,a ,,manual ,,of ,,shoemaking ,illustration3 ,an ,old-,fashioned ,shoemaker4 ,frontispiece4 ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,shoemaking ,,and ,,leather ,,and ,,rubber ,,products ,,by ,,william ,h4 ,,dooley ,,principal ,,of ,,the ,,lowell ,,industrial ,,school ,,illustrated ,,boston ,,little1 ,,brown1 ,,and ,,company #aiab ,copyright1 #aiab1 ,,by ,,little1 ,,brown1 ,,and ,,company4 ,all rights reserved4 ,published1 ,september1 #aiab4 ,,preface ,the author was asked in #aijh by the ,lynn ,commission on ,industrial ,education to make an investigation of ,european shoe schools and to assist the ,commission in preparing a course of study for the proposed shoe school in the city of ,lynn4 ,a close investigation showed that there were several textbooks on shoemaking published in ,europe1 but that no general textbook on shoemaking had been issued in this country adapted to meet the needs of industrial1 trade1 and commercial schools or those who have just entered the rubber1 shoe1 and leather trades4 ,this book is written to meet this need4 ,others may find it of interest4 ,the author is under obligations to the following persons and firms for information and assistance in preparing the book1 and for permission to reproduce photographs and information from their publications3 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,finn1 ,mr4 ,frank ,l4 ,west1 ,head of ,shoemaking ,department1 ,tuskegee1 ,ala41 ,mr4 ,louis ,fleming1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,garrison1 ,president of ,shoe and ,leather ,gazette1 ,mr4 ,arthur ,l4 ,evans1 ,the ,shoeman1 ,mr4 ,charles ,f4 ,cahill1 ,united ,shoe ,machinery ,company1 ,hood ,rubber ,company1 ,bliss ,shoe ,company1 ,american ,hide and ,leather ,company1 ,regal ,shoe ,company1 the publishers of ,hide and ,leather1 ,american ,shoemaking1 ,shoe ,repairing1 ,boot and ,shoe ,recorder1 ,the ,weekly ,bulletin1 and the ,new ,york ,leather ,belting ,company4 ,in addition1 the author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to the great body of foreign literature on the different subjects from which information has been obtained4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface v ,,chapter ,i4 ,,fundamental ,,shoe ,,terms #a ,,ii4 ,,hides ,,and ,,their ,,treatment #d ,,iii4 ,,processes ,,of ,,tanning #ba ,,iv4 ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,foot #gg ,v4 ,,how ,,shoe ,,styles ,,are ,,made #ic ,,vi4 ,,departments ,,of ,a ,,shoe ,,factory #ajc ,,vii4 ,,mckay ,,and ,,turned ,,shoes #add ,,viii4 ,,old-,,fashioned ,,shoemaking ,,and ,,repairing #afb ,,ix4 ,,leather ,,and ,,shoemaking ,,terms #agg ,x4 ,,leather ,,products ,,manufacture #bah ,,xi4 ,,rubber ,,shoe ,,manufacture ,,and ,,terms #bbh ,,xii4 ,,history ,,of ,,footwear #bej ,,index #bha ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,an ,old-fashioned ,shoemaker ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,names of the ,different ,parts of ,foot ,wear #b ,green-salted ,calfskin #ab ,tanning ,process #bd ,tanning ,process1 showing ,rotating ,drums #bh ,sole ,leather ,offal #cd ,bones and ,joints of the ,human ,foot #gh ,the ,different ,parts of the ,foot and ,ankle #gh ,a ,last in ,three ,stages of ,manufacture #ih ,a ,modern ,shoe ,factory #ajd ,a ,skin ,divided before ,cutting #aab ,cutting ,leather #aaf ,goodyear ,stitching #aaf ,stock ,fitting ,room #abj ,lasting #abd ,welting #abd ,rough ,rounding #abh ,edge ,trimming #abh ,leveling #acb ,heeling #acb ,sole ,scouring #acf ,heel ,shaping #acf ,ironing #adj ,packing #adj ,cross ,sections of ,welt ,shoe and ,mc,kay ,sewed ,shoe #add ,stitching #adh ,tacking #adh ,cross ,section of ,standard ,screwed ,shoe #afj ,side of ,leather divided as to ,quality #afh ,cross ,section of ,mc,kay ,sewed ,shoe #bjj ,cross ,section of ,goodyear ,welt ,shoe #bjj ,crude ,rubber #bbh ,washing and ,drying #bcb ,calender ,room #bcd ,cutting ,room #bcf ,putting together the ,parts of a ,rubber ,shoe #bdj ,heel-making ,department #bdb ,parts of a ,rubber ,boot #bdh ,insole for ,hand-sewed ,shoe #bfd ,hand-sewed ,shoe #bfd ,stitching ,room of a ,german ,shoe ,factory #bgf ,,shoemaking ,,chapter ,,one ,,fundamental ,,shoe ,,terms ,before explaining the manufacture of shoes1 it is necessary to fix definitely in our minds the names of their different parts4 ,examine your shoes and note the parts that are here described4 ,the bottom of the shoe is called the sole4 ,the part above the sole is called the upper4 ,the top of the shoe is that part measured by the lacing which covers the ankle and the instep4 ,the vamp is that section which covers the sides of the foot and the toes4 ,the shank is that part of the sole of the shoe between the heel and the ball4 ,this name is often applied to a piece of metal or other substance in that part of the sole1 intended to give support to the arch of the foot4 ,the throat of the vamp is that part which curves around the lower edge of the top1 where the lacing starts4 ,backstay is a term used to denote a strip of leather covering and strengthening the back seam of the shoe4 ,quarter is a term used mostly in low shoes to denote the rear part of the upper when a full vamp is not used4 ,button fly is the portion of the upper containing the buttonholes of a button shoe4 ,tip is the toe piece of a shoe1 stitched to the vamp and outside of it4 ,the lace stay is a term used to denote a strip of leather renforcing the eyelet holes4 ,tongue denotes a narrow strip of leather used on all lace shoes to protect the instep from the lacing and weather4 ,illustration3 ,names of the ,different ,parts of ,foot ,wear4 ,page #b4 ,foxing is the name applied to leather of the upper that extends from the sole to the laces in front1 and to about the height of the counter in the back1 being the length of the upper4 ,it may be in one or more pieces1 and is often cut down to the shank in circular form4 ,if in two pieces1 that part covering the counter is called a heel fox4 ,overlay is a term applied to leather attached to the upper part of the vamp of a slipper4 ,the breast of the heel is the inner part of the heel1 that is1 the section nearest the shank4 ,,chapter ,,two ,,hides ,,and ,,their ,,treatment ,if we examine our shoes1 we will find that the different parts are composed of material called leather4 ,the bottom of the shoe is of hard leather1 while the part above the sole is of a softer1 more pliable leather4 ,this leather is nothing more than the hides of different animals treated in such a way as to remove the fat and the hair4 ,after the hides have been taken from the dead body of the animal1 they are quite heavily salted to preserve them from spoiling4 ,in this salted condition they are shipped to the tanneries4 ,the process or series of processes by which the hides and skins of animals are converted into leather is called tanning4 ,the process may be divided into three groups of subprocesses as follows3-- ,beamhouse process1 which removes the hair from the hides and prepares them for the actual process of the tanning or conversion into leather2 tanning1 which converts the raw hide into leather2 and finishing1 which involves a number of operations1 the objects of which are to give the leather the color that may be desired and also to make it of uniform thickness1 and impart to it the softness and the finish that is required for a particular purpose4 ,hides are divided roughly in the tannery1 according to the size1 into three general classes3-- 7#a7 ,hides1 skins from fully grown animals1 as cows1 oxen1 horses1 buffaloes1 walrus1 etc4 ,these are thick1 heavy leather1 used for shoe soles1 large machinery belting1 trunks1 etc41 where stiffness1 strength1 and wearing qualities are desired4 ,the untanned hides weigh from twenty-five to sixty pounds4 7#b7 ,kips1 skins of the undersized animals of the above group1 weighing between fifteen and twenty-five pounds4 7#c7 ,skins from small animals1 such as calves1 sheep1 goats1 dogs1 etc4 ,this last group gives a light1 but strong and pliable leather1 which may be used for a great many purposes1 such as men's shoes and the heavier grades of women's shoes4 ,the hides1 kips1 and skins are divided into various grades1 according to their weight1 size1 condition1 and quality4 ,the quality of the hides not only depends upon the kind of animal1 but also upon its fodder and mode of living4 ,the hides of wild cattle yield a more compact and stronger leather than those of our domesticated beasts4 ,among these latter the stall-fed have better hides than the meadow-fed1 or grazing cattle4 ,the thickness of the hide varies considerably on different animals and on the parts of the body1 the thickest part of the bull being near the head and the middle of the back1 while at the belly the hide is thinnest4 ,these differences are less conspicuous in sheep1 goats1 and calves4 ,as regards sheep1 it would appear that their skin is generally thinnest where their wool is longest4 ,in the raw1 untanned state1 and with the hair still on1 the hides are termed 8green0 or 8fresh40 ,fresh1 or green hides are supplied to the tanners by the packers or the butchers1 or are imported1 either dry or salted4 ,hides are obtained either from the regular packing houses or from farmers who kill their own stock1 and do not skin the animal as scientifically as the regular packing houses1 in which case they are called country hides4 ,there are different grades of hides and leather1 and these different grades are divided in the commercial world into the five following grades3-- ,i4 ,,native ,,hides ,native ,steers ,native ,cows1 heavy ,native ,cows1 light ,branded ,cows ,butts ,colorado ,steers ,texas ,steers1 heavy ,texas ,steers1 light ,texas ,steers1 ex-light ,native ,bulls ,branded ,bulls ,,ii4 ,,country ,,hides ,ohio ,buffs ,ohio ,ex4 ,southerns ,,iii4 ,,dry ,,hides 7,raised on plain4 ,rough side suitable for soles47 ,buenos ,ayres ,,iv4 ,,calfskins 7,green salted7 ,chicago ,city ,v4 ,,paris ,,city ,,calfskins ,light ,medium ,heavy ,hides obtained from steers raised on ,western farms are known as native steer hides4 ,native cowhide 7heavy7 is hide weighing from fifty-five to sixty-five pounds1 obtained from cows4 ,native cowhide 7light7 is cowhide weighing under fifty-five pounds4 ,branded cowhide is hide obtained from cows that are branded on the face of the hide4 ,butts is a term applied to the part of the hide remaining after cutting off the head1 shoulders1 and strip of the belly4 ,colorado steer hide is from ,colorado steers1 which are very light4 ,texas steer hide comes in three grades1 heavy1 light1 and extra light4 ,the heavy grade is very heavy because the animal is allowed to graze on the plains4 ,that is the reason why it is heavier than the ,colorado steer hide1 which is raised on the farm4 ,bull hide is divided into two classes1 the regular hide and the branded grade4 ,the branded grade usually is one cent a pound less than the regular4 ,country hides are of three grades1 ,ohio ,buffs1 ,ohio ,ex41 and ,southern4 ,the ,ohio ,buffs weigh from forty to sixty pounds4 ,the ,ohio ,ex4 weighs from twenty to forty pounds4 ,southern hides have spots without hair and other blemishes on them1 due to the sting of insects4 ,this makes the ,southern hide inferior to the ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,michigan1 and ,chicago hides that have no such blemishes4 ,ohio ,butt hides are the best1 because in ,ohio they kill a great many young calves1 while in ,chicago young cows 7that have calved7 are killed1 causing the hide to be flanky4 ,the season of the year in which cattle are slaughtered has considerable influence upon both the weight and condition of the hide4 ,during the winter months1 by reason of the hair being longer and thicker1 the hide is heavier1 ranging from seventy-five to eighty pounds1 and gradually decreasing in weight as the season becomes warmer and the coat is shed1 until in ,june and ,july it weighs from seventy down to fifty-five pounds1 the hair then being thin and short4 ,the best hides of the year are ,october hides1 and short-haired hides are better for leather purposes than long-haired ones4 ,a thick hide which is to be used for upper leather is cut into sides before the tanning process is completed4 ,this is performed by passing it between rollers where it comes in contact with a sharp knife-edge1 which splits it into two or more sheets4 ,great care must be exercised in cutting the leather in order to have good 8splits0 7sheets of leather74 ,a split from a heavy hide is not as good as a whole of a lighter leather4 ,butts and backs are selected from the stoutest and heaviest oxhides4 ,the butt is formed by cutting off the head1 the shoulder1 and the strip of the belly4 ,the butt or back of oxhide forms the stoutest and heaviest leather1 such as is used for soles of boots1 harness1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,green-,salted ,calfskin4 ,page #ab4 ,hides and skins are received at the tannery in one of three conditions1 viz4 green-salted1 dry1 or dry-salted4 ,very few hides are received by tanners in fresh or unsalted condition1 salt being necessary to preserve them from decay4 ,green-salted hides are those that have been salted in fresh condition1 tied up in bundles1 and shipped to the tanner4 ,dry hides are those that were taken from the carcass and dried without being salted2 these are usually stiff and hard4 ,dry-salted hides are hides that were heavily salted while they were fresh1 and then dried4 ,the hides and skins that are received from the slaughterhouses of this country are almost invariably green-salted2 those from foreign countries are green-salted1 dry1 and dry-salted4 ,it does not matter in what condition the hides are received or the kind of leather into which they are to be tanned2 they all require soaking in water before any attempt is made to remove the hair or to tan them4 ,the object of the soaking process1 as it is called1 is to thoroughly soften the hides and to remove from them all salt1 dirt1 blood1 etc4 ,ordinary hides are usually soaked from twenty-four to forty-eight hours4 ,dry hides require much longer4 ,the water should be changed once or twice during the process1 since dirty water may injure the hides4 ,soft water is better than hard for this process4 ,where the water is hard1 it is customary for the tanner to add a quantity of borax to it to increase its cleansing power and to hasten the softening of the hides4 ,when dry hides have become soft enough to bend without cracking1 they are put into a machine and beaten and rolled1 then soaked again until they are soft and pliable4 ,it is very important that all the salt and dirt are removed during the process of soaking1 as they injure the quality of the leather if they are not removed before the hides are unhaired4 ,when the soaking process is completed1 the lumps of fat and flesh that may have been left on by the butcher are removed by hand or by a machine1 and the hides are then in condition to be passed along into the next process4 ,the parts that cannot be made into leather1 such as tails1 teats1 etc41 are trimmed off before the hides are soaked4 ,large hides are cut into two pieces or halves1 called 8sides10 after they have been soaked4 ,for the purpose of taking the hair from the hides and skins1 lime1 sulphide of sodium1 and red arsenic are used4 ,lime is sometimes used alone1 but usually one of the other two chemicals is mixed with it4 ,the lime is dissolved in hot water1 a quantity of either sulphide of sodium or red arsenic is added to it1 and the solution is then mixed with water in a vat1 the hides being immersed in this liquor until the hair can be easily removed4 ,the action of the unhairing liquor is to swell the hides1 then to dissolve the perishable animal portion and loosen the hair so that it can be rubbed or pulled off4 ,there are several different processes of unhairing the hides4 ,each tanner uses the process that will help to give the leather the qualities that it should have1 such as softness and pliability for shoe and glove leather1 or firmness and solidity for sole and belting leather4 ,this is one of the most important in the series of tannery processes1 and if the hides are not unhaired properly and not prepared for tanning as they should be1 the leather will not be right when it is tanned and finished4 ,there is also a process of unhairing1 called 8sweating10 which softens the hide and loosens the hair so that it can be scraped off4 ,in this process the hides begin to decay before the hair is loose2 it is therefore a dangerous process to use and must be carefully watched or the hides will be entirely spoiled4 ,sweating is never used for the finer1 softer kinds of leather4 ,it is applied chiefly to dry hides for sole1 lace1 and belt leather4 ,it is an old-fashioned process and is not used as much nowadays as some years ago4 ,the pelts of sheep are salted at the slaughterhouses and then shipped to the tannery4 ,here they are thrown into water and left to soak twenty-four hours to loosen the dirt and dissolve the salt4 ,the pelts are next passed through machines that clean the wool1 and any particles of flesh remaining on the inner or flesh side are removed4 ,the pelts are then in condition to have the wool removed4 ,as long as a sheepskin has the wool upon it1 it is called a pelt2 as soon as the wool has been taken off1 it is called a skin or a 8slat40 ,each pelt is spread out smoothly on a table with the wool down and the inner or flesh side up4 ,a mixture of lime and sulphide of sodium is next applied uniformly over the skin with a brush4 ,the pelt is then folded up and placed in a pile with others4 ,the solution that was applied penetrates the skin and loosens the wool1 which1 at the end of twenty-four hours1 more or less1 can be easily pulled off with the hands or rubbed off with a dull instrument or stick4 ,the workman must be careful not to get any of the solution on to the wool1 as it dissolves it and makes it worthless4 ,since the wool is valuable1 the solution must be applied to the flesh side very carefully so that it does no injury4 ,the wool that is removed from the skins is called 8pulled wool40 ,the slat is now ready to be limed1 washed1 pickled1 and tanned4 ,heavy skins are often split into two sheets after they have been limed4 ,the part from the wool side is called a skiver1 and that from the flesh side is called a flesher4 ,after the skins have been limed1 they are bated and washed1 which makes them soft1 clean1 and white2 they are then put into a solution of salt1 sulphuric acid1 and water1 called 8pickle10 and after a few hours they are taken out1 drained1 and tanned4 ,large quantities of sheepskins are sold to tanners in the pickled condition by those who make a business of preparing such skins and selling the wool4 ,pickled skins can be kept an indefinite length of time without spoiling2 they can also be dried and worked out into a cheap white leather without any further tanning whatever4 ,most of such skins1 however1 are sold to tanners1 who tan them into leather4 ,sheepskins contain considerable grease1 which must be removed before the leather can be sold4 ,for some processes of tanning1 calfskins1 goatskins1 and cattle hides are also pickled the same as sheepskins2 for other processes they are not pickled1 but are thoroughly bated or delimed1 washed1 and cleansed4 ,heavy hides are sometimes split out of the lime2 more frequently1 however1 they are not split until after they have been tanned4 ,to capitulate1 the preparatory processes may be briefly described as follows3-- ,soaking1 which dissolves the salt1 removes the dirt and makes the hides soft and comparatively clean4 ,liming and unhairing1 which swell the hides and dissolve the perishable animal portion1 loosen the hair1 and put the hides into proper condition for tanning4 ,hides tanned without liming1 even if the hair is removed by some chemical1 do not make pliable leather1 but are stiff and hard4 ,bating1 which removes the lime from the hides4 ,pickling1 which helps in the tanning later1 and keeps the hides and skins from spoiling if they are not tanned at once4 ,the lumps of fat and flesh that may be on the hides are removed by machinery or by placing the hide over a beam and scraping it with a knife4 ,the hair1 when it is loosened by the lime1 is removed by a machine or by hand4 ,,chapter ,,three ,,processes ,,of ,,tanning ,the various processes of tanning may be roughly divided into two classes1 vegetable chemical and mineral chemical4 ,the first class is often spoken of in tanneries simply as the 8vegetable0 while the second is called 8chemical0 process4 ,in the vegetable processes the tanning is accomplished by tannin1 which is found in various barks and woods of trees and leaves of plants4 ,in the so-called chemical processes the tanning is done with mineral salts and acids which produce an entirely different kind of leather from that procured by vegetable tanning4 ,there is also a method of tanning1 or1 more properly speaking1 tawing1 in which alum and salt are used4 ,this process makes white leather that is used for many purposes2 it is also colored and used in the manufacture of fine gloves4 ,leather is also made by tanning skins with oil4 ,chamois skins are made in this way4 ,the materials that are used to tan hides and skins act upon the hide fibers in such a way that the hides are rendered proof against decay and become pliable and strong4 ,there are many vegetable tans2 they are used for sole leather1 upper leather1 and colored leather for numerous purposes4 ,the bark of hemlock trees is one of the principal tans4 ,the woods and barks of oak1 chestnut1 and quebracho trees are often used4 ,palmetto roots yield a good tan4 ,large quantities of leather are treated with gambier and various other tanning materials that come from foreign countries4 ,sumac leaves1 which are imported from ,sicily1 contain tannin that makes soft leather suitable for hat sweatbands1 suspender trimmings1 etc4 ,sumac is also obtained from the ,state of ,virginia1 but the foreign leaves contain more tannin and make better leather than the ,american4 ,to a large extent the so-called chemical processes have supplanted the vegetable processes1 that is1 old tan bark and sumac processes2 but in some tanneries both methods are used on different kinds of skins4 ,in the old bark process the tan bark is ground coarse and is then treated in leaches with hot water until the tanning quality is drawn out4 ,the liquor so obtained is used at various strengths as needed4 ,in the newer method the tan liquor is displaced by a solution of potassium bichromate1 which produces its results with much less expenditure of time4 ,when the hides or skins are ready for the tanning process1 they are put into a revolving drum1 known as a 8pinwheel10 or into a pit in which are revolving paddles1 with a dilute solution of potassium dichromate or sodium dichromate1 acidified with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid4 ,if the pinwheel is employed1 it is revolved for seven hours or longer2 after which time the liquor is drawn off and replaced by an acidified solution of sodium thiosulphate or bisulphite1 and then the revolution is continued several hours longer4 ,if the pit is used1 the skins are removed to another drum containing the second solution1 and kept at rest or overturned for a like period4 ,in removing the skins from the pinwheel or vat1 and in handling them after treatment with lime for the loosening of the hair1 the hands and arms of the workmen are seriously injured1 becoming raw if not protected by rubber gloves2 even with gloves it is difficult to prevent injury1 and in some establishments the workmen are relieved by the substitution of a single-bath process1 in which the liquor is less harmful to the skin4 ,illustration3 ,tanning ,process ,showing the vats1 the unhairing and liming processes4 ,page #bd4 ,the hides are then removed from the pits1 washed and brushed1 followed by slow drying in the air4 ,when partly dried1 they are placed in a pile and covered until heating is induced4 ,they are then dampened and rolled with brass rollers to give the leather solidity4 ,sole leather is oiled but little4 ,weight is increased by adding glucose and salt4 ,various rapid processes of tanning have been devised in which the hides are suspended in strong liquors or are tanned in large revolving drums4 ,it is claimed that this hastens the process1 but the product has been criticized as lacking substance or being brittle4 ,chrome tannage has been chiefly developed in this country during the last twenty years and is now in general use4 ,it consists in throwing an insoluble chromium hydroxide or oxide on the fibers of a skin which has been impregnated with a soluble chromium salt--potassium bichromate4 ,other salts like basic chromium chloride1 chromium chromate1 and chromic alum are also used4 ,the hydrochloric or sulphuric acid acts by setting free chromic acid4 ,after several hours1 the skin shows a uniform yellow when cut through its thickest part4 ,it is then drained and the skin worked in a solution of sodium bisulphite and mineral acid 7to free sulphur dioxide74 ,the chromic acid is absorbed by the fiber and later reduced by sulphur dioxide4 ,in the making of chrome black leather each tanner has his own method4 ,contrary to the general belief1 there are many different methods of chrome tannage4 ,no two tanneries employ just the same process4 ,tanners of chrome leather seek to produce leather suitable for the particular demands made upon it by the peculiarities or characteristics of the varying seasons4 ,summer shoes require a cool1 light leather2 at other times a heavier tannage is essential1 with some call for a practically waterproof product4 ,all leathers1 whether vegetable-or chrome-tanned1 must be 8fat liquored40 ,that is to say1 a certain amount of fatty material must be put into the skin in order that it may be mellow1 workable1 and serviceable4 ,this is very essential in producing calf leather4 ,fat liquors usually contain oil and soap1 which have been boiled in water and made into a thin liquor4 ,the leather is put into a drum with the hot fat liquor2 the drum is set in motion1 and as it revolves the leather tumbles about in the drum and absorbs the oil and soap from the water4 ,it is the fat liquor that makes the leather soft and strong4 ,leather used in shoes is divided into two classes3 sole leather and upper leather4 ,sole leather is a heavy1 solid1 stiff leather and may be bent without cracking4 ,it is the foundation of the shoe1 and therefore should be of the best material4 ,the hides of bulls and oxen yield the best leather for this purpose4 ,the hide that is tanned for sole leather is soaked for several days in a weak solution 7which is gradually made stronger7 of oak or hemlock tan made from the bark4 ,oak-tanned hide is preferred and may be known by its light color4 ,a chemical change takes place in the fiber of the hide4 ,this is a high-grade tannage1 and is distinguished principally by its fine fibers and close1 compact texture4 ,oak sole leather1 by reason of its tough character1 and its close1 fibrous texture1 resists water and will wear well down before cracking4 ,it is by many considered better than other leather for flexible-sole shoes1 requiring waterproof qualities4 ,sole leather is divided into three classes according to the tanning--oak1 hemlock1 and union4 ,illustration3 ,tanning ,process ,showing the rotating drums4 ,see page #bd4 ,oak tanning is as follows3 the hides are hung in pits containing weak or nearly spent liquors from a previous tanning1 and agitated so as to take up tannin evenly4 ,strong liquor would harden the surface so as to prevent thorough penetration into the interior of the hides4 ,after ten or twelve days1 the hides are taken out and laid away in fresh tan and stronger liquor4 ,this process is repeated as often as necessary for eight to ten months4 ,at the end of this time the hide has absorbed all of the tannin which it will take up4 ,hemlock tanning is similar to the oak tanning in process4 ,the hemlock tan is a red shade4 ,hemlock produces a very hard and inflexible leather4 ,it is modified by use of bleaching materials which are applied to the leather after being tanned4 ,it is sold in sides without being trimmed1 while the oak is sold in backs1 with belly and head trimmed off4 ,hemlock leather is used extensively and almost principally for men's and boys' stiff-soled1 heavy shoes1 where no flexibility is required or expected4 ,its principal desirable quality is its resistance to trituration1 or being ground to a powder1 and its use in men's and boys' pegged1 nailed1 or standard screw shoes is not in any way objectionable to the wearer4 ,in fact1 for this class of shoes1 it is probably the best leather that can be used4 ,but when hemlock is used in men's and boys' ,goodyear welt shoes1 where a flexible bottom is expected and required1 it generally does not give good results4 ,it cannot satisfactorily resist the constant flexing to which it is subjected1 and after the sole is worn half through1 the constant bending causes it to crack crosswise4 ,on this account it becomes like a sieve1 and has no power of resistance in water1 and therefore it is not at all suited to flexible-bottomed shoes4 ,in 8union-tanned0 hides1 both oak and hemlock are used and the result is a compromise in both color and quality4 ,this tan was first used about fifty years ago4 ,twenty-five years ago the union leather tanners began to experiment with bleaching materials to avoid the use of oak bark1 which was becoming scarce and high priced1 and eventually developed a system of tanning union leather with hemlock or kindred tanning agents1 excluding oak4 ,the red color and the hard texture were modified by bleaching the leather to the desired color and texture4 ,this produces leather which has not the fine1 close tannage of genuine oak leather and at the same time lacks the compact1 hard character of hemlock leather4 ,union leather produced in this manner is a sort of mongrel or hybrid leather1 being neither oak nor hemlock4 ,on account of its economy in cutting qualities1 however1 it is largely used in the manufacture of medium-priced shoes where a certain degree of flexibility is required in the sole4 ,this is particularly true of women's shoes4 ,union leather is sold largely in backs and trimmed the same as oak1 though not so closely4 ,sole leather is also made nowadays by tanning the hides by the chrome or chemical process4 ,this leather is very durable and pliable and is used on athletic and sporting shoes4 ,it has a light green color and is much lighter in weight than the oak or hemlock leather4 ,many kinds of hide are used for sole leather4 ,this country does not produce nearly enough hides for the demand1 and great quantities are imported from abroad1 although most of the imported hides come from ,south ,america4 ,imported hides are divided into two general classes1 dry hides and green-salted hides4 ,dry hides are of two kinds1 the dry 8flint10 which are dried carefully after being taken from the animal and cured without salt4 ,these generally make good leather1 although if sunburnt1 the leather is not strong4 8,dry-salted hides0 are salted and cured to a dry state4 ,dry hides of both kinds are used for hemlock leather only1 although all hemlock leather is not made from dry hides4 ,green-salted hides are used in making oak-tanned leather as well as hemlock1 and those used by ,united ,states tanners come largely from domestic points2 but there is a variable amount imported each year from abroad1 principally from ,europe and ,south ,america4 ,green-salted hides are of two general classes1 those branded and those free of brands4 ,cow and steer hides of the branded type are used by tanners of oak and union leather4 ,those not branded are used more largely for belting and upholstering leathers1 a small part finding their way into hemlock leather4 ,sole leather remnants1 strictly speaking1 include such a wide variety of items that it is difficult to cover them all4 ,few people1 however1 realize the big range of usefulness of this class of stock4 ,while not exactly a by-product1 remnants are often classed as such4 ,under the class of sole leather remnants are included sole leather offal1 such as heads1 bellies1 shoulders1 shanks1 shins1 men's heeling1 men's half heeling1 men's and women's three-and four-piece heeling1 etc4 ,stock that cannot be used in the shoe business goes into the chemical and fertilizer trade1 among other outlets4 ,by a special acid process of burning this stock1 ammonia is derived from it1 which goes into fertilizer2 and another by-product is sulphuric acid for the chemical trade4 ,the amount of ammonia obtained is small1 being about seven per cent of ammonia to a ton of sole leather scrap4 ,this is mixed with fertilizer and sold mostly in the ,southern ,states1 and to a small extent in the ,west1 there being a law in many of the ,western ,states against the use of fertilizer made from leather products1 on account of its low grade4 ,illustration3 ,sole ,leather ,offal ,showing bellies1 shoulders1 etc4 ,page #ce4 ,in the disposition of offal1 heads are used for taps1 top lifts1 and under lifts4 ,shoulders are used for outsoles and inner soles1 while bellies are used for medium to heavy taps and counters4 ,lightweight bellies and shanks are utilized for making box toes and counters4 ,shanks are also used for taps and under lifts4 ,this stock is solid and substantial and well suited for these purposes4 ,the bellies1 being flexible1 are the best part of the hide obtainable for inner soles4 ,in cutting out soles1 the manufacturer accumulates a considerable quantity of solid or center pieces1 which are used for small top lifts1 also for 8,cuban0 tops1 thereby using up the bulk of the small heavy scrap that ordinarily would be sold for pieced heeling4 ,there is also a demand for similar stock from the hardware trade1 where it is used for making mallet and tool handles1 also for wagon and carriage washers4 ,large quantities of men's and women's heeling and half heeling go to ,england1 where it is cut up by heel manufacturers into lifts and sectional lifts for the ,english trade2 there being a shortage of this class of offal there4 ,the shoe manufacturer1 after cutting his soles and taps1 is obliged to skive them to get the particular iron he needs4 ,this leaves what is known as a 8flesh sole shape10 also a 8tap shape40 ,these skivings are pasted together by another class of trade and again used for inner soling and taps in the cheaper grades of shoes4 ,smaller skivings1 or waste1 after sorting out the sole and tap shapes1 are sold to the leather board trade4 ,this eventually comes back to the shoe trade in the shape of leather board and is cut into heel lifts4 ,the waste after cutting heel lifts is again resold to the leather board trade and makes another round trip to the shoe manufacturer4 ,this illustration1 as well as many others in the leather remnant business1 demonstrates the scientific principle that nothing is ever entirely lost4 ,in regard to pieced heel lifts1 these are made in either two1 three1 or four sections4 ,this refers to what are known as sectional heel lifts4 ,scrap leather is also used for shanking for the ,european trade4 ,soles and taps1 known as rejects1 that is1 those thrown out by the high-grade trade1 are sold to manufacturers of cheaper lines4 ,a shoe manufacturer cutting his own soles and buying sole leather in sides1 after sorting out the soles suited to his own requirements1 will sell what he cannot use to remnant dealers1 who in turn re-sell them to shoe manufacturers requiring that particular class of stock4 ,the scrap leather1 or remnant dealer1 thus forms a useful link in the chain of distribution1 furnishing a market where shoe and leather manufacturers may dispose of their surplus products to best advantage1 and providing a source of supply for buyers who wish any particular article to suit their individual needs4 ,upper or dressed leather is made from kips or large calfskins4 ,it is tanned and finished like all other forms of leather by variations of the foregoing process4 ,thick hides are often split thin by machinery1 and the parts retained and finished separately4 ,the parts of the leather from the hair side are most valuable and are called 8grain0 leather2 the inner parts or 8flesh splits0 are made into a variety of different kinds of leather by waxing1 oiling1 and polishing4 ,it is finished by scouring with brushes and then rubbed with a piece of glass1 which removes creases and wrinkles and stretches the leather4 ,then it is stuffed with a mixture of oil1 soap1 and tallow1 which is worked into it by rolling4 ,various finishes are given to leather1 such as seal grain1 buff1 glove grain1 oil grain1 satin calf1 russet1 plain shoe1 etc4 ,upper leathers are blacked by rubbing with a mixture of lampblack and oil or tallow1 or with a solution of copperas and logwood4 ,no tanning process1 no matter how good or thorough1 can make firm1 serviceable1 wear-resisting leather out of all portions of any hide1 because nature made some parts of every hide porous1 spongy1 and lacking in fibrous strength4 ,calfskins used by tanners are of several classes4 ,american calfskins1 taken off in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 are usually sold green pelted4 ,farmers raise only a small fraction of the calves born4 ,each cow must produce a calf in order to insure a maximum flow of milk4 ,most of the farmers keep cows to produce milk1 hence they sell the young calves for veal and use their skins for high-grade calf leather4 ,in ,european countries farmers fatten their calves before selling them in order to get a higher price for the veal4 ,the skin is not so valuable for leather as the skin from younger calves1 and it is used for lower-value leathers4 ,calfskin is not split4 ,a heavier weight skin might be4 ,it is shaved to a uniform thickness4 ,calf leather is divided into the following classes1 depending upon the finish of the leather3-- ,boarded calf 7made in both chrome and bark tannage74 ,wax calf1 finished on the flesh side with a waxy1 hard surface4 ,box calf is a proprietary name4 ,it is boarded--rubbed with a board to raise the grain4 ,it is known by minute1 squarelike lines4 ,mat calf is a dull-finished calfskin1 used more in topping4 ,suede calf is finished on flesh side4 ,most makes of suede calf are chromed1 although there are some vegetable4 ,storm calf is a heavy skin1 finished for winter wear4 ,considerable oil is used in finishing4 ,french calf is finished on flesh side4 ,dry hides are obtained from ,buenos ,ayres1 where the cattle are raised on the plains4 ,this city exports a large quantity of hides1 dry1 salted1 and cured by smoking4 ,the hides of cows generally yield inferior grain leather2 but ,south ,american cowhides may be worked for light sole leather4 ,calves' hides are thinner1 but when well tanned1 curried1 and dressed1 they yield a very soft and supple leather for boots and shoes4 ,they are finished with wax and oil on the flesh side1 and can also be finished on the hair 7grain of skin74 ,calves' skin 7green salted74 ,paris ,city calfskins4 ,these are obtained in three grades--light1 medium1 and heavy4 ,light grades run from four to five1 or seven to eight pounds2 medium grades run from seven to nine pounds2 heavy grades run from nine to twelve pounds4 ,patent leather may be made from colt1 calf1 or kid skin4 ,coltskin is the skin of young horses1 or split skins of mature horses4 ,patent colt and kid are used for the most part in the medium fine grades1 and patent side 7cowhide7 is used in the medium and cheaper grades4 ,chrome tanned are used entirely in the manufacture of patent leather4 ,patent leather1 as it appears in shoes1 may be described either as varnished leather1 coltskin1 or kid1 and sometimes the ,french use calfskin4 ,the process is largely a secret one1 although there is no longer any patent on the principle of the same4 ,it is made by shaving the skins on the flesh side or hair side to a uniform thickness4 ,then it is de-greased to put the skin in condition to receive the finish and protect the same from peeling off4 ,successive coats of liquid black varnish are applied1 the first coats being dried and rubbed down1 so as to work the liquid thoroughly into the fibers of the leather4 ,the last coat is applied with a brush1 and baked to from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and forty degrees ,fahrenheit for thirty-six hours and then allowed to dry in direct sunlight for from six to ten hours1 which seems to be essential to remove the sticky feeling4 ,various ingredients are used in making the different varnishes1 the first coating consisting of naphtha1 wood alcohol1 amyl acetate1 etc4 ,the black varnishes consist of linseed oil and various other mixtures1 heated in iron kettles4 ,the final coating is a naphtha preparation resembling japanning material4 ,the hide is stretched on a frame during the varnishing operations4 ,it is almost impossible to tell the difference in quality of shiny leather by appearance1 although in general the leather on which the grain shows through the varnish will prove more serviceable than that on which the finish is so thick as to hide the grain4 ,great care must be exercised in resewing patent leather shoes that have been exposed during the cold weather1 as the cold has a tendency to freeze the finish4 ,patent leather1 like all varnished coatings1 is liable to crack4 ,no one can guarantee it not to do so4 ,the kid patent leather is more elastic and porous than other kinds4 ,the serious objection to the use of patent leather for a shoe is its air-tightness4 ,this makes it both unhygienic and uncomfortable4 ,the kid patent leather is the only patent leather that has not this objection4 ,kid is a term applied to shoe leather made from the skins of mature goats4 ,the skin of the young goat or kid is made into the thin1 flexible leather used for kid gloves1 which is too delicate for general use in shoes4 ,the goats from which come the supply of leather used in this country for women's and children's fine shoes are not the common1 domesticated kind known in this country1 but are wild goats or allied species partially domesticated1 and are found in the hill regions of ,india1 the mountains of ,europe1 portions of ,south ,america1 etc4 ,there are about sixty-eight recognized kinds of goatskins that are imported from all over the world4 ,the ,brazilian1 ,buenos ,ayres1 ,andean1 ,mexican1 ,french1 ,russian1 ,indian1 and ,chinese are a few of the many kinds that are known as such4 ,each particular species of goat hide possesses its own peculiarities of texture4 ,the thickness and grain differ according to the environment in which the animal has been raised4 ,it is peculiar that those raised in cold climates do not have as thick skins as those raised in warmer climates1 for the long1 thick hair apparently takes the strength4 ,we may wonder where all the skins come from that are made up into glazed kid1 mat kid1 and suede1 at the rate of several thousand dozen every day4 ,the great proportion of the skins are goatskins4 ,these are almost all imported from abroad1 where the animals are slaughtered and disposed of much the same as we dispose of beef and veal here4 ,sheepskins and carbarettas1 the hides of animals that are a cross between sheep and goats1 are also used4 ,the finer grades of kid and goatskins which are tanned in large quantities in ,new ,england1 come from the ,far ,east4 ,in ,china there are two great ports from which skins are shipped1 ,tientsin and ,shanghai4 ,back in the interior1 starting from a point about twelve hundred miles from the sea1 collectors make their rounds twice a year4 ,the breeder of goats kills his flock just before the collector is due1 skins the animals on the hillside1 preserves the meat for food1 and with the kidskins1 which have been partly dried1 wrapped in a bundle carried upon the back1 or upon a pack animal1 the breeder makes his way to the station4 ,it may be that there are a half hundred breeders awaiting the coming of the collector and he pays them the market price for the skins4 ,whenever the collector has a sufficient supply to make it profitable to ship1 he bales the skins and then sends them over the thousand mile journey along the river to the seaport4 ,from ,tientsin or ,shanghai they are taken by tramp steamers1 which reach ,eastern ports by way of the ,suez ,canal1 and on the trip the steamers make several ports1 so that it is from six to ten weeks before the skins reach ,america4 ,another method of importing is to have the raw material shipped across the ,pacific and then transferred to a railroad1 but the difference in cost to the manufacturer is so great that it is unprofitable4 ,the ,china goatskins are rated as among the finest in the world and when tanned they make the highest-grade shoe4 ,then there are mocha skins1 which come from ,tripoli1 ,arabia1 and ,northern ,africa4 ,in those places the method of collection is practically the same as in ,china4 ,the two best-known grades are the ,hodieda and the ,benghazi4 ,they derive their designations from the exporting cities4 ,hodieda is located in the southwestern part of ,arabia on the ,red ,sea1 while ,benghazi is in ,barca1 one of the provinces of ,tripoli4 ,other goatskins are produced in ,india and ,russia1 and millions of skins are exported annually from ,bombay1 ,madras1 and ,calcutta4 ,these skins are not brought direct to ,america1 but are transshipped at ,marseilles or ,london4 ,the jobbers in ,europe or ,india occupy rather a unique position1 for according to their practice it is almost impossible for them to suffer financial losses in dealing with an ,american tanner4 ,the latter1 when he wishes to arrange for his year's supply of raw material1 negotiates with an agent in ,boston1 with whom he signs a contract for so many skins4 ,then it is necessary for the tanner to either purchase with money equal to the face value or secure by loans letters of credit from ,boston banking houses which have ,european connections4 ,before the skins are exported1 the jobber has his money from the ,european banking concerns and the bills of lading are forwarded to the ,boston bankers1 who turn them over to the tanners1 and1 when the occasion requires1 obtain from the tanners what is known as a deed of trust4 ,all goatskins are tanned by the same chrome tanning process1 whether the finish is to be glazed or mat4 ,the proportions of chemicals vary according to the texture of the skin1 and according to the grain4 ,the process of tanning is quicker than the tanning of heavier hides1 and all varieties of tannage are used1 the chrome methods having come into very general use4 ,there are many kinds of finish given1 such as glazed1 dull1 mat1 patent1 etc4 ,one quality that distinguishes goat leather1 the 8kid0 of shoemaking1 is the fact that the fibers of the skin are interlaced and interlocked in all directions4 ,the finished skins as they come from the tannery1 by whatever process they may be put through1 are sorted for size and quality1 a number of grades being made4 ,instead of ripping straight through1 like a piece of cloth1 or splitting apart in layers1 as sheepskin will do when made into leather1 the kid holds together firmly in all directions4 ,glazed kid is colored after it is tanned by submerging it in the color1 a very important process4 ,the glossy surface is obtained by 8striking0 or burnishing on the grain side4 ,it is made in black and colors1 particularly tan1 and is known by about as many names as there are manufacturers of it4 ,glazed kid is used in the uppers of shoes1 making a fine1 soft shoe that is particularly comfortable in warm weather1 and is said to prevent cold feet in winter1 owing to unrestricted circulation4 ,mat kid is a soft1 dull black kid1 the softness being the result of treatment with beeswax or olive oil4 ,it is finished on the grain side the same as glazed kid1 and is used principally for shoe toppings4 ,it is very similar in appearance to mat calf and is often used in preference to it1 as it is of much lighter weight1 and about as strong4 ,suede kid is not tanned1 but is subjected to a feeding process in an egg solution1 called 8tawing10 to make it soft and pliable4 ,the skin is stretched and the color is applied by 8brushing0 7with a brush74 ,the color does not permeate the skin1 but is merely on the surface4 ,suedes are made from carbarettas and split sheepskins4 ,suedes are used very extensively in making slippers1 and come in a great variety of colors4 ,a castor kid is a ,persian lambskin finished the same as a suede1 and is used in making very soft1 fine-appearing leather--like glove leather4 ,the skin is of such a very light weight that it has to be 8backed up0 before being made into shoes4 ,fancy leathers are used extensively for toppings of shoes having patent leather vamps4 ,facings are selected from fancy leathers to make the inside of a shoe attractive and to increase its wearing quality4 ,leathers of dull or glazed finish are used in typical shoe colors4 ,miscellaneous kinds of kids are as follows3-- ,a4 ,kangaroo ,b4 ,buckskin ,c4 ,sheepskin ,d4 ,chamois ,e4 ,cordovan ,f4 ,splits a4 ,seal ,grain b4 ,buff c4 ,oil ,grain d4 ,satin ,calf ,g4 ,enamel ,h4 ,sides ,kangaroo is the skin of the animal of that name4 ,buckskin is the skin of certain deer4 ,sheepskin is the skin of the familiar domestic sheep4 ,chamois is the skin of the animal of that name and by courtesy the specially treated skins of certain domestic animals4 ,it is a simple matter to recognize a kid-skin among the various kinds of upper leather1 because of its very light weight and pliability4 ,during the winter1 leather1 in drying1 is apt to become frozen1 especially where no well-equipped drying loft is provided4 ,such leather becomes weak and limp if thawed out too rapidly4 ,in freezing1 the water in the hides which have been hung up to dry is forced out and stretches apart the hide fiber4 ,the wetter the hides1 therefore1 the more demoralized they will be by the frost4 ,the treatment of rushing the frozen leather into a warm room is inadvisable2 the best method is to allow the hides to hang as they were and to tightly close all openings to the outside air4 ,in case this is impossible1 it is best to place the leather in a heap1 in a room where the temperature will not fall below the freezing point1 and to cover it with a cloth4 ,in case the leather rolls up1 it should be moistened before the roll becomes greater than is customary2 it will thus become firmer throughout4 ,some upper leather and especially sheepskins for lining purposes are aided by freezing1 since the leather becomes white and plump and also is of a bright color1 though the durability is somewhat lessened4 ,the popularity of white leather for shoes is increasing wonderfully4 ,there is good reason for this4 ,the modern white shoes have a stylish and fashionable appearance which has won the hearts of women of all ages and conditions1 and when they want a thing1 there is always alertness in supplying it4 ,the new love for white shoes is interesting to trace4 ,years ago white leather for shoes was made principally from deerskins4 ,but this leather1 while attractive when new1 would stretch soon after being worn1 and take on a yellowish tinge4 ,besides1 the price of such shoes was very high1 and it is not surprising that they became supplanted by the cheaper1 but attractive and useful1 white canvas shoes1 which became quick sellers during the season4 ,it is greatly to the credit of our tanners that they have been able to perfect and put on the market a white leather for shoes which answers all requirements satisfactorily4 ,this leather is made from cowhides2 the white color will not fade nor turn yellow1 and best of all1 the leather can be easily cleaned and made to look good as new4 ,another advantage is that such leathers can be used in shoes that sell at popular prices4 ,there are many common1 commercial grades of upper leather4 ,willow calf is a fine1 soft1 chrome tannage of calfskin4 ,it is sold in three colors1 light tan1 ox blood1 and olive-brown4 ,the distinguishing features of this leather are its durability and the fact that it always keeps soft and pliable4 ,it is adapted to the highest quality of men's and women's shoes4 ,box calf is a storm-calf leather of highest quality4 ,it is a waterproof1 chrome tannage in a medium tan color1 with a dull finish4 ,this is the best leather obtainable for rough1 outdoor wear1 walking shoes1 hunting boots1 etc4 ,it is also adapted to men's and women's very fine footwear4 ,there is a growing demand for this kind of shoe4 ,in the uppers of the best storm shoes you will always find box calf4 ,royal kid is a black chrome calfskin1 dull finished with a smooth1 natural grain of fine texture1 soft and pliable4 ,it is used for vamps and whole shoes of the highest grades for men and women1 and is a very popular material for the fall and winter shoe4 ,the desirable qualities of fine calf leather are making the demand for it grow faster than the supply of raw material increases4 ,tan royal is a tan color1 chrome calf leather1 smooth finish1 fine grain1 excellent cutting qualities1 uniform1 of medium rich tan shades4 ,tan calf leather is very attractive and the tan shoe is now a staple product4 ,cadet kid is a bright black1 smooth-finished1 chrome calfskin for men's and women's fine shoes4 ,this tannage and finish give a remarkable cutting value4 ,the stability of this stock is entirely unique and makes the finished shoe stand up1 keeping its much desired shape through the different tests of manufacturing4 ,it is said to be the best calfskin1 by the best judges1 the shoe manufacturers4 ,bronko patent is distinguished for its fine1 coltskin-effect grain4 ,it has a rich and lustrous black patent finish4 ,the results obtained from bronko patent in its workings through the shoe factory and its wearing qualities afterward have never been equaled4 ,bronko is one of the finest results of the development of chrome patent leather4 ,cadet kid side is a chrome side leather that closely imitates the calfskin1 called cadet kid4 ,it has a bright1 lustrous finish1 and a remarkably fine grain4 ,it is surprisingly like fine calf leather in appearance4 ,cadet calf sides are similar to cadet kid sides with the exception of a boarded finish4 ,this is another black chrome1 side leather which comes very near to a calfskin4 ,mat royal chrome side is a special finish1 closely resembling calf1 used for the tops of men's and women's medium fine shoes4 ,black hawk patent is a well-tanned1 well-finished patent leather for medium-priced women's shoes and for tipping4 ,colored box chrome side1 boarded1 is a substitute for willow calf4 ,black box chrome side1 boarded1 is a substitute for box calf in medium fine shoes4 ,kangaroo kid side is a back-tanned1 dull1 smooth1 black leather nearly like calf1 used in the tops of men's shoes1 and men's and women's whole shoes4 ,waterproof black is a high quality leather of great durability for men's and boys' heavy shoes4 ,waterproof brown is similar to waterproof black1 except in color1 and is a leather made for hard service4 ,amhide black is a soft1 dry1 high-grade tannage for lightweight1 comfortable1 sporting1 work1 and hard-wear shoes4 ,amhide russet is like black amhide in everything but color4 ,hercules storm chrome is a leather distinguished for its fine grain and good appearance of medium heavy weight4 ,boris is a heavy-weight1 soft1 waterproof leather for men's medium quality shoes4 ,it is finished in three colors and black4 ,zulu is a medium-priced leather1 which makes a very fine wearing heavy shoe4 ,it is made in two colors and black4 ,bison is a colored or black-finished leather1 of a high grade1 very comfortable and durable4 ,ottawa is of two colors and black finished1 and is suitable for high quality1 heavy1 rough shoes4 ,sheboygan calf is a heavily stuffed1 soft1 waterproof leather4 ,it is of two colors and black4 ,dongola calf is a black leather used for durable1 medium-priced1 heavy1 outdoor shoes4 ,belt knife splits are sold in several tannages and finishes of the most improved manufacture4 ,these splits are sorted in all weights4 ,uniform selection is maintained1 and the quality in every way is of the highest order4 ,oxford calf union splits is one of the highest grades of grain-finished1 union splits4 ,it has an extremely soft and fine appearance4 ,cambridge calf union splits have a most careful and high-grade finish1 but somewhat firmer than ,oxford calf4 ,flesh splits are sold in two tannages4 ,these are the highest-grade flesh splits that it is possible to make1 and they are a long distance ahead of the ordinary flesh splits1 their improved finish making them a modern and largely used substitute for satin4 ,ottawa black and russet splits include a variety of printed splits1 used for shoes in combination with grain leather and for whole shoes4 ,they are selected in many weights4 ,flexible splits for ,goodyear1 gem1 ,mc,kay inner soles1 is leather that offers the greatest advantages to large and small buyers4 ,it is the product of six different tanneries1 assorted in all the usual weights4 ,great care is taken in the manufacture of these splits to adapt them perfectly to the shoe manufacturer's needs4 ,flexible bends are used by manufacturers of ,goodyear welt shoes requiring a straight ,goodyear or gem inner sole4 ,they find these bends of great advantage on account of the small amount of waste1 the strength and desirability of stock4 ,they are made in six tannages4 ,chrome flexible splits for inner soles furnish a very strong and durable leather for inner soles1 taps1 and outer soles4 ,ooze gusset splits1 colored1 give a very low-priced leather suitable for gussets1 bellows tongues for high-cut boots1 also for the quarter-linings of ,oxfords4 ,ooze vamp splits1 black and colored1 are strong1 durable1 low-priced leathers suitable for cheap work shoes where waterproof qualities are not required4 ,chrome-tanned embossed splits1 colored1 are made in a great variety of patterns for cheap shoes and other work where leather is required4 ,they are durable and low priced4 ,,leather ,,for ,,belting ,a native steer about four years old1 killed in the month of ,october1 affords the best example of a good hide for belting manufacture1 that is1 for the transmission of power from pulley to pulley4 ,at this age and at this season the steer is in prime condition4 ,on account of the great and enormous strain put upon belting1 and the necessity for its running true upon the pulley1 it should be of the highest grade possible1 combining great strength to prevent stretching1 and evenness of grain to insure long wear2 therefore only hides of selected steers are serviceable1 and these in turn are rejected when they contain any blemishes or cuts or other imperfections4 ,after a hide is accepted for belting purposes1 it is subjected to a generous trimming1 the head1 neck1 legs1 and belly being cut away1 leaving only a small and compact section embracing from two to two and a quarter feet on each side of the backbone and extending about six feet along the same from the tail forward4 ,this is the portion of the hide where the fibers are closely and firmly knit together1 and where the vitality is the greatest1 due to the close proximity of the network of nerves radiating from each side of the spine to all parts of the hide4 ,the hides of the bull and cow of every breed are inferior for belting purposes to that of the steer4 ,the hide of the bull is coarse and hard1 with the neck very heavy and full of wrinkles1 causing a variation in the thickness and run of the grain of the leather4 ,the hide of the cow is thin1 does not run uniform in thickness1 being heavier on the hips than at the shoulder1 and is lacking in the firmness necessary in good belting4 ,the sharp angles of the hip bones of a cow also tend to form pockets in the hide4 ,after the hide has been trimmed1 it is subject to the process of 8currying40 ,all membranes or particles of flesh adhering to the hide are removed by a machine which shaves the membrane1 etc41 off1 with lightning rapidity4 ,the leather is then washed and scoured by machine1 which removes all dirt still adhering to the hide4 ,after the leather is thoroughly cleaned and while in a damp state1 it is placed upon the table1 and greases1 composed of pure animal oil1 are worked into the leather on both the grain and the flesh side with brushes4 ,this is carried on in the cold state4 ,it is then put into a large revolving wheel containing water heated to a high degree1 which causes the leather to swell and pores to open4 ,the leather is then taken out and put into another wheel containing heavy mineral oil and heated several degrees greater than the water1 and tumbled about in the wheel until the heavy oil fills the distended pores and fibers4 ,after this1 the leather is allowed to dry4 ,the hides are allowed to remain for several months in the tan liquor until the green hide is changed into leather4 ,after the hide has been changed into leather1 it is stretched4 ,to properly stretch the leather for belting purposes1 it must first be cut so as to remove that part which shows the markings of the backbone of the steer4 ,leather is stretched by placing it in clamps1 every part of the piece getting the same pull4 7,the leather is put into the clamps while damp1 as damp leather will give the greatest amount of stretching47 ,when the stretching process is completed and the leather has thoroughly dried in stretching clamps1 it is released4 ,these pieces of leather are quite dry1 very firm1 and not very pliable4 ,the leather is now moistened in order that it shall be more pliable as it passes through the finishing processes4 ,after the water has soaked into the leather 7called sammied71 it becomes very soft4 ,it is then subjected to a roller under heavy pressure to take all the unevenness out of the hide4 ,it is next thoroughly dried1 causing the fibers to shrink2 then again moistened and put through a polishing machine1 which acts on the same principle as the rolling jack4 ,the sides and centers are now put through a cutting machine1 which reduces the leather to strips of different sizes4 ,belts are put together by cementing the parts4 ,belt cement is a most powerful adhesive4 ,it actually governs the strength of the belt1 as the belt is as strong as the weakest part of the joint4 ,,rawhide ,,products ,rawhide is used for a great many purposes4 ,after the side of leather has been trimmed of the portions that cannot be used1 it is sold to the lace maker4 ,he measures the same in a machine4 ,the trimmings from the side of the hide may be used for a mallet head or other tools made of leather4 ,the most common products of the strong section of rawhide strings are shoe strings1 belting laces1 and parts of harnesses4 ,it is also made into leather shoe strings that are used in the logging camps4 ,when the hide is selected for the rawhide purposes1 it is first passed to a de-hairing machine1 where all the hair is removed4 ,it is then fleshed2 that is1 all loose membrane and any flesh that may have adhered to the hide are removed from the flesh side4 ,the rawhide is then placed in a special bath for the purpose of opening the pores1 before the oils and greases are added to it4 ,after this bath1 it is dried thoroughly in a hot box and then put into wheels which mill the greases into the hide4 ,the hide1 which is made hard by this drying process1 is put through breakers1 where it is thoroughly worked into soft and pliable form4 ,the hide is next passed to the setting-out machine1 which finishes all forms of leather--by condensing and strengthening the fibers4 ,special oils are applied to both the grain and flesh side of the hide4 ,it is finished by hand and cut into laces4 ,this hand finishing is usually done in order to reject all parts that are not perfect4 ,haired leather is tanned by acid--a quicker method4 ,the hide is split into sides and tanned with the belly stock on them1 which is used for car straps1 cowbell straps1 trunk straps1 and riding bridles4 ,,the ,,by-,,products ,,of ,a ,,leather ,,belting ,,factory ,there are a great many by-products in a leather belting factory1 all of which are used4 ,the finest strips are used for whip lashes1 small pieces are used for the ,french heel1 and the extremely small pieces are used in leather mats4 ,the by-product from the belting bull1 which is about fifty per cent1 is used for shoe leather and leather straps4 ,there is considerable leather taken from the belting bull for certain harness work4 ,the belly is thick and porous though not tough1 and is used for halters1 cow bridles1 and other parts of harness where the strain is not great4 ,,round ,,belt ,,making ,round belt is made from the best belting1 but while the strain on round belting is not severe1 the leather must be soft and pliable4 ,it is selected from regular stock of native steer hide4 ,,properties ,,of ,,tanned ,,leather ,leather that has been tanned is made up of a great many little bundles of fibers4 ,the coarser and stronger fibers are on the inside1 and the very fine and smoothly laid fibers are on the outside4 ,these fibers are so intertwined and so elastic that when the leather bends these bundles play on one another4 ,on account of the smoothness of the surface it may be polished1 and beautiful finishes and effects obtained on the leather4 ,the elasticity of leather 7which is due to the elasticity of its fibers7 allows it to stretch to a great extent4 ,the tendency to return to its original position is very strong at the beginning1 but grows weaker if the strain is continued at any one point4 ,of course1 in stretching the leather1 there is always a corresponding drawing in another part of the shoe1 which gives it a worn and baggy appearance4 ,when shoes are removed from the feet1 they are oftentimes damp1 due to perspiration4 ,the stretched or strained fibers are apt to shrink and return to their original position4 ,in order to avoid this1 it is necessary to place shoe-trees in them4 ,when the linings of shoes are exposed to friction and excretion of perspiration from the feet of some people1 they deteriorate4 ,this is due to the fact that the acids of perspiration 7acetic1 formic and butyric acids7 have become so concentrated that they act on the fibers of the leather4 ,these acids exert a burning effect1 causing the fibers to lose their elasticity so that they no longer play on one another1 but become fastened to each other4 ,the result is that they become hard1 and any attempt to bend the leather tears them apart2 and once the union of fibers is destroyed it cannot be repaired4 ,in order to keep the fibers in such a condition 7soft and flexible71 they should be lubricated often 7twice a week7 with a liquid followed by a wax paste1 usually called shoe dressing4 ,when a brush or a piece of cloth is rubbed over the surface of leather containing the shoe lubricants 7shoe polish71 it produces a smooth surface called a 8shine40 ,compounds which shine without friction produced by brush or cloth should not be used1 as they are simply varnishes and one coat on top of the other destroys the leather4 ,,substitutes ,,for ,,leather ,in olden times our fathers and mothers used handmade shoes1 and wore them till they had passed their period of usefulness4 ,at that time the consumption did not equal the production of leather4 ,knowledge of conditions in the great western countries to-day will show that many of the big cattle-raising sections1 once famed for their cattle1 have been taken up by homesteaders and are now producing grain instead of cattle4 ,but since the appearance of the machine-made shoe1 different styles of shoes are placed on the market at different seasons1 to correspond to the change of style of clothing1 and shoes are often discarded before they are worn out4 ,we have not been able thus far to utilize cast-off leather as the shoddy mill uses wool and silk1 etc4 ,the result is that the consumption of leather is above the production1 therefore substitutes must be used4 ,in shoe materials there is at present an astonishing diversity and variety4 ,every known leather is used from kid to cowhide1 and textile fabrics have developed rapidly1 especially in the making of women's and children's shoes4 ,the satins1 velvets1 serges1 and other fabrics that are used in the manufacture of shoes must be firm and well woven1 and are usually supplied with a backing of firm1 canvas-like fabric1 to give strength4 ,as to wearing quality the old saying1 8,there is nothing like leather10 still holds good2 but people do not buy shoes for their wearing qualities alone in these days4 ,style and intrinsic beauty are considered1 and have a cash value just as in any other article of apparel4 ,each fabric is made of two sets of threadlike yarn woven at right angles to each other4 ,they are called the warp and filling 7weft74 ,the warp is composed of yarn running the longest way of the fabric1 and filling runs the short way of the fabric4 ,since the warp is the body of the cloth1 it is its strongest part and all fabric in shoes should be placed warpwise across the foot of the wearer1 so as to be able to resist the great strain4 ,various attempts have been made for legislation to prohibit the treating of leather by chemicals or the use of substances to increase its weight4 ,complaints have been made by a number of shoe manufacturers that the excessive use of glucose 7a form of sugar7 in sole leather has resulted in injuring the leather and fabrics composing the uppers of shoes4 ,representatives of large leather firms claim that the methods of tanning sole leather have radically changed during the last few years1 and that the small quantity of glucose and epsom salts that is used to-day in finishing sole leather is absolutely necessary to its value1 and is in no sense an adulterant or weighting material4 ,shoe manufacturers1 on the other hand1 claim that in some cases larger amounts of glucose1 salt1 etc41 have been added to the soft leather from the belly of the animal1 in order to give it the desired stiffness4 ,on account of the high price of leather1 various attempts have been made to find a substitute for it4 ,most of these substitutes consist of strong cloth treated with some drying oil like linseed1 the oil having previously been mixed with other solid substances4 ,a prize of five thousand francs has been awarded to a ,belgian inventor1 ,louis ,gevaert1 for his unusually superior artificial leather4 ,the process consists in the more or less intimate impregnation of stout cloth with tannic albuminoid substances4 ,shoes made of this are said to possess not only the resistance and elasticity of natural leather1 but its durability of wear4 ,moreover1 they are much cheaper1 costing1 including manufacture1 only four francs 7about eighty cents7 and being sold at about six francs per pair4 ,,chapter ,,four ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,foot ,very few people1 even among those engaged in the shoe industry1 know much of the anatomy of the foot4 ,yet it is evident that they ought to know something about it in order to furnish the foot with a proper covering4 ,the first thing that strikes a person on looking at the human foot is its large proportion of bone4 ,on pressing its top surface and that of its inner side1 the amount of flesh will be found to be very small1 indeed4 ,the same is true of the inner and outer ankle4 ,the extreme back of the ankle has scarcely any flesh covering4 ,the most fleshy portions of the foot are its outer side1 the base of the heel and the ball of the big toe4 ,the reason for this disposition of flesh is to protect or cover those parts of the foot that support the body by coming in contact with the ground4 ,they act as pads and lessen the concussion4 ,the abundance of flesh on the outer side of the foot is to protect or act as a shield against danger4 ,the inside of the foot is not exposed as much as the outside4 ,the foot is divided into three parts1 the toes1 the waist and instep1 and the heel and ankle4 ,the largest bone of the foot is the heel bone 7called calcaneum74 ,it is the bone that projects backward from the principal joint and forms the main portion of the heel4 ,when a person is flat-footed1 this bone is thrust farther backward than nature intended to have it4 ,the connection between it and the tarsal bones is lost4 ,illustration3 ,the ,bones and ,joints of the ,human ,foot4 ,illustration3 ,the ,different ,parts of the ,foot and ,ankle4 ,see page #hf4 ,the top bone of the foot is the astragalus1 and it forms the main joint upon which the process of walking depends4 ,this bone has a smooth1 circular1 upper surface that connects it with the main bone of the lower leg4 ,it is absolutely necessary that this bone should be in perfect harmony 7relation7 with the others in order to insure comfort and health4 ,if the arches of the foot are forced out of position1 up or down or sidewise1 this joint is not permitted to do its work normally4 ,rheumatism is a frequent evil of an injured joint4 ,hence the necessity of absolutely normal action1 unhampered by ill-fitting shoes4 ,the principal arch of the instep is called the cuneiform or tarsal bone4 ,persons are troubled with defective insteps to quite an extent4 ,misshapen joints at this point due to shoes that do not fit and consequently disarrange and throw out of position the delicate1 natural structure1 work great havoc with the comfort of the foot4 ,nine joints cluster at this point4 ,the bones of the toes are called the metatarsal bones and phalanges4 ,there can be no doubt that nature intended mankind to walk in his bare feet1 and in that event the phalanges of the foot would occupy a much more important part than is now the case as a result of modern civilization4 ,there are nineteen bones in the foot1 and the disturbance of one or more of these will serve to upset the entire foot by throwing out of relationship the general unit of work devolving upon the whole number of joints and bones4 ,each joint has its accompaniment of muscles1 and each lack of alignment of bones and joints provokes discord and lack of harmony in the muscular action4 ,muscles are attached to bones1 and by their contraction or extension the bones are moved4 ,very few movements are effected by means of a single muscle4 ,the muscles of the foot in nearly all cases are in combination1 and are so complex in their action that the best surgeons find it difficult to describe them satisfactorily4 ,the chief characteristics of the foot are its spring and elasticity4 ,while the foot has wonderful powers of resistance and adaptability1 it is the shoemaker's duty not to strain the same1 but to provide for each action4 ,the most sensitive part or the one part that is most susceptible of injury is the big toe4 ,this is due to the fact that the tendency of the foot in walking is to travel toward the toe of the boot1 and in a word to press into rather than shun danger4 ,the shoemaker provides for this1 first1 by allowing sufficient length of sole to extend beyond the termination of the toe1 and second1 by the fit of the upper and the preparation of the sole4 ,in this way1 if the toe of the shoe strikes against a hard substance1 the big toe of the foot will remain untouched4 ,seventy-five per cent of the people have more or less trouble with their feet4 ,some of these troubles are caused by the manufacturer putting on the market shoes whose lines look handsome and attractive to the eye1 but are lacking in any other good features4 ,shoes that fit properly should have plenty of room from the large toe joint to the end of the toes1 and also should have plenty of tread1 especially at this point4 ,a mere glance at our bare foot will show conclusively that pointed-toe boots are false in the theory of design4 ,the toes of a foot when off duty touch each other gently4 ,when they are called on to assist us in walking or in supporting our body1 they spread out--although not to any great extent4 ,this1 then1 being the action1 no sensible maker of boots and shoes would attempt to restrain them4 ,box or puff-toe shoes allow the greatest freedom4 ,the pointed-toe shoes1 which join the vamp to the upper immediately over the big toe joint1 exceedingly high heels1 and thick waist shoes are not for the best interests of the foot4 ,the evils of ill-fitting shoes are corns1 bunions1 and calluses4 ,corns are mainly due to pressure and friction4 ,when the layers of skin become hardened1 they form a corn1 which is merely a growth of dead skin that has become hard in the center4 ,this hardened spot acts like a foreign body to the inflamed parts4 ,a hard corn is formed more by friction than pressure4 ,it is produced by the constant rubbing of a tight or small shoe against the projecting parts of some prominent bony part1 as the last joints on the third1 fourth1 and little toe4 ,when this action continues1 it produces inflammation4 ,rest--as relieving the feet of the friction--decreases this inflammation1 leaving a layer of hardened flesh4 ,renewed action reproduces the same effects1 leaving behind a second layer of hardened flesh4 ,this continued action and reaction brings on a callus1 rising above the surface of the skin4 ,this increases from its base4 ,an ordinary hard corn may be removed by scraping up the callous skin around its border1 and prying out carefully with a knife4 ,soft corns are chiefly the result of pressure or friction4 ,these corns are soft and spongy elevations on the parts of the skin subjected to pressure4 ,soft corns are mostly found on the inner side of the smaller toes4 ,those on the surface of joints by mechanical action will become hard4 ,the blood corn is excessively painful4 ,it is the result of an ordinary corn forcibly displacing the blood vessels surrounding it1 and causing them to rest upon its surface4 ,the bunion is an inflammatory swelling generally to be found on the big toe joint4 ,the chief cause of bunions is known to be the wearing of boots or shoes of insufficient length4 ,the foot1 meeting with resistance in front and behind1 is robbed of its natural actions1 the result being that the big toe is forced upward1 and subjected to continuous friction and pressure4 ,the wearing of narrow-toe boots that prevent the outward expansion of the toe is another cause4 ,the comparisons of quantities are often called ratios4 ,the ratios of the different parts of the foot to the height are different in the infant from that of the adult period4 ,between these two periods the ratios are constantly changing4 ,there are two series of shoe sizes on the market2 the smallest size of shoe for infants 7size ,no4 #a7 is1 or was originally1 four inches long2 each added full size indicates an increase in length of one third of an inch 7sizes #a to #e74 ,children's sizes run in two series1 #e to #h1 and #h to #aa2 then they branch out into youths' and misses'2 both running #aa1 #ab1 #ab1 #ac1 #ac and back again to #a1 #a1 #b1 etc41 in a series of sizes that run up into men's and women's4 ,boys' shoes run from #b to #e2 men's from #f to #aa in regular runs4 ,larger sizes usually are made upon special orders4 ,some few manufacturers go to #ab4 ,women's sizes run from #b to #i4 ,some manufacturers do not go above size #h4 ,the rate of sizes is sometimes varied from by manufacturers of special lines of shoes4 ,a man's ,no4 #h shoe would be nearly eleven inches long4 ,these measurements originated in ,england and are not now absolute4 ,a system of ,french sizes is used which consists of a cipher system of markings to indicate the sizes as well as widths so that the real size may not be known to the customer4 ,all feet are not alike in structure and shape4 ,in infancy the foot is broad at the toes1 which press forward in the direction of their length4 ,the heel is small in comparison to the width of the toes1 and also short in length1 due to the undeveloped bones4 ,but during growth1 the thickness above the heel bones disappears1 and the heel itself becomes thicker and assumes the beauty of perfection at maturity4 ,this development is due to the growth of bones which must be well exercised and properly cared for during this period4 ,the various parts of the feet and legs do not mature at the same rate--those at the upper part of the body increase at a greater rate than the lower parts4 ,thighs develop first1 next the upper part of the legs1 and lastly the feet4 ,the adult foot1 when properly formed1 is straight from heel to toe on the inner side1 and is wider across the joints than one inch or so farther back4 ,the manner of walking has a considerable bearing on the character and development of the foot4 ,there are many sorts of feet1 which are due to a number of causes1 such as habits1 climate1 occupation1 locality1 etc4 ,as a general rule we may divide the feet into four classes3 ,bony feet--those with very little flesh upon them2 hard feet--those that have plenty of flesh1 but which are almost as hard as a stone2 fat feet--plump1 with plenty of flesh1 but having little shape2 spongy feet--those that seem to have no bones in them1 usually found in the female sex4 ,the characteristics of a foot are common with the body to which it is connected4 ,some people have a strong1 bony frame1 with strong1 firm muscles1 prominent bones and muscles1 and a flesh that is hard4 ,the feet of this type of person are usually long1 bony1 and arched1 with a well-developed big toe joint4 ,the heel measurements are large in proportion4 ,a soft foot is prevalent among the ,scotch4 ,the feet of a person who is delicately shaped1 with a small frame and thin1 small1 tapering muscles1 are usually thin and finely formed1 giving evidence of quickness4 ,this kind of a foot in a man has a tendency to develop a flat foot4 ,a person with a form inclined to plumpness1 full of exercise and activity1 and a good circulation1 has a well-developed foot4 ,the heel is round and fairly prominent1 although there are no special bony prominences4 ,on the other hand a person with a body of general roundness1 but with tissues and muscles flabby1 and a languid blood circulation1 has feet that are short1 soft1 and flabby4 ,we will allow that these four different kinds of feet all measure a #d size and ,d in width4 ,one would naturally think that the same size shoe would fit them all1 but this is not so4 ,this size shoe will only fit one and that is the bony foot4 ,the hard feet require a ,c width2 the fat feet require a ,c width1 and the sponge feet require a ,b width4 ,the same last may1 and often will possess a slight variation in some manner or other4 ,the fitter of feet must know the stock1 each pair1 and be on intimate terms with the peculiarities of each last and the inside lines of each pair of shoes before attempting to try them upon the feet of the customer4 ,different makes of footwear are apt to be manufactured over a slightly varying system of measurements4 ,one line of shoes made over a small measure may be longer or shorter or narrower or wider than some other line4 ,the heel measurements require careful study for each line introduced4 ,the peculiarities of each line must be tested by tape and measure1 and the foot fitter must have a strong knowledge along these lines4 ,we should measure the foot by the stick if necessary1 and make a note of the size and width that will be likely to prove a fit4 ,the height of the arch must be considered1 and the shape of arch curve1 the shape of the instep1 and the general contour of the foot4 ,a normal foot will show about a half-inch arch4 ,the average foot will carry from an inch to an inch and a quarter heel1 without putting a strain on any of the joints of the foot4 ,some feet vary from this by a wide margin4 ,a foot is a trifle longer in walking than in repose4 ,allowance should be made1 in using the measuring stick1 over what the foot actually draws on the stick4 ,in men's shoes the allowance1 should be from two to two and one half sizes4 ,when a one-legged man buys a shoe1 the dealer sends to the factory a shoe to match the one left remaining4 ,in these days of the use of machinery in every process of their manufacture1 shoes are made with the utmost exactness and precision1 and it is easily possible to mate that remaining shoe with the greatest nicety in size1 style1 material1 and finish4 ,few people have feet exactly alike2 commonly the left foot is larger than the right1 so that one shoe may fit a little more snugly than the other4 ,commonly1 however1 people buy shoes in regularly matched pairs1 the difference in their feet1 if it is noticeable to them at all1 not being enough to make any other course desirable4 ,but there are people who buy shoes of different sizes or widths1 in which case the dealer breaks two pairs for them1 giving them1 to fit their feet1 one shoe from each4 ,in such cases the dealer matches up the two remaining shoes1 one from each of two pairs just as he would where he had broken one pair to sell one shoe to a one-legged man4 ,but a man does not have to be one-legged nor to have feet of uneven sizes or shapes to make him ask the dealer to break a pair of shoes for him4 ,a man with two perfectly good feet came into the store where he was accustomed to buy and wanted one shoe4 ,while traveling in a sleeping car1 his shoes had been mixed up with others and he had received back one of his own and one of some other man's2 a fact which he had not discovered until he was too far away from train and station to set things right4 ,so he came in to buy one shoe to match his own4 ,,chapter ,,five ,,how ,,shoe ,,styles ,,are ,,made ,if you examine the shoes worn by people in a large city1 you will notice different styles4 ,shoe styles that were called grotesque a few seasons ago are comparatively usual to-day1 for the new designs in women's footwear1 which manufacturers are now making1 are the most varied that ever have been put on the market4 ,pink and green and blue are among the new colors in materials for footwear4 ,some of the styles for the coming seasons are more lavish than have hitherto been seen in the women's shoe trade of ,america4 ,coronation purple velvet boots look like an extravagant color for footwear1 but they are now selling4 ,samples of pink1 green1 and blue shoes1 both boots and pumps1 are being made up1 and they will soon be offered to buyers4 ,the style of the shoe is dominated by fashion4 ,all styles are related1 that is1 every part of our dress is influenced by the prevailing fashion1 ideas of color1 fabric1 or garment outline4 ,to illustrate3 when short skirts are stylish1 women wear mannish shoes to harmonize with them2 on the other hand1 with long skirts they must have a shoe that is neat and small1 hence1 the short vamp4 ,when women wear white in the summer1 cool canvas shoes spring into favor2 when gray and blue dress materials are to be used1 a variety of tan shoes are worn to harmonize1 etc4 ,after the style has been decided upon1 it is necessary to work out an exact reproduction4 ,an expert model maker1 called a last maker1 produces a last1 a wooden model of the shoe4 ,in order to do this1 it is necessary to lay out certain plans or specifications for the details of the manufacturer of the shoe4 ,there are certain parts of all feet that have fixed measurements4 ,to illustrate3 the length of the shank1 that part of the sole of the foot between the heel and ball1 in every person's foot is always the same4 ,the part of the foot back of the ball or large toe joint conforms to certain fixed measurements4 ,these definite measurements form a basis by which the last maker originates new styles by shortening1 lengthening1 widening1 or narrowing the space in front of the toes1 but always retaining the true and fixed measurements of the back part of the last4 ,when the last maker desires to produce a new style1 he takes an old last and tacking pieces of leather on some parts of it 7front of the toes71 he builds it up and cuts off other parts4 ,this patched-up last is taken to a special machine 7lathe71 where a number of duplicates are turned from a block of wood4 ,the 8pattern maker0 is the man in the factory who makes patterns1 consisting of heavy pieces of cardboard bound with brass1 in the shapes of the various pieces of leather required to make up the upper part of the shoe4 ,the pattern maker has found by experience that the top part of the shoe also conforms to certain fixed measurements1 and by working in sympathy with the last maker he need only to change the front part of the vamp to bring out the latter's ideas4 ,with these measurements as a foundation1 he puts forth from time to time different style uppers1 as buttons1 lace1 blucher1 fixings1 scrolls1 straps1 ties1 pumps1 etc4 ,this is the way new style tops originate4 ,after the manufacturer has approved of sample patterns1 the pattern maker receives an order for a certain quantity of patterns to be made over a certain last which is submitted to him4 ,working on the fixed top measurements and the last submitted as a basis1 the pattern maker draws plans for a model pattern4 ,the standard size of a model pattern is size #g in men's shoes and size #d in women's4 ,he is also given an order for a certain number of widths2 for instance1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 and ,e1 and he draws out on paper a complete set for each width in the size #g4 ,these four sets of model patterns are reproduced and cut out in sheet iron by hand4 ,but from these sheets any number of iron models1 and any size regular cardboard pattern can be reproduced by a machine4 ,wood to be made into lasts comes to the shoe manufacturers in a rough1 unchiseled form4 ,the lasts are made of maple wood2 hollow forms used by traveling salesmen and window trimmers are made of bass wood4 ,the making of the model of the last is the most exacting operation in the factory4 ,it is produced by a machine most important4 ,the principle of this machine has been brought about by the pantograph2 that is1 it will turn from a rough block of wood an exact copy of the model last2 or it will enlarge or reduce a duplicate of any other size or width1 so1 from a single model last1 such as the manufacturer has decided on1 any number of lasts can be made1 and of any size or width4 ,the machine itself consists of two lathes4 ,on one is placed the model and on the other the block of wood4 ,the model is held against a wheel by a spring4 ,by adjusting this wheel1 any desired width last can be obtained1 and by adjusting a bar in front of the machine any length last can be produced from the block of wood4 ,illustration3 ,rough ,unchiseled ,block of ,maple4 ,a ,last after leaving ,turning ,lathe4 ,a ,finished ,last4 ,the lathe1 when in motion1 revolves both the last and the model1 the model being pressed against the wheel1 which is really a guide for the revolving knife that digs into the block of wood1 and regulates the depth that the knife is allowed to cut4 ,in this manner the model is reproduced from the block which is also regulated as to size and width by the wheel and by the bar4 ,this machine is so accurate that a tack driven into the model to locate the center of the last is reproduced by a sort of a wooden pimple in the block of wood when finished4 ,the model sole pattern is now tried on the half-finished last to insure accuracy4 ,notice in the figures of lasts that the turning lathe has left stubs of wood on the toes and heels4 ,these must be finished to a 8templet40 ,the templet is a measure or guide used to indicate the shape any piece of work is to assume when finished4 ,from the heel and toe of the model1 a piece of iron is shaped on an exact arc of that model1 and is used on the heeler machine as a guide to form an exact copy of the heels and toes of the model4 ,this machine works very rapidly1 and by the aid of an irregular shaped1 revolving knife it quickly transforms the toes and heels to the desired shape4 ,the bottoms are again tried out on a sole pattern and the last number1 the size and the width are stamped on4 ,we now have the last as a solid piece of maple wood and turned to the desired shape1 size and width4 ,were it possible to insert and extract the last in this form from the half-finished shoe1 no other steps would be necessary in last manufacture1 but inasmuch as the leather is stretched very tightly over this last a little later1 it necessitates the introduction of some method that will facilitate a quick removal of the last from the shoe4 ,this is accomplished by cutting it in two parts and making a hinged heel4 ,the fact that the slightest measurement changes the size of the shoe1 necessitates great care in the introduction of the hinge as a part of the last1 and in order to insure accuracy and uniformity in all the lasts1 they are marked with templets and gigs4 ,the hinge must be placed inside of the last4 ,the finished last is so constructed that it can be readily inserted or withdrawn from the shoe1 and the strong hinge provides the last1 when inserted1 with the same rigid qualities as though it were one piece4 ,the center of the last is indicated1 as before stated1 by a reproduction in the side of the last of the tack that was placed in the model4 ,this is the mark that locates the position of all the holes1 and it is done by a 8gig0 in the following manner3-- ,a gig is a piece of steel having cylinders that guide the bit of the boring machine in an exact perpendicular line4 ,this gig1 being placed on the last in the position marked by the turning machine1 forms the accurate location of the bolt holes that hold the hinge4 ,after the hinge is placed in the last1 it goes to the ironers to have the bottom put on it1 if it is a ,mc,kay last1 and a heel plate if it is a welt4 ,the bottom is again tried and the plate filled up to the same4 ,the last is then ready to go to the scouring room4 ,in this room the last goes through three operations1 first of which is ruffing4 ,this consists of scouring with a coarse grade of quartz4 ,this operation must be carried on so that the sole lines and insteps are not brought into contact with the quartz4 ,the second operation1 medium grinding1 is done with a fine grade of quartz1 and in this operation1 also1 the worker keeps away from the toe4 ,the third operation is done with a much finer-grade quartz1 the operator going over the entire last4 ,the last is now ready for polishing1 and after that1 for a heavy coat of shellac4 ,it is polished and waxed on a leather wheel4 ,then it goes into the shipping room ready for shipment to the manufacturer4 ,,chapter ,,six ,,departments ,,of ,a ,,shoe ,,factory--,,goodyear ,,welt ,,shoes ,the principal methods of manufacturing shoes are the following3-- ,goodyear welt2 ,mc,kay2 turned2 standard screw2 pegged2 nailed4 ,the simplest and the clearest way of showing how the various kinds of shoes are made is to explain the manufacture of a ,goodyear welt and afterwards bring out the points in which this method of shoemaking differs from the others4 ,shoes are manufactured in up-to-date factories1 employing hundreds of operatives4 ,the modern shoe factory of to-day is divided into six general departments3 the sole leather department1 upper leather department1 stitching department1 making department1 finishing department1 and the treeing1 packing1 and shipping departments4 ,in some sections of the country1 several of these departments are often designated by other names4 ,the stitching department is often called the fitting department2 the making department1 the bottoming department2 and the sole leather department1 the stock-fitting department4 ,the departments are popularly termed rooms for brevity4 ,a shoe factory is designed so as to have a width of about fifty feet for each room1 while the length is according to the number of shoes to be produced4 ,a width of about fifty feet gives plenty of daylight and ample room in the center of each department1 which is very essential in shoemaking4 ,illustration3 ,a ,modern ,shoe ,factory4 ,shoe factories are usually about two hundred feet long1 while many are nearly four hundred feet4 ,a few exceed four hundred feet1 running as long as eight hundred feet4 ,some are built in the shape of hollow squares1 while others have wings added1 which give almost as much floor space as the original building4 ,the average factory has usually four floors4 ,the first floor1 or basement1 is occupied by the sole leather department4 ,the next floor above includes the treeing1 finishing1 packing1 and shipping departments1 and also the office4 ,the third floor is devoted entirely to the making or bottoming department4 ,the top floor is divided so that the cutting and stitching departments have each half a floor4 ,there are several exceedingly large factories in this country that find it advantageous to divide the factory into more departments1 as1 for example1 the cutting room is divided so that the linings and trimmings are cut in a separate department4 ,the skiving may also be done in a separate room4 ,the making room will be divided so that the lasting is set off as a separate department on account of the many workmen and machines employed4 ,in the same way there will be a division of work so that the packing and shipping will be set apart from the treeing4 ,then1 again1 in the sole leather room1 the making of heels as well as the fitting of the bottom stock may become independent departments4 ,the system of making women's shoes is practically the same as that of men's except that in a great many factories the method of preparing the bottom stock is somewhat different4 ,most manufacturers of women's shoes do not cut sole leather1 but buy outsoles1 insoles1 counters1 and heels1 all cut or prepared4 ,these soles are in blocked form and large enough so that they can be cut or rounded by the manufacturers to fit their lasts4 ,the counters1 when bought1 are all ready to put in the uppers1 while the heels are ready to put on the shoes4 ,whenever a manufacturer of women's shoes cuts his sole leather1 he has the same system as that in the men's factories4 ,in women's factories where sole leather is not cut1 they do not have a complete sole leather department4 ,instead1 they have what is called a stock-fitting department4 ,there are independent cut sole houses1 etc41 in the trade1 which supply the soles to manufacturers4 ,the same system of buying supplies also applies to many other parts of the shoe1 as in the top lift1 half sole1 welt1 rand1 etc4 ,in the upper leather department1 manufacturers of both men's and women's shoes often buy trimmings and other parts of the upper all prepared4 ,a large proportion of the men's shoe manufacturers are now buying heels all built1 while fully nine tenths buy counters all molded4 ,the soles and other parts that are needed for a shoe are put up in different qualities and grades1 and a manufacturer can buy any grade of sole he wants1 so that it is considered an advantage to buy some parts1 instead of cutting them4 ,in a side of sole leather there are twenty-five or more different qualities and grades of soles1 and very few manufacturers1 especially in the women's trade1 can use all of these4 ,the greater variety of shoes a manufacturer turns out1 the more advantageous it is for him to cut his own sole leather1 and prepare all parts in his own factory4 ,in this country the number of factories in the shoe trade appears to be growing less and the average factory larger each year4 ,it is estimated that there are at present something like fifteen hundred factories in all4 ,these range from the smallest product up to the largest4 ,the average factory may be said to produce about twelve hundred pairs of shoes per day4 ,many turn out five thousand pairs daily1 while a few manufacturers turn out ten thousand or more pairs4 ,several manufacturers and firms have half a dozen or more factories and have a total output of between twenty thousand and thirty thousand pairs of shoes a day4 ,there is no such thing as a trust or monopoly of any kind in this trade1 and there never has been up to the present time4 ,in all factories and all classes of work1 the 8case0 has always been of such a number of pairs that it can be divided by twelve in every instance4 ,a case can be twelve1 twenty-four1 thirty-six1 forty-eight1 sixty1 or seventy-two pairs1 and in children's work it is often sixty and seventy-two pairs4 ,all cases of these numbers are regular cases1 whereas any other number would be out of the ordinary4 ,of course1 a case of shoes may contain any number of pairs1 but the numbers given above have always been used in regular work4 ,cases of shoes may differ1 but every pair of shoes in any one case must be made exactly alike4 ,all shoes are made in cases1 except in the matter of custom work or single-pair orders or samples4 ,in making men's heavy shoes1 or working shoes1 the regular case was formerly sixty pairs or thirty-six pairs1 but the tendency has been of late to have a standard case of twenty-four pairs4 ,in the men's fine trade the regular case is twenty-four pairs1 while in the women's it is thirty-six pairs4 ,long boots for men have always been made in twelve-pair cases4 ,goods are sold by the samples1 sent out with the traveling salesman4 ,as fast as he receives an order1 he sends it to the main office4 ,here the orders are subdivided and sent to the factories making the goods4 ,for example1 an order for seventy-five dozen men's shoes of a certain style received by the main office from the traveling salesman would be sent to the factory in the form of a typewritten order1 covering the general description and sizes written out in the proper form1 for each case is made according to the specifications on the tags that are made out in the office4 ,these tags specify the sole1 heel1 upper1 kind and quality1 how stitched1 the last to be used1 how bottomed finished1 treed1 and packed4 ,everything is marked plainly on the tags so that a buyer can have any shoe made just as he wants it4 ,this order would be sent from the factory office to the cutting room1 where a clerk would make out twenty-five long tickets4 ,twenty-five are made because the shoes go through the factory in lots of twenty-four pairs1 each lot being called a job and when finished making a case of shoes4 ,the long ticket is made in duplicate form1 and is perforated so it may be tied to a lot of shoes4 ,both parts of the tickets are made out to contain the various operations with the specifications as to detail4 ,the lower part is sent to the stock or sole leather room1 while the top part remains with the uppers which are cut in the cutting room4 ,while each part of the ticket is sent by a different route through the factory1 they finally meet in the form of finished shoes4 ,in addition to the long ticket already described1 two other tickets are made out1 the top ticket and the trimming ticket4 ,the top ticket is sent to the leather bins of the factory1 where the sorter knows by experience exactly the amount of leather required to cut the order1 being careful to see that it is all of uniform quality and free from blemishes4 ,he rolls the leather in a bundle1 attaches the ticket and sends it to the cutter4 ,in the cutting room there are three classes of cutters2 cutter of trimmings1 who cuts lace stays1 top facings1 back stays1 tongues1 etc42 outside cutter1 who cuts quarters1 vamps1 tops1 tips1 etc42 and the lining cutter1 who cuts cloth linings4 ,illustration3 ,a ,nine and ,one-,half ,foot ,skin divided to best advantage before ,cutting4 ,skins of leather are received in the shoe factory in different shapes4 ,some are perfect1 others have blemishes or imperfect spots4 ,the skins that are to be used for upper stock are carefully graded by two or three men1 as to quality of leather and weight4 ,this is necessary in order to be sure that a lot of shoes made for a certain dealer will be uniform4 ,on account of the leather coming in different shapes1 some skins perfect1 others having imperfect spots1 the cutter must place his patterns in such a way that certain parts of the shoe will use up all the perfect parts1 and others1 less important1 will be composed of the weaker parts of the skin4 ,this explains why you sometimes find the inside top part of a shoe made of flanky leather1 while the vamp is made of a better grade4 ,there is a pattern for each and every size shoe1 and each piece of leather is cut out separately on a block of wood4 ,nothing is wasted4 ,in order to make each cutter as efficient as possible1 the cutters are divided1 so as to have a different cutter for each grade of leather4 ,in this way they become better judges of leather4 ,the lining cutters use patterns and knives on drilling4 ,the facing is cut out with a knife and pattern4 ,the side stays and the tongue are cut out by dies4 ,after the leather has been cut into the desired shape1 uppers1 vamps1 toe pieces1 back stays1 lace stays1 etc41 cutting at times ten pieces1 and for some styles of shoes as many as fourteen pieces1 the cutters take care to keep the parts for the same shoe together1 matching and marking them so that eventually all will meet again in the shoe4 ,machines are used now on almost every operation1 and annually several new machines make their appearance4 ,the cutting of uppers up to four or five years ago was performed by an operator cutting the leather by running the knife along the side of the pattern4 ,now they are using a cutting machine and dies to cut uppers in nearly all factories4 ,this cutting machine is called the 8clicking machine10 and it is considered quite a labor saver in a department where it was the universal opinion that machines never could be used4 ,it is impossible to give a list of all the operations performed and have it complete4 ,but a good general idea of the system can be given and the name and meaning of the main operations in the several departments4 ,it should be kept in mind that the methods in rooms differ1 and that hardly any two factories put a shoe through in exactly the same manner4 ,the general system and plan is the same everywhere and the machines are the same in all factories1 but the details and minor operations are so numerous that there is plenty of scope for them to vary4 ,the function of the clicking machine is to cut the upper leather into the desired shapes required4 ,it consists of an iron frame1 with a cutting board on the top of it4 ,above this is a large beam which can be swung to the right or left of any portion of the board4 ,the skin to be cut1 which may be of any kind1 is placed on the board and a die of the design or shape of the leather desired is placed on it4 ,the handle of the swinging beam is taken by the operator and moved over the die2 then by pressure of the handle the beam is brought downward1 pressing the die through the leather4 ,as soon as this is done1 the beam automatically returns to its full height4 ,these dies are made in different designs and sizes to meet the different sizes and designs in the upper of the shoe4 ,one die for each design and size4 ,they mark the vamps for the location of the toe cap and blucher foxings as well as the size by means of nicks in the edge of the piece cut4 ,the dies are about three-quarters of an inch in height and so light that they do not mar the most delicate leather4 ,illustration3 ,cutting the ,leather by ,means of ,pattern and ,knife4 ,page #aah4 ,illustration3 ,goodyear ,stitching4 ,a machine that sews around the edge of the welt and joins it to the sole exactly at the heel4 ,page #aai4 ,after the outside cutter has cut the skin into pieces to make up the shoe1 these are tied up in separate bundles1 that is1 the twenty-four of tips in one bundle1 twenty-four pairs of vamps in another4 ,these are turned over to girls who stencil the sizes on the edge and match them1 that is1 see that each upper is exactly like the mate4 ,after the different parts have been cut by the operator of the clicking machine or by hand1 the edges of the upper leather1 which shows in the finished shoe1 must be thinned down 7skived7 by a 8skiving machine0 to a beveled edge4 ,this is done in order that the edges of the leather that are to show in the completed shoe may be folded to give a more finished appearance4 ,the machines are operated by girls2 each one an expert on one particular piece4 ,the order number and size of shoe are stamped on the top lining of each shoe4 ,after all linings have been prepared1 according to the data given on the instruction card attached to parts of the shoe1 the parts are sent to the stitching department1 where the stitchers on a multitude of machines stitch all the different parts together very rapidly and accurately4 ,the toe caps are then given a series of ornamental perforations along the edge4 ,this is done by either 8power tip press10 or a 8perforating machine40 ,the first consists of a series of dies placed in a machine by which the leather is perforated according to the designs desired4 ,each series of dies represents a different design4 ,the perforating machine resembles a sewing machine1 but instead of a series of dies1 the one in this machine is made of single or combination dies which make one or more holes on each downward movement4 ,the machine feeds automatically and does the work very accurately4 ,the cutting tool is kept from becoming dull by pressing against a band of paper4 ,ornamentation on other parts of the shoes1 such as the edges of vamps1 etc41 is made by this machine4 ,before going to the stitching room1 every bundle is examined by sorters4 ,the sorters are divided and subdivided2 that is1 one man always sorts tips1 another vamps1 etc4 ,they examine each piece for imperfection1 and if any is found1 the piece is thrown out and a new one put in4 ,the last operation is the assembling of pieces4 ,here each job of twenty-four pairs is brought together and securely tied and numbered4 ,this stitching department is one in which female labor is generally employed1 although in late years more men are being used to operate machines1 especially on vamping or other heavy parts4 ,in some parts of the country it is called the fitting room4 ,the work of the department consists of stitching the different parts of the upper together1 so that it is ready to put on the last4 ,the terms used mean in most cases stitching the part named to the rest of the upper4 ,there are very many operations in the department1 several of which are named below1 together with their meaning4 ,the bundles of pieces which have come from the cutting room are placed on the table1 where they are subdivided into three parts1 the linings1 the tops1 the vamps and the tips4 ,the linings for the tops of the shoes are pasted together 7with the back strap and top bands71 care being taken to join them at the marks made for that purpose4 ,after being dried1 they go into the hands of the machine operators1 where they are joined together by a stitching machine1 and the edges1 etc41 trimmed4 ,the sewing machines used are very similar to an ordinary home sewing machine1 with the exception that they are much larger and stronger4 ,illustration3 ,stock ,fitting ,room4 ,where all bottom stock is prepared after being cut4 ,see page #abj4 ,the lining is finished4 ,the next step is to join the lining to the piece of leather making up the outside of the same shape1 called the top4 ,the top receives the eyelets by a machine placed in proper position4 ,the top and lining can be put together by sewing them face to face4 ,the top is inspected and all threads clipped off4 ,after the shoe uppers have been properly stitched together1 the eyelets are placed on by a 8duplex eyeletting machine10 which eyelets both sides of the shoe at one time4 ,the top of the eyelets are solid black knobs1 so as not to wear brassy1 while the bottom 7which clinches inside the shoe7 called the barrel1 is of nickel4 ,this finishes the shoe upper4 ,the vamp1 tongues1 and tip are then put together4 ,the edges of the vamps1 quarters1 tips1 etc41 are covered with a cement made of rubber and naphtha1 which is kept in small bowls on the benches in front of employees4 ,several grades of cements are used4 ,the cemented parts are allowed to dry1 and the edges are then turned over by 8pressing machines10 which gives a finished appearance4 ,the shoe is put together by stitching the vamp to the quarters4 ,this work is done by both men and women1 and is work which demands much care4 ,in stitching men's uppers1 the system varies in various factories as much as it does on women's4 ,here are some of the operations1 which will give an idea how men's uppers go through4 ,extension or toe piece sewed to vamp4 ,leather box stitched on4 ,tip stitched to vamp4 ,vamp seamed up back4 ,top folded around edge4 ,top seamed up4 ,eyelet row stitched up and down4 ,lining seamed up4 ,side facing put on lining4 ,top facing put on lining4 ,lining and outside pasted together4 ,under trimming4 ,eyeletting4 ,hooking4 ,vamping4 ,the upper is complete when it leaves the stitching room and is all ready to be put on the last4 ,while the upper is being prepared1 the soles1 insoles1 counters1 and heels are made in other departments4 ,when the foreman of this department has received the tags with the data necessary for the preparation of outsoles1 insoles1 counters1 toe boxes1 and heels1 they are sent to the stock room1 where these parts are kept4 ,the soles are roughly cut out by means of dies1 pressing down through the leather1 in 8dieing out machines40 ,before the soles are cut1 the leather is dipped in water and sufficiently dampened4 ,after they are cut out1 they are made to conform to the exact shape by rounding them in a machine called the 8rounding machine40 ,the roughly died out piece of leather is held between clamps1 one of which is the exact pattern of the sole4 ,the machine works a little knife that darts around this pattern1 cutting the sole exactly to conform4 ,the outsole is now passed to a heavy rolling machine1 where it is pressed by tons of pressure between heavy rolls4 ,this takes the place of the hammering which the old-time shoemaker gave his leather to bring the fibers very closely together1 so as to increase its wear4 ,counters and toe boxes 7stiffening which is placed between the heel and toe cap and the vamp of shoe7 are prepared in the same room with the heels4 ,after they are made1 they are sent to the making or bottoming room1 where the shoe upper is awaiting them4 ,as the counter is an important feature in the life of a shoe1 much depends upon the quality of leather that goes into it4 ,the sole is next fed to a 8splitting machine10 which reduces it to an absolutely even thickness4 ,the insole is made of lighter leather than the outsole1 but has the same thickness and is cut out in the same way one at a time4 ,the sizes are stamped on them and they are sorted4 ,illustration3 ,lasting4 ,page #abg4 ,illustration3 ,welting4 ,if you examine a ,goodyear welt shoe1 you will notice no stitches in sight1 the seam being fastened to an under portion of the insole4 ,the durability of the shoe relies1 to a great extent1 on the quality and strength of the insole4 ,the smooth-appearing insole of a welt shoe must be either pasted in or fastened underneath in some manner4 ,this fastening is accomplished by passing the insole through a very small machine called a ,goodyear channeler1 which makes two incisions at one operation4 ,it cuts a little slit along the edge of the insole1 extending about one-half inch toward its center4 ,the upper part of insole made by the slit on the edge is turned up on a lip turning machine so that it extends out at right angles from the insole4 ,in other words1 the channel is opened up and laid back1 forming a ridge around the outer edge of the sole4 ,this forms a lip or shoulder1 against which the welt is sewed4 ,in this way the thread used in sewing cannot be seen in the finished shoe4 ,the cut made on the surface serves as guide for the operator of the welt sewing machine when the shoe reaches him4 ,the inner and outer soles as well as the uppers are now brought into the lasting or gang room4 ,the first part of lasting is called 8assembling10 which means that many parts are brought together1 such as upper1 counter1 insole1 box toe1 and last4 ,the counter is placed in the upper1 between lining and vamp1 while the box toe is shellacked and put in the toe of the upper 7provided it has not been stitched in the stitching room74 ,the operator first tacks the inner sole on to a wooden last4 ,there are very many different styles of lasts1 and in cutting uppers a different pattern must be used for each style4 ,then the upper is placed in position on the last1 and it is ready to be pulled and stretched to the wood and take its required shape4 ,this is accomplished by placing the shoes on the 8pulling over machine10 where the shoe uppers are correctly placed on the last by the pincers of a machine holding the leather at different points securely against the wood of the last4 ,by the movements of levers the shoe uppers are adjusted correctly4 ,then the pincers draw the leather securely around the last and at the same time two tacks on each side and at the toe are driven in part way1 to hold the uppers securely4 ,it is now placed on the 8hand method lasting machine10 where the leather is drawn tightly around the last4 ,before this operation1 it is dipped in water to preserve its shape when formed and that it may be more easily formed by the machine4 ,at each pull of the pincers a small tack1 driven automatically part way in1 holds the edge of the upper exactly in place1 so that every part of the upper has been stretched in all directions equally4 ,a special machine by means of a series of 8wipers0 is used to last the toe and heel4 ,after the leather has been brought smoothly around the toe1 it is held there by a little tape fastened on each side of the toe1 which is held securely in place by the surplus leather1 crimpled in at this point4 ,the surplus leather crimpled in at the heel is forced smoothly down against the insole and held there by tacks driven by an ingenious hand tool4 ,in all these lasting operations the tacks are only driven in part way1 so they may afterwards be withdrawn and leave the inside perfectly smooth1 except at the heel of the shoe1 where they are driven into the iron heel of the last and clinched4 ,illustration3 ,rough ,rounding4 ,see page #aca4 ,illustration3 ,edge ,trimming4 ,see page #acj4 ,after these operations1 the surplus leather at the toe and sides of the shoe is removed by the 8upper trimming machine10 which cuts it away by means of a little knife and leaves it very smooth and even4 ,a small hammer operating in connection with the knife pounds the leather on the same parts4 ,a pounding machine hammers the leather and counter around the heel so that the stiff position conforms exactly to the last4 ,after the 8lasted0 shoe has been trimmed and pounded down to the shape of the last1 it is turned over to the tack setter1 who pulls out all the tacks except a few1 called draft tacks4 ,the insole is then wet to make it pliable1 and is turned over to a very experienced operator1 called the 8inseamer10 who is to sew the welt on4 ,the shoe is now ready to receive a narrow strip of prepared leather1 that is sewed after it is wet to make it pliable1 along the edge of the shoe1 beginning where the heel is placed and ending at the same spot on the opposite edge4 ,this is called the welt1 and is sewed from the inside lip of the insole1 so that the curved needle passes through the lip1 the upper1 and the welt1 uniting all three securely and allowing the welt to protrude beyond the edge of the shoe4 ,the thread is very stout linen1 and is passed through a pan of hot wax before being looped into chain stitch that holds the shoe together4 ,the nature of the stitch is a chain--two rows of threads on the outside that loop with the single thread in the inside lip of the insole4 ,when the welt is finally sewed on1 and the shoe put down on the bench1 it looks like an ordinary shoe resting on a wide flange of leather4 ,this flange is the welt1 and to it the heavy outer sole is to be sewed fast4 ,should a single stitch break in this operation1 it is passed to a cobbler1 who repairs it by hand4 ,before the outer sole is put on1 the edges of the uppers must be trimmed along the seam that holds the welt4 ,a slip of steel called steel shank is laid along the insole where the hollow of the foot is1 and a piece of leather board laid over this to give the necessary stiffness and prevent the shoe from doubling up4 ,as the welt has left a hollow space along the ball of the foot1 it is necessary to fill this up1 either with a piece of leather1 tanned felt1 or other filler4 ,felt is not waterproof1 and leather squeaks1 hence a mixture of ground cork and rubber cement is used4 ,this is heated and spread on the sole1 and run over a hot roller until the bottom of the shoe is perfectly smooth and even4 ,the shoes are placed on a rack and are ready for the outsole4 ,sole fastening is performed by a number of operations1 in which a score or more of separate machines are used4 ,the sole layers smear a rubber cement over this welt with a 8cementing machine10 after the outsole has been soaked in water to make it pliable1 and then place it on the shoe and tack a single nail in the heel4 ,the 8sole laying machine10 through great pressure1 cements the sole on and fits it to every curve of the last4 ,then the sole is trimmed by a 8rough rounding machine10 which trims the soles to the shape of the last4 ,this machine also channels the outer sole at the same time1 which is necessary for the next operation4 ,the 8channel opening machine0 now turns up the lips of the channel and the sole is ready to be stitched to the welt4 ,the outsole is now sewed by a waxed thread to the welt1 by an 8outsole lock stitch machine10 which is similar to a welt sewing machine4 ,the stitch is finer and extends from the slit 7channel7 to the upper side of the welt1 where it shows after the shoe has been finished4 ,it unites the sole and welt with a tightly drawn lock stitch of remarkable strength4 ,it sews through an inch of leather as easily as a woman would sew through a piece of cloth4 ,the stitches are made through the welt and outer sole1 the seam running in the channel of the outsole4 ,illustration3 ,leveling4 ,see page #ace4 ,illustration3 ,heeling4 ,see page #acf4 ,the inside of the slit in which this stitch has just been made is now coated with cement by means of a brush4 ,the channel lip is forced back to its original position after the cement has dried1 by a rapidly revolving wheel of a 8channel laying machine40 ,in this way the stitches are hidden4 ,welt shoes are stitched on in three different ways3 8channeled10 which1 when finished1 leaves an invisible stitch on the bottom of the sole2 8regular stitched aloft10 showing the stitches on both sides2 and 8fudge stitched10 in which the seam is sunk down in a groove1 being almost invisible from the welt side4 ,every stitch must be of such a nature that it is independent of the one next to it1 so that should one stitch break1 the others will not work loose4 ,this is accomplished by running the threads through a pan of hot wax just before entering the leather1 which causes the waxed thread to solidify1 becoming1 as it were1 a part of the leather4 ,notice should be taken of the difference between the way the outsole is stitched and the inner sole is stitched to the upper4 ,in place of three threads in the chain stitch 8that holds the welt to the upper and insole0 there are but two here--an upper and a lower one4 ,the upper thread extends only part way down1 where it loops1 twists1 and locks into the lower thread4 ,this is the reason why you can wear a welt sole clear through without its pulling loose4 ,shoes that are stitched aloft go through the same operations as the channel-stitched shoes1 with the exception that the rounding machine contrivance of cutting is eliminated4 ,shoes that are to be fudge stitched are sent through the same machine as the regular stitched aloft1 but an additional little knife point on the arm of the ,goodyear stitcher digs a channel in the welt so that the stitches on that side are sunk into the leather4 ,the outsole is nailed at the heel after the stitching on the 8loose nailing machine10 which drives the nails through the outsole and insole and clinches against the steel plate of the last4 ,the machine drives separate nails fed from the hopper of any desired size or length1 at the rate of three hundred and fifty per minute4 ,the edge of the outsole around the heel is now trimmed to conform exactly to the shape of the heel on the 8heel seat pounding machine40 ,the stitches of the regular stitched shoes are separated by a series of indentations1 giving the shoe that corrugated effect which adds so much to the appearance of the shoe4 ,in the fudge-stitched work the stitches are entirely covered up by the indentations4 ,then a leveling machine1 called the 8automatic sole leveling machine10 with a pressure of about two and a half tons to each of the concave rollers1 comes into play4 ,the rolls move automatically back and forth and from side to side1 doing the work that the shoemaker used to do on his lap with a hammer and stone1 but doing it better and more quickly4 ,it practically levels off the bottom of the soles4 ,an automatic guage regulates exactly the distance from the edge of the last1 and by the use of this machine the operator is enabled to make a sole conform to that of all others of a similar design and size4 ,heels are formed by cementing different lifts of leather4 ,a machine called a 8heel cutter0 shapes out the lifts4 ,the heel is then placed under pressure1 giving it exact form and greatly increasing its wear4 ,illustration3 ,sole ,scouring4 ,see page #ach4 ,illustration3 ,heel ,shaping4 ,see page #ach4 ,in speaking of the ends and sides of a heel1 the part that rests on the ground is spoken of as the top1 and the first piece is called the top lift4 ,the part that is fastened to the shoe is spoken of as the bottom1 while the side nearest the toes is called the breast4 ,the wedge is a flat1 heel-shaped piece or lift of leather that is skived to a thin edge at the breast4 ,being thicker at the back1 it tips the heel forward4 ,wedges are made from thin strips of waste leather1 or from sheets of leather board1 and are cut out with a hollow die4 ,the gouges are cut in the sole leather room from scraps1 and are a regular heel lift1 having a horseshoe-shaped piece of leather with an opening at the breast4 ,the sole leather1 insoles1 counters1 and heels1 in the stock fitting department are 8got out0 by being cut into shape by a machine die4 ,the heel is now trimmed of all rough and surplus portions of leathers to the exact size of top lift4 ,a blower attached to the machine removes all scraps1 etc4 ,the breast of the heel1 which faces the forepart of the shoe1 is trimmed evenly across and with the desired slant by means of a peculiar-shaped knife which extends over the sole at shank4 ,the edges of the heel are now scoured by revolving rolls with molded sandpaper to make perfectly smooth4 ,blowers attached to the machine remove all dust4 ,there are several types of machines for fastening the heel to the shoe1 all very rapid in operation4 ,one of the latest is that which feeds the nails1 and which is operated by a man and boy1 who together turn off a great quantity of work4 ,the nails are left protruding slightly above the heel so as to retain the top lift1 which is now placed in position by the same operator on the same machine4 ,it is pressed down over the heads of the nails securing it in position4 ,the small brass or steel nails which protect and ornament the heel are now driven in by the 8universal slugging machine40 ,this machine cuts the slugs from a coil of wire and drives them in with great rapidity4 ,we have practically now a roughly formed shoe ready for the finishing room4 ,here the heel slugs are ground down1 heel and sole buffed by sandpaper rolls on a scouring machine1 wet down1 stained1 or blacked1 as case may be1 finished on bristle brushes1 placed to dry1 polished by a polishing machine1 bottom stamped with the trademark1 and passed to an operator whose duty it is to see that no tacks are left inside the shoes4 ,generally girls are hired to do this1 as their hands are smaller and it is very important that no tacks are left1 which might cause a great deal of trouble4 ,if any are found1 they are cut out with nippers or otherwise removed4 ,a lining is also generally put inside the shoe1 covering the whole of the insole in a ,mc,kay shoe1 and the heel only in a ,goodyear shoe4 ,shoes must also be inspected here before they are packed1 to see if they are perfect in every way and that each shoe is a perfect mate in the pair4 ,the shoes are now sent to the last department1 called treeing1 dressing1 and packing department4 ,this department has to do with the finishing of the uppers4 ,the bottoms and edges are all finished when shoes get to this department1 and nothing remains but to finish the uppers and pack the shoes in single-pair cartons and then in wooden boxes or cases4 ,the different uppers are all finished by a different process1 some being ironed with a hot iron1 which is done to take out the wrinkles and smooth the uppers4 ,ironing was first introduced on kid shoes1 but in recent years the hot iron has been put on nearly all kinds of stock4 ,a shoe must be on a form or tree when ironed1 the form or tree being the same shape as the last4 ,the whole idea in ironing is the same as that followed by the tailor1 who uses a hot iron to press and smooth out clothes4 ,the operations in detail are as follows3-- ,illustration3 ,ironing4 ,illustration3 ,packing4 ,each shoe is treed1 after having been drawn over a foot form similar to that on which the shoe was lasted1 and any stain or dirt which may have been carelessly put on in former operations is cleaned off2 the shoe is sponged with a gum prepared for either black or tan goods1 rubbed down dull1 and then rubbed to a polish4 ,in many patent leather shoes the treeing is to clean off the surface1 as we said before1 and then to iron it with a hot iron1 which takes out all stains1 and leaves the leather shiny and black4 ,the shoes finally go to hand operators1 who rag the edges and heels1 leaving them ready to be laced and put into the boxes4 ,after lacing1 the shoes are passed to inspectors1 whose duty it is to see that they are perfect1 to throw out all which are not1 make a record of them1 and pass the perfect shoes to the packers1 who see that the sizes are right1 that each pair is mated1 and placed in paper cartons1 ready to be packed in wooden cases for shipment4 ,the packing of cartons into wooden cases is done by men who nail on the lid when each case is full1 mark where goods are to be sent1 make a record of same and load the cases into freight cars4 ,there are other uppers that are treed1 such as wax calf1 for instance1 and split uppers1 which are used in heavy shoes4 ,the main idea of treeing a shoe is to give it a smooth and finished appearance and a good 8feel40 ,in the regular treeing operation they use liquid preparations1 often called composition1 and these are worked into the upper1 filling it to some extent4 ,french chalk is used a great deal in some uppers1 and oil or some form of grease or gum is also used1 all of which make the upper as it was when first put on the cutting board of the shoe factory4 ,all work done in this room is intended to give leather its original luster1 which has been lost to a certain extent in going through the different rooms and in being handled so much4 ,there are still other uppers that may not be treed or ironed but merely cleaned and polished to give luster4 ,some of these may be dressed4 ,to dress a shoe means to put on a liquid dressing4 ,in some cases two coats of dressing are put on and in other cases one coat4 ,a shoe can have a dull dressing or a bright dressing1 according to how the buyer prefers to have his shoes look4 ,,chapter ,,seven ,mc,k,a,y ,,and ,,turned ,,shoes ,the ,mc,kay process is used very extensively in the manufacture of cheap shoes4 ,its introduction was a great improvement over the nailing and pegging of the soles to the uppers4 ,it allows the two to be stitched together by means of a straight needle running through the entire thickness of upper1 sole1 and insole4 ,in following the ,mc,kay process through the factory1 we find it very similar to the ,goodyear welt process1 which has been explained1 the main difference being in the methods of fastening the sole to the uppers4 ,illustration3 ,cross ,sections of ,welt ,shoe and ,mc,kay ,sewed ,shoe4 ,the lasts and patterns are obtained in the same manner as described in the previous chapter4 ,the order is made out in the factory office1 and the ticket is given to the sorter1 who selects the required number of skins1 which he rolls in a bundle and turns over to the cutter4 ,the cutters form the various pieces of leather and linings1 which are tied up in bundles and sent to the stitching room4 ,here they pass through the various sewing machines1 finally coming out in the form of a complete upper ready to be attached to the bottoms4 ,the soles1 insoles1 counters1 and heels for ,mc,kay shoes are all formed in the same room1 as described in the ,goodyear process4 ,there is a difference in making ready the outsoles and insoles4 ,it will be recalled that the outsole for the ,goodyear welt shoe was simply a block of leather cut to fit the shoe and was not channeled4 ,the outsole for the ,mc,kay shoe is run through a channeling machine1 which cuts a slit around the edge of the sole1 folds the leather back1 and digs a little trench along the inside of the slit4 ,it will also be remembered that the insole of the ,goodyear welt shoe was channeled with two slits1 one of which was turned back to form the breast for sewing on the welt strip4 ,the insole of a ,mc,kay shoe is not channeled in any way1 but is left plain1 like the outsole of the ,goodyear welt4 ,the uppers1 the soles1 insoles1 counters1 and heels all having been made ready1 the pieces are taken to the lasting room4 ,the first process is called 8assembling40 ,the operator takes up one of the uppers1 inserts the last1 sticks in a counter between the lining and the outside1 puts in a 8box0 7a stout piece of canvas to give stability to the toe7 at the toe1 beneath the tip1 puts in the insole1 and then may pull the shoe tight on the last or give it to the operator on the pulling over machine to have it done4 ,the pulling over machine is now used in nearly all factories1 having displaced hand pulling the same as the lasting machines have displaced hand lasting4 ,the assembling1 pulling1 and lasting on the machine are all parts of the regular operation of lasting4 ,the hand laster had to do all three parts in former times1 but now there are machines to do nearly everything1 and at the present time the operation of lasting is divided into assembling1 pulling over1 and lasting on the machine4 ,but even these machines do not do it all1 as there is surplus upper to be cut away1 toes to be pounded down1 and filling to be put in the bottom1 all of which are done on a ,mc,kay shoe before the sole can be laid4 ,there are machines to do these parts1 too4 ,a trimmer 7this is done by hand7 now takes the shoe1 trims off all the surplus leather1 tacks in the shank 7a little piece of steel to give rigidity to the shank of the sole71 fills all up smoothly and then passes it to the sole layer1 who puts on the outer sole and tacks it in place4 ,the last is now pulled out of the shoe and it is ready for the ,mc,kay sewing machine4 ,this machine sews right through the inner and outer sole1 and at the same time catches the edges of the upper leather and the lining in between the two and draws them all snugly and firmly together4 ,the stitches are made right along in the channel of the outer sole1 which is deep enough to admit the row of stitches without raising a ridge on the outside of the sole1 after the channel is closed up and leveled4 ,the channel is next filled with cement and passed on to the leveler1 which turns down the loosened flap of leather1 presses it all out smooth1 and covers the seam up so completely that no trace of the sewing is to be seen4 ,this little folded-over flap of leather serves the double purpose of hiding the stitches in the sole1 and at the same time protecting them from wear against the ground4 ,illustration3 ,stitching4 ,illustration3 ,tacking4 ,the shoe is then ready to be heeled1 and from here to the shipping door the ,mc,kay generally goes through the same process as a welt4 ,after heeling1 the ,mc,kay shoes are relasted or have followers put in to keep them in shape while going through4 ,the sock lining may be put in here1 too1 before relasting1 or it may not be put in till the shoes get to another room4 ,the ,mc,kay lasting last must be pulled from the shoe to have the bottoms and heels put on and this also applies to a pegged or nailed shoe4 ,but in the case of a welt shoe or a turn shoe1 both stay on the original last until the bottoms and heels have been fastened on4 ,the turn shoe being lasted inside out1 must come off the last to be turned right side out1 and it goes right on the last as soon as it can be turned4 ,the different methods of fastening the bottoms constitute the main difference between ,goodyear and turn shoes on the one hand1 and ,mc,kay1 pegged1 and nailed on the other4 ,the bottom stock must be prepared differently in order to fit the methods4 ,thus it is seen that only two departments are affected1 namely1 the sole leather and the making departments4 ,in the cutting1 stitching1 finishing1 treeing1 and packing1 all operations are practically the same on every shoe1 no matter how it is bottomed4 ,the patterns1 however1 by which shoes are cut may be different4 ,in the finishing room all of the finishing of the bottoms and heel edges is done4 ,the heels are sandpapered or scoured1 and are then blacked and polished under hot-iron pressure4 ,considerable wax is used on the edge and is melted by the hot iron4 ,heel edges may also be finished on a wheel or roll4 ,there are several different ways1 but the object of each method is to give a hard1 black1 and highly polished surface to the edge4 ,in finishing the bottom the top lift is scoured or buffed1 and all of the sole and the breast of the heel also4 ,each is a different process1 a different operator attending to each part4 ,the object of scouring or buffing with sandpaper is to get a smooth foundation for the finish1 which is put on next1 and which may be all the same color in all parts of the bottom or may have one color in the shank and another in the forepart4 ,the stains and blackings are used on bottoms1 and these are brought to a high1 hard gloss by means of rolls and brushes4 ,hot irons are often used on black shanks and bottoms to give added hardness and luster to the finish4 ,the turned or turn shoe is a woman's fine shoe that is made wrong side out1 then turned right side out4 ,the sole is fastened to the last1 and the upper is twisted over1 the wrong side out4 ,then the two are sewed together1 the thread catching through a channel or shoulder cut in the edge of the sole4 ,the seam does not come through to the bottom of the sole1 nor to any part inside where it would chafe the foot4 ,the preparation of the upper for a turn shoe is identical with that of a welt or ,mc,kay1 with the exception that the back is cut a little longer and a little larger1 in order to last it over the sole4 ,the important difference in the make-up of a turn shoe as compared with that of a ,mc,kay or welt is that it has no insole1 the upper being sewed directly to a portion of the sole itself4 ,as the cutting of the uppers and the stitching operations of a turn shoe are the same as the ,goodyear and ,mc,kay1 and have been explained1 we will take up the forming of the sole1 which is entirely different from either of the other two methods4 ,a turn shoe is put together wrong side out1 and it is necessary1 during the course of making1 to turn it by rolling the sole up like a roll of carpet4 ,it is evident1 then1 that nothing but good quality1 pliable leather can be used satisfactorily1 and great care is taken to include nothing but the best4 ,the soles are cut out on the beam machines1 also previously described4 ,they are then channeled on the side that is next to the foot4 ,this channeling is similar to that done on the welt insole4 ,two incisions are made1 the inside one being the same as in the welt insoles4 ,the outside one1 however1 is different1 as the flange is cut off square instead of being rolled up4 ,this leaves a channel which begins at the edge and surface of the sole and extends in semicircular form to the abrupt wall of the cut in the sole1 which forms the breast against which the upper is to be sewed4 ,after the soles are channeled1 they are soaked until they become soft enough to roll up easily4 ,they are then placed on racks and kept in a damp room until needed4 ,a turn shoe is hand lasted wrong side out4 ,first the uppers are turned with the lining outside1 then the last is inserted and also the toe boxing4 ,the sole is set straight on the last and is tacked firmly to it4 ,the operator1 by aid of hand pullers1 draws the upper over the sole and tacks it securely from a point where the breast of the heel will rest to where the large toe will extend1 and then along the same distance on the other side4 ,the toe part is next lasted by machinery1 a wire being fastened at one side and run around the edge holding the pulled-up parts of the upper which has been stretched tightly over the last4 ,the shoe is next passed over to the ,goodyear inseamer operator1 who sews the upper to the sole1 the needle passing down through the inside channel1 through the sole leather1 out through the square-cut channel and then through the upper1 uniting the upper to the sole with the chain stitch4 ,in fact1 the bottom of a turn shoe at this time looks exactly like the bottom of a welt1 with the exception that the turn shoe is still turned wrong side out4 ,the nature of the stitch is the same--a waxed1 threaded chain1 with two rows of thread on the outside that loop with the single thread in the inside lip of the insole4 ,the shoe is sewed only from the back of the shank to the toe1 the heel part still being loose4 ,the seam is now trimmed with an inseam trimmer1 a machine with a revolving1 jagged-edged knife that saws off the surplus portions of the upper1 leaving it smooth and even with the sole4 ,the tacks are all pulled out with a sort of a nail puller1 which works rapidly and automatically4 ,the lasts are then taken out and the shoe is turned right side out4 ,this turning process is not a difficult one1 but it is perhaps the most interesting operation that the layman will see in the entire factory4 ,the operation is accomplished by means of a rigid iron bar set slantwise in a table4 ,the upper is turned right side out by hand and the sole is rolled right side out by means of pressure on this bar4 ,after this turning process1 which twists and rolls the shoe out of shape1 it has no semblance of its final form4 ,the back part of the sole and upper are still loose1 the upper being fastened from the shank to the toe4 ,the turn shoe must be 8second0 lasted1 and the inserting of the last is no easy matter4 ,a contrivance called a push jack assists the operator greatly4 ,he uses a flat1 narrow rod to smooth out the lining1 and after squeezing1 pushing1 and smoothing1 the last is finally made to fit in the shoe4 ,the counter is placed in at this time1 the shank piece is set in place1 and the shoe and last are placed on a jack for nailing4 ,the back part upper is now stretched tightly over the heel part of the last by means of lasting pullers1 and is tacked down1 the nails going through the shank piece and clinching against the anvil heel seat of the last4 ,this operation completes the lasting1 the shoe now having a form exactly like the last over which it is made4 ,workmen now level the bottoms and form the shank by a hand method1 preparatory to the machine leveling process4 ,the shoe is still wet and is left to dry on the last twenty-four hours4 ,then it is run through the machine called the 8leveler10 which1 with its enormous pressure1 forms the sole to that of the last4 ,the shoes are now left four days on the lasts1 to dry thoroughly1 so that they may retain their shape permanently4 ,the putting on of the heel1 and the various finishing processes are practically the same as that of the welt1 with the exception that a turn sole must have a sock lining4 ,some factories use a grain leather sock lining1 which is pasted in1 covering up the channels of the sole which hold the stitches and forming a smooth surface for the foot to rest upon4 ,the difference between a ,mc,kay and a turn shoe may be told by the fact that the stitching on the inside of the sole is much closer to the edge in a turn4 ,another thing1 in a turn shoe1 the seam connecting the upper and the outsole can be seen4 ,nothing is likely to excel the turn shoe for lightness and flexibility1 since the method of making1 whereby the sole is stitched directly to the upper1 interposes no thick or cumbersome material4 ,sole leather of good quality is used4 ,in fact1 the sole would have to be not only strong1 but thin and light1 or the shoe could not be turned in the process of manufacture without straining it and getting it out of shape4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,turn ,,shoe ,history states that prior to #ahde1 which marked the date of the introduction of shoe machinery1 most of the shoes were sewed by hand1 the lighter ones turned and the heavier ones welted4 ,in fact1 the early factories that began to spring up in ,new ,england about the beginning of the century1 were merely cutting rooms and places for storing the lasts and stock4 ,here the uppers1 soles1 and linings were cut by hand and then given out to people in the vicinity1 mostly farmers and fishermen1 to be stitched together and paid for at so much a dozen4 ,such was the beginning of the shoe industry in ,new ,england4 ,hundreds of families added to their resources in this way1 the women doing the lighter work and the men the heavier4 ,in fishing communities1 where men were away most of the time in their boats1 their wives and daughters1 who stayed at home1 undertook the lighter grades of shoemaking--the turn process4 ,this was the case in the 8,north ,shore0 towns like ,lynn1 ,haverhill1 and ,marblehead1 and these to-day1 keeping to the old traditions1 are the great centers for the finer turn-grades of shoemaking1 whereas the 8,south ,shore0 towns1 like ,brockton1 ,whitman1 ,abington1 ,rockland1 and the ,weymouths1 with the men at home all the year1 came to make a specialty of shoes for men1 and absorbed the heavier part of the growing industry4 ,with the introduction of the ,goodyear turn machine1 however1 the handwork was gradually done away with1 although more handwork is done in the turn process than in either the ,mc,kay or welt process4 ,,standard ,,screw ,,shoemaking ,many good qualities of heavy shoes are made by the standard screw method1 which differs from the ,mc,kay method by having the outsole and insole fastened together with a double-threaded wire1 which is screwed through and cut off by the machine the instant it reaches the inside of the shoe4 ,illustration3 ,cross ,section of ,standard ,screwed ,shoe4 ,a pegged shoe is made in much the same way as the standard screw1 except that wooden pegs are used instead of wire to fasten the sole together4 ,the nailed method of shoemaking consists in nailing the soles together around the edge4 ,it is used principally for heavy1 cheap shoes4 ,,chapter ,,eight ,,old-,,fashioned ,,shoemaking ,,and ,,repairing ,the old-fashioned shoemaker formerly made shoes by hand as follows3--,a last1 which is a wooden model of a foot1 was used1 and pieces of leather were pasted here and there on it so as to build up a model conforming to the measurements of the foot4 ,then paper patterns of the upper leather were made from the last1 and from these the upper leathers were cut out of tanned calfskins and sewed together4 ,the leather for the soles was cut out of tanned ox or steer hide1 the pieces being the insole1 the outsole1 and the lifts of the heel4 ,the inner soles were made of softer leather4 ,sometimes split sole leathers were used for uppers4 ,the shoemaker then softened the leather by steeping it in water1 until it was pliable and at the same time firm1 and would cut like cheese4 ,the insoles were attached to the bottom of a pair of wooden lasts1 and the wet leather fastened on with lasting tacks so as to mold it to the last4 ,when it was dry1 the shoemaker with pincers drew the leather out until it had taken the exact form of the bottom of the last4 ,then he rounded the soles by paring down the edges close to the last1 and formed around these edges a small channel or feather cut or slit about an eighth of an inch in the leather4 ,next he pierced the insoles all around with a bent awl1 which 8bit0 into1 but not through1 the leather1 and came out at the channel or feather edge4 ,the boots were then lasted by placing the uppers on the lasts1 drawing the edges by means of pincers tightly round the edge of the insoles4 ,then they were fastened in portions with lasting tacks4 ,lasting was considered a very important operation1 for unless the upper was drawn smoothly and equally over the last1 leaving neither a crease nor wrinkle1 the form would be a failure4 ,a band of flexible leather about an inch wide1 with one edge pared1 was then placed in position around the sides of the shoes1 up to the heel or seat1 and the maker proceeded to 8inseam10 by passing his awl through the holes1 already made in the insole1 catching with it the edge of the upper and the thin edge of the welt1 and sewing all three together in one flat seam1 with a waxed thread4 ,the threads which shoemakers use are called 8ends10 and are made of two or more strands of small flaxen threads4 ,the shoemaker makes his own waxed thread as follows3-- ,he holds the main part of the thread from the spool1 in his left hand1 holding it firmly--where he wants to break it--between the first finger and thumb1 so that it will not turn beyond that point4 ,then with the left hand1 he lays the end of the flax on the knee and rolls it from him4 ,this will cause the small fibers that compose the thread to separate--thus enabling him to break it easily4 ,when the fibers separate1 he gives the thread a light1 quick turn1 which causes it to break4 ,as the thread breaks he pulls it apart gradually1 so that the fibers will taper4 ,then he places the threads together1 one just behind the other1 so that the end will have a very fine point4 ,he rolls the end and allows it to turn between the fingers of the left hand4 ,after it has been rolled and twisted1 it is waxed by drawing the thread through a piece of wax4 ,the fine ends are waxed to a point4 ,a bristle is fastened on in the following manner3 the head of the bristle is held in the left hand1 and the portion to which the thread is to be fastened is waxed2 then the thread and bristle are twisted together4 ,a hole is made in the thread and the bristle pulled through and fastened4 ,after the threads are fastened1 the heads of the bristle are cut off1 and the ends sandpapered4 ,the wax thread or 8end10 as it is called1 should never be made longer than is necessary to sew a shoe4 ,experience shows that if a portion of an end left after sewing one shoe is used on the second shoe1 it is never as strong as a new end4 ,the thread grows weaker and weaker as it is used4 ,when the thread is well waxed1 it is cemented to the shoe4 ,after the shoe is sewed1 the shoemaker pares off inequalities and levels the bottoms1 by filling up the depressed part in the center with pieces of tarred felt4 ,the shoes are now ready for the outsoles4 ,the fibers of the leather to be used for the soles are thoroughly condensed by hammering on the lapstone4 ,then they are fastened through the insole with steel tacks1 their sides are pared1 and a narrow channel is cut round their edges4 ,through this channel they are stitched to the welt1 about twelve stitches of strong1 waxed thread being made to the inch4 ,the soles are next hammered into shape2 the heel lifts are put on and attached with wooden pegs4 ,then they are sewed through the stitches of the insoles2 and the top pieces1 similar to the outsoles1 are put on and nailed down to the lifts4 ,the finishing operations of the shoe include smoothing the edges of the heel1 paring1 rasping1 scraping1 smoothing1 blacking1 and burnishing the edges of the soles1 withdrawing the lasts1 and cleaning out any pegs which may have pierced through the inner sole4 ,there are numerous minor operations connected with forwarding and finishing in various materials1 such as punching holes1 inserting eyelets1 etc4 ,,how ,,shoes ,,are ,,repaired ,before one can understand how shoes are repaired1 it is necessary to know the difference between the inside and outside of a shoe4 ,the last is divided into four parts1 viz4 toe1 ball1 shank1 and heel4 ,diagram ,no4 #a shows these parts and their shapes4 ,diagram ,no4 #b shows the length of the inside of the divisions as compared with those of the outside4 ,notice the long shank and short ball4 ,diagram ,no4 #c shows the outside of the divisions and the effect they have upon the shape of the shoe4 ,see short shank and long ball4 ,always remember that the ball of a shoe is longer on the outside1 having a short shank4 ,the ball is shorter on the inside1 having a long shank4 ,compare outside and inside diagrams ,nos4 #b and #c4 ,illustration3 ,how a ,side of ,leather is shaped and divided as to ,quality4 ,see page #e4 ,dia4 #a4 ,dia4 #b4 ,dia4 #c4 ,,shoe ,,repairing ,the first operation in half soling a shoe is to cut off the old portion from 8a0 to 8c0 as shown on diagram ,no4 #a4 ,the shoe is placed in different positions and corrected in every way before putting on the new sole4 ,it is generally better to wet the shoe in order to put it in shape4 ,the leather is skived thin and accurate enough to make a neat1 comfortable joint1 and yet thick enough for the nails to hold4 ,then the filling is added before placing on the sole4 ,the sole is trimmed and a guide line drawn around the edge1 so that the nails may be properly arranged4 ,finishing the sole is an important part4 ,if everything else is properly done1 this part becomes comparatively easy4 ,see that all nails are clinched4 ,with a level bottom1 smooth joints and edges1 the shoe can be made to look like a new shoe and yet feel like an old one4 ,on account of the heel being more directly under the body and the first part to strike the ground1 it generally wears out first4 ,for this reason in repairing a heel great care must be taken to see that good leather and solid work are put into it4 ,pull off the worn top piece and see that what is left is hammered down solidly4 ,next split a piece of solid1 easy-cutting1 scrap sole leather1 so that two pieces can be made out of one4 ,put them on the shoe and fasten them on well1 piece by piece1 with tacks4 ,see that the heel is level before putting on the top piece4 7,if necessary1 a small piece may be put under the top piece47 ,after it is level1 put on top piece1 trim in shape1 then draw guide line and nail down4 ,the nails are placed thicker on the side that is worn down most1 to protect the heel4 ,the heel is next rasped1 and smoothed with a buffer and sandpaper4 ,when finished1 it should set level4 ,,modern ,,method ,,of ,,repairing ,,shoes ,as the shoemaking industry has become more and more perfect1 there has been an increasing interest taken in shoe repairing4 ,a medium-priced shoe as it is made to-day may often be in good enough condition to be heeled and soled a couple of times4 ,hence1 although in the past many shoe stores and departments have had their shoe repairing done by outside shops1 the tendency to-day is for every shoe store to have its own repair department4 ,this method has resulted largely from the development of machinery for shoe repairing1 which is revolutionizing the business to such an extent that in a few years repairing by hand will be among the lost arts4 ,with the new inventions for restoring upper leather1 and the improvement of machinery for shoe repairing1 repair departments will very soon be but little short of miniature factories4 ,the machinery ordinarily used consists of the ,goodyear stitcher1 used for attaching soles to ,goodyear welts by the lock-stitch method1 just as in shoe factories making ,goodyear welt shoes4 ,then there is a heel trimmer1 a bottom finisher1 consisting of a rapidly revolving roll covered with coarse and fine sandpaper1 and an opera heel builder for forming concave heels4 ,there are two wheels used for tan and white heel work1 one heel being covered with a white cloth1 and the other with a coarse brush4 ,adjoining these are usually the shank and heel finisher1--capable of smoothing and highly polishing a shank or heel in about a dozen seconds1--the bottom finisher1 that grinds and smooths down the new sole1 and a machine used for rubbing off dirt before the shoe is finished1 consisting of a heavy horsehair brush4 ,another useful part of the equipment is an edge setter1 which is also identical with the one used in factories4 ,the shoe stitching machines and the parts used in finishing are all operated on one long shaft1 rapidly revolved by the aid of a motor4 ,it is a fact that a shoe may be actually soled and heeled in less than six minutes4 ,five or six men are usually employed in the repair department of a large establishment4 ,when the customer's shoes are brought in1 one of these men cuts off the old sole and traces an outline of the new sole on a block of the very best oak leather4 ,after these are cut out by hand in rough form1 they are soaked in water and channeled2 that is to say1 a part of the sole is turned up in which the stitches are to be run4 ,a second man1 by the use of the ,goodyear stitcher1 joins the sole and welt together with a very strong and tightly drawn lock stitch4 ,this is a large machine with a curved1 barbed needle and awl1 and a shuttle which sews through an inch of leather with the greatest ease and speed4 ,there are from one hundred and fifty to two hundred stitches in each shoe2 moreover1 every one of them is locked with heavy wax thread1 so that there is no chance of their ever giving away4 ,if one stitch should break1 the other stitches would remain intact1 as they are all independent of each other4 ,both soles are stitched on in a little over half a minute without breaking a thread or stopping the machine4 ,a coating of rubber cement is now placed in the edges of the outsole1 and the lip of the channel is smoothed down so that the stitches are entirely hidden when looking at the bottom of the shoe4 ,the edge trimming is done next with the aid of a rapidly revolving wheel1 which trims the edges square and true in about forty seconds4 ,after this1 the shank is finished on a rapidly revolving wheel covered with emery cloth4 ,bottom finishing is the next step4 ,this is done on a machine having two long cylinders1 one covered with fine and the other with coarse sandpaper4 ,these cylinders revolve rapidly1 and the operator uses the coarse sandpaper for scouring the dirt and old finish off the leather1 and the fine sandpaper for finishing the sole as smooth as that of any new shoe4 ,the brushing in or smoothing is next done by the horsehair brush we have mentioned before4 ,a preparation called ,lewis's rival bottom polish--a sort of white wax--is placed on the brush machine4 ,the brush now smooths the surface of the sole1 filling in all small holes with wax and leaving the sole absolutely perfect4 ,finally1 the shoe is placed against a rapidly revolving brush which finishes the uppers with a luster that would make any ordinary boot-black green with envy4 ,another operation that fully completes the process is the hardening of the edges with hot steel1 which ends in producing an edge that is as hard as iron4 ,when it is polished with a black dye1 it looks exactly like a new sole4 ,a few words are necessary with regard to the heel4 ,the old heel having been removed1 several lifts of new leather in rough form are tacked on4 ,the shoe is then taken to the heel trimmer and is formed correctly and then smoothed down to a brilliant surface on the finely covered revolving wheel4 ,in a few seconds it is stained1 smoothed1 and polished4 ,in less than six minutes the shoe is ready for the customer4 ,,chapter ,,nine ,,leather ,,and ,,shoemaking ,,terms ,,assembling4 ,includes the following operations3 tacking the insole to the last1 putting in the box and counter of the shoe1 and putting the upper of the shoe on the last4 ,,backstay4 ,a term used to denote a strip of leather covering and strengthening the back seam of a shoe4 ,english backstay means the strip of leather that meets the quarters on each side and is sewed to them1 forming the lower part of the shoe4 ,california backstay is a term applied to piping caught in the back seam4 ,,back ,,strap4 ,the strap by which the shoe is pulled on the foot4 ,,bal4 ,an abbreviation of the word 8,balmoral0 and means either men's1 women's1 or children's front lace shoe of medium height1 as distinguished from one that is adjusted to the ankle by buttons1 buckles1 rubber goring1 etc4 ,,ball4 ,refers to the ball of the foot--the fleshy part of the bottom of the foot1 back of the toes4 ,,beading4 ,means folding in the edges of the upper leather instead of leaving them raw1 or wheeling any impression around the sole to the heel4 ,it is called seat wheeling in many shoe factory rooms4 ,,beating ,,out4 ,the same as leveling4 ,it is the term used in turn-shoe work4 ,,bellows ,,tongue4 ,a broad tongue sewed to the sides of the top1 seen in waterproof and some working shoes4 ,,belting4 ,the term applied to the usual back tanned cowhide1 used in various thicknesses for machinery belts4 ,,between ,,substance4 ,that part of the sole that holds the stitch4 ,,blackball4 ,a mass of grease and lampblack1 formerly used by shoemakers on edges of heels and soles2 sometimes called 8cobbler's botch40 ,,blacking ,,the ,,edge4 ,blacking or dyeing edge of sole1 welt1 or that part of the edge which cannot be blacked so well in the making room4 ,,blocking4 ,the cutting or chopping of a sole in such a form or shape that it can be rounded4 ,,bloom4 ,a term often applied to the grayish white deposit that gathers on shoes in stock4 ,it can be wiped off readily4 ,,blucher4 ,the name of a shoe or half boot1 originated by ,field ,marshal ,blcher of the ,prussian ,army1 in the time of ,napoleon ,i4 ,it became very popular and has since received occasional favor1 being used with high tops as a sporting or hunting boot4 ,its distinguishing feature is the extension forward of the quarters to lace across the tongue1 which may be an extension upward of the vamp4 ,,boot4 ,a term used 7especially abroad7 to designate women's high-cut shoes4 ,in this country it applies only to high or topped footwear1 usually made with the tops stiff and solid4 ,it is sometimes laced1 as in hunting boots4 ,,bootee4 ,leather legging extending between knee and ankle1 usually of ,russian calf1--a riding boot originating with the ,english4 ,,bottom ,,filling4 ,the filling that goes in the low space on the bottom in the forepart of the shoe4 ,it is either ground cork1 tarred felt1 or other filler4 ,,bottom ,,scouring4 ,sandpapering the parts of the sole1 except the heel4 ,,boxing4 ,a term used to designate the stiffening material placed in the toe of a shoe to support it and retain the shape2 such as leather1 composition of leather and paper1 wire net1 drilling 7a cotton fabric7 stiffened with shellac1 etc4 ,,box ,,calf4 ,a well-known proprietary leather having a grain of rectangularly crossed lines4 ,,box ,,toe4 ,used to hold up the toe of the shoe so as to retain the shape4 ,it is generally of sole leather1 but often made of canvas or other material and stiffened with shellac or gum4 ,,breaking ,,the ,,sole4 ,molding the sole so as to fit the spring better4 ,,brogan4 ,a heavy pegged or nailed work shoe1 medium cut in height4 ,,brushing4 ,the final finish of the top edge1 heel1 and bottom1 by means of a brush4 ,,buckskin4 ,a soft leather1 generally yellow or grayish in color4 ,one way of preparing it is by treating deerskins in oil4 ,,buff4 ,a split side leather1 coarser than glove grain1 but otherwise similar4 ,it is used for cheaper grades of shoes1 principally for men4 ,,buffing4 ,the same as bottom scouring4 ,,cabaretta4 ,a tanned sheepskin of superior finish used for shoe stock4 ,there are sheep with wool not far removed from hair in texture1 which produce a skin of greater tenacity and finish than the ordinary sheep4 ,,cack4 ,a sole leather bottom without a heel4 ,an infant's shoe is called a cack4 ,,calfskins4 ,skins of meat cattle of all kinds1 weighing up to fifteen pounds1 are usually included in this term4 ,they make a strong and pliable leather4 ,calfskins were formerly finished with wax and oil on the flesh side1 but can now be made so as to be finished on the 8grain10 which is the hair side of the skin4 ,,cap4 ,a term meaning the same as tip4 ,,carton4 ,a cardboard box intended for one pair of shoes4 ,,cementing4 ,this is the operation of placing cement on the outsole and the bottom of the welt shoe so that the outsole is held to the shoe by the cement4 ,,chamois4 ,a leather made from the skins of chamois1 calves1 deer1 goats1 sheep1 and split hides of other animals4 ,,channeling4 ,cutting into the sole in such a way that the thread or stitching is away from the surface4 ,in the outsole department it means preparing a place for the stitch4 ,in insoles and turn soles1 channeling is done so that soles are prepared to hold the stitching4 ,,channel ,,screwed4 ,a process by which the sole is fastened to the uppers4 ,after a channel is cut and laid over on the outside of the outsole1 the outsole and insole are fastened together1 holding the upper and lining between them by means of wire screws1 which are fastened in this channel4 ,the skived part is then smoothed down over the heads of the screws1 entirely covering them from sight1 and preventing the screws from easily working up into the foot4 ,,channel ,,stitched4 ,a method of fastening soles to the uppers1 either by ,mc,kay or welt process1 in which a portion of the sole's outer side is channeled into1 and the stitches afterwards covered on the lower side by the lip of this channel4 ,,channel ,,turning4 ,turning a lip or flap of sole leather 7called channel71 so that the stitching can be done in the proper place2 or it may mean turning up the flap or lip of the channel1 that is1 the part that is to cover the stitch4 ,,checking4 ,a term applied to the edges of heels or soles that have cracked1 or have been injured in process of construction4 ,,cleaning ,,inside4 ,cleaning the lining4 ,,cleaning ,,nails4 ,scraping the blacking off the tops of the heel slugs4 ,,cleaning ,,shoes4 ,removing dirt1 wax1 cement1 etc41 from them4 ,,clicking4 ,cutting the uppers of shoes4 ,,closing4 ,putting two or more pieces together4 ,,closing ,,on4 ,stitching the lining and outside together4 ,,colonial4 ,a name given to a woman's low shoe1 with vamp extended into a flaring tongue1 with a large1 ornamental buckle across the instep4 ,the buckle and tongue are the distinctive features of the shoe1 whether the shoe fastens with a lace or strap4 ,,coltskin4 ,coltskin has been brought into general use in shoemaking within the past few years4 ,the skin of a colt is thin enough to use like calfskin in its entirety1 with such shaving as is given all hides in tanning4 ,coltskin makes a firm basis needed for patent leather1 and has been much used in recent years for this purpose4 ,russia is the chief source of supply4 ,,combination ,,last4 ,one with a different width instep from the ball4 ,it may be one or two widths' difference1 such as the ,d ball with a ,b instep4 ,combination lasts are generally used in fitting low insteps4 ,,composition4 ,a term used to denote the small scraps that accumulate about tanneries and factories1 which are ground up and mixed with a paste or a kind of cement1 and flattened into sheets which are used as insoles1 and in other parts1 in various grades of shoes1 where wear is not excessive4 ,,congress ,,gaiter4 ,a shoe designed especially for comfort1 with rubber goring in the sides which adjusts it to the ankle1 instead of laces1 and sometimes made with lace front to imitate a regular shoe4 ,,cordovan4 ,originally a ,spanish leather made from horsehide4 ,the ,spaniards were1 for a great many centuries1 the best leather makers4 ,the term is applied to a grain leather from the best and strongest part of a horsehide4 ,,counter4 ,the stiffening in the back part of a shoe1 often called stiffening1 to support the outer leather and prevent the shoe from 8running over0 at the heel4 ,it is made either of sole leather1 shaved thin on the edge and shaped by machinery1 as in the best shoes1 or composition or paper1 in cheap shoes4 ,metal is occasionally used on the outside of the shoes in heavy goods for miners and furnacemen4 ,,coupon ,,tag4 ,a tag from which a coupon is cut for every operation4 ,operatives hold part of the coupon and the holders of the coupons are paid for the part named4 ,,cowhide4 ,refers to hides of cattle1 heavier than kips1 which run up to twenty-five pounds each4 ,,creasing ,,vamp4 ,making hollow grooves across the front of the vamp to add to its looks4 ,,creedmore4 ,a man's heavy lace shoe1 with gusset1 blucher cut4 ,,creole4 ,a heavy congress work shoe4 ,this shoe1 the creedmore1 and brogans are usually made of oil grains1 kip1 or split leather1 sometimes pegged1 sometimes 8stitched down40 ,,crimping4 ,shaping any part of the upper so that it will conform to the last better4 ,,cushion ,,sole4 ,an elastic inner sole4 ,,cut-,,off ,,vamp4 ,one cut off at tip for economy when tip is to be covered by a cap4 ,,dieing4 ,cutting soles to fit the last1 outsoles1 insoles1 heel lifts1 counters1 or half soles1 with a machine and a die4 ,,dom ,,pedro4 ,a heavy1 one-buckle shoe1 with gusset or bellows tongue4 ,originally it was a patent name for certain shoes made of fine material1 but is now applied to cheap grades4 ,,dongola4 ,a heavy1 plump goatskin1 tanned with a semibright finish4 ,,dressing4 ,a process for giving the upper its original finish by means of liquid put on with sponge4 ,,edge ,,setting4 ,the finishing edge of the sole1--polishing it4 ,,edge ,,trimming4 ,trimming the edge of a sole smoothly to conform to last4 ,,enamel4 ,leather that is given a shiny finish on the grain side4 ,the process is similar to that of patent leather1 only that patent leather is finished on the flesh side1 or the surface of the split4 ,,eyelet4 ,a small ring of metal1 etc41 placed in the holes for lacing2 the eyelet holes are sometimes worked with thread like a buttonhole4 ,,eyeletting4 ,putting on eyelets4 ,,facing4 ,the bleached calf or sheepskin used around the top of the shoe1 and down the eyelet row and inside of the upper4 ,,fair ,,stitch4 ,term applied to the stitching that shows around the outer edge of the sole1 to give the ,mc,kay shoe the appearance of a welt shoe4 ,,faking4 ,putting a gloss on any part of the bottom of the shoe4 ,,findings4 ,the small parts of a shoe1 such as blacking1 cement1 nails1 wax1 tacks1 thread1 etc4 ,,flap1 ,,lip1 ,,and ,,shoulder4 ,terms used in connection with the channel or with the operation of sewing4 ,,follower4 ,any last or form put in a shoe from which the original last has been pulled4 ,,forepart ,,finishing4 ,the staining and polishing of the forepart of the shoe4 ,,form4 ,a term applied to a filler last4 ,it may be of wood1 papier-mch1 leather board1 or any similar material1 and is used to enhance the appearance of sample shoes1 in salesmen's lines or in window displays4 ,,foxed4 ,having the lower part of the quarter a separate piece of leather or covered by an extra piece2 8slipper foxed0 is a term sometimes applied to women's full vamp shoes4 ,,foxing4 ,the name applied to that part of the upper that extends from the sole to the laces in front1 and to about the height of the counter in the back2 being the length of the upper4 ,it may be in one or more pieces and is often cut down to the shank in circular form4 ,,frizzing4 ,a process to which chamois and wash leather are subjected1 after the skins are unhaired1 scraped1 8fleshed10 and raised4 ,it consists in rubbing the skins with pumice stone or a blunt knife till the appearance of the grain is entirely removed4 ,,front4 ,a term used for part of a congress toe4 ,,gaiter4 ,a term usually applied to a separate ankle covering or to a congress shoe4 ,,gemming4 ,the operation of making gem insoles4 ,,gem ,,insoles4 ,an insole for welt shoes of leather4 ,,glazed ,,kid4 ,see ,kid4 ,,glove ,,grain4 ,a light1 soft-finished1 split leather1 for women's or children's shoes or topping4 ,,goatskin4 ,see ,kid4 ,,goodyear ,,welt4 ,a term used to denote the process of attaching the sole to the upper of a shoe by means of a narrow strip of leather called a welt4 ,,gore4 ,a rubber elastic used in a congress shoe4 ,it is also applied to the long1 wedge-shaped piece of leather set in an upper to widen it4 ,,grading4 ,the sorting of outsoles and half soles to get uniform weight in edges of finished shoes4 ,,half ,,sole4 ,half of a complete sole used in forepart of bottom under outsole4 ,,harness ,,leather4 ,similar to belting1 and is made from hides heavier than kips4 ,,heel4 ,made of layers of leather or wood called liftings1 and attached to rear part of shoe 7heel seat74 ,there are different varieties of heels4 ,the ,french heel is an extremely high heel with a curved outline in back and front 7breast74 ,it is sometimes made of wood covered with leather1 with thicknesses of sole leather1 or all sole leather4 ,the ,cuban heel is a high1 straight heel1 without the curve of the ,french or 8,louis ,,xv0 heel4 ,military heel is a straight heel not as high as the ,cuban4 ,a spring heel is a low heel formed by extending back the outside of the shoe to the heel1 with a slip inserted between the outsole and heel slat4 ,wedge heel is somewhat similar to a spring heel1 except that a wedge-shaped lift is tacked on the outside instead of a slit4 ,slugging heels is the process of affixing the made-up heel by one operation of the machine4 ,,heel ,,finishing4 ,blacking and polishing the heel edge4 ,,heel ,,lining4 ,the lining to cover heel nails inside the shoe2 it is often known by other names4 ,,heel ,,pad4 ,in the manufacture of shoes1 is a small piece of felt1 leather1 or other substance fastened to and covering the full width of the insole at the point upon which the heel rests4 ,a heel cushion is sometimes called a heel pad4 ,,heel ,,scouring4 ,sandpapering the edge of the heel1 except the front or breast portion4 ,,heel ,,seat4 ,that part of sole on which heel is fastened4 ,,heel ,,seat ,,nailing4 ,nailing the heel part of sole4 ,,heel ,,seat ,,trimming4 ,trimming the rear or heel part of sole4 ,,heel ,,shaving4 ,shaving the heel1 shaping it4 ,,hemlock ,,tanned4 ,a process of tanning leather by hemlock bark4 ,,hides4 ,distinguished from skins1 in the trade4 ,hides refer to skins of animals which are over twenty-five pounds in weight4 ,skins refer to smaller animals2 as skins of goats1 calves1 sheep4 ,,inlay4 ,a trimming of the upper by an insertion of the same or different kind of material than that of the body in which it is inlaid4 ,it is used for decorative purpose on a shoe4 ,,inseaming4 ,sewing sole on turn shoe4 ,welting and inseaming are practically the same operation4 ,,inseam ,,trimming4 ,cutting off the surplus leather2 term is also applied to pulling sole tacks4 ,,insole4 ,the first sole laid on the last1 and is the foundation of all shoes with insoles4 ,it is an important though invisible portion of a shoe4 ,this inner sole is the part to which the upper and outsole are sewed or nailed in the ,mc,kay and welt shoes4 ,,inspecting4 ,the examination of shoes to see that the work is perfect2 it is sometimes called crowning4 ,,inspecting ,,insole4 ,the operation of looking inside of the shoe for tacks4 ,,instep4 ,the top of the arch of the foot4 ,,iron4 ,a term indicating the thickness of sole leather2 each unit is approximately one thirty-second of an inch in thickness4 ,,ironing ,,uppers4 ,taking wrinkles out of the uppers and smoothing the same with a hot iron4 ,,juliette4 ,a woman's house slipper which is cut a little above the ankle in front and back1 and cut down on the sides is called a ,juliette4 ,,kangaroo4 ,the skin of the animal of that name1 which makes a splendid leather1 of firm texture4 ,it is quite expensive1 hence substitutes are on the market under the same name4 ,,kid4 ,a term applied to the shoe leather made from the skins of mature goats4 ,,kip4 ,a term applied to leather made from hides weighing between fifteen and twenty-five pounds4 ,,lace ,,stay4 ,a strip of leather renforcing the eyelet holes4 ,,lace ,,hook4 ,an eyelet extended into a recurved hook1 around which the lace is looped4 ,it is most commonly used in men's and boys' shoes1 although recently some have been invented for use in women's shoes with curved ends1 to avoid catching the dress4 ,,lacing4 ,the operation of putting laces in shoes4 ,,last4 ,a wooden form over which the shoe is constructed1 giving the shoe its distinctive shape4 ,,lasting4 ,the process of making the uppers conform to the last in all respects4 ,the operations of assembling and pulling over are parts of lasting4 ,,laying ,,channel4 ,turning down the lip or flap to cover the stitching4 ,,leveling4 ,shaping the sole to the bottom of the last4 ,,lift4 ,the name given to one thickness of sole leather used in the heel4 ,top lift is the bottom lift1 when the shoe is right side up1 and is the last piece put on in manufacture4 ,,lining4 ,the inside part of shoe1 generally of cloth 7dull7 or sheepskin4 ,,lining ,,cutting4 ,the operation of cutting the cloth linings4 ,,lining-,,in4 ,the operation of putting lining inside of the shoe to cover insole or part of insole4 ,,loading ,,leather4 ,filling the pores of the leather with glucose to increase its weight4 ,,making ,,linings4 ,consists of closing up heel of lining2 putting on top and side or eyelet stay4 ,,match ,,marking4 ,an operation performed on colored uppers1 except black1 to get different parts of the upper the same shade and color1 and both shoes in the pair alike4 ,,mat4 ,a term applied to a dull finish kid as distinguished from glazed4 ,,mckay ,,sewed ,,or ,,mckay4 ,a shoe in which the outsole is attached to the insole and upper by a method named for the inventor4 ,,mckay ,,sewing4 ,sewing through and through so that thread is seen inside of shoe4 ,,middle ,,sole4 ,any sole between outsole and insole4 ,,mock ,,welt4 ,mc,kay-sewed shoe with a double sole and having a leather sock lining4 ,it is fair stitched to imitate a welt4 ,,monkey ,,skin4 ,a peculiar grained skin1 and is considered in the trade as a fancy leather4 ,it is often imitated4 ,,morocco4 ,a name applied to leather originally made in ,morocco4 ,it is a sumac-tanned goatskin1 red in color1 and is used in book binding4 ,the name is also applied to a leather made in imitation of this1 and to heavy1 plump goatskins used for shoes4 ,,molding4 ,shaping the sole to fit the bottom of last4 ,,mules4 ,the name applied to slippers with no counters or quarters4 ,,nap4 ,the woolly side of hide1 cloth1 or felt4 ,,naumkeaging4 ,smoothing up the bottom with fine sandpaper4 ,sometimes the buffing grain4 ,,nullifier4 ,a shoe with high vamp and quarter1 dropping low at the sides1 made with a short rubber goring for summer or house wear4 ,,oak ,,tanned4 ,a process of tanning by means of a substance obtained from oak bark4 ,,oil ,,leather4 ,leather prepared by currying hides in oil4 ,the hides are moist1 that the oily matter may be gradually and thoroughly absorbed4 ,,ooze4 ,a chrome tan calfskin treated on the flesh side in such a manner that the long fibers are loosened and form a nap surface2 made in many colors4 ,,outside ,,cutting4 ,cutting the leather parts of the shoe1 as vamp1 tip1 top1 etc4 ,,outside ,,tap4 ,the tap used outside of men's or boys' heavy shoes4 ,,outsole4 ,the sole next the ground1 on which all wear comes4 ,illustration3 ,cross ,section of ,mc,kay ,sewed ,shoe4 ,illustration3 ,cross ,section of ,goodyear ,welt ,shoe4 ,,oxford4 ,a low-cut shoe no higher than the instep lace1 button1 or goring1 made in men's1 women's1 and children's sizes4 ,,packer ,,hides4 ,hides taken off in the large slaughterhouses4 ,they are rated slightly higher in price1 because great care and skill are used in taking them off4 ,,packing4 ,placing a pair of shoes in a carton4 ,,pacs4 ,coverings for the feet made of good quality calfskin1 similar in form and appearance to the ,indian moccasin4 ,they do not have sole leather bottoms4 ,if properly made1 they are waterproof4 ,,pancake4 ,a term applied to one of the many artificial leathers formed from leather scraps1 shaved thin1 and cemented together under heavy pressure4 ,,pasted ,,counter4 ,one that is cut from two pieces of sole leather pasted together4 ,it is sometimes called a two-piece counter4 ,,patent ,,leather4 ,varnished leather4 ,,pattern4 ,the model by which the pieces comprising the upper of a shoe are cut1 applied collectively to upper as modified by the differing shape of these pieces4 ,,pebble4 ,a term used in the process to bring out the grain of leather and give it a roughened or rubbed appearance4 ,,pegging4 ,lasting out soles with pegs4 ,,perforating4 ,making very small holes around parts of upper4 ,it is performed mostly for decoration4 ,,polish4 ,the name of ladies' or misses' front-lace shoe of higher cut than 8bal10 and named from ,poland1 where it originated4 ,,pressing4 ,consists of a flat-press pressure for heels and soles1 to prevent cracking of edges and to make parts adhere4 ,,porpoise4 ,this skin is sometimes used for leather and boot laces1 but porpoise hides are ordinarily obtained from the white whale4 ,,pulling ,,lasts4 ,removing the lasts from shoes4 ,,pulling ,,over4 ,pulling upper on the last and tacking it in position4 ,,pump4 ,a low-cut shoe originally having no fastenings1 such as laces or buttons4 ,a pump is cut lower than the instep4 ,,pump ,,sole4 ,an extra-light single sole1 running clear through to the back of the heel4 ,a pump sole in former years was distinguished by its flexibility and was hand turned4 ,,putting ,,on ,,tap4 ,sticking half sole to the outsole4 ,,quarter4 ,the rear part of upper when a full vamp is not used4 ,term is used mostly in women's1 and ,oxfords or low shoes4 ,,rand4 ,made of sole leather about as wide as a welt1 but thin at one edge4 ,it is tacked to the heel so as to balance the heel evenly on the sole and fill any open space around the edge between sole and heel4 ,,rapid ,,stitching4 ,sewing the sole to welt4 ,,relasting4 ,consists in putting lasts in shoes from which the original lasts have been removed4 ,,repairing4 ,a term applied to filling slight cracks in patent tips or patent leather4 ,,roan4 ,sheepskin tanned with sumac4 ,the process is similar in its details to that employed for morocco leather1 but lacks the graining given to the morocco by the grooved rollers in the finishing4 ,it imitates ungrained morocco4 ,,rolling4 ,the process of passing leather between rolls to make it firm and hard4 ,rolling consists in polishing the bottom on roll and brush4 ,,rough ,,rounding4 ,rounding outsole to the shape of last1 and cutting channel in the welt-channeled shoes4 ,,royalties4 ,sums paid for the use of machines to machine companies4 ,,russet ,,calf4 ,russet-colored calf is made from calfskins4 ,,russet ,,grain4 ,russet-colored grain is made from a split cowhide4 ,,sabot4 ,the name of a one-piece wooden shoe1 carved from a block of basswood4 ,a novelty to ,americans1 but worn by people in the rural and manufacturing sections of ,holland1 ,germany1 and ,france4 ,,sack ,,lining4 ,the lining inside the shoe and insole4 ,,sandal4 ,the name of a woman's strap slipper1 or a sole worn by children4 ,originally fastened on the foot by straps4 ,,satin ,,calf4 ,a grain split1 stuffed with oil1 and smooth finished4 ,,scouring ,,breast4 ,sandpapering the front part of the heel4 ,,screw-,,fastened4 ,a shoe having the sole attached with screws1 as in cheap or working shoes4 ,,seal ,,grain4 ,usually a flesh split1 with an artificial grain which is stamped or printed on the finished leather4 ,,second ,,lasting4 ,the same as relasting4 ,term used most in turn work4 ,,shank4 ,the middle position of the bottom of the foot4 ,shank supports are placed in shoes to stiffen that part of the bottom4 ,they are of steel1 of wood1 or of a combination of leather board and steel1 and can be placed in the shoe any time before the outsole is laid4 ,,shank ,,burnishing4 ,polishing a black shank with hot iron4 ,,shank ,,finishing4 ,finishing the shank with blacking or in colors4 ,the top lift is generally finished at the same time4 ,,shanking ,,out4 ,means making the edge of the shank thinner than the other part of the sole1 and making it smooth4 ,,sheepskins4 ,used largely for linings and for cheap shoes for women and children4 ,it is too soft and weak in texture for heavy wear1 and liable to split and tear4 ,,short ,,vamp4 ,a foreshortened vamp4 ,the distance between the extreme tip and the throat of the vamp shortened for appearances4 ,,sides4 ,leather made from hides which are split into two sides down the back4 ,,side ,,lasting4 ,lasting the side of the shoe only4 ,,size4 ,shoes are measured by the length and width4 ,the length is expressed by numbers and the widths by letters4 ,,skins4 ,a term used to represent the skin covering of small animals1 such as goats4 ,,skirting4 ,the outer parts of leather 7hide71 such as shanks1 bellies1 necks1 etc4 ,,skiving4 ,making the sole the same thickness in all parts4 ,skiving means cutting or shaving down to a thin edge4 ,this operation may be done in the cutting department or stitching department4 ,,slip4 ,the name applied to spring heels or to soles4 ,slip is a thin piece of sole leather inserted above the outer sole4 ,,slugging4 ,driving slugs in heels1 on part or all of the heel4 ,,sock ,,lining4 ,the lining for insole1 inside of shoe4 ,,soft ,,tip4 ,a term applied to a shoe on which no boxing is used under the tip4 ,,soles ,,and ,,sole ,,leather4 ,name applied to pieces of leather of various thickness on the bottom of a shoe1 usually made from heavy hides of leather4 ,there are many varieties of soles3 a 8full-double0 sole has two thicknesses of leather extending clear back to the heel2 8half-double0 sole is a full outer sole1 with slip extending back to shank2 single sole is self-defining2 8tap0 is a half sole4 ,,sole ,,laying4 ,sole laying is the operation of laying the outsole4 ,,sorting4 ,the process of selecting and sorting soles1 so that they may be put up in different qualities4 ,,spewing4 ,shoes in stock sometimes become coated with a grayish white1 powdery substance1 that looks like mildew4 ,this formation on leather that is not fully seasoned is called spewing1 and the deposit is called bloom4 ,it can readily be wiped off1 and does not indicate any serious defect or trouble with the leather4 ,it is not a mildew or growth1 but apparently an exudation of materials used in tanning4 ,,splits4 ,a name applied to split leather1 that is1 two or more parts of the hide4 ,,spring ,,heel4 ,consists of one or more lifts used between the outsole and upper4 ,it is seen mostly in children's shoes and is often called wedge heel4 ,it can also be put on outside instead of under the outsole4 ,,stamping4 ,the operation of putting size and width on the inside of the shoe4 ,parts of the uppers are often stamped or marked so that the whole are put together properly in the stitching room4 ,,stay4 ,the name given to any piece of leather put in the upper to strengthen it or to strengthen a seam4 ,,stamping ,,bottoms4 ,the operation of stamping name on bottom4 ,it is often performed in finishing rooms4 ,,stamping ,,carton4 ,putting the size1 width1 and other marks on carton4 ,,stamping ,,sizes4 ,stamping sizes on heel part of the sole4 ,,standard-,,fastened4 ,nailing bottom on standard screw machine4 ,,staying4 ,putting on a stay1 generally heel stay4 ,,stitch ,,separating4 ,marking between stitches so as to make them show to good advantage4 ,,stitch ,,down4 ,a term applied to a flexible shoe used in the army1 in which the top is turned out instead of under and stitched through the sole4 ,,stitched ,,aloft4 ,a term used to indicate that the sewing stitches show on the bottom4 ,no channel is necessary in this sole4 ,it may be a slight groove4 ,in stitching1 the shoe is held bottom up1 therefore the name 8stitched aloft40 ,,straight ,,last4 ,one that is neither right nor left1 and a shoe made over such a last can be worn on either foot4 ,this term is sometimes applied to right and left shoes that have a barely perceptible outside swing4 ,,stripping4 ,consists of cutting in strips wide enough to cut soles all of equal size in length4 ,,suede4 ,a trade term applied to kid skins1 finished on the flesh side4 ,,swing4 ,a term applied to the curve of the outer edge of a sole4 ,,tacking ,,on4 ,consists in laying the outsole on ,mc,kay's lasted shoes4 ,,tack ,,pulling ,,and ,,trimming ,,out4 ,consist of preparing bottom for welting4 ,it also makes it better for the operation4 ,,tampico4 ,a variety of goat skins coming from the province of ,tampico1 ,central ,america4 ,,tap4 ,half of a complete sole1 often called half sole when used under outsole4 ,,tan4 ,tan is a sort of brownish leather4 ,,tanning4 ,tanning is the process of converting hides or skins into leather4 ,,tap ,,trimming4 ,shaping the tap to conform to the sole4 ,,tawing4 ,the process of making leather by soaking hides in a solution of salt and alum1 or by packing them down with dry salt and powdered alum4 ,used to prepare skin rugs and furs4 ,,tempering4 ,the operation of wetting the leather in water to take hardness out and make leather 8mull10 so that it may be worked easier4 ,,tip4 ,the toe piece which is stitched to the vamp and outside of it4 ,stock tip is a tip of the same material as the vamp4 ,patent tip is a patent leather tip4 ,diamond tip refers to the shape extending back to a point4 ,imitation tip-stitching across the vamp is imitation of a tip4 ,,tip ,,cutting4 ,cutting the tip which goes on the toe of the vamp4 ,,toe ,,and ,,heel ,,lasting4 ,lasting heel and toe4 ,,toe ,,piece4 ,a piece attached to cut-off vamp to lengthen it4 ,,tongue4 ,a narrow strip of leather necessary on all laced shoes4 ,,top4 ,the part of the upper above the vamp2 tip of shoe4 ,,top ,,cutting4 ,cutting the top only4 ,,top ,,facing4 ,the strip of leather or band of cloth around the top of the shoe on the inside is called the top facing4 ,it adds to the finish of the lining1 and is sometimes used to advertise the name of manufacturers by a design of letters woven or sewed on it4 ,,top ,,lift4 ,the lift which is next to the ground4 ,,top ,,lift ,,scouring4 ,sandpapering top lift of heel to make it smooth4 ,,top ,,stitching4 ,consists of stitching across the top and down the side4 ,,treeing4 ,shaping the shoe1 making it smooth4 ,produces the same effect as ironing1 although no hot iron is used4 ,it makes the upper plump and gives it a good finish and 8feel40 ,,trimming ,,cutting4 ,cutting stays1 facings1 and other small parts of the upper4 ,,trimming ,,vamp4 ,cutting off hanging or surplus thread4 ,,turning4 ,to turn shoe right side out4 ,also turning upper right side out4 ,,turned ,,shoe4 ,a lady's fine shoe that is made wrong side out1 then turned right side out1 which operation necessitates the use of a thin1 flexible sole of good quality4 ,the sole is fastened to the last1 the upper is lasted over it wrong side out1 then the two are sewed together1 the thread catching through a channel cut in the edge of the sole4 ,the seam does not come through to the bottom of the sole where it would chafe the foot on inside4 ,,upper4 ,a term applied collectively to the upper parts of a shoe4 ,,ungrained4 ,smooth surface4 ,,vamp4 ,the lower or front part of the upper of a shoe4 ,it is the most important piece of the upper and should be cut from the strongest and cleanest part of the skin4 8,cut-off0 vamp is one that extends only to the tip1 instead of being continued to the toe and lasted under with the tip4 ,whole vamp is one that extends to the heel without a seam4 ,,vamping4 ,stitching the vamp to the top4 ,,vamp ,,cutting4 ,cutting vamp with or without the tip4 ,,velour4 ,a finish for calf leather4 ,it is the ,french name for velvet and is used in the shoe trade for a patent chrome-tanned calf leather4 ,it is an excellent leather and has a smooth and velvety finish4 ,,vellum4 ,a name for skins that are made into a variety of parchment4 ,,veneering4 ,consists in making soles1 whole or part1 heavier1 by means of leather-board or other material fastened to the sole by an adhesive4 ,,vesting4 ,a material originally designed for making vests4 ,as used in shoes1 it is made with fancy-figured weave1 having a backing of stiff buckram or rubber-treated tissue to strengthen it4 ,,viscolizing4 ,a patent method of waterproofing sole leather by the use of partly emulsified oils with a water-resisting tendency4 ,viscolized soles are used in hunting and sporting boots4 ,,vici4 ,a patent trade name for a brand of chrome-tanned kid4 ,,wash ,,leather4 ,an inferior quality of chamois4 ,,welt4 ,a narrow strip of leather that is sewed to the upper of a shoe with an insole leaving the edge of the welt extending outward1 so that the outsole can be attached by sewing through both welt and outsole1 around the outside of the shoe4 ,the attaching of the sole and upper thus involves two sewings1 first the insole1 welt and upper1 then the outsole to the welt4 ,the name is applied to the shoe itself when made in this way to distinguish it from a turned1 or ,mc,kay sewed shoe4 ,this is the method used by cobblers in the production of hand-sewed shoes to fasten the sole and upper together4 ,goodyear welt is a welt in which the sewing is done by a machine named for the inventor4 ,there are very few hand-welted shoes made4 ,,welt ,,beating4 ,the flattening out of the welt1 making it smooth4 ,,welting4 ,sewing the welt to shoe4 ,,white ,,alum4 ,bleached leather tawed with white alum4 ,,wooden ,,case4 ,large box for twelve or more pairs4 ,,chapter ,,ten ,,leather ,,products ,,manufacture ,the use of gloves is so old that relics of them have been found in the habitations of the cave dwellers4 ,the ,romans used them as decorative articles of dress and the ,greeks to protect the hands when doing heavy work4 ,the gloves of ladies and gentlemen in the days of ,queen ,elizabeth1 and before and after1 were most beautiful in hand workmanship and embellishments1 but they were usually shapeless things1 and in these days no one would wear them2 they are not to be compared with the elegant style and artistic finish of the modern product4 ,when the social world was restricted1 so to speak1 in the numbers of its members who could afford some of life's luxuries1 the use of the glove was confined largely to royalty1 nobility1 and the well-to-do4 ,and the trade not being extensive1 prices were high--being added to by decorative elaboration in needlework in order that the manufacturer and his employees might extract as much money as possible from the ultimate buyer4 ,while glove making is now one of the stabilities of modern manufacture1 it is1 nevertheless1 constantly changing in styles1 due to eagerness for novelties and new fashions4 ,glove making of leather1 in a rough1 crude form1 was carried on in this country to a very limited extent in ,new ,york ,state as early as #agfj1 by glove makers brought from ,scotland to settle on the grants of ,sir ,william ,johnson1 in ,fulton county4 ,but there was no general market for the home product until one was found in ,albany in #ahbe4 ,these early gloves1 crude and clumsy1 were cut with shears from leather by means of pasteboard patterns1 and men did the cutting and women the sewing4 ,dies were later introduced1 and this led to a great improvement in the character of the output4 ,but a still greater step forward was taken when the sewing machine was introduced in #aheb4 ,this abolished handwork entirely1 but still the industry remained largely of a domestic nature1 since it could be carried on at home with a machine as well as in a factory4 ,later steam power was installed in factories with which to run the machines4 ,the cutting of gloves1 and the stitching on the backs1 was done before the gloves were sent out to be completed in workers' homes4 ,as in everything wherein power can be substituted for hand labor in these days1 the methods of glove manufacture have undergone a great transformation4 ,the treating of skins in a great tub1 three feet deep1 whole dyeing and scouring1 in rooms of high temperature1 has been displaced by putting skins and colors into a cube-shaped box1 which1 revolving with an irregular motion1 produces the same results more quickly than by the primitive way4 ,but when color is to be applied to but one side the process is the same as of old1--hand use of a brush while the skin is stretched out on a slab4 ,when taken from the stock on hand to be made into gloves1 the first thing done to skins by some glove makers is to 8feed0 them with eggs--not eggs of suspicious merits1 but good enough for table use4 ,and of these nothing is used but the yolk4 ,one glove maker imports from ,china large quantities of the yolks of duck eggs for his work1 and his yearly consumption of yolks amounts to seventeen thousand4 ,when the skins leave the dyehouse1 they are rapidly dried in steam-heated lofts2 and while stiff and rough they are1 or were1 worked into softness and smoothness over a wooden upright standard1 called a stake1 at the top of which is fitted a blunt semicircular knife4 ,over this the skin is drawn by hand1 back and forth1 until it becomes as pliable and delicate as silk4 ,when this work was done manually it was most laborious4 ,but now it has been mostly taken over by very ingenious machinery1 which looks1 in operation1 as if it would tear a skin into fragments by the way it snaps and pulls at it1 but which is adjustable to such nicety of action and power that the work is done exactly as it is wanted4 ,the next operation is to pare the skins to uniformity of thickness4 ,this also was handwork for a long time1 done with a peculiarly shaped knife1 but now emery-coated wheels1 with rounded edges1 are used by the workers1 who1 with their aid1 do just as good and much faster work in drawing and thinning the skins with absolute precision4 ,this completes the treatment of the skin4 ,now the function of the cutter begins1 and he must be a workman of experience and good judgment1 in that he must contend with the inconstant inelasticity of the skin1 reducing it to uniform resistance4 ,he must get so many pieces of glove size from each skin1 and suit the pieces to particular features of the skin4 ,when done with a skin he must have left1 as useless1 only trifling strips and shreds4 ,the shapeliness of the glove which a woman draws over her hand1 depends altogether upon the intelligence and skill of the cutter4 ,in ,american factories the cutter is usually from some glove-making center in ,europe and from a family whose occupation has been glove making for centuries4 ,a punch next cuts these glove pieces into shape1 forming and dividing the fingers1 slitting the buttonholes1 providing side pieces for fingers and thumbs1 and also the fragments used for strengthening the buttonholes4 ,the sewing1 formerly the handiwork of women1 is now done on machines of capacity for exceptionally fine quality of intricate stitching4 ,the number of glove sizes made is sufficient to meet every likely demand4 ,when sewn1 and the buttons or fastenings put on1 they pass beneath the critical eye of an inspector for scrutiny as to faults4 ,then they are finally shaped on a hot metal hand1 smoothed1 banded1 boxed1 and sent to the salesroom for shipment4 ,the first and fourth fingers of a glove are completed by gussets1 or strips1 sewed only on the inner side2 but the second and third fingers require gussets on both sides to complete the fingers4 ,in addition to these1 small1 diamond-shaped pieces are sewed in at the roots of the fingers4 ,special care is necessary in sewing in the thumb pieces1 as poorly made gloves usually give way at this point4 ,natural lined gloves are now common enough1 although it is not many years since they were regarded as impracticable4 ,these are made from pelts of various animals with the hair left on the skin to form the lining4 ,,automobile ,,and ,,furniture ,,leather ,for automobile and furniture leather only choice hides should be used4 ,the kind of hides generally employed for this class of leather are ,french and ,swiss1 as these run full and plump on the bellies1 are free from cuts on the flesh and are of clear grain4 ,the hides are trimmed before placing them in the soaking pits1 all useless parts1 such as nose1 shanks1 etc41 being cut away4 ,after remaining in soak for a day or two1 the hides are hauled out1 fleshed1 and returned to the soaks for thorough softening4 ,when thoroughly soaked1 they are toggled and reeled into the first lime4 ,the first lime must be a weak1 mellow lime1 or a harsh grain will show after the leather is tanned4 ,the hides are reeled over into stronger limes every day for seven days1 when they are ready for unhairing4 ,after coming from the limes1 the hides should go into a pit of soft water heated to about ninety degrees ,fahrenheit and left over night before starting in to unhair4 ,after unhairing1 they are thrown into a vat of clean water and thoroughly worked out on the grain to remove short hairs and scud and are then ready for bating4 ,one that has a little bacterial action is preferred to an acid bate4 ,after bating1 the hides are given a good scudding on the grain and are then ready for the tanning liquors4 ,the liquors are made of hemlock and oak and are used very weak on the start4 ,the hides are suspended for a day in a liquor not over six degrees specific gravity reading in strength1 and the following day shifted over into a stronger liquor4 ,the stock is given stronger liquors every day until tanned enough for splitting4 ,the stock is struck out smoothly and brought to the machine for splitting4 ,the buffing is first taken away and sold for hat bands1 pocket-books1 etc4 ,the grains are finished and the splits are returned to the tanning liquors to be thoroughly tanned4 ,as soon as the splits are tanned1 they are washed up1 drained1 and then drummed in the drum in a sumac liquor4 ,they are now scoured1 and1 after being well set out1 are given a good oiling with cod oil4 ,they are now tacked out on the frames and dried out4 ,they are next taken from the frames and boarded by hand over the table4 ,the splits are taken to the japan shop and are tacked out again and are ready for the first coat of daub4 ,two coats are applied4 ,after each coat1 the splits are well rubbed down1 when they receive the slicker coat4 ,the color coats are now applied1 and after drying out1 the leather is grained up and finished4 ,,chapter ,,eleven ,,rubber ,,shoe ,,manufacture ,examine the rubbers we wear during the winter and stormy weather4 ,rubber shoe coverings are made to protect the shoe from water and snow and may be in the form of either slippers or arctics4 ,the covering is rendered waterproof by means of a compound rubber4 ,rubber is the name given to a coagulated milky juice obtained from many different trees1 vines1 and shrubs that grow on that part of the earth's surface which forms a band some three or four hundred miles on either side of the equator4 ,illustration3 ,crude ,rubber4 ,rubber is graded commercially1 according to the district where it is found4 ,in the order of importance it may be divided into three general sorts1 viz41 ,american1 ,african1 and ,asiatic4 ,the best and largest quantities of rubber come from ,brazil1 along the banks of the ,amazon ,river4 ,the countries in the northern and western part of ,south ,america1 and the ,central ,american ,states and ,mexico furnish considerable rubber4 ,eastern and western ,africa also produce many kinds of rubber in large quantities1 though somewhat inferior to the ,brazilian product4 ,the ,asiatic rubbers are unimportant in quantity1 and1 excepting the rubber obtained from cultivated trees in ,ceylon1 are decidedly inferior in quality4 ,the fluid rubber obtained from ,brazil is called ,para and is used principally in the manufacture of rubber footwear4 ,the method of gathering and coagulating the rubber juice 7called latex7 varies in the different countries4 ,the native first clears a space under a number of trees and proceeds to tap the trees with a short-handled ax1 having a small blade1 by cutting gashes in the bark4 ,a cup is fixed under each cut to catch the fluid as it flows out4 ,as fast as the cups are filled1 they are emptied into a large vessel and carried to the camp to be coagulated4 ,a fire is started in a shallow hole in the ground1 and palm nuts1 which make a dense smoke1 are thrown on4 ,an earthen cover which has a small opening on top is placed over the fire1 allowing the smoke to escape through the opening4 ,a wooden paddle is first dipped in clay water and then into the latex and then held over the smoke4 ,the heat coagulates a thin layer of rubber on the paddle4 ,it is dipped again and again in the latex and smoked each time4 ,after being dipped many times1 a lump 7called biscuit7 of rubber is formed4 ,a cut is made in the biscuit and the paddle removed4 ,then the rubber is ready for market4 ,the world's crop of rubber in #aiaa was about ninety thousand tons4 ,few people realize the number of operations necessary to produce from the crude biscuit of ,india rubber the highly finished rubber shoe of to-day4 ,briefly stated1 the various steps are washing1 drying1 compounding1 calendering1 cutting the various parts1 making or putting these parts together1 varnishing1 vulcanizing1 and packing4 ,each of these processes requires a distinct and separate department1 and many of these processes are subdivided into minor operations4 ,the huge stock of ,para rubber1 that is rubber obtained from the ,amazon section1 to be found in any of the leading rubber factories counts well up into the thousands of dollars4 ,with rubber at or near #a4ej per pound1 a stock of ten to fifty tons runs up into the five or six figures4 ,this crude rubber1 as it comes from the ,amazon1 contains more or less dirt1 pebbles1 and other foreign substances1 which must be removed4 ,the large cakes of crude rubber are first broken up by a cracker machine1 consisting of two large1 revolving steel cylinders1 from which the product falls into pans or trays4 ,it goes then to a machine known as a 8washer0 or 8sheeter10 where it is run between revolving cylinders1 upon which a continuous spray of clean water is maintained4 ,after being rolled into rough sheets1 it is put into a tank1 from which it is taken to the 8beater0 machine1 in which water runs continuously1 and then it is washed again and 8sheeted out40 ,it is then dried in one of two ways4 7#a7 ,the older way4 ,the sheets are hung over rods in a large room1 and allowed to dry in the air4 ,to facilitate the same1 a fan or blower is often used to cause a circulation and removal of the moisture-laden air4 ,this requires a period of from one to two or three months4 ,illustration3 ,washing and ,drying4 7#b7 ,the second method is called vacuum drying4 ,this process is gradually being introduced1 so that now probably more rubber is dried in vacuum than by air4 ,the vacuum drier consists of a large iron cylinder filled with plates1 through which steam is allowed to circulate4 ,the rubber is placed on the plates and the air is exhausted from the cylinder by means of an air pump until very nearly twenty-six degrees of vacuum are obtained4 ,by this process only from two to three hours are required to produce perfectly dry rubber4 ,the making of a rubber shoe is not the simple matter which might at first be supposed4 ,an ordinary rubber shoe consists of at least seven or eight different parts1 sometimes twenty-one parts to a pair1 while a high-button gaiter has seventeen distinct parts1 and a rubber boot has twenty-three different pieces4 ,there are insoles1 outsoles1 stays1 piping1 foxing1 and a dozen other different pieces1 each one of which is necessary to the proper construction of a rubber shoe or boot4 ,the thinner sheets for the uppers are cut by hand1 the deft work of the cutters in following the patterns outlined on the sheets being the result of years of practice4 ,the sheets of rubber from which the uppers and soles are cut are at this stage of the work plastic and very sticky4 ,it is necessary on this account to cut the various pieces one by one1 and keep them separate4 ,the soles and some of the heavier pieces are dried out by the machine1 and the heels are made by a special machine1 but by far the greater part is done by wonderfully skilled hands4 ,all of these parts which go to make a shoe1 or the twenty-three parts which go into a boot1 are collected and sent to the making department1 which1 in most factories1 is a large room containing several hundred operatives1 each working by herself1 and bringing the many separate parts into the fully finished footwear4 ,illustration3 ,calender ,room4 ,the sheets of rubber1 after being dried1 are taken to the 8compound0 room1 where they are sprinkled with whiting1 to prevent sticking1 and weighed4 ,next they are taken into the calender room to a 8mixer10 by means of which the rubber is combined with other substances1 which include sulphur1 litharge1 whiting1 lampblack1 tar1 resin1 lime1 palm oil1 and linseed oil4 ,there are different calendering machines4 ,the ones called the upper calenders form sheets of rubber stock for the upper part of the shoe4 ,the soling calenders form the stock for the sole or bottom part of the shoe2 other calender machines are used to coat a layer of gum on one side of the fabrics used for lining and various strips1 fillers1 toe1 and heel pieces4 ,the gum sheets are sent to the cutting room4 ,generally1 linings for nine pairs of shoes are cut at once4 ,the linings are cut both by hand and by machine4 ,men who cut with dies1 by hand1 stand at the bench and use iron mallets1 like those used in cutting heels4 ,inner soles1 heel pieces1 and linings are all cut by means of dies in the same manner4 ,the edges of the several parts are spread with cement1 and then the parts are taken to the making room and distributed4 ,in the making department the boots and shoes are put together4 ,women make the light overshoes2 men make the heavy ones4 ,rubbers are made by women1 but men put on the outer soles4 ,linings are first applied smoothly to a wooden last and cemented together1 the cement side out4 ,the rubber parts are then stuck on and rolled firmly with a small hand roller4 ,young women become very skilled in this work1 taking up the several parts in rapid succession1 placing them accurately upon the last1 and rolling and pounding them firmly together4 ,illustration3 ,cutting ,room4 ,perhaps the most interesting single process is that of putting the rubber boot together4 ,this work is done by men1 and requires1 in addition to accurate eyesight1 rapid and very deft movements of the hand and considerable strength4 ,no nails1 tacks1 or stitching are required4 ,the natural adhesiveness of the rubber1 assisted by the use of rubber cement1 holds the parts solidly together4 ,in the making of the shoe the last is covered with the various pieces which are so made as to adhere where they are placed4 ,it is exact and nice work fitting all these pieces perfectly1 each edge overlapping just so far and no farther4 ,the lighter shoes are made by women1 but the heavy lumbermen's shoes1 arctics1 and especially the boots1 are made by men1 for this work needs strength as well as dexterity4 ,the goods which require varnishing are put on racks and treated with a mixture of boiled linseed oil1 naphtha1 and other materials1 which are applied with brushes1 and impart a gloss to the surface4 ,on vulcanizing boots and shoes1 the shoes are placed on racks supported by iron cars1 which are run over tracks into the vulcanizing chamber4 ,this consists principally of a large room provided with a steam coil on the floor4 ,the temperature rarely exceeds two hundred and sixty degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,in vulcanizing shoes1 the heat is increased gradually from the beginning1 about one hundred and eighty degrees ,fahrenheit1 otherwise the goods would be blistered1 due to the rapid evaporation of moisture and other volatile constituents4 ,they are kept in these heaters from six to seven hours4 ,this causes a union of sulphur and rubber1 which is not affected by heat or cold4 ,they are wheeled on another truck to the packing room1 where they are inspected1 taken from the lasts1 tied together in pairs1 or placed in cartons1 as the case may be4 ,they are then sent to the shipping room to be packed in cases ready to be delivered to the cars waiting at a side track of the railroad1 or sent to the storehouse until they shall be called for by the jobbers or retail dealers4 ,an important branch of the rubber business is the manufacture of tennis shoes4 ,this is a generic term1 which is applied to all kinds of footwear having cloth tops and rubber soles4 ,as the name indicates1 they were first used in playing the game of tennis1 but they have come into very general use as warm weather and vacation shoes1 and every year shows an increased popularity4 ,these shoes are made in a similar manner to the rubber shoes1 the rubber soles being cemented to the cloth uppers and vulcanized the same as the rubber overshoes4 ,many different styles are made1 and each year shows some improvements in the shapes1 in the textiles which are used1 in the colors and combinations of soles and uppers4 ,rubber shoes should not be expected to give satisfactory service unless properly fitted4 ,if too short1 too narrow1 or if worn over leathers with extra heavy taps1 or unusually thick1 wide soles1 strains will be brought upon parts not designed to stand them and the rubber will give way4 ,rubber goods1 particularly boots1 if too large will wrinkle and a continued wrinkling and bending is liable to cause cracking4 ,extreme heat or cold should be avoided4 ,rubber boots or shoes should never be dried by placing them near a heater of any kind4 ,if left near a stove1 register1 or radiator1 the rubber is liable to dry and crack4 ,if left out of doors in winter1 or in an extremely cold place1 they will freeze4 ,then when the warm foot is put into them and the rubbers are worn1 the rubber will crack4 ,oil1 grease1 milk1 or blood will cause rubber to decay in a very short time4 ,if spattered with any of these1 the rubber should be promptly and thoroughly cleaned with warm water and soap4 ,the oil in leather tops will rot rubber1 so that care should be taken in storing and packing to prevent the leather and rubber from coming in contact4 ,illustration3 ,putting together the ,parts of a ,rubber ,shoe4 ,various heavy goods are advertised as proof against snagging4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that no rubber can be made strong enough to be absolutely proof against tearing or puncturing by extremely sharp edges1 such as stiff stubble1 sharp-edged rocks1 broken glass1 etc4 ,mud1 barnyard dirt1 or filth of any kind should never be allowed to dry on rubbers4 ,they should be cleaned as carefully as leather boots or shoes4 ,exposure to strong sunlight for any length of time produces an effect on rubbers similar to that of putting them near a stove or radiator4 ,rubbers should not be left in the sun to dry4 ,when not in use they should be kept in a cool1 dark place4 ,,rubber ,,heels ,rubber heels are generally made for boots and shoes as follows4 ,the compounded rubber is sheeted on a calender roll1 on a drum1 until several layers are obtained1 thus making a sheet of about one inch in thickness4 ,the heel is cut out from this sheet by means of a die and placed in a mold4 ,it is there subjected to an extremely high pressure1 generally obtained by hydraulic power4 ,the plates of the press are heated with live steam4 ,the heels are removed at the end of nine or ten minutes and the sheet which was formerly nearly an inch in thickness is now only about half an inch and has by pressure been molded into the shape of the heel desired1 is semi or partially vulcanized1 and also is imprinted upon the bottom with the name or other brand of the company4 ,the cup-shaped portion of the heel is now coated with a layer of rubber cement1 and firmly placed on the boot ready to go to the vulcanizer1 where vulcanizing of the heel is then completed4 ,illustration3 ,heel-making ,department4 ,many articles of rubber are vulcanized by the use of chloride of sulphur1 which process is sometimes known as 8cold cure40 ,the action of sulphur chloride itself is so violent that it must be diluted1 and for this purpose carbon bisulfide is often used4 ,in some cases1 as1 for example1 the manufacture of tobacco pouches1 the articles are submerged for from one to two minutes in the liquid1 then removed and washed thoroughly4 ,in another case1 as in the manufacture of some kinds of rubber cloth1 such as hospital sheeting1 the coated cloth is suspended in a suitable room and the chloride of sulphur and carbon bisulfide mixed and evaporated by action of heat so that the cloth is subjected to the action of vapor alone4 ,only articles with comparatively thin walls can be successfully vulcanized by the cold cure1 as at best the vulcanizing action of the chloride is only superficial4 ,no account of vulcanization processes as employed in the manufacture of rubber goods is complete without the mention of 8steam cure40 ,a great variety of rubber goods under the general term of mechanical sundries are cured by this method4 ,this includes rubber matting1 door mats1 water bottles1 druggists' sundries1 etc4 ,this process consists in brief of submitting the articles to be vulcanized to the action of live steam for from half an hour to an hour1 or until the goods are thoroughly vulcanized4 ,the temperature and duration of time required depend to a considerable extent upon the thickness of the walls of the article4 ,in order to prevent the goods from being pitted and damaged by the action of steam1 they are wrapped with cloth or imbedded in pans of soapstone4 ,a great variety of rubber tubing is cured by this method4 ,in rubber cloth making1 the crude rubber is put through the washing process1 dried and mixed with sulphur1 litharge1 coloring matter1 etc41 and then is taken to the cement room1 where it is 8cut0 with naphtha1 forming a thick paste or dough4 ,this is taken to the spreading room in large tubs and fed into the roller machine1 which is like a long table made of steam pipes placed horizontally in a single layer4 ,below one end is a roll of cloth1 which is passed between two iron rollers on the end4 ,the dough is fed in between these rollers and is spread smoothly over the cloth1 which is rolled up and removed to a heating room1 where it is unrolled and hung on racks1 and then subjected to sufficient heat to cause the combination of the sulphur and rubber4 ,,chemistry ,,in ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,rubber ,,goods ,too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance in all rubber factories of the chemical department4 ,during the last two or three years there has been an unusual development along these lines1 and to-day no factory for the manufacture of rubber goods is complete that does not possess a well-equipped laboratory4 ,not only does this department enable the manufacturer to control the purity and uniformity of his compounding ingredients and the innumerable grades of crude rubber1 but1 what is of even greater importance1 it enables him to inaugurate research work as applied to his particular line of manufacture4 ,this part of laboratory work is already producing results not only of scientific interest1 but of very great practical and economic value4 ,still another rle of the modern chemical laboratory is to exercise a control over the finished material1 so that the manager of the works may be in possession daily of reasons for any variation detrimental to the standard of his products4 ,,rubber ,,terms ,,ankle ,,piece4 ,a large piece of light sheeted gum1 which goes around the ankle and extends about halfway up the leg4 ,,back ,,stay4 ,a piece of frictioned sheeting similar to the side stay in shape and placed at the back of the heel and ankle4 ,,gum ,,counter4 ,a piece cut out of sheeted gum1 on the under side of which is placed a counter form or a piece of frictioned sheeting4 ,,outer ,,filler4 ,a filling sole cut from rag-coated or frictioned sheeting1 and designed to fill up the hollow on the bottom caused by bringing the edges of the gum vamp and counter underneath4 ,,inner ,,sole4 ,usually made of felt or sheeting coated on one side with rag stock4 ,in lasting up1 the bottom edges of the lining 7which have previously been cemented7 are pulled under and adhere to the inner sole4 ,,leg ,,cover4 ,a piece of sheeted gum rolled upon a piece of frictioned sheeting called the leg form4 ,,leg ,,lining4 ,the lining1 usually of felt or wool netting1 for the leg4 ,,para4 ,a name given to rubber from ,brazil4 ,,piping4 ,strips of frictioned sheeting used to join the lining together over the instep and up the back1 and also to hold the lining up on the tree by passing a strip over the top4 ,,rag ,,counter4 ,quarter stiff is a counter piece cut out of rag-coated or frictioned sheeting1 which gives stiffness to the counter4 ,,side ,,stay4 ,a spike-shaped piece of frictioned sheeting1 placed on each side of the ankle4 ,,rag ,,sole4 ,a sole stiffening cut out of a sheet of rag stock1 which covers the whole bottom4 ,the edges are skived to make a perfect edge4 ,,toe ,,filler4 ,a rag-stock filling sole to fill up the hollow on the bottom caused by attaching the lining to the inner sole4 ,illustration3 ,parts of a ,rubber ,boot4 ,,toe ,,lining4 ,the lining for the vamp1 of the same material as the leg lining4 ,,vamp4 ,a piece cut out of sheeted gum4 ,,vamp ,,form4 ,a piece of frictioned sheeting cut to the shape of the vamp1 and put on over the toe lining4 ,,web ,,straps4 ,straps put on with the joined ends between the leg lining and the leg cover1 and forming a loop on the inside of the boot to pull it on with4 ,,chapter ,,twelve ,,history ,,of ,,footwear ,we find that primitive footwear1 in common with all other beginnings1 was of the crudest nature and took the form of the simple sandal4 ,it is probable that man first protected his foot from the rough way by simple pieces of hide1 which were bound to the bottom of the foot4 ,the sandal1 among the most primitive1 is the type of footwear worn to-day4 ,the sandal was simply bound to the foot by thongs of hides1 which were brought between the toes and tied around the ankle4 ,at about the ,elizabethan period1 shoemaking had really become a very fine art4 ,some foot creations were made by the ,court shoemakers that reflected the individual taste of the monarch1 and so great was the competition to produce something novel that very often the styles assumed a grotesque aspect4 ,the toes were elongated so that sometimes they were carried up and fastened by cords and tassels to the tops of the shoes1 and it finally became necessary to enact a law to prevent such outrageous types of footwear4 ,the slippers of this period were of the extremely high-heeled variety1 and small fortunes were often spent on their ornamentation4 ,they were mostly of the turn-shoe type1 and samples which are preserved show the excellent workmanship that was in vogue at that time4 ,we now come to the first shoemaker in ,america4 ,when the ,mayflower made the second trip to ,america1 she carried among others a shoemaker named ,thomas ,beard1 who brought with him a supply of hides4 ,seven years afterwards there arrived one ,phillip ,kertland1 a native of ,buckinghamshire1 who settled in ,lynn in #afcf4 ,kertland was the pioneer shoemaker of ,lynn and for years he successfully worked at his craft1 teaching others his methods and ways1 so that fifteen years after his arrival1 ,lynn was not only supplying the requirements of its inhabitants1 but was also sending a part of its products to the port of ,boston4 ,as early as #afdh we find tanning and shoemaking mentioned as an industry of the colony of ,virginia1 special mention being made of the fact that a planter named ,matthews employed eight shoemakers on his premises4 ,legal restraint was placed on the cordwainer in ,connecticut in #afef1 and in ,rhode ,island in #agjf1 while in ,new ,york the business of tanning and shoemaking is known to have been firmly established previous to the capitulation of the ,province to ,england in #affd4 ,in #afih the industry was carried on profitably in ,philadelphia1 and in #agba the ,colonial ,legislature of ,pennsylvania passed an act regulating the material and the prices of the boot and shoe industry4 ,prior to #ahae most of the shoes were hand sewed1 a few having been copper nailed4 ,the heavier shoes were welted and the lighter ones turned4 ,this method of manufacture was changed1 about the year #ahae1 by the adoption of the wooden shoe peg1 which was invented in #ahaa and soon came into general use4 ,up to this time little or no progress had been made in the methods of manufacture4 ,the shoemaker sat on his bench1 and with scarcely any other instrument than a hammer1 knife1 and wooden shoulder stick1 cut1 stitched1 hammered1 and sewed until the shoe was completed4 ,previous to the year #ahde1 which marked the first successful application of machinery to ,american shoemaking1 this industry was in the strictest sense a hand process1 and the young man who chose it for his vocation was apprenticed for seven years1 during which time he was taught every detail of the art4 ,he was instructed in the preparation of the insole and outsole1 depending almost entirely upon his eye for the proper proportions2 taught to prepare pegs and drive them1 for the pegged shoe was the common type of footwear in the first half of the last century2 and familiarized himself with the making of turned and welt shoes1 which have always been considered the highest types of shoemaking1 as they require exceptional skill of the artisan in channeling the insole and outsole by hand1 rounding the sole1 sewing the welt1 and stitching the outsole4 ,after having served his apprenticeship1 it was the custom for the full-fledged shoemaker to start on what was known as 8whipping the cat10 which meant traveling from town to town1 living with a family while making a year's supply of shoes for each member1 then moving on to fill engagements previously made4 ,the change from which has been evolved our present factory system began in the latter part of the #ahth century1 when a system of sizes had been drafted1 and shoemakers more enterprising than their fellows gathered about them groups of workmen1 and took upon themselves the dignity of manufacturers4 ,it was soon found that the master workman could largely increase his income by employing other men to do the work while he directed their efforts1 and this gradually led to a division of the labor3 the shoe uppers1 which had prior to this time been sewed by men using waxed thread with bristles1 now were done by women1 who often took the work home4 ,one workman cut the leather1 others sewed the uppers1 and still others fastened uppers to soles1 each workman handling only one part in the process of manufacture4 ,we find that in the year #agie the evolution of the factory system had reached a stage where in ,lynn alone there were two hundred master workmen1 employing six hundred journeymen and turning out three hundred thousand pairs of shoes per year4 ,the entire shoe was then made under one roof1 and generally from leather that was tanned on the premises4 ,factory buildings were not at this time of a very pretentious nature and did not by any means represent the amount of work undertaken by the proprietor2 for the small ten by ten factories1 which are even to-day in existence in some of the backyards of ,lynn homes1 came into existence at this time4 ,many farmers found that shoemaking was a remunerative occupation in the winter1 and they1 and perhaps their neighbors1 gathered in these shops and took from the different factories shoes on which to fasten the soles1 or uppers to bind1 which1 after completion of the work1 were returned to the factory1 where they were finished and sent to market packed in wooden boxes4 ,it was in this way that the industry prospered and developed up to the period of the introduction of machines1 which happened but a little over half a century ago4 ,up to the year #ahaa absolutely no machinery was used in the making of shoes4 ,this year shoe pegs were invented and a machine for making them4 ,the pegged shoe became very widely worn1 but it was not until #ahce that any machine for driving pegs was made1 and even at this time the machine was but an indifferent success4 ,it was a hand machine and its work was by no means of a reliable nature4 ,the first machine to be widely accepted by the trade was the 8rolling machine40 ,this was used for rolling the sole leather under pressure1 and it is said that a man could perform in a minute with this machine the same office that he would have required half an hour to have performed with the old-fashioned lapstone and hammer4 ,this was followed in #ahdh by the most important invention1 the 8sewing machine10 which was perfected by ,elias ,howe1 and was soon followed by a machine which sewed with waxed thread and made it possible to sew the uppers of shoes in a much more rapid1 reliable1 and satisfactory manner than had ever been done by hand4 ,this1 too1 was soon followed by a machine which split the sole leather and by another for buffing or removing the grain4 ,in #ahee ,william ,f4 ,trowbridge1 who was a partner in the firm of ,f4 ,brigham ,company1 of ,feltonville1 ,massachusetts1 then a part of ,marlboro1 conceived the idea of driving by horse power the machines then in use4 ,the introduction of power became very general1 so that in the year #ahfj there were scarcely any factories which were not driven by either steam or water power4 ,the year #aheh was marked by the invention by ,lyman ,r4 ,blake of the ,mc,kay sewing machine1 which probably more than any other has exerted a revolutionary effect on the industry4 ,the ,mc,kay machine did not at this time sew the toe or heel2 the sewing was started at the shank and carried forward to a point near the toe on one side1 and the same operation repeated on the other side2 but it seemed to possess great possibilities and created a great deal of interest throughout the trade4 ,it was1 of course1 a very crude machine and very different from the ,mc,kay machine of to-day4 ,it was set on a bench and the shoe to be sewed was placed over a horn1 and the sewing was done from the channel in the outsole through the sole and insole4 ,colonel ,mc,kay immediately started to improve the machine4 ,he employed skilled mechanics to work on it and attempted to introduce it in different factories1 but encountered a great deal of opposition and criticism in regard to its future4 ,it is said that he offered to dispose of the machine to the shoemakers of ,lynn and allow them its exclusive use if they would pay him three hundred thousand dollars1 an offer which was not accepted4 ,the machine left a loop stitch and a ridge of thread on the inside of the shoe1 but it filled the great demand that existed for sewed shoes1 and many hundreds of millions of pairs have been made by its use4 ,while ,colonel ,mc,kay had met rebuff and discouragement in attempting to introduce his machine1 the public necessity was such that manufacturers were obliged to take it up immediately2 but ,colonel ,mc,kay was still embarrassed by lack of capital to carry on his rapidly increasing business4 ,it was at this time that a system of placing machines in factories1 which system has proven to be the most potent factor in the upbuilding of the shoe industry1 was started4 ,this was a royalty system1 whereby the machine or machine owner participated in the profits accruing from the use of the machine4 ,it hardly seems that there can be any question as to the principle of royalty being one of the greatest forces in building up the successful industry which we have to-day2 it afforded an easy means whereby machines could be introduced without entailing hardships on the manufacturers1 who1 had they been obliged to pay the actual worth of the machines1 would have been entirely unable to adopt them4 ,instances are known where hundreds of thousands of dollars were spent on machines1 which machines were abandoned without having made a single shoe4 ,at the time of the introduction of the ,mc,kay machine1 inventors were busy in other directions1 and as a result1 came the introduction of the 8cable nailing machine40 ,this was provided with a cable of nails1 the head of one being joined to the point of another2 these the machines cut into separate nails and drove automatically4 ,at about this time also was introduced the 8screw machine10 which formed a screw from brass wire1 forcing it into the leather and cutting it off automatically4 ,this was the prototype of the 8rapid standard screw machine10 which is a comparatively recent invention1 and is very widely used at the present time as a sole fastener on the heavier class of boots and shoes4 ,very soon thereafter the attention of the trade was attracted to the invention of a ,new ,york mechanic for the sewing of soles4 ,the device was particularly intended for the making of turn shoes and afterwards became famous as the 8,goodyear turn shoe machine40 ,closely following the ,goodyear invention came the introduction of the first machine used in connection with heeling1--a machine which compressed the heel and pricked holes for the nails2 this was soon followed by a machine which automatically drove the nails1 the heel having previously been put in place and held by the guides on the machine4 ,other improvements in heeling machines followed with considerable rapidity1 and a machine came into use shortly afterwards which not only nailed the heel1 but which was also provided with a hand trimmer1 which the operator swung round the heel1 after nailing4 ,from these have been evolved the heeling machines in use at the present time4 ,one of the early uses to which the sewing machine was put was the sewing together of the pieces of soft and pliable leather which make the upper of a shoe--a simple thing1 involving only a slight adjustment of the original machine4 ,it is a far more complicated operation to sew the upper to the thick and heavy sole1 and years passed by before the secret was discovered1 and the ,mc,kay machine appeared4 ,in the shoe sewed on the ,mc,kay machine1 the thread ran through into the inside of the inner sole1 leaving a rasping ridge on which the stocking of the wearer rubbed4 ,the ,mc,kay shoe displaced only the coarser grades4 ,the hand-sewed shoe remained the favorite of wealth and fashion1 and was worn exclusively by those who cared for comfort and could afford the price4 ,in sewing a shoe by hand1 a thin and narrow strip of leather1 called a welt1 is first sewed to the insole and upper1 and the heavy outsole is sewed to this welt1 so that the stitches come outside and do not touch the foot1 the insole being left entirely smooth4 ,it is a delicate operation by hand1 and many years elapsed before a machine was contrived by which it could be done4 ,at last the problem was solved4 ,the 8,goodyear welting and stitching machines0 appeared--so named for ,charles ,goodyear1 who financed and perfected them1 a son of the man who taught the world the use of rubber4 ,these two machines are the nucleus of the ,goodyear welt system1 to which must be attributed the revolution of an industry4 ,although they are entirely distinct machines1 they are inseparable1 for neither can be used effectively without the other in making the modern ,goodyear welt shoe4 ,illustration3 ,insole for ,hand ,sewed ,shoe4 ,illustration3 ,hand ,sewed ,shoe4 ,much of the style of a shoe depends upon the wooden last over which the upper is shaped before being attached to the sole4 ,to find a substitute for the human hand in fitting the shoe to the last and pulling the leather over its delicate lines and curves seemed for a long time impossible4 ,this took place in the early seventies1 when a machine was invented for doing this work4 ,it created a great change in a department of shoemaking which1 prior to this time1 had been regarded as a confirmed hand process4 ,this machine1 as well as those which followed afterwards for a period of twenty years1 was known as the best type of machine1 by which the shoe upper was drawn over the last by either friction or pincers1 and then tacked by use of a hand tool4 ,at a comparatively recent period another machine which revolutionized all previous ideas in lasting was introduced4 ,this machine is generally in use at the present time1 and is known as the 8consolidated hand method lasting machine40 ,it was fitted with pincers1 which automatically drew the leather round the last1 at the same time driving a tack which held it in place4 ,this machine has been so developed that it is now used for the lasting of shoes of every type1 from the lowest and cheapest to the highest grade1 and it is a machine that shows wonderful mechanical ingenuity4 ,the perfection of the lasting machine has been followed recently by the introduction of a machine which performs in a satisfactory way the difficult process known as 8pulling over10 which consists of accurately centering the shoe upper on the last and securing it temporarily in position for the work of lasting4 ,the new machine1 which is known as the 8hand-method pulling over machine10 is provided with pincers1 which close automatically1 gripping the shoe upper at sides and toe4 ,it is fitted with adjustments by which the operator is enabled to quickly center the shoe upper on the last1 and1 on pressure of a foot lever1 the machine automatically draws the upper closely to the last and secures it in position by tacks1 which are also driven by the machine4 ,the introduction of this machine marked a radical change in the one important shoemaking process that had up to this time successfully withstood all attempts at mechanical improvement4 ,at about the time that lasting was first introduced1 came the machines which were used for finishing heel and fore part4 ,these machines were fitted with a tool1 which was heated by gas and which practically duplicated the hand workman in rubbing the edges with a hot tool for the purpose of finishing them4 ,from these early machines have been evolved the 8edge-setting machines0 which are in use at present4 ,thus1 one after another1 every operation has yielded to invention1 until very recently the only remaining process was subdued when a machine for cutting uppers was devised4 ,there are machines for shaping1 compressing1 and nailing heels2 for attaching soles to uppers in heavy shoes by wooden pegs or copper screws and wires2 for rounding1 buffing1 and polishing the soles2 for trimming and setting the edges of the sole2 for performing innumerable operations1 some seemingly trivial1 but all essential to perfection in comfort1 durability or style2 so that in shoe factories to-day a greater variety of intricate and expensive machines is used than in factories of any other kind4 ,at the present time the genius of the ,american inventor has provided for every detail of shoemaking1 even the smallest processes being performed by mechanical devices of some kind4 ,this has naturally made the shoemaker of to-day a specialist1 who very seldom knows anything of shoemaking apart from the particular process in the performance of shoemaking of which he is an adept1 and from which he earns a livelihood4 ,the ,american shoe of to-day is the standard production of the world4 ,it is in demand wherever shoes are worn4 ,in the year #ahgd there had been perfected not only the machines which ,colonel ,mc,kay and ,mr4 ,goodyear had been instrumental in building1 but other inventors had introduced similar machines for doing similar work4 ,this brought about the most acute business competition1 and finally resulted in many cases where one machine manufacturer alleged that the other machine infringed his rights of patent1 and in many other cases the fiercest kind of litigation was established4 ,this had a most disastrous effect upon shoe manufacturers1 for in many cases the manufacturer was made to bear the brunt of the blows which contending shoe machinery manufacturers aimed at each other4 ,machines in use in factories were stopped by means of injunctions2 damage suits were entered1 and litigation was very general4 ,during the year #ahii1 there was ushered in one of the most important events that ever transpired in the history of shoemaking4 ,the most important of the concerns which had been making war upon each other were purchased by one large company and brought under one harmonious management4 ,the ,united ,shoe ,machinery ,company owes its origin to a call for a change in conditions menacing the industry of making shoes which could not be ignored4 ,it was created by combining into one the three companies existing in #ahii3 the ,goodyear ,sewing ,machine ,company1 the ,consolidated ,mc,kay ,lasting ,machine ,company1 and the ,mc,kay ,shoe ,machinery ,company1 each of which respectively made and leased machines adapted to a particular class of operations4 ,the principal machines which each made did not interfere with the principal machines of any other4 ,they were dependent links in an industrial chain4 ,the ,goodyear ,sewing ,machine ,company chiefly made machines for sewing the sole to the upper in welt shoes and various auxiliary machines which helped to complete the shoe2 ,the ,consolidated ,mc,kay ,lasting ,machine ,company made machines for lasting a shoe2 ,the ,mc,kay ,shoe ,machinery ,company made various machines for attaching soles and heels by metallic fastenings1 and furnished material for that purpose4 ,a single manufacturer1 in order to make ,goodyear welt shoes1 would be compelled to patronize all the companies1 going to each of them for that part of his equipment which it exclusively supplied4 ,each company had its agents in factories looking after its machines4 ,the gathering of these three companies into a single organization wrought an instant change4 ,it resulted immediately in greater economy of administration2 in relieving the manufacturer of the vexation of sometimes seeing his factory crippled while orders were piling up2 in freeing him from the annoyance and expense of dealing with several different concerns in order to get his most important machines and keep them in repair4 ,the attention which had been paid to royalty machines and which had been such an important factor in building up the industry in ,america1 was magnified by the management of the new company4 ,large forces of men and expert machinists1 as well as expert shoemakers1 were maintained in the different districts where shoes were made1 and every effort exerted to promote the growth of the industry4 ,while the royalty system proved to be of great advantage to small shoe manufacturers1 the largest manufacturers objected to paying royalty on machines and desired to purchase them outright4 ,being unable to do so1 they placed experts at work to invent similar machines4 ,this has resulted in the ,united ,shoe ,machinery ,company claiming that these machines are infringements and causing considerable litigation4 ,if one reviews the history of the trade during the past ten years1 there will be little question but that one will find it has been a period of the greatest advancement that the trade has ever known4 ,within the time of those who read these words1 the way to make a shoe has been completely changed4 ,methods which held their own for centuries have disappeared1 to be replaced by processes which only recently would have been thought impossible1 and which have brought within the reach of men of modest means a luxury once enjoyed exclusively by the well-to-do4 ,the feet of the million are clad to-day as finely as the feet of yesterday's millionaire4 ,shoes marked by comfort1 durability1 and style have driven to historical museums the stiff and clumsy boots and brogans which not so many years ago were worn by those who could not pay to have shoes sewed by hand4 ,the ,american people spend more than three hundred million dollars every year in buying shoes1 and average three pairs apiece1 and yet few ever think about their shoes so long as they do not look clumsy1 or wear out too quickly1 or hurt the foot4 ,every one likes to buy good shoes as cheaply as he can1 and every one likes to feel that shoe manufacturers are independent and successful1 and that workmen get good wages1 because these things help along prosperity2 but that is all4 ,yet here is an industry in which the ,united ,states within a decade has come to lead the world1 and there are many things about it which it would be worth while for every one to understand4 ,it is worth while1 for instance1 to know that there is no important operation on a shoe which need be done by hand2 that in the making of every good shoe no less than fifty-eight different machines1 and sometimes twice that number1 are brought into play2 that nearly all these machines are of ,american invention2 and that they have been so perfectly adjusted one to another that they work together almost with the precision of a watch2 it is worth while to know something about the marvelous system under the encouragement of which this typical ,american industry has blossomed and borne fruit until it employs two hundred million dollars of capital and nearly two hundred thousand people1 and turns out two hundred and fifty million pairs of shoes a year2 and why it is that the average man you meet to-day has a better fitting1 better wearing1 and better looking shoe than the moneyed man of yesterday--at a fraction of the expense4 ,this remarkable growth is distinctly ,american4 ,in the ,united ,states the tendency among the artisan class has been to abandon the slow hand process4 ,this tendency has been as strong as the tendency in ,europe to adhere to it4 ,moreover1 there has developed among the laboring classes in the ,united ,states a mobility such as is unknown elsewhere in the world4 ,another advantage which has contributed to the rapid development of the manufacture of shoes in the ,united ,states is the comparative freedom from inherited and overconservative ideas4 ,this country has entered upon its industrial development unfettered by the old order of things1 and with a tendency on the part of the people to seek the best and quickest way to accomplish every object4 ,illustration3 ,stitching ,room of a ,german ,shoe ,factory4 ,in all of the ,european countries in which the manufacturing of shoes is an important industry1 the transition from the household to the factory system was hampered by guilds1 elaborate national and local restrictions1 and by the national reluctance with which a people accustomed for generations to fixed methods of work1 in which they have acquired a large degree of skill1 abandon those methods for new ones4 ,it was natural1 also1 that in spite of the superior advantages of machine methods1 hand process of manufacture should still continue side by side with them1 in the ,european countries1 though machine work had long since usurped the whole field of the shoe industry in the ,united ,states4 ,as an ,american goes about among the ,european shoe factories he is greatly surprised at the state of affairs4 ,he is struck by three things which are very conspicuous4 ,they are3 7#a7 ,lack of use of machinery1 lack of all sorts of devices in order to save hand labor1 which is carried out so extensively in the ,united ,states4 7#b7 ,lack of the division of labor1 one factory attempting to make four or five kinds of shoes4 7#c7 ,lack of methods employed for handling large quantities of materials4 ,one point that is overlooked in considering the shoe industries of the two countries is the great difference in organization4 ,in most ,european factories1 the manufacturer gets all the orders of different kinds1 and then attempts to make one or two lines with one or two qualities in the same factory4 ,in ,switzerland one may find shoes and slippers for men1 women1 and children made under the same roof4 ,in the ,united ,states the manufacturer makes a certain line of shoes in one factory1 and no other kind4 ,if he has more than one line1 he has more than one factory1 and each factory turns out a distinct shoe for a distinct purpose4 ,the manufacturer has his salesmen to sell these shoes4 ,the advantages of the ,american system are3 7#a7 ,the managers and workers of a factory turning out a certain line of goods become highly specialized in that line1 and can produce better results than the workers in a factory attempting to make two or three lines of goods4 7#b7 ,a large shoe factory is laid out as a rule to do a certain kind of work1 and it seldom changes4 ,this practice makes possible a greater production4 ,on the other hand we have something to learn from the ,european organization4 ,american manufacturers must meet the foreign trade4 ,in order to do this1 the manufacturer must cater to the habits1 customs1 and climatic conditions4 ,the ,european manufacturer does this4 ,,index ,amhide1 black1 #eh4 russet1 #ei4 ,anatomy of the foot1 #gg1 #hj4 ,ankle piece1 #bdf4 ,assembling1 #abf1 #agg4 ,automobile leather1 #bbe4 tanning of1 #bbf4 ,backs1 #ab4 ,backstay1 #b1 #agg1 #bdg4 ,back strap1 #agg4 ,bal41 #agg4 ,ball1 #agh4 ,bating1 #ai4 ,beading1 #agh4 ,beamhouse process1 #e4 ,beating out1 #agh4 ,bellows tongue1 #agh4 ,belting1 #fb1 #fc1 #agh4 by-products1 #fi4 round1 #fi4 ,belt-knife splits1 #fj4 ,between substance1 #agh4 ,bison1 #ei4 ,blackball1 #agh4 ,black box chrome side1 #eh4 ,black hawk patent1 #eh4 ,blacking the edge1 #agi4 ,blocking1 #agi4 ,bloom1 #agi4 ,blucher1 #agi4 ,boot1 #ahj4 ,bootee1 #ahj4 ,boris1 #ei4 ,bottom1 #a4 filling1 #ahj4 scouring1 #ahj4 ,box calf1 #ee1 #ahj4 toe1 #aha4 ,boxing1 #ahj4 ,branded cowhide1 #i4 ,breaking the sole1 #aha4 ,breast of the heel1 #c4 ,brogan1 #aha4 ,bronko patent1 #eg4 ,brushing1 #aha4 ,buckskin1 #aha4 ,buff1 #aha4 ,buffing1 #aha4 ,bull hides1 #af4 ,bunions1 #hd4 ,button fly1 #b4 ,butts1 #i4 ,cable-nailing machine1 invention of1 #bfa4 ,cack1 #ahb4 ,cadet kid1 #ef4 side1 #eg4 ,calf leather1 boarded1 #dj4 box1 #dj4 classes of1 #dj1 #da4 cadet calf side1 #eg4 ,dongola1 #ei4 dry hides1 #dj4 ,french1 #dj4 mat1 #dj4 ,sheboygan1 #ei4 storm1 #dj4 suede1 #dj4 wax1 #dj4 ,calf side leather1 #eg4 skins1 #ci1 #ahb4 ,calluses1 #hc4 ,cambridge calf union splits1 #fj4 ,cap1 #ahb4 ,carbarettas1 #ea1 #aha4 ,carton1 #ahb4 ,cementing1 #ahb4 ,chamois1 #ahb4 ,channeling1 #ahc4 ,channel screwed1 #ahc4 stitched1 #ahc4 turning1 #ahd4 ,checking1 #ahd4 ,chemical tanning1 #bc1 #bd1 #be4 ,chrome flexible splits1 #fa4 tannage1 #be1 #bf4 tanned embossed splits1 #fb4 ,cleaning1 inside1 #ahd4 nails1 #ahd4 shoes1 #ahd4 ,clicking1 #ahd4 ,closing1 #ahd4 on1 #ahd4 ,colonial1 #ahe4 ,colorado steer hides1 #i4 ,colored box chrome side1 #eh4 ,coltskin1 #da1 #ahe4 ,combination last1 #ahe4 ,composition1 #ahe4 ,congress gaiter1 #ahf4 ,cordovan1 #ahf4 ,corns1 #hc1 #hd4 ,counter1 #abd1 #ahf4 pasted1 #bja4 ,coupon 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#aij4 ,foxing1 #b1 #aij4 ,fresh hides1 #g4 ,frizzing1 #aia4 ,front1 #aia4 ,fudge-stitched1 #acc4 ,fundamental shoe terms1 #a4 ,furniture leather1 #bbe4 tanning of1 #bbf4 ,gaiter1 #aia4 congress1 #ahf4 ,gem insoles1 #aia4 ,gemming1 #aia4 ,glazed kid1 #aia4 ,gloves1 #bah4 grain1 #aia4 tanning1 #bba4 ,goatskin1 #aia4 ,goodyear welt1 #aib4 difference between ,mc,kay and1 #ade4 ,gore1 #aib4 ,grades of leather1 #g4 ,grading1 #aib4 ,grain leather1 #ch4 ,green hides1 #g4 ,green salted1 #ab4 ,gum counter1 #bdg4 ,half sole1 #aib4 ,harness leather1 #aib4 ,heel1 #aib4 breast of1 #c4 finishing1 #aic4 lining1 #aic4 nailing1 #aid4 nailing machine1 invention of1 #bfb4 pad1 #aic4 scouring1 #aid4 seat1 #aid4 shaving1 #aid4 trimming1 #aid4 ,hemlock leather1 #bi4 tanning1 #bi1 #cj1 #aid4 ,hercules storm chrome1 #ei4 ,hides1 #d1 #aid4 bull1 #aj1 #fc4 classes of1 #e1 #f4 country1 #aj4 dry1 #ab1 #cb4 dry importation1 #dj1 #da4 dry salted1 #ab1 #cb4 fresh1 #g4 grades of1 #g1 #h1 #i4 green1 #g4 green salted1 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