in the experience of others who can go to the invisible world and transmit to us the knowledge there gained4 ,there is not a man upon earth that can furnish any reliable information on these subjects from any personal knowledge4 ,it becomes1 then1 a most interesting inquiry as to the amount and kind of knowledge to be gained by means of the intuitive truths1 experience1 and reasoning1 independently of revelation4 ,in what follows this inquiry will be pursued4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,of ,,the ,,knowledge ,,gained ,,by ,,human ,,experience ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,mind ,,and ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,which ,,it ,,is ,a ,,part4 ,we have seen that there are only these sources of human knowledge1 viz41 the intuitive truths1 human experience1 reasoning1 and revelation4 ,we have alluded to the nature of intuitive knowledge2 we will now inquire as to the nature of the knowledge gained by human experience1 firstly1 in regard to the constitution of mind and the laws of that system in which it is placed4 ,we restrict our inquiries to those points which have the most direct bearing on the great questions to be discussed4 ,as it respects the nature of mind1 then1 as exhibited by experience1 we learn1 in the first place1 that it is constituted with desires and propensities for various kinds of enjoyment4 ,these are the gratifications secured by the senses1 the pleasures of taste1 the happiness of giving and receiving affection1 the various intellectual pleasures1 and the still higher enjoyment resulting from our moral nature4 ,all these are common to the race1 though in varied degrees and combinations4 ,the mind is also constituted with susceptibilities to pain and suffering from all the sources from which enjoyment may spring4 ,with these susceptibilities are combined an all-pervading and constant desire to gain enjoyment and to escape suffering4 ,this desire is the grand motive power to the mind1 as the main-spring is to a watch4 ,for this reason1 awakened desires to gain any particular enjoyment or escape any pain are called motives4 ,and so1 also1 all those things that cause these desires are called motives4 ,next1 it is seen that the mind is endowed with intellect1 or the intellectual powers1 by which it can perceive the nature and relative value of various kinds of enjoyment1 compare the present with the future1 and judge both of what is most valuable and of the proper modes of securing it4 ,to this add the power of choice or volition1 by which1 in view of any two or more kinds of enjoyment1 the mind decides which shall be secured and which be denied4 ,thus constituted1 the mind comes into action in a system of law4 ,by this is signified that in every direction in which man can seek enjoyment there is a right course1 or one that secures the good sought in such proper degrees and at such times as that the enjoyment designed is the result4 ,at the same time there is a wrong course1 or one in which the enjoyment sought is not secured1 or1 if gained1 is combined with pain and disappointment4 ,thus there are right and wrong modes of seeking all the multiplied kinds of enjoyment1 while to the right course is attached the reward of pleasure1 and with the wrong course is connected the penalty of pain1 either immediate or remote4 ,again1 our minds come into existence in a social system so constituted that the rewards and penalties of law extend1 not merely to the good and evil doer1 but to those connected with him4 ,thus each mind is made dependent for happiness on the well-doing of those around almost as much as on its own obedience to law4 ,the penalties for the sins of parents fall on their children1 and the sins of children are visited on their parents1 and thus in all the other relations of life4 ,equally so are the rewards of obedience shared by all who are connected with the well-doer4 ,thus it appears that in this life happiness is the joint product of the obedience of each individual and the obedience of all connected with him to the laws of the vast system in which we are placed4 ,again1 each mind comes into this system of law in perfect ignorance of the right and wrong courses to be pursued4 ,at the commencement of being there has been no knowledge of good or of evil to call forth desire or fear1 while the only conceivable way in which such a being can be taught law1 and its penalties and rewards1 is by experience4 ,good must be tasted before the desire for it can come1 and evil must be felt before the fear of it can arise4 ,after there has been some experience of pleasure and pain1 and such advance in knowledge as that others around can teach the new-comer what are the right and wrong courses1 then faith or belief becomes the leading mode of safety4 ,from this time happiness or suffering will be proportioned to the truth of the instructions given1 to the faith accorded1 and to the obedience rendered4 ,in this complicated system of law1 it is found that the great ,author of all is never moved to modify or suspend the penalties of wrong-doing by commiseration for the inevitable ignorance of inexperienced beings1 nor by pity when wrong instructions are given1 nor by sympathy for the pain inflicted4 ,obedience1 exact1 constant1 persevering--this is the only mode of securing the enjoyment and escaping the pain that are the sanctions of law4 ,and not only so1 but it is often the case that disobedience to some law in only one instance will destroy the comfort and usefulness of a whole life4 ,nay1 more1 the neglect or the mistake of a parent sometimes will bring the penalty of violated law on some innocent child1 whose whole life will thus be made miserable4 ,again1 it is found that the sources of enjoyment are of different relative value4 ,in the commencement of existence pleasure is secured mainly through the senses4 ,next come the higher social and domestic pleasures2 then follow the intellectual enjoyments1 the various gratifications of taste1 and all the multitudinous resources open to a highly-cultivated1 virtuous1 and religious man4 ,the greater the number of these sources1 and the more elevated the nature of each1 the greater the degree of happiness gained4 ,such1 also1 is the nature of things1 that the lower kinds of happiness are placed first within our reach1 and then1 as the higher modes of enjoyment come1 we often find them incompatible with the others1 so that to obtain these we must1 to some extent1 relinquish the humbler classes4 ,thus1 when a child begins to find the value of intellectual attainments1 he sees they can not be gained without a sacrifice of many indulgences that are of an inferior value4 ,we now come to the grand law of the system in which we are placed1 as it has been developed by the experience of our race1 and that1 in one word1 is ,,sacrifice6 ,each mind finds that it has conflicting desires1 so that one class must constantly be sacrificed to another of superior value4 ,and the rule in reference to individual enjoyment is always to sacrifice the lesser for the greater good1 having reference to the future as much as to the present4 ,this is the lesson of self-denial and self-control first taught to infancy and childhood1 and just as fast as the reasoning powers are developed1 the extent of this far-reaching rule is impressed on the mind4 ,at first this rule is applied to the young child himself1 and he is trained chiefly to understand what will injure or benefit himself4 ,but gradually a new and higher law begins to appear4 ,as soon as the child can be made to understand that he is surrounded by other minds1 who can suffer and enjoy by the same rules that regulate his happiness1 he begins to learn the other and still higher law of sacrifice2 and that is1 that the lesser good of the individual is always to be sacrificed to the greater good of the many1 having reference always to the future as much as to the present4 ,thus life commences with desires that are to be controlled and denied1 first by parental power and influence1 and next by the intellect and will of the child4 ,and the farther life advances1 the more numerous and complicated are the occasions where intellect must judge what is best for self1 and what is best for the commonwealth1 whose interests must have precedence4 ,and as self-denial always involves more or less pain1 it becomes a fact that happiness is to be gained only by more or less suffering4 ,moreover1 the greater the good to be gained1 the greater is the self-denial and suffering involved in its attainment4 ,though there are exceptions1 this certainly is the general rule4 ,the history of an individual is a history of self-conquest4 ,it is a history of the self-denial and suffering involved in subjecting the physical to the intellectual1 and both to the moral nature4 ,in like manner1 the history of the race1 from infancy through its stages of barbarism1 heathenism1 civilization1 and ,christianity1 is a process of suffering1 as the lower principles of humanity are gradually subjected to the higher1 while men learn to give up lower gratifications for the more elevated1 and to sacrifice the lesser good of the minority to the well-being of the majority4 ,but the cheering aspect of the case is that the effects of suffering are salutary and tonic4 ,the child who is trained to bear cold bravely1 to undergo toil1 and to meet crosses1 becomes strong in body1 and enterprising and energetic in spirit2 while a course of ease and indulgence debilitates both mind and body4 ,this is true most decidedly when such a course is cheerfully and voluntarily assumed1 and is not forced merely by fear of penalties4 ,the same is true of communities4 ,those people who live in a cold climate and on a hard soil become vigorous1 industrious1 and enterprising2 while a soft climate1 and such abundance as requires no self-denial and toil1 tend to national debility and decay4 ,another fact is still more cheering1 and that is1 that the more a habit of self-control and self-denial is formed1 the easier they become1 so that what at first was severe and painful may become a pleasure4 ,such may be the progress of a virtuous mind1 that1 ultimately1 acting right1 or conscious rectitude1 may become more desirable and agreeable than any other mode of enjoyment4 ,the history of mankind thus far shows that as a race we are progressing to higher and higher happiness4 ,as we take the history of each nation from its origin1 we find it a development of progress from lower to higher degrees of enjoyment4 ,then we find periods of retrocession and decay4 ,still1 the experience of one age is transmitted more or less to another1 so that1 on the whole1 the race has been gaining1 both as to the number of sources of enjoyment received and as to the relative value of the enjoyments sought4 ,the proportion of persons who secure the higher class of enjoyments is certainly greater now than at any former period of the world's history4 ,again1 the history of the world teaches us that while the race gains in knowledge of the laws of the system and in obedience to them1 there are vast multitudes to whom1 as individuals1 this life is a total failure4 ,their career has involved such frequent and fatal violations of the laws of the system1 that their progress is constantly downward2 and1 so far as past experience gives any data1 we must infer that continued existence would prove a continued downward progress4 ,the glutton1 the drunkard1 the miser1 the sluggard1 the licentious1 the selfish1 malignant1 and cruel--all these are binding their spirits with the chains of habit1 rendering obedience to the laws they are violating more difficult and improbable4 ,but then1 as a counterbalancing result1 it is seen that these losses to individuals are made available to the protection and improvement of the race1 and seem indispensable to it2 for it is the example of the evils suffered by wrong-doers that is constantly exercising a preservative influence to deter others from similar courses4 ,thus good is constantly educed from ill1 even in the most melancholy cases4 ,we have seen that it is the desire of good and fear of evil that is the motive power in causing all mental action1 and we have the history of man to teach us also what kinds of motives prove the most effective in securing that obedience to law which is the only way to true and perfect happiness4 ,our only mode of learning the nature of a thing is to observe how it acts and is acted upon4 ,this is as true of mind as it is of material things4 ,what1 then1 has the experience of our race taught as to the nature of mind in reference to the kinds and relative influence of motive that secure obedience to law8 ,in the first place1 then1 we learn that fear of evil is indispensable4 ,as soon as children in the family1 or adults in society1 find that no harm comes from gratifying their desires1 all restraint is removed4 ,so strong is this necessity1 that when natural penalties seem uncertain or far off1 parents and civil rulers find it imperative to add those which are more immediate and discernible4 ,but with this we learn that fear alone is not a healthful stimulus4 ,children and slaves who have no motives to action but fear of penalties are never so successfully led to obedience as when other more agreeable influences are combined4 ,a mind that is constantly goaded to action by fear of evil becomes torpid1 or irritable1 or despairing1 or all together4 ,the hope of good1 or rewards1 then1 are as indispensable to secure obedience to law as penalties4 ,the proper balancing of the motives of fear of evil and hope of good is the grand art of controlling mind1 both as it respects individuals and communities4 ,in reference to those motives that are pleasurable1 there are two classes which it is very important to recognize4 ,the first class are those sources of enjoyment which are sought for the gratification of self without any reference to another4 ,of this class are the pleasures of the senses1 the enjoyment of acquiring knowledge1 the exercise of power1 the pleasures of taste1 and others that need not here be specified4 ,the second class are those in which the enjoyment is secured by producing happiness for others1 and is sought solely in reference to the enjoyment of another4 ,the most decided illustration of this kind is that of a mother who is providing for her offspring4 ,this and all true love has1 as its distinctive feature1 the pleasure found in conferring happiness on the beloved object4 ,gratitude1 also1 has for its main element the desire to make some returns of enjoyment to one who has conferred a favor4 ,experience has shown that the most powerful of all motives in securing obedience to law is that of love4 ,when love is awakened toward a superior mind--when this superior mind knows what are the true rules of right and wrong1 and is deeply interested to guide and aid the inferior mind--when this interest is expressed by all winning and attractive methods1 nothing has ever yet been found so successful in securing obedience to the rules of right and wrong4 ,the power of this principle is greatly enhanced when the superior mind is a benefactor4 ,the bestowal of kindness excites a desire to make some returns of good1 and when it is seen that such a benefactor is gratified by leading a dependent mind to right action1 it proves a most powerful motive to obedience4 ,still more is the power of this principle increased when the favors bestowed are purchased by self-denial and suffering on the part of the benefactor4 ,the more noble the benefactor1 and the greater the good thus purchased or the evils thus averted1 the stronger is the principle of gratitude leading to such returns of obedience4 ,again1 experience has shown that the advance of the race has been by the agency of teachers and confessors who secured light and elevation to their fellows at the expense of labor1 toil1 and self-denial of the severest kind4 ,these are the leading points in the results of human experience as to the nature of mind and the laws of the system of which it is a part4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,knowledge ,,gained ,,by ,,reason ,,and ,,experience ,,as ,,to ,a ,,future ,,state4 ,we have shown that1 independently of a revelation1 we have no sources of knowledge except the intuitions reasoning and experience4 ,hereafter we will1 as is often done1 include the two first in the term reason4 ,we have seen what knowledge has been furnished by human experience as to the nature of mind and the laws of the present system in which it is placed4 ,we will now inquire as to the teachings of reason and experience in regard to the future4 ,as to the question of the existence of the soul after the dissolution of the body1 we have only one of the intuitive truths for our guide1 viz41 things will continue as they are and have been till there is evidence of a cause for change1 or1 in other words1 things will continue according to past experience till there is some evidence to the contrary4 ,it has been the uniform experience of mankind that the human mind passes through various states of existence extremely different in nature and continuance4 ,the first state is that in which the mind seems to have no susceptibilities but of sensation1 and to be utterly destitute of all the properties of a rational intellect4 ,by a slow and gradual process1 new and successive powers seem to be called into existence1 and what seemed among the lowest grades of animal existence becomes the glory and lord of this lower world4 ,yet1 in the full exercise of all the faculties of a rational and moral nature1 there is a perpetual recurrence of periods in which all evidences of the existence of such faculties cease4 ,in a profound sleep1 or in a deep swoon1 no proof of rational existence remains either to the being thus affected or to the observers of this phenomenon4 ,as the extreme of old age approaches1 the glories of the mind begin to fade away1 until man sometimes passes into a state of second childhood4 ,there are times1 also1 when changes in the material system derange all the power of intellect1 and sometimes reduce what was once a rational mind to a state of entire fatuity1 and then1 again1 the mental powers are restored4 ,the experience of mankind1 then1 on this subject is this3 that the mind is an existence which passes through multiplied and very great changes without being destroyed4 ,the soul continues to exist after changes as great as death1 and in many respects similar to it1 such1 for example1 as the event of birth1 and of sleep1 and we have never known a mind destroyed by such changes4 ,the argument1 then1 is1 that as things will be in agreement with past experience1 the soul will continue to go through other changes without being destroyed1 unless there is some reason to the contrary4 ,there can be no reason found to the contrary1 for there is no evidence that the event called death is any thing more than a separation of the spirit from its material envelope1 nor is there any evidence against the supposition that it may be an event which introduces the mind into a more perfect state of existence4 ,it appears that losing various parts of the body does not at all affect the operations of mind2 that by the perpetual changes that are taking place in the body1 every particle of it1 after a course of years1 is dissevered from its connection with the spirit1 and is supplied by other matter4 ,the soul is thus proved to be so connected with a material body that it may lose the whole of it by a slow process without being the least injured1 and therefore we have the evidence of experience that it may be separated from the body without any detriment to its powers and faculties4 ,analogy also leads to the supposition that death is only a change which introduces the intellectual being into a more perfect mode of existence2 for1 in past experience1 those changes most resembling death1 which are not accidental1 but according to the ordinary course of nature1 are means of renewing and invigorating mental powers4 ,thus sleep1 the emblem of death1 is succeeded by renewed powers of activity and consciousness4 ,the changes of other animals which most resemble death furnish another analogy4 ,the humble worm rolls itself up in its temporary tomb1 and1 after a short slumber1 bursts forth to new life1 clothed in more brilliant dyes1 endued with more active capacities1 and prepared to secure enjoyments before unknown4 ,reasoning from past experience1 then1 we should infer the continued existence of the mind after death4 ,by the same method we arrive at the doctrine of the immortality of the soul4 ,we know that the soul does now exist4 ,we know of no cause that will destroy it4 ,therefore we infer that it will forever continue to exist4 ,whether this argument is satisfactory or not1 without a revelation this is all the evidence we have of the soul's continued existence after death1 and of the immortality of the soul4 ,it is the same intuitive truth which 7without a revelation7 alone furnishes aid in regard to the future destiny of man4 ,we assume that things are to be in agreement with past experience unless there is evidence to the contrary4 ,no such evidence can be found4 ,what1 then1 does the past history of our race teach us to expect from the future8 ,these are the most important deductions3 ,we are to continue under the same laws of the system already established4 ,we are to have the same susceptibilities to pleasure and pain1 the same intellect to guide us1 the same power of volition to decide our own courses4 ,we are to be parts of a social system in which every member suffers not only for his own violations of law1 but for the sins of others4 ,the great law of this system is to be forever sustained--the law of ,,sacrifice4 ,every being is to sacrifice the lesser for the greater good in all his individual concerns1 and1 in regard to the commonwealth1 the lesser good of the individual is to be sacrificed to the greater good of the many4 ,in all this1 also1 reference is to be had to the interests of the future as much as to those of the present1 and all violations of this great law are to involve the established penalties4 ,this system of law is to be administered as it has been in the past4 ,no pity for ignorance1 no sympathy for the suffering1 will ever suspend the natural penalties for wrong-doing4 ,obedience1 exact1 constant1 and persevering1 is to be the only mode of securing the rewards and escaping the penalties of this system4 ,again1 mankind1 as a race1 are to continue to progress1 until at some period a certain portion will arrive at the entire and perfect obedience to law which1 at the present stage of being1 no one has ever yet attained4 ,but1 on the other hand1 this progress will be attended with the hopeless and perpetual ruin of multitudes who1 as individuals1 take a retrograde course1 and grow more and more guilty and miserable1 while continued existence will serve only to render obedience to law more improbable4 ,but from this loss to individuals will result protective and purifying influences to the commonwealth1 so that thus good will constantly be educed from evil4 ,again1 the influences that are to secure the advance of the race to perfect obedience are to be1 knowledge of laws1 fear of penalties1 hope of rewards1 and love and gratitude toward those who may prove teachers1 benefactors1 and self-sacrificing friends4 ,these have been the modes in past experience in this world1 and therefore we infer them for the future4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,knowledge ,,gained ,,by ,,reason ,,and ,,experience ,,alone ,,concerning ,,the ,,existence1 ,,character1 ,,and ,,designs ,,of ,,the ,,creator4 ,we have shown that1 in regard to our ,creator1 his character and designs1 without a revelation1 we have nothing to guide us but the intuitive truths1 and the deductions obtained by their aid from human experience4 ,we will now inquire as to the amount of knowledge to be secured from these sources4 ,by the aid of the first intuitive truth1 we arrive at the knowledge of some great ,first ,cause or causes1 existing without beginning1 who created the universe of matter and mind2 yet1 as has been shown1 we are not1 by this first principle1 enabled to infer any thing as to the unity or plurality of such cause or causes4 ,for aught that this intuitive truth indicates1 there may have been a plurality of eternal and self-existent minds1 who acted in unity at the creation of all things4 ,neither can we1 by the aid of this truth1 arrive at any conclusion as to the character and designs of the author or authors of all created things4 ,it is by the aid of the fourth intuitive truth that we deduce whatever can be known of the character and designs of the ,creator4 ,this truth teaches us that design is evidence of an intelligent cause1 and that the nature of a design proves the intention and character of the author4 ,the works of ,nature1 both of mind and matter1 are full of evidence of design1 and from this we infer that the ,creator is an intelligent cause4 ,the infinite variety and extent of creation are evidences of the wonderful power of their ,author4 ,the fact that all the contrivances of matter and mind are clearly designed to produce enjoyment1 while pain is merely the result of a violation of laws which1 if obeyed1 would secure only happiness--this is evidence of the benevolence of the ,creator4 ,the skill with which all things are formed and combined to secure the ends designed are proofs of the wisdom of the ,creator4 ,thus1 by aid of the fourth intuitive truth1 and the world of mind and matter around us1 we obtain the result that the ,author of ,nature is powerful1 benevolent1 and wise4 ,but in regard to the use of the word power1 as applied to the ,creator1 one distinction is important4 ,there are things which are contradictory and impossible in the nature of things1 so that no one can conceive of them as possible4 ,thus1 to create and not to create at the same time1 or to make a mind that is a free agent and at the same time not a free agent1 but controlled in volitions by fixed causation as matter is--these and many other things are contradictions or impossibilities4 ,now when we say that the ,creator can not do these things1 we do not limit his power1 for almighty power signifies simply and only a power to do all things that are not contradictions and thus absurdities4 ,this being premised1 we are obliged to infer from the history of our race that the ,creator1 in regard to the existence of evil1 is limited either in power1 or in benevolence1 or in the nature of things4 ,we arrive at this conclusion thus3 ,we see that evils and suffering1 multitudinous and terrific1 do exist1 and have existed in all ages4 ,in reference to this1 only these suppositions are conceivable3 the first is1 that the ,creator is perfectly benevolent1 and that a better system1 with all the existing good and none of the evil1 is conceivable and possible in the nature of things1 yet that he had not the power to produce and sustain it4 ,the second supposition is1 that the ,creator has the power to produce and sustain a wiser and better system1 in which there shall be all the good and none of the evil in the existing one1 and yet that he would not do it4 ,this either involves the supposition of a purely malignant being1 who enjoys witnessing needless and awful suffering1 and prefers it to happiness1 or of one who is1 like human beings1 of a mixed character1 and allows evil to exist when self-denying efforts might prevent it4 ,all the minds of whom we have had any knowledge1 although1 where their own ease and pleasure are not to be sacrificed1 they prefer to make others around them happy1 yet ever exhibit a selfish spirit4 ,they all show that they think and plan more for their own private enjoyment than for the general happiness1 and thus1 to a greater or less extent1 are selfish4 ,reasoning from experience1 then1 we should infer that the ,creator might be of the same character4 ,the third supposition is1 that the ,creator has instituted the best system possible in the nature of things1 so that there is and will be the ,,most ,,possible ,,good ,,with ,,the ,,least ,,possible ,,evil4 ,we come1 then1 to the inquiry as to the end or design of the ,creator in forming the universe of mind and matter4 ,to answer this1 we must again refer to the fourth intuitive truth1 viz41 the nature of a contrivance is proof of the intention or design of the author4 ,this position is illustrated in many cases in common life4 ,if we find a contrivance which moves the air toward a fire and thus increases the flame1 we infer that the author intended to produce this result4 ,if we find a contrivance to show the time of day1 such as a sun-dial or clock1 we can not help believing that the author intended to secure this end4 ,moreover1 when we find a curious machine1 where every part is arranged on a given design1 we naturally inquire how it must be worked to produce the intended result4 ,it may have wheels that1 if turned one way1 produce the end designed1 but1 if turned another way1 produce exactly the opposite effect4 ,for example1 if the wheels of a mill are arranged aright1 or as the author designed1 they will grind flour or weave cotton2 but if arranged and worked contrary to the design of the author1 they will break themselves to pieces and destroy all things around them4 ,two inquiries1 then1 are to be made in reference to the design of the ,creator4 ,the first is1 ,what was the end or design for which he made all things8 and the second is1 ,what is the right and true method by which this design can be secured8 ,we shall assume1 and attempt to prove in what follows1 that the design and ultimate end of the ,creator in all his works is to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,afterward will be exhibited the true and right method for securing this end1 so far as we can learn it by reason and experience without a revelation4 ,in pursuing this plan1 the first step will be to exhibit the constitution and laws of mind1 as the chief and most wonderful exhibition of the grand design of its ,author4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,diversities ,,in ,,systems ,,of ,,mental ,,philosophy4 ,we are now to commence an examination of the various powers and operations of the human mind1 for the purpose of illustrating the grand aim of the ,author in the creation of all things4 ,in pursuing this course1 it is needful1 first1 to refer to the apparent diversities in systems of mental philosophy1 for the purpose of justifying the classification and the terms to be employed hereafter4 ,there is nothing more hackneyed than the complaints against metaphysics as abstruse1 difficult of comprehension1 and unpractical1 while the various writers on this science seem more or less divided into opposing schools4 ,notwithstanding this1 there are reasons for maintaining a real agreement in all systems of mental philosophy1 at least in essentials1 and the following considerations lead to such a conclusion3 ,in the first place1 the nature of the subject investigated would necessarily tend to such a result2 for that subject is the human mind1 not in its specific peculiarities1 but in those generic phenomena which are common to all minds2 just as the natural philosopher investigates those properties of matter which are common to a class1 and not the specific peculiarities that distinguish individual masses or particles4 ,now1 as those who direct their investigations to mental phenomena are all drawing a picture from the same pattern1 it is properly inferred that in the main outlines there must be a general resemblance4 ,another reason for this conclusion is the mode of investigation pursued4 ,it is simply observing1 first1 the phenomena of our own minds1 and then comparing them with those of other minds as exhibited in looks1 words1 and actions1 and thus educing generic resemblances and specific differences4 ,it is the generic resemblances only that constitute the faculties and laws of mind which are to be described1 classified1 and named4 ,another reason for inferring such an agreement of systems is the fact1 not only that all human minds have common phenomena1 but that they have provided themselves with terms to express them1 so that they succeed in so far understanding each other as to make comparisons of their mental experience4 ,the same agreement may be inferred1 also1 when we consider that mental philosophy treats1 not of new ideas1 or new combinations of ideas1 but of knowledge which is already in the mind4 ,the process to be pursued1 then1 involves a reference to what we have ourselves experienced2 it is an examination of our own feelings1 thoughts1 and volitions4 ,these are subjects of which we are competent judges1 and in regard to which we can be certain as to what is correct or incorrect1 more than we can be in reference to any other kind of knowledge4 ,from these considerations1 it is inferred that all systems of mental philosophy will resemble each other just so far as they are true1 and that the difference must be mainly in modes of presenting the subject4 ,inasmuch as writers on mental science are drawing a picture of those experiences of their own minds which are common to the whole race1 they must in the main resemble each other1 though some may be more imperfect1 vague1 and disconnected than others4 ,it may be useful to indicate the causes which have combined to produce perplexity and apparent diversities among writers on mental science4 ,the first cause is the want of an accurate medium of communication by which one mind can compare its experience with the experience of other minds4 ,in natural science1 when the philosopher instructs in reference to the properties of matter1 all the terms employed can be made definite by appeals to the senses4 ,for example1 if it is not understood what is meant by a pungent smell1 such a smell can be produced1 and then there is a perfectly clear idea of what is meant by the term4 ,but in mental science1 when the term reason or the term understanding is employed1 no such perfect and definite mode is at command to illustrate the meaning4 ,on the contrary1 in this science1 a single term is often used with various meanings1 each use1 however1 including some common idea1 while the extent or limitation in every case is to be determined by the connection4 ,for example1 the term heart is used sometimes to signify the chief organ of physical life1 sometimes it signifies the mind itself4 ,in a more limited use it denotes the feelings1 and in a still more restricted sense it expresses the leading interest of the mind4 ,this involves a constant process of reasoning to decide the meaning of the term4 ,another perplexity in mental science has arisen from an unwarrantable use of terms by writers4 ,in some instances new distinctions in mental analysis have been originated1 and then terms have been used to express these distinctions which never before were employed in this limited sense4 ,of course1 in reading their works1 the mind is confused by meeting terms that in common use recall one signification1 when the writer employs them in another4 ,in other cases1 such writers have formed new classifications of mental phenomena1 and employed new terms to express them1 and thus an impression is made that something new has been discovered1 or a new system evolved4 ,for example1 ,brown arranges the intellectual operations of mind in but two general classes1 and calls them simple suggestion and relative suggestion4 ,but his work1 in this respect1 presents only a new classification and new terms1 but no new ideas4 ,another difficulty in mental science has arisen from the fact that many writers on this subject have failed in accurate analysis of the phenomena of mind1 and1 of course1 have not succeeded in conveying clear and distinct ideas to their readers4 ,for example1 some metaphysicians have never discriminated between desire and choice1 but have written as if they were the same thing4 ,thus they have affirmed things which were true in reference to one of these mental acts1 and false in regard to the other4 ,this has produced mistiness of apprehension or false conceptions in their readers4 ,some understand the writer one way and dispute his positions1 others understand him another way and defend them1 because what he says is true of one act and false of the other1 while both acts are spoken of as one and the same4 ,meantime the great mass of readers have never been accustomed to any accurate analysis1 or even to any fixed observation of their own mental states4 ,they are1 therefore1 unprepared to detect these defects in the writers on mental science1 and are easily confused and perplexed4 ,another difficulty has arisen from false ideas as to the origin and proper use of words4 ,in most minds an impression has been generated that there is an inherent meaning belonging to the words of a language4 ,they do not consider that in the formation of language the ideas come first1 and that the words are only conventional signs which men agree in using to express these ideas4 ,writers often speak of words which by long usage have been connected with certain ideas1 as if they ought not to be so employed4 ,they do not consider that the fact that men have used a word for a given idea1 and understand each other1 is the very thing which establishes its proper use and meaning4 ,if1 then1 in all time and in all nations1 mankind have classified and given names to their mental states1 the classification and the names are true and proper1 and no philosopher should claim that these are incorrect4 ,the object of language is to enable men to communicate their ideas1 and that language is best which enables them to do it the most extensively and the most accurately4 ,it is maintained1 then1 that there is a system of mental philosophy which is understood by all mankind2 that there are words in common use by which it can be clearly and definitely described and expressed1 either by single terms or by circumlocution2 that it is recognized in the ,bible2 and that1 substantially1 it is the system taught by all writers on mental science1 some teaching one portion and some another4 ,it is maintained1 also1 that no such writer has taught any thing of any importance that is true which can not be translated into the language of common life1 so as to be readily comprehended even by persons of ordinary capacity and education4 ,there is no difficulty in leading any mind of ordinary capacity to notice the several classes of mental operations introduced in this work1 and in all nations and languages these facts are recognized and terms are provided to express them4 ,some persons object to speaking of any mental phenomena as states of mind1 because it is claimed that the mind is active in all4 ,thus sensations are claimed to be acts of mind instead of passive states caused by material objects4 ,in regard to this and various other objections urged against this mode of classification and nomenclature1 it may be remarked that the thing aimed at is simply1 by means of a description1 to point out what is meant4 ,when this is understood1 it does not change our idea to give it a name4 ,we know by our own experience what it is to have a sensation1 and calling it a state or an act does not alter our idea of the fact4 ,in using words1 all we have to do is to convey our meaning1 either by description or illustration1 and when we have done this1 to select a word to express it2 and that word is best for this purpose which would recall this meaning to the greatest number of persons who have previously used it in this sense4 ,for this reason1 it is most proper to use terms employed in common life to express the phenomena treated of in mental science1 instead of instituting new terms1 which1 to most persons1 have never had the intended ideas connected with them4 ,this method is adopted in the following pages2 but it is important to remember that1 while these words are used both in common life and by metaphysical writers with the meaning here indicated1 they are often used with other significations4 ,thus the word to perceive is used not only to signify the act of gaining ideas by the senses1 but any act of mind in noticing truths of any kind1 either mental or external4 ,so to conceive and to perceive are often used interchangeably as meaning the same thing4 ,but this does not render it necessary to seek any new terms to express these ideas4 ,all that is needful is to indicate that in classing and describing mental phenomena we restrict ourselves to one exact and uniform use of these terms1 and this use is indicated in the description or definition given4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,classification ,,and ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,mental ,,powers4 ,we now proceed to the classification and description of the mental powers4 ,not only all writers on mental science1 but the most common writers and speakers1 recognize a general division of mental operations1 which is expressed by the terms intellect1 feeling1 and choice4 ,we think1 we feel1 and we choose4 ,even the young child learns to comprehend these three grand divisions of the mental phenomena4 ,to this most general division1 in this work1 are applied the terms the intellectual powers1 the susceptibilities1 and the will4 ,these terms are selected because they are the most common ones4 ,,the ,,intellectual ,,powers4 ,under the general class of intellectual powers are arranged the following specific powers of mind3 ,sensation1 ,perception1 ,conception1 ,memory1 ,imagination1 ,judgment1 ,abstraction1 ,attention1 and ,association4 ,sensation is a state of mind produced by material objects acting on the senses4 ,thus1 when light1 which is considered as one kind of matter1 affects the eye1 the sensation of sight is produced4 ,when the perfume of a rose1 which is another species of matter1 affects the nostrils1 the sensation of smell is produced4 ,when a bell or some musical instrument causes the air to vibrate on the drum of the ear1 it causes the sensation of sound4 ,when any sapid body is applied to the tongue1 the sensation of taste is caused4 ,when the hand1 or any part of the body1 comes in contact with another body1 the sensation of touch is produced4 ,thus it appears that the five senses are the organs of sensation1 and that through their instrumentality material things operate upon the mind4 ,perception is a sensation attended by the belief of a cause1 and it is this additional circumstance alone which distinguishes perception from sensation4 ,if a person were asleep1 and should suffer from the prick of a pin1 or be disturbed by an unpleasant sound1 these would be mere sensations1 because the mind would not ascribe them to any cause4 ,but if the person should waken1 these sensations would immediately become perceptions1 because they would be attended by the belief of some cause4 ,conception is a state of mind similar to perception1 and differs from it in being less vivid1 and in not being produced through the medium of the senses4 ,when we look at a tree1 we have a perception of this object4 ,but the mind can also have an idea of this tree when removed from the sight1 though the idea is not so vivid and distinct1 nor have the senses any agency in producing it4 ,the perfume of a rose1 also1 occasions another sensation2 but when the rose is removed1 so as not to affect the senses1 we can still have a conception of its perfume4 ,the conception differs from the perception only in being less vivid1 and in not being caused by a material object acting on the senses4 ,memory is either a conception or a perception1 which is attended with a feeling of its resemblance to a past state of mind4 ,it is this feeling of resemblance that is the only circumstance which distinguishes memory from conception4 ,thus we may conceive of a tree without recognizing it as the particular idea of any tree we may have seen before2 but if this is accompanied by a feeling of the resemblance of this idea to the one we always have when we see the tree that shadows the paternal roof1 this conception becomes memory4 ,if we conceive the form of a man without recognizing the resemblance of this idea to the perceptions we have when we see any particular man1 this is a simple act of conception2 but if we recognize in this object of conception the features of a dear friend1 this act then becomes memory4 ,again1 if we conceive of certain events and circumstances attending them without recognizing this combination as ever having existed in past experience1 they are mere conceptions2 but if we recognize in them the events and circumstances of past experience1 conception becomes memory4 ,imagination is the power which the mind possesses of arranging our conceptions in new combinations4 ,we can conceive objects as united together of which we never conceived before as thus united4 ,thus1 when we read the description of some picturesque scene in nature1 the mind immediately groups together mountains1 trees1 brooks1 cottages1 and glens1 forming a new combination of conceptions different from any scene we ever witnessed or conceived before4 ,all the objects thus combined are conceptions2 the act of arranging them is an act of the imagination4 ,judgment is the power which the mind possesses of noticing relations4 ,a relation is an idea obtained by observing one thing in connection with another4 ,thus1 when we perceive one thing to be longer than another1 one thing to be on another1 or one thing to belong to another--in all these cases the mind notices relations1 or exercises the faculty of judgment4 ,thus1 also1 when we compare any action with the rule of duty in order to decide whether it is right or wrong1 we exercise the same faculty4 ,this act always is necessarily preceded by the comparison of one thing with another1 in order to notice the relations4 ,abstraction is the power of noticing certain parts or qualities of any object1 as distinct from other parts or qualities4 ,thus1 when we notice the length of a bridge without attending to the breadth or color1 or when we notice the height of a man without thinking of his character1 we exercise the faculty of abstraction4 ,attention is the direction of the mind to any particular object or quality1 from the interest which is felt in it1 or in something connected with it4 ,the degree of attention is always proportioned to the degree of interest felt in the object4 ,association is the power possessed by the mind of recalling ideas in the connections and relations in which they have existed in past experience4 ,for example1 when any two objects1 such as a house and a tree1 have often been observed together1 the idea of one will ordinarily be attended by that of the other4 ,if two events have often been united together in regard to the time of their occurrence1 such1 for example1 as thunder and lightning1 the idea of one will usually be attended by the other4 ,in this work1 the aim is to introduce no more of mental analysis than is needed for its main object4 ,what is here introduced is not claimed as a complete presentation of all the mental phenomena4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,sensation ,,and ,,perception4 ,as there is no distinction between sensation and perception except in the fact that one is attended with the belief of a cause and the other is not1 they will be treated of together4 ,the mind of man is an immaterial existence1 confined in its operations by the body it inhabits1 and depending upon the construction and modifications of this envelope for much of its happiness or suffering4 ,the exercise of the imagination1 when the eyes are closed and the body at rest1 will probably give us the best idea of what is the nature of spiritual existence when disconnected with matter4 ,it is one of the offices of our bodily system to retain the spirit in its operations in one particular place1 so that ordinarily it can have direct communion with no other mind which is not in the same place4 ,whether this is the case with mere spiritual existence is a question for conjecture1 and not for any rational decision4 ,while the spirit of man is resident in its material frame1 it is furnished with facilities of communication with other minds1 and with organs which fit it to receive suffering or enjoyment from the material objects by which it is surrounded4 ,these organs of communication are the several senses4 ,they consist of expansions of the substance of which the brain is formed1 which1 descending to the body through the spinal bone of the back1 are thence sent out in thousands of ramifications over the whole system4 ,those branches which enter the eyes1 and are spread over the interior back part of this organ1 are called the optic nerve4 ,whenever the particles of light enter the eye1 they strike the optic nerve1 and produce the sensation which is called sight4 ,those branches which are spread over the tongue are the organ of taste4 ,those that are extended through the cavities of the nostrils are called the olfactory nerves4 ,when the small particles of matter that escape from odoriferous bodies come in contact with these nerves1 they produce the sensation of smell4 ,the nerves that constitute the organ of hearing are extended over the cavity of the ear behind the tympanum1 or ear-drum4 ,this cavity is filled with a liquid1 and when the drum of the ear is caused to vibrate by the air which is set in motion by sonorous bodies1 it produces undulations of this liquid upon these nerves1 and thus the sensation of sound is produced4 ,by the expansion of other nerves1 the sense of feeling is extended all over the body1 excepting the nails and the hair4 ,it is by the action of matter1 in its different forms1 on these several senses1 that the mind obtains ideas1 and that ideas are imparted from one mind to another4 ,perception never takes place unless some material object makes an impression upon one of the senses4 ,in the case of the eye1 the ear1 and the nostrils1 the object which is regarded as the cause of the sensation does not come immediately in contact with the organs of sense4 ,when we see a body1 we consider it as the cause of that perception2 but it is not the body that comes in contact with the organ of sight1 but merely the particles of light reflected from that body4 ,in the case of smell1 the fragrant body is regarded as the cause of the sensation2 but that which acts on the sense is the material particles of perfume which flow from that body4 ,thus1 also1 with hearing4 ,we consider the sonorous body as the cause2 but the sensation is produced through the medium of the air1 which affects the drum of the ear4 ,but in the case of taste and touch1 the body which is regarded by the mind as the cause must come in contact with the nerves of the tongue or the body to produce the sensation4 ,smell4 ,the sense of smell is one which greatly conduces to the preservation1 the comfort1 and the happiness of man4 ,it is a continual aid to him in detecting polluted atmosphere or unhealthy food4 ,the direct enjoyment it affords is probably less in amount than that derived from any of the other senses2 yet1 were we deprived of all the enjoyment gained through this source1 we should probably find the privation much greater than we at first might imagine4 ,when we walk forth among the beauties of nature1 the fresh perfumes that send forth their incense are sources both of immediate and succeeding gratification4 ,the beautiful images of nature which rise to the mind in our imaginative hours1 would lose many of their obscure but charming associations were the fields stripped of the fragrance of their greens and the flowers of their sweet perfumes4 ,nature would appear to have lost that moving spirit of life which now ever rides upon the evening zephyrs and the summer breeze4 ,as it is1 as we walk abroad1 all nature seems to send forth its welcome1 while to its ,maker's praise ,each odorous leaf1 ,each opening blossom1 freely breathes abroad ,its gratitude1 and thanks ,him with its sweets4 ,taste4 ,when a sapid body is applied to the organ of taste1 two sensations are produced1 one of touch and one of taste4 ,we are conscious of the difference of these sensations when we apply a body to the tongue which has taste1 and then immediately one which has not4 ,it is probable1 however1 that the same set of nerves serve both purposes4 ,it is one of the numberless evidences of the benevolence of our ,creator that the process which is necessary for the preservation of life1 and which depends upon the voluntary activity of every human being1 should be connected with a sense which affords such gratification that the duty is sought as a pleasure4 ,were mankind led to seek food merely in the exercise of reason for the purpose of preserving life1 multitudes1 through carelessness and forgetfulness1 would be perpetually neglecting that regular supply without which the animal system would become deranged and enfeebled4 ,by the present constitution of the body1 the gratification of this sense is an object of desire1 and thus we are continually reminded of our duty1 and led to it as a source of enjoyment4 ,nor is it the gratification of this sense which is the only source of enjoyment connected with it4 ,the regular periods for repast bring around the social board those united to each other by the tenderest ties of kindred and affection4 ,these become seasons of cheerful hilarity and relaxation1 seasons of cessation from daily cares1 seasons for the interchange of kind feelings and intellectual stores2 and while the mere gratification of sense is one source of pleasure1 to this is often added the feast of reason and the flow of soul4 ,the effect on the best feelings in thus assembling to participate in common blessings is scarcely ever appreciated4 ,did every individual of our race retire to secrecy and solitude to satisfy the cravings of nature1 how much would the sum of human happiness be diminished6 ,but thus has our benevolent ,creator contrived that one source of enjoyment should serve as an occasion for introducing many more4 ,hearing4 ,the sense of hearing is one more connected with the intellectual and moral powers of man than either taste or smell1 as it is through the medium of this organ that both music and speech operate on the human mind4 ,we can form some imperfect estimate of the amount of happiness derived from this sense by imagining the condition of mankind were they at once and forever deprived of this source of improvement and enjoyment4 ,the voice of sympathy1 friendship1 and love would be hushed4 ,the eloquence of the forum1 the debates of the ,legislature1 the instructions of the pulpit1 would cease4 ,the music of nature--its sighing winds and dashing waters--would be stilled1 and the warbling of the groves would charm no more4 ,the sound of pipe1 and harp1 and solemn harmonies of voice would never again waken the soul to thrilling and nameless emotions4 ,where now ten thousand sounds of active life1 or cheerful hum of business1 or music of language and song charm and animate the soul1 man would walk forth in silence and solitude4 ,the operation of mere sound1 disconnected with the ideas which are often conveyed by it1 is a subject of curious speculation4 ,sounds differ from each other in quality1 pitch1 force1 and in length4 ,the difference in tone may be illustrated by the sounds of a clarionet compared with the sound of a bell or of the human voice4 ,every instrument and every human voice has each a peculiar tone by which it is distinguished from all others4 ,the difference in pitch is shown by sounding a low and a high note in succession on an instrument4 ,the difference in force is exhibited by singing or speaking loud or soft4 ,there are certain sounds that in themselves are either agreeable or disagreeable from their tone alone4 ,thus the sound of a flute is agreeable1 and that of the filing of a saw is disagreeable4 ,sounds also are agreeable according as they succeed each other4 ,melody is a succession of agreeable tones arranged in some regular order as it respects their duration and succession4 ,some melodies are much more agreeable to the ear than others4 ,some melodies produce a plaintive state of mind1 others exhilarate1 and this without regard to any thing except the nature of the sounds and their succession4 ,thus a very young infant1 by a certain succession of musical tones1 can be made either to weep in sorrow or smile with joy4 ,harmony is a certain combination of sounds which are agreeable to the ear2 and it is found that the mind can be much more powerfully affected by a combination of harmonious sounds than by any melody4 ,the effect of music on certain minds is very powerful1 often awakening strange and indescribable emotions4 ,it has been1 therefore1 much employed both to heighten social1 patriotic1 and devotional feeling4 ,there is probably nothing which produces stronger and more abiding associations in the mind than musical sounds4 ,as an example of this may be mentioned the national air which is sung by the ,swiss in their native valleys4 ,it is said that when they become wanderers in foreign lands1 so strongly will this wild music recall the scenes of their childhood and youth1 their native skies1 their towering mountains and romantic glens1 with all the strong local attachments that gather around such objects1 that their heart sickens with longing desires to return4 ,and so much was this the case with the ,swiss of the ,french armies1 that ,bonaparte forbade this air being played among his troops4 ,the ,marseilles ,hymn1 which was chanted in the scenes of the ,french ,revolution1 was said to have been perfectly electrifying1 and to have produced more effect than all the eloquence of orators or machinations of statesmen4 ,the mind seems to acquire by experience only the power of determining the place whence sounds originate4 ,it is probable that1 at first1 sounds seem to originate within the ear of the person who hears2 and1 even after long experience1 cases have been known1 when a person suddenly waked from sleep imagined the throbbing of his own heart was a knocking at the door4 ,but observation and experience soon teach us the direction and the distance of sounds4 ,the art of the ventriloquist consists in nothing but the power which a nice and accurate ear gives him of distinguishing the difference between sounds when near or far off1 and of imitating them4 ,touch4 ,the sense of touch is not confined to one particular organ1 but is extended over the whole system1 both externally and internally4 ,it is in the hands1 however1 especially at the ends of the fingers1 that this sense is most acute and most employed4 ,we acquire many more ideas by the aid of this sense than by either hearing1 smell1 or taste4 ,by these last we become acquainted with only one particular quality in a body1 either of taste1 smell1 or sound2 but by means of the touch we learn such qualities as heat and cold1 roughness and smoothness1 hardness and softness1 figure1 solidity1 and extension4 ,it is supposed that it is by this sense that we gain the idea of something external1 or without ourselves4 ,the sensation of smell would seem to be within1 as an act or emotion of the soul itself4 ,thus also with hearing1 which1 being produced within the ear by the undulating air1 would seem to originate within4 ,thus also with sensations within the eye4 ,but when the limbs begin to move and to come in contact with outward objects1 and also in contact with various parts of the body1 the mind gains an idea of the existence of some outward object4 ,this is probably the first sense by which any idea of existence is wakened in the mind4 ,as one sense after another is called into action1 the mind continually gains new ideas1 and then begins its operations of comparing1 abstracting1 reasoning1 and willing4 ,it is by the sense of touch that we gain our ideas of resistance and extension4 ,in the class of ideas included under the head of ideas of resistance may be placed those of solidity1 liquidity1 hardness1 softness1 viscidity1 roughness1 and smoothness2 these all being different names for different modes of resistance to the muscles of the hands1 arms1 or fingers1 when applied to the bodies which have these qualities4 ,these ideas are not gained by simple contact2 their existence depends upon the contraction or expansion of the muscles1 which are the organs of motion and resistance in the human body4 ,we may suppose the infant to gain these ideas by a process somewhat similar to this3 ,he first moves his arms by instinct1 without any knowledge of the effects to follow4 ,by this movement he gains certain ideas of the simple contractions and extension of his muscles1 and learns also that by his own will he can exercise his muscles in this manner4 ,at length he attempts to move his arm in a manner to which he has become familiar1 and some object intervenes1 and motion is prevented1 while all his wonted muscular efforts are vain4 ,thus arises in his mind a new idea1 of resistance1 in addition to the sensations of touch and of motion1 which had before been experienced4 ,the ideas of different degrees of this resistance are gained by repeated experience1 and when age furnishes the ability to understand language1 the names of hardness1 softness1 roughness1 and the like1 are given to these ideas4 ,in the use of his muscles1 also1 the infant must first acquire its ideas of extension and figure2 for it must be where resistance to muscular effort ceases that he must feel that the cause ceases to exist4 ,the little being extends his hand--an object intervenes which interrupts his muscular motions2 he grasps this object1 and wherever this feeling of resistance exists1 there he feels that the cause of it exists1 and that after he has passed certain limits it does not exist4 ,figure is defined as the limits of extension1 and1 of course1 it can be seen that ideas of figure can only be gained by thus finding the limits of extension4 ,it has formerly been supposed that ideas of extension and figure were gained by the eye1 but later experiments and discussions show that the sense of feeling1 including muscular motion1 is the medium by which these ideas are first gained1 and that afterward the eye1 by the principle of association1 acquires the power of distinguishing figure and distance4 ,there is much enjoyment resulting from the sense of touch in many ways1 a large portion of which is almost unnoticed4 ,much also included under the term comfort results from this sense4 ,much of that which is agreeable in clothing and in objects around us is of this nature4 ,besides this1 there are many endearments of friendship and affection that gain expression only through this medium4 ,vision4 ,the organ of vision is the eye1 which is one of the most curious and wonderful parts of the human frame1 and displays in astonishing variety the wisdom and skill of its ,designer4 ,the eye consists of a round ball1 formed externally of various coverings1 and within of humors of different degrees of consistency4 ,the front part of the eye1 which is exposed to view1 has a small opening in it1 which admits the rays of light within this ball1 while it is by the operation of light on the nerves1 which are spread in fine net-work over the interior1 that sight is produced4 ,in examining the mechanism of the eye1 a great variety of contrivances appear1 all aiding in accomplishing the object of vision4 ,in the first place1 we may observe its modes of protection and defense4 ,the lid is a soft1 moist wiper1 which1 with a motion quick as lightning1 protects the eye from outward violence1 cleanses it from dust1 veils it from overpowering radiance1 and in hours of repose entirely excludes the light4 ,on its edge is the fringing lash1 which intercepts floating matter that might otherwise intrude1 while above is spread the eyebrow1 which1 like a thatch1 obstructs the drops that heat or toil accumulate on the brow4 ,we next observe the organs of motion with which the eye is furnished1 and which1 with complicated strings and pulleys1 can turn it every way at the will of the intelligent agent4 ,the pupil or opening of the eye1 also1 is so constructed1 with its minute and multiplied circular and crossing muscles1 that it can contract or expand in size just in proportion as the light varies in intensity4 ,the ball of the eye is filled with three substances of different degrees of density4 ,one is a watery humor1 near the front of the eye2 back of this1 and suspended by two muscles1 is the solid lens of the eye1 or the crystalline humor2 and the remainder of the eye1 in which this lens is imbedded1 consists of the vitreous humor1 which is of the consistence of jelly4 ,these all have different degrees of transparency1 and are so nicely adjusted that the rays of light1 which start from every point in all bodies in diverging lines1 are by these humors made to converge and meet in points on the retina1 or the nerve of the eye1 forming there a small picture1 exactly of the same proportions1 though not the same size1 as the scene which is spread before the eye4 ,when the outer covering of the back part of the eye is removed1 the objects which are in front of the eye may be discerned1 delicately portrayed in all their perfect colors and proportions1 on the retina which lines the interior4 ,it is this impression of light on the optic nerve which gives our ideas of light and colors4 ,the eye is also formed in such a way that it can alter its shape and become somewhat oblong1 while at the same time its lens is projected forward or drawn back4 ,the object of this contrivance is to obtain an equally perfect picture of distant and of near objects4 ,our ideas of shape and size at first are not gained by the eye1 but by the sense of touch4 ,after considerable experience we learn to determine shape and size by the eye4 ,experiments made upon persons born blind and restored to sight furnish many curious facts to support this assertion4 ,when the eye first admits the light1 all objects appear to touch the eye1 and are all a confused mass of different colors4 ,but by continual observation1 and by the aid of the sense of touch1 objects gradually are separated from each other1 and are then regarded as separate and distinct existences4 ,the eye is so formed that the picture of any object on the retina varies in size according to its distance4 ,two objects of equal size will make a different picture on the back of the eye1 according to the distance at which they are held4 ,the ideas of size at first are regulated by the proportions of this picture in the eye1 until by experience it is found that this is an incorrect mode1 and that it is necessary to judge of the distance of a body before we can determine its size4 ,this accounts for the fact that objects appear to us so different according as we conceive of their distance1 and that we are often deceived in the size of bodies because we have no mode of determining their distance4 ,but it appears also that our ideas of distance are gained1 not by the eye alone1 but by the eye and the sense of feeling united4 ,a child by the sense of feeling learns the size of his cup or his playthings4 ,he sees them removed1 and that their apparent size diminishes4 ,they are returned to him1 and he finds them unaltered in size4 ,when attempting to recover them1 he finds that when they look very small he is obliged to pass over a much greater distance to gain them than when they appear large1 and that the distance is always in exact proportion to their apparent size4 ,in this way1 by oft-repeated experiments1 the infant reasoner learns to judge both of the size and distance of objects4 ,from this it appears that1 in determining the size of an object1 we previously form some judgment of its distance1 and likewise that1 in finding the distance1 we first determine the size4 ,the shape of objects is learned altogether by the sense of feeling4 ,it has before been stated that at the first exercise of vision every thing is a confused mass of different colors1 and all appearing to touch the eye4 ,by the aid of the hands the separate existence of different bodies is detected1 and the feeling of touch1 which once was the sole mode of determining shape1 is now associated with a certain form or picture on the eye1 so that1 in process of time1 the eye becomes the principal judge of shape4 ,but1 in determining the shape of a thing1 an act of judgment is necessary4 ,this may be illustrated by the example of a hoop1 which in one position will make a picture in the eye which is circular1 in another position the picture of it will be oval1 and in another only a straight line4 ,if a person will observe a hoop in these different positions1 and then attempt to draw a picture of it1 he will be conscious of this varying picture in the eye4 ,of course1 in order to decide the shape of a thing1 we must decide its distance1 its relative position1 and various circumstances which would alter the form of the picture in the eye4 ,it is only by long experience that the infant child gradually acquires the power of determining the shape1 size1 and distance of objects4 ,the painter's art consists in laying on to canvas an enlarged picture of the scene which is painted in the interior of his own eye4 ,in this minute picture of the eye1 the more distant an object the smaller its size1 the more indistinct its outline1 and the fainter its colors4 ,these same are transferred to canvas in an enlarged form2 the distant objects are made small in size1 faint in colors1 and indistinct in outline1 just in proportion to their distance4 ,the organ of vision is the inlet of more enjoyment to the mind than any of the other senses4 ,through this small loop-hole the spirit looks forth on the rich landscape of nature1 and the charms both of the natural and moral world4 ,the fresh colors1 the beauty of motion1 the grace of figures1 the fitness of proportion1 and all the charms of taste1 are discovered through this medium4 ,by the eye1 also1 we learn to read the speaking face of man1 we greet the smile of friendship and love1 and all those varying charms that glance across the human face divine4 ,by the aid of this little organ1 too1 we climb not only the summits of earth's domains1 but wander forth to planets1 stars1 and suns1 traverse the vast ethereal expanse1 and gather faint images and flitting visions of the spirit's future home4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,conception ,,and ,,memory4 ,there has been much speculation on the question as to whether the mind possesses any ideas entirely independent of the senses1 which were gained without any aid or influence from them4 ,many have maintained the existence of some ideas1 which they denominate innate ideas1 which they suppose were originally implanted in the mind1 and not at all dependent on sensation4 ,on this subject it may be sufficient to remark that there is no proof of the existence of any such ideas4 ,all ideas1 so far as we can trace them1 seem to have been originally gained by the senses1 though the mind has the power of making new arrangements and combinations of such materials as are thus furnished4 ,the intuitive truths seem to exist as a part of the original constitution of the mind1 but there is no evidence that they would ever have been called into exercise except through the instrumentality of the senses4 ,there is nothing to prove that the positive exercise of thought1 feeling1 and volition is necessary to the existence of mind1 and no proof that the mind might not have existed forever without thought or feeling of any kind1 were it not for the aid of the senses4 ,we know that there are periods of sleep and of swooning1 when the mind is in existence1 and yet when there is no evidence that either thoughts1 feelings1 or volitions are in exercise4 ,speculations on this subject seem to be profitless1 because there are no data for determining them4 ,the facts in the case are not of a character to enable us to pronounce positively either that these operations are or are not essential to its existence4 ,it may be that in sleep and in a swoon these phenomena exist1 and no memory is retained of them1 and it is equally probable that at such intervals all mental operations entirely cease4 ,but1 now that the mind has been furnished by the senses with its splendid acquisitions1 upon which its reflective powers can act1 it is easy to believe that it might continue to exist and to be in active exercise if all its bodily senses1 and even its material envelope1 were destroyed4 ,should we never again behold the light of heaven1 nor be charmed with the profusion of varied color and form1 still the mind could busy itself with pleasing visions of brilliant dyes1 of graceful outline1 and fair proportion1 as bright and as beautiful as any objects of sense could awaken4 ,should we never again inhale the freshness of morning or the perfumes of spring1 the mind itself could furnish from its stores some treasured incense1 never to be entirely exhaled4 ,should the palate never again be cooled by the freshening water of spring1 or be refreshed by the viands of the luxuriant year1 yet fancy could spread forth her golden fruits and sparkling juices in banquets as varied and profuse as ever greeted the most fastidious taste4 ,should the melodies of speech and of music be heard no more1 and the sweet harmonies of nature and of art forever be hushed1 yet the exulting spirit could warble its own songs1 and melt in ecstasies with imagined harmonies4 ,and should the grasp of friendship rejoice us no more1 nor the embrace of affection send joy to the heart1 yet still the spirit would not be desolate1 for it could gather around it the beings most loved1 and still feel the embraces of affection4 ,conceptions are distinguished into two classes with reference to this one fact1 that some of our conceptions are attended with a consciousness that they have existed before1 and others are not4 ,those conceptions which are thus attended with the feeling of their resemblance to past perceptions or conceptions are called ideas of memory2 those of our perceptions also which are attended with this recognition are called memory4 ,how important to our happiness and improvement is this recognition of past ideas1 few are wont to imagine4 ,if all our knowledge of external things were forever lost to us after sensation is past1 our existence would be one of mere sensitive enjoyment1 and all the honor and dignity of mind would be destroyed4 ,no past experience could be of any avail1 nor could any act of judgment or of reasoning be performed4 ,even the most common wants of animal nature could not be supplied2 for1 were the cooling water and sustaining food presented to the sight1 no memory of the past comfort secured by them would lead the mind to seek it again4 ,or1 had nature1 by some implanted instinct1 provided for these necessities1 yet life in this case would have consisted of a mere succession of sensations1 without even the amount of intellect of which the lower animals give proof4 ,it is the capacity of retrospection1 too1 which gives us the power of foreseeing the future1 and thus of looking both before and behind for sources of enjoyment in delightful reminiscences and joyful anticipations4 ,it is this power of remembrance and foresight which raises man to be the image of his ,creator1 the miniature of ,him who sees the end from the beginning1 who looks back on never commencing ages1 and forward through eternal years4 ,it is true the mind of man can foresee only by the process of reasoning1 by which it is inferred that the future will1 in given circumstances1 resemble the past4 ,and how the ,eternal ,mind can foresee by intuition all the events which hang upon the volitions of the myriads of acting minds which he has formed is what no human intellect can grasp4 ,the foresight of intuition has not been bestowed upon man1 but is reserved as one distinctive prerogative of ,deity4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,attention ,,and ,,abstraction4 ,to understand clearly the nature of the mental phenomena called attention and abstraction1 two facts in our mental history need definitely to be understood--facts which have a decided bearing on the nature and character of almost all the operations of mind4 ,the first is1 that the objects of our conceptions are seldom1 if ever1 isolated1 disconnected objects4 ,on the contrary1 there is an extended and complex picture before the mind1 including often a great variety of objects1 with their several qualities1 relations1 and changes4 ,in this mental picture some objects are clear and distinct1 while others seem to float along in shadowy vagueness4 ,this fact must be evident to any mind that will closely examine its own mental operations4 ,it is also equally evident when we consider the mode in which our ideas are gained by perception4 ,we never acquire our ideas in single disconnected lineaments4 ,we are continually viewing complex objects with numerous qualities and surrounded by a great variety of circumstances1 which unitedly form a whole in one act of perception4 ,indeed1 there are few objects1 either of perception or conception1 which1 however close the process of abstraction1 do not remain complex in their nature4 ,the simplest forms of matter are combined ideas of extension1 figure1 color1 and relation4 ,these different ideas we gain by the aid of the different senses4 ,of course1 our conceptions are combinations of different qualities in an object which the mind considers as one1 and as distinct from other objects4 ,each item1 then1 in any mental picture is itself a complex object1 and each mental picture is formed by a combination of such complex objects4 ,it will be found very difficult1 if not impossible1 to mention a name which recalls any object of sense in which the conception recalled by the word is a single disconnected thing1 without any idea of place or any attendant circumstances1 and1 as before remarked1 almost all objects of sense are complex objects1 combining several ideas1 which were gained through the instrumentality of different senses4 ,the idea of color is gained by one sense1 of position1 shape1 and consistency by another1 and other qualities and powers which the mind associates with it by other senses4 ,the other fact necessary to the correct understanding of the subject is the influence which the desires and emotions have upon the character both of the perceptions and conceptions with which they coexist4 ,it will be found that our sensations vary in vividness and distinctness according to the strength and permanency of certain feelings of desire which coexist with them4 ,for example1 we are continually hearing a multitude of sounds1 but in respect to many of them1 as we feel no desire to know the cause or nature of them1 these sensations are so feeble and indistinct as scarcely ever to be recalled to the mind or recognized by any act of memory2 but should we hear some strange wailing sound1 immediately the desire would arise to ascertain its nature and cause4 ,it would immediately become an object of distinct and vivid perception1 and continue so as long as the desire lasted4 ,while one sensation becomes thus clear and prominent1 it will be found that other sensations which were coexisting with it will become feebler and seem to die away4 ,the same impressions may still be made upon the eye as before1 the same sounds that had previously been regarded may still strike upon the ear1 but while the desire continues to learn the cause of that strange wailing sound1 the other sensations would all be faint and indistinct4 ,when this desire is gratified1 then other sensations would resume their former distinctness and prominency4 ,our conceptions1 in like manner1 are affected by the coexistence of emotion or desire4 ,if1 for example1 we are employing ourselves in study or mental speculations1 the vividness of our conceptions will vary in exact proportion to the interest we feel in securing the object about which our conceptions are employed4 ,if we feel but little interest in the subject of our speculations1 every conception connected with them will be undefined and indistinct2 but if the desire of approbation1 or the admonitions of conscience1 or the hope of securing some future good stimulate desire1 immediately our conceptions grow more vivid and clear1 and the object at which we aim is more readily and speedily secured4 ,the great art1 then1 of quickening mental vigor and activity1 and of gaining clear and quick conceptions1 is to awaken interest and excite desire4 ,when this is secured1 conceptions will immediately become bright and clear1 and all mental operations will be carried forward with facility and speed4 ,the distinction between attention and abstraction is not great1 but1 as it is recognized in language1 it needs to be definitely understood4 ,attention has been defined as the direction of the mind to some particular object1 from the interest which is felt in that object4 ,it consists simply in a feeling of desire coexisting with our sensations and conceptions1 and thus rendering them vivid and distinct2 while1 in consequence of this fact1 all other sensations and conceptions seem to fade and grow indistinct4 ,attention seems to be the generic exercise1 and abstraction one species of the same thing4 ,attention is used to express the interest which attends our perceptions or conceptions as whole objects1 thus rendering them clear and distinct from other surrounding objects4 ,abstraction is that particular act of attention which makes one part or one quality of a complex object become vivid and distinct1 while other parts and qualities grow faint and indistinct4 ,thus1 in viewing a landscape1 we should be said to exercise the power of attention if we noticed some object1 such as a stream or a bridge1 while other objects were more slightly regarded2 and we should exercise the power of abstraction if we noticed the color of the bridge or the width of the stream1 while their other qualities were not equally regarded4 ,it is the power of abstraction which is the foundation of language in its present use4 ,were it not for the power which the mind has of abstracting certain qualities and circumstances of things1 and considering them as separate and distinct from all other parts and qualities1 no words could be used except such as specify particular individuals4 ,every object that meets our eye would demand a separate and peculiar name1 thus making the acquisition of language the labor of a life4 ,but now the mind possesses the power of abstracting a greater or fewer number of qualities1 and to these qualities a name is given1 and whenever these qualities are found combined in any object1 this name can be applied4 ,thus the name animal is given to any thing which has the qualities of existence and animal life1 and the name quadruped is given to any object which has the qualities of animal life and of four legs4 ,every thing which is regarded by the mind as a separate existence must have some peculiar quality1 or action1 or circumstance of time or place1 to distinguish it from every other existence4 ,were there not something1 either in the qualities or circumstances1 which made each object in some respects peculiar1 there would be no way to distinguish one thing from another4 ,a proper name is one which is used to recall the properties and circumstances which distinguish one individual existence from every other4 ,such is the word ,mount ,blanc1 which recalls certain qualities and circumstances that distinguish one particular thing from all others1 and the name ,julius ,csar1 which recalls the character1 qualities1 and circumstances which distinguish one being from every other4 ,some words1 then1 are used to recall the peculiar qualities and circumstances of individual existences1 and are called proper names2 other words are used to recall a combination of certain qualities and circumstances1 which unitedly are an object of conception1 but are not considered by the mind as belonging to any real particular existence4 ,these last words are called general terms or common names4 ,a great variety of names may be applied to the same object of conception or perception1 according to the number of qualities and circumstances which are abstracted by the mind4 ,thus an object may be called a thing1 and1 in this case1 the simple circumstance of existence is what is recalled by the word4 ,the same object may be called an animal1 and then the qualities of existence and animal life are made the objects of conception4 ,it can also be called a man1 and then1 in addition to the qualities recalled by the word animal1 are recalled those qualities which distinguish man from all other animals4 ,it can also be called a father1 and then to the qualities recalled by the term man is added the circumstance of his relation to some other being4 ,the same object can be called ,la ,fayette1 and then1 to all the preceding qualities1 would be added in our conceptions all those peculiar qualities and circumstances which distinguish the hero of ,france from all other existences4 ,the following will probably illustrate the mode by which the human mind first acquires the proper use of these general terms4 ,the infant child learns to distinguish one existence from another probably long before he acquires the use of any names by which to designate them4 ,we may suppose that a little dog is an inmate of his nursery1 and that with the sight of this animal has often been associated the sound of the word dog4 ,this is so often repeated1 that1 by the principle of association1 the sight of the object and the sound of the word invariably recur together4 ,he observes that this sound is used by those around him in order to direct his attention to the animal1 and he himself soon uses the word to direct the attention of others in the same way4 ,but soon it happens that another animal is introduced into his apartment1 which in many respects resembles the object he has learned to call a dog4 ,to this new object he would apply the same term1 but he finds that others use the sound cat in connection with the sight of this new animal4 ,he soon learns the difference between the two objects1 the particulars in which they agree1 and those in which they differ4 ,he afterward notices other animals of these species1 and observes that some have the qualities to which the term dog is applied1 and others those to which the term cat is applied4 ,he continues to notice animals of other kinds1 and1 after long experience in this way1 he learns to apply names to designate a particular combination of qualities1 and1 whenever these qualities are found combined1 he has a term ready to apply to them4 ,he learns that some words are used to point out the peculiar qualities which distinguish one thing from all others1 and1 at the same time1 other words are used which simply recall qualities1 but do not designate any particular existence to which they belong4 ,thus the term boy he uses for the purpose of designating qualities without conceiving of any particular existence in which they are found1 while the term ,mary is used to designate the qualities and circumstances of the particular existence he finds as the companion of his sports4 ,all objects of our perceptions are arranged into classes1 according to the peculiar combination of qualities which are recalled by the names employed to designate them4 ,for example1 all objects that have the qualities of existence and of animal life are arranged in one class1 and are called animals4 ,all those which have the qualities recalled by the term animal1 and the additional qualities of wings and feathers1 are arranged in another class called birds4 ,all those objects which have the qualities included in the term bird1 together with several additional qualities1 are arranged in another class1 and called eagles4 ,to these various classes the terms genera and species are applied4 ,these terms imply a relation1 or the comparison of one class with another1 in reference to the number of qualities to be recalled by the terms employed4 ,thus the class bird is called a species of the class animal1 because it includes all the qualities that are combined in the conception recalled by the word animal1 and others in addition2 but the class bird is called a genus in relation to the class eagle1 because it contains only a part of the qualities which are recalled by the term eagle4 ,a genus may be defined as a class of things the name of which recalls fewer particulars than the name of another class or species with which it is compared4 ,bird is a genus when compared with the class eagle4 ,a species is a class of things the name of which recalls more particulars than the name of another class or genus with which it is compared4 ,bird is a species when compared with the class animal4 ,in examining language1 it will be found that the larger portion of words in common use are names of genera and species--that is1 they are words employed to recall ideas as they are arranged in genera and species4 ,it is only those words that are proper names which recall conceptions of the particular existences by which we are surrounded4 ,some of these surrounding existences are furnished with these particular names1 and others can be designated and distinguished from each other only by a description4 ,thus we see some hills around our horizon1 some of which have a peculiar name1 and others can be designated only by describing the circumstances which distinguish them from all other hills4 ,a definition of a word is an enumeration of the several qualities or circumstances which distinguish certain things from all others1 and which are recalled to the mind when the word is used4 ,thus1 if the word animal is to be defined1 we do it by mentioning the circumstances of its existence and animal life1 as the ideas recalled by the word4 ,generally1 a word is defined by mentioning the name of some genus of which the thing intended is a species1 and then adding those particular qualities which the species has1 in addition to those included under the genus4 ,thus1 if we are to define the word man1 we mention the genus animal1 and then the qualities which man has in addition to those possessed by other animals4 ,thus3 ,man is an animal1 having the human form1 and a spirit endowed with intellect1 susceptibility1 and will4 ,there are some words which recall only one quality or circumstance1 and which1 therefore1 can not be defined like the words which recall various qualities and circumstances1 as joy1 sorrow1 color1 and the like4 ,such words as these are defined by mentioning the times or circumstances when the mind is conscious of the existence of the idea to be recalled by the word4 ,thus joy is a state of mind which exists when any ardent desire is gratified4 ,color is a quality of objects which is perceived when light enters the eye4 ,those conceptions which can be defined by enumerating the several qualities and circumstances which compose them are called complex ideas1 and the words used to designate them are called complex terms4 ,such words as landscape1 wrestler1 giant1 and philosopher1 are complex terms4 ,the word landscape recalls a complex idea of various material things4 ,the word wrestler recalls an idea of a material object and one of its actions4 ,the word giant recalls an idea of a thing and its relation as to size4 ,the word philosopher recalls the idea of a thing and one of its qualities4 ,those conceptions which are not composed of several qualities and circumstances1 but are themselves a single quality or circumstance1 are called simple ideas1 and the words used to recall them are called simple terms4 ,such words as sweetness1 loudness1 depth1 pain1 and joy1 are simple terms4 ,some terms which express emotions of the mind are entirely simple1 such as sorrow1 joy1 and happiness4 ,others are words which recall an idea of a simple emotion and of its cause1 such1 for example1 as gratitude1 which expresses the idea of an emotion of mind and also that it was caused by some benefit conferred4 ,words that express simple ideas can be defined only by some description of the circumstances in which these ideas exist1 or by a reference to their causes or effects4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,association4 ,the causes of the particular succession of our ideas1 and the control which the mind has in regulating this succession1 is a subject no less interesting than important2 for if by any act of choice the mind has the power of regulating its own thoughts and feelings1 then man is a free agent and an accountable being2 but if the conceptions and the emotions depend entirely upon the constitution of things1 and thus1 either directly or indirectly1 on the will of the ,creator1 then man can not be accountable for that over which he can have no control4 ,in the preceding chapter has been illustrated the effect which the co-existence of desire has in regard both to our sensations and our conceptions1 tending to make those which are fitted to accomplish the object desired very vivid and prominent1 while others1 to a greater or less extent1 disappear4 ,the mind is continually under the influence of some desire4 ,it constantly has some plan to accomplish1 some cause to search out1 or some gratification to secure4 ,the present wish or desire of the mind imparts an interest to whatever conception seems calculated to forward this object4 ,thus1 if the mathematician has a problem to solve1 and this is the leading desire of the mind1 among the various conceptions that arise1 those are the most interesting which are fitted to his object1 and such immediately become vivid and distinct4 ,if the painter or the poet is laboring to effect some new creation of his art1 and has this as the leading object of desire1 whatever conceptions seem best fitted to his purpose are immediately invested with interest1 and become distinct and clear4 ,if the merchant1 or the capitalist1 or the statesman has some project which he is toiling to accomplish1 whatever conceptions appear adapted to his purpose soon are glowing and defined1 in consequence of the interest with which desire thus invests them4 ,from this it appears that the nature of the desire1 or governing purpose of the mind1 will in a great measure determine the nature and the succession of its conceptions4 ,if a man has chosen to find his chief happiness in securing power and honor1 then those conceptions will be the most interesting to his mind that best fall in with his object4 ,if he has chosen to find happiness in securing the various gratifications of sense1 then those conceptions that most coincide with this desire will become prominent4 ,if a man has chosen to find his chief enjoyment in doing the will of ,god1 then his conceptions will1 to a great extent1 be conformed to this object of desire4 ,the current of a man's thoughts1 therefore1 becomes the surest mode of determining what is the governing purpose or leading desire of the mind4 ,but there are seasons in our mental history when the mind does not seem to be under the influence of any governing desire2 when it seems to relax1 and its thoughts appear to flow on without any regulating principle4 ,at such times the vividness of leading conceptions1 which otherwise is determined by desire1 seems to depend upon our past experience4 ,those objects which1 in past experience1 have been associated with emotion1 are those which the mind selects1 and which thus begin to glow in the distinct lineaments with which emotion at first invested them4 ,in past experience1 all conceptions which were attended with emotion were most distinct and clear1 and therefore1 when such conceptions return united with others1 they are the ones which are most interesting1 and thus most vivid and distinct4 ,thus1 in our musing hours of idle reverie1 as one picture after another glides before the mind1 if some object occurs1 such as the home of our youth1 or the friend of our early days1 the emotions which have so often been united with these objects in past experience cause them to appear in clear and glowing lineaments1 and the stronger have been the past emotions connected with them1 the more clearly will they be defined4 ,it appears1 then1 that there are two circumstances that account for the apparent selection which the mind makes in its objects of conception4 ,the first is the feeling that certain conceptions are fitted to accomplish the leading desire of the mind2 and the second is1 that certain objects in past experience have been attended with emotion4 ,but there is another phenomenon in our mental history which has a direct bearing on the nature and succession of our conceptions4 ,when any conception1 through the influence of desire or emotion1 becomes the prominent object1 immediately other objects with which this has been associated in past experience begin to return and gather around it in new combinations4 ,thus a new picture is presented before the mind1 from which it again selects an object according as desire or emotion regulates1 which1 under this influence1 grows vivid and distinct4 ,around this new object immediately begin to cluster its past associates1 till still another scene is fresh arrayed before the mind4 ,in these new combinations1 those objects which are least interesting continually disappear1 while those most interesting are retained to form a part of the succeeding picture4 ,thus1 in every mental picture1 desire or emotion seems to call forth objects which start out1 as it were1 in bold relief from all others1 and call from the shade of obscurity the companions of their former existence1 which gather around them in new and varied combinations4 ,almost every object of thought in past experience has been connected with a great number of other objects1 and so great has been the variety of its former combinations1 that it would be impossible to predict1 with any degree of certainty1 which of its past associates will be summoned to aid in forming the new mental scenes which are destined to arise4 ,yet experience has enabled us to detect some general laws1 which appear to regulate these combinations4 ,the first is1 that those objects are most likely to attend each other which in past experience were united1 while some strong emotion was existing with them4 ,if1 for example1 a retired lake had been the scene of death to a beloved friend1 the conception of this object would be almost invariably associated with the image of the friend that had perished beneath its waters1 and also with the scene of his death4 ,in like manner1 if some friend had expired at a certain hour of the day1 or on a particular day of the year1 the return of these seasons would probably be associated with the sorrowful scenes connected with them in past experience4 ,the second law of association is1 that long continued or frequently repeated attention to objects that are connected at the time of this attention will secure the connected return of these objects4 ,attention1 it may be recollected1 is desire united with our conceptions1 thus rendering them more vivid4 ,it seems to produce the same effect if this attention is long continued or if it is frequently repeated4 ,thus1 if the mind has dwelt for a long time on a beautiful picture1 has noticed all its proportions1 its shading1 its outline1 and its colors with minute attention1 one object in this picture can not recur to the mind without bringing with it the other objects that were associated at the time of this close attention4 ,the frequent repetition of a sentence is a case where oft repeated though short attention to certain words has the effect of recalling them to the mind in the connection in which they were placed during this repeated attention4 ,the third law of association is1 that objects which have recently been associated in experience are1 on this account1 more likely to recall each other than to recall those which were connected with them at a more remote period of time4 ,the passage of time1 as a general fact1 seems to weaken the vividness of our conceptions1 and to destroy the probability of their associate recurrence4 ,thus a line of poetry may be repeated1 and the listener may be able1 the moment after1 to recall each word1 but the next day the whole may be lost4 ,the fourth law of association is1 that the recurrence of associated objects depends1 in a great measure1 upon the number of objects with which it may have been connected in past experience4 ,if it has existed in combination with only one object1 that object will return associated with it2 but in proportion as the number of its associates increases1 the power of determining which will be its next companion diminishes4 ,as an example of this fact may be mentioned the first hearing of a beautiful air by some particular person4 ,the next time it is heard1 the idea of this performer will be associated with the sounds2 but after it has been sung by a great variety of persons1 other circumstances would determine what conceptions this air would recall4 ,it is very probable1 in this case1 that its notes would recall from among the associated scenes the friend most beloved1 or some interesting circumstance that awakened emotion at the time the air was performed4 ,the principal circumstances which operate in recalling associated ideas have now been pointed out4 ,the next inquiry is1 ,what are those objects and events which ordinarily are most frequently united in our perceptions1 and therefore are most likely to return together in our conceptions8 ,the most common connection of our ideas of perception are made by contiguity in place4 ,objects are continually passing before the eye1 and they are not in single distinct objects1 but in connected groups4 ,of course1 when we perceive any object1 we must necessarily observe its several relations to the things by which it is surrounded4 ,if it is a building which meets the eye1 it is impossible to observe it without at the same time perceiving the trees around it1 the sky above it1 and any other objects which are parts of the picture of which this is the prominent object4 ,of course1 objects that are united in one complex picture before the eye when we gain our knowledge of them by perception1 will ordinarily return together in our conceptions4 ,our ideas1 also1 are very much connected by contiguity as it respects time4 ,when any two events occur at the same moment of time1 or in such near connection that the conception of one remains until the other occurs1 they ordinarily will recur together in our after conceptions of them4 ,as an example of this may be mentioned the associations of a family who have been accustomed to close each ,sabbath with music4 ,as the still hour of this sacred evening drew on1 wherever any wanderer might roam1 it is probable that the notes of praise1 so often connected with this season1 would perpetually steal over the mind1 bringing many another image of friends1 and kindred1 and home4 ,the mind of man is so constituted that no change can take place in any material object without awakening the idea of some cause4 ,an effect is defined as some change of state or mode of existence in matter or mind4 ,a cause is defined as that without which no change would take place in matter or mind1 and with which it will take place4 ,as the ideas of cause and effect are so constantly conjoined in all our acts of perception1 these ideas will return together in our conceptions4 ,thus1 if we see an instrument which has been the cause of pain1 the idea of this effect will be recalled by a conception of the cause2 or if the mind is dwelling on the memory of some beautiful painting or poetry1 the author of these works will probably recur to the mind in connection with these conceptions4 ,we sometimes meet with persons of such peculiar habits and dispositions1 that1 whenever they are encountered1 the feelings are wounded or the temper crossed by their ill-timed or ill-natured remarks4 ,the conceptions of such persons will ordinarily be attended by the memory of some pains of which they have been the cause1 and the mind will involuntarily shrink from contact with them1 as from the points and thorns of a bramble-bush4 ,those events1 therefore1 or those objects which have the relation of cause and effect existing between them1 will ordinarily be united as objects of conception4 ,the mind of man is continually noticing the relations which exist between the different objects of its conceptions4 ,as no idea of relation can be gained without comparing two or more things together1 those objects which are most frequently compared will naturally be most frequently associated together in our conceptions4 ,it has been shown that language is founded on that principle of the mind which enables us to notice certain qualities in things abstracted from other qualities1 and to apply names to objects according as we find certain qualities united in them4 ,of course1 in the use of language1 the mind is continually led to notice the particulars in which objects resemble each other1 and also the particulars in which they differ2 consequently the mind1 in learning and in applying names1 is continually comparing objects1 both to discover the particulars in which they are alike and those in which they differ1 so that two objects are thus brought together before the mind4 ,it is owing to this fact1 therefore1 that objects which resemble each other1 or which are very much contrasted in their qualities1 are very commonly united in our conceptions4 ,if1 for example1 we see the countenance of a stranger1 some feature will be recognized as familiar4 ,desire will be awakened to know where and in what other countenance we have seen such a feature or such an expression4 ,this particular feature will thus become abstracted and vivid1 and will soon recall that other combination of features for which we are seeking1 and of which this has formed a part in our past experience4 ,thus two objects will be brought before the mind at once1 the person who is the stranger1 and a conception of another person whom this stranger resembles4 ,all our ideas of contrast are relative4 ,one thing can not be conceived of as very high or very low1 as very large or very small1 without a previous comparison with some object to determine this relation4 ,our ideas of poverty and riches1 or of happiness and misery1 are also relative4 ,a person is always considered poor or rich1 happy or miserable1 by comparing his lot with that of others by whom he is surrounded4 ,as1 therefore1 all ideas of resemblance or of contrast are gained by comparing two objects together1 our conceptions often unite objects that resemble each other or that are contrasted with each other4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,imagination4 ,all operations of mind which are not produced by material things acting upon the senses consist of a continual succession of conceptions4 ,some of these conceptions are exact pictures of past perceptions1 and are attended by the consciousness that such things have existed before1 and such are called ideas of memory4 ,others are conceptions which1 by the process of association1 are continually recurring1 and arranging themselves in new combinations1 according to certain laws or principles of association4 ,imagination has been defined as that power which the mind possesses of arranging conceptions in new combinations1 and it can readily be seen that this includes all the ordinary successions of thought except those of perception and memory4 ,the term imagination has been used in rather a vague manner by writers on the subject4 ,sometimes it is used to signify all that succession of conceptions which recur according to the laws of association1 and sometimes it is used in a more restricted sense4 ,the more limited meaning is the one to which the term is most commonly applied1 and it seems to be the one which precision and accuracy in the use of terms demand1 and therefore it will now be pointed out4 ,the mind is susceptible of certain emotions1 which are called emotions of taste4 ,these1 more specifically1 are called emotions of beauty1 sublimity1 and novelty4 ,such emotions are awakened by certain objects in nature1 by certain works of art1 and by the use of language which recalls conceptions of these objects4 ,those objects which awaken such emotions are called objects of taste1 and those arts which enable us to produce combinations that will awaken such emotions are called the fine arts4 ,among the fine arts are ordinarily classed painting1 music1 sculpture1 architecture1 ornamental gardening1 and poetry4 ,the art of the painter consists in combining1 according to certain rules of proportion and fitness of outline and color1 certain objects1 which1 either from their peculiar character1 or from the fitness of their combination in effecting a given design1 awaken emotions of beauty or sublimity4 ,the highest perfection of this art consists not so much in close imitation as in the nature of the combinations1 and their unity and fitness in producing the effect designed by the artist4 ,the art of the sculptor is similar in its nature1 and differs chiefly in the materials employed1 and in being limited to a much more restricted number of objects for combination4 ,the art of the architect consists in planning and constructing edifices1 intended either for use or ornament1 and in so arranging the different parts as to awaken emotions of beauty or sublimity from the display of utility1 fitness1 grandeur of extent1 or order of proportion4 ,the art of the musician consists in combining sounds so as to produce such melodies or harmonies as will awaken varied emotions in the mind4 ,the power of this art over the human mind is much superior to that of the others enumerated1 because it can call forth both a greater variety and more powerful emotions4 ,the art of the poet consists in such a use of language as will recall objects of beauty or sublimity in combinations that are pleasing to the mind1 or as will1 by the description and expression of varied emotion in other minds1 awaken similar feelings in the breast of the reader4 ,the art of ornamental gardening consists in such an arrangement of the varied objects which compose a landscape as will awaken emotions of beauty from a display of unity of design1 order1 fitness1 and utility4 ,the term imagination1 then1 in its most frequent use1 signifies those new combinations of conceptions which will awaken the emotions of taste4 ,the painter or the poet1 when he attempts the exercise of his art1 has some leading desire of an object to be secured4 ,under the influence of this desire1 all those conceptions1 recurring by the principle of association1 which appear fitted to accomplish this object1 immediately become vivid and distinct1 and are clearly retained in the mind4 ,as other conceptions succeed1 other objects are found which will forward the general design1 and these also are retained1 and thus the process continues till the object aimed at is accomplished1 and by the pen or pencil retained in durable characters4 ,the action of mind to which the term imagination is thus restricted differs in no respect from other acts of conception when the mind is under the influence of desire1 except in the nature of the objects of desire4 ,if it is the desire of the mind to establish a proposition by mathematical reasoning1 the mind is engaged in the same process of conception as when it is engrossed with the desire to form some combination of taste4 ,in both cases some object of desire stimulates the mind1 and whatever conceptions appear fitted to accomplish this object immediately become vivid and distinct4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,judgment4 ,the term judgment1 as a mental faculty1 signifies that power of the mind by which it notices relations4 ,it is often used to signify all the intellectual powers1 among which it is the most important one4 ,thus we hear it said that1 in certain cases1 the feelings and the judgment are in opposition1 or that the heart and the judgment are not in agreement4 ,it is also used often to signify any act of the mind when a comparison is made between two things1 or between the truths asserted in any proposition and a truth already believed4 ,the act called memory is a conception attended with one specific act of judgment1 by which a present state of mind is compared with a past1 and the relation of resemblance perceived4 ,the nature of our ideas of relation are very different1 according to the object or purpose for which the comparison is made4 ,if objects are compared in reference to time1 we learn some one of the relations of past1 present1 or future4 ,no idea of time can be gained except by comparing one period of time with another1 and thus noticing their relations4 ,all dates are gained by comparing one point of time with some specified event1 such as the birth of the ,savior1 or some particular period in the revolution of the earth around the sun4 ,if objects are compared in reference to the succession of our conceptions or perceptions1 we gain the ideas of such relations as are expressed by the terms firstly1 secondly1 and thirdly4 ,if objects are compared in reference to the degree of any quality1 we gain an idea of such relations as are expressed by the terms brighter1 sweeter1 harder1 louder4 ,if objects are compared in reference to proportion1 we gain ideas of such relations as are expressed by the terms an eighth1 a half4 ,if objects are compared in reference to the relation of parts to a whole1 we gain such ideas as are expressed by the terms part1 whole1 remainder4 ,the process of classifying objects and the use of language depend upon the power of judgment2 for if we see an object possessing certain qualities1 in order to apply the name we must compare and observe their resemblance to the qualities to which such a name has been applied in past experience1 and this feeling of resemblance is an act of judgment4 ,the application of a name1 then1 always implies the exercise of the power of judgment1 by which a comparison is made between the present qualities observed in an object and the same qualities which affected the mind when the name has formerly been employed4 ,it also implies the act of association1 by which the perception of certain qualities recalls the idea of the sound or object with which they have been repeatedly conjoined4 ,the mental process called reasoning is nothing but a connected succession of acts of judgment4 ,it is a comparison of what is asserted in a given proposition with some truth which is believed1 or which has been established by evidence1 and then observing the agreement or disagreement4 ,thus the truth that things will be in agreement with past experience unless there is some reason for the contrary1 is a truth which every mind believes4 ,whenever1 therefore1 any event has been repeatedly an object of past experience1 it is compared with this truth already believed1 and found to be included under it1 and therefore entitled to the same credit4 ,thus1 also1 the truth that things which equal the same thing equal one another1 is one which every mind believes4 ,when any object by examination is found to be included under that class of objects which are thus equal to the same thing1 it is an act of reasoning when we infer that they are equal to one another4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,susceptibilities4 ,having examined the intellectual powers1 we will now attend to the next general class1 denominated the susceptibilities4 ,when the mind is in a state of emotion1 this state is always either pleasurable or painful4 ,desire relates to the attainment of some object which will be the cause of pleasurable emotions1 or else to the avoidance of something which will cause painful emotions4 ,this desire for pleasure and for the avoidance of pain is the mainspring of all mental activity2 for when it is not in existence1 neither the powers of the mind or of the body are called into exercise4 ,there are various sources of enjoyment or causes of pleasurable emotion to the mind of man1 the most important of which will now be pointed out4 ,the first cause of enjoyment at the commencement of existence is that of sensation4#b ,this1 at first1 is small in amount compared with what it becomes when association lends its aid to heighten sensitive enjoyment4 ,the light of day1 the brilliancy of color1 the sweetness of perfume1 the gratification of taste and touch1 the magic influence of sound1 and the pleasure resulting from muscular activity1 are probably the chief sources of enjoyment to the infant mind4 ,as life advances1 all these modes of sensitive gratification become connected with others of an intellectual and moral nature1 so that at mature years it is difficult to determine how much of the enjoyment we derive from the senses is the result of association1 and how much is simply that of sensation4 ,another source of happiness to the human mind is the simple exercise of its intellectual powers4 ,this includes all the pleasures derived from the exercise of taste and the imagination2 all the more profitless exercises of reverie and castle-building2 all the activity of mind employed in contriving1 inventing1 and bringing to pass the various projects for securing good to ourselves and others2 and all those charming illusions which so often give transient delight1 but burst like bubbles in the grasp4 ,another source of enjoyment is the exercise of physical and moral power4 ,this love of power is one of the earliest principles which is developed in the human mind4 ,the exercise of the muscles in producing changes in its own material frame or in surrounding objects is a source of constant pleasure to the infant mind4 ,there are few who have reared a child through the period of infancy but can recollect the times that this new species of delight was manifested1 as1 with his hand raised before his eyes1 he watched its various motions1 and learned his own power to control them4 ,this love of power continually displays itself in the sports and pursuits of childhood4 ,to project the pebble through the air2 to drive the hoop2 to turn the windmill2 to conduct some light stream from its channel2 to roll the rock from the mountain cliff--these and many others are the varied modes by which childhood exhibits its love of physical power4 ,but when man begins to learn the influence which mind can exert over mind1 a new desire is awakened of moral power4 ,all the different modes are then sought by which one mind can bend the will of others to yield to its controlling influence4 ,it is this desire which is gratified when the conqueror of nations beholds millions of minds yielding to the slightest word of his command4 ,it is this which inspires the orator1 as he pours forth that eloquence which charms the delighted throng1 and bends them to his will4 ,it is this desire1 which often becomes the master passion1 to which is sacrificed all that is just1 lovely1 and benevolent4 ,another cause of enjoyment is that of sympathy in the happiness of others4 ,this susceptibility is a source of constant enjoyment when those around us are contented and happy4 ,none can be ignorant of the change produced in passing from the society of a sprightly1 cheerful1 and happy group to a circle soured by discontent or overwhelmed with melancholy4 ,in early childhood1 the effect of this principle is clearly developed4 ,even the infant child is affected and disturbed with flowing tears1 and steals away from the chamber of sorrow1 while the sight of smiling faces and the sound of cheerful voices sends through his heart the glow of delight4 ,another source of enjoyment is a feeling of conscious rectitude4 ,man is so constituted that1 when he knowingly violates the principles of rectitude1 a painful feeling is the inevitable consequence1 while a habit of constant conformity to them brings a peaceful and happy state of mind4 ,another source of happiness is the consciousness of being the cause of happiness to others4 ,this is an enjoyment entirely distinct from that of sympathy in the happiness of others2 for we may see happiness conferred by another and rejoice in it1 but the pleasure of being ourselves the cause of this enjoyment is one altogether peculiar4 ,it can readily be seen that the more benevolent a mind is1 the more happiness it will derive from this source2 while in exact proportion as the mind is selfishly engrossed by its own exclusive interests will this stream of enjoyment cease to flow4 ,another source of happiness is the consciousness of inspiring certain emotions in other minds1 such as esteem1 respect1 confidence1 love1 gratitude1 reverence1 and the like4 ,the desire for this is one of the strongest passions1 and its gratification often secures the most exquisite enjoyment4 ,this happiness1 ordinarily1 is proportioned to the nobleness of the person who renders this regard4 ,another source of enjoyment is the discovery of certain qualities in intelligent minds4 ,the perception of the qualities of matter through the medium of the senses is a very inferior source of gratification compared with the discovery of certain qualities of mind4 ,this is the source of the highest enjoyment of which the mind is capable4 ,the emotions thus awakened are called esteem1 veneration1 love1 gratitude1 and the like4 ,love1 in its most general sense1 is used for the pleasurable emotion which is felt in the discovery of any quality that is agreeable1 either in matter or mind4 ,thus we are said to love the beauties of nature1 to love delicious fruit1 and to love the society of friends4 ,but in relation to intelligent beings1 it signifies pleasurable emotion in view of certain qualities and actions1 attended with the desire of good to the object loved1 and also a desire for reciprocated affection4 ,there are certain qualities and attributes of mind which may be pointed out as the causes of affection4 ,the first is intellectual superiority4 ,our estimate of intellect is altogether relative4 ,what in a child seems an astonishing display of it1 would be considered puerility in a man4 ,what excites admiration in a savage or in the unlettered1 is regarded with little emotion in the man of education4 ,there are various qualities of intellect which awaken admiration4 ,quick perceptions and ready invention are the peculiar attribute of some minds2 others are endowed with great sagacity and wisdom in adapting the best means to accomplish the best ends2 others possess an energy and force of purpose which enables them to encounter difficulties1 sustain bodily fatigue1 and even to face death without shrinking2 others possess a power of forming new and varied combinations that gratify the taste2 others seem to possess a readiness and versatility of mind which enables them to succeed in almost any object they undertake4 ,the exhibition of any of these operations of intellect are causes of emotions of pleasure to other minds4 ,the next quality of mind which is a cause of affection is the power of sympathy4 ,there is nothing which so powerfully draws the mind toward another being as the assurance that all our pleasures will be his1 and that in all our afflictions he will be afflicted4 ,it is probable that a being entirely destitute of this susceptibility1 however he might excite the mind by displays of intellectual power1 never could be regarded with the warm and tender emotions of affection4 ,if we encountered a mind that we felt looked upon our happiness without one glimmering of pleasure1 and who could gaze upon our sufferings without one shade of sympathizing woe1 it is probable the mind would turn away with feelings of dissatisfaction or disgust4 ,another quality of mind which becomes a cause of love is the power of giving and appreciating affection4 ,there is nothing which is an object of more constant and fervent desire than the admiration and affection of other minds4 ,to be an object of attention and of admiration to others has been the aim that has stimulated the efforts and nerved the arm of all the heroes and conquerors of the world4 ,to gain the esteem and affection of other minds is what regulates the actions1 the plans1 and the hopes of all mankind4 ,if1 therefore1 a mind should be destitute of this susceptibility1 that which gives the chief interest would be withdrawn4 ,if we should find1 also1 that the gift of our affections was of no value to another mind1 this would deprive it of much that awakens interest and pleasure4 ,it is the excessive indulgence of this desire for admiration which leads to ambition and pride--those principles which have filled the world with contention and deluged it with blood4 ,another quality of mind which secures affection is benevolence4 ,this consists in such a love for the happiness as induces a willingness to make sacrifices of personal ease or enjoyment to secure a greater amount of good to others4 ,every mind is so made that1 if its own wishes are not interfered with1 it is more agreeable to see others happy around than to see them miserable4 ,there have been cases of such perversion of our nature that some have seemed to find pleasure in the simple act of inflicting pain upon others2 but this seldom occurs until after a long course of self-indulgence and crime4 ,all persons1 if it cost no sacrifice1 would prefer to make others happy4 ,but there is a great difference in the character of minds in this particular4 ,some1 when they find that certain modes of personal enjoyment interfere with the interests and happiness of others1 can find a pleasure in sacrificing their own lesser enjoyment to secure greater good for others4 ,but others are so engrossed by exclusive interest in their own happiness that they will not give up the smallest amount of their own good to secure any amount of benefit to others4 ,all minds1 whatever their own character may be1 detest selfishness in others1 and never can bestow any great affection where this is a prevailing trait4 ,these are the leading characteristics of mind which are causes of admiration and affection4 ,there are other more specific exercises1 such as modesty1 humility1 meekness1 and the like4 ,but all these traits of character1 which1 in themselves considered1 are causes of pleasure1 in certain circumstances may1 to a selfish mind1 become causes of unmingled pain4 ,if the displays of intellect or the exhibition of the amiable susceptibilities in another being are viewed by a selfish mind as the cause of disparagement and disadvantageous contrast to itself1 they will be regarded only with painful emotions4 ,they will awaken envy1 anger1 wrath1 malice1 and all uncharitableness4 ,this fact is fully illustrated in the history of the world and in the daily observation of life4 ,the causes of pain to the human mind are in most cases owing to these very susceptibilities of enjoyment4 ,the organization of the material frame and of the external world1 while it is a source of multiplied and constant enjoyment1 is often also the cause of the most intense and exquisite suffering4 ,the strongest conception of suffering of which mind can form any conception is sensitive suffering4 ,there are many minds whose constitution and circumstances are such that they can form but faint conceptions of any pain which results from the exercise of malignant passions1 or from other sources of suffering4 ,but every mind soon acquires a knowledge of what sensitive suffering must be1 and can form the most vivid conceptions of it4 ,though few ever suffered the dislocation of joints1 the laceration of the flesh1 or the fracture of bones1 still descriptions of such sufferings are readily apprehended and conceived of1 and there is nothing from which the mind so involuntarily shrinks4 ,another cause of suffering consists in the loss of present or expected enjoyment4 ,there are many blessings which seem desirable to the mind that are never secured1 and yet unhappiness is not caused by the want2 but there is no happiness which is actually in possession of which the loss does not occasion pain4 ,we may desire the esteem and affection of certain beings1 and yet not become unhappy from the want of it2 yet nothing sends such exquisite suffering through the mind as the conviction that some beloved object has ceased thus to respect and to love1 or has been taken from us by death4 ,thus1 also1 if wealth1 which is the means of purchasing a variety of blessings1 be not secured1 the heart can desire it without being made unhappy by the wish1 yet the loss of wealth is attended with painful disappointment and regret4 ,the possession of power1 also1 may be desired without uneasiness1 but the loss of it seldom occurs without painful emotions4 ,another cause of suffering is inactivity of body and mind4 ,it has been shown that desire is the spring both of mental and of physical activity1 and that this activity is one source of enjoyment4 ,the loss of this species of enjoyment is followed by consequent inquietude and uneasiness4 ,another cause of suffering is the existence of strong desire with the belief that it never can be gratified4 ,some desires exist in the mind without causing pain1 but they may be excited to such a degree that the certainty that they never will be gratified may produce anguish almost intolerable4 ,another source of pain is sympathy in the sufferings of others4 ,these may be so realized as to affect the mind of the observer with even more pain than the sufferer experiences4 ,it is probable that the tender mother1 in witnessing the distresses of her child1 experiences much more pain than the object of her sympathies4 ,another cause of suffering is the violated sense of justice4 ,in minds of high moral susceptibilities1 suffering from this source may be most exquisite4 ,another cause of suffering is the consciousness of guilt4 ,the emotions that follow the commission of crime are denominated repentance and remorse2 and it is probable that the human mind has never suffered greater agonies than have attended the existence of these emotions4 ,there are cases on record when intense bodily suffering has been resorted to as a relief from such anguish by withdrawing the attention of the mind from those subjects that call forth such emotions4 ,another cause of pain is the apprehension of future evil4 ,this is often a source of long-continued and of distressing emotions1 and the pain suffered in apprehension is often greater than would be experienced if the evils were realized4 ,another source of suffering is the exercise of malignant passions1 such as hatred1 envy1 and jealousy4 ,these emotions never can exist in the mind without pain4 ,the exhibition of wicked passions and actions in other minds may also be mentioned in connection with this4 ,it is painful to behold a mind tossed with the furies of ungoverned passion1 or yielding to the chain of selfishness and pride4 ,another source of suffering is the consciousness of the existence of certain emotions in other minds toward ourselves4 ,the belief that other intelligent beings look upon our character and conduct with displeasure1 indignation1 or contempt1 inflicts the keenest suffering1 and there is scarcely any thing mankind will not sacrifice to avoid these painful emotions4 ,another source of painful emotions is the view of certain characteristics in other minds4 ,while the discovery of certain traits in other minds afford a high enjoyment1 the want of them1 or the existence of their opposite1 awaken disagreeable emotions1 expressed by the terms pity1 contempt1 indignation1 disgust1 abhorrence1 and the like4 ,there are other sources of pleasure and pain1 which will be discussed more at large in succeeding chapters4 #b ,hereafter the terms sensation and perception will often be used synonymously in cases where it is not needful to recognize the distinction heretofore indicated4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,susceptibilities4 ,,emotions ,,of ,,taste4 ,among the susceptibilities1 the emotions of taste have always been distinguished1 and treated of as a peculiarly distinct class4 ,why is it that certain objects of sight1 and certain sounds or combinations of sound1 awaken emotions more than other sights and sounds8 ,why do the perceptions of the eye and ear so much more powerfully affect the mind than those of the other senses8 ,these certainly are objects for interesting inquiry4 ,in attempting the discussion of this subject1 the following particulars need to be considered4 ,all pleasurable emotions are caused either by perception or conception1 for we have no other ideas but of these two kinds4 ,that they are not occasioned by perception alone must be evident from the fact that infants and children1 who have the same perceptions as matured persons1 do not experience the emotions of taste in view of the most perfect specimens of the fine arts4 ,a combination of gaudy colors or a string of glittering beads will delight a child more than the most finished productions of a ,raphael or a ,phidias4 ,that it is not conception alone which awakens such emotions is manifest from the fact that it is the perception of objects which are either sublime or beautiful that awakens the most vivid emotions of this kind4 ,of course1 it is inevitable that emotions of taste are caused by perception and conception through their connection with some past co-existing emotions4 ,perceptions and conceptions can recall the emotions which have been connected with them1 and emotions can also recall a conception of the objects with which they have been united4 ,for example1 if some dark wood had been the scene of terror and affright1 either the perception or the conception of this wood would recall the emotions of fear which had coexisted with it4 ,if1 on some other occasion1 a strong emotion of fear should be awakened1 this would probably recall a conception of the wood with which it had formerly been united4 ,it is no uncommon fact in our experience to have circumstances about us that recall unusually sad and mournful feelings1 for which we are wholly unable to account4 ,no doubt1 at such times1 some particular objects1 or some particular combination of circumstances which were formerly united with painful emotions1 again recur1 and recall the emotions with which they were once connected1 while the mind is wholly unable to remember the fact of their past coexistence4 ,in like manner1 pleasurable emotions may be awakened by certain objects of perception when the mind is equally unable to trace the cause4 ,objects of perception recall the emotions connected with them much more vividly than objects of conception can do4 ,thus1 if we revisit the scenes of our childhood1 the places of the sorrows and the joys of early days1 how much more vividly are the emotions recalled which were formerly connected with these scenes than any conception of these objects could awaken4 ,certain perceptions will be found to produce emotions similar to those awakened by the intellectual operations of mind4 ,thus the entrance of light produces an emotion similar to the discovery of some truth1 and the emotion felt while in a state of doubt and uncertainty resembles that experienced when shrouded in darkness4 ,great care and anxiety produce a state of mind similar to what is felt when the body is pressed down by a heavy weight4 ,the upward spring of an elastic body awakens feelings resembling those that attend the hearing of good news1 and thus with many other perceptions4 ,from this fact originates much of the figurative language in common use2 such as when knowledge is called light1 and ignorance darkness1 and care is called a load1 and joy is said to make the heart leap4 ,it has previously been shown that the discovery of certain operations and emotions of mind affords much more pleasure than attends mere perceptions of material objects4 ,those who have experienced the exciting animation felt at developments of splendid genius1 and the pure delight resulting from the interchange of affection1 can well realize that no sensitive gratification could ever be exchanged for them4 ,whatever objects1 therefore1 most vividly recall those emotions which are awakened when such qualities are apprehended will be most interesting to the mind4 ,now it will appear that there are no modes by which one mind can learn the character and feelings of another but by means of the eye and ear4 ,a person both deaf and blind could never1 except to an exceedingly limited extent1 learn either the intellectual operations or the emotions of another mind4 ,of course1 it is by means of certain forms1 colors1 motions1 and sounds that we gain those ideas which are most interesting and animating to the soul4 ,it is by the blush of modesty1 the paleness of fear1 the flush of indignation1 that color aids in giving an idea of the emotions of the mind4 ,the pallid hue of disease1 the sallow complexion of age1 the pure and bright colors of childhood1 and the delicate blendings of the youthful complexion1 have much influence in conveying ideas of the qualities of mind in certain particulars4 ,the color and flashing expressions of the eye also have much to do with our apprehensions of the workings of mind4 ,as it regards motion as aiding in imparting such ideas1 it is by the curl of the lip that contempt is expressed1 by the arching brow that curiosity and surprise are exhibited1 by the scowling front that anger and discontent are displayed1 and by various muscular movements of the countenance that the passions and emotions of the mind are portrayed4 ,it is by the motions of the body and limbs also that strong emotions are exhibited1 as in the clasped hand of supplication1 the extended arms of affection1 and the violent contortions of anger4 ,form and outline also have their influence4 ,the sunken eye of grief1 the hollow cheek of care and want1 the bending form of sorrow1 the erect position of dignity1 the curvature of haughtiness and pride1 are various modes of expressing the qualities and emotions of mind4 ,but it is by the varied sounds of voice chiefly that intellect glances abroad1 and the soul is poured forth at the lips4 ,the quick and animated sounds of cheerfulness1 joy1 and hope2 the softer tones of meekness1 gentleness1 and love2 the plaintive notes of sympathy1 sorrow1 and pain2 the firm tone of magnanimity1 fortitude1 patience1 and self-denial1 all exhibit the pleasing and interesting emotions of the soul4 ,nor less expressive1 though more painful1 are the harsh sounds of anger1 malice1 envy1 and discontent4 ,not only are certain forms1 colors1 motions1 and sounds the medium by which we gain a knowledge of the intellectual operations and emotions of other minds1 but they are the means by which we discover and designate those material objects which are causes of comfort1 utility1 and enjoyment4 ,thus it is by the particular form and color that we distinguish the fruits and the food which minister to our support4 ,by the same means we discriminate between noxious and useful plants and animals1 and distinguish all those conveniences and contrivances which contribute to the comfort of man4 ,of course1 certain forms and colors are connected in the mind with certain emotions of pleasure that have attended them as causes of comfort and enjoyment4 ,in what precedes1 it appears that it is those emotions which are awakened by the apprehension of certain intellectual operations and emotions of intelligent minds which are most delightful2 that all our ideas of such operations and emotions are gained by means of certain forms1 colors1 motions1 and sounds2 that we designate objects of convenience and enjoyment to ourselves by the same mode2 that perceptions can recall the emotions which have been connected with them1 even after the mind has forgotten the connection1 and that perceptions recall associated emotions much more vividly than conceptions4 ,in consequence of these considerations1 the inference seems justifiable that the emotions of beauty and sublimity are not owing either simply to the perceptions produced1 nor to the conceptions recalled by the principle of association4 ,but they are accounted for in a great degree by the fact that certain colors1 forms1 motions1 and sounds have been so often connected with emotions awakened by the apprehension of qualities in other minds1 or of emotions which arise in view of causes of enjoyment to ourselves1 that the perception of these colors1 sounds1 forms1 and motions recall such agreeable emotions1 even when the mind can not trace the connection in past experience4 ,as an example of this1 the emotion of pleasure has been so often connected with the clear blue of the sky and with the bright verdure of the foliage1 that the sight of either of these colors recalls the emotions1 though we may not be able to refer to any particular time when this previous connection existed4 ,in like manner1 the moaning sound of the wind in a storm1 or the harsh growl which sometimes attends it1 has so often been united with sorrowful or disagreeable emotions1 that the sounds recall the emotions4 ,but there is another important fact in regard to the causes of the emotions of taste4 ,it is found that the character of the combination of sounds1 forms1 colors1 and motions has as much to do with the existence of such feelings as the nature of these objects of perception4 ,the very same colors and forms1 in certain combination1 are very displeasing1 when in others they are beautiful4 ,thus1 also1 certain motions in certain circumstances are very beautiful or sublime1 and in others very displeasing4 ,the very same sounds1 also1 may be made either very disagreeable or very delightful1 according to their combination4 ,to account for this1 it is necessary to understand that objects which tend to awaken emotions of a directly opposite nature can not both operate on the mind without causing disagreeable feelings4 ,if we are surrounded by objects of awe and solemnity1 it is painful to notice objects that are mean or ludicrous4 ,if we are under the influence of sprightly and humorous feelings1 it is painful to encounter solemn and pensive scenes1 with which1 perhaps1 at other times1 we should be pleased4 ,in order1 therefore1 to awaken emotions of beauty and sublimity1 there must exist a congruity in the arrangement and composition of parts which will prevent the operation of causes that would awaken incongruous emotions4 ,but there is another principle which has a still more powerful operation in regard to the effect of combination and composition4 ,we are always accustomed to view objects with some reference to their nature and use4 ,we always feel that every effect must have a cause1 and that every contrivance has some design which it was made to accomplish4 ,there is no intellectual attribute of mind which is regarded with more admiration than wisdom1 which is always shown in selecting the best means for accomplishing a given end2 and the more interesting or important is the object to be secured1 the more is the mind pleased with discovering the wisdom exhibited in adapting means to secure this end4 ,almost every construction of nature or of art is regarded by the mind as having some use and design4 ,no mind1 except one bereft of its powers1 would ever employ itself in designing any thing which has no possible use1 either in benefiting or pleasing the designer or others2 and should any such object be found1 it would cause only disgust1 as exhibiting the fatuity of a mind which spent its powers in contriving so useless a thing4 ,there are many objects which meet the eye of man for which he in vain seeks the use and design2 but such objects are never attended with the conviction that there is no possible use to which they can be applied2 on the contrary1 they more frequently provoke curiosity1 and awaken desire to discover their nature and their use4 ,there is a never-failing conviction attending all our discoveries of new objects in nature that there is some design or contrivance of which they form a link in the chain4 ,whenever the object of any design is ascertained1 immediately there commences an examination of the modes by which this object is to be effected4 ,if every thing is found to harmonize--if a relation of fitness and propriety is discovered in every part1 the mind is satisfied with the exhibition of wisdom which is thus discovered4 ,but if some parts are found tending to counteract the general design of the contrivance1 the object is displeasing4 ,every work of art1 then1 depends1 for the pleasure it affords1 not alone on the various forms1 colors1 sounds1 and motions which are combined to affect the senses1 but on the nature of the design intended1 and on the skill which is shown in so composing and arranging the several parts that each shall duly aid in effecting this design4 ,this is the particular in which the genius of the painter1 the sculptor1 the architect1 the musician1 and the poet is especially exhibited4 ,another particular to be noticed in reference to this subject is the implanted principle of curiosity1 or the desire which the mind feels to discover what is new4 ,after we have discovered the object for which a thing is contrived1 and the fit adjustment of every part to this object1 one cause of interest in it ceases4 ,and objects which have been the subjects of repeated observation and inspection never yield so much interest as those which afford to the mind some fresh opportunity to discover new indications of design1 and of fitness in the means for accomplishing the design4 ,the love of novelty1 then1 is a powerful principle in securing gratification to the mind4 ,of course1 the genius of the artist is to be displayed1 not only in arranging the several parts so as to accomplish a given design1 but in the very effort to secure a design which is new1 so that the mind will have a fresh object for exercising its powers in detecting the fitness of means for accomplishing a given end4 ,from the preceding1 we recapitulate the following causes for the pleasurable emotions which are felt in view of certain objects of sight1 and in certain combinations of sound3 ,they recall emotions which1 in past experience1 have been connected with the conception of operations and emotions of other minds1 or with material objects that were regarded as the causes of pleasurable emotions to ourselves2 they recall emotions that are congruous in their nature2 they cause emotions of pleasure from the discovery of fitness in design and composition2 and1 finally1 they awaken emotions of novelty4 ,emotions of taste that are painful are caused by the presence of objects that recall painful emotions with which they have formerly been connected2 by objects that recall incongruous emotions2 by objects that exhibit a want of fitness and design2 and by objects that are common1 when the mind has been led to expect novelty4 ,,objects1 ,,motions1 ,,and ,,sounds ,,that ,,cause ,,emotions ,,of ,,taste4 ,the causes which produce emotions of taste have now been pointed out4 ,an inquiry as to which are the objects1 motions1 and sounds1 and their various combinations1 that1 in our experience1 have awakened such emotions1 may lead to facts that will establish the position assumed4 ,emotions of taste generally are divided into two classes1 called emotions of sublimity and emotions of beauty4 ,emotions of sublimity resemble those which exist in the mind at the display of great intellectual power1 and at exhibitions of strong passion and emotions in another mind4 ,emotions of beauty resemble those which are experienced at the exhibition of the more gentle emotions of mind1 such as pity1 humility1 meekness1 and affection4 ,of ,sounds4 ,all sounds are sublime which in past experience have been associated with the strong emotions of fear and terror4 ,such sounds are heard in the roar of artillery1 the howling of a storm1 the roll of thunder1 and the rumbling of an earthquake4 ,sounds are sublime1 also1 which convey an idea of great power and might4 ,this is illustrated in the emotions felt at the uprooting of trees and the prostration of nature before a whirlwind2 in the force of the rolling waves1 as they dash against the cliffs2 and in art1 by the working of some ponderous and mighty engine1 that astonishes with the immense resistance it can overcome4 ,other sounds1 also1 are sublime which have often been associated with emotions of awe1 solemnity1 or deep melancholy4 ,such are the tolling of a heavy bell and the solemn notes of the organ4 ,there may be certain circumstances that render a sound1 that otherwise would be very gentle and beautiful1 more strongly sublime than even those sounds that are generally most terrific4 ,gray describes such a combination of circumstances in a letter to a friend4 ,did you never observe1 said he1 while rocking winds are piping loud1 that pause1 as the gust is recollecting itself1 and rising upon the ear in a shrill and plaintive note1 like the swell of the olian harp8 ,i do assure you there is nothing in the world so like the voice of a spirit4 ,we have another example in ,scripture3 ,and behold1 the ,lord passed by1 and a great and strong wind rent the mountains1 and brake in pieces the rocks before the ,lord2 but the ,lord was not in the wind2 and after the wind an earthquake2 but the ,lord was not in the earthquake2 and after the earthquake a fire2 but the ,lord was not in the fire2 and after the fire a still small voice4 ,and it was so1 when ,elijah heard it1 he wrapped his face in a mantle4 ,in both these cases1 the sudden silence and the still small voice1 so contrasted with the tumult around1 would awaken the most thrilling emotions of the sublime4 ,in some cases it is the sense which these sounds awaken of the presence of some awful and powerful ,being that causes such emotions4 ,there are a great variety of sounds that are called beautiful4 ,such are the sound of a distant waterfall1 the murmur of a rivulet1 the sighing of the wind1 the tinkling of the sheepfold1 the lowing of distant kine1 and the note of the shepherd's pipe4 ,but it must be remarked that it is always a combination of circumstances that make sounds either sublime or beautiful4 ,if we know1 by the source from which they originate1 that they are caused by no display of power or danger1 or if necessarily they have low and mean associations connected with them1 the emotions of the sublime or beautiful1 which would otherwise recur1 are prevented4 ,thus the rumbling of a cart is sublime when it is believed to be thunder1 and loses this character when its true cause is discovered4 ,the sound of the lowing of kine in certain circumstances is very beautiful1 and in others very vulgar and displeasing4 ,music seems to owe its chief power over the mind to the fact that it can combine all kinds of sounds that have ever been associated with any emotions1 either of dignity1 awe1 and terror2 or of joy1 sprightliness1 and mirth2 or of tenderness1 melancholy1 and grief4 ,its power depends on the nature of the particular sounds1 and also on the nature of their combination and succession in relation to time1 and in relation to a certain sound which is called the fundamental or key note4 ,the art of a musical composer consists in the ability with which he succeeds in producing a certain class of emotions which he aims to awaken4 ,the more finished productions of this art are never relished till long observation and experience enable the listener to judge of the nature of the design1 and with how much success the composer has succeeded in effecting it4 ,music1 when adapted to certain words1 has its nature and design more clearly portrayed1 and in such productions it is easier to judge of the success of the composer4 ,of ,color4 ,there are no colors which ordinarily excite so strong an emotion as to be called sublime4 ,the deep black of mourning and the rich purple of royalty approach the nearest to this character4 ,that colors acquire their power in awakening agreeable or disagreeable emotions simply from the emotions which have ordinarily existed in connection with them1 appears from the fact that the associations of mankind are so exceedingly diverse on this subject4 ,what is considered a dignified and solemn color in one nation is tawdry and vulgar in another4 ,thus1 with us1 yellow is common and tawdry1 but among the ,chinese it is a favorite color4 ,black1 with us1 has solemn and mournful associations1 but in ,spain and ,venice it is an agreeable color4 ,white1 in this country1 is beautiful1 as the emblem of purity and innocence1 but in ,china it is the sorrowful garb of mourning4 ,of ,forms4 ,forms that awaken emotions of sublimity are such as have been associated with emotions of danger1 terror1 awe1 or solemnity4 ,such are military ensigns1 cannon1 the hearse1 the monument of death1 and various objects of this kind4 ,those forms which distinguish bodies that have great strength1 or which are enduring in their nature1 awaken the same class of emotions4 ,thus the ,gothic castle1 the outline of rocks and mountains1 and the form of the oak1 are examples4 ,bodies often appear sublime from the mere circumstance of size1 when compared with objects of the same kind4 ,thus the pyramids of ,egypt are an example where relative size1 together with their imperishable materials1 awakens emotions of sublimity4 ,the ideas of beauty of form depend almost entirely on their fitness to the object for which they are designed1 and on many casual associations with which they are connected4 ,of ,motion4 ,all motion that awakens sublime ideas is such as conveys the notion of great force and power4 ,motions of this kind are generally in straight or angular lines4 ,such motions are seen in the working of machinery1 and in the efforts of animal nature4 ,quick motion is more sublime than slow4 ,motions that awaken ideas of beauty are generally slow and curving4 ,such are the windings of the quiet rivulet1 the gliding motion of birds through the air1 the waving of trees1 and the curling of vapor4 ,in regard to the beauty and sublimity of forms and color1 it is equally true1 as in reference to sound1 that the alteration of circumstances will very materially alter the nature of the emotions connected with them4 ,if they are so combined as to cause incongruous emotions1 or if they do not harmonize with the general design of any composition1 emotions of the sublime or beautiful are not awakened4 ,for example1 if the vivid green1 which is agreeable in itself from the pleasing emotions which have been connected with it1 is combined with a scene of melancholy and desolation1 where the design of the artist is to awaken other than lively emotions1 it appears incongruous and displeasing4 ,the art of the poet consists in the use of such language as awakens emotions of beauty and sublimity1 either by recalling conceptions of various forms1 colors1 and motions in nature1 which are beautiful and sublime1 or the strong and powerful1 or the soft and gentle emotions of mind4 ,emotions of moral sublimity are such as are felt in witnessing exhibitions of the force of intellect or of strong feelings4 ,emotions of moral beauty are those that are felt in witnessing the exhibition of the gentler and tender emotions of mind4 ,these emotions are much more powerful and delightful than when they are more faintly recalled by those objects of perception which are called sublime and beautiful4 ,the taste is improved by cultivating a love for intellectual endowments and moral qualities4 ,it is also cultivated by gaining an extensive knowledge of objects and scenes which1 either in history1 or in poetry1 or in any compositions of the fine arts1 have been associated with emotions4 ,it is also cultivated by learning the rules of fitness and propriety1 by studying works of taste1 by general reading1 by intercourse with persons of refinement and taste1 and by a nice observation of the adaptation and fitness of things in the daily intercourse and pursuits of life4 ,the highest efforts of taste are exhibited in the works of artists who make such pursuits the express object of their profession4 ,but in ordinary life the cultivation of taste is chiefly exhibited in the style1 furniture1 and decoration of private dwellings1 and in the dress and ornaments of the person4 ,in reference to these1 there is the same opportunity for gratifying the eye as there is in the compositions of the fine arts4 ,on these subjects there are rules in regard to color1 outline1 and combination1 and also rules of fitness and propriety1 of which every person of taste sensibly feels the violation4 ,in the construction of dwelling-houses1 in the proportion of rooms1 in the suitableness of colors1 in the fitness of all circumstances to the spot of location1 to the habits and circumstances of the proprietor1 to ideas of convenience1 and to various particulars which may be objects of regard1 in all these respects the eye of taste ever is prepared to distinguish beauties or defects4 ,as it regards dress1 every individual will necessarily exhibit1 to a greater or less extent1 the degree in which taste has been cultivated4 ,a person of real refinement of taste will always have the dress consistent with the circumstances of fortune1 the relative rank in life1 the station and character1 the hour of the day1 the particular pursuit or profession1 and the period of life4 ,if a person is dressed with a richness and elegance which fortune does not warrant1 if the dress is either inferior or superior to that of others of the same rank and station1 if it is unfitted to the hour or the pursuit1 if youth puts on the grave dress of age1 or age assumes the bright colors and ornaments of youth1 in all these cases the eye of taste is offended4 ,in the adaptation of colors to complexions1 and the style of dress to the particular form of the person2 in avoiding the extremes of fashion1 the excesses of ornament1 and all approaches to immodesty--in all these respects a good taste can be displayed in dress1 and thus charm us in every-day life4 ,a person of cultivated taste1 in all that relates to the little arrangements of domestic life1 the ornaments of the exterior and interior of a dwelling1 the pursuits of hours of relaxation and amusement1 the modes of social intercourse1 the nice perception of proprieties in habits1 manners1 modes of address1 and the thousand little every-day incidents of life1 will throw an undefined and nameless charm around1 like the soft light of heaven1 that1 without dazzling1 perpetually cheers4 ,emotions of the ,ludicrous4 ,there is a certain class of feelings called emotions of the ludicrous1 which are the causes of laughter4 ,these are generally pleasurable in their nature1 though there are times when the emotions which produce laughter are painful4 ,emotions of this kind are usually caused by the sudden union of certain ideas in our conceptions when the laws of association appear to be violated4 ,such ideas are called incongruous1 because1 according to the ordinary experience of our minds1 they would not naturally have appeared together4 ,in order to awaken this emotion1 it is not only necessary that the mind should discover ideas united which have not ordinarily been so in past experience1 but those which are united in direct opposition to the laws of association4 ,thus1 if there has been a union of certain qualities in an object which have uniformly tended to produce emotions of a dignified and solemn kind1 and some particular is pointed out which is mean1 little1 or low1 the unexpected incongruity occasions mirth4 ,in like manner1 when an object in past experience has uniformly united ideas which awakened emotions of contempt1 if some particular is pointed out in association with these which is grand or sublime1 this incongruity occasions an emotion of the ludicrous4 ,this is the foundation of the amusement produced by bombastic writings1 where objects that are grand and sublime have low and mean conceptions connected with them1 or where qualities that are insignificant or mean are connected with those which are grand and sublime4 ,the following example of the union of such incongruous ideas will illustrate3 ,and now had ,phoebus in the lap ,of ,thetis taken out his nap1 ,and1 like a lobster boiled1 the morn ,from black to red began to turn4 ,the sublime ideas connected with the sun1 and the classical associations united with the name of ,thetis1 would not naturally have recalled the idea of so insignificant an animal1 nor the changes produced in cooking it1 and these connections violate the ordinary laws of association4 ,emotions of the ludicrous are also produced by the sudden conception of some association in ideas which has never before been discovered4 ,thus1 if ideas have been united in the mind on some other principle of association than that of resemblance1 the sudden discovery of some unexpected resemblance will produce mirth4 ,this is the foundation of the merriment produced by puns1 where the ideas which the words represent would never have been united by the principles of association1 but the union of these ideas is effected on the principle of resemblance between the sounds of the words which recall these ideas4 ,when the mind suddenly perceives this unexpected foundation for the union of ideas that in all other respects are incongruous1 an emotion of the ludicrous is produced4 ,this is also the foundation of the pleasure which is felt in the use of alliteration in poetry1 where a resemblance is discovered in the initial sound of words that recall ideas which in all other respects are incongruous4 ,all minds enjoy the excitement of this class of emotions1 but some much more than others4 ,laughter1 which is the effect of this class of emotions1 is enjoyed more or less by all mankind1 and is regarded as not only an agreeable1 but as a healthful exercise4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,susceptibilities4 ,a brief reference has been made to those susceptibilities which are the subject of this chapter4 ,these1 from their importance1 are entitled to a more enlarged consideration4 ,before proceeding1 however1 it is desirable to refer to the uses of the term moral1 inasmuch as it often is employed with a vague comprehension of its signification4 ,in its widest sense it signifies whatever relates to the regulation of mind by motives in distinction from those influences that produce involuntary results4 ,in a more limited sense1 it signifies whatever relates to the regulation of mind in reference to the rules of right and wrong4 ,in the preceding pages it has been assumed that the grand object for which the ,creator formed mind and all things is to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil1 and that this design is so impressed on the human mind that the needless destruction of happiness is felt to be wrong--that is1 contrary or unfitted to the design of all things2 while all that tends to promote happiness is felt to be right1 or consistent with this plan4 ,in order to a more clear view of this part of the subject1 it is important to inquire as to the manner in which the ideas of right and wrong seem to originate4 ,the young child first notices that certain actions of its own are regarded with smiles and tones of love and approval1 while other acts occasion frowns and tones of displeasure4 ,next1 it perceives that whatever gives pleasure to itself and to others is called good and right1 while whatever causes unpleasant feelings is called bad and wrong4 ,moreover1 it notices that there is a right and wrong way to hold its spoon1 to use its playthings1 to put on its clothes1 and to do multitudes of other things4 ,it thus perceives1 more and more1 that there is some rule to regulate the use and action of all things1 both animate and inanimate1 and that such rules always have reference to some plan or design4 ,as its faculties develop and its observation enlarges1 the general impression is secured that all plans and contrivances of men are designed to promote enjoyment or to prevent discomfort1 and are called good and right just so far as this is done4 ,at the same time1 all that tend to discomfort or pain are called bad and wrong4 ,in all the works of nature around1 too1 every thing that promotes enjoyment is called good and right1 and the opposite is called evil and wrong4 ,at last there is a resulting feeling that the great design of all things is to secure good and prevent evil1 and that whatever is opposed to this is wrong1 and unfitted to the object for which all things exist4 ,the question whether this impression is owing solely to observation or partly to mental constitution is waived as of little practical consequence4 ,but1 in the experience of infancy and childhood1 the law of sacrifice is speedily developed4 ,it is perceived that much of the good to be gained1 if sought to excess1 occasions pain1 so that there must be a certain amount of self-denial practiced1 which1 to the young novice1 sometimes involves disappointment and discomfort4 ,it is also seen that frequently two or more enjoyments are offered which are incompatible1 so that one must be relinquished to gain the other4 ,it is perceived1 also1 that there is a constant calculation going on as to which will be the best--that is1 which will secure the most good with the least evil4 ,and the child is constantly instructed that it must avoid excess1 and must give up what is of less value to secure the greater good4 ,all this training involves sacrifices which are more or less painful1 so that a young child will sometimes cry as it voluntarily gives up one kind of pleasure as the only mode of securing what is preferred4 ,it is perceived1 also1 that there is a constant balancing of good and evil1 so that a given amount of enjoyment cancels or repays for a certain amount of evil4 ,when a great amount of enjoyment is purchased by a small degree of labor or trouble1 the compound result is deemed a good1 and called right2 on the contrary1 when the evil involved exceeds a given amount in comparison to the good1 the compound result is called evil and wrong4 ,thus is generated the impression that there is a law of sacrifice instituted requiring the greatest possible good with the least possible evil1 and that this is the great design of all things4 ,the impression is1 not merely that we are to seek enjoyment and avoid pain1 but that we are to seek the greatest possible good with the least possible evil1 and that in doing this we are to obey the law of sacrifice and suffering1 by which the greatest possible good is to be bought by a certain amount of evil voluntarily assumed4 ,in regard to this great law of sacrifice1 the highest part of it is discerned in the earliest experiences of life4 ,the young child very soon perceives that its mother and its other friends are constantly making sacrifices for its own good1 and bearing inconveniences and trouble for the good of those around4 ,and those who perform such acts of benevolent self-sacrifice are praised1 and their conduct is called good and right4 ,voluntary suffering to promote the welfare of others is discerned to be the highest kind of good and right conduct in the estimation of all4 ,the first feature1 then1 in our moral nature is that impression of the great design of our ,creator which furnishes us the means of deciding on the rectitude of all voluntary action4 ,the second feature of our moral constitution is what is ordinarily called the sense of justice4 ,it is that susceptibility which is excited at the view of the conduct of others as voluntary causes of good or evil4 ,in all cases where free agents act to promote happiness1 an emotion of approval arises1 together with a desire of reward to the author of the good4 ,on the contrary1 when there is a voluntary destruction of happiness1 there is an emotion of disapproval and a desire for retributive pain on the author of the wrong4 ,these emotions are instinctive1 and not at all regulated by reason in their inception4 ,when an evil is done1 an instant desire is felt to discover the cause2 and when it is found1 an instant desire is felt to inflict some penalty4 ,so irrational is this impulse1 that children will exhibit anger and deal blows on inanimate objects that cause pain4 ,even mature minds are sometimes conscious of this impulse4 ,it is the office of the intellect to judge whether the deed was a voluntary one1 whether the agent intended the mischief1 and whether a penalty will be of any use4 ,the impulse to punish is never preceded by any such calculations4 ,that this impulse is an implanted part of our constitution1 and not the result of reason and experience1 is seen in the delight manifested by young children in the narration of the nursery tale where the cruel uncle who murdered the ,babes in the ,wood receives the retributions of ,heaven4 ,another feature in this sense of justice is the proportion demanded between the evil done and the penalty inflicted4 ,that this also is instinctive1 and not the result of reason1 is seen in the nursery1 where children will approve of slight penalties for slight offenses1 and severe ones for great ones1 but will revolt from any very great disproportion between the wrong act and its penalty4 ,as a general rule1 both in the nursery and in the great family of mature minds1 the greater the wrong done1 the stronger the desire for a penalty1 and the more severe the punishment demanded4 ,another very important point of consideration is the universal feeling of mankind that the natural penalties for wrong-doing are not sufficient1 and that it is an act of love as well as of justice to add to these penalties4 ,thus the parent who forbids his child to eat green fruit will not trust to the results of the natural penalty1 but restrain by the fear of the immediate and more easily conceived penalty of chastisement4 ,so1 in the great family of man1 the natural penalties for theft are not deemed sufficient1 but severe penalties for the protection of property are added4 ,this particular is the foundation of certain distinctions that are of great importance1 which will now be pointed out4 ,we find the terms reward and punishment used in two different relations4 ,in the first and widest sense they signify not only the penalties of human law1 but those natural consequences which1 by the constitution of nature1 inevitably follow certain courses of conduct4 ,thus an indolent man is said to receive poverty as a punishment1 and it is in this sense that his children are said to be punished for the faults of their father4 ,the violations of natural law are punished without any reference to the question whether the evil-doer intended the wrong1 or whether he sinned in ignorance1 or whether this ignorance was involuntary and unavoidable4 ,the question of the justice or injustice of such natural penalties involves the great question of the right and wrong of the system of the universe4 ,is it just and right for the ,creator to make a system in which all free agents shall be thus led to obedience to its laws by penalties as well as rewards1 by fear as well as by hope8 ,this question will not be discussed here4 ,most discussions as to just rewards and penalties ordinarily relate to the added penalties by which parents1 teachers1 and magistrates enforce obedience to natural or to statute law4 ,in these questions reference is always had to the probable results of such rewards and penalties in securing obedience4 ,if experience has shown that certain penalties do secure obedience to wise and good laws1 either of nature or of human enactment1 then they are considered just4 ,if they do not1 they are counted unwise and unjust4 ,so1 if certain penalties are needlessly severe--that is to say1 if a less penalty will secure equal obedience1 then this also decides so severe a penalty to be unjust4 ,in deciding on the rectitude of the penalties of human enactments1 it is always assumed to be unjust to punish for any lack of knowledge and obedience when the subject had no power to know and to obey4 ,if a choice to obey will not secure the act required of a free agent1 then a penalty inflicted for disobedience is always regarded as unjust4 ,the only seeming exception to this is the case where a person1 by voluntary means1 has deprived himself of ability to obey4 ,but in such cases the punishment is felt to be right1 not because he does not obey when he has no power1 but because he has voluntarily deprived himself of this power4 ,and he is punished for destroying his ability to obey1 and not for violating the law4 ,these things in human laws1 then1 are always demanded to make a penalty appear just to the moral sense of mankind1 namely1 that the subject have power to obey1 and that he has opportunity to know the law1 and is not ignorant by any voluntary and improper neglect4 ,in all questions of justice1 therefore1 it is important to discriminate between those penalties that are inherent as a part of the great system of the universe1 and for which the ,creator alone is the responsible cause1 and those which result from voluntary institutions of which men are the authors4 ,in connection with this subject1 it is important to recognize the distinction that exists in regard to two classes of right and wrong actions4 ,the first class includes those which are wrong in their nature and in all supposable cases1 such1 for example1 as the wanton infliction of needless pain1 or the breach of plighted faith1 or the returning of love and kindness with ungrateful treatment4 ,in all possible suppositions1 the mind revolts from such actions as wrong and deserving of penalties4 ,it is this class of actions which1 without any reasoning1 the mind never fails to disapprove1 and to desire should be visited with retributive penalties4 ,the other class of right and wrong acts derive their estimate solely from the circumstances in which they occur4 ,for example1 a man is angry and beats a little child4 ,now the question whether his feelings and action are right or wrong depends entirely on circumstances4 ,if the child has done no evil and the person knew it1 his feelings and actions are wrong4 ,but if the person is a father correcting his child for some heinous fault and with only a suitable degree of anger1 then the feeling and action are right4 ,there is another mode of estimating conduct by which the same act may have two opposite characters1 according to the relation in which it is regarded4 ,for example1 a good parent may give wrong medicine to his child1 or punish an innocent one1 believing him to be guilty4 ,in such cases the act is right as it respects the motive or intention1 and wrong as it respects the nature of the action4 ,it is sometimes the case that a man may do a right action with a bad motive1 and a wrong action with a good motive4 ,thus the same act is right in one relation1 and wrong in another4 ,it is important that this distinction should be borne in mind4 ,the next feature in our moral constitution is the susceptibility which is excited by the intellectual judgment of our own feelings and conduct as either right or wrong4 ,in case we decide them to be right1 we experience an emotion of self-approval which is very delightful2 but if we decide that they are wrong1 we experience an immediate penalty in a painful emotion called remorse4 ,this emotion is always proportioned to the amount of evil done1 and the consciousness that it was done knowingly and intentionally4 ,no suffering is more keen than the highest emotions of this kind1 while their pangs are often enduring and unappeasable4 ,sometimes there is an attending desire to inflict retribution on one's self as a mode of alleviating this distress4 ,this susceptibility is usually denominated conscience4 ,sometimes this word is used to include both the intellectual judgment of our conduct as right or wrong1 and the consequent emotions of approval or remorse2 sometimes it refers to the susceptibility alone4 ,either use is correct1 as in the connection in which it is employed the distinction can ordinarily be easily made4 ,this analysis of our moral constitution furnishes means for a clear definition of such terms as obligated1 ought1 ought not1 and the like4 ,a person is obligated or ought to do a thing when he has the intellect to perceive that it is right1 and the moral susceptibilities just described4 ,when he is destitute either of the intellect or of these susceptibilities1 he ceases to be a moral and accountable being4 ,he can no longer be made to feel any moral obligations4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,will4 ,it is the power of choice which raises man to the dignity of an intellectual and moral being4 ,without this principle1 he would be a creature of mere impulses and instincts4 ,he would possess susceptibilities of happiness to be excited1 and intellect to devise and discover the modes of securing enjoyment2 but without governing principle1 the soul would be led captive with each successive desire1 or be the sport of chances whenever conflicting desires were awakened4 ,he who formed man in his own perfect image left not his work without this balance-power to regulate the complicated springs of so wonderful an existence4 ,man is now not only the image of his ,creator as lord of this lower world1 but is1 like him1 the lord and master of his own powers4 ,it has been shown that the constitution1 both of mind and of the world1 is such that it is impossible in the nature of things to gain every object which is the cause of enjoyment4 ,there is a constant succession of selections to be made between different modes of securing happiness4 ,a lesser good is given up for a greater1 or some good relinquished altogether to avoid some consequent pain4 ,often1 also1 some painful state of mind is sought as the means of securing some future good1 or of avoiding some greater evil4 ,thus men endure want1 fatigue1 and famine to purchase wealth4 ,thus the nauseous draught will be swallowed to avoid the pains of sickness2 and thus the pleasures of domestic affection will be sacrificed to obtain honor and fame4 ,the whole course of life is a constant succession of such decisions between different modes of securing happiness and of avoiding pain4 ,specific and ,generic ,volitions4 ,in noticing the operation of mind1 it will be seen that there is a foundation for two classes of volitions or acts of choice1 which may be denominated specific and generic4 ,a specific volition is one that secures some particular act1 such as the moving of the arm or turning of the head4 ,such volitions are ordinarily consequent on some more general purpose of the mind1 which they aid in accomplishing1 and which is1 therefore1 denominated a generic volition4 ,for example1 a man chooses to make a certain journey3 this is the generic volition1 and1 in order to carry it out1 he performs a great variety of acts1 each one of which aids in carrying out the generic decision4 ,these specific acts of will1 which tend to accomplish a more general purpose1 may also be called subordinate1 because they are controlled by a generic volition4 ,it can be seen that the generic volitions may themselves become subordinate to a still more comprehensive purpose4 ,thus the man may decide to make a journey1 which is a generic volition in reference to all acts subordinate to this end4 ,but this journey may be a subordinate part of a more general purpose to make a fortune or to secure some other important end4 ,it is frequently the case that a generic purpose1 which relates to objects that require a long time and many complicated operations1 exists when the mind seems almost unconscious of its power4 ,for example1 a man may form a generic purpose to enter a profession for which years will be required to prepare4 ,and while his whole course of action is regulated by this decision1 he engages in pursuits entirely foreign to it and which seem to engross his whole attention4 ,these pursuits may sometimes be such as are antagonistic to his grand purpose1 so as at least to imperil or retard its accomplishment4 ,and yet this strong and quiet purpose remains1 and is eventually carried out4 ,it is the case1 also1 that a generic volition may be formed to be performed at some particular time and place1 and then the mind becomes entirely unconscious of it till the appointed period and circumstances occur4 ,then the decision becomes dominant1 and controls all other purposes4 ,thus a man may decide that1 at a specified hour1 he will stop his studies and perform certain gymnastic exercises4 ,this volition is forgotten until the hour arrives1 and then it recurs and is carried out4 ,this phenomenon sometimes occurs in sleep4 ,some persons1 in watching with the sick1 will determine to wake at given hours to administer medicines2 then they will sleep soundly till the appointed time comes1 when they will waken and perform the predetermined actions4 ,in regard to the commencement of a generic purpose1 we find that sometimes it is so distinct and definite as to be the subject of consciousness and memory4 ,for example1 a spendthrift1 in some moment of suffering and despondency1 may form a determination to commence a systematic course of thrift and economy1 and may actually carry it out through all his future life4 ,such cases are often to be found on record or in everyday life4 ,in other cases1 this quiet1 hidden1 but controlling purpose seems to be formed by unconscious and imperceptible influences1 so that the mind can not revert to the specific time or manner when it originated4 ,for example1 a child who is trained from early life to speak the truth1 can never revert to any particular moment when this generic purpose originated4 ,it is sometimes the case1 also1 that a person will contemplate some generic volition before it occurs1 while the process of its final formation seems almost beyond the power of scrutiny4 ,for example1 a man may be urged to relinquish one employment and engage in another4 ,he reflects1 consults1 and is entirely uncertain how he shall decide4 ,as time passes1 he gradually inclines toward the proposed change1 until1 finally1 he finds his determination fixed1 he scarcely knows when or how4 ,thus it appears that generic volitions commence sometimes so instantaneously and obviously that the time and influences connected with them can be recognized4 ,in other cases1 the decision seems to be a gradual one1 while in some instances the process can be traced1 and in others it is entirely unnoticed or forgotten4 ,it is in reference to such generic purposes that the moral character of men is estimated4 ,an honest man is one who has a fixed purpose to act honestly in all circumstances4 ,a truthful man is one who has such a purpose to speak the truth at all times4 ,in such cases1 the degree in which such a purpose controls all others is the measure of a man's moral character in the estimate of society4 ,the history of mankind shows a great diversity of moral character dependent on such generic volitions4 ,some men possess firm and reliable moral principles in certain directions1 while they are very destitute of them in others4 ,thus it will be seen that some have formed a very decided purpose in regard to honesty in business affairs1 who yet are miserable victims to intemperance4 ,others have cultivated a principle called honor1 that restrains them from certain actions regarded as mean1 and yet they may be frequenters of gambling saloons and other haunts of vice4 ,in the religious world1 too1 it is the case that some who are very firm and decided on all points of religious observances and in the cultivation of devotional emotions1 are guilty of very mean actions1 such as some worldly men of honor would not practice at the sacrifice of a right hand4 ,on ,causes of ,volition4 ,it becomes1 then1 a most interesting subject of inquiry as to the causes which decide these diversities of moral purposes1 and also the causes which operate to give them more or less control over other principles4 ,but1 preliminary to this1 it is necessary to secure some discriminating accuracy in regard to the signification of the word cause in its various uses4 ,this term1 in its widest sense1 signifies that without which a change will not take place1 and with which it will take place4 ,this is the leading idea which is included in every use of the word4 ,but there is a foundation for three classes of causes which may be denominated producing causes1 occasional causes1 and deciding causes4 ,a producing cause is that which produces a change by the constitution of nature1 so that in the given circumstances there is no power to do otherwise4 ,occasional causes are those circumstances which are indispensable to the action of producing causes4 ,thus1 when fire is applied to your powder1 the fire is the producing cause of the explosion1 while the act of contact between the fire and powder is the occasional cause4 ,in regard to the action of mind in volition1 the mind itself is the producing cause1 while excited desires and objects to excite those desires are the occasional causes4 ,or1 in other words1 mind is the producing cause of its own volitions1 and motives are the occasional causes4 ,on ,deciding ,causes of ,volition4 ,but inasmuch as mind always has the power to choose in either of two or more directions1 the question arises as to the causes which decide the direction of volitions1 and which may be called deciding causes4 ,whenever it is asked1 ,why did a person choose to do thus8 the meaning is1 ,what were the causes that influenced him to decide thus8 ,now these causes are ascertained1 as all others are1 by experience4 ,men are always stating to each other1 as well as noticing in their own experience1 the causes which decide their determinations4 ,first1 in certain cases1 where two or more objects are presented1 of which only one can be taken1 the cause assigned for the direction of the choice may be that one excited a stronger desire than the other4 ,a vast proportion of human volitions are decided simply by the fact that one object seems a greater good or excites a stronger desire than any other1 and is thus the strongest motive4 ,but there are other cases where1 of the objects presented1 one excites the strongest desire1 while the judgment perceives that another will secure a greater good on the whole4 ,for example1 in case of a sick person1 there may be placed a favorite drink that excites a very strong desire1 and beside it may stand a nauseous medicine4 ,in this case1 the invalid may feel the strongest desire for the drink1 and yet choose the medicine as the greater good in its final results4 ,in such cases1 what decides the direction of a volition is the judgment of the mind1 that the object chosen1 though it does not excite the strongest desire1 is still the greater good4 ,another deciding cause of volition is the nature of the constitutional susceptibilities4 ,for example1 when it is asked why did a man forsake domestic life and become a soldier1 the deciding cause may be that he had a strong constitutional love of the excitement and glory connected with that profession1 and but little susceptibility for the quiet enjoyments of domestic life4 ,it is sometimes the case that a child1 from its birth1 seems to possess a natural love for truth1 so that instructions on that point are scarcely needed4 ,in another case1 in the same family1 and under exactly the same training1 will be found a child who has the contrary propensity1 so that it costs years of careful training to form a principle of veracity4 ,the same constitutional variety will be found in reference to other virtues4 ,another deciding cause of volition are the habits4 ,the existence of a habit of obedience1 for example1 will induce the formation of virtuous purposes that would never have existed but for this4 ,a child who began life with strong propensities to certain faults1 by a wise and careful training may secure habits that are fully equal in power to the same constitutional traits in another child4 ,often1 in the result1 it can not be seen whether the generic purpose to be truthful1 for example1 resulted mainly from natural constitution or from the formation of habits4 ,the will itself also is more or less regulated by this principle4 ,when a child is trained constantly to submit to fixed rules1 the will acquires increased ease and facility in doing it4 ,on the contrary1 a mind that is never controlled grows more and more averse to yielding to any regulating principle4 ,another deciding cause of volition is such a combination of circumstances as excites one class of desires1 while other sensibilities have no appropriate objects to stimulate them4 ,for example1 it may be asked1 ,why did a man choose to drink and gamble8 ,the cause assigned may be the presence of liquor and of tempting companions1 and the want of objects to excite higher susceptibilities4 ,he had no wise friends1 no business1 and no higher sources of enjoyment immediately around him4 ,another deciding cause of volition is the existence of principle or generic purpose4 ,for example1 it may be asked1 ,why did a man choose to give up his liberty and property when he could have secured them by false testimony8 ,the answer may be that he was a truthful man or a virtuous man--that is1 he had formed a strong generic purpose to speak the truth or to act right on all occasions4 ,another deciding cause of volition is the existence of love and gratitude toward other minds1 and the reflex influence of such minds in the bestowal of their love1 sympathy1 teachings1 and example4 ,this is the most powerful of all the influences which secure and sustain generic volitions1 as will be illustrated more at large in future pages4 ,causes that regulate the ,power of ,generic ,volitions4 ,the next inquiry relates to the causes which regulate the power of generic volition4 ,among those causes1 the most prominent is that natural force of will which is strictly constitutional4 ,some minds are formed by the ,creator with great energy and great pertinacity of will1 so that when a purpose is formed1 all subordinate volitions needful to carry out this purpose seem easily controlled4 ,other minds1 on the contrary1 possess a naturally feeble will1 so that no generic volition has a strong and steady control1 but is constantly interrupted in its power over subordinate volitions1 or is easily changed by conflicting desires4 ,in one case the person is denominated a man of firm purpose or a man of a strong will4 ,in the other case he is called a man of yielding temperament or a weak character4 ,the remaining causes that give strength to a generic purpose are most of those that have been enumerated as causes of the direction of volition1 or deciding causes4 ,these are the constitutional susceptibilities--the habits--the surrounding circumstances--the existence of love and gratitude toward other minds1 and the reflex influence of such minds in the bestowal of their love1 sympathy1 teachings1 and example4 ,in all this variety of influences that decide those generic volitions which are the foundation of moral character1 it must be remembered that in every case the mind has the power to choose that which the judgment decides to be the greatest good on the whole for itself and for the commonwealth4 ,how one ,mind causes ,volitions in another ,mind4 ,in this connection1 it is important to secure exact ideas of what is meant when one mind is spoken of as the cause of the volitions of another mind4 ,of course1 in this relation1 no mind can be the producing cause of volition in any mind but itself4 ,it must be1 then1 either as occasional or as deciding causes that we can influence other minds4 ,the only mode by which we can regulate the volitions of other minds is by the employment of motives to stimulate desire1 or by changing the constitutional susceptibilities4 ,in the first case1 men have power to so combine circumstances of temptation as to affect the most excitable and powerful sensibilities1 or they can remove those objects and influences that sustain moral principle1 or by a long course of training they can form habits and induce principles4 ,the combinations of motive influences that one mind can bring to bear on another1 as temptations to right or wrong action1 are almost infinite4 ,the other mode is by changing the constitutional susceptibilities4 ,this can sometimes be effected to a certain degree by education and the formation of habits4 ,it can be still more directly effected through the physical organization4 ,for example1 a child may be trained to use coffee1 tea1 alcohol1 or tobacco1 till the nervous system is shattered1 and then a placid temper becomes excitable1 a generous nature grows sour and selfish1 an active nature becomes indolent1 and multitudes of other disastrous changes are the result4 ,these are the only two modes in which one mind is ever regarded as the cause of right or wrong volition in other minds4 ,on a ,ruling ,purpose4 ,the most important of all the voluntary phenomena is the fact that1 while there can be a multitude of these quiet and hidden generic purposes in the mind1 it is also possible to form one which shall be the dominant or controlling one1 to which all the other volitions1 both generic and specific1 shall become subordinate4 ,in common parlance1 this would be called the ruling passion4 ,it may also be called the ruling purpose or controlling principle4 ,this consists in the permanent choice of some one mode of securing happiness as the chief end or grand object of life4 ,we have set forth on preceding pages the chief sources of happiness and of suffering to the human mind4 ,now in the history of our race we find that each one of these modes of enjoyment have been selected by different individuals as the chief end of their existence--as the mode of seeking enjoyment1 to which they sacrifice every other4 ,some persons have chosen the pleasures of eating1 drinking1 and the other grosser enjoyments of sense4 ,others have chosen those more elevated and refined pleasures that come indirectly from the senses in the emotions of taste4 ,others have devoted themselves to intellectual enjoyments as their chief resource for happiness4 ,others have selected the exercise of physical and moral power1 as in the case of conquerors and physical heroes1 or of those who have sought to control by moral power1 as rulers and statesmen4 ,others have made the attainment of the esteem1 admiration1 and love of their fellow-creatures their chief end4 ,others1 still1 have devoted themselves to the promotion of happiness around them as their chief interest4 ,others have devoted themselves to the service of ,god1 or what they conceived to be such1 and sometimes by the most miserable life of asceticism and self-torture4 ,others have made it their main object in life to obey the laws of rectitude and virtue4 ,in all these cases1 the moral character of the person1 in the view of all observers1 has been decided by this dominant volition1 and exactly in proportion to the supremacy with which it has actually controlled all other purposes4 ,some minds seem to have no chief end of life4 ,their existence is a succession of small purposes1 each of which has its turn in controlling the life4 ,others have a strong1 defined1 and all-controlling principle4 ,now experience shows that both of these classes are capable1 the one of forming and the other of changing such a purpose4 ,for example1 in a time of peace and ease there is little to excite the mind strongly2 but let a crisis come where fortune1 reputation1 and life are at stake1 and men and women are obliged to form generic decisions involving all they hold dear1 and many minds that have no controlling purpose immediately originate one1 while those whose former ruling aims were in one direction change them entirely to another4 ,this shows how it is that days of peril create heroes1 statesmen1 and strong men and women4 ,the hour of danger calls all the energies of the soul into action4 ,great purposes are formed with the strongest desire and emotion4 ,instantly the whole current of thought1 and all the co-existing desires and emotions1 are conformed to these purposes4 ,the experience of mankind proves that a dominant generic purpose may extend to a whole life1 and actually control all other generic and specific volitions4 ,mode of ,controlling the ,intellect1 ,desires1 and ,emotions4 ,we will now consider some of the modes by which the will controls the intellect1 desires1 and emotions4 ,we have seen1 in previous pages1 the influence which desire and emotion exert in making both our perceptions and conceptions more vivid4 ,whatever purpose or aim in life becomes an object of strong desire1 is always distinctly and vividly conceived1 while all less interesting objects are more faint and indistinct4 ,we have also seen that whenever any conception arises it always brings connected objects1 according to certain laws of association1 forming a new and complex picture4 ,whenever the mind is under the influence of a controlling purpose1 the object of pursuit is always more interesting than any other4 ,this interest always fastens on those particulars in any mental combination that are connected with the ruling purpose and seem fitted to promote it1 making them more vivid4 ,around these selected objects their past associated ideas begin to cluster1 forming other complex pictures4 ,in all these combinations1 those ideas most consonant with the leading interest of the mind become most vivid1 and the others fade away4 ,the grand method1 then1 for regulating the thoughts is by the generic decisions of the mind as to the modes of seeking enjoyment4 ,in regard to the power of the mind over its own desires and emotions1 it is very clear that these sensibilities can not be regulated by direct specific volitions4 ,let any person try to produce love1 fear1 joy1 hope1 or gratitude by simply choosing to have them arise1 and it is soon perceived that no such power exists4 ,but there are indirect modes by which the mind can control its susceptibilities4 ,the first method is by directing attention to those objects of thought which are fitted to call forth such emotions4 ,for example1 if we wish to awaken the emotion of fear1 we can place ourselves in circumstances of danger1 or call up ideas of horror and distress4 ,if we wish to call forth emotions of gratitude1 we can direct attention to acts of kindness to ourselves calculated to awaken such feelings4 ,if we wish to excite desire for any object1 we can direct attention to those qualities in that object that are calculated to excite desire4 ,in all these cases the mind can1 by an act of will1 direct its attention to subjects calculated to excite emotion and desire4 ,the other mode of regulating the desires and emotions is by the direction of our generic volitions4 ,for example1 let a man of business1 who has never had any interest in commerce1 decide to invest all his property in foreign trade4 ,as soon as this is done1 the name of the ship that bears his all can never be heard or seen but it excites some emotion4 ,a storm1 that before would go unnoticed1 awakens fear2 the prices in the commercial markets1 before unheeded1 now awaken fear or afford pleasure4 ,and thus multitudes of varied desires and emotions are called into existence by this one generic volition4 ,one result of a purpose to deny an importunate propensity is frequently seen in the immediate or gradual diminution of that desire4 ,for example1 if a person is satisfied that a certain article of food is injurious1 and resolves on total abstinence1 it will be found that the desire for it is very much reduced1 far more so than when the effort is to diminish the indulgence4 ,when a generic purpose is formed that involves great interests1 it is impossible to prevent the desires and emotions from running consonant with this purpose4 ,the only mode of changing this current is to give up this generic purpose and form another4 ,thus1 if a man has devoted his whole time and energies to money-making1 it is impossible for him to prevent his thoughts and feelings from running in that direction4 ,he must give up this as his chief end1 and take a nobler object1 if he would elevate the whole course of his mental action4 ,these are the principal phenomena of the grand mental faculty which is the controlling power of the mind1 and on the regulation of which all its other powers are dependent4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,faith ,,or ,,belief4 ,we have shown that a belief in the reality of the existence1 both of mind and of matter1 as causes1 is one of the implanted principles of mind4 ,some philosophers have claimed that there is nothing in existence but mind1 and that all that is called matter is simply ideas of things in the mind itself1 for which there is no corresponding reality4 ,others have claimed just the opposite3 that there is no such existence as an immaterial spirit1 but that soul is the brain1 or some other very fine organization of matter4 ,in both cases1 the assumptions not only have no evidence to sustain them1 but are contrary to the common sense or reason of all mankind1 and never can be really believed4 ,when perceptions are called into existence by the agency of the senses1 we can not help believing that things are as they appear to us1 unless we have some evidence of deception either from disordered sensation or some other cause4 ,but in regard to our conceptions we have two classes4 ,one class is attended with the belief that they correspond with realities1 or the things they represent4 ,the other class is not attended with this belief4 ,for example1 we can conceive of a house of a color1 form1 and details such as we never saw1 and this conception is not attended with any belief of the reality of such an existence2 but when we conceive of the home of our childhood1 this conception is attended with a belief of the reality of the thing conceived4 ,this illustration furnishes the means of defining truth as the reality of things4 ,we conceive the truth when our conceptions represent correctly the reality of things1 and we believe the truth when we feel this correspondence to exist4 ,we believe falsehood when we have a conception attended by a feeling that it represents the reality of things when it does not4 ,all our comfort1 success1 and happiness depend upon believing the truth2 for just so far as our belief or faith varies from the reality of things1 we shall meet with mistakes1 disappointment1 and sorrow4 ,our beneficent ,creator has so formed our minds and our bodies that1 in their natural1 healthy state1 our perceptions correspond with the reality of things uniformly1 while1 as before stated1 our belief or faith also thus corresponds4 ,it is very rarely the case that disease or other causes prevent this uniform correct perception and belief in regard to all things that come within the reach of our own senses4 ,it is only in regard to that knowledge that we gain from the experience and testimony of others1 or from the process of reasoning1 that we become liable to a false belief4 ,men often impart their conceptions of things to us1 and we find that they do not correspond with realities4 ,we also1 by a process of reasoning1 often come to conceptions of things1 and a belief in them1 which we find to be false4 ,evidence may be defined as all those causes which tend to produce correct ideas of truth or the reality of things4 ,inasmuch as we find by experience that human testimony and the process of reasoning do not uniformly conduct us to right conceptions of realities1 we find that there are different degrees of belief according to the nature of the evidence presented4 ,the highest kind of evidence is intuitive knowledge1 which is a uniform result of the constitution of mind and its inevitable circumstances4 ,this is called intuitive knowledge or intuitive belief4 ,all other evidence is gained by experience or by reasoning4 ,the experience of other minds we gain by testimony4 ,this is called the evidence of testimony4 ,belief differs in degrees according to the nature and amount of evidence perceived4 ,the highest kind of evidence produces what is called certainty4 ,it is the kind which is felt in reference to the intuitive truths4 ,there are all degrees of faith1 from the highest certainty to entire incredulity or unbelief4 ,this fact lays the foundation for a distinction in practical matters which it is very important to recognize4 ,it is often the case that there is an amount of evidence that produces a conviction which rests in the mind1 but does not produce its appropriate practical result4 ,for example1 a man in feeble health has read enough on the subject to be convinced that a daily bath in cool water would tend to restore strength1 and yet the belief does not secure the practice4 ,but on a review of the books which produced the conviction1 or on hearing some lecturer on health1 the conviction becomes more powerful1 and leads to a corresponding practice4 ,now1 in reference to the fact that there are multitudes of convictions which are inoperative1 which1 if vividly realized1 would become principles of action1 there is a distinction made1 in common parlance1 between a dead or ideal faith1 and a living or practical faith4 ,still more is this distinction recognized in matters of religion1 as will be hereafter shown4 ,the question whether faith or belief is under the control of the will1 or whether it is necessary and inevitable1 is one of very great importance both in regard to our happiness and our obligations4 ,if belief is not under the control of the will1 it must be because either the mind has not the power of directing its attention to evidence1 or because it is so made that1 when it perceives the truth1 it can not distinguish it from falsehood4 ,in regard to the first alternative1 the control which the mind has over its own train of thought has been definitely pointed out and described in the articles on attention and on the will4 ,it appears that the will is the regulating principle1 which governs all mental operations by selecting the modes of happiness which the intellect shall be employed in securing4 ,whatever mode of present or of general happiness is selected1 immediately all conceptions which the judgment discerns as having a fitness for accomplishing this object become vivid and distinct1 and recall their associate conceptions4 ,thus it is the choice of any mode of enjoyment by the will which determines the train of thought4 ,when1 therefore1 any question is brought up which demands attention to evidence1 if the mind has some desire to gratify1 and the intellect discerns that the conviction of this truth will interfere with this chosen plan of happiness1 the will refuses attention to what is not in consonance with the leading desire of the mind4 ,where conviction of any truth is foreseen to interfere with some plan of enjoyment already chosen1 the only way by which attention can be secured is by exhibiting some evil that will follow inattention which will more than counterbalance the good to be gained4 ,in this case1 the mind may choose to attend1 and run the hazard of losing the particular mode of enjoyment sought in order to avoid the threatened evil from inattention to evidence4 ,this is the method men pursue in all their intercourse with each other4 ,they find that their fellow-men are unwilling to believe what is contrary to their own wishes and plans4 ,but when they determine that belief shall be secured1 they contrive various modes to make it appear either for their pleasure or their interest to attend to evidence1 or else they exhibit some evil as the consequence of neglecting attention4 ,the only mode by which mankind are induced to give their thoughts to the concerns of an invisible world is by awakening their hopes of future good to be secured1 or by stimulating their fears of future evils4 ,it thus appears1 from the laws and operations of the mind of which every person is conscious1 and also from the conduct and recorded experience of mankind1 that the mind has the power of directing its attention to evidence4 ,the other alternative which would establish the principle that belief is not under the control of the will is1 that truth1 when seen by the mind1 can not be distinguished from falsehood4 ,but this1 it can be seen1 involves a denial of the principles of reason and common sense4 ,it is saying that the mind may have the evidence of the senses1 memory1 and all the other principles included in the laws of reason1 and yet not believe it2 for every process of reasoning is1 in fact1 exhibiting evidence either of the senses1 memory1 or experience1 that a certain truth is included under a primary truth4 ,the only position which can be assumed without denying the principles of reason and common sense is1 that belief1 according to the laws of mind1 is exactly according to the amount of evidence to which the mind gives its attention4 ,in order to belief1 then1 two things are necessary1 viz41 evidence1 and the choice of the mind to attend to this evidence4 ,when both of these are attained1 the belief of truth and the rejection of falsehood are inevitable4 ,the influence which the will and desires have upon our belief accounts for the great variety of opinions among mankind on almost every subject of duty and of happiness4 ,there are two ways in which the desires and wishes regulate belief4 ,in the first place1 by preventing attention to the subject which would lead to the belief of truths that are inconsistent with the leading desires of the mind4 ,this1 in a great measure1 will account for the great variety of religious belief4 ,religion is a subject which is felt to be inconsistent with the leading desires of most persons who are interested in the pursuit of other enjoyments than those resulting from obedience to ,god in the discharge of the duties of benevolence and piety4 ,it is a subject1 therefore1 which receives so little examination that opinions in regard to it are adopted with trifling attention4 ,the second cause of variety of belief is the effect which desire has in making vivid those conceptions which most agree with the leading purpose of the mind4 ,when the mind decides to examine the evidence on any subject1 if the decision involves questions which have a bearing on some favorite purpose1 all those arguments which are most consonant with the desires appear vivid and clear1 and those which are contrary to the wishes are fainter and less regarded4 ,this is a fact which universal experience demonstrates4 ,men always fasten on evidence which favors their own wishes1 and but faintly conceive the evidence which is opposed4 ,this is a cause which operates most powerfully in regard to religious truths whenever they interfere with the leading desires4 ,this view of the subject exhibits the importance of having the mind directed to proper objects2 for if the mind is earnestly engaged in the pursuit of duty1 it will be pleased with every development of truth1 for truth and duty are never found to interfere4 ,truth is another name for things as they are1 and it is always the duty and happiness of man to regulate his conduct by seeing things as they are1 rather than by seeing them in false relations4 ,that man is best prepared to discover truth who is most sincerely desirous to obtain it1 and to regulate his feelings1 words1 and conduct by its dictates4 ,there is nothing more obvious1 from experience and observation1 than that men feel their ability to control their belief1 and realize both their own obligations and those of their fellow-men on this subject4 ,they know that every man must act according to his belief of right and wrong1 and thus that the fulfillment of every duty depends upon the nature of our belief4 ,and the more important are the interests involved in any question1 the more men perceive their obligations to seek for evidence1 and obtain the knowledge necessary to enable them to judge correctly4 ,the estimation of guilt among mankind1 in reference to wrong belief1 is always proportioned to the interests involved and the opportunities for obtaining knowledge4 ,in the minute affairs of life1 where but little evil is done from false judgments1 but little blame is attached to a man for believing wrong4 ,neither is a man severely judged if the necessary knowledge was inaccessible or very difficult to be obtained4 ,but where a man has great interests committed to his keeping1 and has sufficient opportunity for obtaining evidence of truth1 the severest condemnation awaits him who1 through inattention or prejudice1 hazards vast interests by an incorrect belief4 ,if an agent has the charge of great investments1 and through negligence1 or indolence1 or prejudice ruins his employer1 his sincere belief is no protection from severe condemnation4 ,if the physician has the health and life of a valued member of the community and the object of many affections intrusted to his skill1 and from negligence and inattention destroys the life he was appointed to save1 his sincere belief is but a small palliation of his guilt4 ,if a judge has the fortune and life of his fellow-citizens intrusted to his judicial knowledge and integrity1 and1 through want of care and attention1 is guilty of flagrant injustice and evil1 the plea of wrong belief will not protect him from the impeachment and just indignation which await such delinquencies4 ,there is no point where men are more tenacious of the obligations of their fellow-creatures than on the subject of belief4 ,if they find themselves calumniated1 unjustly dealt with1 and treated with contempt and scorn from prejudice or want of attention1 the reality of belief is little palliation of the guilt of those who thus render them injustice4 ,they feel the obligations of their fellow-men to know the truth in all that relates to their interests1 honor1 and good name2 and often there is scarcely any thing which it is so difficult to forgive as the simple crime of wrong belief4 ,the only modes by which men attempt to justify themselves for guilt of this nature are to show either that the matter was of small consequence1 or that the means of learning its importance and of obtaining the other necessary information was not within reach4 ,it may be laid down1 then1 as a long-established axiom in regard to this subject1 that men estimate the guilt of wrong belief in all matters relating to the welfare of mankind in exact proportion to the value of the interests involved1 and to the opportunities enjoyed for obtaining information4 ,inasmuch as all our success and happiness depends upon our belief of the truth1 we have two of the principles of reason and common sense to guide us4 ,the first is1 that we are to consider that to be right which has the balance of evidence in its favor2 and the second is1 that nothing is to be assumed as true unless there is some evidence that it is so4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,constitutional ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,mind4 ,in the preceding chapters have been presented the most important mental faculties which are common to the race4 ,there are none of the powers and attributes of the mind as yet set forth which do not belong to every mind which is regarded as rational and complete4 ,but1 though all the race have these in common1 yet we can not but observe an almost endless variety of human character1 resulting from the diverse proportions and combinations of these several faculties4 ,these constitutional differences may be noticed1 first1 in regard to the intellectual powers4 ,some minds are naturally predisposed to exercise the reasoning powers4 ,others1 with precisely the same kind of culture1 have little relish for this1 and little power of appreciating an argument4 ,in other cases1 the imagination seems to be the predominating faculty4 ,in other minds there seems to be an equal balance of faculties1 so that no particular power predominates4 ,next we see the same variety in reference to the susceptibilities4 ,in some minds1 the desire for love and admiration is the predominating principle4 ,in others1 the love of power takes the lead4 ,some are eminently sympathizing4 ,others have a strong love of rectitude1 or natural conscience4 ,in some1 the principle of justice predominates4 ,in others1 benevolence is the leading impulse4 ,finally1 in regard to the power of volition1 as has been before indicated1 there are some that possess a strong will that is decisive and effective in regulating all specific volitions1 while others possess various and humbler measures of this power4 ,according to the science of ,phrenology1 some of these peculiarities of mind are indicated by the size and shape of different portions of the brain1 and externally indicated on the skull4 ,that these differences are constitutional1 and not the result of education1 is clear from the many facts showing that no degree of care or training will serve to efface these distinctive traits of the mind4 ,to a certain degree they may be modified by education1 and the equal balance of the faculties be promoted1 but never to such a degree as to efface very marked peculiarities4 ,in addition to the endless diversities that result from these varied proportions and combinations1 there is a manifest variety in the grades of mind4 ,some races are much lower in the scale of being every way than others1 while the same disparity exists in individuals of the same race4 ,the wisdom and benevolence of this arrangement is very manifest when viewed in reference to the interests of a commonwealth4 ,where some must lead and others follow1 it is well that some have the love of power strong1 and others have it less4 ,where some must be rulers1 to inflict penalties as well as to apportion rewards1 it is well that there be some who have the sense of justice a leading principle4 ,and so in the developments of intellect4 ,some men are to follow callings where the reasoning powers are most needed4 ,others are to adopt pursuits in which taste and imagination are chiefly required2 and thus the varied proportions of these faculties become serviceable4 ,and if it be true that the exercise of the social and moral faculties secures the highest degrees of enjoyment1 those disparities in mental powers which give exercise to the virtues of compassion1 self-denial1 fortitude1 and benevolence in serving the weak1 and the corresponding exercises of gratitude1 reverence1 humility1 and devotion in those who are thus benefited1 then we can see the wisdom and benevolence of this gradation of mental capacity4 ,moreover1 in a commonwealth perfectly organized1 where the happiness of the whole becomes that of each part1 whatever tends to the highest general good tends to the best interest of each individual member4 ,this being so1 the lowest and humblest in the scale of being1 in his appropriate place1 is happier than he could be by any other arrangement1 and happier than he could be if all were equally endowed4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,habit4 ,habit is a facility in performing physical or mental operations1 gained by the repetition of such acts4 ,as examples of this in physical operations may be mentioned the power of walking1 which is acquired only by a multitude of experiments2 the power of speech1 secured by a slow process of repeated acts of imitation2 and the power of writing1 gained in the same way4 ,success in every pursuit of life is attained by oft-repeated attempts1 which finally induce a habit4 ,as examples of the formation of intellectual habits may be mentioned the facility gained in acquiring knowledge by means of repeated efforts1 and the accuracy and speed with which the process of reasoning is performed after long practice in this art4 ,as examples of moral habits may be mentioned those which are formed by the oft-repeated exercise of self-government1 justice1 veracity1 obedience1 and industry4 ,the will1 as has been shown1 gains a facility in controlling specific volitions and in yielding obedience to the laws of right action by constant use1 as much as all the other mental powers4 ,the happiness of man in the present state of existence depends not so much upon the circumstances in which he is placed1 or the capacities with which he is endowed1 as upon the formation of his habits4 ,a man might have the organ of sight1 and be surrounded with all the beauties of nature1 and yet1 if he did not form the habit of judging of the form1 distance1 and size of bodies1 most of the pleasure and use from this sense would be wanting4 ,the world and all its beauties would be a mere confused mass of colors4 ,if the habits of walking and of speech were not acquired1 these faculties and the circumstances for employing them would not furnish the enjoyment they were designed to secure4 ,it is the formation of intellectual habits by mental discipline and study1 also1 which opens vast resources for enjoyment that otherwise would be forever closed4 ,and it is by practicing obedience to parents that moral habits of subordination are formed1 which are indispensable to our happiness as citizens1 and as subjects of the divine government4 ,there is no enjoyment which can be pointed out which is not1 to a greater or less extent1 dependent upon this principle4 ,the influence of habit in regard to the law of sacrifice is especially interesting4 ,the experience of multitudes of our race shows that such tastes and habits may be formed in obeying this law1 that what was once difficult and painful becomes easy and pleasant4 ,but this ability to secure enjoyment through habits of self-control and self-denial1 induced by long practice1 so far as experience shows1 could never be secured by any other method4 ,that the highest kinds of happiness are to be purchased by more or less voluntary sacrifice and suffering to procure good for others seems to be a part of that nature of things which we at least may suppose has existed from eternity4 ,we can conceive of the eternal ,first ,cause only as we imagine a mind on the same pattern as our own in constitutional capacities1 but indefinitely enlarged in extent and action4 ,knowledge1 wisdom1 power1 justice1 benevolence1 and rectitude must be the same in the ,creator as in ourselves1 at least so far as we can conceive2 and1 as the practice of self-sacrifice and suffering for the good of others is our highest conception of virtue1 it is impossible to regard the ,eternal ,mind as all-perfect without involving this idea4 ,the formation of the habits depends chiefly upon the leading desire or governing purpose1 because whatever the mind desires the most it will act the most to secure1 and thus by repeated acts will form its habits4 ,the character of every individual1 therefore1 as before indicated1 depends upon the mode of seeking happiness selected by the will4 ,thus the ambitious man has selected the attainment of power and admiration as his leading purpose1 and whatever modes of enjoyment interfere with this are sacrificed4 ,the sensual man seeks his happiness from the various gratifications of sense1 and sacrifices other modes of enjoyment that interfere with this4 ,the man devoted to intellectual pursuits1 and to seeking reputation and influence through this medium1 sacrifices other modes of enjoyment to secure this gratification4 ,the man who has devoted his affections and the service of his life to ,god and the good of his fellow-men sacrifices all other enjoyments to secure that which results from the fulfillment of such obligations4 ,thus a person is an ambitious man1 a sensual man1 a man of literary ambition1 or a man of piety and benevolence1 according to the governing purpose or leading desire of the mind4 ,there is one fact in regard to the choice of the leading object of desire1 or the governing purpose of life1 which is very important4 ,certain modes of enjoyment1 in consequence of repetition1 increase the desire1 but lessen the capacity of happiness from this source2 while1 in regard to others1 gratification increases the desire1 and at the same time increases the capacity for enjoyment4 ,the enjoyments through the senses are of the first kind4 ,it will be found1 as a matter of universal experience1 that where this has been chosen as the main purpose of life1 though the desire for such pleasures is continually increased1 yet1 owing to the physical effects of excessive indulgence1 the capacity for enjoyment is decreased4 ,thus the man who so degrades his nature as to make the pleasures of eating and drinking the great pursuit of life1 while his desires never abate1 finds his zest for such enjoyments continually decreasing1 and a perpetual need for new devices to stimulate appetite and awaken the dormant capacities4 ,the pleasures of sense always pall from repetition--grow stale1 flat1 and unprofitable1 though the deluded being who has slavishly yielded to such appetites feels himself bound by chains of habit1 which1 even when enjoyment ceases1 seldom are broken4 ,the pleasures derived from the exercise of power1 when its attainment becomes the master passion1 are also of this description4 ,the statesman1 the politician1 the conqueror1 are all seeking for this1 and desire never abates while any thing of the kind remains to be attained4 ,we do not find that enjoyment increases in proportion as power is secured4 ,on the contrary1 it seems to cloy in possession4 ,alexander1 the conqueror of the world1 when he had gained all1 wept that objects of desire were extinct1 and that possession could not satisfy4 ,but there are other sources of happiness1 which1 while sought1 the desire ever continues1 and possession only increases the capacity for enjoyment4 ,of this class is the susceptibility of happiness from giving and receiving affection4 ,here1 the more is given and received1 the more is the power of giving and receiving increased4 ,we find that this principle outlives every other1 and even the decays of nature itself4 ,when tottering age on the borders of the grave is just ready to resign its wasted tenement1 often from its dissolving ashes the never-dying spark of affection has burst forth with new and undiminished lustre4 ,this is that immortal fountain of happiness always increased by imparting1 never surcharged by receiving4 ,another principle which increases both desire and capacity by exercise is the power of enjoyment from being the cause of happiness to others4 ,never was an instance known of regret for devotion to the happiness of others4 ,on the contrary1 the more this holy and delightful principle is in exercise1 the more the desires are increased1 and the more are the susceptibilities for enjoyment from this source enlarged4 ,while the votaries of pleasure are wearing down with the exhaustion of abused nature1 and the votaries of ambition are sighing over its thorny wreath1 the benevolent spirit is exulting in the success of its plans of good1 and reaching forth to still purer and more accomplished bliss4 ,this principle is especially true in regard to the practice of rectitude4 ,the more the leading aim of the mind is devoted to right feeling and action1 or to obedience to all the laws of ,god1 the more both the desire and the capacity of enjoyment from this source are increased4 ,but there is another fact in regard to habit which has an immense bearing on the well-being of our race4 ,when a habit of seeking happiness in some one particular mode is once formed1 the change of this habit becomes difficult just in proportion to the degree of repetition which has been practiced4 ,a habit once formed1 it is no longer an easy matter to choose between the mode of securing happiness chosen and another which the mind may be led to regard as much superior4 ,thus1 in gratifying the appetite1 a man may feel that his happiness is continually diminishing1 and that1 by sacrificing this passion1 he may secure much greater enjoyment from another source2 yet the force of habit is such that decisions of the will perpetually yield to its power4 ,thus1 also1 if a man has found his chief enjoyment in that admiration and applause of men so ardently desired1 even after it has ceased to charm1 and seems like emptiness and vanity1 still1 when nobler objects of pursuit are offered1 the chains of habit bind him to his wonted path4 ,though he looks and longs for the one that his conscience and his intellect assure him is brightest and best1 the conflict with bad habit ends in fatal defeat and ruin4 ,it is true that every habit can be corrected and changed1 but nothing requires greater firmness of purpose and energy of will2 for it is not one resolution of mind that can conquer habit3 it must be a constant series of long-continued efforts4 ,the influence of habit in reference to emotions deserves special attention as having a direct influence upon character and happiness4 ,all pleasurable emotions of mind1 being grateful1 are indulged and cherished1 and are not weakened by repetition unless they become excessive4 ,if the pleasures of sense are indulged beyond a certain extent1 the bodily system is exhausted1 and satiety is the consequence4 ,if the love of power and admiration is indulged to excess1 so as to become the leading purpose of life1 they are found to be cloying4 ,but within certain limits all pleasurable emotions do not seem to lessen in power by repetition4 ,but in regard to painful emotions the reverse is true4 ,the mind instinctively resists or flies from them1 so that after a habit of suppressing such emotions is formed1 until the susceptibility diminishes1 and sometimes appears almost entirely destroyed4 ,thus a person often exposed to danger ceases to be troubled by fear1 because he forms a habit of suppressing it4 ,a person frequently in scenes of distress and suffering learns to suppress the emotions of painful sympathy4 ,the surgeon is an example of the last case1 where1 by repeated operations1 he has learned to suppress emotions until they seldom recur4 ,a person inured to guilt gradually deadens the pangs of remorse1 until the conscience becomes seared as with a hot iron4 ,thus1 also1 with the emotion of shame4 ,after a person has been repeatedly exposed to contempt1 and feels that he is universally despised1 he grows callous to any such emotions4 ,the mode by which the mind succeeds in forming such a habit seems to be by that implanted principle which makes ideas that are most in consonance with the leading desire of the mind become vivid and distinct1 while those that are less interesting fade away4 ,now no person desires to witness pain except from the hope of relieving it1 unless it be that1 in anger1 the mind is sometimes gratified with the infliction of suffering4 ,but1 in ordinary cases1 the sight of suffering is avoided except where relief can be administered4 ,in such cases1 the desire of administering relief becomes the leading one1 so that the mind is turned off from the view of the suffering to dwell on conceptions of modes of relief4 ,thus the surgeon and physician gradually form such habits that the sight of pain and suffering lead the mind to conception of modes of relief1 whereas a mind not thus interested dwells on the more painful ideas4 ,the mind1 also1 can form a habit of inattention to our own bodily sufferings by becoming interested in other things1 and thus painful sensations go unnoticed4 ,some persons will go for years with a chronic headache1 and yet appear to enjoy nearly as much as those who never suffer from such a cause4 ,again3 those who violate conscience seem to relieve themselves from suffering by forming a habit of dwelling on other themes1 and of turning the mind entirely from those obligations which1 when contemplated1 would upbraid and pain them4 ,thus1 too1 the sense of shame is lost4 ,a habit is formed of leading the mind from whatever pains it to dwell on more pleasurable contemplations4 ,the habits of life are all formed either from the desire to secure happiness or to avoid pain1 and the fear of suffering is found to be a much more powerful principle than the desire of happiness4 ,the soul flies from pain with all its energies1 even when it will be inert at the sight of promised joy4 ,as an illustration of this1 let a person be fully convinced that the gift of two new senses would confer as great an additional amount of enjoyment as is now secured by the eye and ear1 and the promise of this future good would not stimulate with half the energy that would be caused by the threat of instant and entire blindness and deafness4 ,if1 then1 the mind is stimulated to form good habits and to avoid the formation of evil ones most powerfully by painful emotions1 when their legitimate object is not effected they continually decrease in vividness1 and the designed benefit is lost4 ,if a man is placed in circumstances of danger1 and fear leads to habits of caution and carefulness1 the object of exciting this emotion is accomplished1 and the diminution of it is attended with no evil4 ,but if fear is continually excited1 and no such habits are formed1 then the susceptibility is lessened1 while the good to be secured by it is lost4 ,so1 also1 with emotions of sympathy4 ,if we witness pain and suffering1 and it induces habits of active devotion to the good of those who suffer1 the diminution of the susceptibility is a blessing and no evil4 ,but if we simply indulge emotions1 and do not form the habits they were intended to secure1 the power of sympathy is weakened1 and the designed benefit is lost4 ,thus1 again1 with shame3 if this painful emotion does not lead us to form habits of honor and rectitude1 it is continually weakened by repetition1 and the object for which it was bestowed is not secured4 ,and so with remorse3 if this emotion is awakened without leading to habits of benevolence and virtue1 it constantly decays in power1 and the good it would have secured is forever lost4 ,it does not appear1 however1 that the power of emotion in the soul is thus destroyed4 ,nothing is done but to form habits of inattention to painful emotions by allowing the mind to be engrossed in other and more pleasurable subjects4 ,this appears from the fact that the most hardened culprits1 when brought to the hour of death1 where all plans of future good cease to charm the mental eye1 are often overwhelmed with the most vivid emotions of sorrow1 shame1 remorse1 and fear4 ,and often1 in the course of life1 there are seasons when the soul returns from its pursuit of deluding visions to commune with itself in its own secret chambers4 ,at such seasons1 shame1 remorse1 and fear take up their abode in their long-deserted dwelling1 and ply their scorpion whips till they are obeyed1 and the course of honor and virtue is resumed1 or till the distracted spirit again flies abroad for comfort and relief4 ,there is a great diversity in human character1 resulting from the diverse proportions and combinations of those powers of mind which the race have in common4 ,at the same time1 there is a variety in the scale of being1 or relative grade of each mind4 ,while all are alike in the common faculties of the human mind1 some have every faculty on a much larger scale than others1 while some are of a very humble grade4 ,the principle of habit has very great influence in modifying and changing these varieties4 ,thus1 by forming habits of intellectual exercise1 a mind of naturally humble proportions can be elevated considerably above one more highly endowed by natural constitution4 ,so the training of some particular intellectual faculty1 which by nature is deficient1 can bring it up nearer to the level of other powers less disciplined by exercise4 ,in like manner1 the natural susceptibilities can be increased1 diminished1 or modified by habit4 ,certain tastes1 that had little power1 can be so cultivated as to overtop all others4 ,so of the moral nature3 it can be so exercised that a habit will be formed which will generate a strength and prominency that nature did not impart4 ,the will itself is also subject to this same principle4 ,a strong will1 that is trained to yield obedience to law in early life1 acquires an ease and facility in doing it which belongs ordinarily to weak minds1 and yet can retain all its vigor4 ,and a mind that is trained to bring subordinate volitions into strict and ready obedience to a generic purpose1 acquires an ease and facility in doing this which was not a natural endowment4 ,thus it appears that by the principle of habit every mind is furnished with the power of elevating itself in the scale of being1 and of modifying and perfecting the proportions and combinations of its constitutional powers4 ,and sometimes the result is that there is no mode of distinguishing between the effects of habit and the natural organization4 ,one of the most important results of habit is its influence on faith or belief4 ,those persons who practice methods of false reasoning1 who turn away from evidence and follow their feelings in forming opinions1 eventually lose the power of sure1 confiding belief4 ,on the contrary1 an honest1 conscientious steadiness in seeking the truth and in yielding to evidence secures the firmest and most reliable convictions1 and that peace of mind which alone results from believing the truth4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,mind ,,as ,,proof ,,of ,,its ,,creator',s ,,designs4 ,we have seen that the mind of man1 by its very constitution1 has certain implanted truths which it believes from the necessity of its nature1 and that these are the foundation of all acquired knowledge1 and the guide to all truth4 ,we have seen that1 independently of a revelation1 we have no other sources of knowledge except these intuitions1 the experience of ourselves and others1 and the deductions of reasoning4 ,we have examined as to the amount of knowledge to be gained from these sources in regard to the nature of mind1 the laws of the system of which it is the essential part1 the immortality of the soul1 our prospects after death1 and the character and designs of our ,creator4 ,in discussing the last topic1 it has been assumed that the grand and ultimate design of the ,creator is to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,we have examined1 at some length1 the chief faculties and laws of the human mind1 for the purpose of exhibiting their adaptation to this design4 ,we now proceed to a brief review of this portion as a summing up of the evidence sustaining the proposition that the grand end of the ,creator1 in forming mind1 is to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,as preliminary1 however1 we need to refer to one principle4 ,whenever we find any contrivances all combining to secure a certain good result1 which1 at the same time1 involves some degree of inevitable evil1 and then discover that there are contrivances to diminish and avoid this evil1 we properly infer that the author intended to secure as much of the good with as little of the evil as possible4 ,for example1 a traveler finds a deserted mine1 and all around he discovers contrivances for obtaining gold1 and1 at the same time1 other contrivances for getting rid of the earth mixed with it4 ,the inevitable inference would be that the author of these contrivances designed to secure as much gold with as little earth as possible2 and should any one say that he could have had more gold and less earth if he wished it1 the answer would be that there is no evidence of this assertion1 but direct evidence against it4 ,again3 should we discover a piece of machinery in which every contrivance tended to secure speed in movement1 produced by the friction of wheels against a rough surface1 and at the same time other contrivances were found for diminishing all friction that was useless1 we should infer that the author designed to secure the greatest possible speed with the least possible friction4 ,in like manner1 if we can show that mind is a contrivance that acts by the influence of fear of evil1 and that pain seems as indispensable to the action of a free agent as friction is to motion2 if we can show that there is no contrivance in mind or matter which is designed to secure suffering as its primary end2 if we can1 on the contrary1 show that the direct end of all the organizations of mind and matter is to produce happiness2 if we can show that it is only the wrong action of mind that involves most of the pain yet known1 so that right action1 in its place1 would secure only happiness2 if we can show contrivances for diminishing pain1 and also contrivances for increasing happiness by means of the inevitable pain involved in the system of things1 then the just conclusion will be gained that the ,author of the system of mind and matter designed to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil4#c ,in the review which follows1 we shall present evidence exhibiting all these particulars4 ,the only way in which we learn the nature of a thing is to observe its qualities and actions4 ,this is true of mind as much as it is of matter4 ,experience and observation teach that the nature of mind is such that the fear of suffering is indispensable to secure a large portion of the enjoyment within reach of its faculties1 and that the highest modes of enjoyment can not be secured except by sacrifice1 and thus by more or less suffering4 ,this appears to be an inevitable combination1 as much so as friction is inevitable in machinery4 ,we have the evidence of our own consciousness that it is fear of evil to ourselves or to others that is the strongest motive power to the mind4 ,if we should find that no pain resulted from burning up our own bodies1 or from drowning1 or from any other cause2 if every one perceived that no care1 trouble1 or pain resulted from losing all kinds of enjoyment1 the effort to seek it would be greatly diminished4 ,if we could desire good enough to exert ourselves to seek it1 and yet should feel no discomfort in failing2 if we could lose every thing1 and feel no sense of pain or care1 the stimulus to action which experience has shown to be most powerful and beneficent would be lost4 ,we find that abundance of ease and prosperity enervates mental power1 and that mind increases in all that is grand and noble1 and also in the most elevating happiness1 by means of danger1 care1 and pain4 ,we may properly infer1 then1 that evil is a necessary part of the experience of a perfectly-acting mind4 ,so strong is the conviction that painful penalties are indispensable1 that the kindest parents and the most benevolent rulers are the most sure to increase rather than diminish those that are already involved in the existing nature of things4 ,again3 without a revelation we have no knowledge of any kind of mind but by inference from our experience in this state of being4 ,all we know of the ,eternal ,first ,cause is by a process of reasoning1 inferring that his nature must be like the only minds of which we have any knowledge4 ,we assume1 then1 that he is a free agent1 regulated by desire for happiness and fear of evil4 ,we thus come to the conclusion that this organization of mind is a part of the fixed and eternal nature of things1 and does not result from the will of the ,creator4 ,his own is the eternal pattern of an all-perfect mind1 and our own are formed on this perfect model1 with susceptibilities to pain as an indispensable motive power in gaining happiness4 ,we will now recapitulate some of the particulars in the laws and constitution of mind which tend to establish the position that its ,creator's grand design is to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,intellectual ,powers4 ,first1 then1 in reference to the earliest exercise of mind in sensation4 ,the eye might have been so made that light would inflict pain1 and the ear so that sound would cause only discomfort4 ,and so of all the other senses4 ,but the condition of a well-formed1 healthy infant is a most striking illustration of the adaptation of the senses to receive enjoyment4 ,who could gaze on the countenance of such a little one1 as its various senses are called into exercise1 without such a conviction8 ,the delight manifested as the light attracts the eye1 or as pleasant sounds charm the ear1 or as the limpid nourishment gratifies its taste1 or as gentle motion and soft fondlings soothe the nerves of touch1 all testify to the benevolent design of its ,maker4 ,next come the pleasures of perception as the infant gradually observes the qualities of the various objects around1 and slowly learns to distinguish its mother and its playthings from the confused mass of forms and colors4 ,then comes the gentle curiosity as it watches the movement of its own limbs1 and finally discovers that its own volitions move its tiny fingers1 while the grand idea that it is itself a cause is gradually introduced4 ,next come the varied intellectual pleasures as the several powers are exercised in connection with the animate and material world around1 in acquiring the meaning of words1 and in imitating the sounds and use of language4 ,the adult1 in toiling over the dry lexicon1 little realizes the pleasure with which the little one is daily acquiring the philosophy1 grammar1 and vocabulary of its mother tongue4 ,a child who can not understand a single complete sentence1 or speak an intelligible phrase1 will sit and listen with long-continued delight to the simple enunciation of words1 each one of which presents a picture to his mind of a dog1 a cat1 a cow1 a horse1 a whip1 a ride1 and many other objects and scenes that have given pleasure in the past2 while the single words1 without any sentences1 bring back1 not only vivid conceptions of these objects1 but a part of the enjoyment with which they have been connected4 ,then1 as years pass by1 the intellect more and more administers pleasure1 while the reasoning powers are developed1 the taste cultivated1 the imagination exercised1 the judgment employed1 and the memory stored with treasures for future enjoyment4 ,in the proper and temperate use of the intellectual powers1 there is a constant succession of placid satisfaction1 or of agreeable and often of delightful emotions1 while no one of these faculties is productive of pain except in violating the laws of the mental constitution4 ,the ,susceptibilities4 ,in regard to the second general class of mental powers--the susceptibilities--the first particular to be noticed is the ceaseless and all-pervading desire to gain happiness and escape pain4 ,this is the mainspring of all voluntary activity2 for no act of volition will take place till some good is presented to gain1 or some evil to shun4 ,at the same time1 as has been shown1 the desire to escape evil is more potent and effective than the desire for good4 ,thousands of minds that rest in passive listlessness1 when there is nothing to stimulate but hope of enjoyment1 will exert every physical and mental power to escape impending evil4 ,the seasons of long-continued prosperity in nations always tend to a deterioration of intellect and manhood4 ,it is in seasons of danger alone that fear wakes up the highest energies1 and draws forth the heroes of the race4 ,mind1 then1 is an existence having the power of that self-originating action of choice which constitutes free agency1 while this power can only be exercised when desires are excited to gain happiness or to escape pain4 ,this surely is the highest possible evidence that its ,author intended mind should thus act4 ,but a mind may act to secure happiness and avoid pain to itself1 and yet may gain only very low grades of enjoyment1 while much higher are within reach of its faculties4 ,so1 also1 it may act to gain happiness for itself as the chief end in such ways as to prevent or destroy the happiness of others around4 ,in reference to this1 we find those susceptibilities which raise man to the dignity of a moral being4 ,in the first place1 there is that impression of the great design of the ,creator existing in every mind1 either as a result of constitution or of training1 or of both united1 which results in a feeling that whatever lessens or destroys happiness is unfit and contrary to the system of things4 ,next there is the power to balance pleasure and pain1 and estimate the compound result1 both in reference to self and to the commonwealth4 ,with this is combined the feeling that whatever secures the most good with the least evil is right and fit1 and that the opposite is wrong and unfitted to the nature of things4 ,next comes the sense of justice1 which results in an impulse to discover the cause of good and evil1 and when this cause is found to be a voluntary agent1 a consequent impulse to make returns of good for good1 and of evil for evil1 and also to proportion retributive rewards or penalties to the amount of good or evil done4 ,with this1 also1 is combined the feeling that those retributions should be applied only where there was voluntary power to have done otherwise4 ,when it is seen that there was no such power1 the impulse to reward or punish is repressed4 ,such is the deep conviction that such retributions are indispensable1 that where natural pains and penalties do not avail1 others are demanded1 both in the family and in the commonwealth4 ,lastly1 we find the susceptibility of conscience1 which1 by the very framework of the mind itself1 apportions the retributive pangs of remorse for wrong doing1 and the pleasure of self-approval for well doing4 ,these1 too1 are retributions never to be escaped1 and the most exquisite1 both in elevated happiness and exquisite pain4 ,the mind carries about in itself its own certain and gracious remunerator--its own inexorable prosecutor1 judge1 and executioner4 ,this same design of the ,creator may be most delightfully traced in what may be called the economy of happiness and pain4 ,one particular of this is set forth at large in the chapter on the emotions of taste4 ,here we find the mind formed not only to secure multitudinous enjoyments through the nerves of sensation1 but that1 by the principle of association1 there is a perpetual reproduction of these emotions in connection with the colors1 forms1 sounds1 and motions with which they were originally associated4 ,thus there are perpetually returning emotions of pleasure so recondite1 so refined1 so almost infinite in variety and extent1 and yet how little noticed or understood6 ,another indication of the same kind is the peculiarity pointed out on former pages1 where it is shown that securing certain enjoyments which tend to promote the general happiness increases both desire and capacity for enjoyment1 while those that terminate in the individual diminish by possession4 ,thus the enjoyment of power1 which must1 from its nature1 be confined to a few1 diminishes by possession4 ,thus1 too1 the pleasures of sense pall by indulgence4 ,but the enjoyment resulting from the exercise and reciprocation of love1 and that resulting from benevolent actions1 and that which is included in a course of perfect obedience to all the rules of rectitude1 increases the capacity for enjoyment4 ,another illustration of the same principle is exhibited in the chapter on ,habit1 where it is seen that the power of pleasurable emotions increases by repetition1 while painful emotions decrease when the good to be secured by their agency is attained4 ,thus fear seems to protect from danger till caution and habit render it needless1 and then it decreases4 ,and so of other painful emotions4 ,it is interesting to trace the same design in the constitution of minds in regard to each other4 ,we find that the purest and highest kind of happiness is dependent on the mutual relations of minds4 ,thus the enjoyment resulting from the discovery of intellectual and moral traits in other minds--that resulting from giving and receiving affection--that gained by sympathy1 and by being the cause of happiness to others1 and that resulting from conscious rectitude1 all are dependent on the existence of other beings4 ,now we find that minds are relatively so constituted that what one desires1 it is a source of happiness in another to bestow4 ,thus one can be pleased by the discovery of certain traits in other minds1 while1 in return1 the exhibition of these traits1 and the consciousness that they are appreciated1 is an equal source of enjoyment4 ,one mind seeks the love of others1 while these1 in return1 are desiring objects of affection1 and rejoice to confer the gift that is sought4 ,the desire of knowledge or the gratification of curiosity is another source of pleasure1 while satisfying this desire is a cause of enjoyment to those around4 ,how readily do mankind seize upon every opportunity to convey interesting news to other minds6 ,again3 we find that1 both in sorrow and in joy1 the mind seeks for the sympathy of others1 while this grateful and soothing boon it is delightful to bestow4 ,so1 also1 the consciousness of being the cause of good to another sends joy to the heart1 while the recipient is filled with the pleasing glow of gratitude in receiving the benefit4 ,the consciousness of virtue in acting for the general good1 instead of for contracted1 selfish purposes1 is another source of happiness1 while those who witness its delightful results rejoice to behold and acknowledge it4 ,what bursts of rapturous applause have followed the exhibition of virtuous self-sacrifice for the good of others from bosoms who rejoiced in this display1 and who could owe this pleasure to no other cause than the natural constitution of mind1 which is formed to be made happy both in beholding and in exercising virtue4 ,this same beneficial economy is manifested in a close analysis of all that is included in the affections of love and gratitude4 ,it has been shown that1 in the commencement of existence1 the young mind first learns the sources of good and evil to self1 and its sole motives are desire for its own enjoyment4 ,soon1 however1 it begins to experience the happiness resulting from the relations of minds to each other1 and then is developed the superior power of love1 and its importance as a regulating principle4 ,in the analysis of this affection1 it is seen to consist1 first1 in the pleasurable emotions which arise in view of those traits of character in another mind pointed out on previous pages4 ,when these qualities are discovered1 the first result is emotions of pleasure in the contemplation4 ,immediately there follows a desire of good to the cause of this pleasure4 ,next follows the desire of reciprocated affection--that is1 a desire is awakened to become the cause of the same pleasure to another2 for the desire of being loved is the desire to be the cause of pleasurable emotions in another mind1 in view of our own good qualities4 ,when we secure this desired appreciation1 then follows an increased desire of good to the one who bestows it4 ,thus the affection of love is a combination of the action and reaction of pleasurable emotions1 all tending to awaken the desire of good to another4 ,this passion may become so intensified that it will become more delightful to secure enjoyments to another than to procure them for self4 ,gratitude is the emotion of pleasure toward the author of voluntary good to self1 attended by a desire of good to the benefactor4 ,this principle can be added to augment the power of love4 ,there is a foundation for a very important distinction in the analysis of the principle of love4 ,in what is thus far presented1 we find that the desire of good to another results solely from the fact that certain mental qualities are causes of pleasure to self4 ,of course1 this desire ceases when those qualities cease to exist or cease to be appreciated4 ,this kind of love is the natural result of the constitution of minds in their relations to each other1 making it easy and pleasant to live for the good of another in return for the pleasure received from their agreeable qualities and manifestations4 ,but the highest kind of love consists in the desire of good to another without reference to any good received in return4 ,it is good willing4 ,it consists in an abiding feeling of desire for the happiness of another mind4 ,this principle exists as a natural impulse more or less powerful in differently constituted minds4 ,it is the cause of that pleasure which is felt in the consciousness of being the cause of good to another4 ,but this natural impulse can be so developed and increased by voluntary culture as to become the strongest impulse of the mind1 and thus the source of the highest and most satisfying enjoyments4 ,in many minds this becomes so strongly developed that securing happiness to others is sought with far more earnestness and pleasure than any modes of enjoyment that terminate solely in self4 ,this analysis lays the foundation for the distinction expressed by the terms the love of complacency and the love of benevolence4 ,the first is the involuntary result of good conferred on self2 the last is a voluntary act4 ,it is good willing toward others without reference to self4 ,the first can only exist where certain qualities are preserved and appreciated in another mind4 ,the second can result from voluntary effort1 and become the subject of law and penalties4 ,we can never be justly required to love another mind with the love of complacency except when qualities are perceived that1 by the constitution of mind1 necessarily call forth such regard4 ,but the love of benevolence can be justly demanded from every mind toward every being capable of happiness4 ,here it is important to discriminate more exactly in regard to the principle of benevolence and the principle of rectitude4 ,it is seen that the benevolence which is the subject of rewards and penalties as a voluntary act consists in good willing--that is1 in choosing the happiness of other minds as the object of interest and pursuit4 ,but the principle of rectitude is more comprehensive in its nature4 ,it relates to obedience to all the laws of the system of the universe--those relating to ourselves as much as those relating to others4 ,it is true that1 as obedience to these laws includes the greatest possible amount of good with the least possible evil1 both to the individual and the commonwealth1 the tendency of the two principles is to the same result4 ,but it may be the case that benevolence acts contrary to the true rules of rectitude1 and thus may mar rather than promote happiness4 ,a mind must not only choose to promote the greatest possible happiness1 but must choose the right way of doing it4 ,a very important particular to be considered is1 that1 while in the physical and mental constitution there is not a single arrangement the direct object of which is to produce suffering1 the susceptibilities to pain seem designed to protect and preserve1 while the greater the need the more strong is this protection4 ,for example1 in regard to physical organization1 fire is an element that is indispensable to the life1 comfort1 and activity of man1 and it must be accessible at all times and places4 ,but all its service arises from its power to dissolve and destroy the body itself1 as well as all things around it4 ,therefore the pain connected with contact with fire is more acute than almost any other4 ,thus even the youngest child is taught that care and caution needful to protect its body from injury or destruction4 ,another fact in regard to the susceptibilities of pain is their frequent co-existence with the highest degrees of enjoyment4 ,the experiences of this life often present cases where the most elevated and ecstatic happiness is combined with the keenest suffering1 while such is the nature of the case that the suffering is the chief cause of the happiness thus secured4 ,the highest illustration of this is in the suffering of saints and martyrs1 when they rejoice to be counted worthy to suffer shame1 or when1 amid torturing flames1 they sing songs of transport and praise4 ,even in common life it is constantly found that a certain relative amount of happiness is felt to be more than a recompense for a given amount of pain4 ,this relative amount may be such that the evil involved1 though great1 may count as nothing4 ,where there is a passionate attachment1 for example1 the lover exults in the labor and suffering that will joyfully be received as a proof of affection and secure the compensating return4 ,it is a very common fact that the existence of painful emotions is sought1 not for themselves1 but as ministers to a kind of mental excitement which is desired4 ,this is the foundation of the pleasure which is felt in tragic representations1 and in poetry and novels that present scenes of distress4 ,the little child will again and again ask for the tale of the ,babes in the ,wood1 though each rehearsal brings forth tears2 and the mature matron or sage will spend hours over tales that harrow the feelings or call forth sighs4 ,this also is the foundation of that kind of music called the minor key1 in which certain sounds bring emotions of sadness or sorrow4 ,another striking fact in regard to the desire for pain is the emotions that are felt by the most noble and benevolent minds at the sight of cruelty and injustice4 ,at such scenes1 the desire for inflicting pain on the guilty offender amounts to a passion which nothing can allay but retributive justice4 ,and the more benevolent the mind1 the stronger this desire for retributive evil to another4 ,thus it appears that the mind is so made as to desire pain both for itself and for others2 not in itself considered1 but as the indispensable means to gain some consequent enjoyment4 ,the highest kinds of happiness result from painful emergencies4 ,the transports of love1 gratitude1 and delight1 when some benefactor rescues suffering thousands from danger and evil1 could exist in no other way4 ,all the long train of virtues included in patient toil for the good of others1 in heroic daring1 in brave adventure1 in fortitude1 in patience1 in resignation1 in heavenly meekness1 in noble magnanimity1 in sublime self-sacrifice1 all involve the idea of trial1 danger1 and suffering4 ,it is only the highest and noblest class of minds that can fully understand that the most blissful of all enjoyments are those which are bought with pain4 ,but the most cheering feature in the constitution of mind is all that is included in the principle of habit4 ,we see in the commencement of existence that every action of mind and body is imperfect1 and more or less difficult1 while each effort to secure right action increases the facility of so doing4 ,we see that1 owing to this principle1 every act of obedience to law makes such a course easier4 ,the intellect1 the susceptibilities1 the will1 all come under this benign influence4 ,habit may so diminish the difficulty of self-denial for our own good that the pain entirely ceases2 and self-sacrifice for the good of others may so develop benevolence and generate a habit that it will become pleasure without pain4 ,there are those1 even in this world1 who have so attained this capacity of living in the life of those around them that the happiness of others becomes their own1 and then there is even less pain in self-denial for the good of others than for that of self4 ,when this habit of mind is attained1 the happiness of the commonwealth becomes the portion of the individual4 #c ,note ,b4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,social ,,and ,,material ,,proofs ,,of ,,the ,,creator',s ,,designs4 ,we have now presented the organization of mind as the chief evidence of the grand design of its ,creator in forming all things4 ,we now will trace the evidences of the same beneficent object in the social and material organizations4 ,first1 then1 in regard to the domestic relations4 ,we have seen that while all happiness depends on obedience to laws1 every mind comes into existence in perfect ignorance of them1 and without any power to learn what is good or evil but by experience and instruction4 ,the intention of the ,creator that each new-born being should be taught these laws and trained to obey them1 is clearly seen in the first and highest domestic relation4 ,in this we see two mature minds1 who have themselves been trained to understand these laws1 drawn by sweet and gentle influences to each other4 ,they go apart from all past ties of kindred2 they have one home1 one name1 one common interest in every thing4 ,the one who has most physical strength goes forth to provide supplies2 the delicate one remains behind1 by domestic ministries to render home the centre of all attractions4 ,then comes the beautiful1 helpless infant1 of no use to any one1 and demanding constant care1 labor1 and attention4 ,and yet1 with its profound ignorance1 its tender weakness1 its delicate beauty1 its utter helplessness1 its entire dependence1 how does it draw forth the strongest feelings of love and tenderness1 making every toil and care a delight6 ,and thus1 month after month1 both parents unite to cherish and support1 while1 with unceasing vigilance1 they train the new-born mind to understand and obey the laws of the system into which it is thus ushered4 ,its first lessons are to learn to take care of its own body4 ,and when the far-off penalty of pain can not be comprehended by the novice1 the parent invents new penalties to secure habits of care and obedience4 ,during all this period the great lesson of sacrifice constantly occurs4 ,the child must eat what is best1 not what it desires4 ,it must go to bed when it wants to sit up4 ,it must stay in the house when it wants to go out4 ,it must not touch multitudes of things which it wishes thus to investigate4 ,and so the habits of self-denial1 obedience1 and faith in the parents are gradually secured1 while the knowledge of the laws of the system around are slowly learned4 ,but the higher part of the law of sacrifice soon begins to make its demands4 ,the child first learns of this law by example1 in that of the mother1 that most perfect illustration of self-sacrificing love4 ,then comes a second child1 when the first-born must practice on this example4 ,it must give up its place in the mother's bosom to another2 it must share its sweets and toys with the new-comer2 it must join in efforts to protect1 amuse1 and instruct the helpless one4 ,and thus the family is the constant school for training ignorant1 inexperienced mind in the laws of the system of which it is a part1 especially in the great law of self-control and of self-sacrifice for the good of others4 ,next comes the discipline of the school and the neighborhood1 when the child is placed among his peers to be taught new rules of justice1 benevolence1 and self-sacrifice for the general good4 ,next come the relations of the body politic1 for which labors are demanded and pain is to be endured under the grand law of sacrifice1 that the individual is to subordinate his own interests and wishes to the greater general good1 and that the interests of the majority are to control those of the minority4 ,lastly1 the whole world is to be taken into the estimate1 and the nations are to be counted as members of one great family of man1 for which every portion is to make sacrifices4 ,thus1 as age1 and experience1 and habits of obedience to the laws of rectitude increase1 the duties and obligations grow more numerous and complicated4 ,but the same grand principle is more and more developed1 that each individual is to seek the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil1 for the vast whole as well as each subordinate part1 while self is to receive only its just and proper share4 ,the same great design of the ,creator can be detected also in specific organizations1 by which minds so differ from each other as to fit them for the diverse positions and relations that the common good demands4 ,if all were exactly alike in the amount of constitutional powers and in the proportionate combinations1 it can easily be seen that the general result would be far less favorable to the happiness of the whole4 ,but as it is1 some have the love of power very large1 and love to lead and control2 others have it small1 and love to follow4 ,some have elevated intellect1 and love to teach2 others have humbler capacities1 and better love humbler pursuits4 ,these varied combinations also give scope to the virtues of pity1 tenderness1 patience1 mercy1 justice1 self-denial1 and many other graces that could not be called into being without all the disparities1 social1 domestic1 intellectual1 and moral1 that we find existing4 ,meantime1 the principle of habit and the power of the will give abundant opportunities for modifying these natural peculiarities to accommodate to varying circumstances4 ,to these indications of benevolent design may be added the organization of the bodily system1 and the constitution of the material world without4 ,in examining the body we inhabit1 so nicely adjusted1 so perfectly adapted to our necessities1 so beautifully and harmoniously arranged1 so fearfully and wonderfully made1 it is almost beyond the power of numbers to express the multiplied contrivances for ease1 comfort1 and delight4 ,we daily pursue our business and our pleasure1 thoughtless of the thousand operations which are going on1 and the busy mechanism employed in securing the objects we desire4 ,the warm current that is flowing from the centre to the extremities1 with its life-giving energies1 and then returning to be purified and again sent forth2 the myriads of branching nerves that are the sensitive discerners of good or ill2 the unnumbered muscles and tendons that are contracting and expanding in all parts of our frame2 the nicely-adjusted joints1 and bands1 and ligaments1 that sustain1 and direct1 and support2 the perpetual expansion and contraction of the vital organ2 the thousand hidden contrivances and operations of the animal frame1 all are quietly and constantly performing their generous functions1 and administering comfort and enjoyment to the conscious spirit that dwells within4 ,nor is the outer world less busy in performing its part in promoting the great design of the ,creator4 ,the light of suns and stars is traversing the ethereal expanse in search of those for whom it was created2 for them it gilds the scenes of earth1 and is reflected in ten thousand forms of beauty and of skill4 ,the trembling air is waiting to minister its aid1 fanning with cool breezes1 or yielding the warmth of spring1 sustaining the functions of life1 and bearing on its light wing the thoughts that go forth from mind to mind1 and the breathings of affection that are given and returned4 ,for this design earth is sending forth her exuberance1 the waters are emptying their stores1 and the clouds pouring forth their treasures4 ,all nature is busy with its offerings of fruits and flowers1 its wandering incense1 its garnished beauty1 and its varied songs4 ,within and without1 above1 beneath1 and around1 the same ,almighty ,beneficence is found still ministering to the wants and promoting the happiness of the minds ,he has formed forever to desire and pursue this boon4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,right ,,mode ,,of ,,securing ,,the ,,object ,,for ,,which ,,mind ,,was ,,created4 ,having set forth the object for which the ,creator formed mind1 we are thus furnished with the means for deciding as to the right mode of its action in obtaining this object4 ,we may discover the design of a most curious machine1 and perceive that1 if it is rightly regulated1 it will secure that end2 while1 if it is worked wrong1 it will break itself to pieces1 and destroy the very object which it was formed to secure4 ,the same may be seen to be as true of mind as it is of material organization1 and the question then is most pertinent1 ,what is that mode of mental action which will most perfectly secure the end for which mind is made8 ,we have seen that the self-determining power of choice is the distinctive attribute of mind1 and that all the other powers are dependent on this1 and regulated by it4 ,we have seen that the current of the thoughts1 and the nature and power of the desires and emotions1 are also controlled by the generic ruling purpose1 or chief interest of the mind4 ,this being so1 then the only way in which mind can act to secure the object for which it is made is to choose that object for chief end or ruling purpose1 and actually carry out this choice in all subordinate volitions4 ,we will now present the evidence gained from experience1 as well as what we should infer from the known laws of mind1 to show what the result would be in a system of minds where each mind should thus act4 ,let us suppose1 then1 a commonwealth in which every mind is regulated by a ruling purpose to act right1 which actually controls every specific volition4 ,each mind then would obey all those laws which will secure to the whole community and to each individual the greatest possible amount of happiness with the least possible evil4 ,to do this of necessity involves the idea that each mind must know what are all the laws of the system2 for no one can choose to obey laws until laws are known4 ,let the result on a single mind be first contemplated4 ,in the first place1 all the trains of thought would be regulated by the chief desire1 which would be to make the most possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,of course1 all those ideas that were most consonant with this ruling passion would become vivid and distinct2 and as these ideas also would be connected with the strongest emotions1 the two chief causes that regulate association would combine to secure constant thought and intellectual activity to promote the common welfare as the chief object1 while self would have only its true and proper estimation and attention4 ,there would be no need of effort to regulate thought and emotion1 for they would all flow naturally to the grand and right object4 ,next suppose a commonwealth in which every mind had its intellect1 desires1 and emotions1 and all its specific volitions thus regulated by the grand aim of making the most possible happiness1 guarded1 too1 by unerring judgment1 so as to make no miscalculation2 what would be the state of things1 so far as we can ascertain by past experience and by reasoning from the known nature of things8 ,first1 then1 in reference to the susceptibilities of sensation4 ,if all should never touch any food but that which would expose to no danger or excess2 if they never encountered any needless hazard2 if they exactly balanced all the probabilities of good and evil1 in every matter relating to the pleasures of sense1 and invariably chose that which exposed to the least danger2 if every being around was anxiously watchful in affording the results of observation1 and in protecting others from risk and exposure1 it is probable that the amount of sensitive enjoyment would be a thousand fold increased1 while most of the evils caused by improper food and drink1 by needless exposure1 by negligence of danger1 and by many other causes which now operate1 would cease4 ,with the present constitution of body1 which tends to decay1 we could not positively maintain that no suffering would be experienced1 but it is probable that the amount would be as a drop to the ocean compared with what is now experienced4 ,under such a constitution of things1 we can perceive1 also1 that there would be no suffering from the painful emotions2 for where each was striving to attain the greatest amount of good to all1 there could be no competition1 no jealousy1 no envy1 no pride1 no ambition1 no anger1 no hatred2 for there would be no occasion for any of these discordant emotions4 ,nor could remorse harass1 or shame overwhelm2 for no wickedness would be perpetrated1 and no occasion of reproach occur4 ,nor could fear intrude1 where every mind was conscious that its own happiness was the constant care of every one around4 ,nor could painful sympathy exist1 where so little pain was known4 ,nor could the weariness of inactivity be felt1 where all were engaged in acting for one noble and common object1 in which every faculty could be employed4 ,nor could the mind suffer the pangs of ungratified desire1 while the gratification of its chief desire was the aim and object of all4 ,so that1 if all minds should act unitedly and habitually on this principle1 there would be no exposure1 except to sensitive pain1 and this danger would be exceedingly trifling4 ,in the mean time1 every source of happiness would be full and overflowing4 ,all sensitive enjoyments that would not cause suffering1 nor interfere with the happiness of others1 would be gained2 admiration and affection would be given and reciprocated2 the powers of body and mind would be actively employed in giving and acquiring happiness2 the pleasure resulting from the exercise of physical and moral power would be enjoyed1 and employed to promote the enjoyment of others2 the peace of conscious rectitude would dwell in every bosom2 the consciousness of being the cause of happiness to others would send joy to the heart1 while sympathy in the general happiness would pour in its unmeasured tide4 ,but this happiness could not be perfect except in a commonwealth where every individual was perfectly conformed to the laws of rectitude4 ,a single mind that violated a single law would send a jar through the whole sphere of benevolent and sympathizing beings4 ,the next question is1 ,how can mind be most successfully influenced to right action8 ,to answer this we must refer again to experience1 and inquire as to the methods which have been found most successful in influencing the mind to right action4 ,the first thing which experience teaches is1 that it is indispensable to right mental action that there should be a knowledge and belief of the truth4 ,we must have true conceptions of reality of things1 and of the right mode of promoting the greatest possible happiness1 before we have power to pursue this course4 ,but each mind1 as it comes into existence1 is a perfect blank in regard to knowledge or experience of any kind4 ,the only way to gain knowledge is by experience and instruction4 ,the knowledge secured by experience as to the laws of a system so vast and complicated comes very slowly and imperfectly4 ,the chief reliance in the beginning of existence is on the instructions of other minds4 ,infallible teachers1 and perfect faith or belief in such teachers1 then1 is the grand necessity of mind as it begins existence4 ,the next thing which experience shows to be effective in securing the right action of mind is the formation of right habits4 ,for this1 also1 the new-made being is entirely dependent on those to whom is given its early training4 ,it comes into life without any knowledge and without any habits1 a creature of mere impulses and instincts4 ,its very first want is not only infallible teachers1 but patient educators1 who shall1 by constant care and effort1 form its physical1 intellectual1 social1 and moral habits4 ,the next indispensable requisite to the right action of mind is the existence of a ruling generic purpose to obey all the laws of rectitude4 ,it has already been shown how all the powers of the mind are regulated and controlled by the leading purpose1 and that it is impossible to bring all the desires1 emotions1 and subordinate volitions into right action except by the power of such a principle4 ,but experience has proved that such a generic purpose will not either be originated or sustained except by the social influences of surrounding minds through the principles of love1 gratitude1 sympathy1 and example4 ,the power of these principles may be illustrated by supposing the case of a mature mind already embarrassed with habits of self-indulgence and selfishness4 ,let such a person be placed in the most endeared and intimate communion with a being possessed of every possible attraction which is delightful to the human mind4 ,let him feel that he is the object of the most tender and devoted affection to such an exalted friend1 and1 spite of his own faults and deficiencies1 realize that his own affection is desired and his communion sought4 ,let him1 in all his daily pursuits1 be attended by the desired presence of the one in whom his hopes centre and his affections repose2 one in whom he sees every possible exhibition of disinterestedness1 tenderness1 and love1 not only toward himself1 but all other beings who come within the circle of such benevolence4 ,let him discover that the practice of all that is excellent and benevolent by himself is the object of unceasing desire to this devoted friend4 ,let him discover that1 to save him from the consequences of some guilty act of selfishness1 this friend had submitted to the most painful sacrifices1 and only asked as a return those efforts which were necessary to overcome such pernicious habits4 ,let him feel that this friend1 though pained by his deficiencies1 could forbear and forgive1 and continue his love in spite of them all4 ,let him know that his attainment of perfect virtue was the object of intense desire1 and was watched with the most exulting joy by so good and so perfect a being1 and is it possible to conceive a stronger pressure of motive which could be brought to act on a selfish mind8 ,would not every human being exclaim1 ,give me such a friend1 and ,i should be selfish no more4 ,his presence and his love would be my strength in foiling every wrong desire and in conquering every baneful habit4 ,this illustration enables us to realize more clearly the power of love and gratitude toward another mind1 and the reflex influence of love of sympathy and of example4 ,could the young mind be placed under the training of such minds1 and in circumstances where all the rules of right and wrong were perfectly understood1 it can be seen that the habits would early be formed aright1 and that the difficulties against which the mature mind has to struggle would be escaped4 ,could we suppose a community of such elevated mature educators1 with young minds of various degrees of advancement under their training1 it can be seen that the social influences of all would produce a moral atmosphere that would add great power to the individual influences4 ,what every body loves1 honors1 and admires1 secures a moral force over young minds almost invincible1 even when it sustains false and wicked customs4 ,how much greater this power when it co-operates with the intellect1 the moral sense1 and the will in leading to right action6 ,the result of all this is to show1 as the result of reason and experience1 that it is indispensable to the perfectly right action of mind to secure infallible and perfect educators4 ,meantime1 the degree in which any individual mind1 or any community1 has or will approach to such perfection1 depends entirely on the extent to which such a character can be secured in those who are to train young minds4 ,the history of individual families and of large communities shows that their advance1 both in intellectual and moral development1 has exactly corresponded with the character of those who educated the young4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,wrong ,,action ,,of ,,mind ,,and ,,its ,,causes4 ,we have exhibited the object for which mind was created1 and the mode of action by which alone this object can be secured4 ,we next inquire in regard to the wrong action of mind2 its causes and its results as learned by reason and experience4 ,according to the principles set forth1 a mind acts wrong whenever it transgresses any law4 ,the grand law is that of sacrifice1 by which every mode of enjoyment is to be relinquished which does not tend to the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,having set forth those influences or causes which tend to secure the right action of mind1 we are enabled thus to indicate what are the causes of its wrong action4 ,the first and leading cause is a want of knowledge of the truth and a belief of error4 ,we begin existence without knowledge of any kind1 and without any power to receive instruction from others4 ,the newborn mind is a mere unit of impulses and instincts1 with an intellect entirely undeveloped1 and a will which never can act intelligently4 ,it is entirely dependent for its experience1 safety1 enjoyment1 and knowledge of all kinds on those around4 ,as it gains by experience and training1 much of its knowledge and belief is correct1 and many of its mental acts are right2 but a large portion of its actions are wrong1 and many of them inevitably so4 ,and here we must recognize again the distinction which our moral nature demands between wrong actions that result from unavoidable ignorance1 and those which are committed intelligently and which violate conscience4 ,in regard to the first class1 the natural penalties are inevitable1 and the justice of them involves the great question of the ,creator's character and designs4 ,in regard to those that violate conscience1 our moral nature1 as has been shown1 leads us not only to approve additional penalties1 but to demand them4 ,the violations of law which are sins of ignorance commence with the earliest period of existence4 ,owing to its helpless ignorance1 often the little child can no more help acting wrong than it can help thinking and feeling4 ,a second cause of wrong action is false teachings4 ,although a large portion of the instruction given to the young1 especially in regard to physical laws1 are true1 yet the infant commences life among imperfectly instructed beings1 who often communicate error believing it to be truth4 ,meantime the little one has no power of correcting these errors1 and thus again is inevitably led to wrong action4 ,a third cause of wrong action is the want of good habits and the early formation of bad ones4 ,as a habit is a facility of action gained by repetition1 of course1 at first1 there can be no habits4 ,and then what the habits shall be is entirely decided by the opinions and conduct of its educators4 ,while some habits are formed aright1 others are formed wrong1 and thus the disability of nature is increased instead of diminished4 ,the next cause of wrong action is those social influences of other minds that have most power both in securing and sustaining right action4 ,in the previous chapter we have illustrated the power of the principles of love1 gratitude1 sympathy1 and example in securing right action4 ,the same powerful influences exist in reference to wrong action4 ,the child who loves its parents and playmates is not only taught to believe wrong action to be right1 but has all the powerful influences which example1 sympathy1 love1 and gratitude can combine to lead to the same wrong courses4 ,thus1 to the natural ignorance of inexperienced mind1 to false instructions1 and to bad habits1 are often added these most powerful of all influences4 ,the next cause of wrong action is the want of a ruling purpose to do right4 ,it has been shown that all the powers of the intellect and all the susceptibilities can be regulated by a generic ruling purpose1 and that it is impossible1 according to the nature of mind1 to regulate it any other way4 ,when such a purpose exists1 and its object is any other except the right and true one1 it is as impossible for a mind to act right as it is for a machine to fulfill its design when the main wheel is turned the wrong way4 ,that such a purpose does not exist in the new-born mind1 and that it must be a considerable time before it is possible1 in the nature of things1 to be originated1 needs no attempt to illustrate4 ,such a purpose is dependent on knowledge of truth1 on habits1 and these on the character of the educators of mind1 and on other surrounding social influences4 ,these are the chief causes of the wrong action of mind as they have been developed by experience4 ,in the next chapters we shall consider the results of the wrong action of mind as they have been exhibited in the experience of mankind1 and as they are to be anticipated in a future world4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,wrong ,,action ,,of ,,mind1 ,,and ,,its ,,results ,,in ,,this ,,life4 ,we have examined into the causes of the wrong action of mind1 and have found them to consist in the want of knowledge1 want of habits1 want of social influences from other minds1 and want of a right governing purpose1 all of which1 so far as reason and experience teach1 alone could be secured by perfect and infallible teachers and educators in a perfect commonwealth4 ,we are now to inquire in regard to the wrong action of mind and its results in this life4 ,the first point to be noticed is the fact that from the first there is in every intelligent mind a sense of entire inability to obey the laws of the system in which it is placed4 ,this is true not merely in reference to that breach of law which is the inevitable result of ignorance1 but of that also which involves a violation of conscience4 ,where is the mother who has not heard the distressed confession1 even from the weeping infant1 that he was happier in doing right than in doing wrong1 that he wished to do well1 and yet that he was constantly doing evil8 ,where is the parent that has not witnessed1 as one little being after another passed on from infancy to youth1 and from youth to manhood1 the perpetual warfare to sustain good purposes and oft-broken resolutions8 ,and where is the conscious spirit that can not look back on its whole course of existence as one continued exhibition of a conflict that gives unvarying evidence of this truth8 ,men feel that it is as impossible for them to be invariably perfect in thought1 word1 and deed1 as it is to rule the winds and waves4 ,the testimony of mankind through every period of the world1 in regard to their own individual consciousness1 attests a sense of the same fatal inability4 ,if we go back even as far as to the heathen sages of antiquity1 we gain the same acknowledgment4 ,thus we find ,pythagoras calls it the fatal companion1 the noxious strife that lurks within us1 and which was born along with us4 ,sopator terms it the sin that is born with mankind4 ,plato denominates it natural wickedness1 and ,aristotle the natural repugnance of man's temper to reason4 ,cicero declares that men are brought into life by ,nature as a step-mother1 with a naked1 frail1 and infirm body1 and with a soul prone to divers lusts4 ,seneca observes1 ,we are born in such a condition that we are not subject to fewer disorders of the mind than of the body2 all vices are in men1 though they do not break out in every one4 ,propertius says that every body has a vice to which he is inclined by nature4 ,juvenal asserts that nature1 unchangeably fixed1 runs back to wickedness4 ,horace declares that no man is free from vices1 and he is the best man who is oppressed with the least4 ,he adds that mankind rush into wickedness1 and always desire what is forbidden2 that youth has the softness of wax to receive vicious impressions1 and the hardness of rock to resist virtuous admonitions2 that we are mad enough to attack ,heaven itself1 and our repeated crimes do not suffer the ,god of ,heaven to lay aside his wrathful thunderbolts4 ,this testimony of individual experience is verified by the general history of mankind4 ,all the laws and institutions of society are founded on the principle that mankind are prone to wrong1 infirm of purpose in all that is good1 and that every possible restraint is needed to prevent the overbreaking tide of evil and crime4 ,when we read the history of communities and of nations1 it is one continued record of selfishness1 avarice1 injustice1 revenge1 and cruelty4 ,individuals seem equally plotting against the happiness of individuals1 and rejoicing to work evils on society4 ,communities rise against communities1 and nations dash against nations4 ,tyrants fill their dominions with sorrow1 misery1 and death2 bloody heroes1 followed by infuriate bands1 spread havoc1 ruin1 and dismay through all their course1 while superstition binds in chains1 racks with tortures1 and sacrifices its millions of victims4 ,in tracing along the history of mankind1 there is no period which we can select when mankind have not seemed as busy in destroying their own1 and the happiness of others1 as the lower animals are in seeking their appropriate enjoyments4 ,at one time we behold ,xerxes pouring forth all ,asia upon ,europe1 where three million beings were brought to be slaughtered by the ,greeks4 ,at another time the ,greeks1 headed by ,alexander1 return upon ,asia1 and spread over most of the known world1 pillaging1 burning1 and slaughtering4 ,then we behold ,alaric1 at the head of barbarous hordes1 desolating all the ,roman empire1 and destroying the monuments of taste1 science1 and the arts4 ,then we see ,tamerlane rushing forth1 overrunning ,persia1 ,india1 and other parts of ,asia1 carrying carnage and the most desolating cruelty in his course1 so that it is recorded that he would cause thousands of his prisoners to be pounded in mortars with bricks to form into walls4 ,from ,europe we behold six millions of ,crusaders rush forth upon the plains of ,asia1 with rapine1 and famine1 and outrage attending their course4 ,then come forth from ,eastern ,asia the myrmidons of ,genghis ,khan1 ravaging fifteen millions of square miles1 beheading #ajj1jjj prisoners at one time1 shaking the whole earth with terror1 and exterminating fourteen millions of their fellow-men4 ,then from the northern forests are seen swarming forth the ,goths and ,vandals1 sweeping over ,europe and ,asia1 and bearing away every vestige of arts1 civilization1 comfort1 and peace4 ,at another time we see the professed head of the ,christian ,church slaughtering the pious and inoffensive ,albigenses1 sending horror into their peaceful villages1 and torturing thousands of inoffensive victims4 ,at one period of history the whole known world seemed to be one vast field of carnage and commotion4 ,the ,huns1 ,vandals1 and other ,northern barbarians were ravaging ,france1 ,germany1 and ,spain2 the ,goths were plundering and murdering in ,italy1 and the ,saxons and ,angles were overrunning ,great ,britain4 ,the ,roman armies under ,justinian1 together with the ,vandals and ,huns1 were desolating ,africa2 the barbarians of ,scythia were pouring down upon the ,roman empire2 the ,persian armies were pillaging and laying waste the countries of ,asia2 the ,arabians1 under ,mohammed1 were beginning to extend their conquests over ,syria1 ,palestine1 ,egypt1 ,barbary1 and ,spain4 ,every nation and kingdom on earth was shaking to its centre4 ,the smoke and the spirits of the bottomless pit seemed coming up to darken1 and torment1 and affright mankind4 ,the most fertile countries were converted to deserts1 and covered with ruins of once flourishing cities and villages2 the most fiendish cruelty was practiced2 famine raged to such a degree that the living fed upon the dead2 prisoners were tortured by the most refined systems of cruelty2 public edifices were destroyed2 the monuments of science and the arts perished2 cruelty1 fraud1 avarice1 murder1 and every crime that disgraces humanity1 were let loose upon a wretched world4 ,historians seem to shudder in attempting to picture these horrid scenes1 and would draw a veil over transactions that disgrace mankind4 ,if from ancient times we look at the present state of the world1 at its present most refined and enlightened period1 the same mournful evidence is discovered4 ,cruelty and tyranny have changed some of the fairest provinces of ,persia to deserts4 ,the ,turk long ago turned the land of the patriarchs and prophets to a wilderness1 and drenched the shores of ,greece with the blood of slaughtered victims1 while ,syria1 ,kurdistan1 and ,armenia for ages have been ravaged with injustice and rapine4 ,china and ,japan have been shut out from the world by a cold and jealous selfishness4 ,in ,tartary1 ,arabia1 and ,siberia1 the barbarous tribes are prowling about for plunder1 or engaged in murderous conflicts4 ,in ,africa1 the ,barbary ,states are in perpetual commotion2 the petty tyrants of ,benin1 ,ashantee1 and other interior states are waging ceaseless wars1 murdering their prisoners1 and adorning their houses with their skulls2 and on its ravaged coast the white man-stealer1 for hundreds of years1 has been prowling1 and bearing off thousands of wretches as a yearly offering to the avarice of the most refined and ,christian nations on earth4 ,in ,north ,america1 we have seen the native tribes employed in war1 and practicing the most fiendish barbarities1 while in ,south ,america1 its more civilized inhabitants are engaged in constant political and bloody commotions4 ,in the islands of the ocean thousands of human beings have been fighting each other1 throwing darts and stones at strangers1 offering human sacrifices1 and feasting on the flesh of their enemies4 ,if we select ,europe for the exhibition of human nature as seen under the restraints of civilization1 laws1 refinement1 and religion1 the same evils burst forth from bonds and restraints4 ,in ,europe1 for ages1 the common people1 in slavery and ignorance1 have been bowing down to a grinding priesthood1 or an oppressive nobility or monarchical tyranny4 ,incessant heaving of the troubled nations portends desolation and dismay1 as man seems waking from the slavery of ages to shake off his fetters and call himself free4 ,if we look to our own boasted land of liberty and religion1 what toiling of selfish and discordant interests--what mean and low-lived arts to gain honor and power--what shameful attacks on fair reputation and unblemished honor--what collisions of party-strifes and local interests6 ,here also the curse of slavery brings the blush of shame to every honest man that1 from year to year1 on the anniversary of the national liberty1 hears the declarations of rights this very nation is trampling under foot4 ,millions of slaves1 deprived of the best blessing and the dearest rights of humanity1 are held in the most degrading bondage by a nation who yearly and publicly acknowledge their perfect and unalienable rights4 ,the same melancholy view is no less clearly witnessed in the opinions and moral sentiments of mankind4 ,the mind of man is formed to love happiness1 to be pleased with what promotes it1 and to detest that which tends to destroy it1 yet the long reign of selfishness has seemed to pervert and poison even the taste and moral sentiments of men4 ,who is the hero sung by the poet1 eulogized by the statesman1 and flattered by the orator8 ,who is it presented in classic language to the gaze of enthusiastic childhood1 and pictured forth in tales of romance to kindling youth8 ,it is the man who has given up his life to the gratification of pride1 and the love of honor and fame2 the man who1 to gain this selfish good1 can plunge the sword into the bosom of thousands1 and stand the unpitying spectator of burning cities1 widowed mothers1 orphan children1 desolated fields1 and the long train of ills that he wantonly pours on mankind1 that he may gain the miserable pittance of gaping admiration and dreadful renown which rises amid the tears and cries of mankind4 ,it is the man who1 when injured1 knows not how to forgive--whose stinted soul never knew the dignity and pleasure of giving blessing for ill--who deems it the mark of honor and manhood to follow the example of the whining infant1 that1 when he is struck1 with the same noble spirit will strike back again4 ,meantime1 the calm forbearance and true dignity of virtue1 that would be humbled at recrimination and can not condescend to retaliate1 is put in the background as unworthy such honors and eulogy4 ,thus1 also1 we find intellect1 which the ,creator designed only as the instrument of securing happiness1 though perverted to vice and folly1 applauded and admired2 and even some of those admired as among the wisest of mankind have often placed true virtue and goodness below the fancied splendors of genius and learning4 ,all the maxims1 and honors1 and employments of mankind develop the perverted action of the noblest part of the creation of ,god in all its relations and in all its principles and pursuits4 ,it is into such a world as this that every new-born mind is ushered without knowledge to guide1 without habits to strengthen1 without the power of forming a ruling purpose to do right which shall control all subordinate volitions4 ,instead of meeting perfect educators to instruct in the laws of the system1 to form good habits1 and to exert all the powerful social1 domestic1 and civil influences aright1 every one of these powerful principles are fatally wrong4 ,parents1 teachers1 companions1 and rulers1 to a greater or less extent1 teach wrong1 train wrong1 and set wrong examples1 while the whole moral atmosphere is contaminated and paralyzing4 ,in these circumstances1 it is as impossible for a young mind to commence existence here with perfect obedience to law1 and to continue through life in a course of perfect rectitude1 as it is for it1 by its feeble will1 to regulate the winds of heaven1 or turn back the tides of the ocean4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,wrong ,,action ,,of ,,mind1 ,,and ,,its ,,results ,,in ,a ,,future ,,state4 ,we are now to inquire as to the results of the wrong action of mind in a future state1 so far as reason and experience can furnish data for any anticipations4 ,the following are the principles of mind from which we reason on this subject4 ,it appears that its constitution is such that the repetition of one particular mode of securing happiness induces a habit2 and that the longer a habit continues1 the more powerful is its force4 ,an early habit of selfishness is always formed in the human mind1 and the penalties following from self-indulgence and selfishness are not sufficient to prevent the continued increase of this habit4 ,though men1 from the very beginning of existence1 feel that they are happier in obeying the dictates of conscience1 and that increase of guilt is increase of sorrow1 yet this does not save them1 in numberless cases1 from increasing evil habits4 ,it is also established by experience that1 when a strong habit is formed1 the mere decisions of the will are not sufficient for an immediate remedy4 ,in this life1 it requires a period of long and painful efforts of the will to rectify an established habit4 ,every human being is conscious how difficult it is to force the mental and bodily faculties to obey its decisions when contrary to the stream of a long-indulged habit4 ,there are few who have not either experienced or witnessed the anguish of spirit that has followed the violations of solemn resolutions1 those firmest decisions of the will1 in the contest between habit and conscience4 ,another principle of mind is this1 that when selfishness and crime have been long indulged1 the natural constitution of mind seems changed1 so that inflicting evil on others is sought as an enjoyment4 ,in illustration of this1 it is related of ,antiochus ,epiphanes that1 in his wars with the ,jews1 after all opposition had ceased1 and all danger and cause of fear was removed1 he destroyed thousands for the mere pleasure of seeing them butchered4 ,an anecdote is related of him1 too horrible to record in all its particulars1 where he sat and feasted his eyes on the sufferings of a mother and her seven sons1 when the parent was doomed to witness the infliction of the most excruciating and protracted tortures on each of her seven children1 and then was tortured to death herself4 ,it is recorded of ,mustapha1 one of the ,turkish sultans1 that by honorable capitulations he gained the person of a brave ,venetian commander called ,bragadino1 who was defending his country from the cruelty of invaders4 ,after having promised him honorable protection1 he ordered him1 bound hand and foot1 to behold the massacre of his soldiers1 then caused his person to be cut and mutilated in the most horrible manner1 and then taunted him as a worshiper of ,christ1 who could not save his servants4 ,when recovered of his wounds1 he obliged him to carry loaded buckets of earth before the army1 and kiss the ground whenever he passed his barbarous tormentor4 ,he then had him hung in a cage1 to be tormented by his own soldiers1 who were chained as galley-slaves1 that they might be agonized by the indignities and sufferings of their venerated commander4 ,after the most protracted sufferings and indignities in the public place1 at the sound of music he was flayed alive4 ,the history of some of the ,roman emperors1 even of some who1 in early childhood and youth1 were gentle1 amiable1 and kind1 presents the same horrible picture4 ,nero set fire to ,rome1 and dressed the ,christians in garments of flaming pitch1 to run about his garden for his amusement4 ,tiberius tormented his subjects1 and murdered them in cruel pangs1 to gratify his love of suffering1 while ,caligula butchered his people for amusement with his own hand4 ,the mind turns with horror from such revolting scenes1 and asks if it is possible human nature now can be so perverted and debased4 ,but this is the humiliating record of some of the amusements1 even of our own countrymen1 that have occurred in some parts of this refined and ,christian nation4 ,many of the interludes are filled up with a boxing match1 which becomes memorable by feats of gouging4 ,when two boxers are wearied with fighting and bruising each other1 they come to close quarters1 each endeavoring to twist his forefinger into the earlocks of his antagonist4 ,when they are thus fast clenched1 the thumbs are extended1 and both the eyes are turned out of their sockets4 ,the victor is hailed with shouts of applause from the sporting throng1 while his poor antagonist1 thus blinded for life1 is laughed at for his misfortune4 ,one very striking fact bearing on this subject has been established by experience1 and that is1 that extreme suffering1 either mental or bodily1 tends to awaken the desire to inflict evil upon other minds4 ,this is probably one mode of accounting for the increased cruelty of the ,roman emperors4 ,as the powers of enjoyment diminished by abuse1 and the horrors of guilt harassed their spirits1 this dreadful desire to torment others was awakened4 ,there are many undisputed facts to establish the principle that extreme suffering is the cause of terrible malignity4 ,the following is from a statement of ,mr4 ,byron1 who was shipwrecked on the coast of ,south ,america3 ,so terrible was the scene of foaming breakers1 that one of the bravest men could not help expressing his dismay1 saying it was too shocking to bear4 ,in this dreadful situation malignant passions began to appear4 ,the crew grew extremely riotous1 and fell to beating every thing in their way1 and broke open chests and cabins for plunder that could be of no use4 ,so earnest were they in this wantonness of theft1 that in the morning a strangled corpse was found of one who had contested the spoil4 ,a still more terrible picture is given in an account of the loss of the ,medusa frigate on the coast of ,africa4 ,in the midst of dreadful suffering from cold1 danger1 and famine1 it is recorded that a spirit of sedition arose and manifested itself by furious shouts4 ,the soldiers and sailors began to cut the ropes1 and declared their intention of murdering the officers4 ,about midnight1 they rushed on the officers like desperate men1 each having a knife or sabre1 and such was their fury that they tore their clothes and their flesh with their teeth4 ,the next morning the raft was strewed with dead bodies4 ,the succeeding night was passed in similar horrors1 and the morning sun saw twelve more lifeless bodies4 ,the next night of suffering was attended with a horrid massacre1 and thus it continued till only fifteen remained of the whole one hundred and fifty6 ,another principle of mind having a bearing on this subject is the fact that those qualities of mind which are the causes of enjoyment in others around may be viewed with only pain and dislike by a selfish person4 ,thus intellectual superiority1 in itself considered1 is a delightful object of contemplation2 but if it becomes the means of degradation or of contemptuous comparison to a selfish mind1 it is viewed with unmingled pain4 ,benevolence and truth are objects of delightful contemplation to all minds when disconnected with obligations or painful comparisons1 but if they are viewed as causes of evil to a selfish mind1 it will view them with unmingled dislike and hatred4 ,now we find that there are two classes of minds in this world3 those who are more or less benevolent1 and find their happiness in living to promote the general interests of their fellow-beings1 and those who are selfish1 and are living to promote their own enjoyment irrespective of the general happiness4 ,if1 then1 we reason from the known laws of mind and from past experience1 we must suppose that the habits of mind which are existing in this life will continue to increase1 and if the mind is immortal1 a time must come when one class will become perfectly benevolent and the other perfectly selfish4 ,a community of perfectly benevolent beings1 it has been shown1 would1 from the very nature and constitution of mind1 be a perfectly happy community4 ,every source of enjoyment of which mind is capable would be secured by every individual4 ,it can be seen1 also1 that there must1 in the nature of the case1 be an entire separation between two such opposite classes2 for it is as painful for minds suffering from conscious guilt1 shame1 and malignity1 to look upon purity1 benevolence1 and happiness1 as it is for the virtuous to associate with the selfish1 the debased1 and the abandoned4 ,this separation1 therefore1 would be a voluntary one on both sides1 even did we suppose no interference of ,deity4 ,but if the ,creator continues his present constitution of things1 we may infer that his power would be exerted to prevent the intrusion of malignity into a perfect and well-ordered community2 for he has so constituted things here1 that those who are incorrigible pests to society are confined from interfering with its interests4 ,from the laws of mind1 then1 and from past experience as to the tendencies of things1 we can establish the position that1 at some future period1 if the mind of man is immortal1 the human race will be permanently divided into two classes1 the perfectly selfish and the perfectly benevolent4 ,should it be objected to this conclusion that when the mind passes into another world more effectual motives may be brought to operate1 it may be replied that it is not the office of reason to meet suppositions of possibilities1 but to show what the probabilities are by deductions from principles already known4 ,a thousand possibilities may be asserted1 such as the annihilation of mind or the alteration of its powers1 but these are mere suppositions1 and have nothing to do with the conclusions of reason4 ,if mind is immortal and continues its present nature1 habits will continue to strengthen2 and in regard to motives1 we know already that the fear of evil consequences will not save from continuance in crime4 ,how often has a man who has yielded to habits of guilt been seen writhing in the agonies of remorse1 longing to free himself from the terrible evils he has drawn around him1 acknowledging the misery of his course and his ability to return to virtue1 and yet1 with bitter anguish1 yielding to the force of inveterate habits and despairing of any remedy4 ,we know1 also1 that it is a principle established by long experience1 that punishment does not tend to soften and reform4 ,where is the hardened culprit that was ever brought to repentance and reformation by lashes or the infliction of degradation8 ,such means serve only to harden and brutify4 ,experience forbids the hope that punishment will ever restore a selfish and guilty mind to virtue and peace4 ,reason and experience1 then1 both lead to the conclusion that the two classes of minds into which mankind are here divided will1 on leaving this world1 eventually become two permanently distinct communities--one perfectly selfish1 and the other perfectly benevolent4 ,what1 then1 would reason and experience teach us as to the probable situation of a community of minds constituted like those of the human race1 who1 in the progress of future ages1 shall establish habits of perfect selfishness and crime8 ,in regard to the ,creator1 what may we suppose will be the feelings of such minds8 ,if he is a benevolent1 pure1 and perfectly happy being1 and his power is exerted to confine them from inflicting evil on the good1 he will be the object of unmingled and tormenting envy1 hatred1 and spite2 for when a selfish mind beholds a being with characteristics which exhibit its own vileness in painful contrast1 and using his power to oppose its desires1 what might in other circumstances give pleasure will only be cause of pain4 ,if they behold1 also1 the purity and happiness of that community of benevolent beings from which they will be withdrawn1 the same baleful passions will be awakened in view of their excellence and enjoyment4 ,there is no suffering of the mind more dreaded and avoided than that of shame4 ,it is probable a guilty creature never writhes under keener burnings of spirit than when all his course of meanness1 baseness1 ingratitude1 and guilt is unveiled in the presence of dignified virtue1 honor1 and purity1 and the withering glance of pity1 contempt1 and abhorrence is encountered4 ,this feeling must be experienced1 to its full extent1 by every member of such a wretched community4 ,each must feel himself an object of loathing and contempt to every pure and benevolent mind1 as well as to all those who are equally debased4 ,another cause of suffering is ungratified desire4 ,in this world1 perfect misery and full happiness is seldom contrasted4 ,but in such circumstances1 if we suppose that the happiness of blessed minds will be known1 the keenest pangs of ungratified desire must torment4 ,every mind will know what is the pure delight of yielded and reciprocated affection1 of sympathy in the happiness of others1 of the sweet peace of conscious rectitude1 and of the delightful consciousness of conferring bliss on others1 while the ceaseless cravings of hopeless desire will agonize the spirit4 ,another cause of suffering is found in the loss of enjoyment4 ,in such a degraded and selfish community1 all ties of country1 kindred1 friendship1 and love must cease4 ,yet all will know what were the endearments of home1 the mild soothings of maternal love1 the ties of fraternal sympathy1 and all the trust and tenderness of friendship and love4 ,what vanished blessing of earth would not rise up1 with all the sweetness and freshness that agonizing memory can bring1 to aggravate the loss of all6 ,but the mind is so made that1 however wicked itself1 guilt and selfishness in others is hated and despised4 ,such a company1 then1 might be described as those who were hateful and hating one another4 ,it has been shown that both suffering and selfishness awaken the desire to torment others4 ,this1 then1 will be the detested purpose of every malignant mind4 ,every action that could irritate1 mortify1 and enrage1 would be deliberately practiced1 while disappointed hopes1 and blasted desires1 and agonizing misery would alone awaken the smile of horrible delight4 ,and if we suppose such minds in a future state reclothed in a body1 with all the present susceptibilities of suffering1 and surrounded by material elements that may be ministers of hate1 what mind can conceive the terror and chaos of a world where every one is actuated by a desire to torment8 ,suppose these beings had arrived at only such a degree of selfishness as has been witnessed in this world2 such1 for example1 as ,genghis ,khan1 who caused unoffending prisoners to be pounded to death with bricks in a mortar2 or ,nero1 who dressed the harmless ,christians in flaming pitch for his amusement2 or ,antiochus ,epiphanes and ,mustapha1 who spent their time in devising and executing the most excruciating tortures on those who could do them no injury4 ,what malignity and baleful passions would actuate such minds1 when themselves tormented by others around1 bereft of all hope1 and with nothing to interest them but plans of torment and revenge6 ,what refined systems of cruelty would be devised in such a world6 what terrific combinations of the elements to terrify and distress6 ,if such objects as the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone1 and the worm that never dies1 could be found1 no ,almighty hand would need to interfere1 while the smoke of their torment would arise from flames of their own kindling4 ,to fearful sufferings thus inflicted would be added the pangs of agitating fear2 for where all around were plotting misery1 what relief1 by day or by night1 from its withering terrors8 ,then surely fear would come upon them like desolation1 and destruction as a whirlwind4 ,another cause of suffering is inactivity of body and mind4 ,it has been seen that the desire of good is what gives activity to the intellectual and moral powers4 ,in such a world1 no good could be hoped or sought1 but the gratification of inflicting ill4 ,and even a malignant mind must often weary in this pursuit1 and sink under all the weight and misery of that awful death of the soul1 when1 in torpid inactivity1 it has nothing to love1 nothing to hope1 nothing to desire6 ,another cause of misery is the consciousness of guilt2 and such1 even in this life1 have been the agonies of remorse1 that tearing the hair1 bruising the body1 and even gnawing the flesh have been resorted to as a temporary relief from its pangs4 ,what1 then1 would be its agonizing throes in bosoms that live but to torment and to destroy all good to themselves and to other minds8 ,in this life1 where we can allow the mind to be engrossed by other pursuits1 and where we can thus form a habit of suppressing and avoiding emotions of guilt1 the conscience may be seared4 ,but it could not be thus when all engaging and cheerful pursuits were ended forever4 ,then the mind would view its folly1 and shame1 and guilt in all their length and breadth1 and find no escape from the soul-harrowing gaze4 ,to these miseries must be added despair--the loss of all hope4 ,here hope comes to all2 but1 in such a community1 that fearful susceptibility of the soul--that terrific power of habit--would bind in chains which would be felt to be stronger than brass and heavier than iron4 ,if the spirit is conscious that its powers are immortal1 with this consciousness would come the despairing certainty of increasing and never-ending woe6 ,this terrifying and heart-rending picture1 it must be remembered1 is the deduction of reason1 and who can point out its fallacy8 ,is not habit appalling in its power1 and ofttimes1 even in this life1 inveterate in its hold8 ,are not habits increased by perpetual repetition8 ,is not the mind of man immortal8 ,do not the tendencies of this life indicate a period when a total separation of selfish and benevolent minds will be their own voluntary choice8 ,if all the comforts1 gentle endearments1 and the enlivening hopes of this life2 if all the restraints of self-interest1 family1 country1 and laws2 if in ,christian lands the offers of heaven1 and the fearful predictions of eternal woe2 if the mercy and pardon1 and all the love and pity of our ,creator and ,redeemer1 neither by fear1 nor by gratitude1 nor by love1 can turn a selfish mind1 what hope of its recovery when it goes a stranger into a world of spirits1 to sojourn in that society which1 according to its moral habits1 it must voluntarily seek8 ,and if there exists a community of such selfish beings1 can language portray1 with any adequacy1 the appalling results that must necessarily ensue8 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,creator4 ,the preceding pages have exhibited the nature of mind1 the object of its formation1 the right mode of action to secure this object1 and the causes and results of its right and wrong action1 as indicated by reason and experience4 ,we are now furnished with farther data to guide us in regard to the character of our ,creator1 as we seek it by the light of reason alone4 ,we have seen1 in the chapter on intuitive truths1 that by the first of these principles we arrive at the knowledge of some eternal ,first ,cause of all finite things4 ,by another of these principles we deduce certain particulars in regard to his character as exhibited through his works4 ,this principle is thus expressed3 ,design is evidence of an intelligent cause1 and the nature of a design proves the character and intention of the author4 ,we are now prepared to show how much must be included in this truth4 ,our only idea of an intelligent cause is that of a mind like our own4 ,this being so1 we assume that we are instructed1 by the very constitution of our own minds1 that our ,creator is a being endowed with intellect1 susceptibilities1 and will1 and a part of these susceptibilities are those included in our moral constitution4 ,this moral nature1 which we are thus led to ascribe to our ,creator1 includes1 in the first place1 the existence of a feeling that whatever lessens or destroys happiness is unfitted to the system of the universe1 and that voluntary sacrifice and suffering to purchase the highest possible happiness is fitted to or in accordance with the eternal nature of things4 ,next1 we are thus taught that in the ,eternal ,mind is existing that sense of justice which involves the desire of good to the author of good1 and of evil to the author of evil1 which requires that such retributions be proportioned to the good and evil done1 and to the voluntary power of the agent4 ,lastly1 we are thus instructed that the ,author of all created things possesses that susceptibility called conscience1 which includes1 in the very constitution of mind itself1 retributions for right and wrong actions4 ,but while we thus assume that the mind of the ,creator is1 so far as we can conceive1 precisely like our own in constitutional organization1 we are as necessarily led to perceive that the extent of these powers is far beyond our own4 ,a mind with the power1 wisdom1 and goodness exhibited in the very small portion of his works submitted to our inspection1 who has inhabited eternity1 and developed and matured through everlasting ages--our minds are lost in attempting any conception of the extent of such infinite faculties6 ,but we have another intuitive truth to aid in our deductions4 ,it is that by which we infer the continuance of a uniformity in our experience2 that is1 we necessarily believe that things will continue as they are and have been1 unless there is evidence to the contrary4 ,now all past experience as to the nature of mind has been uniform4 ,every mind known to us is endowed with intellect1 susceptibility1 and will1 like our own4 ,so much is this the case1 that when any of these are wanting in a human being1 we say he has lost his mind4 ,again3 all our experience of mind involves the idea of the mutual relation of minds4 ,we perceive that minds are made to match to other minds1 so that there can be no complete action of mind1 according to its manifest design1 except in relation to other beings4 ,a mind can not love till there is another mind to call forth such emotion4 ,a mind can not bring a tithe of its power into appropriate action except in a community of minds4 ,the conception of a solitary being1 with all the social powers and sympathies of the human mind infinitely enlarged1 and yet without any sympathizing mind to match and meet them1 involves the highest idea of unfitness and imperfection conceivable4 ,thus it is that past experience of the nature of mind leads to the inference that no mind has existed from all eternity in solitude1 but that there is more than one eternal1 uncreated mind1 and that all their powers of enjoyment from giving and receiving happiness in social relations have been in exercise from eternal ages4 ,this is the just and natural deduction of reason and experience1 as truly as the deduction that there is at least one eternal ,first ,cause4 ,it has been argued that the unity of design in the works of nature proves that there is but one creating mind4 ,this is not so1 for in all our experience of the creations of finite beings no great design was ever formed without a combination of minds1 both to plan and to execute4 ,the majority of minds in all ages1 both heathen and ,christian1 have always conceived of the ,creator as in some way existing so as to involve the ideas of plurality and of the love and communion of one mind with another4 ,without a revelation1 also1 we have the means of arriving at the conclusion that the ,creator of all things is not only a mind organized just like our own1 but that he always has and always will feel and act right4 ,we infer this from both his social and his moral constitution2 for he must1 as our own minds do1 desire the love1 reverence1 and confidence of his creatures4 ,the fact that he has made them to love truth1 justice1 benevolence1 and self-sacrificing virtue is evidence that he has and will exhibit these and all other excellences that call forth affection4 ,but we have still stronger evidence4 ,we have seen all the causes that experience has taught as the leading to the wrong action of mind4 ,these are necessarily excluded from our conceptions of the ,creator4 ,the ,eternal ,mind can not err for want of knowledge1 nor for want of habits of right action1 nor for want of teachers and educators1 nor for want of those social influences which generate and sustain a right governing purpose2 for an infinite mind1 that never had a beginning1 can not have these modes of experience which appertain to new-born and finite creatures4 ,again3 we have seen that it is one of the implanted principles of reason that no rational mind will choose evil without hope of compensating good4 ,such is the eternal system of the universe1 as we learn it by the light of reason1 that the highest possible happiness to each individual mind and to the whole commonwealth is promoted by the right action of every mind in that system4 ,this1 of necessity1 is seen and felt by the ,all-creating and ,eternal ,mind1 and to suppose that1 with this knowledge1 he would ever choose wrong is to suppose that he would choose pure evil1 and this is contrary to an intuitive truth4 ,it is to suppose the ,creator would do what he has formed our minds to believe to be impossible in any rational mind4 ,it is to suppose that the ,creator would do that which1 if done by human beings1 marks them as insane4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,on ,,perfect ,,and ,,imperfect ,,minds4 ,we are now prepared to inquire in regard to what constitutes a perfect mind4 ,this question relates1 in the first place1 to the perfect constitutional organization of mind1 and1 in the next place1 to the perfect action of mind4 ,in regard to a finite mind1 when we inquire as to its perfection in organization1 we are necessarily restricted to the question of the object or end for which it is made4 ,any contrivance in mind or matter is perfect when it is so formed that1 if worked according to its design1 it completely fulfills the end for which it is made1 so that there is no way in which it could be improved4 ,it is here claimed1 then1 that by the light of reason alone we first gain the object for which mind is made1 and then arrive at the conclusion that the mind of man is perfect in construction1 because1 if worked according to its design1 it would completely fulfill the end for which it is made1 so that there is no conceivable way in which it could be improved4 ,this position can not be controverted except by presenting evidence that some other organization of the mind would produce1 in an eternal and infinite system1 more good with less evil than the present one4 ,in regard to the ,eternal ,mind1 the only standard of perfection in organization that we can conceive of is revealed in our own mind4 ,every thing in our own minds--every thing around us--every thing we have known in past experience1 is designed to produce the most possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,we can not conceive of any being as wise1 or just1 or good1 but as he acts to promote that end4 ,a mind organized like our own1 with faculties infinitely enlarged1 who always has and always will sustain a controlling purpose to act right1 is the only idea we can have of an all-perfect ,creator4 ,but on the subject of the perfect action of finite minds it is perceived that reference must always be had to voluntary power and its limitations4 ,we have shown that the implanted susceptibility1 called the sense of justice1 demands that the rewards and penalties for good and evil have reference to the knowledge and power of a voluntary agent2 that is to say1 it is contrary to our moral nature voluntarily to inflict penalties for wrong action on a being who either has no power to know what right is1 or no power to do it4 ,we revolt from such inflictions with instinctive abhorrence1 as unfit and contrary to the design of all things4 ,so1 in forming our judgment of the ,creator1 when we regard him as perfectly just1 the idea implies that he will never voluntarily inflict evil for wrong action on beings who have not the knowledge or power to act right4 ,here we are again forced to the assumption of some eternal nature of things independent of the ,creator's will1 by which ignorant and helpless creatures are exposed to suffering from wrong action when they have no power of any kind to act right4 ,for we see such suffering actually does exist1 and there are but two suppositions possible4 ,the one is1 that it results from the ,creator's voluntary acts1 and the other1 that it is inherent in that eternal nature of things which the ,creator can no more alter than he can destroy his own necessary and eternal existence4 ,in judging of the perfect action of finite minds1 we are obliged to regard the question in two relations4 ,in the primary relation we have reference to actions which1 in all the infinite relations of a vast and eternal system of free agents1 are fitted to secure the most possible good with the least possible evil4 ,in this relation1 so far as we can judge by experience and reason1 no finite being ever did or ever can act perfectly from the first to the last of its volitions4 ,in this relation1 every human being is certainly1 necessarily1 and inevitably imperfect in action4 ,but when the question of perfection in action simply has reference to the knowledge and power of the voluntary agent1 we come to another result4 ,in this relation1 any mind acts perfectly when it forms a ruling purpose to feel and act right in all things1 when it takes all possible means of learning what is right1 and when it actually carries out this purpose1 so far as it has knowledge and power4 ,if a human mind is1 as has been shown1 perfect in that organization of its powers for which the ,creator is responsible1 and then forms and carries out such a ruling purpose1 it is1 so far as we can learn without revelation1 as perfect in action as is possible in the nature of things2 that is to say1 it voluntarily acts to promote the greatest possible good with the least possible evil as entirely as is possible1 and as really as does the ,creator1 who himself is limited by the nature of things4 ,it is as impossible for a finite mind to act right1 when it does not know what right is1 as it is for the ,eternal ,mind to make and sustain a system in which there has been and never will be any wrong action to cause pain to himself and to other minds4 ,what1 then1 so far as we can learn without a revelation1 is a perfect mind in such a system of things as we find in this world8 ,it is a mind constituted like our own1 which has formed a ruling purpose to feel and act right in all things1 which takes all possible means in its reach to learn what is right1 and which actually carries out this purpose to the extent of its power4 ,in shorter terms1 in this relation every human mind is perfect1 both in constitution and in action1 so long as it acts as near right as is in its present power4 ,at the same time1 in relation to the infinite and eternal standard of rectitude1 its action may be very imperfect4 ,we next inquire as to the evidence of a perfect mind in this secondary relation2 that is to say1 how can we know when a mind does reach the full measure of its power in voluntary right action8 ,in regard to this we have two sources of evidence3 first1 the mental consciousness of the acting mind itself1 and1 next1 the results of its action4 ,in regard to the first1 every mind1 in reference either to its mental states or external deeds1 can have as much certainty as to the extent of its power as it can of any thing4 ,if we choose to feel in a given way1 or to perform a given act1 and what we choose does not follow1 we are certain we have no power to do the thing4 ,all the idea of power we have is that volition is followed by the result chosen4 ,all the idea we have of want of power is that the result chosen does not follow the volition4 ,every mind1 then1 in regard to every specific volition1 has the most perfect of all evidence as to the extent of its powers in its own experience4 ,but the question is a more difficult one in reference to a generic governing volition4 ,a perfectly acting mind1 according to our definition1 is one that has formed a generic governing volition to feel and act right in all respects2 that is1 it decides that the chief end of existence shall be to promote the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil1 in obedience to all1 physical1 social1 and moral laws of the ,creator1 so far as it is within the reach of its powers4 ,now1 as to this simple act of choice1 a mind can have the highest possible evidence in its own consciousness4 ,the only question of difficulty would be as to the extent of its powers to carry out this decision1 and the correspondence of all its subordinate volitions with this generic purpose4 ,to ascertain the truth on this point1 let us suppose a mind that has the highest evidence 7that of internal consciousness7 that it has formed such a purpose4 ,then comes a case where a subordinate decision is to be made--say it relates to the existence of a certain feeling or emotion1 such as love1 fear1 gratitude1 or sorrow4 ,it has been shown that these emotions are not to be evoked into existence by a simple act of will4 ,the mode by which the mind controls its own desires and emotions is set forth on page #afb4 ,if1 then1 the person chooses to do all that is in its power at the given time to awaken these emotions1 its action is perfect in this respect3 it has fulfilled the measure of its power4 ,it reaches the limit of its power when it can find nothing more that an act of choice will secure that it perceives will tend to accomplish the end chosen4 ,that is to say1 at each given moment1 when a mind is aiming to know what is right1 and to do it1 if it has done all it perceives can be done by any act of will toward this end1 then its decision or mental action is perfect2 it is as good as is possible in the nature of things4 ,we have the same method of testing our power in regard to the prevention of desires and emotions4 ,no matter how painful or inappropriate may be the desires and emotions of any mind1 it is acting perfectly when it goes to the full extent of its power to extinguish or to control them according to the rules of rectitude4 ,if it wills to have them otherwise1 and uses the appropriate modes to have them so1 this is all it has power to do4 ,in reference to external actions1 there are an infinite variety of circumstances that must decide the character of actions as right or wrong4 ,an action which is wise and benevolent in one set of circumstances becomes foolish and selfish in another combination4 ,more than half the questions of right and wrong action are to be decided as to their character by the surrounding circumstances1 while no mind but the one that is infinite and omniscient can pronounce with certainty on actions whose character is dependent on circumstances and probable future results4 ,what1 then1 is the limitation of power in these cases8 ,how can we know when we act as nearly right as it is in our power8 ,in the first place1 we can have the high evidence of consciousness that our chief end in life is to act right in all things4 ,in the next place1 we can know certainly whether there is any thing more that we can do to find out what the right course is4 ,when we have decided that we have done all we can in the given circumstances1 and then are conscious that we choose what we believe to be right1 or that which has to our mind the balance of evidence in its favor as right1 we act perfectly2 that is to say1 we have reached the full measure of our power in voluntarily acting right4 ,but1 besides this evidence1 that rests mainly on internal consciousness of the nature of our volitions1 we have other evidence to guide us4 ,it has been shown in the previous pages how our thoughts1 and desires1 and emotions are all dependent on the generic purposes of the mind4 ,whatever is the chief end of life is the object which excites the strongest interest and calls forth the deepest emotions4 ,therefore1 when a mind has chosen to act right as the chief end1 all its tastes1 desires1 and emotions become conformed to this purpose4 ,whatever is seen as tending to promote this end is more desired and valued than any thing else4 ,whatever is seen to interfere with this is regarded with dissatisfaction4 ,this being so1 a mind that is controlled by a ruling purpose to act right finds those persons and places the most congenial and agreeable who can lend the most aid in pointing out all that is wrong in thought1 word1 or deed1 and in helping1 by instruction1 sympathy1 and example1 to do right4 ,one great test1 then1 of the existence and strength of such a ruling purpose is the manner in which those are regarded who are most interested in finding out and doing what is right themselves1 and in aiding others to do so4 ,to be meek and lowly in heart1 so as to seek help in learning what is right from every source1 however humble or however imperfectly offered1 is the surest indication that a mind is under the entire control of a ruling purpose to do right1 and is thus a perfect mind4 ,such a mind1 it must be seen1 has tendencies that fit it to that great system of things in which we find ourselves4 ,such a mind can not trace out these tendencies by the light of reason alone without a conviction that somewhere in the progress of ages it will attain to a perfect commonwealth1 where the great end and object of the ,creator in forming mind will be carried to entire perfection in each individual mind and in the all-perfect whole6 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,on ,,the ,,probable ,,existence ,,and ,,character ,,of ,,disembodied ,,spirits4 ,we have considered the mode by which1 without revelation1 we arrive at a knowledge of the existence and character of one eternal1 self-existent ,creator1 and of other eternal beings endowed with all the attributes of the human mind4 ,we will next inquire as to the existence of other created minds in addition to those whose existence is manifested by a material body4 ,there are several principles of reason to aid us in this inquiry4 ,the first is that which establishes the existence of mind and matter as two distinct and diverse causes or existences4 ,by this we decide that every human being has a body and a soul4 ,the second principle of reason to guide us is that which teaches us to believe that things continue to exist as they are and have been1 unless there is some known cause to destroy or change them4 ,the other principles to guide us are1 that nothing is to be assumed to be true unless there is some evidence that it is so1 and1 in case of conflicting evidence1 the balance of evidence is to decide what is right and true4 ,these principles being assumed1 we find that at the death of every human being we have evidence1 first1 that the body ceases to be connected with the spirit1 and is dissolved4 ,next1 we have evidence at the period of this dissolving of soul and body that the soul exists without a body1 and no evidence that it is changed in any of its powers1 or habits1 or character4 ,thus we arrive at the conclusion that the spirits that have existed in this life connected with bodies are still existing with all the powers1 habits1 and character which they possessed in this life1 except as they are modified by causes and tendencies that experience in this life has disclosed4 ,we thus infer that all minds who have left this world have continued in the upward or downward tendencies of character which existed when they were disconnected with the body4 ,this is all the knowledge we can gain by reason and experience alone in reference to other created beings1 and their character and mode of existence4 ,as to the time when the soul commences existence1 we have no evidence of such existence except what is manifested in the body4 ,we can only infer1 then1 that the soul begins to exist when the evidence of its existence commences in the body4 ,to assert that it begins before that time is to violate the principle of reason which forbids us to assume any thing to be true unless there is evidence of it4 ,thus1 without a revelation1 we are led to a belief in the existence of two classes of disembodied spirits1 the good and the bad4 ,but we have no evidence of the existence of any other created minds except those that have formerly been connected with bodies in this world4 ,so far as animals give evidence of possessing an independent spiritual existence1 the same argument that proves the continued existence of the human mind after death1 proves that the animal spirit1 if there be one1 continues after the dissolution of the body4 ,but we can not reason in regard to animals as we can in regard to human minds1 for we never had the experience of animal existence to commence with1 as we have our own experience in reasoning as to the nature and experience of mind in reference to other beings of the same race4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,probabilities ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,a ,,revelation ,,from ,,the ,,creator4 ,we have now completed our investigations as to the nature and amount of knowledge to be gained on the great questions of life by reason and experience independently of a revelation4 ,we have assumed that the great cause of the disordered action of mind is that it commences action in perfect ignorance1 while all those causes which experience shows to be indispensable to its right action1 to a greater or less degree1 are wanting4 ,the great want of our race is perfect educators to train new-born minds1 who are infallible teachers of what is right and true4 ,we have presented the evidence gained by reason and experience that the ,creator is perfect in mental constitution1 and that he always has acted right1 and always will thus act4 ,this being granted1 we infer that he always has done the best that is possible for the highest good of his creatures in this world1 and that he always will continue to do so4 ,we proceed to inquire in regard to what would be the best that it is possible to do for us in this state of being1 so far as we can conceive4 ,inasmuch as the great cause of the wrong action of mind is the ignorance and imperfection of those who are its educators in the beginning of its existence1 we should infer that the best possible thing to be done for our race would be to provide some perfect and infallible teacher to instruct those who are to educate mind4 ,this being granted1 then all would concede that the ,creator himself would be our best teacher1 and that1 if he would come to us himself in a visible form to instruct the educators of mind in all they need to know for themselves and for the new-born minds committed to their care1 it would be the best thing we can conceive of for the highest good of our race4 ,we next inquire as to the best conceivable mode by which the ,creator can manifest himself so as to secure credence4 ,to decide this1 let each one suppose the case his own4 ,let a man make his appearance claiming to be the ,creator4 ,we can perceive that his mere word would never command the confidence of intelligent practical men4 ,thousands of impostors have appeared and made such claims1 deceiving the weak and ignorant and disgusting the wise4 ,in case the person with such claims proved to be ever so benevolent and intelligent1 if we had no other evidence than his word1 it would1 by sensible persons1 be regarded as the result of some mental hallucination4 ,but suppose that a person making claims to be the ,creator of all things1 or to be a messenger from him1 should attest his claim by shaking the earth1 or tearing up a mountain1 or turning back the floods of the ocean1 it would be impossible for any man to witness these miracles without believing that the ,author of all things thus attested his own presence or the authority of his messenger4 ,we have shown that1 in the very organization of mind1 one of the intuitive truths would necessarily force such a belief on all sane minds4 ,one other method would be as effective4 ,should this person predict events so improbable and so beyond all human intelligence as to be equivalent to an equal interruption of experience as to the laws of mind1 as time developed the fulfillment of these predictions1 the same belief would be induced in the authority of the person thus supernaturally endowed4 ,in the first case1 the evidence would be immediate and most powerful in its inception4 ,in the latter case1 the power of the evidence would increase with time4 ,miracles and prophecy1 then1 are the only methods that we can conceive of that would1 as our minds are now constituted1 insure belief in revelations from the ,creator4 ,but if every human being1 in order to believe1 must have miracles1 there would result such an incessant violation of the laws of nature as to destroy them1 and thus to destroy all possibility of miracles4 ,the only possible way1 then1 is to have miracles occur at certain periods of time1 and then have them adequately recorded and preserved4 ,this method involves the necessity of interpreting written documents4 ,if1 then1 the ,creator has provided such revelations1 the question occurs as to how far they may be accessible to all men4 ,are there revelations from the ,creator in such a form that all men can gain access to them and interpret them for themselves1 or are they so recorded that only a few can gain the knowledge they impart1 while the many are helplessly dependent on the few8 ,it is with reference to this question that the interpretation of language becomes a subject of vital and infinite interest to every human being4 ,this subject will therefore occupy the remaining portion of this volume4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,interpretation ,,of ,,language4 ,the mind of man is confined in its operations by the material system it inhabits1 and has no modes of communicating with other minds except through the medium of the eye and ear4 ,it is by signs addressed to the eye and by sounds affecting the ear that ideas are communicated and received4 ,it is by the power of association1 which enables us to recall certain ideas together which have been frequently united1 that the use of language is gained4 ,the infant finds certain states of mind produced by material objects invariably connected with certain sounds4 ,this is done so often that whenever a certain perception occurs1 the sound recurs which has been so often united with it4 ,if language is correctly defined as any sound or sign which conveys the ideas of one mind to another1 it is probable that children learn language at a much earlier period than is generally imagined4 ,it is impossible to know how soon the infant notices the soft tones of its own voice when happy1 or the moaning or shrill sound that expresses its own pain1 and by comparing them with those of its mother1 learns1 through its little process of reasoning1 that another spirit has emotions of pleasure and pain corresponding with its own4 ,nor can we determine how soon these pleasant sounds of the mother's voice begin to be associated with the benignant smile1 or the tones of grief with the sorrowful expression1 or the tones of anger with the frowning brow4 ,it seems very rational to suppose that sound1 to the infant mind1 is what first leads to the belief of the emotions of another mind1 by means of a comparison of its own sounds with those originating from another4 ,after this is done1 the eye comes in for a share in these offices4 ,the little reasoner1 after thousands of experiments1 finds the pleasant sound always united with the smiling face1 until the object of vision becomes the sign for recalling the idea at first obtained by sound4 ,in gaining the common use of language1 we know this is the order of succession4 ,we first learn the sounds that recall ideas1 and then1 by means of a frequent union of these sounds with some visible sign1 the power once possessed simply by the sound is conveyed to the sign4 ,thus we have words that are sounds and words that are visible signs4 ,the communion of one spirit with that of others in every-day life is maintained ordinarily through the medium of sounds2 but when distance intervenes1 or when some record is to be preserved of the thoughts and feelings of other beings1 then signs addressed to the eye are employed4 ,in civilized nations1 the signs used are a certain number of arbitrary marks1 which are arranged in a great variety of combinations1 and each combination is employed to recall some particular idea or combination of ideas4 ,these arbitrary signs are called letters1 and in the ,english language there are only twenty-six2 yet1 by the almost infinite variety of combination of which these are capable1 every idea which one mind wishes to communicate to another can be expressed4 ,a written word is a single letter or a combination of letters used as a sign to recall one or more ideas4 ,it is considered by the mind as a unit or whole thing1 of which the letters are considered as parts1 and is shown to be a unit by intervals or blank spaces that separate it from the other words of a sentence4 ,the fact that it is considered by the mind as a unit1 or a sign separate from all other combinations of letters1 is the peculiarity which constitutes it a word4 ,a syllable is a combination of letters which is not considered as a unit1 but is considered as a part of a word4 ,words are used to recall the ideas of things1 qualities1 changes1 and circumstances4 ,some words recall the idea of a thing without any other idea connected with it2 such are the words mind1 ivory4 ,some words recall the idea of quality simply1 such as red1 hard1 sweet4 ,some words recall the ideas of change merely1 such as motion1 action4 ,some words recall simply the idea of relation or circumstance1 such as on1 under1 about4 ,sometimes ideas of things1 and their actions and relations1 are recalled by the same sign2 thus wrestler recalls the idea of a thing and its action1 and giant of a thing and its relation4 ,some words recall a variety of ideas2 thus the term begone recalls the idea of two things1 of the desire of a mind and of its mode of expression4 ,in the process of learning language1 mankind first acquire names for the several things1 qualities1 changes1 and circumstances that they notice1 and afterward learn the process of combining these names1 so as to convey the mental combination of one mind to another4 ,a person might have names for all his ideas1 and yet1 if he had never learned the art of properly combining these signs1 he never could communicate the varied conceptions of his own mind to another person4 ,suppose1 for illustration1 that a child had learned the meaning of the terms cup1 spoon1 the1 put1 into1 little1 my2 it would be impossible for him to express his wish till he had learned the proper arrangement of each term1 and then he could convey the conception and wishes of his own mind1 viz41 ,put the spoon into my little cup4 ,we see1 then1 how the new combinations of ideas in one mind can be conveyed to another4 ,the two persons must both have the same ideas attached to the same sign of language1 and must each understand the mode of combination to be employed4 ,when this is done1 if one person sees a new object1 he can send to his friend the signs which represent all its qualities1 circumstances1 and changes arranged in a proper manner4 ,the absent person will then arrange the conceptions recalled by these words1 so as to correspond with those of his correspondent4 ,in all languages1 the same word often is used to recall different ideas1 and the meaning of words depends often on their mode of combination4 ,the art of interpreting consists in ascertaining the particular ideas conveyed by words in a given combination4 ,there are two modes of using language which need to be distinctly pointed out1 viz41 literal and figurative4 ,in order to understand these modes1 it is necessary to refer to the principles of association4 ,neither our perceptions or conceptions are ever single1 disconnected objects except when the power of abstraction is employed4 ,ordinarily1 various objects are united together in the mind1 and those objects which are most frequently united in our perceptions1 as a matter of course1 are those which are most frequently united in our conceptions4 ,now1 by the power of abstraction1 the mind can regard the same object sometimes as a unit or whole1 and sometimes can disconnect it1 and consider it as several distinct things4 ,thus it happens that ideas which are connected by the principles of association are sometimes regarded as a whole1 and sometimes are disconnected1 and considered as separate existences4 ,language will be found to be constructed in exact conformity to this phenomenon of mind4 ,we shall find that objects ordinarily united together1 as cause and effect1 have the same name given1 sometimes to the cause1 sometimes to the effects1 and sometimes it embraces the whole2 or the thing1 its causes and its effects4 ,as an example of this use of language may be mentioned the term pride4 ,we sometimes hear those objects which are the cause of pride receiving that name4 ,thus a child is called the pride of its parents4 ,the same name is applied simply to the state of mind1 as when a man is said to be under the influence of pride1 while the effects of pride receive the same appellation when we hear a haughty demeanor and consequential deportment called pride4 ,the term is used in its most extended signification as including the thing1 its causes1 and its effects1 when we hear of the pride of this world1 which is soon to pass away1 signifying equally the causes of this feeling1 the feeling itself1 and the effects of it4 ,literal language is that in which all words have the ordinary meaning as commonly used4 ,figurative language is that in which the ordinary names1 qualities1 and actions of things are ascribed to other things with which they have been associated4 ,as an example of the use of language which is figurative1 we find tears1 that are the effects of grief1 called by the name of the cause2 thus3 ,streaming grief his faded cheek bedewed4 ,on the contrary1 we find the cause called by the name of the effects in this sentence3 ,and hoary hairs received the reverence due4 ,here age is called by the name of one of its effects4 ,the indiscriminate application of names to things which have been connected by time1 place1 or resemblance1 abounds in figurative language4 ,the following is an example where one object is called by the name of another with which it has been connected by place3 ,the groves give forth their songs4 ,here birds are called by the name of the groves with which they have been so often united as it respects place4 ,the following is an example where an object is called by the name of another with which it is connected by time3 ,and night weighed down his heavy eyes4 ,here sleep is called by the name of night1 with which it has been so often united4 ,the following is an example where one object is called by the name of another with which it has been connected by the principle of resemblance3 ,you took her up1 a little1 tender bud1 ,just sprouted on a bank4 ,here a young female is called by the name of an object with which she is connected by the association of resemblance4 ,when one object is thus called by the name of another which it resembles1 the figure of speech is called a metaphor4 ,when dominion is called a sceptre2 the office of a bishop1 the lawn2 the profession of ,christianity1 the cross2 a dwelling is called a roof2 and various expressions of this kind1 one thing is called by the name of another of which it is a part1 or with which it has been connected as a circumstance1 cause1 or effect4 ,not only do objects which have been united in our perceptions receive each other's names1 but the qualities of one are often ascribed to the other4 ,the following are examples in which the qualities of the cause are ascribed to the effect1 and the qualities of the effect are ascribed to the cause3 ,an impious mortal gave a daring wound4 ,here the quality of the cause is ascribed to the effect4 ,the merry pipe is heard4 ,here the quality of the effect is ascribed to the cause4 ,the following is an example where the quality of one thing is ascribed to another connected with it by time3 ,now musing midnight hallows all the scene4 ,the following is an example of the quality of one thing ascribed to another1 connected with it by place3 when sapless age ,shall bring thy father to his drooping chair4 ,we have examples of the qualities of one thing ascribed to another which it resembles in such expressions as these--imperious ocean1 tottering state1 raging tempest4 ,the following is an example of a thing called by the name of one of its qualities or attending circumstances3 ,what art thou1 that usurpest this time of night1 ,together with the fair and warlike form ,in which the majesty of buried ,denmark ,did sometimes walk8 ,here a king is called by the name of a quality and by the name of his kingdom4 ,it is owing to the principle of association that another mode of figurative language is employed called personification4 ,this consists in speaking of a quality which belongs to living beings as if it were the being in which such a quality was found4 ,this is owing to the fact that the conceptions of qualities of mind are always united with some being1 and therefore such ideas are connected ones4 ,thus it is said in the sacred writings1 ,mercy and truth are met together4 ,righteousness and peace have embraced each other4 ,wisdom crieth aloud1 she uttereth her voice4 ,another mode of personification is owing to the fact that the actions and relations of inanimate existences very often resemble those of living beings1 so that such ideas are associated by the principle of resemblance4 ,in such cases1 the actions1 properties1 and relations of living beings are ascribed to inanimate objects4 ,thus1 when the sea roars and lifts its waves toward the skies1 the actions are similar to those of a man when he raises his arm in supplication4 ,an example of this kind of figurative language is found in this sublime personification of ,scripture3 ,the mountains saw thee1 and trembled2 the overflowing of the waters passed by2 the deep uttereth his voice1 and lifted up his hands on high2 the sun and moon stood still in their habitations4 ,other examples of this kind are found when we hear it said that the fields smile1 the woods clap their hands1 the skies frown1 and the like4 ,one cause of figurative language is found in the similarity of effects produced on the body by operations of mind and operations of matter4 ,whatever causes affect the mind in a similar manner are called by the same name4 ,thus1 when a man endeavors to penetrate a hard substance1 the muscles of his head and neck are affected in a particular manner4 ,the same muscles are affected in a similar way when a person makes powerful and reiterated efforts to comprehend a difficult subject4 ,both these actions1 therefore1 are called by the same name1 and a man is said to penetrate the wood with an instrument1 or to penetrate into the subject of his investigations4 ,thus joy is said to expand the breast1 because it does1 in fact1 produce a sensation which resembles this action4 ,there is a great variety of figurative language founded on this principle4 ,indeed1 there is little said respecting the mind1 and its qualities and operations1 where we do not apply terms that describe the qualities1 actions1 and relations of matter4 ,it is also the case that actions and relations that resemble each other are called by the same name1 without regard to the objects in which they exist4 ,thus the skies are said to weep4 ,here there is1 in fact1 the same action as is weeping in mankind1 and it receives the same name1 though it is connected with a different subject4 ,thus1 also1 the sword is said to be drunk with the blood of the slain4 ,here the same relation exists between the blood and the sword as between a man and an immoderate quantity of liquor1 and the relation receives the same name in each case4 ,an allegory is a succession of incidents and circumstances told of one thing which continually recall another thing1 which it resembles in the particulars mentioned4 ,thus the aged ,indian chief describes himself by an allegory3 ,i am an aged hemlock4 ,the winds of a hundred years have swept over its branches2 it is dead at the top2 those that grew around have all mouldered away4 ,a parable is of the same character as an allegory4 ,a type is an object of conception in which many of its qualities and relations resemble another object that succeeds it in regard to time4 ,hyperbole is a collection of actions1 qualities1 or circumstances ascribed to an object which are contrary to the laws of experience1 and this language is employed to express excited feeling4 ,thus1 by hyperbole1 a person is said to be drowned in tears4 ,irony is language used in such a manner as to contradict the known opinions of the speaker1 and is intended to represent the absurdity or irrationality of some thing conceived by him4 ,symbols are material things employed to convey the ideas of one mind to another4 ,thus1 as the cultivation of the olive is connected with seasons of peace1 an olive branch is used to express the idea of peace4 ,symbolic language is the use of words that are names of symbols in place of the names of things represented by symbols4 ,thus the word olive might be used instead of the word peace4 ,figurative language1 especially metaphors and symbolic words1 abound in the writings of the earliest nations2 and as what are claimed to be the earliest revelations of the ,creator are recorded in these languages1 the rules for interpreting figurative language are of the highest importance4 ,the preceding illustrates the principles upon which both literal and figurative language are constructed4 ,the question now arises1 ,how are we to determine when expressions are to be interpreted literally and when they are figurative8 ,one single rule will be found sufficient in all cases1 viz43 ,all language is literal when the common meaning of each word is consistent with our experience as to the nature of things1 and consistent with the other sentiments of the writer4 ,all language is figurative when the names1 qualities1 and actions ascribed to things are inconsistent with our experience of the nature of things1 or contradict the known opinions of the writer4 ,in the preceding examples of figurative language1 it can readily be seen that a literal interpretation would in all cases form combinations of ideas which are opposed to experience as to the nature of things4 ,for example1 grief can not be conceived of as bedewing a face1 because it is an emotion of mind2 nor do hoary hairs literally ever receive honor2 nor do groves sing1 nor night weigh down the eyes4 ,in like manner1 where the qualities of one thing are ascribed to another with which it has been connected1 there is no difficulty in determining that the language is figurative2 for a wound can not have the quality of daring1 which belongs only to mind1 nor can a pipe be literally considered as merry1 or midnight as musing2 nor would it be consistent with experience to think of a chair as drooping4 ,nor in the case of personification is there any more cause of difficulty4 ,mercy and truth1 righteousness1 peace1 and wisdom1 are qualities of mind1 and can not be conceived of as meeting1 embracing1 and crying aloud in any other than a figurative sense4 ,and when the ocean is said to lift up his hands1 and the sun and moon to stand still in their habitations1 the laws of experience forbid any but a figurative interpretation4 ,in the case of an allegory and all symbolic language1 the same rule applies with equal clearness and certainty4 ,in the example given1 it would be a violation of the laws of experience to conceive of a man as a tree with branches and a withered top4 ,hyperbole is readily distinguished by the same rule4 ,irony is known by its being contradictory to the known opinions of the writer4 ,thus there is never any difficulty in deciding when language is literal and when it is figurative in cases where men have the laws of experience by which to determine4 ,on the supposition of a revelation from the ,creator1 there must be subjects upon which mankind have had no experience1 such as the nature of the ,deity1 the character and circumstances of the invisible world and of its inhabitants4 ,on these subjects all language must be literal when the literal construction is not in contradiction to the known or implied opinion of the other declarations2 for on these subjects1 as the laws of experience can not regulate in deciding between figurative and literal language1 it is impossible to show any reason why words should not be literal except by comparison with the other statements of the same author4 ,if these show no reasons for supposing it figurative1 it must of necessity be considered as literal2 for if neither experience nor the writer's opinions oppose a literal meaning1 there is no cause why the ordinary and common signification of words should not be retained4 ,the next inquiry is1 ,how are we to ascertain the ideas which are to be attached to words that are used figuratively8 ,if the common ideas which are recalled by words are not the proper ones1 what are the data for knowing which are the ideas to be recalled8 ,the laws of association1 upon which language is founded1 furnish an adequate foundation for determining this question4 ,if language is such that a literal construction is contrary to the nature of things1 the words used figuratively must express something which has been connected with the object recalled by the literal signification1 either as cause or effect1 or as something which it resembles1 or as something it has been connected with as a part1 or by circumstances of time or place4 ,of course1 a process of reasoning will soon decide which of these must be selected4 ,take1 for example1 the expression1 ,streaming grief his faded cheek bedewed4 ,here1 as grief can not bedew the cheek1 it must be the name of something which has been connected with grief1 either by the principle of resemblance1 contiguity in time or place1 or by the relation of cause and effect4 ,it is easy to determine that it can not be either of these except the last4 ,tears are the effect of sorrow1 and are therefore called by this name4 ,the nature of the idea conveyed by the figurative term will show whether the cause or effect1 or some object related to it as it respects time1 place1 or resemblance1 is intended1 and no difficulty can ever occur in deciding4 ,in all cases this general rule avails3 when words are used figuratively1 such ideas as have been in any way connected with them are to be retained as will be consistent with the known nature of things1 and consistent with other assertions of the writer4 ,in regard to the literal use of language1 it has been shown that the same term is sometimes used for the name of the thing ordinarily expressed by it1 sometimes for its cause1 sometimes for its effect1 and sometimes as including all these ideas4 ,the rule for determining in which of these senses the term is used is the same as in regard to figurative language1 viz41 that signification must be attached to the term which is in agreement with experience as to the nature of things1 and with the other sentiments of the writer4 ,thus1 in relation to the example given of the term pride1 suppose a child is called the pride of its parents4 ,we know it can not mean the emotion of mind2 that it can not mean the effects of this state of mind2 and its only other meaning is found consistent with experience1 viz41 it is the cause or occasion of pride to its parents4 ,the same mode of reasoning can be applied to the other uses of the term4 ,if a man is said to feel pride1 there is but one meaning which can be attached to the term4 ,if it is said that the pride of the world passeth away1 it includes the whole1 and signifies that the causes of pride pass away1 and with them the emotions and the effects4 ,the following1 then1 are the clear and simple rules to employ in interpreting all language3 ,,laws ,,of ,,interpretation4 #a4 ,the literal1 ordinary meaning is to be given to all words1 unless it would express what is inconsistent with experience as to the nature of things1 or inconsistent with the opinions of the writer4 #b4 ,when the words in a sentence are capable of several literal meanings1 that is to be chosen which makes the writer most consistent with himself and with all known circumstances4 #c4 ,when the literal meaning expresses what is not consistent with the nature of things or with the writer's other declarations1 then the language is figurative1 and only such a part of the ideas as have been in any way connected with the words used are to be retained as will secure such consistency4 #d4 ,in deciding the meaning of words1 we are to be guided by the principles of common sense1 viz43 ,no meaning is to be given unless there is some evidence that it is true2 and1 when there is conflicting evidence1 that meaning is the true one which has the balance of evidence in its favor4 ,,addenda ,,to ,,vol4 ,i4 ,the second volume will commence with a description of the kind of evidence which sustains the ,bible as a collection of authentic and authoritative records of revelations from the ,creator4 ,this kind of evidence1 it will be shown1 in one grand feature is entirely diverse from any that ever existed1 or even that was ever claimed to exist in reference to any pretended revelations4 ,it will also be shown that this evidence is as strong and reliable as that which regulates men in their daily practical concerns4 ,this attempt the writer supposes to be1 in some respects1 peculiar1 and one that is particularly calculated to affect popular apprehension1 especially that of well-balanced and practical minds4 ,instead of a great array of detail and argument1 the whole will be contained in a very few pages1 easily comprehended1 and demanding but little time or effort4 ,in the next place1 the laws of interpretation1 and the principles of common sense as set forth in this volume1 will be applied to discover the answers of the ,sacred ,oracles to the great questions of life1 and their agreement with reason1 experience1 and the moral sense of mankind4 ,this will involve a discussion of the philosophical theories which it is believed have obscured and diminished the influence of the great ,atoning ,sacrifice of the ,great ,god our ,savior ,jesus ,christ4 ,the work will conclude with the practical application of the views set forth to the greatest of all human interests1 the right training of the human mind in infancy and childhood4 ,before offering to the public the topics to be embraced in the last volume1 it is deemed expedient to present the great principles on which all the discussions are to rest1 and also a fair illustration of the mode in which these principles will be applied4 ,the following is the illustrative example3 ,theological ,dogma of a ,depraved ,mental ,constitution4 ,in the preceding pages we have seen the evidence that the mind of man is perfect in its constitutional powers1 and is thus the chief and highest evidence of the wisdom1 justice1 and benevolence of its ,creator4 ,but the systems of theology in all the ,christian sects1 excepting a small fraction1 teach that the mind of man comes into existence in this world with a depraved nature2 meaning by this a mental constitution more or less depraved4 ,that this is the ordinary dogma of theological teachings is clear from this statement of the case4 ,a thing can be wrong in only two conceivable ways3 one is by its nature or original construction1 and the other is by its action4 ,the mind of man1 therefore1 if it is not perfect every way1 is either wrong in construction or wrong in action4 ,now no person ever claimed that the mind of man was not depraved in action1 and therefore all who teach that it is depraved any other way must teach that it is depraved in its constitution1 or in that nature it received from its ,maker1 for there are only these two modes of depravity conceivable4 ,it being granted1 then1 that the mind of our race is depraved in its nature1 of course the ,author of this nature is responsible for this inconceivable and wholesale wrong4 ,this forces us to the inevitable conclusion that the ,creator of mind is a being guilty of the highest conceivable folly1 injustice1 and malignity4 ,for reason and common sense teach that the nature of a contrivance is proof of the character and intention of its author4 ,therefore1 if mind is depraved in construction1 the ,author of it is a depraved being1 and totally unworthy of our trust1 respect1 or love4 ,this is the argument which1 in all ages1 has been pressed on those theologians who maintain the dogma of the depraved nature of man1 and there have been these various methods by which this difficulty has been evaded3 ,one class openly avow that the ,creator had power to make the mind of man perfect in all respects1 and that he has proved that he has this power by making the minds of angels and of our first parents thus perfect4 ,but1 in consequence of our first parents eating the forbidden fruit1 every mind created since that time has been ruined in the making1 so as to be totally depraved4 ,this1 it is maintained1 it was right for ,god to do4 ,how it was right we have no business to inquire4 ,it is an awful mystery2 but it was so done that ,god is in no way the author of sin4 ,this amounts simply to a denial of the principle of reason1 that the nature of a contrivance is proof of the intention and character of the contriver4 ,it is saying that the author of sin is not the author of sin4 ,this will be still farther apparent if we refer to page #aeh1 where is exhibited the only conceivable modes in which one being can be the cause of sin or of wrong action in others4 ,god is undisputably the author of all the outward circumstances that surround us4 ,if1 then1 he has made our susceptibilities wrong1 or combined them wrong1 he is the author of sin in every conceivable sense4 ,whoever1 therefore1 affirms that ,god is the author of a depraved mental organization of the human mind1 affirms that he is the author of sin in every conceivable sense4 ,to assert such a fact1 and then deny that ,god is the author of sin1 is simply a contradiction in terms4 ,to avoid this dilemma1 theologians have instituted the following theories3 ,the first class teach that the first pair of the human race were made with perfect minds1 and then stood as representatives of the race and sinned for the whole4 ,the first part of the penalty came on the actual sinners in the ruin of their own mental constitution1 and then1 all men being represented in ,adam and ,eve1 the ,creator imputed this sin to all their posterity1 and1 as a penalty1 all receive a depraved mental constitution4 ,that is to say1 though each of the unborn millions descended from ,adam was innocent of the crime1 in order to be just1 ,god imputes it to each1 and1 as a penalty1 ruins each in its organization1 when ,he has full power to make perfect minds4 ,another class assume that the ,creator established such a constitution of things that the nature of one mind is transmitted to all its myriad descendants1 by the same law as the nature of a plant is included in one seed and is transmitted to all of its future kind4 ,the first parents of our race1 receiving perfect minds from their ,creator1 ruined them by one act of disobedience4 ,then1 by the above law1 instituted by their ,maker1 they transmitted this depraved constitution of mind to all their descendants4 ,this mode of evading responsibility is about as honorable as if a teacher should so construct springs and traps for his pupils that one little fellow1 when forbidden to do it1 should touch a spring that should cut off his own hand1 and thus move other springs that would maim all the rest of the school1 while the master lays all the blame on the child that disobeyed4 ,another class teach that the first man and woman of the race were made with perfect minds1 and then such a constitution of things was instituted by ,god that every mind of the human race was so existing with or in them1 that when ,adam and ,eve voluntarily disobeyed the ,creator's first law1 every one of their descendants voluntarily did the same thing2 and then1 as a penalty for the deed1 the parent and every one of the embryo descendants became totally depraved4 ,this theory1 which makes every human being guilty of a crime thousands of years before we were born1 and for which we are suffering the most awful of all penalties1 has nearly passed away to the puerilities of the old schoolmen1 and yet there are some of the most popular professors in our largest and most respectable theological seminaries who are publicly advocating it at this very time4 ,another method promulgated is the assumption that all the race were originally created perfect1 and then1 while in the possession of every possible advantage for virtue and happiness1 they ruined themselves in a previous state of existence4 ,this is the only theory which really meets the difficulty1 and relieves the character of the ,creator from being the guilty author of depraved minds4 ,but this theory1 even if it could be established by revelation1 does not remedy the strong argument of reason and experience against the wisdom and benevolence of the ,creator1 on the assumption of a depraved constitution of mind4 ,the man denying a revelation1 who is called upon to receive one1 can say1 ,here is a race1 every one of whom is ruined1 and1 so far as ,i can see1 in the making of his mind by the ,creator4 ,therefore this ,creator1 by his works1 is shown to be a being of infinite folly and malignity1 from whom no reliable revelation is possible4 ,granting the mind to be depraved1 the light of reason inevitably guides to a weak or malevolent ,creator4 ,to illustrate this1 suppose a man is seen manufacturing beautiful porcelain vases1 and out of the clay of the same lump1 as he makes them1 he spoils every one1 cracking1 marring1 and defacing them in the very process of manufacture4 ,now suppose this person should turn to a witness1 and offer to instruct him in the best way of doing things1 what would be the common-sense reply8 ,exactly that which would be due to a ,creator who has ruined every mind he sent into this world1 and then proposes to reveal the right way for those ruined creatures to act6 ,another illustration may be permitted4 ,suppose a colony1 by some mischance1 settles on an isolated island1 which is found covered with the tobacco plant4 ,they clear their plantations1 but find that1 by a remarkable and unintelligible arrangement1 after every shower there is a fall of tobacco seeds1 disseminated from an inaccessible height by a machine erected for the purpose and constantly supplied4 ,after some years1 they receive a missive from the king to whom the island belongs1 in which he informs them that tobacco is the chief object of his detestation2 that it is doing incalculable mischief to his subjects2 that it is the chief end of his life1 and he wishes it to be of theirs1 to exterminate the plant1 and thus its use4 ,he1 at the same time1 states that he is the author of the contrivance for scattering the seed1 and that he keeps it constantly supplied1 and claims that he has a right to do what he will with his own1 without being questioned by his subjects4 ,he then enacts that any person who is found to use tobacco1 or even to have a single seed or plant on his premises1 shall be burned alive in a caldron of fire and brimstone4 ,if1 in addition to this1 that king were to command supreme love to him1 and perfect confidence in his wisdom1 justice1 and goodness1 all this would but faintly illustrate that awful system under consideration1 whose penalties are eternal4 ,the assumption that the constitution of mind is depraved not only destroys the evidence of the ,creator's wisdom and benevolence by the light of reason1 but destroys the possibility of a credible and reliable revelation from him4 ,for the belief in the existence of a ,god is dependent on an intuitive truth1 while his character is understood1 without a revelation1 only by the aid of that intuitive truth which teaches that the nature of his works proves his character and designs4 ,now if his greatest work1 the immortal mind1 that which alone gives any value to his other works1 is malformed1 and thus made the cause of all the misery1 crime1 and evil of this life1 what is there to give any foundation for confidence that his revelations will not be false1 pernicious1 and malignant8 ,no man can start with the assumption that there is a revelation from the ,creator that needs no proof4 ,the only basis for such a revelation is that intuitive truth by the aid of which miracles and prophecy become evidences of the interposition of the ,creator4 ,thus we perceive that the proof that the author of a depraved constitution of mind is a depraved being1 is as strong as the evidence of a revelation by miracles and prophecy can be4 ,in regard to these theories1 and in regard to the dogma of theology which they are instituted to explain1 it is claimed that both reason and the ,bible equally forbid each and all of them4 ,it has already been shown1 in ,chapters xxii4 and xxiii41 that all the evidence of reason and experience goes to prove that the mind of man is perfect in its organization4 ,we have only to inquire1 then1 in regard to the evidence claimed to be found in revelations from the ,creator4 ,before examining this evidence1 it is important to notice the distinction between revealed facts and the theories invented to explain them4 ,the fact1 which both experience and revelation agree in teaching1 is that man1 as a race1 is guilty and depraved in action1 and that from the earliest periods of life this depraved action is manifested4 ,the theories relate to the cause of this wrong action1 and there are only two4 ,the first theory is1 that the constitution of mind is perfect1 and that the wrong action results from a want of experience1 knowledge1 right habits1 right training1 and right social influences4 ,the second theory is1 that the constitution of mind is depraved1 and that its wrong action is the inevitable result of this wrong construction4 ,then come the theories in reference to the cause of this assumed malformation of mind4 ,there are only two ever assigned1 viz41 ,god and man3 ,god by creation1 and man by sinning in ,adam or before ,adam in a pre-existent state4 ,by those who ascribe the deed to ,god1 it is claimed that he perpetrated this wholesale wrong to our race in one of two ways1 viz41 either by the direct miscreation of each mind at or near the time of birth1 or by creating such a constitution of things that by one wrong act the first pair transmitted1 from parent to child1 through the whole race1 a vitiated and depraved mental constitution4 ,we now resort to the ,bible to ascertain what are its teachings on this subject4 ,in the first place1 then1 we find a constant recognition of the fact of a depraved action of mind1 and that this commences at the earliest period of life4 ,on this1 as a revealed fact1 there is no debate4 ,next1 in regard to the theories instituted to account for this fact4 ,here we shall only discuss the commonly accepted theory of the ,christian world1 and leave the other for the future volume4 ,the main reliance for the support of the common theory of a miscreated mind is found in ,genesis1 chapters i4 and v41 which1 it is claimed1 teaches1 in the first place1 that ,god could and did create the first human pair with minds perfectly organized1 and1 next1 that after they sinned1 their descendants came into life with a depraved mental constitution4 ,the passages read thus3 ,gen41 i41 #bf1 #bg3 ,and ,god said1 ',let us make man in our image1 after our likeness4' ,so ,god created man in his own image2 in the image of ,god created he him1 male and female created he them4 ,gen41 v41 #c3 ,and ,adam begat a son in his own likeness1 after his image1 and called his name ,seth4 ,the whole question in these passages turns on the meaning of the words image and likeness4 ,now the only conceptions possible of the image or likeness of a human mind to its spiritual ,creator are1 first1 resemblance in its constitutional powers of intellect1 susceptibility1 and will1 and1 next1 resemblance in the action of these faculties4 ,that man is the image and likeness of his ,maker in constitutional powers is clear1 because we can not have any conception of the ,creator but as of a mind like our own1 infinite in the extent of such capacities4 ,this1 then1 is one respect in which the first pair could be in the image or likeness to ,god4 ,the other only conceivable respect in which they could resemble their ,creator is by their own voluntary action1 and this can not be conceived of as created4 ,man is the sole producing cause 7see page #aeh7 of his own voluntary acts1 which alone decide moral character4 ,should ,god create these1 man would cease to be their author and cease to be a free agent4 ,it is thus manifest that a mind can be created in the image of ,god1 so far as we can conceive1 only in its constitutional powers of intellect1 susceptibility1 and will4 ,this being established as the meaning of the word when it is said that ,adam begat ,seth in his own image1 if it has reference to the mind alone1 or chiefly1 then it means that the mental organization of the child was like the parent's1 and thus like the ,creator's4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 the chief passages which are supposed to bear on this subject are in ,romans1 chapter v4 ,these are the main texts3 ,verse #ab3 ,wherefore as by one man sin entered into the world1 and death by sin1 and so death passed upon all men for that all have sinned4 ,verse #ai3 ,for as by one man's disobedience many were made sinners1 so by the obedience of one shall many be made righteous4 ,here we again are to discriminate between facts and theories4 ,the facts here stated are1 that by one man sin entered into the world1 and death by sin2 that death comes on all men because all sin2 and that by one man's disobedience many were made sinners4 ,then come the theories as to the mode by which many were made sinners by the sin of one man4 ,here the ,bible is silent4 ,but theologians have manufactured the theory that when ,adam sinned the constitution of his mind was changed1 and then that this nature was transmitted to his descendants4 ,all this is without a word of proof4 ,others have assumed that all mankind were existing in ,adam1 and sinned in him1 and fell with him1 which is both unintelligible1 and equally without support from the ,bible4 ,these1 it is believed1 are all ever claimed as direct ,scripture evidence of a depraved constitution of mind consequent on ,adam's sin4 ,two other passages are quoted as having an indirect bearing on this subject4 ,they are as follows3 #b ,peter1 ii41 #d3 ,for if ,god spared not the angels that sinned1 but cast them down to hell1 and delivered them into chains of darkness to be reserved unto judgment-- ,jude1 #f verse3 ,and the angels which kept not their first estate1 but left their own habitation1 he hath reserved in everlasting chains under darkness unto the judgment of the great day4 ,in regard to these passages1 we are to notice1 as before1 first1 the facts revealed1 and1 next1 the theories instituted in regard to them4 ,the facts are1 that there are two classes of angels1 those that have sinned and those that have not2 that those that sinned kept not their first estate1 but left their habitations2 that ,god cast them down to hell1 and that they are reserved in chains of darkness unto the judgment of the great day4 ,these are all the facts disclosed4 ,not a word is said as to the cause or reason why some sinned and some did not1 nor as to the mode or manner by which these events were brought about4 ,here the theories come in4 ,those who maintain the depravity of the human mental constitution frame their theory on these passages thus3 ,it is here taught that there are a class of minds that have never sinned4 ,there must be a cause for this diversity from man's experience4 ,this cause is a perfect mental constitution4 ,this1 it is seen1 is a mere assumption1 without a word of proof from the passages quoted6 ,what is quite as remarkable is1 that this theory is maintained in the face of the concession that both ,adam and the fallen angels were as well endowed as the unsinning angels in regard to mental constitution1 and yet that they all sinned just as the descendants of ,adam have done4 ,this dogma has been sustained by certain misconceptions that should be considered4 ,the first is in the use of the term nature4 ,as this word is ordinarily used1 it signifies that constitution1 received from the ,author of all things1 which makes certain results or effects invariable4 ,thus1 when a fountain invariably sends forth bitter waters1 it is called its nature to do so2 when a tree invariably produces bitter fruit1 this is called its nature4 ,now if it was a fact that the human mind never acted right1 but invariably wrong1 it would be proper to apply this term1 and to say that in its nature it was totally depraved4 ,but this is not the fact4 ,sin is a transgression of law1 and every child1 from the first1 sometimes obeys and sometimes disobeys the physical1 social1 and moral laws of ,god4 ,no child ever invariably breaks them1 but sometimes obeys and sometimes disobeys4 ,but theologians have mystified the subject by assuming the very thing to be proved1 and then reasoning in a circle4 ,thus they assume1 not only without1 but contrary to evidence1 that all human minds invariably act wrong from the first2 therefore there must be a cause1 and this cause is the nature received1 directly or indirectly1 from the ,creator4 ,then they assume that1 as every mind is totally depraved in its nature1 it can no more produce holy acts than a corrupt tree can produce good fruit1 or a bitter fountain send forth sweet waters4 ,another misconception which has embarrassed this subject has arisen from the supposition that it is irreverent1 and contrary to the ,bible1 to allow any limitation to almighty power1 even in the nature of things4 ,but it can be clearly shown that every person who maintains that there is a ,creator who is perfect in wisdom and benevolence1 does1 by this assertion1 maintain that very limitation to which the objection is made4 ,this is shown by means of accurate definitions4 ,thus perfect wisdom is that which adapts the best possible means to the best possible ends4 ,perfect benevolence is that which produces the greatest possible good with the least possible evil4 ,that is to say1 a ,creator who is perfect in wisdom and goodness has done the best that possibly can be done for the great universe of mind in all its infinite and eternal relations4 ,this being so1 certainly ,he has no power to do better4 ,the only way this is evaded is by using different words that mean the same thing1 and then refusing to define these words1 or to accept exact definitions of them from others4 ,the infidel1 who allows a ,god of perfect goodness and wisdom1 and the strict ,calvinist1 who is shocked at hearing that ,god has no power to make a better system1 or one that has less of evil1 say the very same thing themselves1 only in more vague and misty modes of expression4 ,they1 therefore1 are precluded from objecting to positions that involve such a limitation1 when it is the very one which they themselves assume4 ,to affirm that almighty power can make black white and yet black at the same time1 or a straight line crooked and still straight1 even the strictest upholders of the extent of almighty power would hesitate to affirm1 because they are contradictions and absurdities4 ,but they teach equal contradictions who claim that a mind can be created with knowledge1 habits1 and experience1 when it has had neither instruction1 training1 or experience4 ,instead of claiming these absurdities as included in our ideas of this attribute of ,deity1 we are rather to assume that by almighty power is signified a power to do all things except contradictions and absurdities4 ,thus has been presented what is claimed as the evidence in the ,bible in favor of a depraved mental constitution in the human race1 and it is maintained that it amounts to nothing at all4 ,this being so1 then we appeal to the principle of reason and common sense 7p4 #be71 that nothing is to be assumed as true unless there is some evidence that it is so4 ,moreover1 in ,chapters xxii4 and xxiii4 is exhibited the evidence of reason and experience that the human mind is perfectly organized1 and thus the highest evidence of its ,maker's wisdom and benevolence4 ,so we can again appeal to another principle of reason1 that we are to consider that right which has the balance of evidence in its favor4 ,if there is no evidence to prove the mind of man depraved in organization1 and all the evidence of reason and experience is in favor of its perfect organization1 is it not to be assumed that it is thus perfect8 ,to this might be added the teachings of the ,bible in the same direction4 ,but this is deferred to the future volume4 ,in the present illustrative example1 the aim is simply to exhibit the fallacy of one of the theological theories that has been incorporated as a part of the teachings of the ,bible1 thus lessening the respect and confidence accorded to it1 and impeding the true religious development of our race4 ,how it has happened that a dogma1 which is so contrary to the moral feelings and the common sense of man1 and1 at the same time1 unsupported by revelation1 should have become so incorporated with the teachings of the ,christian ,church1 will be set forth in the next article4 ,history of the ,dogma4 ,the history of the dogma of the depraved constitution of the human mind imparted directly or indirectly by the creative agency of its ,maker has become a matter of profound interest4 ,so far as appears1 theories on the philosophy of religion did not agitate the apostolic age4 ,christianity first spread among the humbler classes4 ,they felt that they were sinful and miserable in the present life1 and looked with dread and dismay to the dark passage of the grave and the destinies to follow4 ,they were taught to believe on the ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 and that thus they would become good and happy now and forever4 ,this they understood to mean1 not a mere intellectual conviction1 but a practical faith1 in which ,christ was received as their supreme ,lord and teacher by conforming their feelings and conduct to his teachings4 ,but1 after a while1 the philosophers and rulers became ,christians1 and then commenced the two grand evils3 first1 the theories of philosophy1 and1 next1 the enforcing of these theories by pains and penalties4 ,about ,a4,d4 #djj commenced the discussion of the theory under consideration4 ,pelagius1 a learned and devout man of ,great ,britain1 aided by his friend ,celcius1 promulgated the common-sense views on the nature of mind derived from reason and experience1 mainly as set forth in this volume1 and claimed that these views were sustained by the teachings of the ,old and ,new ,testament4 ,he and his friend traveled and disseminated these views in ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,africa1 ,italy1 and ,palestine1 over which ,christianity to a great extent prevailed4 ,the celebrated ,augustine1 a man of great goodness1 talents1 and learning1 became their leading antagonist4 ,he set forth the philosophical theories afterward adopted and taught by ,calvin in the form which is now denominated the system of ,high ,calvinism4 ,this system starts with the assumption 7without proof7 that the ,creator could form mind on a more perfect model than that of our race1 and that he proved it by forming the minds of angels and of our first parents on this pattern4 ,but1 as a penalty for one act of disobedience by them1 first their own mental constitution was vitiated4 ,next1 in the language of standard ,calvinists1 ,such as man was after the fall1 such children did he beget2 corruption1 by the righteous judgment of ,god1 being derived from ,adam to his posterity1 not by imitation1 but by the propagation of a vicious nature4 ,wherefore all men are conceived in sin1 and are born children of wrath2 unfit for every good connected with salvation2 prone to evil1 dead in sins1 and1 without the ,holy ,spirit regenerating them1 they neither will nor can return to ,god1 amend their depraved nature1 nor dispose themselves for its amendment4 ,men being thus terribly incapacitated for right action1 so that they have no power to amend their depraved nature1 nor even to dispose themselves for its amendment1 the whole race became liable not only to the pains and penalties of sin through this life1 but to eternal and hopeless misery beyond the grave4 ,nor could any one of the race do a single thing to escape this doom1 or to induce the ,author of their ,being to pity or help them4 ,instead of this1 a certain portion of the race were elected by ,god to be restored to the state from which their first parents fell by the ,holy ,spirit regenerating them1 while all the rest were left to eternal torments1 to illustrate ,god's justice and hatred of sin6 ,moreover1 whoever was thus elected was sure to persevere4 ,these tenets are usually called the five points of ,calvinism1 viz41 original sin1 total depravity1 election1 regeneration1 and saints' perseverance4 ,pelagius denied that there was any difference between the mental constitution of ,adam and his descendants1 or any other connection between his and their sins than always exists between the sins of children and those of their parents4 ,of course1 the vitiated nature imparted directly or indirectly by ,god1 and the tenets based on it1 were denied by him4 ,at this period all matters of doctrine were settled by ecclesiastical councils4 ,the first council on this matter was in ,africa1 and1 led by ,augustine1 they condemned the views of ,pelagius4 ,the two next councils were in ,palestine1 and both sustained his teachings4 ,next1 in ,italy1 the ,pope1 then at the early period of pontifical power1 first sustained ,pelagius1 but finally1 by the exertions of ,augustine and his party1 was led to condemn him with the greatest severity4 ,finally1 the emperors were enlisted against him with their civil pains and penalties4 ,the result was1 ,pelagius and his followers suffered the perils and miseries of civil and ecclesiastical persecution4 ,and thus1 says the historian1 the ,gauls1 ,britons1 and ,africans by their councils1 and the emperors by their edicts1 demolished this sect in its infancy1 and suppressed it entirely4 ,it is very probable that1 if ,pelagius had had the power and adroitness of ,augustine1 the edicts of emperors and decrees of councils would have maintained his views1 and those of ,augustine would have gone into obscurity4 ,but ever since that day the organized power of the ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,protestant churches have been arrayed to sustain the theories thus inaugurated4 ,but the common sense and the moral nature of man have maintained a feeble but ceaseless warfare against the tenets of the ,augustinian and ,calvinistic creed1 while now this conflict of ages is invigorated by the intervention of a new power4 ,the authority of councils1 popes1 and emperors is on the wane1 while the people are fast advancing to that position of umpires in the moral and religious world which they have gained in the political4 ,in this long and unequal struggle1 the principal actors since the days of ,pelagius have been1 in the first place1 ,arminius at the time of the ,reformation4 ,while maintaining the foundation dogma of a depraved mental constitution consequent upon ,adam's sin1 he strove to give some slight feature of humanity and tenderness to the consequent system by maintaining that there was some way in which man1 in spite of his ruined nature1 could attain some right feeling and action acceptable to his ,creator1 and tending in some degree to remedy the dreadful calamity inflicted on the race4 ,the historian thus narrates3 ,after the appointment of ,arminius to the theological chair at ,leyden 7,university71 he thought it his duty to avow and vindicate the principles which he had embraced1 and the freedom with which he published and defended them exposed him to the resentment of those that adhered to the theological system of ,geneva 7,calvinistic71 which prevailed in ,holland4 ,the ,arminian doctrines gained ground under the mild and favorable treatment of the magistrates of ,holland1 and were adopted by several persons of merit and distinction4 ,the ,calvinists appealed to a national synod4 ,accordingly1 the ,synod of ,dort was convened 7by the ,states-,general71 and was composed of ecclesiastical deputies from the ,united ,provinces1 as well as from the ,reformed churches of ,england1 ,hessia1 ,bremen1 ,switzerland1 and the ,palatinate4 ,it was first proposed to discuss the principal subjects in dispute1 and that the ,arminians should be allowed to state and vindicate the grounds on which their opinions were founded4 ,but some difference arising as to the proper course of conducting the debate1 the ,arminians were excluded from the assembly1 their case was tried in their absence1 and they were pronounced guilty of pestilential errors1 and condemned as corrupters of the true religion6 ,in consequence of this decision1 the ,arminians were considered as enemies to their country and its established religion1 and were much persecuted4 ,they were treated with great severity1 deprived of all their posts and employments1 their ministers silenced1 and their congregations suppressed4 ,the great ,barnevelt was beheaded1 and the learned ,grotius fled and took refuge in ,france4 ,thus it is seen that1 while ,pelagius and his followers were wasted by persecution in the commencement of the ,calvinistic system under ,augustine1 the attempt to soften its hard features by ,arminius was put down by the same method4 ,but1 in spite of all such opposition1 ,arminianism gained ground1 and the ,arminian and ,calvinistic systems have existed side by side in most ,protestant communions4 ,in the ,church of ,england1 and formerly in the ,methodist churches1 these two parties have existed4 ,so in the ,presbyterian1 ,congregational1 and ,baptist churches1 there has always been a division in reference to the tenets of ,calvinism1 some holding them strictly according to ,augustine and ,calvin1 and others more or less modifying their sterner features by various theories and expositions4 ,the main point of difference between these two classes is in reference to that most disheartening and deplorable tenet of men's entire inability to amend their depraved nature1 or even to dispose themselves for its amendment4 ,the strict ,calvinist maintains that the mind of man is so entirely ruined in its nature that no one but the ,author of mind can rectify it1 while he can in no way be moved to this act of mercy 7justice87 by any thing the unrenewed creature can do4 ,the ,arminian sects hold that1 though the natural man is utterly incapable of any acceptable moral action in himself1 yet1 through the atonement of ,jesus ,christ1 he is endowed with a gracious supernatural ability1 by which he can accept the offers of salvation4 ,this1 it is supposed1 is a statement that most ,arminians would accept as expressing their views4 ,in our own country1 the earliest leader of an attempt to modify the ,calvinistic system was the celebrated metaphysician1 ,jonathan ,edwards4 ,while maintaining1 as did ,arminius1 the foundation theory of an utterly depraved mental constitution of the race as a penalty for the first act of disobedience1 he first labored to prove this penalty to be just1 inasmuch as in some mysterious way the whole race existed in ,adam1 and sinned just as he did1 thus becoming the authors of their own mental ruin and incapacity4 ,and inasmuch as our moral nature revolts from the infliction of penalties for not doing what there is no power to do1 he originated a metaphysical theory to this effect3 that1 in spite of the injury resulting from this first sin of the whole race1 there is full power and obligation in every human being to obey all that the laws of ,god demanded1 but that man is unwilling instead of unable4 ,this unwillingness is the result of that first sin of the race2 and so great is its pertinacity1 that no man ever did or ever will feel or act right in a single case1 from the beginning to the end of life1 until regenerated by the ,holy ,spirit4 ,neither will they do any thing to amend their depraved nature1 or to dispose themselves to its amendment2 nor will any man1 before regeneration by the ,holy ,spirit1 do a single thing that has even any tendency to gain this ,divine aid1 but it is all dependent on sovereign1 unconditional election4 ,still worse1 the more efforts an unrenewed man makes to love and obey ,god1 the more wicked he grows1 because he is voluntarily resisting increased light and obligation in refusing to regenerate himself1 which1 on this theory1 he had full power to do4 ,as it respects ,god1 this theory1 indeed1 relieves his character very essentially2 but as to affording any comfort to man1 it only adds a new thorn to wound sensitive consciences4 ,for no man could possibly help feeling that when1 according to ,high ,calvinism1 he had no power at all to do right1 he was relieved from some portion of obligation1 even if1 six thousand years ago1 he did join ,adam in that sinful repast4 ,but ,president ,edwards and his followers took away this small alleviation1 and put the whole blame entirely on the depraved and guilty creature1 both for the ruin of the fall and the refusal to remedy the evil4 ,this attempt to prove that ,god does not require men to perform what they have no power to do1 has been regarded as a most terrific heresy by the strict ,calvinist1 while for nearly a hundred years ,new ,england and the whole ,presbyterian ,church have been agitated by it4 ,again and again1 some of the wisest and best of their clergy have been arraigned for this heresy1 with the threatened or inflicted penalty of loss of character1 profession1 and daily bread for themselves and their families4 ,three times the author has seen a revered parent thus arraigned4 ,and in these ecclesiastical trials1 she has herself heard otherwise sensible persons maintaining that men were required by their ,maker to do what they had no power of any kind to do1 under the penalty of eternal damnation1 and that it was a dangerous heresy to maintain that ,god did not thus require it4 ,another attempt to modify the ,augustinian dogma is found in the work entitled ,the ,conflict of ,ages1 by the ,rev4 ,edward ,beecher4 ,the theory there presented was first started by the great and learned ,origen in the third century1 and has been advocated by individuals ever since4 ,it assumes the entire and fatal depravity of the mental organization1 but relieves the ,creator of all blame by assuming that every human mind was created with a perfect mental organization1 and placed in the most favorable circumstances possible in a pre-existent state2 and yet the same sad results then occurred as our race are approaching1 viz41 the existence of two classes of minds1 the holy and the sinful4 ,meantime this world was prepared as a merciful arrangement to afford a second probation to those who ruined themselves in the pre-existent state4 ,this theory entirely relieves the ,creator of all blame1 but gives no other help or comfort to the miserable race of man4 ,it certainly is a comfort to feel that our ,maker is not a being who ruins his creatures in the very process of creation1 and then exposes them to eternal1 hopeless misery as the consequence of it4 ,but whoever believes this pre-existent theory takes the load of a guilty conscience for all he considers as wrong in his own mental constitution1 and for all the dreadful consequences4 ,these several theories all were originated to escape from the inevitable deduction of reason1 that ,god1 as the author of a depraved constitution of mind1 is himself depraved4 ,and yet neither of them avails but one of the two pre-existent theories1 that makes man himself the author of this ruin of his own mind1 either in ,adam or before ,adam1 while neither of these is supported either by reason or revelation4 ,moreover1 neither of these theories could be established by revelation for want of means to prove a revelation to beings who find themselves endowed with miscreated minds1 as has been shown on pages #bhg and #bhh of this volume4 ,another effort to change the hard features of ,calvinism was by the ,new ,haven school of theologians4 ,these gentlemen maintained that a holy nature and a sinful nature were not what could be created1 inasmuch as all sin implies a knowledge of what a morally right choice is and power to make such a choice1 while it consists not at all in a wrong nature or constitution1 but solely in wrong voluntary action4 ,this is precisely what1 as the author supposes1 was the doctrine of ,pelagius in opposition to that of ,augustine1 and for the propagation of which1 popes1 emperors1 and councils drove ,pelagius and his followers from their churches4 ,a similar penalty seemed for a while to await the ,new ,haven innovators2 for1 as professors in a theological seminary connected with the most influential university in the nation1 their doctrine on this subject occasioned a controversy that agitated all the ,new ,england as well as the ,presbyterian churches4 ,at the same time1 an earnest controversy was in progress with the ,unitarian sect1 which had adopted this tenet of ,pelagius as a part of their creed4 ,of course1 the charge1 both of ,pelagianism and ,unitarianism1 was rife all over the land against these innovators on the established creed of the churches4 ,to meet this1 these gentlemen maintained that they had not essentially departed from the system of ,new ,england divinity as exhibited in the writings of ,president ,edwards4 ,thus they had two labors to perform--the one to maintain the doctrine that sin consisted solely in wrong action and not at all in nature1 and the other to show that in this they did not differ from ,edwards4 ,in attempting the first1 at one time and another1 they have maintained that mankind since the fall are as truly created in ,god's image as ,adam was2 that the nature of man is still like the nature of ,god2 that a corrupt1 depraved1 or unholy nature can not be affirmed of the human mind in any proper use of these terms4 ,the inquiry1 then1 must arise1 in many minds that are familiar with the writings of ,president ,edwards1 how it is possible that men so intelligent and so honest should maintain that on this subject they had not departed from the system of ,new ,england divinity as exhibited by ,edwards4 ,to the author this enigma is solved by the character of ,edwards's writings1 which1 like those of many other metaphysicians who hold theories contrary to common sense1 are contradictory and inconsistent4 ,thus it is seen that one class of very acute minds find in ,edwards's ,treatise on the ,will the most complete exposition and defense of fatalism1 and thus the author regards it4 ,another class1 equally acute1 claim this same essay as a full exposition and defense of the contrary doctrine of free agency4 ,the ,augustinian theory of a totally depraved mind1 transmitted through the ,catholic ,church to its reformed offsets1 was received by ,edwards4 ,he perceived that if ,god was the cause of this depravity1 he is the author of sin1 and so he labored to prove that all mankind sinned in ,adam and fell with him1 and thus caused their own depravity4 ,he perceived1 too1 that requiring men to originate holy acts with a totally depraved nature seemed to demand what they had no power to perform1 and thus made ,god unjust4 ,so he brought forth his ,treatise on the ,will to prove that man had a natural ability to obey ,god1 and a moral inability2 and so at once he established fatalism to one class of minds1 and free agency to another4 ,thus it is that the ,new ,haven divines find language in ,edwards that sustains their views1 while their antagonists find as much1 or more1 that condemns them4 ,the ancient followers of ,pelagius1 the modern ,unitarians1 and the leaders of the ,new ,haven school of divines1 all hold exactly the position set forth in this work of the perfect organization of the human mind1 while the only depravity maintained by them is that of voluntary action4 ,at the same time1 it is believed that but a very small portion of the younger clergy of any theological school in ,new ,england1 or in a large portion of the ,presbyterian churches1 would openly avow a belief in the depraved mental constitution of man as created by ,god1 either directly at or near birth1 or indirectly by hereditary transmission4 ,it is interesting1 yet sad1 to trace the dominant influence of the ,augustinian theory of a depraved mental constitution in originating most of the leading sects of the present ,christian world4 ,man being assumed to be thus miserably miscreated1 and his sole hope being the gift of the ,holy ,ghost to recreate1 the priesthood soon claimed to be the only medium through which this gift could pass2 and having the eternal life and death of the soul in their hands1 they speedily thus gained that domestic1 civil1 and religious power which made the papal hierarchy the most tremendous tyranny that earth ever witnessed4 ,the question of the transmission of this power through properly ordained persons was the chief feature of the ,episcopal organization4 ,most of the other large sects in this country are descended from the ,puritans1 who1 as it appears1 were the first to institute a church as consisting solely of persons who profess to be regenerated on the theory of the renewal of a misformed or depraved mind4 ,the ,greek1 ,roman1 ,episcopal1 ,scotch1 and ,european ,protestants recognize no such organization1 all being born into the ,church2 and this seems to have been the case in the first churches of the ,new ,testament1 where parents and their families1 and all who joined their communities1 were considered as constituting the ,christian ,church1 whether regenerated or not4#d ,so1 in the ,jewish ,church1 all who submitted to the initiatory rite were members1 without respect to religious attainments in character4 ,this new principle of organization1 originating with the ,puritans1 is retained among most sects in this nation1 and is the foundation of their separate organizations4 ,thus the ,baptists are separated on the question of the mode of administering the rite of admission to this ,church4 ,the ,presbyterians and ,congregationalists separate on the question of appointing the officers of this organization4 ,the ,methodists are an offset from the ,episcopal ,church1 with reference chiefly to modes of bringing men into their ,church4 ,all agree that it is regenerate persons alone who are fully members of this organization4 ,there are diversities of opinion as to the relation of baptized children to this body1 but none allow them to be admitted to its distinctive ordinance except they profess to be regenerated4 ,it is a matter for interesting conjecture as to the probable results on ,christendom had the theory of ,pelagius been established by pope1 emperor1 and councils instead of that of ,augustine4 ,in that case we may suppose that the efforts and energies of the churches1 instead of to these rites and forms1 would have been mainly directed to the right training of the human mind in obedience to all the physical1 domestic1 social1 and moral laws of the ,creator4 ,instead of instituting two standards of right and wrong1 the common and the evangelical1 as is now so generally done1 children would have been taught that all that was just1 honorable1 benevolent1 and lovely in their feelings and conduct was as acceptable and right to ,god as it is to men4 ,their parents1 instead of that sense of helpless inability resulting from the belief that their little ones could feel and do nothing but sin until new mental powers were given1 and that the gift was bestowed by the rule of sovereign election1 would have felt that every successful effort to cultivate all lovely and right habits and feelings was advancing their offspring nearer to ,god and their heavenly home1 and that1 when their wisdom failed1 the promise of the ,comforter was given to encourage them in this great work4 ,thus they would expect their children to become new creatures in ,christ ,jesus by the combined influence of the heavenly and earthly parents gradually transforming their ignorance and selfishness to knowledge and benevolence4 ,that the theory of ,augustine1 originally established in the ,christian churches by pains and penalties1 is still sustained there by such influences1 is apparent from these facts4 ,although there is a large amount of real virtue and piety that is not within the pale of any sectarian organization1 yet the vast majority of conscientious persons are either enrolled in the ,church1 or intimately connected with it in principle and feeling4 ,all this intellectual and moral power is organized into various denominations1 each controlled and led by a number of highly-educated1 conscientious1 and religious men4 ,with these denominations are connected high positions in the pulpit1 with great influence and liberal salaries2 literary institutions1 with posts of honor and competency2 and theological seminaries that are the central ecclesiastical mainsprings of influence4 ,then there are connected with each denomination large voluntary associations for benevolent purposes1 with officers who control large pecuniary means4 ,finally1 each sect has its quarterlies1 monthlies1 and its religious newspapers1 whose editors are speaking every day to the minds of thousands and hundreds of thousands4 ,now it is a fact that this vast array of wealth1 position1 influence1 and ecclesiastical power is actually combined to sustain these theological theories4 ,so much is this the case1 that a minister1 theological professor1 president of a college1 secretary of a benevolent society1 or editor of a periodical or newspaper1 could not openly deny this ,augustinian tenet but under penalty of the loss of reputation1 position1 influence1 and the income that sustains himself and family4 ,our largest and best theological seminaries demand an avowal of belief in this dogma as a condition of holding any professorship1 and in some of them it must be renewed by all the professors every few years4 ,at the same time1 this dogma of a depraved mental constitution transmitted from ,adam is inwrought into all the standard works of theology1 the sermons1 the prayers1 the sacred poetry1 the popular literature1 and even the ,sunday-school and family literature of childhood4 ,the power of such influences is intensified by the present stringency of sectarian organization4 ,by those who have marked the tendencies of the religious world1 it will be remembered that1 at the time the associations for religious benevolence began their great work1 all sects seemed to be harmonizing and uniting in the efforts to send ,bibles1 tracts1 and missionaries to the destitute4 ,at this period1 the questions that separated ,christians in reference to modes of ordination1 baptism1 and church officers1 seemed to disappear as matters of small moment among all whose great aim was to save the lost of every name and nation4 ,but1 while this served to liberalize the feelings and opinions of good men in all sects1 it soon became apparent to the leaders that1 if these tendencies were not counteracted1 the sects would all come together4 ,if this should happen1 where would be all the great machinery that was supported by these several denominations for their distinctive aims8 ,soon the tide turned1 and1 though now there is less sectarian bitterness1 and most sects can allow each other to be ,christians with different names and badges1 yet each is active for its own separate interests more decidedly than ever4 ,and now the leading concern of each denomination seems to be1 to increase its own separate churches1 schools1 colleges1 theological seminaries1 religious periodicals1 and benevolent associations1 not because the salvation of the lost depends on these distinctive matters1 but chiefly as modes of increasing the extent1 respectability1 and influence of their sect4 ,in order to do this1 the importance of the points which divide each from the other must be magnified2 for if there is but a trifling difference between an ,old ,school and ,new ,school ,church1 or a ,baptist1 ,congregational1 or a ,presbyterian1 then1 in small places1 and especially in our new settlements1 all these would unite in one large1 harmonious church1 that could properly support all its own ordinances1 and send of its surplus to supply the destitute4 ,on the contrary1 if these differences are magnified1 there will be two1 three1 or four small churches1 all contending with each other1 poorly supporting their own ordinances1 and1 instead of helping the destitute1 sending to other churches of their own sect for help4 ,thus it is that we see vast sums raised every year to multiply these needless1 weak1 and militant churches all over the land4 ,there are facts on this subject that should be deeply pondered4#e ,so in regard to education2 although intelligence has diminished the acerbity of sectarianism1 it has led to a higher appreciation of educational institutions as an element of sectarian influence and respectability4 ,from this has come the struggle to multiply colleges and female seminaries in each of the several denominations4 ,each is now acting as a sect in starting new institutions all over the land1 that demand immense investments for buildings1 apparatus1 and endowments1 and this without reference to the actual wants of the community4 ,for example1 in ,indiana1 where the low state of common school education makes such institutions least patronized1 there are eleven endowed institutions1 with an aggregate income from these endowments of #ad1jjj per annum1 besides tuition4 ,in ,ohio there are twenty-six colleges and professional schools1 with an annual income from endowments of #be1jjj2 and yet1 as appears in the public prints1 #ajj1jjj has been subscribed in one city in this same state to start another college for the ,old ,school ,presbyterians1 who are expected to raise as much more among that sect4 ,besides endowments to support teachers1 vast sums are expended in buildings1 some of which are standing unused for the purpose for which the money to build them was given4 ,this is a fair specimen of what is transpiring in most of the other states in raising new institutions or increasing the funds of those already started4 ,in this way1 two1 three1 and four colleges are often found as competitors in a section that could properly patronize scarcely one4 ,after each sect has thus reared an institution1 it must then struggle to find pupils1 and thus multitudes of young boys1 who are to go into future pursuits where such knowledge will be of little or no service1 are pressed into a ,latin and ,greek course1 which probably the larger portion of them forsake before it is completed1 with little knowledge of ancient literature1 and far less of their own mother tongue4 ,the waste of educational benefactions in this way is little realized1 while the effect of congregating the young in boarding-school life1 away from home and parental influence1 is most disastrous4 ,how can it be otherwise8 ,to take the unformed youth at the most excitable period of the nervous system1 at the point where temptations are strongest1 and habits of self-control the weakest1 away from mothers1 sisters1 and home influences2 herd them promiscuously with good and bad2 stimulate the brain to excess2 end all the healthful domestic exercise1 and what could be expected but just such wrecks of health1 morals1 home habits1 and all that is good and pure1 as is constantly going on in such institutions8 ,if parents could hear the details that have come from mothers and their young sons of the experiences of boarding-school and college life all over the land1 especially in reference to that most contaminating and horrible literature and prints that no care can exclude1 they would understand only a small part of the evils included in such institutions for the young4 ,not only colleges1 but female seminaries1 and even private schools1 are becoming more and more sectarian1 as especially patronized by some one denomination1 and relying on this for success4 ,all this sectarian influence in education is1 in fact1 operating to sustain the ,augustinian theories by the pains and penalties that first enforced them2 for no teacher of a school1 or college1 or female seminary could avow a dissent from theories so powerfully sustained1 without subjecting himself1 his institution1 and his sect to attacks from other sects and institutions1 as one mode of supplanting a rival4 ,it was this powerful array of antagonistic influences that for years withheld the author from any public expression of some of the views set forth in this work4 ,it has been stated in the introduction that1 while teaching mental science1 in connection with the ,bible1 to highly gifted minds1 an octavo volume was printed1 but not published1 which embraced the leading features of this work4 ,in that1 the principles of reason and interpretation were not applied to the theories of a depraved mental constitution1 which at that time were not1 to her own mind1 satisfactorily solved1 but to theories on the character and atoning sacrifice of ,jesus ,christ1 where relief was first experienced by the writer4 ,on taking advice as to the publication of such a work1 it became clear that it would probably result in such powerful theological influences as would end a connection with a public institution1 and all labors as a teacher4 ,in obedience to the counsel of friends1 it was concluded to go quietly on as an educator1 and work out practically all that could be done without innovating on accepted opinions1 and wait till time and circumstances should afford more maturity and completeness to the writer's own views2 for it was soon perceived that no one ever objected to having children trained exactly according to the author's present views1 provided nothing was said against the accepted theological theories4 ,so faithfully has this method been pursued1 that it is probable that there is not an individual with whom the writer has been associated as an educator1 who will not1 for the first time1 learn her views on the ,augustinian and ,calvinistic theories from this work2 while1 even in her own family circle1 though opinions have been expressed freely1 all discussions on this subject have been avoided4 ,in pursuing the course of a practical educator1 the first years were spent mainly in the intellectual department1 at the period when the higher branches first began to enter as a part of female culture4 ,surrounded by some of the most gifted female minds in the country as both teachers and pupils1 and all excited by the interest of pioneers in the effort to elevate the standard of female education1 there resulted such an amount of intellectual activity and enthusiasm as has never been witnessed by the author before or since4 ,ignorant of the laws of health1 and unaware of any danger from excess1 the result was such entire and irretrievable prostration of the nervous system as forbade forever any farther labor as a practical teacher4 ,extensive journeyings to restore health among a widely-dispersed family connection led to frequent reunions with former pupils4 ,thence resulted a deep conviction of the necessity of training the domestic habits and tastes of young girls as had never yet been attempted1 and of the extreme suffering and ill health consequent on the neglect of it as a part of school education4 ,this led to two works on ,domestic ,economy1 one of which was designed as a text-book for girls at school1 and the other for their use after they became housekeepers4 ,continued ill health1 inducing frequent resort to health establishments1 where invalids from all classes were congregated1 increased the conviction that modes of education and other causes were fatally undermining national health1 especially that of women4 ,thus originated a work on ,health1 and another on ,physiology and ,physical ,training4 ,incapacitated from labor as a teacher1 the only field of effort to the author was in more general efforts to interest her own sex to enlarged and organized efforts to secure the proper training of woman for her distinctive duties1 and also to provide employment for her in her appropriate profession4 ,two small works addressed to ,american women on this subject were issued by her1 and two organizations were the result3 one conducted by ladies in ,boston1 and one by ,governor ,slade as ,general ,agent of the ,board of ,national ,popular ,education4 ,as both of these restricted their efforts mainly to providing employment for teachers already educated1 the next attempt was to secure an organization to prepare woman for her distinctive duties on a more complete and comprehensive scale4 ,in this attempt1 it was perceived that the other sex have always secured proper attention to any particular department of education by endowments to support highly-educated teachers to give their whole time to that object4 ,thus chemistry1 agriculture1 and the practical sciences are made honorable1 and are insured as branches of liberal instruction4 ,the question then arose1 ,why should not this method be taken to make woman's distinctive profession honorable1 and to secure a proper training for it8 ,the business of a woman is divided into three as distinct departments as the liberal professions of law1 medicine1 and divinity for men1 which are so honored and endowed4 ,nor are they less important or universal4 ,for1 in the first place1 woman is to train the human mind at just that period when principles1 tastes1 and habits are most firmly fixed2 next1 she has the care of the human body all through its period of development1 when the physical habits are formed1 and also in periods of sickness for all ages4 ,lastly1 she has charge of the whole circle of domestic economy1 and of all the home interests of the family state4 ,educator1 nurse1 and housekeeper1 these three departments are not less in importance than law1 medicine1 and divinity4 ,the leading feature1 then1 in this attempt was to secure an organization of ,american women1 who should aim to establish model institutions for woman1 that should prepare her thoroughly and properly for the three distinctive employments of her profession1 by means of endowments to support highly-educated teachers for this express object4 ,in all other female institutions1 the training of the intellect has been the leading object2 in these1 the preparation of woman for her distinctive duties was to be the leading object4 ,to the common remark that the mothers must do this at home1 it is replied1 in the first place1 that the mothers1 to a great extent--as the general rule1 having but few exceptions--are not qualified to do this2 and1 next1 if they were1 they have not the health1 or they have not the time1 or they have not the will to do so4 ,when men wish to perfect and honor any profession1 they provide endowments to sustain teachers of the highest order4 ,thus1 for example1 though it may be said that farmers can best train their sons for their own profession1 still agricultural professorships in our colleges1 and teachers sustained by endowments1 are found to be indispensable to honor and raise that pursuit to a science and a profession4 ,while the young women of the nation see every thing else more honored and provided for than the very profession and future business of their lives1 they will grow up to neglect and despise such duties4 ,the education of woman1 to be what ,heaven designed for the race1 should unite the home training of the parents with the school training of the teacher4 ,instead of taking young girls from all domestic interests and pursuits1 and turning all the energies of their nervous system into the intellectual department of the brain1 there should be an equable and healthful training1 at once1 of the bodily powers1 the social and domestic habits1 the intellect1 and the moral nature2 and in effecting this1 the parents and the teachers should work together harmoniously4 ,it is in reference to this that the tendency of this age and country to conduct the education of the higher and middling classes in boarding-schools instead of at home is most disastrous4 ,boarding-schools should be the exceptions to meet the wants of a sparse population4 ,instead of this1 the country sends its daughters to city boarding-schools1 and the city sends to country boarding-schools1 and so home education is becoming more and more neglected4 ,the consequences to the health1 happiness1 and moral interests of woman are more and more disastrous4 ,in reference to this1 the efforts of the above association have been confined to establishing what it is hoped would become model institutions in the centres of influence of the states where they were located1 in which the funds should not be spent in providing great buildings to take children away from all home influences and domestic pursuits1 but rather in providing such teachers and influences as would have a direct bearing on the homes of the pupils1 and aid the parents in cultivating home habits1 home virtues1 and home tastes and pursuits4 ,this brief history of the writer's efforts is given because its results will now be seen to form a part of the history of the dogma which is the subject of this section4 ,for1 during the whole period of these efforts to promote the right training of the human mind by woman as the ,heaven-appointed minister for this end1 the influence of this dogma has been constantly forced on attention as the real antagonistic force4 ,that is to say1 the whole energies of the ,christian ,church1 in its distinctive character1 are organized to remedy the evil after the mind is educated wrong1 while little is attempted by the powerful agency of organization to secure its right education4 ,in proof of this1 it will be seen that all the great benevolent organizations for which collections are enforced from the pulpit are for adults1 with one only seeming exception4 ,there is an organization to send ,bibles1 another to send tracts and colporteurs1 another to send missionaries abroad1 another to send home-missionaries1 another for the sailor1 another for the slaves1 another to educate ministers1 another to raise up colleges1 another for temperance1 and so on4 ,all these have as their direct aim those who are educated wrong1 and are to be redeemed from sinful habits4 ,not one has any direct reference to the formation of right habits in the daily training of every-day life4 ,the ,sunday-school is the only seeming exception4 ,but this is only a weekly exercise of an hour or two1 in which every sect secures the training of its children in its own religious system1 while this system1 in most cases1 is based on the ,augustinian doctrine of the inability of children to feel or do a single right thing till they are regenerated1 while not only the teaching1 but the ,sunday libraries for children all enforce this dogma4 ,the practical influence of this1 though counteracted more or less by other influences1 is fairly illustrated in the mental history of the author in the ,introduction4 ,thus the ,christian ,church has all its organizations to cure diseased and miseducated mind1 and not a single one to prevent this ruin by its right training4 ,this being so1 this effort to promote the neglected and yet great end of ,christian effort has been looked on with indifference1 or as a small concern to receive its mite1 while all others are to receive their hundreds and thousands4 ,moreover1 the enterprise has been looked upon with jealousy by many whose attention has been called to it as a covert sectarian movement to promote the interests of that denomination with which some of its movers have been connected4 ,then1 too1 because it really has not favored any one sect1 it has secured the special favor and sympathy of none4 ,there has never been a time when its movers have not been made to understand that success in raising endowments would be certain if the anti-sectarian feature could be relinquished1 and the enterprise could assume a sectarian banner4 ,the most influential clergy of the large sects are engaged in denominational enterprises1 to found colleges or theological seminaries1 or to establish book or newspaper agencies devoted to the interests of their sect4 ,the great body of laymen who have wealth to bestow in large sums are more or less influenced by their clergymen1 either as personal friends or as spiritual advisers4 ,especially is this true of the few benevolent ladies who have such independent means as to be able to furnish endowments4 ,and thus it has come to pass that this first attempt yet known to organize ,christians as ,christians1 to train woman for her great work of forming the physical1 social1 domestic1 and moral habits of childhood by methods deemed indispensable by man for his professions1 is on the verge of failure1 after four years of trial4 ,and this is not owing to the fact that the motives1 or the plan1 or the conductors of it have been extensively distrusted1 or in any particular disapproved4 ,on the contrary1 the leading clergymen of most of the ,protestant sects have given their unqualified approval1 while the ,board of ,managers embraces a large proportion of the most distinguished female educators and authoresses1 with some of the most distinguished business men and financiers of our land4 ,at the same time1 the agents and educators who have performed for four years the details of the enterprise have secured the entire approval and confidence of the public as to their qualifications4 ,the real difficulty at the root of all is the indifference to the training of the habits of childhood1 resulting from the long-established dogma of a misformed mind1 whose propagated incapacity is not within the reach of educational training4 ,meantime1 the chief energies of the ,christian ,church are now tending to the extending of sectarian organizations1 based on peculiarities as to baptism1 ordination1 and church officers1 which no intelligent person believes are either indispensable to salvation1 or even so important as to be subjects of direct ,divine commands4 ,it is this view of the subject that has at last brought the author to relinquish any farther practical educational efforts1 and now to attempt whatever may be in her power in directing public attention to what seems to be one grand impediment in the ,christian world to the right training and development of the human race4 ,in presenting this work to the special attention of the laity1 the author does not intend to imply that theologians are not to take the lead in all discussions and investigations that are to guide and enlighten mankind in their special department4 ,the aim is rather to lessen the general impression that the whole matter is to be left exclusively to them2 that it is a professional concern1 in which a layman is to resign his own judgment as he does to his physician or lawyer4 ,instead of this1 there are some reasons why the laity have superior advantages to the clergy in cases where long-accepted theological errors are to be eradicated4 ,in the first place1 they are free from the strong influence of a system into which the mind has been educated4 ,the power of a system over men who are trained to reason1 and who reason on that subject which involves all the greatest interests of existence both for time and eternity1 is most insidious and incalculable4 ,to this is added the reverence1 love1 and veneration felt by pious persons for those great and good men who1 like ,augustine1 ,calvin1 and ,jonathan ,edwards1 have been the revered masters of theological systems for ages4 ,under these two influences1 every new opinion is compared with a system1 and when it is seen to be inconsistent with it1 all the veneration attached1 both to that and to its authors and advocates1 stands opposed to any innovation4 ,the powerful influence of educational training1 and of love and reverence to a revered parent1 has taught the author to understand and sympathize with other minds similarly influenced4 ,from all such biasing influences the laity are far more free than their clerical guides4 ,add to this the fact that the pains and penalties attached to all change in theological opinions have very little reach among the laity4 ,any layman1 if he adopts new views1 can quietly withdraw from one religious communion and join another more congenial1 or remain unconnected with any1 while no man can call him to an account4 ,but men connected with parishes1 colleges1 and all educational institutions1 are subject to the supervision of councils1 presbyteries1 synods1 and many other organs of surveillance1 making it indispensable that all changes should be known to the public4 ,thus profession1 reputation1 and daily bread become more or less involved4 ,and here it is but justice to express the author's convictions1 which an extensive acquaintance with the clergy of various sects has induced1 that there is not another body of men1 of equal number and education1 who are so free from personal considerations of this kind in forming and maintaining opinions4 ,the entrance on the clerical profession in this country involves the sacrifice of all hope of wealth and its advantages1 and includes often poverty and a painful dependence on the vacillating favor of parishes2 so that1 to a man of talents and worldly ambition1 the command to enter this profession is very nearly equivalent to that of the ,great ,master's1 ,sell all that thou hast and give to the poor1 and come and follow me4 ,but while allowing that1 as a class1 this profession is1 most of all1 free from biasing influences of the kind indicated1 it can not but be allowed that they are subject to like temptations as other men1 and that these considerations must have more influence with them than with the laity1 who are exposed to little or nothing of this kind4 ,to this1 add the fact that men in other professions are far more habituated to look at all questions in a practical relation1 and to use the principles of common sense more than the principles of a system4 ,the writer has had frequent occasion to notice how the well-trained reasoners of other professions throw aside the theories and systems of theology1 and settle down on the great practical truths of ,christianity4 ,it has sometimes been a matter of wonder to perceive how little attention is often given by some of the most gifted and well-trained laity1 even those that are devoutly religious1 to questions deemed of paramount and absorbing interest by the clergy4 ,in presenting this work to public attention1 the author is not animated with the expectation of any immediate or very striking results4 ,long-established and time-honored opinions1 especially when they are entwined with the sacred hopes and interests of religion1 are changed only by slow and gradual transitions1 and these1 often1 almost imperceptible4 ,it is the hope of the author to do something to promote at least a renewed discussion of these subjects1 under more favorable auspices than have heretofore existed4 ,the circumstances that favor and indicate such a renewal are1 in the first place1 a gradual change that has been going on the last thirty years in the theological world as the result of discussions on these very subjects4 ,some of the most candid and acute minds that have been interested in such discussions have1 more and more1 been led to feel the difficulties involved in the accepted theory of ,augustine2 and though few have come to such clear convictions on the subject as to feel warranted in taking any public stand as innovators or reformers1 many are ready to examine and discuss in a very different attitude of mind from what has ever before been so extensively experienced4 ,one striking indication of this change is the almost universal neglect of indoctrinating preaching among the younger clergy in those sects where1 forty years ago1 it was deemed indispensable to success to thus establish the five points of ,calvinism4 ,a still more important change is an increase in that practical preaching that urges on the consciences of men all their domestic1 social1 and moral duties1 as constituting an essential part of religion1 as truly as the affections toward ,god and the special duties owed to him4 ,an equal or greater change is apparent among the laity4 ,the strong ,calvinistic doctrines that used to be so reverently received are either simply tolerated or quietly rejected4 ,this is particularly the case with mothers and teachers1 both in the family and in the secular and ,sunday schools4 ,thousands of practical1 tender mothers utterly refuse to teach their little ones that a depraved nature has descended to them from ,adam1 and that they can never perform any thing that is right or pleasing to ,god till this nature is recreated2 or1 if they use such language1 it is with explanations entirely un-,calvinistic4 ,instead of this1 they teach their offspring that they can please and obey their ,heavenly ,parent as truly and acceptably as they do their earthly parents2 that when they have so learned to love and please ,him 7or to feel and act right7 that it is their chief desire thus to do1 they have a new life4 ,this new birth1 they also teach1 is the result of that aid from the ,holy ,spirit1 the ,comforter1 which both parents and children so need that they can never succeed without it1 and yet which is promised to all who earnestly desire it1 and seek it by proper methods4 ,multitudes of parents and teachers are pursuing this method in churches whose ministers would entirely revolt from the idea of denying the ,augustinian theory or the system of ,calvin resting upon it4 ,many are doing this1 unconscious that they are taking a course that is contrary to the standards of their ,church4 ,in conclusion1 the author would ask attention to the chief points presented in this volume4 ,the main question is1 are these principles of reason or common sense1 and the rules for interpreting language here set forth1 accepted as guides in deciding the great questions of life8 ,next1 are the deductions gained by their aid as to what can be learned without a direct revelation from the ,creator accepted8 ,lastly1 is the ,augustinian theory of a depraved mental constitution consequent on the sin of the first parents of the race1 as tried by these principles1 supported either by reason or the ,bible2 and1 if not1 should not all men renounce it1 both theoretically and practically8 ,in answering this last1 it is to be remembered that the question is not one of fact as to the depraved action of mind1 but of the philosophy of this fact1 or the cause of this wrong action4 ,a man may not be able to form any satisfactory theory on this question1 and be content1 as the early ,christians used to be1 to remain without one4 ,the repudiation of the ,augustinian theory does not necessarily involve the adoption of any other1 while it does remove insurmountable difficulties from just and generous minds in accepting the ,bible as of ,divine authority while encumbered with what seems so contrary both to the moral sense and the common sense of mankind4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has been the privilege of the author all her life to be intimately associated1 by family and other connections1 with the ministers of religion in a variety of denominations--those intelligent1 excellent1 and pious men who1 more than any other class1 can understand that heavy burden of spirit connected with that awful subject1 the eternal loss of the human soul4 ,before closing1 they will permit a few inquiries in reference to this subject4 ,the almost universal cessation of revivals of religion1 the diminished attendance of the masses on ,sabbath worship1 the decrease in the relative proportion of the ministry1 the diminution of spirituality and the consequent laxness in the ,church1 the increase of skepticism and infidelity of various grades1 the terrific rush of worldliness on all classes1 as wealth1 and luxury1 and temptations of all kinds abound1 are not all these signs of the times of fearful import1 foreshadowing either some dreadful judgments1 or the advent of some moral forces that are appropriate to such a crisis8 ,in this position of the moral world1 is it to be supposed that theology alone1 of all departments of science1 has reached its culminating point1 so that there is no possibility of improvement8 ,is there not manifestly needed far more powerful motives than any now wielded to stop the inrushing tide of worldliness8 ,in former times1 when revivals abounded1 it was the principle of fear that was first appealed to with such wonderful results4 ,but where now are such appeals made as once shook men's consciences with fears of the wrath to come8 ,if such preaching abounds in any quarter of our nation1 where is it8 ,in all her travels the writer finds it wanting1 and the testimony of others is similar4 ,here1 now1 is the great question3 ,could the ministry now preach the distinctive theories of ,calvinism1 and at the same time those awful views of the eternal loss of the soul1 warranted by ,scripture language1 with any prospect of being sustained by the moral sentiments of the great body of benevolent and intelligent hearers8 ,would not some be driven to reckless worldliness1 others to infidelity1 others to ,universalism1 others to another style of preaching1 till the remainder could scarcely maintain any preaching at all8 ,is not this perceived and felt by many ministers1 and is not this one great reason why that terrible doctrine1 on which the whole ,gospel is based1 is now so hidden or so slightly recognized in the pulpit ministrations8 ,and yet1 to the writer1 it seems that this very doctrine1 so plain and awful in ,holy ,writ1 could be so drawn forth by the light of reason alone as to furnish a power of motive now almost unwielded4 ,it seems as if the terrible exhibitions of this volume in the chapters on ,habit1 and on the ,wrong ,action of ,mind in a ,future ,state1 might be wrought out by a man of talent and eloquence so as to draw such audiences as once thronged around ,whitfield1 and with equal results4 ,what1 then1 could be done with the added power of revelation1 dissevered from obstructing theories8 ,when the writer looks back on her own mental history for the last thirty years1 and feels how every step of her life1 during the whole of that period1 has been regulated by the overmastering pressure of this tremendous subject1 and when she is sure that a conviction that no such awful dangers beset our race would bring her life on to just that level where so many ,christians complain that they find themselves1 the query will often arise whether ministers who say so little about the matter1 and those professed ,christians who act so little in consistence with it1 really do believe it8 ,and yet1 when her own difficulties in expressing all that has been thought and felt are recalled1 it is understood how others too may have been equally embarrassed and restrained4 ,in regard to the main topics of this work1 is not every minister called to decide1 practically1 between these two theories8 ,the first is1 that the great and leading aim of all ,christian organization should be to train new-born minds aright1 and that it is the special office of the ministry to influence the educators of the race to the right performance of this1 their chief duty4 ,in doing this1 it is to be assumed that the end for which we are made is to glorify ,god by obedience to those laws by which the most happiness with the least evil is to be secured to ,his vast eternal empire4 ,that1 at the first birth of a child1 it is impossible1 in the nature of things1 for it to feel and act for the happiness of others till it has learned to know what gives pleasure and pain to self1 and to understand that there are other beings who can thus enjoy and suffer2 so that a child1 by its very nature1 is at first obliged to be selfish in the exercise of faculties which1 in reference to the great whole1 are perfect4 ,that the second birth is the sudden or the gradual entrance into a life in which the will of the ,creator is to control the self-will of the creature2 while1 under the influence of love and gratitude to ,him1 and guided by faith in his teachings1 living chiefly for the great commonwealth takes the place of living chiefly for self4 ,for this1 the supernatural aid of the ,holy ,spirit is promised to all who seek it2 and1 without this aid1 success is hopeless4 ,but the grand instrumentality is the right training of parents and teachers4 ,then1 in reference to that great change of character which wrongly-educated mind must pass in order to gain eternal life1 there are three modes of expression in the ,bible in regard to that1 viz41 love to ,god1 faith in ,jesus ,christ1 and repentance4 ,according to all uses of these terms1 in practical matters1 love is nothing which does not include obedience or conformity of will and action to the being loved4 ,faith1 or belief1 is nothing unless it includes its fruits of obedience4 ,repentance is nothing unless it includes ceasing to do evil4 ,obedience to the laws of ,god1 physical1 social1 moral1 and religious1 is the grand1 indispensable requisite4 ,now1 when any person is so engaged in striving to obey all these laws that it is the first interest of the mind1 then there is a new heart2 and so great is the change from the life of self-indulgence and disobedience to one of such earnest desire and efforts to obey ,god1 that it is properly expressed by the terms born again and created anew4 ,the contrasted theory is1 that the chief end of man is to glorify ,god1 without1 perhaps1 any very definite ideas of what this signifies2 that our whole race comes into life with dwarfed and ruined moral powers1 so that it is as impossible1 before a second birth1 to feel and act right1 as it is for a corrupt tree to bear good fruit1 or a bitter fountain to send forth sweet waters2 and that the great end of ,christian organizations is to secure and administer certain appointed methods by which ,god re-creates these diseased minds4 ,thus all training1 all instructions1 all good habits1 are nothing as having any fitness toward either preparing a child for eternal happiness1 or inducing ,god to re-create its mind4 ,for it is unconditional election1 and not any foreseen act1 either of parent or child1 that decides their eternal destiny4 ,can any minister preach without assuming one of these two theories as the very foundation-principle of his ministrations8 ,and is this matter any the less a practical one to all the laity8 ,during the period in which the author has been engaged as a practical laborer in the field of education1 her chief earthly reliance has been on the counsel1 sympathy1 and co-operation of her own sex2 and in closing a work especially dedicated to them1 a few parting words may be permitted4 ,this work is offered1 not as one of metaphysics and theology1 to exercise the intellect alone4 ,it presents the grand practical question of life to woman as the mother1 the educator1 the nurse1 and the fountain of home sympathies for the race4 ,it is the question over which every ,christian mother ponders with aching heart as every new immortal is brought to her arms4 ,it is the question where every ,christian teacher stands in awe1 as1 gazing into the dark futurity over the dim ocean of eternity1 each young mind is felt to be a voyager whose frail and solitary bark is soon to be launched4 ,the ,protestant mother or teacher1 with the ,bible in her hands1 can not1 as in the ,catholic ,church1 throw off this tremendous responsibility on to her priest4 ,she may go to her minister for aid1 but at the last she must decide for herself what is that path which ,jesus ,christ decides to be right in guiding the lambs of ,his flock through such awful dangers4 ,here1 then1 is the great practical question on which depends the life of the soul1 and for ,,eternity6 and every parent and every teacher must decide on which theory the young minds committed to their care shall be trained4 ,in contemplating the discussions that must ere long be renewed on these great topics1 and in such forms as to involve1 not theologians alone or chiefly1 but the people1 and especially the most intelligent of her own sex1 the writer recalls with deep interest her early efforts as a pioneer in elevating the course of female education4 ,then she supposed herself the first1 as she was among the first1 to introduce such works as ,butler's ,analogy1 ,mental ,philosophy1 and a ,mathematical course as a regular part of female education4 ,and as she recalls the hundreds of bright1 vigorous1 and independent minds under her care thus trained to reason accurately1 and now scattered as mothers and influential members of society in almost every state in the ,union1 and then remembers1 too1 how many institutions all over the land have for years pursued the same course1 she can not but thankfully believe that the ,almighty ,teacher and ,ruler was thus preparing her sex for these very responsibilities4 ,in relinquishing that educational enterprise which for years has absorbed her time and strength1 while as yet it is so imperfectly understood and so little appreciated1 she asks1 with tender and grateful memories1 the attention1 not only of her dear former pupils1 but of that multitude of noble and benevolent women who1 at so many times and places1 have afforded her their sympathy and aid1 to what is still farther offered on this subject in the closing note4#f #d ,the word church in the ,new ,testament1 in the ,greek1 signifies assembly or congregation1 and not an organization of regenerate persons4 #e ,see ,note ,c4 #f ,see ,note ,d4 ,,notes4 ,,note ,a1 page #ag4 ,some atheists imagine that they escape the difficulty by assuming that matter is eternal1 and thus uncreated4 ,but the question is1 not in reference to the existence of matter1 but as to the organization1 contrivances1 and changes of matter1 all of which prove the existence of some ,intelligent ,first ,cause4 ,the theory of an infinite series of changes and causes without a beginning is a contradiction in terms1 as can be shown to any person who understands the use of definitions1 and no other person is prepared to discuss such subjects intelligently4 ,let it be remembered that the author1 in this work1 has not attempted to present a complete exhibition of all the intuitive truths1 but only such a portion of them as are adapted to the design of this work4 ,at the same time1 by a close analysis1 some here presented as distinct intuitions could be shown to be specifics1 under a more general proposition4 ,but in a popular work1 and for the purposes aimed at1 this close analysis is inappropriate4 ,,note ,b1 page #aib4 ,man's chief end is to glorify ,god and to enjoy him forever1 is an expression equivalent to what is here maintained1 if we assume that the chief glory of ,god consists in the rectitude and happiness of his vast empire of intelligent minds4 ,various other terms used to express the ultimate end of the ,creator in his works1 accurate definitions would show to be simply different words chosen to express the same idea as that here presented4 ,,note ,c1 page #cad4 ,in the ,home ,missionary for ,february1 #ahef1 is the following mournful exhibition of the results of these sectarian divisions3 ,subdivision a ,source of ,weakness and ,destitution4 ,now it is but too evident that our ,american ,christendom is prosecuting its work1 in some respects1 at a disadvantage4 ,true1 funds have been furnished with a commendable liberality2 but1 worse than a dearth of money--which a few months of vigorous effort1 or a prosperous turn in the market might remove--there is a dearth of men4 ,fields are explored1 openings are found1 communities are fast forming1 and even make urgent requests for ministers1 but often there are no ministers to send4 ,the great exigency of the missionary work now is the want of capable and devoted men4 ,however we may charge this upon the lukewarmness of the churches1 upon the absence of correct views respecting ministerial support--and its consequent meagreness--or on the prevalence among young men of a subtile skepticism1 we may not shut our eyes to the fact that the want must continue as long as that unfortunate division of the field continues1 which must ever come from divided counsels and sectarian rivalries4 ,destitutions are likely to last while alienations last4 ,every denomination naturally feels that it must be strong in the centres of population2 and so1 without asking whether the ,church of ,christ needs so many congregations there1 we crowd our six separate enterprises1 of as many rival names1 into a little place where two churches would do more good than the half dozen4 ,the evils that result from this course are many and various4 ,one consequence of it is a weakening of the unity and the moral force of the ,church as a whole4 ,another is the diminution of the numbers and the strength of the several local societies1 so that an amount of assistance many times greater is needed1 and this need is prolonged for years1 when often its period should have been reckoned in months4 ,but a third consequence of this overcrowding of one portion of the missionary field is the destitution of other portions4 ,while many villages are so well supplied as to leave pastors and churches leisure to quarrel1 many rural districts and young communities are almost totally neglected4 ,if all the preachers in the ,united ,states were evangelical men1 well educated and devoted to their work1 they would no more than supply the real wants of the country1 upon a system of wise distribution4 ,on a system1 then1 so unfortunate as this1 its destitutions are not supplied2 and we hear from all quarters the cry1 ,send more laborers into the harvest4 ,a ,cause of ,unwillingness to enter the ,ministry4 ,again1 a fourth consequence of our denominational divisions1 and another cause of destitution1 is seen in the difficulty of persuading young men of enterprise to enter the ministry4 ,when we consider how the field of ministerial labor is cut up into small parishes1 affording to men of superior capacity but a limited scope for some of their best qualities--with scarcely the possibility of much improvement--promising1 also1 only a meagre support and a moderate usefulness1 we can not wonder that young men who are conscious of the ability to occupy a larger sphere1 and whose nature thirsts after something stirring and an opportunity for a hopeful struggle and for achievement1 should often shrink from the seeming narrowness and hopelessness of the work which is here offered them4 ,we need not praise the truthfulness of their appreciation in all particulars1 but have we1 on the whole1 a right to anticipate a different decision8 ,no4 ,the result is manifestly one that must be expected4 ,there is not the least doubt that this diminution in the size of parishes is also a diminution in the attractiveness of the pastoral office4 ,and so this very multitude of denominations1 which has increased the want of ministers1 operates1 in more ways than one1 to diminish the supply4 ,a ,discouragement and a ,weariness4 ,but1 what is yet worse1 it tends to injure the ministry4 ,no preacher but has felt1 at times1 the depressing influence of a small audience4 ,a large proportion of the missionaries at the ,west feel this at all times2 and often the intellect is jaded1 and the heart is wearied out1 from the want of that natural stimulus which the presence of a multitude and the pressure of an important occasion alone can afford4 ,if it is discouraging to find your people coming out in small numbers on rainy ,sabbaths1 what is it to have nothing but small numbers the year through1 and year after year8 ,how must this tend to check youthful enthusiasm1 and to dull the fires of intellectual and moral energy4 ,if our brethren of the ,west have not fallen behind themselves1 it certainly is not due to the inspiration of large audiences or of populous and able parishes2 for1 with so many divisions in such sparse and unstable communities1 these can not be otherwise than small4 ,good men will labor on1 indeed1 under all these discouragements2 and the greatness of their faith will make their work and achievement great4 ,they may triumph over these difficulties1 but they contend at disadvantage2 and the difficulties are real1 notwithstanding the highest fidelity4 ,number and ,policy of ,denominations4 ,there are more than forty religious denominations in the ,united ,states4 ,four of these--the ,n4 ,s4 ,presbyterians1 the ,o4 ,s4 ,presbyterians1 the ,congregationalists and ,baptists1 together with the ,methodists and ,episcopalians--habitually esteem it a matter of obligation to be represented in every community where it is possible to gather a church of their name1 and1 in establishing these churches1 deem it no part of their duty to consider1 in the least1 the welfare of any congregation of a different name that may have been previously gathered4 ,we have six great evangelical churches1 each one of whom feels bound to push forward its own growth1 with a disregard of the interests of all other churches1 which is equivalent to an ignoring of their existence1 and1 in practical effect1 identifies the ,kingdom of ,god with the denomination4 ,it is very much as though each one had laid it down as the fundamental principle of its procedure--,,we are the saints4 ,waste of ,resources4 ,now it is obvious that this system must bring about an unfortunate distribution of labor and a great waste of power2 in some localities multiplying churches to excess1 and leaving other regions destitute2 making the town congregations weak1 from their very multitude1 and losing the happy moment in communities that are just forming from the want of the right men to occupy them at the right moment2 while many laborers abuse as much time and strength in working against each other as they use in working for ,christ4 ,so churches are born weak1 and are compelled to worry through a long and fretful infancy1 are kept on a diet irritatingly low1 and compelled to struggle1 with slow and uncertain growth1 toward a maturity which must come late1 and may come never4 ,statistics4 ,here follow statistics1 the details of which we omit1 and give these as the results1 as seen in three of the larger denominations1 viz43 the ,o4 ,s4 ,presbyterian1 the ,n4 ,s4 ,presbyterian1 and the ,congregational4 ,in this table is shown the number of churches1 with a given number of members to each church4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,not ,not more more ,more ,more ,more than than than than than ,total ,number of ,members4 #ej4 #ajj4 #ajj4 #bjj4 #cjj4 reporting4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,presbyterian ,o4,s4 #abci #aijg #gfc #bgh #aja #bfgj ,presbyterian ,n4,s4 #gdc #aahj #dcb #afc #gj #afab ,congregational #fif #abai #geb #bde #hc #aiga ---------------------------------------- -- ,total of three denominations #bfgh #dcjf #aidg #fhf #bed #fbec ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,proportion of strong and weak ,churches4 ,more than one fifth1 therefore1 of all the churches connected with these denominations may be counted as very weak1 none of them having more than twenty-five members1 and the average falling considerably below that number4 ,nearly one fourth may be counted as weak1 their membership ranging between twenty-five and fifty2 and these1 taken together with those that are weaker yet1 constitute nearly forty-three per cent4 of the whole4 ,more than two thirds of all the churches do not contain over one hundred members4 ,those that exceed one hundred are about thirty-one per cent41 and those that exceed two hundred are not quite eleven per cent4 of the entire number4 ,present ,supply of ,ministers inadequate4 ,the whole number of ministers in these three denominations is #faej4 ,the number of pastors and stated supplies 7errors excepted7 is #dccf1 leaving #ahad to be classed as without charge1 as professors1 teachers1 editors1 secretaries1 etc4 ,the number of churches in the three denominations whose membership exceeds fifty is some five hundred less than the number of pastors and stated supplies4 ,if1 therefore1 each of the five hundred men remaining after the largest churches were supplied were to take two of the smaller churches1 more than sixteen hundred churches would still be left destitute2 and if allowance be made for those not reporting1 this number must be taken as exceeding two thousand4 ,probably none of these contain more than thirty-five members4 ,deficiency due to ,divisions4 ,now we need a thousand-fold increase of our effective force in the great harvest-field of the world2 but have we any reason to expect that the ,lord of the harvest will hear our cry for laborers1 and raise them up indefinitely1 in order to meet wants unnecessarily1 nay1 wickedly created by our divisions8 ,would a spendthrift son expect to prevail with an indulgent father to administer to his necessities on the plea or the confession that he had squandered his former bounty1 and1 moreover1 was intending to make a similar use of what he then solicited8 ,the responsibility rests upon ,christians of no one name1 and it would seem that if the people of ,god every where could but have a full realization of the heart-rending inadequacy of all means yet employed for the conversion of the world1 or of the utter hopelessness of ever meeting the vast want under such a waste of power1 the work of economical adjustment would at once and earnestly commence1 and also a new consecration--that the evangelization of the world may be carried forward upon a scale commensurate with the providential openings for missionary effort4 ,that would be1 indeed1 a glorious revolution which should bring the true disciples of ,christ every where to this position--to a consecration that should keep nothing back from the ,lord1 to a heaven-appointed economy in the adjustment of forces1 a condensation of churches in the same neighborhood1 till the combined body could support a pastor1 furnish him with all needed facilities for the prosecution of his work1 and1 at the same time1 open to him an adequate field of labor4 ,all supernumerary ministers in a given locality would thus be set loose for effort where men are perishing for lack of vision4 ,then ,apollos would not interfere with ,paul when he planted1 nor ,paul with ,apollos when he watered1 nor would both either plant or water at the same point or time1 provided one could do the work4 ,divisions unnecessary4 ,but it is possible that some1 calling to mind the large number of weak congregations at the ,east--where denominational rivalry is less active than at the ,west--may claim that this feebleness is but a part of the necessary imperfection of human arrangements2 that we must always have the poor with us1 and that it is not the sectarianism of the ,west which so reduces our churches4 ,it were sufficient to suggest1 in reply1 that the weak churches in the older states are found where the communities are weak1 in barren or uncultivated districts1 or in regions depopulated by emigration1 while a large proportion of the feeble churches of the ,west are in populous1 vigorous1 growing communities1 where nothing but irreligion or division could keep the congregations from being numerous1 and where nothing less than the combination of the two could keep them so small as they are4 ,yonder are three debilitated churches struggling for existence against each other4 ,is it necessary to ask whether1 if they were joined in one1 and were with one heart and voice contending for the kingdom of ,god1 the ,christian strength of that community would not be greater8 ,proportion of weak ,churches at the ,west4 ,but facts are at hand which show that the relative number of feeble churches is much larger at the ,west than at the ,east4 ,of the churches in ,illinois and ,iowa connected with three leading denominations1 the proportion that must be accounted very weak--having not more than twenty-five communicants--is almost twice as great as in the same denomination taken entire1 and amounts to nearly two fifths of the whole number reporting4 ,these1 again1 taken with those whose membership ranges between twenty-five and fifty1 make up nearly seventy per cent4 of the whole6 99 99 99 99 99 ,the author would ask attention to a few questions in view of these statistics4 ,the above table was formed from reporting churches4 ,there are #icd churches not reporting4 ,giving to these last the average proportion of ministers and weak churches1 and we find this result3 ,whole number of churches #gahg ,ministers acting as pastors and supplies #dccf ---- ,churches without ministers #bhea ,that is to say1 in three of our largest and most wealthy and intelligent denominations1 nearly one third of their churches are without ministers1 and nearly one half of them have not over fifty members1 and the majority of these members1 no doubt1 are women4 ,then the relative number of ministers is constantly decreasing4 ,in this state of things1 to what is the ,church and ministry coming8 ,when young men of talents and energy see not only independence1 but wealth before them in other callings1 where1 in preparing1 they will not need to spend nine years in dead languages and literature never to be used2 where they can have an abundant field of usefulness1 and where their minds can be free from creeds and the supervision of ecclesiastics and parishes1 how long will any such seek the ministry8 ,will not the ministry thus soon become the resort1 first1 of poor1 ambitious young men1 who find in its official standing the surest mode1 with moderate talents and means1 to gain the highest social position2 and next1 of ambitious young men of talents1 who1 among such inferior competitors1 are sure of the best pulpits and highest salaries8 ,again3 ,how long will the laity so freely pour out their earnings to endow colleges and theological seminaries when such results as these are seen8 ,,note ,d1 page #ccf4 ,in resigning all farther agency in practical educational efforts1 the writer hopes1 after so many years of devotion to it1 she may be allowed to speak with entire frankness her views as to the present modes of education4 ,the last thirty years have witnessed great efforts all over the nation to improve and increase common schools1 and to multiply higher educational institutions4 ,although much has been said and written in regard to physical and moral training in schools1 unfortunately very little has been accomplished4 ,it is the intellectual department of the brain that has absorbed attention1 as if this were the chief1 or even the whole of man4 ,parents stimulate1 teachers stimulate1 lecturers stimulate1 superintendents stimulate1 school committees stimulate--all turning their full energies on to only one function of the brain4 ,in our colleges1 this intellectual stimulating is divided and subdivided1 one professor for one department1 another for a second1 and another for a third1 and so on1 till from twelve to twenty are thus employed4 ,meantime the training of the body1 or the development of the social1 domestic1 and moral powers1 have not even one to minister the needful care4 ,then1 in preparatory boarding-schools for boys1 taken from mother1 sisters1 and home influences in the first blush of youth1 all the school stimulus is turned on to the brain to develop ,latin1 ,greek1 and mathematics1 while health of body and soul perish under abuse or neglect4 ,then the boarding-school is taking the young girls through a kind of college course at the most critical period of life1 while their chief nervous energies are exhausted in completing a given course of study in a given time1 and almost every law of health for body and mind are violated4 ,then1 in our primary schools1 especially in cities1 where pure air1 healthful exercise1 and home employments are least at command1 all the energies of school committees and superintendents of schools are directed to securing a given amount of intellectual labor4 ,but what is the teaching of physiology on this matter8 ,through one of its greatest writers1 thus it speaks3 ,if young children are compelled to sit quietly while their minds are urged to undue action1 we take from them the noblest part of their strength1 and consume it in the function of thinking4 ,thus growth is retarded1 the limbs imperfectly developed1 the digestion 7and thus the blood7 becomes bad1 scrofula perhaps appears1 and then ensues a great predominance of the nervous system4 ,any unequal development of our faculties is injurious4 ,it is certain that mental exertions weaken the more they are unaccompanied by bodily movements4 ,those who1 between mental occupations1 take bodily exercise1 can do more than those who neglect this exercise4 ,the grand evils of our present modes of education are1 not that too much intellectual training is bestowed1 but that physical1 social1 and domestic training are neglected4 ,the result is a universal decay of national vigor and health4 ,other causes1 such as the use of stoves and unventilated houses1 improper diet and dress1 with excess in other modes of stimulating1 have had a large share in the evil1 but there can be no doubt that mistaken modes of education are the chief causes of the acknowledged fact that our national health is perishing at a frightful rate4 ,there are facts that prove the ,anglo-,saxon race1 as developed in ,america under the best circumstances1 is the most perfect race on earth as it respects size1 strength1 and beauty4 ,the mountain regions of ,kentucky and ,tennessee1 where the climate allows all to live in pure air night and day1 with the simple food and habit of forest life1 send out sons that1 appearing in foreign lands1 are followed by admiring crowds as specimen giants4 ,general ,washington's staff1 though not picked men1 were most of them over six feet in height1 with size and muscle to correspond4 ,the vigorous mothers and stalwart sons that achieved our ,revolution have given place to sickly mothers with a delicate and puny offspring4 ,the ,greeks1 though they educated the mind1 took even more pains to train the body1 and thus they became the wisest1 strongest1 and most powerful people on earth4 ,we might do the same1 and with far greater facilities2 but1 should our present rate of deterioration proceed1 two or more generations would bring us out a race of deformed and unhealthy pigmies4 ,for facts to sustain such a prediction1 the author begs leave to refer to her ,letters to the ,people on ,health and ,happiness4 ,the great point now urged is that woman should be trained1 not1 as some would urge1 to enter the professions of men1 but for her own proper business1 in educating mind in developing the body of infancy and childhood1 and in conducting the economy of an orderly1 happy1 and well-regulated home4 ,these arduous and complicated duties demand able assistance1 and here is the calling of the female educator2 not to carry off children from their parents and home1 but rather to aid these parents in education in all departments4 ,it is manifestly the ,divine intention that parents should be the chief educators of the race1 and all plans consistent with this will succeed1 and all counter to it will fail4 ,the boarding-school is not in consonance with this ,heaven-appointed plan1 and the evils multiply around it so fast that a nation of so much common sense as ours must soon forsake it for the true method4 ,again3 in the grand object of educating humanity for an eternal existence1 the questions as to how ordination or baptism shall be administered1 or whether it shall be church elders or church committees that rule1 are to be made secondary1 and the followers of ,christ are to unite for the education of the race1 not as sects1 but as ,christians4 ,these views present the principles on which is organized the ,american ,woman's ,educational ,association4 ,its main features are1 that it unites all sects in education2 that it spends its funds1 not for great buildings to deprive the young of parents and homes1 but to provide well-trained educators to assist parents in their homes2 and1 finally1 its leading aim is to prepare woman for her distinctive duties as educator1 nurse1 and fountain of home sympathies for the race4 ,in attempting this1 the methods the other sex have employed to honor and sustain their professions have been claimed1 viz43 institutions governed by a faculty instead of an individual1 and teachers supported by endowments for this express object4 ,the following extract from the fourth ,annual ,report of this ,association gives some of the results4 ,we are now prepared to indicate what has been accomplished4 ,we have1 then1 in the first place1 evolved and set forth a fundamental idea4 ,this is no small part of the success of any great movement4 ,whatever were the difficulties of first learning to print1 the triumph of ,gutenberg was nearly achieved when he first mastered the idea of the type4 ,it was a secondary affair to work it out and set the world vibrating to its power4 ,we have got the idea1 and done something toward its execution4 ,we have secured the existence of two institutions on our plan1 one at ,milwaukee1 ,wisconsin1 and the other at ,dubuque1 ,iowa1 whose united catalogues will show some five hundred pupils the past year4 ,both are in very successful operation1 with efficient boards of teachers1 silently doing the work for which they have been established4 ,we have united all the ,protestant citizens in the noble work of founding and patronizing these institutions1 which they cherish as among their most valued public establishments4 ,we have shown that the faculty principle is as good for female institutions as for those of the other sex1 and that results may be expected from it for woman corresponding in utility and dignity with those it has secured to man4 ,we have shown that1 by the offer of the small endowment of twenty thousand dollars1 we can secure the establishment of one of these invaluable institutions1 and make it a permanent source of measureless good--a most economical and wise expenditure of educational benefactions4 ,we have1 in short1 carried out our plan successfully just as far as it can be done before the endowments are actually furnished4 ,we have made a beginning toward raising the first endowment1 and are able to report on hand and pledged nearly ten thousand dollars4 ,our movement has the confidence and full endorsement of many leading clergymen1 educators1 and editors of our country4 ,our institutions have the hearty co-operation of the religious bodies where they are located4 ,at our last annual meeting1 an urgent request was made to the ,association to aid in the establishment of a third institution at ,kalamazoo1 ,michigan4 ,without any pledge of immediate action1 it was agreed that1 if the citizens should comply with our conditions1 we would aid them as soon as our means would allow4 ,those conditions have not yet been met1 and we have not1 therefore1 been called to do any thing at that place4 ,it has seemed desirable1 moreover1 that the endowment of the two institutions already established should be completed before attempting to found others4 ,the questions most frequently proposed to the conductors of this enterprise1 and the answers to them1 will now be introduced4 ,how can the business of domestic economy be taught as a part of school training8 ,not in great boarding-schools1 where it never was or can be done4 ,the ,mount ,holyoke plan1 now so popular1 is widely supposed to embrace this in its design4 ,but the teaching of this science is not the aim of their domestic department4 ,it is a measure for reducing expenses by saving hired labor1 while certain social advantages are supposed to be combined with it4 ,but no pupil is to be taught any thing in this department4 ,meantime1 introducing cooking1 washing1 ironing1 and house-cleaning as a regular part of school duty1 makes a system of such detail and complication1 demanding so many rules and such strict obedience as adds enormously to the already excessive pressure that is put on the female brain4 ,this is probably an insuperable difficulty attendant on this system1 that will forever forbid its introduction wherever the healthful development of woman has its proper regard4 ,how1 then1 is the object aimed at to be accomplished8 ,in reply we say1 that1 with institutions established for the express purpose of training women to be healthy themselves1 and to perform properly all their duties as educator1 nurse1 and regulator of the domestic state2 with teachers supported by endowments for this express object2 with a board of managers embracing some of the most influential ladies in the land1 who are or have been both practical teachers and housekeepers2 with committees of influential ladies in each place where such institutions are located to co-operate1 the thing attempted can not fail to be done1 and in the best manner4 ,whatever ought to be done1 can be2 and whatever can be done1 will be1 when energetic ,american women fairly undertake it4 ,but will endowments for such institutions be furnished8 ,in reply1 we point to the multitudes of needless colleges for the other sex all over the land1 for which the people are pouring forth such abundant endowments1 while women are even more liberal1 according to their relative means1 than men4 ,since this effort commenced1 one lady has endowed a professorship in ,brunswick ,college1 ,maine4 ,another lady has added #bj1jjj to the nearly one million endowments of ,cambridge4 ,these two are the first cases of endowments for the physical1 social1 and moral departments of education4 ,woman1 then1 has first done for man what is now sought for her sex4 ,in this same short period1 sufficient for the endowment of a theological professorship in ,connecticut has been furnished by female benefactors4 ,in ,new ,jersey a lady has given some #cj1jjj for a college4 ,in ,new ,york ,city another lady has endowed a theological professorship4 ,in ,albany1 ,new ,york1 a lady has given #ej1jjj for a scientific institution for man4 ,in ,massachusetts a lady has given more than enough to endow a professorship for a college in ,wisconsin4 ,many more cases can be given of large benefactions1 amounting in all to hundreds of thousands1 given by woman within a few years for the richly-provided professional institutions of man1 while as yet not one complete endowment for her sex has been raised4 ,why is this8 ,because it is so difficult to change long-established customs and habits of thought4 ,the idea that every thing must be done for man's profession1 and nothing for woman's1 has so long been dominant1 that even our own sex have fallen into that belief and practice4 ,but the ,american people are eminent for practical wisdom and common sense4 ,the time is certainly coming when the true view is to possess the public mind1 and then the right practice will follow4 ,the question is simply one as to time1 and as to who are to be the first to provide means for this great movement to promote the right physical1 domestic1 and moral training of our race1 whose names shall shine as benefactors of our sex1 as ,harvard and ,yale have shone for the other4 ,but it is asked1 ,why go to the ,west to establish such institutions8 ,because the evils of sectarian strife affect educational interest most severely there2 because educational institutions are most needed there2 and because the moral soil1 like the natural1 bears fruit so quickly and so abundantly4 ,but why not endow large boarding institutions already established8 ,because it is contrary to the grand design of ,providence to take children away from parents to educate them2 because it is more economical to provide superior teachers and school-houses in cities and large towns1 than to turn funds into brick and mortar to congregate great communities of the young away from parents1 home1 and all domestic pursuits2 and because those who need to go to boarding-schools can find homes in private families in large towns4 ,but why not have our public schools on this model8 ,because it can not be done until the public1 by fair experiments1 have tested the value of such institutions4 ,so long1 too1 as foreign lands are emptying all classes into our country1 and their children enter all public schools1 it will be impossible to bring the children of the wealthy classes into them4 ,in conclusion1 the author asks every true woman who reads this to help in this effort for the women and the children of our country4 ,if she has money to give1 it can be sent to our agent1 ,rev4 ,william ,l4 ,parsons1 ,no4 #aa ,cliff ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,if she has time to devote to the work1 let her send #a #be by mail to ,harper ,brothers1 ,new ,york1 and she will receive1 without farther expense1 the author's two works1 one on ,domestic ,economy1 and the other on ,physiology and ,physical ,training1 designed as text-books for schools4 ,she can then use her influence to introduce them1 while the author's profits1 as they ever have been1 will be devoted to this object4 ,the following is the ,constitution of the association and the names of the ladies and gentlemen who superintend the enterprise4 ,most of them have been practical teachers1 most are practical housekeepers1 while they represent seven different religious denominations3 ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,woman',s ,,educational ,,association4 ,,art4 #a4 ,the name of this ,society is the ,,american ,,woman',s ,,educational ,,association4 ,,art4 #b4 ,the object of this ,association is to aid in securing to ,american ,women a liberal education1 honorable position1 and remunerative employment in their appropriate profession2 the distinctive profession of woman being considered as embracing the training of the human mind1 the care of the human body in infancy and in sickness1 and the conservation of the family state4 ,,art4 #c4 ,the leading measure to be pursued by this ,association is the establishment of permanent endowed institutions for women1 embracing the leading features of college and professional institutions for the other sex1 i4 e41 they shall be conducted by a ,faculty of ,teachers1 each being the head of a given department1 and no one having control over the others4 ,an office corresponding to that of the ,president of a college shall be optional with those who control each institution4 ,,art4 #d4 ,the mode of establishing such institutions shall be as follows3 ,an agent of this ,association shall make this offer to some city or large town in a section where teachers and schools are most needed4 ,first3 ,that the citizens shall organize a ,board of ,trustees1 in which the various religious denominations of the place shall be fairly represented2 that these ,trustees shall provide temporary accommodations1 and pupils enough to support four ,teachers2 that a ,primary and a ,high ,school ,department be organized1 and that the college plan of a ,faculty of ,teachers be adopted4 ,on these conditions1 the ,association shall furnish the ,institution with a library and apparatus to the value of one thousand dollars4 ,the first ,board of ,teachers shall be appointed by the ,association1 with the advice and consent of the ,trustees1 and thereafter the ,faculty shall have the nominating and the ,trustees the appointing power4 ,second3 ,as soon as the ,teachers have secured public confidence1 and proved that they can work harmoniously together1 the citizens shall erect a building at an expense of not less than ten thousand dollars1 and engage to give gratuitous tuition to twenty ,normal ,pupils4 ,in return1 the ,association shall provide an endowment of twenty thousand dollars1 the interest of which shall furnish the salaries of the three superior teachers1 each having charge of one of the three departments set forth above as constituting the profession of woman4 ,they shall also aid in the literary instruction4 ,these three teachers1 with the beneficiary ,normal ,pupils1 and any others who may wish and are qualified to enter1 shall constitute the ,normal ,department4 ,the ,normal ,pupils shall act as ,assistants in the ,primary and ,high ,school ,departments1 under the direction of the ,principal ,teachers4 ,,art4 #e4 ,with each institution shall be connected an organization of ladies resident in the place of location1 who1 with the ,teachers of the ,normal ,department1 shall carry out a system for raising up schools in destitute places1 and for securing employ and suitable compensation for all teachers trained in the institution4 ,when the home supply is inadequate1 the ,teachers shall be sought from the ,board of ,national ,popular ,education1 and other similar associations4 ,all teachers thus located shall be under the special care of this local ,association1 and the boarding establishment of the ,normal ,department shall serve as a temporary home to them in all emergencies demanding it4 ,,art4 #f4 ,funds contributed for endowments shall be held in trust for this ,association by gentlemen ,trustees incorporated for the purpose4 ,,art4 #g4 ,the whole control of the business and funds shall be in a ,board of ,managers1 who shall appoint their own officers1 agents1 and executive committee4 ,this ,board shall have power to perpetuate and increase itself1 but the number from any one religious denomination shall never exceed one fifth of the whole4 ,not less than seven different denominations shall be represented in the ,board1 and a majority shall be ladies who are or have been practical teachers4 ,any number of members present1 of the ,board or of the ,executive ,committee1 at any meeting of either1 due notice having been given of such meeting1 shall constitute a quorum4 ,the ,board shall meet annually at such time and place as it shall appoint1 and the presiding officer shall be appointed at each meeting4 ,a meeting may also be called at any time1 at the request of any three members of the ,board4 ,,art4 #h4 ,any person may become an honorary life member of this ,association by the payment of twenty-five dollars1 and an honorary patron of the enterprise by the payment of fifty dollars or upward4 ,,board ,,of ,,managers ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,woman',s ,,educational ,,association4 ,mrs4 ,z4 ,p4 ,g4 ,banister1 ,newburyport1 ,mass4 ,mrs4 ,l4 ,h4 ,sigourney1 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,mrs4 ,s4 ,j4 ,hale1 ,philadelphia4 ,miss ,p4 ,fobes1 ,monticello1 ,ill4 ,mrs4 ,gen4 ,j4 ,gould1 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,ricord1 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,b4 ,stowe1 ,andover1 ,mass4 ,mrs4 ,prof4 ,h4 ,c4 ,conant1 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,miss ,c4 ,e4 ,beecher1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,miss ,mary ,mortimer1 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 ,miss ,c4 ,m4 ,sedgwick1 ,new ,york4 ,mrs4 ,prof4 ,d4 ,c4 ,van ,norman1 ,mrs4 ,marcus ,spring1 ,mrs4 ,c4 ,m4 ,kirkland1 ,mrs4 ,prof4 ,h4 ,webster1 ,mrs4 ,a4 ,h4 ,gibbons1 ,mrs4 ,c4 ,w4 ,milbank1 ,mrs4 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,cheever1 ,mrs4 ,henry ,dwight1 ,jr41 ,mrs4 ,james ,harper1 ,mrs4 ,d4 ,codwise1 ,mrs4 ,charles ,abernethy1 ,mrs4 ,prof4 ,henry ,b4 ,smith1 ,mrs4 ,joseph ,f4 ,stone1 ,miss ,caroline ,l4 ,griffin1 ,mrs4 ,rev4 ,abel ,stevens1 ,mrs4 ,rev4 ,w4 ,l4 ,parsons1 ,the following gentlemen are the ,officers under the ,act of ,incorporation granted to the ,association by the ,legislature of ,new ,york in #ahee4 ,,benj4 ,w4 ,,bonney1 ,president4 ,,wm4 ,l4 ,,parsons1 ,cor4 ,secretary4 ,,henry ,a4 ,,hurlbut1 ,treasurer4 ,,board ,,of ,,managers4 ,,cyrus ,w4 ,,field1 ,,josiah ,w4 ,,baker1 ,,benj4 ,w4 ,,bonney1 ,,henry ,a4 ,,hurlbut1 ,,wm4 ,l4 ,,parsons4 ,,finance ,,committee4 ,,cyrus ,w4 ,,field1 ,,josiah ,w4 ,,baker1 ,,benj4 ,w4 ,,bonney4 ,,form ,,of ,,bequest4 ,i give and bequeath to the ,american ,woman's ,educational ,association1 incorporated by or under an ,act of the ,legislature of the ,state of ,new ,york1 the sum of space ,dollars1 which ,i direct to be paid by my executors to the ,treasurer of said ,association for the time being4